,transcriber's ,notes ,texts between underscores and equal signs represent texts printed in italics and bold face1 respectively4 ,small capitals are transcribed as ,,all ,,capitals4 ,u stands for a ,u-shaped symbol rather than for the letter ,u4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ,,political ,,and ,,commercial ,,geology ,,and ,,the ,,world',s ,,mineral ,,resources ,illustration3 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co4 ,inc4 ,,publishers ,,of ,,books ,,for ,coal ,age ,electric ,railway ,journal ,electrical ,world ,engineering ,news-,record ,american ,machinist ,ingeniera ,internacional ,engineering ,mining ,journal ,power ,chemical ,metallurgical ,engineering ,electrical ,merchandising ,,political ,,and ,,commercial ,,geology ,,and ,,the ,,world',s ,,mineral ,,resources ,a ,,series ,,of ,,studies ,,by ,,specialists ,j4 ,e4 ,,spurr1 ,,editor ,,first ,,edition ,,second ,,impression ,royalties received from the sale of this book will be assigned to an institution of learning to finance further studies along the lines followed in the volume4 ,mc,g,r,a,w-,,hill ,,book ,,company1 ,,inc4 ,,new ,,york3 #cgj ,,seventh ,,avenue ,,london3 #f #h ,,bouverie ,,st41 ,e4 ,c4 #d #aibj ,,copyright1 #aibj1 ,,by ,,the ,,mcgraw-,,hill ,,book ,,company1 ,,inc4 ,,the ,,maple ,,press ,,york ,,pa4 ,,preface ,the purpose of the accompanying series of studies is to shed light upon the vast importance of commercial control of raw materials by different powers1 or by the citizens of those powers1 through invested capital4 ,the question of domestic and foreign governmental policies of the ,united ,states is closely involved4 ,it appeared to many of us who were engaged 7as all the authors of these papers were7 in studying the mineral problems during the war1 that our ,government had never grasped the vast political significance of commercial domination1 and especially of the control of mineral wealth2 and that other more seasoned nations had done so1 and thereby affected the interests of ,america and her policy very deeply1 without her being aware of the circumstance4 ,with the rapid increase of the world's population and the exploring and exploiting of the hitherto undeveloped natural resources1 competition for this wealth has become and will still become keener4 ,in past ages war1 pestilence1 and starvation held down the earth's population2 and in the last few years all these grim spectres have returned in force1 suggesting the possibility of a permanent return of the old primitive days4 ,nevertheless1 modern science and organization1 if not quenched by vast social disorders1 will so safeguard life1 as in recent times1 that the world is in a fair way to become crowded4 ,all of us1 like ,germany1 yearn for our 8place in the sun10 and our share of comfort and power4 ,of all the fundamental necessities for this1 nothing is so much in the nature of a fixed and unmultipliable quality as the metals2 they constitute the basis and foundation of our modern civilization and power over man and natural forces4 ,other raw materials are of vegetable or animal origin2 they propagate and duplicate themselves in successive incarnations according to the law of life2 they are born in some magical fashion of air and water1 with a minimum of the earth1 and they return their loans faithfully to air and water and earth with the passing of each generation and the dawning of a new4 ,there is the hint of such a law of growth in the mineral kingdom1 but it is so vastly slow that the evanescent animal man has no personal interest in it2 for all his purposes and by all his standards of measurement it is inert1 and these riches1 once dug and used1 will never again be available4 ,the treasures of commercially valuable ore-deposits have been hid by nature whimsically throughout the earth1 here and there1 by no rule of geography or latitude1 and with a great disregard of equality4 ,a nation's needs or desires for mineral wealth have no stated relation to its actual mineral possessions2 what it needs is often in the territory of another nation which does not need it4 ,commerce is thus born1 and the nation which must have the metal or ore in question backs up its commerce and helps it to fasten its claims for permanent control of the deposits in question1 by legislation1 by diplomacy1 and1 if need be1 by war4 ,in the case of war1 the metallic prize falls to the strongest--usually the nation which before1 through its necessities1 exercised only commercial control1 but which1 as the result of the trial of strength1 now frankly asserts its sovereignty4 ,have we as ,americans realized these forces8 ,absolutely not1 ,i should say4 ,how many realize that the ,alsace-,lorraine question is and was not a sentimental one1 but a struggle for the greatest iron deposits of ,europe and the second largest in the world1 which gave ,germany her immense growth and power1 and may now transfer that wealth and power to ,france8 ,that the dispute between ,poland and ,germany as to ,upper ,silesia is not a question of nationality1 sentiment1 or even territory1 but concerns the greatest coal field of ,europe as well as great deposits of lead and zinc8 ,if ,poland gets this1 she may rival ,germany in wealth and importance2 if ,germany loses it1 she may drop into the position of a second-rate power1 now that she has also had to give up ,alsace-,lorraine4 ,to submit such a question to the vote of the native population is of the same order of fitness as tossing a coin for it2 but how many of us have understood this8 ,population shifts and changes1 swells or shrinks1 may be at one time predominantly ,polish and at another time mainly ,german2 but the coal deposits are fixed4 ,to clarify these things we should in place of ,silesia say ,coal1 in the place of ,alsace-,lorraine1 ,iron1 and so on4 ,the reason we have not realized these facts is on account of our own vast mineral wealth1 so abundant that not till recently has ,american capital and enterprise found it necessary to adventure into the outside world1 as the ,european nations had long ago done4 ,their natural wealth was limited so that they have become familiar with those fundamental principles and laws of which we have been unconscious4 ,from this has arisen ,european foreign policies1 the protection of their national commerce and national capital in foreign enterprises and consequently at home2 governmental participation in business combinations1 as in ,germany1 ,england1 ,france1 and ,italy2 while the ,united ,states has been engaged in 8trust-busting0 and has neglected the protection of its investors in foreign countries4 ,this illustrates the difference between ,european diplomacy and ,american guilelessness4 ,how well this played into the hands of foreign powers it is unnecessary to explain4 ,the spectacle of the ,united ,states maintaining a ,monroe ,doctrine of protection over ,latin-,american republics which she took no vigorous steps to unite with her by the powerful bonds of commerce1 must well have excited the amusement of those ,european commercial nations like ,germany who have been strengthening themselves in those countries by the closest commercial1 and hence political1 ties4 ,this volume simply takes up the study of the actual situation1 as to the distribution and ownership of mineral supplies in the world1 and the author of each chapter is a well-known specialist4 ,first is considered the question of petroleum1 source of power and light1 the key to the mastery of the air1 and1 on account of its fluid and easily transportable condition1 of extraordinary future importance4 ,next are taken up the great fuel mineral1 coal1 and its ally1 the great metallic mineral1 iron1 which must go together for the manufacture of iron and steel1 the backbone of all our mechanical achievements4 ,next come those metals indispensable in steel making and in the manufacture of specially hard or tough steels4 ,these are of great importance1 and include manganese1 chromium1 nickel1 tungsten1 vanadium1 antimony1 molybdenum1 uranium1 and zirconium4 ,radium is closely associated with uranium and is considered with it4 ,closely allied with zirconium are thorium and mesothorium1 and their treatment therefore closely follows that of zirconium4 ,the next great group is that of the major metals1 other than iron and the ferro-alloy metals3 copper1 lead1 zinc1 tin and mercury1 and aluminum4 ,aluminum ores are used not only as sources of the metal1 but for the manufacture of refractories and abrasives4 ,therefore they are classed partly with the metallic and partly with the non-metallic minerals2 and the other non-metallic minerals1 used likewise for abrasives1 refractories1 and other uses--such minerals as emery and corundum1 magnesite1 graphite1 mica1 and asbestos--follow4 ,the next great group is that of the fertilizer minerals--phosphate rock1 potash1 nitrates and nitrogen1 and pyrite and sulphur1 all essential for agriculture4 ,the last group is that of the precious metals1 gold1 silver1 and platinum1 essential for coinage and in the arts4 ,these various studies are essentially both inclusive and elementary3 together they form almost the first contribution to the branch of investigation--that of the relation of geology to industry1 commerce1 and political economy--which they cover2 and it is natural that beginnings should be rather crude4 ,moreover1 many of the chapters were written a year or more previous to the publication of the volume1 and although brought to date to the extent possible in the brief time available1 are considered inadequate by the authors themselves4 ,apologies for shortcomings and possible inaccuracies are therefore very much in order4 ,nevertheless1 it is felt that the volume merits publication1 and that the beginning here made is far better than no start at all4 ,,josiah ,,edward ,,spurr4 ,,contents ,,page ,,preface v ,,chapter ,i4 ,,petroleum1 ,,by ,,john ,d4 ,,northrop #a ,,ii4 ,,coal1 ,,by ,,george ,s4 ,,rice ,,and ,,frank ,f4 ,,grout #bb ,,iii4 ,,iron1 ,,by ,e4 ,c4 ,,harder ,,and ,f4 ,t4 ,,eddingfield #ee ,,iv4 ,,manganese1 ,,by ,d4 ,f4 ,,hewett #ij ,v4 ,,chromium1 ,,by ,e4 ,c4 ,,harder #aji ,,vi4 ,,nickel1 ,,by ,c4 ,s4 ,,corbett #abi ,,vii4 ,,tungsten1 ,,by ,,frank ,l4 ,,hess #adb ,,viii4 ,,vanadium1 ,,by ,r4 ,b4 ,,moore #afc ,,ix4 ,,antimony1 ,,by ,h4 ,g4 ,,ferguson ,,and ,d4 ,a4 ,,hall #agb ,x4 ,,molybdenum1 ,,by ,r4 ,b4 ,,moore #aia ,,xi4 ,,radium ,,and ,,uranium1 ,,by ,r4 ,a4 ,f4 ,,penrose1 ,,jr4 #bja ,,xii4 ,,zirconium1 ,,by ,h4 ,c4 ,,morris #bji ,,xiii4 ,,monazite1 ,,thorium1 ,,and ,,mesothorium1 ,,by ,r4 ,b4 ,,moore #baf ,,xiv4 ,,copper1 ,,by ,f4 ,w4 ,,paine #bbc ,,xv4 ,,lead1 ,,by ,,frederick ,b4 ,,hyder #bfa ,,xvi4 ,,zinc1 ,,by ,,frederick ,b4 ,,hyder #bid ,,xvii4 ,,tin1 ,,by ,,james ,m4 ,,hill #cag ,,xviii4 ,,mercury1 ,,by ,f4 ,l4 ,,ransome #ccg ,,xix4 ,,bauxite ,,and ,,aluminum1 ,,by ,,james ,m4 ,,hill #cdi ,,xx4 ,,emery ,,and ,,corundum1 ,,by ,,frank ,j4 ,,katz #cef ,,xxi4 ,,magnesite1 ,,by ,r4 ,w4 ,,stone #cfc ,,xxii4 ,,graphite1 ,,by ,h4 ,g4 ,,ferguson1 ,,frank ,f4 ,,grout1 ,,and ,,george ,d4 ,,dub #cgb ,,xxiii4 ,,mica1 ,,by ,,durand ,a4 ,,hall #chj ,,xxiv4 ,,asbestos1 ,,by ,,oliver ,,bowles #chh ,,xxv4 ,,phosphate ,,rock1 ,,by ,r4 ,w4 ,,stone #djb ,,xxvi4 ,,potash1 ,,by ,,hoyt ,s4 ,,gale ,,and ,a4 ,w4 ,,stockett #daa ,,xxvii4 ,,nitrogen1 ,,by ,,chester ,g4 ,,gilbert #dba ,,xxviii4 ,,pyrite ,,and ,,sulphur1 ,,by ,a4 ,g4 ,,white #ddg ,,xxix4 ,,gold1 ,,by ,,john ,e4 ,,orchard #dfb ,,xxx4 ,,silver1 ,,by ,f4 ,w4 ,,paine #die ,,xxxi4 ,,platinum1 ,,by ,,james ,m4 ,,hill #ejf ,,xxxii4 ,,who ,,owns ,,the ,,earth8 ,,by ,j4 ,e4 ,,spurr #ebb ,,political ,,and ,,commercial ,,geology ,,and ,,the ,,world',s ,,mineral ,,resources ,,chapter ,i ,,petroleum ,,by ,,john ,d4 ,,northrop#a #a ,in this article1 prepared in ,june1 #aiah1 by ,mr4 ,northrop1 have been incorporated certain notes and additions2 as1 for example1 information furnished by ,e4 ,russell ,lloyd1 of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey2 ,a4 ,g4 ,white and ,w4 ,e4 ,perdue1 of the ,bureau of ,mines1 and others4 7,j4 ,e4 ,s47 ,,introduction ,,by ,j4 ,e4 ,,spurr ,coal and iron are the backbone of industrial civilization1 and should be considered first in any attempt to analyze the ownership and control1 as between nations1 of the world's mineral resources4 ,kin to coal in growing importance1 however1 is the lighter1 fluid and volatile mineral substance1 petroleum1 whose significance is vast and as yet not wholly defined4 ,more easily transportable than coal1 and yielding refined products whose explosive action in internal-combustion engines furnishes greater power in proportion to weight than was once deemed possible1 petroleum and its products1 apart from their immense direct economic importance1 may1 in the automobile1 the submarine1 and the air plane1 and through numerous other applications1 control strategically1 from a nationalistic standpoint1 the more inert foundations of civilization4 ,moreover1 the use of crude petroleum as fuel1 especially for ships1 is of the most vital importance in these days of greater competitive plans for expanding world-wide commerce1 and establishing the strength and ready efficiency of navies4 ,great maritime nations must have1 for their oil-burning ships1 oil-bunkering stations under their own control in all parts of the world where they wish their commerce to dominate1 and their navies to protect their interests efficiently4 ,the recognition by certain strong and aggressive nationalities of this critical factor has brought about a situation that is perhaps unparalleled in the mineral history of the world4 ,coal and iron have always been decidedly static as to control--they have remained largely under the supervision and direction of the countries in which they occur4 ,transportation costs1 the conjunction of iron and coal deposits1 and other factors have prevented these minerals1 in spite of their vast importance1 from being fully used as a world commodity4 ,by contrast1 petroleum is coming to be universal1 like gold1 in its acceptance and applicability2 but1 unlike gold1 it is essential in the highest degree to the advance of modern civilization4 ,the fluidity of this mineral1 its consequent amazingly cheap transportation and handling by pipe lines1 the completeness with which it can be utilized1 all combine toward making it in the future the crucial factor of commercial and of political control4 ,moreover1 this fluidity of form and ease of application facilitate the control of petroleum by vast commercial organizations1 like the ,standard ,oil of ,america1 and others in various parts of the world2 and even make its world control feasible and probable4 ,recognizing this tendency1 many nations1 like ,england1 ,france1 ,holland1 ,argentina1 and ,mexico1 have taken steps looking toward a partial nationalization of their petroleum resources1 in order to protect themselves against foreign commercial aggression in this particular4 ,england has gone farthest in this direction1 and has reached and is reaching out aggressively into other countries to secure1 through commercial control1 backed where necessary by political pressure1 a world empire of petroleum to serve her world-wide colonial empire4 ,the ,united ,states1 on the other hand1 has dominated the world's petroleum industry through her own vast resources1 worked by interests which have grown without conscious governmental help or even in spite of governmental and popular opposition1 and have reached out and secured footholds in other countries4 ,in the past the mineral development of the world has led to great changes in political sovereignty4 ,important as these have been1 the events that may result from the nationalistic competitive exploitation and control of the world's petroleum supply bid fair to exceed in importance all similar changes of the past4 ,the perception of the problem and of the necessity1 and the advantage of the initiative1 naturally belongs to those nations with restricted area and resources1 that have grown great by trading and by exploiting the resources of other countries4 ,such a nation1 for example1 is ,england1 a country that is fortunately the natural ally of the ,united ,states4 ,by contrast1 in the ,united ,states1 a nation concerned hitherto only with the development of its own vast resources1 commercial enterprise in foreign countries has been backed by no fixed national policy1 and indeed has often been treated as unworthy4 ,in the new international era that was initiated by the ,world ,war1 however1 this policy of ,chinese self-sufficiency and exclusion can not be safely continued1 and the ,united ,states must not only perceive clearly the tendencies and movements of other nationalities1 but consider how best to direct its own commercial and political plans so as to uphold its independence and power4 ,such a policy would naturally lead to international agreements as to the distribution and division of petroleum lands1 resources1 and production1 and probably no one thing would contribute more to the promotion of frank understanding between nations and the removal of obstacles to permanent peace4 ,mr4 ,northrop's paper follows3 ,,uses ,,of ,,petroleum ,in its crude or semi-refined state1 petroleum is extensively utilized as fuel under locomotive and marine boilers and to a small extent in internal-combustion engines of the ,diesel type4 ,certain grades of petroleum are utilized in the crude state as lubricants4 ,the principal use of petroleum is for the manufacture of refined products1 of which the number and uses are legion4 ,the lightest gravity1 etherial products are employed as anaesthetics in surgery4 ,the gasolines are the universal fuels of internal-combustion engines1 and the naphthas are widely used as solvents and for blending with raw casinghead gasoline in the manufacture of commercial gasoline4 ,the kerosene group includes a variety of products utilized primarily as illuminants1 but in annually increasing quantities as fuel in farm tractors4 ,the lubricating oils and the greases derived from petroleum are indispensable to the operation of all types of machinery4 ,the waxes derived from petroleum of paraffin base are utilized in many forms as preservatives and as sources of illumination1 and in the last three years have become indispensable constituents of surgical dressings in the treatment of burns4 ,petroleum coke1 because of its purity1 is in demand for use in certain metallurgical processes and for the manufacture of battery carbons and arc-light pencils4 ,fuel oils obtained as by-products of petroleum refining satisfy the fuel needs of many industrial plants1 railroads and ocean steamers4 ,road oils1 as the name implies1 are employed for minimizing dust on streets and highways2 and artificial asphalt1 a product of certain types of petroleum1 has in many localities superseded the use of other forms of asphalt for paving purposes4 ,substitutes4--,for petroleum as a fuel under boilers in the generation of steam there are numerous substitutes1 including wood1 charcoal1 coal1 peat1 natural gas1 artificial gas1 and electricity2 as a fuel in internal-combustion engines some demonstrated substitutes are natural gas1 artificial gas1 benzol1 and alcohol1 and in the ,diesel type of engine certain vegetable and fish oils can be utilized4 ,for illuminating purposes1 animal fats1 oils distilled from coal1 natural gas1 artificial gas1 acetylene gas and electricity may be substituted for kerosene4 ,for certain types of lubrication carefully refined vegetable and mineral oils are acceptable1 but for lubricating high-speed bearings and for all lubrication in the presence of high temperature and of steam no satisfactory substitutes for mineral lubricants derived from petroleum are known4 ,substitutes for petroleum asphalt are available in the form of native asphalts1 bituminous rocks1 and coal-tar residues4 ,for petrolatum1 animal fats and vegetable oils can be substituted1 and for paraffin wax1 ozokerite might be made to satisfy such essential requirements as could not be met by refrigeration or by vegetable and animal oils4 ,,changes ,,in ,,practice ,probable changes in practice that may be expected to affect the petroleum industry within the next ten years include an increased dependence by oil producers on geologic investigations in advance of drilling1 the development of methods for deeper drilling than is now practicable1 and the more efficient handling of individual wells and of entire properties1 with a view to the ultimate recovery1 at minimum cost1 of a higher percentage of the oil originally present4 ,the tendency toward amalgamation of individual producing1 transporting1 refining and marketing interests into strong units capable of competition in domestic and foreign markets on relatively equal terms with each other and with pre-existing combinations of equivalent strength will doubtless increase1 and with the growing strength of the several units will come an efficient and thorough quest for petroleum in all parts of the world4 ,in the refining of petroleum it is probable that methods will be devised and perfected for recovering more of the light-gravity products from low-grade petroleum and for the conversion of the less-salable products of petroleum into products of greatest current demand4 ,moreover1 it is believed that internal-combustion engines will be so modified as to run successfully on petroleum products of lower volatility than gasoline4 ,the use of petroleum as railroad1 marine1 and industrial fuel is destined to increase enormously in the next decade4 ,although an important contributor to the oil-supply of ,great ,britain1 the shale-oil industry has received little attention in recent years outside of ,scotland4 ,investigations by the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey have demonstrated that the ,united ,states contains vast deposits of oil shale in ,utah1 ,colorado1 ,wyoming and ,nevada1 much of which will average higher in oil content than the ,scottish shale4 ,efforts already begun to develop methods for the recovery of shale oil on a commercial scale in the ,united ,states will undoubtedly result in the establishment of a shale-oil industry in this country within the next two or three years4 ,the future growth of this industry will depend largely on the rapidity of the decline in the domestic production of petroleum4 ,,geological ,,distribution ,commercial accumulations of petroleum are everywhere restricted to strata of sedimentary origin4 ,in the ,united ,states petroleum is produced commercially from strata of all periods from ,cambrian to ,quaternary1 the most prolific sources being in strata of the ,carboniferous and ,tertiary systems4 ,the geological age of the chief sources of petroleum production in each of the other oil-producing countries of the world is indicated in the table following3 ,,table #a4--;,,geologic ,,age ,,of ,,petroleum-,,bearing ,,formations ,country ,system ,north ,america ,canada ,silurian and ,devonian ,mexico ,cretaceous and basal ,tertiary ,alaska ,tertiary 787 ,west ,indies ,trinidad ,tertiary ,cuba ,cretaceous and pre-,cretaceous ,south ,america ,colombia ,cretaceous and ,tertiary ,venezuela ,cretaceous and ,tertiary ,peru ,tertiary ,argentina ,jurassic1 ,cretaceous and ,tertiary ,europe ,russia ,tertiary ,roumania ,tertiary ,galicia ,tertiary ,italy ,tertiary ,germany 7,alsace7 ,tertiary and pre-,tertiary ,asia ,india ,tertiary ,turkestan ,tertiary ,persia ,tertiary ,africa ,algeria ,tertiary ,egypt ,tertiary ,oceania ,japan ,tertiary ,dutch ,east ,indies ,tertiary ,new ,zealand ,cretaceous and ,tertiary ,from the foregoing table one might conclude that a direct relation exists between the distribution of ,tertiary rocks and the supply of petroleum1 but in the ,united ,states1 which produces two-thirds of the world's current supply1 the quest for petroleum has1 under scientific direction1 included the entire range of the stratigraphic column1 and has found petroleum in considerable quantities in the rocks of each geologic system younger than the ,cambrian4 ,the fact that seeps and other surface indications of petroleum are generally more pronounced in the relatively younger ,mesozoic strata than in the older ,paleozoic formations1 and the further fact that geologic exploration for oil and gas in countries other than the ,united ,states has been restricted in the main to areas containing the most pronounced indications of petroleum1 tend to account for the predominance of the ,tertiary system in the foregoing table and to indicate the fallacy of attempts to estimate the world's reserves of petroleum on stratigraphic evidence alone4 ,despite the broad geologic range of petroleum1 its occurrence in specific members1 formations1 groups1 series or systems is by no means universal4 ,on the contrary1 its occurrence is restricted to specific localities in which are fulfilled certain variable relations1 as yet but little understood1 that involve 7#a7 the constitution1 sequence and content of organic matter of the sediments2 7#b7 the nature and degree of metamorphism they have undergone2 7#c7 their structure2 and 7#d7 their degree of saturation with salt water4 ,because the most detailed geologic work is insufficient to provide a basis for the appropriate evaluation of the numerous factors involved1 and because only a relatively small percentage of the areas of sedimentary rocks in the world have been examined geologically in appreciable detail1 any estimate of the future supply of petroleum in the world is peculiarly hazardous4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,the geographical distribution of petroleum is as wide relatively as its geologic range4 ,the oil fields of present commercial significance are situated1 in the order of their importance as contributors to the world's production of petroleum in #aiag1 in the ,united ,states1 ,russia1 ,galicia1 ,mexico1 ,dutch ,east ,indies1 ,india1 ,persia1 ,japan and ,formosa1 ,roumania1 ,peru1 ,trinidad1 ,argentina1 ,egypt1 ,germany1 ,canada1 ,venezuela and ,italy4 ,small quantities of petroleum have also been reported from ,guatemala1 ,honduras1 ,costa ,rica1 ,panama1 ,haiti1 ,porto ,rico1 ,bolivia1 ,chile1 ,spain1 ,arabia1 ,china1 ,australia1 ,papua1 ,philippine ,islands1 ,nigeria1 ,belgian ,congo1 ,gold ,coast1 ,madagascar1 and elsewhere4 ,the geographical distribution of petroleum in the world is shown on the accompanying map4 7,plate ,i47 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,i4--,geographical distribution of the producing petroleum fields of the world4 ,by ,john ,d4 ,northrop4 ,in the opinion of the author the most conspicuous developments of the world's supply of petroleum in the next decade will take place in the countries that border the ,caribbean ,sea and the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,the trend in this direction is unmistakable4 ,from #aiac to #aiag1 the annual production of petroleum in ,mexico increased from #ba1jjj1jjj barrels to #ef1jjj1jjj barrels1 and the potentialities of future production in that country have been demonstrated to be almost beyond comprehension4 ,the output1 originally considered valuable only as a source of fuel oil1 is now yielding1 by modern refining methods1 increasingly important percentages of illuminating oils and gasoline4 ,the only obstacles to enormously increased production are unsettled political conditions and inadequate facilities for marine transportation4 ,these obstacles will doubtless be overcome within the next few years1 and barring unforeseen contingencies ,mexico will soon rank second among the oil-producing countries of the world4#b ,judged by the results of exploratory work already done in ,venezuela and ,colombia1 both of those countries are destined to contribute appreciably to the world's supply of petroleum within the next decade4 ,recently ,colombia has given enough evidence of ability to furnish high-grade petroleum from wells of large individual capacity to warrant the large interests holding concessions there to exert every effort to overcome the adverse natural conditions that have so long barred the way to exploitation4 ,enough drilling has already been done in ,venezuela to demonstrate that the resources of heavy-gravity asphalt-base petroleum in that country are large1 and the recent installation of a modern petroleum refinery for the treatment of these oils on the island of ,curacao1 off the ,venezuelan coast1 has provided the market necessary to active field development4 #b ,mexico ranked second in #aiah and #aiai4 ,in ,trinidad the production of petroleum exceeds #a1ejj1jjj barrels a year and has doubled in the last few years4 ,with the increased facilities for ocean transport of petroleum that are becoming available1 a large output is assured4 ,cuba is not expected to become an important producer of petroleum1 and present knowledge concerning the petroleum resources of the ,central ,american countries is not such as to warrant the belief that oil fields of material consequence will be developed in any of them4 ,petroleum production in the ,united ,states is expected to reach its maximum within the next two or three years and to decline steadily thereafter1 although this country is expected to remain the leading oil-producing country of the world for the greater part1 if not all1 of the coming decade4 ,as regards those oil-producing countries of ,north and ,south ,america that have not been already mentioned1 no significant changes in their present status are anticipated4 ,the petroleum resources of ,russia 7including ,asiatic ,russia7 are believed sufficient to assure that country retaining its position as the leading producer of petroleum in the ,eastern ,hemisphere far beyond the next decade4 ,during the last few years the output has been obtained under increasing difficulties1 and as a consequence there has been no measure either of present productive capacity or of potentialities4 ,concerning the future of ,russia as a source of petroleum ,arnold#c says3 8,such large areas1 both in ,european and ,asiatic ,russia1 yield unmistakable evidence of the presence of oil in large quantities that it is to this country1 among those of ,europe and ,asia1 to which the future must look for a supply40 #c ,,arnold1 ,,ralph3 8,the ,world's ,oil ,supply03 ,report ,am4 ,min4 ,cong41 #aith annual session1 #aiag1 pp4 #dhe-dhf4 ,russia being endowed with petroleum reserves1 both proved and prospective1 of great magnitude1 the ultimate position of that country as the leading oil-producer of the world seems reasonably assured4 ,its immediate future is too intimately dependent on the progress from political turmoil to warrant a forecast4 ,the oil fields of both ,roumania and ,galicia are believed to have passed their maximum yield1 and the possibilities of opening new fields of consequence in those countries are not considered large enough to justify a forecast of anything but a moderate decline of production in future years4 ,no material change in the status of the negligible oil fields of ,italy or of ,alsace is anticipated at any time in the future4 ,with regard to the situation in ,asia1 the writer believes that the next decade will witness a steady increase in the output of petroleum in ,india1 and the probable development of one or more important oil fields in ,persia and possibly of fields in ,asia ,minor1 ,turkestan and ,china4 ,in ,oceania the same period will doubtless witness a material increase in the production of petroleum in ,japan and ,formosa and in the ,dutch ,east ,indies1 together with the possible opening of new fields in ,papua4 ,africa will doubtless receive considerable attention from oil operators in the next ten years1 but on the basis of available evidence the results obtained in that period will probably not be large enough to affect the petroleum situation of the world4 ,,political ,,control ,,of ,,production ,the status of the political control of the world's output of petroleum in #aiag1 as determined by the best data now available1 is indicated in the table following4 ,the accompanying diagram 7,figure #a7 shows the proportion of the world's production of petroleum contributed annually by each of the principal producing countries in each of the last ten years4 ,,table #b4--,,political ,,control ,,of ,,the ,,world',s ,,production ,,of ,,petroleum ,,in #aiag ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,source of ,country production ,quantity of exercising production,percentagepolitical 7barrels7 of total control ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,united ,states #cce1cae1fja #ff4ag ,united ,states ,russia #fi1jjj1jjj #ac4fb ,russia ,mexico #ee1bib1ggj #aj4ia ,mexico ,dutch ,east ,indies #ab1ibh1iee #b4ee ,holland ,india #h1jgh1hdc #a4ei ,great ,britain ,persia #f1hef1jfc #a4cf ,persia ,galicia #e1ife1ddg #a4ah ,poland 787 ,japan and ,formosa #b1hih1fed #j4eg ,japan ,roumania #b1fha1hgj #j4ee ,roumania ,peru #b1ecc1dag #j4ej ,peru ,trinidad #a1eii1dee #j4cb ,great ,britain ,argentina #a1add1gcg #j4bc ,argentina ,egypt #a1jjh1gej #j4bj ,great ,britain ,germany #iie1gfd #j4bj ,germany ,canada #bje1ccb #j4jd ,great ,britain ,venezuela #abg1gdc #j4jc ,venezuela ,italy #ej1ccd #j4ja ,italy ,cuba #ai1afg ,cuba --------------------- #ejf1gjb1ijb #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,proportion of the world's output of petroleum contributed annually by each of the chief producing countries1 #aijh-aiag4 ,aside from the control exercised by ,great ,britain through its protectorate relation over the petroleum resources of ,egypt1 control of the petroleum resources of the various countries is mainly by virtue of state sovereignty4 ,this political control is in proportion to the strength of the government in the country exercising it4 ,recent developments whereby the ,british government becomes the majority stockholder of a corporation controlling the oil resources of ,persia1 practically transfer the political control1 as well as the commercial control1 of ,persian petroleum from ,persia to ,england4 ,mexico's recently attempted firm political control of her vast petroleum resources depends for its success upon her diplomatic ability in dealing with the stronger governments of ,england and the ,united ,states1 whose nationals have acquired a commercial control that is threatened by ,mexico's new and decided nationalistic policy4 ,,commercial ,,control ,,of ,,production ,the commercial control of the world's production of petroleum1 as far as nations are involved1 is determined in the main through direct ownership1 of lands1 leases and concessions1 or by the control1 through holding corporations1 of subsidiary companies holding fee1 leases1 mineral rights or concessions of petroleum land4 ,except in ,argentina1 where the domestic petroleum industry is owned and operated by the state2 in ,germany1 where the government participates directly in the financing of petroleum enterprises through the ,deutsche ,bank2 and in ,persia1 where the ,british government owns a substantial interest in a company owning and operating extensive concessions1 the commercial control of the petroleum industry is determined almost wholly by aggregations of private capital acting in their own interests4 ,,table #c4--,,nationality ,,and ,,extent ,,of ,,control ,,of ,,dominant ,,interest ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,approximate extent ,production ,nationality of control by in #aiag of dominant dominant interests ,country 7barrels7 interests 7per cent47 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,united ,states #cce1cae1fja,united ,states #if ,russia #fi1jjj1jjj;,british-,dutch #dj ,mexico #ee1bib1ggj,united ,states #fe ,dutch ,east ,indies #ab1ibh1iee;,british-,dutch #ajj ,india #f1jgh1hdc;,british #ajj ,persia #f1hef1jfc;,british #ajj ,galicia #e1ife1ddg;,german #ajj ,japan and ,formosa #b1hih1fed;,japanese #ajj ,roumania #b1fha1hgj;,british-,dutch #cf ,peru #b1ecc1dag,united ,states #gj ,trinidad #a1eii1dee;,british #hj ,argentina #a1add1gcg;,argentinian #ajj ,egypt #a1jjh1gej;,british-,dutch #ajj ,germany and ,alsace #iie1gdf;,german #ajj ,canada #bje1ccb,united ,states#d #hj- ,venezuela #abg1gdc;,british-,dutch #hj 787 ,italy #ej1jjj;,french #if ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #d ,by control of refining facilities4 ,so far as the author is aware1 ,canada is the only country in which the petroleum industry may be said to be controlled by foreign 7,united ,states7 interests1 this control being by virtue of an essential monopoly of pipe-line and refining facilities4 ,the preceding table shows1 according to the best information available1 the nationality and approximate extent of control exercised by the dominant interest in each of the principal oil-producing countries of the world in #aiag4 ,,political ,,and ,,commercial ,,control ,,of ,,resources ,the accompanying diagram 7,figure #b7 shows graphically the approximate commercial control of the world's production of petroleum in #aiag4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,approximate commercial control of the world's production of petroleum in #aiag4 ,commercial control of the petroleum industry in the ,united ,states is in the hands of the so-called 8,standard ,oil ,group0 of companies1 through their control of most of the great pipe-line systems of the country1 of probably #ge per cent4 of the refining facilities and of a substantial part of the actual production4 ,other domestic interests having important shares in the control of the petroleum industry in the ,united ,states include the ,southern ,pacific ,railroad ,co41 ,cities ,service ,co4 7,doherty interests71 ,general ,petroleum ,corporation1 ,gulf ,oil ,corporation1 ,ohio ,cities ,gas ,co41 ,cosden ,co41 ,sinclair ,oil ,refining ,corporation1 ,the ,sun ,co41 the ,texas ,co41 the ,tide ,water ,oil ,co41 and the ,union ,oil ,co4 ,foreign interests in the ,united ,states include purely ,british companies1 which control a production of about #b1jjj1jjj barrels a year2 ,british-,dutch companies represented by the ,royal ,dutch-,shell ,syndicate1 which control a production of about #i1jjj1jjj barrels a year1 together with refining and marketing facilities2 and ,franco-,belgian companies controlling a yearly production of about #a1jjj1jjj barrels4 ,aside from the very probable holdings by individual ,germans of shares in companies engaged in one or more phases of the petroleum industry of the ,united ,states1 the author is aware of no organized ,german interest in any phase of the domestic industry4 ,commercial control of the petroleum industry of ,russia is1 under the political conditions now existing in central ,europe1 largely a matter of speculation4 ,as nearly as can be ascertained1 the dominant control is in the hands of purely ,british1 ,franco-,british1 and ,british-,dutch 7,royal ,dutch-,shell ,syndicate7 interests4 ,certain of the second-named interests are allied closely with an additional group of capitalists represented by the firm ,nobel ,bros41 of much importance1 the present control of which is by no means clear1 from the literature available on the subject4 ,though originally ,swedish1 the financial interests now involved in ,nobel ,bros4 are believed to include representatives of financial groups in ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany as well1 with control probably lying with the ,anglo-,swedish interests4 ,before the war1 direct ,german interest in ,russian petroleum included control by the ,deutsche ,bank through a ,belgian company 7the ,petrole de ,grosny7 of the important producing and refining company1 ,a4 ,i4 ,akverdoff ,co41 control of which is now in ,british or ,british-,dutch hands4 ,as in the ,united ,states1 a considerable part of the actual production of petroleum in ,russia is distributed among a large number of individually weak companies1 dominated1 through the control of pipe-line or refining facilities1 by one or another of the principal groups4 ,of considerable importance in ,russian petroleum affairs at one time was the ,european ,petroleum ,union1 organized for combat in the world markets with the ,standard ,oil trust4 ,this union included among others such important petroleum operators as ,nobel ,bros41 the ,rothschild interests 7now ,dutch-,shell71 ,mantaschoff 7now ,russian ,general ,oil ,corporation7 7,british71 and the ,deutsche ,bank1 the latter controlling ,akverdoff and ,spies in ,russia1 together with important companies in ,roumania and ,galicia4 ,how far this union controlled the affairs of its constituent companies is not evident from available data1 and its present influence on companies now operating in ,russia is uncertain4 ,conditions in ,russia make impossible any definite statement on the petroleum situation4 ,a decree of the ,bolsheviki government1 dated ,june #bj1 #aiah1 on the nationalization of the petroleum industry1 declared as the property of the state all movable and immovable property employed in and belonging to that industry4 ,trading in oil was declared a state monopoly and was delegated to the chief petroleum committee of the fuel department of the supreme ,council of ,national ,economy4 ,as the chief producing areas are now under ,british military control1 this decree is ineffective4 ,commercial control of petroleum in ,mexico is divided among ,united ,states1 ,british1 and ,british-,dutch interests1 which controlled about #fe1 #cj and #b per cent41 respectively1 of the production in #aiag4 ,the interests of the ,united ,states include the ,doheny group1 operating principally as the ,huasteca and ,mexican ,petroleum companies2 the ,standard ,oil ,co4 of ,new ,jersey1 operating as the ,penn-,mex ,fuel ,co42 the ,sinclair interests1 operating as the ,freeport and ,mexican ,fuel ,oil ,co42 the ,texas ,co42 ,gulf ,co42 ,southern ,pacific ,railroad2 and others4 ,the ,british interests are represented by the ,pearsons1 operating as the ,mexican ,eagle ,oil ,co42 and the ,british-,dutch interests by ,la ,corona ,petroleum ,co41 and ,chijoles ,oil1 ,ltd41 controlled by the ,royal ,dutch-,shell ,syndicate4 ,no exclusively ,german interests are known to hold a substantial portion of any important company operating in ,mexico4 ,formerly concessions were freely granted to foreign individuals and companies for the exploitation of mineral deposits1 and oil lands were sold by the native owners to foreigners4 ,article #bg of the constitution of #aiag expressly forbids any but ,mexican companies acquiring directly or operating directly petroleum lands in ,mexico4 ,all recent concessions for the exploitation of oil properties contain a provision stating that the concession will be declared null if any of the rights are transferred to any foreign government4 ,the provisions and the intent of a series of presidential decrees issued on ,february #ai1 #aiah1 ,july #h1 #aiah1 ,july #ca1 #aiah1 and ,august #a1 #aiah1 are to nationalize all petroleum lands and to permit them to be worked only by ,mexican citizens or by companies that agree to consider themselves ,mexican and further agree not to invoke the protection of their governments4 ,a bill was presented in ,december1 #aiah1 to carry out ,article #bg of the new constitution1 but thus far no action has been taken in the matter4 ,the decrees and legislation growing out of ,article #bg have been protested by the chief petroleum companies operating in ,mexico and by their respective governments4 ,commercial control of the petroleum resources of the ,dutch ,east ,indies is in the hands of the ,royal ,dutch-,shell ,syndicate and is essentially absolute by reason of the restrictions contained in the ,netherlands ,east ,india ,mining ,act and subsequent supplements on foreign acquisition of mining rights in the ,east ,indian ,archipelago4 ,actual control is in the hands of the ,bataafsche ,petroleum ,maatschappij1 which has a capital of #ef1jjj1jjj divided into five shares1 three of which are owned by the ,royal ,dutch ,petroleum ,co41 and two by the ,shell ,transport ,trading ,co4 7,british74 ,purely ,british interests control an inconsequential production of petroleum in ,british ,north ,borneo and in ,sarawak4 ,prospecting licenses and concessions are granted only to ,dutch subjects and to ,dutch companies4 ,it is officially stated that the object of these restrictions is not to exclude foreign capital2 this is precisely their effect1 and on account of the economic monopoly which the ,royal ,dutch-,shell now has of the petroleum industry of the ,dutch ,east ,indies1 it would be very difficult for any new enterprise to gain a foothold4 ,commercial control of the petroleum resources of ,india is exercised by the ,burma ,oil ,co4 through its dominance of production1 refineries1 and pipe-line facilities1 and by reason of agreements as to marketing with its principal competitor1 the ,british ,burma ,petroleum ,co41 both controlled by ,british capital4 ,the ,burma ,oil ,co4 is allied with1 if not directly controlled by1 a group of ,british financiers1 one or more of whom is interested in companies in ,trinidad and in ,persia4 ,during the war the petroleum industry of ,roumania was temporarily wholly in control of ,german and ,austrian interests4 ,the advanced stage of development of the oil fields prior to the war and the intentional damage1 much of which is irreparable1 wrought in the fields by ,british detachments in #aiaf1 when capture of the fields by ,austro-,german forces became inevitable1 are believed1 however1 to have deprived ,germany of a large part of the fruits of her conquest1 as it is considered doubtful if the ,roumanian fields can ever again be made to yield petroleum at the pre-war rate of #ab1jjj1jjj barrels per annum4 ,the ,american ,petroleum ,institute states that 8,roumania is considering the erection of a state monopoly of both production and distribution on the ruins of the monopoly which ,germany sought to establish there but was compelled by the armistice to renounce40 ,prior to the war ,dutch or rather ,british-,dutch 7,dutch-,shell7 interests controlled about #cj per cent4 of the annual production of petroleum in ,roumania1 ,german interests about #bf per cent41 ,united ,states interests 7,standard ,oil ,co4 of ,new ,jersey7 about #ah per cent41 ,french interests about #af per cent41 purely ,british interests about #f per cent41 and ,belgian and ,roumanian interests the remainder4 ,through the ,austrian 8,society ,gaz0 and the ,german 8,deutsche ,erdoel ,aktien-gesellschaft10 ,german interests have dominated the petroleum industry of ,galicia for years through the direct control of the larger producing and refining interests and by reason of the fact that the smaller scattered interests were dependent almost entirely on the two leading companies1 the ,galizische ,karpathen ,petroleum ,a4 ,g4 7controlled by ,society ,gaz71 and the ,premier ,oil ,pipe ,line ,co4 7controlled by the ,deutsche ,erdoel ,a4 ,g41 which is in turn controlled by the ,diskonto und ,bleichroeder1 a branch of the ,deutche ,bank7 for their transportation and refining facilities4 ,british and ,dutch capital were involved in the ,galician fields prior to the war1 but not1 it is believed1 to a controlling extent in either of the dominant companies4 ,the petroleum industry of ,japan is controlled wholly by ,japanese interests and to a preponderant extent by a single company1 the ,nippon ,oil ,co4 ,so far as the author is aware1 no foreign interests share in any way in the development or control of the ,japanese petroleum industry4 ,commercial control of the petroleum industry of ,peru is exercised by the ,standard ,oil ,co4 of ,new ,jersey through its subsidiary1 the ,imperial ,oil ,co4 of ,canada4 ,this control involves about #gj per cent4 of the annual production1 the remaining #cj per cent4 being divided in the ratio of #bg to #c between ,british and ,italian interests respectively4 ,so far as is known no other interests are involved4 ,the interests engaged in the petroleum industry of ,trinidad include financial groups purely ,british1 controlling about #eg per cent4 of the production2 ,british-,dutch interests 7,dutch-,shell7 controlling about #bc per cent41 and ,united ,states interests 7,general ,asphalt ,co471 controlling the remainder4 ,the leading operator in ,trinidad is the ,trinidad ,leaseholds1 ,ltd41 a ,british company that in #aiag produced about #db per cent4 of the petroleum output credited to ,trinidad that year4 ,commercial control of the petroleum resources of lower ,alsace has been in the hands of the ,vereinigte ,pechelbronner ,oelbergwerke ,gesellschaft and the ,deutsche ,tiefbohr ,a4 ,g4 ,both of these companies are believed to be controlled by the ,deutsche ,bank through the ,deutsche ,erdoel ,a4 ,g41 and the ,diskonto und ,bleichroeder4 ,the negligible production of petroleum in ,hanover is doubtless under the same financial control1 although data that would warrant a positive statement to that effect are not at hand4 ,the petroleum reserves of ,argentina1 which comprise the only areas from which petroleum is being commercially produced in that country1 are operated by the state through the ,comodora ,rivadavia ,petroleum ,commission4 ,german interests are thought to have been involved in two or three unsuccessful efforts in the last decade to obtain petroleum on tracts adjacent to the government reserves in the ,comodora ,rivadavia district4 ,the petroleum industry in ,egypt is controlled wholly by ,british-,dutch capital operating as the ,anglo-,egyptian ,oilfields1 ,ltd41 a subsidiary of the ,royal ,dutch-,shell ,syndicate1 through the ,anglo-,saxon ,petroleum ,co41 the last-named company being predominantly ,british4 ,commercial control of the petroleum industry in ,canada is exercised in effect by the ,standard ,oil ,co4 of ,new ,jersey1 through its subsidiary the ,imperial ,oil ,co4 of ,canada4 ,this control is exercised through a virtual monopoly of pipe-line and refining facilities1 and by the producing interests1 though ,british and ,canadian1 being individually small and unorganized4 ,the production of petroleum in ,italy1 which is small1 represents the output of two companies1 the ,petroli d',italia1 in which ,french capital is predominant1 and the ,petrolifera ,italiana1 which is believed to be essentially ,italian4 ,financial groups interested in petroleum in ,venezuela include the ,royal ,dutch-,shell ,syndicate 7,british-,dutch71 the ,general ,asphalt ,co41 7,united ,states71 and a group of ,british financiers who control properties in ,trinidad as well as the most important group of companies1 other than ,nobels and the ,dutch-,shell1 in ,russia4 ,united ,states interests1 including the ,standard ,oil ,co41 the ,doherty interests1 the ,texas ,co41 the ,gulf ,corporation1 and the ,island ,oil ,transport ,corporation1 are predominant in the quest for petroleum in ,colombia4 ,the ,venezuelan ,oil ,concessions1 ,ltd41 an ,english company operating in ,venezuela1 is reported to have obtained a concession to explore for oil in the northwest district of ,british ,guiana4 ,the ,sinclair interests 7,united ,states7 are particularly active in the search for petroleum in ,costa ,rica and ,panama2 and the ,sun ,co4 7,united ,states7 is understood to be investigating petroleum possibilities in other ,central ,american republics4 ,the ,pearson interests 7,british7 have expended considerable effort in the quest of petroleum in ,algeria and ,morocco1 and in the former country ,american interests 7,e4 ,e4 ,smith7 are reported to have recently sought petroleum concessions from the ,french government4 ,british interests1 including the ,british government1 control extensive petroleum concessions in ,persia1 from which oil in unreported quantities is now being produced4 ,the most promising oil territory of ,persia has recently been closed to ,american activity through the granting of a concession aggregating approximately #ejj1jjj square miles to a ,british concern1 the ,anglo-,persian ,oil ,co41 a majority of whose voting stock is owned by the ,british government4 ,this concession runs until #aifa4 ,the importance of the oil territory is indicated by its reported potential capacity of #cj1jjj1jjj barrels yearly1 with tremendous reserves undeveloped4 ,united ,states interests 7,standard ,oil ,co4 of ,new ,york7 are understood to still retain control over the petroleum rights in certain provinces in ,china1 where active prospecting in two or three localities a few years ago was reported to have yielded unfavorable results4 ,petroleum in small quantities is produced in ,new ,zealand by purely ,british interests4 ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,leading ,,powers ,united ,states4--,as regards probable developments in the petroleum industry within the next decade1 the ,united ,states1 thanks to the enterprise and foresightedness of financial interests of domestic origin1 seems to have a strong position4 ,united ,states interests are practically supreme in the commercial control of the petroleum resources of the ,western ,hemisphere1 dominating the petroleum industry in the ,united ,states1 ,canada1 ,mexico1 and ,peru1 holding substantial interests in ,trinidad and ,venezuela and in the prospective petroliferous areas in ,central ,america and ,colombia4 ,its only competitors are ,british and ,british-,dutch interests1 which control the petroleum situation in ,trinidad and are not only strongly intrenched in the ,united ,states1 ,mexico1 and ,venezuela1 but are aggressively seeking to enlarge their holdings in those countries and to gain footholds elsewhere4 ,unless the ,united ,states adopts measures1 such as ,federal operation of the trunk pipe-lines1 to limit the aggressions of foreign capital in this country1 and erects a firm forward-looking governmental policy toward the protection of investments of its citizens in petroleum properties in other countries1 particularly ,latin-,american countries1 it may witness its commercial supremacy in petroleum affairs wane and disappear1 while it is yet the largest political contributor to the world's supply of petroleum4 ,as contrasted with the strongly nationalistic and deliberately aggressive governmental policy adopted by ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,holland and some other nations1 the ,united ,states has never adopted any policy founded on recognition of the importance of political and commercial control of petroleum4 ,american companies may not own and operate oil lands in the ,british ,empire1 in the ,french possessions1 or the ,dutch colonies1 but the only ,american restrictions on foreign activity in the petroleum industry are those which cover all minerals contained in public lands4 ,only ,american citizens1 or those who have declared their intention of becoming ,american citizens1 can apply for patents to such land4 ,however1 after the application is made1 there is no restriction on transfer of the mineral rights thus secured4 ,great ,britain4--,british and ,british-,dutch interests easily dominate the petroleum situation in the ,eastern ,hemisphere by supremacy in the petroleum industries of ,russia1 ,persia1 ,india1 and the ,netherlands ,east ,indies4 ,domination of the petroleum situation in ,russia alone is believed tantamount to dominion of the petroleum situation in the entire ,eastern ,hemisphere for the greater part of the next century4 ,the strength of ,great ,britain's present position in the world's petroleum affairs lies in a strong governmental policy and in the wide scope of ,british petroleum investments1 embracing practically every country where petroleum is an important product and nearly every country where it is a product of potential importance4 ,the general policy of the ,british ,empire seems to be to control all oil development and restrict operations by foreign capital4 ,in ,australia licenses are required for the exploitation of oil lands1 and only companies incorporated in the ,united ,kingdom or a ,british possession may receive such licenses4 ,the ,governor ,general has the right of pre-emption of all oil produced and in case of war may take control of all oil properties4 ,in ,canada1 in those western provinces where minerals are the property of the ,crown1 petroleum and natural gas lands may be leased only to ,british companies4 ,a similar restriction exists in ,burma4 ,in ,burma a monopoly of the petroleum industry for #ii years was granted to the ,burma ,oil ,co4 in #ahfe4 ,this grant seems to have been inspired by fear of the ,standard ,oil ,co4 of the ,united ,states1 for the agreement between the company and the government stipulates that the former shall not amalgamate with other oil companies4 ,regulations of like effect exist in other ,british colonies where oil exists2 in ,barbados the ,british government has the right of pre-emption of all oil residues2 in ,british ,guiana1 non-,british companies can only hold lands by special license of the ,governor2 in ,british ,honduras all mineral oil is reserved to the ,crown2 in southern ,nigeria1 the ,gold ,coast1 ,trinidad1 and ,tobago the ,british government has the right of pre-emption over all petroleum4 ,the recent granting of a concession amounting to a monopoly in the most promising oil district of ,persia 7a region that many oil experts believe likely to become one of the most important in the world7 to a ,british company controlled directly 7by stock ownership7 by the ,british government1 signifies an aggressive policy of ,england1 outside of her own dominions1 to secure and hold1 under government control1 oil lands in all parts of the globe4 ,it is understood that the best-known oil territories in ,venezuela are already covered by concessions that are practically all controlled either directly or indirectly by ,british interests1 chiefly the ,dutch-,shell ,syndicate4 ,so far as observed1 ,german interests actually dominate the petroleum industry in ,galicia and at home4 ,whether forced back on its own petroleum resources or on these reinforced by those of ,galicia1 ,germany will obviously have an inadequate supply1 and in consequence ,german interests are likely to be particularly aggressive in seeking petroleum in ,mesopotamia1 ,africa and ,south ,america4 ,france4--,since control of the petroleum interests of the ,rothschilds passed into the hands of the ,royal ,dutch-,shell ,syndicate 7,british-,dutch71 the influence of ,french finances in petroleum affairs has been negligible1 outside ,galicia and ,italy1 where its potency was not great4 ,french capital will undoubtedly participate in efforts to determine the petroleum reserve of the ,barbary ,states1 ,french dependencies1 but it will hardly be much involved in organized efforts to control the world situation with respect to petroleum4 ,the ,french mining law holds that oil and gas belong to the state1 and may be exploited under concessions1 the area and time limit of which are matters of negotiations between the applicant and the authorities4 ,it is understood that the ,french government is unwilling to grant oil concessions except to companies the majority of whose stock is held by ,french citizens4 ,a company incorporated recently to work the ,algerian oil fields contains in its articles of incorporation the provision that #fj per cent4 of its stock must be held by ,french citizens4 ,japan4--,japanese investments in the world's petroleum industry have not yet attained significant proportions outside ,japan itself1 though the ,japanese government is officially alive to the importance of ,japanese investments in petroleum properties in ,mexico1 particularly ,lower ,california and ,sonora2 ,china2 and undoubtedly ,russia4 ,hence large investments of ,japanese capital in the petroleum industry in one or all of those countries may be expected in the near future4 ,,summary ,petroleum in its crude or semi-refined state is used as fuel under locomotive and marine boilers and as a lubricant4 ,the principal use of petroleum1 however1 is in the manufacture of numerous refined products4 ,some of the more important products and their uses are as follows3 ether1 as an ansthetic in surgery2 gasoline1 as fuel in internal-combustion engines2 naphthas1 as solvents and in the manufacture of commercial gasoline2 kerosene1 as an illuminant and as a fuel for farm tractors2 lubricating oils2 waxes1 as preservatives1 illuminants1 and surgical dressings in treatment of burns2 petroleum coke1 in metallurgical processes and in the manufacture of battery carbons and arc-light pencils2 heavy fuel oils2 road oils2 artificial asphalts1 for pavements4 ,the use of petroleum and its products as fuel1 as a lubricant1 and for illumination may be considered essential4 ,substitutes for most of these uses are known1 but they are either inefficient or not readily available4 ,the most prolific sources of petroleum are in sedimentary strata of the ,carboniferous and ,tertiary periods4 ,because the most detailed geologic work is insufficient to provide for the appropriate evaluation of the numerous factors involved in the occurrence of petroleum1 and because only a relatively small percentage of the areas of sedimentary rocks throughout the world have been examined geologically in any appreciable detail1 it is difficult to estimate the future supply of petroleum or to predict that large accumulations will be discovered in any particular region4 ,the principal countries contributing to the world's production of petroleum rank as follows in general order of importance3 ,united ,states1 ,russia1 ,mexico1 ,dutch ,east ,indies1 ,roumania1 ,india1 ,persia and ,galicia4 ,other countries produce less than #b per cent4 of the annual total4 ,the greatest change that is likely to come in the geographical distribution of production is a larger output from the countries bordering the ,caribbean ,sea and the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and from the ,persian and ,mesopotamian fields4 ,mexico now ranks second to the ,united ,states1 and ,south ,american countries promise to become more important contributors to the world's production than they now are4 ,russia is expected to become ultimately one of the chief producers of petroleum4 ,within the next decade1 through improved methods of production and through the further amalgamation of producing1 transporting1 refining1 and marketing companies into strong units1 the output will undoubtedly be larger and will be more economically produced4 ,in the refining of petroleum it is probable that improved methods will make possible the recovery of a larger percentage of lighter products from low-grade petroleum4 ,internal-combustion engines are being modified so as to run on petroleum products of lower volatility than gasoline4 ,the use of petroleum as fuel under railroad and marine boilers is expected to increase enormously in the next decade4 ,as the output of the producing fields declines1 the vast deposits of oil shale in the western ,united ,states will be developed as a source of oil4 ,so far as is known1 political control of the petroleum resources of the world is determined by state sovereignty 7see ,plate ,i1 page #g74 ,in normal times1 the ,united ,states controls politically over #ff per cent4 of the present output of petroleum4 ,russia and ,mexico ranked second and third in #aiag1 controlling #ac4f per cent4 and #aj4i per cent41 respectively4 ,the remaining #i per cent4 was controlled by ,great ,britain1 ,holland1 ,persia 7,british government owned71 ,roumania1 ,austria-,hungary1 ,japan1 ,peru1 ,germany1 ,argentina and ,italy in the order named4 ,the table showing the nationality and the approximate extent of the commercial control exercised by the dominant interests in each of the principal oil-producing countries1 and ,fig4 #b 7page #ab7 are the best possible summaries of commercial control4 ,united ,states capital is supreme in the commercial control of the petroleum industry of the ,western ,hemisphere4 ,british and ,british-,dutch interests easily dominate the petroleum situation in the ,eastern ,hemisphere4 ,france no longer exercises control over any important fields4 ,japanese interests1 controlling at present all the oil fields of ,japan1 may be expected to make large investments in the petroleum fields of ,mexico1 ,china and ,russia4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,coal ,,by ,,george ,s4 ,,rice ,,and ,,frank ,f4 ,,grout ,,uses ,,of ,,coal ,coal is among the most important of all minerals4 ,it furnishes power and heat1 and its distillation yields a great number of useful materials1 such as gas for lighting and fuel1 explosives1 ammonia1 aniline dyes1 etc4 ,coke1 which is bituminous coal with the more volatile constituents removed by distillation1 is used for smelting metallic ores2 and thus the contiguity of fields of high-grade coking coal and of iron ore determined the location of the centers of steel industry1 which are the very main-springs of our modern machine-made civilization4 ,near such coal districts1 other manufactures of all kinds naturally developed1 the coal being cheaply available for power and constituting practically the only source of power in regions where cheap hydro-electric power is not available4 ,about #ff per cent4 of the coal mined goes to the production of power1 including transportation2 about #ab per cent4 to coking and the by-products2 and about #bb per cent4 to the heating of buildings4 ,commercial coal is of three varieties3 7#a7 anthracite 7,pennsylvania anthracite is popularly termed hard coal71 and semi-anthracite containing a high percentage of fixed carbon and a relatively low percentage of the volatile constituents 7#c to #ab per cent472 7#b7 bituminous 7ambiguously termed 8soft coal0 in the ,united ,states71 containing less fixed carbon and more volatile matter 7#ab to #dj per cent472 and 7#c7 lignite1 containing a still smaller proportion of fixed carbon and a large proportion of water4 ,of the bituminous coals1 some coke satisfactorily1 but many do not1 so that good coking coals are highly prized4 ,anthracite1 because it makes no smoke1 is in great demand for house heating2 whereas bituminous coal is chiefly used for power production1 including locomotive and steamship firing4 ,lignites as a rule are used only where the better grades of coal are not available4 ,coal was first used for heating before steam power came into use1 and iron was smelted with charcoal instead of with coke as at present4 ,ship bunkering calls for the best grades of bituminous coal1 low in ash and preferably high in fixed carbon1 because the use of low-grade coals would require carrying larger amounts1 leaving less space for cargo4 ,however1 no country that has enough coal to bunker ships1 need be dependent on foreign supplies2 the low grade of coal would simply reduce efficiency and thus increase expense4 ,substitutes4--,the proportion of coal used for power1 as distinct from that used for heat and coal products1 is increasing1 and is now two-thirds of the total4 ,as a source of power there is really no complete substitute for coal4 ,all the great industrial nations1 like ,england1 ,germany and the ,united ,states1 have developed their industries on the basis of large coal supplies4 ,some countries make large use of hydro-electric power1 but for most it is an insufficient substitute4 ,wood and other fuels are rarely sufficient to maintain an industry built up on a supply of coal4 ,oil is being successfully substituted in some industries1 notably in shipping1 but the importance of coaling stations will no doubt persist4 ,,changes ,,in ,,practice ,the technique of coal mining in many districts1 and the development of heat1 power and coal products are not far advanced4 ,wasteful methods are used1 mostly as a result of competition and lack of co-operation and organization among producers4 ,economies are being advocated1 however4 ,labor-saving machinery has been installed in many mines4 ,a number of power plants have been erected near the mine mouth and the power distributed electrically1 thus eliminating freight charges on coal4 ,central heating and power plants that can burn coal efficiently will no doubt be more popular and numerous in a few years4 ,government control and legislation may be expected to hasten the changes4 ,in ,europe the technique of coal mining1 except in undercutting machinery1 is further advanced than in the ,united ,states1 as regards mining all the coal and in supporting the surface4 ,improvements in coking ovens may soon make possible the manufacture of some sort of coke from almost any bituminous coal4 ,while all coke may not be satisfactory for modern blast-furnace practice1 any future lack of coke will probably be offset by the development of electric smelting1 so the seriousness of the metallurgical need is doubtful4 ,the proportion of by-product coke ovens1 which make for cheaper coke by providing for other marketable products1 is increasing4 ,,geological ,,distribution ,coals are found in the sedimentary deposits of several geological eras3 ,paleozoic1 ,mesozoic1 and ,tertiary4 ,the ,paleozoic era1 embracing the ,carboniferous period1 is by far the most important as regards quality and availability of its coal resources2 but the lower-grade and chiefly lignitic coals of the ,mesozoic and ,tertiary are of great importance locally1 and there are enormous reserves that exceed in quantity the generally higher-grade coals of the earlier periods4 ,the geologic distribution of coal is described in 8,the ,coal ,resources of the ,world10 the most important and comprehensive compilation on coal reserves ever made1 which was undertaken by the ,executive ,committee of the ,twelfth ,international ,geologic ,congress1 held in ,canada in #aiac4 ,as the compilation was made with the assistance of geological surveys and mining geologists of the several countries of the world1 it is cited in this paper as authoritative on geologic distribution and resources4 ,the geographic distribution of the chief coal fields of the world is shown in ,plate ,,ii4 ,in ,north ,america the most important coals in the ,central and ,eastern part are of ,paleozoic age1 but in the ,rocky ,mountain region vast quantities of coal occur in the ,cretaceous 7,mesozoic7 strata4 ,in the ,gulf province and in the ,northern ,great ,plains province of the ,united ,states1 which extends into ,canada1 are coals of ,triassic 7,mesozoic7 age that are relatively unimportant at present4 ,in beds of the ,eocene period of the ,tertiary era are large deposits of brown lignite locally converted by mountain-building forces into bituminous and semi-bituminous coal1 and also a little anthracite under difficult mining conditions4 ,such locally altered beds are found in the ,state of ,washington1 in ,british ,columbia1 and in ,alaska4 ,the limited coal resources of ,south ,america1 in those deposits east of the ,andes and in southern and eastern ,brazil1 are of ,paleozoic age4 ,small areas of ,tertiary coals are found in southern ,argentina and in ,chile4 ,key to ,plate ,,ii4 ,world's ,coal ,reserves as of #aiaf--;,coal ,fields in ,solid ,black4 #a4 ,countries possessing coal reserves of the first magnitude 7#d1jjj1jjj million to #a1jjj1jjj million tons73 ,the ,united ,states 7#c1ebg1jjj million71 ,canada 7#a1bcd1jjj million71 and ,china 7#a1ejj1jjj million74 #b4 ,countries possessing coal reserves of the second degree of magnitude 7#ejj1jjj million to #ajj1jjj million73 ,the ,british ,isles 7#ahi1ecc million71 ,germany 7before the war7 7#dbc1cef million71 ,siberia 7#agc1hgi million71 and ,australia 7#afe1egb million74 #c4 ,countries possessing coal reserves of the third degree of magnitude 7#hj1jjj million to #af1jjj million tons73 ,france 7before the war7 7#ag1ehc million71 ,alaska 7#af1bic million71 ,colombia 7#bg1jjj million71 ,austria-,hungary 7before the war7 7#ee1eec million71 ,russia in ,europe 7before the war7 7#fj1ajf million71 ,india 7#gi1jja million71 ,indo-,china 7#bj1jjj million7 and ,south ,africa 7#ef1bjj million74 #d4 ,countries possessing coal reserves of the fourth degree of magnitude 7#af1jjj million to #f1jjj million tons73 ,spain 7#h1gfh million71 ,japan 7#g1igj million71 ,belgium 7#aa1jjj million71 ,spitzbergen 7#h1gej million74 #e4 ,countries possessing coal reserves1 but of inferior magnitude 7less than #d1jjj million tons73 ,brazil1 ,argentina1 ,chile1 ,peru1 ,ecuador1 ,venezuela1 ,greenland1 ,holland1 ,denmark1 ,sweden1 ,italy1 ,bulgaria1 ,turkey1 ,greece1 ,roumania1 ,asia ,minor1 ,persia1 ,arabia1 various islands of ,malaysia and various countries in ,africa4 ,coal fields shown in black--country not shaded4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4--,geographical distribution of the coal deposits of the world1 and relative reserves4 ,by ,f4 ,f4 ,grout4 ,in ,europe the principal coal deposits occur in the ,carboniferous system1 either in the upper or the lower part4 ,the ,lower ,carboniferous is the principal series in which coals occur in ,scotland1 whereas the most important coals in ,england and in ,wales lie in ,upper ,carboniferous rocks4 ,in northern ,france1 in ,belgium1 and in ,westphalia1 ,germany1 the middle ,carboniferous measures contain the most important reserves4 ,mesozoic coals are found in northern ,australia and in central ,france4 ,the lignites or brown coals of middle ,europe are locally very important in ,germany2 those of ,austria are found in numerous small but thick deposits of the ,tertiary age4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,coal output of the chief coal-producing countries1 #ahhj-aiaf4 ,the principal coal resources of ,africa are in the southern part of the continent and are chiefly in deposits whose ages range from ,carboniferous to ,triassic4 ,in ,asia the coal fields are not well defined4 ,there are coal basins of note in ,india and ,china4 ,in ,china important coals are found in the ,upper ,carboniferous4 ,coals of the ,lower ,carboniferous are found east of the ,urals and also in ,turkestan4 ,in ,japan the ,mesozoic coals are important4 ,tertiary coals are widely distributed in ,asia but are not high-grade nor of importance4 ,it may be safely stated that geological reconnoissance has covered the world so well that further development is not likely to disclose coal resources of great magnitude not now known with more or less exactitude4 ,estimates of resources of some regions will undoubtedly be revised many times1 especially those of reserves in the middle portion of ,africa1 in ,south ,america1 and ,china4 ,,coal ,,production ,,of ,,the ,,world ,,in #aiac ,as the great ,world ,war began on ,july #ca1 #aiad1 the last normal production figures were for #aiac4 ,the following table of the world's production of coal for the years #aiaa-aiad is from 8,mineral ,resources0 of the ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 the compilation being credited by ,mr4 ,lesher1 of the ,survey1 to ,mr4 ,wm4 ,g4 ,gray1 statistician of the ,american ,iron and ,steel ,institute1 and ,prof4 ,g4 ,a4 ,roush1 editor of 8,mineral ,industry40 ,the output 7#ahhj-aiaf7 of the chief coal-producing countries of the world is shown graphically in ,figure #c4 ,,table #d4--,,the ,,world',s ,,production ,,of ,,coal 7,,in ,,short ,,tons7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,country #aiaa #aiab #aiac #aiad ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,united ,states #dif1cga1abf #ecd1dff1ehj #efi1ifj1bai #eac1ebe1dgg ,great ,britain #cjd1eah1ibg #bia1fff1bii #cba1ibb1acj #big1fih1fag ,germany #bei1bbc1gfc #bha1igi1dfg #cje1gad1ffd #bgj1eid1ieb ,austria- ,hungary #ed1ifj1bih #ef1ied1egi #ei1fdg1ieg ,france #dc1bdb1ggh #de1ecd1ddh #de1ajh1edd ,russia #bi1cfa1gfd #cc1gge1ged #ce1ejj1fgd ,belgium #be1daa1iag #be1cbb1hea #be1aif1hfi ,japan #ai1dcf1ecf #ba1fdh1ijb #bc1ihh1bib #ba1gjj1egb ,india #ac1did1egc #af1dga1ajj #ah1afc1hef ,china #af1ecd1ejj #af1ecd1ejjeae1dcb1bjj ,canada #aa1cbc1chh #ad1eab1hbi #ae1aae1jhi #ac1eig1ihb ,new ,south ,wales #i1cgd1eif #aj1hig1acd #aa1ffc1hfe #aa1fdd1dgf ,transvaal #d1cdc1fhj #fh1aai1bhh #e1bbe1jcf ,spain #d1caf1bde #d1eei1dec #d1gca1fdg ,natal #b1fgi1eea ,see note #f #b1hih1gbf ,new ,zealand #b1cae1cij #b1dch1ibi #b1aae1hcd ,holland #a1fbh1jig #a1ija1ijb #b1jfd1fjh ,chile #a1bgg1aia #a1dgj1iag #a1cfb1ccd ,queensland #iih1eef #a1jaj1dbf #a1afb1dig #a1ahj1hbe ,mexico #ea1djj1jjj #ihb1cif ,bosnia and ,herzegovina #hdh1eaj #idj1agd #ibg1bdd ,turkey #gii1afh #iji1bic ,italy #fad1acb #gca1gbj #ggb1hjb ,victoria #gcb1cbh #ffd1ccd #ffh1ebd ,orange ,free ,state 7,orange ,river ,colony7 #dhb1fij #fji1igc ,dutch ,east ,indies #efjj1jjj #fbb1ffi #dec1acf ,indo-,china #edfj1jjj #dga1bei ,serbia #cce1die #cce1jjj ,sweden #cdc1gjg #cig1adi #dja1aii ,western ,australia #ecjj1jjj #ccj1dhh #cea1fhg ,peru #ecjj1jjj #cjg1dfa #cja1igj ,formosa #bhj1iii #cjf1ida ,bulgaria #bgj1daj #cbd1eaa ,rhodesia #bab1ebi #baf1adj #bcg1gbh ,roumania #bff1ghd ,cape ,colony 7,cape of ,good ,hope7 #hi1jbc ,see note #f #fg1dha ,korea #ach1ejh ,tasmania #egj1jjj #ei1ihg #fa1fdh #fh1acj ,british ,borneo #eajj1jjj #di1gfb ,spitzbergen #dd1jib ,brazil #af1ece ,portugal #eaj1jjj #af1ich #bg1jec ,venezuela #eaj1jjj #eab1jjj #ac1cee ,switzerland #h1bfg ,philippine ,islands #eb1jjj #b1iih ,unspecified #ea1jaf1idg ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,total #a1cji1efe1jjja1cgg1jjj1jjja1dgh1jjj1jjj a1cdf1jjj1jjj #g #g #g ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #e ,estimated4 #f ,transvaal included ,natal and ,cape of ,good ,hope4 #g ,approximate4 ,,table #e4--,,reserves ,total coal reserves in millions of metric tons have been estimated1 by continents1 as follows3 ,continent ,millions of tons ,north ,america #e1jgc1jjj ,asia #a1bhj1jjj ,europe #ghd1jjj ,australia and ,oceania #agj1jjj ,africa #eh1jjj ,south ,america #cb1jjj ,the countries on pre-war basis having the greatest reserves are as follows3 ,country ,millions of tons ,united ,states 7half lignite7 #c1ebg1jjj ,canada 7three-fourths lignite7 #a1bcd1jjj ,china #iif1jjj to #a1ejj1jjj ,british ,isles #aij1jjj ,siberia 7largely lignite7 #agc1jjj ,germany 7including ,upper ,silesia and the ,saar7 #dbc1jjj ,new ,south ,wales #aah1jjj ,india #gi1jjj ,russia including ,dombrova field 7,poland7 #fj1jjj ,austria 7chiefly in ,bohemia1 ,silesia and ,galicia7 #ed1jjj ,france #ag1fjj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,coal reserves of chief producing countries1 according to 8,coal ,resources of the ,world10 in millions of metric tons4 ,squares are to scale3 lines showing relative production are not on same scale as squares4 ,the reserves of the principal productive coal fields are graphically shown in ,figure #d4 ,the distribution of the coal deposits of the world and the estimated reserves in these deposits are shown in ,plate ,,ii4 ,,general ,,world ,,situation ,the districts with coal for export have been chiefly the ,british ,isles1 ,united ,states and ,germany2 there might be included also ,new ,south ,wales1 ,british ,south ,africa1 ,japan1 ,french ,indo-,china1 ,canada1 ,new ,zealand and ,spitzbergen4 ,china1 with her large reserves1 may become an exporter in the future2 or1 if her industries develop1 may find use for her coal at home4 ,anthracite of good grade is found in large amounts in ,pennsylvania and ,south ,wales only4 ,poorer supplies are known in ,germany1 ,france1 ,italy1 ,indo-,china1 and also in the states of ,colorado and ,new ,mexico4 ,coking coals in large amounts are found in the eastern ,united ,states1 ,germany and the ,united ,kingdom and are coked extensively4 ,smaller amounts of coke are made in ,france1 ,belgium and old ,austria4 ,relatively very small amounts are made in ,canada1 ,chile1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,japan and ,spain4 ,the coal reserve of a country bears no direct relation to its present production1 for the latter1 which has to be developed in competition with other countries1 depends upon relative facility of transportation and proximity of iron-ore deposits1 which render steel making and other industries economically feasible4 ,great ,britain is particularly favored through the possession of high-grade coal immediately adjacent to coast ports1 as in the ,north of ,england1 ,scotland and ,wales4 ,hence ,great ,britain became a great exporter of coal4 ,first1 coal for heating purposes traveled by sea from ,newcastle to ,london2 next coal was carried to ,european ports1 and finally to all parts of the world4 ,the possession of easily worked iron deposits in the north of ,england and the discovery that iron could be smelted with coke rapidly accelerated the development of the coal industry in ,great ,britain1 so that by the middle of the nineteenth century ,great ,britain had a commanding lead4 ,no other country possesses high-grade coal in such quantity immediately adjacent to the coast1 and this fact has enabled ,great ,britain to remain the great exporter4 ,the average length of haul of export coal1 from mine to ship1 is less than #bj miles4 ,in ,germany coal for ocean export must be hauled #aah miles to #afh miles2 in the ,united ,states from #aej to #cge miles1 except for ,washington coals1 which are within #dj miles of tidewater1 but are small in quantity and of indifferent quality4 ,after the war with ,france in #ahga1 when ,germany annexed ,alsace and ,lorraine1 the coal industry of the ,german ,empire developed with tremendous rapidity1 largely through the discovery--from the investigations of ,thomas1 of ,great ,britain--of a method of utilizing the high-phosphorus iron ores of ,german and ,french ,lorraine1 and the nearness of these iron-ore deposits to the high-grade bituminous coals of ,westphalia4 ,the coal industry was also developed by fostering the export trade with adjacent countries1 which have small coal resources or none1 this trade nearly all going by rail4 ,however1 the long rail haul and the correspondingly high cost of mining have retarded the ocean export business of ,germany1 in spite of the fostering care of the government4 ,with the transfer of practically all its iron deposits and its important ,lorraine potash deposits1 as well as the ownership of its ,saar coal mines1 to ,france1 and the possible loss of its ,upper ,silesian coal and zinc deposits to ,poland1 the balance of commercial prosperity1 as well1 may be handed over4 ,no other countries except the ,united ,states1 ,canada1 ,australia and ,china have reserves for extensive export trade4 ,in ,canada the coals are mostly inland1 and those near the coast1 as on ,vancouver ,island and in ,nova ,scotia1 are limited in quantity and difficult to mine1 so that export business is perforce restricted4 ,one change that seems likely is a rapid increase in output of coal in ,china4 ,the resources are enormous1 the reserves of the higher classes of coal being surpassed by those of no country but the ,united ,states4 ,the ambitious and aggressive ,japanese1 with their strategic neighboring location1 have given every indication that they will take advantage of an opportunity to develop such a resource4 ,it may be a question how soon ,chinese coal will be developed1 but great changes are inevitable when development begins4 ,some of the coal fields are so near the coast and have coals of such good quality as to permit an extensive development of export business in the ,orient4 ,australia1 particularly in ,queensland and ,new ,south ,wales1 has coal resources that are considerable1 in comparison with the needs of the small population4 ,in ,new ,south ,wales the coals are excellent and are adjacent or close to harbors1 so that the coal is extensively supplied for bunkerage and export trade to the ,south ,pacific and has become a large factor in the ocean trade of that part of the world4 ,a large factor in the coal trade of the ,pacific ,ocean is the carrying of coal as return cargo4 ,this is also important in ,south ,american trade4 ,south ,africa during the war sent considerable coal to the western ,mediterranean1 but its coal cannot be a large factor in ocean trade in normal times4 ,of all the continents ,south ,america is the poorest in coal resources4 ,there is coal in ,brazil and ,chile and other ,south ,american countries1 but it is difficult to reach and the fields so far known do not give promise of being able to take care of the needs of the countries in which they occur4 ,the total annual production of ,south ,america is less than two million tons1 mostly from ,chile4 ,it is probable that for the next generation ,south ,america will continue to import coal as it has in the past1 to the extent of #ae million tons or more per annum1 although developments in ,brazil are now promising for that country's future supply4 ,for estimates of reserves1 see ,table #e4 ,summary4--,by way of summary1 it may be said that the ,united ,states leads the world in coal resources2 moreover1 its resources are most immediately available1 because of their shallow depth and general undisturbed 7geologic7 condition and their accessibility through railway systems4 ,this is particularly true in the ,appalachian region1 which contains by far the best coal1 is the nearest to the coast1 and hence is the most available for ocean trade4 ,on the other hand1 the average haul to export points1 as already noted1 is far greater than that of ,great ,britain and greater than that of ,westphalia2 but to offset this the coal has been and can be mined more cheaply than in either ,westphalia or ,great ,britain4 ,the resources of ,upper ,silesia are large1 and the coal is easily mined1 but the output will all be needed for central ,europe4 ,as regards both quality and quantity1 ,pennsylvania anthracite is unique2 nevertheless1 the home needs will continue to be a brake on extensive exports4 ,united ,states steam and coking coals available for shipment average a little poorer than the corresponding coals of ,great ,britain1 but are superior to the ,german coals4 ,the total resources of ,great ,britain1 possible1 actual1 and probable1 are only #aij1jjj million tons1 as contrasted with #dbc1jjj million tons in the old ,german ,empire and #c1hch1jjj million tons in the ,united ,states4 ,probable ,future ,production4--,the possible depletion of coal resources is of course important in considering the future1 but it can be safely stated that in none of the principal fields now being mined are the resources so depleted that the output therefrom will be reduced for another generation at least4 ,of the great coal-producing countries1 ,great ,britain1 with its increasing rate of production1 most nearly approaches the point of ultimate depletion1 but that point has been variously placed at one hundred to several hundred years in the future1 much depending upon whether with better methods of use the output will continue to increase at the same rate as in the past4 ,meantime1 certain areas in ,great ,britain with shallower coal beds will be depleted much sooner and the remaining coal will become more and more difficult to get1 because of the increasing depth of mining1 which in turn will cause a continually increasing cost4 ,although the exhaustion of coal is a distant prospect1 there are clear signs of the approaching exhaustion of certain grades of coal4 ,it has been estimated that the output of ,american anthracite will seriously decline in #fj to #ajj years4 ,probably this will result in a change in practice1 the use of coke1 and other methods of house heating4 ,if the rate of production continues to increase1 high-grade ,american steam coal1 ,new ,river and similar grades1 will probably be exhausted in a little over #aej years4 ,american coking coal of the best ,connellsville quality is of equally short duration4 ,british coal of similar high grade may last longer than ,american1 as the production rate is less rapid1 even though the total ,american coal should last much longer than the ,british4 ,,political ,,control ,in several countries state ownership of coal mines is established2 as1 for example1 in parts of ,prussia1 ,australia1 ,chile and ,bulgaria4 ,in others the undeveloped coal lands are still largely owned by the government1 as in ,alaska and the western ,united ,states4 ,in some countries the government retains control of all mineral rights1 simply leasing the property and granting a mining concession4 ,many governments have a department or administration of mines4 ,in every country1 of course1 in an emergency1 the sovereign state would exercise control of coal resources as fully as was necessary4 ,where the state owns mines1 and favors organization1 as in ,germany1 the more drastic regulation of war time is easily effected4 ,it is quite possible that coal may in time be generally considered a public utility4 ,in ,england a movement toward nationalization of mines1 with miners as well as the government having a hand in the control1 seems to be making progress4 ,england's colonies excel all others in extent of coal resources4 ,there is coal in ,australia1 ,canada1 ,india1 ,new ,zealand1 ,south ,africa1 ,rhodesia1 ,newfoundland1 ,south ,nigeria and ,british ,north ,borneo--the total being many times greater than that in the ,british ,isles4 ,the colonies and possessions of ,france1 ,denmark1 ,portugal1 ,united ,states and ,japan have relatively small amounts of coal4 ,coal resources1 along with other raw materials1 have been influenced by some trade treaties4 ,however1 no permanent advantage in commerce has been secured to any nation by a trade treaty4 ,nearly all such treaties are made for short periods and renewed4 ,if not satisfactory to one party they are soon corrected4 ,various informal or tacit agreements might be mentioned4 ,when shipping was scarce during the war1 ,england and the ,united ,states divided the coal business of ,south ,america according to the requirements of ship economy4 ,germany made agreements to send coal to ,austria-,hungary and ,switzerland during the period of the war4 ,england had agreements with ,france1 ,spain1 ,portugal and ,italy1 these agreements changing with conditions1 about supplies of ,english coal4 ,,commercial ,,control ,although the ownership of mines in most countries is nominally open to citizens and aliens alike1 exceptions and restrictions tend to keep the control in the hands of citizens4 ,for example1 it is impossible for foreigners to control any mining company in ,japan4 ,concessions in ,holland and the ,dutch colonies are limited to ,dutch subjects and in ,bolivia to ,bolivian citizens4 ,the legislation suggested since the outbreak of the ,world ,war may develop a similar condition in the possessions of ,great ,britain and those of her allies4 ,in peace the relations of two countries may be largely determined by the ownership of property2 owners of property in a foreign country may strongly influence the policy of the two governments toward each other4 ,in emergencies1 the political and the commercial control are put to the test1 and there results either a deadlock or the victory of one over the other4 ,an important commercial relation exercising political influence is the incorporation of companies under the laws of different countries4 ,mining companies in ,china1 like the ,kailan ,mining ,administration1 organize at ,hong ,kong to obtain ,british protection and are thus subject to ,british control1 in spite of the fact that ,belgian money finances the company4 ,some companies organized in ,japan may also own ,chinese coal mines4 ,as relatively few regions of the world have coal in excess of their own needs1 the larger number are dependent on imports4 ,if a country with coal controls also steamship lines1 it may completely control the coal situation in the importing country4 ,england1 with about half the total world's shipping and a good supply of seaport coal1 has been in a position to dominate coal exports1 even to handling the excess ,american coal4 ,during the last three or four years the scarcity of shipping has given increased importance to ,american and ,japanese shipping1 but the ,english still exert a strong influence4 ,their docks and storage facilities are the best1 and their ships are still numerous4 ,railroad shipping rights over the ,national ,lines in ,mexico give a certain amount of control over the coal industry4 ,the ,national ,lines are state owned and have a special agreement giving trackage rights to two companies1 the ,american ,smelting and ,refining ,co41 and the ,peoles ,company1 of ,german ownership4 ,since the ,mexican railway service has been disturbed1 the ,german company has been operating with cars and engines of its own4 ,it has many coke ovens and large coal reserves1 and has been the chief competitor of the ,american company in ,mexican metallurgy4 ,no patent is likely to limit coal industries1 except as regards the by-products of coke4 ,before the war1 coal-tar products were largely developed by ,germans1 who patented their processes in many countries1 but offered no such protection to foreign inventions by patents in ,germany4 ,they limited production chiefly to their ,german plants1 and exported about #ej1jjj1jjj worth a year4 ,during the war1 these patents in the ,united ,states were taken over by the ,alien ,property ,custodian1 and the ,american industries that sprung up in consequence may be permanently protected4 ,other allied countries took the same steps to free themselves from ,german control1 which has retarded the development of the by-product coke industry in non-,german countries4 ,in ,germany the large mining companies generally own the coal rights4 ,the only government that has mined coal on a commercial scale and for commercial purposes is ,germany1 and even there the government production covered only a small part of the total output of the ,german ,empire4 ,mines of the ,saar coal field and a group of mines in the ,upper ,silesian field owned by the ,prussian government have been the only extensive state-operated mines of the world1 and now1 under the terms of the ,treaty of ,peace1 the ownership of the ,saar mines will pass to ,france4 7,the details are given on p4 #ci74 ,on the other hand1 the government exercised a quiet but real control over the whole ,german coal industry4 ,through its ownership of the ,koenigen ,louise mines it acted as a member of the ,upper ,silesian coal syndicate4 ,formerly1 through its ownership of the ,saar mines1 it was also a member of the ,westphalian coal syndicate1 but whether a member or not it practically approved the syndicate operations and the fixing of prices in advance2 also1 it co-operated with the syndicate in hauling the latter's coal over state-owned railway systems4 ,in certain undeveloped coal fields in ,germany1 the northern extension of the ,westphalian field1 the ,prussian government retains most of the coal rights4 ,the ,rhenish ,westphalian coal syndicate is a classic example of a great interlocking trade combination4 ,capitalized at #ega1jjj1 it covered an enormous capitalization of individual members4 ,the mines have votes in proportion to production1 which in turn is limited for certain periods4 ,prices are fixed and coal is marketed for the syndicate as a unit1 but other affairs are left to the companies4 ,the syndicate as a whole is a member of a transporting and exporting combine1 and disposes of its product through a combine of coal dealers4 ,the several minor combines interlock and are practically merged in a larger organization1 the ,kohlen ,kontor4 ,thus the combination had exceptional power to study the various problems of the industry1 and became very powerful4 ,it maintains a research department and an explosion testing gallery near ,dortmund4 ,in several countries ,german companies through the control of advertising contracts have been able to influence the editorial policy of the leading newspapers1 even during the war4 ,over half of the ,german coal mined before and during the war was syndicate coal4 ,all of the #fjj other ,german cartels have not been as moderate in their action and regulations as the coal syndicate4 ,when the coal syndicate1 however1 at one time1 found it could not supply its ,german market with coal1 it is reported to have bought inferior ,british coal for its customers1 so that they would not themselves get good ,british coal and refuse to return to the ,german supply4 ,efforts were made by the cartel to absorb and control foreign coal trade1 where political and financial reasons served to render this advisable1 and therefore these efforts were out of all proportion to the intrinsic value of the trade4 ,when it was planned to capture such a trade1 the ,german-invented 8dumping0 system was used1 coal being sold cheaper abroad than it could be sold or produced at home1 the difference being met by export bonuses4 ,this ,german dumping became so serious in some countries1 as ,canada1 ,new ,zealand and ,south ,africa1 that special import duties were imposed to counteract it4 ,when desirable1 the syndicate purchased collieries abroad1 including even a ,south ,yorkshire plant in ,england1 the ,heraclea collieries1 in ,turkey1 and many mines in ,australia4 ,in ,great ,britain is a powerful coal combine1 the ,cambria1 closely allied with great shipping concerns4 ,an important trade asset in this organization1 like that in the ,german cartel1 is a banking connection by which the combine can offer long-term credit4 ,coal syndicates are mentioned in ,belgium4 ,some sort of central organization interested in coal is known in ,italy1 ,russia1 ,austria-,hungary1 ,sweden1 ,greece1 ,argentina1 ,chile1 and ,ecuador4 ,,the ,,situation ,,in ,,france1 ,,england1 ,,and ,,the ,,united ,,states ,france has a modified form of ownership of coal resources3 this was vested formerly in the ,crown and now in the ,republic4 ,the government gives concessions for mining the mineral and charges a royalty4 ,the mineral is not considered to be owned by the surface owner or by the original surface owner1 as is the case in all other important countries4 ,the concessions granted are liberal and for large areas4 ,the royalty or rental is small and is now paid on the basis of so much per superficial unit of area 7hectare7 in the concession1 but the chief returns received by the public are through a percentage of the net earnings1 that is1 earnings available for dividends4 ,under the conditions prevailing in ,france the system seems eminently fair1 and the undertakings have been profitable both to the operators and to the country4 ,the books of the company are open to inspection by government officials1 and the annual reports are published in detail4 ,the system virtually makes the government a partner in the business4 ,in ,great ,britain most of the coal ownership is vested in entailed estates1 and the royalties are a shilling a ton and upwards4 ,both private and government ownership exist in the ,united ,states4 ,throughout the greater part of the country the large operating companies own the coal rights1 although in the anthracite district of ,pennsylvania the fortunate owners of the surface1 or their assigns1 receive large royalties1 #be to #ej cents a ton4 ,in the ,middle ,west most of the operators have bought the coal rights from the surface owners4 ,when leased1 the royalty is relatively small1 #b to #f cents a ton4 ,operators in the ,rocky ,mountains generally own the coal they mine4 ,the government has sold the coal rights1 but the state school lands of ,colorado and ,wyoming have generally been leased at royalties of about #aj cents a ton4 ,in ,oklahoma the ,five ,civilized ,tribes have until recently1 under government control1 leased their lands and coal rights at about #aj cents per ton1 but these rights are now being sold4 ,in the ,state of ,washington a considerable amount of the bituminous coal district now opened is owned by the ,northern ,pacific ,railway1 which secured these lands as grants when the railroad was constructed4 ,the royalty is about #ae to #be cents a ton4 ,in ,alaska in the ,matanuska and ,bering ,river bituminous fields1 and in the ,nenana lignite field1 the government has offered the coal for leasing purposes at #b cents a ton for the first period1 under restrictions providing for conservation of coal and reasonable prices to consumers4 ,some units have been taken up in the ,matanuska and ,bering ,river fields1 but1 as the measures are badly contorted and the coal beds difficult to trace1 progress has been slow and production has scarcely begun4 ,temporarily1 the ,alaskan ,railway ,commission is working some mines at ,chickaloon and ,eska ,creek1 to obtain a supply of coal pending the development of other mines by lessees4 ,congress1 in opening the coal lands in the ,matanuska and ,bering ,river fields for leasing1 has reserved tracts of not exceeding #g1fhj acres and #e1abj acres respectively for the use of the ,navy4 ,the ,united ,states still owns large areas of coal and lignite lands in the western states4 ,most of these lands are remote from railroads and difficult of access1 but they contain enormous reserves4 ,at present1 outside of ,alaska1 only one mine1 the ,gebo mine1 ,gebo1 ,wyoming1 is leased by the government1 but extension of a leasing system similar to that of ,alaska has been recently effected4 ,in the ,united ,states the anthracite industry is well organized1 and its railroad connections make it notably efficient and powerful4 ,bituminous coal1 on the other hand1 is so widely distributed on both public and private lands that no private organization has attempted to control the industry4 ,such control has always been opposed by ,congress and the general public4 ,except during the war1 neither ,great ,britain nor the ,united ,states has attempted any control over commercial mining and the sale of coal4 ,each country created a fuel administration1 and the coal was shipped under government instructions and paid for at prices fixed by the fuel administration4 ,in the ,united ,states this government control has practically disappeared with the war1 but in ,england the ,coal ,control has so far been continued1 and the tendency is for the government to retain for the present a strong guiding hand on the various 8key0 industries4 ,certainly1 in the final analysis1 coal mining is a public utility and should be supervised and adjusted by the government accordingly1 allowing free latitude for private initiative4 ,of the important coal-producing countries1 only the ,german ,empire1 more or less openly1 has fostered in peace times the coal industry and to some extent controlled it4 ,in ,france there was only an indirect control1 through the control by the government of the concessions and taxation of revenues and through tacit knowledge of the operations of the ,french coal syndicate1 which ostensibly at least obtains and disseminates information and conducts mine safety investigations4 ,in the ,united ,states1 ,great ,britain1 and other countries free competition has been permitted4 ,free competition does not seem serious in countries like ,france1 where the supply of coal is limited1 but it has had more or less serious financial effects where the supply of coal has been very large4 ,in ,germany before the formation of the syndicates the coal mining industry had periods of overproduction and serious financial depression2 and at other1 rarer1 periods there was great prosperity4 ,in ,great ,britain there have been similar times of depression and prosperity1 but generally the business has been profitable4 ,in the ,united ,states1 except in the anthracite district1 where for more than twenty years the operations have been in the hands of comparatively few companies1 depression and prosperity have alternated rapidly4 ,the statistics obtained by the census show that the average profits of the bituminous industry prior to #aiag were smaller than those of any other great industry1 and this has had an unfortunate effect on the best development of the coal resources4 ,the companies generally have had little or no surplus to develop properly in the lean years2 hence they have mined only the best or thickest coal1 and in short periods of great prosperity many mines not directly owned by the railroads and steel companies have been worked so as to lead to 8squeezes0 and great loss of coal4 ,moreover1 these conditions have also been unfortunate for labor2 in times of prosperity too many new mines were opened1 because of the tremendous and easily accessible resources1 and in times of depression the number of days the miners worked has been so reduced that their monthly or yearly earnings have been low enough to make their living a hard one4 ,the average number of days worked per year from #aija to #aiae was #bac4 ,some system of limited control of trade combinations by the government would appear to be highly advantageous for both the operators and the miners1 and should insure a steady supply of coal to the consumers and steady prices with reasonable profits4 ,as regards trade relations between the ,united ,states and other countries concerning fuel supplies1 except for a possible agreement on non-subsidy of the coal-carrying shipping1 any attempt at a general agreement on so vital a necessity as coal seems unwise1 except for non-duplication of elaborate coal storage and rehandling plants in ports requiring small tonnages1 and preventing ruinous competition by systematic 8dumping0 of surplus coal to drive a competitor out of business4 ,of all the continents1 ,south ,america has the smallest coal resources4 ,although there is coal in ,brazil and ,chile and other ,south ,american countries1 it is difficult to reach1 and the fields so far known do not give promise of being able to take care of the needs of the countries in which they occur4 ,the ,coal ,situation as ,affected by the ,war4--,immediately after the opening of the war in ,europe1 ,july #ca1 #aiad1 the ,german military forces attacked and advanced in the east through ,russian ,poland1 promptly securing the important ,dombrova field1 which is an extension of the ,upper ,silesian coal fields4 ,the ,german forces also advanced in the west through the ,belgian coal fields and thence through the extension of these fields in northern ,france1 at the same time seizing the important ,briey iron-ore deposits north of ,verdun4 ,the economic effect of these advances was of enormous importance in securing all the productive coal mines of ,belgium1 the most productive coal mines of ,russia1 and most of the coal fields of northern ,france4 ,the ,french coal and iron mines seized produced one-half of the coal output of ,france 7#bj million tons out of #dj million tons71 and #ie per cent4 7#bj million tons7 of the output of iron ore4 ,necessarily under these conditions ,france had to rely upon ,england and the ,united ,states to meet the military and economic need for iron1 leaning chiefly upon ,great ,britain for the necessary supply of coal4 ,great ,britain during the war continued to supply coal to ,italy2 also to ,spain and other neutral nations4 ,the armistice ended ,germany's occupation of the coal fields of ,belgium and northern ,france4 ,on the other hand1 the ,french took charge of the important ,saar coal field1 and the ,allies occupied ,german territory reaching to the ,rhine and beyond the ,rhine at certain bridgeheads1 this occupation including the supervision of the mines in the coal and brown lignite basins near ,aix-la-,chapelle and ,cologne and the western margin of the ,westphalian basin on the left bank of the ,rhine4 ,the treaty of peace gives to the ,french the important iron resources of former ,german ,lorraine1 which together with imports from ,french ,lorraine were the chief sources of iron ore for ,german iron works1 and the ownership of the ,saar coal mines4 ,the terms under which the ,saar mines are transferred1 and the future government of the district1 are indicated in the following extracts from the treaty3 8,as compensation for the destruction of the coal mines in the north of ,france1 and as part payment towards the total reparation due from ,germany for the damages resulting from the war1 ,germany cedes to ,france in full and absolute possession1 with exclusive rights of exploitation1 unencumbered and free from all debts and charges of any kind1 the coal mines situated in the ,saar basin40 ,this is exclusive of that part of the ,saar basin in ,lorraine which belonged to ,france prior to #ahgj1 and which now reverts to ,france with some minor rectifications of boundary4 ,the treaty further specifies1 8all the deposits of coal situated within the ,saar basin will become the complete and absolute property of the ,french state4 99 99 99 ,the right of ownership of the ,french state will apply not only to the deposits which are free and for which concessions have not yet been granted1 but also to the deposits for which concessions have already been granted1 whoever may be the present proprietors1 irrespective of whether they belong to the ,prussian state1 to the ,bavarian state1 to other states or bodies1 to companies or to individuals4 99 99 99 ,the value of the property thus ceded to the ,french state will be determined by the ,reparation ,commission4 99 99 99 ,this value shall be credited to ,germany in part payment of the amount due for reparation4 ,it will be for ,germany to indemnify the proprietors or parties concerned1 whoever they may be40 ,as concerns the government of the territory of the ,saar1 at the termination of a period of fifteen years1 the population will be called upon to indicate their desires1 and then1 8,the ,league of ,nations shall decide on the sovereignty under which the territory is to be placed1 taking into account the wishes of the inhabitants as expressed by the voting40 ,in the meantime1 the territory will be governed by a commission of five members chosen by the ,council of the ,league of ,nations4 ,in addition to turning over the ownership of the mines and minerals in the ,saar basin1 ,germany accords the following options for the delivery of coal to the undermentioned signatories of the present treaty3 8,germany undertakes to deliver to ,france seven million tons of coal per year for ten years 7it is understood that this is to provide fuel for the ,alsace ,lorraine territory ceded back to ,france74 ,in addition1 ,germany undertakes to deliver to ,france annually for a period not exceeding ten years1 an amount of coal equal to the difference between the annual production before the war of the coal mines of the ,nord and ,pas de ,calais1 destroyed as a result of the war1 and the production of the mines of the same area during the years in question2 such delivery not to exceed twenty million tons in any one year of the first five years1 and eight million tons in any one year of the succeeding five years4 ,it is understood that due diligence will be exercised in the restoration of the destroyed mines in the ,nord and the ,pas de ,calais40 ,besides furnishing ,france with coal1 8,germany undertakes to deliver to ,belgium eight million tons of coal annually for ten years20 and to ,italy from four and one-half to eight and one-half million tons annually2 and also to ,luxemburg1 8a quantity of coal equal to the pre-war annual consumption of ,german coal in ,luxemburg40 ,the prices to be paid for coal under these options shall be as follows3 87a7 ,for overland delivery1 including delivery by barge1 the ,german pithead price to ,german nationals1 plus the freight to ,french1 ,belgian1 ,italian or ,luxemburg frontiers1 provided that the pithead price does not exceed the pithead price of ,british coal for export4 ,in the case of ,belgian bunker coal1 the price shall not exceed the ,dutch bunker price4 ,railroad and barge tariffs shall not be higher than the lowest similar rates paid in ,germany4 87b7 ,for sea delivery1 the ,german export price f4o4b4 ,german ports1 or the ,british export price f4o4b4 ,british ports1 whichever may be lower4 8,the allied and associated governments interested may demand the delivery1 in place of coal1 of metallurgical coke in the proportion of #c tons of coke to #d tons of coal40 ,germany undertakes to deliver to ,france during each of the three years following the coming into force of this treaty1 ,benzol #ce1jjj tons ,coal tar #ej1jjj tons ,sulphate of ammonia #cj1jjj tons ,the price paid for coke and for the articles referred to shall be the same as the price paid by ,german nationals under the same conditions of shipment4 ,the ownership of the ,saar mines is a most welcome addition to the coal resources of ,france2 and the ,saar basin1 as it is capable of further development1 may in the future make ,france more nearly self-sustaining as regards coal production4 ,the requirement of furnishing coal to ,france during the rehabilitation of the ,french mines wrecked by the ,germans is a most equitable arrangement4 ,germany at first1 owing to the drop in the output of the ,westphalian fields1 claimed not to be able to furnish coal1 but this situation will no doubt right itself in time1 especially as ,france holds the whip hand through control of the iron ores necessary for the great iron and steel plants of the ,rhine district4 ,in the meantime it is hoped ,great ,britain1 with the assistance of the ,united ,states1 will be able to supply the deficiency in the coal requirements4 ,the problems connected with the ,russian coal fields are complicated1 but at least the ,dombrova coal field would seem to be in the hands of the new ,poland1 and this carries coal resources estimated at #b1ebe million tons1 with an output before the war probably exceeding #g million metric tons per annum4 ,according to the terms of the peace treaty1 a plebiscite will determine the political control of the ,upper ,silesian coal fields4 ,probable ,changes in ,coal ,trade4--,in the ocean coal trade of the world the greatest change likely is that the ,united ,states will more largely supply ,south ,america1 its coal being substituted for that of ,great ,britain4 ,the ocean distance is markedly in favor of the ,united ,states1 particularly on the west coast of ,south ,america by vessels passing through the ,canal4 ,with the increased shipping facilities of the ,united ,states1 there is every reason to believe exports of coal to ,south ,america will be equally shared between the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain4 ,at the present time1 it is evident that the ,british coal-mining industry is in a bad way1 and publicists are expressing serious alarm at the possible loss of the greater part of the export trade and the curtailment of home industries through a great decrease in production accompanied by a rapid increase in cost4 ,in #aiac ,great ,britain produced #bhg1jjj1jjj long tons1 and exported #gg1jjj1jjj long tons of coal4 ,during the war1 owing to the large number of miners entering the military service1 the output greatly declined1 but was expected to recover rapidly with the signing of the armistice and the return of the miners4 ,but labor unrest1 resulting in strikes and absenteeism1 kept the output down1 and on ,july #af1 #aiai1 the so-called ,sankey award went into effect4 ,this award shortened the miners' working day from eight to seven hours1 exclusive of the time taken in hoisting and lowering1 but inclusive of the time taken in reaching the working place4 ,rates were raised so that the miner received more in a day with the seven-hour day than formerly with the eight-hour day1 and the ,controller raised the price of coal six shillings a ton to offset the increased cost4 ,sir ,richard ,redland1 chief inspector of mines1 predicted that the output for #aiai would be #bcj1jjj1jjj tons1 and for #aibj1 #bag1jjj1jjj tons1 or a reduction of #gj1jjj1jjj tons from the output of #aiac4 ,presumably1 in the course of time1 by using additional shifts1 ,great ,britain may recover its former output1 though manifestly at greatly increased cost2 so that unless the cost in the ,united ,states goes up correspondingly1 there is every probability that this country will be able to compete successfully in export business1 not only in ,south ,america1 but also in ,mediterranean ports4 ,at the present time1 demands for coal are reaching the ,united ,states not only from those parts of the world1 but also from ,scandinavia1 ,switzerland1 ,denmark1 and ,the ,netherlands4 ,on account of nearness1 however1 ,great ,britain should be able to take care of the fuel requirements of northern ,europe4 ,in the ,pacific1 it is not probable that either the ,state of ,washington or the ,territory of ,alaska will produce coal in such quantity and at such a price that the output can be a general factor in the ,pacific ,coast trade4 ,the demands of ,alaska1 ,washington1 and adjoining states will absorb the local production2 and ,california will continue to import in ballast more or less coal from ,vancouver ,island1 ,british ,columbia1 ,china1 ,japan1 ,new ,zealand1 and ,australia4 ,the immediate changes in ,asia are more likely to be in the development of mines in the interior of ,china and in ,india to supply domestic needs rather than extensive exports1 although1 as before stated1 it is possible that ,china will gradually get into the ,pacific ,coast markets4 ,,position ,,of ,,leading ,,commercial ,,nations ,united ,states4--,the ,united ,states has the best coal reserve of any country--about #c1ebg1jjj million out of a total world reserve of #g1ijj1jjj million tons--and good reserves of each of the several classes of coal4 ,for many years there will be no danger of a shortage except for anthracite1 good coking coal and the highest grades of steam coal1 which are now actively mined4 ,about #fjj1jjj1jjj tons a year1 or nearly #dj per cent4 of the annual output of the world1 is mined in the ,united ,states4 ,in contrast with the reserves and production1 the exports in #aiac were only about #ab per cent4 of the exports of coal from all countries2 and a large part of the ,american exports goes to ,canada by rail4 ,of sea-borne coal1 the ,united ,states sent out only #d per cent4 ,this small proportion of international trade is due to the distance of our coal from seaports1 the lack of organization and related shipping organizations2 and1 further1 to the relative independence of the ,united ,states1 which1 from most countries1 requires only a small amount of import as a return cargo for coal-carrying ships4 ,we use our coal at home1 but the advantage of exporting a considerable quantity of coal for its effects on increasing trade relationships with other countries is now becoming evident4 ,correlated with the large supply and small export of coal is the remarkable development of home industries using our own coal4 ,from the curves of production 7shown in ,figure #c7 it seems that within a century the ,united ,states will surpass all ,europe in coal production4 ,as our industries have kept pace with coal production1 our consumption of coal is indicated roughly by the production curve4 ,hence it seems that the ,united ,states is likely to be a center of manufacturing and wealth2 and with this will come an equally certain continual increase in population and power4 ,the second great world supply of coal is likely to be that of ,china4 ,to be sure1 ,european production is large1 but it will be divided among several powers4 ,the main part of the world's power and industry for the next century is so definitely located by the coal deposits 7and by associated iron in most cases7 that the part the ,united ,states should take in the world's program is clear4 ,every precaution should be observed to have the ,chinese resources controlled by powers that will not abuse them to make the world 8unsafe for democracy40 ,the war opened several foreign markets1 especially in ,south ,america1 to ,united ,states coal4 ,some of these markets may be permanent1 but ,welsh coal is still likely to dominate sea-borne trade4 ,the ,united ,states has coaling stations as far away as ,manila and the ,samoan ,islands1 but little coal reaches them from this country4 ,american coal supplies our government coaling stations in ,alaska2 ,hawaii2 our home ports1 both ,atlantic and ,pacific2 ,cuba2 ,porto ,rico2 ,nicaraguan ports2 ,panama ,canal ports2 ,mazatlan1 ,mexico2 and some ,south ,american ports4 ,no attempt seems to have been made to establish strategic ports around the world1 such as may be needed if the present increase in ,american shipping is to be maintained under the ,american flag4 ,no foreign control has been influential in mining or handling coal in the ,united ,states4 ,the ownership of coal mines by aliens has been possible1 but apparently has not become important4 ,american coal resources are so great that no single organization1 foreign or domestic1 has been able to dominate the situation4 ,the lack of a strong trade combination made it possible 7in #aiaf7 for a combination of ,british shippers to fix the price of bunker coal in ,atlantic ports1 so that the mines got even less for it than for industrial coal4 ,this was the result of competitive bids1 and the lack of organization here1 but it is expected that organization will develop now4 ,since the war began the development of industries based on coal tar has been remarkable4 ,there are signs1 however1 of an unhealthy competition in this country1 and the government should be careful that internal squabbles do not open the door for ,german control again4 ,england4--,the ,british ,isles have only one-fortieth of the total world's supply of coal1 but this is of better than average quality4 ,high-grade steam coal is abundant and there is a fair supply of coking coal4 ,the annual production1 #cjj million tons1 is about one-fifth the world's production1 and is second only to that of the ,united ,states4 ,england before the war exported about one-fourth of the production1 overseas exports from ,england being six times as much as from any other country in the world4 ,coal has constituted about three-fourths of all ,english exports4 ,the coal mines are near seaports1 and ocean freight rates are low1 because the demand for imports gives return cargoes to ,england from all parts of the world4 ,there are large supplies of coal also in the colonies1 especially ,india1 ,australia and ,south ,africa4 ,the coal business and shipping of ,great ,britain grew up together4 ,about one-fourth of the coal shipped goes for bunkering4 ,in #aiaf ,england owned #dj per cent4 of the world's shipping and exported nearly #gj per cent4 of the world's sea-borne coal4 ,the maintenance of the shipping requires bunkering ports all around the world4 ,coal from ,wales and ,british colonies was sufficient to supply them all1 and they constitute by far the most strategic system that any country possesses4 ,england1 ,gibraltar1 ,greece1 ,malta1 ,suez1 ,port ,said1 ,aden1 ,maskat1 ,colombo1 ,singapore1 ,bombay1 ,hong ,kong1 ,shanghai1 ,sydney1 ,fiji ,islands1 ,vancouver1 ,valparaiso1 ,st4 ,lucia1 ,jamaica1 ,halifax1 ,newfoundland1 ,st4 ,helena1 ,bermuda1 ,cape ,town and ,durban1 and others encircle the globe4 ,france1 ,japan1 ,holland and the ,united ,states have each a few stations1 but no such comprehensive system4 ,the ,german proposals of terms of peace 7during the war7 recognized the importance of these stations by specifying that ,england should give up ,aden1 ,malta and similar ports4 ,trade arrangements between ,great ,britain and other countries have been such as to grant 8most favored nation0 treatment to both parties1 even with ,germany1 where no formal treaty was in force4 ,the free-trade policy of ,england is well established1 and on that basis ,england's commercial growth has been very great4 ,studies since the war began show that ,germany took advantage of the freedom in ,british countries and the protection at home4 ,for example1 ,german capital controlled some collieries in ,south ,yorkshire1 through ,mr4 ,stinnes1 one of the largest components of the ,german ,kohlen ,kontor4 ,this organization had branches in ,newcastle1 ,cardiff1 ,glasgow1 ,hull1 and many foreign ports4 ,the ,french also had purchased an ,english colliery before the war1 the ,stonehall colliery1 at ,lydden1 near ,dover4 ,the ,australian colonies and probably others found that ,german financiers owned and controlled most of the mines when war broke out4 ,it took some time to destroy this influence4 ,early in the war1 ,british sentiment seemed to call for action against all such ,german commercial aggression1 and at an ,allied ,economic ,conference at ,paris in ,june1 #aiaf1 plans were suggested for protection by tariff and exclusion of alien ownership in allied countries4 ,more recently it seems that the ,british plan is to keep ,british certain key industries at all hazards and at any expense1 but not to abandon free trade or in any way decrease the amount of trading done4 ,commercial control of the ,welsh steam-coal export trade is largely in the hands of the ,cambria ,coal ,combine1 but in the trade there are several other large combinations4 ,the anthracite industry of ,england is not as well organized as that of ,america4 ,commercial control of coal exported from ,wales is largely in the hands of the large combinations of ,british shippers1 in agreement with the ,cambria4 ,even when the war interfered with shipping1 it is estimated that two-thirds of the ,south ,american coal trade was in ,british control4 ,many instances of ,british financial control of coal in countries other than ,british colonies have not been noted4 ,british capital is invested in a few mines in ,siberia and there are extensive holdings in ,china4 ,germany4--,the reserves of coal in ,germany before the war were greater than those in ,england1 counting possible reserves1 and of fair quality4 ,germany formerly controlled #gj per cent4 of the coal on the ,continent4 ,austrian coal was controlled1 and the coal of ,spitzbergen has been claimed1 though now in ,british and ,norwegian control4 ,although the most important deposits of coking coal of the ,continent are in ,westphalia1 those of ,belgium and northern ,france are very important to a general control of the coal situation4 ,it cannot be assumed that these important coal fields were seized by the ,germans for other reasons1 or that the ,germans included coal and iron by accident4 ,in #aiaa the ,rhenish ,westphalian ,zeitung advised that ,french ,lorraine and ,luxemburg should be dominated as thoroughly as ,westphalia was4 ,in #aiae the six greatest associations of business men in ,germany petitioned the ,chancellor to consider the control of the coal 7and iron7 of northern ,france as a military as well as economic necessity4 ,the annual production of coal in ,germany before the war was about one-fifth of the world's total output1 closely approaching the production of ,great ,britain4 ,in the first years of the war the coal output declined somewhat4 ,in coal exports1 ,germany has been second only to the ,british ,isles1 but no country exports by sea one-sixth as much as ,great ,britain4 ,before the war ,germany had established some fourteen 8,kohlen depots0 abroad and had a large amount of shipping4 ,these bunkering ports were taken by the ,allies4 ,an example of ,german industrial penetration is furnished by the case of ,kiau ,chau1 ,china4 ,in #ahii the ,shantung ,eisenbahn ,gesellschaft was formed in ,berlin with headquarters at ,tsingtao4 ,it acquired exclusive rights for #e years to search for minerals in a zone #aj miles each side of the railway and to acquire claims4 ,chinese mines were not to be allowed to adopt modern methods and compete1 unless they bought ,german material and employed ,german men4 ,the mines that were developed produced good steamship coal and good enough coke1 so that a blast furnace was planned4 ,the ,germans lost their control when war broke out1 and these rights have passed1 under the terms of the peace treaty1 to ,japan4 ,german capital that had been invested some years ago in the ,chung ,hsing ,coal ,co4 was bought out in #aijh4 ,france4--,before the war ,france was fifth in the list of world's coal producers1 but for many years needed more coal than she produced4 ,possibly enough coal could have been mined in ,france by greater developments1 but to import it was cheaper4 ,french capital was invested in some foreign coal deposits4 ,a company of ,french control owned the ,stonehall colliery1 near ,dover4 ,before the war a ,french company was one of the largest operators in ,turkey and was steadily acquiring new mines4 ,a ,french company owned an important colliery in the ,dombrova field1 now part of ,poland4 ,france has maintained government coaling stations for shipping in ,indo-,china1 ,tahiti1 ,society ,islands1 ,martinique1 and ,madagascar2 but no attempt is made to supply them wholly with ,french coal1 or to be independent of other coaling stations4 ,italy4--,italy has a poor supply of low-grade coal1 and the normal production is insignificant4 ,imports have been large1 those from ,great ,britain amounting in #aiad to #aj1jjj1jjj tons4 ,russia4--,russia has several important coal fields4 ,the production was #ca1jjj1jjj tons in #aiae and #bc1jjj1jjj in #aiaf1 so that ,russia1 including the province of ,ukraine1 has ranked fifth or sixth among the world's producers4 ,if the demand for coal develops under the stimulus of industrial stability1 the output will all be consumed in ,russia4 ,about two-thirds of the production has been raised in the ,donetz basin4 ,half of this is coking coal4 ,japan4--,japan has on the main island1 ,hondo1 enough coal to permit considerable exports4 ,supplies in ,korea and ,formosa are less abundant4 ,in all ,japan's coal there is very little of good coking quality4 ,when the war reduced the amount of ,british shipping in the ,north ,pacific1 ,japanese ships supplied ,japanese coal to a number of new coaling stations1 and the ,british may find it difficult to regain their former prominence in bunkering there4 ,japanese coal now gets as far west also as ,colombo1 ,ceylon4 ,japanese law specifies ,japanese control of the policy of mining companies1 though some foreign financial interests are allowed4 ,japan controls a part of the coal produced in ,china1 and by presenting insistent demands is increasing her control in that country4 ,if given a free hand1 ,japan is in a position to exercise industrial and military control in ,asia almost as thoroughly as the ,united ,states can in ,america4 ,english and ,belgian interests have some ,chinese coal1 and thus are about the only real competition at present with ,japanese control4 ,china4--,outside the ,united ,states1 ,china has the largest coal reserves of any country in the world4 ,the coal varies in quality and grade2 some of it is excellent1 but the production has reached only about #ah1jjj1jjj tons a year4 ,some districts export and others import coal4 ,the country could easily be independent if there were internal means of distribution4 ,there might even be large exports if production began in advance of other industrial development4 ,coking coal is available only in certain areas1 mostly in the south4 ,the largest and best-equipped producer is the ,kailan ,mining ,administration1 operating ,british and ,chinese properties4 ,the ownership of the company is mostly in ,belgian hands1 but the incorporation is under ,hong ,kong law1 so that the company is under ,british control4 ,the chief producers in ,china are3 ,,table #f4--;,,chief ,,producers ,,of ,,coal ,,in ,,china ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,company ,tons a year,control ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,kailan ,mining ,administration #c1jjj1jjj ,british and ,chinese ,funshun ,collieries #b1jjj1jjj ,owned by the ,south ,manchuria ,railway ,co4 7,japanese7 ,pingshieng ,collieries #a1jjj1jjj ,chinese ,pekin ,syndicate #ejj1jjj ,british ,pingshihu #cjj1jjj ,japanese ,lincheng #hjj1jjj ,belgian ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,the ,mining ,company of ,shantung1 producing #djj1jjj tons a year1 formerly owned by the ,germans1 is now run by the ,japanese military organization4 ,thus only one of the large producers is under ,chinese control1 though many smaller mines are worked by ,chinese4 ,the ,chinese law designed to prevent foreign control of this sort is not effective4 ,it requires that the share of a mining industry held by foreigners shall not be over one-half2 but if a foreign company owns half the shares and finances the ,chinese half by a loan1 the foreign control may be complete4 ,there is a further control of mining1 through the ownership of railways4 ,all the larger producers must ship coal by rail1 and foreign nations are allowed to finance railways4 ,the difficulty of a government exercising adequate political and commercial control when it grants concessions in this way is evident4 ,general mining affairs in ,china are supervised by a ,bureau of ,mining ,affairs4 ,any specific enterprise is controlled by a commissioner of finance in each province4 ,it is questionable1 however1 whether governmental control will be strong enough to overbalance commercial and financial control1 and diplomatic pressure from outside4 ,those companies incorporated under ,hong ,kong law can count on ,british protection4 ,japanese demands on ,china have been very insistent1 and it is said that about a third of the production of the country is now controlled by ,japan4 ,as a whole1 ,china seems to take a small part in the control of her own coal4 ,the opportunity for other powers to get financial1 and1 through that1 industrial favors may be involved in the problem of financing the central government4 ,,table #g4--,,production1 ,,exports ,,and ,,imports ,,for #aiach ,millions of metric tons ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,country ,kind of coal,production,exports,imports,remarks 7#aiai7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,united ,anthracite #he #d4a 444 ,resources greater ,states ,bituminous #dcb #ah4j #a4d than those of any ,coke #db #a4j #j4a other country2 can ,bunker coal 444 7#g4g7 444 easily increase ocean exports with more shipping available4 ,present exports chiefly to ,canada4 ,value of coal-tar products imported in #aiac1 #aj1ifb1jjj4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,great ,anthracite #e 444 ,chief coal-exporting ,britain ,bituminous #bhb #gc4d 444 country2 before war ,coke #bj4e #a4b 444 had virtual monopoly ,briquettes 444 #b4a 444 of ocean exports4 ,bunker coal 7#ba4j7 444 ,export control imperiled by shortage from labor conditions4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,german ,bituminous #aia #cd4f #aj4e ,coal needed for ,empire ,lignite #hg 444 #g ,central ,europe4 ,coke #cb #f4d #j4f ,exports by rail and ,coal canal4 ,distance from ,briquettes #e4h #b4c #j4c seaports prevents ,lignite oversea exports4 ,briquettes #ba4d #j4i #j4a ,westphalia has ---------------------------------------- -----largest coking coal ,saar ,bituminous #ag4j resources in ,europe4 ,district ,coke #b4j ,ownership of ,saar 7,included mines transferred to under ,france by ,treaty of ,german ,peace4 ,empire1 above7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,upper ,bituminous #di4a ,nationality of ,upper ,silesia ,lignite #b4c 444 444 ,silesia to be 7,included,coke #c4a 444 444 determined by under plebiscite2 coal ,german production vital to ,empire1 eastern ,germany1 above7 ,poland and ,austria4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,austria- ,bituminous #ag4f #j4g #ac4g ,austria1 already ,hungary ,lignite #cf4d #g4j 444 deficient in bituminous coal1 under the ,peace ,treaty loses practically all coal fields to ,poland and ,czecho-,slovakia4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,austria ,bituminous #af4c 444 444 ,hungary always 7,included,lignite #bg4d 444 444 lacked enough under ,coke #b4f 444 444 bituminous coal1 and ,austria- under any political ,hungary1 control must above7 continue to import coal from ,upper ,silesia4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,hungary ,bituminous #a4c 7,included,lignite #i4j under ,coke #j4b ,austria- ,hungary1 above7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,france ,bituminous #dj4j #a4c #ah4g ,france consumed in ,lignite #j4h 444 444 #aiac 7millions of ,coke #d4j #j4b #c4j tons7 ,briquettes #c4g #j4a #a4a ,coal #ea4b ,coke #f4i ,briquettes #d4h ---- #fb4i ,deficit #ba millions tons in #aiac4 ,addition of ,saar production 7#ag1jjj1jjj tons7 will not cancel the deficit1 as the needs of the local district and those of former ,german ,lorraine will absorb that or more4 ,mines wrecked by ,germany produced #bj1jjj1jjj tons2 ,germany to supply equivalent amount until mines rehabilitated4 ,france must continue indefinitely to import coal and coke4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,russia ,bituminous ,russia1 with poorly 7,includedchiefly #cb4c 444 #h4a developed fields and in above ,bituminous great future needs1 is the 7,some brown has imported from ,dombrova coal7 #g4j ,great ,britain and field of ,germany2 through ,poland7 loss of the ,dombrova field 7extension of ,upper ,silesian basin7 needs more coal than can produce and is unlikely ever to be an exporting country4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,belgium ,bituminous #bb4h #d4i #h4i ,belgium has high- ,coke #c4e #a4a #j4d grade steam coals ,briquettes #b4f #j4f #a4a and some coking coal2 beds are deep and difficult to mine4 ,its exports to ,holland and ,france probably will in future continue to be exceeded by imports from ,westphalia and ,great ,britain4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #h ,compiled by ,george ,s4 ,rice4 ,,table #h4--;,,countries ,,in ,,europe ,,largely ,,dependent ,,on ,,imports ,,of ,,fuel4 ,,production ,,and ,,imports1 #aiaci ,millions of metric tons ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,kind ,country of coal ,production,imports,remarks 7#aiai7 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,holland ,bituminous #b4j #ab4j ,holland1 in the small ,limbourg basin1 has an extension of the ,aix-la- ,chapelle basin of ,germany4 ,the output is increasing1 but as the basin is small ,holland will import from ,westphalia1 ,belgium and ,great ,britain or ,america4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,italy ,anthracite #j4g #aj4 ,italy has insignificant and and poor resources in thin ,lignite anthracite beds and in lignite deposits2 has depended on ,great ,britain for imports1 but now the ,united ,states is furnishing some coal4 ,water-power developments are large2 opportunity for further development4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,spain ,bituminous #d4c #c4f ,spain has a number of small coal basins4 ,it must continue to import4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,sweden ,bituminous #j4d #d4h ,sweden has a few thin impure beds1 but has relied on imports from ,great ,britain4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,norway #b4c ,norway has no coal resources and has imported coal from ,great ,britain4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,switzer- #a4f ,switzerland has no coal land worthy of mention2 it has relied on imports from ,westphalia4 ,since the armistice1 ,switzerland has imported coal from the ,united ,states1 but this movement is abnormal4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #i ,compiled by ,george ,s4 ,rice4 ,conclusions4--,as regards political control1 three great national or race factors loom in the future of the coal industry and in the development of wealth and power3 the ,european1 dominated by ,england2 the ,american1 by the ,united ,states2 and the ,asiatic1 by ,japan4 ,the efforts of ,england during the war temporarily prostrated her1 and diminished the grip of her export coal and bunkering trade1 but conditions late in #aiai indicated that recovery might be rapid4 ,the immediate growth in the mining of coal for use at home1 with consequent progress in steel and other industries1 however1 will be greatest in the ,united ,states1 because of our gigantic resources4 ,in the ,east1 however1 are indications of a development of ,china's coal and the growth of attendant industries on a scale which may in time outstrip those of any country except ,america1 and transfer the bulk of wealth and power to the two great civilizations1 on either side of the ,pacific--the newest1 that of ,america1 and the oldest1 that of ,china and ,japan4 ,the war and the settlements after the war proved an unmixed benefit and opportunity to ,japan1 and enabled her so to strengthen herself in ,china and ,korea that she is not only the preponderating power in the ,east1 but may claim a sphere of influence and a wide protectorate for ,asia1 far more effective than the ,american ,monroe ,doctrine4 ,having regard to national internal economy and external and internal effectiveness1 the ,united ,states will clearly neglect the main function of government if it fails to exercise an effective supervision and regulation of the coal industry4 ,this industry is national2 every citizen has an interest in it1 and a right to expect its administration for the highest benefit of all4 ,,table #i4--,,production ,,and ,,imports ,,of ,,fuel ,,of ,,south ,,american ,,countries ,,in #aiacaj ,millions of metric tons ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,country ,production,imports,remarks 7#aiai7 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,argentina #d4j ,argentina has no coal resources4 ,imports chiefly from ,great ,britain2 ,cardiff coal4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,brazil #b4b ,brazil has coal1 but it is inaccessible for transportation4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,chile #a4bc #j4f ,chile has some coal1 but does not mine enough high-grade coal for its needs2 has imported from ,great ,britain4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,colombia ,colombia has some undeveloped coal resources2 has imported a little coal from time to time from the ,united ,states4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,peru #j4bh #j4jb ,peru has small coal resources and mines a little coal1 practically enough for its needs4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,uruguay #j4h ,uruguay has no coal resources and imported some in the past1 chiefly from ,great ,britain4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,total ,south ,america #a4ea #g4f ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #aj ,compiled by ,george ,s4 ,rice4 ,,table #aj4--aiac ,,production1 ,,exports1 ,,and ,,imports ,,of ,,coal ,,of ,,principal ,,countries ,,of ,,asia ,,and ,,australia#aa ,millions of metric tons ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,kind ,country of coal ,production,exports,imports,remarks 7#aiai7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,japan ,bituminous #ba4h #c4e ,japan does not have large coal resources and coal is not of high grade1 but deposits are advantageously located for exporting4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,india #af4e ,india has considerable good coal1 but this will be needed for domestic purposes and bunkering4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,china ,bituminous #ad4j about ,coal is imported from #b4j ,japan1 but ,china has great coal resources1 and these are being developed by ,japanese1 ,british and ,american capital4 ,germany had large interests1 which have reverted1 it is understood1 to ,japan4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,indo- ,indo-,china has some ,china #j4d coal1 both anthracite and lignite4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,siberia ,little is known of the coal resources of ,siberia4 ,there are many indications of lignite deposits4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,new ,new ,south ,wales has ,south large resources of ,wales #aj4e #f4j good coal4 ,one-half of the #f million tons exported goes to other ,australian states2 the other half to ,pacific ports4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,new ,new ,zealand has small ,zealand #a4i coal basins1 but they are close to the sea1 permitting ready export4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,queens- #a4a ,queensland1 ,victoria1 land and ,western ,australia ---------------------------------------- ---have considerable coal ,victoria #j4f resources1 but not of ---------------------------------------- ---grade or quality to be ,western a factor in export ,australia #j4c trade4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #aa ,compiled by ,george ,s4 ,rice4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,iron ,,by ,e4 ,c4 ,,harder ,,and ,f4 ,t4 ,,eddingfield ,,uses ,,of ,,iron ,the uses of iron ore are so well known that their enumeration is hardly necessary4 ,from iron ore are manufactured cast iron1 wrought iron1 and steel4 ,by the addition of one or more other elements1 chiefly silicon1 carbon1 chromium1 nickel1 manganese1 vanadium1 sulphur1 and phosphorus1 in quantities less than #e per cent4 and usually less than #a per cent41 various qualities1 such as hardness1 toughness1 elasticity1 durability1 brittleness1 density1 porosity1 endurance1 resistance to oxidation or corrosion1 malleability1 and fusibility1 can be controlled and given to the cast iron or steel in the desired degree4 ,the uses of the products of iron ore are so common that the finding of objects which do not contain some of them is difficult4 ,besides being used as a metal1 iron enters into the manufacture of paints 7especially red1 yellow1 and blue71 chemicals of various kinds1 medicines1 coloring matter in glass and pottery1 and in the form of specular hematite it is made into jewelry4 ,considerable amounts of iron ore are also consumed annually for flux in the smelting of silver1 copper1 lead1 and other metalliferous ores4 ,iron and its products are more widely used than any other metal2 and the yearly production of pig iron makes up #id to #if per cent4 of the total amount of all the metals produced in the world1 and in normal times averages about #hj1jjj1jjj tons annually4 ,,geological ,,distribution ,iron ores are associated with many different classes of rocks--sedimentary1 igneous1 and metamorphic4 ,where associated with sedimentary rocks the ores may be the result of direct sedimentation or may be later replacements of sedimentary beds by magmatic or meteoric iron-bearing waters4 ,many iron-ore deposits associated with sedimentary rocks are formed by the enrichment of original iron-bearing beds1 either by solution and transportation of iron compounds or by the removal of other associated mineral constituents4 ,among those important iron-ore deposits of sedimentary origin that have undergone little or no further enrichment since deposition1 except perhaps directly at the surface1 are the iron ores of the ,clinton type of the eastern ,united ,states1 the ,wabana iron ores of ,newfoundland1 the 8minette0 ores of the ,lorraine district in northern ,france1 ,luxemburg1 and southern ,germany1 the oolitic siderite beds of the ,cleveland district in northern ,england1 and the hematite ores of ,minas ,geraes in ,brazil4 ,the most important of the sedimentary iron ores that are the result of further enrichment since deposition are those of the ,lake ,superior district in the ,united ,states4 ,iron ores associated with igneous rock are mostly of deep-seated origin1 usually having been formed by solutions that accompanied or followed the intrusion of the rocks with which the ores are associated4 ,these ores are of two main classes3 7#a7 ,those associated with siliceous igneous rocks2 and 7#b7 those associated with basic igneous rocks4 ,the ores associated with siliceous igneous rocks consist either of hematite or1 more commonly1 magnetite4 ,they occur in granite1 syenite1 and monzonite1 and in gneiss derived from these by metamorphism4 ,many important ore deposits in different countries belong to this class1 among them being the magnetite and hematite deposits of ,swedish ,lapland and of central ,sweden1 the magnetite bodies of the ,adirondacks and northern ,new ,jersey in the eastern ,united ,states1 various magnetite and hematite bodies in ,california and elsewhere in the western ,united ,states1 the mixed hematite and magnetite deposits of the south coast of ,cuba1 most of the iron-ore bodies of ,chile1 and the newly developed iron ores of ,manchuria4 ,as a class1 the iron ores associated with siliceous igneous rocks rank next in importance to iron ores of sedimentary origin4 ,iron-ore deposits associated with basic igneous rocks are nearly all of a distinct type known as titaniferous magnetites4 ,these ores consist of a mixture of magnetite and ilmenite in varying proportions1 and therefore carry a variable amount of titanium4 ,many large ore deposits of this class are found in different parts of the world1 among the larger ones being certain ore bodies in ,wyoming1 in the ,adirondack region1 and elsewhere in the ,united ,states1 and several deposits in ,norway and in northern and southern ,sweden4 ,an important group of iron-ore deposits has resulted from mineral replacement along the contact of sedimentary rocks with igneous intrusives4 ,these ores usually occur in limestones not far from intrusive masses of granite1 monzonite1 syenite or diorite1 but they may be found within the igneous rocks themselves1 near the contact4 ,they are rarely associated with the more basic igneous rocks4 ,these ores are known as igneous contact ores1 and their origin is ascribed to iron-bearing solutions that accompanied or followed the intrusion of the igneous rocks with which the ores are associated4 ,such ores are extremely widespread1 occurring in practically every continent4 ,locally1 extensive deposits exist1 as in the ,cornwall district of ,pennsylvania1 in the western ,united ,states and ,british ,columbia1 in ,chile1 and in ,china and ,japan4 ,igneous contact ores have furnished only a relatively small percentage of the world's total production of iron ore1 however4 ,there are also widespread replacement deposits in sedimentary rocks that are not associated with igneous rocks4 ,these are believed to be formed by ordinary meteoric waters which dissolve disseminated iron minerals from certain beds or masses of rock1 and redeposit the mineral elsewhere in a more concentrated form4 ,such ore deposits may be roughly tabular and resemble bedded deposits1 or they may be very irregular4 ,most deposits of this type consist of siderite which has replaced limestone1 but hematite and limonite deposits formed by replacement also exist4 ,among the important deposits of this group are the siderite ores of ,bilbao1 ,spain1 largely altered to limonite near the surface2 the siderite ore of ,eisenerz1 ,styria2 and the hematite deposits near ,hartville1 ,wyoming4 ,small deposits of siderite1 hematite1 and limonite of this type are found in many parts of the world4 ,besides the classes of iron ores already mentioned1 widely distributed iron ores occur as residual products derived from the weathering of either igneous or sedimentary rocks4 ,these ores have been formed by the concentration of iron-bearing materials originally disseminated through the rocks whose weathered products they now constitute4 ,they are mainly in the form of limonite and occur either as large bodies of relatively pure ore or as aggregates of irregular masses of various sizes imbedded in clays4 ,to this class belong the brown iron ores associated with clay in the ,appalachian region of the ,united ,states1 the limonite ores of parts of ,russia1 and similar ores in ,korea4 ,in this class should also be included the extensive limonite deposits derived from the weathering of serpentine which have recently been developed along the north coast of ,cuba1 as well as the lateritic iron-ore deposits found in many tropical countries4 ,limonite ores associated with clays have been smelted since early ages1 owing to their accessibility and the ease with which they could be smelted by crude methods4 ,they have1 however1 furnished a decidedly minor percentage of the world's production of iron ore4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,the iron ore consumed by the world has been obtained principally from the four great iron-producing countries3 ,united ,states1 ,germany1 ,france and ,great ,britain4 ,other countries that yield important quantities of iron ore are1 in the order of their importance3 ,spain1 ,russia1 ,sweden1 ,luxemburg1 ,austria-,hungary1 ,cuba1 ,newfoundland1 and ,algeria4 ,the normal annual output in each one of these countries is more than one million tons4 ,minor amounts of iron ore are produced in many other countries4 ,,table #aa4--;,,iron-,,ore ,,output ,,of ,,principal ,,producing ,,countries1 #aiaj-aiag1 ,,in ,,gross ,,tons#ab ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,country #aiaj #aiaa #aiab ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,north ,america3 ,canada#ac #bca1fbc #ahg1hjg #aib1gec ,cuba#ac #a1dfb1dih #a1afc1gad #a1cig1gig ,newfoundland#ac #a1ajh1gfb #a1aga1iib #a1bea1ifh ,united ,states #eg1jad1ijf #dc1hgf1eeb #ee1aej1adg ,south ,america3 ,chile 444 #bh1aej #f1edf ,venezuela#ad 444 444 #ab1ajj ,europe3 ,austria-,hungary #d1eib1egb #d1ggi1hea #d1iig1caa ,belgium #aba1jbd #adh1acj #afd1gcd ,france #ad1cge1ihd #af1cgf1ifg #ah1heh1ffh ,germany #agbh1beg1egiagbi1djh1habagcc1ahj1beh ,greece #ebg1jdj #dic1ajf #dbd1hce ,italy #edb1egh #cfg1ijj #egb1ijj ,luxemburg 7#ah7 7#ah7 7#ah7 ,norway #ajj1hcd #bag1jea #dja1ffe ,portugal #c1cjg #ai1bcc #bh1idg ,russia 7#ai7 7#ai7 7#ai7 ,spain #h1ecj1caj #h1fce1ebc #bjh1iij1gdc ,sweden #e1dfe1bcd #f1jef1hfh #f1eie1jdd ,united ,kingdom #ae1bbf1jae #ae1eai1dbd #ac1gij1cia ,asia3 ,china #baacj1dgb #baaji1edb #babja1efa ,chosen 7,korea7 #ajd1fbg #if1ijb #aba1bbd ,india #ed1fbf #cff1bab #ehj1jbi ,japan #acb1iba #add1jja #afh1dgi ,philippine ,islands #adh #baf #cdg ,africa3 ,algeria #a1jdh1bbh #a1jeg1jhg #a1aga1beb ,morocco #ahf1adi 7#af7 7#af7 ,madagascar 7#bc7 7#bc7 #bb ,natal #ej ,togoland 7#af7 #cid 7#af7 ,tunis #cbg1gef #cig1fch #dgj1hff ,australia3 #aeg1hba #abb1cfa #aac1ihi ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,country #aiac #aiad #aiae ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,north ,america3 ,canada#ac #bgd1fgc #bah1fbj #cee1deg ,cuba#ac #a1ehb1dca #hba1aaj #hbg1ddh ,newfoundland#ac #a1dcc1heh #eff1jjj #gge1djc ,united ,states #fa1ihj1dcg #da1dci1gfa #ee1ebf1dij ,south ,america3 ,chile #ac1hgh #fb1ejf #add1ghc ,venezuela#ad #eg1bbe #b1djj ,europe3 ,austria-,hungary #e1bcc1jee #c1ici1bdhaea1bah1cfg ,belgium #adg1jdh #ha1jfc #d1fdf ,france #ba1egb1hce 7#af7 7#af7 ,germany #bf1gga1eih 7#af7 7#af7 ,greece #cjh1fdj #bid1egc #aed1iea ,italy #eic1fah #fie1abd #ffi1bfb ,luxemburg #g1bae1ead #d1ibf1ihj #f1jdj1gfe ,norway #ece1hfi #fda1gij #gjf1cgi ,portugal #dh1cib #f1ecb 7#af7 ,russia #g1idg1aia 7#af7 7#af7 ,spain #i1gjc1agg #f1gaj1ceg #e1ebg1eeb ,sweden #g1ceg1hde #f1dhb1ijd #f1ggd1iji ,united ,kingdom #ae1iig1cbh #ad1hfg1ehb #ad1bce1jab ,asia3 ,china #bbdaf1cdbbbdhh1beh #ecg1jdg ,chosen 7,korea7 #aci1cgj #agi1jfb #bjf1eaj ,india #cgj1hde #dda1fgd #cij1bgj ,japan #afh1hig #acd1aic #acc1icc ,philippine ,islands #edf #cib 7#af7 ,africa3 ,algeria #a1cbg1cbj #a1jig1aja #hje1edg ,morocco 444 444 444 ,madagascar ,natal 444 444 444 ,togoland ,tunis #ehd1fdi #bdd1ebh #bha1cjd ,australia3 #bdij1gab #agg1ich #cgj1hhg ---------------------------------------- --------------- ---------------------------------------- - ,country #aiaf #aiag ---------------------------------------- - ,north ,america3 ,canada#ac #bde1fic #aib1baj ,cuba#ac #gab1gaf #eec1dhe ,newfoundland#ac #ijc1fbe #ghh1hbj ,united ,states #ge1afg1fgb #ge1bhh1hea ,south ,america3 ,chile #ee1bha #d1iba ,venezuela#ad ,europe3 ,austria-,hungary 7#af7 7#af7 ,belgium #bi1iea #af1gcb ,france 7#af7 7#af7 ,germany 7#af7 7#af7 ,greece #hc1fdg #fb1cff ,italy #ibg1djf #igh1agd ,luxemburg #f1fdc1fhi #d1dcf1fhb ,norway #hfe1gjj 7#af7 ,portugal 7#af7 7#af7 ,russia 7#af7 7#af7 ,spain #e1gfb1gcc #e1dfa1heg ,sweden #f1hgf1bgh #f1aai1bfc ,united ,kingdom #ac1did1feh #ad1hde1gcd ,asia3 ,china #bgd1jgh #bii1dfe ,chosen 7,korea7 #bda1dab 7#af7 ,india #daa1geh #dac1bgc ,japan #aef1bfc 7#af7 ,philippine ,islands 7#af7 7#af7 ,africa3 ,algeria #ibc1eih #a1jdh1gbb ,morocco 444 444 ,madagascar ,natal 444 444 ,togoland ,tunis #cfa1eic #eif1bfa ,australia3 #cij1ajhbecbh1caj ---------------------------------------- - #ab ,,burchard1 ,e4 ,f41 8,iron ,ore1 ,pig ,iron and ,steel03 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey 8,mineral ,resources10 #aiae and #aiag1 with additions and revisions4 7,the above figures are1 so far as possible1 based on official reports and1 where these are lacking1 on the technical press47 #ac ,shipments4 #ad ,exports to ,united ,states4 #ae ,for ,hungary only4 #af ,statistics not available4 #ag ,includes ,luxemburg4 #ah ,included in ,germany4 #ai ,russia produced #b1icf1jbd long tons of pig iron in #aiaj2 #c1ecf1dag long tons in #aiaa1 and #d1aca1hij long tons in #aiab4 #bj ,includes #a1efc long tons of argentiferous iron ore4 #ba ,exports4 #bb ,from ,tayeh deposits only4 #bc ,madagascar produced about #h long tons of iron in #aiaj and #a4e long tons in #aiaa4 #bd ,for ,south ,australia and ,queensland4 #be ,for ,south ,australia only4 ,,table #ab4--,,pig ,,iron ,,manufactured ,,in ,,principal ,,countries ,,in #ahej1 #ahij1 #aijj1 ,,and #aiaj ,,to #aiaf1 ,,in ,,gross ,,tons#bf ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,country #ahej #ahij #aijj #aiaj ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,united ,states #efc1gee #i1bjb1gjcac1ghi1bdbbg1cjc1efg ,germany #cej1jjj #d1ehd1hhb #h1cha1cgcad1eei1eji ,great ,britain #b1cjj1jjj #g1ijd1bad #h1iei1fiaaj1bag1jbb ,france #dje1fec #a1ica1ahh #b1ffi1iff #c1igd1dgh ,russia #bbg1eee #iab1efa #b1hhi1ghi #b1iib1jeh ,austria-,hungary #bej1jjj #iaj1fhe #a1dgb1fie #b1aec1ghh ,belgium #add1deb #gge1che #a1jja1hgb #a1hbb1hba ,canada 444 #ai1dci #hf1jij #gdj1baj ,sweden #aej1jjj #dhc1aee #eah1bfc #eid1che ,spain 444 #agf1eih #bhi1cae #cfg1dbc ,italy 444 #ad1jid #bc1efi #cdg1feg ,japan 444 444 444 #ahf1gid ,other countries#bg #aj1jjj #hj1jjj #ajj1jjj #bjj1jjj --------------------------------------- ,total #d1dja1daebf1iid1ijddj1aha1hfefe1dei1gab ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,country #aiaa #aiab #aiac #aiadbg ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,united ,states #bc1fdi1edgbi1gbf1icgcj1iff1aebbc1ccb1bd d ,germany #ae1djd1fdhag1ehf1ebaai1jjd1jbbad1afb1ad g ,great ,britain #i1gah1fch #h1hhi1abdaj1dha1iag #i1jje1hih ,france #d1cji1dih #d1hgj1iac #e1bbg1cgh #c1ejj1jjj ,russia #c1eca1hjg #d1acc1jjj #d1dgd1geg #d1aij1jjj ,austria-,hungary #b1jef1hci #b1bgf1ada #b1cce1agj #a1ejj1jjj ,belgium #b1jgb1hcf #b1cjg1hec #b1cah1gfg #a1ejj1jjj ,canada #hbd1cfh #iab1hgh #a1jae1aah #gje1igb ,sweden #fbd1cfg #fhh1geg #gbh1ajc #fbi1fjh ,spain #djb1bji #cif1hgb #dah1jfa #djj1jjj ,italy #bih1add #cgc1ifj #dbj1jaa #cgi1jbh ,japan #bjj1jjj #bjj1gji #bcf1dia #bie1dbh ,other countries#bg #bej1jjj #cej1jjj #bej1jjj #bjj1jjj ---------------------------------------- ,total #fc1cdb1ijagb1gac1efegg1hgf1cdgei1hjj1cb e ---------------------------------------- ------------------- --------------------------------------- ,country #aiaebg #aiafbh --------------------------------------- ,united ,states #bi1iaf1bacci1dcd1gig ,germany #aa1fjc1hgdac1jjj1jjj ,great ,britain #h1gic1fei #i1jdg1ihc ,france #d1jjj1jjj #e1jjj1jjj ,russia #c1fch1jjj #d1cjj1jjj ,austria-,hungary #a1ibi1jjj #b1jjj1jjj ,belgium #ejj1jjj #a1jjj1jjj ,canada #hbe1dbj #a1jfi1eda ,sweden #gee1jjj #gej1jjj ,spain #dba1jjj #ddj1jjj ,italy #chi1jjj #ded1ibc ,japan #cab1ieg #cgi1egd ,other countries#bg #bjj1jjj #ejj1jjj -------------------- ,total #fc1bhd1abcgg1jjj1jjj --------------------------------------- #bf 8,metal ,statistics10 #aiad to #aiah1 with some additions and changes4 #bg ,partly estimated4 #bh ,largely estimated4 ,more than two-fifths of the total annual output of iron ore in the world has come from the ,united ,states1 and of the ,american production more than #hj per cent4 is generally produced in the ,lake ,superior district4 ,this district is1 therefore1 by far the most important iron-ore district in the world1 producing annually more than #cj per cent4 of the world's total of iron ore4 ,germany and ,france have been next in importance to the ,united ,states as iron ore-producing countries1 about #hj per cent4 of the ore mined in these two countries being obtained from the ,lorraine iron fields situated on the border4 ,the annual output of these fields1 which includes also the ores of ,luxemburg1 has been about #be per cent4 of the world's production4 ,the ,lorraine district and the ,lake ,superior district together1 therefore1 produce somewhat more than one-half of the total iron ore annually mined in the world4 ,the iron ore produced in ,great ,britain is obtained mainly from the ,cleveland district of northern ,england1 this district furnishing about #dj per cent4 of the ,british total1 equivalent to about #b4f per cent4 of the world's annual production4 ,in comparison1 the ,birmingham district of ,alabama and the ,krivoi-,rog district of southern ,russia1 which are next in importance to the ,lorraine and ,lake ,superior districts1 furnish about #c4e per cent4 and #c4b per cent41 respectively1 of the world's annual production4 ,,table #ac4--,,production ,,and ,,movement ,,of ,,iron ,,ore ,,and ,,production ,,of ,,pig ,,iron1 #aiacbi ,gross ,tons ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,production ,apparent ,production of ,iron ore ,iron ore consumption of iron ore imports exports 7in part pig iron stocks7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,united ,kingdom#ae1iig1cbh #h1jbh1ecb #ba1bbc #bd1jjd1fcgaj1bfj1cae ,canada #cjg1fcd #b1aaj1hbh #abf1abd #b1bib1cch #a1jae1aah ,belgium #adi1dej #d1djj1jjj 444 #d1edi1dej #b1dhd1fij ,france #ai1afj1djg #a1daj1dbdaj1jff1fbg #aj1ejd1bfd #e1caa1caf ,italy #fjc1aaf #g1fff #bj1jjj #eij1ggb #dbf1gee ,russia #h1jgg1jjj 444 #efe1jjj #g1eab1jjj #d1eeg1jjj ,austria #c1jci1cbd #idb1cab #ajf1jga #c1hge1efe #a1geg1hfd ,hungary #b1jei1jjj 444 #gjj1jjj #a1cei1jjj #fbc1jjj ,germany 7including ,luxemburg7 #ce1ida1bhead1jai1jde #b1fac1aeh #dg1cdg1agbai1bia1ibj ,spain #i1hfa1ffh 444 #h1ijg1bjb #ied1dff #dbd1ggd ,sweden #g1dge1ega 444 #f1ddj1jjj #a1jce1ega #gcj1beg ,united ,states #fa1ihj1dcg #b1eid1ggj 444 #fd1ege1bjgcj1iff1aeb ,algeria #a1cdi1jjj 444 #a1cej1jjj ,chile #gj1jjj 444 #fe1jjj ,cuba #a1ejj1jjj 444 #a1ehb1dca ,newfoundland #a1fje1ijj 444 #a1fje1ibj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #bi ,advisory ,council1 ,dept4 of ,sci4 and ,indust4 ,research3 8,report on the sources and production of iron and other metalliferous ores used in the iron and steel industry10 ,london1 #aiah1 p4 #ab4 ,table #aa shows the world's production of iron ore from #aiaj to #aiag4 ,table #ab shows the production of pig iron in #ahej1 #ahij1 #aijj1 and #aiaj to #aiaf4 ,table #ac shows the production and movement of iron ore and the production of pig iron for the year #aiac4 ,,political ,,and ,,commercial ,,control ,united ,states4--,the principal iron ores of the ,united ,states are the extensive pre-,cambrian hematite deposits of the ,lake ,superior region2 the bedded fossiliferous ores of the ,clinton type of ,alabama and other southern states2 the magnetite deposits of ,new ,york1 northern ,new ,jersey1 and southeastern ,pennsylvania2 the limonite ores of the eastern and southern states2 and the mixed hematite and magnetite ores of the ,west4 ,the ,united ,states is the largest producer of iron ore in the world1 and annually yields more than two-fifths of the world's supply4 ,more than #hj per cent4 of the output comes from the ,lake ,superior district and most of the remainder from ,alabama1 ,new ,york1 and ,pennsylvania4 ,in #aiag there were mined in the ,united ,states #ge1jjj1jjj tons of iron ore1 of which #fc1jjj1jjj came from the ,lake ,superior region1 #g1jjj1jjj from ,alabama1 #a1jjj1jjj from ,new ,york1 and about #ejj1jjj each from ,pennsylvania1 ,new ,jersey1 ,tennessee1 ,virginia1 and ,wyoming2 in #aiah the total production was #fi1jjj1jjj tons1 of which #fj1jjj1jjj came from the ,lake ,superior district1 #f1jjj1jjj from ,alabama1 #ijj1jjj from ,new ,york1 #ejj1jjj from ,pennsylvania1 and #djj1jjj each from ,tennessee1 ,virginia1 ,new ,jersey and ,wyoming4 ,the following table shows the approximate reserves of iron ore in the principal districts of the ,united ,states3 ,,table #ad4--;,,iron-,,ore ,,reserves ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,in ,,gross ,,tons#cj ,millions of tons4 ,lake ,superior ,district 7hematite7 #c1ejj ,birmingham ,district 7fossil hematite7 #cee ,tennessee and ,virginia 7fossil hematite7 #ajj ,adirondack ,district 7non-titaniferous magnetite7 #dj ,adirondack ,district 7titaniferous magnetite7 #ij ,northern ,new ,jersey and ,southeastern ,new ,york 7magnetite7 #ae ,southeastern ,pennsylvania 7magnetite7 #dj ,appalachian region 7magnetite7 #ej ,northeastern ,texas 7limonite7 #bfj ,western ,united ,states 7magnetite and hematite7 #ajj ,other ,districts #aej ----- ,total #d1gjj #cj ,kemp1 ,j4 ,f43 8,the ,iron-,ore ,resources of the ,world10 ,stockholm1 #aiaj 7with minor revisions74 ,the greatest single iron and steel industry in the ,united ,states is that of the ,united ,states ,steel ,corporation1 which controls the following iron- and steel-producing companies3 ,carnegie ,steel ,co41 ,illinois ,steel ,co41 ,indiana ,steel ,co41 ,american ,steel ,wire ,co41 ,american ,sheet ,tinplate ,co41 ,national ,tube ,co41 ,the ,national ,tube ,co4 of ,ohio1 ,minnesota ,steel ,co41 ,the ,lorain ,steel ,co41 ,tennessee ,coal1 ,iron ,railroad ,co41 and the ,shelby ,steel ,tube ,co41 with a total of #abd blast furnaces1 having an annual capacity of about #ah1jjj1jjj tons of pig iron4 ,most of the blast furnaces are in ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio1 ,illinois1 and ,alabama4 ,with the ,united ,states ,steel ,corporation is connected the ,oliver ,iron ,mining ,co41 which produces about #dc per cent4 of the iron ore mined annually in the ,lake ,superior district1 this being equivalent to nearly #cg per cent4 of all the iron ore mined annually in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,tennessee ,coal1 ,iron ,railroad ,co4 is the chief producer of iron ore in ,alabama4 ,next in importance to the ,united ,states ,steel ,corporation as a producer of iron and steel is the ,bethlehem ,steel ,corporation1 with its subsidiaries1 the ,bethlehem ,steel ,co41 ,pennsylvania ,steel ,co41 ,maryland ,steel ,co41 ,jurugua ,iron ,co41 ,spanish-,american ,iron ,co41 and ,bethlehem ,iron ,mines ,co4 ,the works of the ,bethlehem ,steel ,corporation have a total pig iron-producing capacity of #c1jfj1jjj tons annually from #bc blast furnaces4 ,seven of the furnaces are in ,south ,bethlehem1 ,pa41 seven in ,steelton1 ,pa41 four in ,lebanon1 ,pa41 three in ,cornwall1 ,pa41 and four in ,sparrow's ,point1 ,md4 ,the ,bethlehem ,steel ,corporation owns large iron-ore deposits in ,cuba and ,chile4 ,most of the ore consumed in its furnaces at present comes from ,cuba1 from the ,lake ,superior district1 and from ,cornwall1 ,pa4 ,third in importance of the iron- and steel-producing companies of the ,united ,states is the recently organized ,midvale ,steel ,ordnance ,co41 controlling ,worth ,brothers1 ,midvale ,steel ,co41 ,remington ,arms ,co41 ,cambria ,steel ,co41 and others4 ,the combined pig iron-producing capacity of the #ad blast furnaces controlled by the ,midvale ,steel ,ordnance ,co4 is #b1dbj1jjj tons of pig iron4 ,three of the blast furnaces are at ,coatesville1 ,pa41 and eleven are at ,johnstown1 ,pa4 ,this company owns important iron-ore deposits in ,cuba and in the ,lake ,superior district4 ,four other large companies produce more than a million tons of pig iron annually1 these being the ,republic ,iron ,steel ,co41 with an estimated total capacity from its #aa blast furnaces in ,ohio and ,alabama of #a1dcj1jjj tons of pig iron1 and of #b1ejj1jjj tons of ore from its mines in the ,lake ,superior district and in ,alabama2 the ,lackawanna ,steel ,co41 with an annual capacity in #aiah from its nine blast furnaces at ,lackawanna1 ,n4 ,y41 of #a1ddj1jjj tons of pig iron2 the ,jones ,laughlin ,co41 of ,pittsburgh1 with a capacity of #a1ibj1jjj tons from #aa blast furnaces2 and the ,mc,kinney ,steel ,co41 with eight furnaces in ,ohio1 ,new ,york1 and ,pennsylvania1 and an annual capacity of #a1bje1jjj tons of pig iron4 ,the last three companies named have extensive iron mines in the ,lake ,superior district4 ,important iron and steel companies producing somewhat less than a million tons of pig iron annually are3 the ,youngstown ,sheet ,tube ,co41 with an annual capacity of #iij1jjj tons of pig iron from six blast furnaces1 all of which are at ,youngstown1 ,ohio2 the recently organized ,steel ,tube ,co4 of ,america1 having six blast furnaces in and near ,chicago1 with an annual pig-iron capacity of #ijj1jjj tons2 the ,colorado ,fuel ,iron ,co41 an important western iron and steel producer1 which has six blast furnaces near ,pueblo1 ,colo41 with an annual capacity of #fbe1jjj tons of pig iron1 and has iron-ore mines in ,new ,mexico1 ,wyoming1 and ,colorado2 and the ,schloss-,sheffield ,steel ,iron ,co4 of ,alabama1 with seven blast furnaces and a pig-iron capacity of #ecj1jjj tons4 ,many other plants with smaller capacity are scattered through eastern and central ,united ,states4 ,so far as is known1 practically the entire iron and steel business of the ,united ,states is in the hands of ,american capital4 ,germany4--,the 8minette0 ore of the ,german ,lorraine district before the war constituted by far the largest iron-ore reserve of ,germany and is the chief source of present supply4 ,next in importance of the ,german ore reserves are the brown hematites occurring north of the ,harz1 and third and fourth in importance1 respectively1 are the deposits of the ,lahn and ,dill districts in the ,rhineland1 and those of ,siegerland4 ,all of these districts are in western and southwestern ,germany and all of them1 except ,lorraine1 are in the region lying east of the ,rhine in ,hanover1 ,westphalia1 ,hesse-,nassau1 and ,rhenish ,prussia4 ,the ,lorraine district is on the ,french border and forms a part of the large ore field of ,luxemburg and northern ,france4 ,the deposits1 of sedimentary origin and ,jurassic age1 comprise extensive beds of oolitic limonite varying in thickness up to #bj feet1 interlayered with marl and limestone4 ,seven principal beds of ore are found within a thickness of sediments ranging from #ge to #aej feet1 the most important being known as the ,grey seam4 ,the tonnage#ca of 8minette0 ore available in the ,german ,lorraine district is estimated at #a1hcj million#cb as compared with #cjj million in ,luxemburg and #b1ige million#cc in northern ,france4 ,the 8minette0 ores average #cj to #dj per cent4 in metallic iron content and #j4c to #j4g per cent4 or more in phosphorus4 #ca ,the ore reserves in this chapter are given in metric tons unless otherwise stated4 #cb ,,einecke1 ,g41 and ,,kohler1 ,w43 8,iron-,ore ,resources of the ,world10 ,stockholm1 #aiaj4 #cc ,,nicou1 ,l41 idem4 ,the deposits of the ,salzgitter and ,ilsede districts north of the ,harz ,mountains are beds of brown ironstone conglomerate with an average thickness of #bj to #cj feet1 consisting of limonite pebbles in a clayey or calcareous cement4 ,these deposits cover many square miles1 the reserves being estimated at #bdh million tons4 ,the ores contain #cj to #dj per cent4 of iron and average #j4g to #j4h per cent4 in phosphorus4 ,the ores of the ,lahn and ,dill region are mainly red hematites1 that lie in an extensive sedimentary bed4 ,they contain about #dh per cent4 of iron1 #j4b to #j4c per cent4 phosphorus1 and are high in silica4 ,the reserves are estimated at about #ace million tons4 ,in ,siegerland the iron ores are mainly carbonate1 carrying #ch to #dj per cent4 metallic iron and #f to #i per cent4 manganese4 ,they form irregular deposits abundantly scattered through the region1 the available reserves being estimated at about #ajj million tons4 ,the total iron-ore reserves of ,germany 7not including those of ,luxemburg7 actually available have been estimated at #b1edj million tons1 and the probable further reserves at #a1jfg million tons4 ,of these amounts1 however1 ,lorraine has by far the largest part1 so that the transfer of this province to ,france reduces ,germany's available reserves to #bh per cent4 of the pre-war figure1 and her further probable reserves to one-half1 altogether reducing her iron-ore resources to one-third of the former amount4 ,as far as is known1 the ,german iron and steel business is in the hands of ,german capitalists1 who1 besides1 have important iron-ore holdings in ,france1 ,spain1 ,sweden1 and elsewhere4 ,among the important iron-ore and pig-iron producing firms in ,germany are ,gutehoffnungshtte1 de ,wendel ,co41 ,krupp1 ,gebrder ,stumm1 ,aschener ,htten ,aktien ,verein1 ,rombacher ,httenwerke1 ,thyssen ,cie41 and others4 ,all of these firms had large ore reserves in the ,lorraine district when the war began4 ,france4--,the iron ores of ,france are divided into three distinct groups3 the 8minette0 ores of the ,briey1 ,longwy1 ,crusnes1 and ,nancy districts2 the ,silurian ores in ,normandy2 and the vein deposits of the eastern ,pyrenees4 ,the 8minette0 ores of northern ,france form part of the great basin of 8minette0 ores of ,france1 ,luxemburg1 and ,germany already mentioned4 ,in #aiac they furnished about #ia per cent4 of the total production of ,france4 ,the iron ores of ,normandy and ,brittany are of sedimentary origin and are composed of hematite or carbonate or a mixture of both4 ,the carbonate becomes more abundant with depth4 ,the iron-ore deposits of the eastern ,pyrenees consist of both hematite and siderite and are of high grade1 constituting the only considerable source of ,bessemer ore in ,france4 ,the iron content of the ores of ,normandy and ,brittany ranges from #cj per cent4 to #ej per cent42 that of the ,pyrenees ores from #ea per cent4 to #eg per cent4 ,the latter range includes calcined siderite4 ,the production of iron ore from ,french ,lorraine was about #ai1ejj1jjj tons in #aiac2 that of ,normandy and ,brittany about #a1ejj1jjj tons1 and that of the eastern ,pyrenees about #ejj1jjj1 making a total production of more than #ba1jjj1jjj tons for ,france4 ,the following table shows the relative output of iron ore from the different iron fields of ,france and ,germany during the last three normal years before the war3 ,,table #ae4--,,production ,,of ,,iron ,,ore ,,in ,,france ,,and ,,germany1 #aiaa ,,to #aiac ,metric tons ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,district #aiaa #aiab #aiac ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,german ,lorraine #ag1gcd1egfbj1jej1bdeba1ace1eed ,luxemburg #f1jei1gig #f1eec1icj #g1cca1jej ,french ,lorraine1 including ,briey1 ,longwy and ,nancy #ad1hgh1jjjag1bce1abeai1dii1aff ,germany1 outside of ,lorraine #f1ifh1jjj #g1afg1jjj #g1dgb1jjj ,france1 outside of ,lorraine #a1ehd1jjj #a1ibe1jjj #a1fhf1jjj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,the available reserves in the different districts of the ,french 8minette0 ore field are estimated as follows3#cd ,,table #af4--,,ore ,,reserves ,,in ,,french 8,,minette0 ,,field ,million tons ,briey #b1jjj ,crusnes #ejj ,longwy #bge ,nancy #bjj ----- ,total #b1ige #cd ,,nicou1 ,l43 8,iron ,resources of the ,world10 ,stockholm1 #aiaj4 ,the list of operating companies in ,france shows a considerable number of ,german companies among the predominating ,french4 ,german or probably ,german companies produced in #aiac six and a half million tons of iron ore1 or one-third of the whole production4 ,in the ,normandy and ,brittany region two ,german companies made #aa per cent4 of the whole production2 and in the eastern ,pyrenees one ,german company produced #bj per cent4 ,altogether1 ,german capital controlled over one-third of the iron and steel industry of ,france in #aiac4 ,the rest seems to have been in the hands of ,french capital4 ,the most important iron-producing firms in the ,lorraine field in recent years have been those of de ,wendel ,co41 ,gutehoffnungshtte1 ,socit des ,hauts ,fourneaux et ,fonderies de ,pont-a-,moussons1 ,socit des ,forges et ,acieries de la ,marine et d',homecourt1 ,socit ,anonyme des ,acieries de ,longwy1 ,socit des ,acieries de ,micheville1 and ,socit des ,mines d',ammermont ,dommery4 ,the first two firms are chiefly ,german and have controlled lands not only in ,german ,lorraine1 but also in ,french ,lorraine4 ,thus1 the iron-ore lands of the ,lorraine district will1 even after the cessation of the territory to ,france1 be owned largely by ,german-controlled firms4 ,politically1 however1 ,france will have control of the output4 ,great ,britain4--,the iron ores mined in ,great ,britain come chiefly from the ,cleveland ,hills in ,yorkshire and from ,lincolnshire1 ,northamptonshire1 ,cumberland1 ,staffordshire1 ,leicestershire1 ,scotland1 and ,lancashire1 in order of importance4 ,more than one-third of the total production is derived from the ,cleveland ,hills4 ,the ore from the ,cleveland ,hills1 ,lincolnshire1 ,northamptonshire1 ,leicestershire1 and ,scotland is bedded oolitic siderite of ,middle and ,lower ,jurassic age2 that from ,cumberland and ,lancashire is hematite1 exceptionally low in phosphorus1 found in pockets in ,carboniferous and ,silurian limestones2 and that in ,staffordshire is siderite of the 8black band0 and 8clay band0 varieties found in the ,coal ,measures4 ,the following table shows the production of iron ore in the ,united ,kingdom in #aiae3 ,,table #ag4--,,production ,,of ,,iron ,,ore ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,kingdom ,,in #aiae ,long tons ,cleveland ,hills #d1gdf1bic ,lincolnshire #c1adi1jgi ,northamptonshire #b1eag1aej ,cumberland #a1cbc1djh ,staffordshire #gjc1bca ,leicestershire #fhe1acg ,scotland #cge1bda ,lancashire #ccc1jhf ,other ,great ,britain and ,ireland #djb1chg ---------- ,total #ad1bce1jab ,a large part of the iron ore in ,great ,britain can not now be worked profitably1 and much of the ore that was merchantable a few years ago could not now be worked1 on account of increased cost of transportation1 labor1 and particularly of fuel4 ,the actual reserves of ore of present merchantable grade are estimated at #a1cjj million tons2 the total reserves have been estimated by ,h4 ,louis at #ci1ejj million tons4#ce #ce ,,louis1 ,h43 8,iron-,ore ,resources of the ,world10 ,stockholm1 #aiaj4 ,in #aiae the ,united ,kingdom produced #ad1jjj1jjj tons of iron ore4 ,in the same year nearly #g1jjj1jjj tons were imported1 of which #d1jjj1jjj came from ,spain and between one-half and one million from ,algeria and ,norway each1 making a total of over #bj1jjj1jjj tons smelted in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,the total production of pig iron was nearly #i1jjj1jjj tons1 of which nearly #g1jjj1jjj tons were produced in ,england1 #a1jjj1jjj tons in ,scotland1 and nearly #a1jjj1jjj tons in ,wales4 ,ireland produces no pig iron4 ,the iron and steel industry of ,great ,britain1 so far as information is available1 is in the hands of ,british subjects4 ,eckel#cf reviews the ,british iron-ore situation as follows3 ,the position of ,great ,britain as regards iron-ore resources is peculiar--perhaps more curious than satisfactory4 ,the matter may be summarized by saying that ,england has still several hundred million tons of high-grade ore which would be salable anywhere2 that she has in addition perhaps double that quantity of low-grade ore1 workable because of its nearness to coal and markets2 and that ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,wales have thousands of millions of tons of ore now unworkable1 but which may be serviceable in the future provided that at that future date there is still any other good reason for making steel in ,great ,britain4 ,this last limitation may not be palatable1 but it is really the crux of the whole question1 and it seems to have been overlooked by the ,british geologists who have discussed the subject4 ,people do not make iron out of low-grade ores simply to use up the ores2 and with an increasing coke cost and a narrowing export market it is a very serious question whether the bulk of these ,british carbonates will ever be used4 ,the duration of the ,british steel industry will be fixed by its coal supply1 and not by its supply of local ores2 for so long as coke and markets justify it1 ore can be imported to good advantage4 ,if other conditions do not justify the importation of ore1 they will certainly not justify the use of these hypothetical reserve tonnages4 #cf ,,eckel1 ,e4 ,c43 8,iron ,ores1 ,their ,occurrence1 ,valuation and ,control10 p4 #cbj1 #aiad4 ,spain4--,spain is rich in iron-ore reserves1 but the iron and steel manufacturing industry has had little development4 ,the annual production of iron ore in ,spain during the last years before the war amounted to about #i1jjj1jjj tons1 of which more than #h1jjj1jjj tons were exported4 ,the consumption of iron ore by ,spanish blast furnaces has been in the neighborhood of #hjj1jjj tons annually4 ,the principal iron ores of ,spain lie in the northwestern part1 in the provinces of ,viscaya1 ,oviedo1 ,lugo1 and ,santander2 in the northeastern part1 in the provinces of ,teruel and ,guadalajara2 and in the southeastern part1 in the provinces of ,granada1 ,almeria1 ,murcia1 ,sevilla1 and ,huelva4 ,the iron ores of the ,bilbao district of ,viscaya are all of ,bessemer grade1 and for many years large amounts have been exported to ,england for use in ,bessemer plants to supplement ores from the ,cleveland and other districts of ,england4 ,because of their excellence1 they have been in continuous demand1 and the ,english iron and steel industry has depended to a considerable extent upon these and other high-grade ores of ,spain4 ,in more recent years1 ,germany has also become interested in the ,bilbao iron fields1 and in the last years before the war ,germany took more than one-third of the total ,spanish production1 including large amounts of ore from southern ,spain as well4 ,spanish interests own important deposits in southeastern ,spain and in the ,bilbao district4 ,most of the ore of southeastern ,spain is of high grade1 being rich in iron and low in phosphorus4 ,nearly all of it is of ,bessemer quality1 and some is very low in phosphorus2 the latter is exported extensively for use in the manufacture of low-phosphorus pig iron4 ,the ,united ,states has been largely dependent in past years upon ,spain for this grade of ore1 more than #ajj1jjj tons being imported annually4 ,spain has a number of blast furnaces and steel plants1 the principal ones being at ,bilbao1 in the ,province of ,viscaya4 ,more than #cjj1jjj tons of pig iron are produced annually in ,viscaya1 this being approximately three-fourths of the total output of pig iron in ,spain4 ,european ,russia4--,in ,european ,russia#cg the principal deposits of iron ore are distributed over four chief districts3 ,ural ,mountains1 central ,russia1 southern ,russia and the ,caucasus4 #cg ,,bogdanowitsch1 ,k43 8,the ,iron ,resources of the ,world10 ,stockholm1 #aiaj4 ,in the ,ural ,mountains for the greater part the ores are associated with igneous rocks4 ,the most important deposits are in the neighborhood of ,gora ,blagodat1 in the northern ,ural regions1 and near ,gora ,mongnitnaja1 in the southern ,urals4 ,the ores are mainly magnetite and limonite and come from an extremely large number of small mines4 ,in central ,russia1 over widely scattered areas1 are deposits of calcareous ores1 clay ironstones1 and bog ores4 ,many of the deposits are thin and can not be profitably worked4 ,the only reserves in southern ,russia of any importance are divided among three centers3 ,krivoi-,rog1 the ,donetz basin1 and the ,kertsch peninsula4 ,by far the most important deposits are the magnetite-hematite ores in the region of ,krivoi-,rog4 ,the ironstones of the ,coal ,measures in the ,donetz basin and the limonite of the ,kertsch peninsula are of secondary importance4 ,the mines of ,krivoi-,rog are extensively worked1 and their reserves are estimated at some #hf million tons of commercial ore4 ,the mines are controlled mainly by the following three companies3 the ,briansk company2 ,krivoi-,rog ,iron ,ore ,co42 and the ,providence company4 ,the following table shows the production of iron ore in different parts of ,russia in #aiab3 ,,table #ah4--,,output ,,of ,,iron ,,ore ,,in ,,russia ,long tons ,southern ,russia #e1fgi1jjj ,ural #a1hag1jjj ,central ,russia #bhf1jjj ,other ,russia and ,siberia #f1jjj --------- ,total #g1ghh1jjj ,the ore reserves of ,russia may be summarized by districts as follows3 ,,iron-,,ore ,,reserves ,,in ,,russia ,millions of tons ,ural #bhb ,central ,russia #ghi ,southern ,russia #ecf ,caucasus #ad ----- ,total #a1fba ,eckel#ch reviews the iron-ore situation in ,russia as follows3 ,on their face the ore reserves noted seem satisfactory enough1 and until the data are examined more critically it is difficult to explain why the relatively large furnishing capacity of the ,moscow and other central ,russian districts is so far out of line with the comparatively small ore production of that area4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 the large total ore reserves credited to central ,russia are in reality less important than they seem1 owing both to grade of ore and thinness of the ore bodies4 ,from an international viewpoint the ore deposits of southern ,russia are the ones which require most attention2 for these are so located as to be of importance to foreign competitors1 while the total reserve tonnage is high1 and the grade of much of the ore is excellent4 #ch ,,eckel1 ,e4 ,c43 8,iron ,ores1 ,their ,occurrence1 ,valuation and ,control10 #aiad1 p4 #cbf4 ,actual available ore reserves of merchantable grade in ,russia are estimated at #hfe million tons4 ,before the ,revolution the greater part of the ,russian iron and steel industries was controlled by syndicates4#ci ,the oldest of these consisted of manufacturers of medium sheets 7#aijb72 then followed manufacturers of joists and ,u-iron 7#aijc71 axles and tires 7#aijd71 iron tubes 7#aijf71 rails 7#aijg71 and bar iron and hoops4 ,these six syndicates were afterwards combined into one1 officially styled the ,association for the ,sale of ,products of the ,metallurgical ,works of ,russia1 but generally known as 8,prodameta10 from its telegraphic address4 ,there were separate syndicates for wire1 wire nails1 and roofing sheets4 ,the 8,prodameta0 consisted1 at last advices1 of nineteen works1 of which sixteen are in southern ,russia1 and one each in ,petrograd1 ,moscow1 and the ,ural region4 ,the 8,prodameta0 expired at the end of #aiae1 but was provisionally prolonged for one year1 and again at the end of #aiaf it was extended for a similar period4 ,the aggregate capital of the eighteen works was #aih1djj1jjj roubles1 and their net profit for #aiae-af was #gf1bjj1jjj roubles4 #ci ,ironmonger ,metal ,market ,year-,book1 ,london1 #aiah4 ,sweden4--,the iron-ore fields of ,sweden are among the most important in ,europe and have for the last ten or fifteen years furnished a large output1 which has gone mainly to ,england and ,germany4 ,a relatively small amount of iron ore is used in ,swedish iron-smelting works4 ,the iron mines of central ,sweden have been actively worked since about the beginning of the twelfth century1 whereas those of ,swedish ,lapland have been developed recently4 ,at present about one-half the output of iron ore in ,sweden comes from ,swedish ,lapland1 and the other half from central ,sweden4 ,swedish ,lapland is estimated to have iron-ore reserves amounting to #a1abh million tons4 ,the ores are mostly magnetite associated with igneous rocks and show wide difference in phosphorus content4 ,certain deposits or parts of deposits are composed of ores that are moderately low in phosphorus1 whereas others are high enough to obtain a special bonus from ,german steel plants that produce high-phosphorus slag for fertilizer purposes4 ,practically all the ores of ,swedish ,lapland are exported4 ,in recent years the total production has amounted to about #c1ejj1jjj tons annually4 ,the principal mines are worked by the ,trafikaktiebolaget ,grngesberg ,oxelosund1 in which ,english and ,german capital is interested with the ,swedish government4 ,the ,swedish government controls the output of the mines and receives a large sum in royalties on the ore produced4 ,the ore deposits from which ore is being produced at present are ,kiruna1 ,gellivare1 and ,tuolluvarra1 the first two being operated by the firm mentioned above and the last being an independent operation4 ,the ore reserves of central and southern ,sweden are estimated at #adj million tons1 included in a great number of relatively small deposits4 ,most of the mines of central ,sweden are controlled by small ,swedish operators4 ,some of the mines1 however1 such as ,blotberg1 are to a large extent under ,german control1 and the largest one1 ,grngesberg1 is operated by the same firm that controls the deposits of ,swedish ,lapland4 ,some of the ores of central ,sweden1 such as those of ,dannemora1 ,norberg1 ,strossa1 and ,stripa1 are very low in phosphorus1 and are used in the manufacture of special low-phosphorus iron2 others1 like those of ,grngesberg and ,blotberg1 contain more than #a per cent4 of phosphorus4 ,austria-,hungary4--,the iron ores of the former ,austro-,hungarian ,empire are mainly low-grade hydrous iron silicates that require roasting1 large deposits of iron carbonate1 and some limonite4 ,the total probable ore reserves have been estimated at #idj million tons1 of which about #efj million are very low grade4 ,the principal sources from which the domestic iron ore used in the past in the ,austro-,hungarian ,empire has been obtained are the chamosite-hematite deposits at ,nucitz and elsewhere in ,bohemia2 the siderite beds at ,erzberg1 in ,styria1 estimated to contain more than #bjj million tons of ore2 the siderite-limonite deposits on the slopes of the ,carpathians2 and deposits of various ores in northern and central ,bosnia4 ,by far the largest of the deposits is that at ,erzberg1 owned and operated by the ,oesterreichische ,alpinen ,montan ,gesellschaft1 presumably ,austrian4 ,the ,bohemian deposits1 also important1 are largely under the control of the ,prager ,eisen ,industrie ,gesellschaft4 ,the ,carpathian deposits are largely controlled by local individuals and firms1 among them ,duke ,philipp of ,sachsen-,coburg-,gotha-,kohar4 ,thus the principal deposits have been largely under ,austro-,hungarian control4 ,as a result of the war and the disruption of the ,austro-,hungarian ,empire1 the ,bohemian deposits1 estimated to contain #ce1ajj1jjj tons of high-grade ore and #bba1hjj1jjj tons of low-grade ore1 will come under the control of ,czechoslovakia1 whereas the ,bosnian ores1 with an estimated reserve of #ba1ejj1jjj tons1 will go to ,jugoslavia4 ,austria will retain control of the large ,erzberg deposit in ,styria1 and the ores of the ,carpathian region will continue under ,hungarian control4 ,algeria1 ,tunisia1 and ,morocco4--,the iron ores of ,morocco1 ,algeria1 and ,tunisia1 in northern ,africa1 are mainly high-grade hematite4 ,the reserve tonnage of ,algeria and ,tunisia is estimated by ,nicou at #ajj million to #aej million tons1 and about #cj million or #dj million tons is reported in the ,spanish territory of ,riff1 ,morocco4 ,the deposits of ,morocco and ,algeria are nearly all near the north coast1 and the ores are shipped from various small ports1 such as ,melilla1 ,benisaf1 ,arzeu1 ,algiers1 ,bougie1 and ,bona4 ,the deposits of ,tunisia are #ahj to #bjj kilometers southwest of ,tunis1 the shipping port1 with which they are connected by rail4 ,the principal mines of ,el ,riff1 ,morocco1 are owned by the ,sociedad ,espaola de ,minas de ,riff4 ,german interests1 the 8,netta ,company10 held a large concession1 but since the war these interests are controlled by the ,company of ,bilbao4 ,the ,north ,african deposits are important as a source of high-grade low-phosphorus ore for ,european blast furnaces4 ,all of the ore produced is exported1 the annual shipments amounting to about #a1ejj1jjj tons4 ,cuba4--,there are two principal groups of iron-ore deposits in ,cuba--the magnetite and hematite ore on the south coast1 and the brown ore1 or limonite1 on the north coast4 ,all are near the eastern end of the island4 ,the ores of ,firmeza and ,daiquiri1 on the south coast1 are mixed magnetite and hematite1 averaging about #eh per cent4 iron and #j4jc per cent4 phosphorus4 ,they are associated with igneous rocks4 ,a determination of tonnage is difficult because of the irregularity of the ore bodies1 and estimates of reserves range from #e million to #i million tons4 ,the brown ore of the north shore is hydrated brown hematite1 a laterization product of serpentine4 ,the dried ore averages about #df per cent4 iron1 #j4ja per cent4 phosphorus1 and #a4g per cent4 chromium4 ,the reserve tonnage1 estimated as high as #c1jjj million tons1 is mainly contained in the three large deposits of ,camaguey1 ,mayari1 and ,moa4 ,the principal deposits of ,cuba are owned and operated by the ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4 ,important undeveloped deposits are owned by the ,buena ,vista ,iron ,co4 7,midvale ,steel ,ordnance ,co471 ,united ,states ,steel ,corporation1 ,guantanamo ,exploration ,co41 and ,eastern ,steel ,co4 ,newfoundland4--,the principal iron ores of ,newfoundland are bedded oolitic hematites1 which average #ej per cent4 to #eb per cent4 in metallic iron4 ,the ore reserves of ,newfoundland have been estimated as between #c1bej million and #c1ejj million tons1 making them among the largest and by far the most compact iron-ore reserves in the world4 ,the output of ore has been #a1jjj1jjj to #a1ejj1jjj tons annually1 except during the war1 when the production decreased4 ,these deposits are important on account of both their size and their situation4 ,ore can be placed readily in ,american or ,european ports at a cost far lower per unit of iron than any competitive ore1 so that the market is practically unlimited4 ,the ores have been mainly exported to ,sydney1 ,nova ,scotia1 and to ,philadelphia1 while about #aj per cent4 has gone to ,holland 7,germany74 ,the phosphorus content is too high for normal economic basic open-hearth practice if the ores are used alone1 but not too high for foundry use or for the basic ,bessemer process developed in ,europe4 ,the ,wabana iron-ore deposits are owned and mined by the ,dominion ,iron ,steel ,co41 and the ,nova ,scotia ,steel ,coal ,co41 two ,canadian firms4 ,both companies operate steel plants near ,sydney1 ,cape ,breton4 ,norway4--,the principal iron ores of ,norway are low-grade magnetite and specular hematite1 much of which can profitably be concentrated4 ,they occur in the northern part1 north of the ,arctic ,circle4 ,small deposits of high-grade ores1 consisting mainly of magnetite lenses1 occur in southern ,norway4 ,the ,sydvaranger deposits1 in the extreme north near the border of ,finland1 are estimated to contain #ajj million tons of low-grade magnetite4 ,the ore is treated in a large concentrating plant erected by a ,norwegian company but controlled by ,swedish and ,german capital4 ,the concentrates analyze #gj per cent4 iron and #j4jb per cent4 phosphorus4 ,the ,dunderland deposits on ,rannenfjord1 near the ,arctic ,circle1 are estimated to contain #hj million tons of mixed low-grade specular hematite and magnetite4 ,in #aiad ,norway produced #feb1bgc tons of iron ore1 of which seven-eighths came from the ,sydvaranger deposit4 ,italy4--,the most important iron mines in ,italy are the hematite mines of the island of ,elba1 which have furnished between #ejj1jjj and #a1jjj1jjj tons of ore annually in recent years4 ,ten or twelve large ore bodies are found in the eastern part of the island1 all under control of the ,elba ,company1 which has obtained a concession giving it exclusive iron-mining rights on the island4 ,important but as yet little developed magnetite deposits are found in the ,aosta ,valley1 ,piedmont1 and limonite deposits are found on the island of ,sardinia4 ,these have furnished a very small output4 ,minor deposits of iron ore occur in ,lombardy1 in the ,apennines of central ,italy1 and elsewhere4 ,the total reserves of iron ore in ,italy are estimated at about #be million tons4 ,italy has several important iron-smelting works1 among them being the ,elba ,company furnaces on the island of ,elba1 the ,piombino furnaces at ,piombino1 on the mainland opposite ,elba1 and the ,ilva furnaces at ,bagnoli1 near ,naples4 ,in addition there are some small plants in northern ,italy4 ,italy's iron-ore deposits and iron manufactures are controlled by commercial organizations1 mainly ,italian1 but in part ,english4 ,the ,italian government exercises control over the ore deposits by granting concessions for comparatively short terms4 ,agreements made among the ,italian manufacturers for the rational division of work have led to the formation of a syndicate of the following firms3 ,ilva1 ,elba1 ,siderurgica di ,savona1 ,metallurgica di ,lestre1 ,ferriere ,italiane1 and the ,piombino ,steel ,works4 ,these firms undertook to maintain the syndicate for eleven years1 dating from ,july1 #aiaa4 ,the affairs of the organization were directed by the ,ilva ,company4 8,in #aiaf the constituent companies renewed their agreement up to the year #aicj1 but the ,ilva ,company ceased to direct the affairs of the ,syndicate1 and the relations between the ,syndicate and the ,german ,stahlwerks ,verband were abrogated and replaced by ,anglo-,italian relationships40#dj #dj ,ironmonger ,metal ,market ,year ,book1 #aiah4 ,a further organization was made called the 8,societa ,ferro ed ,acciaio10 a combination of steel works4 ,italy is important as a producer of iron ore and as a manufacturer of iron products4 ,she has been able to supply her own needs in iron ore for many years and at the present rate can continue to do so for probably twenty years longer4 ,there appears to be no tendency toward expansion into other fields to control foreign ore deposits4 ,italy produced #eic1jjj tons of iron ore in #aiac2 #ffi1jjj tons in #aiae2 and #ibg1jjj tons in #aiaf4 ,in #aiae1 #djh1jjj tons of pig iron were produced1 and #hg1jjj tons were imported4 ,greece4--,chromiferous iron ores are found in eastern ,greece and adjacent islands4 ,they contain #df to #eb per cent4 iron1 #b to #c per cent4 chromium1 and about #j4aj to #a4jj per cent4 nickel and cobalt4 ,the normal annual production of iron ore in ,greece has been in the neighborhood of #djj1jjj tons4 ,canada4--,small iron-ore deposits occur in ,new ,brunswick and ,nova ,scotia4 ,in ,ontario there are two principal iron-ore districts--the ,atikokan and the ,michipicotan ranges4 ,the ore in the former is magnetite1 and in the latter hematite and siderite with some limonite4 ,the ores of western ,british ,columbia are largely magnetite4 ,the principal deposits are on ,texada and ,vancouver islands1 where the ore is of excellent grade1 averaging #fc per cent4 iron1 #j4jb per cent4 phosphorus and #d to #aj per cent4 silica4 ,low-grade magnetite ore is found at the ,moose ,mountain mine1 ,ontario1 and is being concentrated4 ,there are a number of blast furnaces in ,canada1 among them being those of the ,dominion ,iron ,steel ,co41 ,sydney2 the ,nova ,scotia ,steel ,coal ,co41 ,sydney ,mines1 and the ,londonderry ,iron ,mining ,co41 ,londonderry1 all of which use ores from ,newfoundland and ,nova ,scotia2 the ,algoma ,steel ,corporation1 ,sault ,ste4 ,marie1 ,ontario2 the ,steel ,company of ,canada1 ,hamilton1 ,ontario2 the ,canadian ,furnace ,co41 ,port ,colborne1 ,ontario2 the ,canada ,iron ,foundries1 ,midland1 ,ontario2 the ,standard ,iron ,co41 ,deseronto and ,parry ,sound1 ,ontario2 and the ,atikokan ,iron ,co41 ,port ,arthur1 ,ontario1 which use largely ,lake ores of the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,the ,moose ,mountain ,co41 of ,sellwood1 ,ontario1 has a magnetic concentrating and briquetting plant using ore from the ,moose ,mountain mine4 ,in ,may1 #aibj1 the ,british ,empire ,steel ,corporation1 the second largest in the world1 was formed by the merger of nine steel1 coal1 ship-building and transportation companies4 ,in #aiab ,canada produced #aef1jjj tons of iron ore1 and made #ijf1jjj tons of pig iron4#da ,in #aiah she made #a1jff1jga tons of pig iron4 ,the iron mines of ,canada are largely of ,canadian and partly of ,american ownership4 #da ,board of ,trade1 8,reports on ,iron and ,steel10 ,london1 #aije-aiah4 ,china and ,manchuria4--,little information is available on the extent of the iron-ore deposits of the ,chinese ,empire4 ,the principal producing area is that of ,tayeh1 south of ,yangtse ,river in the ,province of ,hupeh1 where a series of ore bodies1 consisting of mixed hematite and magnetite1 occurs along the contact of limestone and intrusive syenite4 ,the deposits are estimated to contain about #dj million tons of ore4#db ,the ,han-,yeh-,ping ,iron ,steel ,co41 largely controlled in ,japan1 owns these deposits and the ,han ,yang steel plant near ,hankow4 ,iron ore similar to that of ,tayeh is reported to occur farther down the ,yangtse at ,tungling1 in the ,province of ,ngan-whei1 and also along the coast near ,amoy1 ,province of ,fukien4 ,the deposits near ,amoy are said to contain about #be million tons4 #db ,,bain1 ,h4 ,f43 8,notes on ,iron-,ore ,resources of ,china10 ,trans4 ,am4 ,inst4 ,min4 ,eng41 #aiah4 ,of considerable importance are the mixed hematite and magnetite ores of ,chin-ling-chen1 near ,kiaochow1 ,shantung ,province4 ,a series of ore bodies1 some of them #ajj feet in width1 are said to occur along a contact zone two kilometers in length4#dc ,the deposits were exploited by ,germans and are being developed by ,japanese4 #dc ,,koert1 ,w43 8,iron-,ore ,resources of the ,world10 ,stockholm1 #aiaj4 ,sedimentary beds of oolitic ore of some extent are reported in the provinces of ,chih-li and ,kiang-si1 but they are of low grade4 ,bedded siderite ores similar to the ,coal ,measures ores of ,england have been mined for many years in ,shan-si ,province and smelted in native furnaces4 ,in ,hunan ,province1 also1 this type of ore is mined4 ,the principal iron ores of ,manchuria are magnetites that occur as a series of deposits in a northwest-southeast belt south and southeast of ,mukden1 in southern ,manchuria4 ,they are interbedded with schist1 gneiss1 and porphyry4 ,in this belt are the ,an-shan-chang deposits that are now being developed by ,japanese interests affiliated with the ,south ,manchurian ,railway1 and the ,miaor-kow deposits operated by a ,sino-,japanese company1 the ,pen-hsi-hu ,coal ,iron ,co41 ,ltd4 ,the southern ,manchuria magnetite belt is reported to contain reserves amounting to about #ejj million tons4#dd ,much of the ore is of low grade4 #dd ,,wang1 ,c4 ,f43 8,coal and ,iron ,deposits of the ,pen-hsi-hu ,district1 ,manchuria10 ,trans4 ,am4 ,inst4 ,min4 ,eng41 #aiah4 ,india4--,iron ores of four types are found in ,india#de3 7#a7 lenses of specular hematite with some magnetite1 occurring in quartz-hematite and quartz-magnetite schist of the ,dharwar series and other older rocks2 7#b7 granules of magnetite and hematite scattered through granite and schist2 7#c7 clay ironstones in the ,coal ,measures of ,bengal2 and 7#d7 lateritic ores4 #de ,,de ,,la ,,touche1 ,f4 ,e43 8,iron-,ore ,resources of the ,world10 ,stockholm1 #aiaj4 ,the hematite-magnetite lenses interlayered with iron-bearing schists are the most important of the ,indian ores1 although it is only recently that they have been exploited4 ,the ,tata ,iron ,steel ,co4 owns the principal deposits of this type1 including ,mayurbhanj1 in ,bengal1 where mining is being conducted at present1 and the large undeveloped deposits of the ,raipur district1 ,central ,provinces4 ,important deposits of this type are also found in southern ,india4 ,magnetite and hematite derived from the disintegration of schist and granite are now being used by the ,bengal ,iron ,steel ,co41 of ,barakar4 ,they consist of surface accumulations of iron sands and are found in various parts of ,india4 ,clay ironstones scattered through shales were formerly used by the ,bengal ,iron ,steel ,co41 but its supply of these is exhausted4 ,lateritic iron ores lying at the surface are widespread but undeveloped4 ,the principal iron and steel company of ,india is that of ,tata ,sons1 an ,indian firm4 ,its plant1 which has been mining since #aiab1 is at ,sakchi1 in ,bengal1 and comprises three blast furnaces with a total monthly capacity of #bd1jjj tons of pig iron4 ,there are also extensive coke ovens1 open-hearth furnaces1 and steel mills4 ,many additions are being planned4 ,the ,bengal ,iron ,steel ,co41 which has been in operation for thirty years1 has three small blast furnaces at ,barakar1 with a monthly capacity of #ab1jjj tons4 ,a steel mill and rolling mill built by this company have been abandoned4 ,several new developments are being planned in the ,indian steel industry1 among them being the ,indian ,iron ,steel ,co41 an ,english firm1 which is building a plant near ,asanol on the ,east ,indian ,railway4 ,the production of iron ores for #aiae was #cij1bgj tons1 the production of iron and steel for #aiad was #ejd1efd tons and for #aiae to #aiaf it was #ehd1gge tons4 ,total imports of iron and steel1 #aiad to #aiae1 amounted to #fih1fce tons1 and #aiae to #aiaf1 to #dbd1eig tons4 ,japan and ,korea4--,the iron ore used in ,japanese furnaces is obtained in part from domestic mines and in part from ,korean1 ,manchurian1 and ,chinese mines4 ,the iron ore produced in ,japan comes mainly from the ,kamaishi group of deposits in the northern part of the island of ,honshu4 ,these mines yield more than one-half of the total annual production of iron ore in ,japan1 the remainder coming mainly from the ,sennin and ,kuriki mines1 also in the northern part of ,honshu2 the ,abuta and other bog ore deposits in ,hokkaido1 and the black sand deposits of ,chugoku1 in southern ,honshu4 ,the ,kamaishi1 ,sennin1 and ,kuriki deposits consist of magnetite and hematite associated with sedimentary rocks near igneous intrusions4 ,the iron-ore reserves of ,japan are estimated by ,inouye#df at about #fj million tons4 #df ,,inouye1 ,k43 8,iron-,ore ,resources of the ,world10 ,stockholm1 #aiaj4 ,the ,korean iron ores used in ,japan have come mainly from the surficial limonite deposits of ,hoang-hai-do1 about #ajj miles northwest of ,seoul1 which have been actively mined for #aj years or more4 ,recently ,japanese-controlled blast furnaces have been established at ,ken-ji-pho1 ,korea1 which use ore from the ,ken-ji-pho iron mine1 situated in the same region as the ,hoang-hai-do mines4 ,the pig iron produced by this plant is sent to ,japan for use in ,japanese steel plants4 ,chinese iron ore used in ,japan has been obtained from the ,tayeh mines of ,hupeh ,province4 ,a part of the ore from these mines goes directly to ,japan1 and a part goes to the ,han-,yang furnaces1 near ,hankow1 to be manufactured into pig-iron and steel products which also go to ,japan4 ,the ,han-,yeh-,ping ,iron ,steel ,co41 which owns both the ,tayeh mines and the ,han-,yang furnaces1 is a ,chinese concern1 the capital of which is at present controlled largely by ,japanese banking firms4 ,of considerable interest at the present time is the development by ,japanese of the ,chin-ling-chen iron-ore deposits on the peninsula of ,kiaochow1 ,shantung ,province4 ,these deposits were being exploited by the ,germans just before the war and have recently been taken over by the ,japanese1 who are continuing development4 ,two important ,japanese-controlled iron and steel manufacturing projects are at present being developed in ,manchuria4 ,the older of these is the plant of the ,pen-hsi-hu ,colliery ,mining ,co4 at ,pen-hsi-hu1 southeast of ,mukden1 where pig iron is being manufactured from ore obtained from the neighboring ,miaor-kou magnetite mines4 ,the pig iron is being sent to ,japan4 ,the other ,manchurian enterprise is the ,an-shan-chang iron and steel works at ,sha-ho-kou1 south of ,mukden4 ,the ore is derived from the ,an-shan-chang iron mines and the pig iron and steel products which it is later planned to manufacture are to be sent to ,japan4 ,it is also planned to send ,manchurian ore to ,japan4 ,on page #gg are shown the production and importation of iron ore into ,japan in recent years3 ,,table #ai4--,,production ,,and ,,importation ,,of ,,iron ,,ore ,,into ,,japan1 #aiad ,,to #aiaf 7,metric tons7 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,importation from ,total including -------------- other ,year,production ,korea ,china countries ---------------------------------------- --- #aiad #acf1che #afc1gdgcjj1cje #dfe1ged #aiae #acf1aba #bjd1ajacaa1caj #eaf1acb #aiaf #aeh1hae #aib1bbebhb1adi #dgd1iee ---------------------------------------- --- ,a considerable quantity of pig iron is imported into ,japan from ,british ,india1 ,great ,britain1 and other countries4 ,the principal iron-smelting works in ,japan are as follows3 ,imperial ,steel ,works1 ,yawata2 ,kamaishi ,iron ,works1 ,kamaishi2 ,wanishi ,iron ,works1 ,tanburi2 ,sennin ,iron ,works1 ,waka2 ,kuriki ,iron ,works1 ,kisen4 ,all are controlled by ,japanese1 the first being the ,japanese government works4 ,poland4--,in ,poland the chief deposits of iron ore are the limonite deposits in the ,vistula district1 carrying #bb to #ej per cent4 iron4 ,the production in #aiab was #bhi1jjj long tons4 ,the resources are estimated at #cjj million to #hjj million tons4 ,belgium4--,belgium's production of iron ore in recent years has amounted to about #aej1jjj tons annually1 of which more than half was derived from the 8minette0 ore beds in the southeastern part along the ,french border1 and the remainder came in part from beds of oolitic hematite of ,devonian age in the ,namur and ,liege basins and in part from bog-ore deposits in the northern part4 ,in the past the largest production has come from the ,namur basin1 and there are still large reserves of these oolitic hematite ores4 ,the total iron-ore reserves of ,belgium are estimated to be about #fb1ejj1jjj tons4 ,the iron ore produced in ,belgium supplies only a very small part of the requirements for the ,belgian iron and steel industry1 most of the ore being imported from ,france4 ,portugal4--,the largest deposits of iron ore in ,portugal are those of ,moncorvo1 in the northeastern part4 ,the ore is a bedded sedimentary deposit of low grade and the estimated reserve is #de million tons4 ,small deposits of magnetite and brown hematite are found in the southern part in the ,province of ,alemtejo4 ,portugal produced #dh1cdb tons of iron ore in #aiac4 ,turkey and ,bulgaria4--,minor deposits of magnetite and hematite occur in ,bulgaria and former ,european ,turkey1 and in western ,asia ,minor several important ore bodies are known4#dg ,the largest of these deposits occurs in the ,berut ,hills1 #ij miles northwest of the ,gulf of ,alexandretta4 ,it is reported to be capable of producing #cjj1jjj tons annually4 #dg ,,edwards1 ,g4 ,m43 8,notes on ,mines in the ,ottoman ,empire10 ,trans4 ,inst4 ,min4 ,met41 vol4 #bc1 #aiac-ad4 ,other important deposits are found near ,ayazmat1 on the mainland opposite the island of ,mitylene1 and near ,tireboli and ,trebizond1 on the ,black ,sea4 ,the only producing mine is near ,ayazmat4 ,chile4--,scattered iron-ore deposits occur in ,chile in the coastal mountain region2 the principal deposits extend a distance of about #aej miles parallel to the coast1 some of them being north and some south of ,coquimbo4 ,the ore bodies are within #aj to #dj miles of the coast4 ,most of them are enclosed as lenses in granitic rocks2 a few are in sedimentary rocks near the contact of igneous rocks4 ,furnaces and a steel plant were erected by a ,french syndicate #aj to #ae years ago in southern ,chile4 ,the plant ran only a few months1 there being apparently no market for the product4 ,the iron ore was obtained from the ,tofo deposit1 and green wood was used for fuel4 ,of the ,chilean deposits1 the largest1 ,algarrobo1 is owned by a joint ,dutch-,german syndicate controlled by ,wm4 ,h4 ,mller ,co41 and ,gutehoffnungshtte4 ,tofo1 next in size to ,algarrobo1 is under lease to the ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4 ,most of the other deposits are owned by ,chileans4 ,the tonnage of ,chilean ore controlled by different nationalities is approximately as follows3 ,millions of tons 7long tons7 ,german #ej ,american #dj ,chilean 7in part ,english7 #ej --- ,total #adj ,iron ore was mined at ,tofo during #aiad1 #aiae1 and #aiaf1 and exported to the ,united ,states4 ,in #aiae about #aec1jjj tons were shipped4 ,during the war the mining practically ceased4 ,brazil4--,the iron-ore deposits of ,minas ,geraes1 ,brazil1 are among the most important in the world4 ,the ore bodies1 which as yet are practically undeveloped1 lie in an area roughly #ajj miles square1 the center of which is #bbe miles in a direct line north of ,rio de ,janeiro4 ,the principal ores are hematite and are associated as beds and lenses with a laminated ferruginous quartzite known as 8itabirite0 that covers many square miles4 ,the interlayered beds and lenses of ore are high grade1 carrying up to #fi or #gj per cent4 of metallic iron and averaging between #j4jjc and #j4jbe per cent4 phosphorus4 ,nearly all ores of this type are of ,bessemer or low-phosphorus grade4 ,there are also large areas of recently formed surface ores consisting of mixed hematite and limonite moderately high in phosphorus2 these average #ee to #fe per cent4 in metallic iron4 ,on account of the distance from the coast and high cost of transportation1 only the high-grade bedded ores are considered at present as available4 ,the ,central ,railroad of ,brazil runs through the iron-ore district to the port of ,rio1 #caj miles from the southern edge of the district1 but unfortunately1 on account of heavy grades1 it can not be used for extensive transportation of iron ores4 ,as workable bodies of coal suitable for iron manufacture are not known to exist in ,brazil1 the ,minas ,geraes deposits have up to the present produced little ore4 ,the principal iron-ore deposits of ,minas ,geraes are owned by the ,itabria ,iron ,ore ,co41 the ,st4 ,john del ,rey ,gold ,mining ,co41 ,ltd41 the ,brazilian ,iron ,steel ,co41 and the ,compania ,metallurgica1 the first two being ,english1 the third ,american1 and the fourth ,brazilian4 ,the ,deutsch-,luxemburgisches ,bergwerks und ,htten ,aktiengesellschaft 7,german71 the ,socit ,anonyme ,franco-,bresiliene 7,french71 ,jules ,bernard1 ,mathiew ,goudchaux et ,cie 7,french71 the ,minas ,geraes ,iron ,syndicate 7,american71 and others1 own local deposits4 ,the following table shows approximately the tonnage of ore controlled by each nationality3 ,,table #bj4--;,,brazilian ,,iron ,,ore ,,controlled ,,by ,,different ,,nationalities ------------------------------- ,millions of tons 7long tons7 -------------------- ,bessemer,non-,bessemer ------------------------------ ,english #ade #cjj ,american #afj #dbj ,french #ba #ae ,german #dj #aj ,brazilian #dd #djj -------------------- ,total #daj #a1ade ------------------------------ ,iron ores similar to those of ,minas ,geraes1 and magnetite deposits of minor importance are reported in other parts of ,brazil4 ,mexico4--,mexico has important deposits of iron ore in the ,states of ,lower ,california1 ,coahuila1 ,durango1 ,guerrero1 ,michoacan1 and ,oaxaca4 ,the largest iron and steel making plant in ,mexico is that of the ,compaia de ,aciero y ,fierro de ,monterey1 ,state of ,nuevo ,leon1 operated by ,spanish capital4 ,this plant produces between #ej1jjj and #ajj1jjj tons of pig iron yearly4 ,ore is obtained from ,coahuila1 and coke from nearby coal fields4 ,at ,durango is a charcoal furnace1 which has been idle for many years4 ,it is owned by the ,durango ,iron ,steel ,co4 7,american74 ,small iron-making operations exist in ,hidalgo1 ,puebla1 ,vera ,cruz and ,oaxaca4 ,the best known of the ,mexican iron-ore deposits is that of ,iron ,mountain 7,cerro de ,mercado71 near ,durango ,city1 a large body of magnetite4 ,in ,lower ,california there are important deposits of iron ore at several localities4 ,they are owned by the ,international ,development ,co41 an ,american firm with headquarters at ,los ,angeles1 ,california4 ,the deposits in ,guerrero1 ,michoacan and ,oaxaca are reported to be extensive4 ,south ,africa4--,various deposits of low-grade iron ore are found in ,south ,africa4 ,in ,transvaal there is siliceous sedimentary hematite and magnetite in ferruginous schists of different ages1 titaniferous magnetite associated with basic igneous rocks1 and local clay-band ore2 and in both ,cape ,colony and ,transvaal there are lateritic surface ores4 ,a #ae-ton blast furnace has been built within the last year or two near ,pretoria by the ,pretoria ,iron ,mines ,co41 ,ltd41 for the purpose of manufacturing pig iron from local ores4 ,this is the first attempt to establish an iron industry in ,south ,africa4 ,australia1 ,tasmania1 and ,new ,zealand4--,in ,australia and ,new ,zealand are some important iron-ore deposits1 but only a few are developed4 ,most of the iron ore mined in ,australia has been used for flux in copper1 lead1 zinc1 and other smelting plants2 a small amount has been used in the two local iron and steel works--that of the ,broken ,hill ,proprietary ,co41 at ,newcastle1 ,new ,south ,wales1 and that of the ,eskbank ,iron ,works at ,lithgow1 about #ge miles west of ,sydney1 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,the former is the more important1 having in operation at the present time two blast furnaces as well as steel furnaces1 rail mill1 and plate mill4 ,among the important ,australian iron-ore deposits are the hematite ores of ,coombing ,park1 near ,carcoar1 and of ,cadia1 near ,millthorpe1 both in ,new ,south ,wales1 estimated to contain reserves of #db million tons of ore2 the hematite deposits of the ,murchison district1 about #djj miles northeast of ,perth1 western ,australia1 where one single deposit--that of ,wilgi ,mia--has been estimated to contain more than #be million tons2 the ,iron ,monarch manganiferous iron-ore deposit1 estimated to contain #bj million tons of ore1 and the neighboring ,iron ,knob hematite deposit of one million tons1 both about #dj miles from ,port ,augusta1 at the head of ,spencer ,bay1 ,south ,australia2 and the hematite deposits of ,mt4 ,leviathan1 estimated at #aj million tons1 located about #bej miles from ,normanton1 on the ,gulf of ,carpentaria1 ,queensland4 ,numerous smaller and less important ore bodies are found in all the provinces4 ,the ,coombing ,park ores have been used at the ,eskbank ,iron ,works1 #ij1bjj tons being produced in #aiaf4 ,the ore averages about #ee per cent4 iron4 ,the ,iron ,monarch deposit is being developed by the ,broken ,hills ,proprietary ,co41 and the ore is to be used in the furnaces at ,newcastle4 ,an important iron-ore deposit1 estimated to contain #bc million tons of minable ore1 is reported to occur on ,blythe ,river1 in the northwestern part of ,tasmania1 about #f miles from the coast4 ,there have been rumors recently of a possible exploitation of this deposit4 ,in ,new ,zealand large deposits of limonite occur in the ,nelson district1 in the northern part of ,south ,island4 ,the principal group of deposits1 known as ,parapara1 is estimated to contain about #fd million tons4 ,titaniferous magnetite sands1 measurable in millions of tons1 are reported to occur in the southwestern part of ,north ,island near ,new ,plymouth4 ,,position ,,of ,,leading ,,commercial ,,nations ,general ,statement4--,the world's chief iron- and steel-producing countries are1 in the order of their importance3 ,united ,states1 ,germany1 ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,russia1 ,austria-,hungary1 and ,belgium4 ,the annual pig-iron production of these countries ranged in #aiac from #b1cjj1jjj tons in ,belgium to #cj1ijj1jjj tons in the ,united ,states4 ,the normal consumption of iron ore by these countries in the last years preceding the war and their recent maximum annual production are given below3 ,,table #ba4--,,maximum ,,annual ,,output ,,and ,,normal ,,consumption ,,of ,,iron ,,ore ,,by ,,chief ,,iron- ,,and ,,steel-,,making ,,countries ---------------------------------------- ,consumption ,production ,countries 7long tons7 7long tons7 ---------------------------------------- ,united ,states #fb1jjj1jjj #ge1bhh1hea ,germany #dj1fjj1jjjdhcc1ihg1aab ,great ,britain #ai1jjj1jjj #ae1iig1cbh ,france #ab1cjj1jjj #ba1egb1hce ,russia #h1ijj1jjj #i1cfb1gdf ,belgium #f1hjj1jjj #afd1gcd ,austria-,hungary #e1bjj1jjj #e1bcc1jee ---------------------------------------- #dh ,includes production of ,luxemburg4 ,the consumption figures represent metallic iron consumed in terms of iron ore and are obtained on the basis of production and imports of iron ore1 and imports of pig iron and crude iron and steel products4 ,exports of iron ore1 pig iron1 and crude iron and steel products are not considered as forming part of the countries' consumption4 ,a comparison of the consumption and production indicates that the ,united ,states1 ,france1 ,russia and ,austria-,hungary were self-supporting as far as raw materials for their iron and steel industry were concerned4 ,great ,britain and ,germany are dependent for a small percentage of their requirements upon foreign countries4 ,belgium produces a very small percentage of her consumption of iron ore1 being almost entirely dependent upon foreign sources1 mainly ,france and ,germany1 for her iron-ore requirements4 ,in several countries that produce much iron ore the iron and steel industry is still in its infancy4 ,the iron ore from these countries is nearly all exported to the large iron and steel making countries4 ,the following table shows the recent maximum annual production and normal annual consumption in some of these3 ,,table #bb4--,,maximum ,,annual ,,output ,,and ,,normal ,,consumption ,,of ,,iron ,,ore ,,in ,,several ,,countries ---------------------------------- ,consumption,production ,countries 7long tons77long tons7 ---------------------------------- ,spain #a1jjj1jjj #i1gje1ifc ,sweden #gjj1jjj #f1hgh1cah ,cuba 444 #a1ehe1dca ,newfoundland 444 #a1dcc1heh ,north ,africa 444 #a1cdi1jjj ---------------------------------- ,thus1 considerable quantities of iron ore are available from these countries for consumption in countries that have to import iron ore and iron products4 ,there is shown below the pig-iron and steel production in #aiac of the world's principal iron and steel manufacturing countries4 ,,table #bc4--,,pig-,,iron ,,and ,,steel ,,output ,,of ,,the ,,chief ,,producing ,,countries1 #aiac ------------------------------------- ,pig iron ,steel ,countries 7long tons77long tons7 ------------------------------------- ,united ,states #cj1iff1aeb #ca1cjj1hgd ,germany #ai1jjd1jbb #ah1fei1jjj ,great ,britain #aj1dha1iag #g1ffd1jjj ,france #e1bbg1cgh #d1cdi1jjj ,russia #d1dgd1geg #d1gej1jjj ,austria-,hungary #b1cce1agj #b1fda1jjj ,belgium #b1cah1gfg #b1dge1jjj ,canada #a1jae1aah #a1jdd1jjj ,sweden #gbh1ajc #egd1jjj ,spain #dah1jfa #cei1jjj ,italy #dbj1jaa #hig1jjj ,japan #bcf1dia #bea1jjj ------------------------------------- ,united ,states4--,the ,united ,states has for many years had in the ,lake ,superior district the chief iron-ore producing fields in the world4 ,in recent years the ,lake ,superior district has furnished more than two-fifths of the world's output of iron ore4 ,in #aiag1 #ge1bhh1hea gross tons of iron ore1 #ch1fdg1cig gross tons of pig iron1 and #de1jfj1fjg gross tons of steel were produced in the ,united ,states1 as compared with #fa1ihj1dcg tons of iron ore1 #cj1iff1aeb tons of pig iron1 and #ca1cjj1hgd tons of steel in #aiac4 ,the imports of iron ore in #aiag amounted to #iga1ffc tons and of crude forms of iron and steel to #cjf1ahi tons1 as compared with #b1eid1ggj tons of iron ore and #bej1eib tons of crude iron and steel products imported in #aiac4 ,the exports of iron ore from the ,united ,states in #aiag amounted to #a1acb1cac tons and of crude forms of iron and steel to #d1gdd1ebg tons1 as compared with #a1jdb1aea tons of iron ore and #a1bgh1aca tons of crude forms of iron and steel exported in #aiac4 ,these figures indicate that in normal times the ,united ,states consumes about #he per cent4 of the domestic output of iron ore1 in the manufacture of finished iron and steel products4 ,fifteen per cent4 is exported either as iron ore1 or as crude iron and steel products which are manufactured into finished products in other countries4 ,of the finished iron and steel products made in this country the ,united ,states itself consumes the larger part4 ,however1 large quantities of iron and steel articles and machinery are exported to other countries as well4 ,the iron ore exported from this country is mainly ,lake ore1 which goes to ,canadian furnaces4 ,the iron ore imported is largely ,cuban ore1 which is used at the ,sparrow's ,point plant of the ,bethlehem ,steel ,corporation4 ,this plant has facilities for using only ore arriving by boat and has been running almost entirely on foreign ores4 ,the ,cuban iron mines are largely under the control of this company1 and an increased production is expected from them in the future4 ,the ,bethlehem ,steel ,corporation has also developed an extensive iron-ore deposit in ,chile1 from which some shipments were made during the first years of the ,world ,war4 ,it has been allowed to remain idle recently on account of lack of shipping facilities4 ,large shipments are expected from ,chile in the future4 ,a considerable amount of ,swedish ore has been imported in recent years by the ,bethlehem ,steel ,corporation1 to supplement its shipments of ,cuban ore4 ,during the war1 however1 the ,trafikaktiebolaget ,grngesberg ,oxelosund decreased its ore shipments and finally refused altogether to export ore to the ,united ,states4 ,these shipments recommenced soon after the cessation of hostilities in ,europe4 ,certain high-grade low-phosphorus iron ores which are not present in the ,united ,states in sufficient quantity to supply domestic needs have been imported in past years from ,spain1 ,north ,africa1 and to a small extent from ,sweden4 ,during the war1 when the shortage of shipping facilities necessitated combing this country for supplies of high-grade low-phosphorus ores1 it was shown that the ,united ,states is more or less dependent upon foreign sources for such ores4 ,there are a number of mines in the ,united ,states1 such as the ,lyon ,mountain mine in ,new ,york1 and the ,cranberry mine in ,north ,carolina1 which produce limited amounts of high-grade low-phosphorus ore4 ,several mines on the ,menominee ,range1 ,michigan1 produce a very siliceous low-phosphorus ore that can be used to supplement in part the high-grade ores4 ,a considerable quantity of low-phosphorus pyrite residue from sulphuric acid and fertilizer plants is also used for making low-phosphorus iron4 ,much of the pyrite yielding this residue is imported from ,spain1 some of it is of domestic origin1 and some of it comes from ,canada4 ,altogether1 the ,united ,states supplies about #fj per cent4 of the material required for the manufacture of its normal output of low-phosphorus pig iron4 ,certain developments in progress make it probable that a greater percentage of ore used for this purpose can be supplied from domestic mines4 ,the principal enterprise is one that plans to concentrate the siliceous magnetite ore of the eastern ,mesabi ,range4 ,experiments have yielded a high-grade product and work on a commercial scale is planned4 ,the reserves of the ordinary grades of iron ore in the ,united ,states are large1 and no shortage of such ore is anticipated for many years4 ,they are easily capable of taking care of a considerably increased consumption4 ,the largest reserves are in the ,lake ,superior district and in the southeastern states1 but large untouched reserves occur in the western states as well4 ,the iron ores in the ,pacific ,coast region have remained undeveloped from the lack of sufficient demand for pig iron and crude forms of iron and steel on the ,pacific ,coast4 ,undoubtedly this demand will increase in the future1 and iron and steel industries will be established there4 ,the reserves of ore in the ,lake ,superior district are large4 ,the grade of ore mined1 however1 has been gradually getting lower1 and it is possible that before many years ,lake iron ores averaging considerably below #ej per cent4 will have to be utilized4 ,at present the average grade of the ores mined in the ,lake ,superior district is about #ea per cent4 ,it is clear that there is not likely to be a shortage of the ordinary grades of iron ore in the ,united ,states4 ,reserves of high-grade ores1 however1 are being gradually depleted1 and high-grade ores from foreign countries will find an increasingly ready market4 ,american capital controls a large reserve of high-grade iron ore in ,brazil4 ,much of the ,brazilian ore averages about #fh per cent4 in metallic iron and is very low in phosphorus1 making it an exceedingly desirable raw material for the manufacture of special iron and for mixing with lower-grade domestic ores4 ,doubtless much of the ,brazilian ore will go to ,europe1 as ,british and other foreign holdings of this ore are extensive4 ,however1 it is highly desirable that a certain proportion of the ore should be diverted to ,american furnaces4 ,germany4--,the annual consumption of iron ore in ,germany just before the war was about #dj million tons1 and the maximum annual output at this time1 including more than #g million tons from ,luxemburg1 was only about #cd million long tons4 ,in order to supply ,german furnaces it was necessary1 therefore1 to import more than #f million tons of iron ore from foreign countries4 ,more than #eh per cent4 of the iron ore mined in ,germany has come from the ,lorraine district4 ,the production from ,german iron mines outside of the ,lorraine district amounted to #f1ijf1hji tons in #aiac4 ,the production of pig iron during that year was #ai1jjd1jbb tons4 ,the pre-war imports of iron ore into ,germany were large1 amounting to nearly #ad million tons in #aiac2 against these the exports were somewhat more than #b million tons4 ,the iron ore imported from ,sweden is mainly high-phosphorus ore from the mines of ,swedish ,lapland and central ,sweden4 ,this is especially adapted to the manufacture of pig iron for the ,thomas process1 much used in ,germany4 ,most of the ores from the ,lorraine district are slightly too low in phosphorus to be suitable for the ,thomas process2 and ,swedish high-phosphorus ores1 phosphate rock1 and phosphatic slags are in places mixed with ,lorraine ore to raise the phosphorus content4 ,a considerable amount of low-phosphorus iron ore used in the manufacture of low-phosphorus pig iron is also imported from ,sweden1 and a larger amount of this ore is imported from ,spain4 ,this material is used in ,germany for the manufacture of pig iron to be used in making acid open-hearth steel4 ,since ,germany has lost the ,lorraine iron fields1 the remaining domestic iron mines will be able to supply less than #bj per cent4 of the requirements of iron ore for the ,german furnaces4 ,however1 it is likely that ,germany will continue to receive most of her supplies from the ,lorraine fields1 in which ,german holdings at present predominate over ,french holdings and will probably continue to predominate4 ,great ,britain4--,the ,united ,kingdom has produced from #aj to #ad per cent4 of the iron and steel of the world annually for the past #aj years or more1 and apparently has consumed in normal times about #ej per cent4 of the product and exported #ej per cent41 mainly to ,british possessions4 ,during the war about #ge per cent4 of the ,british production was consumed at home and #be per cent4 was exported1 largely to ,france4 ,fifty per cent4 of the iron and steel products manufactured has been obtained from ores mined in ,great ,britain1 and #ej per cent4 from imported ores4 ,thus1 normally1 the domestic yield of iron ore just about equals the domestic demand for iron1 whereas during the war the domestic demand for iron was greater than the domestic supply of ore4 ,great ,britain depends upon outside sources for one-third of her iron-ore supply and this constitutes the source of about one-half of the iron products4 ,the iron industry in ,great ,britain before the war was loosely controlled by merchants who acted as intermediaries between producer and consumer1 an arrangement that did not work to the advantage of the consumer4#di ,british manufacturers had little interest abroad and were themselves insufficiently organized to operate successfully4 ,if the sources of foreign iron ore were cut off1 the situation might become critical and exceedingly embarrassing until the domestic mining industry could be expanded4 ,to meet this condition the ,british ,board of ,trade ,committee advised a consolidation of iron interests by the formation of a syndicate for the purchase and distribution of iron ores and particularly for the acquiring of interests abroad4 ,this syndicate would establish sales agencies and arrange for transportation and trade1 similar to the organization of ,w4 ,h4 ,mller ,co41 of ,the ,hague4 ,the committee recommended that these operations be backed by the government and that all the resources of the ,british ,empire be under the control of the government1 especially in regard to the granting of concessions to aliens and the imposing of restrictions to favor home producers4 ,it has recently been reported that the iron interests have organized along the lines indicated4 #di ,british ,board of ,trade1 8,reports on ,iron and ,steel10 ,london4 ,france4--,the annual consumption of iron ore in ,france for the manufacture of pig iron and crude iron and steel products amounts to about #ab million tons under normal conditions4 ,the productive capacity of the iron mines of ,france is more than #ba million1 leaving a surplus of #i million tons of ore annually available for export4 ,more than #ij per cent4 of the iron ore produced in ,france is obtained from the ,lorraine iron mines4 ,most of the ore exported from ,france in the past has gone to ,german blast furnaces4 ,much has gone to ,belgium4 ,imports of iron ore are small1 being mostly high-grade ore from ,sweden1 in which class of ore ,france is deficient4 ,french possessions in ,north ,africa have large reserves of high-grade ore1 but the bulk of the ore mined there has gone to ,england and ,germany4 ,as a result of the war1 that part of the ,lorraine iron fields within the boundaries of the disputed provinces of ,alsace and ,lorraine has been given to ,france1 who thus has control of the entire output of the great ,lorraine iron fields with the exception of the part included in ,luxemburg4 ,the production of the ,lorraine iron fields1 including the part that formerly belonged to ,germany1 has been nearly #dh million tons annually1 of which about #g million tons is mined in ,luxemburg4 ,outside of the ,lorraine district ,france produces about #a1ejj1jjj tons of ore4 ,thus1 unless iron and steel making expand greatly in ,france1 much iron ore will be mined for export4 ,russia4--,in #aiac ,russia ranked sixth in the output of iron ore and fifth in the output of pig iron1 producing about #d per cent4 of the world's production of iron ore and #f per cent4 of the pig iron4 ,russia's iron-ore reserves are estimated at about #a1fjj million tons1 a part of which1 especially in central ,russia1 is not economically minable4 ,the district of southern ,russia is important on account of its large reserves1 large output1 and its location4 ,this is particularly true at this time on account of ,germany's need of iron ore for future use4 ,the ,russian output of iron ore grew from about #b million tons annually in #ahia-ic to #g or #h million tons annually in #aiac-aiag4 ,southern ,russia 7almost exclusively the ,krivoi-,rog district7 produced nearly #g million tons in #aiac1 but by #aiaf the production from this region had been cut down to half1 its difference being made up from other regions4#ej ,between #aiac and #aiag1 ,russia produced about #d million tons of pig iron annually1 of which #c million tons came from ,south ,russia1 and most of the remainder from the ,ural region4 #ej ,advisory ,council1 ,dept4 of ,sci4 and ,indust4 ,research1 8,report on the ,sources and ,production of ,iron and ,other ,metalliferous ,ores ,used in the ,iron and ,steel ,industry10 #aiah4 ,also ,british ,board of ,trade1 8,reports on ,iron and ,steel10 ,london2 and ,ironmonger ,metal ,market ,year ,book1 #aiah4 ,in #aiaf the ,central ,war ,industry ,committee estimated the monthly requirements of the whole country at #cjj1jjj tons of pig iron for war purposes1 and at #hj1jjj tons for the requirements of the civil population1 making a total annual consumption of about #d1ejj1jjj tons1 or only about one-half of the normal consumption4 ,in #aiag1 the total production in the country was estimated to amount to only #cj per cent4 of these minimum requirements4 ,the situation in ,russia is so unsettled that a statement of present conditions in the steel industry is valueless4 ,it is reasonable to assume1 however1 that the iron and steel situation will not materially change as to operations and control4 ,moreover1 it will be safe to predict that ,poland will develop more rapidly as an iron-ore producer in the future1 as she was handicapped in the past by restrictions on exportation of ore4 ,belgium4--,belgium has been negligible as a producer of iron ore but has been a comparatively large importer of iron ore and manufacturer of pig iron4 ,the country ranked sixth as a producer of pig iron in #aiac1 in which year it produced #adg1jdh tons of ore and imported #d1djj1jjj tons4#ea #ea ,board of ,trade1 8,reports on ,iron and ,steel10 ,london4 ,belgian iron works were greatly damaged by the ,germans during the war1 and probably some time will elapse before the industry again reaches the position it occupied before the war4 ,the country offers a good market1 however1 for the iron ores of ,france and should in future years be a larger producer of iron and steel wares4 ,belgium is practically dependent upon outside sources for ore supply1 but is conveniently situated as a market for ores from many countries4 ,the total iron-ore reserves of the country have been estimated at #fb1ejj1jjj tons1 not enough to last #aj years at the present rate of consumption4 ,austria-,hungary4--,the former ,austro-,hungarian ,empire yielded in recent years #b to #c per cent4 of the annual iron-ore production of the world1 and about #b per cent4 of the pig-iron production2 therefore it has been of minor importance in the iron industry4 ,the ore reserves have been estimated at #bhd million tons of available ore1 and #hjg million tons additional of probable ore4 ,the present unsettled conditions will probably result in considerable change in the operation and control of the iron mines and works4 ,eventually the upheaval may stimulate the iron industry1 but the result should not materially alter the international position4 ,japan4--,the iron and steel industry of ,japan is of small magnitude as compared with that of the ,united ,states1 ,germany1 ,great ,britain1 and other leading iron and steel manufacturing countries4 ,the total reserves of iron ore are probably not much more than #fj million tons1 or less than has been mined annually in the ,lake ,superior district in recent years4 ,the steel-making industry is expanding rapidly1 however1 and at present blast furnaces1 steel-making furnaces1 and steel mills are being erected in ,japan1 ,korea1 ,manchuria1 and ,china by ,japanese interests4 ,the output of iron ore in ,japan is utterly inadequate to supply this expanding industry4 ,the production of iron ore in ,japan has averaged about #aej1jjj tons annually in recent years1 whereas the consumption of crude1 semi-crude and manufactured articles of iron and steel is approximately #a1ejj1jjj tons4 ,in order to supply her needs1 therefore1 from her own manufacturing plants1 ,japan would require in the neighborhood of #c million tons of iron ore annually4 ,as compared with this1 ,japan's entire consumption of iron ore1 both imported and domestic1 is less than #gjj1jjj tons4 ,the remainder of the iron and steel required in ,japan is being imported in the form of pig iron and crude and manufactured products4 ,japan is making a strong effort to develop iron-ore deposits in neighboring countries1 especially in ,china1 ,manchuria1 and ,korea2 and the production from these sources which goes to ,japanese-controlled furnaces is rapidly increasing4 ,among the more recent ,japanese iron and steel enterprises in these countries are the blast furnaces and steel plant now being built at ,an-schan-chang1 south of ,mukden1 in ,manchuria2 the blast furnaces at ,pen-hsi-hu1 southeast of ,mukden1 in ,manchuria2 and the blast furnaces at ,ken-ji-pho1 in ,korea4 ,the last two of these plants are now producing pig iron1 which is being sent to ,japan4 ,in the future all three plants will probably build steel works4 ,iron-ore deposits are being mined in connection with all of them4 ,besides being used in the local blast furnaces1 iron ore is being sent to ,japan from these mines4 ,in ,china1 the most important iron and steel enterprise is that at ,han-yang1 in the ,province of ,hu-peh4 ,this operation was started by the ,han-,yeh-,ping ,iron ,steel ,co41 as a ,chinese enterprise in connection with the ,tayeh mines in the same province4 ,this company1 however1 became involved in financial difficulties1 and ,japanese capital was called upon in order that work might continue4 ,considerable expansion of the plant is at present taking place under ,japanese supervision4 ,iron ore from the ,tayeh mines and pig iron from the ,han-yang plant are sent to ,japan for use in ,japanese iron and steel works4 ,it is doubtful whether1 with the rapid expansion of the ,japanese iron and steel industry1 mines in ,china1 ,manchuria and ,korea can be developed fast enough to supply the raw materials necessary4 ,there are rumors that several deposits of iron ore in eastern ,china are now being developed1 including that of ,chin-ling-chen1 and these may afford some additional supply4 ,the iron mines of ,india also may be called upon to furnish more iron ore to ,japan than they have done in the past4 ,the only other important iron-ore deposits known elsewhere in the ,orient are in the ,philippine ,islands4 ,these deposits are reported to be fairly important and they are favorably situated for supplying ,japanese plants4 ,they are controlled by ,americans4 ,the present expansion of the ,japanese iron and steel industry is such that it is a question whether the consumption of iron products in ,japan will be sufficient to take care of the entire output4 ,it seems very probable that ,japan is looking for a large export trade in iron and steel products4 ,the ,japanese may be ambitious not only to displace ,european and ,american goods in the ,orient1 but may even attempt to secure a market on the ,pacific ,coast of the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,it is quite probable that ,japanese manufactured articles will be able to compete in the western ,united ,states with articles manufactured in the eastern states and subject to heavy transportation rates4 ,on the other hand1 there is an active movement to start an iron industry on the ,pacific ,coast1 and it is hoped that plants established there will be able to manufacture iron and steel products at a low enough cost to enable them to compete with ,japanese products in the ,orient4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,manganese ,,by ,d4 ,f4 ,,hewett ,,uses ,,of ,,manganese ,alloys of manganese are essential in the manufacture of steel by the open-hearth and the ,bessemer processes1 which produce #ii per cent4 of the total output of the ,united ,states4 ,in this country1 about #ad pounds of metallic manganese as alloys1 equivalent to about #dj pounds of high-grade ore1 is used in making a ton of average steel4 ,two alloys are in common use3 ferromanganese and spiegeleisen4 ,ferromanganese1 with #gj to #hj per cent4 manganese1 is largely used in making open-hearth steel carrying less than #j4cj per cent4 carbon1 whereas spiegeleisen1 with #bj to #cb per cent4 manganese1 is used in making ,bessemer steel carrying more than #j4cj per cent4 carbon4 ,the first group of low-carbon steels is used in making structural shapes1 sheets1 bars1 wire1 etc41 and the second group of high-carbon steels is used in making rails1 forgings1 etc4 ,in making #gj to #hj per cent4 ferromanganese1 so-called 8high-grade0 ore with more than #ce per cent4 manganese and less than #e per cent4 iron and #ae per cent4 silica is needed4 ,in making #bj to #cb per cent4 spiegeleisen1 so-called 8low-grade0 or ferruginous manganese ore with #aj to #ce per cent4 manganese1 #bj to #ce per cent4 iron1 and less than #bj per cent4 silica is needed1 although here and there spiegeleisen is made by mixing high-grade manganese ore with iron ore4 ,several other alloys such as silico-manganese1 ferro-silicon1 and ferro-carbon-titanium may be used as partial substitutes for ferromanganese1 but although they may be capable of wider use under stress1 they are electric-furnace products and under normal conditions their cost is prohibitive4 ,very pure manganese oxide is used in making the common dry battery1 the production of which has greatly increased with the wide use of the internal-combustion engine4 ,about #be1jjj tons is used annually in the ,united ,states for this purpose4 ,the manganese oxide thus used is not consumed1 but becomes exhausted through the loss of oxygen4 ,under stress of high prices1 the oxide may be regenerated by treatment or by mixture with new refined material4 ,small quantities of manganese ore are used in making many chemical products and pigments4 ,,changes ,,in ,,practice ,any consideration of the need for manganese ore and ferromanganese and of dependence upon foreign sources of supply should take account of the degree to which low-grade ore and spiegeleisen may be used as substitutes for high-grade ore and ferromanganese4 ,thus1 although both ,germany and the ,united ,states have only insignificant resources of high-grade ore1 both possess unusually large reserves of low-grade ore4 ,under recent conditions in the ,united ,states the percentage of total manganese used as spiegeleisen increased in three years from #aj to about #ah per cent4 ,competent authorities have estimated that this substitution may be further increased to nearly #gj per cent4 with slight modifications in practice and modest addition of equipment4 ,some competent engineers further contend that by other modifications of practice a large part of the manganese now needed as alloys may be eliminated by the addition of low-grade manganese ore during early stages of the smelting and refining process4 ,,geological ,,distribution ,although concentrated masses such as are useful in the arts are rather uncommon1 manganese is widespread throughout the earth2 it forms a part of about #ajj minerals and most of the common rocks1 igneous as well as sedimentary1 contain #j4a to #b per cent4 ,present requirements as to grade are such that manganese ores are largely oxides4 ,the carbonate1 rhodochrosite1 contains enough manganese to permit its use in making #hj per cent4 ferromanganese1 but only in a few places are the masses large enough to be the basis of extensive mining4 ,the common silicate contains #dc per cent4 manganese1 but the silica content is so high 7#bc per cent47 that it can not be used alone in making the ordinary alloys4 ,the common oxides of manganese are deposited under many conditions which are found near the surface of the earth4 ,large masses of oxides were deposited in shallow marine waters1 in shallow fresh-water basins and under many other conditions in the relatively thin mantle of weathered rock that is found over the entire world4 ,although most of these large masses were formed in the surface zone where the underlying unweathered rocks are unusually rich in manganese1 some large masses of oxides accumulate under peculiarly favorable conditions by the concentration of small quantities of manganese disseminated through the common rocks4 ,for purposes of geologic study1 deposits of manganese oxides may be considered in two groups1 as follows3 7#a7 those derived from more or less localized masses of carbonate or silicate materials1 generally with more than #e per cent4 manganese1 that seem to have no relation to the surface of the earth2 and 7#b7 those originally deposited near the surface as localized bodies of oxides4 ,under the first group are zones of carbonate or silicate rocks in contact with intrusive igneous rocks1 such as are found in ,brazil and ,india4 ,these zones contain manganiferous carbonates 7mixed with iron1 lime1 and magnesia72 and silicates 7spessartite or manganese garnet and piedmontite or manganese epidote and possibly rhodonite1 or manganese pyroxene74 ,by the weathering of such rocks1 large bodies of high-grade oxides have been formed4 ,manganese also occurs in fissure veins or the adjacent wall rocks in regions that have been intruded by igneous rocks4 ,the veins commonly contain rhodochrosite1 manganiferous siderite1 or rhodonite1 associated with quartz and metallic sulphide minerals1 including alabandite1 the sulphide of manganese4 ,such veins are known in ,philipsburg and ,butte1 ,mont42 ,silverton1 ,colo41 and elsewhere4 ,in such regions if the wall rocks adjacent to fissures are limestone or dolomite1 they may be extensively replaced by manganiferous siderite or other carbonates which on weathering yield large bodies of manganese oxides1 locally mixed with iron oxides4 ,such bodies are known at ,leadville1 ,colo4 ,the manganese existing in sediments1 notably clayey1 but in part carbonate1 may migrate locally after the sediments are slightly buried and form zones of manganiferous carbonate and silicate concretions parallel to the bedding4 ,where1 as in the ,batesville district1 ,arkansas1 these zones are exposed by erosion1 the manganese is further concentrated as masses of oxides in residual clay4 ,metamorphic rocks1 such as slates and schists1 here and there1 as in ,spain1 ,newfoundland1 ,california1 and ,washington1 contain extensive lenses of rhodonite or other silicate with or without rhodochrosite1 roughly parallel to the bedding4 ,the origin of these lenses1 which are generally rather remote from igneous intrusions1 is obscure4 ,some are considered to be materials laid down during sedimentation1 others are thought to represent concentrations effected during metamorphism when the sediments were deeply buried4 ,in the second group mentioned above 7manganese deposits first concentrated near the surface as oxides7 are included extensive deposits of oxides interbedded with marine sediments1 as in the ,caucasus region1 ,russia4 ,others interbedded with volcanic material1 tuffs and flows1 are known in the ,mediterranean region and in ,chile4 ,in ,india important beds of oxides are interbedded with quartzite and slate4 ,many deposits of oxides have recently formed and are probably now forming in bogs in many regions1 notably ,new ,brunswick1 ,canada4 ,they are not important as sources of production4 ,although no simple relation seems to govern the distribution of manganese in unweathered rock1 there is reason for believing that the accumulation of manganese oxides in the weathered mantle is favored by climates that cause unusually complete or deep rock decay4 ,although a few manganese oxide deposits are found within the belts of recent glaciation1 and some have no relation to weathering1 most of the important deposits occur in areas now or recently favored with warm1 humid climates1 and there is reason for suspecting that such areas will yield other important deposits4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,north ,america4--,in the ,united ,states1 the occurrence of manganese ore can be most clearly described by grouping the districts according to grade or ore3 7#a7 high grade1 containing #ce per cent4 or more of manganese1 which is used ordinarily for making the high-grade alloy1 ferromanganese1 and 7#b7 low-grade1 ferruginous manganese ore1 used ordinarily for the low-grade ferro-alloy1 spiegeleisen4 ,the country is deficient in natural supplies of the former1 but has abundant resources of the latter1 which under the stress of necessity could be largely substituted for the high-grade ore1 which is now mainly imported4 ,the following districts in the ,united ,states yield high-grade ore3 ,at ,philipsburg1 ,mont41 are bodies of manganese carbonate that replace ,cambrian limestone near veins and igneous contacts4 ,these are weathered to oxides to a depth of about #bjj feet below the surface4 ,at ,butte1 ,mont41 veins in granite contain manganese carbonate and silicate1 locally weathered to oxides4 ,in the ,shenandoah ,valley in ,virginia1 and in similar valleys in ,tennessee and ,georgia1 the residual clays from certain ,cambrian limestones and ,silurian shale and sandstone yield bodies of manganese oxides to depths that range from #bjj to #bej feet below the surface4 ,many small deposits also occur in ,arkansas1 ,arizona1 ,california1 ,nevada1 and ,utah4 ,the total production of the ,united ,states from #ahch to #aiah was #hic1gcd tons1 and the maximum was #cje1hfi tons in #aiah4 ,among the chief districts yielding the lower grade of ore 7#aj to #ce per cent4 manganese7 the most conspicuous is the ,cuyuna district in ,minnesota1 where beds of iron-manganese carbonate of pre-,cambrian age are weathered to oxides to depths of #bej to #ejj feet below the surface and contain ore bodies carrying #g to #bj per cent4 manganese1 and #be to #ej per cent4 iron4 ,the single deposits range from #ej1jjj to #g1ejj1jjj tons each4 ,since the first shipments in #aiac1 the production through #aiah has been #a1fff1fgg tons of ore carrying more than #e per cent4 manganese4 ,large deposits of low-grade manganese ore also occur in the ,leadville district in ,colorado1 where irregular bodies of iron-manganese carbonate have replaced magnesian limestone of ,carboniferous age and are weathered to oxides to depths as great as #hej feet4 ,from #ahhe to #aiah1 the total production was #c1bjb1fgh tons of material1 most of which contained from #ae to #cj per cent4 manganese4 ,other deposits of ferruginous manganese ore have been exploited in ,eagle ,county1 ,colorado2 the ,pioche district1 ,nevada2 ,silver ,city district1 ,new ,mexico2 and in ,arkansas1 ,georgia1 and ,virginia4 ,in ,canada1 large deposits of siliceous manganese ores occur in ,newfoundland1 and several small deposits in ,new ,brunswick1 ,alberta1 and ,british ,columbia4 ,in ,costa ,rica1 manganese occurs in four districts near ,playa ,real1 ,nicoya ,peninsula1 in the form of oxides that seem to be interlayered with sedimentary rocks4 ,the most productive deposits are owned by citizens of ,united ,states and of ,cuba2 others are owned entirely by ,cubans4 ,they were first exploited in #aiaf1 and to the end of #aiah had exported #ah1jjj tons to ,united ,states4 ,in ,cuba1 manganese is mined near ,santiago and ,bueycito1 in the province of ,oriente4 ,near ,santiago1 manganese oxides occur as lenticular or irregular bodies in tuff1 clay1 and limestone4 ,other deposits are reported in ,santa ,clara and ,pinal del ,rio provinces4 ,the mines that have been the source of more than #ij per cent4 of the exports are owned jointly by citizens of ,cuba and of the ,united ,states1 and the remaining mines by ,cubans4 ,from #ahhh to #aiaj1 #bff1fba tons were exported4 ,in #aiae1 after four years of idleness1 the mines were reopened1 and imports into the ,united ,states from #aiae to #aiah1 inclusive1 were #afc1ahi tons4#eb #eb ,production data1 long tons1 unless otherwise specified4 ,in ,mexico1 manganese ores are found four miles north of ,chihuahua ,city and south of ,palomas1 in the ,state of ,chihuahua4 ,it is assumed that the deposits are owned by native ,mexicans4 ,manganese also occurs near ,conception ,bay1 ,lower ,california1 where the mines are owned by native ,mexicans but are under lease to ,americans4 ,from both of these districts1 #a1ejj tons were produced and exported to the ,united ,states in #aiag4 ,in the ,republic of ,panama1 near ,nombre de ,dios and ,madinga1 there are irregular lenses of manganese oxides in decomposed sedimentary beds4 ,seven groups of deposits were exploited near ,nombre de ,dios4 ,five of them were exploited by ,americans1 one by native owners1 and one by ,french4 ,the ,nombre de ,dios deposits yielded #ej1jjj tons of ore from #ahga to #aijb1 largely during the last six years4 ,the ,madinga deposits were opened in #aiaf and during #aiaf and #aiag exported #aa1jjj tons to the ,united ,states4 ,south ,america4--,the largest deposits of manganese ore in ,south ,america are in ,brazil1 and especially in the important mining state of ,minas ,geraes4 ,in the ,lafayette district in this state1 manganese oxides occur in wide lenticular bodies1 that seem to have no definite arrangement or association1 except that most of them are bounded by schist or gneiss4 ,the deposits lie in a complex of granite1 gneiss1 and crystalline schists2 and the manganese oxides are probably derived from manganese-bearing carbonate and silicate minerals4 ,the most productive area1 known as the ,morro da ,mina1 #b1ejj feet long by #a1jjj feet wide1 contains four distinct bodies that range from #cbj to #a1cjj feet long and from #dh to #cbj feet wide4 ,here manganese oxides persist #daj feet below the surface4 ,the area has yielded about #a1jjj1jjj tons of ore and the reserves are probably between #g1jjj1jjj and #aj1jjj1jjj tons4 ,in the same ,state of ,minas ,geraes1 in the ,miguel ,burnier and ,ouro ,prieto districts1 manganese oxides are interlayered with ferruginous sedimentary rocks of pre-,cambrian age4 ,in the ,state of ,bahia1 the ,nazareth district contains bodies of manganese oxide in a thick surface zone of highly weathered schistose rocks4 ,the oxides are probably derived from lenses of manganese garnet in schist4 ,the largest deposit yielded #gj1jjj tons of ore4 ,manganese deposits are also reported near ,bom ,fim1 in the same state4 ,other deposits of manganese ore in ,brazil are reported in the states of ,maranhao and ,matto ,grosso4 ,the known manganese deposits of ,minas ,geraes lie within an area about #cj miles square1 the center of which is about #cjj miles north of ,rio ,janeiro4 ,the ore is readily mined from open cuts1 but existing transportation and loading facilities practically limit the annual exports to #eej1jjj tons4 ,most of the important deposits in the ,lafayette-,miguel ,burnier and ,ouro ,prieto districts are owned by resident ,brazilians4 ,in #aiae a ,german company had worked a part of the ,morro da ,mina deposit for six or seven years and produced a total of #bjj1jjj tons of ore4 ,during #aiae a ,belgian company was operating the ,cocuruto mine near ,ouro ,prieto and was shipping #b1jjj tons monthly4 ,the largest deposit of the ,nazareth district is owned by an ,american and the undeveloped deposits near ,turyassu are owned by ,norwegians4 ,from the beginning of the industry in #ahid to #aiah1 #d1ffj1jjj tons of manganese ore were exported from ,brazil4 ,from #aijj to #aiac1 the annual exports ranged from #ii1jjj to #bej1jjj tons1 but with the elimination of ,russian sources in #aiad1 exports rose to #ejc1acj tons in #aiaf1 #ecb1hee tons in #aiag1 and #cic1chh tons in #aiah4 ,in ,october1 #aiag1 the export tax on manganese ore was advanced from #j4he to #c4jj per metric ton4 ,even before the war a large part of the ,brazilian exports went to the ,united ,states4 ,the destination of the #aiac exports was as follows3 ,united ,states1 #fj per cent42 ,germany1 #ah per cent42 ,great ,britain1 #af per cent42 ,france1 #f per cent4 ,in ,chile1 manganese ores occur at ,corral ,quemada1 and nearby districts in the ,state of ,coquimbo4 ,in these districts1 beds of manganese oxides are interlayered with sandstone1 shale1 and volcanic flows4 ,manganese is also found in the ,carrizal district in the ,state of ,atacama1 where beds of manganese oxides are interbanded with shale and limestone4 ,from #ahhe1 when explorations were begun1 to #aije1 the exports of manganese ores from ,chilean ports amounted to #edi1gaf tons1 the maximum exports for one year being #ej1hga tons1 in #ahib4 ,in ,uruguay1 deposits of ferruginous manganese ore1 reported to contain #hj1ejj1jjj tons1 occur at ,zapucay1 in the ,department of ,rivera4 ,europe4--,in the former empire of ,austria-,hungary1 the principal manganese district is near ,dorna ,vatra1 in ,bukowina4 ,here there are lenses of manganese carbonate and silicate in schists that have weathered to oxides near the surface4 ,the deposits are owned by the ,bukowina ,greek ,church4 ,the average annual production from #aijf to #aiab was #ac1fjj tons4 ,other deposits are reported in ,bohemia1 ,istria1 ,styria1 ,hungary and ,bosnia4 ,since #aija1 the production of ,austria-,hungary has ranged from #ah1jjj to #be1jjj tons annually4 ,in ,belgium1 near ,chevron1 in the ,province of ,lige1 ferruginous manganese oxides have formed by the weathering of manganese and iron carbonates4 ,since #aija1 the annual production in peace times has ranged from #b1jjj to #ae1jjj tons4 ,in ,france1 manganese occurs chiefly near ,romaneche1 in the ,department of ,saone and ,loire1 where several bodies of manganese oxides lie in a fault between sedimentary rocks and granite4 ,the deposit has been known since #ahbc1 and the production in #aija was #i1ejj tons4 ,other ,french deposits have been explored in the ,departments of ,hautes-,pyrenees1 ,l',ariege1 ,l',allier1 ,l',ande1 and ,la ,nievre4 ,the annual production rather steadily declined from #bb1jjj tons in #aija to #f1jjj tons in #aiac4 ,the ownership of the ,french manganese deposits seems to be largely ,french1 possibly aided by some ,english capital4 ,in ,germany1 manganese ore of the better type1 containing over #cj per cent4 of the metal1 occurs in ,sachsen-,gotha1 ,central ,germany1 in small veins of manganese and iron carbonates weathered near the surface to oxides4 ,a similar grade of manganese ore occurs in small quantities at ,hessen and ,waldeck1 in ,rhenish ,prussia4 ,manganiferous iron ore1 containing from #ab to #cj per cent4 of manganese1 occurs in ,hessen-,nassau1 ,rhenish ,prussia1 where manganese and iron oxides form irregular flat lenses imbedded in clays derived from the weathering of underlying ,devonian limestone4 ,during the period #aijg to #aiaa1 nine deposits yielded #bfb1jjj to #bhc1jjj tons annually4 ,manganiferous iron ore 7containing less than #ab per cent4 manganese7 is found at ,siegerland and at ,nassau1 ,rhenish ,prussia4 ,the veins are large and contain manganiferous siderite2 they cut ,devonian sediments4 ,these deposits are largely owned by the principal iron works of ,rhenish ,prussia4 ,during the period #aijg to #aiaa1 the annual production ranged from #b1bjj1jjj to #b1fjj1jjj tons4 ,in ,great ,britain1 the principal deposits are in ,north ,wales4 ,veins of manganese carbonate and silicate1 as well as interlayered lenses1 are found4 ,the material contains #bj to #cf per cent4 manganese4 ,other deposits are recorded in ,devonshire1 ,cornwall1 and ,shropshire4 ,the maximum production of ,great ,britain of about #bc1jjj tons was attained in #aijf1 when two mines in ,north ,wales yielded #ai1cjj tons4 ,manganese occurs in ,greece1 in the western end of the island of ,melos1 where nodules and masses of manganese oxides are disseminated through beds of tuffs of ,pliocene age4 ,the maximum production of #ae1jjj tons was recorded in #aijb4 ,the output has since steadily declined to #eej tons in #aiac4 ,manganese also occurs on the peninsula of ,kassandra1 which was formerly in ,european ,turkey4 ,a vein explored mainly for argentiferous galena yields manganese oxides from the surface zone4 ,the maximum production of #eb1jjj tons was attained in #aijb1 steadily declining thereafter to #ab1jjj tons in #aiaj4 ,in ,italy there is manganese in ,tuscany1 where irregular bodies of manganese and iron oxides occur in ,triassic limestones4 ,other deposits in ,liguria and ,sardinia have recently yielded a little ore4 ,of the maximum ,italian production of #ah1adg metric tons 7#ah to #de per cent4 manganese7 in #aiaf1 #ad1jgb metric tons was derived from the ,tuscany deposits in ,tuscany4 ,normally the annual production has ranged from #a1fjj to #d1gjj tons4 ,in ,portugal there is manganese in ,alemtejo4 ,the deposits1 reported to be lenses and veins in ,silurian quartzites1 are owned by a ,portuguese company4 ,russia contains the most important manganese deposits in ,europe1 if not in the world4 ,the principal mining district is near ,chiaturi1 in the ,kutais ,government1 on the south side of the ,caucasus ,mountains1 in southern ,russia4 ,layers of oolitic grains of manganese oxides are interbedded with horizontal sandstone and shale of ,lower ,eocene age4 ,within a zone that ranges in thickness from #d4e to #g4e feet and averages about #f4e feet1 seven distinct layers of very pure manganese oxide aggregate about #dj inches in thickness1 and the remainder is low-grade material and sand4 ,it is estimated that an area of #abj to #adc square kilometers was originally underlain by the bed of oxides1 but that about half has been removed by erosion4 ,estimates of reserves range from #bc1jjj1jjj tons to several hundred million tons4 ,the mines are operated in a crude1 inefficient manner and scarcely two-thirds of the ore is recovered4 ,the number of actual producers ranged from #ahc in #aijb1 to #cgf in #aijf1 but declined to #if during the political troubles in #aijh4 ,the ore is sorted by hand and the low-grade material is washed in crude plants4 ,from #bj to #be per cent4 of the exported material has been concentrated by washing4 ,in #aijb there were #e1jjj concessions1 of which #c1gej were owned by #ad persons1 each with #be to #ejj concessions2 the remainder belonged to #cjj peasants and small merchants4 ,by #aiab a producers' association had been formed to permit the owners to deal collectively with the exporters4 ,large investments had also been made by ,german capitalists in mines as well as in undeveloped territory4 ,the ,gelsenkirchen ,gesellschaft1 a ,german firm1 had been formed partly for the purpose of mining but largely to purchase and export ore to ,germany4 ,in #aiab1 this firm1 although it produced only a little ore1 exported nearly one-third of the total4 ,german groups also established necessary financial agencies to facilitate export of ore as well as to make loans to mine operators4 ,in #aiac1 of #af exporting firms1 only #c were ,russian4 ,the output of the mines of the ,chiaturi district is hauled to ,chiaturi 7#a4c to #c4c miles71 loaded on narrow-gauge cars for transport to ,sharopan 7#be miles71 and then reloaded on cars for shipment to ,poti or ,batum 7#ajg miles71 the ports of export4 ,large stocks ranging from #a1jcj1jjj tons in #aiab1 to #a1ebe1jjj tons in #aijh1 are kept at ,chiaturi1 ,poti and ,batum4 ,from #aiaj to #aiab1 the distribution of exports ranged as follows3 ,holland 7for ,germany71 #cj to #dc per cent42 ,england1 #bb to #bc per cent42 ,belgium 7largely for ,germany71 #ae to #ba per cent42 ,germany 7direct71 #e per cent42 ,france1 #d to #f per cent42 ,united ,states1 #d to #aj per cent42 ,austria1 #d to #aj per cent4 ,about #aiac1 an export tax equal to #dj cents per long ton was levied by the ,russian government4 ,it is estimated that from #ahdh to #aiad1 inclusive1 this deposit yielded about #aa1jjj1jjj tons of washed ore of marketable grade4 ,the maximum production of #a1cjj1jjj tons was attained in #aiac4 ,another important manganese mining region is the ,nicopol district1 in the ,province of ,ekaterinoslav1 north of the ,black ,sea4 ,in this district a bed of manganese oxides lies between clays and sandstone of ,oligocene age4 ,this bed is #a to #e feet thick1 averaging nearly #c feet4 ,it is estimated to extend over an area of #bj square kilometers 7#g4e square miles7 and to contain #g1djj1jjj tons of manganese ore4 ,the ore is mined and washed in a crude way to free it from the attached clay4 ,the deposits in this district are probably owned largely by ,russians1 although ,french capital is interested in one company and ,german capital in another4 ,during the period #aija to #aiaj1 between #hj and #ij per cent4 of the production was consumed in southern ,russia and the remainder was exported4 ,from #ahhf1 when the deposits were first exploited1 the output rose rather steadily to the maximum of #bga1jjj tons in #aijg1 then declined to #agc1jjj tons in #aiaj4 ,the total production of the district is about #a1hjj1jjj tons4 ,manganese deposits are also known in the ,province of ,podolien and ,terek1 and in the governments of ,tiflis1 ,erwin1 ,elisabetpol1 and ,perm4 ,the principal manganese deposits of ,spain are on the south slope of ,sierra ,morena1 in the ,province of ,huelva4 ,vertical lenticular bodies of manganese carbonate and silicate with a little pyrite1 garnet1 and mica occur interlayered with slate of ,paleozoic age4 ,about one hundred bodies are known1 many being #ejj feet long and #ajj feet wide1 whereas the largest is #c1cjj feet long and #ccj feet wide4 ,the manganese minerals are weathered to oxides to an average depth of #fe feet and a maximum depth of #bej feet4 ,from #ahha to #aije1 when the oxide ores were nearly exhausted1 nearly #gjj1jjj tons had been shipped4 ,from #aijf to #aiaj about #abe1jjj tons of mixed carbonate and silicate was produced4 ,manganese is also found in the ,covadonga district1 ,province of ,oviedo1 where large boulders of manganese oxide are found in clay resulting from the weathering of underlying limestone4 ,these deposits yielded #c1hjj tons in #aiae4 ,other productive deposits occur in the provinces of ,seville and ,teruel4 ,deposits are also known in the provinces of ,ciudad ,real1 ,murcia1 and ,almeria4 ,in ,sweden1 there are manganese ores north of ,philipstad1 in ,wermland1 where tabular bodies of manganese oxides are interlayered with dolomite and magnetite4 ,these deposits contributed #g1fjg tons out of a total of #g1gcc tons in #aiae1 which was the maximum recorded production of ,sweden4 ,asia4--,in ,india1 on the east coast in the ,vizagapatam and ,ganjam districts1 ,madras1 is a unique group of rocks known as the ,kodurite series1 containing manganese garnet1 manganese pyroxene1 potash feldspar1 apatite1 and quartz4 ,these rocks1 supposed to be of igneous origin1 have been deeply weathered and the manganese concentrated as oxides in the surface zone4 ,the manganese ore bodies have been explored only to #ajj feet in depth1 but it is expected that they will extend to #ejj feet4 ,the largest ore body explored at the ,garbham mine is #a1fjj feet long and #ajj feet wide1 and1 from #ahif to #aiac1 yielded #gcf1aib tons of ore4 ,the ,kodur deposit yielded #cgj1chb tons of ore from #ahib to #aiac4 ,production began in #ahib1 reached a maximum of #aaa1eja tons in #aijf1 and slowly declined to #dd1abg tons in #aiac4 ,manganese also occurs in the ,balaghat1 ,bhandara1 ,chindwara1 and ,nagpur districts in the central provinces2 ,narukot and ,panch ,mahals districts1 ,bombay2 ,jhabua district1 central ,india2 and the ,gangpur district in ,bihar and ,orissa4 ,these districts form a belt that extends from ,baroda1 on the west coast1 across northern ,india nearly to ,calcutta on the east1 a distance of #gjj miles4 ,in these districts1 beds of manganese oxides with manganese garnet and rhodonite form a rock type known as gondite1 which is interlayered with quartzite and mica schist4 ,these rocks are considered to be sediments of the ,dharwar group 7,archean74 ,the manganese oxides may have been laid down as sediments1 or may represent the weathering of the silicates4 ,the ore bodies are lenses and layers4 ,the largest single deposit1 ,balaghat1 has the form of a shallow trough1 is #a miles long and #de to #ej feet thick1 and yielded from #aija to #aiac1 #gbe1bdh tons of ore4 ,in #aiac1 thirteen distinct deposits had yielded more than #ajj1jjj tons each1 the range being from #aja1gba to #gbe1bdh tons4 ,from #aija1 when the deposits of this type were first exploited1 the rate of production rose steadily to the maximum of #fig1jce tons in #aiac4 ,during #aijg1 fifty-two separate deposits contributed #eih1dcg tons4 ,where rocks of ,dharwar age 7,archean71 such as mica schists1 that do not seem to contain the manganese-bearing ,gondite series1 are deeply weathered1 manganese and manganiferous iron oxides form irregular but locally extensive deposits on the crests of hills4 ,these deposits are underlain by barren clays that represent the residue of the underlying rocks4 ,the largest deposit yielded #afj1jjj tons of ore in three years1 #aijf to #aijh1 but is probably almost exhausted4 ,the principal deposits of this class are in the ,sandur ,hills district1 ,madras2 the ,shimoga district1 ,mysore2 and the ,belgaum district1 in ,bombay2 which lie within an area less than #ajj miles in diameter in southwest ,india4 ,from #aije1 when deposits of this group were first explored1 the production increased to a maximum of #aa1cec tons in #aiji1then declined to #fb1ggj tons in #aiac4 ,the total yield of this group to the end of #aiac was only #gfe1dja tons4 ,as regards the commercial control of the manganese deposits1 a law recently passed forbids aliens to own more than a minor interest in mineral deposits in ,india4 ,previous to this1 during #aijg1 the latest year for which complete data are available and in which #hii1jee tons was produced1 the entire output was from mines owned by resident ,english or natives1 except for #ba1ejj tons produced by the ,carnegie ,steel ,co41 of ,pittsburgh1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,the annual production of manganese ore in ,india rose steadily from #ahib1 when the first shipments were made1 to #aijg1 when #hii1jee tons was shipped2 and since then has ranged from #dej1jjj to #hae1jjj tons4 ,the total production1 up to and including #aiaf1 was #h1gdh1jjj tons4 ,indian ores are transported to the shipping ports by rail for distances ranging from #ef miles for the ,vizagapatam district to #ghc miles for the ,chindwara district1 with the result that freight charges are heavy4 ,the ports of export in order of tonnage handled are1 ,bombay1 ,mormugas1 ,calcutta1 and ,vizagapatam4 ,the destination of exports in #aiac was as follows3 ,united ,kingdom1 #cf per cent42 ,belgium 7largely to ,germany71 #bf per cent42 ,united ,states1 #ae per cent42 ,france1 #ad per cent42 ,germany1 #b per cent42 others1 #g per cent4 ,in the ,japanese ,empire1 in the islands of ,mutsu1 ,echigo1 ,ugo1 and ,nato1 are irregular lenticular bodies of rather pure manganese oxides that occur more or less parallel to the bedding of metamorphosed ,paleozoic sediments4 ,below water level1 the oxides grade into rhodonite and are probably derived from this mineral4 ,the ore bodies are not large1 but many are known and they are the source of a small but regular production4 ,in the islands of ,mutsu1 ,nogo1 ,hokkaido and ,ugo many irregular but locally large deposits of manganese oxides are associated with highly altered volcanic tuffs and flows of ,tertiary age4 ,most of the deposits in ,japan seem to be owned by natives in small holdings4 ,the maximum production of #ah1jgf tons is reported for #aiac1 but since #aijj the range has usually been from #e1jjj to #ae1jjj tons4 ,in the ,philippine ,islands1 manganese occurs on the islands of ,ilocos ,norte1 ,masbate1 ,bulacan1 ,pangasinan and ,tarloc1 largely as veinlets and boulders of oxides in weathered igneous rock4 ,on ,ilocos ,norte a maximum production of #c1jjj tons was attained in #aiaf4 ,africa4--,on the ,gold ,coast of ,west ,africa 7a ,british colony71 near ,dagwin1 are several deposits of manganese1 the largest being #djj feet long and #gj feet wide4 ,the concession is owned by a ,british exploration company4 ,the deposit was discovered in #aiad2 and from the beginning of exploration in #aiaf up to ,november #g1 #aiag1 #bh1dfe tons had been shipped to ,england4 ,in the ,belgian ,congo1 there is manganese ore in the valley of the ,upper ,fungwe ,river1 and in southern ,katanga4 ,the deposits are too remote from the ocean to justify exploration1 but are reported to be large4 ,in the ,union of ,south ,africa 7,british7 several manganese deposits are found along the sea coast1 within #cj miles east and west of ,capetown4 ,of the seven known deposits the largest is estimated to contain #ae1jjj tons4 ,in ,egypt1 in the ,sinai peninsula1 are large manganiferous iron deposits as well as small manganese deposits1 but none has been exploited4 ,in ,tunis1 there are deposits reported to contain #d1jjj1jjj to #e1jjj1jjj tons of manganiferous iron ore1 and also several manganese deposits which yielded #e1hjj metric tons of manganese ore in #aiag4 ,although the known deposits of manganese in ,africa are few and relatively unimportant1 the continent offers an unusual prospect for the discovery of deposits that will contribute largely to the world's supply4 ,inasmuch as the moist tropical climate of large areas favors extraordinary rock decay and surface concentration of manganese oxides1 exploration will probably show the presence of many deposits1 and where bedrock geological conditions are favorable1 large bodies may be found4 ,australasia4--,in ,australia1 there are deposits of manganese ore in ,new ,south ,wales1 in ,queensland1 in ,south ,australia1 and in ,victoria4 ,in ,new ,zealand1 deposits of manganese ore occur in the ,thames district1 ,auckland4 ,deposits of manganese ore are known in ,borneo1 at ,maruda ,bay4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,annual output of manganese ore in chief producing countries4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,percentage of manganese ore produced by chief producing countries4 ,it is reported that large deposits of high-grade ore have recently been discovered in ,java4 ,some statistics of the production of manganese are shown graphically in figures #e and #f4 ,,developments ,,and ,,changes ,,in ,,geographical ,,distribution ,,in ,,the ,,near ,,future ,the known manganese resources of ,russia1 ,india1 and ,brazil are so large and readily available for exploitation and marketing that there is little prospect of their being displaced as the chief sources of the world's supply for many years4 ,since the war began1 in #aiad1 several important new districts have been discovered and brought to the producing stage1 notably the ,gold ,coast of ,west ,africa1 western ,costa ,rica1 and ,java4 ,although the ,javan deposits are reported to be large and may become an important factor in the world's trade1 all that is known concerning the other deposits does not hold out much hope that they can compete with the established sources4 ,there appears to be a fair chance that the equatorial belt as well as several other parts of the earth may yield additional important manganese deposits4 ,the distribution of the manganese deposits of the world is shown in ,plate ,,iii4 ,,political ,,and ,,commercial ,,control ,the table of production for #aiac on page #aje shows the part of the total that each country contributed and the known extent of commercial control4 ,in contrast with deposits of several other important minerals1 most of the manganese deposits throughout the world are owned by natives or residents of the respective countries in which they are found4 ,german companies have acquired tracts in the ,chiaturi and ,nicopol districts1 ,russia1 and ,queluz 7,lafayette7 district1 ,brazil4 ,it appears that although one of these companies produces a little ore1 the main purpose was to stabilize an unorganized industry by financial assistance4 ,in ,india it is difficult to distinguish between those companies composed of resident ,english and native ,indians which were formed to exploit mines for profit and those composed of absentee ,english who desire to secure a supply of ore for ,english or other consumption4 ,there seems to be no ,english capital in ,brazil or ,russia4 ,one ,french company owned two shipping mines in ,india in #aijg1 but there is no record of operations in #aiac4 ,french capital is interested in several companies busy in the ,nicopol district1 ,russia4 ,a ,belgian company operates one mine in the ,queluz district1 ,brazil4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii4--,geographical distribution of the principal manganese deposits of the world4 ,by ,d4 ,f4 ,hewett4 ,,table #bd4--,,production ,,and ,,commercial ,,control ,,of ,,manganese ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,man- ,per ganese cent4 contentof total 7per pro- ,commercial control ,country ,long tonscent47 duction 7estimated per cent47 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,north ,america ,united ,states #d1jdh #dj #j4af ,united ,states1 #ajj ,south ,america ,brazil1 #hj ,brazil #abj1cfh #ch-dh #e4aj ,belgium1 #e ,germany1 #ae ,europe ,austria-,hungary #cd1ihf 8 #a4e ,austria-,hungary1 #ajj ,bosnia- ,herzegovina #e1gji 8 #j4b 8 ,france #g1faj #cj #j4c ,france1 #ajj ,germany #gdh #cj #j4jc ,germany1 #ajj ,italy #a1eif #ah-de #j4jg ,italy1 #ajj ,russia1 #fe ,russia #a1bhi1cgj #da-dh #ee4d ,germany1 #cj ,france1 #e ,spain #ba1bed #bi #j4i 8 ,sweden #c1ich 8 #j4ae 8 ,united ,kingdom #e1cic #cj #j4ba ,england1 #ajj ,asia ,india #hae1jdg #db-ed #ce4j ,english and native1 #ij ,united ,states1 #aj ,japan #ah1eaf 8 #j4h ,japan1 #ajj ,oceania ,australia #bg 8 --------- ,total #b1cbh1aaj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,the ,carnegie ,steel ,co41 of ,pittsburgh1 ,pa41 ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 owns and works several deposits in ,india4 ,although ,americans own deposits in the ,nazareth district1 ,brazil1 in ,panama1 and ,costa ,rica1 and some of those of ,cuba1 there is no record of ,american ownership of any of the most important deposits of ,brazil1 nor of any in ,russia4 ,from #aijb to #aiad1 about half the ferromanganese used in the ,united ,states was made in this country from foreign ore and half was imported from ,england1 where it was made from imported ore4 ,this tendency arises out of the limitations of blast-furnace smelting of the alloy and the difference between the cost of labor in the ,united ,states and in ,england1 but does not represent definite control1 for ferromanganese may be made in any modern blast furnace used to make pig iron4 ,in order to smelt with maximum efficiency in making ferromanganese1 however1 a blast furnace should run continuously for long periods1 and therefore make #bj1jjj to #ce1jjj tons of alloy annually4 ,although it is possible to pass without interruption from making ferromanganese to spiegeleisen and then to pig iron1 the change causes losses4 ,small steel works in the ,united ,states therefore find it more advantageous to purchase imported ferromanganese than to make what they need4 ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,important ,,nations ,,with ,,regard ,,to ,,manganese ,,supplies ,united ,states4--,although from #ahhe to #ahij1 deposits in the ,united ,states supplied half or more of the needed high-grade manganese ore1 from #ahij to #aiaf the domestic production rather steadily declined to a negligible minimum1 while imports of foreign ore and ferromanganese steadily rose in accord with the rate of total steel production4 ,on the other hand1 during the period ending about #aijh1 when the rate of manufacture of steel by the ,bessemer process 7in which spiegeleisen is largely used7 exceeded that by the open-hearth process1 the annual domestic contribution of spiegeleisen largely made from domestic ores greatly exceeded the imports4 ,in advance1 therefore1 of the exploitation of the large deposits of low-grade ores of ,minnesota1 which have been the source of most of the production since #aiaf1 the ,united ,states demonstrated independence of foreign supplies of low-grade ore and alloys4 ,the experience and information gained during the war1 largely during #aiah1 show conclusively1 first1 with respect to metallurgy1 that #bj to #cj per cent4 spiegeleisen1 as well as #fj to #gj per cent4 ferromanganese1 instead of #hj per cent41 may be used to make satisfactory grades of open-hearth steel without appreciably sacrificing rate of production or quality of product2 and second1 with respect to ore production1 that known domestic deposits can supply for at least five and probably ten or more years1 much more low-grade ore than is needed to make spiegeleisen1 and for at least five years and possibly ten years1 about one-third the high-grade ore needed for the manufacture of alloy with #fj to #hj per cent4 manganese4 ,the reader should note1 however1 that capacity of mines to meet demand is in large measure determined by the prices offered for the product1 which during #aiah were about five times those prevailing before the war4 ,beyond doubt1 at pre-war prices1 the ,united ,states can not supply more than several per cent4 of the high-grade ore needed to make ferromanganese4 ,citizens of the ,united ,states have not shown great interest in purchasing foreign deposits of manganese ore4 ,with ,cubans1 they have controlled the mines yielding a large part of the ,cuban output1 and about #aijg one company1 the ,carnegie ,steel ,co41 purchased several deposits in ,india4 ,that company1 however1 seems to purchase ore1 in addition to the output of its mines4 ,not until #aiag did ,americans enter the ,brazilian fields2 then the largest deposits of the relatively unimportant ,bahia district were purchased by a ,philadelphia group4 ,england4--,before the war1 ,england received about #ej per cent4 of her manganese ore from ,india1 #dj per cent4 from ,russia1 #c per cent4 from ,brazil1 and small quantities from ,spain and ,portuguese ,india4 ,some low-grade ore also came from ,spain1 ,algeria1 and ,greece4 ,domestic production was scarcely #a per cent4 of imports4 ,exports of ferromanganese1 largely to the ,united ,states1 however1 have been equivalent to #ce to #de per cent4 of the total imports of ore4 ,two effects of the war were to eliminate ,russia as a source of ore1 the deficit being made up from ,india1 and greatly to curtail exports of ferromanganese4 ,in contrast with the ,united ,states and ,germany1 ,great ,britain does not seem to contain deposits of low-grade ores capable of supplementing the needs of high-grade ore4 ,england controls fully #ij per cent4 of the ,indian output1 probably through ownership by resident ,english and native ,indians4 ,on the other hand1 ,england seems to have no control1 direct or indirect1 of the output of ,brazil1 ,russia1 or of other important contributions to supplies4 ,france4--,of the needed manganese ore1 ,france imports from #ce to #de per cent4 from ,india1 #dj to #ee per cent4 from ,russia1 about #aj per cent4 from ,spain1 and several per cent4 from ,brazil1 and produces about #b per cent4 ,the domestic material1 however1 contains #cj per cent4 or less manganese4 ,in addition1 ,france imports1 as well as exports1 a little ferromanganese from time to time4 ,so far as available data indicate1 the ,french have made practically no foreign investments in manganese deposits1 except in the ,nicopol district1 ,russia4 ,a company with a ,french name mined about #a1cjj tons in ,india in #aijg1 out of a total of #hii1jee long tons4 ,germany4--,germany's position with respect to manganese is very similar to that of the ,united ,states4 ,for four years prior to #aiad1 ,germany imported #dh to #fh per cent4 of the total receipts from ,russia1 #be to #ce from ,india1 #c to #g from ,brazil1 and small quantities from ,spain1 ,greece1 and ,sweden4 ,domestic production of ore with more than #cj per cent4 manganese is negligible4 ,germany probably exports small quantities of ferromanganese to ,sweden and other ,european countries1 and from time to time has exported alloy to the ,united ,states4 ,like the ,united ,states1 however1 ,germany possesses extensive deposits of ferruginous manganese ore with #ab to #cj per cent4 manganese2 and from #aijh to #aiac1 produced #bfj1jjj to #ccj1jjj metric tons of such material1 as well as #b1cjj1jjj to #c1jjj1jjj tons with #e to #g per cent4 manganese4 ,there can be little doubt that although ,germany1 through accumulated stocks of manganese ore and seizures in ,belgium1 possessed in #aiad at least two years' supply1 she was able to maintain a fairly constant rate of steel production for four years by adapting processes to economize high-grade ore and use low-grade4 ,germans appear to have purchased manganese deposits in ,russia and ,brazil only1 and these have yielded only a small part of the annual imports4 ,in the ,chiaturi district of ,russia1 however1 where most of the deposits are owned by natives1 a ,german company1 ,gelsenkirchen ,gesellschaft1 reported to be a subsidiary of the ,krupp company1 was established about #aiaj1 to purchase property as well as trade with and offer financial assistance to the producers4 ,it is reported that this company alone exported about one-third of the output of the district4 ,germans are reported to own a part of one of several companies operating in the ,nicopol district1 ,russia4 ,,summary ,a review of the manganese ore industry1 including features of the deposits1 their geographic distribution and ownership1 indicates several definite conclusions3 #a4 ,the surface outcrops of most manganese deposits give reliable information concerning the size and grade of the deposits1 and the most desirable ore occurs in a surface zone scarcely #ajj feet deep4 #b4 ,except in ,russia and ,spain1 the most productive mines are open-cuts1 and mining is quickly and easily accomplished at minimum expense4 ,extensive operations in advance of production are rarely necessary4 #c4 ,the countries that possess the largest and richest deposits have an abundant and cheap labor supply4 #d4 ,the productive capacity of the known deposits so much exceeds the world's demand for ore for steel making1 that if any single source is temporarily eliminated1 the demand can be wholly met by the remaining sources at prices that are only slightly higher than those previously prevailing4 #e4 ,the value of the material at the sources of production is relatively low among raw minerals1 and ranges from one-third to one-eighth of the selling price at the points of consumption4 ,it is evident that the cost of transportation represents a large part of the final price4 #f4 ,the working of most deposits yields so little profit1 and therefore is so hazardous1 that only a few foreigners own deposits in the chief producing countries4 #g4 ,the only case of commercial control1 that of the ,chiaturi district1 ,russia1 by ,germans1 who offer the natural market1 seems to have been established to counteract local political disorders rather than to eliminate competitive consumers4 #h4 ,no nation that contributes largely to the world's steel production1 except ,russia1 possesses domestic deposits of manganese ore sufficient to meet its needs1 and all must import ore from rather remote sources4 ,the ,united ,states and ,germany1 however1 possess domestic deposits of ferruginous manganese ore that under great stress would probably permit independence of foreign sources4 ,,chapter ,v ,,chromium ,,by ,e4 ,c4 ,,harder ,,uses ,,of ,,chromium ,chromite is the principal ore from which metallic chromium and chromium products are obtained4 ,the theoretical composition of chromite is represented by the formula ,fe,o ,cr,o1 which represents #cb per cent4 ferrous oxide and #fh per cent4 chromic oxide4 ,in many ores1 however1 the ferrous oxide is partly replaced by magnesia1 up to #cj per cent41 and the chromic oxide by alumina and ferric oxide1 up to #bj per cent4 ,thus the composition of chromite varies considerably4 ,the percentage of chromic oxide may be as low as #aj per cent42 that of ferrous oxide may range from #aj to #ej per cent4 ,other common minerals of chromium are picotite 7chrome spinel71 uvarovite 7chrome garnet71 chrome diopside and crocoite 7lead chromate74 ,chrome ore is consumed mainly in the manufacture of special steels and in tanning leather4 ,the special steels comprise chrome steel1 chrome-nickel steel1 chrome-tungsten steel1 and chrome-vanadium steel4 ,metallic chromium is added to such steel in the form of ferrochrome1 an alloy of chromium and iron containing #fj to #gj per cent4 metallic chromium4 ,chrome steel is tough and hard to break4 ,it hardens rapidly and has a fine grain and a fibrous fracture2 it does not break readily upon concussion and because of its hardness is difficult or impossible to cut with ordinary machine tools4 ,metallic chromium is present in percentages varying from #a to #e per cent4 ,special steels containing chromium are used for guns1 armor plate1 armor-piercing projectiles1 automobile parts1 machine tools1 bars for prisons1 burglar-proof safes1 shoes1 cutlery1 crusher jaws1 stampmills1 springs and for other articles in which hardness and toughness are necessary4 ,during the war1 when a considerable shortage of chromite threatened1 less chromium was used in chrome steels1 and certain other hardening materials were used in its place4 ,the results are said to have been unsatisfactory1 however4 ,ferrochrome used in the manufacture of chrome steels is produced in the electric furnace by smelting a mixture1 in proper proportions1 of chromite1 coal or coke1 lime1 and fluorspar or silica4 ,much chrome ore is used in the steel industry for refractory materials in lining open-hearth furnaces4 ,some of the ore thus used is first manufactured into chrome brick and some is utilized in the crude form4 ,chrome brick is used in open-hearth furnaces as a lining along the slag line between the magnesite bottom of the furnace and the silica-brick sides and roof4 ,chrome brick is used also to cover the ports of gas-fired furnaces4 ,it is desirable for these purposes on account of its neutral reaction1 which reduces the wear due to corrosion4 ,lump or crushed chromite is used for patching the bottoms of open-hearth furnaces1 particularly the toe or apex of the bottom1 the ore being either hammered in place as lump or crushed and mixed with a little water or tar and clay and then tamped into place4 ,the use of lump chrome in repairing such furnaces is desirable on account of the rapidity with which the furnaces can be repaired and on account of the greater wear that chromite will stand4 ,the amount of chromite used for this purpose ranges from #b pounds to #aj pounds per ton of steel manufactured4 ,magnesite has been used to replace chromite for repairing furnaces1 but has been found to be more expensive and to stand less wear4 ,chrome brick is used in a minor way in electric furnaces for manufacturing steel1 in a belt along the slag line and in the area around the pouring lips4 ,it is also being used in furnaces manufacturing steel by the duplex process4 ,chrome brick1 besides being used in steel-making furnaces1 is used in lining furnaces for making copper1 nickel1 and other metals4 ,in these furnaces it is used in the bottoms and around the tap holes4 ,magnesite brick1 as well as bauxite brick1 have been used to replace chromite brick for this purpose4 ,chromium chemicals used for tanning are mainly sodium or potassium bichromates4 ,about half of the bichromates produced in the ,united ,states is commonly used for tanning1 the remainder being used for paints1 pigments1 dry colors1 and dyes in the paint1 printing and engraving1 and textile industries4 ,chrome yellow1 chrome orange1 and chrome black are used in calico printing and dyeing4 ,chromic oxide1 or chrome green1 is an indelible pigment employed in printing banknotes4 ,various other chrome colors are used for paints and pigments as well as in the ceramic arts4 ,the minor uses of chrome chemicals are many4 ,,geological ,,distribution ,chromite throughout the world is associated with basic igneous rocks1 such as peridotite or pyroxenite1 or with the alteration products of these rocks1 such as serpentine1 talc schist1 and related rocks4 ,chromite deposits are generally in the form of lenses1 pods1 or irregular masses that may occur singly or may be associated in groups4 ,besides being found as large bodies1 chromite occurs as a minor constituent of these rocks1 being widely disseminated through them as small specks and particles4 ,chromite that forms workable deposits is believed to have been separated out of the molten mass of basic igneous rock by segregation and to have formed separate bodies within the rock mass during the cooling4 ,most chromite deposits are found along the borders of intrusive masses not far from the contact of older rocks into which they are intruded4 ,this is probably due to the formation of peripheral fractures during the cooling of the igneous mass1 chromite being forced up into these openings4 ,the action of convection-currents in the molten magma may also have resulted in localizing chromite bodies near the borders of the mass4 ,however1 bodies of chromite are quite abundant in other parts of the igneous masses as well1 often being found at long distances from bordering rocks4 ,by weathering of chromite-bearing igneous rock1 chromite bodies are freed and occur as loose masses in resultant residual clays4 ,such bodies in clay are of commercial importance in many places4 ,the breaking down of chromite-bearing rocks results in setting free disseminated specks and particles of chromite1 and these may be transported and later deposited along streams flowing out of chromite-bearing areas4 ,in this manner accumulations of chromite sands are formed4 ,besides chromite1 these sands usually contain considerable quantities of other heavy minerals such as magnetite1 ilmenite1 garnet1 and rutile1 and the chromite in them is generally not available commercially4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,,and ,,commercial ,,control ,the world's chromite supply has been obtained mainly from the following sources1 named roughly in order of their importance3 ,new ,caledonia2 southern ,rhodesia2 western and southern ,asia ,minor2 ,ural ,mountains1 ,russia2 eastern ,greece1 adjacent islands1 ,macedonia1 and ,serbia2 ,baluchistan and ,mysore1 ,india2 ,quebec1 ,canada2 ,atlantic and ,pacific coast states1 ,united ,states2 ,state of ,bahia1 ,brazil2 ,oriente1 ,cuba2 ,japan2 ,bosnia and ,herzegovina2 ,austria-,hungary2 and ,guatemala4 ,the geographic distribution of the more important deposits of chromite is shown in ,plate ,,iv4 ,other countries in which deposits of chromite are known but in which little or no ore has been produced are3 ,shetland ,islands1 ,scotland2 ,norway2 ,sweden2 ,silesia2 ,portugal2 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,australia2 ,new ,zealand2 ,transvaal2 ,togoland2 and ,newfoundland4 ,table #be shows the output of chromite in the chief producing countries from #aije to #aiag4 ,australasia4--,important quantities of chromite occur on the island of ,new ,caledonia1 in the ,south ,pacific1 and in smaller amounts in ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 and ,tasmania4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv4--,geographical distribution of the chromite deposits of the world4 ,by ,e4 ,c4 ,harder4 ,,table #be4--,,world',s ,,chromite ,,production #aije-aiag ,,in ,,long ,,tons#ec ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #aijeed #aijf #aijg #aijh #aiji ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,united ,states #bb #ajg #bij #cei #eih ,canada#ee #g1feg #h1jfh #f1dbe #f1dea #b1bje ,cuba#eg 444 444 444 444 444 ,guatemala#eg 444 444 444 444 444 ,brazil#eg ,great ,britain 7,shetland ,islands7 444 444 444 444 444 ,norway 444 444 #ajeef 444 444 ,sweden 444 444 444 444 444 ,austria-,hungary 7,bosnia and ,herzegovina7 #ahc #cae #cje #dib #cbg ,greece#fj #h1gei #aa1cdhaa1ede #d1bha #i1ddh ,serbia#fa 444 444 444 444 444 ,russia #bf1fbj #af1gjhbe1idj #aj1ggg #ba1heg ,turkey#fb 7mainly ,asia ,minor7 444 #bc1djdba1aaa #bh1cid #aa1cfd ,rhodesia 444 #c1bef #h1jag #aa1ibg #bb1hge ,india #b1gjh #d1cge #g1bgd #d1gde #i1bej ,japan 444 444 444 444 444 ,new ,south ,wales #eb #ae #cj 444 444 ,new ,caledonia #ge1gag #hb1iajef1dfaefbd1igjefci1cfh ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #aiaj #aiaa #aiab #aiac ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,united ,states #bje #abj #bja #bee ,canada#ee #bfg #adj 444 444 ,cuba#eg 444 444 444 444 ,guatemala#eg 444 444 444 444 ,brazil#eg ,great ,britain 7,shetland ,islands7 444 444 444 444 ,norway 444 444 #aacef 444 ,sweden #ca ,austria-,hungary 7,bosnia and ,herzegovina7 #cae #bdf #aig #cjjef ,greece#fj #i1caa #d1edb #f1bji #f1bdbef ,serbia#fa 444 444 444 444 ,russia #ad1aeg #a1bahefbj1icd #ba1dja ,turkey#fb 7mainly ,asia ,minor7 #eiaa1iic #af1hbcfc #ei ,rhodesia #ci1bhgdf1gec #fa1hdj #fb1cfe ,india #a1gcg #c1hjd #b1hij #e1ehjef ,japan #b1jia #a1ejj #a1eia #ei ,new ,south ,wales 444 #adh #bc ,new ,caledonia #ci1cfhcd1ddg #da1cbe #fb1ceb ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #aiad #aiae #aiaf #aiag ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,united ,states #eia #c1bha #dg1jce #dc1gbe ,canada#ee #aba #aa1jjh #bd1ede #cb1degef ,cuba#eg 444 444 #cd #ageh ,guatemala#eg 444 444 444 #agieh ,brazil#eg ,great ,britain 7,shetland ,islands7 #ajj ,norway #hjef #cddef ,sweden ,austria-,hungary 7,bosnia and ,herzegovina7 #dgdef #ei #ei ,greece#fj #f1idgefaj1beeef #i1gbdef #ei ,serbia#fa 444 #ei #ei #ei ,russia #ei #ei #ei #ei ,turkey#fb 7mainly ,asia ,minor7 #ei #ei #ei #ei ,rhodesia #dh1bce #fj1fagefgi1cejef #ei ,india #e1hhgef #c1gfhefbj1afjef #ei ,japan #b1jgeef #b1icbef #h1adief #ei ,new ,south ,wales ,new ,caledonia #da1ccfeffe1idaefgd1aaefdda1bcjef ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ec ,figures not otherwise credited were obtained from 8,mineral ,resources of ,united ,states1 #aiad0 and subsequent years1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey 7figures originally obtained mainly from the ,british statistical publication1 ,mines and ,quarries3 ,general report with statistics1 pt4 #d1 ,london74 #ed ,figures for #aije taken direct from ,mines and ,quarries1 #aije and #aijf4 #ee ,mineral production of ,canada1 #aiaf1 ,canada ,department of ,mines1 ,mines ,branch4 #ef ,mineral ,industry1 #aiag4 #eg ,exports from ,cuba1 ,guatemala1 and ,brazil in #aiah were respectively #h1hbj tons1 #a1aic tons1 and #ag1hed tons4 #eh ,exports4 #ei ,not available4 #fj ,production from the ,saloniki district included under ,turkey previous to #aiad4 #fa ,present ,serbian deposits in ,turkish domain before the war4 #fb ,exports from ,turkey for fiscal years beginning with ,march4 #fc ,mines and ,quarries reports production of ,turkey in #aiab as #ade tons4 #fd ,stateman's ,year ,book1 #aiah1 ,london4 ,serpentine1 in masses intruding metamorphic rocks and sediments ranging in age from ,archean to ,mesozoic1 is abundant throughout the island of ,new ,caledonia1 and chromite invariably is associated with it as a minor constituent4 ,locally1 large masses of fairly pure chromite are found1 generally as lenticular bodies in the serpentine1 but locally as irregular masses in residual clay derived from the decomposition of the serpentine4 ,chromite deposits of three types are known in ,new ,caledonia1 as follows3 ,rock chrome1 consisting of solid ore bodies in serpentine2 residual chromite1 as irregular bodies or scattered masses1 frequently disintegrated1 in red residual clay derived from the weathering of the serpentine2 and chrome sand and gravel in surface wash and stream deposits4 ,ores of the first two classes are both important commercially in ,new ,caledonia and are both present in most mines4 ,ores of the last named class are not worked4 ,of these ,new ,caledonian deposits1 that of ,mt4 d',or1 in the southern part of the island1 was the first to be discovered and worked1 being found by ,garnier in #ahff4 ,later the deposits of ,ngo ,bay and others further south were exploited4 ,production and exportation of ,new ,caledonian chromite began in the early #hj's and continued in a minor way until #aijb1 the production coming mainly from ,mt4 d',or and the ,ngo ,bay deposits4 ,in #aijb1 ,l4 ,bernheim formed the ,socit le ,chrome1 in which ,french capital was largely interested4 ,this company operated mines in the northern and southern parts of the island4 ,it developed the ,tiebaghi deposits near the port of ,pagoumene1 now among the most important in ,new ,caledonia4 ,the exportation of chromite soon increased1 and gradually ,new ,caledonian ore replaced ,turkish ore in the market4 ,in #aiaa the ,chrome ,co41 ,ltd41 of ,london1 was formed and acquired from the ,socit le ,chrome the ,tiebaghi and other mines4 ,at the same time it acquired the right from the ,rhodesia ,chrome ,mines ,co41 ,limited1 to market the ,rhodesian ore1 thus securing practically a monopoly of the world's chromite trade4 ,the ,chrome ,co41 ,ltd41 is controlled by ,french and ,english interests4 ,chalas ,sons1 ,finsbury ,pavement ,house1 ,london1 ,e4 ,c1 are the largest stockholders4 ,there were formerly ,german stockholders4 ,l4 ,bernheim does not seem to be associated with the ,chrome ,co41 ,ltd41 but it is said that he still owns chromite deposits in ,new ,caledonia4 ,besides the operations of the ,chrome ,co41 ,ltd41 there are a number of independent operations in different parts of the island4 ,these are mainly under the control of inhabitants of the island4 ,africa4--,the important chromite deposits of southern ,rhodesia are near the town of ,selukwe1 which is connected by railroad with the shipping port of ,beira4 ,they occur scattered through an area of schist and serpentine4 ,one hundred and twenty chromite bodies have been mapped out1 but the only ones that have been developed are ten closely grouped large bodies at ,chrome ,mine northwest of ,selukwe4 ,one of the largest bodies is #ahj feet wide and #bdj feet long4 ,the ores are high grade1 averaging between #dh and #ea per cent4 chromic oxide4 ,recently considerable publicity has been given to the discovery of what are reported to be among the largest deposits of high-grade chromite in the world in the ,umvukwe ,hills in the ,lomagundi district #cj miles from ,banket ,junction1 southern ,rhodesia4 ,the ore is said to occur over a large area in bodies in serpentine4 ,more than two million tons is reported to have been uncovered4 ,the deposits were discovered by ,albert ,peake1 of ,umvukwe ,ranch1 and are owned by ,peake ,brothers1 who are said to have offered them to the ,imperial government on special terms4 ,chromite was mined in ,rhodesia for the first time in #aije1 the ore coming from claims near ,selukwe held by the ,bechuanaland ,exploration ,company1 ,ltd4 ,production steadily increased1 slowly at first but more rapidly after #aiaj1 when the ,selukwe mines were taken over by the ,rhodesia ,chrome ,mines1 ,ltd4 ,in #aiaj the staking of chromite claims in the ,hartley district was reported and in #aiaa chromite was discovered at ,victoria4 ,shipments from ,selukwe stopped in ,august1 #aiad1 after the declaration of war1 but began in ,december and increased during #aiae and #aiaf4 ,in #aiag the discovery of the large and valuable deposits of chromite in the ,lomagundi district 7already mentioned7 was reported4 ,previous to #aiaf the entire production of ,rhodesian chromite came from the ,selukwe mines of the ,rhodesia ,chrome ,mines1 ,ltd4 ,in #aiag1 however1 another company1 the ,rhodesia ,metals ,syndicate1 ,ltd41 entered the field and is producing important amounts of ore4 ,asia4--,before ,turkey lost most of her ,european possessions after the ,balkan wars1 the chromite deposits of the ,kossowo1 ,uskub1 and ,monastir district of ,serbia and the ,saloniki district of ,greece were within her borders4 ,now1 however1 only the deposits of ,asia ,minor remain to her4 ,chromite deposits are widely scattered through many parts of ,asia ,minor and are said to be numbered by the hundreds4 ,the most important deposits are grouped into three districts3 ,in the regions of ,brussa and ,kutahia south of the ,sea of ,marmora1 where the important ,daghardi deposits are found2 near ,macri1 ,denislu and around the ,gulf of ,adalia in the southwestern part of the peninsula1 as well as on the neighboring ,island of ,rhodes2 and near ,mersina1 ,adana1 ,aleppo1 and elsewhere in the region around the ,gulf of ,alexandretta northeast of the ,island of ,cyprus4 ,smaller deposits are reported in the vilayets of ,angora and ,kastamuni in the north central part of ,asia ,minor and near ,beirut and ,damascus in ,syria4 ,all the ore bodies are found in more or less schistose and decomposed serpentine in groups of lenslike or irregular bodies4 ,the chromite mines of ,asia ,minor have produced important quantities of ore4 ,from about #ahgj1 when ,turkey began to supplant the ,united ,states as the world's principal producer of chromite1 to near #aijj1 ,asia ,minor furnished the bulk of the chromite for the world's consumption4 ,most of the ore mined has come from the mines in the ,brussa region on the south and southwest slopes of the ,mysian ,olympus and from the mines of the ,macri region4 ,the ,brussa and ,kutahia deposits are said to have produced an average of about #bj1jjj tons annually for many years1 of which the ,daghardi mine is said to have furnished nearly three-fourths4 ,this deposit consists of high-grade ore averaging #ea to #ee per cent4 chromic oxide and has been estimated to contain about #aj1jjj1jjj tons of ore4 ,probably this is somewhat an exaggeration1 although doubtless the deposit is large and important4 ,the chromite mines in the ,macri region have furnished a considerable part of the output of ,asia ,minor1 but much of the ore mined in recent years has been of low grade1 running as low as #dj per cent4 chromic oxide4 ,the chromite near ,denislu and that near the ,gulf of ,adalia1 on the other hand1 is said to be very rich1 some deposits containing ore averaging as high as #ef per cent4 chromic oxide4 ,most of the chromite mines of ,asia ,minor are probably now under the control of the ,turkish government1 having reverted back ten or fifteen years ago when increasing competition of ,new ,caledonia chromite in foreign markets resulted in the shutting down of many of the mines4 ,the taxes on both worked and undeveloped mineral properties are so heavy in ,turkey that unless mines are bringing in continuous and substantial revenues1 they cannot be held by private individuals4 ,it has been the policy of ,turkey not to allow her mineral properties to fall into the hands of foreigners4 ,even while the exploitation of the chromite deposits was most vigorous1 therefore1 the mines1 although in many places worked by foreign firms1 were largely owned by the ,turkish government or by ,turkish subjects who leased them4 ,thus in #aijd the principal deposits near ,brussa were owned by an officer of the ,porte and were operated by ,j4 ,w4 ,whittal ,co41 an ,english firm in ,constantinople1 while other deposits in the same district were worked by ,patterson ,canghellari1 an ,english company located in ,smyrna4 ,the famous ,daghardi deposit1 in the ,kutahia region1 at that time was owned by the ,turkish minister of marine and was operated by a ,turk named ,raghit ,bey4 ,in the ,macri district1 a number of low-grade deposits were in #aijd under the control of ,patterson ,co41 of ,smyrna1 and the mines near the ,gulf of ,adalia were controlled by a ,french syndicate4 ,some large deposits near ,denislu1 in the interior1 north of ,macri1 are said to be lying undeveloped owing to the refusal of the ,turkish government to permit mining4 ,the chromite deposits in the region surrounding the ,gulf of ,alexandretta have been worked in a small way both by ,turks and foreigners4 ,among operators in the region are mentioned ,durian ,effendi1 a ,turk1 representing the ,ottoman ,bank2 ,husni ,herikizadeh ,effendi1 a ,turk of ,adana2 ,nader ,brothers1 of ,mersina2 ,alfred ,keun ,co4 of ,smyrna2 ,protopazzi ,brothers1 of ,smyrna1 and ,mavrommati ,sons1 of ,mersina1 both probably ,greek firms2 ,loizides1 of ,mersina2 and ,hadji ,kemal ,bey1 of ,constantinople4 ,durian ,effendi is mentioned also as having operated chromite mines near ,beirut4 ,the most important chromite deposits of ,india are in the northern part of ,baluchistan1 but the mines of the ,madras and ,mysore districts in southern ,india have also furnished important amounts of ore4 ,a small production has come from ,bengal4 ,the deposits of ,baluchistan are large and the ore is rich1 much of it averaging nearly #ee per cent4 chromic oxide4 ,one deposit is reported to be #ddj feet long by #e feet wide4 ,the ore bodies are segregations in serpentine4 ,the problem of transportation is difficult1 as the ores are far from the coast and land transportation facilities are poor4 ,nevertheless1 those mines have made a steady output since they were opened in #aijc4 ,the largest production was in #aijg1 when the yield exceeded #g1jjj tons4 ,since then there has been a decrease owing to competition from ,new ,caledonia and ,rhodesia4 ,chromite ore bodies were exploited in ,madras as early as #ahfa and small amounts of ore were mined intermittently4 ,the ores are associated with magnesite veins in serpentine4 ,since #aijg a steady production is recorded from ,madras1 which has increased recently4 ,important deposits of chromite are found in ,mysore4 ,these deposits have produced more than #b1jjj tons of ore annually in recent years1 which is reported to have been sent to the ,united ,states4 ,the chromite deposits of ,bengal are said to be small and unimportant4 ,in ,bombay a large body of low-grade chromite is said to measure #a1jjj by #cjj feet and to average #cd per cent4 chromic oxide4 ,before #aiaj chromite mining in ,japan was sporadic and unimportant1 but since #aiaj the output has been steady and increasing4 ,the principal occurrences of chrome ore are in the southwestern part1 the mines of ,wakamatsu1 in ,hoki1 being the most important4 ,the ore is said to average about #dj per cent4 chromic oxide4 ,chromite is also reported to occur in the northern part of ,japan4 ,the ,japanese chromite deposits are small and soon exhausted4 ,the principal chromite deposits of ,russia are in the southern part of the ,ural ,mountains and are associated with serpentine and soapstone4 ,the deposits are classed under three heads3 ,large granular masses in serpentine1 finely disseminated chromite in serpentine1 and chromite sand in platinum- and gold-bearing placers4 ,the characteristic occurrence of chromite bodies in the ,urals is as segregations within areas of dunite largely altered to serpentine4 ,platinum in scattered grains is associated with chromite in the dunite in several places4 ,recently chromite deposits have been reported in the northern part of the ,caucasus ,mountains4 ,europe4--,the chromite deposits of the ,balkan ,peninsula may be grouped into four main districts3 central ,serbia2 southern ,serbia2 ,saloniki1 in eastern ,macedonia2 and ,magnesia1 southern ,thessaly1 and the neighboring islands4 ,the chromite deposits are found in serpentine derived from the alteration of peridotite4 ,the chromite mines of ,serbia and ,macedonia for many years furnished a small production1 credited to ,european ,turkey1 which before the last ,balkan ,war embraced all the chromite-bearing areas4 ,many of the deposits of central ,serbia are poorly situated with reference to transportation1 the ore being hauled on carts to the railroad stations and thence by rail to the coast4 ,in eastern ,macedonia some of the mines are relatively near the coast and the ore is carried on carts to ,saloniki4 ,the mines of ,serbia and ,macedonia were worked in part by individuals and in part by the same firms which mined the chrome ores of ,asia ,minor1 such as ,patterson ,co41 ,whittal ,co41 and others4 ,the chromite mines of ,magnesia1 ,thessaly1 and adjacent islands in eastern ,greece have furnished a more or less continuous output for the last #cj or #dj years4 ,the ore mined1 however1 has been mainly of low grade1 most of it averaging between #cj and #dj per cent4 chromic oxide4 ,it is said to be used largely for refractory purposes4 ,before #aijh most of the ,grecian production of chromite came from the mines of ,magnesia1 but more recently the mines of southern ,thessaly have furnished most of the ore4 ,mines in the ,grecian ,archipelago have also furnished some ore4 ,the annual output of ,greece has varied from a few hundred tons to more than #ae1jjj tons4 ,during the past #bj years it has rarely fallen below #e1jjj tons4 ,chromiferous iron ore in considerable quantity is mined in ,greece1 most of it being exported4 ,in #aiac ten or more mines were worked4 ,the production has averaged more than #ajj1jjj tons annually4 ,the mines are operated in part by ,greek and in part by ,french and ,british firms4 ,the chromic iron ores produced in the former ,austrian ,empire have come mainly from the central part of ,bosnia1 but the chromite mines in ,upper ,styria and those on the ,roumanian border have also furnished an appreciable output1 the ore being low-grade4 ,the deposits of ,bosnia are in serpentine4 ,the ore is of good quality and has been mined for use as a furnace lining4 ,on and near the left bank of the ,danube ,river in the ,banat1 ,hungary1 there is an extensive area of serpentine containing chromite in bunches4 ,the deposits have been worked to a slight extent4 ,north ,america4--,in ,canada chromite-bearing areas of considerable extent are found in the southern part of the ,province of ,quebec1 where nearly all the productive chromite mines of ,canada are situated4 ,the ore occurs in serpentine in irregular masses and pockets without definite form1 that range in size up to #ge feet along the longer axis1 rarely reaching #ajj feet4 ,the amount of high-grade ore in the ,quebec chromite deposits is not large1 but low-grade ore bodies which under normal market conditions can not be mined at a profit are numerous and of large size4 ,the low-grade ores range in content of chromic oxide from less than #bj per cent4 to #ce or #dj per cent4 ,nearly all the ,canadian ore mined has been exported to the ,united ,states4 ,from #aiaj to #aiad the output of chrome ore from the ,quebec mines was insignificant1 owing to the cost of mining low-grade ores and the lack of a market for them4 ,when the price of chromite rose late in #aiad1 ,american firms began active developments in the field1 and subsequently two concentrators were built by the ,mutual ,chemical ,co4 ,the output of ,canadian chromite1 both of crude ore and concentrates1 during the war period was noteworthy1 the production rising from #aba long tons in #aiad1 to #dg1jce long tons in #aiaf and #dc1gbe long tons in #aiag4 ,the principal ,american firms interested in the development of the ,canadian chromite deposits during the past few years have been the ,mutual ,chemical ,co41 the ,harbison-,walker ,refractories ,co41 the ,electrometallurgical ,co41 and the ,quebec ,asbestos ,chrome ,co4 ,the last-named company purchased one of the concentrators built by the ,mutual ,chemical ,co41 and has furnished a considerable output both of crude ore and concentrates4 ,canadian firms have also produced considerable ore4 ,with the close of the war and the drop in the price of chromite1 the ,canadian mines have been largely abandoned4 ,it is possible1 however1 that some ,american firms that mine ore for use in their own plants may continue work on a small scale4 ,when the ,united ,states was the world's principal chromite-producing country1 the output came from the eastern ,united ,states and principally from ,maryland4 ,the ,wood chrome mine and neighboring deposits in ,baltimore and ,harford counties furnished most of the production4 ,smaller amounts were mined in ,north ,carolina and ,pennsylvania4 ,the principal chromite deposits of the ,united ,states1 and those that have furnished nearly all the ore produced in recent years1 are in ,california and ,oregon4 ,recently deposits of some extent have been found in ,montana1 but these have not reached the producing stage4 ,the chromite deposits of ,california are for the most part grouped into four principal districts1 the ,klamath ,mountains region of northwestern ,california and southwestern ,oregon2 the ,coast ,range of west central ,california2 the ,sierra ,nevada range throughout a considerable part of its length2 and the ,san ,luis ,obispo district of southwestern ,california4 ,the chrome ores of ,california and ,oregon form lenses or irregular bodies in serpentine and related rocks4 ,many of the ore bodies are found in comparatively fresh peridotite and dunite1 and the intimate relation between the chromite and the associated pyroxene or olivine is well shown4 ,in places1 also1 chromite masses are found in the mantle of residual material derived from the alteration of serpentine and other rocks4 ,most of the chrome ores of the ,pacific ,coast are of low-grade1 few running more than #de per cent4 chromic oxide4 ,concentrating plants have been built to beneficiate the ore from bodies large enough to warrant such expenditure4 ,at some plants the grade of ore was thus raised to more than #eb per cent4 ,locally small bodies of high-grade ore have been found4 ,the chromite mines of the eastern ,united ,states were first worked about #ahbg and continued to be operated for about forty years4 ,the ,california deposits began to be developed about #ahgj1 but never furnished a large output until the war raised the price of chromite to unprecedented figures and ore could be produced at a profit in spite of high costs and high freight rates to consuming centers4 ,the chromite mines of the ,united ,states have always been worked and controlled by ,american capital4 ,in ,california the ore has been mined mainly by private individuals working small scattered deposits4 ,a few large firms1 such as the ,california ,chrome ,co41 the ,adams ,maltby ,co41 ,l4 ,h4 ,butcher ,co41 and the ,union ,chrome ,co41 worked on a larger scale during the war period4 ,deposits of chromite have been known in ,alaska for a number of years1 but not until the war brought high prices was it possible to mine them at a profit4 ,the deposits of present importance are near the southwestern end of the ,kenai ,peninsula4 ,about #a1jjj tons of ore containing #df to #di per cent4 chromic oxide was mined in #aiag4 ,south ,america1 ,central ,america and ,cuba4--,as far as is known1 only one chromite-bearing district of importance occurs in ,south ,america1 this being in the ,state of ,bahia1 in ,brazil4 ,one deposit has been worked at this locality by ,e4 ,j4 ,lavino ,co41 of ,philadelphia1 and the discovery of several neighboring deposits is reported4 ,the first shipments of ore were made in ,february1 #aiah1 and by ,july #a1 #aiah1 #ab1fbj tons had been sent to the ,united ,states4 ,the deposits are said to be owned by ,newman ,co41 a firm of ,american exporters in ,bahia4 ,they are leased to ,e4 ,j4 ,lavino ,co41 of ,philadelphia4 ,south ,america1 outside of ,brazil1 has no known chromite deposits of importance4 ,in ,colombia1 chrome ore is reported to exist near ,antioquia and chromiferous pig iron is said to have been produced by the blast furnace near ,medellin4 ,in ,venezuela1 chrome ore is said to occur on ,coro ,peninsula4 ,important chromite deposits lie along the north coast of ,cuba in the provinces of ,camaguey and ,oriente4 ,a small deposit is found in the northwestern part of the ,province of ,matanzas4 ,the most important deposits in ,cuba are those at the ,caledonia mine1 south of the ,bay of ,nipe and northeast of the ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4's ,mayari iron mines4 ,these deposits are estimated to contain about #dj1jjj tons of ore in sight4 ,they are owned and worked by the ,bethlehem ,steel ,co41 which began exploitation in the spring of #aiah4 ,shipments during #aiah amounted to #h1hbj tons4 ,next in importance to the deposits at the ,caledonia mine are those along the coast1 northeast of ,baracoa1 known as the ,cayoguan and ,potosi deposits1 where about #ce1jjj tons of ore is estimated to be in sight4 ,the deposits are on the north edge of a rugged mountain range forming the eastern end of ,cuba4 ,the ,cayoguan claims are owned by ,brady interests1 ,american1 and the ,potosi claims by the ,harbison-,walker ,refractories ,co41 of ,philadelphia4 ,in the ,province of ,camaguey the deposits are found northeast of the town of ,camaguey4 ,they consist chiefly of masses of ore in residual clay and float on the surface4 ,the underlying rock is serpentine4 ,the ,camaguey deposits are owned in part by ,lehigh ,university and in part by ,cubans4 ,the estimated reserves are #bj1jjj tons4 ,exploitation of the chromite deposits of ,cuba began in the fall of #aiag and continued during the spring and summer of #aiah4 ,only the ,caledonia mine has produced ore4 ,the chromite deposits are all associated with areas of serpentine4 ,chromiferous iron ores that are destined to play an important part in the ,american iron and steel industry are found at ,mayari1 ,camaguey1 and ,moa1 along the northeastern coast of ,cuba4 ,the reserves are measured in hundreds of millions of tons4 ,only the ,mayari deposits are mined at present4 ,chromite deposits were developed in the interior of ,guatemala in #aiag and shipments started in the autumn4 ,the deposits were owned and operated by the ,international ,railways of ,central ,america1 an ,american company1 and are situated in the hills #ajj miles inland from ,puerto ,barrios4 ,the ore is in serpentine4 ,it is very pure and is especially desirable for chemical purposes4 ,the average chromic oxide content of the shipments during #aiah was #eh per cent41 thus making this the highest grade ore that came to the ,american market4 ,the ore was used by the ,grasselli ,chemical ,co4 ,because of the distance from the railroad1 these ores are very expensive to mine1 and it was only on account of the high prices paid for chromite during the war that they were developed4 ,,position ,,of ,,leading ,,commercial ,,nations ,the country that leads in the manufacture of chromium products1 such as ferrochrome and chrome chemicals1 is the ,united ,states4 ,in normal times the ,united ,states consumes more than one-third of the annual consumption of chromite by the world4 ,in #aiac the chromite used by manufacturers of ferrochrome and chrome chemicals in the ,united ,states amounted to #fe1jjj tons4 ,owing to the war1 the consumption increased markedly until #aiag1 when it was nearly #acj1jjj tons4 ,the normal consumption of chromite in ,england is about #be1jjj tons and in ,france approximately #ce1jjj tons4 ,these amounts have not greatly increased in recent years4 ,germany is an important producer of chromium products1 normally consuming #cj1jjj tons of chromite annually4 ,russia and the former ,austrian ,empire used perhaps #e1jjj tons each annually4 ,norway and ,sweden use small amounts4 ,russia's consumption has been mainly in the manufacture of chromium chemicals1 and that of the former ,austrian ,empire was principally for refractory purposes4 ,in ,norway and ,sweden small amounts of ferrochrome are produced4 ,united ,states4--,the ,united ,states1 although the world's largest consumer of chromite1 is not an important producer of this mineral in normal times4 ,during the #cj years preceding the war1 the annual production never exceeded #d1jjj long tons of crude ore1 and during the last #ae years preceding the war the largest annual production was #eih long tons1 in #aiji4 ,the production in #aiac was less than #a per cent4 of the domestic requirements4 ,the chromite supply of the ,united ,states has1 therefore1 come largely from foreign sources1 and these sources have been mainly ,asia ,minor1 ,rhodesia1 and ,new ,caledonia4 ,before #aije ,turkey in ,asia was the principal source of supply4 ,since then1 however1 ,rhodesia and ,new ,caledonia have largely replaced ,turkey in the ,american chrome market4 ,although numerous deposits of chromite occur in the western ,united ,states and locally in the eastern states1 these deposits are usually small and scattered or of low grade4 ,on account of their physical character1 small size1 scattered occurrence1 or distance from consuming centers1 domestic chromite could not be furnished to consumers in the required grade or for the price that chromite from rich foreign deposits could be furnished4 ,for this reason the ,american chromite deposits remained undeveloped and no ore was mined except small quantities which were consumed for refractory purposes in neighboring metallurgical works4 ,when in #aiad1 at the beginning of the war1 the price of chromite increased1 production was immediately stimulated1 this being shown by the rapid increase in output from #eia long tons of crude ore in #aiad to about #hb1cej long tons of crude ore in #aiah1 equivalent to about #ff1eed tons of ore on the basis of #ej per cent4 chromic oxide4 ,even this largely increased domestic output1 however1 filled only little more than one-half of the ,american requirements1 the total amount of chrome ore consumed in #aiah being about #ajd1jjj long tons on the basis of #ej per cent4 chromic oxide4 ,had the market for chromite kept up1 however1 the domestic mines would have supplied a much larger proportion of the requirements in #aiai4 ,the consumption of chromite in the ,united ,states in #aiac amounted to #fe1jjj tons of ore containing #ej per cent4 chromic oxide4 ,from this it rose to about #abg1jjj tons in #aiag1 which represents the maximum annual consumption thus far4 ,the following table shows the production and imports of chromite on the basis of #ej per cent4 chromic oxide1 from #aiac to #aiah1 as well as the total quantity available for consumption for these years4 ,no chromite is exported from the ,united ,states4 ,,table #bf4--,,production ,,and ,,imports ,,of ,,chromite1 ,,united ,,states1 #aiac-aiah ---------------------------------------- - ,total available ,production ,imports for consumption 7long tons77long tons7 7long tons7 ---------------------------------------- - #aiac #bcj #fe1ahj #fe1daj #aiad #ecj #gd1egh #ge1ajh #aiae #b1gef #gc1gfb #gf1cah #aiaf #ci1eji #aaj1hdi #aej1ceh #aiag #cf1gbi #fd1igh #aja1gjg #aiah #ff1eed #ib1fgh #aei1bcb ---------------------------------------- - ,the prices paid for domestic chromite in the ,united ,states in recent years ranged from an average of #aa4ai per ton in #aiac to an average of about #bd4jj per ton in #aiag4 ,when the need of increased shipping was felt in the latter part of #aiag1 steps were taken to reduce the imports of chromite from distant countries1 such as ,turkey1 ,new ,caledonia1 and ,rhodesia1 to increase the imports from nearby sources such as ,brazil1 ,cuba1 and ,canada1 and to urge the maximum production from domestic mines4 ,as a result1 the imports of chromite from ,brazil were #ag1hed long tons of crude ore and from ,cuba #h1hba long tons of crude ore in #aiah4 ,the only previous production in ,cuba was #cd long tons in #aiaf and #ag long tons in #aiag4 ,brazil had no production before #aiah4 ,the imports from ,canada amounted to #bj1idi long tons of crude ore in #aiah1 as compared to #ai1jba long tons of crude ore in #aiag1 and #ab1bbj long tons of crude ore in #aiaf4 ,in order to reduce the importation of chromite from countries far overseas1 various restrictions were put into effect by the ,war ,trade ,board in the early part of #aiah4 ,the development of domestic chromite supplies means the depletion of limited resources1 high cost of production1 use of lower-grade ores1 and lowered efficiency in consumption4 ,with the free access of high-grade foreign ores1 the market for domestic ores1 therefore1 disappears2 and the domestic chromite-mining industry can not survive to any large extent4 ,if world conservation of raw materials or the best use of the world's resources is of chief importance1 the domestic chromite-mining industry should be allowed to decline1 and cheaper and higher-grade foreign ores should be allowed to replace domestic chromite4 ,experience during the past few years has shown that the chromite deposits of the ,united ,states1 supplemented by imports from ,canada1 ,brazil1 and ,cuba1 can largely supply the domestic requirements for a limited period4 ,the ,united ,states controls only a small part of the chromite reserves of the world4 ,american firms own the principal ,cuban deposits and control the ,brazilian deposits through leases4 ,the ,united ,states is1 therefore1 dependent to a large extent upon the good will of ,france and ,england for a continuous supply of chrome ore1 these two countries jointly being largely in control of the chromite reserves of ,rhodesia and ,new ,caledonia4 ,turkey controls most1 if not all1 of the chromite deposits of ,asia ,minor1 but because of their enclosed situation on the ,mediterranean1 these deposits could not be relied upon as a source of supply in time of need4 ,the same is true of the deposits of the ,ural region in ,russia4 ,the chief chromite-consuming firms in the ,united ,states are the ,electrometallurgical ,co41 probably the largest producer of ferrochrome in the world2 the ,mutual ,chemical ,co41 and the ,national ,electrolytic ,co41 large producers of chromium chemicals1 and the ,harbison-,walker ,refractories ,co41 ,american ,refractories ,co41 and various steel-making plants1 users of chromite for refractory purposes4 ,great ,britain4--,before the war ,great ,britain consumed annually about #be1jjj tons of chromite1 most of it being used by ,blackwell ,sons1 ,ltd41 for the manufacture of ferrochrome4 ,the ferrochrome made in ,england1 however1 is not sufficient to supply the needs of the ,british steel industry1 and much is imported from ,france4 ,except for unimportant occurrences in the ,shetland ,islands there are no chromite deposits in the ,british ,isles1 and ,great ,britain is therefore dependent entirely upon overseas sources of supply4 ,british colonies1 on the other hand1 are rich in chromite deposits1 and as long as ,british ships have freedom of movement on the ocean1 they will have access to the more important chromite deposits of the world4 ,owing to their richness and large size1 the most important of all the ,british-controlled deposits are those of ,rhodesia4 ,only one of many deposits in this area is being operated1 and the reserves in untouched ore bodies are undoubtedly large1 comparable perhaps with those of ,new ,caledonia4 ,the production of the ,rhodesian chrome mines has in recent years averaged in the neighborhood of #fj1jjj tons annually or about #ce per cent4 of the world's production1 and doubtless the output could be very greatly increased if other known deposits were developed4 ,however1 even the present production is more than twice the actual chromite requirements of ,great ,britain4 ,these requirements1 however1 do not represent the needs for metallic chromium or chromium compounds1 and if ,france should cease to supply ,great ,britain with ferrochrome1 a much larger amount of the raw material1 chromite1 would be necessary for the ,english steel industry4 ,besides the chromite deposits of ,south ,africa1 chromite deposits of importance are found in other ,british colonies1 notably in ,british ,india and ,canada4 ,amounts of chromite varying from #b1jjj tons to #aj1jjj tons have been produced annually in ,british ,india for many years1 coming mainly from ,baluchistan1 in the northwestern part1 but a small production has come also from ,mysore1 in the southern part4 ,in early years1 ,india furnished a more important part of the world's supply of chromite than at present4 ,transportation is a serious difficulty in the mining of these deposits and when ,new ,caledonian and ,rhodesian ores became developed1 the ,indian ores dropped in importance4 ,the ,canadian deposits1 while of considerable extent1 and having ready accessibility to eastern ,american markets1 have not been extensively or continuously mined1 on account of their low-grade character4 ,by concentration1 a medium high-grade product can be obtained1 but concentration methods are expensive and bring the cost of the material up to such an extent that it can not compete with other ores now on the market4 ,thus1 the cost of producing both ,indian and ,canadian ores is such that under normal conditions it is difficult to find a market for them1 but in case of necessity1 a considerable tonnage can be supplied from these sources4 ,other ,british colonies in which deposits of chromite exist are ,new ,south ,wales1 ,tasmania1 and ,new ,zealand4 ,as far as known1 the deposits in these countries are small and only those of the first have furnished a small production4 ,besides controlling chromite deposits in many parts of the world through her colonial possessions1 ,great ,britain controls deposits through ,british firms with foreign possessions4 ,thus1 the ,chrome ,co41 ,ltd41 of mixed ,british and ,french interests1 controls not only the ,rhodesian chromite output but also owns and controls most of the important ,new ,caledonian mines4 ,great ,britain has in the past received most of her supplies of chromite from ,rhodesia1 ,new ,caledonia1 and ,turkey4 ,although more than enough chromite is produced in ,rhodesia to supply the ,british needs1 ,england has allowed most of the ,rhodesian ore to be exported to other countries and has imported foreign ore for part of her own needs4 ,probably the largest part of the ,rhodesian output before the war went to the ,united ,states4 ,much of the ore consumed in ,england has come from ,turkey1 where ,english firms have been interested in chromite mining for many years4 ,most of the ,indian output probably has been used in ,great ,britain1 but a part has gone to ,france4 ,france4--,a few deposits of chromite are known in ,france1 but they are of no importance commercially4 ,france1 therefore1 like ,england1 is entirely dependent upon overseas sources for her chromite supply4 ,unlike ,england1 however1 ,france has only one colony1 ,new ,caledonia1 containing important chromite deposits2 but luckily this colony contains enough to make it one of the world's principal sources of chromite4 ,although the ,chrome ,co41 ,ltd41 which controls the principal ,new ,caledonian chromite deposits and is the largest shipper1 represents both ,english and ,french capital1 ,france through political means can control the output of chromite from the island4 ,while in the past probably the major part of the chromite used in ,france has come from this source1 ,france has also used ,rhodesian and ,turkish ores and probably ,russian ores to a considerable extent1 and much ,new ,caledonian ore has gone to ,germany1 the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain4 ,the principal ,french firms manufacturing ferrochrome are the ,socit ,electrometallurgique ,franaise1 at ,la ,praz2 ,socit ,la ,new ,metallurgie1 at ,giffre2 ,socit ,anonyme ,electrometallurgique1 at ,albertville2 ,keller1 ,leleux et ,cie1 at ,livet2 ,socit ,electrometallurgique de ,saint ,beron1 at ,saint ,beron2 ,ch4 ,betrolus1 at ,bellegarde2 and ,rochette ,frres1 at ,epierre4 ,germany4--,except for unimportant low-grade deposits in ,silesia1 ,germany has no chromite supplies within her borders4 ,as a user of chromite ,germany ranks in importance with ,france1 most of the ore consumed being used in the manufacture of ferrochrome1 the principal manufacturers of which have been the ,krupp works4 ,chrome chemicals are also made in abundance1 however4 ,none of ,germany's former colonies is known to have chromite deposits except ,togoland1 and the ,togoland deposits are undeveloped and are believed to be unimportant4 ,in the past1 ,germany has received chromite from ,new ,caledonia1 ,rhodesia1 ,turkey1 ,greece1 and probably ,russia4 ,because of the long rail haul from ,russia and the poor state of development of the industry in ,turkey1 the ores from these two countries were1 in the years immediately preceding the war1 being largely replaced by ores from overseas4 ,the four large chromite-consuming countries have1 therefore1 all been looking mainly to ,new ,caledonia and ,rhodesia for their sources of supply4 ,during the war1 when overseas chromite was not available1 ,germany was enabled by her relations with ,turkey to obtain chromite from ,asia ,minor1 and probably from chromite mines in ,serbia1 ,hungary1 ,bosnia1 and ,herzegovina4 ,thus in time of need1 when the usual overseas sources of supply were cut off1 ,germany1 through her relations with neighboring countries1 was able to obtain by land sufficient chromite to supply her ordnance requirements4 ,had the war continued ,germany would doubtless have developed the chromite resources of the ,urals1 and those1 together with the deposits of ,asia ,minor1 even in their present state of development1 could have kept ,germany supplied indefinitely4 ,it is probable that ,german control became important in the mines of ,asia ,minor during the war4 ,by relatively small improvements in transportation facilities1 such as building branch railroad lines to the principal deposits1 the chromite mines of ,asia ,minor might be rejuvenated to such an extent as to enable the ores to compete with ,rhodesian and ,new ,caledonian ore and to place them again among the world's large producers4 ,the deposits are large and the reserves rank in importance with those of ,rhodesia and ,new ,caledonia4 ,russia4--,russia is independent as far as her requirements of chromite are concerned4 ,out of her production of about #bj1jjj tons annually1 the domestic industry consumes less than one-fourth and the rest is available for export to nations less favored with chromite resources4 ,most of the chromite used in ,russia goes into the manufacture of chrome chemicals4 ,the ,russian bichromate works at ,elabouga1 east of ,kazan1 established in #ahib1 have consumed about #b1jjj tons of ore annually4 ,,summary ,the political and commercial control of the principal chromite deposits of the world is summarized in the following table3 ,,table #bg4--,,political ,,and ,,commercial ,,control ,,of ,,chromite ,,deposits ,political ,predominant ,country control commercial control ,new ,caledonia ,french ,french-,british ,rhodesia ,british ,british ,asia ,minor ,turkish ,turkish ,ural ,mountains1 ,russia ,russian ,russian-,british ,greece ,grecian ,uncertain ,serbia ,serbian ,uncertain ,india ,british ,probably ,british ,canada ,british ,united ,states-,canadian ,united ,states ,united ,states ,united ,states ,brazil ,brazilian ,united ,states ,cuba ,cuban ,united ,states ,japan ,japanese ,japanese ,austria-,hungary ,austrian ,uncertain ,guatemala ,guatemalan ,united ,states ,great ,britain and ,france produce in their colonial possessions chromite enough for their own needs and for export1 but the ,united ,states1 the world's largest consumer1 must depend1 except in time of extreme emergency1 upon imports1 mainly from ,new ,caledonia and ,rhodesia4 ,various countries have from time to time played important rles in supplying the world's demand for chromite4 ,one country after another has been displaced1 as cheaper or better grades of chromite came into the market4 ,at times these changes were caused by the finding of larger bodies of higher-grade ores than had previously been mined1 and at other times they were caused by cheaply transported ores replacing ores inconveniently situated with reference to centers of consumption4 ,thus1 at the beginning of the nineteenth century and up to about #ahcj1 the ,ural ,mountain region of ,russia supplied the major part of the world's requirements for chromite1 which were small4 ,about #ahcj1 important discoveries of chromite were made in the eastern ,united ,states1 particularly in ,maryland1 and the ,united ,states soon displaced ,russia as the leading producer of chromite4 ,after this1 for many years1 the ,united ,states continued to lead in chromite production until about #ahgj1 when the domestic deposits gradually approached exhaustion and important deposits discovered in ,european ,turkey and ,asia ,minor began to be extensively developed4 ,asia ,minor was the principal chromite-producing country from about #ahgj until about the beginning of the twentieth century4 ,the deposits continued to be worked fairly steadily on account of their richness and large size1 although they were inconveniently situated with reference to transportation4 ,only certain deposits1 such as those in the ,macri and ,alexandretta regions1 were so near to the coast that the ore could be carried on muleback or by camel to the shipping ports4 ,from the larger deposits1 such as ,daghardi1 the ore had to be transported by animals to railroad stations1 often a distance of many miles1 and then by rail to the coast4 ,because of these difficulties1 ,turkish ore was largely replaced by ore from the important ,new ,caledonian and ,rhodesian deposits as soon as those were developed4 ,in ,new ,caledonia labor is cheap and the deposits are all near the coast4 ,by means of sailing vessels and tramp steamers which charge low rates and often require such heavy materials as chromite for ballast1 this ore can be delivered to points of consumption at a relatively small cost4 ,the ,rhodesian chromite deposits are not as accessible from the coast1 but they are large and rich and the rail freight rates to the shipping port are exceptionally low4 ,for this reason1 ,rhodesian ore has been able to successfully compete in the market with ,new ,caledonian ore1 and these two sources have1 therefore1 in recent years1 jointly supplied most of the requirements of the principal nations for chromite4 ,during the war1 because of abnormal conditions arising from the shortage of shipping facilities1 there was considerable uncertainty as to whether it would be possible to supply ,american consumers of chromite with imported ores4 ,under the stimulus of much higher prices1 the production of chromite in the ,united ,states increased from #bee long tons of crude chromite in #aiac1 to about #hb1cej tons in #aiah1 mainly from ,california1 ,washington and ,oregon4 ,this production was larger than the annual production of crude ore from any single source 7except #hb1iaj tons from ,new ,caledonia in #aijf7 since the chromite-mining industry began4 ,this production1 of course1 could not be continued without a rapid depletion of ,american chromite reserves1 and does not represent a normal development4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,nickel ,,by ,c4 ,s4 ,,corbett ,,uses ,,of ,,nickel ,nickel is used chiefly in the manufacture of special steels4 ,it is estimated#fe that about #fj per cent4 of the entire nickel production goes into steel making in normal times and more under war conditions4 ,nickel steels are the most important of all the alloy steels and are the most used4#ff ,they are used where unusual tensile strength is required4 ,nickel-chromium steels are used in the manufacture of armor plate4 #fe ,report of the ,royal ,ontario ,nickel ,commission1 #aiag1 p4 #cjj4 #ff ,,stoughton1 ,,bradley3 8,the ,metallurgy of ,iron and ,steel10 #aiaa4 ,ordinary nickel steels commonly carry about #c per cent4 nickel4 8,highly nickeliferous steels carrying up to #dj per cent4 nickel are used for special purposes where non-magnetic qualities1 resistance to corrosion and1 above all1 no expansion or contraction1 or any desired expansion or contraction1 with change of temperature1 is important40#fg #fg ,report of ,royal ,ontario ,nickel ,commission1 #aiag1 p4 #cja4 ,non-ferrous nickel alloys have found extensive uses1 and probably about #bj per cent4 of the world's production of nickel goes into them4 ,by far the most important are those formed from nickel and copper4 ,one1 generally known as 8cupro-nickel10 contains approximately #hj per cent4 copper and #bj per cent4 nickel and is used largely for bullet jackets and other munition purposes4 ,another1 which has become well known under the trade name 8,monel metal10 contains #bi per cent4 copper1 #fg per cent4 nickel1 about #b4e per cent4 iron1 and a small amount of manganese4 ,it is manufactured direct from the ,sudbury matte4 ,monel metal is used chiefly where a strong non-corroding metal is needed1 as1 notably1 in ship propellers4 ,it is estimated that about #b per cent4 of the nickel production is used for electro-plating4 ,to a large extent nickel plating prevents corrosion of the metal plated4 ,nickel is also used for storage batteries2 for coinage2 as a catalyser in the hardening of oils or fats 7solid fats being used for soap making72 for cooking utensils2 and as a pigment for coloring ceramic ware4 ,it is doubtful whether these last-named uses would take more than #c per cent4 of the world's nickel production4 ,copper gives to steel properties somewhat similar to those given by nickel1 notably increasing the tensile strength4 ,silicon also imparts similar properties to steel1 increasing especially the toughness and tensile strength4 ,a considerable proportion of chromium makes steel highly non-corroding4 ,there is1 however1 nothing known that will take the place of nickel in special steels having a zero or a predetermined coefficient of expansion1 such as 8invar0 or 8platinite40 ,nickel possesses extraordinary power in giving its white color to alloys of copper2 hence its use in coinage4 ,the other white metals that might be used in its place are less plentiful and more expensive4 ,there is no other abundant metal or alloy having the good color1 great strength and resistance to corrosion possessed by ,monel metal and like alloys of nickel and copper4 ,nickel salts are used as substitutes for metals of the platinum group as catalysts in hardening oils and fats4 ,,changes ,,in ,,practice ,production of nickel on a fairly large scale did not begin until the mines of ,new ,caledonia were opened in #ahge4 ,to handle these ores1 smelters and refineries were built in ,england and continental ,europe4 ,as the ores are of the silicate type and free from copper1 they were easily treated by common processes of smelting with fluxes to get rid of the gangue and then heating with charcoal for reduction to a metallic condition4 ,a pure metal was obtained which found a good market4 ,production of nickel-copper ores in the ,sudbury district began in #ahhg4 ,on account of the copper with the nickel in these ores1 new processes of refining had to be worked out and the trade prejudice against the product had to be overcome4 ,this took persistent effort for several years4 ,only one of the first companies to operate in the ,sudbury district has survived to the present time4 ,this is the ,canadian ,copper ,co41 the producing subsidiary of the ,international ,nickel ,co4 ,three new refining processes have been developed to handle nickel-copper ores4 ,the ,orford ,copper ,co4 7subsidiary of the ,international company7 uses the salt cake process4 ,this process is one of fusion with sodium sulphide1 the copper sulphide concentrating on top and the nickel sulphides at the bottom of the melt4 ,repeated fusion of the 8tops0 and 8bottoms0 effects a good separation4 ,the ,mond company had a process before it had any mines4 ,this process depends upon volatilization of the nickel by passing carbon monoxide over the matte1 which has been previously roasted and leached of its copper content4 ,nickel carbonyl1 ,ni7,,co71 is formed and metallic nickel is thrown down by decomposition of this product1 so that the nickel obtained is pure4 ,the ,hybinette process1 a process depending on electrolysis1 was first worked out at the plant of the ,orford ,copper ,co4 on ,sudbury matte4 ,it was used for low-grade ores at ,fredericktown1 ,mo41 and then later for the ,norwegian ores at ,kristiansand4 ,it is to be used in the new refinery of the ,british-,american ,co4 in ,ontario4 ,monel metal is made directly from ,sudbury matte with the removal of a little of the copper4 ,it is known as a natural alloy1 in contrast to one made by combining the pure metals4 ,increased use of nickeliferous iron ore for steel making will decrease the amount of nickel that will have to be added in making such steel4 ,this will probably be overbalanced by the increased use of such steels4 ,,geological ,,distribution ,analyses of igneous rocks indicate that nickel is present in the average igneous rock to the extent of #j4jbjfh per cent4 ,of its occurrence1 ,clarke says3#fi 8,very frequently detected in igneous rocks1 probably as a constituent of olivine4 99 99 99 ,the presence of nickel is especially characteristic of magnesian igneous rocks1 and it is generally associated in them with chromium40 ,regarding copper he says3 8,minute traces of this metal are often detected in igneous rocks1 although they are rarely determined quantitatively40 ,it is estimated#gj that copper is present in the average igneous rock to the proportion of about #j4jaj per cent41 or only about half that of nickel1 and that zinc and lead are present in even smaller proportion4 ,notwithstanding this greater abundance of nickel1 the workable deposits of copper1 lead1 and zinc are much more widespread and production is correspondingly greater4 8,it can thus be said that nickel is less amenable to concentration by the agencies that tend to produce workable deposits than are the other metals mentioned 7copper1 lead and zinc740#ga #fh ,f4 ,w4 ,,clarke1 8,the ,data of ,geochemistry10 ,bull4 #faf1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 #aiaf1 p4 #bg4 #fi ,ibid41 p4 #ah4 #gj ,report of ,royal ,ontario ,nickel ,commission1 #aiag1 p4 #ie4 #ga ,ibid4 ,one would infer from the above that nickel deposits of consequence would most likely occur in connection with igneous rocks1 especially those that are basic4 ,this is indeed true2 in fact1 the only known nickel deposits of commercial or prospective commercial value occur in association with basic igneous rocks4 ,the nickeliferous metallographic provinces of the world may be said to lie within petrographic provinces4 ,harker says3#gb 8,an examination of the rocks belonging to one great period of igneous activity1 and of their actual distribution1 enables us to distinguish areas of greater or less extent1 within which the rocks present a less or greater degree of consanguinity1 the law being that more marked specialization goes with narrower localization40 ,on the basis of this law and the fact noted by ,clarke and mentioned above1 nickeliferous metallographic provinces may be limited more closely than simply to areas of basic igneous rocks4 ,they may be said to roughly coincide with areas of basic igneous rock characterized by minerals of the olivine group1 these minerals having formed as a result of the high magnesium content of the rock magma4 #gb ,,harker1 ,,alfred1 8,the ,natural ,history of ,igneous ,rocks10 #aiji1 p4 #hi4 ,nickel ores occur where there was an unusual segregation of the element in the igneous rock at the time of solidification4 ,in some places further concentration by weathering has been necessary to make an ore of the rock4 ,in still other places1 the concentration by weathering has not been sufficient to make the nickel valuable in itself1 but has raised the iron content of the rock1 and with it the nickel content1 to such an extent as to make the ore valuable in the first instance as an iron ore and of additional value because of its nickel content4 ,nickel is unique among the less rare metals in that a single district contains a quantity of accessible1 workable ore1 far ahead of that in all other known deposits of the world combined4 ,this is the ,sudbury district of ,ontario4 ,the nickel ores there were segregated from an enormous mass of igneous rock intruded under conditions favorable for broad segregation and subsequently so eroded that large ore bodies are accessible4 ,in those nickel ores and nickeliferous iron ores where weathering has been a necessary agent in concentrating the nickel and iron enough to make them commercially valuable1 the original deposits were nickeliferous igneous rocks--that is1 they were similar to the rocks associated with the nickel deposits of the sulphide type1 but contained much less nickel4 ,the nickel-ore deposits of the ,new ,caledonia region1 which rank next in productiveness to those of the ,sudbury district1 are of this type4 ,the ,cuban nickeliferous iron ores best exemplify iron ore deposits of this type4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,the nickeliferous ore deposits of the world may be divided into two main types--the sulphide type1 in which weathering has not been of prime importance1 and the garnierite or lateritic type1 in which weathering has altered and concentrated the nickel as well as the chromium and iron of the original rock4 ,in addition1 nickel occurs in some places with ores of precious and semi-precious metals in veins4 ,nickel may be recovered from such ores as a by-product1 but the ores are never mined primarily for their nickel content4 ,the brief descriptions of the known deposits1 grouped according to type1 which follow1 have been taken from the descriptions of the world's nickel deposits in the report of the ,royal ,ontario ,nickel ,commission4 ,a few direct quotations from the text of the report are given4 ,deposits of the ,sulphide ,type4--,the ,sudbury district is situated in southeastern ,ontario1 ,canada4 ,in its broader outlines the geology of this district is relatively simple4 ,an immense mass of nickeliferous rock was intruded as a 8laccolithic sheet0 or sill along an unconformable plane of contact between flat-lying sediments and an underlying complex of ancient rocks4 ,during the intrusion and cooling1 or perhaps soon thereafter1 the underlying rocks of the central part of the laccolith1 covering the reservoirs from which the magma came1 subsided4 ,long periods of erosion then planed down the region until all that is left of the sill occupies a synclinal basin nearly #dj miles long and #aj to #ae miles wide4 ,all of the rocks involved are of pre-,cambrian age4 ,the laccolithic sheet is approximately #aj1jjj feet thick4 ,it differentiated on cooling into two kinds of rock--micropegmatite1 a rock of the granite group1 now forming the upper part of the sill1 and norite1 a gabbro rock1 the lower part4 ,the gradation between these two rocks is rather abrupt4 ,at the bottom of the sill1 in some places lying between the norite and the underlying rock and at other places entirely within the underlying rock1 are bodies of ore consisting of pyrrhotite1 pentlandite and chalcopyrite4 ,these are segregated products of the norite1 which in some places solidified at the base of the sill and in others were intruded as dikes in the underlying rocks or in previously solidified portions of the norite4 ,they constitute commercial ore bodies where the sulphides form a preponderant part of the rock4 ,the ore bodies are classified as 8marginal0 and 8offset40 ,the marginal deposits occur along the contact of the norite with the underlying rock4 ,frequently they lie entirely within the rocks adjacent to the norite4 ,the offset deposits occur where faults cut across the limbs of the fold1 forming zones of weakness into which ore or mineralized norite was intruded4 ,the nickel-bearing mineral is pentlandite2 the copper-bearing1 chalcopyrite4 ,the other sulphide1 pyrrhotite1 is a sulphide of iron4 ,the ores mined to date average roughly #c4e per cent4 nickel and #b per cent4 copper4 ,from the opening of the district in #ahhg to the end of #aiaf nearly ten and one-half million tons of ,sudbury ore had been mined and smelted2 and1 from this1 about #bhe1jjj tons of nickel had been produced4 ,it is estimated that there are probably fully #ajj1jjj1jjj tons of ore reserves4 ,over a million and a half tons of ore were mined and smelted in #aiaf4 ,the ,alexo ,mine is situated #aej miles due north of ,sudbury4 ,the ore occurs at the contact of a large mass of peridotite 7now altered to serpentine71 with a pillow-lava which the peridotite intruded4 ,the ore consists of sulphide minerals segregated from the intrusive mass4 ,it is of two types1 one1 a massive1 pure sulphide occupying cracks in dike-like relationship1 the other1 disseminated sulphide in peridotite adjacent to the sulphide ore masses4 ,the ore deposit has a proven length of #gjj feet1 has been opened to a depth of #abj feet1 and drilling has shown ore to extend to a depth of #bdj feet4 ,the average width may be taken as approximately #aj feet4 ,by the end of #aiaf1 ore had been raised to the extent of #cd1fej tons and more than that amount had been developed4 ,about #ab1jjj tons of ore were shipped in #aiae1 averaging about #d4i per cent4 nickel and #j4f per cent4 copper4 ,several hundred thousand tons are probably available in this deposit4 ,the nickel ore deposits of ,norway are similar mineralogically to those of ,sudbury4 ,the deposits are small1 their metal content is low1 and compared to the ,sudbury and ,new ,caledonia deposits they are of little consequence4 ,up to #aiji there had been mined and smelted in ,norway about #djj1jjj tons of nickel ore4 ,the hand-sorted ore carried #a4d to #a4g per cent4 of nickel4 ,deposits like those of ,norway have been found in ,sweden1 but they have not been worked in recent years4 ,there is evidently a nickeliferous metallographic province in the ,scandinavian countries and important ore deposits may yet be found there4 ,in the ,united ,states1 near ,gap1 ,lancaster ,county1 ,pennsylvania1 is a deposit of nickel ore of the sulphide type1 which occurs as a segregation from a #cjj-;ft4 dike of amphibolite4 ,it was worked spasmodically for copper throughout the #ahth century4 ,nickel was discovered in the ore in #aheb and #d1jjj1jjj pounds of nickel are estimated to have been produced up to #ahhb4 ,the advent of ,new ,caledonia and ,sudbury ores caused the closing of the mine4 ,the ore as mined carried #a to #c per cent4 nickel and about one-third as much copper4 ,near ,julian1 ,san ,diego ,county1 ,california1 is a sulphide nickel deposit that has never been commercially productive4 ,assays show the ore to contain nearly #c per cent4 nickel or more4 ,a small deposit in ,tasmania has produced a few thousand tons of rich ore4 ,diamond drilling has shown that little ore remains4 ,nickel-copper sulphides have been found in connection with a large intrusive of basic igneous rock in the ,insizwa ,range1 ,south ,africa4 ,no payable ore has been found4 ,nickel sulphide deposits of unknown importance occur in ,india and in ,southwestern ,china4 ,small deposits which were worked when nickel was scarce occur in ,italy1 ,scotland1 ,germany and ,austria4 ,deposits of the ,garnierite and ,lateritic ,types4--,about one-third of the surface of the island of ,new ,caledonia is occupied by serpentine1 this being the weathered product of basic igneous rock4 8,the ore1 noumeaite or garnierite1 occurs as a hydrated silicate of nickel and magnesia and may best be described as an alteration product of the serpentine in which the magnesia and iron have been replaced by nickel4 99 99 99 ,the workable deposits always occur on the saddle of spurs from the main mountain ridge1 at elevations of #djj to #b1ejj feet1 the latter elevation being the more common4 99 99 99 ,the replacement of the serpentine by nickel follows the joints and fractures in the serpentine and the undecomposed blocks and boulders of serpentine are as a rule covered by a shell of ore which has to be picked off40 ,the ores are hand picked to bring them up to a grade profitable to treat4 ,in the past it has not been considered economical to smelt ore of lower grade than #d4e per cent4 nickel nor to ship ore much below #f4e per cent4 ,the ore bodies usually contain under #bej1jjj tons of ore4 ,the largest mine yet worked produced less than #fjj1jjj metric tons 7#b1bjd lb47 of ore4 ,probably there still remains as much undeveloped ore as has been mined in the forty years of production1--equivalent to #afj1jjj tons of nickel4 ,this would be equal to about four years' output of the ,sudbury district at the #aiaf rate of production4 8,there are large bodies of lower-grade ores which it has not yet been found feasible to treat40 ,three large blanket deposits of nickeliferous iron ore occur on elevated plateaus in ,cuba4 ,these are typical lateritic 7residual7 deposits4 ,the average depth of the ore is #ae feet and the combined tonnage of the three deposits is placed at one and one-half to three billion tons4 ,the nickel content ranges from about #j4f per cent4 to #b4a per cent4 and shows progressive enrichment from the top downward4 ,chromium is also present and shows similar enrichment4 ,the presence of nickel and chromium in the iron ores greatly enhances their value for making special steels4 ,iron ore on the island of ,seboekoe1 lying off the southeast coast of ,borneo1 contains appreciable amounts of nickel and chromium4 ,at least #cjj1jjj1jjj tons of ore are contained in the deposit1 which is a porous limonite1 about #ae feet thick1 overlying serpentine4 ,in the ,united ,states1 nickel deposits of the garnierite type occur in ,north ,carolina and ,oregon4 ,attempts to mine these ores have never been successful4 ,small nickel deposits of the garnierite type occur in ,egypt1 ,germany 7,prussian ,silesia71 ,greece1 ,madagascar1 ,russia and ,spain4 ,nickeliferous iron ores occur in ,greece1 and it is thought that chromiferous iron ores on ,mindao ,island1 in the ,philippines1 may1 on further exploration1 prove to be nickeliferous4 ,nickel in ,veins4--,nickel occurs with other metals1 precious or semi-precious1 in some vein deposits and is recovered as a by-product in the treatment of ores from them4 ,it is notably present in the deposits at ,cobalt1 ,ontario1 and has been found in vein deposits in the ,united ,states1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,austria1 ,mexico and ,south ,america4 ,several hundred tons are recovered annually in the refining of copper produced in the ,united ,states4 ,related to the vein deposit type of nickel-bearing ore are the galena deposits disseminated through dolomite in southeastern ,missouri4 ,iron1 copper1 nickel1 and cobalt sulphides occur with the galena4 ,years ago nickel was recovered electrolytically from matte from these ores4 ,,developments ,,and ,,changes ,,in ,,known ,,geographical ,,distribution ,in #aijj ,new ,caledonia supplied #fe per cent4 of the world's production and ,ontario #ce per cent4 ,since then the world's production has increased six-fold1 and ,ontario1 by the end of #aiaf1 was producing #hj per cent4 of the whole4 ,this shows the trend of the industry4 ,recent discoveries of ore in the ,sudbury district and construction of new smelters and refineries in ,ontario to treat the ores indicate an increasing dominance of the industry by that district4 ,new ,caledonia has not the large ore bodies and is too far away to compete favorably with ,ontario1 though work will continue there4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,refined nickel produced from the ores of ,new ,caledonia and ,ontario1 for five-year periods2 the amounts are for the calendar year indicated4 ,statistics of production and ore reserves in ,ontario and ,new ,caledonia are shown graphically in figures #g and #h4 ,isolated nickel ore bodies of the sulphide type--that is1 segregations from basic igneous rocks1 as at ,sudbury--have been found in a number of widely separated places4 ,there is a distinct probability that others exist and may be discovered4 ,such undiscovered deposits might even contain more accessible ore1 in the aggregate1 than the total of the mined and unmined ores of the ,sudbury district1 but in the light of present knowledge this seems a remote possibility4 ,other deposits of the ,new ,caledonian and ,cuban types will probably be discovered1 but it is doubtful if as large deposits of those types remain to be found4 ,in these the nickel has remained in the material left as residuum from the partial or complete weathering by solution of the original nickeliferous rock4 ,this material lies at the surface and covers relatively broad areas4 ,bodies of it are therefore not usually difficult of discovery4 ,they seem to be found most abundantly in warm latitudes1 where solution weathering has most easily gone on under conditions favorable for preservation of the residuum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,nickel production1 and nickel content of reserves1 in ,ontario1 ,new ,caledonia1 and ,norway4 ,the present known nickel and nickeliferous iron-ore deposits indicate roughly the locations of perhaps all or nearly all of the nickeliferous metallographic provinces of the world4 ,it is in these provinces that new deposits are most likely to be found4 ,the wide-spread distribution of these provinces is indicated by the following statement in the ,report of the ,ontario ,nickel ,commission3 ,while competition is not to be feared 7that is1 for ,ontario71 it would be futile to try to shut off the supply of nickel from almost any of the great nations4 99 99 99 ,nearly every important country has supplies of nickel ore which can be worked if the demand is great1 thus ensuring a high price4 ,it is thought probable that the nickeliferous metallographic province of eastern ,canada1 which includes the ,sudbury district1 contains the greatest unknown nickel deposits1 just as it contains the greatest known one1 and this for three reasons4 ,the first and most obvious reason is that the great nickel-ore bodies of the ,sudbury district1 the isolated ,alexo ore body1 #aej miles north of the district1 and the appreciable content of nickel in the veins of the ,cobalt and other districts near by1 indicate an unusually large nickel content in the original magma from which the basic igneous rocks were derived4 ,the second reason is that the mantle of glacial drift effectively conceals large areas of underlying rock and prevents easy discovery4 ,the third is that the wild and unsettled nature of the country inhibits the human activities whereby accidental or other discoveries would be made4 ,,political ,,control ,the ,sudbury nickel deposits and the ,alexo ore body in eastern ,ontario are under the political control of the ,british ,empire2 the ,new ,caledonian nickel deposits are controlled politically by ,france1 ,new ,caledonia being a ,french colony2 and the nickel deposits of ,norway and ,cuba are under the political control of those governments4 ,the other deposits of the world1 as has been noted1 are commercially unimportant4 ,,commercial ,,control ,ownership of mines and undeveloped ore bodies in the ,sudbury district is divided between ,british and ,american interests4 ,there are two companies producing ore at the present time and a third is expected to begin producing soon4 ,the first large company in the field was the ,canadian ,copper ,co4 ,this is a subsidiary of the ,international ,nickel ,co41 over #ij per cent4 of the stock of which is held in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,canadian ,copper ,co4 owns the following mines3 ,copper ,cliff1 ,evans1 ,stobie1 ,crean ,hill1 ,vermilion1 ,creighton1 ,no4 #a1 ,no4 #b1 ,no4 #c1 ,no4 #d1 ,no4 #e1 and ,no4 #f4 ,four of these were being worked in #aiag--the ,crean ,hill1 ,vermilion1 ,creighton and ,no4 #b4 ,in ,december1 #aiaf1 the president of the ,canadian ,copper ,co4 gave the following estimates of reserves of payable ore in three properties of that company3 #aj1jjj1jjj tons in the ,creighton2 #b1jjj1jjj tons in ,crean ,hill2 and #de1jjj1jjj tons in ,no4 #c4 ,the ,mond ,nickel ,co4 is controlled by ,british interests4 ,it owns the following mines3 ,garson1 ,worthington1 ,levack1 ,victoria and ,kirkwood4 ,the ,levack has proven reserves of good ore amounting to #d1ejj1jjj tons4 ,the reserves of the other mines are not given4 ,the ,british-,america ,nickel ,corporation1 ,ltd41 has #bj1jjj1jjj of common stock1 of which #ad1ejj1jjj is held by the ,british government in the name of ,alan ,anderson1 trustee4 ,by the end of #aiaf1 this company had #aa1jjj1jjj tons of workable ore blocked out4 ,its mines are the ,murray1 ,gertrude1 ,elsie1 ,blue ,lake and ,frood ,extension4 ,the reserves of the ,murray alone are put at #i1jjj1jjj tons4 ,in the southeastern part of the district an ore body #g1ejj feet long1 #aj to #abj feet thick1 and extending to a depth of #a1jbj feet in one place at least1 has been found recently in diamond drilling operations by the ,e4 ,j4 ,longyear ,co41 of ,minneapolis4 ,this company and its associates1 all ,american1 control the ore body4 ,the ore tonnage of this deposit is estimated at #f1jjj1jjj tons above the #ejj-;ft4 level4 ,a few drill holes have gone to greater depths and found ore4 ,it is not possible to estimate the reserves of this deposit below the #ejj-;ft4 depth4 ,the ,alexo ,mining ,co4 ,ltd41 which is mining the ,alexo ore deposit north of the ,sudbury district1 is a ,canadian concern4 ,an estimate of the quantity of ore in this deposit is not available1 but the deposit is small compared to that of the ,sudbury district4 ,the total may be several hundred thousand tons4 ,the largest and most important owners of nickel-holding lands in ,new ,caledonia1 in relative order of the importance of their holdings1 are3 7#a7 ,la ,socit le ,nickel1 a company which has been mining in the island for many years4 7#b7 ,the ,international ,nickel ,co41 represented in ,new ,caledonia by its two subsidiary companies1 ,the ,nickel ,corporation and ,la ,socit ,minire ,caledonienne4 ,the ,international does not mine in the island1 but some of its lands are worked on lease by persons associated with ,la ,socit le ,nickel4 7#c7 ,les ,hauts-,fourneaux de ,noumea4#gc #gc ,report of ,ontario ,nickel ,commission1 #aiag1 p4 #bec4 ,la ,socit le ,nickel was under control of the ,rothschilds of ,france at the time of the discovery of the ,sudbury deposits4 ,mr4 ,f4 ,e4 ,merry1 an ,english metallurgist1 in testifying to the ,ontario ,nickel ,commission1 reported that ,germans were in control of the company at the outbreak of the war4 ,the ,german firm of ,krupp had also acquired some nickel property in ,new ,caledonia4 ,the ,international ,nickel ,co41 the second largest holder of ,new ,caledonian nickel lands1 is the same ,american firm which owns the ,canadian ,copper ,co4 ,les ,hauts-,fourneaux de ,noumea is owned1 at least since the outbreak of the war1 by ,french interests4 ,according to ,mr4 ,merry1 the nickel mines and smelters of ,norway were also mainly in control of the same ,german group that had gotten control of ,le ,nickel4 ,it worked under the name 8,metallgesellschaft40 ,one mine and smelter reopened recently were under ,english control4 ,the nickeliferous iron ores of ,cuba are owned entirely by ,american companies1 principally by steel manufacturing companies1 notably the ,bethlehem ,steel ,co4 ,all three companies producing or about to produce nickel in the ,sudbury district own their own smelting and refining plants4 ,the ,international has been smelting its ore in ,canada and refining it in the ,united ,states4 ,it has a new refinery at ,port ,colborne1 ,ontario4 ,the ,mond ,nickel ,co4 which smelts in ,canada and refines in ,england1 has started a refinery in ,canada4 ,the ,british-,american ,nickel ,corporation has built both a smelter and a refinery in ,canada4 ,the ,united ,states ,nickel ,co4 operates a refinery at ,new ,brunswick1 ,new ,jersey4 ,les ,hauts-,fourneaux de ,noumea and this company belong to the same interests4 ,they have a smelter at ,noumea1 ,new ,caledonia2 also a refinery at ,havre1 ,france4 ,la ,socit le ,nickel has a smelter at ,thio1 ,new ,caledonia1 and refineries at ,havre1 ,france1 and ,erdington and ,kirkintilloch1 ,british ,isles4 ,no one refining process dominates the nickel industry of the world4 ,the two companies producing nickel from ,sudbury ores are using entirely different refining processes1 which they individually control2 and the ,british-,america concern1 soon to begin producing1 will use a third process1 the ,hybinette1 an electrolytic process on which it has exclusive rights for ,north ,america4 ,the ,orford ,copper ,co41 subsidiary of the ,international1 uses what is known as the 8salt-cake0 process1 but it also produces some nickel electrolytically4 ,the process of the ,united ,states ,nickel ,co4 at ,new ,brunswick1 ,new ,jersey1 being one of fluxing and reducing from matte produced at the ,noumea smelter1 is not adaptable to copper-bearing sulphide ores4 ,the ores produced in ,norway are smelted and refined in ,norway by the ,hybinette process4 ,obviously the nickel resources of the world are controlled by a few companies4 ,the chief one is the ,international ,nickel ,co41 which has the largest holdings at ,sudbury1 and the second largest holdings in ,new ,caledonia4 ,the ,mond and the ,british-,america are the next most important1 and ,la ,socit le ,nickel is fourth in importance4 ,e4 ,j4 ,longyear ,co4 and associates do not aspire to become producers of nickel and are in the market to sell their properties4 ,for a new concern to succeed it would have to develop a refining process of its own4 ,the alternative would be for it to sell out to or merge itself with a firm that controls a refining process4 ,there are no custom smelters or refineries in ,america4 ,the ,mond company buys the ,alexo ore because its high magnesium content makes it a good fluxing material in smelting ,sudbury ores4 ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,leading ,,commercial ,,nations ,united ,states4--,though the ,united ,states has insignificant deposits of nickel ore and therefore exerts little or no political control over nickel mining1 ,american capital plays an important if not the leading rle in the industry4 ,of the four companies holding the deposits of the ,sudbury district two are ,american1 and these two possess what are doubtless the largest reserves there4 ,one of these1 the ,international ,nickel ,co41 has the next to the largest holdings in ,new ,caledonia4 ,great ,britain4--,of all nations ,great ,britain is in the strongest position politically with respect to the nickel industry1 because of the ,sudbury district being in ,canada4 ,it has used this control in an endeavor to localize the business of refining ,ontario nickel ores in ,canada1 with the result that the ,international ,nickel ,co4 is to transfer its refining operations from ,new ,jersey to its new refinery in ,ontario4 ,commercially1 ,british capital controls the two other companies having holdings at ,sudbury4 ,in one of these1--the ,british-,america ,nickel ,corporation1--the government itself has a controlling interest4 ,the policy of the ,british government with relation to the ,sudbury nickel ores1 which give the ,british an overwhelmingly dominant political control over the world's nickel1 is highly significant as showing that the government is aware of the necessity for commercial as well as political control1 in order to reap all the commercial and strategic advantages of its good fortune4 ,during the war1 and before the ,united ,states entered1 great feeling was roused in ,canada and ,england by the ,german submarine1 ,deutschland1 loading at ,new ,york a cargo that consisted partly of metallic nickel1 it being assumed that this was originally ,canadian nickel4 ,the direct participation of the ,british government in the ,sudbury industry in such a way as to make the government practically the dominant factor1 and the transfer of the refinery operations of the ,american-owned ,international ,nickel ,co4 from ,new ,jersey to ,ontario1 mark a vigorous and aggressive nationalistic policy which has attained its object without much delay4 ,france4--,france owns the island of ,new ,caledonia and has political control of the nickel deposits there4 ,two of the three principal companies holding ,new ,caledonian ore deposits are presumably held by ,french interests4 ,the larger one1 ,la ,socit le ,nickel1 was for a long time controlled by the ,rothschilds of ,france4 ,it was reported later to have gotten into ,german hands4 ,germany4--,germany exercises political control over no important nickel deposits4 ,before the war the ,german firm of ,krupp had obtained some ,new ,caledonian nickel properties4 ,a ,german group1 the ,metallgesellschaft1 is reported to have had control of ,la ,socit le ,nickel at the outbreak of the war1 and also the mines and smelters of ,norway4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,tungsten ,,by ,,frank ,l4 ,,hess ,,uses ,,of ,,tungsten#gd #gd ,unless otherwise noted1 the short ton of #b1jjj pounds is used throughout this chapter and 8tungsten ore0 means materials carrying #fj per cent4 ,,wo4 ,the essential uses of tungsten are as an alloy in high-speed tool steel1 for the making of filaments for incandescent lamps1 for targets and cathodes of ,roentgen 78,x07 ray tubes1 and for electric contacts for explosion engines or wherever an intermittent electric contact is needed4 ,other uses are in saw and some other steels1 as a constituent of stellite1 in a tungsten-iron alloy for valves in automobile and airplane engines1 for kenotrons and similar instruments1 in a manganese-chromium-tungsten-iron alloy for wire-drawing dies1 in wire cloth1 luminescent screens for ,roentgen 78,x07 rays1 mordants and minor chemicals4 ,substitutes4--,the use of tungsten in high-speed steels is as standard as the use of yeast in bread1 and1 though assiduously sought1 no substitute is known that satisfactorily takes its place4 ,according to report1 in ,england and ,france molybdenum has been used to replace about half of the tungsten in some high-speed tool steels1 but this is seemingly not a preferred method1 being used only when the obtaining of tungsten is difficult4 ,in the ,united ,states the practice has had few sponsors4 ,the following quotation from the ,mining ,journal 7,london7 for ,may #be1 #aiah1 p4 #cah1 shows that this sentiment is not unknown abroad3 ,the manufacture of ferromolybdenum is stated to have been commenced in ,sweden1 where the lack of ferrotungsten has forced the employment of this substitute4 ,during #aiag1 #ajd 7metric87 tons of molybdenite was shipped from ,norway to ,germany1 where it probably was used as in ,sweden4 ,henry ,e4 ,wood reported finding molybdenum in the steel of a ,german helmet4 ,when tungsten was at the excessively high price of early #aiaf1 many experiments were made to find a substitute1 but apparently without full success1 although lately several substitute steels containing cobalt and chromium and especially intended for cast milling-cutters and other multiple-edged tools have been placed on the market and a cobalt-chromium-molybdenum steel and a uranium steel have been offered for lathe tools4 ,stellite1 the cobalt-chromium-tungsten alloy1 in which there is only one-third to one-half as much tungsten as is used in high-speed steel1 has grown in favor1 and cooperite1 a nickel-zirconium alloy1 is also a competitor1 but the trade in the combined list has made no appreciable impression on the demand for tungsten steels4 ,a change in the manner of using tungsten steel1 by which a thin plate of high-speed steel is cemented to a more ordinary steel bar so as to form the cutting edge of a lathe tool1 has made the demand for tungsten less than it would have been had the old practice been followed of making the whole tool of high-speed steel4 ,,changes ,,in ,,practice ,no startling changes of practice in the metallurgy of tungsten are known to have taken place1 but there has been a steady betterment of the art1 improvement in the quality of ferrotungsten1 a shifting in localities of reduction1 and a considerable change in the manner of use4 ,the wasteful1 lazy demand for ores of high concentration and of great purity common before the war has given way before more enlightened and intelligent practice1 until firms both in this country and in ,england make a specialty of using low-grade or impure ores1 though seemingly much more advance has been made here than abroad4 ,one firm1 the ,chemical ,products ,co4 7,washington1 ,d4 ,c47 was organized specifically to buy ores carrying less than the #fj per cent4 tungsten trioxide 7,,wo7 demanded by other ,american firms1 and ores containing sulphur1 copper1 arsenic1 bismuth1 tin1 antimony1 phosphorus1 or other impurities to which most users objected4 ,two firms1 the ,black ,metal ,reduction ,co41 and the ,tungsten ,products ,co41 both of ,boulder1 ,colorado1 were organized to handle materials such as tailings carrying as little as #a per cent4 tungsten trioxide1 and they said that they were able to pay for gold and silver in the ore4 ,several firms make tungsten trioxide or tungstic acid 7,h,,wo7 for ferrotungsten makers4 ,firms have also made artificial scheelite 7,ca,w,o7 for the same trade1 using off-color ores in the process4 ,powdered ferrotungsten made by chemically precipitating an iron tungsten salt from solution and reducing it to a metallic powder carrying #d to #aa per cent4 iron has been produced by several firms and seems to have started a demand for powdered ferrotungsten1 so that firms are now finely grinding the massive ferrotungsten4 ,claims for better furnace practice which greatly cuts down the consumption of current and makes a saving of #ij to #if per cent4 instead of the usual #hj per cent4 are also made4 ,several firms are making ferrotungsten powder and tungsten powder in iron tubes or other iron containers instead of in the graphite crucibles used before the war4 ,in the milling of tungsten ores1 the tendency in this country is to get away from the uneconomic method of making concentrates very high in tungsten trioxide 7carrying more than #fj per cent4 ,,wo74 ,few operators really know what the heads run1 and the determination of losses is mere guesswork4 ,some of the most careful operators in the ,boulder field before closing down at the beginning of #aiai were making a high-grade product carrying nearer #ej per cent4 than #fj per cent4 tungsten trioxide1 and a lower grade product carrying about #bj per cent4 tungsten trioxide1 not attempting to raise its tenor4 ,this practice cuts down the losses largely4 ,when the great shortage of tungsten ore came in #aiaf1 users were compelled to take lower grade concentrates1 and some improved their metallurgy accordingly4 ,this change has made the sale of #ej per cent4 concentrates easier4 ,even in ,england1 #fj to #fe per cent4 ores were accepted where formerly a content of #fg4e per cent4 or #gj per cent4 ,,wo was demanded4 ,formerly scheelite sold #ej cents per unit below other tungsten minerals1 even though freer from bothersome impurities1 but with the graduation from rule-of-thumb methods to more thoughtful1 careful and scientific practice1 it came to command a premium4 ,huebnerite seems to be still sold with and as 8wolfram0 in ,england1 but in this country it must be sold according to its composition1 for to most metallurgists the manganese is undesirable1 though at least one firm now makes ferrotungsten from huebnerite without prejudice or difficulty4 ,this growth in knowledge and technique has caused the price of the tungsten minerals to rank about as follows in the order named3 ,scheelite1 ferberite1 wolframite and huebnerite4 ,this applies to tungsten used in the manufacture of tungsten and ferrotungsten for steel making4 ,scheelite is not wanted in this country for making filaments4 ,before the war the ,united ,states imported considerable quantities of ,german ferrotungsten1 but metallurgists claim that the ferrotungsten now made in this country is superior to any from ,germany4 ,for the present1 of course1 the ,german export trade is dead4 ,england1 formerly a small producer1 is now making large quantities of ferrotungsten and tungsten powder at a number of plants4 ,one of the producers1 the ,high ,speed ,steel ,alloys1 ,ltd41 ,widnes1 near ,liverpool1 8is under government assistance and is owned by #ca of the leading consumers of ,sheffield40#ge ,the article quoted stated that the output was at the rate of #ejj tons of tungsten per annum4 ,the ,thermo-,electric ,ore ,reduction ,corporation1#gf ,luton1 was at the same time producing #adj tons of tungsten per month4 ,the ferro produced carried #hj per cent4 and the powder #ih per cent4 of metallic tungsten4 ,only one company in the ,united ,states was producing as much as #fj tons of tungsten per month during the same war period4 ,the ,thermo ,electric ,ore ,reduction ,corporation owned mines from which it expected to produce each year #d1jjj long tons of concentrates carrying #fe per cent4 tungstic oxide4 ,there are at least seven other manufacturers of tungsten or ferrotungsten in ,england4 #ge ,mining ,journal1 ,london4 8,high ,speed ,steel ,alloys1 ,ltd41 ,visit of ,inspection to the ,works10 vol4 #aae1 ,nov4 #be1 #aiaf1 p4 #ggi4 ,,julius ,l4 ,f4 ,,vogel has since written an article 7,min4 ,jour41 ,london1 vol4 #bj1 p4 #af1 ,jan41 #aiai7 in which he says that government aid1 though proffered1 was not accepted4 ,this statement confirms the government policy4 #gf ,mining ,journal4 8,thermo-,electric ,ore ,reduction ,corporation1 ,ltd41 ,visit to the ,luton ,works10 vol4 #aae1 p4 #gig1 ,dec4 #b1 #aiaf4 ,france had a number of ferrotungsten plants before the war1 and these are thought to be still in operation4 ,at the beginning of the war about half of the tungsten used in the ,united ,states was introduced into steel in the form of ferrotungsten and about half in the form of tungsten powder4 ,this practice has changed1 so that now more than three-fourths of the tungsten used is introduced as ferrotungsten1 largely1 it seems1 because of the ferro being now manufactured in purer form and partly because tungsten powder could not be obtained for a while4 ,at one time tungsten ores were put in the charge and the tungsten alloyed directly with the steel2 in fact1 tungsten steels were first made in this way1 although the process was patented in this country as new4 ,the practice seems to have been dropped because of the introduction into the steel of impurities that may be eliminated when tungsten or ferrotungsten is made first4 ,in the making of tungsten steels a considerable change has taken place through the increased use of the electric furnace4 ,one considerable producer1 the ,latrobe ,electric ,steel ,co41 makes all of its high-speed tool steel in this way4 ,the ,vanadium ,alloys ,steel ,co41 one of the larger producers1 makes a large part of its steel in the electric furnace1 and the ,crucible ,steel ,co4 and some other steel companies are understood to make a part or all of their steels thus4 ,the removal of tin1 copper and other impurities from ferrotungsten by grinding and chemical treatment has made possible the use of impure ores in the production of high-grade ferrotungsten in the electric furnace4 ,,geological ,,distribution ,tungsten1 even more than tin1 is found almost exclusively with granitic rocks4 ,in a few places tungsten ores are found in volcanic1 sedimentary or metamorphic rocks1 but as is postulated with certain tin deposits1 many of these deposits may be explained on the supposition that they are not far vertically above underlying granite4 ,among the deposits themselves there is a considerable variety of types1 and they may be classed as follows3 ,segregation deposits1 pegmatite dikes1 veins1 replacement deposits1 contact metamorphic deposits and placers4 ,segregation deposits are few and of little importance and constitute those deposits in which wolframite is segregated in granite1 like biotite or hornblende4 ,a closely related type is the occurrence of tungsten minerals in aplitic granite1 and this grades almost insensibly into the second type1 the pegmatites4 ,the pegmatites are also of comparatively small importance1 but do yield certain quantities of tungsten minerals4 ,the pegmatites also grade into the next type1 the veins1 which have heretofore furnished the greater part of the tungsten minerals of the world4 ,closely connected with the veins are the fourth type1 replacement deposits1 in which the country rocks alongside the veins1 though the veins may be very small1 are replaced by various minerals1 including those of tungsten4 ,the only known large examples are the wolframite deposits near ,lead1 ,south ,dakota1 which were considerable producers under the high prices of the ,great ,war4 ,among the replacement deposits are to be noted also such deposits as those in the ,deep ,creek ,mountains1 ,utah1 in which solutions following cracks in monzonite have replaced the rock with a mass of feldspar1 quartz1 tourmaline1 apatite1 scheelite1 wolframite 7very little71 bismuth1 copper1 and molybdenum minerals1 which under other conditions would be unhesitatingly called pegmatite4 ,closely related to the replacement deposits are the contact metamorphic deposits1 the fifth type4 ,these only recently have begun to be of commercial importance1 but promise to be among the greatest1 if not the greatest1 producers of this country and possibly of other countries4 ,they are of the familiar kind--limestones or limey rocks which have been invaded by granites bringing large quantities of watery or gaseous solutions of silicon1 iron1 aluminum and magnesium1 with less chlorine1 fluorine1 potash and sulphur1 and1 in this case1 tungsten4 ,in the ,great ,basin broad areas of limestone1 extending from northwestern ,utah to the ,sierra ,nevadas and around their southern extremity1 have been thus intruded and metamorphosed4 ,some large deposits of scheelite have already been exploited in the region and others remain to be worked4 ,similar deposits occur in ,korea1 ,japan and ,tasmania1 and probably exist1 though as yet undiscovered1 in ,china1 the ,malay ,peninsula and other countries4 ,the tungsten mineral in such deposits is invariably scheelite4 ,placers1 the sixth type1 are formed from all grades of deposits1 but their value depends largely on local conditions4 ,they are both residual and fluviatile deposits and have been large producers of tungsten minerals1 especially of wolframite4 ,a very large proportion of the ,burmese output has been from semi-residual and stream placers1 and the ,chinese output in #aiah1 the largest ever made by any country in one year1 was almost wholly from placers4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,the distribution of tungsten ores is far from being as wide as the distribution of the granitic rocks1 and some regions with large areas of granite have almost no tungsten minerals4 ,among such regions are the ,scandinavian peninsula1 large stretches of ,canada1 the eastern ,united ,states1 and ,brazil4 ,the world's known large tungsten fields are grouped along the shores of the ,pacific ,ocean--not always close to it1 but somewhere in the great mountain masses paralleling its margin1 and the western shore is much richer than the eastern shore4 ,in #aiah1 fully #ib per cent4 of the world's tungsten came from the shores of the ,pacific1 #fa per cent4 coming from ,asia1 ,australia1 and ,oceania1 and #ca per cent4 from ,north ,america and ,south ,america4 ,eastern ,asia alone furnished #ef per cent4 ,there is only one considerable tungsten-bearing area not situated close to the ,pacific1 that of the ,iberian ,peninsula1 mostly in ,portugal but partly in ,spain4 ,of the less than #h per cent4 not produced around the ,pacific1 that area yielded nearly #e per cent4 ,there are1 of course1 small deposits in ,england1 ,germany and other places near the ,atlantic1 but together they produce less than #c per cent4 of the world's tungsten ores4 ,the huge continent of ,africa has only negligible known deposits2 none of consequence are found on the borders of the ,arctic1 ,antarctic or ,indian oceans except along the narrow ,malay ,peninsula dividing the ,indian and ,pacific oceans1 and only minor deposits are known in ,siberia4 ,considered as a single metallogenic province1 the region making by far the greatest production is in southeastern ,asia2 it includes the ,malay ,peninsula1 ,burma1 the ,shan ,states1 ,siam1 ,tonkin1 and southeastern ,china4 ,the second largest producing metallogenic province is the ,cordilleran1 including ,bolivia and the adjacent closely related areas of ,peru1 ,argentina and ,chile1 to which the ,united ,states and ,mexico would be a close third4#gg ,portugal1 ,spain and ,italy form the fourth province1 to which are closely related the ,cornish-,french producing areas4 ,australia1 including ,tasmania1 is next in importance and is a distinct province1 practically all the ores being found in the ranges of the eastern side of the continent4 ,japan and ,korea also form a rather distinct province which may continue into ,manchuria4 ,mexico1 as has been indicated1 should be included in the same province as the western ,united ,states4 ,there are numerous small more or less isolated areas1 like ,connecticut1 ,nova ,scotia1 ,manitoba1 etc41 that are at present of little importance and give no promise of future greatness4 #gg ,it may be quite justly objected that the idea of a metallogenic province is considerably stretched to include the ,boulder and ,black ,hills deposits with those of the southwestern states and ,mexico1 but for convenience they are here so grouped--with a frank confession of the license taken4 ,,production ,,by ,,countries ,the world's production of tungsten ores by metallogenic provinces and political areas is shown in the following table3 ,,table #bh4--,,the ,,world',s ,,production ,,of ,,tungsten ,,ore1 #aiac ,,to #aiah1 ,,by ,,metallogenic ,,provinces ,,and ,,political ,,areas#gh ,in short tons 7#b1jjj pounds7 of concentrates containing #fj per cent4 ,,wo4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,province and area #aiac #aiad #aiae ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,africa ,south ,african province3 ,rhodesia #d 444 444 ,union of ,south ,africa 444 444 444 --------------------- #d 444 444 ,asia ,chino-,malayan province3 ,burma #a1hia #b1fje #b1ifc ,china 444 444 444 ,dutch ,east ,indies 7,billiton and ,singkep7 #g #a #g ,federated ,malay ,states #hjbebhjbibhjcbf ,french ,indo-,china 7,tonkin7 #hjaja #aai #bbj ,siam 444 #cja #dge ,unfederated ,malay ,states3 ,johore#hj 444 444 #b ,kedah #cb #bg #ad ,trengganu#hj #id #afj #afa ,indian province3 ,india 7excluding ,burma7 444 444 444 ,japo-,korean province3 ,chosen 7,korea7 444 444 #gd ,japan #bgb #bae #daa --------------------- #b1fdi #c1gbj #d1fec ,australia ,australian province3 ,new ,south ,wales #hjaiahjbbj #hjic ,northern ,territory#gi #bag #aei #cff ,queensland #djb #bgj #dfh ,south ,australia 444 444 444 ,tasmania #gf #ec #ajf ,victoria #a 444 #af ,western ,australia#hj #a #a 444 --------------------- #hhh #gjc #a1jdi ,europe ,erzgebirgan province3 ,austria #eg #fb #hbge ,germany #hjcahhbajjhbaej ,franco-,cornish province3 ,england #bjd #bbi #cgj ,france #cjahbbjjhbbjj ,iberian province3 ,italy 444 444 444 ,portugal #a1bda #gce #a1jbi ,spain #ahf #adi #bjh ,russian province3 ,russia 444 444 444 ,scandinavian province3 ,norway #c #d 444 --------------------- #b1caj #a1dgi #b1jcb ,north ,america ,american province3 ,alaska 444 444 7#hc7 ,united ,states #a1ecg #iij #b1ccb ,canadian province3 ,southeastern ,canada 444 444 444 ,southwestern province3 ,mexico 444 444 444 --------------------- #a1ecg #iij #b1ccb ,oceania ,oceanic province3 ,new ,zealand#hj #bdh #bbh #bag ,south ,america ,brazilian province3 ,brazil 444 444 444 ,cordilleran province3 ,argentina#hj #fgi #dii #bja ,bolivia#hj #cci #ccj #idg ,chile 444 444 #aj ,peru #ceg #bce #dee --------------------- #a1cge #a1jfd #a1fac --------------------- ,total #i1jaa #h1ahd #aa1hif ---------------------------------------- ---------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,province and area #aiaf #aiag #aiah ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,africa ,south ,african province3 ,rhodesia #b #ab #cg ,union of ,south ,africa #a #i #ai ----------------------------- #c #ba #ef ,asia ,chino-,malayan province3 ,burma #d1aff #e1jah #d1iai ,china #giabjgi1hja1ejjhjaa1ffb ,dutch ,east ,indies 7,billiton and ,singkep7 #eb #hafa #hafa ,federated ,malay ,states #egh #gid #cih ,french ,indo-,china 7,tonkin7 #ahc #dbb #hbdej ,siam #ehd #hjj #hbhjj ,unfederated ,malay ,states3 ,johore#hj #be #b #a ,kedah #ai #aci #ehb ,trengganu#hj #cjc #bbe #fia ,indian province3 ,india 7excluding ,burma7 #dg #fi #de ,japo-,korean province3 ,chosen 7,korea7 #fac #iib #hba1ajb ,japan #ggj #hjh #gifea ----------------------------- #g1dfj #aj1hcj #ba1cfb ,australia ,australian province3 ,new ,south ,wales #hjbif #hjbgd #gicbe ,northern ,territory#gi #dja #dbg #fad ,queensland #dae #djf #bih ,south ,australia #a 444 444 ,tasmania #aai #bgj #daf ,victoria #a #be #d ,western ,australia#hj #d #a #e ----------------------------- #a1bcg #a1djc #a1ffb ,europe ,erzgebirgan province3 ,austria #hbaej #hbaej #hbaej ,germany #hbcea #hbbjj #hbbjj ,franco-,cornish province3 ,england #dda #bgj #cch ,france #haahb #haahb #haahb ,iberian province3 ,italy #i #a 444 ,portugal #a1efc #a1gdb #hba1cjj ,spain #dfh #dia #d1gda ,russian province3 ,russia #cf #giajh #hbaej ,scandinavian province3 ,norway #a #hbaj #hbaj ----------------------------- #c1bja #c1aed #g1jga ,north ,america ,american province3 ,alaska #dg #cb #ab ,united ,states #e1hgf #f1aab #e1jef ,canadian province3 ,southeastern ,canada 444 444 #ac ,southwestern province3 ,mexico #ac #bjg #afe ----------------------------- #e1icf #f1cea #e1bdf ,oceania ,oceanic province3 ,new ,zealand#hj #bih #aha #aij ,south ,america ,brazilian province3 ,brazil #hjg 444 444 ,cordilleran province3 ,argentina#hj #ifc #a1bea #gbd ,bolivia#hj #c1fbd #d1fdf #d1jhb ,chile #b 444 444 ,peru #ehg #dga #bie ----------------------------- #e1ahc #f1cfh #e1aja ----------------------------- ,total #bc1cah #bh1cjh #dj1fhh ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #gh ,figures unaccompanied by footnote references are taken from official sources or other authentic publications4 ,in all cases the original quantities have been reduced to their equivalent in concentrates containing #fj per cent4 ,,wo4 #gi ,figures partly official and partly estimated by the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4 #hj ,exports4 #ha ,figures estimated by the ,allies when it was proposed to allocate the tungsten ores of the world among themselves4 #hb ,figures estimated by the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4 #hc ,less than half a ton4 ,,developments ,,and ,,changes ,,in ,,known ,,geographical ,,distribution ,,in ,,the ,,near ,,future ,asia4--,the increase of output from eastern ,asia has been marvelous4 ,in #aiac it amounted to #b1dig tons and in #aiah1 as already stated1 to #bj1bbh tons--more than #ef per cent4 of the world's production4 ,as elsewhere1 production must decrease until the accumulated stocks in the reducing centers are used1 then production will again proceed4 ,the alluvial deposits of ,china are by no means exhausted1 the veins are scarcely touched1 the tungsten-bearing area is large and only partly prospected1 and such prospecting as has been done has been almost wholly for placers2 labor is cheap1 and a large future output is sure4 ,more liberal ideas of trade and government are slowly taking root in ,china and ultimately educated ,chinese or trained foreigners will work the deposits2 the output for a long time will be large1 though it may never again be as large as it was in #aiah4 ,so far as can be learned1 the easily worked placers and the upper parts of the veins in ,burma are becoming exhausted rather rapidly1#hd and recourse must therefore be had more and more to the mining of those parts of the veins below water level and in harder rock1 and this will probably mean a diminution rather than an increase in output4 ,siam seemingly should give an increased production1 as the mines are comparatively new1 and there still should be opportunity for discoveries4 ,the ,federated ,malay ,states and the unfederated states 7,johore1 ,kedah and ,trengganu7 should produce at least as much in the immediate future as in the past--given the demand and an equal price4 #hd ,burma ,chamber of ,commerce and ,tavoy ,chamber of ,mines1 8,memorial to ,sir ,george ,barnes10 ,mining ,jour41 ,london1 vol4 #aba1 #aiah1 ,may #d1 p4 #bfa4 ,australasia4--,like other ,british possessions1 ,australia labored under the handicap of a comparatively low fixed price for tungsten ores during the war4 ,this price1 at first #ee shillings per long ton unit c4i4f4 ,london1 was later raised to #fj shillings4 ,during the earlier part of the war the price paid in ,australia averaged less than one-half the price paid in the ,united ,states1 and only a little more than half that paid in regions other than the ,british provinces4 ,in consequence the ,australian tungsten production did not increase during the war as it might have done had prices been higher4 ,the cream of the known deposits is gone except in ,tasmania1 where contact metamorphic deposits on ,king ,island have quadrupled the ,tasmanian output4 ,the tungsten minerals mined in ,australia are largely wolframite with smaller quantities of huebnerite and scheelite4 ,the huebnerite seems to be rarely recognized as such in the ,british market1 but is all sold as wolframite4 ,except for the contact metamorphic deposits on ,king ,island1 ,tasmania1 the deposits worked are mostly veins1 with some pegmatites4 ,in ,new ,zealand1 the production is wholly scheelite2 it increased considerably during the war until the last year--#aiah--when1 apparently from a lack of efficient labor1 it fell to the lowest point since #aiji4 ,the probabilities are that there will be a stoppage of output for the present4 ,south ,america4--,in ,bolivia the increase of production has been great4 ,the deposits seem to be wholly veins and derived placers4 ,the veins are closely connected with the tin deposits1 and in many veins tin and tungsten are associated1 but many tungsten deposits contain little or no tin4 ,the tungsten minerals mined are ferberite1 wolframite1 scheelite and some huebnerite4 ,in some veins the minerals are mixed and in others wholly separate4 ,the mines are in and on both sides of the eastern ,cordillera of the ,andes through a distance of nearly #djj miles from a point near ,puerta ,acosta1 on the northwest1 to ,chorolque1 on the southeast4 ,mining costs during the war rose greatly in sympathy with the rise in other parts of the world4 ,wages did not rise to great heights1 but the cost of materials advanced decidedly4 ,transportation conditions are always bad in most of ,bolivia1 and heavily increase expenses4 ,because of circumstances the output is extremely sensitive to a decrease in demand or prices1 and hence it fell quickly after the armistice1 but should high prices come again1 it will probably again increase quickly4 ,some modern plants were placed at mines before or just as the armistice was signed1 and when world stocks of tungsten are used and when there is again a demand1 some ore will be produced even at less than #aj a unit1 though the average cost seems to be about #ab a unit1 at the mine4#he #he ,,hazeltine1 ,,ross1 ,united ,states consul1 ,la ,paz4 ,report dated ,may #ad1 #aiai4 ,the output of ,peru1 as now produced1 seems to depend upon high prices and with such prices could probably remain at the level of #aiaf for several years4 ,the ,huaura deposits are reported to be large1 though of low grade1 and may under proper management yield much ore even at lower prices4 ,they were under the control of ,german firms during the war and probably still are4 ,north ,america4--,until #aiaa the ,united ,states was the leading tungsten-producing country1 but in that year it was passed by ,burma1 which kept the lead until #aiaf1 when the ,united ,states again became the principal miner of tungsten ore4 ,in #aiah ,china entered the excessively high-priced market with an output that exceeded by nearly #a1jjj tons the world's production of any year before #aiae4 ,north ,america increased its output from #a1edi tons in #aiac to #f1eab tons in #aiag1 but dropped back nearly #a1jjj tons 7to #e1djf tons7 in #aiah4 ,in the ,united ,states the decrease of production was due almost wholly to the fall in price1 and only partly to exhaustion of deposits4 ,in the ,boulder1 ,colo41 tungsten field some of its best ore bodies are worked out and the cost of production has risen greatly owing to the impoverishment of others1 and the same thing is true in some other places1 but it seems possible that in the country as a whole the production can be made about equal to what it has been before1 provided prices are equally high1 through the discovery of the contact-metamorphic deposits of the ,great ,basin4 ,in ,mexico the tungsten deposits are seemingly a continuation of those of southern ,arizona4 ,so far as known1 all the ,mexican deposits carry scheelite1 in places partly replaced by cuprotungstite4 ,the known worked deposits in the ,sahuaripa district of ,sonora are described as veins containing scheelite with copper minerals and a pegmatite dike in which are large masses of scheelite and molybdenite4 ,europe4--,european production increased about #ej per cent4 between #aiac and #aiah1 mostly in ,portugal1 and the output of tungsten ores in ,portugal apparently did not reach its maximum4 ,both placers and veins have been exploited and there seems to be placer material still to be worked as well as veins that are said to be far from exhausted4 ,the official statistics of production given by ,portugal during the greater part of the war are declared by engineers conversant with the situation to have been too low1 because of ore being smuggled into ,spain and on board ships bound for ,england4 ,on the other hand1 in #aiah ,england and ,france objected to the shipment of ,portuguese ore to the ,united ,states1 but would not pay equivalent prices4 ,the ,portuguese government therefore issued an order preventing the export of tungsten ore except at fixed prices approaching the current ,american prices4 ,american owners could not work their mines successfully under the ,british-,french embargo1 with the result that the output was probably much smaller than in #aiag4 ,in spite of the uncertainties the official estimates have been used as far as they are available1 for no better figures are at hand4 ,as to the ,spanish output1 prophecy is difficult because the data concerning the mines are meager4 ,it seems probable that under similar prices about the same output as in the past may be expected from the ,english and ,french deposits4 ,the ,english output decreased in #aiag and increased only a little in #aiah4 ,no accurate data are available from ,france4 ,the ,german and ,austrian deposits were probably worked so hard during the ,world ,war that less is to be expected from them than they have heretofore produced4 ,summary4--,the principal changes in the distribution of production during the next few years would seem to be3 ,further development in ,korea2 possible development in ,manchuria2 development of deposits in southern ,china and ,siam2 further development in ,bolivia2 a tendency in the ,united ,states to largely increased production from deposits in the ,great ,basin2 and development of both veins and contact-metamorphic deposits in ,mexico4 ,production will possibly decrease in the ,atolia and ,boulder fields of the ,united ,states2 and in ,australia1 ,japan1 ,germany and ,austria4 ,,political ,,and ,,commercial ,,control ,the actual control of the world's tungsten deposits differs considerably from that indicated by the production within political areas4 ,actual control is justly obtained through ordinary competitive buying1 ownership by nationals 7sometimes by governments7 of deposits1 and through commercial alliance4 ,control through ownership of banks and transportation lines may be just or it may be by coercion and commercial brigandage1 seizing ports for coaling and repair stations--methods that are merely refinements evolved since the days when 8,they sought their fortunes as they pleased abroad1 the crown annoying them with no inquiry to embarrass their search for ,spanish treasure ships1 or their trade in pirated linens and silks40#hf #hf ,,wilson1 ,,woodrow4 8,a ,history of the ,american ,people10 vol4 #a1 p4 #be4 ,,table #bi4--;,,actual ,,control ,,of ,,the ,,world',s ,,tungsten ,,output ,,in #aiag ,,and #aiah4 ,,in ,,short ,,tons ,,of #b1jjj ,,pounds ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #aiag #aiah ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,percentage ,percentage ,quantityof world's,quantityof world's output output ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,british3 ,possessions ,burma and ,shan ,states #d1fjj #d1hgj ,federated ,malay ,states #hec #ibj ,trengganu #cej #cej ,johore and ,kedah #bjj #ehb ,india #ge #df ,australia #a1djd #a1ffb ,new ,zealand #bda #adf ,england #bfe #ccj ,south ,africa #bd #cg -------- -------- #h1jab #bh4d #h1idc #bd4i ,obtained through trade and political pressure ,japan and ,korea 7including ores for ,france7 #gij ,none ,china and ,hongkong 7including ores for ,france7 #a1aje #ijj ,siam #fjj #fjj ,billiton and ,singkep #fj #fj ,argentina 7including ,bolivia ores for #b1jce #iej ,peru ,france7 ,portugal #ifj #hjj ,spain 7including ores for ,france7 #ddf #dbe -------- -------- #e1iif #ba4c #c1gce #aj4d ,total ores under ,british control #ad1jjh #di4g #ab1fgh #ce4c ,french3 ,france #ahb #ahj ,tonkin #dbb #dej ,siam #agj #aij ,portugal #fej #ddj ,bolivia 7,see ,great ,britain7 8 8 ,argentina 7,see ,great ,britain7 8 8 -------- -------- #a1dbd #e4c #a1bfj #c4e ,german3 ,germany #bjj #bjj ,austria #aej #aej ,norway 8 ,portugal 8 8 ,spain 8 8 -------- -------- #cej #a4b #cej #a ,american3 ,mexico #cdj #cbf ,peru ,bolivia #d1cbj #d1fhj ,argentina ,japan and ,korea 7including some ,chinese ore7 #a1jaj #a1fej ,china and ,hongkong #cie #i1cjj ,portugal #acj #fj ,siam #cj #ab ,domestic production #f1add #e1jfh -------- -------- #ab1cfi #dc4i #ba1aej #ei ,japanese3 7,quantity smelted only7 ,china 8 #cjj ,norwegian3 ,norway #aj #aj #a4c ,russian3 ,russia #aaj #aej -------- -------- ,total #bh1agh #ce1hcb ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,owing to the close relationships between some foreign governments and private firms--as illustrated by the ,german government's interest in dye1 potash1 and shipping firms1 and the ,british government's participation in nickel mining and ferrotungsten-making companies--it is not practicable to draw a line between governmentally and privately controlled deposits4 ,in countries with weak governments1 the deposits owned by ,british subjects are to all intents and purposes ,british2 but foreign deposits owned by ,americans are not necessarily under ,american control2 in fact1 instead of helping and encouraging our pioneers in foreign trade we are apt to harass them and destroy their business with drastic tariff laws4 ,in effect1 the preceding table merely shows where the ores of different countries go for treatment2 it is1 of course1 only a generalization1 for trade conditions constantly change4 ,for instance1 ,japanese electric furnaces are beginning to smelt tungsten ores1 though at present to the extent of only #aj to #ae tons of contained tungsten per month1 but it is conceivable that the output may be increased greatly4 ,although ,japan could control the disposition of its ore1 it is given credit for control only of its smelted ores4 ,the exact distribution of ores from ,argentina1 ,bolivia1 ,peru1 ,portugal and ,spain can not be given4 ,british ,control4--,during the war the ,british government demanded and obtained all of the tungsten ores produced in its colonies and possessions4 ,this restriction was later lifted as regards to ,canada1 and a new rule allowed ,canada to ship tungsten ores to other ,entente nations1 but as ,canada was not a producer the license granted amounted to nothing except as it eased the feelings of the ,canadians4 ,scheelite deposits had been discovered in ,manitoba1 however1 that for a time seemed to be potential producers4 ,nominally ,siam has remained free from ,british control because more or less under the zone of influence of the ,french1 but diplomatic pressure seems to have been exercised at ,bangkok4 ,the ,siamese ores mostly contain some tin and have gone to ,singapore for separation2 and when once within the ,british possessions1 of course they could not be exported4 ,the ,english control of ,siamese shipments1 however1 seems as complete as if the ores came from an ,english province4 ,mr4 ,nassuer1 of the ,siamese ,american ,trading ,co41 testified before the ,tariff ,commission at ,san ,francisco1 ,june #bh1 #aiah1 that his company wished to ship ore to the ,united ,states but the ,british minister to ,siam would give no permit4 ,the company took the matter up with our ,state ,department and finally got permission to ship #aj tons4 ,in ,february1 #aiah1 the ,chemical ,products ,co41 of ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 protested to the ,department of ,state at ,washington with reference to ,british interference with exportation of tungsten ore from ,siam to the ,united ,states1 stating that the company was working under conditions peculiar to itself in that it employed an expensive process developed to handle low-grade ores obtainable at a much lower price than the regular grades on the market2 that it entered into an agreement with an ,american working tungsten mines in ,siam for the purchase of his tungsten ore1 only to find that through control of port privileges at ,singapore and ,hongkong the ,british effectually prohibited it or any other ,american firm from obtaining the material4 ,of course1 this1 like other incidents mentioned1 took place under the shadow of a desperate war when strictness was to be expected1 but the shipments asked were to an ally from a country not openly under control of ,great ,britain4 ,doubtless no such objections would be offered now1 but the incidents show the efficiency of these methods of controlling commerce4 ,in southern ,china1 ,hongkong being the port for ,kwangtung and ,kwangsi1 and parts of southern ,kiangsi and ,hunan1 the ,british for a while exercised control over the export of ores produced in those districts1#hg refusing to allow the reshipment of ores unless they were sent to ,england4 #hg ,,anderson1 ,,george ,e43 ,american ,consul ,general1 ,hongkong1 ,china4 8,tungsten from ,south ,china40 ,commerce ,reports1 ,nov4 #i1 #aiag1 p4 #edf4 ,foreigners1 including ,americans of course1 are not allowed to own mining property in ,burma1 the ,federated and ,unfederated ,malay ,states1 or ,australia1 territory producing nearly all the tungsten ores of the ,british ,empire4 ,in ,argentina small tungsten mines are owned by ,english companies4#hh #hh ,,sharp1 ,,ralston ,c43 8,wolfram ,deposits in the ,argentine40 ,mining ,magazine1 ,london1 vol4 #ah1 ,may1 #aiah1 pp4 #bcj-bcc4 ,in ,bolivia the ,english and ,french governments during the war leased mines directly1 and came into direct competition with ,american business men engaged in buying or producing tungsten ores4 ,british traders are constantly striving to increase their control of ,bolivian tungsten ores4 ,at present the ,english seemingly have complete control of the financial system of ,bolivia1 so far as foreign exchange is concerned4 ,an ,american interested in a tungsten mine in ,bolivia has informed the writer that it is almost impossible to do business with ,english banks1 because they insist that if they extend commercial courtesies1 even for pay1 the recipient must buy only ,english mining machinery4 ,the buddle1 which for dressing tungsten ore is obsolete in other countries1 is said to be still used in ,bolivian mills under ,english control4 ,if miners do not wish to deal through ,english banks1 they are compelled to cable money to and from ,new ,york at considerable expense4 ,the ,american banking interests represented in ,bolivia seem conservative in advancing money on ore shipments1 whereas ,german and ,english representatives are said to advance up to #hj per cent4 of the market value of ores shipped4 ,mining corporations controlled by ,english firms ship to ,england1 and ,americans can not compete for the production4 ,such a firm is ,aramayo ,francke ,mines1 ,ltd41 which produced #b1jej long tons of tin concentrates1 #bbf tons of wolframite concentrates1 and a considerable output of bismuth in the year ending ,may #ca1 #aiaf4 ,control of the ,bolivian mines by the ,english is not yet dangerous to ,american interests1 except through the banking system1 but entire control may be passed to them1 to the ,germans or the ,french1 through ,american tariff legislation4 ,in ,portugal1 ,english companies control a number of the mines1 and it has been alleged by at least two ,americans#hi that the ,english government1 through its representations at ,lisbon1 for a period of more than two years1 prevented title passing to ,american companies4 ,the ,thermo ,electric ,ore ,reduction ,corporation1 ,ltd41 seems to be the chief ,english owner of ,portuguese tungsten mines4 #hi ,personal communications4 ,in the ,dutch ,east ,indies1 the ,british are understood to control the present wolframite production of about #e tons a month4 ,french ,control4--,french control of tungsten deposits is not large4 ,it includes the production of ,france and of ,tonkin1 a part of that from ,portugal1 and a comparatively small interest in ,bolivia4 ,during the war1 control in ,portugal was attempted by ,england and ,france4 ,the prices offered by the ,english and ,french were much below the market prices at ,new ,york1 and the ,portuguese government stepped in and raised prices to a point somewhat lower than those of the ,united ,states1 but #bj per cent4 higher than the prices offered by ,england and ,france4 ,japanese ,control4--,japan has within her own borders a considerable number of tungsten deposits in the southern part of the islands1 but all are small4 ,in ,korea important deposits have been discovered and actively worked1 especially within the last two years4 ,deposits in ,manchuria are said to be controlled by the ,japanese2 little is known of them1 and if they exist they are probably small4 ,japanese ores have largely come to the ,united ,states for several years4 ,as has been said1 ,japanese firms have erected electric furnaces in which a part of the tungsten ores are reduced1 probably the equivalent of #be to #ce tons per month of concentrates carrying #fj per cent4 ,,wo4 ,american ,control4--,the ,united ,states controls entirely the tungsten deposits within its own borders and ,alaska4 ,americans operating in ,mexico have produced #bjj to #cjj short tons of scheelite concentrates per year1 from deposits in the ,sahuaripa district1 ,sonora4 ,wolframite is said to have been shipped from ,sinaloa to the ,united ,states1 but its real origin is unknown4 ,contact metamorphic deposits about #fj miles southwest of ,nacozari carry #j4g per cent4 ,,wo and #a to #b per cent4 copper4 ,they are owned by ,americans but are not now productive4 ,in ,bolivia1 ,americans own some of the more important tungsten mines4 ,the ,american firms known to own tungsten properties there are ,w4 ,r4 ,grace ,co41 local address1 ,la ,paz2 ,stewart1 ,wilson ,hepburn1 ,oruro2 ,easley ,inslee1 ,la ,paz2 and ,c4 ,dillon1 ,oruro4 ,their total output is estimated to amount to about #a1fjj tons1 out of a total output of more than #d1jjj tons for the country4 ,in southern ,china1 ,american firms have largely developed the tungsten trade1 so that through this source the ,united ,states 7or rather ,american capital7 controls1 unless hindered1 a yearly output of perhaps #i1jjj short tons of tungsten concentrates4 ,in ,siam one or two ,united ,states companies have attempted to produce tungsten1 but ,english influence during the war made difficult the shipment of even small lots of ores to this country4 ,because it offered higher prices than other countries1 and because the more direct and shorter trade route made trade with this country advantageous to the ,japanese1 the ,united ,states largely controlled the ,japanese output of tungsten ore in #aiah4 ,this trade probably has been somewhat curtailed and will be further diminished through the erection of electric furnaces in ,japan4 ,the table following shows the tungsten ores imported for consumption into the ,united ,states in #aiah1 but gives a poor idea of the ores shipped from the countries of origin2 ,chinese ores lag three months and ,south ,american ores about two months4 ,the table gives only the ores actually received during the year4 ,table #bi shows more nearly the ores shipped to the ,united ,states during the year4 ,chinese ores are treated as averaging #fg4e per cent4 ,,wo and other ores #fe per cent4 ,,wo4 ,,table #cj4--,,tungsten-,,bearing ,,ores ,,imported ,,into ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,in #aiah1 ,,by ,,countries ,,as ,,listed ,,at ,,ports ,,of ,,entry1 ,,and ,,by ,,probable ,,countries ,,of ,,origin ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,probable origin and equivalent ,as listed at ports in #fj per cent4 ,,wo ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,quan- ,quan- tity1 tity1 short short ,country tons ,value ,country tons ,value ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,argentina #ecf #gcj1gbb,south ,america1 ,bolivia #hh #abb1ceg;including3 ,argentina ,bolivia ,canada #ef #aae1hfc;,chile ,colombia ,chile #a1bea #a1bji1hfd;,costa ,rica ,ecuador ,china #b1chd #b1jfh1fcf,panama ,peru ,colombia #ef #fe1abd,salvador #d1aha #c1gdf1bii ,costa ,rica #ah #ai1jha ,ecuador #f #i1igi;,china1 including3 ,hongkong1 ,france #bi #c1djj8,other ,british ,east ,indies20 ,hongkong #c1eie #c1eaa1jdf;also ,canada #f1haa #e1gjh1faf ,japan #a1cfa #a1gjj1ccb;,japan #a1dgd #a1gjj1ccb ,mexico #bfd #bbd1bdg,mexico #bhf #bbd1bdg 8,other ,portugal1 ,british including3 ,east ,indies0 #ai #ac1jga;,france #fa #ba1afj ,panama #cg #dj1fad ,peru #a1hbg #a1dhh1eaf,siam #ab #h1ehc ,portugal #bg #ag1gfj ,salvador #dj #fj1jdb,unaccounted for #aeg #adb1iha ,siam #aa #h1ehc ,unaccounted for #ade #adb1iha ----------------- ----------------- #aa1gejaa1eeb1bah #ab1hhbaa1eeb1bah ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,unhindered by other governments1 this country would have imported even larger quantities of ore1 because of its paying higher prices and being more liberal regarding impurities4 ,the table shows that the ,united ,states imported #cf per cent4 of the tungsten output of the world2 this amount added to the domestic output makes a total of #ag1iba tons1 or #ej per cent4 of the world's production4 ,owing to the lag in shipments from ,south ,america and ,china the ,south ,american ores received in ,january and ,february were from the output of #aiag1 as were the ,chinese ores arriving up to the end of ,march4 ,subtracting the ores arriving from the two regions during the first two and three months1 respectively1 of #aiah1 and adding the ores arriving during a like period in #aiai1 make the quantity of ore controlled by the ,united ,states in #aiah 7as shown on page #aec7 equivalent to #ba1aca tons of concentrates carrying #fj percent4 ,,wo1 or #ei per cent4 of the world's production4 ,these ores were all controlled through the private initiative of ,american firms who offered better prices and better terms than could be obtained abroad4 ,probably a larger proportion could be handled in the future1 should interference not come from within our own borders4 ,it is now proposed to put a tariff of #aj a unit on tungsten ores without regard to purity or quality1 with a correspondingly high tariff of #a a pound1 plus the #ae per cent4 ad valorem duties now in force1 on metal in any form--element1 alloy or salt2 and such a bill has passed the ,house of ,representatives4 ,its advocates believe that the price1 now about #g a unit in ,new ,york1 will be raised to #ag a unit4 ,hereafter the quantities of tungsten ore handled will be much smaller than during #aiaf1 #aiag and #aiah2 and will be confined to peace-time needs unless some unforeseen war arises4 ,england1 according to government estimates about ,january1 #aibj1 had two years' supply1 and ,france is probably as well supplied4 ,the ,united ,states probably had on hand an equivalent of quite #h1jjj tons of ore carrying #fj per cent4 ,,wo4 ,makers of tool steel figured on a consumption of #g1ejj tons during #aiai1 but because of the lack of market for ore this was much too high2 and probably #d1jjj tons is large enough1 so that there will likely be little market for new supplies for nearly two years1 except as ore may be bought speculatively4 ,during this time1 mines everywhere must remain idle until a demand again arises1 except for those mines required to furnish tungsten for ,germany1 ,austria and ,russia and the small quantity required by ,sweden1 ,norway and ,italy4 ,if industries in ,germany1 ,austria and ,russia recover so that they can buy and use tungsten1 ,germany will have regained in the ores that will be eagerly offered by producing nations needing a market1 a part of the trade she has lost4 ,traders of ,england1 ,france and the ,united ,states will be glad to sell tungsten and ferrotungsten1 but ,germany will undoubtedly reach out for raw material in order that she may make as much use as possible of her abundant unemployed labor4 ,should a tariff law like that now proposed be passed1 the ,united ,states will have cut off its foreign supplies and will have ended its control of any considerable part of them4 ,however1 should a high price be maintained1 artificially or otherwise1 the development of other alloy steels for use in multiple-edged tools may have reached a point where not so much tungsten will be needed4 ,german ,control4--,germany had no considerable tungsten deposits at home1 and none in the foreign territory she held1 but in #aiac her control through business alliances covered about two-thirds of the world's output of tungsten ore4 ,in that year1 according to the ,german official figures1 #e1bie short tons of tungsten ores were imported4 ,most of this probably carried #fe per cent4 or more ,,wo1 equivalent to1 say1 #e1gcf tons of concentrates carrying #fj per cent4 ,,wo4 ,adding the #ajf tons of ,saxon concentrates produced in that year shows that ,germany treated a total of approximately #e1hdj tons out of a world's output of #h1hfd tons1 or about #ff per cent4 of the total4 ,the ,united ,states in the same year produced #a1ecg tons and imported #ddi tons of unknown content1 but the whole was probably equivalent to more than #b1jjj tons of ore carrying #fj per cent4 ,,wo1 leaving only about #a1jjj tons for other countries1 most of which seems to have been treated in ,france4 ,this trade ,germany lost when with ,austria she started the ,world ,war4 ,with the cutting off of all shipments by ocean to ,germany1 most of the foreign ores were denied her1 but undoubtedly small quantities leaked in through ,sweden and ,norway for some time after the war began4 ,the small output of ,austria was always available1 and it is said that a considerable quantity of ore was smuggled across the border of ,portugal into ,spain1 thence by water to the western frontier of ,italy1 into ,switzerland1 and from there shipped direct to ,germany4 ,a considerable part of the ,spanish production is said to have reached ,germany in this way also1 and the 8crippled0 submarines that ran into ,spanish ports are reported to have carried out cargoes of tungsten for ,germany4 ,from available data it is impossible to confirm or to disprove these reports1 and1 in giving them1 their doubtfulness is fully recognized1 but such possibilities must be acknowledged4 ,in the ,allied countries and the ,united ,states1 the ,german interests were taken over by the governments1 but in ,south ,america the ,german firms still hold some control of tungsten-bearing properties4 ,in ,bolivia four ,german firms are said to have an output of about #fjj metric tons of ore a year4 ,in ,peru what is said to be the larger part of the tungsten deposits has been controlled by firms thought to be ,german1 ,e4 y ,w4 ,hardt and ,carlos ,w4 ,weiss y ,cia4 ,in ,argentina the ,hansa ,mining ,co41 a ,german concern1 is the principal producer4 ,its output is said to be about #ejj tons of concentrates a year1 but even this output is said to have come to the ,united ,states during the war4 ,if the ,united ,states is placed under a prohibitive tariff1 ,germany may easily recover a large part of her control of the world's tungsten trade4 ,,production ,,plants ,,and ,,processes ,the spread of knowledge1 particularly that regarding electric furnaces1 makes the control of the tungsten trade through secret processes or superior skill extremely difficult1 and so far as the ,united ,states1 ,great ,britain and ,france are concerned1 gives little advantage to any one4 ,japan is perhaps somewhat less advantageously placed4 ,smelting plants are so easily1 quickly and cheaply erected that they do not offer any great chance for monopoly4 ,cheap power1 high technical skill and knowledge1 originality and boldness in experiment1 excellence of organization1 generous dealing with producers1 an honest product honestly sold1 good transportation facilities1 and broad sane laws are the elements that will give control4 ,the ,united ,states may have this control through reasonable effort1 but selfish laws may still more easily wreck control of the larger part of the world's trade1 reduce our tungsten business to a provincial scope1 and make the product high priced for all time4 ,,what ,,control ,,means ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,in years of good business before the ,world ,war1 the ,united ,states used an equivalent of #c1jjj to #d1jjj short tons of concentrates1 carrying #fj per cent4 ,,wo per annum4 ,when the war began there was a lull while the attacked countries caught their breath and prepared for a long struggle4 ,after plans had been made1 and the manufacture of munitions had begun on a grand scale1 the demand for tungsten rose enormously4 ,all kinds of ores were taken at fabulous prices4 ,ores carrying tin1 phosphorus1 sulphur and bismuth1 that before would not have been considered by steel makers1 were taken with avidity1 and there was a great scramble for deposits4 ,in ,october1 #aiah1 the ,united ,states was using tungsten ores at the rate of #bj1jjj tons per annum4 ,meanwhile prospecting had uncovered so many new deposits and they were so actively exploited that great stocks of ores were accumulated in the ,entente countries4 ,on the other hand1 in this country many of the known deposits showed signs of impoverishment1 a number after being worked profitably for a short time became wholly inoperative1 and it is likely that some of the deposits that have seemed to be the richest will never again produce largely4 ,among the new discoveries were the contact metamorphic deposits of the ,great ,basin1 in ,california1 ,nevada and northeastern ,utah4 ,they were partly developed1 and several promise well1 but the irregularity of contact metamorphic ore deposits is notorious4 ,in #aiaf with prices ranging from #ae to #ic4ej per unit1 the ,united ,states produced #e1ifi tons of concentrates2 in #aiag while still under the impetus of the #aiaf boom1 with prices ranging around #be per unit1 #f1add tons2 and in #aiah1 with prices still averaging about #be per unit1 #e1jda tons1 although little was produced in ,december4 ,under a price of #ag per unit1 which tariff advocates think can be reached by means of a tariff of #aj per unit1 it seems improbable that the ,united ,states can depend on a production of more than #c1jjj tons per annum for the next three years4 ,there are1 of course1 possibilities of a larger production and there are equal possibilities of a smaller4 ,should another great war take place1 an event that is not beyond the range of imagination1 the ,united ,states would probably begin by using tungsten at the rate of #bj1jjj tons of concentrates per annum4 ,unless the price were even more extravagant than the highest price in #aiaf1 #ic4ej per unit1 the ,united ,states could not produce half of its needed concentrates1 and the time required to reach even that output would be far too long for safety4 ,of course1 such a production would be much better than none1 but the ,united ,states should1 for safety1 have within reach at least a year's supply4 ,the ,pacific1 around the borders of which are the largest tungsten deposits1 is by many looked upon as the next large theatre of war1 and however vitally they were needed1 the obtaining of supplies of tungsten ores might become impossible though the blocking of trade routes4 ,it would1 therefore1 seem vastly better that1 instead of putting a premium on the quick depletion of our own supplies1 which are already too meager1 we should use the rich low-priced ores now being mined in the ,orient4 ,these cheap ores we may have in trade for the asking1 and it would be one of the best forms of national life insurance for the government to store #aj1jjj tons of these ores while they may be had4 ,the argument is often made that by putting a high tariff on tungsten ores we would have our own deposits so developed that quick production could be made when needed2 also that with the need we would find more ores4 ,both arguments are specious4 ,what is meant is not development but removal4 ,no one will open a tungsten mine to let the ores stand against the country's day of need4 ,the finding of new ores is a probability1 but the quantity is wholly a question4 ,few tungsten mines of the ,united ,states can be profitably worked at the present price of about #g per unit1 and the mines are now closed4 ,the number of persons dependent on the mining of ,american tungsten ores is small1 probably less than #ijj in peace times4 ,at present most tungsten miners have already obtained other employment1 and practically all could obtain employment fully as profitably in other mines1 many of which are short handed1 so that no great hardship would be worked4 ,as a matter of national economy1 the ,united ,states can not afford to throw away its chance to buy cheap tungsten ores while they are available4 ,aside from the question of insurance and even of existence during another war1 not to buy ,south ,american ores is to throw away ,south ,american trade4 ,in a degree this is also true of ,chinese and ,japanese ores4 ,the metallurgy of tungsten1 like that of other metals1 is being improved constantly1 and should our ores remain in the ground for a time they will be of greater absolute value when mined1 for there will be less waste in conversion4 ,if our ores are mined now under an artificially high price1 we will always pay a high price for tungsten ores1 for when ours are used the ores in other countries will have diminished in quantity and increased in cost2 prices would be higher and we would have to buy at the advanced rate4 ,on the other hand1 by holding our markets open to cheap ores from any quarter1 we will stand on an equal footing with other countries and will always have a reserve of high-priced ores available in an emergency4 ,there is but one crop of ore4 ,deliberately to turn over all the cheap tungsten ores of the world to our competitors1 allowing them this advantage in making high-speed steels with which to compete in foreign trade with our steels and with all products on and in which they are used2 to put a premium on the early depletion of our own deposits of this indispensable metal2 and to compel our use always of high-priced ores--these would be economic crimes4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,vanadium ,,by ,r4 ,b4 ,,moore ,,uses ,,of ,,vanadium ,the main use of vanadium is in steel4 ,it is used where great toughness and torsional strength are required1 as in automobile parts1 gears1 piston rods1 tubes1 boiler plates1 transmission shafts1 bolts1 gun barrels1 gun shields and forgings of any kind which have to withstand heavy wear and tear4 ,the vanadium content of such steels varies from #j4a to #j4d per cent4 ,vanadium is occasionally used in certain tungsten alloys for making high-speed tool steel1 the introduction of a small proportion of vanadium decidedly reducing the proportion of tungsten required to give such alloys the desired hardness and toughness4 ,arnold has given some illustrations of the effect of vanadium on steels of different types3 ,one plain carbon steel containing about #a per cent4 of carbon had a yield point of #ce tons per square inch1 a maximum stress of #fj tons per square inch1 an elongation of #aj per cent4 on #b inches1 and a reduction of area of #aj per cent4 ,the addition to this steel of about #j4f per cent4 of vanadium raised the yield point from #ce to #fe tons1 the maximum stress from #fj to #hf tons per square inch1 still leaving an elongation of #g per cent4 and a reduction of area of #h per cent4 ,a steel containing #j4be per cent4 of carbon and #c4c per cent4 of nickel gave a yield point of #cc tons1 a maximum stress of #db tons per square inch1 an elongation of #bf per cent4 on #b inches1 and a reduction of area of #ec per cent4 ,a practically identical steel1 containing in addition about #j4be per cent4 of vanadium1 gave a yield point of #ej tons instead of #cc1 and a maximum stress of #fh instead of #db tons per square inch4 ,the elongation was #ag per cent4 on #b inches and the reduction of area #cf per cent4 ,a steel containing #j4be per cent4 of carbon and about #a per cent4 of chromium registered a yield point of #bg tons and a maximum stress of #da tons per square inch1 with an elongation of #cf per cent4 on #b inches and a reduction of area of #ee per cent4 ,the addition of #j4be per cent4 of vanadium raised the yield point from #bg to #dj and the maximum stress from #da to #ee tons per square inch4 ,the elongation was lowered from #cf to #bf per cent41 and the reduction of area from #ee to #ec per cent4 ,vanadium1 therefore1 differs from tungsten in having an extremely beneficial effect1 not only on tool but also on structural steel4 ,arnold has shown that vanadium seemingly does not form a double carbide with iron1 but gradually takes the carbon from the carbide of iron until1 if about #e per cent4 of vanadium is present1 ,fe,c can not exist1 and only a vanadium carbide1 ,v,c1 containing #ae per cent4 of carbon1 is present2 and this constituent is constant1 at least in tool steels containing #e to #ad per cent4 of vanadium4 ,the micrographic analysis of such alloys has resulted in the discovery of three new constituents1 namely1 vanadium pearlite1 vanadium hardenite1 and vanadium cementite4 ,chromium-vanadium steels are the latest development in structural alloy steels that have gained an extensive market4 ,almost all these steels are made in the open-hearth furnace2 the chromium and vanadium alloys being added shortly before casting4 ,in their physical properties these steels are much like chrome-nickel steels1 but they have a greater contraction of area for a given elastic limit than the latter4 ,the greater part of the chrome-vanadium steels made goes into automobiles4 ,some manufacturers prefer such steels because of their greater freedom from surface imperfections1 notably seams1 which steels containing nickel are prone to have if the ingots are at all unsound4 ,these steels are almost always used in the heat-treated condition1 but even in automobiles some frames1 forgings and shafts are made of the steel in its natural state4 ,some chrome-vanadium steel is said to be used in armor plate of medium thickness1 which is not face-hardened but has high resistance imparted by heat treatment4 ,vanadium is also used to some extent in making bronzes1 in medicine and in dyeing4 ,substitutes4--,several substitutes1 chiefly titanium and molybdenum1 have been claimed to give the properties of vanadium in steel4 ,both of those metals give to steel some of the properties that are usually associated with vanadium1 but neither one takes the place of vanadium entirely4 ,,changes ,,in ,,practice ,the ,primos ,chemical ,co4 7see later7 has its own patented method for treating roscoelite1 the ore found at ,newmire1 ,colorado4 ,this method consists in roasting the ore with salt containing a little pyrite1 and is a method that is applicable to some extent to most vanadium ores that do not carry lead4 ,the ,american ,vanadium ,co4 has a secret process for the treatment of its ,peruvian ores4 ,this method has not been published4 ,the treatment of vanadinite1 cuprodescloizite and carnotite ores has been studied by the ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,mines1 at ,golden1 ,colorado4 ,whatever change in practice takes place is likely to be mainly in the concentration of vanadinite and in the treatment of this mineral and cuprodescloizite4 ,,geological ,,and ,,geographical ,,distribution ,peruvian ,deposits4--,the largest deposits of vanadium in the world1 and the most important1 were until recently controlled by the ,american ,vanadium ,co4 of ,pittsburgh1 ,pennsylvania1 which in #aiai was absorbed by the ,vanadium ,products ,corporation1 allied to the ,bethlehem ,steel ,corporation4 ,these deposits are at ,minasragra1 ,peru1 #bj miles from ,cerro de ,pasco4 ,the area lies along the western limit of a broad anticline in ,juratrias and ,cretaceous rocks4 ,a section shows the series in this locality to be composed of green shales1 thin beds of limestone1 and red shales4 ,vanadium is found only in the red shales4 ,the deposit proper appears to be a lens-shaped mass1 #bh feet wide and #cej feet long4 ,the ore contains several minerals4 ,the mineral that constitutes the large portion of the deposit is called 8quisqueite02 it is a black carbonaceous substance containing sulphur4 ,there is also a lesser quantity of a coke-like material4 ,neither of these contains vanadium4 ,the vanadium is mostly at the southern end of the ore body1 and to a depth of #bj feet is largely in the form of red calcium vanadate1 which is brighter colored then the calcium vanadate in ,colorado and ,utah1 and carries as much as #ej per cent4 vanadium oxide4 ,it occurs in small pockets and fills the cracks and fissures in a fine shale4 ,below this shale is the 8mother lode10 which is #i to #cj feet thick1 extends along the greater length of the deposit1 and carries as high as #aj per cent4 vanadium oxide and nearly as much sulphur4 ,on the east and south sides1 below the 8mother lode10 is a hard blue-black vanadium shale1 carrying as much as #ac per cent4 vanadium oxide and #d to #e per cent4 sulphur4 ,patronite1 the main vanadium mineral1 is greenish black and contains #ai to #bd4h per cent4 vanadium oxide and in places #ej to #ee per cent4 of combined sulphur4 ,the patronite originally almost reached the surface and is most abundant in the north half of the lens4 ,the whole ore body is almost completely inclosed by porphyry dikes and contains two or three intrusions4 ,these deposits are controlled by the ,american ,vanadium ,co41 and its successor1 the ,vanadium ,products ,corporation1 through a concession from the ,peruvian government4 ,they are large1 but are by no means inexhaustible1 and as they are entirely local they are not likely to be duplicated4 ,no similar deposits are known1 either in ,peru or in any other part of the world4 ,in #aiag the ,american ,vanadium ,co4 treated #e1bcf gross tons of ore1 from which it extracted #b1abb1jje pounds of vanadic acid4 ,from this vanadic acid the company manufactured #d1ibe1jad pounds of ferrovanadium4 ,the company did not buy any ore in this country1 but relied entirely upon its ,peruvian production4 ,other ,foreign ,deposits4--,the deposits in ,peru are the only deposits of any commercial importance outside of the ,united ,states4 ,vanadium is found in ,south ,australia1 associated with carnotite and other uranium minerals4 ,small quantities of vanadic oxide are obtained as a by-product in the treatment of these ores4 ,vanadium is also associated with uranium minerals in the ,andijan district1 ,central ,asiatic ,russia4 ,the vanadium is usually found as turanite1 or copper vanadate2 ferganite1 an ortho-vanadate of uranium2 and as several other new minerals4 ,the amount of ore seems to be reasonably large1 and this district may ultimately become a source of both uranium and vanadium4 ,the lead ores of ,mexico contain some vanadium1 the best known deposits being in the northeastern part of the ,state of ,chihuahua4 ,other deposits are reported in ,zacatecas1 ,guanajuato1 ,san ,luis ,potosi1 and ,hidalgo4 ,deposits in the ,united ,states4--,the principal vanadium deposits of the ,united ,states occur in a metallographic province covering southern and southwestern ,colorado1 southeastern ,utah1 and parts of ,arizona and ,new ,mexico4 ,uranium and radium characterize the same province4 ,probably the largest deposits of vanadium yet discovered in the ,united ,states are in southwestern ,colorado in ,san ,miguel ,county4 ,these deposits were visited by ,ransome and ,spencer in #ahii and their description1 together with notes on the chemical analyses and composition of roscoelite by ,hillebrand1 was published in #aijj4 ,fleck and ,french have also described the deposits4 ,fleck and ,haldane later published additional descriptions1 with notes on mining operations4 ,hess1 in #aiab1 published an excellent description of these deposits with notes on the possible origin1 etc4 ,according to ,cross and ,purington1 the country rock is composed of ,jurassic and ,triassic sediments1 divisible into three formations1 the ,dolores below1 ,la ,plata above and ,mc,elmo above ,la ,plata4 ,the latter is composed of two heavy beds of light-colored sandstone1 separated by a thin bed of limestone4 ,the vanadium-bearing rock is the lower sandstone4 ,it is a light to dull green1 and fine-grained4 ,occasionally splotches of carnotite are found in the cracks and fissures1 but the uranium content is too small to be worth saving4 ,according to ,hillebrand1 the green vanadium mineral to which the sandstone owes its color is not a chlorite1 but is closely related to the mica1 roscoelite4 ,the ore mined has an average content of #a per cent4 ,v,o4 ,these low-grade roscoelite deposits can be mined at a profit1 because they are large and easily worked4 ,undoubtedly these deposits have been feeling the effects of the rather large production of the last few years1 and the average grade of the ore is now probably at least half of a per cent4 lower in ,v,o than it was a few years ago4 ,there is still considerable ore untouched that will average #a per cent41 or a little less4 ,the ,british government for several years1 according to reports1 has been interested in obtaining control of vanadium deposits4 ,the ,primos ,chemical ,co41 with works at ,newmire1 ,colorado1 and ,primos1 ,pennsylvania1 is mining these deposits1 and in #aiag made this production3 ,treated #fj1ijg1jjj pounds of ore2 from this was produced #dif1gca pounds of vanadium in the form of iron vanadate running about #cd per cent4 metallic vanadium4 ,from this was produced #dag1ggj pounds of contained vanadium in the form of regular #dj per cent4 ferrovanadium4 ,in #aiah1 up to and including ,july1 this company mined #ag1ddi1jjj pounds of ore1 from which was produced #adi1cdc pounds of contained vanadium in the form of vanadate of iron and #acc1fff pounds of contained vanadium made in the form of #dj per cent4 ferrovanadium4 ,in #aiai the ,primos ,chemical ,co41 was absorbed by the newly organized ,vanadium ,products ,corporation4 ,vanadium ore has been discovered in ,huerfano ,county1 ,colorado1 near the ,sangre de ,cristo ,range4 ,the vein is said to be well defined and #a to #d feet in width4 ,a number of assays show #b to #g per cent4 ,v,o content1 and others #b to #d per cent4 copper4 ,the ore is heavy1 black and banded2 it contains small quantities of uranium oxide1 but should be classed as a vanadium1 rather than a uranium mineral4 ,there has been no commercial production up to date4 ,in ,eagle ,county1 #g miles southeast of the town of ,eagle1 a silver ore has been found that carries vanadium4 ,this was located mostly in the ,lady ,bell mine4 ,the ore1 a dark-greenish sandstone similar in appearance to the darker types of roscoelite ore found in ,san ,miguel ,county1 assayed from #be to #a1jjj ounces of silver to the ton4 ,the mine has been largely worked out for silver1 the vanadium being lost during the smelting process4 ,there is still1 however1 an appreciable amount of vanadium ore left1 as the low-grade silver ore was not mined or treated4 ,a considerable amount of vanadium is obtained as a by-product from the treatment of carnotite 7uranium and radium7 ore4 ,it is difficult to say just what the yield from this ore is1 but it is probable that it averages about #bjj1jjj pounds of vanadic oxide per annum4 ,this is produced by five or six operating radium companies4 ,these deposits are found in southwestern ,colorado1 around the ,paradox ,valley1 and in southeastern ,utah1 extending as far as the ,san ,rafael ,swell1 southwest of ,green ,river1 ,utah4 ,there is considerable ore running one-half to #a per cent4 uranium oxide which carries from #d to #aj per cent4 vanadic oxide4 ,in the past this ore has not been mined1 because the extraction of radium from it would not pay4 ,with a strong demand and a high price for vanadium1 at least the higher grades of this ore could be mined at a profit4 ,there is considerable of such ore at certain localities north of the ,paradox ,valley2 unfortunately1 these deposits are somewhat scattered and some would involve not only long wagon hauls1 but also transportation by burro to wagon roads4 ,only the higher-grade ore could be handled in this way at a profit1 and the difficulty is to get enough to justify building a treatment plant4 ,the writer has been told that there are deposits of this same type of ore at ,temple ,mountain1 #dj miles south of ,green ,river1 ,utah4 ,a small vanadinite deposit1 containing traces of wulfenite1 has been found near ,klinefelter ,station1 on the main line of the ,santa ,fe ,railroad1 near the eastern border of ,san ,bernardino ,county1 ,california4 ,the ore is largely calcite and is low grade1 averaging probably from #a to #b per cent4 vanadic oxide4 ,a deposit of vanadinite in ,sierra ,county1 ,new ,mexico1 on the ,atchison1 ,topeka ,santa ,fe ,railroad1 was mined for a short period in #aiab and #aiac4 ,besides vanadium1 the veins contain galenite1 copper carbonates1 barite1 fluorite and other minerals4 ,the ore was treated at a mill close to the mine1 but the whole undertaking was unsuccessful1 probably because the ore was so low grade1 and because of metallurgical difficulties4 ,there are a number of other deposits of vanadinite in ,new ,mexico1 but none of them have been commercially developed in any way4 ,vanadinite is found in a considerable number of places in ,arizona1 frequently associated with wulfenite1 or lead molybdate4 ,indeed1 one of the difficulties of producing both vanadium and molybdenum from vanadinite and wulfenite is the fact that the two minerals are frequently so closely associated that1 because of the slight difference in specific gravity1 it is not easy to separate them by mechanical methods4 ,at the ,mammoth mine1 in ,arizona1 the upper levels are richer in vanadinite than in wulfenite1 but at the lower levels1 the reverse is true4 ,undoubtedly a considerable amount of vanadinite could be produced from this mine and others in the vicinity1 but it is doubtful whether it could be done at a profit1 even at a high price for vanadium4 ,the ,united ,states ,vanadium ,co4 has a mine #d miles from ,ray ,junction1 ,arizona1 and at the mine a small mill to concentrate the ore1 which is low grade1 and produces vanadium from the concentrates4 ,the amount of ore that can be obtained from this mine is somewhat doubtful4 ,this is the trouble with vanadinite as a whole2 it exists over a wide territory1 but the deposits are all low grade and apparently are not extensive in any one locality4 ,one of the most promising deposits1 as regards increased production of vanadium1 is at the ,shattuck mine1 ,bisbee1 ,arizona1 where a large vug1 or cavity1 is lined with a vanadium mineral1 probably cuprodescloizite4 ,the ore carries about #h to #aj per cent4 vanadic oxide1 in addition to copper and lead4 ,this seems to be one of the best opportunities for an increased production of vanadium in this country4 ,the ,golden1 ,colo41 station of the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,mines made a metallurgical study of the treatment of this ore4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v4--,geographical distribution of the vanadium deposits of the world4 ,the distribution of the vanadium deposits of the world is shown in ,plate ,v4 ,,position ,,of ,,leading ,,commercial ,,nations ,the ,united ,states is peculiarly fortunate as regards vanadium products1 for it is practically the only producer of vanadium in the world1 the ,peruvian deposits being under the control of an ,american company4 ,therefore1 ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,japan and other nations are forced to buy of ,american companies4 ,,developments ,,and ,,changes ,,in ,,known ,,geographical ,,distribution ,,in ,,the ,,near ,,future ,the larger part of the vanadium that has been used in this country has come from the mines of the ,american ,vanadium ,co4 in ,peru1 but the ,primos ,chemical ,co4 produced an amount of vanadium from its claims at ,newmire1 ,san ,miguel ,county1 ,colorado1 that at least tended to give some real competition to the ,american ,vanadium ,co4 ,as already stated1 these claims are not nearly as rich or productive as they were1 but they are probably good for several years more4 ,the ore from ,peru can be counted on probably for several years at something like the present output4 ,the same statement applies to carnotite ore1 and it is likely that the production of vanadium from carnotite may increase to some extent1 as the demand for radium is strong1 and there may be a consequent increase in the treatment of lower-grade carnotite4 ,as this low-grade material usually carries more vanadium1 the production of vanadium from this source may increase4 ,vanadinite may prove to be a source of vanadium1 although it is doubtful whether any large quantity can be produced from this mineral4 ,as already stated1 cuprodescloizite is probably the best source for an immediate increase in production4 ,as regards foreign countries other than ,peru1 ,russia is the only one likely to produce any appreciable amount of vanadium ores1 and undoubtedly no such production will be obtained until industrial conditions are more settled4 ,,political ,,and ,,commercial ,,control ,the ,american ,vanadium ,co4 holds its mines in ,peru through a concession from the ,peruvian government4 ,thus at least two-thirds of the vanadium production of the world is practically in the hands of the ,peruvian government1 although the company operating is ,american4 ,formerly the ,american ,vanadium ,co4 was the only producer of vanadium products and ferrovanadium in the world4 ,the price of vanadium was then somewhere around #e4jj per pound for the metallic vanadium content of the ferrovanadium4 ,later the ,primos ,chemical ,co4 came into the field1 and the ,american ,vanadium ,co4 cut the price4 ,on account of the large deposits of ore that the ,primos ,chemical ,co4 had in ,colorado1 the result was simply a lowering of the price of ferrovanadium4 ,undoubtedly1 if it were not for this competition the price of vanadium during that period would have been higher than it was1 and if it were not for the ,primos ,chemical ,co41 the ,american ,vanadium ,co4 would have had practically a monopoly of the whole vanadium production1 as the output from carnotite was not large enough to affect the market seriously4 ,as it was1 these two companies controlled more than #ij per cent4 of the ore supply1 and thus the recent change of ownership to the ,vanadium ,products ,corporation will enable the latter to fix the price1 as well as to regulate the consumption and thus prolong the availability of a useful metal which otherwise would be likely to soon become exhausted4 ,the principal vanadium deposits of ,chihuahua1 ,mexico1 are controlled by the ,madero estate 7,mexican74 ,this dominance of control of sources of supply has made control through ownership of reduction plants1 patents and secret processes of less importance4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,antimony ,,by ,h4 ,g4 ,,ferguson ,,and ,d4 ,a4 ,,hall ,,uses ,,of ,,antimony ,the following summary of the uses of antimony is taken from ,mineral ,resources of ,united ,states1 #aiah4ij #ij ,,bastin1 ,e4 ,s43 8,antimony in #aiah10 ,mineral ,resources of the ,united ,states1 #aiah4 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aiai4 ,peace uses4--,metallic antimony unalloyed has few industrial uses4 ,in the form of fine powder1 known as 8iron black10 it is used for producing the appearance of polished steel on articles made of papier-mach or pottery4 ,for these purposes it is precipitated by the action of metallic zinc in an acid solution of antimony salts4 ,antimony alloys readily with most heavy metals and the alloy is harder than the two pure metals4 ,most of these alloys possess the property of slight expansion on solidifying4 ,type metal is an alloy of antimony1 lead1 and tin2 babbitt1 anti-friction1 or bearing metal is usually an alloy of antimony1 tin1 and copper4 ,britannia metal1 also known as 8white metal10 is an alloy of antimony1 tin1 and copper1 with some zinc1 and1 rarely1 small quantities of other metals4 ,it is used in making cheap domestic tableware1 teapots1 and spoons4 ,antimony alloys find minor utilization in battery plates1 toys1 cable coverings1 and siphon tops4 ,lead-antimony alloy or hard lead is used in making acid-resisting valves4 ,white antimony oxide1 mainly the tetraoxide 7,sb,o71 is used for making opaque white enamel and other sanitary ware4 ,in this use antimony oxides compete with tin oxide4 ,antimony oxide1 mainly trioxide1 is used as a coloring agent in the manufacture of glass1 as it is more readily fusible than tetraoxide and does not impart opacity to the glass4 ,antimony oxides are further used as paint pigments4 ,the red sulphides of antimony are used in vulcanizing and coloring red rubber and also as paint pigments4 ,the natural antimony trisulphide1 stibnite1 enters into the composition of safety matches or of the compound that is put on the match box4 ,antimonate of lead containing an excess of lead oxide1 known as 8,naples yellow10 is used in oil paints and in the glass and ceramic industries4 ,the antimony salt1 tartar emetic 7double tartrate of antimony and potassium71 and antimony fluoride are employed as mordants in dyeing4 ,tartar emetic and antimony trioxide are employed medicinally4 ,war uses4--,antimonial lead carrying #ab to #ac per cent4 of antimony is employed in the manufacture of shrapnel bullets4 ,smaller quantities of liquated antimony sulphide are used in the primers of shells4 ,for this last purpose it is claimed the material must carry less than #b per cent4 of impurities insoluble in hydrochloric acid4 ,antimony sulphide as a powder is used in the charge of some shells to produce on explosion a white smoke which is of service in range finding4 ,during the war ,germany used antimony to some extent as a substitute for more important metals in the manufacture of currency1 but shortage of antimony itself did not allow this use to become important4 ,,geological ,,distribution ,the geological distribution of commercial antimony depends1 with a few exceptions1 upon the distribution of the principal ore mineral1 stibnite 7antimony sulphide74 ,cervantite1 sernarmontite and valentinite are antimony oxides resulting directly from the decomposition of stibnite near the surface1 and with other oxidized products form the chief ores of certain districts4 ,metallic antimony1 also a result of oxidation of the sulphides1 is rarely found1 and still more rarely is it an ore mineral4 ,jamesonite1 the sulphide of antimony and lead1 is of frequent occurrence and is the principal ore of one important deposit in ,mexico4 ,antimony is also recovered from the refining of antimonial lead4 ,stibnite occurs in quartz veins and related deposits4 ,many of the important antimony deposits of the world occur in more or less close genetic relationship with eruptives of ,tertiary age4 ,the ore often gives way to pyrite with depth4 ,a few important deposits occur in connection with intrusive rocks formed at considerable depth and are probably of contact metamorphic origin4 ,although there is a wide diversity in the forms of the deposits and the nature of enclosing rocks1 stibnite shows a distinct tendency to form replacements in limestone4 ,the chief gangue minerals are quartz and calcite4 ,of other sulphides pyrite is the commonest1 but cinnabar1 realgar1 chalcopyrite1 galena1 and sphalerite are often present as accessories4 ,a characteristic feature of stibnite deposits is the relative scarcity of other sulphides2 and it is equally true that important sulphide deposits of other metals rarely contain stibnite4 ,an exception to the general rule is cinnabar1 the sulphide of mercury1 which is a characteristic mineral of certain stibnite veins4 ,likewise stibnite is one of the minerals most frequently associated with cinnabar deposits4 ,several of the most important antimony districts owe their production of that metal to the presence of recoverable amounts of gold4 ,this is true of certain ,french1 ,hungarian1 ,australian1 and ,south ,african deposits4 ,,geographical ,,distribution1 ,,and ,,political ,,and ,,commercial ,,control ,although antimony has been produced at times from a great many localities in the world1 in only a few countries have deposits been developed to an important extent commercially4 ,under normal conditions of consumption the potential supply of antimony ore is far in excess of the demand4 ,consequently only those deposits that can be cheaply worked and are favorably situated with regard to markets1 or contain appreciable amounts of other minerals1 principally gold1 have been extensively exploited4 ,the antimony-producing countries of the world may be divided into three groups as follows3 #a4 ,chief producing countries in order of importance3 ,china1 ,france and ,algeria1 and ,mexico4 #b4 ,countries in which production is irregular in normal times but in which potential reserves are considerable1 and production becomes important at high-price levels3 ,the former ,austrian ,empire1 ,bolivia1 ,australia 7,victoria71 ,burma1 ,south ,africa1 ,italy1 ,spain1 and ,asia ,minor4 #c4 ,countries in which normal production is small and in which known reserves are probably less important3 ,united ,states and ,alaska1 ,canada1 ,peru1 ,germany1 ,turkey 7,asia ,minor71 ,serbia1 ,portugal1 ,borneo1 ,indo-,china1 and ,japan4 ,plate ,,vi shows the geographical distribution of the chief antimony deposits of the world4 ,the production statistics of the various countries are so little in accord that it is impossible to give more than a rough comparison between the important producers4 ,as nearly as can be estimated the output of antimony ore in #aiac1 the last year for which even approximately complete statistics are available1 amounted to about #bj1jjj metric tons of recoverable antimony4 ,the consumption is even more difficult to estimate1 as customs figures for different countries vary widely4 ,the following table shows the relative importance of the principal producing and consuming countries in terms of percentage of the world's output in #aiac3 ,,table #ca4--,,percentage ,,of ,,antimony ,,produced ,,and ,,consumed ---------------------------------------- - ,percentage,percentage of of ,country productionconsumption ---------------------------------------- - ,austria-,hungary #d #d ,france #bd #bj ,germany 7small7 #bj ,italy #b #b ,united ,kingdom #j #ab ,serbia #a #j ,asia ,minor #a #j ,japan #j #aj ,china #ea ,algiers #a #j ,united ,states #j #cb ,mexico #aa #j ,australia 7,victoria7 #d 7small7 ,all other #a 7small7 --- --- #ajj #ajj ---------------------------------------- - ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi4--,geographical distribution of the antimony deposits of the world4 ,by ,h4 ,g4 ,ferguson and ,d4 ,a4 ,hall4 ,in the following discussion of the world's antimony resources1 political control is largely indicated by the country headings1 under which are summarized the essential features of the commercial control of production1 by ownership of mines and reduction plants1 and by trading interests4 ,north ,america4 ,united ,states4--,antimony deposits occur in many places in the ,united ,states1 but during peace times the comparatively high costs of mining in this country do not permit competition with the ,chinese and ,mexican mines4 ,a small production of antimonial lead from domestic ores was made prior to the war and a small amount of antimony recovered as a by-product of lead refining1 but except for this the country was entirely dependent upon imported antimony4 ,high prices following the outbreak of the war brought a quick response in the production of antimony ores4 ,the mine production of antimony ore in #aiae was about #e1jjj short tons containing #b1ajj short tons of metal1 and in #aiaf was #d1ejj short tons containing about #a1ggj short tons of metal4 ,the lower prices of #aiag were reflected in the decreased output for that year1 amounting to #a1jfj short tons of ore containing #cij tons of metal4 ,the #aiah production was #aij tons1 containing about #ej tons of metal4 ,the chief producing states in order of importance were ,nevada1 ,california1 ,alaska1 ,washington1 ,oregon1 ,idaho1 and ,arkansas4 ,utah and ,arizona yielded insignificant amounts4 ,in ,nevada the ,sutherland mine1 in ,humboldt ,county1 was the principal producer4 ,in ,california1 the greater part of the output was from two mines in ,inyo and ,kern counties operated by the ,western ,metals ,co41 of ,los ,angeles1 the ore being shipped to ,san ,pedro1 near ,los ,angeles1 for smelting4 ,in ,washington the antimony was produced at the property of the ,gold ,creek ,antimony ,mining ,smelting ,co41 in ,okanogan ,county4 ,in ,oregon the ,jim ,dandy mine1 near ,baker ,city1 was the principal producer4 ,in ,arkansas one property in ,sevier ,county yielded a noteworthy output of ore in #aiaf and also a small quantity of metallic antimony at a local reduction plant4 ,in ,alaska the production was mainly from the ,fairbanks district1 the ore being shipped to ,los ,angeles and ,seattle for smelting4 ,the ownership of mines within the ,united ,states does not play an important part in the present control of the world's resources1 inasmuch as production under normal conditions is insignificant4 ,it is possible that with the development of new uses for antimony1 and a greater demand for that metal1 the reserves in this country may become of commercial importance4 ,about #dj per cent4 of the ,mexican antimony output is controlled in the ,united ,states4 ,an ,american-owned smelter was built during the war at ,san ,luis ,potosi4 ,ores from mines in this region have also been shipped to the ,western ,metals ,co4 at ,los ,angeles4 ,an ,american concern1 the ,antimony ,corporation1 owns a large deposit of jamesonite1 antimony-lead sulphide1 in ,mexico1 which constitutes an important reserve that has not yet been developed4 ,antimony deposits in northern ,mexico were worked by ,american capital during the war4 ,prior to the year #aiad only one company in the ,united ,states had attempted the smelting of antimony4 ,during the war considerable activity prevailed1 however1 and several companies undertook the smelting of foreign and domestic ores4 ,china1 ,bolivia1 and ,mexico were the principal sources of supply4 ,the success of all these enterprises has been only temporary1 as under normal conditions the high cost of production in this country prevents successful competition with ,chinese and ,japanese metal4 ,american smelting interests exert little control on the antimony of the world at present1 and can not be expected to do so in the immediate future4 ,the smelter capacity of the country is estimated at #f1jjj to #g1jjj tons of metal per annum1 all of which is now idle4 ,one company1 the ,antimony ,compounds ,co4 of ,america1 is closely connected with a ,french company1 ,la ,lucette4 ,canada4--,antimony production in ,canada has been extremely irregular4 ,during periods of high prices a considerable output was obtained1 the years of maximum production being #ahih1 with shipments of #a1cdd short tons of ore1 and #aijg1 with #b1jaf short tons4 ,mining ceased in #aiaj and was not resumed until #aiae4 ,in #aiae1 #a1cda tons of #dj per cent4 7metal content7 ore were produced2 in #aiaf1 #hhe tons of #db per cent4 ore2 and #cfa tons in #aiag4 ,the principal producing district is at ,west ,gore1 ,nova ,scotia1 where the ore in addition to its antimony content has a tenor of #b to #d ounces of gold per ton4 ,other regions that have produced antimony ore are ,new ,brunswick 7,york ,county71 ,british ,columbia1 ,quebec1 and ,yukon ,territory4 ,in ,british ,columbia 7,slocan ,district7 and ,yukon ,territory 7,chieftain ,hills7 antimonial lead ores are also worked4 ,the ,nova ,scotia ores1 which furnished the bulk of the production1 have been exported to ,england since #aiae2 the earlier production went to ,germany4 ,the small production of refined antimony came chiefly as a by-product of lead refining at the smelter of the ,consolidated ,mining ,smelting ,co41 at ,trail1 ,b4 ,c42 a small amount of antimony was also smelted from antimony ores by the ,new ,brunswick ,metals1 ,ltd4 7formerly the ,canadian ,antimony ,co47 at ,lake ,george1 ,n4 ,b4 ,canada appears to be in about the same position as the ,united ,states with reference to antimony mining4 ,high prices1 continued over a long period1 will bring out a considerable production1 but no output is to be expected at peace-time prices4 ,mexico4--,antimony deposits exist in many parts of ,mexico and there has been a considerable production for many years4 ,as in other countries1 the output increased largely during #aiae and #aiaf4 ,the production of metallic antimony for #aiag is reported as #b1ada metric tons4 ,in #aiad there were exported to ,england #a1edc long tons of crude antimony and regulus2 there were no exports to ,england in #aiah1 but #a1ddi short tons of ore and #b1ffj of metal were shipped to the ,united ,states4 ,the principal mines are in the ,sierra ,catorce1 in the states of ,san ,luis ,potosi and ,queretaro4 ,the ores are mixed sulphides and oxides and carry #e to #ej per cent4 antimony4 ,a smelter with an annual capacity of #f1jjj tons of metal was built at ,wadley in #aijj1 and most of the production formerly went to ,england1 but since #aiae has been marketed in the ,united ,states4 ,the smelter and most important mines are owned by ,cookson's1 of ,england1 through a subsidiary1 the ,republican ,mining ,metal ,co4 ,american interests own other properties in the same region1 and during the war a smelter was constructed at ,san ,luis ,potosi by the ,international ,mining ,metal ,co4 ,in western ,sonora1 near the ,gulf of ,california1 there are deposits of oxidized ores that furnished a considerable part of the ore imported into the ,united ,states4 ,these are owned by ,american capital4 ,a large deposit of lead-antimony ore 7jamesonite7 at ,zimapan1 ,hidalgo1 owned by ,the ,antimony ,corporation1 an ,american firm1 has not yet reached the producing stage4 ,other deposits of possible importance are known in the states of ,guerrero1 ,durango1 ,sonora1 ,mexico1 ,baja ,california1 and elsewhere4 ,political disturbances during the last few years have prevented an output of antimony commensurate with the probable capacity of the deposits4 ,production will probably be maintained in the future1 even during periods of low prices4 ,south ,america4 ,bolivia4--,the output of ,bolivia was negligible before the war1 but under the stimulus of high prices large amounts of high-grade ore were produced in #aiae and #aiaf4 ,this ore was shipped principally to ,england1 until an embargo was placed on ,bolivian ore in #aiah4 ,the ore is high grade1 that shipped averaging over #ej per cent4 antimony1 but the veins are small and become unproductive at shallow depth4 ,it is possible that the known deposits have been largely exhausted2 and although demand as strong as that of #aiaf might result in new discoveries of importance1 it is not likely that ,bolivia can be an important producer when prices are under normal conditions4 ,exports of ore amounted to #ag1ibc metric tons in #aiae 7as against #ahf in #aiad72 to #bb1gdh tons in #aiaf2 and to #ah1cdj tons in #aiag2 but in #aiah1 for reasons given above1 shipments dropped to #c1jgj tons4 ,from #ge to #ij per cent4 of the ore went to ,england1 and most of the remainder to the ,united ,states1 except for about a thousand tons a year to ,france4 ,peru4--,during the antimony boom of #aijf-aijg a small amount of antimony was produced in ,peru4 ,no further production was made until #aiae1 when #ebb tons of high-grade ore was mined4 ,in #aiaf the production rose to #a1hgf tons of #fj per cent4 ore4 ,the #aiag production was #ijb tons4 ,although deposits are known in many parts of the republic1 over #ij per cent4 of the production has come from the department of ,puno1 in southern ,peru4 ,up to the present1 profitable mining has been possible only during periods of high prices1 but the deposits are said to be extensive1 and it is possible that improved transportation facilities would result in some production under normal conditions4 ,europe4 ,austria-,hungary4--,the most important antimony deposits of the old ,austrian ,empire are those of ,hungary and ,bohemia4 ,others of minor importance are in ,carniola1 in ,austria4 ,the ,hungarian deposits in #aiac furnished #aa1jag tons of ore containing #a1jch tons of metal2 for the rest of ,austria the output was #a1bgj tons of ore1 but only #hi tons of metal4 ,the low antimony content of the ,hungarian deposits is compensated by the gold content1 and these deposits have produced much more regularly than those of the other parts of the empire4 ,so far as known the reserves are fairly large1 but production can hardly be expected to increase greatly4 ,the productive capacity of both the ,hungarian and ,bohemian deposits is probably enough to supply local needs in normal times1 and allow a surplus for export when economic conditions are favorable4 ,prior to the war1 exports of regulus went to ,germany and small amounts of ore were exported to ,france and ,england4 ,during the war the ,central ,empires probably depended largely on the ,austro-,hungarian deposits for their antimony supplies4 ,all mines were worked by the government4 ,it is known that certain mines that had been abandoned resumed operations4 ,france4--,france is the most important antimony-producing country in ,europe and also controls important productive deposits in ,algiers and ,indo-,china4 ,the ,french deposits are numerous but for the most part small4 ,the most important of these is ,la ,lucette1 in ,mayenne1 where stibnite associated with auriferous pyrite has been mined for many years4 ,this deposit was considered to be approaching exhaustion1 but recent work is reported to have developed new ore bodies4 ,the ,la ,lucette company has recently extended its holdings in other parts of ,france1 has bought properties in ,algiers and the ,transvaal1 and in #aiaa leased a smelter at ,barcelona for the treatment of ores purchased abroad4 ,the ,la ,lucette company is also to some degree associated with the ,american firm of ,antimony ,compounds ,co4 of ,america4 ,undeveloped deposits are known in ,tunis1 ,morocco1 ,french ,guinea1 and ,madagascar4 ,french control of foreign supplies is not of great importance4 ,in addition to its holdings in the ,transvaal1 the ,la ,lucette company purchases some foreign ores4 ,in #aiac1 #d1ddj tons of antimony ore was imported from ,china1 and #bje tons from ,turkey4 ,foreign control of ,french deposits is limited to a few companies4 ,an ,italian company1 ,minire ,fonderie d',antimonio1 owns concessions in ,france and ,corsica1 from which the production before the war was about #c1ejj tons of ore per year4 ,the great ,belgian smelting company1 ,socit de la ,vieille ,montagne1 owns the most productive ,algerian deposit--the ,hamman ,n' ,bails mine2 and an unimportant ,algerian mine was1 prior to the war1 owned by ,beer1 ,sondheimer ,co41 a ,german firm4 ,in #aiac1 ,france produced #bj1hgb metric tons of ore carrying about #cb per cent4 metal content4 ,the smelter output in #aiac was #f1cij tons of regulus and oxide4 ,france is normally an exporter of metallic antimony1 the average annual exports during the period of #aiaj-aiad amounting to about #b1jjj metric tons4 ,the principal purchasers were ,united ,states1 ,germany1 ,italy1 ,netherlands1 and ,russia4 ,according to recent information1 the surplus production of antimony in ,france is now so large that the industry can hardly continue to exist on a paying basis unless the producers come to an understanding among themselves4 ,it is clear1 however1 that to be effective1 any agreement among ,french producers must be either backed by a high protective tariff or must be extended to include their principal foreign competitors4 ,germany4--,in ,germany the antimony output is too small to affect appreciably the world's market1 but a few localities have possibilities of production when the price of antimony is sufficiently high4 ,one plant in the ,eifel district in #aiae was producing #be to #cj tons of regulus and #fj to #gj tons of oxide a month4 ,there was1 however1 a production of antimonial lead from the smelters that may amount to #a1jjj tons or more of antimony a year4 ,this is derived in part from ,german ores1 especially the lead-zinc ores1 and in part from ores of foreign origin4 ,germany's interest in the antimony market is chiefly that of the smelter and middle man4 ,average annual imports1 #aiaj-aiac1 were as follows3 ,ore1 #c1ffh tons2 metal1 #c1cih2 salts1 #ffh4 ,the exports averaged1 ore1 #eff tons2 metal1 #cca2 salts1 #a1bbf4 ,the principal purchasers of metal were the ,united ,states and ,russia2 and of salts ,russia and ,england4 ,german interest in foreign deposits was not extensive4 ,the ,metallgesellschaft seems to have had some connection with an ,italian company1 the ,minire ,fonderie d',antimonio1 owning mines in ,italy and ,france1 and ,beer1 ,sondheimer ,co4 was recorded as the owner of one ,algerian mine4 ,great ,britain4--,although deposits were formerly worked in ,cornwall1 ,devon1 and elsewhere1 no antimony has been mined in ,england since #ahib1 but before the war ,england was the chief smelting center of the world1 and several brands of ,british antimony1 such as ,cookson's and ,hallett's1 had a world-wide reputation4 ,deposits of considerable importance exist in many of the ,british possessions4 ,cookson ,co41 of ,newcastle1 control mines in the ,catorce district1 ,san ,luis ,potosi1 ,mexico1 and operate a smelter1 the output from which was shipped to ,england for further refining until #aiae1 when the supply was in large part diverted to the ,united ,states4 ,england1 through her smelting interests1 has played an important part in the antimony trade of the world4 ,seven smelters in ,england refine ore and crude metals that come chiefly from ,china1 but also from ,mexico1 ,australia1 and ,hungary1 and1 during the war1 in large quantities from ,bolivia and ,spain4 ,the better ,british brands have been considered more pure than other grades1 and before the war virtually monopolized ,american markets4 ,british trading interests have exerted important control both in securing raw material for ,british smelters and in obtaining markets for ,british metal4 ,until #aiad the ,chinese ,eastern ,antimony ,co41 a subsidiary of ,cookson ,co41 held contracts for the production of the ,wah ,chang ,mining ,smelting ,co41 the most important antimony producers in ,china4 ,in #aiad1 the ,wah ,chang ,co4 established an independent selling agency in the ,united ,states4 ,during the great demand for antimony in #aiae and #aiaf1 ,british interests secured the greater proportion of the output of ,bolivian mines and completely controlled the industry of that country4 ,italy4--,italy is the third important antimony producer of ,europe4 ,the principal deposits are those in the southern part of the island of ,sardinia4 ,during the war1 however1 the ,tuscan deposits were reopened and there has been also a small production from ,sicily4 ,the grade of the ore is low1 probably on the average less than #be per cent41 and the production1 which was #g1fji tons of ore in #aijj1 had fallen in #aiac to #a1hbb tons4 ,war conditions stimulated the industry1 and in #aiae1 #aiaf1 and #aiag the production averaged over #e1jjj tons annually1 although the imports of metallic antimony also increased1 being as follows3 #aia tons in #aiad2 #hbe in #aiae2 #aee in #aiaf2 and #a1bdg in #aiag4 ,the low metallic content of the ore1 together with the fact that in the ,sardinia deposits the calcite gangue makes recovery more difficult1 renders it probable that under peace-time conditions and prices1 ,italy will not become an important factor in the world's antimony production4 ,the chief producing company1 ,minire ,fonderie d',antimonio1 was1 prior to the war1 closely connected with the ,german ,metallgesellschaft1 and the richest ,sardinian ore went to ,germany for smelting4 ,besides mines in ,italy1 this company owned several productive deposits in ,france4 ,portugal4--,a small amount of antimony ore1 #ajj tons in #aiab and #ai tons in #aiac1 is produced in ,portugal4 ,exports in #aiaf exceeded #d1jjj tons4 ,russia4--,antimony and argentiferous lead-antimony deposits are known in the ,urals and were under development in #aiab4 ,antimony deposits also occur in the ,amur province and in many localities in ,siberia4 ,in #aiae1 #fg tons of regulus was imported into ,england from ,russia4 ,possibly1 however1 this represents an overland shipment of ,chinese material4 ,serbia4--,serbia contains several antimony deposits of considerable promise4 ,the production1 however1 has been small4 ,no data are available since #aiab4 ,the output of regulus and oxide1 which amounted to #d1gbe metric tons in #aijd1 had decreased to #big metric tons in #aiab4 ,the greater part of the product was formerly shipped to the ,united ,states4 ,plants at two of the mines are capable of a considerable output should conditions warrant it4 ,it seems unlikely1 however1 that the ,serbian deposits will play an important part in determining the control of the world's production4 ,spain4--,antimony deposits are known in many localities in ,spain4 ,most of these are irregular and have been repeatedly worked and abandoned4 ,a few1 however1 offer some promise of a continued output4 ,the annual production has scarcely exceeded #ejj metric tons of ore1 even under the stimulus of war conditions 7#eaf tons in #aiaf1 and #ejb tons in #aiag74 ,the smelter production in #aiaf was #dbe tons4 ,shortly after the outbreak of the war there were three smelters1 the most important being operated by the ,french company1 ,la ,lucette4 ,before the war ,spain imported annually #hjj tons of antimony ore from ,france1 and over #ajj tons of salts of antimony was exported annually to ,germany4 ,asia4 ,borneo4--,british ,borneo was formerly a producer of considerable importance1 and much ore was exported between #ahei and #ahid1 mainly to ,england4 ,the deposits then remained idle until #aiad1 when #hgj tons of ore was exported2 in #aiae the exports amounted to about #cfj tons4 ,it is probable that no important output at peace-time prices is to be expected1 although the country is largely unexplored4 ,the ,borneo company 7,british7 seems to have been the principal if not the only producer4 ,china4--,with all her vast mineral resources ,china has been able to obtain an important position in the world's markets with regard to but few metals4 ,of these antimony is the most striking example1 for since #aijh over #ej per cent4 of the world's total antimony production has come from ,china4 ,in #aiac the output was estimated to be the equivalent of #aj1hjj tons of metallic antimony1 that of the whole world being about #bj1jjj tons4 ,the ,chinese industry being well-established1 it was able to respond rapidly to the great demand of the war4 ,exports increased from #ad1cfa short tons of regulus and crude antimony1 and #d1gie tons of ore1 in #aiac1 to #ch1adb tons and #h1ffg tons1 respectively1 in #aiag4 ,antimony is found over widely scattered areas in the central and southern provinces1 but chiefly in the provinces of ,hunan1 ,yunnan1 ,kweichow and ,kwangsi4 ,in ,hunan the deposits have been most extensively exploited1 probably #ij per cent4 of the total production of ,china coming from the region about ,changsha1 the center of the smelting industry4 ,here1 in the ,hai-,keng-,shan district1 in #aiae about #gj companies mined antimony along the outcrop of the deposits4 ,the ore1 remarkable for its purity1 occurs as pockets and bunches1 mainly of stibnite1 in a flat bed of dolomitic limestone4 ,several local smelters produce liquated sulphide1 and the output of the district is about #a1jjj tons monthly of crude antimony averaging about #gj per cent4 metallic antimony4 ,all regulus manufacture is controlled by the ,wah ,chang ,co4 ,in the ,panshi district the ore occurs as fissure veins in slates1 shales1 and quartzites4 ,the output consists of about #djj tons monthly of #cj per cent4 ore1 all of which is shipped to ,wah ,chang ,co4 at ,changsha for treatment4 ,the only district in ,yunnan where antimony is dealt with commercially is near ,chihtsun on the ,tongking-,yunnan ,railroad4 ,the ,pao ,hua ,co41 connected with the ,wah ,chang ,co41 owns a ,french-constructed plant and produces high-grade regulus4 ,the ,wah ,chang ,mining ,smelting ,co4 virtually controls the production of antimony ore1 regulus1 and crude in the ,province of ,hunan4 ,this company operates smelters in ,changsha and owns low-grade mines4 ,it possesses a complete monopoly1 granted by the ,peking government1 for the manufacture of regulus in ,hunan and owns the patent rights in ,china for the ,herrenschmidt furnace1 the most successful means of reducing low-grade antimony ores4 ,the mines themselves are mostly native-owned1 and worked in a small way4 ,prior to the war1 exports of ,chinese antimony were chiefly in the hands of ,english1 ,french1 and a few ,german firms4 ,the ,new ,chinese ,antimony ,co4 7also known as the ,chinese ,eastern ,antimony ,co47 a subsidiary of ,cookson ,co41 of ,england1 held a contract for the entire output of the ,wah ,chang ,co4 ,this contract was broken shortly after the war began1 although the ,wah ,chang ,co4 paid a percentage on all sales to the ,new ,chinese ,antimony ,co4 for a year thereafter4 ,the ,wah ,chang ,trading ,co4 was organized as a direct selling agency in ,new ,york1 and has established a large business in this country4 ,with present high scale of wages for labor1 and prices for material1 it is difficult to see how this country can compete with ,china in the production of antimony4 ,adverse exchange conditions due to the high price of silver have probably nearly doubled the cost of production in ,china and wages in that country have advanced4 ,in spite of this1 however1 ,china can manufacture antimony far more cheaply than is possible in ,europe or ,america2 and probably1 also1 more cheaply than in ,japan4 ,chinese antimony suffered from lack of advertising before the war1 being largely excluded from this country by the ,british metal1 but has now become firmly established in our markets1 and its quality has proved equal to the best ,english grades4 ,india4--,since the war1 small amounts of antimony have been produced in ,burma and ,mysore4 ,the total ,indian ore production was #a1jdj tons in #aiaf and #acj tons in #aiag4 ,the most productive region was the ,amherst district of ,burma4 ,here the ore reserves are said to be considerable1 but the inaccessibility of the district has made production impossible except at high prices4 ,the production from ,mysore was only #bf tons in #aiaf4 ,indo-,china4--,there are productive deposits of possible future importance in ,french ,indo-,china4 ,in #aiaf these produced #a1dcg tons of antimony ore with a metal content of #fdb tons4 ,smelters were operated by the firm of ,schn ,rhay1 and both native and ,chinese ore was treated4 ,in #aiad and #aiae1 #hhc and #fcj tons of antimony ore were exported to ,france4 ,japan4--,very little antimony ore has been produced in ,japan since the development of the ,chinese deposits1 although1 as in most other countries1 there was a renewed development during the war4 ,the smelting of ,chinese ores in ,japan has become extremely important2 and the smelter production1 which was only #cb tons in #aiad1 rose to #h1ahi tons in #aiae1 and to #aj1fcc tons in #aiaf4 ,it was #f1efb tons in #aiag4 ,the production of metal and crude from domestic ores was only #ahf tons in #aiae and #bhf tons in #aiaf4 ,it is probable that as long as cheap ore is available in ,china little production from ,japanese deposits is to be expected4 ,japanese ownership in ,chinese mines is probably small1 as practically all ,chinese antimony bought by ,japan has been purchased in the open market in the form of crude and ore4 ,since #aiad ,japan has played an important part in the smelting of ,chinese ore and matte1 and in this regard has ranked second only to ,china4 ,prior to that time1 however1 production was insignificant4 ,china is now in a position to supply direct the major part of the world's requirement of metal1 having largely extended her facilities for treating antimony ores1 and it is doubtful whether ,japanese smelters will long be able to compete successfully4 ,turkey4--,the antimony production of the ,turkish ,empire comes from ,eastern ,asia ,minor in the vilayets of ,brussa and ,smyrna4 ,the productive district of ,allchar1 formerly in ,european ,turkey1 passed to ,serbia after the last ,balkan ,war4 ,the deposits seem to be rich and capable of greater development4 ,bad government1 lack of transportation facilities1 and excessive export duties seem to have retarded production4 ,some mines were the property of the ,sultan1 and development was hindered by excessive royalties4 ,most of the mines seem to be owned or leased by ,greeks4 ,deposits of antimony ores associated with argentiferous lead ores are reported in the vicinity of ,karahissar1 in ,armenia4 ,in #aiad the concession for these was held by the ,asia ,minor ,mining ,co41 presumably a ,british corporation4 ,undeveloped deposits of possible importance occur in the islands of ,mytelene and ,chios1 now in ,greek ownership4 ,little information is available as regards production4 ,in #aiaa the ,djinli ,kaya mine produced #a1ejj tons of #ej per cent4 ore4 ,the #aiab production of ,asia ,minor is reported as #fgg tons of ore4 ,exports of antimony ore from ,turkey to ,great ,britain were as follows3 #aiaj1 #cjc 7metric7 tons2 #aiaa1 #ggc tons2 #aiab1 #a1ajh tons2 and in #aiac1 #djh tons4 ,some ore was also shipped to ,austria1 and1 in #aiac1 #bje tons went to ,france4 ,it seems probable that1 given good government and improved transportation facilities1 an increased production could be obtained from the region even at peace-time prices1 for according to the best available information the deposits are large and much of the ore is high grade4 ,africa4 ,algiers4--,the ,algerian deposits are probably capable of considerable development1 as is shown by the response to the increased demand in #aiae and #aiaf4 ,the ores are nearly all oxidized and contain various rare antimony minerals4 ,prior to the war the chief production consisted of antimonate of iron1 mined together with lead and zinc ores at ,hamman ,n' ,bails4 ,during the war large deposits of oxides were developed and were supplying antimony at the rate of #cjj tons per month during the early part of #aiah4 ,in #aiab1 there was produced #d1ffa tons of ore2 in #aiac1 #ehb tons2 in #aiad1 #a1ajj tons2 in #aiae1 #i1jbb tons1 and in #aiaf1 #bh1dgc tons4 ,apparently the ore produced carries around #dj per cent4 antimony 7metallic content74 ,the mine of ,hamman ,n' ,bails is owned by the great ,belgian smelting company1 the ,socit de la ,vieille ,montagne2 and the ,la ,lucette company 7,french7 owns the productive ,ain ,kerma oxide deposits4 ,prior to the war1 the ,german firm of ,beer1 ,sondheimer ,co4 was listed as the owner of one of the less important mines4 ,british ,south ,africa4--,several antimony deposits are known in ,british ,south ,africa1 seemingly the most promising being those of the ,murchison ,range in the northern ,transvaal4 ,here auriferous stibnite occurs as veins and replacements in limestone over a considerable area4 ,the ore as mined carries #c to #f dwt4 gold and #g to #aj per cent4 antimony4 ,sales and shipments of concentrated and crude antimony were as follows3 #aiac1 #dh tons2 #aiad1 nothing2 #aiae1 #ia tons2 #aiaf1 #gbb tons2 and #aiag1 #fag tons4 ,the principal mine of the range1 the ,united ,jack1 was purchased in #aiag by the ,la ,lucette company 7,french74 ,in #aiaf there were four producing mines in the district4 ,the antimony deposits of the ,steynsdorp district1 near the ,swaziland border1 were under development in #aiaf1 and antimony deposits are known in the ,forbes ,reef district in ,swaziland4 ,antimony ores are found over a considerable part of southern ,rhodesia1 and this district would probably be capable of a considerable output with better transportation facilities and continued high prices4 ,ore production in #aiaf and #aiag was #ch and #ae tons4 ,some of the mines1 such as the ,hope ,fountain1 near ,bulawayo1 are chiefly gold producers1 antimony being a by-product4 ,australia4--,the only antimony-producing district of any importance in ,australia is the ,costerfield district of ,victoria4 ,here stibnite and antimony oxides occur in quartz veins cutting ,ordovician slates4 ,the antimony concentrates1 which average about #dh per cent4 antimony1 and also contain about #b ounces of gold per ton1 are shipped to ,england4 ,the annual production is rather regularly #b1ejj to #c1jjj tons of concentrates4 ,,table #cb4--,,world',s ,,production ,,of ,,antimony 7#aiab-aiag7 ,approximate recoverable metal content of ore produced1 metric tons2 antimonial lead ores not included ---------------------------------------- ------------- #aiab #aiac #aiad #aiae ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,united ,states #j #j #j #a1gfj ,canada #j #j #j #dbj ,mexico #c1ejj #b1cdj #a1egj #bjjia ,bolivia #dj #cj #gj #g1agj ,peru #j #j #j #bfj ,austria-,hungary #a1cej #hdj #ib #ib ,germany #j #j #ib #gjj #ia ,france #b1bij #e1agj #ib #ib ,italy #caj #cfj #aaj #gbj ,spain #agj #j #j #ajj ,portugal #dj #aj #ib #ib ,serbia #cjj #bejia #ib #ib ,algiers #idj #ahj #cbj #b1gdj ,british ,s4 ,africa #j #cj #j #ej ,china #aj1hjjaa1jjj #ae1ijj #aj1ejj ,japan #gj #bj #cj #ahj ,india #j #j #j #j ,indo-,china #aaj #j #j #afj ,borneo #j #j #cjj #abj ,asia ,minor #bgj #bdj #ib #ib ,victoria #ehj #ifj #hij #a1cjj ,new ,south ,wales #cj #aj #bj #cbj ,queensland #j #j #j #hj ,west ,australia #j #j #j #j ------------------------------------ ,total #bj1hjjba1ddj #bd1djjicce1djjic ---------------------------------------- ------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,principal financial #aiaf #aiag control ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,united ,states #a1dbj #caj ,united ,states ,canada #cjj #abj ,great ,britain ,mexico #dejia #b1gcj ,great ,britain and ,united ,states ,bolivia #i1ajj #g1cdj ,great ,britain ,peru #icj #dej ,peru ,austria-,hungary #ib #ib;,hungary ,germany #ib #ib;,germany ,france #ib #ib;,france ,italy #a1jhj #ifj ,italy ,spain #agj #afj ,france ,portugal #a1jjj #ib8 #ia ,serbia #ib #ib8 ,algiers #h1idj #ib;,france ,british ,s4 ,africa #chj #cjj ,great ,britain and ,france ,china #db1hjj #ca1jjj ,china 7,japan71 ,great ,britain8 ,japan #bhj #ib;,japan ,india #djj #ej ,great ,britain ,indo-,china #eaj #ib;,great ,britain ,borneo #ib #ib;,great ,britain ,asia ,minor #ib #ib,turkey 7,greece7 ,victoria #a1cbj #ib;,great ,britain ,new ,south ,wales #caj #aej ,great ,britain ,queensland #hj #ib;,great ,britain ,west ,australia #bj #aj ,great ,britain ---------------------------------------- --------- ,total #gh1gjjiced1cjjic ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #ia ,incomplete data2 actual production probably larger4 #ib ,no data4 #ic ,totals for years #aiad-aiag include estimates of production of countries from which data are lacking4 ,the ,hillgrove district1 in ,new ,south ,wales1 was formerly of considerable importance1 the highest annual output being #b1dej tons of ore in #aijf4 ,recent production has been slight1 and although a very large increase took place with the stimulus of war prices1 the #aiag production was valued at only about #e per cent4 of that of ,victoria4 ,insignificant amounts of antimony ore have recently been produced in ,queensland and ,western ,australia4 ,new ,zealand yielded a small amount during the boom of #aijf and #aijg1 but no production is recorded since #aiaj4 ,imports of antimony ore into ,great ,britain from ,australia in #aiae amounted to #c1hed tons4 ,statistics of production 7#aiab-aiag7 are given in the table preceding4 ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,leading ,,commercial ,,nations ,the ,united ,states4--,the ,united ,states is the largest consumer of antimony in the world1 requiring under normal conditions between #g1jjj and #h1jjj tons of new metal1 most of which1 before the war1 came from ,england4 ,the consumption during the war was about double this amount1 and was derived chiefly from the ,orient1 ,south ,america1 and ,mexico4 ,the ,united ,states must remain dependent upon foreign sources for its supply1 unless a much higher tariff is placed upon imports4 ,even under such conditions it is doubtful whether domestic mines would prove adequate to supply more than a small part of the country's needs4 ,chinese and ,japanese antimony has largely replaced the ,british product since #aiad and has become so well established that it will probably continue to hold ,american markets4 ,chinese antimony in particular has shown itself equal in every way to the best ,british grades4 ,with a somewhat higher level of prices the importation of ore from ,mexico and ,south ,america may be undertaken by reducing plants in this country1 as the experience gained by several companies during the war has made possible the production of high-grade metal4 ,england4--,no figures as to the actual consumption of antimony in ,england are available4 ,judged from a balance of imports and exports1 the normal consumption is about #d1ejj tons annually4 ,during the war consumption was enormously increased for the manufacture of munitions4 ,english smelters are entirely dependent on foreign ores1 most of which in the past have come from ,china1 with smaller amounts from ,mexico and ,australia4 ,the position of the industry1 at least in so far as export trade is concerned1 is threatened by the strong position of the ,chinese industry acquired during the war1 as represented particularly by the activities of the ,wah ,chang ,mining ,smelting ,co4 ,two-thirds of the ,english antimony exports went to the ,united ,states before #aiad4 ,it does not seem probable that ,england will be able to fully recover this market1 now dominated completely by ,chinese and ,japanese antimony4 ,france4--,france is the only world power that possesses important resources of antimony within her boundaries4 ,including her ,algerian mines1 she is entirely independent of outside supply4 ,inasmuch as certain of the ,french deposits contain important amounts of gold1 and the principal ,algerian mine contains lead and zinc1 the production of antimony in ,france will probably continue to be of some importance1 and it is probable that she will continue to export antimony as before the war1 though probably to a less extent4 ,germany4--,germany1 prior to #aiad1 consumed about #bj per cent4 of the world's annual output of antimony4 ,her own resources of antimony are insignificant1 and ,german interests in foreign deposits have not been widely extended but were rather those of smelter and middleman1 raw material being drawn chiefly from ,china1 and metal and salts being exported to the ,united ,states1 ,russia and ,great ,britain4 ,during the war ,germany drew largely upon ,hungary for antimony supply1 but it is known that this source could not adequately meet the demand4 ,japan4--,japan's actual consumption of antimony has never been large and before the war was confined largely to the production of 8white metal0 boxes1 trays1 and other articles4 ,during the war her importance in the antimony trade rested upon her ability to supply a large part of the needs of the ,allies1 principally ,russia1 and later the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,how long after the war she will be able to retain her position is uncertain4 ,favorable freight rates to ,japanese shippers1 and the fact that the present high price of silver and the consequent exchange conditions affect adversely ,chinese production may enable ,japan to continue a factor in the antimony trade4 ,,recent ,,conditions ,,in ,,the ,,industry ,owing to the very high prices prevailing for antimony during #aiae and #aiaf1 caused by a greatly increased demand for antimony for the manufacture of munitions1 several countries became large producers4 ,the most important among these were ,bolivia1 ,mexico1 and ,algeria1 but ,victoria and the ,united ,states1 ,peru1 ,burma1 and ,spain all contributed substantial amounts4 ,with the possible exception of ,algeria--whose principal mines yield considerable lead and zinc and are situated near to ,french reduction plants--and of ,mexico1 none of these countries will be important factors in the production of antimony at the usual low prices prevailing for that metal4 ,the sudden ending of the war found the belligerents with large stocks of antimony on hand1 the ,english holding1 according to figures published by the ,british ,ministry of ,munitions on ,march #a1 #aiai1 #d1cbe long tons of regulus4 ,there is reason to believe that the other ,allies had stocks of the same order of magnitude1 and if so there must have been about a year's supply available on ,april #a1 #aiai1 as the #aiac consumption of antimony amounted to only about #bj1jjj tons4 ,in addition there were large supplies of alloys and antimonial lead available and more will undoubtedly be obtained by salvage operations4 ,it may be expected1 therefore1 that until these are absorbed the production of antimony will be even less than that of pre-war years4 ,at present there is little inducement for mining4 ,costs of mining have increased everywhere4 ,china1 the largest producer1 faces a particularly difficult situation1 for the higher price of silver has resulted in doubling costs of labor and local supplies4 ,if silver prices remain high after the demand for primary antimony has recovered1 the other antimony-producing countries1 not on a silver basis1 will have a corresponding advantage over ,china in the matter of production4 ,,summary ,the peace-time consumption of antimony is limited rather by the relatively restricted uses to which antimony is put than by any lack of potential supply4 ,as a consequence1 steady production has been maintained only from those districts in which working expenses are low and markets readily available1 or in which the deposits contain other metals of value4 ,modern warfare1 however1 creates a special use for antimony--in the manufacture of shrapnel--which requires many times the amount of antimony necessary for ordinary peace uses4 ,in the case of each of the three important wars of the last twenty years1 the ,boer ,war1 the ,russo-,japanese ,war and the ,great ,war1 the curves of antimony prices and production have risen sharply in accordance with the demand1 and have fallen as rapidly after the need for munitions was past4 ,china has for long been the most important source of antimony and will doubtless retain that position for many years4 ,steady though less important production has been maintained in ,france1 ,austria-,hungary and ,mexico1 while several other countries produced important amounts as a result of the largely increased demands of the war4 ,chief among these were ,bolivia1 ,algeria1 and ,australia4 ,england dominated the antimony market prior to #aiad through her large smelting interest1 trade agreements in the ,orient1 and selling agencies in ,america--the principal consuming country4 ,since that time1 however1 ,chinese interests have become independent1 and ,japan has become of importance in the antimony smelting and trading field4 ,the ,united ,states possesses limited antimony resources which can be exploited only at very high prices1 and is dependent almost entirely upon outside sources of supply4 ,in the past this supply has been drawn largely from ,england1 but more recently from the ,orient and ,mexico4 ,germany has insignificant antimony resources of her own1 and depended for her supply during the war upon the ,hungarian deposits1 which were apparently inadequate to meet the demands4 ,her interests prior to the war were chiefly those of the smelter and middleman1 and did not extend very largely to foreign deposits4 ,the ,united ,states1 ,france1 ,germany and ,great ,britain normally consume #he per cent4 of the antimony of the world1 and of these ,france alone is independent of foreign sources of supply4 ,the antimony trade of the world is largely controlled by a few companies1 of which the most important are3 ,cookson's 7,british71 ,wah ,chang ,co4 7,chinese71 and ,socit de ,la ,lucette 7,french74 ,the ,mitsui ,co4 7,japanese71 largely through shipping interests1 has a considerable share in the ,chinese and ,japanese antimony trade4 ,,chapter ,x ,,molybdenum ,,by ,r4 ,b4 ,,moore ,,uses ,,of ,,molybdenum ,molybdenum is used in the manufacture of ferro-alloys for making steel4 ,as wire1 it is used for supporting the filament in incandescent electric lamps4 ,the wire is also employed for winding electric resistance furnaces and for this use has proved cheaper and better than platinum because of the quicker heating and higher temperatures attainable4 ,the metal has been successfully substituted for platinum and for platinum-iridium in electric contact-making devices4 ,molybdenum compounds are used in chemistry1 particularly ammonium molybdate for the determination of phosphorus4 ,fast colors in a variety of shades may be produced on leather by employing molybdenum tannate in conjunction with logwood extracts4 ,it has been employed for color glazes in porcelain and in coloring silks and rubber4 ,the addition of molybdenum to steel increases the elastic limit without diminishing the ductility4 ,molybdenum can be substituted for a certain percentage of tungsten in high-speed steel1 as a rule one part of molybdenum taking the place of two to three parts of tungsten4 ,,geological ,,and ,,geographical ,,distribution ,up to about #aiaf1 practically all of the molybdenite concentrates produced came from ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales1 and ,norway4 ,shortly after the opening of the war1 interest was shown in the production of molybdenite in ,canada1 principally in the provinces of ,ontario and ,british ,columbia4 ,during #aiag and #aiah there was a great deal of interest in the ,united ,states in molybdenum ores1 and at the present time this country can probably produce molybdenite concentrates in quantity equaling if not exceeding the rest of the world put together4 ,some molybdenum is produced by ,spain and ,peru4 ,australia and ,norway4--,the first official record of a production of molybdenite in ,queensland was in #aijj1 when the output amounted to #ab4c short tons of high-grade material4 ,the production gradually rose to #aai tons in #aijf1 and has not varied materially since that date1 although the selling prices for concentrates increased considerably4 ,the bulk of the material was mined at ,wolfram ,camp1 in the ,chillagoe field1 #abj miles southwest of ,cairns1 in ,northern ,queensland4 ,the mines at ,bamford1 in the same field1 are credited with a small output4 ,with the molybdenite ores are bismuth-tungsten ores1 so that all three metals are produced4 ,the production of molybdenite was first reported in ,new ,south ,wales in #aijb2 in that year the output was #ag short tons4 ,the total output to the end of #aiad was #dih short tons1 valued at #bfd1jjj4 ,the chief producing molybdenite mines are at ,whipstick1 in the ,pambula division1 at ,kingsgate1 in the ,glenn ,innes division1 and near ,deepwater1 in the ,deepwater division4 ,molybdenite is also being produced at ,rocky ,river1 in the ,tantafield division1 and in the ,bathhurst division4 ,the production at all of these localities has not been large--in no one year exceeding #ajj tons of concentrates4 ,in ,norway1 the production of high-grade molybdenite concentrates has averaged about #cj tons per annum since #aijb4 ,in #aijf1 an output of #a1abi short tons was reported4 ,this probably refers to ore mined and not to concentrates produced4 ,the chief molybdenite districts in ,norway are the provinces of ,lister1 ,mandal1 and ,nedenes1 on the extreme southern end of the peninsula4 ,the district of ,fjotland1 in the former province1 is probably richer in molybdenite than any yet discovered in ,norway4 ,a mine at ,knaben1 in this district1 has been the largest and probably the only successful producer in ,norway4 ,this mine1 owned by ,george ,g4 ,blackwell ,sons1 of ,liverpool1 ,england1#id has made an average output of about #be short tons per annum4 #id ,reported taken over by a ,norwegian company4 ,u4 ,s4 ,commerce ,reports1 ,september #bd1 #aiah4 ,,table #cc4--,,production ,,of ,,molybdenite ,,in ,,queensland1 ,,new ,,south ,,wales ,,and ,,norway ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,queensland ,new ,south ,wales ,norway ---------------------------------------- ----- ,weight ,weight ,weight 7short ,value 7short ,value 7short ,value ,year tons77dollars7 tons77dollars7 tons77dollars7 ---------------------------------------- --------- #aijb #de4i #bf1ggj #af4h #h1ifj #bb #af1ajj #aijc #bf4i #aj1bbj #cb4e #ba1ifj #cd #ba1djj #aijd #bc4f #ac1jaj #bh4c #ac1bgj #cc #ag1djj #aije #gj4h #da1cdj #ba4g #ab1bjj #ea #af1cjj #aijf #aah4i #gd1ccj #cf4f #bc1cej #a1abi #ad1bjj #aijg #gd4j #da1jhj #bd4b #ag1cdj #cc #ab1ijj #aijh #ih4g #dd1ifj #i4e #d1ebj #ci #ac1djj #aiji #ajc4i #de1abj #ca4e #ae1haj #cc #ab1ajj #aiaj #aah4f #eh1fdj #ec4b #bg1ehj #aiaa #aaa4d #fd1faj #bc4a #ab1faj #b #hjj #aiab #aad4f #hd1dbj #fc4c #ah1jcj #bc #e1djj #aiac #gd4c #ib1dfj #hh4c #cc1ajj #ac #c1bjj #aiad #hg4a #ahe1hcj #fh4h #ee1gbj ---------------------------------------- --------- ,the production of molybdenite in ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales and ,norway1 by years1 is shown in the preceding table4 ,figures for more recent years indicate the total production in ,australia of about #ccj short tons per annum and #aaj short tons in ,norway in #aiaf4 ,in #aiag the output in ,norway was three times the #aiaf figures4 ,north ,america4--,as already stated1 the chief molybdenite deposits in ,canada are in the provinces of ,ontario and ,british ,columbia4 ,they are low grade and of course need concentration4 ,the ,canadian and ,british governments have been much interested in the concentration of these ores and the ,canadian government has a mill engaged in experimental work and in commercial concentration4 ,the ,department of ,mines has spent a good deal of time in experimentation1 believing that molybdenite has an important future in metallurgy4 ,the production in #aiag was about #hj short tons of high-grade concentrates and was undoubtedly larger in #aiah4 ,canada when properly prospected may produce a good deal more molybdenite than now4 ,in the ,united ,states are a very large number of small molybdenum deposits1 scattered over the western states from ,washington to ,arizona and from ,colorado to ,california4 ,there are two common minerals--molybdenite1 or molybdenum sulphide1 and wulfenite1 or lead molybdate4 ,generally speaking1 molybdenite is found in the northern states1 and wulfenite in the southern states1 but this rule is not without exception4 ,in ,arizona and ,new ,mexico1 the principal mineral is wulfenite1 but there are some fairly large deposits of molybdenite1 probably the best being at the ,leviathan mines1 in ,copper ,canyon1 ,mohave ,county1 ,arizona4 ,this is the only molybdenite deposit that is being worked in ,new ,mexico or ,arizona4 ,it is in the ,cedar ,valley mining district about three miles southeast of ,copperville and about #be miles east of ,yucca4 ,this ore carries a good deal of copper1 as well as small traces of gold and silver4 ,some analyses have shown #b or #c per cent4 ,mo,s and #a to #b per cent4 copper with #j4jb ounce of gold and #a to #d ounces of silver per ton4 ,the percentage of molybdenite is undoubtedly above the average1 which does not exceed #a per cent4 ,the country rock is medium-grained gray granite1 consisting of quartz1 feldspar1 biotite1 muscovite and small amounts of other accessory minerals1 such as zircon and apatite4 ,the company has erected a mill and has succeeded in making a satisfactory separation of the copper from the molybdenite4 ,the largest possibilities in ,arizona and ,new ,mexico are in mining wulfenite4 ,this mineral is widely scattered over these two states1 especially ,arizona1 and is1 to a great extent1 associated with vanadinite4 ,one of the greatest difficulties in concentrating wulfenite has been the separation from vanadinite4 ,the ,bureau of ,mines has worked on this problem for some time with partial success4 ,the most important deposit of wulfenite is at the ,mammoth and ,collins mines1 in ,pinal ,county4 ,they were originally gold mines1 and when the value of molybdenum became evident1 ,colonel ,randolph1 owner of the ,mammoth mine1 decided that it would be worth while to run the tailings dump for wulfenite4 ,he converted his mill to this purpose1 and not only ran the ,mammoth dump but also the dump at the old ,yuma mine1 in ,pima county4 ,the total amount of concentrates produced by ,colonel ,randolph and others in the vicinity during the three years #aiaf to #aiah are probably represented by #a1jjj to #a1bjj tons of wulfenite concentrates4 ,while these operations were going on1 they represented practically the only production of molybdenum concentrates in this country except on a very small scale4 ,one other operating company is the ,rowley ,copper ,mines ,co41 ,gila ,bend1 ,arizona1 the ore being wulfenite and the principal impurity barite4 ,the company has succeeded in making satisfactory concentrates1 which carry1 however1 a considerable amount of barite4 ,the ,golden1 ,colo41 station of the ,bureau of ,mines has run some tests on this concentrate and has made a partial separation of the barite and wulfenite4 ,molybdenite is found in a considerable number of places in ,colorado1 ,montana1 ,washington1 ,nevada1 ,utah1 ,texas and other western and northwestern states1 but the largest occurrence is in ,colorado4 ,generally speaking1 the individual deposits in the ,west are not large enough to warrant the building of a mill for any one of them1 and as the deposits are widely scattered1 it is difficult to find a place where a custom mill could obtain a sufficient amount of ore4 ,this is one of the chief difficulties in producing a large tonnage of molybdenite concentrates1 outside of ,colorado4 ,probably the largest deposits of molybdenite in the world are at ,climax1 ,colorado4 ,these deposits are on the southwestern slope of ,bartlett ,mountain1 ,summit ,county1 about #ae miles from ,leadville4 ,outcrops are practically continuous across the whole length of the mountain and at places are one hundred to two hundred feet thick4 ,the ore is rather granular and not flaky molybdenite1 the average grade running about #h per cent4 ,mo,s4 ,there are two operating companies1 the ,climax ,molybdenum ,co41 a subsidiary of the ,american ,metal ,co41 of ,new ,york and ,denver1 and the ,molybdenum ,products ,co41 of ,denver4 ,both of these companies have erected mills having daily capacities of #bjj tons4 ,the mill of the ,american ,metal ,co4 started continuous operation about ,march1 #aiah1 and that of the other company was completed shortly afterwards4 ,both companies claim that they can enlarge the capacity at short notice4 ,the writer was in the mine of the ,american ,metal ,co4 ,evidently a considerable part of the mountain is molybdenite1 and without doubt1 a very large tonnage can be produced4 ,the ,jackling interests recently acquired the adjoining properties owned by the ,pingree ,mines ,co41 but in #aiah had not built a mill or carried out any serious development work4 ,another very large group of deposits of molybdenite lies near ,empire1 ,clear ,creek ,county1 ,colorado1 on the eastern slope of ,red ,mountain1 at an altitude of about #aa1jjj to #ab1jjj feet4 ,the deposits are #ad miles from the ,empire station of the ,colorado ,southern ,railroad and are owned by the ,primos ,chemical ,co41 of ,primos1 ,pennsylvania4 ,the ore-bearing bodies consist of three veins of low-grade ore4 ,the ore zone1 that is1 the ground included between the footwall of ,vein ,no4 #a and the hanging wall of ,vein ,no4 #c where cut by the tunnel1 is about #bjj feet wide4 ,the veins vary greatly in width and are not particularly well defined1 thin veinlets and stringers of ore running into the walls4 ,the ,primos ,chemical ,co4 has worked these mines off and on for several years4 ,about three years ago it built a mill near the mine1 but production has been rather intermittent4 ,this company has probably used all of its concentrates for making ferromolybdenum at its own works in ,primos1 ,pennsylvania4 ,a small mill has been erected at ,pitkin1 ,colorado1 in connection with the mine at that place owned by the ,pennsylvania ,molybdenum ,mines ,co41 of ,johnstown1 ,pennsylvania4 ,a number of other deposits of considerable interest are found in ,colorado1 especially around ,breckenridge1 ,summit ,county4 ,here the pegmatite veins consist largely of muscovite and quartz1 with some feldspar1 and carry biotite1 chalcopyrite and accessory minerals4 ,the difficulty here is to separate the molybdenum from the copper minerals and also from the mica1 most of which floats with the molybdenite4 ,most of the developed molybdenum deposits of ,mexico are in the ,state of ,sonora4 ,in the ,sahuaripa district of eastern ,sonora1 the mineral occurs with scheelite in rich pockets containing very large pieces of pure mineral4 ,some molybdenum ore has been shipped from the ,montezuma copper district to the ,empire ,smelting ,refining ,co41 of ,deming1 ,new ,mexico4 ,molybdenum is reported in several other ,sonora localities4 ,near ,coyame and ,marquez1 northeastern ,chihuahua1 the mines of the ,compaia ,minera ,aurora y ,anexas produce molybdenum ore4 ,wulfenite is found abundantly with the lead ore of the ,cuchillo ,parado mine in the same district4 ,the ,jibosa copper mine of the ,american ,smelters ,securities ,co41 near ,jimenez1 ,chihuahua1 seems to carry considerable oxide of molybdenum1 molybdite4 ,it is not commercial at present4 ,molybdenite deposits are also reported in the states of ,sinaloa1 ,oaxaca1 ,hidalgo1 and ,jalisco4 ,,reserves ,as the production of molybdenum ores in the past in all countries has been relatively small1 probably none of the deposits have been worked out and an increased output can be obtained4 ,this applies particularly to the ,united ,states4 ,all of the work that has been done so far has been on an experimental basis1 and possibly the only mine whose tonnage will be decreased by past production is the ,mammoth mine1 near ,mammoth1 ,arizona1 and there is no certainty that this mine can not continue to produce as much for some time in the future as it did during its period of operation4 ,just what production can be obtained in the ,united ,states is somewhat uncertain1 but it is probable that the deposits at ,climax1 ,colorado1 will yield at least one thousand tons of ore a day for several years and possibly for a good many years4 ,the deposits of the ,primos ,chemical ,co4 near ,empire1 ,colorado1 are also extensive and should give a large output for some time to come4 ,the rest of the deposits mentioned are small compared with these two1 but the total production of all of them might be large1 were a steady market assured and custom mills erected4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,ores ,in concentrating wulfenite ores some form of table concentration1 with the addition of slimers1 is generally used4 ,the metallurgical treatment of the concentrates varies and is still very much in the experimental stage4 ,there is opportunity for the development of a process that will give the patentee a considerable advantage over competitors4 ,the ,bureau of ,mines has been working on this problem and has recently devised a method that seems to be as efficient as any other and possibly has some additional advantages4 ,in the treatment of molybdenite the same methods are almost universally used4 ,first the ore is crushed to the required fineness and the molybdenite is separated by flotation1 largely oil flotation4 ,the metallurgy of the concentrate1 now more or less standardized1 involves roasting the concentrate to the oxide and treating this oxide in an electric furnace for the production of ferromolybdenum4 ,with small improvements1 this practice is likely to be maintained for some time to come4 ,,political ,,control ,the political control of the molybdenum deposits of the world is determined by the geographical location4 ,at present most of the known deposits are controlled by the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain1 the latter controlling those in ,canada and ,australia4 ,the ,british and ,canadian governments actually have a government mill in ,canada4 ,,commercial ,,control ,the ,knaben mines1 in ,fjotland1 the most famous and probably the only successful molybdenum mines in ,norway1 were acquired in #aije by an ,english company1 the ,blackwell ,developing ,corporation4 ,later a newly organized ,norwegian company1 with head office in ,christiania1 took over the mines at a price of #b1ejj1jjj crowns4 ,in ,mexico the large molybdenum deposit in the ,sahuaripa district of eastern ,sonora is owned by ,george ,fast1 of ,douglas1 ,arizona4 ,the ,lucky ,tiger-,combination ,gold ,mining ,co41 of ,kansas ,city1 ,mo41 7,american7 owns the deposits in the ,montezuma district4 ,another ,american company has acquired deposits near ,poza1 ,sonora1 about #bj miles north of ,hermosillo4 ,a deposit located #ce miles from the port of ,topolabampo1 northwestern ,sinaloa1 is owned by an ,american4 ,the ,compaia ,minera ,aurora y ,anexas1 operating molybdenum mines near ,coyame and ,marquez1 northeastern ,chihuahua1 is owned by the ,madero estate4 ,the ore has been shipped to ,leonard ,worcester1 ,el ,paso1 ,texas1 agent for the estate and also purchaser for ,l4 ,vogelstein ,co41 ,new ,york1 formerly a branch of the ,german metals combine4 ,in the ,united ,states1 during the war the claim was made a number of times1 both privately and in the press1 that ,german interests were trying to obtain control of the molybdenum deposits of the country4 ,this was due to the fact that the ,american ,metal ,co41 which operates at ,climax1 ,colorado1 as the ,climax ,molybdenum ,co41 and which has some other molybdenum deposits1 was formerly controlled by ,german interests4 ,it is true that the majority of the stock of the ,american ,metal ,co4 was owned in ,germany1 but ,mr4 ,palmer1 the ,alien ,property ,custodian1 took charge of this stock1 and the affairs of the ,american ,metal ,co4 were readjusted to changed conditions4 ,the principal stockholders of the ,primos ,chemical ,co4 were four brothers by the name of ,boericke4 ,before the war they had strong ,german connections1 but outside of their deposits at ,empire they made no special effort to get large molybdenum holdings in this country and did not seek to get a combination of any of the operating companies4 ,the ,primos ,chemical ,co4 has since #aiai been taken over by the ,vanadium ,products ,corporation1 affiliated with the ,bethlehem ,steel ,corporation4 ,the ,molybdenum ,products ,co41 ,denver1 ,colorado1 which owns a part of the molybdenum deposit on the slope of ,bartlett ,mountain1 near ,climax1 and operates a #bjj-ton mill1 is a subsidiary of ,e4 ,j4 ,longyear ,co41 exploring engineers1 of ,minneapolis1 ,minnesota4 ,both companies are owned by ,american stockholders4 ,in ,canada and ,australia it is certain that no one large interest has control1 as the ore comes from a number of more or less independent small mines4 ,a large number of patents have been issued in connection with the concentration and metallurgy of molybdenum4 ,none of these is vital to production2 most are valueless1 and even those that have a distinct value do not necessarily give control to the owner of the patents or secret processes4 ,in order to insure a steady demand for molybdenum1 the prime requisite is a definite knowledge of the properties and uses of molybdenum steel4 ,in the past this has been lacking1 and at present it is not possessed by the majority of operators and steel makers4 ,europe should assist materially in supplying this deficiency4 ,molybdenum steel at the present time is in the same position as vanadium steel was a number of years ago--it is on trial4 ,this uncertainty caused a very decided slump in the demand for molybdenum concentrates in the spring of #aiah4 ,a control of molybdenum is more likely to come through the manufacture of molybdenum steel than through processes connected with the production of concentrates or ferromolybdenum4 ,,position ,,of ,,leading ,,commercial ,,nations ,at present the ,united ,states has the largest potential supply of molybdenum ores of any country in the world4 ,in addition it has three of the largest and most modern mills that are handling ore from any molybdenum deposit4 ,it is in a favorable position to equal or surpass1 for some time1 any other country1 in output of molybdenum concentrates4 ,before the war ,great ,britain1 through political control of the ,australian and ,canadian deposits1 was the world's leading producer4 ,some molybdenum came from ,norway1 but the amount was small as compared to the output of ,australia1 ,norway producing in #aiac only #ac short tons and ,australia #afb4f4 ,in both ,canada and ,australia the known deposits have not been worked to capacity and new deposits will probably be discovered with proper prospecting1 so that the future molybdenum production under ,british control promises to increase4 ,the ,canadian and ,british governments are much interested in the development of the molybdenum resources of the dominion4 ,france is entirely dependent upon ,england and the ,united ,states1 although it might be able to get a small amount of concentrates direct from ,norway4 ,germany was much interested in molybdenum before the war4 ,during the war it probably did not import any molybdenum concentrates at all1 and as the world production before that time was small it is not likely that there was any reserve on hand in the empire in #aiai4 ,japan has no molybdenum deposits as far as is known1 and probably is not specially interested at present in the use of this metal4 ,the distribution of the chief molybdenum deposits of the world is shown in ,plate ,,vii4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii4--,geographical distribution of the molybdenum deposits of the world4 ,by ,r4 ,b4 ,moore4 ,,summary ,molybdenum commands attention because of its growing importance as a steel alloy metal4 ,although the metallurgy and properties of molybdenum steels are not thoroughly understood and their use is not widespread1 especially in this country1 accumulating evidence indicates that molybdenum will eventually become one of the common alloy metals4 ,it is used in the form of wire as supports for incandescent light filaments and in electrical apparatus1 and may become essential in the manufacture of special steels4 ,it cannot be easily replaced in chemistry1 and for its other applications it is better and cheaper than other materials4 ,up to #aiae practically all of the molybdenum produced came from ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales1 and ,norway4 ,at present more important deposits are being developed in ,ontario1 ,quebec1 and ,british ,columbia1 ,canada1 and in ,colorado1 ,arizona1 ,new ,mexico1 and other western states4 ,the mineral is widely distributed and the discovery of additional deposits is likely if the demand is sufficient to encourage prospecting4 ,the ,united ,states has deposits large enough to meet all domestic needs and also to produce a surplus for export4 ,some molybdenum is obtained from ,mexico1 ,peru1 and ,spain1 but the ,united ,states1 ,great ,britain 7,canada and ,australia71 and ,norway control the important deposits4 ,the largest molybdenum deposit in the ,united ,states1 located at ,climax1 ,colorado1 is owned by the ,climax ,molybdenum ,co41 a subsidiary of the ,american ,metal ,co4 7formerly ,german71 and by the ,molybdenum ,products ,co41 of ,denver1 an ,american company4 ,other deposits in ,colorado are owned by the ,primos ,chemical ,co41 a company that had strong ,german connections before the war1 but has been taken over by the ,vanadium ,products ,corporation1 an ,american company4 ,other producing deposits of the ,united ,states are owned by ,american citizens4 ,the ,knaben mines1 the most important in ,norway1 have been owned since #aije by an ,english company1 but1 according to a report1 they have been acquired by a ,norwegian company4 ,a number of the deposits of northern ,mexico are owned by ,americans4 ,others are owned by the ,madero estate 7,mexican74 ,the ,canadian and ,australian deposits are controlled by small1 independent operators4 ,both the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain have ample supplies of molybdenum2 ,france produces none and is dependent upon other countries2 ,germany1 which was much interested in molybdenum before the war1 probably has no large stocks on hand4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,radium ,,and ,,uranium ,,by ,r4 ,a4 ,f4 ,,penrose1 ,,jr4 ,radium is a metal and is a product of the disintegration in nature of the metal uranium4 ,both radium and uranium are elements4 ,radium has been isolated in its metallic state1 but is not used in that form and is known better in the form of its salts1 among the most important of which1 so far as their uses are concerned1 are the bromide1 chloride and sulphate4 ,wherever uranium occurs in nature1 radium is associated with it in certain definable quantities4 ,uranium can contain1 however1 only a certain maximum amount of radium at a time1 and when it has reached this stage1 the radium and uranium ratio is said to be in equilibrium4 ,in this condition the amount of radium per gram of uranium has been calculated by ,rutherford to be #c4d #aj gram4 ,this corresponds to #a gram of radium element to about #c1jjj kilograms of uranium element1 or #a part of radium element to about #c1jjj1jjj parts of uranium element4 ,uranium minerals as mined are usually impure and carry only a small percentage of uranium elements1 so that the ratio between radium and the crude uranium ore may be #a to several or many times #c1jjj1jjj4 ,the production of radium from uranium is usually stated in milligrams or grams1 and even in the richest ores there is usually only a small fraction of a gram to a ton1 while in the ordinary lower-grade ore there are only a few milligrams to a ton1 corresponding to a small fraction of a grain to a ton4 ,less than twenty years ago it was estimated that probably not one gram of radium element in the form of its refined salts had been extracted in the world4 ,today a great many times1 perhaps a hundred times or more1 this amount has been extracted and is in use4 ,the annual production of radium today in the world is probably several grams4 ,the annual production of uranium in the world is probably several hundred pounds4 ,the unique position of uranium as the source of radium in nature makes it necessary to discuss both materials together4 ,uses of ,radium4--,radium is a heavy white metal which is very unstable1 and alters rapidly in the air4 ,it is not used in its metallic stage but only in the form of its salts4 ,a few years ago these salts were supposed to have a general beneficial effect in the treatment of cancer and other malignant growths1 but more recent investigations seem to confine their influence to only certain forms of these afflictions4 ,their influence in other diseased conditions is often very marked1 but the full extent of the field of usefulness of radium for medical purposes has not yet been very clearly defined4 ,in recent years radium has been applied to other important purposes1 especially in luminous paint for watches1 clocks1 compasses and other instruments2 and this use has so greatly increased in recent years1 especially for military purposes1 that it now consumes more radium than is used in medicine4 ,radium salts are more or less luminous when seen in a darkened room1 and this quality is often increased by the admixture of certain other materials1 notably zinc sulphide4 ,hence their value in luminous paints4 ,radium salts also cause certain minerals to fluoresce1 notably the zinc minerals willemite and sphalerite4 ,in ,germany1 where radium during the war became scarce on account of the shortage of the ores from which it is extracted1 radium salts are said to have been preserved for medical purposes1 and mesothorium and other radioactive substances used in making luminous paints4 ,uses of ,uranium4--,uranium is a heavy white metal1 which slowly tarnishes on exposure to the air4 ,the chief use of uranium today is as a source of radium4 ,for many years before the discovery of radium1 however1 uranium compounds were used in a small way in coloring glass and porcelain1 in photography1 in reagents for chemical analysis1 in mordants for dyeing and for other minor purposes4 ,the use of uranium metal in small quantities in steel manufacture has been tried with some degree of success4 ,,ores ,,of ,,radium ,,and ,,uranium ,general ,statement4--,the principal uranium minerals at present known in nature1 which are therefore the principal sources of both uranium and radium1 are carnotite and uraninite1 with the impure amorphous form of uraninite known as pitchblende4 ,torbernite1 autunite and some of the rarer uranium minerals have produced a little radium and uranium4 ,carnotite and uraninite or pitchblende as mined for ores are generally more or less mixed with other materials and are rarely found pure4 ,the uranium in the ores is usually stated commercially1 for convenience1 in the form of the uranium oxides represented by the formula ,,uo #b,,uo1 briefly expressed as ,u,o4 ,most carnotite ore varies from #a per cent4 to #c per cent4 of ,u,o2 a #e to #aj per cent4 ore is considered high grade2 a #bj to #dj per cent4 ore is remarkably rich4 ,uraninite and pitchblende ordinarily contain more uranium than carnotite contains1 and even in the impure forms in which they are mined as ores1 they often show this greater uranium content4 ,the ordinary uraninite and pitchblende ores carry from #b to #c per cent4 to #h or #aj per cent4 ,u,o1 and a #bj per cent4 ore is very high grade1 though some ore runs #fj or #gj per cent4 ,carnotite4--,carnotite is an amorphous1 soft1 powdery material1 sometimes more or less coherent and of a talcose or waxy character1 generally of a brilliant canary yellow color1 though sometimes discolored by iron1 organic matter and other substances4 ,it is essentially a hydrous potassium uranium vanadate4 ,some authorities believe that carnotite is not a distinct mineral1 but a mixture of different minerals4 ,uraninite and ,pitchblende4--,the terms uraninite and pitchblende are often used synonymously to designate the same mineral1 but more properly the term uraninite is a general name for all forms of the mineral and especially for the purer and distinctly crystalline variety1 and the term pitchblende is applicable to the impure amorphous form4 ,it is black or grayish black in color1 opaque1 and often has a submetallic glossy or pitchlike luster4 ,uraninite is often remarkably lacking in distinctive characteristics1 so that its presence might frequently be overlooked4 ,for this reason it seems possible that this mineral1 now known in only comparatively small quantities1 may some time in the future be found more abundantly4 ,uraninite1 like carnotite1 has a somewhat indefinite formula1 but is essentially a combination of the two uranium oxides ,,uo and ,,uo1 in which ,,uo seems to act as a base and ,,uo as an acid4 ,a number of both the rarer and commoner elements are often associated with them4 ,the relative amounts of the two oxides vary considerably in different specimens1 especially in the impure form of pitchblende1 and no definite formula can at present be given4 ,in pitchblende a notable amount of water1 perhaps sometimes in chemical combination1 is often present4 ,several other minerals much rarer than uraninite or pitchblende are related to them in composition1 among them being cleveite1 brggerite and nivenite4 ,other ,ores4--,though carnotite1 uraninite and pitchblende are the most abundant of all the radium and uranium materials in nature1 and produce almost all the radium and uranium of commerce1 yet many other minerals contain both metals1 and though as yet known only in such limited quantities as to be of small commercial value1 may in the future be found in quantities of importance4 ,among them may be mentioned tyuyamunite1 a hydrous calcium uranium vanadate often associated with the hydrous potassium uranium vanadate described above as carnotite2 autunite1 a hydrous calcium uranium phosphate2 torbernite or chalcolite1 a hydrous copper uranium phosphate4 ,,geographical ,,and ,,geological ,,distribution ,,of ,,radium ,,and ,,uranium ,the only regions of the world that have as yet produced any large amounts of radium and uranium minerals on a commercial scale are ,colorado1 ,utah and ,austria4 ,cornwall1 ,australia and ,germany have produced a small quantity of these minerals4 ,they are known in small quantities in ,france and ,portugal1 and have been reported in ,india and ,german ,east ,africa1 but in these regions they have not yet become commercially important4 ,they occur sparingly1 so far as yet known1 and practically as only mineralogical curiosities1 in ,connecticut1 ,north ,carolina1 ,canada1 ,norway and many other regions1 but may in the future be found in larger quantities4 ,minute quantities of radium or its products of disintegration occur in almost all rocks and in the atmosphere1 and in the waters of the sea and land1 but in such small amounts as to be unavailable as a source of these substances4 ,the source of all radium of commerce at the present time is in the certain few uranium minerals already mentioned4 ,they are found in formations of various geologic ages1 from recent superficial deposits to the older crystalline rocks1 but show a tendency toward certain modes of occurrence1 such as in southwestern ,colorado and southeastern ,utah as an impregnation in sandstone2 in eastern ,colorado1 ,cornwall1 ,austria and ,south ,australia as one of the gangue minerals in veins of other ores2 in ,north ,carolina1 ,canada1 ,norway and ,west ,australia in pegmatite or other feldspathic dikes4 ,,radium ,,and ,,uranium ,,resources ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,general ,statement4--,the commercially important deposits of ores of radium and uranium in the ,united ,states are1 so far as yet known1 confined to the carnotite regions of southwestern ,colorado and southeastern ,utah1 and the pitchblende deposits of ,gilpin ,county1 in eastern ,colorado4 ,in ,connecticut1 ,north ,carolina and elsewhere1 uraninite1 pitchblende and other uranium minerals have been found2 and near ,mauch ,chunk1 in ,pennsylvania1 small quantities of carnotite have been discovered1 but these occurrences are1 so far as known1 in quantities too small to be of commercial value4 ,colorado and ,utah4--,the carnotite deposits of southwestern ,colorado and southeastern ,utah are the most important sources of radium and uranium in the world4 ,in ,colorado the largest quantities of ore have come from many mines in ,montrose ,county1 especially in ,paradox ,valley1 while ,mesa1 ,san ,miguel1 ,dolores1 ,rio ,blanco1 ,routt and other counties have been producers4 ,in southeastern ,utah the ores are carnotite1 as in southwestern ,colorado1 and occur especially in ,grand1 ,emery and ,san ,juan counties1 but have not been worked to the same extent as in ,colorado4 ,the carnotite of ,colorado and ,utah occurs as an impregnation in sandstones and shaly sandstones1 mostly in the ,mc,elmo and the ,la ,plata formations1 lying at the top of the ,jurassic beds and below the ,cretaceous sandstones and conglomerates of the region4 ,the deposits seem to have been formed by the precipitation of carnotite from solution along certain strata of these formations1 and the material occurs along bedding planes1 in fissures and small cavities1 in layers or irregular masses from a fraction of an inch to several inches in width1 and sometimes as a general impregnation of the sandstone for several feet in thickness4 ,it seems to be especially abundant in strata impregnated strongly with vegetable or animal matter1 and is often in unusual quantities in lignitized or petrified trunks of trees4 ,this phenomenon suggests the influence of organic matter in precipitating and segregating the carnotite4 ,the rocks carrying the carnotite lie horizontally or dip at low angles in most parts of the ,colorado region2 in ,utah they lie often in the same way1 but occasionally dip at steep angles4 ,where they appear on the surface1 the carnotite sometimes impregnates certain strata for several hundred feet or more along the outcrops1 but more generally it occurs in spots along them1 with little or no carnotite in the intervening spaces4 ,as these outcrops are followed into the hillsides1 the ore appears to be even more irregular in its distribution than on the surface1 and in many or most cases it becomes much scarcer the further it is explored underground1 until within #aj to #dj or #ej feet from the surface it often mostly or entirely disappears4 ,there are exceptions to this feature1 but the gradual and often rapid decrease in quantity and grade of the carnotite ore as it is followed into a hill is generally recognized4 ,this fact suggests that the carnotite may have been redissolved in the sandstone and carried to the surface by capillary action in this arid climate1 forming rich1 superficial efflorescences4 ,in many of the carnotite deposits1 vanadium minerals occur independently of the vanadium in the carnotite1 but this association is not always observed4 ,they occur in sandstone and often give it a dark-gray or blackish color4 ,in eastern ,colorado several mines near ,central ,city1 ,gilpin ,county1 have produced limited quantities of pitchblende4 ,among these are the ,kirk1 the ,wood1 the ,belcher1 the ,alps1 the ,german and the ,calhoun mines4 ,the pitchblende occurs as a subordinate constituent in the gold-bearing veins of that country4 ,the veins intersect old metamorphic rocks intruded by igneous rocks4 ,the mines of ,gilpin ,county are today producing little if any pitchblende1 and the total production has been small1 amounting in all probably to only a few tons4 ,much more pitchblende1 however1 was let go to waste in former days when the mines were worked for other ores and the value of uranium was not recognized4 ,production4--,the ,united ,states is today by far the largest producer of radium and uranium ores in the world1 and is also the largest producer of manufactured radium and uranium compounds4 ,before the war1 ,england1 ,france and ,germany1 especially ,germany1 imported large quantities of ,american ores and extracted the radium in a refined state as its different salts1 much of which was returned to the ,united ,states for sale4 ,now1 however1 ,american ores are almost entirely treated in the ,united ,states1 with the exception of a little shipped to ,england and possibly to ,france4 ,the ,standard ,chemical ,co41 of ,pittsburgh1 was a pioneer in this work1 and others quickly followed1 among them the ,national ,radium ,institute1 of ,denver2 the ,schlesinger ,radium ,co41 of ,denver2 the ,chemical ,products ,co41 of ,denver2 the ,cummings ,chemical ,co41 of ,lansdowne1 ,pa42 the ,radium ,luminous ,materials ,corporation1 of ,new ,york1 and others4 ,before the discovery of radium in #ahih1 but little attention was given to uranium ores in ,america1 though some little pitchblende was shipped from the ,central ,city1 ,colorado1 region for use in making uranium compounds4 ,shortly after the discovery of radium1 however1 mining was begun on the carnotite of southwestern ,colorado1 and from #aijj to #aiaj several companies were formed to work these ores both in ,colorado and ,utah4 ,the pitchblende of ,central ,city also began to attract renewed attention4 ,for a few years active work was done in prospecting for it1 but the quantities have so far proved to be small4 ,a few tons probably represent the total amount derived from these mines since the search began4 ,in the meantime1 however1 the production of carnotite increased rapidly until #aiae1 when it greatly decreased on account of the curtailment of shipments to ,europe4 ,in the latter part of #aiaf1 however1 the production increased again1 on account of the increased consumption of ore in this country1 and in #aiah the production was very active1 largely on account of the increased use of radium not only in medicine but especially in luminous paints4 ,the amount of radium and uranium ores produced in the ,united ,states1 or in fact anywhere1 during a given period1 is difficult to determine1 on account of the different bases on which reports are made1 but it may be said that the tonnage is small compared with that of ores of commoner metals1 a few thousand tons being a large amount of carnotite1 and simply a few tons or pounds being a large amount of pitchblende4 ,though the mining of radium and uranium ores in the ,united ,states began about #aijj or shortly before1 no very large quantities were produced until #aiab1 when about #a1ajj tons were mined1 consisting chiefly of ,colorado carnotite4 ,the production gradually increased to several thousand tons yearly1 practically all of which is carnotite from ,colorado and ,utah4 ,,radium ,,and ,,uranium ,,resources ,,of ,,europe ,austria4--,the most important radium and uranium ore in ,europe at present is the uraninite or pitchblende found in the mines of ,joachimsthal1 in ,bohemia4 ,it occurs as a subordinate gangue mineral in certain silver veins of that region which intersect metamorphic and igneous rocks1 and has been actively worked ever since the discovery of radium by ,m4 and ,mme4 ,curie in #ahih4 ,before that time the mineral had a certain value as a source of uranium compounds4 ,these ,austrian mines are second to those of the ,united ,states as a source of radium and uranium1 but their production equals only a very small part of that of this country4 ,until the ,great ,war this production was controlled largely1 if not wholly1 by the ,austrian government1 and as the production is said still to continue1 it is probably still controlled in the same way4 ,england4--,next in importance in ,europe to the uraninite or pitchblende ore of ,joachimsthal as a source of radium and uranium1 is the similar ore in some of the mines of ,cornwall1 ,england4 ,it occurs as a subordinate mineral in the gangue of some of the old tin and copper mines1 in veins intersecting metamorphic and igneous rocks1 especially at ,st4 ,just1 ,st4 ,ives1 ,grampound ,road1 ,st4 ,austell and elsewhere4 ,the production and treatment of the ore has been under private or corporate auspices and the amount produced has not been large4 ,germany4--,in ,germany the production of radium and uranium ores has always been insignificant4 ,a small quantity of such ores has been produced at ,schneeberg1 ,johanngeorgenstadt1 ,annaberg and elsewhere4 ,before the war1 ,germany was a large producer of manufactured radium and uranium compounds1 but they were derived mostly from imported ,american ores4 ,other ,localities4--,with the exception of ,joachimsthal and ,cornwall1 ,europe has produced but small quantities of radium and uranium minerals4 ,a little uraninite or pitchblende has been found in other localities in ,austria1 such as ,przibram and elsewhere1 and sparingly in ,norway4 ,autunite and other uranium minerals have been found in small quantities near ,autun1 ,france1 and near ,sabugal and ,guarda1 in ,portugal1 but no important quantities have been produced4 ,,radium ,,and ,,uranium ,,resources ,,of ,,australia1 ,,india ,,and ,,africa ,australia4--,in ,south ,australia carnotite1 autunite1 torbernite and other rare uranium minerals occur in regions of metamorphic and igneous rocks at ,radium ,hill1 near ,olary1 and at ,mount ,painter1 in the ,flinders range4 ,a few hundred tons of ore containing these minerals have been mined by private or corporation interests4 ,most of this has been sent to ,woolwich1 near ,sydney1 ,new ,south ,wales1 or to ,england1 for the extraction of the radium4 ,since the war started no very active mining operations in such ores have been carried on in the ,south ,australian region4 ,at ,cooglegong1 in ,western ,australia1 the uranium mineral fergusonite and to a less extent the uranium mineral euxenite occur in the surface detrital material of the region4 ,at ,wodgina the minerals mackintoshite1 thorogummite and pilbarite1 all hydrous silicates of uranium1 thorium and lead1 occur in an albite pegmatite dike4 ,no important quantities of these ,western ,australia ores have yet been produced4 ,india and ,africa4--,radium and uranium minerals have been reported in ,india and ,german ,east ,africa1 but no important quantities have yet been produced4 ,,prospect ,,of ,,future ,,discoveries ,,of ,,radium ,,and ,,uranium ,,ores ,the prospect for increased discoveries of radium and uranium minerals at the present time seems best in the carnotite regions of ,colorado and ,utah4 ,the workable deposits seem to be more or less superficial1 and perhaps no large quantity of ore may be found in any one spot1 yet the great extent of the region in which the formations carrying carnotite occur1 will supply an immense aggregate amount of ore4 ,increased discoveries of uraninite1 pitchblende and other uranium minerals in ,europe seem possible1 even though that continent has already been well explored for them4 ,moreover1 new discoveries of different radium and uranium minerals may very likely be made in still other parts of the ,united ,states than those mentioned1 and in less explored parts of the world1 especially certain regions of ,south ,america1 ,australia1 ,asia and ,africa4 ,many of these minerals1 especially pitchblende1 have no very distinctive features when first observed1 and might readily be overlooked many times before their true nature was discovered4 ,hence the possibilities of future discoveries4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,zirconium ,,by ,h4 ,c4 ,,morris ,,uses ,,of ,,zirconium ,as early as #ahcj an attempt was made to use zirconia buttons1 heated to incandescence1 for lighting the streets of ,paris4 ,in #ahhe an incandescent gas mantle of zirconium oxide was patented1 but was replaced in a few years by thorium4 ,about #aijj zirconia was used in the ,nernst glower1 and it has also been used in place of lime and magnesia as the incandescing material in the ,drummond light4 ,it is also said to be used in the ,bleriot light1 and its use in flares has been suggested4 ,during the past few years ,dr4 ,c4 ,m4 ,johnson has succeeded in manufacturing laboratory ware made from zirconium minerals mixed with other refractories4 ,filtering crucibles1 muffles1 combustion tubes and boats1 pyrometer protection tubes1 and ,kipp generators are now on the market1 competing in price with ,german porcelain and fused silica4 ,zirconia crucibles are made from the fused material ground in a suitable mill4 ,the powder is pressed or molded into shape with an organic binder1 such as starch1 or perhaps1 better still1 with a plastic cement made by grinding the fused material to #bj mesh1 when it becomes colloidal in the presence of water4 ,after drying1 the articles are burned at a very high temperature 7#bcjj to #bdjj;,c47 until contraction ceases4 ,fused zirconia has a high thermal endurance2 is not affected when heated to redness and plunged into cold water1 its coefficient of expansion being as low as #j4jjjjjjhd2 and its resistance to crushing is many times that of quartz glass4 ,its hardness is between that of corundum and quartz2 its specific gravity #e4hi1 and porosity below #a per cent4 ,its melting point is #biej;,c1 but #j4e per cent4 impurity reduces that by #ajj;,c4 ,platinum1 with a melting point of about #agej;,c41 can be melted to a mobile liquid in zirconia crucibles1 and it is claimed that the boiling point of pure iron has been determined in similar crucibles4 ,chemically1 zirconia is very inert1 being highly resistant to acids1 fused alkalies1 fused quartz1 or molten glass4 ,possibly no other material known to chemists possesses such a combination of desirable refractory properties4 ,its one undesirable characteristic is its tendency under certain conditions at high temperatures1 in the presence of nitrogen or carbon1 to become converted into nitride or carbide4 ,an instructive paper entitled 8,zirconia as a ,refractory10 by ,e4 ,h4 ,rodd1 was published in the ,journal of the ,society of ,chemical ,industry1 ,june #ae1 #aiah4 ,zirconium oxide as an opacifier has been thoroughly investigated by ,hartman#ie and by ,grunwald#if with promising results2 and a number of foreign patents have been granted on the use of the oxide in white ceramic enamels4 ,zirconia seems to be especially suitable for the manufacture of refractory bricks1 or it can be applied as a lining or surfacing to other less desirable refractories4 ,continental practice along this line is said to have been much more highly developed than practice in this country1 one example quoted being actual practice tests of a ,martin ,siemens furnace with a zirconia-lined hearth4 ,after four months of continuous operation at high temperatures the hearth was still in good condition and gave promise of lasting at least an equal length of time without renewal4 ,statistics compiled from these tests showed a saving of about #ej per cent4 in actual maintenance costs in favor of zirconia over the other refractories ordinarily used for such purposes4 ,bradford#ig quoted ,podszus#ih as claiming to have made a furnace with the pure oxide which had first been fused in an arc furnace and then ground2 and in which temperatures of #bdjj to #bejj;,c4 were obtained by firing with gas and oxygen4 #ie ,,hartman1 ,,augustus1 ,zirconemail3 ,dissertations ,arbeit3 ,techn4 ,hochschule1 ,munich1 #aiaj4 #if ,ueber ,zirkonoxyd in der ,emailindustrie3 ,sprechsaal1 ,no4 #e1 #aiaa4 #ig ,,bradford1 ,,leopold1 ,birmingham ,metallurgical ,society 7,british74 #ih ,podszus1 ,zeitsch4 angew4 ,chem41 ,jahrg4 #cj1 #aiag1 #a1 pp4 #ag-ai4 ,the most important question regarding zirconium at the present time has to do with the remarkable properties that some of its advocates claim it imparts to steel4 ,that the ,germans have had this use in mind for some time is evidenced by the numerous patents they have obtained covering the use of zirconium and its alloys4 ,zirconium has been obtained in the amorphous and the graphitic state2 and ,wedekind has produced a metal of #ii4h per cent4 purity resembling white cast iron in appearance1 with a hardness of #g4h 7,mohs72 specific gravity #f4dj2 specific heat1 #j4jhjd2 heat of combination1 #aieh calories2 and melting point1 #aecj;,c4 ,numerous alloys of zirconium have been made and a number of foreign and domestic patents have been issued covering various alloys1 both ferrous and non-ferrous4 ,it is stated that ferrozirconium is finding a limited application in the steel industry as a scavenger for removing nitrogen and oxides4 ,an ,english patent1 ,no4 #bi1cgf1 covers the use of zirconium as a scavenger1 the alloy containing #bj per cent4 of the element and being used in an amount equal to about #a per cent4 of the weight of steel treated4 ,another alloy containing #dj to #ij per cent4 zirconium1 the rest being mainly iron1 is said to be free from metalloids and oxides1 and malleable and ductile4 ,alloys covered by ,united ,states ,patent ,no4 #a1aea1afj are claimed to be highly resistant to oxidation and chemical reagents4 ,they have a metallic lustre and take a high polish1 are readily malleable and ductile1 and it is suggested that they may find an important application in filaments for electric lamps1 as they are said to have the property of selective radiation4 ,a typical analysis of some of the alloys claimed to have been produced under this patent shows ,zr4 #j4fe per cent41 ,fe #bf per cent41 ,ti #j4ab per cent4 and ,al #g4g per cent4 ,a widely circulated statement to the effect that zirconium has been used in ,germany in the production of steel for armor plates and armor-piercing projectiles has not been substantiated1 so far as the writer knows1 by any records of analyses4 ,the use of zirconium for alloying in steel is so new that1 pending definite determination by disinterested competent authorities of the exact properties1 if any1 which zirconium imparts to steel1 judgment as to its value for this purpose should be withheld4 ,zirconium carbide has been patented for filaments for incandescent electric lamps and it has also been used as an abrasive4 ,tried as a pigment1 zirconia has been found to have good covering power and should be considered where protection from acids1 alkalies1 or gases is particularly desired4 ,the basic acetate has been used for weighting silk1 and the pure oxide is used as a substitute for bismuth subnitrate in ,x-ray work4 ,,geological ,,and ,,geographical ,,distribution ,zirconium occurs in nature in commercial quantities as a mixed oxide and silicate known as baddeleyite1 sometimes called brazilite1 and as the silicate1 zircon4 ,baddeleyite1 as supplied to the trade1 usually carries #hj to #he per cent4 ,zr,o4 ,the silicate1 zircon1 carries about #fe per cent4 ,zr,o4 ,the oxide deposits1 containing as they do a higher percentage of zirconium and the ore being more pure and easier to reduce1 will in all probability become the principal source of zirconium4 ,the principal known deposits of zirconium ores are in ,brazil1 ,india and the ,united ,states1 the countries being named in the relative order of their commercial importance4 ,the ,natural ,oxide4--,the natural oxide1 baddeleyite1 or brazilite1 occurs only in ,brazil in commercial quantities and is described in ,mineral ,foote-,notes by ,meyer1#ii who writes as follows3 #ii ,,meyer1 ,h4 ,c41 ,mineral ,foote-,notes1 ,november1 #aiaf1 p4 #bi4 ,there are but few commercial deposits of the unusual ores which present more interesting geologic as well as economic features than do the deposits of natural zirconium oxide in ,brazil4 ,the ,caldas region 7visited in #aiae by the writer7 in which these zirconia deposits occur1 is situated partly in the ,state of ,minas ,geraes and partly in the ,state of ,sao ,paulo1 approximately #acj miles north of the city of ,sao ,paulo4 ,it is a mountainous plateau1 the main elevation of which is about #c1fjj feet4 ,the surface is undulating1 presenting differences in level of from #cjj to #fjj feet4 ,the whole area is bounded on all sides by ridges rising abruptly from #fjj to #a1bjj feet above the general level and forming a roughly elliptical enclosure with a major axis of approximately #bj miles in length and a minor axis of #ae miles4 ,this peculiar arrangement of the higher ridges is very significant when coupled with the fact that the predominant rock of the plateau is a phonolite and the presence of highly mineralized thermal water of considerable medicinal value4#ajj ,no thorough geological survey has been made of this area with a view to determining the origin of the zirconia4 ,the character of the ore1 however1 and the formation1 seems to point to pneumatolitic agencies4 ,a careful study of the relationship of the large masses of coarsely crystalline nephelite-syenite in this area1 with pronounced segregations of eudialyte1 might throw some light upon this subject4 #ajj ,,derby1 ,o4 ,a41 8,nepheline-rock in ,brazil30 ,quart4 ,jour4 ,geol4 ,soc41 ,august1 #ahhg4 ,zirconia ore can be roughly divided into two classes3 ,first1 alluvial pebbles ranging in size from one-half inch to three inches in diameter1 generally carrying about #ij per cent4 to #ic per cent4 zirconium oxide4 ,these pebbles1 known as favas and having a specific gravity ranging from #d4h to #e4b1 are found along small stream beds and on the talus slopes of low ridges4 ,second1 zirconia ore proper1 or zirkite 7a trade name71 which ranges in shade from a light gray to a blue black1 the lighter colored material carrying a higher percentage of zirconium silicate1 as evidenced by analyses1 which in some cases show a minimum of #gc per cent4 zirconium oxide4 ,the blue-black ore generally carries from #hj per cent4 to #he per cent4 zirconium oxide4 ,by careful sorting1 however1 a uniform grade carrying about #hj per cent4 is produced4 ,prior to the investigations of ,derby and ,lee1 this ore was considered identical with baddeleyite4 ,it has now been shown1 however1 that it is a mechanical mixture of three minerals2 namely1 brazilite1 zircon1 and a new and unnamed zirconium silicate carrying about #ge per cent4 zirconium oxide4 ,this new mineral has the same crystal form as zircon 7#fg per cent4 ,zr,o7 but is readily soluble in hydrofluoric acid1 while zircon is not affected1 this being a characteristic differential test4 ,the finely powdered mineral1 on being treated with a weak solution of hydrofluoric acid1 leaves a residue of minute1 perfect1 pyramidal crystals of zircon1 the brazilite and new zirconium silicate going into solution4 ,several large outcrops of the ore occur on the extreme westerly edge of the plateau1 one or two isolated boulders weighing as much as thirty tons4 ,this very cursory examination of the zirconia deposits makes it unsafe to venture any conjecture as to the quantity of ore available4 ,suffice it to say1 however1 that the deposits have been traced for a distance of fifteen miles between ,gascata and ,caldas1 and if surface indications are of any significance1 are of vast extent4 ,the oxides have also been found in the ,state of ,montana1 and in ,ceylon1 ,sweden1 and ,italy1 but none of these occurrences are of commercial importance4 ,the ,silicate4--,the simple silicate1 zircon1 is found in seashore and river concentrations of monazite sands1 associated with ilmenite1 garnet1 rutile1 and various other heavy minerals usually found in such places4 ,an important concentration of zircon occurs along the coast of ,brazil1 in the states of ,bahia1 ,espirito ,santo1 and ,rio de ,janeiro1 where cusps of the beaches are protected on the north by granite headlands and bordered by ,tertiary bluffs1 which are cut by various streams and lagoons that constantly furnish fresh material for the concentrating action of the tides and waves4 ,probably the next most important occurrence of zircon is in ,india1 in the beach sands of the province or state of ,travancore at the extreme southwestern end of the ,hindustan peninsula4 ,next in importance is an occurrence in the ,united ,states at ,pablo ,beach1 ,florida1 where not only the beach sands1 but the dunes bordering them1 contain appreciable quantities of the following minerals in their relative order of abundance3 ilmenite1 garnet1 epidote1 zircon1 rutile1 and other heavy minerals including monazite4#aja #aja ,,hess1 ,,frank ,l41 ,letter of ,may #a1 #aiah4 ,other occurrences in this country1 most of which are of academic interest only1 are in ,colorado1 at ,st4 ,peter's ,dome1 near ,pike's ,peak2 in ,idaho1 in the ,clearwater region and elsewhere in black sands and in certain granitic rocks2 in ,sussex ,county1 ,new ,jersey1 at the ,williams mine1 where zircon occurs abundantly in magnetite2 in ,new ,york at ,lyon ,mountain1 ,clinton ,county2 at a few places near ,crown ,point2 abundantly in pegmatite at ,old ,red ,mines1 ,mineville1 ,essex ,county1 and in numerous places in ,orange ,county on the south1 and ,st ,lawrence ,county on the north4 ,in ,north ,carolina1 in ,burke1 ,mc,dowell1 and ,rutherford counties1 zircon occurs in monazite sands1 and also in ,henderson ,county near ,zirconia and in ,fredell ,county near ,sterling4 ,large crystals of zircon occur in a small pegmatite area in ,comanche ,county1 ,oklahoma1 in the southwestern portion of the ,wichita ,national ,forest4 ,oregon has many localities in which the presence of zircon has been noted1 chiefly in black sands1 old and present beaches1 placer gravels1 etc41 and the same is true of ,washington4 ,in ,virginia1 zircon is found in pegmatite in ,aurelia ,county1 and in sandstone near ,ashland1 not far from ,richmond4 ,zircon is also found in ,norway1 the ,ural ,mountains1 ,ceylon1 ,australia1 and ,british ,south ,africa4 ,,political ,,control ,the important zirconium resources of the world are controlled politically1 in the order of their commercial importance1 by ,brazil1 ,great ,britain1 and the ,united ,states4 ,brazil4--,a number of years ago ,john ,gordon1 an ,american mining engineer1 became interested in deposits of monazite sand on the coast of ,brazil in the vicinity of ,prado1 ,bahia4 ,a thorough investigation of all the known monazite deposits of the world showed that those in ,brazil were by far the most desirable1 and that those in ,travancore1 ,india1 were second in commercial importance4#ajb #ajb ,see ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,other firms exporting zirconium minerals from ,brazil1 in addition to ,gordon ,rogers1 of #ada ,broadway1 ,new ,york1 are ,suffern ,co41 of #ace ,broadway1 ,new ,york2 ,s4 ,r4 ,scott ,co41 #ci ,broadway1 ,new ,york2 ,foote ,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa42 ,p4 ,s4 ,nicholson ,co41 ,caixa #ia1 ,rio de ,janeiro2 ,e4 ,j4 ,lavino ,co41 ,bullitt ,building1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa42 ,luiz de ,rezende ,co41 ,rua ,ouidor1 ,rio de ,janeiro1 ,brazil2 and ,chas4 ,spitz1 also of ,rio de ,janeiro1 who is agent for the ,socit ,minire1 a ,french company in which ,rezende ,co4 are said to have a considerable interest4 ,sometime ago the firm of ,a4 ,c4 de ,freitas ,co4 of ,hamburg1 ,germany1 had a contract from the ,brazilian government on monazite sands and agreed to export at least #a1bjj tons annually4 ,how much zircon that company exported is not known4 ,the de ,freitas properties are now being worked by the ,socit ,minire 7,french74#ajc #ajc ,production figures #aijb-aiaf for the ,united ,states and ,brazil are given in ,table #cd4 ,until very recently1 zirconium has been of minor interest in this country1 the monazite sands having been exploited for their thorium contents only1 not for zirconium4 ,however1 ,germany and ,austria seem to have placed considerable value upon zirconium-bearing sands1 and1 as shown by the attached table1 more was produced in #aiac than in all the time prior1 and practically all the material produced during that year went to ,germany4 ,this is in accord with the efforts of ,germany1 just before the war1 to obtain tungsten and molybdenum1 and is an evidence of preparations long before hostilities began4 ,india4--,before the war1 the ,german users of monazite were in control of the ,travancore1 ,india1 deposits4 ,that control of course ceased and the contracts were cancelled4 ,the ,india ,office decided that1 in the future1 all directors of the company must be ,british born1 and that the company must be ready at all times to sell monazite sand to ,british firms1 direct1 at a fair price4 ,united ,states4--,it is hardly probable that the deposits in the ,united ,states will be able to compete1 on a commercial basis1 with the ,brazilian ores2 but1 if the necessity should arise1 this country can produce1 within its own borders1 enough zirconium to manufacture many thousand tons of zirconium steel4 ,the cordial commercial relations between the ,united ,states and ,brazil will probably protect this country from any undue restraint on exports from ,south ,america4 ,general4--,all of the large countries interested have facilities for making the ferro-alloy4 ,numerous alloys of zirconium have been made1 and a number of patents1 both foreign and domestic1 have been issued covering various alloys1 both ferrous and non-ferrous4 ,no secret processes1 as such1 are known to the writer4 ,,table #cd4--,,production ,,of ,,zirconium ,,minerals ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,and ,,brazil1 #aijb-aiafajd ---------------------------------------- -- ,united ,states ,brazil ------------------------------------ ,quantity ,value ,quantity ,value ,year7short tons7 7short tons7 ---------------------------------------- #aijb 444 444 #ab #c1idg #aijc #a #egj #g #a1idg #aijd #bjj #i #c1ice #aije #d #afjj #ah #e1ejf #aijf #bdh #bf #e1jda #aijg #df #ch #h1gef #aijh #j #j #bge #ae1aea #aiji #a #bej #aag #aa1hch #aiaj #j #j #abh #bc1bga #aiaa #a #hjb #de #af1afi #aiab #j #j #dc #ad1ggb #aiac #j #j #a1aai #ed1gfg #aiad #j #j #bcg #ad1ijc #aiae #j #j #h #b1iae #aiaf #j #j #ajd #af1fdg ---------------------------------------- #ajd ,adapted from ,mineral ,resources1 ,u4 ,s41 #aiaf1 ,part ,,ii1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 #aiag1 pp4 #cgg-chf4 ,,summary ,the principal use for zirconium ores at present is determined by the refractory properties of the oxide1 zirconia4 ,refractory bricks and shapes for furnace linings1 chemical ware1 and other heat1 acid1 and alkali resisting articles are made of zirconia1 and are finding a limited market4 ,the recent interest in zirconium is due to the remarkable properties which it is said to impart to steel4 ,its real worth1 or function1 in that direction is yet to be definitely determined1 and tests conducted by the ,bureau of ,mines1 ,bureau of ,standards and others are being made to ascertain the facts4 ,the best and most available source of supply at present is ,brazil1 where the natural oxide1 baddeleyite1 occurs in considerable quantities in the states of ,minas ,geraes and ,sao ,paulo4 ,the deposits have not been explored sufficiently to make any reliable estimate of tonnage possible1 but1 judged from their surface showing1 they are of vast extent4 ,the silicate1 zircon1 is found in ,brazil1 ,india and in the ,united ,states in commercial quantities4 ,the important deposits of zirconium minerals are controlled by ,brazil1 ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states1 but the actual ownership of many of the deposits is unknown4 ,this is particularly true of the oxide ores4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,monazite1 ,,thorium1 ,,and ,,mesothorium ,,by ,r4 ,b4 ,,moore ,,uses ,,of ,,monazite ,practically the only use of monazite has been as a source of thorium salts4 ,in extracting these1 by-products are recovered1 such as cerium1 lanthanum1 and other rare earths4 ,thorium salts are used almost exclusively for the manufacture of ,welsbach mantles1 which consist of #ii per cent4 thorium oxide and #a per cent4 cerium oxide4 ,for this use there is no known substitute4 ,the one other use of thorium salts is in ordinary chemical laboratories1 but this use is very limited4 ,the fluoride and other salts of cerium are used in connection with the flaming arc1 their presence giving increased luminosity4 ,mesothorium is a radio-active element always found in thorium minerals4 ,until quite recently it has been thrown away in the manufacture of thorium nitrate2 but it is now being produced as a by-product1 and is useful as a substitute for radium in luminous paints1 and for therapeutic purposes4 ,,geological ,,and ,,geographical ,,distribution ,the principal sources of monazite are ,brazil and ,india1 although it has been mined successfully in the ,united ,states in the ,carolinas and in ,idaho4 ,it has been found in ,swaziland1 ,africa1 and in ,australia1 and also1 to a limited extent1 in native rock and in placers in ,ekaterinburg1 ,russia4 ,monazite is usually found in the gravels of small streams or bottom lands1 although it is sometimes found in the soil of hillsides4 ,in ,brazil and ,india it occurs mainly in the beach sands of the sea coast4 ,in places it is found in small crystals in gneiss1 granite and pegmatite rocks4 ,as these rocks become disintegrated1 the crystals are washed into streams and with other heavy sands are deposited in the stream beds4 ,on the coast of ,brazil1 the monazite grains from the crystalline rocks of the coastal mountains are concentrated by the waves of the sea4 ,united ,states4--,the deposits of the ,carolinas cover an area of several hundred square miles east of the ,blue ,ridge ,mountains4 ,in ,north ,carolina1 the counties of ,cleveland1 ,burke1 ,alexander1 ,rutherford and ,lincoln furnish the richest deposits4 ,in ,south ,carolina the only deposits of value are in the counties of ,cherokee and ,greenville4 ,practically all of the monazite mined in the ,carolinas is derived from gravels in streams and bottom lands1 the miners usually following the stream courses4 ,the gravels vary greatly in thickness1 and it is therefore difficult to make a true estimate of the average1 but in general the monazite-bearing gravels are between #a and #b feet thick4 ,the top soil in the bottom lands averages #c to #f feet thick and may be #g feet or more4 ,the deposits in the ,state of ,idaho are near ,centerville and ,idaho ,city4 ,in the future1 under more favorable conditions of price1 transportation1 etc41 these deposits may possibly become a commercial source of monazite4 ,almost all of them contain small quantities of gold4 ,the gravel beds are considerably thicker than those in the ,carolinas1 and with the gold content might be more profitable were it not for labor being higher priced4 ,monazite has been found in ,colorado1 in the ,newland ,gulch district1 #bj miles south of ,denver1 where it occurs in gravels that carry considerable gold4 ,brazil4--,there are three kinds of monazite sand deposits in ,brazil2 the deposits within the government lands along the coast2 deposits lying behind the government coastal lands1 which are private state possessions or belong to private parties2 and inland deposits4 ,the bulk of the monazite is derived from coast sands in the states of ,espirito ,santo and ,bahia1 the sand being washed by means of oscillating tables or sluice boxes4 ,the coast lands are the property of the federal government for #cc meters inland1 measuring from the point where the sea waves wash the beach at mean high tide4 ,this uncertain method of marking property has of course given rise to disputes when boundaries are established4 ,at a few places along the coast strips of monazite-bearing sands lie directly behind the government land1 and some of these might be worked profitably were it not for the fact that it has been difficult to prove to the federal government that these sands were not taken from the nearby government land4 ,one ,french concern has exploited such lands in the ,state of ,rio de ,janeiro4 ,along the banks of the large rivers1 such as ,parahyba1 there are great quantities of black sands with traces of monazite4 ,near ,sapucaia such deposits have been worked by a ,french concern4 ,many of the inland deposits can not be exploited on account of the expense of transportation of the products1 as the deposits are many miles from a railroad4 ,india4--,india is the newest source of monazite sands1 the deposits lying on the sea beach like those in ,brazil4 ,the deposits are in the ,travancore district near the southwestern end of the ,hindustan peninsula4 ,very little information is available concerning these deposits4 ,,changes ,,in ,,treatment ,,practice ,the general method of treatment employed until quite recently has involved leaching the concentrate with concentrated sulphuric acid1 thus getting the thorium1 cerium1 and other rare earths in solution and separating them from the silica1 zircon1 ilmenite and other insoluble products4 ,from this stage different companies used slight variations in practice1 such variations being kept strictly secret1 although they all involved the precipitation of the thorium as oxalate by means of oxalic acid4 ,at the outbreak of the war the price of sulphuric acid went to four or five times the original cost1 and the increased price of oxalic acid was practically prohibitive4 ,consequently the manufacturing companies had to change their entire procedure and to use chemicals that they could obtain at a reasonable price4 ,in this difficult undertaking the companies were successful1 and at least one company devised a process that was considerably more efficient than the old one4 ,at present mesothorium is being produced as a by-product by the ,lindsay ,light ,co4 and the ,welsbach ,co41 the process used by the latter company having been originated by the ,colorado ,station of the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,mines4 ,this process is cheap and extremely efficient1 and will no doubt enable the ,welsbach ,co4 to compete commercially with any other manufacturer of mesothorium4 ,of course as the process was developed by the ,bureau of ,mines it will ultimately be made available for anyone1 but as mesothorium can only be made at a profit as a by-product of thorium nitrate1 anyone who manufacturers mesothorium must first establish a thorium industry4 ,,political ,,control ,the important monazite resources of the world are controlled politically by three nations3 the ,united ,states1 ,great ,britain 7,india7 and ,brazil4 ,the deposits of the ,united ,states1 in normal times1 probably can not be worked successfully in competition with the foreign deposits without the protection of a high tariff4 ,,commercial ,,control ,united ,states4--,the widely scattered monazite deposits of the ,united ,states are of importance only during a period of abnormally high prices or during the restriction of imports from ,brazil and ,india4 ,the known reserves are small and the deposits will probably never be an important factor in the world monazite market4 ,as far as the writer knows1 all of the ,american deposits are controlled by ,american capital4 ,the manufacture of thorium nitrate in this country is closely controlled by two large companies1 the ,welsbach ,co4 and the ,lindsay ,light ,co42 they own the only two commercial plants of any size in the ,united ,states4 ,all of the manufacturers of mantles in the ,united ,states1 with one exception1 must obtain their thorium nitrate from one of these two companies4 ,as these companies supply practically all the thorium nitrate requirements of ,england and ,france1 they control the thorium industry4 ,the only other manufacturer of thorium nitrate in this country is the ,block ,co41 of ,chicago1 which uses about #ae tons of monazite a year1 making sufficient thorium nitrate for its own production of mantles4 ,the ,welsbach ,co4 uses about #a1bjj tons of monazite annually and the ,lindsay ,light ,co4 about half that amount4 ,the ,welsbach ,co4 has contracts for the delivery of monazite1 up to its requirements1 from ,brazil2 the ,lindsay ,light ,co4 has obtained all of its monazite from ,india4 ,most of the processes used1 including those used by the ,welsbach ,co4 and the ,lindsay ,light ,co41 are secret4 ,as thorium can be extracted from monazite in more ways than one1 a secret process does not necessarily mean commercial control unless such a process is in every way efficient and the company owning it is willing to get into a commercial war4 ,brazil4--,as the ,brazilian deposits have for so many years been the chief source of the supply of monazite1 the history of their commercial control is practically a history of the commercial control of the monazite industry4 ,about #bg years ago1 ,john ,gordon1 an ,american now residing in ,new ,york1 found monazite on the coast of ,brazil4 ,he brought large quantities to ,hamburg1 ,germany1 and was able to obtain a monoply of the monazite sand4 ,at that time the manufacture of thorium nitrate1 the principal product of the monazite sand1 was confined in ,europe to a few large chemical firms in ,germany and the ,welsbach ,co4 in ,vienna4 ,they not only supplied the ,european market with thorium nitrate1 but also sent large quantities to the ,united ,states4 ,the ,american ,welsbach ,co4 early manufactured thorium nitrates from sands mined in the ,carolinas1 a protective duty of #f per cent4 making this possible4 ,in #aijb ,mr4 ,gordon agreed to supply the four large ,german manufacturers and the ,austrian manufacturers with monazite at a price of #aej a ton and a profit on the manufactured nitrates4 ,a close combination thus formed1 known as the ,german ,thorium ,convention1 prevented other thorium manufacturers from acquiring any of the mineral mined by ,mr4 ,gordon1 and raised the price of thorium nitrate #ajj per cent4 ,for a considerable period ,mr4 ,gordon exported the sand from the coast lands of ,bahia1 near ,prado1 ,brazil1 without interference4 ,finally the ,brazilian government became acquainted with the value of the resources and decided that no private individual or state government had the right to mine1 sell1 lease1 or remove any monazite on so-called state lands without the consent of the federal authorities4 ,in #aijh the government advertised that coast lands in the ,state of ,espirito ,santo would be leased to the highest bidder for the exploitation of the sands4 ,a contract was thus obtained for the firm of ,a4 ,c4 de ,freitas ,co41 of ,hamburg1 ,germany4 ,by the contract the firm agreed to pay to the ,brazilian government a rental equal to #ej per cent4 of the selling price of the monazite sands and to export at least #a1bjj tons annually4 ,to avoid trouble the ,german ,thorium ,convention arranged later that half of its supply should be furnished by ,mr4 ,gordon and half by the de ,freitas company4 ,a new convention was formed by the four ,german chemical manufacturers with ,mr4 ,gordon and the de ,freitas company1 preventing firms in other countries that had started to manufacture thorium nitrate from getting raw material4 ,consequently great efforts were made to find and develop new deposits of monazite4 ,the high price for thorium nitrate made possible the mining of monazite in the ,carolinas and its export to ,germany1 especially to one ,german manufacturer who was not in the ,german ,thorium ,convention4 ,ultimately there was an overproduction of thorium and in #aijf the price dropped #ej per cent4 ,monazite mining declined in all localities where the cost of mining was high1 and production in the ,carolinas and the interior of ,brazil practically stopped4 ,during the four or five years antedating the war the ,german ,incandescent ,gas ,light ,co41 of ,berlin1 succeeded in controlling the largest manufacturers of thorium nitrate in ,europe1 except those in ,france4 ,it controlled both the ,english and ,australian companies and became the active competitor of the so-called ,thorium ,convention1 which at that time had lost much of its power4 ,mr4 ,gordon still has extensive interests in ,brazil1 but he does not have a monoply4 ,the exportation rights from ,brazil are in the hands of ,luis de ,rezende ,co4 7,rio de ,janiero71 ,mr4 ,gordon1 and others4 ,luis de ,rezende ,co4 is mainly a ,french concern1 but has ,brazilian and ,portuguese stockholders4 ,the company controls the ,french company1 ,socit ,minire1 associated with the ,welsbach ,co4 ,as noted above1 one ,french company has exploited monazite deposits in the territory immediately behind the government lands in the ,state of ,rio de ,janeiro4 ,another ,french company has worked the black sands along the ,parahyba ,river1 near ,sapucaica1 which contain traces of monazite4 ,india4--,before the war1 the ,german manufacturers of thorium nitrate exercised as close control over the monazite deposits of ,travancore1 ,india1 as over those of ,brazil4 ,only a limited quantity of the sand was sold to gas-mantle manufacturers and other consumers in the ,united ,kingdom1 and then at a price nine times the price paid by the ,german consumers4 ,such a monoply of the supplies of raw material made the ,german monoply of the thorium nitrate industry almost complete4 ,according to ,s4 ,j4 ,johnstone1 in an address at the annual meeting of the ,society of ,chemical ,industry in ,july1 #aiaf1 the ,germans obtained practical control of the ,travancore monazite deposits in the following manner3 ,a lease for working these deposits was granted some years ago by the ,travancore ,durbar1 with the approval of the ,government of ,india1 to the ,london ,cosmopolitan ,tin ,mining ,co41 which contracted to sell the whole of its output to a ,german firm4 ,soon after the outbreak of war it was found that the whole of the preference shares and #aa1jjj of the ordinary shares of the ,travancore ,minerals ,co4 were held in trust for the ,auer company1 of ,berlin4 ,the ,india ,office decided that in the future all directors of the company working the concession must be ,british-born and that the company1 must be ready at all times to sell monazite sand direct1 and at a fair price1 to ,british firms4 ,german contracts were canceled4 ,a second company1 ,thorium1 ,ltd41 obtained a #bj-year lease to work #aej acres in ,travancore for monazite sand1 and is exporting the sand and manufacturing thorium nitrate from it at works in ,england4 ,a great deal of ,travancore monazite has been imported by ,american companies4 ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,as outlined above1 it can be readily seen that the ,united ,states is dependent upon ,brazil and ,india for its raw materials1 as domestic deposits are not large enough to furnish the required supply and cannot be worked in competition with the more cheaply mined foreign deposits4 ,the average concentrate obtained in the ,carolinas runs about #c to #d per cent4 thorium oxide2 that obtained in ,brazil averages somewhat over #h per cent4 ,under such conditions it is difficult for the ,carolina monazite to compete with that from ,brazil or from ,india4 ,in addition1 a very considerable amount of the ,carolina monazite available has been removed4 ,the old workings are more or less covered up and the whole industry has become completely disorganized4 ,whilst these deposits were being mined and operated farmers were in the habit of making their own concentrate in crude sluice boxes4 ,the product thus obtained averaged about #ce per cent4 monazite4 ,the concentrates were then sold to a refinery1 where it was best treated by electromagnetic separators1 such as the ,wetherill machine4 ,the final product obtained from these machines was ready for chemical treatment for the extraction of the thorium4 ,practically the same treatment is given to the monazite from ,brazil and ,india4 ,as the concentrate obtained is of much higher grade1 the additional charges for freight and duty1 which are not borne by the ,carolinas product1 are more than offset4 ,undoubtedly1 unless a very high tariff is placed on the monazite from ,brazil and ,india1 our future supplies will come from these two sources1 at least for some time4 ,it is very doubtful whether with a high tariff the ,carolina deposits could furnish the monazite required in this country1 even for a few years1 and under the most favorable conditions it would take some time1 possibly six months to a year1 to revive the industry4 ,the ,allies and practically the whole world are dependent upon the ,united ,states for the manufactured products1 thorium nitrate and gas mantles4 ,whether this monoply will continue is doubtful1 as there is a movement in ,england to encourage both the thorium nitrate and the gas-mantle industry4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,copper ,,by ,f4 ,w4 ,,paine ,,introduction ,one country stands pre-eminent as the world's great producer of copper1 and that is the ,united ,states1 whose production was #fj per cent4 of the total world output in #aiag4 ,iron1 coal1 oil and copper are fundamental raw materials of which the ,united ,states produces more than any other country1 but only in copper and in oil is the output greater than that of all other countries together4 ,in copper this has been true since the early nineties4 ,american copper1 ,english gold1 ,russian platinum and ,chilean nitrate are common phrases in world markets2 as common as the commodities themselves4 ,no other country produces or has for many years ever produced one-sixth as much copper as the ,united ,states4 ,while the world output of copper has been increasing1 at the average rate of #e per cent4 annually for #aj years up to #aiad and three times as rapidly since then1 the relative importance of the ,united ,states has not declined4 ,on the contrary it has increased at a greater rate than the total world output4 ,certain individual countries1 it is true1 have since #aiad increased their output faster than the ,united ,states1 but there is no indication that the ,united ,states will lose its present dominating leadership4 ,because of the magnitude of the copper industry of the ,united ,states1 great refining plants have been built up here4 ,american capital also has gone largely into ,canadian1 ,mexican and ,south ,american copper properties4 ,as a result the ,united ,states now imports nearly one-third as much copper as is produced 7#ah per cent4 of the total world output in #aiag74 ,thus ,american capital controls1 through refining in addition to ownership of mines1 #gh per cent4 of the world's copper production4 ,this control should also be equally strong as regards selling4 ,obviously1 a large part of our domestic1 and1 as regards statistics1 all the imported copper1 is exported in finished form--copper ingots and bars1 brass1 electrical machinery1 etc4 ,but as regards selling and even mine ownership in ,mexico and ,south ,america1 there is considerable ,german control2 although the important mines of ,canada1 ,mexico and ,south ,america are owned by either ,american1 ,british or ,french interests1 except those owned by local foreign capital4 ,,table #ce4--;,,geographical ,,and ,,financial ,,control ,,of ,,the ,,world',s ,,copper ,,mines 7,production in ,metric ,tons7 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,per- ,per- cent- cent- age ,average ,estimated age of #aiaf-aiag capacity of ,owned by ,worldoutput of output ofworld ,u4 ,s4 total copper ,country of origin copper total capital ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,western ,hemisphere #ei4b #hfh1ijc,united ,states #ibh1jjj #eg4e #hii1jjj #c4c #di1afh;,canada #eh1jjj #c4f #bh1jjj #c4d #di1dgh,mexico #fe1jjj #d4j #di1jjj #a4j #ad1jjj;,cuba #aj1jjj #j4f 444 #j4b #b1jjj,venezuela #b1jjj #j4a 444 #d4h #gj1jjj;,chile #aaj1jjj #f4h #hf1jjj #c4 #dc1fbj,peru #de1jjj #b4h #de1jjj #j4d #f1jjj;,bolivia #ab1jjj #j4h #f1jjj ---------------------------------------- --------------- #ge4da1ajc1afi,total ,western ,hemisphere #a1bcj1jjj #gf4ba1aac1jjj ,eastern ,hemisphere #c4b #dg1ejj;,africa #eh1jjj #c4f 444 #b4e #cf1eej;,australia #dc1jjj #b4g 444 #g4i #aab1ijj;,japan #abe1jjj #g4g 444 #b4i #db1jjj,spain and ,portugal #db1jjj #b4f 444 #a4c #ah1ejj,russia 7estimated7 #ah1jjj #a4a 444 #d4h #ga1jjj;,central ,powers 7estimated7 #ga1jjj #d4d 444 #a4d #ai1jjj,norway #ai1jjj #a4b 444 #j4a #a1jjj,sweden #a1jjj #j4a 444 #j4d #f1bej,other countries #f1bej #j4d 444 ---------------------------------------- --------------- #bd4f #ced1gjj,total ,eastern ,hemisphere #chc1bej #bc4h ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,world ,total#a1def1hfi #a1fac1bejajj #a1aac1jjj #ajj #fiajf ---------------------------------------- --------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,per- cent- age ,average of #aiaf-aiag ,owned by ,owned by ,worldoutput of ,british ,german total copper ,country of origin capital capital ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,western ,hemisphere #ei4b #hfh1ijc,united ,states #bi1jjj #c4c #di1afh;,canada #cj1jjj #c4d #di1dgh,mexico ,idle #b1ejj plus #a4j #ad1jjj;,cuba 444 #b1jjj plus #j4b #b1jjj,venezuela #b1jjj #d4h #gj1jjj;,chile #b1ejj #d1ejj plus #c4 #dc1fbj,peru #j4d #f1jjj;,bolivia 444 ---------------------------------------- --------------- #ge4da1ajc1afi,total ,western ,hemisphere #fc1ejj #i1jjj ,eastern ,hemisphere #c4b #dg1ejj;,africa #eh1jjjaje 444 #b4e #cf1eej;,australia #dc1jjj #g4i #aab1ijj;,japan 444 444 #b4i #db1jjj,spain and ,portugal #dj1jjj 444 #a4c #ah1ejj,russia 7estimated7 444 #ah1jjj787 #d4h #ga1jjj;,central ,powers 7estimated7 444 #ga1jjj #a4d #ai1jjj,norway #aj1jjj 444 #j4a #a1jjj,sweden 444 444 #j4d #f1bej,other countries #bej 444 ---------------------------------------- --------------- #bd4f #ced1gjj,total ,eastern ,hemisphere ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,world ,total#a1def1hfi #bab1gej #ih1jjj #ajj #ac4cajf #f4aajf ---------------------------------------- --------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,per- cent- age ,average ,owned by of #aiaf-aiag ,owned by ,owned bylocal capital ,worldoutput of ,french ,japanesein producing total copper ,country of origin capital capital countries ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,western ,hemisphere #ei4b #hfh1ijc,united ,states #c4c #di1afh;,canada #c4d #di1dgh,mexico #ac1ejj #a4j #ad1jjj;,cuba 444 444 #h1jjj #j4b #b1jjj,venezuela #d4h #gj1jjj;,chile #i1ejjaje 444 #g1ejj #c4 #dc1fbj,peru #j4d #f1jjj;,bolivia #f1jjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #ge4da1ajc1afi,total ,western ,hemisphere #bi1jjj 444 #ae1ejj ,eastern ,hemisphere #c4b #dg1ejj;,africa 444 #b4e #cf1eej;,australia #g4i #aab1ijj;,japan 444 #abe1jjj #b4i #db1jjj,spain and ,portugal 444 444 #b1jjj #a4c #ah1ejj,russia 7estimated7 #d4h #ga1jjj;,central ,powers 7estimated7 #a4d #ai1jjj,norway 444 444 #i1jjj #j4a #a1jjj,sweden 444 444 #a1jjj #j4d #f1bej,other countries #b1jjj 444 7#c1jjj77;,italy7 7#a1jjj77;,china7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #bd4f #ced1gjj,total ,eastern ,hemisphere #ca1ejj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,world ,total#a1def1hfi #ca1jjj #abe1jjj #ajj #a4iajf #g4gajfb4j1 divided as follows3 ,cuba1 #j4e2 ,spain1 #j4a2 ,norway1 #j4f2 ,sweden1 #j4je2 ,chile1 #j4e2 ,china1 #j4je2 ,italy1 #j4b ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #aje ,includes ,belgian capital4 #ajf ,percentage of ownership4 ,,table #cf4--;,,business ,,control ,,of ,,the ,,world',s ,,copper ,,mines ,all figures metric tons ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,estimated capacity ,refined output of ,refined in ,refined refined in ,british in ,country of origin copper the ,u4 ,s4,dominions,germany ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,western ,hemisphere ,united ,states #ibh1jjj #ibh1jjj 444 444 ,canada #eh1jjj #bh1jjj #cj1jjj 444 ,mexico #fe1jjj #eb1jjj 444 444 ,cuba #aj1jjj #aj1jjj 444 444 ,venezuela #b1jjj #b1jjj ,chile #aaj1jjj #dc1jjj #b1ejj 444 ,peru #de1jjj #de1jjj ,bolivia #ab1jjj #f1jjj 444 444 ----------------------------------- ,total ,western ,hemisphere#a1bcj1jjj #a1aad1jjj #cb1ejj #j ,percent of total #gf4bajg #fi #b 444 ,eastern ,hemisphere 7or in ,belgium7 ,africa #eh1jjj #e1jjj #ec1jjj 444 ,australia #dc1jjj 444 #dc1jjj 444 ,japan #abe1jjj #c1jjj 444 444 ,spain and ,portugal 7estimated7 #db1jjj #b1jjj #ce1jjj 444 ,russia 7estimated7 #ah1jjj 444 444 444 ,central ,powers #ga1jjj8 444 444 #ga1jjj ,norway #ai1jjj 444 #ai1jjj 444 ,sweden #a1jjj 444 #a1jjj 444 ,other ,countries #f1bej 444 #bej 444 ----------------------------------- ,total ,eastern ,hemisphere #chc1bej #aj1jjj #aea1bej #ga1jjj ,percentage of total #bc4h 4#g #i4c #d4d ,total percentage #ajj #fi4g #aa4c #d4d ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,formerly ,refined,refined ,refined sold in in in other by ,german ,country of origin ,france ,japan countries houses ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,western ,hemisphere ,united ,states 444 444 4447 #gc1jjj7 ,canada 444 444 4447 #ba1jjj7 ,mexico #ac1jjj 444 4447 #b1ejj7 ,cuba 444 444 4447 #aj1jjj7 ,venezuela ,chile #i1ejj 444 #ee1jjj7 #bj1jjj7 ,peru ,bolivia #f1jjj ------------------------------------- ,total ,western ,hemisphere #bh1ejj #j #ee1jjj 7#acd1ejj7 ,percent of total #a4h 444 #c4d 7#h7 7,chili copper7 7,u4 ,s4 owned7 ,eastern ,hemisphere ,africa 444 444 444 7 #e1jjj7 ,australia 444 444 444 7 #dc1jjj7 ,japan 444#abb1jjj ,spain and ,portugal 7estimated7 #e1jjj 444 444 ,russia 7estimated7 444 444 444 8 ,central ,powers 444 444 #ah1jjj 8 ,norway 444 444 444 8 ,sweden 444 444 444 8 ,other ,countries #b1jjj 444 #c1jjj 7,italy7 #a1jjj 7,china7 ------------------------------------- ,total ,eastern ,hemisphere #g1jjjabb1jjj #bb1jjj 7 #dh1jjj7 ,percentage of total 4#d #g4f #a4d 7#c7 ,total percentage #b4b #g4f #d4h 7#aa7 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #ajg ,the ,united ,states controls the sale of substantially all this copper4 ,,table #cg4--;,,future ,,importance ,,of ,,present ,,copper-,,producing ,,countries ,,as ,,indicated ,,by ,,known ,,reserves ,,of ,,copper ,,ore1 ,,and ,,capital ,,controlling ,,these ,,reserves ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,developed reserves in terms of years' life at capacity output ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,estimated ,per- capacity cent-,owned ,owned output of age by ,owned by copper of ,u4 ,s4 by ,german 7metric worldcapi-,british capi- ,producing country tons7 total tal capital tal ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,w4 ,hemisphere3 ,united ,states #ibh1jjj #eg4e #ab4d #ab4d 444 yrs4 yrs4 ,canada #eh1jjj #c4f #ae #bj 444 ,mexico #fe1jjj #d4j #e large large ,cuba and ,venezuela #ab1jjj #j4g 444 444 #c yrs4 ,chile #aaj1jjj #f4h #aej #c 8 ,peru #de1jjj #b4h #d 444 444 ,bolivia #ab1jjj #j4h 444 444 444 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,total #a1bcj1jjj #gf4b 444 444 444 ,percentage total reserves 444 #gf4h #gc4f #b4d #j4a ,eastern ,hemisphere3 ,africa #eh1jjj #c4f 444#ffaaj 444 ,australia #dc1jjj #b4g 444 #g4b 444 ,japan #abe1jjj #g4g 444 444 444 ,spain and ,portugal #db1jjj #b4f 444#ej 444 ,russia #ah1jjj #a4a 444#ah787 #ah787 ,central ,powers #ga1jjj #d4d 444 444 8 ,norway #ai1jjj #a4b 444#aj 444 ,sweden #a1jjj #j4a 444 444 444 ,other countries #f1bej #j4d 444 444 444 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,total #chc1bej #bc4h 444 444 444 ,percentage total reserves 444 #bc4b 444#ah4d #j4ie ,world total #a1fac1bejajj 444 444 444 ,percentage of world total reserves 444 444 #gc4f #bj4h #a4je ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,developed reserves in terms of years' life at capacity output ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,owned by ,per- local centage ,owned capital of ,owned by in total by ,japan- produc- re- ,french ese ing ,exten- serves capi- capi- coun- sion of ,producing country tal tal tries #ajh world ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,w4 ,hemisphere3 ,united ,states 444 444 444 #gac #cd4 ,canada 444 444 444 #fc4c #c4 ,mexico #f yrs4 444 444 #bj4h #a4ae ,cuba and ,venezuela 444 444 #c yrs4 #b4a #j4aj ,chile #e 444 consid- #gie4h #cg4i erable #aji ,peru 444 444 #aa4b #j4ee ,bolivia #d 444 444 #b4h #j4aj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,total 444 444 444 #a1fji4j ,percentage total reserves #j4d 444 #j4c 444 #gf4h ,eastern ,hemisphere3 ,africa 444 444 444 #bcg4f #aa4c ,australia 444 444 444 #bj #j4ie ,japan 444 #f 444 #df4b #b4b ,spain and ,portugal 444 444 #ej #acj #f4b ,russia 444 444 #ah #ai4h #j4ie ,central ,powers 444 444 8 #bj #j4ie ,norway 444 444 #aj #ab #j4ee ,sweden 444 444 #aj #a #j4jd ,other countries 444 444 8 #a4d #j4jf ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,total 444 444 444 #dhh4j ,percentage total reserves 444 #b4b #a4fe 444 #bc4b ,world total 444 444 444 #b1jig4j ,percentage of world total reserves #j4d #b4b #a4ie 444 #ajj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #ajh ,extension is the product of 8,percentage of ,world ,total0 and 8,developed ,reserves in ,terms of ,years ,life10 and gives total ultimate relative importance of different countries4 #aji ,in so far as it affects production this high figure must be discounted because of the large reserves being compact1 the distance from market and the unfavorable mining conditions of a thinly settled country4 #aaj ,katanga equals of this4 ,,note4--,not much weight is to be attached to figures showing more than #aj years of life4 ,total full future value over long number of years is greatly reduced when expressed in terms of present value on normal interest discount4 ,all countries with reserves good for ten or more years may be considered as being on an equal footing so far as copper resources are concerned4 ,but1 large reserves may mean expanding production 7as in ,chile and ,africa7 and be important on that account and only on that account4 ,to weigh ore reserves they have been taken in toto1 but ,spain would be no worse off as compared to the ,united ,states if her reserves were put at #aj years instead of at #ej 7as calculated above74 ,her reserves happen to be of a kind easily blocked out1 but her output is stationary4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii4--,geographical distribution of the principal copper-producing districts of the world4 ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,paine4 ,table #ce shows the different copper-producing countries of the world and the chief features of financial control of the producing mines4 ,table #cf shows the chief features of business control 7refining and selling control7 as distinct from control by mine ownership4 ,in both tables a forecast for future conditions is made by using estimates of #aiah and #aiai production4 ,these figures are followed out to the different forms of control4 ,the actual outputs of #aiaf-ag are given as a reference and check4 ,table #cg shows reserves1 largely those of producing mines4 ,plate ,,viii shows the location of the principal copper deposits of the world4 ,,north ,,america ,,united ,,states ,production4--,the maximum output of copper from mines within the borders of the ,united ,states was in #aiaf1 and amounted to #a1ibg1hej1edh pounds4 ,in #aiag the output was less1 because of labor troubles1 but six leading states showed an increase1 and if ,montana had equaled the output of #aiaf1 the #aiag output would have been #a1ifb1jcd1eab pounds4 ,without good markets and favorable labor conditions1 the ,united ,states production cannot reach anything like #b1jjj1jjj1jjj pounds a year4 ,commercial ,control ,control ,through ,ownership of ,mines4--,all the productive bodies of copper in the ,united ,states are owned by ,americans1 except a small number controlled by ,english capital4 ,before the war1 there was evidence of ,german affiliation and potential control in the copper industry1 but this centered in refining and selling the metal4 ,accordingly1 the ,german grip on the industry was highly centralized1 and direct and effective measures were used in breaking it4 ,five leading groups are in control of copper production in the ,united ,states4 ,certain of these have additional important ownerships in ,south ,america and ,mexico1 which will be discussed under those countries4 ,,table #ch4--,,leading ,,financial ,,groups ,,in ,,control ,,of ,,copper ,,production ,,in ,,united ,,states ,pounds ,group #a4 ,hayden-,jackling 8porphyries0 7closely affiliated with group #b7 ,utah ,copper1 ,ray ,consolidated 7,ariz471 ,nevada ,consolidated1 7,nev47 ,chino 7,n4 ,mex47 and ,butte ,superior 7,mont472 #aiag output 7custom ore not included7 #ddh1hhg1bec ,group #b4 ,morgan-,guggenheim 7,american ,smelting ,refining ,co74 ,kennecott 7,alaska7 and a large number of smaller mines owned by ,americans which have their ore treated at plants controlled by this group4 ,the #aiag output of ,kennecott and eleven of the chief customers of ,american ,smelting ,refining plants 7smaller custom shipments to smelters must be added7 was #aef1ied1gbb ,group #c4 ,rockefeller-,ryan3 ,anaconda1 ,inspiration1 ,north ,butte1 ,utah ,consolidated1 ,mountain ,copper 7,cal471 ,balaklala 7,cal471 ,walker mine 7,cal471 and ,arizona ,copper ,co41 #aiag output 7custom ore not included7 #ceg1cjh1eeh ,group #d4 ,phelps-,dodge and affiliations3 ,arizona and ,new ,mexico only4 ,copper ,queen1 ,detroit1 ,burro ,mountain1 ,commercial ,mining ,co4 7,phelps-,dodge72 #aiag output #abc1jjj1jjj ,calumet ,arizona--,new ,cornelia 7,briggs-,congdon72 #aiag output #gi1cfj1jjj ,united ,verde ,extension 7affiliated with each of above72 total #aiag output #fc1bdb1ghd ,to which must be added custom business which is important1 e4g41 ,arizona ,commercial mine1 etc42 #aiag business 7other custom ore not included7 about #aj1jjj1jjj ------------- ,total for group #d #bge1fjc1aac ,group #e4 ,calumet ,hecla3 #aiag output1 ,calumet ,hecla mine and subsidiaries #afh1gfe1jcc ,total #aiag output of these five leading groups#aaa #a1djg1eah1fgi #aaa ,exclusive of the small mines 7shippers of custom ore7 partly controlled through smelting and refining contracts by same interests4 ,important smaller groups may be listed as follows3 ,group #f4 ,w4 ,a4 ,clark3 ,united ,verde1 ,elm ,orlu 7,mont47 and ,ophir ,hill 7,utah72 #aiag output #hh1cij1jch ,group #g4 ,adolph ,lewisohn3 ,miami and1 by sale of output1 ,shattuck-,arizona2 #aiag output #eg1jeh1fff ,group #h4 ,u4 ,s4 ,smelting1 ,refining ,mining ,co4 ,custom ore and ,mammoth mine1 ,cal41 ,utah ,apex1 and ,tintic 7,utah7 mines2 #aiag output #bb1fjj1jjj ,group #i4 ,lake mines 7other than ,calumet ,hecla73 ,copper ,range ,co41 ,mohawk1 ,quincy1 etc4#aab2 #aiag output #ii1gjj1jjj #aab ,ten different interests4 ,there is also a group1 discussed later1 of uncertain or unclassifiable affiliations1 owned by ,americans1 but in many instances worked under smelting and refining contracts that merit special mention3 #aiag output1 pounds ,old ,dominion 7,ariz471 7perhaps group #d7 #be1geh1cha ,east ,butte 7and custom ore71 7perhaps group #i7 #ah1jjj1jjj ,shannon ,copper ,co41 7,ariz471 7independent7 #f1ach1bai ,penn4 ,mining ,co4 7,cal47 7independent7 #c1djj1jjj ,cons4 ,arizona ,smelting ,co4 7independent7 #e1jjj1jjj ,ducktown ,sulphur1 ,copper ,iron ,co41 ,ltd4 7,tenn471 7,english7 #e1ebc1egc -------------- ,total unclassifiable and uncertain #fc1hbj1agc ,total of groups #a to #e #a1djg1eah1fgi ,total of groups #f to #i #bfg1gdh1gjd -------------- ,total of all interests #a1gci1jhg1eef ,total #aiag ,united ,states copper production 7from domestic mines only7 #a1hgc1edf1aga ,balance 7custom ore from small shippers7#aac #acd1deh1fad #aac ,this balance includes copper produced as by-product in mining of other metals in ,colorado and the ,east1 estimated at #ej1jjj1jjj pounds1 and custom shipments from #a1jjj small operations1 chiefly to smelters controlled by groups #a1 #b1 #c1 #d and #f1 estimated at #hd1deh1fad pounds4 ,certain mines in the above groups are owned in ,england1 but are classed with that interest which refines and sells the production4 ,in group #b1 for example1 is listed the ,tennessee ,copper ,co41 whose copper is refined and sold at the ,american ,smelting ,refining plant in ,baltimore4 ,in ownership1 however1 this property should be placed in group #g1 7output #aj1edg1gjd pounds74 ,in group #c are two ,english-owned mines3 ,arizona ,copper ,co4 7,scotch7 and ,mountain ,copper ,co41 7,english74 ,ducktown ,sulphur1 ,copper ,iron in the last group 7uncertain and unclassifiable7 is also ,english-owned4 ,the combined output of these three ,english-owned properties is #dh1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,this comprises all properties not owned by ,american capital4 ,ducktown ,sulphur1 ,copper ,iron ,co41 ,ltd4 is ,english-owned1 but all its production 7copper matte7 is sold to the ,american ,metal ,co4 ,the others in the group designated above as uncertain1 or unclassifiable1 are entirely ,american owned1 although their production has been marketed by the ,american ,metal ,co4 or ,l4 ,vogelstein1 as discussed later4 ,none of these groups actually own the mines outright1 the mines being owned by hosts of stockholders scattered all over the country4 ,of many companies the president and directors own a very small percentage of the stock4 ,as regards group #f and to a less extent group #d1 however1 the actual ownership is in very few hands2 but this is exceptional4 ,the copper mines of the ,united ,states1 like the railroads and the largest industrial enterprises1 such as the ,united ,states ,steel ,corporation1 etc41 are1 in the last analysis1 controlled by their stockholders4 ,summarized on the basis of the #aiag output1 one finds that the ownership of ,american copper mines is as follows3 ,american #ig per cent41 ,english and ,scotch1 #b per cent4 ,control ,through ,ownership of ,smelters and ,refineries4--,ownership of smelters that treat domestic ore is substantially identical to the mine ownership given above4 ,interests owning active smelters are less numerous than interests owning mines1 because efficient smelting requires large-scale operations4 ,the electrolytic refineries are all ,american owned4 ,large-scale units1 representing heavy capital investments1 are essential in electrolytic refining4 ,a small refinery cannot compete successfully with large ones4 ,the average important copper mine produces enough ore to make about #be1jjj1jjj pounds a year1 whereas the average smelter produces three or four times as much blister or casting copper1 and the average electrolytic refinery can produce over #bej1jjj1jjj pounds annually4 ,consequently1 there are only six groups 7,hayden-,jackling1 ,morgan-,guggenheim1 ,rockefeller-,ryan1 ,phelps-,dodge1 ,calumet ,hecla1 and ,u4 ,s4 ,smelting1 ,refining ,mining ,co47 interested in refinery ownership4 ,no small producer has the capital or the size to be able to enter this field4 ,table #ci shows electrolytic copper refineries of the ,united ,states and their ownerships3 ,,table #ci4--,,ownership ,,and ,,capacity ,,of ,,american ,,copper ,,refineries ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,ownership1 #aiag capacity ,works group-- 7pounds7 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,baltimore ,copper ,smelting ,rolling ,co4 #a and #b #gbj1jjj1jjj ,nichols ,copper ,co4 ,independent and in part #d #ejj1jjj1jjj ,raritan ,copper ,works #c #dfj1jjj1jjj ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 #a and #b #bhh1jjj1jjj ,united ,states ,metals ,refining ,co4 #h #bej1jjj1jjj ,tacoma ,smelting ,co4 #a and #b #bjd1jjj1jjj ,anaconda ,copper ,mining ,co4 7new plant7 #c #ahj1jjj1jjj ,calumet ,hecla ,mining ,co4 #e #fe1jjj1jjj ,anaconda ,copper ,mining ,co4 7old plant7 #c #fe1jjj1jjj ,balbach ,smelting ,refining ,co4#aad 7former ,german affiliations7 444 #dh1jjj1jjj --------------- ,total capacity #b1ghj1jjj1jjj #aiag production 7pounds7 ,electrolytic copper 444 #a1deb1gdd1eic ,secondary electrolytic copper 444 #ff1ccg1gga ,imported copper made into electrolytic 444 #eee1jjj1jjj --------------- ,total #aiag refinery production 444 #b1jgd1jhb1cfd ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #aad ,this company treats copper scrap and imported copper ores and matte4 ,the refineries control the situation to a very considerable extent4 ,a copper producer must obtain electrolytic refining in order to market his product4 ,lake copper and casting copper do not require electrolytic refining1 although producers of casting are often at a disadvantage when there is a big premium on electrolytic copper and casting can only be sold at a large discount4 ,the smelters do not control the situation in the same way4 ,in the ,united ,states are a large number of custom smelters--#cb--that actively compete for ores2 some have many branches4 ,moreover1 a mine of any size will have its own smelter1 as the capital investment is far less than that required for an electrolytic refinery4 ,as the table shows1 there are only seven groups 7the six above enumerated and the ,balbach ,smelting ,refining ,co47 interested in electrolytic refining1 and one of these 7the smallest7 is to a considerable degree interested in the treatment of secondary or scrap copper4 ,the electrolytic refinery control of the copper production of the ,united ,states is shown by the #aiag figures4 ,in that year the production of electrolytic copper was #a1deb1gdd1eic pounds2 of ,lake copper1 #bch1 #ejh1jia pounds2 and of casting copper1 #aeb1bic1dhg pounds4 ,electrolytic copper thus constituted #gg per cent4 of the total4 ,control ,through ,selling and ,distribution of ,copper in ,finished ,form4--,groups owning mines1 smelters1 and refineries invariably also control or own the selling agencies that distribute the product to the consumer4 ,in these cases1 control through selling is the same as control through mine ownership1 but is increased by the copper in ores received at custom smelters4 ,control through selling1 then1 is identical to the control shown in ,table #ch1 so far as groups #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 and #h are concerned1 if certain additions at the expense of the other groups are made4 ,but every producer of ,lake copper controls the sale of its product1 because ,lake copper needs no electrolytic refining4 ,hence in groups #e and #i mine ownership and control through selling are identical4 ,this is a fact of considerable interest and confirms the fact of control through refinery ownership4 ,groups #f and #g 7,table #ch7 are large producers1 and although they do not own refineries they are able to control the sales of their product4 ,the refineries are willing to refine their copper on toll and return the marketable copper to the mine owners1 who make sale to the trade4 ,groups #b1 #c1 and #g now control copper even further1 as they own brass mills1 wire and rod mills1 etc4 ,they manufacture a part of their production and sell it as copper wire1 finished brass1 etc41 instead of making sales to the brass and wire mills of ingots1 bars1 cakes1 etc41 which is and has been always the general practice4 ,there remains to consider the control1 through selling1 of the six uncertain groups 7total production #fc1hbj1agc pounds7 and some of the #acd1deh1fad pounds of copper produced from custom ore4 ,a large part of this1 as noted1 is lodged in groups #a1 #b1 #c1 #d and #h4 ,for many years three concerns affiliated with the ,german metal combines 7,merton ,co4 and ,metallgesellschaft1 of ,frankfort-on-the-,main1 and ,aaron ,hirsch1 of ,halberstadt7 have been active in the copper business of the ,united ,states4 ,their activity has been confined to selling of copper produced in this country1 and to ownership and selling of copper produced in foreign countries but brought to the ,united ,states for smelting and refining4 ,one small refinery is or was owned by this group in the ,united ,states1 and two smelters1 treating mainly foreign ores4 ,it also owns smelters in ,mexico and ,south ,america1 and had close connections with two large refineries in ,new ,jersey1 so that it sold all the electrolytic copper produced by one plant and an important part of the production of the other plant4 ,german ,control of ,american ,copper4--,the exact ,german ownership of these concerns was disclosed during the war by the work of the ,alien ,property ,custodian1 and was as follows3 7#a7 ,american ,metal ,co41 with an issued capital of #g1jjj1jjj1 of which the ,german holdings amounted to #c1ccf1jjj1 or close to #ej per cent42 these holdings were taken over by the ,united ,states authorities2 7#b7 ,l4 ,vogelstein ,co41 of which #hj per cent4 of the stock was held by ,germans 7,a4 ,hirsch ,sohn7 and #ae per cent4 by ,l4 ,vogelstein1 a naturalized ,american citizen2 7#c7 ,beer1 ,sondheimer ,co41 entirely ,german owned4 ,the government seized the two last-named concerns4 ,the ,american ,metal ,co4 markets the copper of the ,old ,dominion1 ,east ,butte1 ,shannon1 ,penn4 ,mining ,co4 and ,ducktown ,sulphur1 ,coal ,iron companies4 ,blister copper #ii per cent4 pure is purchased on contract from the first-named four companies by the ,american ,metal ,co4 ,this copper is refined for the ,american ,metal ,co4 by the ,nichols ,copper ,co41 and the finished product sold to the trade by the ,american ,metal ,co4 ,the ,ducktown ,sulphur1 ,copper ,iron ,co4 sells all of its production1 as copper matte1 to the ,american ,metal ,co41 which has it treated and sells the finished product4 ,in this manner #eh1hbj1agc pounds was controlled through sale by the ,american ,metal ,co4 in #aiag4 ,in addition1 considerable domestic custom ore and a large amount of copper imported from ,canada 7,granby71 ,south ,america and ,mexico is handled by the ,american ,metal ,co4 in the same way4 ,such imported copper totals up to three times as much as the domestic copper so controlled4 ,so far as domestic copper is concerned this situation will be corrected4 ,the ,nichols ,copper ,co4 is free to refine this copper and sell it or turn it back to the producers for sale2 it does this latter for ,phelps-,dodge and ,miami4 ,it can be assumed that control through selling will cease as regards the #eh1hbj1agc pounds cited above and also as regards ,granby's production--about #ej1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,the ,american ,metal ,co4 may be sold to ,american interests1#aae thus clearing up the situation in imported copper to some extent4 ,certain ,mexican and ,chilean properties owned by the ,american ,metal ,co4 will perhaps not be sold1 and such properties can be considered as likely always to be ,german owned4 #aae ,the ,german holdings in the ,american ,metal ,co4 are reported sold to an ,american syndicate in which ,l4 ,vogelstein participated4 ,the ,american ,metal ,co4 owns the ,balbach electrolytic refinery1 and from treatment of scrap and imported copper 7,chilean and ,japanese blister and copper7 at that plant obtains and sells about #ej1jjj1jjj pounds of refined copper per annum4 ,the concern of ,l4 ,vogelstein ,co4 lost its chief hold on ,american copper production in #aiae4 ,up to that time ,l4 ,vogelstein ,co4 worked very closely with group #h 7,united ,states ,smelting1 ,refining ,mining ,co474 ,the output of the ,united ,states ,smelting ,refining ,mining ,co4 mines and smelters was sold by ,vogelstein as well as the output of its electrolytic refinery4 ,but since #aiae this ,american-owned enterprise itself sells all the copper produced by its own mines and smelters4 ,but ,vogelstein still controls the sale of the copper treated at the plant of the ,united ,states ,metals ,refining ,co41#aaf over and above what is produced by the ,united ,states ,smelting1 ,refining ,mining ,co4 from its own mines and smelters4 ,this remaining copper consists in part of imported copper1 and in part of the output of the ,consolidated ,arizona ,smelting ,co41 which is an ,american-owned enterprise4 ,the output was large in #aiag 7about #bj1jjj1jjj pounds7 but three-fourths of it was ore from the ,united ,verde ,extension mine4 ,the ,united ,verde ,extension has since completed its own smelter and no longer turns over a part of its copper output to ,vogelstein through the ,consolidated ,arizona ,smelting ,co4 ,the output of ,united ,verde 7group #f7 also was formerly sold by ,vogelstein1 but now is sold by the owner of the mine4 #aaf ,the ,united ,states ,metals ,refining ,co4 was a subsidiary of the ,united ,states ,smelting1 ,refining ,mining ,co41 sold1 #aibj1 to the ,american ,metal ,co4 ,therefore1 the only copper controlled in #aiah by ,vogelstein through selling was about #ej1jjj1jjj pounds a year1 the output of mines owned by ,consolidated ,arizona ,smelting ,co4 7about #e1jjj1jjj pounds7 and the imported copper1 of which about #de1jjj1jjj pounds was treated in #aiag4 ,the latter is controlled by ,vogelstein not only by selling of the product but in part by smelting contracts and in part probably1 as regards ,south ,america1 by ownership of mines4#aag #aag ,l4 ,vogelstein is reported to have sold his interests to the ,american ,metal ,co4 and subsequently1 early in #aibj1 to have acquired a fifth interest in that company4 ,beer1 ,sondheimer ,co4 has never been a large factor in the ,united ,states copper industry1 although much interested in zinc4 ,but the firm does control the sale of some copper and owns a smelter at ,norfolk4 ,this smelter treats imported ores for the most part1 but also obtains some copper from pyrites 7sulphur ores7 coming from the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,perhaps as much as #aj1jjj1jjj pounds of domestic copper was sold by ,beer1 ,sondheimer ,co4 in #aiag4 ,the company owns an important ,cuban mine4 ,as ,american capital owns ,american copper mines1 smelters and refineries1 ,german interests were able to obtain a foothold only through selling organizations 7trading in metals71 which later they extended to close working arrangements with electrolytic refineries1 which were naturally interested in finding a good cash market for their output4 ,the fact that ,germany prior to #aiad was the biggest foreign buyer of ,united ,states copper1 made easy the successful development of the carefully laid ,german plans4 ,in the future such plans can be guarded against by encouraging copper producers to sell their own output4 ,all the large producers already do this1 a change in this respect having developed since #aiad4 ,sales in foreign markets can now be properly managed under the provisions of recent legislation permitting copper producers to enter into a combination in the sale of export copper4 ,this counteracts the old ,german system of a buyers' combine against the sellers of copper1 which was an important factor in forcing ,american producers to have ,german concerns sell their product4 ,but it will be necessary for the electrolytic refineries to co-operate in this policy of ,american selling control of ,american copper4 ,producers whose output is only a few million pounds per annum probably cannot afford to establish their own selling agencies2 such producers will include all who have no smelter but ship to custom smelting plants4 ,the production can be sold by the large custom smelting plants1 which are ,american owned1 or these small producers could establish a common sales agency4 ,other larger producers1 as those whose copper is now sold by the ,american ,metal ,co41 should be enabled to do their own selling4 ,in this they have been blocked by the lack of refining facilities1 except on a basis that took away from them selling control of their product4 ,this situation can be corrected by regulations that put electrolytic refineries on a recognized toll basis for all ,american customers4 ,all refineries have about the same costs and their combined capacity is ample to treat all the blister copper that will be produced4 ,they should receive good profits on the business1 but it should be unlawful for refineries to refuse to treat blister copper on toll and insist that copper must be sold to them outright4 ,the toll system is already in use at several refineries and has proved satisfactory4 ,as shown above1 there are in the ,united ,states a few very large refineries whose ownership is in few hands4 ,if these refineries control the sale of all the production of copper several objectionable features develop4 ,the few sales agencies handle so much copper that there is a tendency to co-operate with representatives of foreign consumers who can buy in large quantities1 and it is not difficult to manipulate the market temporarily1 in disregard of actual conditions of demand and supply4 ,thus the entire output of copper1 one of our great natural resources1 is placed in the hands of groups who1 while interested in mining1 are more interested in refining4 ,the best interests of the industry are more nearly those of the miner than of the refiner4 ,therefore1 the most positive dislodgment of former ,german control of copper through selling will come from the breaking up of the former system and transferring each unit of that system to other hands2 rather than transferring the old units in block to non-,german hands4 ,sales of ,american copper should be handled by a large number of separate agencies actively competing for the domestic market2 this is essential in the interests of the consumer and of the country4 ,but export copper business should be handled through one agency or association representing all the sales agencies1 as is now legal1 and this should be done in the interests of the producer and of the country4 ,reserves of ,united ,states ,copper ,mines4--,the developed reserves of ,united ,states copper deposits are fully equal1 in proportion to output1 to such reserves in foreign copper deposits4 ,this insures the fact that for the next ten years1 at least1 the copper production of the ,united ,states will maintain its present relative dominance over all foreign countries4 ,a large proportion of all copper deposits are of such a deep-seated character that at no time can large reserves be positively developed1 even when they exist4 ,on the other hand1 all over the world the mines with large known reserves are horizontal deposits1 lying near the surface1 because only in such occurrences is it possible to block out easily and cheaply big tonnages of ore4 ,there are in the ,united ,states six very important deposits of this type1 the so-called 8porphyries40 ,these are3 ,,table #dj4--8,,porphyry0 ,,copper ,,mines ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ---------------------------------------- -------- ,years of life at ,reserves present ,mine 7tons7 production ---------------------------------------- -------- ,utah ,copper ,co4 #bjj1jjj1jjj #ca ,ray ,consolidated ,copper ,co4 #ij1jjj1jjj #cj ,chino ,copper ,co4 #hj1jjj1jjj #bg ,inspiration ,consolidated #abj1jjj1jjj #bj ,nevada ,consolidated #hj1jjj1jjj #bj ,miami ,copper ,co4 #ej1jjj1jjj #bj --------------------- ,total #fbj1jjj1jjj #bf ---------------------------------------- -------- ,these mines in #aiag produced #ca4e per cent4 of the total ,united ,states output4 ,the ,new ,cornelia mine is of similar type and has already developed #ge1jjj1jjj tons1 but as it is new its #aiag output was small4 ,the ,arizona ,copper ,co41 ,ltd41 is also of this type1 as are certain new developments in the ,phelps-,dodge properties4 ,these 8porphyry0 deposits occur in or near intrusive igneous rocks of various ages4 ,fully one-third of the ,united ,states production is now and will continue to be obtained from such deposits4 ,on the average1 about #a per cent4 copper is recovered from the ore4 ,distinct from the shallow and horizontal-lying disseminated ores or 8porphyry coppers10 are the deep mines4 ,the two oldest and most important deep-mine districts in the ,united ,states are ,butte1 ,montana1 and the ,keweenaw ,peninsula1 ,michigan4 ,the mines of ,butte work steeply dipping veins4 ,it cannot be considered that over five years of ore reserves are known1 and probably not over #b years of reserves are actually blocked out on three sides4 ,however1 there are no indications of early exhaustion1 as the veins are profitable at more than #c1jjj feet1 the greatest depth to which mining has yet progressed4 ,the deposits of northern ,michigan are in pre-,cambrian rocks4 ,they have been important producers of copper for over #ej years1 and several mines have reached a vertical depth of more than #e1jjj feet4 ,certainly not over five years of ore reserves are fully developed1 but there are no signs of early exhaustion4 ,these two districts1 ,butte and ,michigan1 now produce about #cj per cent4 of the total ,united ,states output1 a smaller proportion than before the development of the 8porphyries40 ,the average copper content of the ,michigan deposits ranges from #j4e per cent4 to #b per cent4 and of the ,butte deposits #b4e to #e per cent4 ,certain ore deposits 7usually massive but irregular7 which are situated mainly in ,arizona constitute the third important general class4 ,these deposits produce about one-quarter of the total ,united ,states output4 ,bisbee1 ,jerome and ,globe 7,arizona71 and ,kennecott 7,alaska71 are the main localities4 ,owing to the irregular nature of the deposits and the distance from the surface at which the ore is found1 large developed reserves cannot be blocked out in advance4 ,such reserves are assumed to be five years4 ,apart from the three classes of deposits described above are many smaller deposits1 of which the most distinct class are the pyritic bodies1 notably those of ,tennessee and ,california4 ,such deposits are often profitable even when of low grade1 because the sulphur as well as the copper is recovered4 ,reserves in such deposits are large3 equal1 say1 to ten years' life4 ,deposits of this class are important in ,spain1 ,norway and in part in ,japan4 ,mines producing copper as a by-product should also be grouped here4 ,from the above outline the table below has been compiled3 ,,table #da4--;,,developed ,,reserves ,,of ,,united ,,states ,,copper ,,mines ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,percentage of total ,years of,extension ,general group output life #aah ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,the 8porphyries0 #ce #bf #i4aj ,deep mines #cj #e #a4ej ,rich ore bodies 7,arizona and ,alaska7 #be #e #a4be ,pyritic ore bodies #e #aj #j4ej ,others #e #b #j4aj ----------------------------- ,average #ajj #ab4d #ab4de ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #aah 8,extension0 is the ,percentage of ,total ,output multiplied by the ,years of ,life1 giving the relative importance of each group4 ,the known ore reserves serve as a basis for the assumption that the production of copper in the ,united ,states will continue at the present figures for at least ten years4 ,,canada ,canadian copper-producing properties are entirely controlled by ,american and ,british capital in about equal proportion1 changes involving construction of new refineries and a shift in selling control being assumed to be already effective4 ,up to the present time the natural development has been for ,canada to depend largely on the ,united ,states for refining facilities4 ,it is likely that in the future local or ,english control in this field will be closer than heretofore1 although the ,canadian copper industry will always be closely identified with that of the ,united ,states4 ,there are three chief copper properties in ,canada which are controlled by ,united ,states capital1 all in ,british ,columbia1 as well as several small mines in this province and in others4 ,by far the largest is the ,granby ,consolidated ,mining1 ,smelting ,power ,co4 ,this company has mines in two districts4 ,one of these properties is nearly exhausted2 the other is a new and vigorous producer4 ,smelters are operated at each place4 ,the ,granby company is controlled by the same interests that own the ,nichols ,copper ,co4 7electrolytic refinery74 ,considerable custom ore is treated by ,granby1 a large amount coming from ,alaska4 ,the other two mines are those of the ,canada ,copper ,co4 and the ,howe ,sound ,co4 ,their production is refined and sold in the ,united ,states by ,american concerns4 ,the developed reserves at these three mines are all large1 being fully adequate for fifteen years at the present rate of production4 ,the only property in ,canada which has established facilities for producing copper ready for the consumer is the ,consolidated ,mining ,smelting ,co41 of ,trial1 ,b4 ,c4 ,this ,canadian company owns and operates its own mines1 smelter and electrolytic refinery4 ,the capacity of the refinery is now #ad1jjj1jjj pounds refined copper annually4 ,the ores are massive pyritic bodies without great developed reserves1 but the probable reserves are large4 ,the ,english and ,american properties at ,sudbury yield nearly as much copper as the ,granby company1 although their main business is nickel production4 ,a small part of the output is refined in ,wales1 producing copper sulphate2 but the largest part has been refined in ,new ,jersey4 ,a refinery is being completed in ,canada that will treat these copper-nickel mattes and produce refined copper4 ,these copper-nickel deposits occur in pre-,cambrian rocks1 and the known or potential reserves are very large4 ,they are described in more detail in ,chapter ,,vi4 ,in ,ontario and ,quebec there are a number of pyrite mines where some of the pyrite contains considerable copper4 ,most of the pyrite is shipped to the ,united ,states1 where the copper is recovered1 refined and sold4 ,the production of ,canada is growing1 and the country will become of increasing importance as a source of copper4 ,known reserves are larger in proportion to output than in the ,united ,states and there will probably be important developments of new districts4 ,the northern ,british ,columbia region is of exceptional promise4 ,,cuba ,,and ,,the ,,caribbean ,the copper output of ,cuba has increased in an extraordinary degree during the past few years1 but there are no indications that this increase will continue4 ,two mines are responsible for nearly all the production4 ,one is an old mine near ,santiago1 the ,el ,cobre1 which yielded about one-quarter of the total output4 ,it is owned by the ,german metal combine1 which ships the ore and concentrates to ,norfolk1 where they are treated by the smelter owned by ,beer1 ,sondheimer ,co41 who have always marketed the production4 ,the ,matahambre mine1 in ,pinar del ,rio ,province1 yields nearly the entire remaining ,cuban output2 it is owned by ,cubans4 ,ore is shipped to the ,united ,states ,smelting1 ,refining ,mining ,co41 of ,new ,york1 and is believed to be sold by ,l4 ,vogelstein ,co4 ,the reserves of copper ore in ,cuba can not be considered large4 ,statistics of ,cuban output are conflicting3 producers' reports1 statistical authorities and ,united ,states commerce reports not being in agreement4 ,all production is shipped in crude form to the ,united ,states for refining4 ,there are copper deposits in ,central ,america1#aai and at one or two points in the ,west ,indies outside of ,cuba4 ,to date production has been insignificant1 although future possibilities are considerable4 #aai ,the ,rosita mine1 in ,nicaragua1 has #a1ejj1jjj tons of ore blocked out1 running over #e per cent4 copper4 ,it has not been equipped4 ,,mexico ,the future importance of ,mexico as a producer of copper or of other metals will be determined not only by the character of her natural deposits but by political conditions4 ,the latter have materially decreased the output during the past few years1 so that in #aiag production was about #ajj1jjj1jjj pounds1 probably not much over half what it would have been had normal conditions been continuous since #aiab4 ,commercial ,control4--,three companies now produce about three-fourths of the total copper4 ,two of these are owned by ,american capital and their product is refined and sold in the ,united ,states4 ,situated near the ,arizona border1 they have not suffered from the revolution as much as the properties farther south4 ,these two companies are the ,greene ,cananea ,copper ,co4 7,ryan-,rockefeller1 group #c of ,table #ch7 and ,montezuma ,copper ,co4 7,phelps-,dodge1 etc42 group #d of ,table #ch74 ,the developed reserves at the ,montezuma ,copper ,co4 are equivalent to five years at present production and those at ,cananea can be considered about the same4 ,both districts have important possibilities4 ,near ,greene ,cananea is another ,american property1 ,democrata ,cananea1 which is a producer of moderate size4 ,the ,cananea district is now producing at the rate of over #ej1jjj1jjj pounds per annum4 ,another ,american property of note is the ,teziutlan ,copper ,co41 ,puebla1 now idle due to revolutions4 ,it has a smelter which normally ships #ab1jjj1jjj pounds of blister copper annually to the ,anaconda company's electrolytic plant4 ,considerable copper is produced at the plants of the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co41 which has three copper smelters1 one at ,matehuala1 ,san ,luis ,potosi2 one at ,asarco and another at ,aguascalientes1 ,durango4 ,french capital controls the third important property 7among the three most important in ,mexico71 which is on the peninsula of ,lower ,california4 ,this is the ,boleo1 owned by the ,rothschilds2 as it is far removed from the heart of ,mexico1 operations have not been greatly disturbed4 ,the mine is an old producer with large potential reserves1 and the actual developed reserves will maintain present output for six years4 ,the ,boleo ore deposits1 which are of an uncommon type1 are ,tertiary sediments that contain #c4e per cent4 copper ore1 usually as oxides4 ,smelters near the mine produce blister copper and matte1 which normally is shipped to ,france4 ,during the war a large part of the blister and matte came to the ,united ,states and passed into the hands of the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 ,french interests also own the ,compagnie d',inguaran1 near ,ario1 ,michoacan4 ,there are large developed reserves1 but the property is idle because of political conditions and absence of equipment or rail connections4 ,french capital also controls the ,magistral ,ameca ,co41 in ,jalisco1 where large ore reserves have been developed4 ,this property is also idle due to political conditions4 ,english capital controls the ,mazapil ,copper ,co41 which has large plants1 including smelters1 in ,zacatecas and ,coahuila4 ,this is one of the largest copper companies in ,mexico as well as one of the oldest important mines4 ,it was idle for some time because of the ,mexican revolutions1 but has been reopened recently4 ,to sum up1 the production in ,mexico at present is three-quarters ,american controlled 7of which one-half may be assigned to group #c and one-quarter to groups #b and #d71 while the remaining one-quarter is ,french controlled4 ,but present output and known reserves give no true picture of future possibilities4 ,mexico can become of first importance as a copper producer1 ranking possibly second only to the ,united ,states or equaling ,chile and ,japan among the world's producers4 ,the natural resources are there and in the future will surely be developed much more extensively than ever before4 ,german capital must be taken into consideration1 and especially the activities of the ,american ,metal ,co4 in ,mexico1 notably more vigorous since #aiad than before4 ,it is believed that the company has made substantial profits from ,mexican mining investments in this period and has obtained a very strong foothold4 ,the ,compaia ,metallurgica de ,torreon is one of the ,american ,metal ,co4 subsidiaries1 owning promising mines1 chiefly in the development state1 and smelters already equipped to produce #bj1jjj1jjj pounds of copper yearly4 ,the ,mapimi smelter is also owned by the ,american ,metal ,co41 as are many other companies4 ,what is the future ,mexican political situation to be and what part will the ,american ,metal ,co4 or the ,german metal combine play in the ,mexican copper industry8 ,there is no more pertinent question in the entire field of the political and commercial control of the copper resources of the world1 particularly as ,american capital is largely interested in ,mexican copper mines and has made enormous investments there4 ,also the natural tendency is for most of the ,mexican copper to be shipped to the ,united ,states for refining and marketing4 ,american refineries1 with cheap fuel and efficient methods1 are the natural destination for ,mexican raw copper4 ,,south ,,america ,south ,america is the second largest copper-producing continent of the world1 but at present stands far behind ,north ,america4 ,the copper-producing countries of ,south ,america1 in the order of their importance1 are ,chile1 ,peru1 ,bolivia1 ,venezuela and ,argentina4 ,,chile ,chile is a copper producer of rapidly increasing importance1 as indicated by production records of recent years4#abj #abj ,according to ,chilean statistics1 and estimate for #aiag4 #aiad #aiae #aiaf #aiag ,metric tons #dd1ffe #eb1cda #ga1bhh #ie1jjj ,the largest mines of ,chile are controlled by ,american capital4 ,group #b of ,table #ch 7the ,morgan-,guggenheim interests7 controls the ,chile ,copper ,co41 ,braden ,copper ,co4 and the ,caldera and ,carrizal custom smelters4 ,the developed ore reserves of the ,chile ,copper ,co4 are the largest in any known copper deposits in the world and the reserves of ,braden are among the largest known4 ,group #c of ,table #ch 7,anaconda ,copper ,co47 has a property with large developed ore reserves--the ,andes ,copper ,co4 ,this mine is not yet 7#aiah7 producing4 ,table #dc 7p4 #bdc7 gives data concerning these ,american-owned mines4 ,these three mines are allied to the 8porphyries0 of the ,united ,states in character1 but they are less profitable because the external conditions make operation more difficult4 ,,table #db4--;,,chief ,,copper ,,producers ,,of ,,chile4 ,,their ,,ownership ,,and ,,relative ,,importance ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,con- ,plant trolled capacity1 by #aiah capital 7pounds ,nature of of ,company a year7 product ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,united ,chile ,copper ,co4 #abj1jjj1jjj ,refined copper ,states ,do ,braden ,copper ,co4 #gb1jjj1jjj ,blister copper ,do ,a4 ,s4 ,r4 ,co4 #bd1jjj1jjj ,blister copper and matte ,do ,a4 ,s4 ,r4 ,co41 custom smelters #bd1jjj1jjj ------------ ,total ,united ,states #bdj1jjj1jjj ,united ,states properties' reserves #aej years ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,england ,central ,chile ,co4 #f1jjj1jjj ,matte ,do ,poderosa mine #b1jjj1jjj ,ore 7rich7 ,do ,lota custom smelter #h1jjj1jjj ,blister ------------ ,total ,british #af1jjj1jjj ,british properties' reserves #c years ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,france ,chanaral #ae1jjj1jjj ,blister and matte ,do ,naltagua #aj1jjj1jjj ,blister ------------ ,total ,french #be1jjj1jjj ,french properties' reserves #e years ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,belgium ,catemo #aa1jjj1jjj ,blister ,reserves #e years ,germany ,gatico smelter #h1jjj1jjj ,blister ,guayacan smelter #c1jjj1jjj ,matte ,chile #f mines with smelters #e1jjj1jjj ,matte ,great numbers of mines large ,ore ------------ ,,grand ,,total #cjh1jjj1jjj ,expected output #aiah-aiaibdd1jjj1jjj 7#aaj1jjj metric tons7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,con- trolled by capital ,source of of ,company product ,remarks ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,united ,chile ,copper ,co4 ,mines of the ,capacity will be ,states ,company increased ,do ,braden ,copper ,co4 ,do ,do ,do ,a4 ,s4 ,r4 ,co4 ,local owned ,caldera plant mines ,do ,a4 ,s4 ,r4 ,co41 custom smelters ,do ,carrizal plant ,total ,united ,states ,united ,states properties' reserves ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,england ,central ,chile ,co4 ,panulcillo ,balance custom ore mine ,do ,poderosa mine ,shipped to ,u4 ,s4 ,do ,lota custom smelter ,largely custom,treat custom matte ore ,total ,british ,british properties' reserves ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,france ,chanaral ,mines of the ,product treated at company ,balbach plant ,do ,naltagua ,mines of the 7,u4 ,s47 in #aiag company ,total ,french ,french properties' reserves ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,belgium ,catemo ,mines of the ,refined by ,reserves company ,balbach1 #aiag4 ,germany ,gatico smelter ,custom ore ,tributary to rich and mines mining district4 controlled4 ,guayacan smelter ,formerly shipped matte to ,england4 ,chile #f mines with smelters ,locally owned ,shipped to big mines smelters or exported4 ,great numbers of mines ,locally owned ,shipped to big mines smelters or exported4 ,,grand ,,total ,expected output #aiah-aiai ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,table #dc4--,,output1 ,,reserves1 ,,and ,,life ,,of ,,three ,,american-,,owned ,,copper ,,mines ,,in ,,chile ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,output1 ,first ,ore ,life at ,company six months of reserves present output1 #aiah1 7pounds7 7tons7 7years7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,chile #ej1jjj1jjj #cej1jjj1jjj #bjj ,braden ,copper ,co4 #cf1jjj1jjj #aej1jjj1jjj #abe ,andes ,copper ,co4 non-producing #ej1jjj1jjj,work suspended 7capacity for present #bd1jjj1jjj7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,the ,caldera and ,carrizal custom smelters of the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 treat ores shipped from various smaller mines4 ,the ,carrizal plant has been closed4 ,two chief properties are tributary to this plant1--the ,carrizal ,alto and the ,astilla mines4 ,a large number of properties are tributary to the ,caldera plant1 among them3 ,dulcinea1 ,flamenco1 ,morado1 ,san ,juan1 ,el ,gallo1 etc4 ,throughout northern ,chile there are a great many small copper mines4 ,from the ,braden property east of ,valparaiso to the ,chili ,copper ,co41 southeast of ,iquique1 the entire country seems to be unusually rich in copper4 ,there are five important ,chilean mines controlled by ,french or ,british capital4 ,see ,table #db4 ,all are vein mines with no considerable tonnage of developed ore reserves1 and the combined output is nearly #ej1jjj1jjj pounds of copper a year 7a considerable part being from custom ore shipped by small mines7 in the form of blister or matte4 ,this production is normally shipped to ,france or ,england4 ,the ,american ,metal ,co4 and ,l4 ,vogelstein1 representing ,german capital1 are believed to control1 through selling and refining1 much of the output of the ,french1 ,british and ,belgian mines4 ,these concerns also own custom smelters in ,chile and probably have interests in many mining properties there4 ,the big business in ,chilean ores shipped into the ,united ,states is done by these concerns1 although the ,american ,smelting1 ,refining ,mining ,co4 is also an important factor4 ,these ores come from many small mines1 although there are a few important ore shippers1 one of which is ,british owned4 ,most of the mines are ostensibly ,chilean owned1 but much of the financing1 marketing of products1 etc41 is done by ,american houses with ,german affiliations4 ,it seems that ,chile may soon become the second largest copper producer of the world4 ,american capital has led in the development of the ,chilean deposits1 as ,american interests have discovered and furnished funds for the equipment of the two leading producers1 and the third most important ore body is ,american owned4 ,this is the more remarkable in light of the fact that ,american capital has so far been conspicuous by its absence in the development of the other important industries of ,chile4 ,were it not for the present difficulties of building up plant facilities1 due to shipping shortage1 high cost of equipment1 etc41 the ,american-owned copper mines would today be still larger producers than they are4 ,however1 ,american capital now completely controls about seven-eighths of the total output4 ,substantially all the copper produced in ,chile is shipped to the ,united ,states4 ,the ,chili ,copper ,co4 produces in ,chile a refined electrolytic copper1 and this is the only finished refined copper produced in ,south ,america4 ,braden can produce a grade of copper that does not compete with electrolytic but is refined enough to go directly to the consumer4 ,,peru ,peru is one of the important copper-producing countries of the world4 ,the chief mines are at extreme altitudes1 however1 and their character and location is such as to indicate that production will probably remain stationary or at least not show any important increases in the next few years4 ,there are two important districts3 ,cerro de ,pasco 7elevation1 #ad1cjj feet7 and ,morococha 7elevation #ac1gjj feet74 ,the chief mines of these districts are now controlled by ,american capital and may be classed with group #b of ,table #ch4 ,the ,morococha district was formerly ,english controlled1 but the majority interests have lately been acquired by the ,cerro de ,pasco ,copper ,co4 7,american74 ,the ores in both districts are exceedingly rich and the properties are well fortified with reserves4 ,developed reserves are adequate to insure four years' production1 and everything indicates that the mines are working extensive and persistent ore deposits4 ,blister copper is shipped to the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 in ,new ,york for treatment and marketing4 ,both mines have fully equipped plants1 including smelters4 ,at the plant of ,backus ,johnson ,co41 ,morococha1 some custom ore and matte from locally owned mines is treated4 ,among these mines are those of ,j4 ,galliver1 producing #fjj tons matte a year4 ,backus ,johnson also have a smelter and mines in the ,casapalca district4 ,the ,sayapullo ,syndicate 7,english7 is working the ,sayapullo mine under option from the ,peruvian owners4 ,some of this matte is shipped to the ,casapalca smelter1 and the rest is exported to the ,united ,states4 ,the output so far is small2 at present #hjj tons per year4 ,certain small companies ship ores to the ,united ,states3 from these the copper content amounted to about #d1jjj1jjj pounds in #aiag4 ,this goes 7#aiai7 chiefly to the ,american ,metal ,co4 and ,l4 ,vogelstein for refining and selling4 ,this ore comes from ,salaverry and ,trujillo 7,casapalca district71 ,mollendo 7southern district1 including ,ferrobamba1 see below71 and ,callao4 ,all the blister copper is shipped from ,callao except small amounts shipped by ,backus ,johnson from the ,casapalca district4 ,an ,american company has developed a large body of low-grade ore at ,ferrobamba 7,cotobamba ,province71 southern ,peru4 ,the property is inaccessible and no work is now being done4 ,the following rsum gives some of the salient facts concerning the ,peruvian copper producers3 ,,table #dd4--,,production ,,of ,,copper ,,in ,,peru ,,in #aiah ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,developed ,output ,reserves ,product ,control ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,cerro de ,pasco #gb1jjj1jjj7-7 #d years ,blister ,copper,united ,states ,backus ,johnson #bh1jjj1jjj7-7 #d years ,do ,do ,huaron 7new7 #e1jjj1jjj787 #d years ,do ,french ,ore shippers #e1jjj1jjj 8 ,ore ,local -------------- #aaj1jjj1jjj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,bolivia ,there is one important copper producing locality in ,bolivia--,coro ,coro1 central ,bolivia 7elevation #ab1jjj feet74 ,beds of sandstone carry native copper and veins of sulphides4 ,the mines are owned by ,french capital4 ,there is no smelter1 but concentrates running up to #he per cent4 copper are exported to ,france for treatment4 ,production is about #ab1jjj1jjj pounds annually4 ,reserves are large1 but the almost inaccessible location of the mines has retarded development4 ,recently1 there has been more activity1 a flotation concentrator having been installed4 ,some of the ,bolivian tin and silver mines produce small amounts of copper1 but outside of ,coro ,coro total copper production is insignificant4 ,,venezuela ,the ,aroa ,mines1 an ,english syndicate1 owns a copper mine and smelter producing low-grade matte4 ,the property is located along the railroad which terminates at the port of ,tucacas4 ,in #aiag the output was #c1ejj1jjj pounds4 ,the product was shipped to the ,united ,states and refined and sold there by ,l4 ,vogelstein ,co4 ,,argentina ,there are some copper prospects in the extreme western portion of the country1 which are really extensions from the ,chilean copper-producing areas4 ,one company1 ,famatina1 ,ltd41 is an ,english concern which has had an unfortunate career4 ,the company operates the only copper smelter in ,argentina1 a small affair that mines irregularly4 ,at last accounts a few hundred tons of blister copper was the annual output2 this has always been shipped to ,england1 but recently attempts have been made to ship to ,new ,york4 ,this blister is exceedingly rich in silver 7#f per cent4 silver74 ,,africa ,africa is a copper producer of growing importance1 almost entirely because of the development of one group of deposits 7,katanga71 which overshadows all others to such an extent that the ,african situation is almost completely described by a discussion of the properties of the ,tanganyika ,concession1 ,ltd4 ,the mines of this company yield now three-quarters of the copper production of ,africa1 and their importance in the future will be still greater4 ,the copper production of ,africa comes from south of the ,equator and from six general districts1 as follows3 ,,table #de4--;,,copper ,,production ,,of ,,africa 7,production1 pounds of fine copper7 ---------------------------------------- ---------- #aiah-aiai1 ,dis- ,province and chief estimated trict mines #aiag output output ---------------------------------------- ---------- #a4 ,congo3 ,katanga#aba #fj1jjj1jjj #hj1jjj1jjj ,bwan ,m',kubwa #d1jjj1jjj8 #c1jjj1jjj #b4 ,transvaal3 ,messina #ad1jjj1jjj #ab1jjj1jjj #c4 ,rhodesia3 ,falcon #g1jjj1jjj #g1jjj1jjj #d4 ,cape ,colony3 ,cape ,copper-,namaqua #g1jjj1jjj #f1jjj1jjj #e4 ,former ,german ,southwest-,africa3 ,tsumeb 7,otavi7 #aj1jjj1jjj8 #ae1jjj1jjj8 #abb ,khan1 etc4 #b1jjj1jjj #d1jjj1jjj8 #f4 ,miscellaneous northern ,africa not specified #a1jjj1jjj8 #a1jjj1jjj8 ------------------------ ,total #aje1jjj1jjj #abh1jjj1jjj ---------------------------------------- ---------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,reserves1 years ,control of life at ,dis- ,province and chief this rate trict mines of output ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #a4 ,congo3 ,katanga#aba;,english-,belgian #ajj ,bwan ,m',kubwa ,english large #b4 ,transvaal3 ,messina ,english #a #c4 ,rhodesia3 ,falcon ,english #d #d4 ,cape ,colony3 ,cape ,copper-,namaqua ,english #b #e4 ,former ,german ,southwest-,africa3 ,tsumeb 7,otavi7 7,english since #d conquest of ,german ,southwest ,africa7 ,khan1 etc4 #d #f4 ,miscellaneous northern ,africa not specified ,french 8 --------------------------------- ,total ,almost entirely ,english ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #aba ,kanshanshi included in ,katanga4 #abb ,basis #aiad4 ,present political conditions govern extent of work4 ,shipped #a1jjj1jjj pounds copper in ore to ,united ,states in #aiag4 ,in ,district #a1 the ,katanga district1 which includes the ,belgian ,congo and adjacent territory1 the ,union ,minire du ,haut ,katanga has acquired from the ,belgian ,special ,committee the ownership of all of the ,katanga copper belt but not the ,kanshanshi deposit in ,rhodesia4 ,equal1 but not the entire1 share interests of this company are owned by the ,tanganyika ,concessions1 ,ltd41 and the ,katanga 7,belgian7 ,special ,committee4 ,the ,lubumbashi smelter of ,u4 ,m4 du ,haut ,katanga1 at ,elisabethville1 close to the ,rhodesian boundary1 has seven blast furnaces with a daily capacity of #b1jjj tons4 ,the ore treated runs #ae per cent4 copper1 and yields #if per cent4 blister copper4 ,the past production is as follows3 #aiaa1 #iif tons blister copper2 #aiab1 #b1dib tons2 #aiac1 #g1djg tons2 #aiad1 #aj1gbb tons2 #aiae1 #ad1aij tons2 #aiaf1 #bb1afe tons2 #aiag1 #cj1jjj tons4 ,this copper is shipped to ,england1 and is consumed there and in ,france after further refining4 ,there is very little gold and silver in the copper1 so it goes to market largely as refined1 best selected and tough copper4 ,tanganyika ,concessions1 ,ltd41 owns concessions in northern ,rhodesia containing the ,kanshanshi mine 7a deposit similar to those in ,katanga7 owned by a subsidiary railroad company1 #gj per cent4 of which is owned by ,tanganyika ,concessions1 ,ltd4 ,a small blast furnace there is producing4 ,the actual railroad connection with ,katanga is north from ,rhodesia and thence to the eastern coast of ,africa4 ,an uncompleted line from the ,west ,coast is planned to connect these mineral deposits with ,lobito ,bay 7,benguella ,by4 ,co474 ,the ,portuguese government has a small interest in certain railway lines in its territory4 ,it seems that the ,english group1 7,r4 ,williams1 who was an associate of ,cecil ,rhodes1 ,t4 ,white and others7 with the ,belgian ,special ,committee1 control the entire group2 but a considerable interest has been sold to the public1 mainly ,british and ,belgian investors4 ,the ,bwan ,m',kubwa mine farther south on the ,rhodesia railroad is a deposit of the same general character4 ,this is owned by ,british capital1 two of the ,rhodesian development companies holding a large block of the stock4 ,ore bodies are found in ,katanga over a district extending #bej miles east-west and #ej miles north-south1 and also at scattered localities in ,rhodesia4 ,malachite chiefly and other oxidized ores impregnate certain sediments and constitute the ore bodies1 which are very rich 7#aj to #ae per cent4 copper74 ,at ,luushia sulphides 7#c per cent4 copper as chalcopyrite7 occur beneath the oxidized ore4 ,cobalt is common2 there is some nickel but not much gold and silver4 ,the developed reserves of the mines of ,katanga are estimated at #dj1jjj1jjj tons of #h per cent4 copper ore above water level1 equal to #ajj years' production at the present rate of output2 of the ,bwan ,m',kubwa mine in ,rhodesia at #c1jjj1jjj tons of #d per cent4 ore1 besides ore of lesser grade4 ,the reserves of the ,kanshanshi mine1 in ,rhodesia1 are not included in the estimates4 ,in ,district #b1 near the ,rhodesian boundary1 is the ,messina mine1 the only copper producer of the ,transvaal4 ,along veins in very old gneissic rocks occur shoots and lenses of chalcocite and enargite with some oxide4 ,a little matte is made at the mine but the chief product is concentrates 7#de to #ej per cent4 copper71 all of which were shipped to ,england4 ,lately they have been in part sent to the ,united ,states4 ,the production was about #ad1jjj1jjj pounds in #aiae and the same in #aiaf4 ,reserves of #bjh1jjj tons of #e per cent4 ore are reported developed1 or not much over one year's supply4 ,the company is strictly ,english4 ,in ,district #c1 the ,falcon mines in ,central ,rhodesia belong to an ,english company which is treating copper-gold ore occurring in old schists4 ,the production was about #g1jjj1jjj pounds in #aiaf4 ,the ore carries #b per cent4 copper1 #e in gold1 and the reserves are stated at #hfb1jjj tons of this grade1 or about four years' supply4 ,in the ,french ,congo1 just north of the mouth of ,congo ,river1 is a belt of copper deposits #fj miles long1 which have been worked for centuries by the natives4 ,diabase rocks occur in this vicinity4 ,the output is very small4 ,district #d1 ,cape ,colony1 is the oldest important copper producer of modern ,africa1 but its chief deposits1 worked since #aheb1 are nearly exhausted4 ,the ,cape ,copper ,co4 and ,namaqua ,copper ,co4 are south of the ,orange ,river in a district #ij miles by rail from a port on the ,west ,coast4 ,the ore is bornite and chalcopyrite1 in irregular lenses2 the reserves are equivalent to only two years of production4 ,each mine has a mill and smelter4 ,further refining is done at the ,briton ,ferry smelter of the ,cape ,copper ,co4 in ,wales1 which has a capacity of #ab1jjj tons per year of refined copper and electrolytic copper4 ,all these companies1 including the railroad1 are entirely ,british4 ,cape ,colony copper production is dependent on this one district1 from which the #aiag output was #f1jjj1jjj to #g1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,in ,district #e1 the former colony of ,german ,southwest ,africa1 copper deposits are numerous1 and next to diamond mining the production of copper is the most important industry of the province4 ,the main deposit is the ,tsumeb in the northeast part of the country1 where solid sulphides of lead and copper occur in dolomite4 ,fifty thousand tons of ore carrying #ac per cent4 copper and #dj per cent4 lead was shipped in #aiag4 ,there is a smelter here and the mine has rail connection4 ,the company working these deposits was the ,otavi ,minen und ,eisenbahn1 but through the ,southwest ,africa ,co4 the ,english had an interest in the property4 ,the ,english now have control4 ,the ,khan mine1 second in importance to ,tsumeb1 is working a pegmatite vein in schist4 ,in #aiad a mill treating #ej tons a day was shipping #fj to #gj per cent4 concentrates to ,europe4 ,the ores are chalcopyrite and chalcocite4 ,in ,district #f1 northern ,africa1 there are some deposits of copper in ,algeria1 ,egypt1 and ,morocco4 ,they are not of importance at present4 ,de ,launay describes them as chiefly veins in rocks of much younger age than the important deposits of ,africa which lie south of the ,equator4 ,matte and blister produced in ,africa are normally treated at small ,english plants or at the ,briton ,ferry smelter1 ,wales1 which is a plant of some size4 ,the general economic situation as regards ,african copper ores in #aiag is shown in the table4 ,,table #df4--,,production ,,and ,,shipments ,,of ,,copper ,,from ,,africa ,,in #aiag ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,production1 ,chief product ,shipped to-- ,mine 7pounds7 shipped ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,katanga #fj1jjj1jjjmatte and blister ,england ,cape ,copper-,namaqua #g1jjj1jjjmatte ,england ,messina #ad1jjj1jjj;concentrates1 matte1 hand-picked ore ,england ,falcon #g1jjj1jjj;concentrates or ore ,england ,bwan ,m',kubwa #d1jjj1jjj ,katanga plants ,german ,southwest ,africa1 ,otavi1 ,khan #ab1jjj1jjjore ,england or ,germany ,north ,africa #a1jjj1jjjore ,france ----------- #aje1jjj1jjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,considerable of this copper goes to the ,united ,states4 ,in #aiag1 as shown below1 the total amount of copper received in this country was #g4e per cent4 of the total ,african production4 ,,table #dg4--,,shipments ,,to ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,in #aiag ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,ship- ,copper ments content ,grade ,shipped 7tons77pounds7 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,otavi to ,new ,york ,ore 7#ab per cent47 #c1ijj #a1jdh1jjj ,messina to ,new ,york ,ore 7#de per cent47 #gjc #gae1jjj ,do ,matte 7#de per cent47 #cjf #caj1jjj ,cape ,copper to ,new ,york,concentrates 7#ee per cent47 #cge #dfj1jjj ---------------- #e1bhd #b1ecc1jjj ,katanga ,blister 444 #e1dcg1jjj --------- ,total #h1jjj1jjj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,australasia ,copper production in ,australasia is not now increasing4 ,in recent years the production 7metric tons7 has been as follows3 #aiab #aiac #aiad #aiae #aiaf #aiag #af1fjj #bb1ijj #cg1eib #cb1eab #ce1jjj #ch1ajj ,formerly ,german metal buying and refining companies controlled the ,australian copper output 7as that of lead and zinc7 by virtue of refining and selling contracts4 ,hence the year #aiad brought disorganization to ,australian mining4 ,war-profits taxation on ,australian mines has been severe2 and government aid1 formerly granted1 has been largely withdrawn4 ,lack of labor1 inability of new properties to obtain railroad connections1 and absence of government encouragement to prospecting1 have retarded the copper industry since ,august1 #aiad4 ,aside from former ,german control based on selling and refining contracts1 all ,australian copper mining is and has been under ,british control4 ,the properties are owned by ,british and ,australian capital and present refining and selling arrangements will prevent the ,german metal companies from again getting any foothold in the field4 ,all former contracts with ,german agencies were abrogated4 ,the government took this phase of the matter in hand1 and one step was to purchase the entire production of ,australia for the first half of #aiah at #ajf to #ajh per ton4 ,the ,australian copper situation in #aiag is exhibited in the table following3 ,,table #dh4--,,production ,,of ,,copper ,,and ,,refining ,,plants ,,in ,,australia ,,in #aiag ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,production1 #aiag1 ,refineries ,chief mines 7long tons7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,queensland3 ,mount ,morgan #h1jjjabc,port ,kembla plant1 ,electrolyte ,refining ,smelting ,co41 ,ltd4 ,hampden ,cloncurry #h1jjjabc;,capacity1 #bi1jjj tons electrolyte copper per annum2 #ab1jjj tons fire-refined copper per annum4 ,other ,cloncurry district mines #d1jjjabc,mount ,elliott completed refinery at ,bowen1 ,queensland1 in #aiag2 capacity #aj1jjj tons refined copper4 ,south ,australia3 ,wallaroo ,moonta #g1jjj ,wallaroo ,moonta smelter1 ,bowen1 ,queensland2 capacity increased from #g1jjj to #aj1jjj tons per annum4 ,tasmania3 ,mount ,lyell #e1jjj ,ships to ,port ,kembla4 ,new ,south ,wales3 ,great ,cobar #b1ejjabc ,c4 ,s4 ,a4 and ,mt4 ,hope1 etc4 #b1bej ,west ,australia and ,papua3 ,new pyrite ore bodies of promise opened #a1bej ----------- #ch1jjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #abc ,ores mined are primary1 consisting of chalcopyrite and chalcocite4 ,secondarily enriched ores near the surface have been entirely mined out4 ,as stated1 the ownership of these mines is strictly ,british1 and at present the refining and marketing is now ,british instead of ,german4 ,two refineries1 both recently enlarged and improved1 now have a capacity of over #fj1jjj tons a year1 which is well in excess of the present output of the country4 ,towards the end of #aiag1 the ,copper ,producers' ,association ,proprietary1 ,ltd41 was formed in ,australia for the purpose of selling and shipping copper on a co-operative basis4 ,all copper producers were invited to join4 ,wallaroo ,moonta1 ,mount ,morgan1 ,mount ,lyell and the ,cloncurry mines are members of this association1 as is the ,electrolytic ,refining ,smelting ,co41 which treats the ores of these mines4 ,the company markets its products in ,england and ,australia4 ,its chief brands are ,e4 ,s4 ,a4 7electrolytic7 and ,e4 ,s4,a4,f4,r4 7fire refined74 ,these brands are also sold by ,elder ,smith ,co41 ,ltd41 of ,london and ,australia1 which has had a financial interest in the ,wallaroo ,moonta ,co4 since the early days1 and has financed and marketed the copper production of this company since #aiae4 ,metals ,products1 ,ltd41 has recently been formed1 with works at ,port ,kembla producing copper wire1 brass goods1 etc4 ,importation of copper and brass products into ,australia should entirely disappear if the plans of the ,australian government and copper producers do not miscarry4 ,the oldest mine and one of the two leading mines in ,australasia is the ,wallaroo ,moonta1 in ,south ,australia4 ,this deposit occurs in a pre-,cambrian complex1 intersected by pegmatitic dikes4 ,ore reserves are believed to be ample3 say five years' supply of developed ore4 ,in recent years1 production has been very steady at about #g1jjj tons per year of refined copper4 ,this is the only important copper deposit of pre-,cambrian age in ,australia4 ,the other leading mine in ,australia is ,mount ,morgan1 in ,queensland1 which until #aiaj was one of the largest gold mines in the world4 ,the gold was in the oxidized top of a large low-grade copper deposit1 which is now being mined from open cuts4 ,primary chalcocite1 chalcopyrite and pyrite with quartz constitutes the ore deposit4 ,the ore runs #b per cent4 copper and is concentrated up to #g per cent4 ,the reserves exceed #d1jjj1jjj tons of #b per cent4 copper1 or #aj years' supply4 ,the ,cloncurry district is a large area1 #bjj by #dj miles in extent1 containing several copper deposits1 which occur in schist and are mainly small bonanzas4 ,the future of this district seems very promising4 ,the chief mines are ,hampden ,cloncurry1 ,mount ,elliott1 ,mount ,cuthbert2 and the developed ore reserves insure five years' production4 ,the ,hampden ,cloncurry mine has #cjj1jjj tons of #g per cent4 ore in reserve1 a smelter producing blister copper1 and railroad connections4 ,the district is hampered by bad climate1 etc41 and especially by labor conditions4 ,recent government rulings 7#aiah71 as to very short hours of labor and higher wages1 are reducing outputs4 ,the ,mount ,elliott mine1 which has a #cjj1jjj-ton deposit of #aj per cent4 ore1 is now 7#aiai7 idle because of labor conditions4 ,the ,mount ,cuthbert mine1 which completed a new smelter in #aiag1 has reserves of #aej1jjj tons of #f per cent4 copper1 and railroad connections4 ,the ,mount ,lyell mine1 in ,tasmania1 is an old and steady producer4 ,one class of ore runs #j4e per cent4 of copper and #a4be ounces silver2 the other contains #f per cent4 copper ore1 with the same amount of silver4 ,this is a disseminated deposit in schist1 near a conglomerate contact4 ,no igneous rocks are known in the vicinity4 ,the reserves are #b1jjj1jjj tons of low-grade ore and #a1jjj1jjj tons of high grade2 insuring the present output for #ae years4 ,considerable of the ore is mined open cut1 and this is one of the lowest grade profitable mines in the world4 ,ores are smelted direct after being mixed1 so that the product going to the furnace runs #b per cent4 copper4 ,the ,great ,cobar mine1 in ,new ,south ,wales1 works cupriferous pyrite carrying #b to #b per cent4 copper4 ,cobar used to produce #d1jjj to #e1jjj tons of copper a year4 ,after erecting a #a1bjj-ton smelter in #aiab1 the company was placed in the hands of a receiver1 ,april1 #aiad4 ,the reserves are believed to be large4 ,the other chief mines in ,new ,south ,wales 7the ,c4 ,s4 ,a41 ,mount ,hope1 ,nymagee1 etc47 produce together about as much as ,great ,cobar4 ,these mines have smelters1 and for the most part were formerly of much greater importance than they are today4 ,several have no railway connections1 and this is an important handicap to ,new ,south ,wales mines1 which once produced twice the present output4 ,in ,west ,australia1 there have been developed recently a number of promising deposits of pyritic copper ores4 ,there are no important producers1 there being no railways4 ,the present conditions in ,australia1 in which labor conditions are most important1 and the absence of new railroad construction1 have seriously affected the development of the copper industry1 but the future seems promising4 ,several important deposits have proved large and the ore bodies persistent4 ,much of the country has not been explored and many good showings could be worked and some probably developed into profitable mines if conditions were favorable to new ventures4 ,just the reverse is the case1 however4 ,the ,mount ,lyell company has been exploring northern ,tasmania1 and recently found in the mine of the ,tasmania ,copper ,co4 about #a1jjj1jjj tons of ore carrying copper1 zinc1 gold and silver and worth #bj to #cj per ton1 gross4 ,it is believed that ,australia will continue to be an important copper producer2 probably its importance will increase4 ,weighted reserves1 in terms of ore supply to maintain present output1 insure copper production continuing undiminished for #g4b years4 ,these reserves are well distributed among the various producers4 ,,asia ,,japan ,copper deposits are found over a large part of central ,japan4 ,the ores1 which occur in ,tertiary volcanics1 consist of chalcopyrite and pyrite running #b to #c per cent4 copper1 and are commonly concentrated before smelting4 ,the gangue is usually quartzose4 ,lenticular deposits of cupriferous pyrite in ,paleozoic schists and sediments occur on the west and the south side of ,japan4 ,these mines yield smelting ore carrying about #c to #d per cent41 but contain very little silica4 ,pyritic smelting is extensively practiced4 ,over one-half the copper production comes from four chief mines3 ,ashio and ,kosaka of the ,tertiary type2 and ,hitachi and ,beshi of the ,paleozoic schist type4 ,the state reserves to itself the right of original ownership in all ores1 including copper4 ,the right to work them is granted to individuals or companies of ,japanese nationality4 ,copper mining1 smelting and refining companies seem to be entirely ,japanese in ownership and policy4 ,the number of mines is considerable1 but their ownership is concentrated into a few hands and the smelting and refining industry is still more concentrated4 ,japanese producers sell their own copper1 all foreign selling agencies being strictly ,japanese4 ,the mines in ,japan are not generally worked as joint-stock enterprises1 but are mostly family properties inherited by the present owners4 ,a table showing the #aiag copper production of ,japan indicates these facts4 7,see ,table #di47 ,because of labor conditions1 abundant fuel near the mines and water transportation1 ,japanese copper production has increased rapidly in recent years4 ,high prices and the adoption of modern methods of mining and smelting have been important contributing factors4 ,there seems no reason to expect that ,japan's production will decrease1 but not enough is known of geological conditions to enable one to discuss the future outlook4 ,the only mine whose reserves are known is the ,beshi1 which has reserves adequate for #ajj years of production at the present rate1 which is #aj per cent4 of the ,japanese output4 ,the reserves at other mines are not developed far ahead1 but must insure several years of continued production at the present rate4 ,the production and exports of ,japanese copper in recent years are as follows 7in terms of metric tons73 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,year #aiab #aiac #aiad #aiae #aiaf #aiag ---------------------------------------- -------- ,production#fc1hicfg1figga1jdfgf1jciaja1 dfgabd1cjf ,exports #cj1jjjdb1jjjde1ejjei1ejj #fb1jjj #gb1jjj ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,table #di4--;,,japanese ,,copper ,,production ,producing companies and brands of copper marketed4 ,the companies named have selling offices in ,london and in other foreign consuming centers4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,smelters ---------------------------------------- ------ ,company and #aiag production 7pounds7 of refined chief mines owned ,location and casting#abd and brands sold ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,mitsu ,bishi ,co4 ,osaka #ae1jjj1jjj ,osaruzawa ,arakawa ,ikuni and #f smaller mines ,brands sold ,arakawa1 ,mitsui ,bishi1 casting1 etc4 7rough copper7 ,furukawa ,co4 ,osaka #ag1jjj1jjj ,ashio 7,amagasaki7 also ,ani1 ,furukura1 ,kune and #f smaller mines ,brands sold ,furukawa1 ,ani ,tiles1 refined ,maragata ,best ,selected ,fujita ,co4 ,inushimo #c1jjj1jjj ,kosaka 7,north end ,honshu7 ,brands sold ,obiye casting1 etc4 7rough copper7 ,kuhara ,mining ,co4 ,none ,hitachi 7near ,tokio7 #c smaller mines #cj per cent4 custom ore ,brands sold ,baron ,sumitomo ,shikoku #bb1jjj1jjj ,beshi ,island ,beshi ,best ,selected ,brands sold ,nippon ,metals ,co4 of ,kobe ,moji ,brands sold ,s4 ,z4 ,k4 7,susuki7 and some casting ,denkibundo ,co4 ----------------------------------- ,total casting rough copper and best selected sold #eg1jjj1jjj ,total electro- lytic refining capacity#abe #aiag output of electrolytic estimated #bag1jjj1jjj ----------------------------------- ,total #bad1jjj1jjj or #abd1cjf metric tons ,eng4 ,mining ,journal figure #aiag output4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,electrolytic refineries ---------------------------------------- ------ ,company and #aiag estimated capacity chief mines owned ,location 7pounds7 and brands sold ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,mitsu ,bishi ,co4 ,osaka #ae1jjj1jjj ,osaruzawa ,arakawa ,ikuni and #f smaller mines ,brands sold ,m4 ,b4 7,mitsu ,bishi7 ,furukawa ,co4 ,osaka #fg1jjj1jjj ,ashio 7,nikko also ,ani1 ,furukura1,plant7 ,kune and #f smaller mines ,brands sold ,f4 ,m4 7,furukawa ,mines7 ,fujita ,co4 ,mosaka #bj1jjj1jjj ,kosaka 7,north end ,honshu7 ,brands sold ,kosaka ,kuhara ,mining ,co4 ,hitach #ajj1jjj1jjj ,hitachi 7near ,tokio7 ,reported capacity at least #bj in excess of #aiag output4 #c smaller mines #cj per cent4 custom ore ,brands sold ,h4 ,m4 7,hiatachi ,mine7 ,baron ,sumitomo ,beshi ,brands sold ,nippon ,metals ,co4 of ,kobe #ai1jjj1jjj ,brands sold ,denkibundo ,co4 ,bundo #ac1jjj1jjj ----------------------------------- ,total casting rough copper and best selected sold ,total electro- lytic refining capacity#abe #bce1jjj1jjj #aiag output of electrolytic estimated ,total ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #abd ,balance smelted to cathodes and treated electrolytically4 #abe ,plant capacity4 ,evidently not reached in #aiag4 ,since the high copper prices of #aiaf there was a heavy importation of ,chinese copper coins into ,japan4 ,in #aiag one concern alone had contracted for #bjj1jjj tons of such coins1 which contain about #he per cent4 copper1 and the rate of importation at that time would mean #fj1jjj tons refined copper a year from this secondary source4 ,this development has enabled ,japan to make heavy exports of copper4 ,the collapse of ,russia removed one of ,japan's big copper markets4 ,japan will probably not be able profitably to produce a large exportable surplus of copper unless the price obtained is fairly high compared to quotations ruling in #aiab to #aiad4 ,under normal conditions ,japan will supply her own needs for copper with little or nothing to spare4 ,,korea 7,,chosen7 ,the ,seoul ,mining ,co4 7,collbran and ,bostwick7 is producing from contact deposits1 one #ej miles and the other #ajj miles from a harbor4 ,this ,american concern is a dominant trading and banking house in ,korea and is working mines formerly operated by ,koreans4 ,the copper ores are sulphides between limestone and granite4 ,five hundred tons of #fj per cent4 concentrates were shipped from ,chosen to the ,united ,states in #aiag4 ,,china ,the present production of ,china is #b1jjj tons a year1 and the chief deposits are in ,yunnan ,province4 ,a great many localities are reported to show copper ores1 mainly cupriferous pyrite in very old schists1 or in ,permian basalt4 ,the latter deposits are too small for modern methods4 ,in the last hundred years1 lack of wood to make charcoal has restricted output to a nominal amount4 ,small seams of native copper are highly esteemed by the natives4 ,the ores are carefully hand-picked1 and the small-scale methods are wasteful4 ,the ,tungschuanfu mine1 ,yunnan1 the chief mine in ,china1 has a yearly output of about #a1jjj tons of copper4 ,the district has been worked for hundreds of and probably is very rich4 ,the ores1 replacements in limestone and veins in shale1 are #h per cent4 copper and the reserves are large4 ,the ,yaoki ,kansu government smelter is a modern plant with a capacity of four tons of copper a day4 ,there are several other mines1 all controlled by the government4 ,outside engineers have reported favorably on some of them1 but the government closely regulates copper mining in ,china because it affects currency and government profits on coinage of copper4 ,there are also some copper mines worked with the contact iron deposits of ,china 7formed by contact action of diorite72 and deposits of malachite in ,triassic sandstone are worked at several points4 ,,india ,india is not a copper producer4 ,the ,rakha ,hills mine of the ,cape ,copper ,co4 7see ,cape ,colony7 has #djj1jjj tons of #d per cent4 copper ore developed and a smelter is being built4 ,india is an enormous copper consumer1 and it is surprising she has never been a producer4 ,,europe ,political and commercial control of much of the copper production of ,europe is obviously uncertain in the extreme1 as are any figures of production for the ,central ,powers and ,russia4 7,see ,table #di47 ,,spain1 ,,portugal1 ,,norway ,,and ,,sweden ,spain is the oldest and steadiest producer of copper in the world4 ,the chief deposits are controlled by ,english capital and their developed reserves insure present production for #cj to #fj years4 ,the copper is largely refined to finished form in ,england and enters the market there under various brands4 ,the ,rio ,tinto is an enormous deposit worked by open pits4 ,,table #ej4--,,production ,,and ,,control ,,of ,,copper ,,in ,,europe ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,estimated ,output output ,estimated #aiaf-aiagaiah-aiai output ,country and chief localities 7metric 7metric #aiah-aiai in which copper is produced tons7 tons7 7pounds7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,germany ,mansfeld #cj1jjj #cj1jjj 444 ,mitterberg1 etc4 #aj1jjj #aj1jjj 444 ,austria-,hungary #aj1jjj #aj1jjj 444 ,serbia1 ,bor1 etc4 #aj1jjj #aj1jjj 444 ,turkey1 ,aghano1 etc4 #aj1jjj #aj1jjj 444 ,bulgaria and ,roumania #a1jjj #a1jjj 444 ------------------ ,total ,central ,powers 7est47 #ga1jjj #ga1jjj 444 ,spain and ,portugal#abg #db1jjj #db1jjj 444 ,mason ,barry 444 444 #e1jjj1jjj ,rio ,tinto 444 444 #fb1jjj1jjj ,tharsis 444 444 #ab1jjj1jjj ,misc4 7,united ,alkali1 ,huelva1 ,cordoba1 etc47 444 444 #aa1jjj1jjj ,miscellaneous 7,calva1 ,los ,guardos1 etc47 444 444 #c1jjj1jjj ,russia 7,see ,table #eb7 #ah1ejj #ah1jjj8 444 ,norway#abh 7,sulitolma #dj per cent47 #ai1jjj #ai1jjj 444 ,sweden #a1jjj #a1jjj 444 ,other countries ,italy #c1jjj #c1jjj 444 ,france #a1jjj #a1jjj 444 ,england #bej #bej 444 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,control by3 ----------------------------------- ,country and chief localitie ,handling in which copper is produced,financial#abf ,political of sales ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,germany ,mansfeld ,now entirely ,german ,mitterberg1 etc4 ,do ,austria-,hungary ,do ,serbia1 ,bor1 etc4 ,do ,turkey1 ,aghano1 etc4 ,do ,bulgaria and ,roumania ,do ,total ,central ,powers 7est47 ,spain and ,portugal#abg ,mason ,barry ,english ,portuguese ,english ,rio ,tinto ,do ,spanish ,do ,tharsis ,do ,do ,do ,misc4 7,united ,alkali1 ,huelva1 ,cordoba1 etc47 ,do ,do ,do ,miscellaneous 7,calva1 ,los ,guardos1 etc47 ,spanish ,do ,do ,russia 7,see ,table #eb7 8 8 8 ,norway#abh 7,sulitolma #dj ,english and per cent47 ,norwegian ,norwegian ,sweden ,swedish ,swedish ,swedish ,other countries ,italy ,italian ,italian ,italian ,france ,french ,french ,french ,england ,english ,english ,english ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,country and chief localities,reserves in which copper is produced of ore ,remarks ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,germany ,mansfeld ,output in future should not be nearly as large4 ,mitterberg1 etc4 ,austria-,hungary ,serbia1 ,bor1 etc4 ,turkey1 ,aghano1 etc4 ,bulgaria and ,roumania ,total ,central ,powers 7est47 ,spain and ,portugal#abg ,no statistics since ,mason ,barry #cb years' supply#aiad4 ,rio ,tinto ,very large #fj years' reserves ,tharsis ,do known4 ,misc4 7,united ,alkali1 ,huelva1 ,cordoba1 etc47 ,do ,miscellaneous 7,calva1 ,los ,guardos1 etc47 ,do ,russia 7,see ,table #eb7 #aiad output #cf1cdj tons4 ,norway#abh 7,sulitolma #dj per cent47 ,important ,like ,spanish deposits4 ,sweden ,other countries ,italy ,some ,english capital4 ,france ,french pyrite mines4 ,england ,tin mines4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #abf ,all companies have foreign stockholders1 but dominant nationality is as indicated4 #abg ,export copper to ,france and ,england in form of blister1 alloys1 cement1 pyrite ore and copper ore4 #abh ,export copper to ,england and ,sweden chiefly in form of cupriferous pyrite4 ,,note4 ,production for #aiai in ,germany probably smaller than estimate4 ,the copper deposits1 chiefly massive cupriferous pyrite1 in ,norway and ,sweden1 are similar to those of ,spain geologically as well as economically4 ,their commercial value depends not only on their copper content1 but on the sulphur and iron recovered4 ,in many cases the sulphur used in sulphuric acid manufacture is of greater money value than the recovered copper4 ,hence the exported copper from ,spain1 ,portugal and ,norway is in several forms3 pyrite1 matte1 ingot copper from ,norway and considerable cement copper or precipitates from ,spain and ,portugal4 ,pyrite is exported to ,england1 the ,united ,states1 and perhaps a little to ,france2 the matte1 ingot1 etc41 to various ,european countries4 ,sweden imports as well as produces pyrite4 ,france1 ,italy and ,russia produce considerable pyrite and before the war ,france exported pyrite4 ,under normal conditions1 the copper in all this pyrite is shipped back and forth over ,europe and can hardly be traced4 ,the table shows the location of raw materials but not the place where marketable copper is produced4 ,the chief imports and exports of pyrite are normally as follows3 ,,table #ea4--,,normal ,,exports ,,and ,,imports ,,of ,,pyrite ,,for ,,certain ,,european ,,countries ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,exports from-- ,amount 7tons7,imports to-- ,amount 7tons7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,spain #a1ejj1jjj ,england #a1jej1jjj ,norway #ejj1jjj ,sweden #ajj1jjj ,portugal #bej1jjj ,united ,states #a1jjj1jjj ,france #ajj1jjj ------------- ------------- ,estimated total #b1bej1jjj #b1bej1jjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,germany ,under existing conditions the present output of ,germany can not be closely estimated4 ,the figures in ,table #di are guesses based on the information available4 ,the ,mansfeld deposits are clearly the most important1 and as they are in shales that extend over a large area1 the reserves must be considered large4 ,the ,mitterberg mine1 owned by the ,krupps1 had a pre-war output of only #a1jjj tons yearly4 ,several copper deposits in the ,austrian ,tyrol had a pre-war output of #a1jjj tons annually4 ,the chief source of copper in ,germany during the war1 however1 must have been from conversion of articles containing copper which were in use before the war4 ,it is doubtful if #aj per cent4 of the yearly copper production of peace times was destroyed in use4 ,consequently1 in all countries there is normally a big store of copper in the form of wire1 brass1 machine parts1 etc4 ,this is what ,germany used during the war1 and its replacement is essential to her industrial success in peace4 ,,russia ,the copper production of ,russia was rapidly increasing before the war and reached a maximum in #aiac4 ,the ownership of the mines and refineries was largely ,english but in part ,french4 ,enough development had been done to indicate that ,russia will probably be a large producer of copper when consistent industrial progress is possible4 ,in #aiah the mines had been seized by workmen and operations were nearly or entirely suspended4 ,the copper districts are all in the ,urals1 the ,caucasus or ,siberia4 ,the ,russian copper production 7in long tons7 has been as follows3 #aije #aiaj #aiac #aiad #aiae #aiaf #aiag #h1gjj #bb1caj #cc1gid #ca1dce #be1dgb #bj1eeg #ae1gjj 7#cd1iaa7 7#bg1bie7 ,,table #eb4--;,,copper ,,production ,,and ,,ore ,,reserves ,,of ,,russia 7,all figures long tons7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,orig- #aiae inal pro- invest- #aiac duc- ,ore ments pro- tion1 reserves made duc- 7esti- 7devel- ,district ,company by3 tion mated7 oped7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,urals ,kyshtim ,british #g1jjj #g1fjjc1aej1jjj ,do ,bogoslovsk ,do #d1cjj #d1ajj 444 ,do ,sissert ,do #a1ajj #a1ejje1jjj1jjj ,do ,tanalyk ,do #fjj #fjj #abf1jjj ,do ,verch-,isselz ,russian #c1jjj #b1ejj large reserves ,do ,nishni ,tagilsh 7,demidov7 ,do #b1jjj #a1ejj ------------ ,urals total #ah1jjjag1hjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,caucasus ,caucasus ,copper ,co4 ,british #e1ejj #c1jjjc1fjj1jjj ,do ,allah ,verde ,french #b1jjj #gjj 444 ,do ,siemens ,co4 ,russian #a1ejj #hjj 444 ------------ ,caucasus total #i1jjj #d1ejj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,siberia ,spassky ,british #d1gef #c1dej #edc1jjj ,do ,miscellaneous ,do #gcd 444 ,do ,irkysh 7,ridder7 ,do 7,new7 444 #b1cjj1jjj ,do ,russian ,mining ,co4 ,do #daj 444 #ejj1jjj ,do ,alexeieff ,co4 ,do #cgg 444 ,do ,russo-,asiatic ,corporation ,do ------------ ,siberia total #e1eec #d1ahd ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,russian chemical works #a1ceh #haa ------------ ,grand total ,russia #cd1iaabg1bie ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,copper in ore reserves 7per ,district ,company cent47 ,remarks ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,urals ,kyshtim #b4ge ,obtains gold as by-product4 ,do ,bogoslovsk 444 ,ore hard to follow2 excellent possibilities4 ,do ,sissert 7#b7-d ,do ,tanalyk 444 ,developing into a gold rather than a copper deposit4 ,do ,verch-,isselz #b-c ,massive pyrite ore4 ,do ,nishni ,tagilsh 7,demidov7 ,urals total ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,caucasus ,caucasus ,copper ,co4 #c ,mines at ,khot ,eli and ,katar4 ,do ,allah ,verde 444 ,industrial ,metallurgical ,co4 of ,caucasus4 ,do ,siemens ,co4 444 ,mines at ,tcherek and ,kedabeck4 ,caucasus total ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,siberia ,spassky #aj4g ,do ,miscellaneous 444 ,development companies1 see below4 ,do ,irkysh 7,ridder7 #e #a1jjj1jjj low-grade ore also in reserves4 ,do ,russian ,mining ,co4 #b4f ,ore carries other metals4 ,do ,alexeieff ,co4 ,do ,russo-,asiatic ,corporation ,siberia total ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,russian chemical works ,ouchkoff1 ,kreiners1 etc4 ,grand total ,russia ,russian reserves insure maintenance of #aiac maximum output for at least #ae years ,copper refineries ,capacity per year4 ,electrolytic ,kyshtim #aj1jjj ,electrolytic ,bogoslov #f1jjj ,best selected 7refined7 ,caucasus ,copper ,co4 #aj1jjj ------ ,total #bf1jjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,russia has always been in large part dependent on foreign copper and there was a tariff premium on domestic production4 ,it is likely that ultimately ,russia may more nearly be self-supporting as regards copper requirements1 even if consumption increases greatly4 ,table #eb shows the important developed properties1 their production in #aiac 7maximum7 and in #aiae 7estimated71 their developed ore reserves1 and the nationality of original capital that made the developments possible4 ,,summary ,copper1 the red metal1 is surpassed only by gold and silver in malleability and by silver alone in electrical conductivity4 ,next to iron it is industrially the most important of all metals1 as its value per pound is much greater than that of lead or zinc1 and the world requires and consumes much greater quantities of copper1 lead1 and zinc than of any other non-ferrous metals4 ,the uses of copper are many1 but the electrical industry is the largest consumer4 ,brass1 bronze1 and other copper alloys are second in importance4 ,a considerable quantity of copper sheets1 tubes and other wares are used outside of the electrical industry4 ,copper is used in coinage1 and in ,china it is the money standard of the working population4 ,the ,united ,states1 producing a major part of the world's copper1 has also been responsible for financing and developing more successful copper mines abroad than any other country4 ,success has been facilitated by the presence in the ,western ,hemisphere of the world's chief copper deposits and also by the advances in mining1 milling and metallurgy that have been in great measure the work of ,united ,states engineers4 ,england and ,japan control considerable copper production1 but it is small compared to that controlled by the ,united ,states4 ,in the consumption of copper ,germany is a big factor4 ,because of this fact1 ,german interests and international metal houses have in the past secured a considerable control over copper supplies through refining and selling contracts with mining companies4 ,such control is based entirely on refining and selling companies and does not extend to ownership of producing mines1 and only to a small degree to ownership of smelters4 ,chile1 ,mexico1 ,canada1 and the ,belgian ,congo should become of increasing importance as copper producers not only because of known reserves but1 in the case of ,canada and ,mexico particularly1 because of the likelihood of new and important discoveries4 ,the position of the ,united ,states1 including ,alaska1 should be maintained as at present1 neither gaining nor losing as compared to the rest of the world4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,lead ,,by ,,frederick ,b4 ,,hyder ,,uses ,,of ,,lead ,lead is used in the form of the metal1 of alloys with other metals1 and of various chemical compounds4 ,as metal its chief uses are as pipe for water and corrosive solutions2 for protective covering of electrical cables2 as sheet lead for lining chambers for the manufacture of sulphuric acid and vats for chemical manufacturing processes4 ,in smelting1 lead is used as a collector of other metals1 particularly of gold and silver1 from which it is later separated1 now most generally by the use of zinc by the ,parkes process of desilverization4 ,lead alloys readily with nearly all other metals in all proportions4 ,its alloys of industrial importance comprise type metal1 bearing or babbitt metals1 shot1 solders1 casting metals1 some brasses1 and the fusible alloys used for the protection of electrical apparatus and in automatic sprinklers for the protection of buildings against fire4 ,type metal1 originally composed of #hc per cent4 lead and #ag per cent4 antimony1 now often contains bismuth and sometimes a little copper and iron4 ,an alloy of #i parts lead1 #b antimony and #b bismuth is used for stereotype plates4 ,less than #b per cent4 of arsenic is added to lead used to make shot to increase the hardness and sphericity of the product4 ,antimony also imparts the hardness essential to shrapnel1 etc4 ,bearing metals comprise alloys of lead and antimony or these with copper1 tin1 and zinc4 ,antimony imparts to lead the property of expansion on solidification1 essential to type metal and casting materials generally4 ,lead makes a brass that is soft and machines easily4 ,solder is commonly an alloy of lead and tin4 ,the melting point varies with the proportions of these constituents and others1 sometimes added for special purposes4 ,the cheapest solder in general use is #cj per cent4 tin and #gj per cent4 lead4 ,solders seldom contain more than #ej per cent4 tin4 ,the addition of bismuth1 cadmium1 or mercury lowers the melting below the boiling point of water4 ,fuses can thus be obtained which interrupt electric circuits at any desired temperature4 ,the largest uses of lead compounds are as pigments4 ,white lead or basic carbonate1 #b7,pb,c,o7,pb7,,oh71 is the most extensively consumed1 being used alone or mixed with zinc oxide and barytes4 ,red lead 7,pb,o7 is used for painting structural steel1 as a pipe-joint cement1 and in the manufacture of glass4 ,litharge1 another oxide1 is used in assaying as a flux1 in rubber manufacture1 and in making glass4 ,the acetate1 carbonate and other chemical compounds are used in medicine4 ,the relative amounts of lead consumed in the various uses in #aiac were3 ,in pigment1 comprising white lead1 red lead1 litharge1 and orange mineral1 #ch4j per cent42 in alloys such as type metal1 bearing metals1 and solders1 #bi4g per cent42 in pipe1 #ae4b per cent42 in shot1 #aj4d per cent42 and in sheets1 #f4g per cent4 ,,changes ,,in ,,practice ,the most revolutionary advance in ore dressing of recent years has been the development of oil-flotation1 electromagnetic1 and electrostatic processes for the concentration of lead-zinc ores4 ,these processes permit the elimination of the objectionable zinc content of many ores and render it an additional credit of great importance in the exploitation of low-grade complex ores4 ,the ,murex process applied to the treatment of complex ores consists of coating the metallic sulphide minerals with oil and particles of magnetite and pyrite roasted to magnetic sulphide1 then separating them from the gangue by an electromagnetic machine4 ,the ,lyster preferential flotation of galena depends on the presence of various salts in the water used4 ,in the ,broken ,hill mines these salts are present in the mine waters4 ,after removal of galena the blende may be preferentially floated by the ,bradford copper salt or ,bradford hyposulphite or sulphurous acid processes4 ,in the reduction of lead ores1 there are improvements constantly being made4 ,these are chiefly in the mechanical appliances1 such as mechanical ore hearths and continuous roasting machinery1 such as the ,dwight-,lloyd1 and in details of furnace construction and the handling of materials1 rather than in processes or recognized principles4 ,various new processes have been proposed1 most of which are intended to make available the ores now of too low grade1 or the complex ores of lead and zinc whose separation is difficult or commercially impracticable4 ,these processes are now the subject of experiment1 with some indications that successful applications may be found4 ,one process involves the volatilization by chloridizing roast of sulphide ores1 the precipitation of the lead chloride fume by ,cottrell electric precipitation1 and smelting the fume with lime4 ,at least #ej per cent4 of the chlorine is recovered as calcium chloride1 which can be substituted for salt in the further operations4 ,with oxidized ores it is proposed to dissolve the lead by means of brine acidified with sulphuric acid and to precipitate metal sponge by electrolysis4 ,gillies's process consists in roasting the complex sulphides to a low sulphur content1 mixing with carbonaceous matter1 distilling in excess of air1 and volatilizing the lead1 zinc1 bismuth1 cadmium1 arsenic1 etc41 as oxides and sulphates1 the lead in form of sulphate1 the zinc chiefly as oxide4 ,the fume is caught and digested with a solution of ,zn,s,o and free ,h,,so from the electrolytic vats2 ,pb,s,o remains1 which can be used as pigment or smelted4 ,the ,zn,s,o solution is electrolyzed1 in the presence of gum arabic in the electrolyte1 rendering the zinc deposit more dense4 ,the ,ganlin process1 reported successful on ,burma zinc-lead middlings1 consists in feeding the dry pulverized ore into a molten bath of ,zn and ,na,cl in equal parts4 ,zinc replaces lead and silver1 which are dissolved as chlorides1 ,zn,s being precipitated4 ,when this reaction is complete the lead and silver are precipitated as metals by granulated spelter added to the amount of #ce per cent4 of their weight1 the dissolved spelter forming ,zn,cl4 ,the silver-bearing lead is tapped off1 the residue granulated1 the salts leached with water1 and the zinc-bearing gangue freed from lead shot by tabling1 leaving a zinc ore free from lead4 ,electrolytic refining has been one of the greatest advances in the industry2 it makes possible the preparation of pure lead from any source and the recovery of numerous by-product metals4 ,,geological ,,occurrence ,zinc and lead are commonly associated in mineral deposits1 sometimes intimately mixed1 sometimes segregated enough so that one metal predominates1 but seldom free entirely one from the other4 ,the geological and geographical distribution of the two metals is1 therefore1 nearly identical4 ,galena is the most common and important of the lead minerals4 ,cerussite1 anglesite and pyromorphite usually result from the oxidation of galena1 the sulphate being usually an intermediate state in the oxidation to the carbonate4 ,pyromorphite and wulfenite are of minor importance4 ,jamesonite is more an ore of antimony than of lead4 ,sphalerite 7zinc blende7 weathers more readily than galena1 and therefore zinc in many places is carried below water level more rapidly and completely than lead4 ,for this reason some mines change from predominantly lead mines to zinc mines with greater depth4 ,apart from the effect of such secondary enrichment1 this change is often encountered in primary ores with increase in depth4 ,lead ores occur in deposits of several distinct genetic types4 ,many deposits lie at shallow depth in sedimentary rocks1 without apparent connection with igneous rocks1 occurring as tabular replacements of receptive beds4 ,in regions of slightly disturbed strata the ore shoots tend to follow pitching troughs4 ,ores of this type usually contain lead 7galena71 zinc 7sphalerite71 and iron 7pyrite7 minerals2 many contain manganese and cadmium2 some contain cobalt and nickel2 but few carry gold1 silver1 copper1 or antimony4 ,deposits of this type are of world-wide distribution1 and many are extensive and commercially important4 ,the greater purity of the ore and the simplicity of treatment 7particularly for the ores in the oxidized zones71 caused them to be exploited first and most extensively1 and to dominate formerly the world production of lead4 ,to this type belong1 with many others1 the deposits of the ,mississippi ,valley and ,silesia1 that together yielded #ae per cent4 of the world's production in #aiac4 ,other important deposits are closely associated with igneous rocks1 and are characterized by complex ores4 ,they comprise vein deposits1 disseminated replacements of igneous rocks1 and silver-lead replacements in limestone4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,the chief lead-ore deposits of the world are situated in the countries that are listed below in the order of their importance in #aiac4 ,,recoverable ,,lead ,,content ,,of ,,the ,,lead ,,ores ,,of ,,the ,,world ,,produced ,,in #aiacabi ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,percentage of world's total ,rank ,country ,short tons,metric tons production ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #a4 ,united ,states #dhd1hhj #ddj1jjj #cf4j #b4 ,australia #bfg1afi #bdb1ddj #ai4h #c4 ,spain #bji1aic #ahi1hcj #af4d #d4 ,germany #gi1cdd #gb1jjj #e4i #e4 ,mexico #fh1cdc #fb1jjj #e4a #f4 ,tunis #ca1jgf #bh1bjj #b4c #g4 ,italy #bd1ije #bb1fjj #a4h #h4 ,canada #bd1bdd #bb1jjj #a4h #i4 ,austria #bb1eia #bj1ejj #a4g #aj4 ,great ,britain #bj1bgg #ah1djj #a4e #aa4 ,greece #ai1hcf #ah1jjj #a4e #ab4 ,turkey-in-,asia #ae1dbh #ad1jjj #a4a #ac4 ,china #ac1iie #ab1gjj #a4j #ad4 ,german ,s4 ,w4 ,africa #ac1bbd #ab1jjj #a4j #ae4 ,algeria #ab1hic #aa1gjj #a4j #af4 ,france #i1ehg #h1gjj #j4g #ag4 ,india 7,burma7 #f1ejb #e1ijj #j4e #ah4 ,peru #d1cca #c1icj #j4c #ai4 ,japan #d1adc #c1gfj #j4c #bj4 ,egypt #c1aif #b1ijj #j4b #ba4 ,russia #c1jhc #b1hjj #j4b #bb4 ,bulgaria #b1bjd #b1jjj #j4b #bc4 ,sweden #b1jid #a1ijj #j4b #bd4 ,hungary #a1bef #a1adj #j4a #be4 ,bolivia #a1ajb #a1jjj #j4a #bf4 ,portugal #ffa #fjj #bg4 ,rhodesia #cfa #ccj ---------------------------------- ,total #a1cde1iah #a1bba1cij #ajj4j ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #abi ,adapted from compilations by ,adolph ,knopf1 of the ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey4 ,the four districts now of pre-eminent importance are1 in order1 ,broken ,hill in ,new ,south ,wales1 ,australia2 southeastern ,spain2 southeastern ,missouri and ,coeur d',alene1 in ,idaho3 which are credited respectively with about #ai1 #af1 #ab and #aj per cent4 of the world's production in #aiac4 ,united ,states4--,the chief producing regions and their percentage of the domestic lead production in #aiae are as follows3 ,percentage of total ,region domestic production ,southeastern ,missouri #cc ,coeur d',alene1 ,idaho #bg ,utah #ah ,joplin 7in ,mo41 ,kans41 ,ark41 and ,okla47 #f ,colorado #e ,as regards the types of ores and the character of the lead produced1 there are two metallographic provinces3 the ,mississippi ,valley1 including southeastern ,missouri and ,joplin1 and the minor district of ,wisconsin1 producing as soft lead #ci to #de per cent4 of the total domestic production2 and the ,western province1 in which the ores are complex1 carrying precious metals and often antimony and copper4 ,all of the output from the ,western province1 but only a part of the soft lead1 is desilverized4 ,ninety per cent4 of the ore mined in southeastern ,missouri comes from ,st4 ,francois and ,madison counties4 ,the ore deposits contain predominantly galena1 and are disseminated in ,cambrian limestone over large areas at depths of #ajj to #eej feet4 ,copper1 nickel1 and cobalt occur in the ,madison ,county ores1 and copper concentrates are separated and shipped by nearly all the companies in the region4 ,the principal operating companies1 with the names of companies absorbed by them or now subsidiaries1 shown in parenthesis1 are3 ,st4 ,joseph ,lead ,co4 7,doe ,run ,lead ,co471 ,federal ,lead ,co41 ,national ,lead ,co4 7,st4 ,louis ,smelting ,refining ,co471 ,desloge ,consolidated ,lead ,co41 ,baker ,lead ,co4 7,st4 ,francois ,lead ,co471 ,boston ,elvins ,lead ,co41 ,missouri ,metals ,co4 7,mine ,la ,motte ,co471 and ,missouri ,cobalt ,co4 7,north ,american ,lead ,co474 ,the ,st4 ,joseph ,lead ,co4 is normally the second largest lead-producing company in the ,united ,states4 ,its holdings have a conservatively estimated life of #bj years1 at a rate of production of #b1jjj1jjj tons of ore1 or #hj1jjj short tons of lead1 per annum4 ,in #aiag this company mined #b1dhe1dca tons of ore1 nearly half the total output of the region4 ,the ,federal ,lead ,co41 a subsidiary of the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co41 is the next largest producing company in the region4 ,in #aiae it mined and milled #a1cee1jjj tons of ore4 ,the ,national ,lead ,co41 through its subsidiary1 the ,st4 ,louis ,smelting ,refining ,co41 works three mines near ,flat ,river and has a concentration plant with a daily capacity of #b1djj tons4 ,its smelter at ,collinsville treats its own concentrates1 as well as those of the ,baker ,lead ,co4 and the ,boston ,elvins ,lead ,co4 ,the ,desloge ,consolidated ,lead ,co4 operates three mines and a mill of #a1gjj tons' daily capacity2 its ores are smelted by the ,federal ,lead ,co4 ,the ,missouri ,metals ,co4 operates the ,mine ,la ,motte and a mill treating #gjj1jjj tons annually at the #aiag rate4 ,in #aiae it was estimated that this mine could produce #c1jjj1jjj tons of ore annually for sixty years4 ,in the ,joplin region1 which is chiefly in ,missouri but also includes adjacent areas in ,kansas1 ,arkansas1 and ,oklahoma1 the ores lie at three horizons in horizontal limestone and chert beds of ,lower ,carboniferous age4 ,at the upper horizon1 usually #ajj to #aej feet below the surface1 the ore occurs in clayey chert breccias4 ,the ore bodies are characteristically 8runs0 up to #cjj feet wide1 and continuous in one horizon for several hundred feet and1 rarely1 for more than a mile4 ,the middle horizon1 or 8sheet ground10 at a depth of #aej to #cjj feet usually ranges from #f to #ae feet in thickness4 ,the ore1 mixed galena and blende1 cements brecciated chert4 ,the third and lowest horizon1 in sandy limestones1 contains disseminated ores mainly1 and as yet is little exploited4 ,in #aiae1 about #d1jjj1jjj tons of ore was mined from the upper horizon1 and #f1ejj1jjj tons from the middle horizon or 8sheet ground40 ,the average lead content of the ore as mined was about #j4be per cent4 ,most of the lead concentrates are sold in open market4 ,the ,webb ,city district is the most important in the ,joplin region1 and the ,american ,zinc1 ,lead ,smelting ,co4 is the largest galena producer4 ,most of the output is by lessees and small operators4 ,the ,joplin district ranks second in importance4 ,the ,a4 ,w4 ,c4 ,mining ,co4 is the largest miner of 8sheet ground40 ,the ,ravenswood and ,ritz mines of the ,united ,states ,smelting1 ,refining ,mining ,co41 in ,jasper ,county1 produce #bah1jjj tons of ore annually4 ,the concentrates of this region are chiefly smelted by the plants of the ,eagle-,picher ,lead ,co4 at ,galena1 ,kansas2 ,joplin1 ,missouri2 ,webb ,city1 ,missouri2 and by the ,granby ,mining ,smelting ,co4 at ,granby1 ,missouri4 ,the ,coeur d',alene region is in ,shoshone ,county1 ,idaho4 ,the deposits are metasomatic veins formed by replacement of siliceous sedimentary rocks along zones of fissuring1 and carry mainly galena and siderite with some pyrite and sphalerite4 ,in #aiae the crude ore shipments amounted to #ie1afi tons with a lead content of #ce1bga short tons4 ,the remainder of the ore1 or nearly #if per cent4 of the total1 is concentrated to carry about #ej per cent4 lead4 ,the #aiae yield of concentrates of all kinds amounted to #cbi1ecj tons1 having a lead content of #abh1ibh short tons1 making the total lead content of crude and concentrate shipments #afd1aii short tons4 ,the mining companies form three groups1 determined chiefly by their relations or affiliations with the smelters1 as follows3 ,the ,bunker ,hill group1 comprising the ,bunker ,hill ,sullivan ,mining ,concentrating ,co41 and the ,hecla ,mining ,co42 the ,day group1 comprising the ,tamarack ,custer ,mining ,co41 the ,amazon-,manhattan mine1 and the ,hercules ,mining ,co42 and the ,american ,smelting ,refining group1 comprising the ,federal ,mining ,smelting ,co4 and various small producers4 ,the mines of the ,bunker ,hill ,sullivan ,mining ,concentrating ,co4 had reserves on ,december #ca1 #aiag1 of #c1deg1fcd tons4 ,the ore bodies are replacements of quartzite4 ,this company's production in #aiag was #dic1jcj tons of ore1 the metallic lead recovered by smelting being #df1iif tons4 ,the ,bunker ,hill ,sullivan ,co41 while still shipping its own ores to the ,helena plant of the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co41 built its own smelter at ,kellogg1 ,idaho1 where it smelts the ,hecla and other ores4 ,the ,day family controls the ,hercules1 and ,tamarack ,custer companies1 the ,northport smelter at ,northport1 ,washington 7now closed down71 and the ,pennsylvania ,smelting ,refining ,co4 at ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,the #aiaf shipments of the ,hercules had a lead content of about #bb1jjj tons4 ,both companies are close corporations and make public little information as to their operations4 ,the ,tamarack ,custer probably has large reserves of ore averaging about #i per cent4 lead2 it has produced as much as #c1jjj tons of shipping ore and concentrates per month4 ,the ,federal ,mining ,smelting ,co4 operates several mines4 ,one-sixth of the stock is owned by the ,american ,smelters ,securities ,co4 and all its silver-lead ores and concentrates are contracted to the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 ,the ,success ,mining ,co41 working two mines1 has been an important producer4 ,the ,interstate-,callahan has been chiefly a zinc producer but ships some lead concentrates to the ,salida plant of the ,ohio ,colorado ,smelting ,co4 ,the lead production of ,utah is chiefly from the ,park ,city1 ,bingham ,canyon1 and ,tintic districts4 ,the ores1 composed of galena1 tetrahedrite and pyrite1 and in places sphalerite1 with their oxidized derivatives1 occur in lodes cutting limestones1 sandstones and shales1 chiefly of ,carboniferous age1 and also as bedded deposits in limestone4 ,both types are frequently associated with porphyry and form irregular ore bodies in contact-metamorphosed limestone4 ,in many mines copper is an important constituent of the ores and the silver content is always important4 ,the production of ,colorado in #aiag comprised #cc1iie short tons of lead1 of which #i1bic short tons came from the ,leadville district in ,lake ,county1 #aj1dab short tons from the ,san ,juan district in ,san ,juan1 ,san ,miguel and ,ouray counties1 and #f1haf tons from the ,aspen district in ,pitkin ,county4 ,the ,leadville deposits are in the ,mosquito range4 ,the chief producing companies are the ,iron ,silver ,mining ,co41 the ,yak ,mining1 ,milling ,tunnel ,co4 and its subsidiary1 the ,leadville ,exploration ,mining ,co42 the ,western ,mining ,co42 the ,downtown ,mines ,co42 the ,ibex ,mining ,co42 and the ,united ,states ,smelting1 ,refining ,mining ,co4 ,the ,yak ,mining1 ,milling ,tunnel ,co41 and the ,western ,mining ,co4 are subsidiaries of the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 ,in the ,san ,juan district1 the principal producers are the ,liberty ,bell2 ,smuggler-,union2 ,tomboy2 ,black ,bear2 ,iowa-,gold ,tiger2 ,dives2 ,shenandoah2 and ,silver ,lake mines4 ,the veins penetrate all the clastic and igneous rocks of this region1 and the ores are exceedingly complex4 ,in ,pitkin ,county1 the ,smuggler ,leasing ,co4 operates most of the producing mines at ,aspen4 ,the ores are peculiarly free from other metals than lead1 antimony1 and silver4 ,australia4--,the lead resources of the ,commonwealth of ,australia are chiefly in ,new ,south ,wales1 ,western ,australia1 ,tasmania1 and ,queensland4 ,new ,south ,wales has been the chief producer in the past1 but the ,tasmanian deposits are now being rapidly developed and equipped for production4 ,the most important source of ore in ,new ,south ,wales is the great ,broken ,hill lode1 situated in the arid ,barrier ,ranges at an elevation of about #a1jjj feet above sea level4 ,the lode ranges in width from a few inches to #djj feet and has been worked over a distance of three miles4 ,mining began in #ahhd and now is conducted by several mining companies which1 in the order of the importance of their production and ore reserves1 are3 ,broken ,hill ,south ,silver ,mining ,co42 ,broken ,hill ,north ,mining ,co42 ,zinc ,corporation2 ,sulphide ,corporation2 ,british ,broken ,hill ,proprietary ,co42 ,broken ,hill ,proprietary ,co42 ,broken ,hill ,proprietary ,co41 ,block #aj2 and ,broken ,hill ,proprietary ,co41 ,block #ad4 ,although the deepest workings are #a1hae feet deep1 the ore still continues downward4 ,for many years the estimated ore reserves of all the mines have approximated #ab1jjj1jjj tons4 ,the upper part of the lode consisted of a gossan #bj to #ajj feet wide of siliceous and manganiferous limonite1 hematite1 and kaolin4 ,below the gossan were great masses of cerussite1 anglesite1 cuprite1 and malachite1 with abundant cerargyrite1 embolite1 and iodyrite4 ,between the oxidized and primary sulphide ores was a thin zone of secondary sulphides4 ,the early operations in the district were conducted for the purpose of obtaining lead ores1 and immense dumps were accumulated of zinc-bearing ores sorted out or zinc-bearing tailings left after concentration of the lead ores4 ,in #aijc these dumps were estimated at #e1fhg1djj tons1 carrying #ah4f per cent4 zinc4 ,with the development of a demand for zinc sulphide ores and of oil-flotation methods of separation and concentration1 these dumps have been important sources of zinc4 ,there are two classes of sulphide ores1 distinguished as silicate gangue ore1 and calcite gangue ore4 ,the sulphide ores are a close mixture of galena and zinc blende1 carrying silver4 ,the silicate gangue ore bodies carry rhodonite1 garnet1 and quartz2 and are richer in zinc and silver than those with calcite gangue4 ,the ,broken ,hill ,south ,silver ,mining ,co4 has ore reserves estimated at #c1cej1jjj tons and is the largest ore producer in the field4 ,broken ,hill ,north1 ,broken ,hill ,south1 ,amalgamated ,zinc 7,de ,bavay71 ,zinc ,corporation1 and ,barrier ,south1 ,ltd41 are controlled by the ,hoover-,govett-,bailliau group of ,british and ,australian capitalists4 ,the ,amalgamated ,zinc ,co4 in #aiac treated #dih1bhi tons of tailings containing #ag4a per cent4 zinc1 #c4g per cent4 lead1 and #d4d ounces silver1 obtaining #adj1jih tons zinc concentrates carrying zinc1 #dh4i per cent41 lead #e4i per cent41 and silver #h4e ounces per ton4 ,the ,zinc ,corporation1 a company formed by ,bewick1 ,moreing ,co41 has ore reserves estimated at #a1ejd1baa tons1 averaging #ad4h per cent4 lead1 #i4b per cent4 zinc1 and #b4e ounces of silver per ton4 ,the largest lead-producing district of ,tasmania is on the ,west ,coast1 where the largest producers1 the ,hercules of the ,dundas group and the ,primrose and ,tasmanian copper mines of the ,rosebery company group1 are now controlled by the ,mount ,read-,rosebery ,co41 affiliated with the ,mount ,lyell ,mining ,railway ,co41 ,ltd4 ,the deposits contain complex sulphide ores1 the reserves being estimated by the state geological staff at #a1bgb1ejj tons1 averaging #bi4gi per cent4 zinc1 #h4hi per cent4 lead1 #ab4af ounces of silver1 and #j4ag ounces gold per ton4 ,this estimate has since been revised and made more conservative4 ,in #aiac ,western ,australia produced #bf1ehi long tons of lead ore and #abe tons of silver-lead ore1 almost wholly from the ,northampton district on the ,west ,coast4 ,the only company working on a large scale is the ,fremantle ,trading ,smelting ,co41 operating the ,baddera and ,narra ,tarra mines and1 formerly1 a smelter at ,fremantle4 ,the ,chillagoe district is the largest producer in ,queensland1 its output amounting to #b1eej long tons of pig lead in #aiac1 chiefly from the ,girofla mine of the ,mungana company1 but in part from lead-copper concentrates4 ,the ,chillagoe operated a small smelter4 ,the total pig lead production of ,queensland was #c1fjc long tons in #aiac4 ,spain4--,spain yielded in #aiac1 #cad1cfi short tons of lead concentrates1 from which were smelted #ahi1eei tons of pig lead4 ,in #aiae only #a1jaj short tons of ore or concentrates was exported1 and #afa1iab short tons of desilverized lead was exported1 mostly to ,england4 ,over #ij per cent4 of the production of ore came from the provinces of ,jaen1 ,murcia1 ,cordoba1 and ,ciudad ,real4 ,in #aiac the ,province of ,almeria occupied fourth place1 but its mines are now nearly exhausted4 ,these provinces are in the southeastern part of ,spain and cover the ,sierra ,morena and ,sierra ,nevada mountain ranges4 ,in the ,province of ,jaen are two principal districts--the ,linares-,santa-,elena and the ,la ,carolina4 ,many years ago ,linares was the greatest lead-producing district in the world4 ,the veins cut granite and thin overlying sandstone and are very narrow4 ,the ,arrayanes1 a state-owned mine1 has been exploited over a length of two and a half miles and to #a1ejj feet in depth4 ,the gangue is granite1 quartz and calcite4 ,iron and copper pyrites and sphalerite are present1 but a #gi per cent4 lead concentrate is easily made4 ,the deepest mine is #a1hjj ft4 deep and is still in rich ore4 ,in the ,santa ,elena vicinity1 the ,san ,fernando1 ,ojo ,vecino1 and ,santa ,ana mines are owned locally4 ,the ,caridad is owned by ,french capital and the ,santa ,susanna by a ,belgian concern1 the ,compagnie ,real ,asturienne des ,mines4 ,in ,la ,carolina district the nearly vertical lodes cut ,silurian quartzites and ,cambrian and ,silurian slates4 ,the ore attains a greater width than in the veins of the ,linares district4 ,the ,nuevo ,centenillo mine 7,english owned7 produces #bg1jjj short tons of concentrates annually4 ,the great ,guindo lode runs through six mines1 two of which are owned by ,spanish companies1 and three by the ,guindo ,co41 a ,german-,spanish corporation having an output of #bg1jjj short tons of concentrates yearly4 ,the ,castillo ,la ,vieja1 owned by a ,french company1 has a yearly output of #bj1jjj tons of marketable ore4 ,in the ,province of ,murcia the ,mazarron and ,cartagena districts are important4 ,most of the veins are nearly vertical but many have spurs or branches forming lenticular and bedded deposits in the sedimentaries4 ,this district extends southwestward along the coast from ,cabo de ,palos a few miles north of ,cartagena4 ,the production of this province has been steadily decreasing4 ,in the ,province of ,cordoba 7district of ,posadas7 many silver-lead-zinc mines were worked by the ,romans and are still profitable4 ,near ,alcaracejos are the mines of ,anglo-,vask and ,penarroya1 the latter owned by a ,french company of the same name4 ,the development of the lead ores in the ,province of ,ciudad ,real has been retarded by lack of transportation facilities4 ,the best known district is that of ,el ,hoyo-,san ,lorenzo1 which in #aiae had risen to fourth place among the lead-producing districts of ,spain4 ,germany4--,in imperial ,germany the lead-producing districts in the order of their importance were as follows3 ,upper ,silesia1 ,rhenish ,prussia1 ,westphalia1 ,saxony1 ,hanover1 and ,nassau4 ,rhenish ,prussia and ,westphalia are usually grouped together as one metallographic province4 ,at ,gladbach1 east of ,cologne in ,rhenish ,prussia1 are ore deposits lying in troughs and basins in limestone4 ,the ore is smithsonite and galena mixed with shale4 ,the chief deposits of ,westphalia are at ,iserlohn and ,brilon4 ,at ,iserlohn ores containing calamine1 galena1 and blende are found in irregular pockets4 ,the deposits of ,brilon are similar1 but most of the ore is found in crevices in the limestone4 ,rhenish ,prussia and ,westphalia are the source of about one-third the ,german production of lead4 ,the greater part of ,upper ,silesia lay within the boundaries of ,germany in #aiad1 although formerly part of the kingdom of ,poland1 the population being still predominantly ,polish2 but portions were included in the old empires of ,russia and ,austria4 ,the pre-war production of lead ores from ,russian ,poland was entirely from this metallographic province4 ,the deposits1 which contain lead and zinc together1 lie in ,triassic beds that overlie ,carboniferous rocks carrying important seams of coal4 ,this juxtaposition of ore and fuel furnish an ideal basis for the great smelting industry that developed locally1 for the conditions permit smelting of low-grade ores4 ,the historic mines at ,freiberg1 in ,saxony 7,erzgebirge7 yield a small quantity of blende in connection with the concentration of galena ores from a remarkable series of intersecting veins1 which number more than #ijj1 although few are more than #b feet thick4 ,they have been worked to a depth of #b1ajj feet4 ,more than #aj per cent4 of the lead production of ,germany is derived from ,saxony4 ,these mines are owned and operated by the ,saxon government1 which also owns the smelting plants4 ,lead predominates over zinc in the ores of the ,upper ,harz1 in ,hanover4 ,these ores occur in veins and zones in slates of ,devonian and ,lower ,carboniferous age4 ,these mines are worked by the ,prussian ,department of ,mines1 which also operates two smelting plants1 the output being about #aj per cent4 of the total ,german output4 ,in ,nassau1 in the valley of the ,lahn1 lead ores are produced as a by-product1 with zinc blende concentrates4 ,mexico4--,in ,mexico lead ores are mined in several states1 the more important being ,chihuahua1 ,durango1 ,coahuila1 ,nuevo ,leon1 ,sonora1 ,san ,luis ,potosi1 and ,zacatecas4 ,in many districts during a considerable part of the past eight years work has been intermittent and occasionally suspended for long periods4 ,the ,santa ,eulalia district in ,chihuahua is largely owned by ,american companies1 including the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co41 operating the ,mina ,vieja1 ,sin ,nombre1 ,velardea1 ,san ,antonio and ,santo ,domingo mines2 and ,el ,potosi ,mining ,co41 operating the mines of the same name4 ,the ,san ,toy is under lease to the ,american ,metal ,co41 now purged of ,german interests4 ,the ,santa ,eulalia ,mining ,co4 belongs to the ,hearst estate4 ,the ,buena ,tierra ,mining ,co4 is a ,british concern4 ,the mines of the ,santa ,barbara and ,parral districts are also largely under ,american control1 among many others being the ,montezuma ,lead ,mining ,co4 of the ,r4 ,s4 ,towne interests1 ,granadea ,mining ,co41 ,american ,smelters ,securities ,co4 and ,american ,zinc ,extraction ,co4 ,the ,american ,smelters ,securities ,co4 operates the ,tecolotes1 ,montezuma1 ,san ,diego1 ,guadalupe and ,alfarena mines4 ,the ,san ,francisco mines are owned by ,british capital4 ,in the ,san ,isidro district the ,calera1 ,prieta and ,buena ,vista mines are operated by the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 ,the ,lago mine is operated by ,c4 ,m4 de ,las ,plomosas 7,french74 ,in the ,parado district are mines of the ,compaia ,minera ,aurora y ,anexas1 controlled by the ,madero family 7,mexican74 ,other ,chihuahua mines of the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 are ,orizaba and ,la ,union at ,magistral1 the ,jibosa at ,dolores1 ,la ,luz and ,parcionera at ,cordera1 the ,veta ,grande and ,veta ,colorado4 ,the largest operators in the state of ,durango are the ,american ,smelters ,securities ,co4 at ,velardea and the ,cia4 ,minera de ,peoles at ,mapimi1 both now ,american since the selling of the ,german-held stock of the ,american ,metals ,co4 by the ,alien ,property ,custodian4 ,in ,sonora1 the ,carnegie ,lead ,zinc ,co4 worked a mine near ,cananea1 during the war1 but the best part of the deposit is now depleted4 ,the ,tiro ,general mines1 in ,san ,luis ,potosi1 belong to the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 ,the ,cabrilla and ,paloma mines1 in the ,cabrillas district in ,coahuila1 are owned by the ,compaia ,minera de ,peoles1 controlled by the ,american ,metal ,co4 ,the ,sierra ,mojada district is dominated by ,american companies1 the principal mines being owned by the ,consolidated ,kansas ,city ,smelting ,refining ,co41 a subsidiary of the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 ,the ,boquillas de ,carmen mine has been acquired by an ,american company4 ,in the state of ,nueva ,leon1 deposits lying within a radius of #ej miles of ,monterrey1 at ,villadama1 ,vallecillo1 ,ladera ,occidental de ,minas ,viejas1 etc41 have been exploited by ,german and ,american companies1 including the ,compaia ,metalurgica ,mexicana 7,american71 ,joplin-,mexican ,mining ,co4 7,american71 and the ,metallgesellschaft 7,german74 ,other ,countries4--,the output of lead ore in ,tunis in #aiac1 almost wholly by ,french companies1 was #ef1jgb metric tons4 ,it is all exported4 ,practically all the output of lead ore in ,italy is derived from the ,inglesias district of ,sardinia1 which in #aiae produced #dj1hbi metric tons of ore averaging #ee per cent4 lead1 out of a total national production of #da1eij metric tons4 ,the principal operators are the ,monteponi and ,pertusola companies1 the former ,italian1 the latter ,english4 ,the remainder of the ore comes from the provinces of ,bergamo1 ,brescia ,cuneo1 and ,grosseto1 and the operating companies are the ,english ,crown ,spelter ,co4 7,english71 and the ,societa ,austro-,belga and ,socit de la ,vieille ,montagne 7,belgian74 ,in ,czecho-,slovakia1 the most important district is that of ,przibram1 in ,bohemia4 ,rich lead ores were once mined at ,mies1 but the district is now exhausted4 ,the district of ,joachimsthal was for centuries an important producer4 ,in ,german-,austria are the silver-lead mining districts of ,schneeberg1 in ,tyrol1 and ,raibl1 in ,upper ,carinthia4 ,in both districts the mines were before the war owned and operated by the ,austrian state4 ,miess1 in ,carinthia1 is one of the chief sources of ore in recent years4 ,the lead mines of ,great ,britain in #aiaf produced #ag1jhc tons of dressed lead ore4 ,the largest operator is the ,weardale ,lead ,co41 operating the ,boltsburn and ,stanhopeburn mines and smelting its own and some custom ores4 ,in ,greece the only important lead deposit is that of ,laurium1 which was worked on a large scale in ancient times4 ,it is now controlled and operated by a ,french company1 the ,compagnie ,franaise des ,mines de ,laurium4 ,the lead production of ,canada is chiefly from ,british ,columbia1 the most important producers being in the ,slocan district4 ,the largest operator is the ,consolidated ,mining ,smelting ,co4 of ,canada1 ,ltd41 proprietor also of the ,trail smelter4 ,this company operates the ,sullivan and other mines and produced during the year ended ,september #cj1 #aiag1 #bi1edb tons of lead ore from the ,sullivan mine1 and #a1ajj to #a1ejj tons from several others4 ,the ,sullivan mine has been reported to have reserves of #c1ejj1jjj tons of galena-sphalerite ore4 ,numerous smaller properties in the same district ship ore to the ,trail smelter1 which produced some #bb1jjj tons of lead during the year ended ,september #cj1 #aiag4 ,the most important lead-silver mines of ,asiatic ,turkey are those at ,hodsha ,gernish 7,balia71 belonging to the ,socit des ,mines de ,balia-,kara-,aidin 7,french71 which yield about #ab1jjj tons of lead annually4 ,there is a state-owned mine at ,bulgardagh producing lead1 gold1 and silver4 ,the ,english company1 ,asia ,minor ,mining ,co41 produces about #c1jjj tons of ore annually4 ,in ,china the ten lead mines in the ,province of ,hunan are controlled by ,chinese4 ,the ,wah ,chang ,mining ,smelting ,co41 ,ltd41 operates the ,tien ,for ,tai mines4 ,the ,shui-,ko-,shan mine1 controlled by the ,hunan ,mining ,board1 from a deposit in limestone1 produced in #aiac1 #ea1efa net tons of ore1 which yielded #c1gfb tons of lead concentrates and #ab1bge tons of zinc concentrates4 ,since #aiac the production has been increased1 but the possibilities of the deposit are limited4 ,the ,japanese have endeavored to secure control of this mine1 but without success4 ,the pig-lead output of ,china is chiefly consumed in the country4 ,the only modern lead smelter is at ,changsha and is owned by ,japanese4 ,the lead production of ,southwest ,africa 7formerly ,german7 has been derived chiefly from the ,tsumeb deposit in the ,grootfontein district in the ,otavi ,mountains4 ,the ores exported in the fiscal year #aiac-ad amounted to #dh1jjj long tons1 averaging #ac per cent4 copper1 #be per cent4 lead1 and #g4g ounces silver4 ,the ore is a coarsely crystalline aggregate of argentiferous galena and chalcocite with minor amounts of other minerals4 ,the ,otavi ,mines ,railway ,co4 owns and operates this mine1 the ore having been exported in #aiac-ad to the ,united ,states for smelting4 ,in #aiac all the lead-ore production of ,algeria was from the ,department of ,constantine1 and amounted to #ba1ddb tons4 ,practically the whole production was by ,french companies4 ,lead ore is produced in several scattered districts in ,france1 chiefly in the south4 ,among the mines are the ,chaliac et ,chassezac 7,ardeche7 mines of the ,socit ,metallurgique et ,minire des ,cevennes1 producing #b1bjj metric tons in #aiac2 the mines of the ,socit ,civile des ,mines des ,malines2 ,la ,londe mine of the ,socit des ,mines des ,bormettes2 that of the ,socit des ,mines de ,bleymard1 producing #b1dgj tons of galena ore in #aiac2 and the ,pierrefitte 7,haute ,pyrenees71 ,peybrune1 and ,bulard de ,sentein-,saint ,lary 7,ariege7 mines4 ,all of these appear to be ,french companies1 except the ,pierrefitte1 which is ,english controlled4 ,in ,burma1 the chief deposits are those of the ,bawdwin mines1 in the ,northern ,shan ,states 7,burma71 now connected with the ,burma ,railway from ,rangoon4 ,the ore bodies of present interest are nearly vertical shoots in a feldspathic grit 7rhyolitic tuff or silicified rhyolite7 and rhyolite series4 ,the ,chinaman and the smaller ,shan ore body are believed to have been one1 though now separated by faulting4 ,estimated reserves on ,december #ca1 #aiag1 were #d1jcc1jjj tons of lead-zinc ore assaying #bd4g ounces of silver1 #bg4d per cent4 lead1 #ai4a per cent4 zinc1 and #j4d per cent4 copper2 and #aje1jjj tons of copper-silver ore assaying #ba4j ounces of silver1 #ai4i per cent4 lead1 #h4h per cent4 zinc1 and #h4i per cent4 copper4 ,since then development has considerably increased these reserves4 ,in addition there is estimated to be #a1fjj1jjj tons of low-grade ore averaging #e4a ounces of silver1 #g4e per cent4 lead1 #d4h per cent4 zinc1 and #j4b per cent4 copper per ton1 with excellent prospects of larger developments4 ,a large tonnage of gossan outcrop ore containing #d or #e ounces silver1 #d to #e per cent4 lead1 and a little zinc is cheaply mined and available as siliceous flux4 ,the essential constituents of the ores are galena and sphalerite with a little pyrite and chalcopyrite4 ,all of the ore is argentiferous4 ,the lead and zinc concentrates are available for the customary methods of smelting4 ,a zinc-distilling and sulphuric acid plant is being constructed at ,sakchi1 with the aid of the ,indian government1 to treat the table zinc concentrates4 ,its initial capacity of #be1jjj tons of concentrates is expected to be increased to #ge1jjj tons4 ,the company operates a lead smelter at ,nam-,tu1 #aa miles from the mines1 using a mixture of ore and ancient slags4 ,treatment of the middlings by the ,ganlin process is proposed and a #ajj-ton unit is under construction at ,avonmouth1 ,england4 ,the ,bawdwin deposits may be expected to be an important factor in the world's production of lead in the immediate future4 ,they are owned by the ,burma ,mines1 ,ltd41 an ,english corporation representing the ,r4 ,tilden ,smith-,govett-,hoover interests and some ,american capital4 ,the lead production of ,peru is largely in the form of ancient high-lead slags from the ,cerro de ,pasco district1 ,department of ,junin1 shipped to plants of the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 in the ,united ,states4 ,lead occurs as a minor constituent of copper deposits4 ,the domestic lead-ore deposits of ,japan are all owned and operated by ,japanese4 ,during the war ,australian concentrates and ,chinese ore were imported and smelted1 #aj1fff short tons of the former1 carrying #ef per cent4 lead1 during the fiscal year #aiae-af1 and #i1hbi short tons of the latter during the year #aiaf4 ,the ,fujita company1 mining in ,japan1 ,korea1 and ,formosa1 produces #chb short tons of lead yearly4 ,its principal mine is the ,kosaka1 at the northern end of ,hondo1 the main island of ,japan4 ,the ore is a complex sulphide mixture of lead1 zinc1 iron1 and copper minerals4 ,the annual output of this mine is about #cce short tons of lead4 ,the ,mitsui ,mining ,co41 ,ltd41 is the largest producer1 its output in #aiae having been #c1efa1 and in #aiaf1 #h1jih short tons of pig lead4 ,this is derived wholly from the ,kamioka zinc-lead mine1 in the ,province of ,hida1 on a contact metamorphic deposit in limestone lenses enclosed in ,archean gneiss near a quartz porphyry contact4 ,the only deposit exploited in ,egypt is that known to the ancients1 ,gebel ,rosas1 now operated by the ,french company1 ,compagnie ,franaise des ,mines de ,laurium4 ,as regards the former empire of ,russia1 the lead production of ,russian ,poland and the ,caucasus ,mountains is small1 the output in #aiac coming chiefly from the ,caucasus ,mountains and being made by the ,elboruss ,co41 and the ,compagnie d',alagir 7,belgian74 ,in the ,altai ,mountains1 in ,siberia1 a zinc-lead-silver deposit1 the ,zmeinogorsk1 formerly belonging to the ,russian ,mining ,corporation 7,british71 is now owned by a ,russian company1 ,altai ,mines1 ,ltd41 though part of the capital is probably ,british4 ,the ,nerchinski district1 in eastern ,siberia1 comprises many known deposits4 ,the ,akatonevski1 ,kadaenski1 ,algachinski and ,klichinski deposits are veins1 whereas many of the ,zerentniski1 ,gasimoura ,valley1 ,koultoumski and ,maltzevski are lenticular masses of disseminated ore4 ,in the ,kadaenski deposits two massive disseminated ore bodies occur in dolomite between two veins4 ,these deposits were controlled by the ,imperial ,cabinet1 and their exploitation was being seriously considered by ,british and ,american capital shortly before the revolution4 ,the deposits of largest present importance in ,siberia are those of the ,ridder ,mining ,co41 controlled by the ,irtysh ,corporation of ,london1 which has developed two mines1 the ,ridder and the ,sokolni1 on the same mineralized zone4 ,the deposits are replacements by complex sulphide ore of members of a conformable series of slates1 tuffs1 and igneous sills4 ,in #aiaf the reserves were estimated at #ide1jjj tons of a grade of #ca4b per cent4 zinc1 #ah4a per cent4 lead1 #a4e per cent4 copper1 #i4g ounces of silver1 and #j4dg ounces of gold2 and also #b1bbi1jjj tons averaging #f4g per cent4 zinc1 #c4e per cent4 lead1 #j4e per cent4 copper1 #a4g ounces of silver1 and #j4g ounces of gold per ton4 ,other known mineralized zones have not been developed1 but the possibilities of the property are immense1 being limited chiefly by general political and economic conditions4 ,a small quantity of lead is produced in ,bulgaria from a few small deposits containing intimate mixtures of lead1 copper and zinc minerals2 usually either zinc or copper predominate4 ,the most important lead deposit in ,sweden is the ,sala1 in ,vestmanland1 where irregular masses and veins of galena and blende with minor amounts of pyrite1 etc4 occur in limestone4 ,similar deposits occur at ,lofas and ,guldmedshyttan4 ,hungary has no lead mines of importance1 although galena occurs in some of the veins exploited1 notably at ,schemnitz1 where the larger mines are the property of the ,hungarian state4 ,most of the ore from ,bolivia exported to the ,united ,states comes from the ,majo mine1 which produced #hhd tons1 lead content1 in #aiab4 ,this mine is in southern ,bolivia in the region of ,la ,quiaca4 ,the most important lead-producing area in ,portugal is ,merlota1 near the ,guadiana ,river1 where silver-bearing galena and oxidized ores are found4 ,other districts are those of ,villa ,real1 ,vizen1 ,aveiro1 ,portalagre1 and ,beja4 ,the deposits are similar to those of ,spain4 ,the only deposit of importance in ,rhodesia 7,south ,africa7 is the ,rhodesia ,broken ,hill4 ,the large ore bodies are1 so far as developed1 almost wholly oxidized4 ,one ore body is estimated to contain #bej1jjj long tons of ore averaging #bf per cent4 lead and #bb4e per cent4 zinc2 another ore body is estimated to contain #cjj1jjj long tons1 averaging #cb per cent4 zinc1 with little lead1 but much iron oxide and carbonate4 ,these ore bodies are controlled by ,british capital4 ,considerable difficulty has been experienced in developing a commercial treatment4 ,reports indicate this deposit is of greater magnitude than is generally recognized4 ,the most important lead deposit of ,belgium1 or rather of the neutral district of ,moresnet adjoining ,belgium1 belonged to the ,belgian company1 ,socit de la ,vieille ,montagne at ,moresnet4 ,it was exhausted in #ahhb4 ,changes in ,geographical ,distribution of ,production in the ,near ,future4--,no marked change in the pre-war rate of production of ores by the countries of ,europe or northern ,africa is anticipated when normal conditions are resumed4 ,most of the districts in those countries have been exploited a long time and have passed their zenith of production2 many are approaching exhaustion4 ,a possible exception to this statement is the ,ciudad ,real ,province of ,spain1 which is being energetically developed by the ,penarroya company4 ,the division of ,austria-,hungary will not materially affect the control of the lead industry4 ,the ,united ,states will continue to be the largest source of lead in the world1 and the only change anticipated is a slight increase in the relative importance of the hard-lead output of the ,western ,states4 ,the chief new factor in production will be the ,bawdwin mines of ,burma1 which are being developed on a large scale for the production of #cjj1jjj tons of ore annually4 ,recent developments in the ,altai ,mountains of southwestern ,siberia have proved immense bodies of complex zinc-lead ores4 ,their geographic isolation will prevent them from becoming an important factor in the world market for a long period1 notwithstanding their large size and excellent grade4 ,the extent of their exploitation will be determined largely by how far the ,russian market is affected by internal social and political conditions4 ,the loss of the ,polish industrial region1 with its market protected by stringent tariffs1 materially restricts the extent of visible outlets4 ,in the future1 but not soon1 it is anticipated that there will be developments in the ,andes region of ,south ,america of complex lead-ore deposits similar to those of the ,western ,united ,states4 ,,political ,,control ,political control of the lead resources of the world up to the outbreak of the war in #aiad seems to have been a minor factor in the industry1 and to have made itself felt chiefly through imposition of protective tariffs or bonuses designed to stimulate domestic production1 smelting1 and refining4 ,such measures resulted in the establishment of lead smelting in ,british ,columbia and were an inducement to the development of the ,altai district of ,siberia4 ,as will be described later in detail1 the growth of international commercial relations had permitted the establishment by ,german interests of organizations which1 although not all-inclusive1 gave effective control of the industry4 ,during the ,world ,war1 however1 political jurisdiction was largely invoked to restore control of national resources to citizens4 ,this movement was particularly marked in the ,british ,empire1 where there now exists a joint political and commercial control4 ,alien interests have been eliminated by governmental action and the government retains a share in the control through its interest in marketing organizations or its financial participation in reduction works4 ,in ,france1 the consortium ,socit ,minerais et ,metaux1 organized by government action1 is the arbiter of the industry and comprises all the important ,french companies both at home and abroad4 ,in the ,united ,states the ,alien ,property ,custodian was active in eliminating all enemy-alien interests4 ,,commercial ,,control ,copper1 lead1 and zinc form a class by themselves1 with respect to industrial utility and tonnage produced1 ranking after iron1 which far outclasses them1 as the most important base metals4 ,the total yearly production of each throughout the world is considerably more than a million tons4 ,,table #ec4--,,ore ,,production1 ,,smelting1 ,,and ,,consumption ,,of ,,lead ,,in #aiac 7,tons of #b1jjj ,pounds7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,recoverable lead content of ores and concentrates ---------------------------------------- - ,mine production ,exports ,imports -------------------------------------- ,per ,per ,per ,net cent4 ,net cent4 ,net cent4 ,country tons #acj tons #acj tons #acj ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,algeria #ab1ijj #a4j #ab1ijj #a4j 444 444 ,australia #bdd1ejj #ai4gacb1jjj #aj4f 444 444 #acc ,austria-,hungary #bc1hjj #a4i 444 444 #b1hjj #j4b ,belgium 444 444 444 444 #ef1jjj #d4e ,bolivia #a1ajj #j4a #a1ajj #j4a 444 444 ,bulgaria #b1bjj #j4b #b1bjj #j4b 444 444 ,canada #ah1hjj #a4e 444 444 444 444 ,china #ad1jjj #a4a #ad1jjj #a4a 444 444 ,egypt #c1bjj #j4c #c1bjj #j4c 444 444 ,france #i1fjj #j4h 444 444 #ba1cjj #a4g ,german ,s4 ,w4 ,africa #ac1bjj #a4j #ac1bjj #a4j 444 444 ,germany #gi1cjj #f4d 444 444#abj1cjj #i4g ,great ,britain #bj1cjj #a4f 444 444 #ac1cjj #a4a ,greece #bj1cjj #a4f 444 444 444 444 ,holland 444 444 444 444 444 444 ,india #acd 7,burma7 #f1ejj #j4e #b1bjj #j4b 444 444 #acd ,italy #bd1ijj #b4j #a1jjj #j4a 444 444 ,japan #d1bjj #j4c 444 444 444 444 ,mexico #fh1cjj #e4e #g1ajj #j4f 444 444 ,norway 444 444 444 444 444 444 ,peru #d1cjj #j4c #d1cjj #j4c 444 444 ,portugal #fjj 444 #fjj 444 444 444 ,rhodesia #djj 444 #djj 444 444 444 #acd ,russia #c1ajj #j4b #b1jjj #j4b 444 444 ,spain #bji1bjj #af4h 444 444 #i1ijj #j4h ,sweden #b1ajj #j4b #ejj 444 444 444 ,switzerland 444 444 444 444 444 444 ,tunis #ca1ajj #b4e #ca1jjj #b4e 444 444 ,turkey-in-,asia #ae1cjj #a4b 444 444 444 444 ,united ,states #daa1ijj #cc4c 444 444 #ac1bjj #a4j ,other countries 444 444 444 444 #b1fjj #j4b ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,world#ace #a1bde1ajjajj4jbbg1hjj #ah4bbci1djj #ai4b ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,primary pig lead ---------------------------------------- - ,smelter production ,imports ,exports -------------------------------------- ,per ,per ,per ,net cent4 ,net cent4 ,net cent4 ,country tons #acj tons #acj tons #acj ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,algeria 444 444 444 444 444 444 ,australia #aab1ejj #i4j 444 444#aja1ijj #h4a ,austria-,hungary #bf1fjj #b4a #ab1ejj #a4j 444 444 ,belgium #ef1jjj #d4e 444 444 #h1gjj #j4g ,bolivia 444 444 444 444 444 444 ,bulgaria 444 444 444 444 444 444 ,canada #ah1hjj #a4e #f1djj #j4e 444 444 ,china 444 444 444 444 444 444 ,egypt 444 444 444 444 444 444 ,france #cj1ijj #b4e #hg1gjj #g4j 444 444 ,german ,s4 ,w4 ,africa 444 444 444 444 444 444 ,germany #aii1fjj #ae4i #df1hjj #c4g 444 444 ,great ,britain #cc1fjj #b4gagg1djj #ad4a 444 444 ,greece #bj1cjj #a4f 444 444 #bj1cjj #a4f ,holland 444 444 #aj1ejj #j4h 444 444 ,india 7,burma7 #d1cjj #j4c 444 444 #d1cjj #j4c ,italy #bc1ijj #a4i #ab1jjj #a4j 444 444 ,japan #d1bjj #j4c #ag1jjj #a4c 444 444 ,mexico #fa1bjj #d4i 444 444 #fa1bjj #d4i ,norway 444 444 #ejj 444 444 444 ,peru 444 444 444 444 444 444 ,portugal 444 444 444 444 444 444 ,rhodesia 444 444 444 444 444 444 ,russia #a1jjj #j4a #fc1gjj #e4a 444 444 ,spain #bai1ajj #ag4d 444 444#bai1ajj #ag4e ,sweden #a1fjj #j4a #a1bjj #j4a 444 444 ,switzerland 444 444 #f1djj #j4e 444 444 ,tunis 444 444 444 444 444 444 ,turkey-in-,asia #ae1cjj #a4b 444 444 #ae1cjj #a4b ,united ,states #dbe1ajj #cc4h 444 444 #aj1hjj #j4i ,other countries #b1fjj #j4b #cd1ajj #b4g 444 444 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,world#ace #a1bef1gjjajj4jdgf1bjj #cg4hdda1fjj #ce4b ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,recoverable lead in ores and pig lead ---------------------------------------- - ,consumption ,net imports ,net exports -------------------------------------- ,per ,per ,per ,net cent4 ,net cent4 ,net cent4 ,country tons #acj tons #acj tons #acj ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,algeria 444 444 444 444 #ab1ijj #a4c ,australia #aj1fjj #j4h 444 444#bcc1ijj #ah4g ,austria-,hungary #ci1ajj #c4j #ae1cjj #a4b 444 444 ,belgium #dg1cjj #c4g #dg1cjj #c4h 444 444 ,bolivia 444 444 444 444 #a1ajj #j4a ,bulgaria 444 444 444 444 #b1bjj #j4b ,canada #be1bjj #b4j #f1djj #j4e 444 444 ,china 444 444 444 444 #ad1jjj #a4a ,egypt 444 444 444 444 #c1bjj #j4b ,france #aah1fjj #i4aaji1jjj #h4g 444 444 ,german ,s4 ,w4 ,africa 444 444 444 444 #ac1bjj #a4j ,germany #bdf1djj #ai4aafg1ajj #ac4d 444 444 ,great ,britain #baa1jjj #af4daij1gjj #ae4b 444 444 ,greece 444 444 444 444 #bj1cjj #a4f ,holland #aj1ejj #j4h #aj1ejj #j4a 444 444 ,india 7,burma7 444 444 444 444 #f1ejj #j4e ,italy #ce1ijj #b4h #aa1jjj #j4a 444 444 ,japan #bj1djj #a4f #ag1jjj #a4c 444 444 ,mexico 444 444 444 444 #fh1cjj #e4e ,norway #ejj 444 #ejj 444 444 444 ,peru 444 444 444 444 #d1cjj #j4c ,portugal 444 444 444 444 #fjj 444 ,rhodesia 444 444 444 444 #djj 444 ,russia #fd1hjj #e4j #fa1gjj #e4j 444 444 ,spain 444 444 444 444#bji1bjj #af4g ,sweden #b1hjj #j4b #gjj 444 444 444 ,switzerland #f1djj #j4e #f1djj #j4e 444 444 ,tunis 444 444 444 444 #ca1ajj #b4e ,turkey-in-,asia 444 444 444 444 #ae1cjj #a4b ,united ,states #dad1cjj #cb4a #b1djj #j4b 444 444 ,other countries #cf1gjj #b4h #cf1gjj #b4i 444 444 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,world#ace #a1bij1ejjajj4jfhb1gjj #eb4ifcf1ejj #ej4i ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #acj ,percentages of ,world production of recoverable lead content of ores4 #aca ,percentages of ,world smelter production of pig lead4 #acb ,percentage of mean of totals used in a and b4 #acc ,total recoverable lead content of ore production reported1 less lead content of ,australian production in forms other than pig lead4 #acd ,probably represents ore surplus rather than exports4 #ace ,lack of proper balance in these totals shows error or incompleteness1 or lack of comparability1 due in part to lag in the statistics1 which1 however1 show correctly the general situation4 ,the ownership or operative control of mines is a minor factor in the commercial control of the lead industry and in general is of importance only as determining the distribution of ore to smelters competing otherwise on nearly equal terms4 ,most of the large smelter interests engage in1 or have subsidiaries engaged in1 mining or have sufficient holdings in large mining companies to influence their smelting contracts4 ,the actual basis of control of the industry is1 therefore1 often through combined ownership or control of mines and of reduction works4 ,the ownership or control of reduction plants has been the dominating factor in the commercial control of the industry4 ,the production of each country in #aiac1 the principal lead reduction works of the world1 and their affiliations and control are discussed below4 ,united ,states4--,the control of the lead industry of the ,united ,states through ownership or control is vested in ten groups as follows3 #a4 ,the ,morgan-,guggenheim group1 comprising the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co42 ,american ,smelters ,securities ,co42 and their subsidiaries3 ,selby ,smelting ,lead ,co42 ,tacoma ,smelting ,co42 ,garfield ,smelting ,co42 ,consolidated ,kansas ,city ,smelting ,refining ,co42 ,federal ,lead ,co42 ,federal ,mining ,smelting ,co42 ,western ,mining ,co42 ,silver ,lake ,mining ,co42 and the ,yak ,mining1 ,milling ,tunnel ,co4 #b4 ,the ,st4 ,joseph ,lead ,co4 #c4 ,national ,lead ,co42 ,st4 ,louis ,smelting ,refining ,co42 ,united ,lead ,co4 #d4 ,the ,rockefeller-,ryan group1 comprising the ,international ,smelting ,co4--,tooele smelter1 ,utah2 and the ,international ,lead ,refining ,co41--refinery at ,east ,chicago1 ,ind4 #e4 ,the ,united ,states ,smelting1 ,refining ,mining ,co4 group1 comprising the ,united ,states ,smelting ,co4--,mid vale smelter1 ,utah2 ,u4 ,s4 ,metals ,refining ,co41--electrolytic lead refinery at ,grasselli1 ,ind42 ,needles ,mining ,smelting ,co41--zinc-lead custom concentrator at ,needles1 ,calif42 ,bingham ,mines ,co4 and other mines in ,utah 7,bullion1 ,beck1 ,champion1 ,utah-,apex1 ,centennial-,eureka and ,tintic72 ,sunnyside and ,gold ,prince mines at ,silverton1 ,colorado1 and formerly a half interest in ,international ,metals ,selling ,co42 and the ,leadville ,unit4 #f4 ,the ,day group1 comprising the ,northport ,smelting ,refining ,co42 ,pennsylvania ,smelting ,refining ,co42 ,hercules ,mining ,co42 ,tamarack ,custer ,mining ,co42 and the ,amazon-,manhattan mines et al4 #g4 ,the ,american ,metal ,co4 group1 controlling the ,ohio ,colorado ,smelting ,co4 7owning #fe per cent4 of its stock71 and the ,balbach ,smelting ,refining ,co4 7owning one-third of its capital stock and selling the entire output74 #h4 ,hayden-,stone-,clark-,coolidge group1 comprising the ,american ,zinc1 ,lead ,smelting ,co42 ,american ,zinc ,co4 of ,tennessee2 ,american ,zinc4 ,co of ,wisconsin2 ,american ,zinc ,co4 of ,illinois2 ,granby ,mining ,smelting ,co4 of ,missouri2 and the ,butte ,superior ,mining ,co4 #i4 ,the ,eagle-,picher group1 comprising the ,eagle-,picher ,lead ,co41 ,joplin1 ,mo4 with smelter at ,joplin1 ,mo41 and controlling the ,galena ,smelting ,manufacturing ,co41 ,galena1 ,kan42 and the ,webb ,city ,smelting ,manufacturing ,co41 ,webb ,city1 ,mo4 #aj4 ,the ,bunker ,hill ,sullivan ,mining ,concentrating ,co41 controlled by ,bradley-,crocker interests1 and probably representing a certain proportion of ,english capital4 #aa4 ,the ,desloge ,consolidated ,lead ,co41 which formerly operated its own smelter but now has its ores smelted on toll by the ,federal ,lead ,co4 and markets its own lead4 ,all of the above companies are owned and controlled by ,american citizens so far as known1 except certain interests in the ,american ,metal ,co4 and perhaps the ,bunker ,hill ,sullivan ,mining ,concentrating ,co4 ,the ,american ,metal ,co4 has #gj1jjj shares of capital stock1 of which #cd1fdd shares were owned by the ,metallgesellschaft1 one of the ,german 8,trio10 #ah1fbj shares belong to ,germans who have become naturalized ,american citizens and have had the management1 and the remaining #af1gcf belonged to ,henry ,l4 ,merton ,co41 of ,london1 a firm that is in process of liquidation4 ,the ,alien ,property ,custodian took over the #cd1fdd shares referred to above and sold them at public auction4 ,the control of the company is vested in three voting trustees selected by agreement between the ,alien ,property ,custodian and the ,american shareholders4 ,vogelstein ,co4 at one time linked groups #e1 #g1 #h1 and #aj1 chiefly through selling contracts4 ,vogelstein ,co4 owned the ,international ,metals ,selling ,co41 formerly marketing the production of the ,united ,states ,smelting1 ,mining ,refining ,co41 but this connection is now broken4 ,a contract for sale of the entire output of the ,american ,zinc1 ,lead ,smelting ,co4 was held by ,l4 ,vogelstein ,co41 partly owned by ,aron ,hirsch ,sohn1 another member of the great ,german metal combine4 ,l4 ,vogelstein ,co4 7,inc74 was seized by the ,alien ,property ,custodian and was controlled by five directors1 two of whom were appointees of the ,custodian4#acf ,the operative control of the ,bunker ,hill ,sullivan ,mining ,concentrating ,co4 is vested in ,americans1 but ,vogelstein ,co4 sells the output4 ,groups #e and #h are probably linked to some extent by large stockholders in common1 ,clark ,coolidge of ,boston4 #acf ,l4 ,vogelstein is reported to have sold his interests to the ,american ,metal ,co4 and subsequently1 early in #aibj1 to have acquired a fifth interest in that company4 ,as a result of the activities of the ,alien ,property ,custodian1 the ownership and control of substantially all the mines and reduction works in the ,united ,states are vested in ,american citizens4 ,further information regarding the activities of ,german interests in the ,american metal trade is given in the chapter on copper1 pages #bcb-bce4 ,table #ed lists the important lead smelting and refining plants of the ,united ,states at the present time4 ,,table #ed4--,,silver-,,lead ,,smelters ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,annual ,financial ,number capacity ,group ,no4 of 7tons of ,operating company ,location furnaces charge7 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #a ,american ,smelters ,securities ,co4 ,selby1 ,calif4 #c #baj1jjj #a ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 ,denver1 ,colo4 #g #eaj1jjj #a ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 ,pueblo1 ,colo4 #g #chj1jjj #a ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 ,durango1 ,colo4 #d #baj1jjj #a ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 ,leadville1 ,colo4 #aj #eaj1jjj #a ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 ,murray1 ,idaho #h #feg1jjj #a ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 ,east ,helena1 ,mont4 #d #cjf1jjj #a ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 ,omaha1 ,neb4#acg #b #hb1jjj #a ,american ,smelting ,perth ,amboy1 ,refining ,co4 ,n4 ,j4#acg #d #agj1jjj #a ,con4 ,kansas ,city ,smelting ,refining ,co4 ,el ,paso1 ,texas #f #chj1jjj #aj ,bunker ,hill ,sullivan ,mining ,concentrating ,co4 ,kellogg1 ,idaho #c #fjj1jjj #g ,ohio ,colorado ,smelting ,co4 ,salida1 ,colo4 #c #bjj1jjj #e ,u4 ,s4 ,smelting1 ,refining ,mining ,co4 ,midvale1 ,utah #g #ecj1jjj #f ,northport ,smelting ,refining ,co4 ,northport1 ,wash4 #b #baf1jjj #f ,pennsylvania ,smelting ,co ,carnegie1 ,pa4 #b #fj1jjj #d ,international ,smelting ,co4 ,tooele1 ,utah #e #ejj1jjj ----------------- ,total #gg #e1eba1jjj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #acg ,refinery also4 ,the following ,table #ee shows the relative importance of the various financial groups controlling the production of lead in the ,united ,states4 ,,table #ee4--;,,financial ,,groups ,,controlling ,,the ,,production ,,of ,,lead ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,percentage of production ,financial ,company -------------- group ,oct4-,nov41 ,no4 #aiah #aiag ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #a ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co #cd4a #cg4g #c ,national ,lead ,co4 7,st4 ,louis ,smelting ,refining ,co47 #e4i #i4j #b ,st4 ,joseph ,lead ,co4 #bj4a #af4d #d ,international ,smelting ,refining ,co4 #c4g #f4e #e ,u4 ,s4 ,smelting ,refining ,mining ,co4 #e4e #h4c #f ,pennsylvania ,smelting ,co4 #f4b #g4b #g ,american ,metal ,co4 #a4h #b4a #h ,american ,zinc1 ,lead ,smelting ,co4 #a4g #a4c #i ,eagle-,picher ,lead ,co4 #i4c #f4b #aj ,banker ,hill ,sullivan ,mining ,concentrating ,co4 #f4c #a4g #aa ,desloge ,consolidated ,lead ,co4 #b4f #c4c ,ontario ,smelting ,co4 #a4i #j4j ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co41 through the preponderance of its production and the wide distribution of its interests1 dominates the domestic industry1 although its proportion of the total output has decreased greatly during the past few years4 ,spain4--,more than #fj per cent4 of the pig lead made in ,spain comes from the smelters of the ,penarroya company 7,french71 which within the past few years has absorbed the ,spanish smelters of ,escombrera-,bleyberg at ,esconbrera1 and the two smelters of ,figueroa1 at ,linares and ,cartagena4 ,this gives the ,penarroya company a dominant position in the ,spanish lead industry4 ,english interests1 ,e4 ,j4 ,enthoven ,co41 have a smelter producing about #be1jjj short tons of lead annually4 ,all the smelting companies have made a combination to stop competition in ore buying4 ,the ,spanish government imposes a duty of about #a4hj per ton on lead concentrates exported4 ,australia4--,smelting plants in ,australia that produce lead have the capacities shown below4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #aiac production1 short tons ,company ,location pig lead ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,broken ,hill ,associated ,smelters ,port ,pirie1 ,south ,australia #ib1hbd ,sulphide ,corporation ,cockle ,creek1 ,new ,south ,wales #ai1ffj ---------------- ,total #aab1dhd ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,the annual capacity of the ,port ,pirie plant is now #afe1jjj short tons of pig lead4 ,,table #ef4--,,silver ,,lead ,,smelters ,,in ,,mexico ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,annual capacity ,number of tons of ,company ,location furnaces charge ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 ,monterrey #g #daj1jjj ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 ,aguascalientes #a 7lead7 #dj1jjj ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 ,chihuahua #g #djj1jjj ,american ,smelters ,securities ,co4 ,velardea #c #aej1jjj ,compaia de ,minerales y ,metales ,cerralvo #b #ce1jjj ,compaia de ,minerales y ,metales ,guadalupe1 #a #gj1jjj ,n4 ,l4 ,compaia ,fundadora y ,refinadora de ,monterrey 7leased to ,american ,metal ,co47 ,monterrey #d 7or #h87 #baj1jjj ,compaia ,metalurgica ,mexicana ,san ,luis #aj #bej1jjj 7,towne7 ,potosi ,compaia de ,minerales y ,metales 7reported about to be dismantled7 ,torreon #i #cej1jjj ,compaia ,minera de ,peoles ,mapimi #f #cej1jjj ,mazapil ,copper ,co41 ,ltd4 7,english7,saltillo1 ,coahuila #a #cf1jjj ------------------- ,total #ea #b1cja1jjj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,mexico4--,practically all the ,mexican smelting works are owned and operated by ,american companies4 ,prior to the war several of these were controlled by ,german interests through the ,american ,metal ,co4 7incorporated in the ,united ,states71 but the action of the ,alien ,property ,custodian eliminated all foreign control in those companies1 which comprise ,compaia ,minera de ,peoles1 ,compaia de ,minerales y ,metales1 and ,compaia ,metalurgica de ,torreon1 leaving only the ,compaia ,fundadora y ,refinadora de ,monterrey still under ,german control4 ,the ,american ,metal ,co4 normally controlled #fj1jjj to #ge1jjj tons of bonded ,mexican lead and #ab1jjj to #ae1jjj tons of lead smelted in ,mexico1 together with over a thousand tons of antimonial lead4 ,the ,aguascalientes and ,velardea plants are chiefly copper smelters4 ,there are small lead smelters at ,terrazas and ,santa ,rosalia1 ,chihuahua1 but they are probably abandoned4 ,british ,isles4--,during the war the ,british lead-smelting capacity is reported to have been increased4 ,before the war a large amount of foreign lead bullion from ,spain1 ,belgium and ,germany was desilverized in the ,british ,isles4 ,other ,countries4--,the lead-smelting plants of ,france escaped destruction during the war1 being outside the war zone4 ,the capacity of the ,pontgibaud plant was greatly increased4 ,they are all ,french owned4 ,the most important lead smelting plant in ,italy is that of the ,societa di ,pertusola 7,english71 with a pig-lead output in #aiae of #af1fbe metric tons2 the other plant is that of the ,societa di ,monteponi 7,italian71 with an output of #e1ahg tons4 ,the only lead smelting of ,greece is that of the ,compagnie des ,mines de ,laurium 7,french74 ,the only important lead smelter of ,canada is that of ,trail1 ,british ,columbia1 which is controlled by the ,canadian government4 ,this plant includes a refinery using the ,betts electrolytic process4 ,the only lead smelter in ,turkey is one controlled by ,french interests1 that of the ,socit des ,mines de ,balia-,kara-,aidin1 at ,kara-,aidin4 ,the lead smelting plant of the ,burma ,mines ,corporation1 ,ltd41 at ,bawdwin1 ,burma1 has a capacity of #bb1jjj short tons lead4 ,in ,siberia the ,ridder ,mining ,co41 controlled by the ,irtysh ,corporation1 of ,london1 has constructed #afe miles of railroad1 which1 together with river transport1 brings the ore from the ,ridder concession and the coal of the ,ekibastus coal fields to the smelting plant at ,ermak1 which has a capacity of #ae1jjj tons of lead annually4 ,trade ,combinations4--,national and even international control of the lead market has at times been attained through marketing organizations or trade combinations of reduction works1 ore-buying and metal-selling agencies with interlocking directorates1 joint ownership1 and long-term contracts for ores1 concentrates1 and metals4 ,in #aiji the so-called ,lead ,convention1 or officially the ,international ,sales ,association1 was formed in ,paris4 ,it was composed of ,german1 ,spanish1 and ,belgian producers and metal-selling agencies controlling directly about one-half of the ,european production4 ,some companies not nominally in the association acted in concert with it4 ,this convention was renewed in #aiaj and again in #aiac for three years4 ,the association was dominated by the same interests as the ,german ,zinc ,syndicate1--the ,merton group1 comprising the ,metallgesellschaft1 the ,metallbank and ,metallurgische ,gesellschaft of ,frankfort and the ,merton companies of ,london2 ,beer1 ,sondheimer ,co41 controlling a dozen ,german metal and chemical concerns1 and ,aron ,hirsch ,sohn at ,halberstadt4 ,the ,merton group of ,london and ,frankfort were the selling agents of the association1 and the dominant 8,trio10 through the ,australian ,metal ,co41 controlled the lead exported as metal or concentrates from ,australia4 ,in the ,united ,states and ,mexico all lead exported was controlled by the ,american ,metal ,co41 affiliated with the association1 or the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co41 acting in concert with it4 ,the ,german 8,trio0 maintained and was rapidly extending and strengthening its ascendancy throughout the world through banks1 holding companies1 affiliations with syndicates and cartels1 interlocking directorates1 joint share holdings and purchase in whole or in part of mines and smelters4 ,some of the ,english lead refineries were closely associated with the ,convention1 and all lead exported from the ,port ,pirie smelter was sold by ,merton ,co4 ,the association was able to fix the price of lead in ,europe and thus affect the output and1 it has been claimed1 so manipulated the market that lead outside the ,convention was controlled just as effectively as that inside4 ,the membership was international1 brought together by mercenary motives4 ,that the strongest and most aggressive interests were ,german citizens was purely incidental4 ,as a result of the war1 however1 the production of ,australian lead concentrates and bullion is permanently diverted from ,german control4 ,the activities of the ,alien ,property ,custodian tended to eliminate all ,german interests in the ,united ,states4 ,most of the ,australian lead bullion production is now marketed by the ,broken ,hill ,associated ,smelters1 ,prop41 ,ltd41 of whose capital stock the ,broken ,hill ,proprietary owns one-third and the ,broken ,hill ,south1 ,broken ,hill ,north1 and ,zinc ,corporation each own two-ninths4 ,the plant of this company is now the largest smelter in the world4 ,the nationalist movement in ,france resulted in the formation of trade associations known as 8consortiums10 comprising the principal factor in each industry4 ,these 8consortiums10 were recognized by the government1 and each was made virtually arbiter of its particular field4 ,the consortium of the mineral industry has been perfected into the ,socit ,minerals et ,metaux1 #aed ,boulevard ,hausmann1 ,paris4 ,the official announcement states that this society is organized under the auspices of the ,french government in order to group the ,french metal producers operating both at home and abroad into a co-operative association for the purchase and sale of metallurgical products4 ,the participants comprise the principal companies in ,france producing or refining metals and also the mining and smelting companies controlled by ,french capital in ,spain1 ,algeria1 ,tunis1 and other foreign countries4 ,a highly centralized organization of that part of the mineral and metal industry under ,french control is thus achieved for mutual protection and advantage in competition with other nationalities4 ,members of this organization will produce most of the ore from ,algiers and ,tunis and probably #ge per cent4 of the ,spanish lead bullion4 ,the present annual output of the participating companies is about #bjj1jjj metric tons of lead1 #ej1jjj metric tons of zinc1 and #dj1jjj tons of copper1 besides iron1 antimony1 platinum1 etc4 ,the association comprises the following companies3 ,socit ,minire et ,metallurgique de ,penarroya2 ,socit d',affinage de ,metaux2 ,compagnie des ,mines d',ain-,barbar2 ,association ,minire2 ,socit des ,mines de ,zinc d',ain-,arko2 ,compagnie du ,boleo2 ,compagnie ,franaise des ,mines de ,bor2 ,corocoro ,united ,copper ,mines1 ,ltd42 ,socit des ,mines de ,fedj-el-,adoum2 ,socit des ,mines de ,zinc de ,guergour2 ,compagnie des ,mines de ,huaron2 ,socit ,minire du ,kanguet2 ,compagnie des ,minerais de ,fer ,magnetique de ,mokta-et-,hadid2 ,comptoir ,lyon ,allemand2 ,socit ,anonyme des ,mines de ,malfidano2 ,compagnie des ,mines d',ouasta et de ,desloula2 ,socit des ,mines de ,parzan2 ,compagnie ,industrielle du ,platine2 ,socit ,anonyme des ,mines et ,fonderies de ,pontgibaud2 ,socit des ,mines d',antimoine de ,rochetrejoux2 ,socit des ,anciens ,etablissements ,sopwith2 ,socit ,franaise d',etudes et d',enterprises2 ,socit des ,mines du ,djebel-,ressas2 ,socit ,anonyme ,franaise du ,djebel-,hallouf2 ,socit ,anonyme des ,mines et ,usines de ,peyrebrune2 and ,compagnie ,la ,cruz4 ,one of the results of the war was the stimulation of co-operative enterprises between ,british companies1 the movement being encouraged by the government1 which in some cases participated financially4 ,the ,british ,australian ,lead ,manufacturers ,proprietary1 ,ltd41 was formed as a consolidation of the ,australian interests of ,british firms1 with the object of establishing a white-lead industry in that country4 ,those participating comprise3 ,alexander ,ferguson ,co42 ,cookson ,co42 ,foster1 ,blockett ,wilson2 ,locke1 ,blockett ,co42 ,locke-,lancaster2 ,w4 ,w4 ,r4 ,johnson ,sons1 ,ltd42 ,mersey ,white ,lead ,co41 ,ltd42 and ,walkers ,parker ,co4 ,the ,chloride ,syndicate comprising the ,zinc ,corporation1 ,ltd41 ,burma ,mines ,corporation1 and the ,swansea ,vale ,smelter1 ,ltd41 is conducting experimental work on the ,ganlin process with the object of perfecting it4 ,richard ,tilden ,smith1 having acquired controlling interests in ,j4 ,h4 ,enthoven ,sons1 ,locke-,lancaster1 ,walkers ,parker ,co4 and a one-third interest in the ,burma ,mines ,corporation1 became a strong link between these important companies and thus secured an arrangement with the ,imperial ,government for financial assistance with the new plant of the ,national ,smelting ,co41 ,ltd41 at ,avonmouth to the extent of #ejj1jjj out of the total estimated cost of #gej1jjj1 the government being particularly interested in the production of by-product acid4 ,the ,national ,smelting ,co4 agreed to take #be1jjj tons yearly of ,broken ,hill concentrate and smelt no foreign ore without government permission4 ,enthoven ,sons control through ownership the output of one of the ,spanish smelters and through desilverizing and marketing contracts the output of the ,french ,laurium company of ,greece4 ,an attempt to bring about a closer combination of all the above-mentioned ,english and ,australian companies failed4 ,it is reported that in #aiag ,vivian1 ,younger ,bond1 and ,morgan1 ,grenfeld ,co4 were instrumental in forming a 8,metal ,bank0 in ,london4 ,broken ,hill ,associated ,smelters ,prop4 ,ltd41 and the ,penarroya company were said to have agreed to market their production through this bank1 but it is probable that the arrangement was never made effective4 ,a ,chemical and ,metallurgical ,bank has been formed in ,london1 among the shareholders being ,richard ,tilden ,smith4 ,its proposed field is not clear1 but it will probably endeavor to influence the control of lead in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,a ,british ,metals ,corporation was formed in #aiah by ,vivian1 ,younger ,bond1 ,chas4 ,tennant ,sons ,co41 ,cookson ,co41 the ,british ,aluminum ,co41 ,morgan1 ,grenfeld ,co41 and large stockholders of the ,rio ,tinto ,co41 with a capital of #e1jjj1jjj4 ,the ,imperial ,treasury will be represented on the board of directors4 ,the purposes are to finance ,british non-ferrous metal companies1 bring all the production within the empire of those metals under one marketing organization and preserve ,british control4 ,if plans are successfully carried out1 the smelting both in ,england and on the ,continent of ,europe1 should any ,british concentrates be allotted there1 will practically be on toll1 the metal remaining in the control of the ,metals ,corporation or the affiliated bank4 ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,nations ,the accompanying table presents available statistics of production since #aiac in order to show the extent to which the industry in each country is controlled by domestic or foreign capital1 and attempts to show the extent of commercial control by each of the great powers4 ,such statistics are at best only approximate2 the control varies from year to year and the data are difficult to obtain and verify4 ,,table #eg4--;,,commercial ,,control ,,of ,,the ,,world',s ,,output ,,of ,,pig ,,lead ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,recent pig-lead ,financial control by pro- ,per ---------------------------------- duction cent4 ,home 7short of cap- ,united ,great ,country tons7 ,yearworld ital ,states,britain ,france,germany ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,united ,states #fab1bjjaiag #dd4f 444 #fab1bjj ,australia #abg1hjjaiac #i4d 444 444 #abg1hjj ,british ,isles #ab1fjjaiaf #j4i 444 444 #ab1fjj ,canada #bj1djjaiaf #a4e 444 444 #bj1djj ,burma #bj1jjjaiag #a4e 444 444 #bj1jjj ,france #cj1hjjaiac #b4b 444 444 444 #cj1hjj ,italy #bd1jjj 444 #a4h #e1gjj 444 #ah1cjj ,belgium #ci1djjaiac #b4iae1jjj 444 444 #bd1djj ,venezuela #bjjaiag 444 444 444 444 444 #bjj ,bolivia #b1djjaiag #j4b #djj 444 444 #b1jjj ,greece #ab1hjjaiaf #j4i 444 444 444 #ab1hjj ,japan #ab1cjjaiaf #j4iab1cjj ,peru #c1jjjaiag #j4b #ejj #ejj #b1jjj ,russia #a1ajjaiac #j4a #a1ajj ,chile #f1jjjaiag #j4d #c1jjj 444 #a1jjj 444 #b1jjj ,mexico #fa1bjjaiac #d4d 444 #ec1bjj #h1jjj ,spain #aeg1jjjaiag #aa4dbj1jjj 444 #be1jjjaje1jjj #g1jjj ,sweden #b1ajjaiae #j4a #a1ajj 444 444 444 #a1jjj ,germany #bjj1jjjaiac #ad4e 444 444 444 444 #bjj1jjj ,austria- ,hungary #bf1fjjaiac #a4ibf1fjj ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,total #a1cga1ijj 444#ajj4j #ffe1ijjbce1ajjage1jjjbaj1bjj ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,per cent4 of world produc- tion4 #ajj4j #dh4f #ag4b #ab4g #af4c ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,united ,states4--,during the war the ,united ,states demonstrated that its lead-ore deposits were capable of a production greatly in excess of the normal4 ,that the increase was not greater was chiefly because of insufficient incentive in the market price of lead1 which did not attain the early inflation of many of the other metals2 and later1 when the price was right1 was restricted by lack of refining capacity4 ,the existing capacity was at times not fully utilized because of the congestion of railway traffic4 ,the lead-ore deposits in the ,united ,states have large possibilities1 but with the exception of the disseminated lead deposits of southeastern ,missouri the developed ore reserves will supply production for only a few years4 ,control of the mines in the ,united ,states is vested almost exclusively in ,americans or ,american companies1 some of the latter1 however1 having foreign stockholders1 chiefly ,british or ,canadian4 ,the ,united ,states imports lead ores1 to a small percentage of its total production1 from ,mexico1 ,canada1 ,south ,america and ,africa4 ,the ,mexican ore is largely imported to meet the especial needs of the ,el ,paso lead smelter1 and not because of lack of smelting capacity in ,mexico4 ,the smelting capacity of the ,united ,states has always been in excess of the actual production of ore and is now very greatly in excess of the normal production4 ,the ownership of most of the important smelters has always been vested in ,american capital1 and as a result of the activity of the ,alien ,property ,custodian all of them are now owned and controlled by ,american citizens4 ,a considerable amount of lead bullion is imported1 chiefly from ,mexico1 for refining4 ,most of this is re-exported4 ,united ,states capital through ownership of smelters controls the greater part of the pig lead produced in ,mexico and ,peru4 ,the importation of ore and bullion for refining from ,canada is restricted by the government bounty on lead smelted and refined in ,canada4 ,united ,states capital also controls a considerable percentage of the mines of ,mexico and has some interest in the ,burma ,mines ,corporation1 and the ,irtysh ,corporation4 ,notwithstanding the enlarged smelting capacity and the possibilities of production from ,american mines1 it is not expected that there will be any considerable export of domestic lead after the period of readjustment following the ,world ,war4 ,british ,empire4--,the countries of the ,british ,empire in the order of the importance of their lead output in #aiac are ,australia1 ,british ,isles1 ,canada1 ,burma1 and ,egypt4 ,british capital controls the mines and smelters of the ,british ,isles1 ,canada1 ,australia1 ,burma1 and the ,altai ,mountains in ,siberia1 and1 by ownership of mines and smelters1 some #be1jjj tons of lead annually from ,spain and over #gj per cent4 of the production of ,italy4 ,by contracts for desilverization and marketing it has controlled the greater part of the ,spanish output and part of the production of ,greece4 ,it is reported also to control small tonnages of ore from ,peru and ,chile4 ,in view of the recent increase of refining capacity in ,spain by the ,penarroya company 7,french71 and the organization of all ,french interests into the ,socit ,minerais et ,metaux1 future control by ,english capital of ,spanish output above the #be1jjj tons produced by the ,english smelter is doubtful1 although it has been reported that the ,penarroya company had agreed to market its lead through the new ,metal ,bank of ,london4 ,prior to the war much base bullion from ,spain1 ,belgium1 and ,germany was imported and desilverized1 and in large part re-exported4 ,the ore production of the ,british ,empire is about #be per cent4 greater than its consumption1 but insufficient smelting capacity has caused dependence on foreign-smelted lead4 ,the smelting capacity has been increased1 and the additional capacity contemplated will make the total equal the consumption4 ,the empire can be made independent of the rest of the world should the policy of 8,imperial preference0 be adopted4 ,all the large interests in the lead industry of the ,british ,empire have shown during the war period a strong tendency to co-operate and organize for mutual protection and benefit4 ,a culmination of this movement is apparently the formation of the ,british ,metals ,corporation1 intended to vest the marketing control of the production of the whole ,british ,empire in one organization under governmental auspices4 ,australia4--,the ,australian production of lead ore and concentrates1 derived chiefly from ,new ,south ,wales1 makes ,australia rank second in world production of lead ores4 ,in #aiac little more than half the output was exported to ,europe for smelting1 the remainder being smelted at ,cockle ,creek and ,port ,pirie4 ,the pig lead produced1 less a small local consumption1 was also exported4 ,australian mines have always been owned by ,british and ,australian capital4 ,prior to the war the marketing of concentrates and of all lead bullion exported was controlled by the ,australian ,metal ,co41 affiliated with the ,german metal 8,trio0 headed by the ,metallgesellschaft4 ,during the war1 however1 the governments of ,great ,britain and ,australia annulled the long-time ore- and metal-purchasing contracts1 and the ore producers and smelters have organized for mutual protection and to keep the industry permanently under exclusive ,british control4 ,the capacity of the ,port ,pirie reduction works has been increased by capital contributed jointly by the principal mining companies1 and the plant is now the largest lead smelter in the world4 ,british ,isles4--,the small output of lead ore in ,great ,britain is obtained from a few scattered deposits of little importance4 ,some ore is imported and smelted with the domestic production4 ,the consumption of the ,british ,isles is so large that very large imports of pig lead are necessary1 amounting to #ad per cent4 of the world's production4 ,all of the mines and smelters of the ,british ,isles are owned and controlled1 so far as known1 by ,british capital4 ,canada4--,with the assistance1 through bounties1 of the ,canadian government1 the ,trail smelter has become firmly established and is the only important lead producer of ,canada4 ,it handles most of the ,british ,columbia output of ores1 which otherwise would have to go to the ,united ,states for reduction4 ,the ,canadian consumption is1 however1 about one-third greater than the production4 ,burma4--,although the production of ore and pig lead in the ,northern ,shan ,states by the ,burma ,mines ,corporation was in #aiac an insignificant part of the world's output1 the company has developed its deposits so as to be capable of a very much greater yield1 which may amount in the near future to #ge1jjj tons annually4 ,this company is controlled by ,british with probably some ,american capital4 ,egypt4--,the small ore production of ,egypt is exported for smelting and is controlled by ,french capital4 ,germany4--,germany1 a large producer of lead ores1 imported in #aiac for smelting nearly #aj per cent4 of the world's output and in addition imported a considerable amount of pig lead1 being the second largest consumer of lead in the world4 ,should ,germany lose ,upper ,silesia1 which produced nearly half the domestic ores1 it will be still more dependent on imports to supply its smelters4 ,prior to the war the ,german lead industry was closely organized1 much of the lead mining and smelting being conducted by departments of the state governments1 although some of the largest concerns were private corporations4 ,the ,german metal 8,trio0 headed by the ,metallgesellschaft through the ,international ,sales ,association controlled directly about one-half the ,european production1 comprising in this so-called ,lead ,convention1 besides the ,german concerns1 most of the ,spanish and ,belgian producers1 most of the lead exported from the ,united ,states and ,mexico1 and the pig lead and concentrates exported from ,australia4 ,this system of control outside of ,germany has now been permanently destroyed1 and the magnitude and the organization of the ,german lead industry in the near future cannot be anticipated4 ,france4--,in ,france the output of lead ore is small and is controlled1 with probably one exception1 by ,french capital4 ,some ores are imported for smelting1 ,tunis and ,algeria being capable of supplying even more4 ,to provide for the large consumption1 ,france ranking fourth among lead-consuming countries1 there is imported in the form of pig lead some #g per cent4 of the world's output4 ,recently smelting capacity has been increased4 ,french capital controls more than half the production of ,belgium through ownership of smelters1 and through ownership of mines and smelters controls more than half the production of ,spain and most1 if not all1 of the output of ,greece4 ,it also controls the ore production of ,egypt and most of the ores produced in ,algeria and ,tunis4 ,under government auspices a strong organization of all the metal-producing companies controlled by ,french capital in ,france and foreign countries has recently been effected under the name of the ,socit ,minerais et ,metaux1 which controls the sale of all the production of its members1 as well as acting as a purchasing agent for them4 ,belgium4--,belgium produces no ores but smelts about #d per cent4 of the world's output1 nearly the whole of which is consumed within her borders4 ,a little less than half of this production is controlled by ,belgian capital1 the remainder by ,french interests4 ,belgian capital is also interested to a minor extent in ,spain1 ,algeria1 the ,caucasus ,mountains and ,tunis4 ,it is believed that a part of the ,australian concentrates may be allotted to ,belgium for smelting4 ,italy4--,the ,italian ore production1 amounting to about #b per cent4 of the world's total1 is smelted in that country4 ,the product is consumed1 together with about #ej per cent4 more1 imported as pig lead4 ,more than three-fourths of the domestic output is controlled by ,english capital2 nearly all the remainder is controlled by ,italian capital1 but other ,english1 ,french and ,belgian companies produce insignificant amounts of ore4 ,austria-,hungary4--,the ,austro-,hungarian ,empire produced and smelted ores to the amount of about #b per cent4 of the world's output in #aiac1 and consumed this with about #ej per cent4 more metal imported in the form of pig lead4 ,the several lead-producing districts and smelters1 some of which belong to the states of ,austria and ,hungary1 with the partition of the empire fall within three or more distinct political jurisdictions1 the lead production of none of which will be of importance4 ,one of the important lead smelters is at ,fiume4 ,spain4--,spain ranks third in content of ores produced and second in smelter production4 ,the domestic consumption being negligible1 all of the lead is exported4 ,prior to the war most of the production went to ,england to be desilverized4 ,during the war1 however1 the refining capacity of ,spain was greatly increased1 and it now seems likely that any silver lead which the domestic plants can not take care of will be shipped to ,france for desilverization4 ,more than half the ,spanish production is controlled by ,french capital1 and to a minor degree by ,belgian and ,german interests4 ,japan4--,japanese lead-ore resources are meagre4 ,the output of lead ore and pig lead in #aiac was about #be per cent4 of the domestic consumption4 ,since then ores and concentrates have been imported from ,china1 ,formosa1 ,korea1 ,siberia1 and ,australia1 but importation of pig lead has still been necessary4 ,the ,japanese are endeavoring to secure control of ore deposits in ,china and ,siberia1 and supply the raw material for the increase of their domestic smelting and manufacturing industries4 ,it is probable1 however1 that ,japan will be dependent for many years on imports from other sources for most of the lead consumed4 ,,summary ,the chief uses of lead are as metal and in the form of white lead or basic carbonate1 as a pigment4 ,metallic lead is used for water pipe1 covering for electrical cables1 lining acid chambers and vats1 and for shot1 bullets and shrapnel4 ,alloys with various other metals are used in type1 bearings1 and fuses4 ,the red and orange oxides are used for pigments4 ,the largest single form of consumption is white lead4 ,lead and zinc ores are commonly associated and are widely distributed over the world4 ,galena is the chief lead mineral1 the other ore minerals1 cerussite and anglesite1 being derived from it by oxidation4 ,galena is a persistent mineral1 being found in nearly all types of ore deposits4 ,the countries producing the most ore are1 in order of importance1 ,united ,states1 ,australia1 ,spain1 ,germany1 and ,mexico4 ,districts of major importance are ,broken ,hill1 ,new ,south ,wales2 southeastern ,spain2 southeastern ,missouri2 and ,coeur d',alene1 ,idaho4 ,the developments in selective oil flotation1 by which the detrimental zinc content is eliminated from complex ores and made an asset1 constitute the greatest recent advance in the dressing of lead ores4 ,electrolytic refining is the greatest recent advance in the metallurgy of lead4 ,the readiness with which lead is reduced from its ores and its utility as a collector of the precious metals in smelting have resulted in a wide distribution of reduction plants4 ,nevertheless a large percentage of the world's output of ores is transported from the countries of origin to others1 for reduction near the market and where skilled labor and fuel are more abundant and cheaper4 ,the countries of largest smelter production are1 in order1 ,united ,states1 ,spain1 ,germany and ,australia2 those of much less importance are ,mexico1 ,belgium1 ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,austria-,hungary1 ,italy1 ,greece1 ,canada and1 recently1 ,burma4 ,other countries are of little importance4 ,the countries of major consumption are1 in order1 ,united ,states1 ,germany1 ,great ,britain1 and ,france4 ,the ,united ,states produces its own requirements1 but the other three countries import ores for smelting and also pig lead in large quantity4 ,australia and northern ,africa have supplied the bulk of the ores1 and ,spain1 ,australia1 and ,mexico most of the pig lead4 ,this is the situation at last analysis1 the actual trade movement being1 of course1 much more complex4 ,the political control of the world's lead production1 in terms of the lead content of ores1 in #aiac was as follows3 ,united ,states1 #cf4j per cent42 ,british ,empire1 #bc4i per cent42 ,spain1 #f4d per cent42 ,germany1 #e4i per cent42 ,mexico1 #e4a per cent42 and ,france1 #d4j per cent4 ,three powers thus control #gf per cent4 of the production4 ,the ownership of mines is important chiefly as determining the distribution of ores to smelters4 ,ore-purchasing contracts may modify or annul the effect of political jurisdiction and mine ownership4 ,the ownership or control of reduction plants has been the most effective basis for commercial control of the industry4 ,in the ,united ,states the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 dominates the market1 but controls directly only one-third of the output4 ,in ,spain the ,french company of ,penarroya controls more than half the production4 ,in ,germany the 8,trio0 headed by the ,metallgesellschaft controlled the domestic industry prior to the war1 and through the 8,lead ,convention0 extended its domination to half the ,european output and most of the exports of ,australia1 ,mexico1 and the ,united ,states4 ,this control was1 however1 never absolute4 ,in ,australia at present the ,broken ,hill ,associated ,smelters controls the marketing of most of the pig lead exported4 ,joint political and commercial control has been established in the ,british ,empire and ,france4 ,during the war1 political jurisdiction was quite generally invoked to modify or eliminate commercial control1 particularly with regard to alien-enemy interests4 ,the various combinations of ,british companies to insure ,british control of the resources of the empire1 particularly of ,australia and ,burma1 culminated in the formation of the ,british ,metals ,corporation for the sale of the output4 ,a representative of the ,imperial ,treasury will be on the board of directors and either the ,metal ,bank of ,london or the ,chemical ,metallurgical ,bank may finance its operation1 unless it absorbs their functions4 ,this organization is doubtless intended to take the place of the ,metallgesellschaft as the dominant factor in the lead industry of the world4 ,it will have much influence1 as ,british capital controls all the production of the ,british ,isles1 ,australia1 ,burma1 ,canada1 and normally ,siberia1 most of that of ,italy1 part of that of ,spain and ,mexico1 and perhaps of ,greece4 ,probably the ,british ,isles will not in the future desilverize as much foreign lead as formerly1 so that the importance of this basis of commercial control will be greatly decreased4 ,the ,socit ,minerais et ,metaux1 comprising all producers controlled by ,french capital1 under government auspices is selling and purchasing agent for its members1 and controls all the ,french and most of the ,grecian production1 more than half of that of ,spain and ,belgium1 besides the ores of northern ,africa and of ,egypt4 ,since the elimination of alien-enemy holdings by the ,alien ,property ,custodian1 ,united ,states capital controls substantially all the domestic production and nearly all that of ,mexico1 besides some ores imported from ,mexico1 ,canada1 and ,south ,america4 ,notwithstanding large ore reserves and reduction capacity1 the ,united ,states is expected1 after the period of readjustment1 to supply its domestic needs1 but to export little lead1 as was the case prior to the war4 ,the position of ,germany will depend largely upon arrangements for foreign ore supply4 ,some ,mexican ore production may still be under ,german control4 ,belgium is wholly dependent on foreign ore1 which presumably will be obtained largely from ,australia2 and with more than half her production controlled by ,french capital1 she will be under ,british and ,french domination2 but she consumes most of her smelter output4 ,italy consumes #ej per cent4 more than the domestic production1 which is chiefly controlled by ,english capital4 ,none of the states formed by the disintegration of the ,austro-,hungarian ,empire will be of importance in the lead industry4 ,the commercial control of the smelter production of lead1 calculated from the latest statistics available1 is approximately as follows3 ,united ,states1 #dh4f per cent42 ,british ,empire1 #ag4b per cent42 ,germany1 #ae4c per cent42 and ,france1 #ab4g per cent42 or a total for the four powers of #ic4h per cent4 of the pig-lead output of the world4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,zinc ,,by ,,frederick ,b4 ,,hyder ,,uses ,,of ,,zinc ,metallic zinc1 or spelter1 as the commercial metal is often known in the trade1 is chiefly used in the form of rolled sheets2 in galvanizing2 in alloys forming brass and bronze2 and in the desilverization of lead bullion4 ,rolled sheets are used for roofs1 tanks1 conduits1 and protective linings4 ,iron and steel objects are dipped into baths of molten spelter and coated with the metal or galvanized1 being thereby protected from oxidizing agencies4 ,other methods of applying this protective coating are also in use4 ,zinc and copper unite in all proportions1 forming alloys known as brass which are of widespread industrial application4 ,there is only one definite alloy2 it corresponds approximately to ,cu,zn1 contains #cc per cent4 copper and #fg per cent4 zinc1 is hard and brittle and of little practical value4 ,all other brasses may be considered as solid solutions of this definite alloy in an excess of one of its constituents4 ,brasses in use vary in zinc content from #bj to #he per cent4 and differ greatly in their properties according to the composition4 ,alloys of zinc and aluminum have valuable properties1 especially those containing #be to #ce per cent4 zinc4 ,other alloys used contain1 besides copper and zinc1 either lead1 tin or nickel4 ,the ,parkes process of desilverizing lead bullion has superseded the older ,pattinson and cupellation process1 except where bismuth is present1 owing to the avidity with which zinc robs the bullion of gold1 silver1 copper and tellurium4 ,this purification may be made as perfect as desired or only to a commercially profitable point1 generally being brought down to a content of one-half ounce of silver per ton of lead4 ,among the miscellaneous uses of zinc are these3 ornamental castings2 in galvanic batteries2 in photo-engraving2 in plates hung in boilers to prevent formation of scale2 precipitation of gold in the cyanide process2 in the form of powder1 as a reducing agent in organic chemistry1 especially in the reduction of indigo-blue and in a paint for structural steel4 ,zinc is also used in the form of numerous salts1 such as the chloride as a wood preservative1 and the sulphate1 employed in medicine1 dyeing and glue manufacture4 ,zinc oxide1 produced both from the metal and from ores1 is used as a pigment both in combination with white lead and barytes1 and as a competitor of them4 ,considerable amounts of oxide are also used in the rubber manufacturing industry4 ,lithopone 7an intimate mixture1 obtained by chemical precipitation of zinc sulphide and barium sulphate7 is of growing importance as a pigment4 ,all the chief uses of zinc1 comprising galvanizing1 rolled sheets1 brass-making and the desilverization of lead bullion1 may be considered essential4 ,brass belongs with steel in the category of indispensable materials of modern industry4 ,no satisfactory substitute as regards both physical qualities and cost is available for many important parts of machinery and for manufacturing purposes4 ,its wide use depends on a number of qualities4 ,the excellent sharp castings made from certain brasses are readily machined or otherwise finished and electro-plated if desired4 ,the electrical conductivity of brass is good4 ,certain brasses are easily rolled into sheets and cut and stamped in desired shapes4 ,lubricated surfaces of steel on brass make satisfactory and durable bearings4 ,the other large uses of zinc depend on its resistance to oxidation and on the possibility of rolling it into fairly thin sheets4 ,in both these qualities1 however1 it is surpassed by other metals1 notably nickel and tin4 ,alloyed with lead it may be rolled into a substitute for tin-foil4 ,it is in some cases a fairly satisfactory1 cheap substitute for metals of higher quality4 ,in times of scarcity or high prices1 substitution of metals of inferior quality is feasible1 and in many cases zinc may be temporarily dispensed with altogether4 ,its field is therefore largely fixed by commercial conditions of supply and price1 which determine broadly the total consumption and especially the percentages devoted to the various uses4 ,it may be assumed1 however1 that the percentages for the domestic consumption in the ,united ,states in #aiaj represent approximately those of normal peace times4 ,in that year1 of the total consumption1 #fj per cent4 was used in galvanizing2 #bj per cent4 in brass-making2 #aa per cent4 in rolled sheets2 and #a per cent4 in lead desilverization2 leaving #h per cent4 for miscellaneous uses4 ,during the war the percentage used in galvanizing was greatly reduced and that used for brass-making much increased4 ,the use of rolled sheets will increase4 ,a large part of the ,european production in normal times is rolled into sheets used chiefly for roofing4 ,,changes ,,in ,,practice ,in the extraction of zinc from its ores the most important changes in practice during recent years have been adaptations of retort smelting for the purpose of utilizing zinc concentrates from complex ores1 the increased production of zinc oxide and lithopone through the application of volatilization methods to the re-treatment of retort residues and base ores1 and the electrolytic and electro-thermic processes of extraction of the metal4 ,the most revolutionary advance has been the development of the oil flotation1 the electro-magnetic1 and electro-static processes for the concentration of ores4 ,these processes are being widely introduced and in connection with electrolytic reduction are particularly adapted to the production of spelter of the highest quality from complex ores4 ,as the electrolytic and electro-thermic processes find their field only where power is relatively cheap1 the tendency is to put installations where hydro-electric power is available1 effecting a redistribution of zinc-smelting centers4 ,,geological ,,distribution ,zinc and lead are commonly associated in mineral deposits1 sometimes intimately mixed1 sometimes so segregated that one metal predominates1 but ores of one are seldom free entirely from the other4 ,the geological and geographical distribution of the two metals is therefore nearly identical4 ,the sulphide ores1 chiefly sphalerite or blende1 are the most important1 but in the oxidized zone they are often altered to carbonates--smithsonite1 calamine and hydrozincite4 ,the oxides--franklinite1 willemite and zincite--are important in only one district in ,new ,jersey4 ,the carbonates1 although they carry a low percentage of zinc1 often occur in concentrated ore bodies1 and yield readily to metallurgical treatment4 ,therefore1 calamine-smithsonite ores form a large proportion of the production of many important districts1 but blende will hereafter be of increasing importance in the world production4 ,zinc ores occur in deposits of several distinct genetic types4 ,in the order of their importance they are3 7a7 ,deposits formed in sedimentary rocks1 without apparent connection with igneous rocks1 as bedded replacements usually of limestones and dolomites4 ,the ores of this type usually contain lead 7galena7 and iron 7pyrite or marcasite7 minerals1 often those of manganese and cadmium1 sometimes those of arsenic1 cobalt and nickel1 but seldom gold1 silver1 copper1 or antimony4 ,barite and fluorite are sometimes present4 ,the deposits of this type are of world-wide distribution4 ,their greater purity and the simplicity of the treatment necessary1 particularly of the ores in their oxidized zones1 have caused them to be exploited first and most extensively and to be until recently the dominant factor in the world production of zinc4 ,to this type belong the deposits of the ,mississippi ,valley and ,silesia1 which together produced #cd per cent4 of the world's output in #aiac4 7b7 ,veins associated with igneous rocks and disseminated sulphide replacements of igneous rock4 ,in this group come the deposits of ,butte1 ,leadville1 and the ,coeur d',alene1 and the disseminated deposits of the ,bawdwin 7,burma ,mines ,co471 ,ridder 7,siberia7 and ,salmon ,river 7,b4,c474 ,these ores are usually complex1 comprising minerals of zinc1 lead1 copper1 iron1 gold and silver1 and often arsenic1 antimony and other metals4 ,in one group1 the silver-lead deposits1 zinc seems a minor factor1 but with depth replaces lead as the predominant metal4 ,deposits of these complex ores have in recent years become important sources of zinc through recognition of the zinc ores in their oxidized zones1 through zinc becoming the dominant metal with increasing depth at many mines1 and especially through improvements in methods of concentrating complex ores and extracting metal from the concentrates4 ,ores of this type will be of increasing importance in the future because of their world-wide distribution4 7c7 ,igneous metamorphic deposits containing franklinite1 willemite1 zincite1 a little blende1 and a gangue of calcite1 rhodonite1 garnet1 pyroxene1 hornblende1 magnetite and tremolite4 ,this type is characteristic of the ,franklin and ,adirondack deposits of the northeastern metallographic province of the ,united ,states and is also found at ,magdalena and ,hanover1 ,new ,mexico and the ,horn ,silver mine1 in ,utah4 7d7 ,metamorphosed deposits4 ,originally these may have been of any of the preceding types but are now disguised by regional metamorphism4 ,the best example is the important deposit of ,ammeberg1 ,sweden4 ,blende there occurs disseminated in bands in gneissoid granulite1 which also contains bands of disseminated pyrrhotite and arsenopyrite4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,the chief zinc ore deposits of the world are in the countries listed in the table below2 the order of the countries is that of their importance in the industry in #aiac1 as nearly as can be estimated from incomplete data4 ,the three major metallographic provinces of the world as indicated by present exploitation are those of ,broken ,hill1 ,n4,s4,w41 ,silesia1 and the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,the condition of the zinc industry in the principal countries1 in #aiac1 is shown in ,table #ei4 ,united ,states4--,the zinc deposits of the ,united ,states may be assigned to three metallographic provinces1 which in the order of their present importance are3 the ,mississippi ,valley province2 the ,western province2 and the ,northeastern province4 ,judged by present knowledge1 the ,mississippi ,valley province is one of the three major zinc-bearing metallographic provinces of the world4 ,it occupies an area underlain with slightly disturbed ,paleozoic limestone1 ranging from ,ordovician to ,lower ,carboniferous in age1 that comprises most of the great mid-continental valley of the ,mississippi in the states of ,missouri1 ,arkansas1 ,oklahoma1 ,kansas1 ,illinois1 ,kentucky1 ,wisconsin1 ,iowa1 also ,tennessee and the western part of ,virginia4 ,igneous rocks are generally absent4 ,there are three principal subprovinces3 the ,ozark province1 comprising ,missouri1 ,oklahoma1 ,kansas1 ,arkansas2 the upper ,mississippi valley1 comprising ,wisconsin1 ,northern ,illinois1 and ,iowa2 and the regions of ,tennessee and ,virginia4 ,,table #eh4--;,,chief ,,zinc-,,ore ,,deposits ,,of ,,the ,,world ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,approximate ,percentage of order ,country world's production in #aiac ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #a ,united ,states #ce4j #b ,germany #be4j #c ,australia #ae4j #d ,italy #e4j #e ,algeria #c4j #f ,japan #b4j #g ,spain #b4j #h ,russia 7including ,russian ,poland7 #b4j #i ,france #a4e #aj ,greece #a4j #aa ,sweden #a4j #ab ,mexico #a4j #ac ,austria #a4j #ad ,tunis #a4j #ae ,indo-,china 7,tonkin7 #af ,great ,britain #ag ,china #ah ,bolivia #ai ,canada #bj ,india 7,burma7 #ba ,egypt #bb ,south ,africa #bc ,peru ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,in the ,ozark subprovinces the ,joplin district is most important4 ,the ores lie at three horizons in flat-lying lower ,carboniferous limestones4 ,in the upper horizon1 below the surface1 the ore lies in clayey chert breccias1 and galena predominates4 ,the middle horizon1 or 8sheet ground10 carries mixed galena and blende1 which cements brecciated chert4 ,the ore is low grade1 the average recovery of zinc being #a4i per cent4 ,this horizon has been the most important source of ore4 ,the third and lowest horizon1 as yet little exploited1 contains disseminated ores4 ,thirty mills were busy in the ,joplin district in #aiah4 ,the ,athletic ,mining ,smelting ,co4 was the largest producer1 operating the ,athletic mine1 at ,duenweg1 the ,bertha ,a41 at ,webb ,city1 and ,mutual mine1 at ,oronogo4 ,miami ,zinc ,syndicate1 affiliated with the ,butte ,superior and ,american ,zinc1 ,lead ,smelting ,co42 the ,commerce ,mining ,royalty ,co42 the ,century ,zinc ,co42 and the ,tri-,state ,mining ,co41 are large operators4 ,much of the production is by lessees and small operators4 ,,table #ei4--,,zinc ,,industry ,,in #aiac ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,available zinc in ore 7short tons7 ---------------------------------- ,country ,produced ,smelted ,exported,imported ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,united ,states #cje1ejj #caj1ejj #h1ejj #ac1ejj ,australasia #bjf1jjj #d1jjj #bjb1jjj 444 ,british ,isles #ej1jjj #fe1jjj 444 #ae1jjj ,canada #bd1jjj 444 #bd1jjj 444 ,burma1 ,indo ,china1 etc4 #ah1jjj 444 #ah1jjj 444 ,france and ,french ,africa #fi1jjj #fc1jjj #f1jjj 444 ,italy #dj1jjj 444 #dj1jjj 444 ,belgium #aa1jjj #bah1jjj 444 #bjg1jjj ,china #e1jjj #b1ejj #b1ejj 444 ,greece #ab1jjj 444 #ab1jjj ,japan #aj1jjj #h1jjj #b1jjj 444 ,russia #ce1jjj #ac1jjj #bb1jjj 444 ,holland 444 #bg1jjj 444 #bg1jjj ,mexico #cj1jjj 444 #cj1jjj ,norway #ae1jjj #aj1jjj #e1jjj 444 ,spain #ej1jjj #ae1jjj #ce1jjj 444 ,sweden #aj1jjj #f1jjj #d1jjj 444 ,austria-,hungary #bd1jjj #bd1jjj 444 444 ,germany #afc1ejj #cab1jjj 444 #adh1ejj ,other 444 444 444 444 ---------------------------------- ,total #a1jgh1jjja1jgh1jjj #daa1jjj #daa1jjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,spelter 7short tons7 ---------------------------------------- ,produced ---------------- ,to be ,annual ,sec- ,for im- con- ,country ,primary ondary export ported sumption ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,united ,states #caj1ejj #ej1jjj #ba1jjj #cci1ejj ,australasia #d1jjj 444 444 444 #d1jjj ,british ,isles #fe1jjj #f1jjj 444 #adc1ejj #bad1ejj ,canada 444 444 444 #bj1jjj #bj1jjj ,burma1 ,indo ,china1 etc4 ,france and ,french ,africa #fc1jjj #bj1ejj 444 #e1ejj #hi1jjj ,italy 444 444 444 #ab1jjj #ab1jjj ,belgium #bah1jjj #c1ejj #g1ejj 444 #hd1jjj ,china #b1ejj 444 444 #g1ejj #aj1jjj ,greece ,japan #h1jjj 444 444 #d1jjj #ab1jjj ,russia #ac1jjj 444 444 #bc1ejj #cf1ejj ,holland #bg1jjj #c1jjj #be1ejj 444 #d1ejj ,mexico ,norway #aj1jjj 444 #aj1jjj ,spain #ae1jjj 444 #h1ejj 444 #f1ejj ,sweden #f1jjj 444 #f1jjj 444 ,austria-,hungary #bd1jjj #c1jjj 444 #ag1ejj #dd1ejj ,germany #cab1jjj #ah1ejj #ge1jjj 444 #bee1ejj ,other 444 #a1ejj 444 #de1jjj #df1ejj --------------------------------------- ,total #a1jgh1jjjajf1jjjbhc1ejjbgh1ejja1agi1jjj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,in ,arkansas the ores are of similar character and mode of occurrence and are found in the same formation and also in the ,ordovician limestone4 ,the ,lavender ,mining ,milling ,co4 is the largest operator and the production has been largely carbonate ores4 ,the ,upper ,mississippi region comprises deposits in nearly horizontal limestones of ,ordovician age4 ,three-fourths of the output of this district is made by five companies3 the ,mineral ,point ,zinc ,co41 a subsidiary of the ,new ,jersey ,zinc ,co41 with seven mines2 the ,vinegar ,hill ,zinc ,co41 with six mines2 the ,wisconsin ,zinc ,co41 a subsidiary of the ,american ,zinc1 ,lead ,smelting ,co41 with four mines2 the ,frontier ,mining ,co41 with five producing mines2 and the ,cleveland ,mining ,co41 with two mines4 ,other important companies are ,burr ,mining ,co41 ,block ,house ,mining ,co41 ,m4 ,a4 ,mining ,co41 ,b4 ,m4 ,b4 ,mining ,co41 and ,oliver ,mining ,co41 a subsidiary of the ,u4 ,s4 ,steel ,corporation4 ,all of the mines are equipped with milling plants4 ,the production of the district shows a steady growth4 ,the zinc deposits of southwest ,virginia and northeastern ,tennessee occur as disseminated replacement breccia along crushed and faulted zones in folded ,cambro-,ordovician limestones1 and also as oxidized ores in clays residual from the weathering of the same limestones4 ,the gangue is calcite and dolomite4 ,the ,american ,zinc ,co4 is the largest operator in ,tennessee2 it has a milling capacity of #c1jjj tons daily and zinc-blende ore reserves greater than #f1jjj1jjj tons averaging between #d and #e per cent4 zinc1 from which #fj per cent4 zinc-blende concentrates are made4 ,this company is a subsidiary of the ,american ,zinc1 ,lead ,smelting ,co4 ,the ,western province comprises most of the western states2 it extends north into ,british ,columbia and south into ,mexico4 ,the chief subprovinces are those of ,leadville1 ,butte1 and ,coeur d',alene4 ,the ,leadville deposits are found in strata varying in age from ,archean to ,cretaceous1 which have been intruded by igneous rocks4 ,the ores are mainly replacements of limestone and occur in large masses4 ,this district first became of importance in zinc production upon the recognition of smithsonite and calamine in the large masses of oxidized ores4 ,of recent years sulphides form an increasing part of the production1 now coming largely from deeper levels4 ,the ores carry gold1 silver1 manganese1 copper and sometimes bismuth4 ,the ,united ,states ,smelting ,refining ,mining ,co41 the ,empire ,zinc ,co41 a subsidiary of the ,new ,jersey ,zinc ,co42 the ,western ,mining ,co41 the ,downtown ,mines ,co41 the ,wellington ,mines ,co41 at ,breckenridge2 and the ,mary ,murphy mine1 at ,chalk ,creek1 are the largest operators in this region4 ,the ,butte ores occur as veins in igneous rocks4 ,the area in which zinc ores predominate surrounds that of important copper veins on three sides4 ,on the border of the two areas1 zinc-silver ores predominate in the upper levels and copper in the deeper workings4 ,many of the present zinc mines were formerly worked for silver4 ,these complex zinc ores have been made available by the successful application of oil flotation and electrolytic deposition4 ,the ,black ,rock mine of the ,butte ,superior ,mining ,co41 the ,elm ,orlu of ,w4 ,a4 ,clark ,son1 the ,alice1 and several other mines of the ,anaconda ,copper ,mining ,co41 and the ,north ,butte ,mining ,co4 are among the most important producers4 ,the twelve mines yielding zinc in #aiae together have immense reserves4 ,the ores all carry lead and silver and some pyrite1 and many contain copper and gold4 ,the ,coeur d',alene subprovince comprises a number of mining districts in ,idaho1 at least five being zinc producers4 ,the ,interstate-,callahan1 in the ,beaver district1 is the largest zinc mine in the state4 ,the ore is remarkable for the small percentage of minerals other than sphalerite1 averaging #bh per cent4 zinc4 ,the ,northeastern province comprises important deposits at ,franklin1 ,new ,jersey1 and in the ,adirondack ,mountains in ,new ,york1 and others of minor importance in the ,new ,england states4 ,it is characterized by deposits of igneous metamorphic origin in ,pre-,cambrian limestone4 ,the ,franklin deposits1 in ,new ,jersey1 consist chiefly of franklinite1 willemite and zincite in a gangue of calcite1 rhodonite1 garnet1 pyroxene1 magnetite and hornblende4 ,willemite is separated magnetically from these ores and used to produce a very high-grade spelter free from lead and cadmium and therefore in great demand for certain purposes4 ,the other classes of ore are smelted for the production of zinc white and spiegeleisen4 ,these mines1 owned and operated by the ,new ,jersey ,zinc ,co41 have produced more than #a1ejj1jjj tons of zinc in the form of spelter and zinc oxide4 ,the ,edwards-,balmat district1 in ,st4 ,lawrence ,county1 ,new ,york1 comprises an area two to three miles wide and fifteen miles long1 of ,pre-,cambrian limestone4 ,the ore occurs in lenses and is a mixture of sphalerite1 pyrite and a little galena with a gangue of dolomite4 ,separation is effected by magnetic tables4 ,the typical ore contains3 sphalerite1 #be4e per cent42 galena1 #a4dc per cent42 pyrite1 #ab4d per cent42 barite1 #c4i per cent4 ,the ore reserves of the ,northern ,ore ,co41 the largest operator1 are known to exceed one million tons4 ,germany4--,imperial ,germany comprised most of one metallographic province of major importance1 ,silesia1 and other districts ranking as follows3 ,upper ,silesia2 ,rhenish ,prussia2 ,westphalia2 ,saxony2 ,hanover2 and ,nassau4 ,the major part of the mineral province of ,upper ,silesia lay within the boundaries of ,germany in #aiad4 ,once it was part of the ,kingdom of ,poland1 except for portions included in the old empires of ,russia and ,austria4 ,the pre-war production of zinc ores from ,russian ,poland was entirely from this metallographic province4 ,the deposits1 which contain lead and zinc together1 occur in ,triassic formation overlying ,carboniferous rocks that carry important seams of coal4 ,this juxtaposition of ore and fuel has furnished an ideal basis for the great smelting industry that has been developed1 and facilitates the smelting of low-grade ores4 ,the ores are said to average #ag per cent4 zinc and #e per cent4 lead4 ,they come from two ore horizons4 ,the lower is characterized by blende1 with a little galena and marcasite2 the upper or lead horizon comprises a very persistent sheet of galena #j4je to #j4cj meters thick1 which generally is underlain by red calamine4 ,the blende deposits are extensive and will be productive for a long time4 ,in ,rhenish ,prussia1 zinc ore 7smithsonite7 deposits are found in strata of ,devonian age4 ,these deposits are approaching exhaustion4 ,the chief zinc deposits of ,westphalia are in ,devonian strata4 ,the historic mines at ,freiberg 7,erzgebirge71 in ,saxony1 produce a small quantity of blende from the concentration of galena ores4 ,the blende carries considerable iron and silver and some of it contains traces of tin4 ,these mines are controlled by the ,saxon government4 ,a considerable quantity of blende ore is concentrated as a by-product in the dressing of the lead ore of the ,upper ,harz1 ,hanover4 ,the ore of ,rammelsberg1 in the ,lower ,harz1 occurs in a bed interstratified with lower ,devonian slates and sandstones2 it is an intimate mixture of blende1 galena1 pyrite1 chalcopyrite1 and barite and some calcite and quartz4 ,zinc is produced as a by-product of lead ores in the valley of ,lahn 7,nassau71 where a series of strong veins are found in ,lower ,devonian strata4 ,australia4--,the zinc resources of the ,commonwealth of ,australia are chiefly in ,new ,south ,wales and ,tasmania4 ,the former has been the chief source of zinc in the past1 but the ,tasmania deposits are now being rapidly developed and equipped for production4 ,the most important source of zinc ore in ,new ,south ,wales is the great ,broken ,hill lode1 where operations began in #ahhd4 ,the country rock comprises crystalline schists and gneisses4 ,between the oxidized and primary sulphide ores was a thin zone of secondary sulphides4 ,the early operations in the district were for lead1 and immense dumps accumulated of zinc-bearing ores sorted out or of zinc-bearing tailings from the concentration of the lead ores4 ,in #aijc these dumps were estimated at #e1fhg1djj tons carrying #ah4f per cent4 zinc4 ,with the development of demand for zinc sulphide ores and of oil flotation methods of separation and concentration these dumps became important sources of zinc concentrates1 but many of them are approaching exhaustion4 ,the sulphide ores are a close mixture of galena and zinc blende1 carrying silver4 ,there are two classes of these ores1 distinguished as silicate-gangue ore1 and calcite-gangue ore4 ,the silicate gangue ore bodies carry rhodonite1 garnet and quartz and are richer in zinc and silver than those of calcite gangue4 ,eight mining companies are now at work4 ,in the order of the importance of their output and ore reserves1 these companies are3 ,broken ,hill ,south ,silver ,mining ,co42 ,broken ,hill ,north ,mining ,co42 ,zinc ,corporation2 ,sulphide ,corporation2 ,british ,broken ,hill ,proprietary ,co42 ,broken ,hill ,proprietary ,co41 ,block #aj2 and ,broken ,hill ,proprietary ,co41 ,block #ad4 ,the estimated ore reserves of all the mines approximate #ab1jjj1jjj tons4 ,the ,broken ,hill ,south ,silver ,mining ,co4 has ore reserves estimated at #c1cej1jjj tons1 and is the largest producer4 ,broken ,hill ,north1 ,amalgamated ,zinc 7de ,bavay71 ,zinc ,corporation1 and ,barrier ,south ,ltd4 are controlled by ,govett and associates1 a group of ,australian capitalists4 ,the ,amalgamated ,zinc ,co4 in #aiac treated #dih1bhi tons of tailings1 obtaining #adj1jih tons zinc concentrates1 carrying zinc1 #dh4i per cent42 also lead concentrates amounting to #a1ehd tons1 carrying #eg4a per cent4 lead4 ,the ,zinc ,corporation1 a company formed by ,bewick1 ,moreing ,co41 has ore reserves estimated at #a1ejd1baa tons1 averaging #ad4h per cent4 lead1 #i4b per cent4 zinc1 and #b4e ounces of silver per ton4 ,the mine of the ,broken ,hill ,proprietary ,co4 is1 according to last reports1 nearly exhausted4 ,the principal deposits of ,tasmania are those of the ,primrose1 ,hercules1 and ,tasmania ,copper ,mines1 all owned by the ,mount ,reed ,rosebery ,co41 affiliated with the ,mount ,lyell ,mining ,railway ,co4 ,the state geological staff estimates reserves at #a1bgb1ejj tons averaging #bi4gi per cent4 zinc1 #h4hi per cent4 lead1 #ab4af ounces of silver and #j4ag ounces of gold per ton4 ,italy4--,the zinc production of ,italy is derived from the ,iglesias district of ,sardinia1 and the ,province of ,bergamo4 ,the ,iglesias district is in the southeastern part of the island of ,sardinia4 ,the ores are oxidized and mostly worked by open pits4 ,they are mined and milled by two ,italian companies1 ,societa di ,monteponi1 and the ,societa di ,pertusola4 ,the ores have usually been smelted in ,germany1 ,england or ,belgium4 ,the ,bergamo mines1 in the ,province of ,lombardy1 are worked by the ,english ,crown ,spelter ,co41 which ships the ore to ,swansea1 ,wales1 for smelting4 ,algeria4--,algeria produced #hb1bef tons of zinc ore in #aiac4 ,of the #gh1igc tons whose origin is known1 #ca per cent4 of the total was extracted by ,belgian companies and the remainder was produced by ,french operators4 ,japan4--,the only important zinc-producing district in ,japan is the ,province of ,hida4 ,the principal companies are the ,osaka ,zinc ,mining ,smelting ,co41 ,takata ,co41 the ,rhuara ,mining ,co41 and the ,mitsui ,mining ,co4 ,the largest producer is the ,kamioka ,mine of the last named1 which produces annually about #aj1jjj tons4 ,the ,osaka ,mining ,co4 also produces from ,korea 7,chosen7 about #ae1jjj tons of ore annually4 ,the annual smelting capacity in ,japan1 with all projected construction completed1 is estimated at #cjj1jjj tons of zinc ore1 whereas the domestic output of ore is about #ej1jjj tons4 ,the difference has been imported chiefly from ,siberia1 ,china1 ,tonkin and ,australia4 ,in the future it is expected that the foreign ores will come chiefly from ,china and ,siberia4 ,the domestic spelter production has reached about #fj1jjj tons annually and the domestic consumption #bi1jjj tons4 ,spain4--,zinc ores are produced in the provinces of ,santander1 ,murcia1 ,tereul1 ,biscay and ,guipuzcoa4 ,the only district of importance is that of ,santander1 where there is a zinc smelter owned by the ,compagnie ,royale ,asturienne des ,mines 7,french74 ,some of the ore is smelted in ,france4 ,most of the ,spanish ores are calamine and occur almost without exception in limestone4 ,eighty per cent4 of the ,spanish production comes from ,santander and ,murcia4 ,in the latter the mines are worked primarily for lead4 ,russia4--,the zinc output of the ,russian ,empire was derived from ,russian ,poland1 eastern ,siberia1 the ,altai ,mountains in southwestern ,siberia1 and the northern ,caucasus ,mountains4 ,the ,polish deposits are part of the ,silesian field4 ,the ores are largely carbonates and silicates4 ,some of the mines and plants were owned by the ,russian government1 others apparently by ,french companies4 ,in eastern ,siberia1 the ,tyuticha mine has a calamine orebody containing at least #bjj1jjj tons averaging #dh per cent4 zinc4 ,some ore has come from the ,ussurisk district4 ,it is believed that the ,mitsui ,mining ,co4 has made arrangements to ship ores from this district to ,japan for treatment4 ,in the ,altai ,mountains of southwestern ,siberia the ,ridder ,mining ,co41 controlled by the ,irtysh ,corporation1 ,ltd41 of ,london1 has developed two large deposits on the same mineralized zone1 with ore reserves estimated in #aiag at over #c1ejj1jjj tons4 ,the possibilities of this property are immense4 ,the company has acquired the ,ekibastus coal fields1 constructed about #afe miles of railroad and provided river transport1 thus bringing the ore and coal together at a smelting plant having a capacity of #ae1jjj tons lead and #e1jjj tons spelter annually4 ,in the northern ,caucasus ,mountains1 the ,sadon mine1 belonging to the ,socit d',alagir 7,french71 has been worked for a long time4 ,the ores from this mine are smelted locally4 ,other ,countries4--,the zinc-ore production of ,france comes from several scattered districts4 ,of the #de1ibi long tons reported in #aiab1 nearly all came from six mines which are all controlled by ,french capital with perhaps some ,belgian participation4 ,the only important source of zinc in ,greece is the famous ,laurium deposit1 which was worked in ancient times4 ,the ancients1 however1 rejected1 as far as possible1 the zinc ores4 ,these deposits are now controlled and operated by a ,french company1 the ,compagnie ,franaise des ,mines de ,laurium1 which also has reopened the ancient workings of ,gebel ,rosas1 near the ,red ,sea1 in ,egypt4 ,the chief zinc mines of ,sweden are the ,ammeberg1 the ,rylls ,wytland and the ,sala4 ,at the ,sala immense piles of tailings made in centuries of operation1 containing quantities of zinc1 can now be treated1 as well as zinciferous areas left in mining silver-lead ores4 ,the important ,ammeberg deposit consists of bands and lenses of disseminated blende in gneissoid granulite and is exploited by the ,socit de la ,vieille ,montagne 7,belgian74 ,the zinc production of ,mexico has come chiefly from the states of ,nuevo ,leon1 ,chihuahua and ,sonora4 ,various zinc deposits have been worked in ,nuevo ,leon by ,german and ,american capital4 ,most of them are within #ej miles of ,monterrey4 ,zinc-producing districts are scattered over the ,state of ,chihuahua4 ,in the ,santa ,eulalia district1 ,el ,potosi ,mining ,co41 controlled by ,americans1 works the mine of the same name1 which has carbonate ores to a depth of #a1gjj feet4 ,the ,buena ,tierra1 in the same district1 is controlled by ,british capital4 ,the principal mines in the ,parral district are owned by ,americans and ,british companies1 including the ,american ,smelters ,securities ,co41 ,american ,zinc ,extraction ,co41 and ,san ,francisco ,mines of ,mexico1 ,ltd4 7,british74 ,the ,carnegie ,lead ,zinc ,co4 owns the largest zinc mine in ,sonora1 located near ,cananea4 ,the ,calumet ,arizona ,co4 and the ,mexican ,metal ,co4 own zinc deposits in the ,arizpe district4 ,all of these companies are ,american4 ,zinc ores are produced in ,austria in the provinces of ,carinthia1 ,styria1 ,carniole1 ,tyrol and ,galicia4 ,the ,raibl and ,schneeberg mines of ,carinthia are government owned1 and the ores are smelted at the government works at ,cilli4 ,tyrolean ores were shipped to ,frankfort-on-,main and ,aix-la-,chapelle4 ,styrian ores were shipped to ,silesia and ,rhenish ,prussia for smelting4 ,the considerable production of calamine with some blende from ,tunis is under ,french political and commercial control4 ,the chief zinc ore producers appear to be ,french companies1 in general paying a royalty of #e per cent4 of the net proceeds to the government of ,tunis4 ,the total production for #aiaf was #ab1edd tons4 ,four districts of ,indo-,china produce zinc ores with an aggregate total annual output of about #df1jjj tons4 ,the largest zinc mine in ,great ,britain is the ,nenthead1 in ,cumberland1 worked by the ,socit de la ,vieille ,montagne 7,belgian74 ,the second largest producer is the ,carshield mine1 in ,northumberland4 ,with the exception of the ,nenthead mine all the important producers are1 so far as known1 owned and operated by ,british capital4 ,the chief mine in ,china is the ,shui ,k'ou ,shan1 under control of the ,hunan ,board of ,mines4 ,prior to the war this mine was dominated by ,german capital1 which had provided machinery and shipped the product to ,europe4 ,japanese have sought diligently and with partial success to secure control of this mine4 ,the chief zinc-mining district in ,bolivia is ,huanchaca1 the production of which has recently decreased because of great quantities of water entering the workings4 ,the largest operator is the ,compaia ,huanchaca de ,bolivia1 the capital and control of which is ,french4 ,its zinc production is incidental1 the principal metal produced being silver4 ,the zinc production of ,canada is chiefly from ,british ,columbia1 but a small amount is from ,ontario and ,quebec4 ,the only production of any moment is from the southern part of ,british ,columbia1 where the ,slocan district is of greatest importance4 ,british1 ,canadian and ,american capital are largely interested4 ,in #aiae1 the mines of the ,slocan district were estimated by the management of the ,trail smelter to be capable of producing #aj1jjj to #ae1jjj tons of ore carrying #dj to #de per cent4 zinc4 ,apparently this was in addition to the possible production from the ,sullivan mine1 owned by the ,consolidated ,mining ,smelting ,co41 ,ltd4 7,trail smelter71 which had proved reserves of #c1ejj1jjj tons of galena-sphalerite ore4 ,the principal mines of ,ontario and ,quebec produced #ehj tons of zinc1 or one-thirtieth of the production of ,canada4 ,these are operated at least in part by ,american capital1 and the ores are smelted by the ,zinc ,co41 ,ltd41 owned by ,americans4 ,the chief deposits of ,india are those of the ,bawdwin mines1 located in the ,northern ,shan ,states 7,burma74 ,there was estimated ,december #ca1 #aiag1 #d1jcc1jjj tons lead-zinc ore assaying #bd4g oz4 silver1 #bg4d per cent4 lead1 and #ai4a per cent4 zinc4 ,the essential constituents of the ores are galena and sphalerite with a little pyrite and chalcopyrite4 ,the lead and zinc concentrates are available for the customary methods of smelting4 ,a zinc-distilling and sulphuric acid plant is being constructed at ,sakohi1 with the aid of the ,indian government1 to treat the table zinc concentrate4 ,the company operates a lead smelter at ,nam-,tu1 #aa miles from the mines4 ,the ,bawdwin deposits may be expected to be an important factor in the world's production of zinc in the immediate future4 ,they are owned by the ,burma ,mines1 ,ltd41 an ,english corporation of the ,r4 ,tilden ,smith-,govett-,hoover interests1 in which some ,american capital is interested4 ,the only zinc deposit of note in ,egypt is the ,gebel ,rosas1 operated by the ,compagnie ,franaise de ,laurium4 ,this deposit is located near the ,red ,sea and was worked in ancient times4 ,the only deposit of importance in ,south ,africa is the ,rhodesia ,broken ,hill4 ,the large ore bodies are1 so far as developed1 almost wholly oxidized4 ,one ore body is estimated at #bej1jjj long tons1 averaging #bf per cent4 lead1 #bb per cent4 zinc1 and another at #cjj1jjj long tons1 averaging #cb per cent4 zinc1 with little lead1 but much iron oxide and carbonate4 ,they are controlled by ,british capital4 ,considerable difficulty has been experienced in developing a commercial treatment4 ,in ,peru a ,french company1 the ,association ,minire1 has interests in the ,compagnie des ,mines de ,huaron4 ,,developments ,,and ,,changes ,,in ,,known ,,geographical ,,distribution ,,in ,,the ,,near ,,future ,so far as information is available no marked change in the rate of production in the countries of ,europe and northern ,africa seems probable4 ,most of the districts in those countries have been exploited over a long period and have passed their zenith of production2 many are approaching exhaustion4 ,the decrease in most of them will1 however1 be gradual4 ,the most important change in ,europe probably will be the transfer to ,polish jurisdiction of the whole of the ,silesian field1 making the new state of ,poland1 if established as proposed1 the largest single source of zinc ore in ,europe4 ,in the ,united ,states1 which will continue to be the largest producer of zinc in the world1 the greatest increase in relative importance may be expected from the western metallographic province1 particularly in the northwest1 in the ,butte and ,coeur d',alene districts4 ,the ,leadville district has already passed the zenith of production and has dropped to second place after ,butte1 which is capable of still further increase4 ,in ,australia the ,broken ,hill district may be expected to yield about #dej1jjj tons of concentrates annually for some three years1 after which the output should drop to about #cjj1jjj tons4 ,the increase of production from ,tasmania will largely depend upon the construction of electrolytic zinc plants1 but the island will be a factor in production in the immediate future4 ,the greatest new factor in the world's output of zinc will be the ,bawdwin mines1 in ,burma1 which within a short time will be equipped to produce about #cjj1jjj tons of ore annually or about #ge1jjj tons of high-grade zinc concentrates and #ajj1jjj tons of low-grade concentrates or middlings for treatment by the ,ganlin process4 ,the extent to which the zinc concentrates from this ore will be treated in ,india will be determined by the development of the local market for sulphuric acid4 ,the remainder of the concentrates will be treated in ,england4 ,recent developments in the ,altai ,mountains of southwestern ,siberia have proved immense bodies of complex zinc-lead ores4 ,the extent of their exploitation will1 however1 be determined largely by the extent of the ,russian market as affected by social and political conditions4 ,removal of the stringent tariff on importations from abroad to the manufacturing centers of ,warsaw1 ,petrograd and ,moscow might greatly restrict the market for the output of these mines4 ,their extreme geographic isolation will prevent the deposits from becoming an important factor in the world market for a long period1 notwithstanding their large size and excellent grade4 ,the utilization of the ,rhodesia ,broken ,hill deposit in ,south ,africa will be delayed by the difficulty of separating the oxidized lead and zinc minerals1 the lack of fuel1 and geographic and commercial isolation4 ,,political ,,control ,political control of the zinc resources of the world up to the outbreak of the war in #aiad seems to have had only a minor effect upon the industry4 ,economic factors made ineffective any control not international in scope4 ,a very large percentage of the zinc ores of the world were transported from the country of production to another for treatment1 in some cases even being re-exported1 sometimes after calcination1 for the purpose of utilizing the sulphur content in the production of acid4 ,tariffs were imposed by some countries1 as1 for example1 by the ,united ,states1 on certain classes of zinc ores4 ,such measures had some effect on production in ,mexico and ,canada4 ,russia had imposed heavy import duties which subsidized domestic production and stimulated exploration and development4 ,the chief ,european countries importing and smelting zinc ores admitted them free of duty4 ,during the ,world ,war1 however1 political jurisdiction was largely invoked to restore control of national resources to citizens of the given country or its allies4 ,this movement was particularly marked in the ,british ,empire1 wherein there now exists a joint political and commercial control4 ,alien interests have been eliminated by government action and the government retains a share in the control through interests in marketing organizations or through financial participation in treatment works4 ,canada has established a small bounty on zinc produced in ,canada from domestic ores and given financial aid to attempts to establish domestic smelting and refining plants4 ,in the ,united ,states the ,alien ,property ,custodian has been active in eliminating all alien enemy control4 ,his appointees will control many important companies for several years4 ,such action as has been taken does not appear to have disturbed such centralization of control as had been effected4#ach #ach ,see ,chapter on ,copper1 pages #bcb-bce1 for discussion of ,german interests in the ,american metal trade4 ,,commercial ,,control ,copper1 lead and zinc form a class by themselves as regards industrial utility and tonnage produced1 ranking after iron1 which far outclasses them1 as the most important base metals4 ,the annual production of each is considerably more than a million tons4 ,in view of the industrial importance of zinc and the fact that brass1 an alloy of copper and zinc1 is an indispensable material in modern industry1 it is not strange that the great industrial nations have contrived many expedients in the endeavor to control the zinc industry4 ,the ownership and operative control of the mines has been a minor factor in the commercial control of this industry4 ,economic factors force the location of retort smelting plants in industrial districts adjacent to coal fields1 the most important factors being availability and cost of fuel and labor1 and proximity to a market for spelter4 ,a lack of fuel and scarcity or high cost of labor has prevented smelting in some regions producing considerable ore4 ,on the other hand1 the smelting done in some countries has been entirely disproportionate to their ore output4 ,the revival of nationalist sentiment as a result of the ,world ,war may make ownership and operative control a more important factor in the future4 ,electrolytic and electro-thermic reduction of ores makes possible the economic production of spelter where previously impossible and may bring about some decentralization of the industry4 ,ownership or control of the reduction plants has been an important basis for control of the industry4 ,the most effective control has been exercised through marketing organizations or trade combinations of reduction works1 ore-buying and metal-selling agencies1 with interlocking directorates1 joint ownership and long-term contracts for ores1 concentrates and metals4 ,in recent years these became world-wide in their scope and completely dominated the industry4 ,united ,states4--,below are listed the most important zinc smelting companies in the ,united ,states1 together with the percentage of the total reduction capacity that each controls3 ,percentage of production controlled ,new ,jersey ,zinc ,co4 #ac4d ,american ,metal ,co4 #ae4b ,grasselli ,chemical ,co4 #aj4a ,anaconda ,copper ,mining ,co4 #aj4j ,united ,states ,steel ,corporation #g4g ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 #g4b ,american ,zinc1 ,lead ,smelting ,co4 #e4g ,beer1 ,sondheimer ,co4 #d4g ,l4 ,vogelstein ,co4 #a4g ,various independents or of unknown affiliation #bd4c ,the close affiliations of ,l4 ,vogelstein ,co41 ,beer1 ,sondheimer ,co41 the ,american ,metal ,co41 and their subsidiary companies1 comprising #bg4c per cent4 of the smelting capacity1 and various ore producers1 with their metal-selling contracts with other smelters1 enabled them to dominate the ,american metal market in the interest of the ,german 8,trio40 ,the ,alien ,property ,custodian took over all three companies during the war and eliminated all alien-enemy ownership and control by disposing of ,german-owned stock at auction4 ,the ,american ,metal ,co4 completely owns the ,american ,zinc ,chemical ,co41 ,south ,american ,metal ,transport ,co41 ,bartlesville ,zinc ,co41 and ,south ,american ,metal ,co42 it has large holdings of stock in the ,ohio and ,colorado ,smelting ,refining ,co41 ,compaia ,minera de ,peoles1 ,compaia de ,minerales y ,metales1 ,compaia ,metalurgica de ,torreon1 ,compaia ,minera ,palmo y ,cabrillos1 ,fundicion de ,guayacan1 ,balbach ,smelting ,refining ,co41 and ,nichols ,copper ,co41 some of which operate in ,mexico and ,south ,america4 ,the capital stock of the ,american ,metal ,co4 comprised #gj1jjj shares1 of which #cd1fdd were owned by aliens affiliated with the ,german 8,trio02 #ah1fbj shares belong to ,american citizens who have had control of the management1 and the remainder belonged to the ,merton interests1 of ,london1 which has been reorganized by the ,british government1 eliminating alien ownership4 ,the alien-owned shares have been sold by the ,alien ,property ,custodian and the control of the business for a period of five years was vested in a board of five trustees named by him4 ,the ,national ,zinc ,co4 was owned by ,beer1 ,sondheimer ,co41 one of the ,german 8,trio10 which also owned other metal-producing companies in the ,united ,states and ,cuba4 ,the operative control of the ,american ,zinc1 ,lead ,smelting ,co4 has been acquired by the ,butte ,superior ,mining ,co41 dominated by ,hayden1 ,stone ,co41 of ,new ,york and ,boston4 ,a large interest in the ,american ,zinc1 ,lead ,smelting ,co4 was held by ,l4 ,vogelstein ,co41 formerly the representative of the ,german ,metallgesellschaft in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,american ,zinc1 ,lead ,smelting ,co4 controls the ,wisconsin ,zinc ,co42 the ,american ,zinc ,co41 of ,illinois2 the ,american ,zinc ,co41 of ,tennessee2 and the ,american ,zinc ,ore ,separating ,co4 ,the ,new ,jersey ,zinc ,co41 an ,american concern1 controls the ,new ,jersey field1 and1 through its subsidiary1 the ,empire ,zinc ,co41 owns and operates a number of mines in the western states and ,mexico1 and the ,mineral ,point ,zinc ,co41 of ,wisconsin1 one of the three largest producers in that region1 and four zinc smelters4 ,the ,anaconda company operates a number of zinc-producing mines in the ,butte district and has erected electrolytic plants for the treatment of its own concentrates1 one of #be-tons' capacity as an experimental plant at ,anaconda and a plant of #bjj-tons' daily capacity at ,great ,falls1 ,montana4 ,it has treated some of the production of other companies1 notably of the ,butte ,superior ,mining ,co4 ,it is an ,american company under ,american control but has many ,european stockholders4 ,germany4--,the ambition of ,german commercial interests to control the metal markets and resources of the world was more nearly realized in the case of zinc than of any other metal4 ,the ,german ,zinc ,syndicate 7,zinkhttenverband7 was organized in #aiji1 by three powerful interests3 7#a7 ,the ,merton group1 comprising the ,metallgesellschaft1 the ,metallbank and ,metallurgische ,gesellschaft1 all of ,frankfurt1 and the ,merton companies of ,london2 7#b7 ,beer1 ,sondheimer ,co41 which through the ,tellus stock company controlled over a dozen metal and chemical concerns2 and 7#c7 ,aron ,hirsch ,sohn1 at ,halberstadt2 and was immediately joined by all the important ,silesian and ,rhenish-,westphalian zinc concerns4 ,the organizers were made exclusive selling agencies for the syndicate and purchases from any foreign sources were made in unison4 ,the syndicate immediately made agreements with ,austrian and ,belgian producers including the ,vieille ,montagne1 which has mines1 works and agencies in many parts of the world4 ,it was also joined by a ,dutch concern1 ,zincs de la ,campine4 ,the syndicate embraced altogether #ah firms and regulated both their output and prices4 ,by the end of #aiab this ,german syndicate controlled directly one-half of the world's output of zinc and three-fourths of the ,european production4 ,two ,belgian and some ,french works formed another syndicate4 ,a third was formed by six ,english works1 and the competition of ,united ,states firms drove all three into the ,international ,zinc ,syndicate1 which endured up to ,april1 #aiad4 ,the ,international regulated the output of its members but did not fix exact prices4 ,through the ,american ,metal ,co41 and affiliated companies1 the ,german syndicate was rapidly becoming a factor of importance in the control of ,american1 ,mexican1 and ,australian zinc production at its source4 ,the ,german syndicate maintained its dominancy and was rapidly extending and strengthening it throughout the world through banks1 holding companies1 affiliations with syndicates and cartels1 interlocking directorates1 and joint shareholdings4 ,as a result of the war1 the ,australian zinc concentrates are permanently diverted from ,german reduction works1 and all ,german control is eliminated4 ,the activities of the ,alien ,property ,custodian have tended to eliminate ,german interests in the ,united ,states4 ,the re-establishment of the nation of ,poland may take from ,germany all the ,silesian deposits and reduction plants1 leaving only those of the ,rhenish-,westphalian1 ,harz and ,erzgebirge regions1 with only one-third the former domestic production of ore4 ,poland should be twice as important as ,germany in the zinc industry1 unless ,germany should be able to import ores and concentrates on a large scale4 ,australia4--,at the outbreak of the ,world ,war the ,australian zinc industry was in the grip of the great ,german zinc syndicate1 described in more detail above under 8,germany40 ,this controlled the world's spelter market1 determined output and prices and manipulated the market in the interests of ,germany4 ,this was possible through long-term contracts for zinc concentrates1 in which form nearly the whole zinc product was exported for reduction in ,belgium and ,germany4 ,only #aj per cent4 of the concentrates was smelted at ,port ,pirie or in ,england4 ,during the war these contracts were cancelled by the ,australian and ,british governments and the work of reconstructing the industry on a purely ,australian and ,british basis was undertaken1 the idea being to provide for the treatment1 so far as possible1 of all ores in ,australia1 so that they could be marketed in their finished state4 ,the ,australian government first formed a metals exchange1 through which all metals produced in ,australia must pass for sale4 ,the ,zinc ,producers' ,association ,proprietary1 ,ltd41 was registered ,may #bj1 #aiaf1 in ,victoria1 ,australia1 to market products of the member companies producing zinc ores1 concentrates1 and metals in the ,commonwealth of ,australia and ,tasmania1 all of which have sold their entire output to the association for fifty years4 ,the shares1 #ajj1jjj of #a each1 are held by the following companies3 ,amalgamated ,zinc 7,de ,bavay's72 ,broken ,hill ,proprietary1 ,block #ad2 ,zinc ,corporation2 ,broken ,hill ,proprietary2 ,electrolytic ,zinc ,smelters2 ,junction ,north2 ,north ,broken ,hill2 ,sulphide ,corporation2 ,british ,broken ,hill2 ,broken ,hill ,associated ,smelters2 ,broken ,hill ,junction2 ,broken ,hill ,south ,silver2 ,broken ,hill ,proprietary1 ,block #aj2 ,mount ,lyell ,mining ,railway ,co4 ,the ,australian federal government1 acting through the ,zinc ,producers' ,association1 contracted to sell to the ,british government the whole output of zinc concentrates in ,australia for the period of the war and ten years thereafter4 ,previously the ,prime ,minister had contracted for the sale to the imperial government of #ajj1jjj tons of zinc concentrates and #de1jjj tons of electrolytic zinc and spelter for ten years4 ,the arrangement provided for the ,british government taking the stocks of zinc concentrates on hand ,december #ca1 #aiag1 less a definite percentage reserve1 and thereafter #bej1jjj tons per annum for the period of the war1 and #cjj1jjj tons annually for the following nine years4 ,provision was also made for supplying the requirements of the ,australian zinc-refining works and the fulfilling of ,japanese contracts during the period covered by the ,british contract4 ,under normal conditions the ,australian output of zinc concentrates1 averaging from #df to #dh per cent4 zinc1 is about #dej1jjj tons per annum1 valued at #be1jjj1jjj4 ,the effect of the above arrangements is to transfer permanently the control of the ,australian zinc industry from ,german to ,british citizens under a system jointly commercial and political4 ,the mines and works always were owned by ,british and ,australian capital4 ,the ,zinc ,producers' ,association is co-operative in character1 guaranteeing to all members equality of treatment irrespective of tonnage4 ,the commonwealth is represented on the board4 ,the federal government is also encouraging in every possible way the establishment of reduction works1 particularly electrolytic zinc works4 ,it has been reported that the ,burma ,corporation was a stockholder of the ,zinc ,producers' ,association1 but this report has not been satisfactorily confirmed4 ,in case it should be true the association may ultimately control the sale of #he to #ie per cent4 of the zinc ores of the ,british ,empire4 ,having smelting capacity for a considerable part of their production and acting as a unit in selling the surplus1 the ,australian zinc producers should hereafter be in a strong position in dealing with ,german1 ,dutch and ,belgian smelters4 ,the smelting capacity will not be largely increased in the near future4 ,france4--,the nationalist movement in ,france during the war resulted in the formation of trade associations known as 8consortiums10 comprising the principal factor in each industry4#aci #aci ,for a description of the consortium covering the mineral industry1 the ,socit ,minerais et ,metaux1 see the ,chapter on ,lead1 pages #bhd and #bhe4 ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,nations ,since the elimination of the alien-enemy interests in the ,american ,metal ,co41 ,l4 ,vogelstein ,co41 and ,beer1 ,sondheimer ,co41 the industry in the ,united ,states is controlled and the mines and works are owned by ,american capital1 which also controls some zinc production in ,mexico1 ,canada and ,peru4 ,future production and consumption will probably balance as before the war4 ,there is now excess smelting capacity1 but it has been conclusively demonstrated that the country is capable of supplying the ore for even greater capacity4 ,the ,united ,states will retain first place as a producer4 ,during the period of readjustment some concentrates may be shipped to ,belgium and ,holland4 ,with the permanent diversion of the ,australian concentrates1 and the probable loss of the ,silesian deposits and reduction works1 ,germany will lose its second place in the industry4 ,with only the ,rhenish1 ,westphalian1 ,harz1 and ,erzgebirge districts as sources of domestic ores1 the supply will be reduced to one-third of that produced before #aiad1 which was only two-thirds of all the ore smelted in the country4 ,unless ores or concentrates can be imported1 ,germany will be only a small factor in zinc production4 ,whereas in #aiab ,germany had #ej1jjj tons of spelter available for export1 importation may now be necessary4 ,as a result of the treaty of peace the ,polish industry may be dominated by ,french capital4 ,not over #e per cent4 of the ore smelted in ,belgium is of domestic production4 ,the mines are owned by ,french and ,german companies4 ,the works are owned by ,french1 ,belgian and ,germans in about equal proportions4 ,part of the ,australian concentrates will be allotted to ,belgium for smelting4 ,the largest single factor in the ,belgian industry1 the ,socit de la ,vieille ,montagne1 owned and worked mines in ,belgium1 ,moresnet1 ,germany1 ,sweden1 ,england1 ,algiers and ,tunis and reduction works in ,belgium1 ,germany and ,france4 ,although formerly a member of the ,german zinc convention this company seems to be controlled by ,belgian capital affiliated with the strongest ,belgian financial interests4 ,several other ,belgian companies have important interests in ,france1 ,spain1 ,algiers1 and ,tunis4 ,close affiliation seems to exist1 and may be expected to continue1 between ,french and ,belgian capital in the zinc industry4 ,let us now consider the ,british ,empire4 ,the domestic production of zinc ores in the ,british ,isles is insignificant1 but the smelting works have made ,england an important factor in the industry1 although before #aiad they produced only #cb per cent4 of the zinc consumption of the empire4 ,the capacity of these works1 which are ,british owned1 has been largely increased and new plants are being constructed to treat the concentrates from ,australia and ,burma1 from which sources a supply more than sufficient is assured by the contracts of the imperial government with the ,zinc ,producers' ,association of ,australia4 ,the imperial government is interested in some of the plants4 ,reduction plants will also be in operation in ,australia1 ,tasmania1 ,india1 and ,canada4 ,the excess ,australian concentrates are to be allotted to ,french and ,belgian works4 ,with the organization now in effect1 ,british domination of the ,european zinc industry seems certain4 ,the mines and works of ,australia are entirely controlled by ,english and ,australian capital4 ,an organization under ,australian government control has been made the sole marketing agency for the producers4 ,the mines of ,india and ,burma are ,english controlled and the smelter being constructed at ,sakchi is partly financed by the ,indian government4 ,the mines of ,canada are mostly ,british owned1 although there are some ,american interests4 ,the potential capacity of the mines is large4 ,in spite of government subsidies1 the capacity and future of the reduction works is uncertain4 ,french capital controls all the domestic works and mines of ,france2 also those of ,greece1 ,indo-,china1 ,tunis1 most of the mines of ,algiers1 where some ,belgian capital is also interested1 part of the ,belgian and ,polish mines and reduction works1 some of the ,spanish mines and smelters1 and probably the ,caucasus mines in ,russia4 ,france should be an important factor in the industry during the near future4 ,the largest mines of ,italy are owned by ,italian companies and some domestic reduction works are under construction by them4 ,the chief producing company in northern ,italy is ,english4 ,in ,japan1 ,japanese capital owns all the domestic mines and works2 also those of ,chosen 7,korea71 and is rapidly securing control of the deposits of ,china and eastern ,siberia4 ,the present smelting capacity is greater than domestic consumption and much larger than the domestic ore supply4 ,ore is imported from ,china1 ,siberia1 ,indo-,china and ,australia4 ,as to ,russia1 the ownership of deposits in the ,polish regions was divided between ,russians and ,french before #aiad1 and this condition presumably will be restored1 modified by ,polish political control4 ,the ,russian interests were doubtless under ,german influence4 ,the ,altai ,mountains region is controlled by ,british capital and its development depends wholly upon how internal social and political conditions affect the domestic market to which the product of this region is limited by geographic isolation4 ,eastern ,siberia seems to be rapidly coming under the commercial control of the ,japanese4 ,holland has no mines but has considerable smelting capacity4 ,it is dependent on its neighbors for coal also4 ,its future is difficult to forecast4 ,the mines and works of ,spain are largely under ,french and ,belgian control1 which may be modified by contracts with ,english interests4 ,the control in ,norway and ,sweden is not definitely known4 ,it is nominally by local capital but some ,english and ,german interests are probable4 ,the ,sulphide and the ,zinc corporations1 both ,british1 are reported interested in the ,hydraulic ,power ,smelting ,co4 ,the mines and works in ,austria1 which were owned by the ,austrian government and ,austrian companies1 perhaps under ,german domination1 will now be distributed among two or three political jurisdictions4 ,little ore is imported or exported1 and the region as a whole is not an important factor in the industry4 ,the mines in ,mexico are largely owned by ,mexicans and ,americans4 ,german control is reported to be strong and growing4 ,the possibilities of ore production are large4 ,,summary ,the essential uses of zinc are3 in brass1 the alloy with copper1 an indispensable material in modern industry2 in galvanizing as rolled sheets2 and in desilverizing lead bullion4 ,the consumption is greatest in galvanizing4 ,the amount used in the form of rolled sheets will increase4 ,zinc and lead are commonly associated in their ores and are widely distributed over the world1 but the countries of largest ore production are1 in order1 ,united ,states1 ,germany1 and ,australia4 ,burma will soon be of importance4 ,siberia can produce much ore in the near future1 but exploitation will be retarded by political conditions and geographic isolation4 ,canada1 ,mexico1 ,chile1 ,peru and ,bolivia may be expected to increase their output4 ,the successful commercial application of electro-magnetic1 electro-static1 and more especially oil flotation processes to the separation and concentration of complex ores has made available vast resources1 adding to the list of regions of ore production and materially affecting their relative importance4 ,economic factors1 particularly availability and cost of fuel and skilled labor in retort smelting and market for spelter1 determined the location of reduction works in populous industrial districts adjacent to coal fields4 ,the mineral resources1 however1 in many instances occur in countries either undeveloped industrially or without abundant and cheap fuel1 and a large percentage of the zinc ores are transported from the producing country to another for treatment4 ,in the order of their importance the countries making the most spelter are3 the ,united ,states1 ,germany1 ,belgium1 ,great ,britain and ,france4 ,commercial control of the industry has been based chiefly on the control of reduction plants and ore-buying and metal-selling organizations rather than on ownership of deposits1 and to be effective it necessarily became international in scope4 ,before #aiad an organization1 apparently international in character1 but really dominated by ,germans1 had through control on this basis achieved a commanding position in the industry1 influencing output and prices quite effectively4 ,during the ,world ,war1 however1 political jurisdiction was largely invoked to restore control of the resources of a country and industries to citizens of that country or its allies4 ,this movement has been particularly marked in the ,british ,empire1 wherein there now exists a joint political and commercial control through the ,zinc ,producers' ,association and contracts in which the governments are participants1 and in ,france1 where the ,socit ,minerais et ,metaux1 under government auspices1 comprises all the principal mining and metallurgical companies controlled by ,french capital and is the arbiter of the metal industry4 ,a decentralization of the industry and redistribution of reduction works is to some extent resulting from the successful application of electrolytic reduction and to the dissemination of knowledge of the practice of retort smelting4 ,the ,british ,empire as a unit should be able to dominate the industry in ,europe during the near future4 ,france1 through political and commercial control of ,algeria and ,tunis1 and large financial control in ,belgium1 ,spain and ,poland1 will be in a strong position4 ,belgium1 with minor but widespread financial interests in mines and works in ,france1 ,germany1 ,england1 ,sweden1 ,spain1 ,algiers and ,tunis1 is an important factor in the ,european situation4 ,its interests appear closely affiliated with those of ,france4 ,the ,united ,states1 with large reduction capacity and ore reserves1 while maintaining its position as largest producer1 is expected to supply domestic consumption but to export little1 as was the case prior to the war4 ,the position of ,germany will depend mainly upon the supply of foreign ore1 which may have to be imported largely from ,mexico and the ,united ,states4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,tin ,,by ,,james ,m4 ,,hill#adj #adj ,the writer hereby expresses his thanks to ,adolph ,knopf1 of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 and ,r4 ,r4 ,horner1 of the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,mines1 for their assistance in the preparation of this article4 ,,uses ,,of ,,tin ,tin1 ordinarily considered one of the minor metals1 is nevertheless a metal of prime importance in the world's present state of development4 ,in #aiac the value of the world's output of tin was #aca1jjj1jjj1 which was greater than the value of the world's output of either lead or zinc4 ,without tin it is very doubtful if the present methods of food packing and distribution could have been accomplished4 ,the principal use of tin is in the manufacture of tin plate1 from which are fabricated the so-called 8tins0 or 8tin cans0 that everyone knows4 ,the second largest consumption of tin is for the alloys1 solder and babbitt made with lead1 and brass and bronzes made with copper4 ,minor amounts of tin are used for making fine metal tubing1 tin foil1 and collapsible tubes for packing such materials as dental and toilet creams1 artists colors1 etc4 ,tin is consumed by the makers of silk1 principally to give weight and 8rustle0 to their product4 ,in #aiag the consumption of tin in the ,united ,states was approximately #ic1jjj tons1#ada of which #ai1jjj tons was recovered from scrap materials4 ,of the total consumption #ca1jjj short tons was used for making tin plate1 #bj1djj short tons for solder1 #ac1hjj short tons for bearing metals1 7babbitt1 bronzes1 etc4171 and #bg1gjj short tons for the many minor uses1 items of which are #a1jjj tons for the silk industry1 #e1jjj tons for foil1 #d1jjj tons for collapsible tubes1 #c1jjj tons for white metal4 #ada ,in this report the figures for tons refer to metric tons 7#b1bjd pounds avoirdupois7 unless otherwise stated1 and are given in round numbers because errors in statistics and in conversion do not warrant closer figuring4 ,it is difficult to distinguish between the essential and the non-essential uses of tin in the industries4 ,surely tin plate is essential1 yet some saving of tin containers was made during the war shortage by curtailing the use of tin and substituting paper and other substances for packages carrying non-perishable products4 ,solders1 bearing metals1 and bronzes are unquestionably essential1 but variation in alloy specifications made possible1 during the war period1 a considerable saving of tin without detriment to the results4 ,in fact some of the standards set under the emergency were superior to those used before4 ,aluminum foil is to some extent replacing tin foil1 but no suitable substitutes have been found for tin in the manufacture of collapsible tubes1 which are necessities4 ,,geological ,,distribution ,over #gj per cent4 of the tin produced in the world is won from placer deposits1 although in the last few years the exploitation of tin-bearing lodes has become of considerable importance4 ,tin ores are intimately connected with siliceous igneous rocks4 ,practically all of the known lode deposits are either in or lie near siliceous igneous rocks such as granite1 granite-porphyry1 quartz-porphyry or monzonitic types4 ,in ,mexico and the ,united ,states unimportant tin deposits have been found in rhyolite4 ,in only one or two places in the world are tin lodes known where siliceous igneous rocks do not show on the surface1 and in these places geologic evidence points to the presence of granitic rocks at no great depth4 ,in the world's chief centers of tin production--the ,malay ,peninsula1 ,bolivia1 ,australia1 ,nigeria1 ,cornwall1 and ,south ,africa--the granitic rocks are everywhere in evidence1 and the tin lodes are so closely related to these granites that there is no question of their origin4 ,fluorine-bearing minerals such as fluorite and topaz1 tourmaline1 and the tungsten mineral1 wolframite1 are found in practically all tin deposits4 ,molybdenite and bismuth minerals are present in many tin deposits1 though their distribution is not so general as that of the former minerals4 ,copper1 lead1 zinc1 and iron sulphides1 the latter often arsenical1 are common in tin lodes1 and quartz and feldspar are the chief gangue minerals4 ,it is generally accepted that the tin lodes were formed near the close of intrusive activity by the final differentiates of the acid magmas4 ,these final solutions are notable for their pneumatolitic action and their ability to cause the profound change of granite to greisen and the formation of stanniferous pegmatite and quartz veins4 ,greisen1 an alteration product of granite1 consists of quartz1 mica and varying amounts of topaz and tourmaline4 ,it is commonly developed along fractures1 and in favorable places large masses of rock may be greisenized4 ,tin deposits are most often found as lodes1 both fissure and pegmatitic1 or stockworks1 but some segregations are known4 ,a peculiar pipe-like form of deposit is found at places in the ,transvaal and ,tasmania4 ,generally tin deposits he close to the contact of intrusive and intruded rocks and are mainly found near the top of the intruding mass4 ,it therefore follows that in deeply eroded granite masses the chance of finding lode tin deposits is smaller than where search is made in the tops of granitic intrusions4 ,it has also been noted that deposits in intruded rocks generally lie where the dip of the intrusive contact is low and are rarely present along a steeply dipping intrusive contact4 ,practically the sole ore mineral of tin is cassiterite 7tin oxide71 which carries #gh4f per cent4 of the metal4 ,cassiterite is known commercially by various names1 such as tinstone1 black-oxide of tin1 black tin1 or1 where it occurs in placers1 stream tin4 ,the tin concentrates from placer mining normally carry #fj to #ge per cent4 metallic tin1 #gj per cent4 being a fair average4 ,the concentrates from the mills treating ,bolivian lode tin make a product called barilla that averages about #fb per cent4 tin2 the concentrates produced from lodes in ,cornwall average about #fe per cent42 and from the lodes and placers of the ,malay ,peninsula carry about #gb per cent4 tin4 ,in many parts of the world the lodes do not carry sufficient tin to be worked profitably4 ,in ,cornwall and in ,tasmania1 lodes carrying about #a per cent4 of tin are being mined2 but in general a content of #a to #b per cent4 tin is the lower limit for commercial lode mining4 ,in ,bolivia the tin lodes average #e to #h per cent4 tin and some bodies of ore carrying as much as #dj per cent4 tin have been opened4 ,in the places where low-grade tin ores have been mined the by-products1 principally arsenic and wolfram1 have helped to pay expenses1 and most of these mines are advantageously situated with respect to transportation and supplies4 ,in the placers of the ,malay ,peninsula1 including ,banca and ,billiton1 and those of ,australia1 which are worked by dredges1 the tin content ranges from one-half pound to as high as #c pounds1 but averages less than a pound of cassiterite to the cubic yard4 ,advantageous location and cheap labor make profitable exploitation possible4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,as will be seen from the map1 ,plate ,,ix1 tin deposits are found in every part of the world1 though an inspection of ,table #fj and figure #i will show that the deposits within the ,british ,empire are the most important sources of the world supply4 ,bolivia and the ,dutch ,east ,indies have been the chief producers of tin outside of the ,british ,empire1 though ,china and ,siam are steadily gaining importance as tin producers4 ,british ,empire4--,the ,british ,empire has tin deposits in ,england1 ,asia1 ,australia1 and ,africa4 ,the largest production is from the deposits in the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,the ,african deposits1 those in ,nigeria and the ,south ,african ,union1 yield the second largest output of the empire1 the ,australian deposits rank third1 and the ,cornwall deposits1 formerly the largest producer of tin in the world1 now rank fourth4 ,malay ,peninsula4--,the ,federated ,malay ,states and the ,british ,protected ,malay ,states occupy the southern end of the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,this region1 which is entirely ,british controlled1 produced for many years one-half of the world's output of tin1 but in the last few years the output has declined steadily4 ,the decline seems to be due to the exhaustion of the easily worked placer deposits1 though in #aiag and #aiah an additional cause was the scarcity of labor4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ix4--,tin-producing localities of the world4 ,by ,james ,m4 ,hill4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,world production of tin1 #aiac-aiah1 in metric tons4 ,,table #fj4--,,world',s ,,output ,,of ,,metallic ,,tin1 #aiac-aiah1 ,,in ,,metric ,,tons#adb 7,metal obtainable by smelting from concentrates7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,country #aiac #aiad #aiae #aiaf #aiag #aiah ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,cornwall #e1cgj #e1adj #e1jfj #d1ggj #d1jjj #d1jjj ,nigeria #b1iej #d1eij #d1fcj #e1aej #g1jgj #g1jjj ,union of ,south ,africa #b1jej #b1jjj #b1jej #a1ijj #a1edj #a1ejj ,federated ,malay ,states #ej1icj #di1hbj #dg1ebj #dd1egj #dj1dgj #cg1igj ,british ,protected ,malay ,states #a1hjj #b1gjj #d1agj #d1dej #d1ejj #d1ejj ,australia #h1afj #e1ebj #e1fhj #e1eej #d1igj #d1ijj ---------------------------------------- -- ,total ,british ,empire #ga1bfj #fi1ggj #fi1aaj #ff1cij #fb1eej #ei1hgj ,percentage world total #eb4f #ed4a #ec4g #eb4 #dg4 #de4h ,banca #ae1idj #ad1fcj #ac1ffj #ad1dfj #ac1edj #aa1jjj ,billiton and ,singkep #e1cjj #f1jij #f1gfj #f1ghj #g1cjj #i1bjj ---------------------------------------- -- ,total ,dutch #ba1bdj #bj1gbj #bj1dbj #ba1bdj #bj1hdj #bj1bjj ,percentage world total #ae4d #af4a #ae4d #af4g #af4 #ae4e ,china #h1cij #g1abj #h1jjj #g1fcj #aa1hjj #ab1jjj ,siam #f1ffj #f1gdj #h1ebj #h1ifj #h1fjj #h1fjj ,bolivia #bf1gfj #bb1cfj #ba1ijj #ba1ccj #bh1cbj #bh1jjj ,other countries #a1djj #a1ejj #a1ejj #a1gjj #a1hjj #b1jjj ---------------------------------------- -- ,total other control #dc1baj #cg1gbj #ci1ibj #ci1fbj #ej1ebj #ej1fjj ,percentage world total #cb4 #bi4h #cj4i #ca4c #ch4 #ch4g ---------------------------------------- -- ,world total #ace1gajabh1bajabi1dejabg1bejacc1iajacj1 fgj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #adb ,,knopf1 ,a41 8,tin in #aiah10 ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 8,mineral ,resources of the ,united ,states in #aiah40 ,the largest tin-smelting center of the world is ,singapore1 where the ,straits ,trading ,co41 and the ,eastern ,smelting ,co41 both ,british owned1 and a ,chinese-owned smelter1 have a combined capacity of #eh1jjj metric tons of metal a year4 ,a large number of the ,malaysian mines are worked by ,chinese1 though much ,english and ,australian capital is invested in tin mining companies in the ,peninsula1 and the financial control of the industry is in the hands of ,british subjects4 ,political control is exercised by a prohibitive export duty 7#bhe per ton7 on all tin ore exported for treatment except to the ,straits ,settlements1 ,united ,kingdom1 or ,australia4 ,as will be seen from ,table #fj the ,federated ,malay ,states produce much more tin than the ,protected ,states4 ,practically all of the tin in the ,peninsula is taken from placer deposits1 some of which are still worked by hand methods1 though part of the black tin is now being mined by dredges4 ,the backbone of the ,malay ,peninsula is composed of granite which is intrusive into limestone1 shale1 and quartzite4 ,tin has been found in place in practically all of the rock formations4 ,owing to the intense weathering and erosion of the tin-bearing formations great accumulations of detritus1 more or less mixed with clay1 all of which carry cassiterite1 are found in almost all parts of the ,peninsula4 ,the original deposits are so softened by weathering that they can be worked by hydraulic methods4 ,the provinces of ,perak1 ,selangor1 ,pahang1 and ,negri ,sembilan1 in the ,federated ,malay ,states1 produce tin4 ,the following table shows their relative importance4 ,,table #fa4--,,production ,,of ,,tin ,,in ,,the ,,federated ,,malay ,,states ,,in #aiag ,metric tons ,perak #be1jge ,selangor #aj1eie ,pahang #c1gej ,negri ,sembilan #a1jee ,in ,negri ,sembilan1 quartz veins in decomposed pegmatite are worked by hydraulicking and the mixed tin-tungsten concentrate obtained is further separated by magnetic machines4 ,the principal mines are near ,titi and ,seremban4 ,pahang1 on the eastern side of the mountains1 has many widely scattered tin deposits1 both lodes and placers4 ,the chief workings at present are in the mountains near the ,selangor boundary1 at ,bentong1 ,tras1 and ,machi4 ,some mining is also done at various places along the ,kuantan ,river and its tributaries4 ,transportation is a serious item in working tin mines in ,pahang4 ,kuala ,lumpur is the center of the more important tin-mining operations in ,selangor4 ,both decomposed lode-stuff and gravels are being worked4 ,near ,serendah soft greisenized granite is worked by monitors4 ,near ,tanjong1 ,malim1 and on the ,kalumpang and ,selangor rivers in the northern part of the state both gravels and decomposed vein materials are worked4 ,the ,kinta district1 in the ,state of ,perak1 is the most important tin-producing area in the ,federated ,states4 ,a structural valley eroded in soft limestones between granite ridges is the location of most of the workings4 ,the valley is filled with clays and boulder clays carrying tin1 and the present stream channels are also stanniferous4 ,mining is in progress around #ae or more settlements in this district2 much of the mining is by open cuts and dredges1 but some lode mining is done on pipes in limestones4 ,next in importance to ,kinta is the ,larut district1 northwest of the former4 ,placer deposits are the chief source of tin in the district but lodes are worked at ,selama and ,blanda ,mabok4 ,in the south of ,perak1 at ,bruseh1 stockworks in schist are worked by hydraulicking1 yielding about three-fourths of a pound to the cubic yard of material worked4 ,development of the tin deposits in the ,protected ,malay ,states has been hampered by transportation difficulties4 ,until recently the alluvial tin was won by crude native methods4 ,the principal producing comes from the states of ,johore1 ,kedah1 ,kelantan1 ,perlis1 and ,trengganu4 ,near ,setul1 in the ,state of ,perlis1 peculiar gravel-filled caves in limestone have been mined for tin4 ,some of these caves have been followed for four or five miles4 ,in the ,state of ,trengganu1 lode mining under ,european management is under way4 ,the lodes seem to be decomposed stockworks in granite4 ,an insignificant amount of tin is mined from the beach deposits on the ,island of ,malacca1 ,straits ,settlements4 ,the tin was derived from schists intruded by granite in which there are many stanniferous veinlets4 ,africa4--,as will be seen from ,table #fj1 the principal production of tin in ,africa is from ,british ,nigeria4 ,the district was worked by natives in the early days1 but no important production was made until #aijd1 after the subjugation of the ,emir of ,bauchi4 ,the production of ,nigeria has grown steadily till it reached #h1ejj tons of concentrates in #aiag4 ,seemingly all of the mines are controlled by ,british capital and the exports have been largely to the smelters in ,england4 ,the alluvial deposits of ,nigeria are in the valleys of the ,bauchi ,plateau4 ,soda granite and pegmatites1 intrusive into older crystalline rocks1 seem to be the source of the cassiterite that has been concentrated by the present streams4 ,sluicing is the principal mining method1 though some deposits are suitable only for dredging4 ,tin is also known in northern ,nigeria in the ,ningi and ,burra hills1 and other localities4 ,in southern ,nigeria tin has been found near ,akwa-,ibami1 in the ,uwet district4 ,the tin output of the ,union of ,south ,africa is chiefly from the ,waterberg-,zaaiplaats district1 in the western ,transvaal1 a little tin being mined in ,swaziland and the ,cape province4 ,the production has ranged from #b1iej tons to #c1dej tons of concentrate a year1 most of which before the war went to ,england for smelting1 but since #aiae to the ,straits ,settlements4 ,a small smelter1 rated at #bej tons a year1 was built at ,zaaiplaats in #aiag2 it is expected to supply the tin needed in ,south ,africa4 ,the ,waterberg district contains several tin fields4 ,tin ores are found in the ,red ,granite and ,waterberg felsites1 sandstones1 and conglomerates4 ,in the former the ores occur in pipes1 in irregular bodies of altered granite1 disseminated in the granite1 in impregnations along fissures1 and in pegmatites and quartz veins4 ,in the ,waterberg series the tin ores are in lodes1 and in irregular lenses and pockets whose position is determined by fissures or bedding planes4 ,in the ,potgietersrust district the principal mines are largely pipe deposits in the ,red ,granite4 ,these pipes1 which are very erratic in direction1 range from a few inches to #bj feet in diameter2 some have been followed for #c1jjj feet4 ,the filling material varies greatly1 ranging from slightly altered granite to a greenish homogeneous rock2 the outer zones are tourmaline-quartz rock4 ,in the smaller pipes the cassiterite is fairly evenly distributed but in the larger pipes it occurs near the outer edges4 ,in the ,nylstroom district the principal mines are working ore deposits in felsites and shales of the ,lower ,waterberg series4 ,the deposits are brecciated country rock cemented by quartz1 tourmaline1 cassiterite1 and fluorite4 ,the ,warmbaths field includes several mines located along the junction of the ,red ,granite and the felsites4 ,tin is found in lodes in both types of rocks and some alluvial tin has been mined4 ,in the ,rooiberg field1 the tin deposits are practically all in fissures in quartzite intruded by ,red ,granite4 ,tin occurs in the ,red ,granite #dj miles north of ,pretoria4 ,in the ,cape ,province1 near ,kuils ,river1 cassiterite is found disseminated in granite and in veins at the contact of granite and slates4 ,most of the small amount of tin won has been obtained from gravels derived from these deposits4 ,in northwestern ,swaziland alluvial deposits have been worked for a number of years1 producing around #ejj tons of concentrates a year4 ,at ,forbes ,reef1 schists and slates have been intruded by granite and tin lodes are found near the contact of the two formations4 ,tin has been reported in placer deposits in the ,winnebah district and in pegmatite dikes in the ,mankofa and ,mount ,mankwadi districts of the ,gold ,coast4 ,tin has been found in placer concentrates from streams in ,nyasaland4 ,tin deposits seemingly of little value have been found in the ,enterprise district1 east of ,salisbury1 and in the ,ndanga district1 east of ,victoria1 in ,rhodesia4 ,these deposits are stanniferous pegmatites which are found in schists near granite4 ,australia4--,tin is produced in the following provinces of ,australia3 ,tasmania1 ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,west ,australia1 ,northern ,territory1 ,victoria1 named in the order of their importance4 ,in #aijg1 the output of ,tasmania was about #ad1jjj tons of concentrates1 but production since then steadily declined until it became nearly stationary at #c1jjj tons annually for the last few years1 and it is believed that this output can be maintained for some time4 ,there are tin-smelting works at ,launceston1 in ,tasmania2 ,woolwich1 near ,sydney1 ,new ,south ,wales2 and ,irvinebank1 near ,herberton1 ,queensland1 capable of producing over #d1bjj tons of metallic tin a year4 ,of recent years tin concentrate is being sent to the ,straits ,settlements 7,singapore7 for smelting4 ,the exports of metallic tin from ,australian ports in #aiag came to about #c1ajj tons4 ,practically all of the mining companies are controlled by ,australian and ,english capital1 and as the tin is smelted either locally or at ,singapore the total ,australian output can be considered as under the direct political and commercial control of ,england4 ,the total production of tin ore from ,tasmania#adc from #ahhj to #aiah1 inclusive1 is stated to be approximately #abh1bjj tons4 #adc ,tasmania1 ,report ,secretary for ,mines for the year ending ,december #ca1 #aiah1 p4 #df4 ,the most important tin mine is ,mount ,bischoff1 #de miles southwest of ,emu ,bay4 ,the deposits1 discovered in #ahga1 are credited with a total production of about #ge1jjj tons of tin ore4 ,there are several deposits1 soft altered quartz porphyries intrusive into schists4 ,topaz and cassiterite are disseminated in the porphyries1 and veins carrying tin and wolframite1 together with pyrite and arsenopyrite1 are found both in the porphyry and schists4 ,the ,shepherd and ,murphy mine1 near ,middlesex1 is in a zone of metamorphism at the contact of granite1 intrusive into sandstone and quartzite4 ,tin1 tungsten1 and bismuth are produced from this ore4 ,placer tin deposits on the ,ringarooma ,river 7,derby district7 supply about #a1jjj tons of tin concentrates a year4 ,the principal placer mines are the ,pioneer and ,briseis4 ,near ,gladstone1 placers and lode deposits carrying tin and tungsten are worked4 ,at the ,anchor mine1 in the ,blue ,tier district1 a tin-bearing granite averaging one-half per cent4 tin is worked1 but mining has not been profitable4 ,the ,renison ,bell1 ,dreadnought-,boulder and ,montana mines1 in the ,north ,dundas field1 are in slates cut by dikes of quartz porphyry4 ,zinc1 lead1 and iron sulphides are important in the lodes4 ,in the ,heemskirt district1 southwestern ,tasmania1 the tin deposits are in granite and in overlying slate and sandstone4 ,at the ,federation mine the ore is in a pipe measuring #be by #ae feet at the surface1 but contracting to only #a by #e feet at #aae feet down4 ,tin was first produced in ,queensland in #ahgb1 and the total output1 including #aiag1 is estimated to be about #add1jjh tons4 ,the chief producing districts are ,herberton1 ,cooktown1 ,chillagoe1 near the port of ,cairns2 ,stannhills1 ,kangaroo ,hills1 and ,stanthorpe1 the latter being near the ,new ,south ,wales border4 ,in the ,herberton-,cooktown districts the tin occurs in greisenized granite intruded into slates1 schists1 and quartzite2 bismuth and tungsten minerals are associated with it4 ,placer deposits are worked by hydraulicking1 and in places the tin-bearing greisen is broken down by hydraulic giants4 ,in the ,stannhills field1 near ,croydon1 cassiterite is found in veins in granite with galena1 sphalerite1 and chalcopyrite4 ,the ,kangaroo ,hills1 #ajj miles south of ,herberton1 produces both lode and placer tin4 ,in the ,stanthorpe district most of the output is from placer deposits1 some of which are buried under basalts4 ,tin was first mined in ,new ,south ,wales in #ahgb1 and the total production1 including the output of #aiag1 is estimated at #hd1bcj tons of tin and #cd1eaj tons of tin concentrates4 ,the chief producing districts are the ,vegetable ,creek and ,emmaville-,tingha-,inverell region1 in the northeast near the ,queensland border1 and the ,ardlethan district1 #dj miles west of ,temora1 in the south4 ,in the ,emmaville-,inverell region the erosion of stanniferous greisenized granite1 intrusive into slates1 has resulted in a widespread distribution of tin placers1 both in the present streams and in what are believed to be ,tertiary stream beds that are now capped by lavas4 ,the ,vegetable ,creek mines1 near ,emmaville1 are typical of the older placer deposits4 ,since #aijj1 dredging has become important1 and it is estimated that the dredge production up to #aiag was #ah1hed tons of concentrates4 ,lode mining1 although not as important1 has been done in this district in pipes and stock works in granite2 the typical fluorine-bearing gangue minerals are common1 and tungsten1 bismuth1 copper1 and lead minerals are found4 ,tin was discovered in the ,ardlethan district in #aiab in lodes in granite and schist4 ,molybdenum1 bismuth1 and tungsten are commonly associated with tin in the greisenized granite lodes4 ,the ,barrier district1 in the western part of the province1 has not been a large contributor1 because of lack of water4 ,cassiterite is found in dikes of coarsely crystalline granite intrusive into greisen and mica schist4 ,in ,west ,australia the most important tin-producing districts are ,greenbushes1 near the southwest1 and ,pilbara1 on the northwest1 though there has been a very small recovery of tin in the ,murchison goldfield1 and ,coolgardie4 ,in the ,greenbushes district cassiterite is found in pegmatite and quartz-tourmaline veins in granite1 but the tin won is from stream deposits and from laterite4 ,in the ,pilbara field the alluvial tin has been derived from pegmatite dikes that cut granite and metamorphic rocks4 ,the production of tin in ,northern ,territory has amounted to about #bjj tons a year1 most of it being obtained from pegmatitic deposits in granite in the vicinity of ,burrundie4 ,a few tons of tin concentrates are saved each year in the operation of gold placers in the ,northeastern and ,gippsland divisions of ,victoria4 ,india4--,the principal output of tin in ,india is from the ,mergui and ,tavoy districts1 southern ,lower ,burma2 ,tharton and ,amherst districts1 northern ,lower ,burma2 and the ,southern ,shan ,states4 ,the production amounts to about #aej tons of metallic tin a year1 and is sent to the ,straits ,settlements for smelting4 ,in the ,mergui district cassiterite is found in alluvial deposits near granite hills1 the granite being intrusive into sedimentary rocks of uncertain age4 ,tin ore is also found in pegmatite and quartz veins4 ,in the ,tavoy district tin is obtained as a by-product of wolfram mining4 ,the deposits occur in pegmatite and quartz veins cutting granite and sedimentary rocks4 ,in the ,tharton district the tin-bearing alluvium is said to be rich and its development is awaited with interest4 ,production of tin began in #aiab from the deposits of ,bawlake ,state1 ,karenni1 ,southern ,shan ,states1 and in #aiag these deposits were the chief producers in ,india4 ,cornwall4--,in the extreme southwest of ,england is the famous ,cornwall tin region1 which includes the ,camborne1 ,st4 ,austell1 and ,liskeard districts1 in ,cornwall1 and the ,tavistock district1 in ,devon4 ,the mines have produced about #h1jjj tons of concentrates a year1 but at present the output seems to be diminishing2 in #aiae the production of metallic tin was approximately #e1jjj tons1 but in #aiah was only about #d1jjj tons4 ,tin mining in ,cornwall dates back to prehistoric times4 ,in the sixteenth century the mines produced about #gjj tons of tin a year2 the maximum output was reached in the period #ahfj to #ahij1 when about #aj1jjj tons was produced annually4 ,it is estimated that the total output of tin from this district is approximately #a1gej1jjj tons4 ,the mining companies are without exception controlled by ,british capital4 ,the second largest tin-smelting capacity in the world is in the ,cornwall district4 ,the following companies1 ,williams ,harvey ,co41 ,penpoll1 ,cornish ,tin ,smelting ,co41 ,copper ,pass1 ,redruth ,tin ,smelting ,co41 and the ,london ,smelting ,co4 operate smelters having a combined output of approximately #ca1ajj tons of tin a year4 ,the tin deposits of ,cornwall and ,devon lie about five masses of granite1 which are intruded into slates 7killas7 and greenstones4 ,quartz porphyry dikes are closely connected with the granite1 and the tin lodes are found in both slates and granite1 being particularly abundant near intrusive contacts with low dips4 ,the principal lodes are wide zones of fissured rock that are tourmalinized1 the less important fissures containing tin and gangue minerals4 ,copper and tungsten minerals are produced from these lodes1 and arsenic is an important by-product of smelting4 ,the lodes in slates are as a rule richer in copper than in the granite1 and in depth the lodes contain a larger proportion of tin than nearer the surface4 ,the mines about the ,camborne granite mass yield about #he per cent4 of the tin mined1 those about the ,lands ,end granite mass #ab per cent41 and the mines about ,st4 ,austell1 ,bodmin ,moor1 and ,dartmoor about #a per cent4 each4 ,practically all of the tin produced in recent years has been from lodes1 but placer tin was mined near ,st4 ,austell4 ,the lodes have been worked to a depth of #c1jjj feet1 which seems to be about the greatest depth to which commercially profitable ore extends4 ,as considerable ground above this level remains to be developed1 the district should be productive for some time4 ,other ,nations4--,outside of the ,british ,empire the principal tin deposits of the world are in ,bolivia1 the ,dutch ,east ,indies1 ,china1 and ,siam1 named in the order of their importance as producers in #aiah4 ,there are small outputs of tin from deposits in ,japan1 ,spain1 ,portugal1 and the ,united ,states1 and tin deposits are known in ,germany1 ,italy1 ,russia1 ,belgian-,congo1 and ,southwest ,africa4 ,bolivia4--,practically all of the tin ore shipped from ,bolivia is mined from lodes4 ,mining began late in the last century4 ,exports are in the form of barilla1 a tin concentrate carrying #fj to #fe per cent4 and averaging about #fb per cent4 tin4 ,the output has been steadily increasing1 and since #aiac ,bolivia has been the second largest producer of tin in the world4 7,see ,table #fj1 and ,figure #i74 ,the majority of the companies working in ,bolivia are controlled by ,chilean or local capital1 though a little ,english1 ,french1 ,swiss1 and ,german capital was invested in ,bolivian tin mines before the war4 ,recently ,english and ,american capital has become interested in the deposits4 ,prior to the war practically all of the barilla was sent to ,germany and ,england to be smelted1 but lately exports have been to the ,united ,states and ,england4 ,a small ,chilean-owned smelter1 estimated capacity #ijj tons a year1 has recently been built at ,arica to handle the concentrates from one of the larger mines4 ,there are four important tin-producing districts in east central ,bolivia1 in the provinces of ,potosi1 ,oruro1 and ,la ,paz4 ,the region lies on the high plateau 7elevation1 #ab1jjj feet7 and the principal mines are near or in the mountains on the east of the pampa rather than in the western range of the ,cordillera4 ,schists1 slates1 and quartzites have been intruded by acid igneous rocks1 and the tin deposits are found in the granites1 the quartz porphyries1 and the sedimentary rocks near the contacts4 ,the quartz veins are strong and carry between #c and #h per cent4 tin in most of the productive mines1 though some bodies of ore have carried as much as #dj per cent4 tin4 ,some of the mines were worked for silver by the ,spanish1 but the silver ores seem to be limited to the upper zones1 the lodes becoming relatively richer in tin at depth4 ,wolframite and bismuth are won as by-products at some of the mines4 ,pyrite1 sphalerite1 chalcopyrite1 and galena are usually abundant in the tin ores1 and tourmaline and fluorite are not uncommon4 ,the ,bolivian deposits are of considerable future importance4 ,many mines and prospects1 either through lack of knowledge or finances1 have not been developed2 the local management of most of the mines has been notoriously poor2 and it is thought that with proper technical direction the output of tin can be greatly increased4 ,dutch ,east ,indies4--,on the islands of ,banca1 ,billiton1 and ,singkep1 south of the ,malay ,peninsula1 are important tin mines4 ,as will be seen from ,table #fj the output of tin from these islands has been approximately #ba1jjj tons a year4 ,mining began on ,banka about #agah1 but the ,billiton deposits were not worked until about #ahfj4 ,the mines of ,banka are worked by the government1 but on ,billiton and ,singkep the deposits are leased by private concerns1 mostly ,dutch4 ,at ,banka the ,dutch government operates smelters having a yearly capacity of #af1jjj tons4 ,the concentrates produced on ,billiton and ,singkep are in part sent to the ,straits ,settlements for treatment1 but some are smelted locally4 ,practically all of the tin mined in the ,dutch ,east ,indies is from placer deposits1 some of which are alluvial4 ,there is1 however1 a little lode mining on ,billiton4 ,the cassiterite was formed in greisenized granite and sediments1 and the original deposits are similar to those of the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,a little tungsten and gold are obtained as by-products of the tin mining4 ,china4--,tin deposits in the ,mengtze district1 near ,kochiu1 ,province of ,yunnan1 southeastern ,china1 have been worked for many years4 ,during recent years about #h1jjj tons of tin have been exported1 and it is known that considerable tin ore produced from these deposits is smelted locally1 the metal being consumed in ,china4 ,the exports go out through the ,french port of ,haifong4 ,the mining industry is entirely under ,chinese control4 ,most of the tin ore is obtained by placer and open-cut methods from decomposed granitic and pegmatitic lodes which are found near the contact of granite that is intrusive into limestone4 ,there are less important tin deposits in the ,fuchuan and ,tungchwan districts1 the former producing a very pure metal4 ,the tin concentrates exported go mostly to ,hong ,kong and the ,straits ,settlements for treatment1 so the ,chinese tin output is more or less at the disposal of ,england4 ,siam4--,in that part of ,siam lying in the ,malay ,peninsula1 tin deposits1 similar in origin and occurrence to those in the ,british provinces1 are being worked1 and as shown by ,table #fj are yearly becoming larger factors in the world's output4 ,the largest operations are near ,renong and ,tongkah1 where dredging by ,british companies is active4 ,the chief producing companies are ,tongkah ,harbor ,tin ,dredging ,co41 ,tin ,benbong1 ,bangnon ,valley1 ,ronpibon ,extended1 ,beebook ,dredging ,co41 and ,katoo ,syndicate4 ,japan4--,the tin-producing localities in ,japan are near ,kagoshima1 ,satsuma1 on ,kyushu ,island2 about #ej miles north of ,kobe in ,tajima province2 and near ,nayegi1 ,mino ,province1 near the center of the main island4 ,placer deposits near ,nayegi have yielded some tin1 seemingly derived from pegmatite dikes in granite4 ,the ,akinobe mine1 in ,tajima ,province1 was developed as a copper mine1 but about #aiab tin and tungsten minerals were found in the ore4 ,the veins are in slates and quartzites intruded by diorites4 ,it is said that in #aiag about #dj tons of mixed tin-tungsten ores was produced daily4 ,a small smelter at ,ikuno handles the tin concentrates and produces about #bej tons of tin a year4 ,the ,susuijama mine1 in ,satsuma1 produces tin from veins1 in shales and sandstones1 that also carry lead and zinc4 ,apparently the output is smelted and used locally4 ,spain4--,in the provinces of ,salamanca1 ,zamora1 ,orense1 ,pontevedra1 and ,corua1 northwest ,spain1 there are tin deposits4 ,lode deposits are found near the contact of granite intrusive into schists and gneisses1 and placer deposits have been worked since ancient times4 ,in #aiac about #f1gjj tons of ore is said to have been produced1 but since then the output has been around #ajj tons a year4 ,portugal4--,in ,portugal1 just south of the ,spanish border1 tin lodes in granite and slates have been found and placer deposits worked in the gravels adjacent to the lodes4 ,the yearly output of these deposits is around #cjj tons4 ,it is reported that ,american capital is interested in some of the ,portuguese tin and tungsten deposits4 ,united ,states4--,in the ,united ,states the domestic output is only nominal1 being equivalent to #fj to #ajj tons of tin a year4 ,the productive deposits1 placers worked by dredges1 are in the ,york district of ,seward ,peninsula1 ,alaska4 ,they occur near the contact of granite intrusive into limestones1 in peculiar rocks of contact metamorphic origin4 ,cassiterite has been mined from gravels derived from pegmatite dikes intrusive in pre-,cambrian rocks of the ,black ,hills near ,tinton and ,hill ,city1 ,south ,dakota1 and various attempts have been made to mine the lode deposits4 ,these deposits are of more scientific interest than commercial importance4 ,a little stream tin has also been mined on the ,north ,carolina-,south ,carolina boundary near ,king's ,mountain1 the cassiterite being an original constituent of pegmatite dikes intrusive into pre-,cambrian schists4 ,at ,irish ,creek1 ,rockbridge ,county1 ,virginia1 there are known stanniferous veins in coarse granites4 ,in the ,franklin ,mountains #ad miles north of ,el ,paso1 ,texas1 quartz veins in granite carrying cassiterite were worked at one time but have not been productive of late4 ,in the ,temescal ,mountains1 ,riverside ,county1 ,california1 small quartz veins carrying cassiterite are found in acid granitic rocks that are intrusive into metamorphosed sediments4 ,considerable work was done in this locality in the years #ahhj to #ahij1 but the irregularity of the deposits and their low tin content do not hold much promise for future production4 ,prior to the war the ,united ,states1 although the largest consumer of tin in the world1 produced practically no tin ore1 and imported only metallic tin1 having no smelters for treating tin ore4 ,since #aiaf smelters have been erected by the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co41 and the ,williams ,harvey ,corporation1 their estimated capacity being #ah1jjj tons of tin a year4 ,presumably these smelters must rely largely on ,bolivian concentrates4 ,germany-,austria4--,germany has produced practically no tin ores in recent years1 though the country had a smelting industry1 estimated at about #af1jjj tons of tin a year1 dependent on foreign ores4 ,the normal imports of tin ore before the war were #ag1jjj to #ah1jjj metric tons a year1 most of which came from ,bolivia4 ,in the ,erzgebirge1 on the ,german-,austrian frontier1 in the ,altenberg-,zinnwald district1 there was formerly some tin mining4 ,the deposits1 which are typical greisen lying near the tops and sides of bodies of granite intrusive into schists and gneisses1 have made almost no production for several years and they are considered to be exhausted4 ,italy4--,at ,campiglia ,marittima1 ,tuscany1 iron and tin have been produced from veins in limestone and shale4 ,the output is variable and cannot be relied upon4 ,russia4--,in the former ,empire of ,russia tin has been found in the ,trans-,baikal ,province1 ,siberia1 and in the ,urals and ,finland in ,european ,russia4 ,the ,siberian deposits are placers in the basin of the ,onon ,river4 ,a ,german company was formed before the war to work lode tin deposits near ,olovianoy1 southwest of ,nerchinsk1 in the ,urals4 ,the ,finnish deposits are at ,pitkaranta1 north of ,lake ,ladoga4 ,the ores are a mixture of magnetite1 cassiterite1 and chalcopyrite1 occurring in altered limestone and schist4 ,belgian ,congo 7,katanga74--,alluvial tin derived from veins in granite and intruded sedimentary rocks has been found along ,lualaba ,river and on ,busanga ,ridge4 ,there are no records of production1 but the field holds considerable promise4 ,southwest ,africa4--,cassiterite occurs in pegmatite1 intrusive into granite1 in the ,erongo ,mountains east of ,brandberg1 and some placer tin deposits have been worked4 ,on the whole the region does not seem to be particularly promising4 ,,probable ,,changes ,,in ,,known ,,geographical ,,distribution ,it seems reasonably certain that ,england is in a position to keep producing a large part of the world's tin for some time1 the lessening output from the ,malaysian provinces being offset by the increased production of the ,african colonies4 ,both ,cornwall and ,australia1 it is believed1 will be able to maintain for a number of years a rather steady output of about the present size4 ,bolivia will doubtless be able to increase her output of tin1 and probably both ,siam and ,china can be expected to produce larger quantities in the future4 ,production of the ,dutch ,east ,indies can probably be maintained at about its present rate for a number of years4 ,,political ,,control ,as will be seen from ,table #fb and ,figure #aj1 ,great ,britain controls politically over #ej per cent4 of the tin output of the world1 in that her political influence is absolute in ,england1 ,africa1 ,australia1 and all of her colonial possessions on the east side of the ,indian ,ocean2 and there can be little doubt that the strong ,british policy with regard to the eastern colonies is also potent with respect to ,siam and ,china4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,political control of tin deposits and tin smelters1 based on estimates for #aiah4 ,holland controls the tin output of the ,east ,indian island colonies1 in which there are smelting works that seem capable of taking care of most of the ore mined4 ,holland consumes little tin herself and has approximately #af per cent4 of the world's supply at her disposal4 ,prior to the war ,holland was a large distributor of tin1 but during the war tin from her colonies was sent direct to ,america and ,england1 the largest consuming countries4 ,china has a rather feeble political control of the output of the ,yunnan tin mines1 but as that part of her production which reaches the rest of the world is exported through ,french territory1 largely through ,english middlemen1 her actual control is not particularly great4 ,siam controls some important tin fields4 ,the very strong ,british influence on the ,malay ,peninsula1 coupled with the fact that the ,siamese ore is smelted in the ,straits ,settlements1 seems to indicate that ,british policy will largely dominate the tin-mining industry of ,siam4 ,bolivia1 using little tin and producing nearly a quarter of the world's output1 is really the only considerable producer that can act more or less independently4 ,her mines are mostly controlled by ,chilian-,bolivian capital and she has the world for a market4 ,it would seem that ,bolivian barilla might be smelted locally1 but as ,bolivia has no fuel1 the tin smelting capacity of ,bolivia amounts thus far to almost nothing4 ,her nearest market at present is the ,united ,states1 but the future will show whether ,bolivian ore will continue to be smelted in the ,united ,states1 as during the past few years1 or will be sent to ,england and ,germany1 as before the war4 ,the relation of political control of tin deposits and tin smelting is shown in the following table1 and diagrammatically in ,figure #aj4 ,,table #fb4--,,political ,,control ,,of ,,tin ,,deposits ,,and ,,smelters ,,based ,,on ,,estimates ,,for #aiah ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,control of ,control of tin deposits1 tin smelters1 ,percentage annual output,percentage ofannual capacity of world ,country 7metric tons7 world output 7metric tons7 capacity ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,great ,britain #ei1ijj #de4e #hh1cjj #eg4c ,holland #bj1bjj #ae4b #af1jjj #aj4b ,china #ab1jjj #i4c #ab1jjj #g4d ,siam #h1fjj #g4j ,bolivia #bh1jjj #ba4c #b1gjj #a4f ,germany 444 444 #af1jjj #aj4b ,france 444 444 #a1ejj #j4g ,america 444 444 #ah1jjj #ab4d ,all others #b1jjj #a4g #ejj #j4b ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,total #acj1gjj #aed1jjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,commercial ,,control ,,of ,,tin ,,mines ,british capital is the dominant controlling factor of approximately #eg per cent4 of the world's tin output1 and through affiliations with capital of other countries it has a partial control of about #ae per cent4 more4 ,british capital is dominant in all of the ,british possessions and ,siam1 and through buying agencies practically controls the export tin from ,china4 ,bolivian tin mines are the only ones in the world in which ,british control is not strongly felt4 ,the largest part of the ,bolivian output is under the financial control of ,chilean financiers1 with local capital the next strongest factor4 ,french and ,german money has been invested to a limited extent in ,bolivian mines4 ,recently the firm of ,guggenheim ,brothers1 of ,new ,york1 connected with the ,american tin-smelting industry1 has acquired certain tin mines in ,bolivia4 ,,commercial ,,control ,,of ,,tin ,,smelting ,british capital controls tin smelters with a yearly capacity of approximately #hh1cjj tons of tin a year4 ,these are situated in ,england1 ,straits ,settlements1 and ,australia4 ,the tin deposits of undoubted ,british control can produce ore to furnish only #fb1eej tons1 so that ,england has a smelting capacity of #ae1gej tons a year in excess of her supply4 ,the ,dutch control the smelters1 having a capacity of #af1jjj tons1 of their ,east ,indian colonies1 but the annual output of ore from these colonies is equivalent to #bj1bjj tons of tin1 so that an excess of #d1bjj tons must be smelted elsewhere1 and most of this goes to the smelters in the ,straits ,settlements1 which are ,english owned4 ,chinese capital controls smelters that are seemingly capable of handling the entire output of ,china1 about #ab1jjj tons of tin a year4 ,american capital1 since the war1 has developed tin smelters in the ,united ,states and ,bolivia1 which have an annual capacity of #ah1jjj metric tons4 ,this capacity is being enlarged and should be able shortly to take care of the entire ,bolivian tin output1 provided it receives the ore4 ,but ,chilean capital has built a smelter at ,arica which could handle about #aj per cent4 of the ,bolivian output1 and if this smelter is favored by ,chilean mine owners the ,american smelters may find themselves short of ore4 ,german capital is interested in tin smelters in ,germany that have a producing capacity of #ae1jjj tons a year4 ,all of the ore treated must be imported1 but it hardly seems possible that much ore from outside sources can be expected for some time1 as the smelting capacity of the world exceeds the output of the mines4 ,the tin-smelting capacity of the world is approximately #aed1jjj tons1 whereas the world's production of tin ore is equivalent to approximately #acj1gjj tons4 ,it is evident that1 unless greater production is forthcoming1 some smelters will be idle1 and it is a reasonable surmise that neither the ,british nor ,dutch smelters will lack ore4 ,the ,united ,states1 owing to its favorable situation with respect to ,bolivian supply1 may hope to have a large part of its smelter capacity at work1 though there is some question whether enough ore will be available to assure the maximum operation of the tin smelters in the ,united ,states4 ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,tin-,,consuming ,,countries ,great ,britain produces more tin than she consumes and is therefore in a position to dispose of tin to the rest of the world4 ,from a study of import and export tables it seems that ,england consumes about #bj1jjj tons of tin a year and that she imports about #ee1jjj tons and therefore has #ce1jjj tons for export4 ,she is in position through her large political and commercial control of tin deposits and smelters to practically dictate the world's tin policy4 ,the ,dutch colonies produce about #af per cent4 of the world's tin1 and as ,holland is normally a very small consumer of tin1 she has supplied a considerable part of the tin used in ,germany and the ,united ,states4 ,prior to the war a considerable tin-plate industry1 dependent on foreign tin1 was built up in southern ,russia4 ,the consumption was about #h1jjj tons of tin a year1 which was largely supplied by ,great ,britain1 ,holland1 and ,germany4 ,if this industry is maintained ,russia will still be under the necessity of importing considerable tin4 ,tin users in ,germany1 who1 before the war1 apparently consumed about #bb1jjj tons of tin1 must purchase all supplies from others4 ,before the war the principal supply of tin ore was ,bolivia1 and of metallic tin the ,dutch ,east ,indies4 ,it seems reasonable that ,germany's supply of ,bolivian ore may be curtailed in the future1 as the ,united ,states is now in position to treat the ore1 and freight rates should favor shipments of ,bolivian barilla to the ,united ,states rather than to ,germany4 ,whether the ,german tin-smelting industry will survive or not remains to be seen4 ,france has a small tin-smelting industry1 treating about #a1ejj tons a year4 ,the apparent consumption is about #g1jjj tons of tin a year1 most of which was formerly imported from ,british ,india1 ,england1 and the ,dutch ,east ,indies4 ,the ,united ,states annually consumes over #hj1jjj tons of tin1 including secondary metal1 and produces from domestic ores about #ajj tons4 ,prior to the war1 metallic tin was obtained through ,england and ,holland1 as there were no tin smelters in this country4 ,during the war there was established a tin-smelting industry1 which is dependent entirely on foreign ore1 most of which so far has come from ,bolivia4 ,the estimated capacity of tin smelters in ,america is about #ah1jjj tons a year or about #bj per cent4 of the estimated yearly requirement4 ,a combination of ,english1 ,bolivian and ,american capital is interested in one of these smelters1 and also in ,bolivian tin mines1 and probably this smelter can be supplied4 ,there is1 however1 considerable question whether the other smelters can obtain supplies of ,bolivian ore4 ,certainly they will have competition from both ,english and ,german smelting concerns1 which will be somewhat offset by cheaper freight to the ,united ,states than across the ,atlantic4 ,this difference is probably not large1 and it would seem that if ,american smelters are to get ,bolivian tin ore their charges must be low4 ,a surer method of meeting their ore requirements would be to obtain financial control of enough ore deposits in ,bolivia to supply the demand4 ,evidently the ,united ,states must in the future1 as in the past1 import considerable quantities of tin from both ,great ,britain and ,holland4 ,it is to be hoped that the tin trade routes established during the war may be maintained and that ,american consumers will not have to pay the additional charges necessitated by ,eastern tin going to ,europe and back to the ,united ,states4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,mercury ,,by ,f4 ,l4 ,,ransome ,,uses ,,of ,,mercury ,under normal conditions the chief uses of quicksilver 7mercury7 or its salts1 stated in order of decreasing importance1 are as follows3 ,in the manufacture of drugs and chemicals1 including calomel and corrosive sublimate2 in the manufacture of certain chemicals1 such as glacial acetic acid1 phthalic acid and phthalic anhydride1 into which mercury itself does not enter2 as mercury fulminate 77,c3,n4,o7,hg1 ,h,o71 made by treating mercury with alcohol and nitric acid1 which is used as a detonator for high explosives1 and1 though less than formerly1 in small-arms ammunition4 ,the discovery of mercury fulminate by ,howard in #agii led to the invention of the percussion cap in place of the old flint-lock1 and fulminate still remains the best-known and most-used detonator for gunpowder and high explosives4 ,it is often combined with other substances1 particularly an abrasive such as powdered glass1 to increase its sensitiveness1 and with compounds or mixtures that themselves have the property of detonating1 such as sulphide of antimony and chlorate of potassium4 ,recently a large part of the mercury fulminate in detonators for modern high explosives has been replaced by picric acid1 trinitrotoluene1 or tetranitromethylamine1 whereby a much stronger initial effect is obtained1 and one part of mercury fulminate is made to detonate a charge that would have required six times as much fulminate used alone4 ,other substances have been found1 which seem likely to replace mercury fulminate entirely for certain uses4 ,one of these is lead azide1 a salt of hydronitric acid4 ,large dry crystals of this salt are so sensitive as to explode when brushed with a feather1 but smaller crystals are less sensitive4 ,as mercuric sulphide1 mercury forms the brilliant red pigment vermilion4 ,the metal is employed extensively in electrical apparatus1 including rectifiers for changing alternating into direct current1 mercury vapor lamps1 and storage batteries4 ,in the manufacture of felt hats from rabbits' fur1 mercuric nitrate is used to roughen the hairs so that they will adhere together1 a process technically known as 8carroting40 ,metallic quicksilver is employed in the amalgamation of gold and silver ores1 although of late years the wide application of the cyanide process has decreased this use4 ,the metal is also utilized in the manufacture of instruments1 thermostats1 gas governors1 and other appliances4 ,mercury enters into the composition of some anti-fouling marine paints for ship bottoms1 a modern and at present rapidly increasing use4 ,the mercury for this purpose is generally employed as red mercuric oxide1 its efficiency depending upon the gradual conversion of the oxide to the poisonous bichloride by the sodium chloride of salt water4 ,mercury is also used in certain compounds for preventing boiler scale1 in cosmetics1 and in dental amalgam4 ,silver nitrate has to a large extent replaced mercury in silvering mirrors4 ,a small quantity of quicksilver1 not more than two or three flasks annually1 is used in floating certain types of revolving lights in lighthouses4 ,quicksilver is also used as the cathode in certain electrolytic processes for manufacturing chlorine and caustic soda from common salt4 ,mercuric oxide parts with oxygen readily and is a useful oxidizing agent in certain chemical processes4 ,an important modern utilization of this property is in the manufacture of glacial acetic acid by the oxidation of acetylene4 ,experiments to determine the possible advantages of using mercury vapor with steam in turbine power generators are reported to have been encouraging and a #d1jjj-kilowatt unit has been built by the ,general ,electric ,co4 to test further this application4 ,except for incidental losses1 the mercury so used is recoverable1 but if in practice the increase of power is as much as the experimental work has indicated a large consumption of the metal is likely to result4 ,the production of quicksilver in this country in #aiag was #ce1ied flasks 7of #ge pounds7 and in #aiah it was #cb1hhc flasks4 ,,geological ,,distribution ,the ores of quicksilver1 like those of most metals1 show on the whole a close association with igneous rocks and with zones of fissuring4 ,more commonly than with other metals1 with the possible exception of antimony1 they are associated with volcanism as opposed to plutonic igneous activity and were deposited comparatively near the surface4 ,it follows that quicksilver deposits as a rule are found in regions of ,tertiary and ,quaternary volcanic activity which have not been subjected to long and deep erosion1 that they are more likely to be in the younger geologic formations than in the older rocks1 and that as a class1 compared for example with the hypogene ores of gold or copper1 do not extend to great depth4 ,it must be noted1 however1 that there are some conspicuous exceptions to these generalizations4 ,although the ,california deposits are in a region of late volcanic activity and many of them are closely associated with active hot springs1 the ore bodies that are now most productive1 those at ,new ,idria 7,idria post office7 and the great deposits1 at ,new ,almaden1 that formerly yielded so richly1 have no obvious connection with volcanism4 ,the greatest quicksilver mine in the world1 that at ,almaden1 ,spain1 has no known connection with volcanism or massive igneous rocks1 has been worked to a depth of #a1aej feet1 and the ore bodies have been found to grow larger and richer downward4 ,the deepest quicksilver mine in the world is the ,new ,almaden in ,california1 worked to a depth of #b1bjj feet4 ,the part of the mine below the #fjj-;foot level was abandoned at a time when the price of quicksilver was low1 but it is doubtful whether1 under any conditions that can now be foreseen1 it will be profitable to reopen and work the deep levels of this mine4 ,although most of the known quicksilver deposits are in regions of geologically late volcanic eruptions it is probable that ores of quicksilver were deposited during or closely following epochs of similar igneous activity in the older geologic periods1 but that many of them have been removed by erosion4 ,some of the deposits in the older rocks1 which do not appear to be related to ,tertiary or later volcanic eruptions1 may have had such earlier origin4 ,the quicksilver deposits of the ,adriatic region in ,europe1 including those at ,idria1 in ,austria2 ,avala1 in ,serbia2 and ,monte ,amiata1 in ,italy1 have been shown by ,de ,launay to belong to a single metallogenetic province characterized by ,tertiary eruptions4 ,similarly1 the somewhat scattered occurrences of quicksilver in ,alaska1 ,washington1 ,idaho1 ,montana1 ,oregon1 ,nevada1 ,utah1 ,california1 ,arizona1 ,mexico1 ,peru1 and ,chile coincide in part with the belt of ,tertiary and ,quaternary volcanic activity along the western sides of the continents of ,north and ,south ,america4 ,the deposits at ,almaden1 ,spain1 in the ,donetz basin1 ,russia1 in ,asiatic ,turkey1 and in ,china appear to be isolated occurrences that can not at present be assigned to recognizable provinces of eruptive activity and metallization4 ,quicksilver deposits are not confined to rocks of any particular kind or of any particular geologic age4 ,at ,oviedo the ore averages #j4cc per cent4 and yields arsenic compounds as by-products4 ,at ,idria the ore yields #j4fe per cent4 ,the ore of the ,abbadia-,san ,salvatore1 the principal mine in the ,monte ,amiata district1 in ,italy1 yielded about #j4i per cent4 in #aiae4 ,in ,california few mines have over #b per cent4 ore1 and the average yield of the ore worked is about #j4e per cent4 ,the lowest yield that was profitably obtained in that state in #aiag was #j4ahe per cent4 ,the ores worked in ,texas are generally of higher grade than those mined in ,california4 ,in the principal mine of the ,terlingua district1 ,texas1 the won tenor of the ore in #aiaf was #b4e per cent4 and in #aiag1 #c4i per cent4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,europe4--,the largest and richest deposit of quicksilver ore known is at ,almaden1 in central ,spain4 ,there are three nearly parallel ore bodies standing vertically side by side1 each consisting of a portion of a bed of quartzite of ,silurian age1 impregnated with cinnabar4 ,the ore bodies have been mined to a depth of #cej meters4 ,the production in #aiag was probably about #be1jjj flasks4 ,the mine is said to have ore opened up that insures a future production of at least #dj1jjj metric tons of quicksilver4 ,other productive deposits in ,spain are those near ,oviedo1 where the ore1 which contains cinnabar1 pyrite1 orpiment1 and realgar1 is said to average about one-third of #a per cent4 of quicksilver1 with arsenic compounds as by-products4 ,according to a report from ,vice ,consul ,general ,h4 ,a4 ,mc,bride1 written in ,barcelona in #aiaa1 the principal companies operating in the ,oviedo districts were the ,oviedo ,mercury ,mines ,co41 ,ltd41 of ,london1 the ,sociedad ,fabrica de ,mieres1 of ,oviedo1 and the ,sociedad ,union ,asturiana1 of ,mieres4 ,the production from the district in #aiae was #fjh flasks 7#bj4g metric tons74 ,a third group of deposits lies on the south slope of the ,sierra ,nevada in the provinces of ,granada and ,almeria1 southern ,spain4 ,the production from ,granada in #aiae was #da flasks 7#a4d metric tons74 ,a small quantity of quicksilver was produced in ,portugal in the nineteenth century from a mine not far from ,lisbon4 ,cinnabar occurs at a number of localities in ,france and also in ,corsica1 but the deposits are not of economic character4 ,in ,south ,germany1 north of ,zweibrucken1 are quicksilver deposits that had considerable importance near the end of the thirteenth century1 but at the beginning of the ,world ,war the mines had been closed for many years4 ,zinc ores mined near ,bensberg1 east of ,cologne1 yield annually about #ij flasks of quicksilver1 won as a by-product in zinc smelting4 ,in the former ,austrian ,empire the principal deposit is at ,idria1 about #bh miles from ,trieste4 ,the ore body occurs chiefly as an impregnation of ,triassic dolomite and shale4 ,the output in ,austria in #aiaf1 probably all from ,idria1 is believed to have been about #be1jjj flasks4 ,reserves capable of yielding #bj1jjj metric tons1 or #ehg1gcc flasks1 are known4 ,at latest reports these mines were in the possession of ,italy4 ,at ,zips1 in northern ,hungary1 quicksilver is obtained as a by-product from iron ore 7siderite7 that carries mercurial tetrahedrite and some cinnabar4 ,the production in #aiac was #b1fae flasks4 ,to the west of ,idria1 quicksilver deposits belonging to the same general belt of metallization extend into northern ,italy4 ,the principal deposit of this belt in ,venetia is the ,vallalta4 ,the mine produced #i1eej flasks 7#cbe metric tons7 between #ahef and #ahgj1 but has long been idle4 ,the most productive deposits of quicksilver in ,italy are those of the ,monte ,amiata district1 in ,tuscany1 about half way between ,rome and ,florence4 ,monte ,amiata is apparently a post-,pliocene volcano1 and traces of recent volcanic activity survive4 ,the most productive mine is the ,abbadia-,san ,salvatore1 which yields about #fe per cent4 of the output from the district1 which in #aiag amounted to about #bi1cjj flasks4 ,at ,mount ,avala1 near ,belgrade in ,serbia1 deposits of quicksilver ore have been known since #ahhc1 which resemble many of those in ,california4 ,the ,avala deposits were worked between #ahhi and #ahie1 but seemingly have not been productive in late years4 ,the only quicksilver deposits of note in ,european ,russia are those in the ,donetz coal basin1 southern ,russia4 ,the essential mineral is cinnabar1 accompanied by stibnite and pyrite4 ,the deposits were discovered in #ahgi1 the maximum output1 #ah1ajb flasks 7#faf metric tons71 was reached in #ahig1 and work was abandoned in #aiaa1 but has been resumed since in a small way4 ,asia4--,the ,konia mine1 in south-central ,asia ,minor1 is in silicified limestone4 ,the quicksilver occurs as cinnabar and most of the ore carries from #a to #b4e per cent4 of the metal4 ,the known reserves were estimated in #aijh at #ac1jjj metric tons of #a per cent4 ore4 ,the production in #aiaa was only #ij flasks of #ge pounds4 ,the ,kara-,burnu mine1 said to be the only important quicksilver mine in ,turkey1 is situated southeast of ,smyrna4 ,in #aijf and #aijg the mine was producing about #c1jjj flasks annually1 but of late years the output has declined and in #aiab amounted to only #haa flasks 7#ca metric tons74 ,the ,ildekansk quicksilver mine1 in southeastern ,siberia1 east of ,lake ,baikal1 has gained notoriety from the fact that political exiles were condemned to mine the ore4 ,the deposit appears to be of slight economic importance4 ,that quicksilver deposits occur in the ,province of ,kweichow1 south-central ,china1 has long been known1 but the locality is remote from ordinary routes of travel and comparatively little is on record concerning their character4 ,the ore bodies of the ,wan ,san ,chang mines are the most extensively worked4 ,for several years prior to #aije the output averaged about #d1jjj pounds of quicksilver a month4 ,this would be equivalent to about #fdj flasks annually4 ,more recent figures of production are not available4 ,north ,america4--,the quicksilver deposits of ,north ,america are confined to the ,cordilleran region from ,alaska to ,central ,america4 ,the most productive deposits are in ,california and western ,texas4 ,in ,alaska minerals containing quicksilver have been found in a number of the placer-mining districts1 but deposits in place have been discovered in the central ,kuskokwim region only4 ,the ore occurs as cinnabar accompanied by stibnite1 quartz1 and a ferruginous dolomite4 ,development has been hindered by transportation difficulties1 and only a few hundred pounds of quicksilver have been produced for local consumption4 ,in ,washington quicksilver ores have been prospected in various places1 but the production is as yet inconsiderable4 ,in ,oregon cinnabar is widely distributed1 but only one deposit 7at ,blackbutte1 in ,lane ,county7 is at present productive4 ,in the ,black ,butte mine the ore averages about #j4be per cent4 of quicksilver1 and the quantity available above the #ejj-;foot level is estimated by the company at about #aej1jjj tons4 ,the production of ,oregon in #aiag was #chh flasks1 all but #c flasks being from the ,black ,butte mine4 ,in ,california the principal deposits occur in the ,coast ,ranges within a belt that is about #djj miles long and has a maximum width of about #ge miles4 ,the known deposits within this area are numerous4 ,about twenty-five of these are at present productive1 while probably three times that number which were once productive are now idle4 ,with a few exceptions1 the deposits of this main quicksilver belt are in rocks of probable ,jurassic age1 or in serpentine which is the alteration product of peridotites4 ,the most notable exceptions are the deposits of the ,oceanic mine1 ,san ,luis ,obispo ,county1 and of the ,sulphur ,bank mine1 in ,lake ,county4 ,many of the most productive mines of the past have yielded no quicksilver from underground work for years4 ,the most productive mine in ,california at present is the ,new ,idria1 in ,san ,benito ,county1 which in #aiag yielded #aa1jjj flasks out of a total for the state of #bc1gcc flasks and for the ,united ,states of #ce1ied flasks4 ,the ,new ,idria ore comes from two mines1 the ,new ,idria proper and the ,san ,carlos4 ,the ,new ,idria has been extensively opened to a depth of about #a1jjj feet4 ,in the ,san ,carlos practically all of the known ore lies within #bjj feet of the surface4 ,the two mines contributed nearly equally to the total production in #aiag1 and the average winnable tenor of the ore in that year was #j4cb per cent4 ,it has been estimated that in the two mines there is available #b1djj1jjj tons of ore averaging #j4bec per cent4 of quicksilver4 ,the ,new ,almaden mine is in ,santa ,clara ,county4 ,at present1 all the levels below the #hjj-;foot are under water and of late years very little ore has been taken from the old mine4 ,most of the recent production of the ,new ,almaden ,co41 ,inc41 which for #aiag amounted to #b1fhc flasks1 has come from the ,el ,senador mine1 northeast of the old mine1 and from quicksilver recovered from ground under old furnaces and condensers4 ,in the ,new ,almaden1 the ,el ,senador1 and in the neighboring ,new ,guadalupe1 which produced #c1ajj flasks in #aiag1 the ore occurs as irregular bodies in serpentine4 ,close to the mine now being worked by the ,new ,guadalupe ,mining ,co41 and owned by the same company1 is the original ,guadalupe mine1 once highly productive but now long idle4 ,the ,oceanic mine1 in ,san ,luis ,obispo ,county1 ranked fourth in productiveness in ,california in #aiag1 with an output of #a1bdf flasks4 ,the ore occurs as an impregnation of sandstone4 ,the average winnable tenor of the ore in #aiag was #j4ahe per cent4 ,other mines in ,california which yielded from #ejj to #a1jjj flasks in #aiag are the ,great ,eastern1 the ,cloverdale1 and the ,culver-,baer1 all in ,sonoma ,county4 ,those whose output was between #djj and #ejj flasks are the ,st4 ,johns1 and the ,helen1 in ,lake ,county4 ,nevada contains many widely scattered deposits of quicksilver ore1 no one of which has yet been worked on an extensive scale1 although a few have been fairly productive for short periods4 ,the ores occur in rhyolite of ,tertiary age and in limestone or associated sedimentary beds of various ages from ,paleozoic to ,mesozoic4 ,the total yield from ,nevada in #aiag was #iig flasks1 nearly half of which came from the ,farnham and ,drew mine1 east of ,mina1 which closed for lack of ore near the end of the year4 ,the next mine in point of yield1 the ,goldbanks1 in ,humboldt county1 is also at present non-productive4 ,in ,texas the principal quicksilver deposits are in the ,terlingua district1 in ,brewster ,county4 ,the ore occurs along fissure zones in ,cretaceous limestones and shales1 generally in proximity to intrusive rock4 ,the principal mines are the ,chisos1 ,mariposa1 ,big ,bend1 and ,dallas4 ,in ,mexico quicksilver deposits in the states of ,san ,luis ,potosi1 ,guerrero1 and ,durango are said to be yielding considerable quicksilver1 even in the present disturbed condition of the country4 ,a quicksilver dealer1 testifying at the ,tariff ,commission hearing in ,san ,francisco1 on ,june #bf1 #aiah1 said that #djj flasks a month was being exported into the ,united ,states1 but a considerable part of this was probably reclaimed quicksilver that has been used in the amalgamation of silver ores4 ,south ,america4--,quicksilver deposits are known in ,colombia1 ,ecuador1 ,bolivia1 ,chile1 ,brazil1 ,argentina1 and ,peru1 but only those in ,peru seem to be of present economic importance1 and the production of that country in #aiaf was only #fb flasks 7#b4a metric tons74 ,the most famous deposits in ,peru are those at ,huancavelica1 particularly those of the ,santa ,barbara mine1 on the east flank of the western chain of the ,andes4 ,these have been worked since #aeff and are said to have yielded #df1ejj metric tons 7#a1cff1dhj flasks of #ge pounds7 before #agij4 ,the production in the #aith century has been estimated at #c1ejj metric tons 7#ajb1hfe flasks74 ,the ore bodies are numerous1 irregular1 and occur in stratified rocks that are cut by igneous rocks4 ,in #aiaf the greater part of the quicksilver-bearing ground in the ,huancavelica district was purchased by ,e4 ,e4 ,fernandini1 of ,lima1 and there appears to be some prospect of a resumption of active mining4 ,,changes ,,in ,,known ,,geographical ,,distribution ,,in ,,the ,,future ,as with most metalliferous ores that have been formed later than the deposition or solidification of their inclosing rocks1 the ores of quicksilver are most likely to be found in regions of eruptive activity and complex geologic structure1 especially in regions of comparatively late volcanic disturbance4 ,it follows that new deposits are most likely to be discovered within the areas of ,tertiary or post-,tertiary volcanic activity1 as in the ,cordilleran belts of ,north and ,south ,america1 the eastern coast of ,asia1 certain parts of ,oceania1 and the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,alaska1 ,mexico1 and the western part of ,south ,america seem to offer the greatest possibilities of future productivity1 but there is little probability of any important changes in the sources of quicksilver taking place in the near future4 ,the value of a quicksilver deposit can be ascertained as a rule only by mining exploration1 and in very few quicksilver mines can any safe estimate be made of 8undeveloped0 ore4 ,the known facts afford no secure basis for predicting that in the near future some now unimportant district will1 within the next ten years1 wrest the supremacy in production from ,spain1 or compete with ,austria1 ,italy1 ,california1 or ,texas4 ,as regards the principal known sources1 it appears that the high-water mark of productivity in ,california has long been passed1 although the mines are still capable of increasing their present production under sufficient stimulus4 ,the ,italian output has been increasing of late years1 but whether this represents the discovery of new ore bodies or indicates a longer life for the ,monte ,amiata district is uncertain4 ,a permanent improvement in the political conditions in ,mexico1 with a continuance of the present1 or higher1 prices1 would probably lead to a notable increase in yield from that country4 ,there is some probability also that ,peru may again become an important source of quicksilver4 ,,changes ,,in ,,practice ,the quicksilver industry is less likely to be modified by changes in mining methods than by improvements in metallurgy4 ,although very simple in principle1 the treatment of quicksilver ores1 owing to the mobility and elusiveness of the metal both in the liquid and vaporized condition1 is beset with many practical difficulties4 ,coarsely broken ore is generally treated in various types of simple shaft furnaces1 the fuel being either mixed with the charge or burned in a firebox4 ,finely broken or pulverulent ore1 however1 such as forms the larger part of the material from most quicksilver mines1 requires different treatment4 ,in ,europe the common type of furnace for fine ore is the ,spirek and in the ,united ,states the ,scott-,htner1 or1 as more commonly called1 the ,scott furnace4 ,in both1 the ore descends by gravity over tiles of fire-clay so shaped and placed as to permit the flame to pass back and forth through passages under tiles1 the passageways or flues being formed partly by the tiles and partly by the ore itself4 ,from the furnace the mercury-laden vapors are conducted through a series of condensing chambers of brick1 iron1 wood1 or other material1 in which the metal collects4 ,when intelligently operated1 the ,scott furnace is remarkably economical and efficient2 but its construction is expensive and requires specially skilled masons4 ,moreover the furnace is difficult to repair1 and once erected can not be moved4 ,these are serious disadvantages to the man of small capital who is developing a new mine1 and he usually has to fall back on retorts which are expensive to operate and are unsatisfactory except for relatively small quantities of rich ore4 ,of late years attempts have been made in ,california and ,texas to use slightly modified rotary cement-kilns for treating quicksilver ores4 ,this innovation is promising and seems likely to prove successful4 ,such a furnace1 although it may not displace the ,scott under some conditions1 does not require elaborate masonry structure1 and its use may lead to a considerably increased production from the smaller mines4 ,the condensing systems used with quicksilver furnaces differ greatly and at no two mines in the ,united ,states are they identical4 ,the brick condensing chambers formerly so extensively used with the ,scott furnace are expensive to build2 also the bricks are poor conductors of heat and absorb large quantities of quicksilver4 ,the recent tendency in ,california has been to replace the brick chambers with large boxes or cylindrical tanks of wood4 ,european practice1 followed by one mine in ,oregon and one in ,texas1 favors condensers constructed of vitrified earthenware pipe4 ,the whole question of quicksilver condensation calls for study and skillful experiment4 ,the establishment of a standard of practice would increase production by elimination of much of the loss and discouragement that come from inefficient individual efforts to collect the mercury from the furnace vapors and gases in the most complete and economical way4 ,,political ,,control ,the quicksilver industry offers two conspicuous examples of the direct political control of mineral resources4 ,the ,almaden mine1 whose output is such as in normal times to determine the market for quicksilver1 has been owned and worked by the ,spanish government since #afde1 and the ,idria mine up until the close of the war was owned by the ,austro-,hungarian government4 ,the ,spanish government1 on the basis of competitive proposals1 contracts with the successful bidder for the sale of the quicksilver for periods of ten years4 ,for a number of successive periods the contract has been awarded to the ,rothschilds of ,london1 the present one dating from ,june #a1 #aiab4 ,the contractors bind themselves to sell1 in ,london1 the greatest possible quantity of quicksilver1 which they take f4o4b4 at the reduction plant at ,almaden1 at prices above #g pounds per flask1 ,they receive a commission of #a per cent4 of the amount of the sale2 #f shillings for each flask shipped from ,spain to ,london2 and #aj per cent4 of the amount by which the sales price exceeds #h pounds #b shillings per flask4 ,the ,spanish government reserves from the operation of this contract #ejj flasks#add annually for the national requirements of ,spain4 ,by this arrangement1 although the mine is owned by ,spain1 the market has been controlled in ,london4 ,during the war the sale of ,almaden mercury was taken over by the ,admiralty through ,messrs4 ,rothschild4 ,the quantity received in ,london from ,almaden in #aiag was about #be1jjj flasks4 #add ,increased to #aj1jjj flasks in #aiai4 ,the ,konia mine1 in ,asia ,minor1 reverted to the ,turkish government in #aiab1 but its output1 as previously noted1 is inconsiderable4 ,the quicksilver mines of the ,monte ,amiata district1 ,italy1 although less obviously illustrative of political control than those just mentioned1 should perhaps be referred to in the present connection4 ,german capital has been dominant in their development in the late years before the war1 and the most productive mines are credibly reported to have been owned wholly or in part by the ,german ,emperor4 ,with the entry of ,italy into the war they were seized by the ,italian government4 ,the ,italian mines produced about #bh1jjj flasks1 of which from #ab1jjj to #ae1jjj flasks were purchased by the ,british ,admiralty4 ,,commercial ,,control ,under present practice the reduction of quicksilver ores is almost invariably at the mine1 both mine and reduction works being under the same ownership4 ,they must therefore be considered together for the purpose of the present inquiry4 ,the most conspicuous example of commercial control is that exercised by the ,rothschilds of ,london1 who do not own the resources that give them this pre-eminence4 ,the yield of the remarkably rich ,almaden mine1 whose annual output surpasses that of any other mine and in #aiaf exceeded that of any country except ,spain 7whose ore1 even when carelessly worked1 yields quicksilver at low cost1 and whose known reserves are large71 enables the ,rothschilds1 in time of peace and subject to the minimum fixed price in their contract1 to determine the price at which quicksilver shall be sold in the world's markets4 ,another but much smaller factor in making ,london the leading quicksilver mart of the world is the control by ,british capital of the principal mines in the ,oviedo district1 in northern ,spain4 ,in the ,united ,states1 the country which ranks next to ,spain as a producer of quicksilver1 the mines are all owned by corporations or individuals1 and so far as known1 there is at present no formal combination or understanding between these owners to control output or sales4 ,some years ago most of the leading producers in ,california formed the ,eureka company1 which acted as selling agent and to some extent was able to control prices4 ,often referred to by those outside of it as the 8quicksilver trust10 this organization was abandoned after a brief existence4 ,the firm of ,haas ,brothers1 of ,san ,francisco 7distinct from ,haas ,brothers1 of ,new ,york71 took a leading part in the ,eureka company1 and since its dissolution has fulfilled many of the functions that the company was to perform4 ,the firm owns stock in the leading mine on the ,pacific ,coast and acts as selling agents for the ,new ,idria ,quicksilver ,mining ,co41 whom it charges #a per cent4#ade1 whereas it charges others #b per cent4 ,it also buys the metal for itself1 usually from the smaller producers1 at prices generally much below the current market quotation1 and is to supply operators with empty flasks1 but only on condition that ,haas ,brothers shall buy the product or sell it on commission4 ,other brokers who handle important quantities of quicksilver on the ,pacific ,coast are ,atkins1 ,kroll ,co41 and the ,braun-,knecht-,hiemann ,co41 both of ,san ,francisco4 ,so far as known these two firms have no ownership in quicksilver mines and sell only on commission4 #ade ,this connection is reported to have been broken in #aiai4 ,the quicksilver mines in ,texas are owned by ,american citizens or ,american corporations4 ,the ore from each is independently worked and the quicksilver is sold by the individual producers4 ,the mercury deposits of ,mexico are owned1 as far as is known1 by native ,mexicans4 ,british capital is probably interested in some of the larger mines4 ,the formerly productive quicksilver mines at ,huancavelica1 ,peru1 have been purchased by ,e4 ,e4 ,fernandini1 of ,lima1 and may again contribute to the world's supply4 ,so far as known to the writer of this article1 patents1 secret processes or trade agreements play no part in the control of quicksilver resources4 ,during the war ,germany and her allies controlled the quicksilver deposits of ,australia1 ,serbia1 ,turkey and probably ,european ,russia4 ,only the ,idria deposit1 and perhaps the ,zips deposit1 in ,austria1 are important1 and the available annual supply for the ,teutonic allies was probably #be1jjj to #cj1jjj flasks4 ,the ,entente allies controlled the deposits of the ,united ,states1 yielding about #cf1jjj flasks annually2 of ,italy1 yielding about #bh1jjj flasks2 and controlled1 although they did not own1 the deposits of neutral ,spain1 yielding from #cj1jjj to #da1jjj flasks annually4 ,the ,chinese mercury deposits were possibly drawn upon to some extent by ,japan1 who1 like ,britain and ,france1 has no deposits of her own that are worth mentioning4 ,,summary ,the chief uses of mercury and mercury compounds1 in general order of decreasing importance1 are as follows3 ,in the manufacture of drugs and chemicals1 including calomel1 corrosive sublimate1 and glacial acetic acid2 as a detonator for high explosives2 as vermilion pigment2 in electrical apparatus1 thermostats1 gas governors1 and other appliances2 in the amalgamation of gold and silver ores2 in anti-fouling marine paint2 in compounds to prevent boiler scale2 in cosmetics2 and in dental amalgam4 ,there are comparatively few applications of mercury where a substitute could not be employed1 although the substitute might not be as economical or as satisfactory4 ,in general the ores of quicksilver do not extend to great depths and show on the whole a close association with ,tertiary and ,quaternary igneous rocks that have not been subjected to long and deep erosion4 ,there are some notable exceptions1 however1 to these generalizations4 ,new deposits of mercury are most likely to be discovered on the eastern coast of ,asia1 in certain parts of ,oceania1 on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 or in the ,cordilleran belts of ,north and ,south ,america4 ,the known facts afford no secure basis for predicting that there will be within the next ten years any marked shift from the present main sources of supply to some newly discovered deposit4 ,the richest mercury deposits are at ,almaden1 central ,spain2 at ,idria1 ,austria-,hungary2 and in the ,monte ,amiata district of ,italy4 ,other productive deposits are situated near ,oviedo and ,granada1 ,spain2 in the ,donetz coal basin1 ,russia2 near ,aidin1 ,turkey2 in the province of ,kweichow1 ,china2 in ,oregon1 ,california1 ,nevada1 and ,texas2 in ,san ,luis ,potosi1 ,guerrero1 and ,durango1 ,mexico2 and in ,peru4 ,many deposits at present unproductive are known in other parts of the world4 ,the political control of the quicksilver deposits corresponds for the most part with geographic location4 ,the rich deposits of ,almaden1 in ,spain1 and ,idria1 in old ,austria-,hungary1 are government-owned4 ,the ,spanish government1 on the basis of competitive proposals1 contracts with the successful bidder for the sale of the quicksilver for a period of ten years4 ,the contract has been awarded to the ,rothschilds of ,london for a number of successive periods4 ,this control of the output of the ,spanish mines gives the ,rothschilds a control of the world's quicksilver market4 ,the ,spanish government reserves a sufficient number of flasks annually for the national requirements of ,spain4 ,the ,konia mine1 in ,asia ,minor1 has been the property of the ,turkish government since #aiab4 ,it is believed that the most productive mines of the ,monte ,amiata district1 ,italy1 were owned wholly or in part by the ,german ,emperor2 with the entry of ,italy into the war they were seized by the ,italian government4 ,the mines of the ,united ,states are all controlled by corporations or individuals4 ,it is believed that the mines of ,mexico are owned by ,mexican citizens1 although ,british capital may be invested in some of them4 ,the mines at ,huancavelica1 ,peru1 have been purchased by ,seor ,e4 ,e4 ,fernandini1 of ,lima4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,bauxite ,,and ,,aluminum ,,by ,j4 ,m4 ,,hill ,,uses ,,of ,,bauxite ,,and ,,aluminum ,bauxite1 aluminum oxide1 besides being the chief ore of aluminum1 has an important use in the manufacture of artificial abrasives which are of wide application in all metal-fabricating industries4 ,bauxite is also the basis of an extensive chemical industry1 being the crude material from which alum1 aluminum sulphate1 and several other chemicals used for water purification1 dyeing1 and tanning are made4 ,a rapidly growing use for bauxite is in the manufacture of bauxite brick for furnace linings4 ,the more essential uses of bauxite are for the manufacture of aluminum and abrasives1 though it seems doubtful whether the utilization of bauxite for chemicals could be much restricted4 ,the use of bauxite for refractories is relatively small4 ,in #aiag nearly #fe per cent4 of the domestic output of bauxite went into aluminum1 nearly #ac per cent4 was taken by manufactures of aluminum salts1 #ai per cent4 was consumed in the manufacture of bauxite abrasives1 and #c per cent4 was used by makers of bauxite refractories4 ,the uses of aluminum are myriad1 chief among them are in the manufacture of parts of internal-combustion engines1 and the fabrication of industrial and household utensils4 ,,changes ,,in ,,practice ,,of ,,aluminum ,,manufacture ,heretofore bauxites low in silica 7#b to #e per cent4 ,si,o7 have been used for the preparation of alumina for the manufacture of aluminum4 ,many experimenters have endeavored to utilize low-grade 7high-silica7 bauxites1 or aluminum silicates for the recovery of alumina4 ,these experiments show that it is chemically possible to produce low-silica alumina from many aluminous materials1 but not on a commercially profitable basis4 ,it seems reasonably certain that one or more of the methods of handling low-grade bauxite or even aluminous silicates will be developed to the commercial stage1 even under ordinary conditions1 in the near future4 ,that event should tend to revolutionize the aluminum industry1 as clays and shales carrying from #be to #ce per cent4 ,al,o are of widespread occurrence4 ,whether it would materially lower the price of aluminum is more doubtful1 for the costs of manufacture would be raised by the increased cost of treating the low-grade crude material4 ,,geological ,,distribution ,the ,european bauxite deposits are in folded sedimentary rocks1 mainly of ,cretaceous age4 ,in the ,united ,states bauxite deposits are surficial and have resulted from the alteration of either sedimentary kaolin 7aluminum silicate7 or kaolin derived from the weathering of syenite or of dolomitic limestones4 ,in the tropical fields1 which have as yet been little exploited and are in fact little known1 the bauxites seemingly are surficial deposits derived from the alteration of feldspathic rocks4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,the chief bauxite deposits of ,europe are in the provinces of ,var and ,herault1 in southern ,france1 though other deposits are known in ,bouches du ,rhone and several other southern provinces4 ,in central ,italy bauxite has been mined for some years4 ,in ,germany low-grade bauxite has been mined in the ,vogelsberg ,mountains1 ,hesse1 near ,knigswinter1 in the lower ,rhine country1 and is known in ,hanover4 ,in the former ,empire of ,austria-,hungary there are extensive bauxite deposits in the ,bihar ,mountains and in the provinces of ,istria1 ,croatia1 and ,dalmatia4 ,bauxite is also known in northwestern ,russia1 about #bjj miles southeast of ,petrograd4 ,bauxite has been mined for a number of years from beds in northwestern ,ireland4 ,in the ,united ,states1 bauxite has been mined for years in central ,arkansas1 northwestern ,georgia1 northeastern ,alabama1 and southeastern ,tennessee1 and more recently from the central ,georgia field1 which is being extended into west-central ,georgia4 ,in ,south ,america1 extensive deposits of good bauxite have been found in ,british and ,dutch ,guiana1 and it is reported that there are evidences of bauxite in eastern ,venezuela1 western ,french ,guiana1 and northeastern ,brazil4 ,in ,africa1 bauxite of good quality is reported to have been developed near the coast of ,french ,guinea and to have been found in a number of inland localities in that colony4 ,vague rumors are current of large areas of bauxitic laterite#adf at many places in equatorial ,africa4 #adf ,laterite is the general name for rock of any kind that is in a thoroughly softened and decomposed state1 due to alteration or weathering at the surface4 ,in the literature of the geology of ,india there are many references to bauxitic laterites1 and it is reported that recently some of the ,deccan bauxite deposits are being exploited4 ,in southwestern and eastern ,australia some of the laterites are reported to be bauxitic1 though so far as known no bauxite has been developed4 ,there is a persistent rumor1 without confirmation1 that bauxite has been discovered recently in ,china4 ,as to this deposit no information is available4 ,the table below shows the world's production of bauxite for a number of years4 ,although the figures give an idea of the relative importance of the deposits with respect to consuming centers1 it is not believed that they represent relative importance with regard to the future4 ,it seems unavoidable to conclude that the tropical countries hold immense reserves of bauxite and that some day the aluminum industry will be nearer the tropics than it is at present4 ,,table #fc4--,,world',s ,,output ,,of ,,bauxite1 #aiaj-aiaf 7,output in tons7 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,country #aiaj #aiaa #aiab #aiac ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,united ,states #adh1icbaee1fahaei1hfebaj1bda ,france #aib1iacbej1hahbed1heacjd1djg ,united ,kingdom 7,ireland7 #c1gib #f1jjg #e1gij #f1jee ,italy #d1ebd #e1fjj #f1eif #f1hdc ,india #ff #ab #iej #a1ahd ---------------------------- ,total #cej1bggdah1jeedbh1jebebh1gcj ---------------------------------------- ------------ ---------------------------------------- ----- ,country #aiad #aiae #aiaf ---------------------------------------- ----- ,united ,states #bai1cahbig1jdadbe1ajj ,france 7#adg77adg77adg7 ,united ,kingdom 7,ireland7 #h1bhf #aa1gbc #aj1cbi ,italy #c1hdd #f1ejd #h1gdf ,india #ead #djj #gej --------------------- ,total ---------------------------------------- ----- #adg ,no statistics available4 ,the production of bauxite in the ,united ,states in #aiag was #efh1fij long tons4 ,,political ,,control ,france and the ,united ,states hold within their boundaries the largest deposits of bauxite that have been worked in the past4 ,england controls1 through her colonial possessions1 a large share of the equatorial areas that probably contain much of the undeveloped bauxite4 ,france and ,holland each have possessions in the tropics in which bauxite is known1 and it seems probable that bauxite may be found in the colonies of ,portugal and of ,belgium and in those formerly controlled by ,germany4 ,it is reported that ,england has placed certain restrictions on the acquisition of bauxite deposits in ,india and ,guiana by foreign individuals or corporations4 ,it is known that she has restricted the destination of bauxite exported from ,british ,guiana4 ,the ,dutch government is understood to have examined recently the bauxite deposits of ,dutch ,guiana1 probably with a view to restricting acquisition of property not already acquired4 ,evidently there is some understanding between the ,british1 ,french1 and ,italian governments which permits the sending of ,french bauxite to the aluminum works of both ,italy and ,england4 ,the aluminum works of the world are largely under the political domination of the ,united ,states1 ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,switzerland1 ,italy and ,norway4 ,the producing capacity of the various countries has been estimated as follows3#adh ,,producing ,,capacity ,,of ,,aluminum ,,works ,short tons ,united ,states and ,canada #hg1ejj ,france #bj1jjj ,switzerland1 ,germany and ,austria #bj1jjj ,norway #af1jjj ,england #ab1jjj ,italy #g1jjj ,japan #bej ------- ,total #afb1gej #adh ,,hill1 ,j4 ,m41 8,bauxite and ,aluminum in #aiaf20 ,united ,states ,geological ,survey2 8,mineral ,resources of the ,united ,states10 ,part ,i1 #aiag1 p4 #afg4 ,the actual output of the plants included in the above table does not represent full capacity1 and it seems more reasonable to assume that the production at present is probably nearer #aej1jjj tons a year than the total given4 ,there is little question that the ,united ,states and ,canadian plants are producing over half of the world's supply of aluminum4 ,it is reported that during #aiag and #aiah extensions of the ,british and ,italian works brought their output nearly to the rated plant capacity4 ,,commercial ,,control ,it is safe to say that the aluminum industries of the various countries control to a large extent the bauxite deposits of the world4 ,the principal aluminum companies are as follows3 ,aluminum ,company of ,america1 ,british ,aluminum ,co41 ,l',aluminium ,franaise1 ,aluminum ,industries ,a4 ,g4 ,it is commonly known that before the war agreements between these four companies stabilized the prices of aluminum throughout the world4 ,at present 7#aiai7 the outlook is that the ,aluminum ,company of ,america should be in position to dominate the aluminum industry of the world for some years through the expansion of its electrical plants and its initiative in acquiring newly discovered deposits of exceptionally pure bauxite in ,south ,america4 ,it seems quite conceivable that the ,british and ,french and possibly the ,german interests may seek to adjust their relations so that they can offset the ,american dominance4 ,united ,states and ,canada4--,the great bulk of the bauxite deposits of the ,united ,states seems controlled by the ,aluminum ,company of ,america1 through its subsidiaries1 the ,american ,bauxite ,co4 and the ,republic ,mining ,manufacturing ,co4 ,there are small holdings of bauxite lands controlled by the ,national ,bauxite ,co41 a subsidiary of the ,e4 ,i4 du ,pont de ,nemours ,co41 and by the ,norton ,co41 of ,worcester1 ,mass41 makers of artificial abrasives4 ,aside from these more important holders1 there are a few independent operators of bauxite mines1 but their combined output is so small that it can be disregarded4 ,all of the aluminum works of the ,united ,states and ,canada are controlled by the ,aluminum ,company of ,america1 which is dominated by the ,mellen banking interests1 of ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,the ,guianas4--,it is reported that the ,aluminum ,company of ,america controls about #b1jcj1jjj acres of bauxite land in the ,british and ,dutch colonies4 ,in ,british ,guiana the ownership is seemingly in the ,canadian ,bauxite ,co4 ,associated with the ,aluminum ,company of ,america in the ,british ,guiana holdings is the ,merrimac ,chemical ,co41 of ,boston4 ,it is also reported that the ,norton ,co41 of ,worcester1 ,mass41 has acquired in ,dutch ,guiana small holdings of bauxite lands4 ,there are no works utilizing bauxite in ,dutch ,guiana4 ,france4--,prior to the war1 some of the large deposits of high-grade bauxite in the ,province of ,var were controlled by the 8,bauxites de ,france10 a ,german enterprise1 but this control was naturally suspended at the beginning of hostilities1 and it will probably not be resumed4 ,the ,french bauxite industry is largely in the hands of the ,french producers of aluminum mentioned below1 though some deposits are said to be controlled by the ,british ,aluminum ,co4 through its control of the ,union des ,bauxites company4 ,the ,french aluminum industry is centralized under one selling agency1 ,l',aluminium ,franaise1 in which the following five companies participate3 ,compagnie des ,produits ,chemiques d',alais et de la ,camargue1 ,socit ,electro-,metallurgique ,franaise1 ,socit d',electro-,chemie1 ,socit des ,forces ,motrices de l',arve1 ,socit ,electro-,metallurgique de ,pyrenees4 ,it is said that the stock of the selling company is owned by participating companies in proportion to their output of aluminum1 which would indicate that the control of l',aluminium ,franaise rests with the first two companies above4 ,great ,britain4--,the bauxite deposits in ,county ,antrim1 ,ireland1 are seemingly controlled exclusively by the ,british ,aluminium ,co4 ,the ,british ,aluminium ,co4 is the sole producer of the metal in ,england1 operating plants at ,foyers and ,loch ,leven1 in the ,british ,isles1 and plants in ,norway4 ,norway4--,all the bauxite used by the aluminum works in ,norway is of ,french or ,british origin4 ,there are no deposits of bauxite in the country4 ,the ,british ,aluminium ,co4 controls the aluminum plants at ,higeland and ,strangfiord through the ,anglo-,norwegian ,co4 ,the ,compagnie des ,produits ,chemiques d',alais et de la ,camargue 7,french7 largely controls the ,socit ,norvegienne des ,nitrures1 which operates aluminum works at ,arendal and ,tyssedal4 ,a ,norwegian company1 the ,norske ,aluminum ,co41 has been recently organized to make aluminum4 ,italy4--,there is little information concerning the ownership of the ,italian bauxite deposits1 but presumably they are controlled by the producers of aluminum4 ,the principal aluminum manufacturer is the ,societa ,italiana per la ,fabricazione dell',alluminio1 which is under ,italian-,french control4 ,the new aluminum company1 ,l',allumino ,italiano1 recently organized in ,italy1 if reports are true1 may be in part controlled by ,german and ,swiss interests4 ,as the company was organized during the war1 it does not seem reasonable to suppose that ,german participation would be permitted4 ,central ,powers4--,apparently most of the aluminum industry of these countries is controlled by a ,german-,swiss company1 ,socit ,swisse pour l',industrie de l',aluminium1 or ,aluminum ,industrie1 ,a4 ,g41 which operates plants at ,neuhausen1 ,chippes1 ,navisance1 and ,borgne1 in ,switzerland2 at ,rheinfelden1 ,germany1 and at ,lend and ,rauris1 in ,austria4 ,a small quantity of aluminum is also made by the ,german firm1 ,gebrder ,guilini1 at its plant at ,martigny4 ,it is reported that the ,aluminum ,fabrik-,martigny1 ,a4 ,g41 has recently been formed with ,g4 ,guilini at its head1 which is possibly a reorganization of the former concern4 ,,summary ,by far the largest and most important use of bauxite is for the extraction of aluminum1 a metal used mainly in the manufacture of parts for internal-combustion engines and of industrial and household utensils4 ,bauxite is also used in the manufacture of artificial abrasives1 as a source of certain aluminum salts1 and in the manufacture of refractory bricks4 ,the first two uses1 the manufacture of aluminum and abrasives1 are the most essential1 though it would be difficult to restrict to any great extent the use in the chemical industry4 ,the principal bauxite deposits of the world are in the provinces of ,var and ,herault1 southern ,france2 in the former empire of ,austria-,hungary2 in ,arkansas1 ,georgia1 and ,alabama2 in ,british and ,dutch ,guiana2 and in northwestern ,ireland4 ,minor deposits are located in ,germany1 ,russia1 ,venezuela1 ,french ,guiana1 ,brazil1 ,africa1 ,australia1 and probably ,china4 ,it is believed that the tropical countries hold immense reserves of bauxite4 ,experiments have shown that it is chemically possible to manufacture aluminum from the low-grade 7high-silicate7 bauxite ores4 ,no commercial process has been perfected1 but it seems certain that one or more methods will be developed to the commercial stage in the near future4 ,a reduction in the price of aluminum is not to be expected as a result of this change in practice1 however1 for the use of low-grade materials will undoubtedly increase the manufacturing costs4 ,the largest producing bauxite deposits are controlled politically by the ,united ,states and ,france4 ,great ,britain controls a large share of the equatorial regions that probably contain most of the undeveloped deposits4 ,bauxite may also be found in the colonial possessions of ,portugal and ,belgium1 and in those formerly owned by ,germany4 ,the aluminum works of the world are controlled by the ,united ,states1 ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,switzerland1 ,italy and ,norway4 ,most of the bauxite deposits of the ,united ,states are owned by the ,aluminum ,company of ,america1 which is dominated by the ,mellen banking interests1 of ,pittsburgh1 and controls all of the aluminum works of the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,small holdings in the ,united ,states are controlled by a subsidiary of the ,e4 ,i4 du ,pont de ,nemours ,co41 and by the ,norton ,co41 of ,worcester1 ,mass4 ,the ,aluminum ,company of ,america also controls1 through subsidiaries1 large areas of bauxite land in ,british and ,dutch ,guiana4 ,before the war some of the large ,french deposits were controlled by ,german interests4 ,the ,french industry is largely in the hands of ,french producers of aluminum1 although some of the deposits are said to be controlled by ,british capital4 ,the main ,french companies have organized a selling company1 ,l',aluminium ,franaise4 ,the ,british ,aluminium ,co41 controls the deposits in ,ireland and is the sole producer of aluminum in ,england4 ,british capital also controls aluminum works in ,norway4 ,the principal bauxite deposits of ,italy are probably controlled by the ,societa ,italiana per la ,fabricazione dell' ,alluminio1 an ,italian-,french company4 ,apparently most of the aluminum industry of the ,central ,powers is controlled by a ,german-,swiss company4 ,american interests are reported to have explored bauxite deposits in ,french ,guinea1 ,africa1 but so far as known have produced no bauxite4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,emery ,,and ,,corundum ,,by ,,frank ,j4 ,,katz ,,uses ,,of ,,emery ,,and ,,corundum ,corundum is the natural 7mineral7 crystalline oxide of aluminum4 ,emery is a very fine-grained and intimate intergrowth of corundum and other minerals1 chiefly magnetite1 some varieties containing also important amounts of hematite1 spinel1 and chlorite4 ,both emery and corundum are very hard1 and break into rough1 sharp grains2 hence they are used as abrasives for grinding1 dressing1 and polishing metals--chiefly iron and steel--and glass1 and1 to a less extent1 stone1 wood1 and other materials4 ,emery and corundum are used loose in the form of grains1 powders1 and flours1 and also as grains made up into solid wheels1 cylinders1 blocks1 and files of many shapes by means of a great variety of binders4 ,the essential uses are in work on iron and steel and glass4 ,the softer metals and other materials can be worked in many cases to better advantage with other abrasives1 such as quartz1 tripoli1 garnet and pumice4 ,the essential operations for which emery and corundum are used can be performed with the artificial carbide and alumina abrasives4 ,for some work1 however1 such substitutions appear not to be advisable1 as the abrasive quality and efficiency of both the natural and artificial abrasives depend not only on the hardness of these materials1 but also on a number of other factors3 among these being the physical qualities of the materials worked2 the sharpness of edges and angles of broken particles of the abrasive2 the manner in which the abrasive breaks down under use2 the manner of1 and materials used in1 binding the abrasive particles2 and the speed and pressure with which they are applied to the work4 ,of the various kinds of material abraded1 each calls for different grades and kinds of abrasives1 and for variation in the above factors in the use of these abrasives in order to insure most efficient use4 ,consequently1 it is almost impossible to determine arbitrarily the uses for which each of the various abrasive materials is essential4 ,this much1 at least1 seems certain--that for finishing and polishing glass1 particularly optical glass and plate glass1 there is as yet no general agreement that satisfactory substitutes are available for the better grades of ,turkish and ,greek emery1 although experiments in manufacture and use of suitable artificial abrasives have been successful4 ,,geological ,,distribution ,the known emery deposits are products of magmatic differentiation or of regional metamorphism1 or of combined contact and regional metamorphism of limestone1 presumably argillaceous1 and of argillaceous sediments4 ,a study of certain individual deposits1 therefore1 makes possible some forecast as to future supplies in some regions1 particularly those in which the emery deposits are intimately related to certain beds in metamorphic sedimentary formations in close proximity to igneous rocks4 ,the emery bodies are1 however1 as a rule1 spotted or irregularly distributed1 and reliable estimates of reserves are difficult4 ,corundum1 in a number of associations1 is an original constituent of a great variety of igneous rocks1 such as peridotites1 anorthosites1 syenites1 nepheline syenites1 and syenite pegmatites4 ,it is also abundantly found in regionally metamorphosed rocks and in contact metamorphic zones1 occurring in serpentines1 mica schists1 quartz schists1 and crystalline limestones4 ,a third important source of corundum is alluvial deposits4 ,corundum is not a characteristic or essential constituent in any of these types of rocks and is present in alluvial deposits in restricted localities only4 ,furthermore1 its distribution and its concentration1 when present1 are irregular and unsystematic1 and there are1 therefore1 no geologic guides by which future supplies can be forecast without intensive study of each individual occurrence4 ,,geographic ,,distribution ,the chief deposits of emery and corundum in the ,united ,states are in the eastern seaboard or ,appalachian states4 ,the emery deposits of ,chester1 ,massachusetts1 are in a narrow band less than #ejj feet wide that has been traced for nearly five miles4 ,the ,chester deposits have been worked at various times since the eighties and up to #aiac4 ,emery deposits near ,peekskill1 ,new ,york1 are associated with igneous rocks in an area of #bj to #be square miles4 ,these deposits have been worked since #ahhi4 ,some of the material mined is a true emery1 that is1 an intimate mixture of corundum and magnetite1 but most of it is largely a mixture of spinel and magnetite1 which1 while not a true emery1 makes an excellent abrasive4 ,in #aiaf and #aiag1 the annual output of ore was approximately #ae1jjj tons4 ,in the vicinity of ,whittle1 ,pittsylvania ,county1 ,virginia1 spinel emery1 somewhat like the ,new ,york emery1 but containing more corundum1 is abundant4 ,the deposits in this region have already produced considerable emery and may be counted on for a large supply4 ,corundum is associated with a serpentine belt extending through ,lancaster1 ,chester1 ,delaware1 ,montgomery1 and ,bucks counties1 ,pennsylvania1 and through adjoining counties in ,delaware and ,maryland4 ,the deposits in this region do not seem to be of commercial importance4 ,corundum is found in a large number of localities in ,north ,carolina4 ,the most important occurrences of corundum are in or near peridotite masses1 also in schists1 and in alluvial deposits4 ,active mining work was first begun in #ahga and continued until about #aijf1 when ,north ,carolina corundum was driven from the market by the competition of ,canadian corundum and artificial abrasives4 ,corundum mining was revived in #aiae1 and the three properties worked in #aiag made an output of #hbj tons4 ,there is unquestionably a very large reserve of corundum in this region1 but transportation is difficult and efficient labor is scarce2 so that there is little immediate prospect of a large development4 ,the only commercially important deposits of abrasive corundum west of the ,appalachian ,mountains are in the central part of ,gallatin ,county near ,salesville1 ,montana1 where corundum occurs in syenite and syenite pegmatite4 ,the deposits have been worked by three companies1 and up to #aijc1 when operations ceased1 had produced several hundred tons of corundum4 ,the sources in ,canada of abrasive corundum of commercial importance are limited to the corundum syenites and anorthosites in central ,ontario4 ,these deposits have been developed and mined only at the ,burgess mines and at ,craigmont4 ,corundum mining as an industry in ,canada began in #aijj4 ,the production reached a maximum in #aijf and was smaller and fairly uniform from #aijg to #aiac1 in which year operations were practically suspended4 ,the reported occurrences of corundum in ,mexico and ,central and ,south ,america are chiefly of the gem variety4 ,emery is reported from ,musco1 ,colombia1 and common corundum is reported as especially abundant at localities in the ,state of ,sao ,paulo1 ,brazil4 ,the only occurrence of emery and corundum of commercial importance in ,europe is in the islands of the ,grecian ,archipelago1 particularly the ,island of ,naxos4 ,the deposits occur there as lenses and masses in limestones and in the vicinity of granites4 ,exploration and development work has been superficial1 but reserves or future supplies there are probably enormous4 ,annual exports during the years #ahig to #aiad averaged #f1hjj metric tons4 ,in ,asia there are commercial corundum deposits in ,asiatic ,turkey and in ,india4 ,the emery deposits of ,asiatic ,turkey are near ,smyrna4 ,the ,turkish emery is similar in origin and general character to the ,greek emery1 except that none is found in ,asia ,minor of quite the superior quality of that of ,naxos4 ,the main source of supply seems so far to have been from the detrital deposits4 ,it seems almost certain that supplies are large4 ,the emery mines of ,asia ,minor are very old and have annually contributed large quantities to the world's supply1 their output having been larger than from any other region in the world4 ,statistics for recent years are lacking4 ,the recorded output in official reports of the ,turkish government was about #fb1jjj metric tons in #aijh and about #be1jjj in #aiji4 ,the corundum deposits of ,india are numerous and include not only the common abrasive varieties but also the most highly prized gem varieties4 ,commercially important deposits of the abrasive variety occur in the presidency of ,madras4 ,the following provinces and native states also contain the mineral in more or less abundance3 ,afghanistan1 ,bengal1 ,burma1 ,central ,provinces1 ,punjab1 and ,travancore4 ,available data on the production of corundum in ,india indicate an output between #ajj and #ejj long tons a year1 up to and including #aiae4 ,in #aiaf the production was approximately #b1jjj long tons and since then it has probably equaled or exceeded that figure4 ,nothing definite is known as to the corundum resources of ,india1 except that they are undoubtedly large4 ,the only recorded deposits of abrasive corundum in commercial quantities on the continent of ,africa are in the vicinity of ,pretoria1 in the ,transvaal1 where corundum1 probably occurring originally in schists1 is concentrated from residual material on the land surface4 ,little information concerning these corundum deposits is available1 but it is probable that large reserves may be developed4 ,the production1 which had been slight or negligible prior to #aiab1 expanded greatly in #aiag to about #c1jjj long tons4 ,corundum appears to be abundant on the ,island of ,madagascar1 where large amounts of gem stuff and abrasive materials have been found in alluvial deposits4 ,the production of abrasive corundum1 which was very small in #aiaj1 expanded to about #a1ajj metric tons in #aiac1 and approximately #a1jjj metric tons in #aiaf4 ,,developments ,,and ,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,near ,,future ,no material changes in geographic distribution of resources appear probable in the near future4 ,none of the deposits now productive is approaching exhaustion1 and only concerning emery in ,virginia1 where somewhat larger emery production may be expected1 is information at hand upon which to forecast changes in output4 ,substitution of artificial abrasives for emery and corundum may be extended4 ,experiments conducted early in #aiah looking toward the development of an artificial abrasive suitable for use in optical and plate-glass work have been successful1 so that there may remain no industrial operation wholly dependent on emery and corundum4 ,the complete supplanting of the natural abrasives1 however1 will depend in part on the supply of bauxite available for manufacture into artificial abrasives4 ,at present the ,united ,states supplies of bauxite are sufficient for such use4 ,the demand in ,britain and ,france for ,indian and ,south ,african corundum and ,greek emery would undoubtedly diminish if the ,french artificial abrasive plants were in full operation4 ,such a change would also probably cut down exports of artificial abrasives from the ,united ,states1 and correspondingly affect the demand for emery and corundum4 ,,political ,,control ,emery and corundum resources within the ,united ,states are owned1 so far as known1 by ,american citizens1 and are in no way state controlled4 ,the ,greek emery industry was formerly a monopoly controlled by the ,greek government1 but the inhabitants of the emery region had always maintained their sole right to mine the emery4 ,this right was respected1 and the ,greek government merely regulated and managed sales and exports1 exacted high royalties1 which were changed from time to time1 fixed prices1 and maintained high quality and uniform standards of emery for export4 ,the ,french government during the war assumed control of the ,naxos emery supply and presumably continued the regulations of the ,greek government4 ,supplies of ,greek emery were available only to ,france and her allies1 through allocation by the ,french government4 ,,commercial ,,control ,in the ,united ,states the various emery and corundum deposits are in small holdings that are mostly owned by local residents4 ,the mines and quarries have been worked by lessees on royalty1 generally4 ,a considerable number of operators are and have been engaged in several localities1 and there are no trade coalitions4 ,crushing and grading are in the hands of eight independent competitive companies1 except in so far as they were welded during the war into a trade association by the ,war ,trade ,board for the purpose of allocating1 under ,government supervision1 the small imports of ,greek emery to essential industries4 ,in ,canada the better portions of the corundum deposits seem to be controlled largely by one company--,manufacturers ,corundum ,co4--whose owners seem to be dominantly or entirely of ,canadian nationality4 ,the ,greek emery deposits1 particularly those of ,naxos1 are claimed to be the inalienable property of the families resident upon the island4 ,there is no control of emery and corundum resources through ownership of crushing1 milling1 and grading plants1 nor through patents or secret processes of preparation4 ,trade combinations as affecting emery and corundum supply are unknown4 ,there are a number of milling companies in the ,united ,states1 ,britain1 ,france1 and ,germany1 who compete for the world's supply of raw material1 and those of each country compete with one another for markets for the graded1 prepared material4 ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,nations ,the ,united ,states has supplies of inferior emery and resources of corundum which are not developed adequately to meet the demands for natural abrasive materials4 ,during the war the ,united ,states was short of the amount of emery and corundum desired by consumers4 ,however1 this shortage was offset by an excess supply of artificial abrasives4 ,england1 in ,india and ,south ,africa1 has corundum supplies probably more than sufficient for her needs4 ,england is probably well enough supplied with these abrasives1 particularly as long as she continues to import from ,canada and the ,united ,states the needed artificial abrasives4 ,france has no home supply of emery and corundum1 but has large resources in her colony1 ,madagascar1 and during the war controlled the ,greek emery supply4 ,furthermore1 ,france has in reserve rich bauxite deposits and hydro-electric power for manufacture of artificial abrasives4 ,germany depended upon ,turkish emery during the war4 ,she is short of bauxite1 but makes large quantities of carborundum4 ,japan probably can supply her needs by drawing on ,indian corundum resources and on the ,united ,states for artificial abrasives4 ,during the stringency of supply in #aiag some material was exported to the ,united ,states from ,japan4 ,,summary ,corundum and emery1 the latter a close association of corundum with certain other minerals1 are used as abrasives for grinding and polishing metals1 glass1 stone1 and wood4 ,many of the operations formerly performed with emery and corundum are now being performed with artificial carbide and alumina abrasives4 ,the deposits of emery and corundum are few in number1 but their product is ample for all present needs4 ,commercially important deposits are situated in the ,appalachian region of the ,united ,states2 on the islands of the ,grecian ,archipelago1 especially the ,island of ,naxos2 in the ,province of ,aidin1 in ,asia ,minor2 in the presidency of ,madras and the provinces of ,punjab1 ,bengal1 and ,travancore1 ,india2 in ,madagascar2 and in the ,transvaal near ,pretoria4 ,the geological formation of emery and corundum deposits makes impossible any accurate estimate of reserves or any forecast of future discoveries4 ,the political control of the emery and corundum resources of the world corresponds to the geographical location except as regards the deposits on the ,island of ,naxos4 ,this island is ,grecian territory1 but the ,french government during the war assumed control of the emery industry and allocated supplies of the abrasive only to the industries of ,france and her allies4 ,the deposits of ,asia ,minor are at present 7#aibj7 nominally in the control of ,turkey1 but actually partly in the coastal strips seized and held by the ,italians and the ,greeks after the armistice4 ,madagascar is a ,french possession1 and the ,transvaal and ,india are parts of the ,british ,empire4 ,the deposits of the ,united ,states are owned by a number of small independent operators1 all ,american as far as is known4 ,the ,canadian deposits are controlled largely by one company1 the ,manufacturers ,corundum ,co41 whose owners are predominantly or entirely ,canadian4 ,the ,greek emery deposits1 particularly those of ,naxos1 are claimed to be the inalienable property of the families resident on the island4 ,,table #fd4--,,production ,,of ,,emery ,,and ,,corundum1 #aiaj-aiag ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,emery ,corundum ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,united ,united ,mada- ,so4 ,states ,greece ,states ,canada ,india gascar,africa #adi #adi ,turkey #adi #adi #adi #adi #adi ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,ore ,grains ,grains ,ore shipped ,grains ,grains or ore or ore pro- from pro- ,grains pro- pro- pro- duced ,syria ducedshipped duced duced duced 7long7metric 7long 7long 7long7metric 7long tons7 tons7 tons7 tons7 tons7 tons7 tons7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #aiaj #idj #ab1ici #aej #aea #a1ffj #bah #aa #aej #aiaa #fbj #i1hde #aej #aea #a1bgj #bge #aej #aej #aiab #hgj #g1fhg #aej #aea #a1fjj #cde #dif #ii #aiac #ijj #a1ddj #aej #aea #a1jij #cee #a1jii #aej #aiad #dfj #aj1bbf #aej #aea #ejj #aje #eef #aej #aiae #b1hdj #aej #aej #aeb #bbj #fb #cbg #aej #aiafad1djj #aej #aej #aeb #fj #a1hfh #iad #aej #aiagae1djj #aej #aej #ggj #afj #aej #aea #d1jea #aec ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #adi ,statistics for ,united ,states from ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey2 for ,canada1 ,canada ,dept4 ,mines2 for ,greece1 ,british ,consular ,reports quoted in 8,mineral ,industry20 for ,india1 ,records ,india ,geol4 ,survey2 for ,madagascar1 ,service des ,mines1 ,madagascar2 for ,south ,africa1 ,american ,consular ,reports4 #aej ,figures not available4 #aea ,no production4 #aeb ,small unrecorded amount4 #aec ,nine months1 ,jan4-,june and ,oct4-,dec4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,magnesite ,,by ,r4 ,w4 ,,stone ,,uses ,,of ,,magnesite ,magnesite and its derived products are used in a variety of industries1 the most essential of which1 beyond doubt1 is metallurgy4 ,owing to the high fusion point and chemical inertness of the oxide of magnesium1 magnesite is one of the principal minerals used in the metallurgical and other industries where highly refractory material is required4 ,for this purpose dead-burned magnesite is used in the form of brick or of grains4 ,brick and shapes are employed for lining open-hearth steel furnaces1 welding1 heating1 and melting furnaces1 reverberatories1 settlers1 and furnaces for refining lead1 copper converters1 and electrical furnaces4 ,crushed or granular magnesite is used for lining the bottoms of open-hearth steel furnaces1 and in making crucibles and cupels4 ,in the manufacture of the cement known as oxychloride or ,sorel cement the quantity of magnesite used is exceeded only by that used for refractory purposes4 ,this cement is employed largely for sanitary flooring1 and to a less extent for wall plaster1 both interior and exterior4 ,it is used also instead of ,portland cement for some forms of exterior construction where quick and strong set is required4 ,magnesite is used in the manufacture of wood-pulp paper on the ,pacific ,coast1 in fire-resisting paint1 as a non-conductor of heat in pipe and furnace coverings1 and in the manufacture of magnesium chloride1 light carbonate1 and other products1 including metallic magnesium4 ,,geological ,,occurrence ,deposits of magnesite are widely distributed throughout the world and occur in two distinct forms1 amorphous and crystalline4 ,amorphous magnesite1 the most common form1 is fine-grained1 and compact2 it is usually found in veins or masses in serpentine resulting from the alteration of magnesia-rich rocks of the peridotite family4 ,to this group belong the ,grecian deposits1 nearly all the ,california deposits1 and those in ,mexico1 ,venezuela1 and other parts of the world4 ,crystalline magnesite is medium to coarse grained1 and occurs as masses in limestone1 dolomite or associated sediments which have been metamorphosed4 ,the principal deposits of this class are those in ,austria1 ,hungary1 ,quebec1 and ,washington4 ,deposits of magnesite are regarded as having originated in three ways4 ,the massive non-crystalline variety1 such as that in ,california and ,greece1 is believed to have been formed by the decomposition of serpentine4 ,magnesite deposits near ,bissel1 ,california1 and on ,muddy ,river1 near ,st4 ,thomas1 ,nevada1 are said to be of sedimentary origin4 ,the ,austro-,hungarian1 ,washington1 and ,quebec deposits are regarded as resulting from the replacement of calcareous sedimentary rocks by magnesian-bearing solutions4 ,magnesite deposits that occur as veins in connection with serpentinized magnesian rocks probably are formed both from the breaking down of the serpentine-making minerals and from the serpentine itself4 ,it seems probable that usually both serpentine and magnesite are formed in the process of decay of the original minerals in peridotite and the allied basic rocks1 and that during the decay of the serpentine the formation of magnesite continues4 ,in any case the magnesia or magnesian mineral is changed to carbonate1 dissolved by percolating water charged with carbon dioxide1 and precipitated in cracks and crevices as veins4 ,when formed in this way the magnesite occurs in large and small veins1 lenses1 and stockwork1 and its distribution and extent are erratic4 ,it seems fair to assume that these deposits may extend to the limit of depth of easily circulating surface waters1 which in favorable conditions may be several hundred feet4 ,faulting1 on the other hand1 is as likely to cut the veins off in depth as in length4 ,any estimate of available tonnage of magnesite in deposits of this type therefore is unwarranted in advance of development work4 ,sedimentary deposits such as those of ,bissel1 ,california1 and near ,st4 ,thomas1 ,nevada1 are by their nature more regular in occurrence1 and their tonnage can be estimated from the outcrop in natural exposures and prospects4 ,replacement deposits like those in ,washington and ,quebec are not so regular as the sedimentary deposits1 but are more regular than the veins1 and tonnage estimates may be based on the surface exposure and an assumed depth of #ej to #ajj feet4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,the known distribution of magnesite deposits is as follows3 ,north ,america4 ,canada3 ,quebec1 ,british ,columbia and elsewhere4 ,united ,states3 ,california1 ,washington1 ,nevada4 ,mexico3 ,lower ,california on ,santa ,margarita ,island4 ,south ,america4 ,venezuela3 ,island of ,margarita4 ,europe4 ,austria1 ,hungary1 ,germany1 ,greece1 ,italy1 ,macedonia1 ,norway1 ,sweden1 ,russia4 ,africa4 ,transvaal1 ,rhodesia1 ,portuguese ,west ,africa4 ,asia4 ,india1 in ,madras and ,mysore4 ,australia4 ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales1 ,south ,australia1 ,tasmania4 ,oceania4 ,new ,caledonia4 ,the following description by countries is in the order given above3 ,north ,america4 ,canada4--,the principal magnesite deposits in ,canada are in the ,grenville district1 ,argenteuil ,county1 ,quebec1 where the mineral is associated with serpentine1 dolomite1 and other minerals4 ,the magnesite in the ,grenville district is a glistening cream-white to milk-white or gray material that occurs in extensive masses associated with bands or lenses of dark green to light-yellow serpentine4 ,throughout the great mass of the deposits the magnesite and dolomite are so similar in appearance that the detecting of dolomite is difficult4 ,there is considerable positive evidence in support of the hypothesis that the deposits have been formed by the solution and replacement of crystalline limestone through the agency of magnesia-rich solutions4 ,outcrops of the deposits are up to #a1jjj feet long and #cjj feet wide4 ,it is estimated that there are in sight #fhf1ijj tons of magnesite containing less than #ab per cent4 ,ca,o and #dhc1gjj tons of magnesite-dolomite containing more than #ab per cent4 ,ca,o4 ,in the ,atlin mining district1 in ,british ,columbia1 both magnesite and hydromagnesite have been noted1 but the extensive masses of hydromagnesite near the town of ,atlin are the most important4 ,these deposits are superficial beds of fine powdery white hydromagnesite #f to #h feet thick1 that cover areas up to #ah acres in extent4 ,two groups of these deposits are estimated to contain #ahj1jjj tons of hydromagnesite4 ,united ,states4--,magnesite in commercial quantity occurs in ,california1 ,nevada1 and ,washington4 ,reports of workable deposits in other states have not been verified4 ,in ,california there are magnesite deposits in many places throughout the ,coast ,range and on the west slope of the ,sierras1 from ,mendocino and ,placer counties on the north to ,riverside ,county on the south4 ,before the war1 mining was limited to a few localities and the annual output was about #aj1jjj tons1 but the demand caused by large reduction in imports started active prospecting and development1 with the result that in #aiag thirteen counties yielded a total of #baa1ffc tons1 valued at #b1aaf1fcj4 ,in nine counties the deposits are large and in four counties only small deposits have been found as yet4 ,the most important deposits are in ,napa1 ,santa ,clara1 ,san ,benito1 and ,tulare counties4 ,in #aiag1 #fc per cent4 of the crude magnesite produced was mined in ,tulare ,county4 ,practically all of the ,california magnesite deposits are irregular veins in serpentine1 resulting from the alteration of magnesian igneous rocks4 ,in the state of ,washington deposits of crystalline magnesite have been found at several places4 ,the ,washington magnesite differs greatly from the ,california deposits and occurs in larger masses4 ,it is coarsely crystalline1 like marble or coarse textured dolomite1 and is red1 pink1 black1 white1 and gray4 ,the ,stevens ,county magnesite has been formed by the replacement of lenses of dolomite in sedimentary rocks4 ,the recrystallization of the purer magnesian carbonate may have been secondary and influenced by the intrusion of basic magnesian rock which occurs above and below the magnesite in some places4 ,the larger deposits are #bjj or more feet thick and #a1jjj or more feet long4 ,estimates of one million tons within #ajj feet of the surface are reasonable for at least three of the deposits4 ,mining in ,washington began in ,december1 #aiaf1 with a production of #gae tons4 ,the output in #aiag was #aje1age tons1 valued at #ghc1ahh4 ,the only known deposit of magnesite in ,nevada is an extensive sedimentary bed in the valley of ,muddy ,river1 ,clark ,county4 ,the magnesite carries more than #e per cent4 lime and more than #aa per cent4 silica4 ,it has not been developed4 ,the total production of magnesite in the ,united ,states in #aiae was #cj1dii short tons2 in #aiaf1 #aed1igd short tons2 in #aiag1 #caf1hch short tons2 and in #aiah1 #bca1fje short tons4 ,mexico4--,on the ,island of ,santa ,margarita1 in ,magdalena ,bay1 ,lower ,california1 are extensive deposits of magnesite from which exports have been made to the ,united ,states4 ,walls of canyons in the mountains show masses of magnesite several feet thick1 and magnesite boulders strew the stream beds4 ,large quantities can be obtained without mining and need only to be broken up for shipment4 ,an analysis of calcined magnesite from ,santa ,margarita ,island shows practically no silica1 lime1 or iron4 ,south ,america4--,the deposits on ,margarita ,island1 ,venezuela1 are of the amorphous or ,california type and occur in veins and stockwork4 ,no information is available regarding their extent1 but #ejj tons were exported to the ,united ,states in #aiae4 ,europe4--,the magnesite deposits of ,austria and ,hungary1 which until recently furnished much of the world's supply1 extend along a northeast line for several hundred miles across the two countries4 ,the mineral occurs in lenses4 ,a large deposit near ,veitsch1 ,austria1 measures #gjj to #hjj feet from the top to the base4 ,the ore is quarried in a series of benches4 ,another very large deposit in ,austria is at ,radenthein4 ,the magnesite is quarried by great cuts1 and lowered by gravity to rotary kilns4 ,calcining is done near the mine and both grain and magnesite bricks are shipped4 ,the property was owned by ,americans before the war and much of the output went to ,american ports4 ,the magnesite in these deposits is crystalline and occurs in dolomite1 probably of ,carboniferous age1 from which it was derived by the infiltration of magnesium carbonate solutions and the leaching out of soluble calcium carbonate4 ,it is finely to coarsely crystalline1 yellow or bluish-white1 carries #c to #d4e per cent4 iron oxide1 less than #b per cent4 silica1 and less than #c per cent4 lime4 ,it calcines readily to the dead-burned state and makes satisfactory grain magnesite and brick for refractory purposes4 ,deposits of magnesite were worked for many years near ,frankenstein1 ,silesia1 ,germany4 ,in the ,province of ,santander1 in northern ,spain1 coarse crystalline magnesite lying in ,lower ,cretaceous limestone and dolomite has been mined for a number of years4 ,the production in #aiae was #a1djj tons4 ,in ,greece1 magnesite is of the non-crystalline type and occurs associated with serpentine in veins and masses4 ,the most important deposits are on the ,island of ,euboea4 ,the ,euboean deposits are all close to the seashore1 and under normal conditions cheap water transportation to the principal magnesite markets of the world is available4 ,the production of ,greek magnesite in #aiad was mainly in the hands of three companies3 the ,anglo-,greek ,magnesite ,co41 #bd ,finsbury ,sq41 ,london2 the ,socit ,hellenique des ,mines1 ,athens2 and the ,hellenic ,magnesite ,co41 ,athens4 ,the distribution of the magnesite is controlled by the ,london company4 ,the ,anglo-,greek ,magnesite ,co4 works mines at ,galataki and ,afration1 in ,euboea4 ,at the ,galataki mines the vein of ore exposed is known to be #a1cjj feet long and #ej to #fj feet wide4 ,the ,socit ,hellenique des ,mines 7now called ,the ,financial ,corporation of ,greece1 ,ltd417 controls the production of several mines at ,mantoudi1 ,limni1 ,larimna1 etc4 ,the ,hellenic ,magnesite ,co4 obtains most of its ore from surface excavations4 ,in #aiab the production of magnesite by several companies in ,greece1 7not including the ,hellenic ,magnesite ,co47 was as follows3 ,raw magnesite1 #hg1cch tons2 calcined magnesite1 #cj1fde tons2 dead-burned magnesite1 #c1bja tons4 ,this is equivalent to about #aej1jjj tons of crude ore1 and does not include the product of one of the three largest producers4 ,the magnesite from ,greece and that from ,california are practically identical in physical and chemical character1 but prior to #aiae the ,california material could not compete with the ,grecian in the ,new ,york market1 because of the transcontinental freight rate being so high in comparison with the ocean freight on material brought as ballast4 ,magnesite is found in large quantities in ,macedonia1 occurring as veins in serpentine4 ,magnesite deposits1 formerly worked1 occur in ,italy in the ,turin district1 and on the ,island of ,elba4 ,none of the deposits seems to be large4 ,an analysis of magnesite from the ,island of ,elba shows over #h per cent4 silica1 a trace of iron1 and from #a to #c4e per cent4 lime4 ,magnesite occurs in ,norway as small veins in serpentine1 but1 unlike other magnesite in serpentine1 it is crystalline4 ,it is remarkable in that it shows no lime1 but it carries over #d per cent4 iron and #i per cent4 silica4 ,it is calcined and made into brick4 ,deposits similar to those in ,norway are found in ,sweden1 but on account of their situation1 which entails heavy operating and transportation expenses1 it is doubtful if they will ever be able to compete with cheaper ,european magnesite4 ,magnesite has been mined in the ,orenburg government1 ,russia4 ,one mine yielded #bf1cbj metric tons in #aijf4 ,magnesite occurs also on the north slope of the ,caucasus ,mountains4 ,africa4--,extensive deposits of magnesite occur in the ,transvaal1 as veins1 that range up to #d feet in thickness4 ,the rock is used for making carbon dioxide and oxychloride cement4 ,great deposits of magnesite are reported in ,portuguese ,west ,africa4 ,the deposits are near1 or associated with1 boiling springs4 ,asia4--,the most important occurrence of magnesite in ,india seems to be in the ,madras presidency1 in the southern part of the peninsula of ,hindustan1 where the mineral occurs in interlacing veins4 ,the main deposits have produced more than #b1jjj tons in a single year4 ,crystalline magnesite occurs in limestone in the ,manchuria mountains1 and is mined at ,daisetsukyo for refractory purposes4 ,magnesite is reported in ,asiatic ,turkey about #ge kilometers from ,smyrna4 ,australia4--,the deposits of magnesite in ,queensland are so small that they probably have no commercial value4 ,rounded blocks of pure white magnesite outcrop in one locality in ,new ,south ,wales1 where many thousands of tons are available at small cost4 ,an analysis shows #ii4ja per cent4 magnesium carbonate and no lime4 ,large deposits of magnesite are reported in ,south ,australia4 ,extensive deposits also occur on the north end of the west coast of ,new ,caledonia4 ,a small quantity has been exported4 ,,political ,,and ,,commercial ,,control ,the magnesite deposits that play a notable part in the world's economy are situated in ,canada1 ,united ,states1 ,austria-,hungary1 and ,greece4 ,united ,states4--,the principal magnesite deposits in the ,state of ,washington are owned by the ,northwest ,magnesite ,co41 ,spokane1 ,wash42 ,valley ,magnesite ,co41 ,spokane1 ,wash42 and ,american ,mineral ,production ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,the ,northwest ,magnesite ,co4 is the largest producer in the ,washington field and probably has made the largest investment4 ,the ,american ,mineral ,production ,co4 has a plant at ,valley1 ,wash42 the ,valley ,magnesite ,co4 has a deposit near ,valley1 but is not operating it4 ,the principal producers of magnesite in ,california in the summer of #aiah were the ,tulare ,mining ,co41 with a mine near ,porterville2 ,porterville ,magnesite ,co4 of ,california1 with mine at ,porterville2 ,western ,magnesite ,development ,co41 with a mine at ,red ,mountain2 and ,frank ,r4 ,sweasy1 working the ,white ,rock mine1 ,pope ,valley1 ,napa ,county4 ,austria4--,the ,veitscher ,magnesite ,co41 of ,vienna1 and the ,magnesite ,co41 ,ltd41 of ,budapest1 formed a combination or cartel1 with the understanding or agreement that all the sales of magnesite outside of ,austria and ,hungary had to be made through ,carl ,spater ,co41 a ,german firm in ,coblenz1 ,germany4 ,the firm of ,carl ,spater ,co4 formerly owned the works of the ,veitscher ,magnesite ,co41 but sold out and obtained the perpetual selling agency when the stock company was formed4 ,the ,harbison-,walker ,refractories ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,penn41 is said to have been the ,american representative of ,spater ,co4 ,the ,austro-,american ,magnesite ,co41 whose deposit and works at ,radenthein1 ,austria1 represent an investment of #a1hjj1jjj1 is owned by ,americans4 ,the entire stock is absolutely controlled by the principal stockholders of the ,american ,refractories ,co41 or was so controlled before the war4 ,the ,austro-,american ,magnesite ,co41 it is claimed1 was doing virtually #ie per cent4 of the magnesite business in ,england before the war1 and about #fe to #gj per cent4 of the business in the ,united ,states4 ,this company has a capacity of #aej1jjj tons of calcined magnesite a year4 ,when it was found that ,carl ,spater ,co41 who handle both magnesite and magnesite brick made by the ,veitscher ,magnesite ,co4 and the ,magnesite ,co41 ,ltd41 would not sell magnesite to the ,english refractory brick makers1 the ,austro-,american ,magnesite ,co4 formed a selling company in ,england1 called the ,anglo-,austrian ,magnesite ,co41 of ,sheffield1 ,england4 ,the ,english company sold magnesite from the ,austro-,american ,magnesite ,co4 works at ,radenthein1 ,austria1 to all the refractory brick manufacturers of ,england1 and virtually took all the ,english trade from the ,germans4 ,the ,general ,magnesite ,co41 of ,budapest1 has a magnesite deposit and plant at ,hizonvich 7,hisnyoviz871 ,hungary4 ,the stock of this company is believed to be owned principally by stockholders of the ,general ,refractories ,co41 #aaa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 ,the balance of the stock1 believed to be about #dj per cent41 is owned by some ,hungarians of ,budapest1 represented by ,mr4 ,gunst1 of ,budapest1 president of the company4 ,according to the ,united ,states ,department of ,commerce1#aed there are seven companies exploiting magnesite in ,greece3 ,the ,anglo-,greek ,magnesite ,co41 ,ltd41 with head offices in ,london1 ,england2 the ,socit ,financire de ,grce1 ,solon and ,lycabettus ,streets1 ,athens2 ,the ,internationale ,magnesite ,werken1 with head offices in ,rotterdam1 ,netherlands2 ,l4 ,carambelas1 ,limni1 ,euboea2 ,n4 ,papantonatos1 ,limni1 ,euboea2 ,g4 ,a4 ,georgidades1 ,athens1 7exploiting a concession on behalf of the ,general ,magnesite ,magnesia ,co41 of ,philadelphia72 and ,alexiou1 ,daphnopotamos1 ,euboea4 ,most of the producers in #aiag had an abundance of orders for magnesite to be used in the steel industry in ,france and ,england4 #aed ,commerce ,reports1 ,may #a1 #aiag4 ,,summary ,the principal and most essential use of magnesite is in metallurgy1 as a refractory material for lining furnaces4 ,magnesite is also used in the manufacture of ,sorel cement and of paper from wood-pulp1 in fire-resisting paints1 as a non-conductor of heat in pipe and furnace coverings1 and in the manufacture of magnesium chloride1 light carbonate and other products1 including metallic magnesium4 ,magnesite occurs in two forms1 amorphous and crystalline1 and the deposits originate in three ways3 by the decomposition of serpentine1 as sedimentary deposits1 and by the replacement of calcareous sedimentary rocks by magnesium-bearing solutions4 ,in advance of development work it is impossible to make reliable estimates of available tonnage of the first type1 but fairly accurate estimates can be made of deposits of the second and third types4 ,developed magnesite deposits that have been productive at one time are situated in ,california and ,washington2 in ,quebec and ,british ,columbia1 ,canada2 on ,santa ,margarita ,island1 ,lower ,california2 on the ,island of ,margarita1 ,venezuela2 in ,austria-,hungary1 ,germany1 ,spain1 ,greece1 ,macedonia1 ,russia1 ,norway1 ,transvaal1 and ,india4 ,other deposits1 some of which have produced small amounts1 are situated in ,nevada1 ,ontario1 ,new ,brunswick1 on ,cedros ,island1 ,lower ,california2 in ,asia ,minor1 ,sweden1 ,rhodesia1 ,portuguese ,west ,africa1 ,australia1 ,tasmania1 and ,new ,caledonia4 ,there is no reason to believe that there will be in the near future any marked shift in the important sources of supply4 ,in #aiaf and #aiag the production from the deposits of the ,pacific ,coast of the ,united ,states increased very rapidly1 but since ,january1 #aiah1 there has been a severe slump in ,california production4 ,the magnesite deposits of ,california and ,washington are owned by a number of companies1 all of them ,american4 ,american refractory manufacturers are believed to be interested in some of the ,canadian deposits4 ,the deposits on ,santa ,margarita and ,cedros islands1 ,lower ,california1 seem to be owned or operated for the most part by residents of ,california4 ,the deposits off the coast of ,venezuela are held by a ,philadelphia company4 ,two of the large magnesite companies of ,austria-,hungary have agreed to make all of their sales outside of ,austria-,hungary through a ,german firm in ,coblenz4 ,two other companies1 the ,austro-,american ,magnesite ,co4 and the ,general ,magnesite ,co41 are owned mainly by ,americans4 ,the magnesite deposits of ,greece are controlled by seven companies1 one of them being ,english1 one ,american1 one ,dutch1 and the remainder seemingly ,greek4 ,the other magnesite deposits of the world are of little importance at present4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,graphite ,,by ,h4 ,g4 ,,ferguson1 ,,frank ,f4 ,,grout1 ,,and ,,george ,d4 ,,dub ,,uses ,,of ,,graphite ,graphite is produced in several grades which are adapted to different purposes4 ,amorphous graphite is a trade term applied to non-crystalline or very fine-grained graphite of varying degrees of purity4 ,if crystalline graphite is produced in flakes or scales1 it is flake graphite2 but if mined from veins it may have other forms1 and be known as vein graphite4 ,lump1 chip1 and dust refer to products of larger crystals of ,ceylon vein graphite more or less broken in mining and treatment4 ,all those three are spoken of as crystalline4 ,artificial graphite1 made from coal or other carbonaceous matter1 resembles the amorphous variety4 ,graphite for crucible use must be high grade1 either lump1 chip1 or flake graphite1 contain at least #he per cent4 graphitic carbon and be free from fluxing impurities4 ,vein graphite is considered especially desirable for this use4 ,possibly the increased development of the electric furnace in the steel industry and in non-ferrous metallurgy will reduce the demand for crucibles4 ,both crystalline and amorphous graphite are used as lubricants4 ,for this purpose the graphite should be free from quartz or other gritty impurities4 ,for foundry facings1 amorphous graphite and ,ceylon dust are chiefly used2 high-grade material is not required4 ,for the better grades of pencils1 mixtures of crystalline and high-grade amorphous are needed2 for the poorer grades1 amorphous is used alone4 ,the graphite used as polish for high explosives is amorphous4 ,this use does not consume large amounts4 ,for the manufacture of electrodes1 artificial graphite is considered the most suitable4 ,the graphite used as dry battery filler may be either amorphous1 artificial or crystalline4 ,pure material is required1 but the size of grain is not a factor4 ,amorphous graphite is used in boiler compounds for preventing hard scale2 pure material is not essential4 ,for paints1 either amorphous or crystalline graphite may be used and need not be high grade4 ,for stove polish and shoe polish amorphous graphite is chiefly used2 imperial graphite is used as an adulterant in fertilizers1 to give the desired dark color4 ,for amorphous graphite and dust1 artificial graphite may be substituted4 ,for crystalline graphite used in the manufacture of crucibles no good substitute is available4 ,however1 the use of electric furnaces or open-flame furnaces in non-ferrous metallurgy may reduce the need of crucibles4 ,for lubricating1 mica is used in somewhat the same way as graphite but is much inferior4 ,many other boiler compounds serve the same purpose as graphite4 ,in paints1 lampblack is a substitute4 ,talc is used in connection with and as a partial substitute for graphite in foundry work4 ,blast furnace graphite1 or 8kish10 offers possibilities as a substitute for flake graphite for lubricating purposes4 ,developments along this line1 however1 have not proceeded far enough to be conclusive4 ,,geological ,,occurrence ,amorphous graphite may occur wherever coal or other carbonaceous beds have undergone regional or igneous metamorphism4 ,crystalline graphite has two principal geologic occurrences1 as flakes in schists and as larger crystals in veins4 ,flake graphite in schists is usually associated with granitic intrusions which appear to have aided recrystallization of original carbonaceous material in the sediments4 ,vein graphite in commercial quantities is rather rare4 ,it is found associated with granitic intrusives and generally with graphitic sediments containing the flake variety4 ,such rocks in most parts of the world have not been prospected enough to make sure that all important bodies of graphite are discovered4 ,,world ,,capacity ,,for ,,graphite ,,production ,in the order of their importance the following table lists the various countries which produce graphite or in which graphite deposits have been reported3 #a4 ,crystalline ,graphite ,a4 ,vein ,graphite ,ceylon--could produce up to #ce1jjj short tons per year1 all grades4 ,united ,states--small production from ,montana4 ,canada--small amount recently produced4 ,b4 ,flake ,graphite ,madagascar--could produce up to nearly #ej1jjj short tons per year4 ,bavaria--has averaged #ab1jjj tons for several pre-war years1 and greatly increased production during the war4 ,produced #dj1jjj metric tons in #aiag4 ,united ,states--could readily produce #d1jjj tons of flake exclusive of dust4 ,canada--could probably produce #a1bjj tons of flake exclusive of dust4 ,spain--deposits being developed4 ,norway--new development reported4 ,roumania--important deposits recently reported4 ,japan--has not produced very much4 ,sweden--very small production4 ,transvaal--very small production1 locally consumed4 ,greenland--large deposits reported4 ,very little development4 ,brazil ,german ,east ,africa 7former7--deposits of supposed large extent reported4 #b4 ,amorphous ,graphite ,german ,austria --has long produced large amount of graphite ,czecko-,slovakia annually4 ,chosen--could probably produce #ab1jjj tons per annum4 ,italy--could probably produce #ab1jjj tons per annum4 ,mexico--could probably produce #f1jjj tons per annum4 ,united ,states--could readily produce #f1jjj tons natural and #f1jjj tons artificial amorphous graphite4 ,spain--could probably produce #a1jjj tons annually4 ,france--could probably produce #a1jjj tons annually4 ,siberia--large amount available but undeveloped4 ,rhodesia--local supply4 ,brazil--supply undeveloped4 ,queensland--supply undeveloped4 ,,future ,,developments ,although no definite data are available1 it is believed that ,ceylon can not produce much longer at the present rate1 and it is possible that the virtual exhaustion of the deposits is not far distant4 ,madagascar is capable of greatly increased production4 ,it is doubtful if ,american deposits with less than #e per cent4 graphite will be able to meet free competition from ,madagascar1 where over #bj per cent4 of the rock as mined is graphite4 ,too little is known of the ,greenland and ,brazilian deposits to hazard a guess as to their future importance1 but it is reported that immense reserves exist in ,greenland4 ,the ,german flake deposits will hardly survive free competition from ,madagascar1 unless modern methods are introduced4 ,amorphous graphite will probably be chiefly produced1 as at present1 by ,austria1 ,bohemia1 ,mexico and ,chosen4 ,mexico and ,chosen are likely to supply most of the pencil graphite of the world4 ,increased production of artificial graphite may reduce the demand for amorphous graphite4 ,in #aiah1 notices in the ,german technical press told of the discovery of immense deposits of flake graphite in ,roumania4 ,these were to be worked jointly by the ,german and ,austrian governments under a #ge year lease from the ,roumanian government4 ,the outcome of the war of course annulled this arrangement4 ,vein graphite 7that is1 ,ceylon graphite7 is preferred for crucible manufacture1 but increasing amounts of flake are being used successfully4 ,european manufacturers seem to use flake almost exclusively2 and ,american manufacturers will no doubt find it possible1 if necessary4 ,increasing amounts of amorphous graphite are being employed for various industrial uses1 chiefly foundry facings4 ,the development of the electric steel furnace1 by reducing the use of crucibles1 may tend in some degree to reduce the difference in value between crystalline and amorphous graphite4 ,,political ,,and ,,commercial ,,control ,amorphous graphite is so widely distributed that no serious difficulty is likely to be encountered by any of the great commercial nations in filling their vital needs4 ,mexican graphite is the chief supply of good material for pencils4 ,interest centers in the material capable of being made into crucibles4 ,crucible graphite has been produced in the past mostly in ,ceylon4 ,its granular form 7characteristic of vein graphite7 has been assumed by crucible makers to be the best4 ,the deposits are worked mostly by small local owners in ,ceylon1 and the output is controlled by the ,british through state sovereignty and shipping4 ,control by ownership and operation with modern plant was attempted by an ,english company1 but met native opposition until a few years ago4 ,recently ,madagascar flake graphite has largely replaced ,ceylon material in ,european practice4 ,this deposit is under ,french sovereignty and the ,french exercise a large degree of commercial control4 ,the flake graphite of the ,united ,states has not yet reached a high development4 ,there are large reserves of schist with about #e per cent4 graphite4 ,bavarian material is crystalline though not of such good quality4 ,it is under ,german control4 ,prior to the war1 mining and milling methods were primitive1 and the product correspondingly poor4 ,canada1 ,norway1 ,sweden1 ,greenland1 ,brazil and possibly others have reserves of flake within their boundaries4 ,japan has a small production of flake graphite and controls a supply in ,chosen4 ,american control of ,mexican mines brings the entire ,mexican output to this country for refining and re-export4 ,one of the large ,canadian mines is also owned in the ,united ,states4 ,when the ,british supply in ,ceylon declined and the ,madagascar production increased1 the ,british1 who had always controlled the world's main supply1 did not readily relinquish control4 ,they bought a large part of the ,madagascar product and have a concentrating plant on the island4 ,the ,morgan ,crucible ,co41 of ,london1 operates on the island as the ,french company 8,graphites ,maskar10 but this is a subsidiary of the ,london company and the control is entirely ,british4 ,this is not the only plant1 however1 working on the island4 ,one large company before the war had its main office in ,hamburg1 ,germany1 one at ,antwerp1 and there were several ,french companies4 ,some ,austrian mines were owned by ,belgian companies prior to the war1 and ,english interests own a part of the ,italian deposits4 ,during the war the ,french and ,british1 having adopted the ,madagascar graphite successfully1 apparently arranged an agreement by which that supply should be used in ,europe1 while ,ceylon graphite was sent mostly to the ,united ,states4 ,the control was only possible by a combination of ,british and ,french1 apparently a commercial rather than a political matter1 though subject to government control4 ,there appears to be a combination among ,madagascar graphite producers1 as evidenced by a statement from the consul in ,tananarive in ,november1 #aiah1 that the 8,union des ,producteurs de ,graphite0 could furnish to this country annually #ae1jjj-bj1jjj tons of #he per cent4 graphite at a definite price1 f4o4b4 ,tamatave4 ,the object of the combine appears to be to protect producers against unfair practices of the manufacturer4 ,the ,colombo ,graphite ,union is mentioned in some sources as a local combination1 probably interrelated with the ,ceylon ,chamber of ,commerce4 ,it has not been active in improving mining and milling methods1 and has also objected to modernization by outside capital4 ,the ,graphite ,producers' ,association of ,alabama was organized in #aiag and had for its objects the furthering of the interests of the graphite miners of the state4 ,an effort was made to sample and analyze shipments honestly and thus help remove the most serious objections that manufacturers had against using domestic flake--unreliability of product4 ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,nations ,low-grade amorphous graphite is abundant in the ,united ,states4 ,there are supplies in many states and in ,alaska1 which have not been developed to any extent4 ,an excellent grade of material from ,mexico is available in large amounts1 making extensive domestic development unprofitable1 except when the deposits are very favorably situated4 ,the most productive ,mexican deposit is owned by the ,united ,states ,graphite ,co41 of ,saginaw1 ,mich4 ,artificial graphite is made at ,niagara ,falls in large amounts1 making the country independent in the matter of electrodes4 ,this country is not yet independent in the matter of crucible graphite4 ,crucible makers have insisted on having ,ceylon graphite1 about #ae1jjj tons or more a year4 ,the only supply of similar graphite in the country is a very small deposit in ,montana4 ,however1 there is a fair supply of flake graphite in ,alabama1 ,pennsylvania1 ,new ,york1 ,alaska1 ,texas and possibly other states4 ,some #c1ejj tons a year were produced prior to #aiai4 ,this resembles ,madagascar rather than ,ceylon graphite1 though the flakes are smaller4 ,american crucible makers are slow to make use of it1 though there is evidence that it might serve very well4 ,if the demand for crucible graphite continues1 the demand for imports will probably continue4 ,our deposits are not so high grade or so favorably situated as to compete successfully with those of ,ceylon and ,madagascar4 ,canadian companies producing flake similar to that in the ,united ,states are in part owned by ,united ,states capital4 ,the flake graphite supply for crucible makers in normal times may come from ,madagascar1 but we can be fairly independent in case of necessity if we are prepared to stimulate mining in this country4 ,england controls the graphite from ,ceylon4 ,however1 there seems to be a general opinion that ,ceylon production is likely to decrease unless the control passes into the hands of some one who will introduce modern efficient mining methods4 ,england normally allows about two-thirds of the ,ceylon product to come to the ,united ,states4 ,england's own supply of crucible graphite is now mainly obtained from ,madagascar1 where an ,english owned and controlled company operates on the island4 ,amorphous graphite is obtained from ,italy and ,chosen4 ,a ,london company operates in ,quebec1 producing some flake and dust4 ,english capital is invested in ,italian graphite deposits and apparently also in the ,spanish4 ,through her sovereignty over ,madagascar1 ,france probably controls the world's best future supplies of flake graphite4 ,the deposits are large1 conveniently situated1 and remarkably rich--#bj per cent4 or more graphite4 ,they are capable of greatly increased production4 ,already the output exceeds that of any other country1 though the deposits have been developed but recently4 ,france has a small local production of amorphous graphite1 and obtains some from ,italy4 ,germany is now chiefly dependent on ,bavarian flake graphite for crucibles4 ,the efforts made during the war to get ,ceylon graphite in through ,holland and ,switzerland indicate that the ,bavarian supply is not wholly satisfactory4 ,amorphous graphite is supplied from ,austria4 ,overproduction has made it possible at times to sell the products in ,america below cost4 ,japan produces some flake graphite4 ,chosen has an abundant supply of the amorphous variety4 ,in ,chosen there have been recent discoveries of crystalline graphite which may be of importance4 ,figure #aa shows the changes in the annual output of graphite in the chief producing countries1 and ,figure #ab shows the percentage of crucible graphites produced by the main sources of supply4 ,,summary ,graphite occurs in nature in two forms1 crystalline and amorphous1 each form having its own peculiar uses4 ,crystalline graphite is used in the manufacture of crucibles1 as a lubricant1 and in paints4 ,amorphous graphite is used as a lubricant1 for foundry facings1 in pencils1 in paints1 as a polish for high explosives1 in boiler compounds1 in electrodes1 in dry batteries1 as a stove and shoe polish1 and as a filler for fertilizers4 ,most of the above uses are essential and cannot easily be eliminated4 ,artificial graphite made from coal or other carbonaceous matter can be substituted for the natural amorphous graphite4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,annual output of graphite in chief producing countries1 #aijb-ah4 ,full lines indicate crystalline graphite2 dotted lines principally amorphous graphite4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,percentage of crucible graphite produced by main sources of supply1 #aijg-aiag4 ,bavarian data since #aiac doubtful1 but since completion of the graph it has been found that the #aiag production was much larger than shown4 ,amorphous graphite may occur wherever coal or other carbonaceous beds have undergone regional or igneous metamorphism4 ,crystalline graphite1 both flake and vein1 is usually found in association with granitic intrusives4 ,since such rocks have not been thoroughly prospected in all parts of the world1 it is probable that important new deposits of graphite will be discovered1 especially in ,canada1 ,siberia and parts of ,south ,america and ,africa4 ,ceylon is the chief source of supply of the best grades of crystalline graphite1 viz41 vein graphite4 ,the crystalline graphite obtained in ,madagascar1 ,bavaria1 and in small quantities in the ,united ,states1 ,canada1 ,norway1 ,sweden1 ,japan and ,chosen is chiefly of the flake variety and for that reason it is considered by manufacturers inferior in grade to that obtained in ,ceylon4 ,large undeveloped deposits are reported in ,greenland and ,brazil4 ,the discovery of the large deposits of flake graphite in ,roumania was reported some time since4 ,from time to time discoveries are reported from other localities but the importance is questionable1 chiefly because the deposits are usually situated in places difficult to reach4 ,it is believed that the ,ceylon deposits have passed the maximum of their production and if deposits of vein graphite of equal grade and richness could be found1 ,ceylon producers might be hard pressed4 ,during the last few years ,madagascar has become the leading producer of crystalline graphite1 and the influence of this potential supply should exert a stabilizing effect on prices of ,ceylon graphite4 ,austria1 ,chosen1 ,mexico1 ,italy and the ,united ,states are the principal producers of amorphous graphite2 ,chosen and ,mexico supply most of the pencil graphite of the world4 ,the development of the electric furnace will no doubt decrease the demand for crucibles in steel making4 ,great ,britain1 through sovereignty over ,ceylon and ,canada1 and ,france1 through sovereignty over ,madagascar1 control politically the world's most important deposits of crystalline graphite4 ,japan controls the deposits of ,chosen4 ,american capital controls the deposits of the ,united ,states1 the deposits of ,mexico1 and in part the deposits of ,canada4 ,the ,ceylon deposits have been worked mainly by small local owners1 who opposed until a few years ago the attempts of an ,english company to gain control through the erection and operation of a modern plant4 ,the ,graphites ,maskar1 owning a part of the ,madagascar deposits1 is a subsidiary of a ,british company1 the ,morgan ,crucible ,co4 ,another large ,madagascar company before the war had its main office in ,hamburg1 ,germany4 ,other companies are controlled by ,belgian and ,french capital4 ,british interests own a part of the ,italian and probably a part of the ,spanish deposits4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,mica ,,by ,,durand ,a4 ,,hall ,,uses ,,of ,,mica ,two varieties of mica are of particular economic importance3 muscovite or white mica1 and phlogopite or amber mica4 ,three other varieties1 lepidolite1 zinnwaldite and biotite1 find occasional commercial use4 ,mica is marketed as sheet or block mica1 mica splittings1 thin sheets split chiefly from smaller sizes of block mica1 and scrap or ground mica4 ,the uses to which sheet or block mica may be put depend upon the size1 thickness and shape of the piece which can be cut from it and the quality of the material itself4 ,factors entering into the quality of mica are3 presence or absence of stains1 spots1 inclusions1 cracks or pin holes2 flexibility and elasticity2 hardness2 degree of distortion of the sheets2 transparency2 and dielectric strength4 ,an essential use of sheet or block muscovite is in electrical work2 from the mica are made condensers for radio equipment1 magnetos and certain telephone equipment2 also to a less extent for resonators in sounding boxes4 ,this mica is also used in making spark plugs1 particularly plugs in high-compression engines1 for winding cores and as washers in place of porcelain4 ,these uses were widely extended by the war to meet requirements for motor transport1 airplanes and radio equipment4 ,a great deal of this variety of mica is used for other insulating purposes4 ,there are a vast variety of uses1 such as for sheets1 washers and disks in dynamos1 electric-light sockets1 guards in rheostats1 fuse boxes1 telephones1 etc4 ,sheet or block phlogopite is used for general electrical insulation--particularly where mica softer than muscovite is required4 ,mica splittings of both muscovite and phlogopite are employed for the manufacture of 8built-up mica10 which is used widely for electric insulation in many different forms1 such as sheets1 tubes1 cups1 etc4 ,mica board built up from phlogopite splittings is used extensively for insulation between the copper segments of commutators4 ,among the less essential uses of sheet or block mica 7mainly muscovite7 are in windows for stove fronts and ovens2 chimneys and shades for lamps and lanterns2 and for many other purposes where a transparent non-inflammable1 non-shattering material is required4 ,it is also used for heat insulation1 in various electric heating devices4 ,ground mica is also used for heat insulation1 as in pipe and boiler covering1 etc42 and as a patent roofing1 both as a coating to prevent sticking when rolled1 and as a filler in the roofing itself4 ,it is also used in annealing steel1 and as a lubricant for wooden bearings4 ,among the non-essential uses of mica1 those for which a satisfactory substitute is known1 are the uses of sheet or block mica for phonograph diaphragms1 and for decorative purposes1 chiefly in ,india4 ,on a similar basis are the uses of ground mica 7mixed with oil7 as a lubricant for metal bearings2 as a filler for rubber goods1 etc42 and for decorative purposes--in wall paper1 decorative paints1 ornamental stone1 etc4 ,substitutes4--,no other substance possesses the combination of elasticity1 toughness1 flexibility1 transparency1 ability to withstand excessive heat and sudden changes in temperature1 high dielectric strength1 flatness and amenability to splitting into thin films1 which belongs to mica4 ,for the vast variety of electrical equipment in which mica is used1 no satisfactory substitute has been found4 ,in the manufacture of certain low-tension condensers sheets of oiled paper have been used instead of mica films1 but attempts to substitute this material more widely have met with little success4 ,according to one report a compressed paper product called 8,pertinax0 was developed in ,germany during the war which is claimed to be 8most satisfactory0 for all electrical purposes1 even for the manufacture of high-tension condensers4 ,the fact1 however1 that ,germany was paying #ge a pound for mica from ,norway1 and continued to use mica in the manufacture of condensers for airplane magnetos1 indicates that complete substitution was not possible4 ,for a great many glazing purposes it is possible to substitute heat-withstanding or non-shattering varieties of glass4 ,,changes ,,in ,,practice ,from the nature of mica deposits there has been little encouragement for the application of any but rather crude and simple methods of mining4 ,these methods proved sufficient as long as there remained new and easily accessible deposits4 ,there is at present a tendency in ,india1 ,canada1 and the ,united ,states to apply more scientific methods to exploration and extraction1 where the exhaustion of the easily worked deposits is threatened4 ,sorting1 cleaning1 grading1 trimming and cutting of mica for the market are all essentially hand processes1 and from the nature of the product will continue to be4 ,for this reason producing localities possessing abundant cheap labor have a distinct advantage over those where labor is high and scarce4 ,in one important direction attempts have been made to apply a mechanical device to a process which has always required hand labor4 ,this is in the manufacture of mica splittings1 widely used in the manufacture of built-up mica4 ,these inventions have not yet been demonstrated as commercially successful on a broad scale4 ,mica is being used to an increasing extent for electrical purposes4 ,the war created a large demand1 particularly for the better grades of material for the manufacture of magnetos and radio condensers and spark plugs1 and many of these uses will continue to require much mica4 ,the use of mica for glazing purposes1 however1 particularly in the fronts of stoves1 is diminishing4 ,this is due to the decreasing manufacture of the type of stove in which mica is used4 ,,geological ,,distribution ,it has been estimated that mica constitutes about #d per cent4 of the igneous rocks of the world4 ,segregation into deposits of workable size containing mica of commercial size and quality is comparatively rare4 ,mica mines are worked for the small percentage of sheet or block mica they contain1 the large amount of waste mica being utilized only where a ready market warrants the grinding4 ,individual deposits of both muscovite and phlogopite are characterized by their extreme irregularity1 so that any prediction as to reserve is uncertain4 ,this fact is responsible for the crude methods of mining which have for so long been almost universally employed4 ,the output of a district as a whole is from many small mines rather than from any single large one4 ,an important consideration in the geological distribution of mica from an economic standpoint is the degree of dynamic metamorphism to which the region has been subjected during or subsequent to the formation of the mica-bearing deposits4 ,this is due to the fact that the value of sheet mica depends1 among many other factors1 upon the freedom from distortion of the sheets4 ,muscovite mica in commercial quantities invariably occurs in dikes and lenses of pegmatite which are considered to represent segregations of certain portions of granitic intrusions4 ,the principal associated minerals are quartz and feldspar1 both of which are usually considerably in excess of the mica4 ,the dikes or lenses of pegmatite may be within the granite itself or in other inclosing rocks that may seem unrelated to a parent intrusive4 ,schists or gneisses form the inclosing rock of the pegmatite in most commercial deposits4 ,phlogopite is much rarer than muscovite and occurs in deposits structurally similar to granitic pegmatites4 ,the important associated minerals are pyroxene1 apatite and calcite1 although in certain deposits the mass is almost entirely of mica4 ,the ,canadian deposits1 which are best known1 consist of veins and pockets in pyroxenite dikes and the inclosing rock is usually limestone1 a significant fact as regards the origin of the deposits4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,india1 ,canada1 and the ,united ,states produce about #ih per cent4 of the sheet mica of the world4 ,the output of ,india and of the ,united ,states is entirely muscovite1 whereas the ,canadian production is almost entirely phlogopite4 ,brazil and ,argentina have become important producers in the last two years1 and ,german ,east ,africa was becoming of considerable importance immediately before the war4 ,south ,africa1 ,guatemala1 ,ceylon1 ,madagascar and ,australia have produced small amounts of mica and may be considered as potential sources of supply4 ,india produces about #fe per cent4 of the sheet mica of the world1 and is the most important source of high quality muscovite4 ,the two principal producing regions are the ,hazaribagh district1 in the ,province of ,behar1 and ,orissa1 in ,bengal1 and the ,nellore district1 ,madras ,presidency4 ,the output of ,canada is practically all phlogopite or amber mica1 of which that country is the world's principal source4 ,the important producing districts are north of the city of ,ottawa1 in the ,province of ,quebec1 and in the central part of the ,province of ,ontario4 ,the ,lacey mine1 in ,ontario1 has been the largest producer of amber mica in ,canada for many years4 ,the ,united ,states produces about #ae per cent4 of the sheet mica muscovite of the world4 ,in terms of value1 about #gj per cent4 of the ,american product comes from ,north ,carolina1 and #bc from ,new ,hampshire4 ,other districts are insignificant3 #c per cent4 comes from ,virginia1 #a from ,south ,dakota1 and #c from ,georgia1 ,alabama1 ,idaho1 and ,colorado taken together4 ,the principal sources of mica in ,brazil are the states of ,bahia1 ,sao ,paulo1 ,goyaz and ,minas ,geraes4 ,the two last mentioned are particularly important4 ,the deposits are widely scattered over a large area4 ,production of mica in ,argentina has been incidental until very recently and the development has been slight4 ,deposits are numerous but are of special importance in the provinces of ,cordoba1 ,san ,luis and ,san ,juan4 ,as far as is known muscovite is the only mica produced4 ,considerable activity has been shown in mica mining in ,guatemala and shipments have been made quite regularly to this country4 ,the mica1 however1 is of inferior grade and has not found favor in ,american markets4 ,the production of the former ,german ,east ,africa is confined entirely to muscovite mica found in the districts of the ,ulguru ,mountains and neighboring ranges4 ,considerable quantities of high-grade material were exported to ,germany before the war4 ,the mica mines in ,german ,east ,africa were worked during the war under the direction of the ,british ,ministry of ,munitions4 ,the district is of importance as a future source of high-grade muscovite4 ,the principal locality in ,south ,africa is near ,leydersdorp1 in the ,northern ,transvaal4 ,both muscovite and amber mica are reported from this area4 ,small amounts of high-quality amber mica have been shipped from ,ceylon to ,england4 ,deposits of excellent quality mica are known to exist in the ,mc,donald range1 in ,south ,australia1 from which small shipments have been made sporadically4 ,this is the only district from which lepidolite or lithia mica has been noted in sheets of commercial size4 ,in ,china1 large deposits of muscovite mica are reported from the vicinity of ,kiao-,chau bay and also from ,shantung1 but no commercial development has taken place1 and it is believed that the deposits are worthless as a source of sheet mica4 ,prior to #aiad efforts to produce mica in ,norway on a commercial scale met with no success and little is known of the deposits4 ,the great need of mica in ,germany during the war stimulated production in ,norway1 tremendous prices being paid for the material4 ,,changes ,,in ,,known ,,geographical ,,distribution ,,in ,,the ,,near ,,future ,the most important change in known geographic distribution of mica for the near future concerns the increased development of the ,south ,american fields4 ,during the war ,brazilian mica found considerable favor both in this country and ,europe1 and the better grades are considered equal to the best ,india mica4 ,importations of mica from ,brazil were of much importance in meeting the large demands of the ,united ,states for mica of high quality to fill government needs4 ,owing to the nature of mica deposits in general1 it is not safe to make estimates concerning reserves4 ,this is particularly true of ,brazil1 where the industry is young1 and careful prospecting and development have not been carried far4 ,from the large number of known deposits and the rapidity with which the industry responded to war demands1 despite difficulties in transportation from the mines to the seaboard1 it would appear that ,brazilian mica will play an increasingly important part in the mica markets of the world1 particularly of the ,united ,states4 ,no matter how great the merit of the mines of a district may be1 however1 unless the mica is carefully prepared1 graded as to size and quality1 and shipments are standardized1 it cannot expect to attain permanent favor among consumers in this country or in ,europe4 ,less is known concerning the future possibilities of ,argentina as a mica-producing country of importance4 ,many deposits are known and considerable shipments have been made to the ,united ,states and to ,europe4 ,the material received here has not been equal to ,indian or ,brazilian mica4 ,there is every reason to expect that ,india will retain its position as the most important mica-producing country4 ,the great number of deposits offer almost every grade of muscovite required in the trade4 ,the industry is well-established1 and labor conditions are extremely favorable for the production of a commodity requiring such a large amount of hand labor before being ready for market4 ,it is true1 however1 that the richest and most easily accessible deposits have been mined out1 and scientific methods must be applied to mining if production is to retain its former place4 ,it is doubtful whether the immediate future will see any important change in the position of the ,united ,states as a mica producer4 ,although the reserves of the country as a whole are probably large1 the deposits are small and the percentage of high-quality mica is not great4 ,production of important amounts of medium-grade mica will continue4 ,labor conditions are not favorable to producing cheaply an article that has a large part of its value determined by preparation and careful grading4 ,scientific methods have been applied to the mining and preparation of a considerable part of the ,canadian output4 ,reserves are large and ,canada will undoubtedly retain for many years its position as the principal source of amber mica4 ,,political ,,and ,,commercial ,,control ,the ,british ,empire1 through state sovereignty1 controls #ge per cent4 of the present sheet-mica production of the world4 ,in ,brazil and ,argentina1 which have important potential resources of mica1 and in the ,united ,states1 political control is determined by state sovereignty4 ,for the most part1 the ownership of mines and concessions in ,india has been in the hands of natives4 ,in the ,hazaribagh district1 ,f4 ,f4 ,christen ,co41 an ,english firm1 owns rights over large areas of land outside the government forest and has mined on a considerable scale4 ,at the outbreak of the war1 ,germany1 through commercial interests1 had obtained a large measure of control over many ,indian mines4 ,s4 ,o4 ,fillion ,co41 of ,new ,york1 is the one ,american firm known to be working mines in ,india4 ,the most important producing phlogopite mine in ,canada1 at ,sydenham1 ,ontario1 is owned and operated by the ,general ,electric ,co41 of ,schenectady1 ,new ,york4 ,the same company owns several other properties in the vicinity and has a large mica-manufacturing plant at ,ottawa1 ,ontario4 ,other smaller interests are held chiefly in ,canada4 ,davol ,co41 of ,new ,york1 is the only foreign firm known to be actively working mica mines in ,brazil at present4 ,mica mines in the ,united ,states are1 as far as is known1 all owned by ,americans4 ,,position ,,of ,,leading ,,nations ,the ,united ,states was before the war the world's largest consumer of mica of all kinds4 ,the development of her electrical industry is dependent upon her supply of mica1 a large part of which is imported from ,india and ,canada4 ,production in this country has been considerable1 but has not proved nearly adequate to supply the demands1 particularly the demand for the higher grades of mica for use in magnetos1 radio condensers and spark plugs1 and for mica splittings used in making built-up mica4 ,the large demands and high prices created by the war did not increase domestic production enough to warrant the belief that this country can become independent as regards sheet mica under any but the most artificial conditions4 ,the producer is protected by a #be per cent4 import duty on unmanufactured 7rough or knife-trimmed7 mica and a #cj per cent4 duty on cut mica1 splittings and other manufactured forms4 ,production in this country is largely in the hands of individuals and small companies1 who are financially incapable of increasing output spasmodically even under very favorable conditions4 ,moreover1 many consumers have a decided prejudice in favor of imported mica4 ,if the ,united ,states is to take a dominant position in the electrical industry of the world an adequate supply of mica must be assured4 ,the most promising field for the development of such a supply is undoubtedly ,south ,america4 ,this is particularly true because the important development of the electrical industry in ,england during the war places that country in the dominating position formerly occupied by ,germany and ,austria4 ,this development will require a large part of the ,indian mica formerly available for export trade4 ,the ,british ,empire possesses in ,india the most important source of muscovite mica in the world and in ,canada the only important supply of amber mica4 ,in spite of ,england's tremendous advantage with regard to raw material1 ,germany1 through her important position in the electrical industry and the large measure of control acquired in the ,indian mines1 threatened to dominate the mica market of the world at the outbreak of the war4 ,since the outbreak of the war ,england has secured her position not only as the controlling center for raw mica but as the chief producing nation of electrical equipment4 ,london is the distributing center of the world for ,indian mica and ,london prices regulate the market4 ,during the war ,indian mica was controlled by the ,british ,ministry of ,munitions1 and allotments were made to the associated nations at fixed prices4 ,in the development of the ,south ,american fields lies the best possibility of the world lessening its dependence upon ,england for this most essential raw material4 ,france is entirely dependent upon outside sources for her supply of mica4 ,before the war her demands were not large and were filled by ,indian mica4 ,although ,germany before the war was entirely dependent on outside sources for mica1 her leading position in the electrical industry enabled her to gain control of much of the ,indian production4 ,every advantage was taken of this opportunity1 and in #aiad1 according to the ,british ,secretary of ,munitions1 the mica market of the world was at the point of being transferred from ,london to ,hamburg4 ,the deposits of ,german ,east ,africa were being actively exploited and ,german commercial interests were being extended to ,south ,america4 ,although probably possessing very large stocks in #aiad1 ,germany felt very acutely the shortage of mica during the war4 ,high prices were paid to ,norway for the output of that country1 but this source is probably entirely incapable of meeting the normal demands of ,germany4 ,,summary ,sheet mica is essential to the manufacture of a vast variety of electrical equipment1 and must1 therefore1 be classed as one of the important raw materials of the world4 ,the magneto1 such a vital factor in modern transport on land1 air and sea1 depends upon mica for its construction1 and mica condensers are indispensable in modern radio equipment4 ,india1 ,canada1 and the ,united ,states are at present the most important mica-producing countries4 ,deposits of future importance from which production has thus far not been great are known in ,german ,east ,africa1 ,brazil1 ,argentina and the ,transvaal2 from several other parts of the world more sporadic production is reported4 ,unlike the development of many other raw materials the production of mica has not been universally undertaken on a large scale1 nor have scientific methods been applied to its extraction4 ,this has been largely due to the irregular nature of the deposits and their scattered position within a district1 making considerable investment of capital in mining a particularly hazardous venture4 ,trading interests have1 therefore1 played an important part in controlling production and markets4 ,the ,british ,empire1 having within its boundaries a large proportion of the important mica-producing districts1 at present dominates the situation politically4 ,british commercial control1 threatened by ,germany's leading position in the electrical industry and wide interests in ,indian mines at the outbreak of war1 is now firmly re-established1 and ,great ,britain has taken the place in the electrical industry formerly held by ,germany and ,austria4 ,the ,united ,states1 the largest consumer of mica among the nations of the world1 has relied upon imports to supply a considerable part of the consumption and will probably continue to do so in the future1 although steady development of domestic sources of supply may be expected4 ,brazil offers the most promising foreign field for the development of an independent source of supply for ,american markets4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,asbestos ,,by ,,oliver ,,bowles ,,uses ,,of ,,asbestos ,asbestos is useful because of its incombustibility1 insulating qualities1 and fibrous structure4 ,high-grade asbestos is spun or woven into ropes and fabrics1 the fabrics being used for many purposes1 such as safety curtains1 mats1 mattresses1 upholstering1 firemen's suits and gloves4 ,of late years much high-grade asbestos has been used for friction facings in brakes and for packings4 ,low-grade asbestos is used for a great many purposes1 which may be classed in three groups--building1 insulating1 and miscellaneous4 ,for building purposes asbestos is employed in many ways4 ,a mixture of asbestos and cement is used to make fireproof shingles or slates4 ,asbestos is also used with ,portland cement to make a protective surface on metal sheathing2 asbestos paper is used for weather and sound proofing and also for fire-protection purposes4 ,it is used widely for plaster1 which not only is fireproof but also improves the acoustic properties of auditoriums1 churches1 etc4 ,asbestos is also used for floor tiling and in the manufacture of paints4 ,asbestos lumber and millboard are employed for many structural purposes4 ,asbestos cement1 a mixture of asbestos fiber and clay1 is much used as a covering for boilers and steam pipes to prevent heat radiation4 ,other coverings are made from a mixture of asbestos and magnesia4 ,varieties of asbestos having a low iron content are useful for electrical insulating purposes4 ,some of the many miscellaneous uses of asbestos are for fire brick1 acid filters1 lead-fume collectors1 stove mats1 cooking-utensil linings1 etc4 ,the most essential of the above uses are those in which the long-fiber asbestos is employed4 ,for fireproof ropes and fabrics nothing can take its place4 ,its use in friction facings for brakes is essential in all motor vehicles4 ,the uses for which low-grade asbestos is employed may be regarded as less essential and might be eliminated in case of necessity1 though such elimination would no doubt involve many serious difficulties4 ,fire risk would thereby be increased and many boilers and heating plants would be rendered less efficient and more wasteful1 though these difficulties could be overcome to some degree by the use of substitutes4 ,substitutes4--,slag wool or mineral wool is a fireproof material and a good non-conductor of heat and sound4 ,it is also highly porous1 and hence it is useful as an absorbent4 ,it can1 therefore1 be used to some extent as a substitute for asbestos for heat insulation and fireproofing4 ,however1 as it is brittle and cannot be woven as readily as asbestos1 it is not to be regarded as a satisfactory substitute for the higher grades4 ,talc may be employed in the manufacture of fireproof and corrosive-proof paints1 and also as a lining for furnaces and fireplaces4 ,infusorial earth is used to some extent as a substitute for asbestos for insulating and fireproofing4 ,but it is important to note that none of the substitutes mentioned above can replace the high-grade spinning fiber4 ,,changes ,,in ,,practice ,as has been indicated1 there is a probability of the demand for asbestos increasing4 ,the wide use of motor-transport equipment demands a large amount of high-grade fiber for brake linings1 while the increasing use of steam equipment1 and electrical equipment and appliances1 demands more and more material1 both for electrical and heat-insulating purposes4 ,although substitutes may be employed for the lower grades1 no substitutes are known for the spinning grades of asbestos1 which are now in strongest demand4 ,consequently there are no changes in practice that will reduce the demand for asbestos4 ,,geological ,,distribution ,asbestos originates for the most part from rocks consisting largely of olivine1 such as peridotites or dunites1 or from rocks consisting largely of pyroxene4 ,hence it is only in altered rocks of this nature that asbestos of the common types is to be expected4 ,two distinct types of alteration are common3 ,alteration of the olivine or pyroxene to serpentine1 with development of chrysotile in places2 and alteration of olivine or pyroxene to amphibole with development of anthophyllite 7a variety of amphibole7 and related forms4 ,both types of alteration are well represented in the great ,north ,american belt of asbestos-bearing peridotites that extends from central ,alabama along the ,piedmont ,plateau to the ,gasp ,peninsula of ,quebec1 a distance of more than #a1fjj miles4 ,in the northern part of the belt1 in ,vermont and ,quebec1 the alteration has been to serpentine with chrysotile asbestos in places1 while in the southern part the alteration has been largely to amphibolite with development of anthophyllite asbestos and talc4 ,chrysotile asbestos 7,quebec type71 as represented in most deposits1 is formed by serpentinization1 with subsequent prismatic crystallization in cracks1 the veins thus formed representing a recrystallization along the walls and thus being replacement veins rather than fissure veins4 ,contact metamorphism evidently plays an important part in the process1 for in most regions intrusive dikes are associated with the deposits and evidently had a definite influence on the development of the commercial product4 ,as serpentinization is a deep-seated process1 chrysotile deposits may occur at considerable depth4 ,anthophyllite asbestos 7,georgia type7 results from alteration of peridotites or pyroxenites to amphibole1 giving the fibrous anthophyllite and related forms4 ,this type of asbestos does not occur in veins but constitutes the major part of the rock mass4 ,while the modes of alteration noted above account for most of the asbestos deposits known1 there are two important exceptions--the crocidolite1 or blue asbestos1 of ,south ,africa1 and the chrysotile deposits of ,arizona1 both of which occur in sedimentary rocks4 ,crocidolite is interbedded in jasper and ironstone1 and the ,arizona chrysotile has resulted from the alteration of cherty limestone influenced to some extent by the action of diabase intrusions4 ,as pointed out in the discussion of uses1 for various select purposes anthophyllite cannot be employed as a substitute for chrysotile of spinning grade4 ,as the uses of anthophyllite are thus restricted1 and as the supply seems to be ample for many years to come1 the problem of supply centers about the deposits of high-grade chrysotile4 ,deposits of serpentinized basic rocks are by no means rare1 and even the development of a fibrous structure is common1 but in all chrysotile-bearing deposits only a small part of the serpentine is fibrous1 and of the fibrous part only a small percentage can be utilized as high-grade asbestos4 ,the value of deposits of most ores depends largely on the percentage of metal and of impurities present1 and little attention need be given to the physical character of an ore4 ,the value of asbestos1 however1 depends not only on purity of composition1 but on very definite physical properties1 such as length of fiber1 flexibility1 and tensile strength4 ,such properties result from a combination of favorable conditions of crystallization1 conditions that are at present little understood4 ,a large body of serpentinized basic rock bears1 therefore1 no certain promise of an asbestos supply1 though it may offer encouragement for prospecting4 ,high-grade fiber is evidently formed under a peculiar combination of geologic conditions which involve the presence of certain primary rock types1 their alteration to secondary minerals and recrystallization of these in veins1 such recrystallization being induced by a combination of metamorphic agencies4 ,although it is quite probable1 therefore1 that new fields will be discovered1 there is no probability of an abundant supply4 ,an important point to be considered in connection with future supplies is that for most uses of asbestos there is little or no scrap recovery2 that which is once used is for the most part gone beyond recall4 ,it is wise1 therefore1 to maintain a conservative view of the asbestos reserve1 for although there is evidence of a supply in the ,canadian deposits and elsewhere to last for many years1 the probability is that deposits of high-grade material are neither numerous nor extensive4 ,the total production and estimated reserves of spinning asbestos in the important producing countries are shown in ,figure #ac4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,total production and estimated reserves of spinning asbestos4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,united ,states4--,asbestos in the ,united ,states is of two types1 chrysotile and anthophyllite4 ,the chrysotile variety occurs in ,arizona1 ,vermont1 ,wyoming1 and ,california1 and the anthophyllite in ,georgia1 ,virginia1 ,maryland1 ,massachusetts1 ,connecticut1 ,rhode ,island1 and ,idaho4 ,chrysotile ,asbestos4--,the asbestos deposits of ,arizona are unusual in being cross-fiber chrysotile veins in cherty limestone1 and thus quite distinct in origin from the ,quebec deposits4 ,the asbestos-bearing beds are thin and some of them are almost inaccessible4 ,asbestos was first discovered in ,arizona at two points in the ,grand ,canyon of the ,colorado1 west of the mouth of the ,little ,colorado ,river4 ,the mineral occurs in a single bed1 #ab to #ad inches thick1 the veins being parallel with the bedding4 ,in some places the veins are #d inches thick1 but usually they do not exceed #b inches4 ,the visible supply1 therefore1 is not great1 and as the district is difficult of access production has been slight4 ,asbestos also occurs in ,ash ,creek ,canyon near ,globe4 ,production began in #aiad1 and has increased considerably since4 ,the asbestos carries only #j4e per cent4 iron oxide1 while ,canadian asbestos runs #b4b per cent4 to #b4f per cent4 iron oxide4 ,the ,arizona material is1 therefore1 superior to ,canadian asbestos for electrical insulation4 ,it is estimated that under favorable conditions the region can supply #a1jjj tons annually for many years to come1 but that the output will never be large as compared with that of ,canada4 ,in #aiad an asbestos deposit similar to those of ,ash ,creek was reported near ,young postoffice4 ,it is #hj miles from the nearest railroad station and will probably be inaccessible for many years4 ,near the summit of ,mount ,baker1 north of the ,roosevelt ,reservoir1 a mine producing good chrysotile was opened in #aiag4 ,the asbestos occurs in cross-fiber veins in limestone4 ,the asbestos deposits of ,vermont are situated at ,lowell1 in the same formation as the ,quebec deposits4 ,the asbestos occurs in numerous irregular veins1 the supply is probably large1 and some of it compares favorably with the ,canadian product4 ,there was a considerable production in former years1 but after #aiab the quarries were idle4 ,the reserves of low-grade rock are probably large4 ,the main deposits of ,wyoming occur south of ,casper in igneous ,archean rocks4 ,the mineral is chrysotile asbestos1 mostly of the cross-fiber type1 though some slip-fiber is present4 ,it is claimed that the ,wyoming asbestos has better heat-resisting qualities than the ,canadian fiber4 ,however1 a very small proportion of the fiber is of spinning grade4 ,deposits of chrysotile asbestos have been noted in many parts of ,california1 scattered over #ac counties4 ,the deposits seem to be small1 and thus far the production has not exceeded a few tons a year4 ,a small production is recorded for #aiag from ,nevada and ,inyo counties4 ,there was an increased output in #aiah1 the total being #bbi tons4 ,some ,no4 #a spinning fiber was obtained in ,nevada ,county4 ,anthophyllite ,asbestos4--,the anthophyllite asbestos deposits in ,georgia yield the largest production of any state in the ,union4 ,the material is not of spinning grade and is practically all used for fireproofing and insulating4 ,there is a considerable demand for such material1 however1 and the industry is established on a firm basis4 ,a notable feature of the ,georgia deposits is that approximately #ie per cent4 of the rock quarried is fibrous anthophyllite of commercial quality1 whereas in ,quebec only about #f per cent4 of the material quarried can be utilized4 ,anthophyllite asbestos deposits occur in ,virginia near ,bedford4 ,the material is low-grade and the amount is probably small4 ,a little is consumed in the manufacture of 8tenax10 a preparation used by dentists4 ,amphibole slip-fiber asbestos has lately been mined on a small scale in ,maryland1 near ,pylesville4 ,it is used for filters4 ,several years ago a small production was recorded from ,dalton1 ,massachusetts1 and ,new ,hartford1 ,connecticut4 ,anthophyllite asbestos occurs in ,idaho1 near ,kamiah4 ,it is not of spinning grade1 is of low tensile strength1 and is inferior to all but the lowest grades of chrysotile4 ,the deposit is evidently large1 but the production is almost negligible4 ,canada and ,newfoundland4--,the most important asbestos-producing deposits of the world are those of the province of ,quebec1 ,canada1 chiefly in the region of ,thetford and ,broughton4 ,asbestos occurs in serpentine of ,cambrian age1 the area in which the important mines are found extending from southern ,vermont to ,gasp1 in the ,province of ,quebec4 ,the serpentine lies in three prominent belts4 ,the ,danville-,eastman-,vermont serpentine belt is about #fb miles long4 ,the scattered outcrops probably are connected beneath the heavy drift deposits and forest growth4 ,prospects have been worked in six places1 but the production attained is small4 ,the belt is an uncertain quantity1 that gives fair promise of a large future supply4 ,the ,thetford-,black ,lake area is the important area of ,quebec and now the most productive asbestos district of the world4 ,in #aiag there were #ag active mines in the district4 ,in #aiah the quantity of rock mined was #b1dde1gde tons1 and the total asbestos production was #aei1bbe tons1 valued at #i1jec1ide4 ,the ,broughton and the central and eastern ,thetford areas are mainly slip-fiber asbestos4 ,the ,west ,thetford1 ,south ,ireland1 and ,north ,coleraine ,township deposits constitute the vein-fiber belt which yields the high-grade spinning asbestos that has a world-wide reputation4 ,serpentine rocks bearing chrysotile asbestos are reported near ,port au ,port1 in ,newfoundland1 probably representing a continuation of the ,quebec belt4 ,the possibility of commercial development is uncertain4 ,mexico1 ,central and ,south ,america4--,asbestos deposits have been reported in ,brazil1 but aside from this no commercial deposits have been noted in ,south ,america4 ,there is no record of asbestos deposits in ,mexico or in ,central ,america4 ,europe4--,the asbestos deposits of ,russia probably rank next to those of ,canada4 ,the principal mines are #eg miles north of ,ekaterinburg1 in the ,ural ,mountains4 ,the quarries can be worked only from ,may to ,november in each year4 ,transportation is over the ,perm ,railroad1 and the output is exported via ,riga4 ,the fiber is of the same type as the ,canadian1 a chrysotile asbestos1 chiefly of the cross-fiber type4 ,the richest ore yields #db to #ee pounds of asbestos per cubic yard4 ,production has also been reported by the ,south ,urals ,asbestos ,co41 operating in the ,orsk district1 in ,orenburg4 ,russian asbestos is said to be harsher than ,canadian and less suitable for spinning1 but a great deal of high-grade fiber has been produced and ,russia is likely to be an important future source of asbestos4 ,the asbestos of ,italy is of the anthophyllite variety4 ,there are three main districts3 the ,susa ,valley deposits1 near the ,french border1 which lie #f1jjj to #aj1jjj feet above sea level and are1 therefore1 not readily available2 the ,aosta ,valley deposits1 of wide extent1 with long-fibered1 strong1 and soapy product2 and the deposits in ,lombardy1 also of great extent4 ,italian asbestos may be used to some extent as a substitute for ,canadian fiber1 or to mix with it1 but the supply of high-grade fiber is not great1 and it is more difficult and expensive to work than the ,canadian material4 ,the ,united ,asbestos ,co41 of ,london1 ,england1 is the largest producer4 ,large deposits of asbestos are known on the island of ,cyprus4 ,the material is derived from serpentine and is of the amphibole anthophyllite type4 ,much of it is short-fibered but some of it can be used to mix with ,canadian fiber4 ,good spinning asbestos has been noted in central ,finland but production up to the present time is almost negligible4 ,asbestos deposits have been noted in ,england1 ,scotland1 ,ireland1 ,france1 ,portugal1 ,spain1 ,switzerland1 ,germany1 ,norway1 ,greece1 and ,turkey1 but all the above deposits are said to consist of coarse and brittle material of little commercial value4 ,a large deposit of good asbestos is reported in the island of ,corsica4 ,asia4--,deposits are known in various districts of ,india4 ,asbestos is also reported in ,afghanistan4 ,indian asbestos is of inferior tensile strength1 and the lack of development renders it an uncertain resource4 ,the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey reported in #aiab that three asbestos mines were in operation #de miles northeast of ,antung1 ,china4 ,the product1 which was shipped into ,manchuria1 is of the amphibole 7anthophyllite7 type and quite brittle4 ,chrysotile asbestos of good quality is reported south of ,lake ,baikal1 in ,mongolia4 ,it has never been mined1 and on account of its remoteness is not likely to be developed4 ,deposits yielding a small output are reported from several other provinces4 ,asbestos deposits occur in several localities in ,japan4 ,the output is of inferior quality and is mixed with imported material for asbestos packing4 ,the ,japan ,asbestos ,co41 of ,osaka1 is the chief manufacturer of asbestos products4 ,deposits have been opened at ,minusinck1 on the ,yenesei ,river1 in ,siberia1 but production is reported for the year #aije only4 ,transportation is difficult4 ,africa4--,the asbestos of ,cape ,colony is crocidolite1 or blue asbestos2 it is of the amphibole type and will not bear high temperature1 probably on account of its iron content1 but is longer1 stronger1 finer1 and more elastic than chrysotile4 ,on account of its low fusibility it is useful in electric welding4 ,the mineral occurs in three important districts and outcrops at numerous points from the ,orange ,river north to ,bechuanaland4 ,government engineers report it to be the largest asbestos-bearing area in the world4 ,the principal deposits are at ,koejas1 where the ,cape ,asbestos ,co41 ,ltd41 produced in #aiaf about two-thirds of the total amount of asbestos mined in ,south ,africa4 ,blue asbestos is gaining favor in foreign markets1 and this fact1 in connection with the great extent of the deposits1 indicates that these deposits constitute an important factor in world supply4 ,large and probably extensive deposits of chrysotile asbestos of the finest quality occur in the ,transvaal4 ,three companies have recently operated in this district4 ,production1 which began about #aiad1 in which year #cj tons were reported1 had increased to a total of #djg tons in #aiaf4 ,a new and important development is the mining of a long-fibered amphibole asbestos known as 8amosite40 ,a small output of asbestos from ,natal has been reported for several years2 however1 the fiber is not high grade and an increase of production is not likely4 ,important deposits occur in southern ,rhodesia4 ,the ,southern ,rhodesia ,geological ,survey reports that there is in sight several years' supply for an output of #bjj tons per month without going deeper than #fj feet4 ,the 8probable ore0 supply is very great4 ,it has been stated that the ,rhodesian fiber is the only class of chrysotile asbestos that can compete successfully with the best grade of ,canadian fiber4 ,australasia4--,a chrysotile-bearing serpentine belt covers a considerable area in ,queensland4 ,a deposit occurs near ,rockwell1 ,south ,australia4 ,the ,australia ,asbestos ,manufacturing ,co4 has produced a small amount of material similar to ,italian asbestos4 ,a small amount of chrysotile has also been found4 ,a deposit of chrysotile prospected in ,new ,south ,wales is claimed to have the longest asbestos fiber in the world4 ,no production has been reported4 ,in the ,pilbarra district1 ,west ,australia1 there is chrysotile asbestos of spinning grade which is said to be superior to either the ,russian or ,italian product4 ,some years ago a mine was worked to considerable depth by the ,pilbarra ,asbestos ,co41 of ,london1 ,england1 but in recent years the production has been almost negligible4 ,in ,new ,zealand chrysotile asbestos of spinning grade occurs in ,nelson ,province4 ,the ,australasian ,asbestos ,co41 of ,sydney1 has recently prospected the serpentine belt of ,tasmania1 which contains both chrysotile and anthophyllite asbestos4 ,,developments ,,and ,,changes ,,in ,,distribution ,,of ,,mines ,the ,united ,states leads all nations in the manufacture of asbestos products1 and the large supply of asbestos in ,quebec is readily available4 ,there is1 therefore1 little prospect of any radical change in the geographical distribution of ,american asbestos mines4 ,as there is always a possibility of such changes1 however1 it is well to consider the controlling factors4 ,as to the future of the ,quebec deposits1 the present source of supply1 little definite information is available4 ,the fact that serpentinization is a deep-seated process has led ,canadian geologists to conclude that commercial fiber may be formed to the full depth of the original peridotite rock4 ,for all practical purposes1 however1 the depth of the deposit is limited to the depth at which asbestos can be extracted profitably4 ,one mine is now working at a depth of #cjj feet and drill holes sunk #djj feet farther indicate a thickness of at least #gjj feet of good fiber-bearing rock4 ,cirkel has stated that in one of the ,black ,lake quarries there is #dd1cgg1ejj tons of asbestos rock in sight above the railway tracks1 ready for immediate exploitation4 ,a deduction of #ej per cent4 for waste rock would leave #bb1jjj1jjj tons of mill rock available1 or enough to supply for #bb years a plant capable of producing #d1jjj tons a day4 ,as this includes only the visible ore it may be inferred that the reserve is very great4 ,cirkel estimates the total acreage of productive vein fiber as #ab1dbj1 of which #a1ajj acres is under development at the present time4 ,a geologist who spent two summers studying the geology of the region states that second-grade fiber is very abundant and that the high-grade deposits are not more than #be per cent4 exhausted4 ,there is1 therefore1 no prospect for many years of any change in the geographical distribution of working mines through the exhaustion of present deposits4 ,during #aiaf and #aiag the production of high-grade fiber in the ,united ,states grew steadily1 but is still far from meeting domestic demands1 as the total ,united ,states output in #aiag was only one-eightieth of the amount imported4 ,the most important development has been in the high-grade chrysotile districts of ,arizona1 but these new deposits do not give promise of an abundant supply1 and it is unlikely that they will constitute a dominating factor in ,american production4 ,legislation may have a profound effect on the development of deposits4 ,a high export duty placed on raw asbestos by a country now producing it in large quantities would have the effect of encouraging prospecting in other countries and the development of deposits that might supply substitute material4 ,in this connection it is interesting to note that the ,board of ,trade of the eastern townships of ,quebec proposed measures to protect the export of raw asbestos1 in order to force the manufacture of asbestos products in ,canada4 ,the ,canadian ,mining ,institute ,bulletin 7,august1 #aiaf7 pointed out the dangers of such action1 for other countries would immediately search for asbestos deposits elsewhere1 and as good asbestos occurs in ,russia1 ,south ,africa1 ,cyprus1 and other localities1 substitutes for ,canadian material could probably be found4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that ,canada does not control the supply1 but that so long as ,canadian fiber is available at reasonable prices there is no strong incentive for the development of new deposits4 ,in the ,old ,world the situation is less stable than in ,america4 ,european countries import considerable material from ,canada1 and the balance of their requirements is filled from various sources1 chiefly from ,russia1 ,cyprus1 ,italy1 ,south ,africa1 and ,australia4 ,high-grade asbestos deposits exist in various countries and are for the most part developed to a small extent4 ,the factors determining changes in production are somewhat different from those outlined for ,america4 ,the lack of a strong central government greatly hampers production in any country4 ,thus under recent conditions in ,russia the output fell from nearly #bj1jjj tons in #aiac to about #i1jjj in #aiaf4 ,stabilized conditions and more efficient governments would tend to increase the output of several eastern countries4 ,the most important factor contributing to the slow development of the ,old ,world deposits is poor transportation4 ,russian asbestos for the ,english market has to pay transportation costs of #be to #cj per ton4 ,the important crocidolite deposits of ,south ,africa are likewise hampered by poor transportation4 ,not only are the roads poor1 but the most important deposits of ,koegas are #ah miles from a traveled road1 and other deposits are about #ajj miles from roads4 ,this drawback is offset to some extent by cheap labor4 ,the present political upheaval in ,europe1 involving the formation of new states and new forms of government1 may have a pronounced effect on the development of asbestos deposits1 but until progressive governments are established and vast improvements made in transportation1 no great increase in production is possible4 ,,political ,,and ,,commercial ,,control ,a large share of the asbestos deposits of the world1 being situated in ,british colonial possessions1 are under the political control of ,great ,britain4 ,the deposits of ,cyprus are at present under ,british political control1 but this may not be permanent4 ,before the war1 ,cyprus was nominally ,turkish1 though administered by ,great ,britain2 in #aiad1 ,great ,britain formally annexed the island4 ,cyprus was offered to ,greece in return for her assistance in the war1 but the offer was not accepted4 ,from information available it is evident that the governments of ,russia and ,italy have in the past imposed no serious restrictions on the development of their asbestos properties through either domestic or foreign capital4 ,below is set forth the commercial control of the asbestos deposits of the world1 by countries1 in the following order3 ,united ,states1 ,canada1 ,russia1 ,south ,africa1 ,italy1 ,cyprus1 and ,australia4 ,in the ,globe district of ,arizona1 in the ,united ,states1 spinning asbestos is produced by the ,johns-,manville ,co41 working the ,snell ,fisk property1 and by the ,american ,ores ,asbestos ,co4 ,the ,sierra ,asbestos ,co41 near ,nevada ,city1 ,california1 produced spinning fiber in #aiah4 ,as far as is known all the companies operating in the ,united ,states are ,american owned4 ,the asbestos mining industry in ,canada is confined to the eastern townships of the ,province of ,quebec4 ,the largest company is the ,asbestos ,corporation of ,canada1 ,ltd41 with head office in ,montreal4 ,this company operates the ,kings and ,beaver mines1 at ,thetford ,mines1 the ,british ,canadian mine1 at ,black ,lake1 and the ,frazer mine1 at ,east ,broughton4 ,the company is controlled by ,english1 ,canadian1 and ,united ,states capital4 ,the ,bell ,asbestos ,mines ,co41 the ,asbestos ,asbestic ,corporation1 and the ,manville ,asbestos ,co4 are wholly or largely owned in the ,united ,states4 ,the remaining companies are mostly controlled by ,english or ,canadian capital1 though ,united ,states interests are represented in some of them4 ,evidently1 therefore1 the ownership of the companies is divided between ,english1 ,canadian and ,united ,states capital1 with ,british interests probably predominating4 ,the most important of the ,ekaterinburg mines in ,russia are the ,voznesensky and ,zoe-,anonsky1 near ,bazhenof4 ,about one-third of the total output of the ,urals came from these mines in #aiaf4 ,it is reported that prior to the war a ,german syndicate controlled several ,russian mines which produced in all more than #hj per cent4 of the entire ,russian output4 ,germany and ,austria were the chief buyers of ,russian asbestos before the war4 ,in ,south ,africa the crocidolite of ,cape ,colony is mined largely by the ,cape ,asbestos ,co41 a ,british firm with mines at ,koegas and ,westerberg1 and having factories in ,england1 ,turin1 and ,hamburg4 ,a sister company in ,france1 ,compagnie ,franaise de l',amiante du ,cap1 handled in #aiaf about two-thirds of the total ,south ,african production and was the chief manufacturer of blue asbestos products4 ,in the ,transvaal1 asbestos is mined by three companies1 ,the ,transvaal ,asbestos ,syndicate1 now absorbed by the ,consolidated ,gold ,fields2 the ,south ,african ,minerals ,option ,syndicate1 a subsidiary of the ,bechuanaland ,exploration ,co41 and the ,anglo-,swiss ,asbestos ,co4 ,british capital predominates4 ,the ,rhodesia ,asbestos ,co41 ,ltd41 was the chief ,rhodesian producer until recently1 but in #aiag the ,rhodesia and ,general ,asbestos ,corporation was organized with a capital of #djj1jjj to take over the operating mines4 ,the commercial control is1 therefore1 ,british4 ,the chief producer in ,italy is the ,united ,asbestos ,co41 of ,london1 ,england4 ,prior to the war the ,cyprus deposits were worked by the ,cyprian ,mining ,co41 an ,austrian corporation4 ,as mining concessions are obtained from the ,british government by lease on a royalty basis1 it is probable that the lease has now been cancelled4 ,the deposits in ,australasia are practically all controlled by ,english or ,australian capital4 ,mines that have no milling equipment can produce crude fiber which may be treated at manufacturing plants4 ,the various grades of mill fiber may be produced only where mills are located at or near the mines4 ,as the utilization of all grades can be accomplished only with the assistance of mills1 such mills are necessary for efficient mining4 ,consequently1 with other factors equal1 mines with near-by mills have a distinct commercial advantage over mines that produce crude fiber only4 ,although mills are not essential factors in the asbestos-mining industry1 they exert a secondary influence in commercial control through the increase in mining efficiency that they render possible4 ,for deposits remote from centers of manufacture1 mills are of little advantage1 as fiber below spinning grade will not bear heavy transportation charges4 ,most of the ,united ,states and ,canadian mines have mills for treatment of rock bearing short fiber4 ,several of the ,russian mines are similarly equipped1 but in other parts of the world little or no milling is done4 ,a number of important manufacturers of asbestos products in the ,united ,states are owners of or have intimate trade agreements with large ,canadian asbestos mines1 and also with some of the domestic mines4 ,hence as regards commercial control the ,united ,states is practically assured of a supply of raw material4 ,,position ,,of ,,leading ,,commercial ,,nations ,although the ,united ,states is the largest manufacturer of asbestos products in the world1 in #aiag less than #a per cent4 of the raw material was mined in this country4 ,the country is1 therefore1 largely dependent on foreign sources of supply4 ,the abundant deposits of ,quebec1 ,canada1 are conveniently near1 and so long as the present amicable relations with ,canada continue1 an ample supply seems to be assured4 ,in #aiaf the ,united ,states used #hf per cent4 of the ,canadian output4 ,during #aiaf and #aiag there was marked activity in developing the high-grade chrysotile deposits of ,arizona4 ,while there is as yet no evidence of an abundant supply1 the material is an important supplementary source of supply because of its quality4 ,while no commercial asbestos is mined in the ,british ,isles1 ,british colonial possessions hold control of about #hh per cent4 of the annual asbestos output of the world and approximately #gj per cent4 of the world's reserves4 ,thus1 although the supply within the ,british ,empire is ample1 the home requirements of the nation can be met only under favorable shipping conditions1 as all necessary material must be transported several thousand miles4 ,russia is the second largest producer of asbestos in the world1 and seemingly has large reserves4 ,as little manufacturing is done in the country1 practically the entire output is exported4 ,being independent as regards her own needs for raw asbestos1 ,russia requires only the maintenance of an active foreign market to assure a permanent industry4 ,no commercial asbestos deposits are known to exist in ,germany4 ,prior to the war asbestos was imported chiefly from ,russia and ,canada4 ,the chief ,russian mines are said to have been controlled by ,german capital4 ,italy has large deposits of amphibole 7anthophyllite7 asbestos1 some of which is of spinning grade1 but as production has always been small and has1 except for minor fluctuations1 been stationary for the past #ah years1 it is unlikely that the deposits can supply domestic requirements of high-grade fiber4 ,a small amount has been exported for filter use1 for which ,italian asbestos is well adapted4 ,as the chief mine is operated by a ,british company1 considerable ,italian asbestos is shipped to ,england4 ,no asbestos deposits are worked in ,france4 ,supplies are obtained from ,russia1 ,canada1 and ,south ,africa4 ,france is the leading nation in the manufacture of blue asbestos products4 ,several deposits of asbestos occur in ,japan1 but all are of inferior quality4 ,the material mined is mixed with imported fiber for the manufacture of asbestos packing4 ,,summary ,asbestos is a unique mineral for the reason that it combines incombustibility and insulating qualities with a fibrous structure that makes possible its manufacture into fabrics1 felts1 and similar wares4 ,the spinning grades of asbestos are most in demand and the problem of supply hinges largely on the deposits of high-grade chrysotile4 ,such material is used for the manufacture of ropes1 safety curtains1 mats1 packings and friction facings in brakes4 ,the lower grades are used for making fireproof shingles and other building materials1 for insulating1 and for fire brick1 acid filters1 etc4 ,although some substitutes may be found for the lower grades1 no substitutes are known for spinning fiber4 ,asbestos occurs in three main types1 chrysotile1 crocidolite1 and anthophyllite2 the first and second provide most of the spinning fiber1 and the third is almost all of non-spinning quality4 ,the most important deposit of chrysotile asbestos is in ,quebec1 ,canada1 but large deposits are worked in ,russia and ,rhodesia4 ,crocidolite is mined only in ,cape ,colony1 ,south ,africa4 ,large deposits of anthophyllite occur in the ,united ,states1 ,italy1 and ,cyprus4 ,the ,united ,states is by far the largest manufacturer of asbestos products in the world1 but produces only a small fraction of the necessary raw material2 it is practically assured of an ample supply of this because the largest deposits in the world are in the adjacent ,province of ,quebec1 ,canada4 ,the ,arizona deposits provide an excellent grade of fiber and constitute a promising supplementary source of supply1 though the estimated reserves are not great4 ,the ,british ,empire holds a dominating position1 controlling about #hh per cent4 of the annual asbestos production of the world and approximately #gj per cent4 of the estimated reserves4 ,canada is far in the lead of all countries1 supplying about #he per cent4 of the world's output4 ,russia was1 before the revolution1 second to ,canada as a producer2 because of the cost of transportation the chief output is spinning fiber4 ,south ,africa has large reserves of good fiber1 but the output is handicapped by poor transportation4 ,exhaustion of the chief sources of supply is not likely for many years1 nor is there immediate prospect of any material shift in the centers of production1 though with improved transportation a shift to ,south ,africa is possible4 ,the demand for high-grade asbestos will probably increase at a steady rate4 ,all the asbestos quarries in the ,united ,states seem to be ,american owned4 ,the ,canadian deposits are controlled by ,canadian1 ,english1 and ,american capital1 ,british interests probably being predominant4 ,british companies evidently hold exclusive control of the present output in ,south ,africa1 ,australasia1 and ,italy4 ,before the war the ,russian output was largely controlled by a ,german syndicate1 and the ,cyprus output by an ,austrian company4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,phosphate ,,rock ,,by ,r4 ,w4 ,,stone ,,uses ,,of ,,phosphate ,,rock ,phosphate rock is chiefly used1 after treatment with sulphuric acid1 as an ingredient of artificial fertilizers4 ,a small quantity is finely ground and used directly as fertilizer4 ,lesser quantities are used for making phosphoric acid and phosphorus4 ,phosphorus plays an important part in military operations1 being used for incendiary bullets and smoke screens4 ,phosphorus also is a common ingredient of matches and the striking surface on boxes of safety matches1 and it enters in small proportion into phosphor-bronze1 phosphor-copper and phosphor-tin4 ,substitutes4--,substitutes for phosphate rock may be classed as natural and artificial4 ,natural substitutes are phosphatic limestone2 other phosphate-bearing minerals1 such as apatite1 nelsonite1 and wavellite2 guano2 marl2 animal excrement and bones4 ,artificial substitutes include basic slag and manufactured compounds1 like ammonium phosphate4 ,,geological ,,occurrence ,phosphate rock is a sedimentary deposit containing phosphate of lime4 ,it occurs as a hard rock interstratified with beds of sandstone1 shale1 or other sediments2 as amorphous nodular concretions or pebbles in stream deposits2 and as a residuum from the decomposition of phosphatic dolomite or limestone1 or other rocks containing phosphate of lime4 ,another type of deposit commonly classed as phosphate rock is the porous coralline or other limestone of tropical islands which has been permeated with phosphate leached from guano4 ,phosphate deposits of the western ,united ,states1 ,algeria1 ,tunis1 and ,egypt are hard rock beds of the first type4 ,amorphous nodular deposits occur in ,south ,carolina1 part of ,florida1 ,wales1 ,england1 ,belgium1 north-central and eastern ,france1 and ,russia4 ,the deposits in ,tennessee1 ,kentucky1 and some of those in ,florida are residual4 ,leached guano deposits are found on the islands of ,aruba1 ,curacao1 and ,sombrero1 in the ,west ,indies1 and on ,christmas1 ,ocean1 ,makatea1 ,angaur and other islands in the ,indian and ,south ,pacific oceans4 ,the reserves in the ,united ,states are fairly well known and are estimated at #f1jjj1jjj1jjj tons4 ,reserves of high-grade rock in ,algeria and ,tunis have been estimated at #cjj1jjj1jjj tons4 ,no information is at hand regarding the quantity of phosphate rock in ,egypt or in ,europe1 except that ,russia is believed to have #hj1jjj1jjj tons in one of its fields4 ,the deposits in the ,south ,pacific islands are estimated at #gj1jjj1jjj tons4 ,before the war the world's output of phosphate rock was about #f1jjj1jjj tons annually1 of which about one-half was mined in the ,united ,states4 ,the next largest production is made in northern ,africa4 ,phosphoric acid is derived also from apatite1 a calcium phosphate that occurs in veins4 ,apatite has been mined in the ,province of ,quebec1 ,canada1 and in ,spain4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,in the ,western ,hemisphere phosphate rock is produced in the ,united ,states1 in ,canada1 the ,dutch ,west ,indies1 and ,french ,guiana1 and occurs in ,peru and ,chile4 ,united ,states4--,the principal deposits of phosphate rock in the ,united ,states are in ,florida1 ,south ,carolina1 ,tennessee1 ,kentucky1 ,arkansas1 ,montana1 ,idaho1 ,wyoming1 and ,utah4 ,although by far the largest deposits are in the western states1 those deposits yield less than #a per cent4 of the whole because of the lack of a large near-by market and because of high freight rates on the crude rock4 ,it is not a matter of common knowledge1 but it is1 nevertheless1 a fact1 that the western rock phosphate deposits are so extensive as to be practically inexhaustible1 even if the entire world depended on them for its supply of phosphate4 ,the ,florida phosphate deposits1 which are the most extensively developed in the ,united ,states1 comprise three classes of phosphate--hard rock1 land pebble1 and river pebble4 ,the first is highest grade1 the second is produced in largest quantity1 and the third is not mined at present4 ,the hard-rock deposits lie in a narrow strip along the western part of the ,florida peninsula from ,suwanee ,county to ,pasco ,county1 a distance of approximately #ajj miles4 ,the land-pebble phosphate area1 just east of ,tampa1 is about #cj miles long and #aj miles wide4 ,sales of ,florida phosphate declined tremendously after #aiac through the restriction on exports by the war4 ,in #aiac the sales were #b1ejj1jjj tons1 valued at #i1ejj1jjj1 and in #aiae the production was #a1cej1jjj tons1 valued at #c1gjj1jjj4 ,south ,carolina produces land rock phosphate in the vicinity of ,charleston4 ,river-pebble phosphate occurs in the same area but is not mined4 ,some of the ,south ,carolina output has been exported annually4 ,sales decreased from #afi1jjj tons in #aiaa to #hc1jjj in #aiae1 and the value in the same years from #fgc1jjj to #caa1jjj4 ,tennessee deposits of rock phosphate are in the west-central part and extreme northeast corner of the state2 the latter have not been mined4 ,three types are recognized and known by their colors as brown1 blue1 and white rock2 the last has not been mined recently4 ,the brown rock is sold under guarantee of #gj to #hj per cent4 tricalcium phosphate2 the blue rock varies considerably in its phosphatic content4 ,sales of ,tennessee phosphate in #aiad were #dhc1jjj tons1 valued at #a1hbc1jjj2 by #aiae they had fallen to #cij1jjj tons1 valued at #a1cbh1jjj4 ,kentucky has been an insignificant producer of phosphate rock in recent years4 ,arkansas phosphate deposits are in the north-central part of the state4 ,the output is small4 ,four western states possess enormous deposits of high-grade rock phosphate1 but their output is as yet insignificant1 being only #c1jjj to #e1jjj tons a year4 ,the producing states are ,idaho1 ,utah1 and ,wyoming4 ,montana is not a producer1 although it contains extensive deposits easy of access and close to rail transportation4 ,idaho has an unlimited supply of high-grade phosphate in the southeast part of the state4 ,a small quantity is mined in ,bear ,lake ,county4 ,the ,utah deposits are east of ,great ,salt ,lake1 in the ,wasatch and ,uintah ranges1 and east of ,bear ,lake4 ,these deposits are extensive1 but the rock is leaner than the general run of the ,idaho phosphate1 averaging nearer #fj per cent4 than #hj per cent4 tricalcium phosphate4 ,western ,wyoming also is rich in rock phosphate1 the deposits being mostly in the ,owl ,creek1 ,wind ,river1 ,gros ,ventre1 and ,salt ,river ranges4 ,some of the beds are thick1 carrying #hj per cent4 tricalcium phosphate1 and extend for many miles4 ,they constitute a reserve supply that may be called inexhaustible4 ,small local demand for fertilizer and lack of cheap transportation may retard for some years the development of the great and rich western deposits4 ,an estimate of the quantity of rock phosphate available in the ,united ,states was made several years ago and need not be revised to account for that mined in the meantime4 ,it is repeated here3 ,,reserves ,,of ,,phosphate ,,rock ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,long tons ,florida #bbg1jjj1jjj ,tennessee #hh1jjj1jjj ,south ,carolina #i1jjj1jjj ,kentucky #a1jjj1jjj ,arkansas #bj1jjj1jjj ----------- #cde1jjj1jjj ,western ,states3 ,montana1 ,idaho1 ,utah1 and ,wyoming #e1cfg1jhb1jjj ------------- ,total #e1gab1jhb1jjj ,canada4--,the principal phosphatic rock in ,canada is apatite1 which occurs in workable quantity in two main districts--one in the ,province of ,ontario1 the other in the ,province of ,quebec4 ,these deposits1 which were worked mainly by quarrying1 are now practically abandoned4 ,rock phosphate occurs in a thin bed near ,banff1 ,alberta1 but is not used4 ,south ,america4--,in ,aruba and ,curacao1 islands of the ,dutch ,west ,indies1 off the coast of ,venezuela1 are deposits of phosphate rock1 from which a small quantity is mined and shipped to ,europe4 ,it is reported that the output in #aiad was about #ajj1jjj tons1 averaging #he to #ij per cent4 of calcium phosphate4 ,in ,peru1 in the ,department of ,ica1 is a deposit of nodular lime phosphate1 which is not used because of a local preference for guano4 ,a large1 rich deposit of phosphate is reported in ,chile1 about #cjj miles north of ,valparaiso1 but has not been developed as yet4 ,phosphate deposits occur on the ,island of ,salut and on the ,connetables1 close to the coast of ,french ,guiana4 ,the rock is exported4 ,europe4--,the high-grade phosphate deposits of ,belgium are exhausted1 only low-grade deposits remaining4 ,the rock is found in layers and pockets1 and carries between #be and #fe per cent4 of bone phosphate4 ,the production from #aiaa to #aiac averaged more than #bjj1jjj tons annually4 ,the principal deposits in ,france are in the ,somme and ,oise basins4 ,the best ,french deposits are higher grade than the ,belgian1 as they carry #ej to #hj per cent4 of bone phosphate1 but they are nearly exhausted1 only low-grade material remaining4 ,the production from #aiaj to #aiad was about #cjj1jjj tons annually4 ,important deposits of phosphate rock in ,russia can be divided into the northern1 central1 and southern groups4 ,the deposits of the southern group were the only ones exploited before the war4 ,their output was about #be1jjj tons a year--very small in comparison with the size of the deposits1 which are estimated to contain more than #a1ejj1jjj1jjj tons4 ,some of the rock is high grade1 carrying as much as #ge per cent4 tricalcium phosphate1 but the normal grade is about #ej per cent4 ,the only deposits worked extensively in ,spain are apatite veins in the ,province of ,caceras4 ,after lying idle many years these deposits were reopened and produced #bh1jjj tons in #aiag4 ,low-grade phosphate in the form of beds of nodules occurs in ,england1 and in ,wales4 ,the production has been slight because the deposits are too small for commercial exploitation4 ,africa4--,the principal deposits of phosphate rock in ,tunis are the ,gafsa fields1 in the southern half of the country4 ,there phosphate occurs in beds several feet thick1 but only those carrying more than #eh per cent4 phosphate of lime are exploited4 ,the deposits can be traced for several hundred miles1 and constitute a reserve of hundreds of millions of tons4 ,tunis now produces more phosphate than any other foreign country1 its annual output being between #a1ejj1jjj and #b1jjj1jjj tons1 most of which goes to southern ,europe4 ,the deposits of phosphate rock in ,algeria are continuations of those in ,tunis1 the important mining districts being in eastern ,algeria4 ,the production is over #ejj1jjj tons a year1 and the exported rock carries #eh to #fh per cent4 of lime phosphate4 ,extensive deposits of phosphate occur in ,egypt1 near the ,red ,sea1 in thin and irregular beds of the same geologic age 7,eocene7 as the deposits in ,tunis and ,algeria4 ,the best deposits average #gj per cent4 lime phosphate and the output in #aiaf was #abe1jjj tons4 ,there are mines #bj miles from ,port ,safalga1 and concessions #ab miles inland from ,kosseir and also at ,sebaia1 on the eastern bank of the ,nile between ,keneh and ,assouan4 ,beds of phosphate are found in other districts on both sides of the ,nile valley4 ,practically all the raw rock phosphate produced contains #fe per cent4 or more of tricalcium phosphate and is exported mainly to ,japan4 ,deposits of phosphate occur #hj to #abj kilometers from the city of ,tripoli in beds more than #a meter thick4 ,these beds probably are a continuation of the phosphate deposits in southern ,tunis4 ,deposits of phosphate are reported in ,morocco #abe kilometers south-southwest of ,casa ,blanca on the west coast and #gj kilometers from the end of a railroad4 ,these deposits are said to be comparable to the ,gafsa field1 in ,tunis4 ,it is reported that at ,dielor1 in ,senegal1 about the latitude of ,cape ,verde1 the westernmost point on the ,african coast1 there is a phosphate bed which is #b meters thick to a depth of #fd meters4 ,the rock carries only #ej per cent4 tricalcium phosphate1 so it is not workable under present conditions1 especially in view of the abundant high-grade rock in ,algeria and ,tunis4 ,phosphates have been found in ,natal1 near ,weenen1 ,ladysmith1 and ,byrnetown1 in the form of phosphatic shales and of nodules4 ,the percentage of tricalcium phosphate in the phosphatic shales is too low for use in making superphosphates2 the phosphatic nodules are of higher grade but not abundant enough to be of value4 ,asia and ,australasia4--,in the government of ,uralsk1 in southwestern ,siberia1 bordering on the north end of the ,caspian ,sea1 there is reported to be #fjj1jjj1jjj tons of phosphate rock4 ,it is said that the greater part of this material carries #ag to #bj per cent4 phosphoric acid1 which is equivalent to #cf to #dc per cent4 tricalcium phosphate4 ,the government of ,turgai1 which borders ,uralsk on the east1 is reported to contain #fg1jjj1jjj tons of phosphate rock1 most of which carries #ah to #ai per cent4 phosphoric acid1 or about #dj per cent4 tricalcium phosphate4 ,the highest-grade material reported is #bd per cent4 phosphoric acid1 equivalent to about #eb per cent4 tricalcium phosphate4 ,all the phosphate therefore is low grade4 ,no production is reported from either of the localities4 ,low-grade phosphate rock1 in sedimentary beds of considerable extent1 and high-grade vein deposits are reported in ,palestine1 on the east side of the ,jordan4 ,the sedimentary deposits occur also on the west side of the ,jordan4 ,the known reserves are about #c1ejj1jjj tons4 ,the sedimentary deposits average about #dh per cent4 and the vein deposits #gg per cent4 tricalcium phosphate4 ,as the vein material is suitable for export1 these deposits have been explored by a ,french company1 but available information indicates there has been no output4 ,islands in the ,north ,pacific ,ocean4--,after the discovery of phosphate rock on ,rasa ,island1 #ejj miles east of ,formosa1 a number of years ago1 a ,japanese company was formed to exploit the deposits4 ,the rock is rich1 carrying #ge per cent4 phosphate of lime1 and the reserves are estimated at #b1hjj1jjj tons4 ,in #aiae ,rasa ,island yielded #ej1jjj tons4 ,a former ,german supply of phosphate is on ,angaur ,island1 in the ,pelew group1 east of the southern end of the ,philippines4 ,reserves on this island are estimated at #b1jjj1jjj to #d1jjj1jjj tons of phosphate rock1 mostly of high grade4 ,germany increased the output from #de1jjj tons in #aiaj to #ij1jjj tons in #aiac4 ,japan has held this island since ,october1 #aiad1 and is mining #cj1jjj tons or more phosphate annually4 ,deposits of phosphate1 consisting of replacements of dolomitic coralline limestone1 and phosphatic guano are reported on several other islands in ,oceania1 as ,baker and ,fanning ,islands1 in ,polynesia1 and ,fais ,island1 in the ,west ,caroline ,islands4 ,it is probable that on other islands there are commercial deposits as yet undiscovered4 ,islands in ,indian and ,south ,pacific ,oceans4--,north of ,adelaide1 in ,australia1 are pockety deposits of phosphate2 they are without regular stratification and are of varying quality4 ,the annual output has been #d1jjj to #f1jjj tons for several years4 ,in the ,otago district1 near ,clarendon1 ,new ,zealand1 beds of phosphate #c to #ab feet thick rest in pockets in limestone4 ,there has been very little if any production4 ,on ,christmas ,island 7,straits ,settlements71 which lies in the ,indian ,ocean #aij miles south of ,java1 rock carrying #hj per cent4 of bone phosphate is quarried and shipped to ,australia and ,japan4 ,the deposits seem to be irregular1 but are estimated to contain several million tons of rock of very high grade4 ,the island belongs to the government of ,singapore4 ,exploitation of the deposits by the ,british began in #aijj4 ,exports in #aiac were #aej1jjj tons4 ,phosphate rock of high grade is mined on ,ocean ,island1 in the ,gilbert ,archipelago1 between the ,marshall and ,solomon ,islands1 east of ,new ,guinea and north of ,new ,zealand4 ,on this and other so-called coral islands in the equatorial belt which for ages have been sea-bird rookeries1 leachings from the guano have impregnated the limestone1 forming phosphate rock many feet deep4 ,the deposits on this island are said to be many millions of tons and are among the richest in the world4 ,they have been mined since #aija1 and have produced as high as #cjj1jjj tons a year4 ,in #aiaf the output was #gj1jjj tons of rock carrying about #he per cent4 tricalcium phosphate4 ,the island is a ,british possession4 ,another ,british possession in the ,gilbert ,archipelago containing phosphate rock is ,pleasant ,island1 which is also known as ,nauru1 or ,ngaru1 ,island4 ,the deposits are similar to those on ,ocean and ,christmas ,islands1 being very high in calcium phosphate and low in iron and alumina4 ,germany formerly owned this island1 but it was taken over by the ,british in #aiag4 ,makatea1 near ,tahiti1 in the ,society ,islands1 is estimated to contain #aj1jjj1jjj tons of very high-grade phosphate rock1 irregularly distributed between reefs and pinnacles of dolomite4 ,the deposits were developed as recently as #aiaj and yielded more than #cjj1jjj tons before #aiag4 ,some of the rock carries #he per cent4 lime phosphate4 ,the island is a ,french possession4 ,,recent ,,changes ,,and ,,developments ,when the ,world ,war began1 exports of phosphate rock from the ,united ,states1 ordinarily about #a1jjj1jjj tons a year1 were cut off and the annual production of the ,united ,states fell from #c1jjj1jjj tons to #a1hjj1jjj tons4 ,there has been a strong recovery in the domestic industry and if labor and transportation conditions improve there should shortly be an annual production of nearly #c1jjj1jjj tons for domestic consumption1 or as much phosphate rock for our own use as formerly was produced for ourselves and a large export trade4 ,it is surmised that northern ,africa will yield larger quantities in the future than during the pre-war period4 ,production in ,algeria1 ,tunis1 and ,egypt was probably stimulated during the war on account of the large reduction in the quantity of ,american rock sent to ,europe4 ,japan doubtless will make a large output from the ,german deposits in ,polynesia which came into her possession at the beginning of the war4 ,,commercial ,,control ,ownership of the phosphate deposits in the ,united ,states is largely domestic2 some of the ,florida hard-rock deposits are owned by ,french and 7before the war7 ,german companies4 ,the ,german-owned deposits were taken over by the ,custodian of ,alien-,enemy ,property1 and have doubtless passed into other hands4 ,the phosphate deposits on ,curacao1 ,dutch ,west ,indies1 are worked by the ,curacao ,phosphate ,mining ,co41 which ships the output to ,england and ,germany4 ,phosphate deposits in ,algeria and ,tunis are exploited by ,french companies4 ,some of the companies work under lease4 ,la ,compagnie des ,phosphates de ,paris and ,la ,compagnie ,algerienne des ,phosphates have been mentioned as engaged in these fields4 ,deposits on the lower ,nile and ,red ,sea are worked by the ,egyptian ,phosphate ,co41 a ,british concern1 and by the ,societa ,egiziana per l',estrazione de il ,commercio dei ,phosphati1 a company managed by ,italians4 ,it is reported that much of the output goes to ,japan4 ,the ,pacific ,phosphate ,co41 ,ltd41 of ,london1 operates under concession the phosphate deposits on ,ocean and ,pleasant islands4 ,japanese companies are mining phosphate on ,rasa and ,angaur islands4 ,,position ,,of ,,leading ,,nations ,the ,united ,states has the largest known deposits of phosphate rock in the world1 and1 as before the war1 can supply the needs of other countries as well as her own4 ,since mining began about #ee1jjj1jjj tons have been mined1 or less than #a per cent4 of reserves4 ,great ,britain possesses phosphate in ,egypt and on ,christmas1 ,ocean and ,pleasant islands1 and has imported from the ,united ,states and probably from northern ,africa4 ,france and the other ,mediterranean countries have an ample supply in ,algeria and ,tunis4 ,germany formerly possessed rich deposits of phosphate on ,angaur ,island1 in the ,pelew group1 ,polynesia1 and on ,pleasant and ,ocean islands1 but so far as known now lacks a source of supply4 ,japan has a large supply of high-grade phosphate at her disposal on ,rasa and ,angaur islands4 ,,summary ,the principal use of phosphate rock is as an ingredient of fertilizers4 ,lesser quantities are consumed in the manufacture of phosphoric acid1 in phosphorus used in military operations1 in the manufacture of matches1 and in metallurgy4 ,both natural and artificial substitutes are available for many of the uses of phosphate rock4 ,phosphate rock is a sedimentary deposit containing phosphate of lime4 ,it occurs as a hard rock between beds of sandstone or shale1 as amorphous nodular phosphates in stream deposits1 and as a residuum from the decomposition of phosphatic dolomite1 limestone1 and other phosphate-bearing rocks4 ,the porous limestone of tropical islands1 where it is permeated with phosphate leached from guano1 is commonly classed as phosphate rock4 ,the phosphate rock deposits of present commercial importance are situated in the ,united ,states1 ,algeria1 ,tunis1 ,egypt1 and the islands of the ,indian and ,south ,pacific oceans1 the ,united ,states possessing by far the largest reserves4 ,smaller deposits1 either undeveloped or nearly exhausted1 are in ,canada1 ,venezuela1 ,chile1 ,belgium1 ,france1 ,russia1 ,england1 ,spain1 ,south ,australia1 and ,new ,zealand4 ,during the war the exports of phosphate rock from the ,united ,states decreased greatly4 ,with the return to normal conditions1 however1 the ,united ,states should experience little difficulty in becoming once more the principal source of phosphate rock4 ,the principal phosphate-rock deposits are controlled politically by the ,united ,states1 ,france 7,algeria and ,tunis71 and ,great ,britain 7,egypt74 ,a number of phosphate-bearing islands in the ,pacific ,ocean were owned by ,germany before the war1 but have been seized by ,great ,britain and ,japan4 ,the commercial control of the deposits of the ,united ,states is mainly in the hands of ,americans1 although ,german 7before the war7 and ,french interests own some of the ,florida hard-rock deposits4 ,the deposits of ,algeria and ,tunis are controlled by ,french companies4 ,the ,egyptian deposits are controlled by two companies1 one ,british and the other ,italian4 ,germany will be without a source of supply under her own control now that she has lost her colonies4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,potash ,,by ,,hoyt ,s4 ,,gale ,,and ,a4 ,w4 ,,stockett ,,nature ,,and ,,uses ,,of ,,potash ,the term potash is commonly used to designate any of the salts of the element potassium1 particularly those soluble in water1 which are largely used in agriculture and manufacturing4 ,the element potassium is widely distributed as a component of rocks1 soils1 and vegetable and animal substances1 but large quantities of potassium salts in forms suitable for the uses of man have been found in only a few places4 ,ashes of wood1 which were formerly the principal source of potash in commerce1 now supply an inconsiderable part of the world's requirements4 ,since #ahfj1 the principal1 in fact almost the only1 commercial source of potash salts has been the immense deposits in northern ,germany4 ,the crude potassium salts obtained from these deposits by mining operations are used either as fertilizer in the form in which they are taken from the ground1 or are purified by crystallization or manufactured into various compounds of potassium needed for both agriculture and other industrial uses4 ,use in agriculture as an ingredient of the so-called artificial or chemical fertilizers accounts for #ij per cent4 or more of the world's consumption4 ,potassium is not only one of the ten or more chemical elements essential to plant life1 but of these ten it is one of three that frequently become so lacking in soils that the yield of crops is not profitable4 ,even if potassium exists in soils1 it may be and often is present in some form not readily available for plant use1 so that the addition of fresh1 readily water-soluble salts of potassium shows prompt reaction in stimulating the growth of the crop4 ,in a general way potash is supposed to supply a necessary plant food1 that strengthens the stalk and fills the kernels of the growing plant4 ,also it is a general belief that some destructive plant diseases1 such as blight and rust of cotton and potatoes1 are largely favored by improper nutrition as well as by poor physical condition of the soil1 for which potash seems to be a specific4 ,thus the so-called potash industry1 by which is meant the mining and marketing of the principal or commonest compounds of potash1 is based chiefly on use in agriculture4 ,the other uses of the salts of potassium are many and diverse4 ,most of the potassium salts have properties similar to the corresponding salts of sodium1 and for most industrial purposes the salts of these two elements may be interchanged1 a generalization which does not1 however1 apply to any extent whatever to the agricultural application of potassium4 ,some industrial preferences for the potassium salt depend on more favorable physical properties of the potassium over the sodium salt1 such as a less tendency of the potassium salt to absorb moisture from the air4 ,other preferences depend on slight chemical differences1 as for instance a somewhat greater solubility1 which renders the purification of the potassium salt more easy4 ,during the scarcity and high prices of the wartime period many substitutions have been made1 which either directly or by some modification of practice are now proving so satisfactory that they will probably be continued4 ,one of the most urgent demands for potash has come from the match manufacturers4 ,potassium chlorate is an important ingredient of most matches1 and this use consumes a surprisingly large amount of potash4 ,certain varieties of glass1 especially cut glass tableware 7flint glass7 and some optical glass1 are made from potash1 generally in the form known as glass-makers' carbonate4 ,most soap is made from soda1 but potash 7as caustic or hydroxide7 is used for some of the finer grades1 such as shaving1 toilet1 and shampoo soaps1 especially the liquid forms4 ,caustic potash has had a considerable use in laundries1 and for the scouring or washing of wool4 ,the old form of black powder was made from potash as potassium nitrate or saltpeter2 hence the commonly assumed military importance of potash4 ,black powder1 though now largely superseded by modern high-explosive powders1 still has a relatively small though nevertheless important application in modern warfare4 ,there are other uses1 which1 though requiring a small total amount1 include some important requirements1 among these being the medicinal or pharmaceutical1 tannery1 dye1 photographic1 electroplate1 and metallurgical needs4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,the great deposits of potash in northern ,germany underlie an extensive area in the ,prussian provinces of ,saxony1 ,hanover1 and in the duchies of ,anhalt and ,brunswick4 ,the most important mining regions lie in an area practically encircling the ,harz ,mountains1 #ge to #aej miles southwest of ,berlin1 and #ajj to #aej miles south to southeast of ,hamburg4 ,this area is outlined more exactly on the accompanying index map 7,fig4 #ad74 ,the field originally opened at ,stassfurt has since been explored by deep boring and developed by the sinking of mining shafts1 with the result that there has now been outlined an estimated reserve of #bj1jjj1jjj1jjj metric tons of crude potash salts1 which at the present rate of the world's consumption should be sufficient to last almost #b1jjj years4 ,thus for all practical purposes the field may be considered as inexhaustible4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,distribution of potash deposits in northern ,germany4 ,in #aijd another important and extensive deposit of water-soluble potash salts was discovered by boring in the valley of the ,rhine ,river in southern ,alsace4 ,alsace1 then in possession of ,germany1 has now been restored to ,france4 ,the deposit is in two essentially continuous beds that underlie within accessible depth an area of #gj to #hj square miles of the flat bottom lands of the ,rhine ,valley4 ,the beds are estimated to contain about #a1ejj1jjj1jjj metric tons of crude potash salts1 which average considerably richer in potash than the output of the north ,german deposits1 and1 being of simpler chemical composition1 are more readily refined4 ,the mines opening these deposits are readily accessible to water transportation by way of the ,rhine ,river and the canals of the ,rhine ,valley4 ,the distance to ocean ports is considerably longer than it is from the north ,german deposits1 being about #cge miles1 as compared with #aej miles by canal and river boats from the latter1 but the amount of handling necessary to transport similar cargoes from the two districts seems to be about the same4 ,the deposit in ,alsace lies in an elliptical area centering about #e miles northwest of the city of ,mulhouse4 ,some potash has been produced from a deposit in ,galicia1 near ,kalusz1 south of ,lemberg1 from deposits reported to be of a type similar to those of north ,germany1 but the field has never yielded even enough potash to satisfy the local demand1 and is thought not to be large4 ,during the war relatively small outputs of potash salts were obtained from many independent sources1 in the ,united ,states1 ,abyssinia1 ,tunis1 and other countries4 ,under stress of war necessities and the complete shutting off of other supplies1 these outputs in the aggregate formed a considerable amount4 ,much of the development probably will not be permanent1 when strict competition with the potash from more available sources is renewed1 but each of these fields and doubtless many others contain the possibilities of development that may give the world situation a new aspect at any time4 ,chief among the most immediate prospects for important development is a rather extensive field in eastern ,spain1 near ,barcelona4 ,this field has not as yet produced on a commercial scale4 ,one estimate of the reserves in the ,spanish field claims a proved area of #ac4e square miles containing #bjj1jjj1jjj tons of potassium oxide4 ,the nitrate deposits of ,chile contain a small percentage of potash1 and this is being recovered separately from the sodium nitrate at several of the refineries4 ,it has been estimated that a total production of #bdj1jjj tons of potassium oxide annually might be derived from this source4 ,many different sources in the ,united ,states are yielding potash salts4 ,the largest known deposit of soluble potash in fairly concentrated form is at ,searles ,lake1 ,california4 ,this is a dried saline lake1 now represented by a bed of crystalline salts with a large amount of saturated brine rich in potash4 ,the body of salts carrying the brine underlies an area of about #be square miles and extends to an average depth of #gj feet4 ,it is estimated that the brine alone in this deposit carries nearly #bj1jjj1jjj tons of potassium oxide1 which would be enough potash to supply the needs of the country for about #fj years at the present normal rate4 ,numerous small lakes in western ,nebraska carry brines exceptionally rich in potash1 and these are now yielding a considerable production of potash fertilizer salts4 ,no satisfactory estimate of the reserves in this field is available4 ,under present operating conditions about one-third of the annual requirements of the ,united ,states is recoverable from the cement mills4 ,about #chj1jjj short tons of potash1 most of which is volatilized1 is annually charged into the blast furnaces of the country4 ,the best available estimates indicate that about #cj1jjj tons of potash have formerly gone to waste in molasses distillery slop1 and-about #h1jjj tons in ,steffens waste water at the beet-sugar refineries of the country4 ,kelp and alunite are available in quantities sufficient to continue to yield a substantial production4 ,enormous quantities of leucite lava1 carrying #aj per cent4 of potash in an insoluble silicate form2 greensand carrying #f to #g per cent4 of insoluble potash2 sericite with from #g to #ab per cent41 and feldspar with similar content1 are available as raw materials of production if satisfactory commercial processes can be developed4 ,thus potential supplies of potash in the ,united ,states are practically inexhaustible4 ,the future of the ,american potash industry1 therefore1 depends on the development of processes or methods of separation economical enough to permit the domestic product to compete with imported potash4 ,,geological ,,distribution ,the potash deposits of northern ,germany lie in the midst of a series of formations known as the ,zechstein1 the geologic age of which is ,permian4 ,both the ,alsatian and ,spanish deposits are found in ,oligocene ,tertiary rocks1 although the deposits were not necessarily strictly synchronous in origin4 ,the ,galician deposits are described as of lower ,miocene 7,tertiary7 age4 ,these are the principal known bedded deposits of potash in the world1 for which as a class the distinction as to geologic age seems to have a special significance4 ,the association of potash with the large salt and gypsum deposits of the world seems for some reason to have been exceptional in geologic history4 ,but the determination that these somewhat analogous occurrences have been formed at various times and places is a good basis for expecting that similar deposits may yet be discovered elsewhere4 ,,changes ,,in ,,commercial ,,practice ,before the war the world's consumption of potash was practically the measure of the ,german production1 the statistics of which are available in considerable detail4 ,in round numbers1 ,germany produced about #aj1jjj1jjj metric tons of potash salts1 averaging about #aj per cent4 of ,k,o1 of which she used more than #fj per cent4 at home1 and exported about #be per cent4 to the ,united ,states4 ,for two years a very small production from ,alsace had been lumped with the rest4 ,shortly after the outbreak of the war the ,german government placed an embargo on the export of potash1 presumably in the hope of thereby injuring crop production of the ,allies1 and possibly because of the small military significance that it has4 ,the production of potash in ,germany was continued1 however1 at practically the same rate as before the war1 the portion formerly exported being distributed for fertilizer use at home4 ,this naturally gave a tremendous stimulus to the efforts of other countries to develop sources of potash4 ,although no huge natural resources comparable to the already known deposits were discovered1 the efforts nevertheless had a reasonable amount of success1 so that the world has not suffered in any vital way because of deprivation of potash4 ,the cost of potash in the ,united ,states and its ,allied countries increased to as much as ten times the pre-war price1 but the supply was sufficient to meet all of the most pressing needs4 ,many possibilities for production from various sources have been opened1 for which it is still too soon to predict the final outcome4 ,it appears that a number of these new enterprises have entered the field permanently1 although there will necessarily be some uncertainty during the period of reconstruction4 ,the ceding of ,alsace to ,france1 which is discussed in a subsequent paragraph1 undoubtedly entails the largest and most significant change in the commercial situation as regards the world market for potash4 ,a possibility of production from the deposits in eastern ,spain holds similar although more remote significance4 ,,sources ,,of ,,production ,the output of potash during #aiag1 summarized by countries according to the best available data1 is as follows3 ,,table #fe4--,,world ,,production ,,of ,,potash ,,in #aiag ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,production ,average 7short content ,k,o ,country ,source of data tons7 7per cent47 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,germany ,kalisyndikat statistics4 #i1hec1aga #aa4b ,alsace 7,included under ,germany47 ,united ,states,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey4 #abf1ifa #be4f ,india ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,india1 vol4 #di1 part #b1 p4 #ga4 #bc1hch #dj4jaee ,tunis ,jour4 ,soc4 ,chem4 ,ind41 vol4 #cg1 p4 #bid ,t4 #bj1jjj #dj4j ,galicia 8,kali10 vol4 #g1 p4 #i4 #aj1jjj #aj4j ,russia ,war ,industrial ,comm4 of ,russia report4 #e1jjj ,abyssinia ,com4 ,fertilizer1 ,jan4 #ah1 #aiah1 p4 #dd4 #e1jjj 8 ,japan ,commerce ,rept41 ,dec4 #a1 #aiaf1 p4 #hcj4 #d1jjj 8 ,chile ,u4 ,s4 imports potassium nitrate4 #a1gej #be4jaee ,china ,commerce ,rept41 ,nov4 #bg1 #aiah1 p4 #gij4 #a1jjj ,france ,saline-de-,giraud4 #cjj ,mexico ,u4 ,s4 imports saltpeter4 #aae #dj4jaee ,england ,kelp and blast furnace recoveries4 8 8 ,spain ,no production ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,total #aj1jea1ace ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #aee ,estimated from data indicated4 ,,political ,,and ,,commercial ,,control ,germany4--,the potash industry in ,germany is reported to have represented an investment of ,m4#ejj1jjj1jjj 7#aai1jjj1jjj74 ,in #aiah there were #bji mines capable of producing1 as indicated by the ,kalisyndikat list assigning quotas for anticipated production from the individual mines for the year4 ,most of these mines are privately owned under a variety of laws in the several ,german states and provinces4 ,originally the developments are said to have taken place under various local regulations2 for example1 in ,hanover the mining rights belonged to the property holders1 in ,saxony the prospecting rights were free and the mining concessions belonged to the first discoverer of the deposits without regard to the owner of the surface soil1 and in ,anhalt mining was at first declared to be a state monopoly1 which was later contracted to a few private companies4 ,some properties are1 however1 owned and operated by the state4 ,the ,prussian government owns mines at ,stassfurt1 ,bleicherode1 and ,vienenburg2 the ,duchy of ,anhalt has large works at ,leopoldshall2 and the ,duchy of ,brunswick holds interest in some potash properties4 ,two instances of participation by ,american concerns in the ,german industry are known4 ,the ,international ,agricultural ,corporation1 an ,american company organized in #aiji1 was for a time the owner of all the capital stock of the ,sollstedt ,works in ,germany4 ,later1 one-half interest in this ,american corporation was transferred to the ,kaliwerke ,aschersleben1 another ,german concern1 under conditions which seemed to complicate the matter of ownership4 ,the ,virginia-,carolina ,chemical ,co41 of ,richmond1 ,virginia1 is reported to have purchased a controlling interest in the ,einigkeit ,works1 presumably by a direct cash transaction4 ,under a law of the ,german ,reichstag1 known as the potash act of the #beth of ,may1 #ahhd1 an obligatory control of the potash industry in ,germany was ordained4 ,a common agency1 known as the ,kalisyndikat1 was established1 to represent all of the mines1 with power to control the opening of new mines1 the output of each mine1 and the selling prices of potash salts4 ,the industry has thus become a trust re-enforced by the ,german government1 although the private ownership of individual properties remains4 ,this syndicate differs from an ,american syndicate in that it is formed for a limited period of time1 in the present case #e years1 and its working capital is small1 only enough to provide for the actual working needs of the organization4 ,the object of the syndicate is to prevent disastrous competition1 to insure that the supply will conform to the demand1 and that reasonable profits may be obtained by producers4 ,the mines or works composing the potash syndicate1 as with most mining syndicates in ,germany1 may be either of the limited liability sort1 the shares of which are not assessable1 or those whose capital stock is divided into shares called 8kuxe10 which are assessable at anytime and are of unlimited liability4 ,the shares of both kinds are dealt in on the exchanges in the large cities of ,germany4 ,each company that is a member of a ,german syndicate has its representative on the board of management of the trust1 and this board fixes the quota of production allowed each mine1 and generally administers the affairs of the entire combination under its constitution and by-laws 7statuten74#aef ,the constitution and by-laws must be signed by each concern entering the syndicate and the provisions therein contained strictly observed under penalties enforceable in courts of law4 #aef ,abstract from ,daily ,consular and ,trade ,reports1 ,no4 #bfe1 vol4 #d1 ,nov4 #aa1 #aiaa1 p4 #gfj4 ,the weak point in this form of organization is the dissension that often arises over the quotas allowed the different members4 ,each company wants as large an allotment as it can get4 ,upon the expiration of the life of a syndicate there is always uncertainty as to whether it will be renewed1 owing to competition among the various constituent firms4 ,before the war1 under the terms of the contracts of the five large fertilizer companies with the ,german potash syndicate1 one-half of the maximum discount allowed was deducted from the amount of the invoice covering each shipment1 and the remainder was paid to the buyer at the end of each half year1 provided he made a statement in writing to the syndicate to the effect that he had purchased his entire requirements of potash from the syndicate4 ,thus by allowing maximum discounts to the large buyers1 and preventing them from dealing in potash from any source except the syndicate1 this provision aimed to stifle the development of any competitive sources of supply4 ,alsace4--,the potash deposits of ,alsace were developed under the ,german mining law for ,alsace-,lorraine of ,december #af1 #ahdc1 amended ,july #ad1 #aijh1 with specific reference to potash4 ,since the armistice the ,german mines have been operated under the sequestration rgime1 under charge of the ,french military authorities1 directed by the ministry of industrial reconstruction in ,france4 ,now that the treaty of peace has been ratified by ,germany1 ,alsace may be regarded as having formally and finally passed into the possession of ,france1 and with this naturally the political and commercial control of the ,alsatian potash deposits4 ,it remains therefore for the ,french ,parliament to determine what the final disposition of the former ,german ownership of these properties shall be1 and questions such as nationalization or ,french-,alsatian control were being discussed in the summer of #aibj4 ,although most of the concessions in the ,alsatian potash field had been granted to ,german interests1 the development was started by ,alsatians1 and two of the concessions are in ,french-,alsatian ownership4 ,these have not been and probably will not be altered1 unless they are to enter some voluntary combination4 ,an agency for the sale and distribution of the ,alsatian potash has been arranged in the ,united ,states1 and for the present at least the product is coming in direct competition with the salts from the older ,german mines4 ,spain4--,the potash deposits recently discovered in the provinces of ,barcelona and ,lerida1 of ,catalua1 in eastern ,spain1 are subject to special regulations of the ,spanish government4 ,a large area of concessions already granted to private interests covers a considerable part of the field outlined by exploratory borings4 ,operations on these concessions are permitted1 but the state reserves the right to subordinate the exploitation to the interests of the country1 and impose special conditions in favor of the consumption of the potash produced in ,spain4 ,recently1 unexplored state lands have been opened1 by royal decree1 to bids for exploration and lease4 ,the scheme follows in general the plan of governmental control of the ,german potash industry4 ,according to it1 all concessions for the working and sale of salts are subject in many details to governmental control4 ,among other conditions1 working must be continuous save in certain exempted circumstances2 the state shall fix annually the home and export prices1 as well as the maximum and minimum quota for each mine4 ,other ,countries4--,before the war1 the ,austrian potash syndicate1 which consisted of the ,austrian government and a group of capitalists1 controlled the deposits near ,kalusz1 in ,galicia4 ,no specific governmental regulation is reported for the minor operations connected with the production of potash in other countries4 ,,summary ,more than #ij per cent4 of the potash handled in the world's commerce is used as a fertilizer4 ,the rest is used as a chemical in various industries1 chief among which are the manufacture of matches1 certain kinds of glass and soap1 and the better grades of black powder4 ,the uses specifically mentioned in this paragraph are essential1 as no satisfactory substitutes are known4 ,up to #aiad practically all of the potash used in the world came from the deposits in northern ,germany1 which are substantially inexhaustible4 ,next in importance are the deposits of ,alsace1 which contain enough potash to meet the world's present demands for almost #cjj years4 ,other resources are known in ,spain1 ,galicia1 ,abyssinia1 the nitrate beds of ,chile1 and in deposits in the ,united ,states1 but it is too early to predict with assurance what part they will play in the expansion of the potash industry4 ,germany will no longer be able to maintain a world monopoly of the potash market4 ,the passing of control of the important resources in ,alsace from ,germany to ,france foreshadows competition from recognized adequate sources of supply4 ,there are many other possibilities1 the mere potentialities of which are sufficient to restrain any tendency to unreasonable extortion by those who control the ,german fields4 ,moreover1 attention has been so directed to the desirability of developing independent sources1 and so much able technical talent is now being devoted toward bringing successful issue from the many undertakings in progress1 that it is very unlikely that this country1 or any other1 will in the future be dependent on one or two arbitrarily handled monopolies4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,nitrogen ,,by ,,chester ,g4 ,,gilbert ,,uses ,,of ,,nitrogen ,plant life requires nitrogen and gets it in the normal cycle of events4 ,but when the occasion calls for stimulating the growth of plant life by feeding1 by soil fertilization in other words1 nitrogen in available form is indispensable4 ,further down along the channels of food supply it exercises another and equally important function in providing the chemical 7ammonia7 around which the modern practice of refrigeration is built4 ,likewise1 the chemistry of explosives is basically the chemistry of nitrogen compounds4 ,nor is this all1 for chemical operations in general--hence research and industrial chemistry in general--involve the employment of nitrogen compounds4 ,such1 in brief1 is its status4 ,on each of three major counts1 the interests of food production1 of food distribution1 and of national defense1 it is indispensable2 and of no less consequence is the retinue of less conspicuous agencies serving the interests of chemistry at every turn4 ,,geological ,,distribution ,the development of fixed nitrogen sources is conditioned by three simple chemical facts4 ,with these three simple facts in mind the rest follows largely as a matter of inference4 ,the facts are3 ,that under all ordinary conditions of temperature and pressure1 free nitrogen is a gas4 ,that it is extremely inert and indisposed to participate with other elements in the formation of chemical compounds4 ,that such combinations when they do occur are characteristically soluble4 ,in consequence of these three governing principles1 along with its relationship to organic matter1 as alluded to under the preceding caption1 nitrogen has four habits of occurrence1 worth considering as at least potential sources of supply4 ,atmospheric ,nitrogen4--,being indisposed to participate in chemical combinations1 nitrogen in the course of world evolution was left largely to itself2 and since in the free state it is normally gaseous1 it established its home in the atmosphere4 ,thus it comes about that the atmosphere today is approximately four-fifths nitrogen gas1 and after all is said and done the atmosphere is bound to constitute the great source to which we must turn for our supplies4 ,with a source so boundlessly ever-present1 the question of supply at first glance looks simple enough4 ,but atmospheric nitrogen1 it must be remembered1 is nitrogen uncombined1 and the demand is not for nitrogen itself but for nitrogen-bearing compounds4 ,once in a state of combination1 it may remain so indefinitely1 and the form of combination may be changed more or less readily to suit the demand4 ,before it can be put to use1 however1 it must be induced to surrender its gaseous freedom and affix itself in some such state of combination4 ,the free nitrogen must become fixed nitrogen--hence the terms fixed nitrogen1 nitrogen fixation1 and the like in common use4 ,toward this end it must be induced to do what it has not seen fit to do of its own accord1 and the very trait of aloofness responsible for the inexhaustible resources of atmospheric nitrogen stands as an obstacle opposing their utilization4 ,the obstacle has not proven insuperable1 as will appear later2 but it is sufficiently a source of trouble even to this day1 so that the fixed-nitrogen situation may with peculiar appropriateness be characterized as distinctly in the air4 ,nitrate ,ore ,deposits4--,the disposition on the part of nitrogen to take up its abode in the atmosphere has an obvious result in minimizing the development of mineral nitrates4 ,atmospheric nitrogen is not entirely stagnant1 however4 ,natural processes are constantly at work effecting substantial fixation4 ,the processes are not obtrusively energetic1 as in the case of atmospheric oxygen1 whose fixation processes constitute the ever-present phenomena of oxidation4 ,still1 in various ways1 the most prominent among which is undoubtedly a form of bacterial action1 nitrification and the building up of nitrate minerals everywhere in the soil goes quietly forward1 and their concentration in ore deposits of more or less plentiful occurrence is thus to be looked for in the natural course of geologic events4 ,in attempting to trace their further course1 however1 we are confronted at the outset by the principle of solubility4 ,the nitrate minerals are in the nature of soluble salts4 ,they leach from the immediate environment in which they form1 just as do the soluble minerals in general4 ,mostly these latter are carried in solution to the ocean1 adding themselves to its salinity2 but under exceptional conditions of topography1 where the drainage feeds into land-locked basins1 the water finds itself entrapped with no avenue of escape except through evaporation4 ,here the salts accumulate1 become concentrated1 and finally give rise to deposits4 ,this1 in outline1 is the course set for the soluble mineral salts as a class1 and it is along this course that we must expect to trace the development of nitrate ore deposits4 ,but the ocean1 with its #c per cent4 of salinity1 has only traces of nitrate minerals2 and the same is true for the waters of land-locked basins1 in all the various stages of concentration4 ,their solubility is such that they can not have escaped in substantial form along the way4 ,there is only one inference to be drawn4 ,evidently the inherent trait of aloofness is not lost to nitrogen when it does combine4 ,the compounds do not survive for any length of time1 but undergo dissociation1 releasing their nitrogen and returning it to the atmosphere even as other processes are slowly withdrawing it from the atmosphere4 ,with this the eternal cycle is closed for nitrogen1 and closed without apparent provision for any considerable side-tracking1 such as would be required in the building up of ore deposits4 ,so much for the rule2 now as to the exceptions3 ,mostly they are of minor consequence4 ,pockety enrichments in the soil are common4 ,accumulations tend to build up in caves1 and may even grow to be of consequence in a small way1 as during the ,civil ,war1 when they helped materially toward relieving the nitrogen troubles of the blockaded ,confederacy4 ,in arid country1 too1 they not infrequently assume sufficient prominence to be of interest1 especially at the hands of the promoter4 ,finally1 there are the ,chilean nitrate fields1 which far from being of minor consequence1 go to the other extreme in catering to the needs of the entire world4 ,these occurrences1 especially the last named1 have served to keep alive the hope that others of economic importance await discovery4 ,the ,chilean deposits alone among them all deserve more than passing notice4 ,the origin of these deposits is veiled in uncertainty4 ,just why or how the natural forces1 which elsewhere as a matter of universal observation have been seen to oppose both the formation of nitrogen salts and the accumulation of such as do manage to form1 should have failed in this particular instance remains wholly conjectural4 ,a conclusive explanation would be of the utmost value in determining the likelihood of similar occurrences elsewhere4 ,but none has been forthcoming1 and nothing is to be gained to the present purpose from stopping to inquire into the plausibility of the various attempts that have been made4 ,confronting us on the one hand are the evidences of a nitrogen cycle established1 seemingly1 without affording any visible loophole of opportunity for the accumulation of extensive deposits2 on the other hand stands the bare fact of enormous deposition4 ,this fact of existence unquestionably carries with it the possibility of duplication elsewhere4 ,however1 the fact of occurrence merely suggests the possibility1 but does not determine the chances of recurrence4 ,these are recorded in the prevalence of the conditions requisite to extensive deposition4 ,in the case of nitrogen they are unique beyond comprehension1 and the prospect of recurrence is to precisely the same degree unlikely4 ,accordingly1 to all practical purposes1 a review of the world's nitrate ore deposits1 both real and potential1 resolves itself down to a review of the ,chilean occurrence4 ,the ,chilean nitrate fields lie in the arid valley basin to the east of the lofty coast range and just south of the present ,peruvian boundary line4 ,they do not occur as a single expansive area of deposition1 but as deposits scattered here and there along the desert land at the bases of the mountain slopes4 ,the formation consists of a conglomerate or breccia of rock material from the adjacent slopes1 cemented with a mixture of soluble salts in which sodium chloride1 common salt1 is the dominant member1 with sodium nitrate ranking second4 ,the formation is called caliche4 ,it lies for the most part just below the surface of the ground and varies from a few feet to many feet in thickness4 ,only in scattered patches is the caliche high enough in content of sodium nitrate to warrant treatment4 ,these patches are sought out and excavated1 and the picked ore is loaded in carts1 which haul it to the extraction plant for treatment4 ,here the soluble salts as a whole are extracted in solution1 and the nitrate in turn is segregated from the other salts by crystallization4 ,aside from haulage1 hand labor is used throughout4 ,the caliche regarded as worth treating contains not less than #aj per cent4 nitrate and ranges up to #be per cent4 and over1 with an average of around #ah per cent4 ,the product marketed is of two general grades--the ordinary1 listed as #ie per cent4 nitrate1 and the refined1 a guaranteed #if per cent4 nitrate1 low in sodium chloride4 ,the deposits have been worked more or less consistently1 and with steadily increasing output1 since about #ahcj4 ,their importance in the scheme of nitrogen supply may be gathered from ,figures #af to #ah4 ,organic ,nitrogen4--,another source of fixed nitrogen grows out of its relationship to life processes1 and is consequent on the very requirements of organized society which earlier it is called upon to assist in meeting4 ,in other words1 fixed nitrogen participates in the material cycle of life4 ,it enters into the material demands of life for food1 and it is yielded up among the material discards available to absorption4 ,all manner of residuum1 animal and vegetable alike1 affords at least a potential source of fixed-nitrogen supply4 ,some of these are in service2 others for one reason or another are not4 ,prominent among those in the former class are animal excreta1 the so-called tankage from animal rendering plants1 slaughter-house refuse1 fish scrap1 and vegetable-product refinery refuse4 ,most prominent among those still largely potential are sewage and garbage disposal4 ,the nitrogen from these organic sources does not appear on the market as such4 ,instead1 the products enter in bulk into the make-up of fertilizer4 ,they are of miscellaneous character1 and only part of what is contributed collects to pass through industrial channels where its flow may be measured4 ,the industrial flow goes on record and the records are available1 but even here the nitrogen content has never been systematically computed1 so the record is inadequate4 ,for the rest1 the portion that does not reach the channels of industry1 there is nothing whatever in the way of data to go by4 ,taken all in all1 then1 the significance of the organic nitrogen resources is largely conjectural4 ,this is unfortunate4 ,approximate figures covering the use of organic nitrogen would be of value in various connections1 as in the interests of intelligent allocation in times of nitrogen shortage1 as helping to determine the extent to which the growing demands of agriculture incident to the growth of population may be discounted from the consequent expansion of scavenging opportunity1 or as affording a basis for estimating the very considerable influence of motorization toward increasing the demand for chemically prepared fertilizers4 ,as things stand1 all such questions of relationship lead only to profitless speculation4 ,even the relative importance of the organic sources as a whole in the economics of nitrogen supply is uncertain4 ,what they have to offer of undeveloped reserves1 now taking the form of wasteful sanitation procedure1 will be taken up later4 ,under existing conditions1 it is probably fair to assume that #dj to #ej per cent4 of the nitrogen normally put to use in the ,united ,states is organically associated4 ,carboniferous ,deposits4--,nitrogen in its organic relationships is bound up with carbon1 of which organic matter is largely composed1 and the bond between the two is entirely disestablished only as the carbon itself loses its substantial form through oxidation4 ,in consequence of this enduring alliance1 nitrogen is characteristically present in carboniferous deposits1 a form of occurrence giving rise to still another1 a fourth type of nitrogen resource4 ,coal and oil-shale loom up as the outstanding representatives of this class4 ,in each1 the nitrogen content is variable1 but amounts to #a per cent4 or over4 ,with so low a percentage of nitrogen1 it goes without saying that neither of these is to be regarded as a possible source of direct supply4 ,the cost would be prohibitive1 even under the stress of the most extreme emergency4 ,the nitrogen in a coal bed or an oil-shale formation is as worthless as the iron in any ordinary rock4 ,but coal has other uses1 and so has oil shale1 or at least will shortly4 ,the nitrogen does not have to be extracted2 it gets released incidentally1 and when its release is effected under conditions that prevent its escape1 the result is a productive nitrogen resource4 ,the nitrogen from this type of resource is in the form of ammonia1 the relative importance of which is shown in ,figures #af to #ah and ,table #ff4 ,,general ,,aspects ,,of ,,control ,such is the nature of the nitrogen resources4 ,the resource situation as a whole is represented graphically in ,figure #ae4 ,none other can compare with it for inclusiveness4 ,its sources are animal1 vegetable1 mineral1 and atmospheric1 which is to say1 universal2 and out of this unparalleled diversity has grown an industrial development as complex as it is diversified1 and1 incidentally1 in view of its bearing on food and munitions supply1 as important as it is complex4 ,the situation at best can be but imperfectly grasped1 for it has been but inadequately studied4 ,in transgressing all set rules of resource occurrence1 it transgresses the limits set for organized investigation4 ,geologists have studied one phase of the situation1 electrochemists another1 sanitation experts another1 and so on2 and the various commercial interests involved have seen to the giving of publicity where publicity would do the most good4 ,,table #ff4--,,statistics ,,of ,,nitrogen ,,production ---------------------------------------- - ,organic ,chemical nitrogen nitrogen ------------------------- ----------- ,sodium nitrate ,dried ----------------------- blood2 ,do- tankage2 mes- guano2 tic fish scrap2 ,world's pro- cotton seed pro- duc- cake and duction1tion1 ,imports1 ,yearmeal2 etc4 tons tons tons -------------------------------------- #aijj 444 444 444 #aija ,data for #a1cbh1ffd 444 #bjc1ifj #aijb organic #a1cdi1cjj 444 #bje1bde #aijc nitrogen #a1dhe1bgi 444 #bgb1idg #aijd;indefinite1#a1eei1jia 444 #bbh1jab #aije but #a1ged1fje 444 #cba1bca #aijf probably #a1hjj1ejj 444 #cgb1bbb #aijg about #a1hdf1jcf 444 #cfd1faj #aijh equal to #a1igj1igd 444 #caj1gac #aijithe total #b1aaj1ifa 444 #dbh1dbi #aiaj for #b1dfe1dae 444 #ebi1agb #aiaa chemical #b1eba1jbc 444 #edd1hgh #aiab nitrogen4 #b1ehe1hej 444 #dhf1ceb #aiac #b1ggb1bed 444 #fbe1hfb #aiad #b1dfc1cef 444 #eda1gae #aiae #a1gee1bia 444 #ggb1aij #aiaf #b1iab1hic 444#a1bah1dbc #aiag #b1iej1jjj 444#a1eee1hci #aiah #b1ijj1jjj 444#a1hde1aib -------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,chemical nitrogen --------------------------------------- ,fixation compounds ------------------------------------- ,do- ,world's production mes- ------------------------ tic ,ammon4 ,calcium pro- sulph4 nitrate,cyanamid1 duc- ,im- 7,haber717,arc71 tons tion1ports1 ,year tons tons tons tons --------------------------------------- #aijj 444 444 444 444 444 #aija 444 444 444 444 444 #aijb 444 444 444 444 444 #aijc 444 444 444 444 444 #aijd 444 444 444 444 444 #aije 444 444 444 444 444 #aijf 444 444 #chf 444 444 #aijg 444 444 #a1hgd 444 444 #aijh 444 444 #b1gfg 444 444 #aiji 444 #de1dej #ab1gcd 444 444 #aiaj 444 444 #bb1eif 444 #gfd #aiaa 444 444 #ei1dgi 444 #e1fag #aiab 444 444 #aae1fhh 444 #g1acd #aiac #bj1jjjaha1hjj #agc1jbf 444#ad1fef #aiad #fj1jjj 444 #bjh1jgj 444#bi1ecf #aiae #aej1jjj 444 #hde1chh 444#bj1efd #aiaf #cjj1jjj 444#a1jec1dci 444#ch1jbc #aiag #ejj1jjjcjj1jjj #ied1gfe 444#dd1adf #aiah 444 444 444 444#dc1jgj --------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,chemical nitrogen ------------------------ ,by-product ammonium sulphate ---------------------- ,do- mes- tic ,world's pro- pro- duc- ,im- duction1 tion1 ports1 ,year tons tons tons -------------------------- #aijj #edj1jjj #bg1fjj #h1daa #aija #ehj1jjj #bi1bgiad1dhf #aijb #fjj1jjj #cf1abdah1adf #aijc #fdj1jjj #da1hgcaf1ggg #aijd #fej1jjj #ed1ffdaf1ffg #aije #fid1ege #fe1bifae1bhh #aijf #ggh1cfe #ge1jjj #i1ahb #aijg #ijf1bee #ii1cjjcj1aad #aijh #igj1bjj #hc1djjch1bch #aiji #ihg1hdjajf1ejjdb1iad #aiaja1ajd1gjeaaf1jjjib1cdb #aiaaa1bjf1aceabg1jjjid1fcc #aiaba1cef1jgeafe1jjjei1edb #aiaca1ecb1dgeaie1jjjfe1gge #aiada1cbj1jjjahc1jjjge1jaj #aiaea1fij1jjjbdi1jjjcf1cgj #aiafb1jjj1jjjbhe1jjjab1ifb #aiag 444#cbe1jjj #aiah -------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,nitrogen sources and their cycles of utilization4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,wartime developments in the production of nitrogen4 ,figures are thousands of tons4 ,but an investigation working on the basis of geology alone can not cope with the situation2 neither can one on the basis of technology alone2 nor one on the basis of organic chemistry1 or bacteriology alone2 nor yet one prepared to employ any or all of these means1 but only with a view to some special end4 ,nor yet again does the discordant grinding of many axes make a noise from which it is possible to gather an adequate comprehension4 ,the nitrogen situation has been inadequately treated because it has been inadequately studied4 ,it has been studied piecemeal1 always through the medium of limited means or with some special end in view4 ,it is not a series of technical problems in geology1 in bacteriology1 in fixation1 in munitions supply1 and the like4 ,it has to do with a composite economic structure1 building for the dependence of society in peace and war alike4 ,until treated as such1 the needs of the situation are bound to be inadequately met and its control a matter of perilous uncertainty4 ,the present discussion makes no pretense of supplying this deficiency or of doing much of anything more than to show the extent to which it exists4 ,figure #ae is designed to show not so much the scope of the resources as their composite functioning in the system of nitrogen supply4 ,the influence of geography in the control of resources so universally available is bound to be subordinate4 ,true1 it enables ,chile to exercise monopolistic control over the mineral nitrate supply1 but it leaves the way open for the development of others2 and while acknowledging the fullness of our dependence1 as shown in ,figures #af to #ah and ,table #ff1 we must not lose sight of the fact that it is so not of necessity1 but because we have been content to leave it so rather than undertake to develop supplies of our own4 ,so1 too1 with political control2 what is gained in one direction is1 potentially at least1 offset by the possibilities opening up in others4 ,control of the sea gives a control over the mineral nitrate supply as absolute as that in ,chile's territorial monopoly4 ,yet in the recent great war1 ,germany1 with her shipping obliterated at the outset1 was not made to suffer materially from a nitrogen shortage4 ,britain's supremacy of the sea went for naught4 ,in the years before the war the force due in season to exercise control over the nitrate supply served only to stimulate the development of domestic potentialities1 with the result that when the test came ,germany's proved actually to be the more advantageous equipment4 ,so it goes4 ,control over the nitrogen resources themselves is impossible4 ,they are too universally available4 ,their only susceptibility to control is in the shaping of their development4 ,this is too important a matter to be disregarded with impunity and left to develop without guidance4 ,the modern nation that does so courts the irrepressible disaster of a nation at war but bereft of the means not only of waging war but of maintaining a food supply as well4 ,from ,figure #af may be gathered the quality of attention given the matter of domestic supply by the different nations immediately before and during the war4 ,germany1 it will be observed1 heeded the call to give the matter special attention well before the war and had an independent system of supply developed in readiness1 drawing upon the atmosphere and coal-product nitrogen with the results already chronicled4 ,great ,britain did not ignore the importance of nitrogen1 but placed reliance on her supremacy of the sea and paid little or no attention to shaping the course of developments4 ,nor did its importance go unheeded elsewhere abroad1 and the foothold gained for fixation in ,france1 ,italy1 ,austria1 ,russia1 and ,japan was1 it is safe to say1 not wholly automatic4 ,the ,united ,states alone among the great nations up to the outbreak of hostilities in ,europe in #aiad neglected to take any special precautions whatever4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,nitrogen developments in the ,united ,states4 #a4 ,wartime expansion for munitions manufacture4 #b4 ,field of competitive opportunity for ,chilean nitrate1 air nitrate fixation1 improved coal-fuel practice1 shale-oil ammonia1 bacterial fixation1 improved sanitation1 etc4 #c4 ,field of opportunity reserved to coke-oven recovery4 #d4 ,developments indicated for coke-oven recovery4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,nitrogen developments for the world1 #aijj-aiah4 ,the war1 when it came1 far exceeded all expectations as to magnitude1 and so in consequence did the demand for specially developed nitrogen supplies4 ,to meet the emergency1 some could be deflected from agricultural channels1 but nothing like what was required1 for food was just as important as munitions4 ,the organic sources offered no help4 ,rather they were a hindrance2 for organic nitrogen1 broadly speaking1 comes as a by-product of sanitation1 and as such develops as the outgrowth of civilization's refinements4 ,there was a measurable response from the carboniferous sources1 but these could not be made to meet the emergency1 for1 being of by-product order1 the supply is determined not in response to the demand for nitrogen but for the major products4 ,dependence on the native mineral source in ,chile was out of the question1 or at least precarious for any country except ,great ,britain4 ,accordingly1 of the four great sources it remained for atmospheric nitrogen to meet the emergency4 ,thus1 the war in bringing the nitrogen situation emphatically to the fore1 communicated practically the whole weight of its tremendous impetus to development in the one direction of fixation4 ,the result is shown in ,figure #ah4 ,roused by the nightmare of war in #aiad1 even the ,united ,states awoke to the perils if not to the real needs of the domestic situation4 ,it is a striking and highly significant fact that despite the fundamental importance of nitrogen1 the awakening found us absolutely without any formulated program of action1 even military or agricultural1 let alone anything of comprehensive economic scope4 ,a hysterical effort at improvising a program ensued4 ,we were not yet in the war1 and public interest was just roused to the gullible stage4 ,the opportunity for private pickings from public favors was too promising to go by the board4 ,the only prospect opening up lay in the direction of fixation developments1 and fixation in the hands of the promoter is one of the most appealing propositions imaginable4 ,its major requirements are nitrogen and power4 ,with the former inexhaustibly present in the air and the latter inexhaustibly available in the wasting waterpowers of the country1 nothing it would seem1 could offer greater promise4 ,add to this the reflection that cheap nitrogen means cheap fertilizer1 and cheap fertilizer means lowered cost of foodstuffs1 and the proposition broadcasted over the country is complete4 ,out of the confusion of interests1 public1 political1 and private1 a program was finally evolved1 following our entry into the war1 calling for the erection of a series of fixation plants with an aggregate producing capacity of around #he1jjj tons of fixed nitrogen annually4 ,for the present is must suffice to say that the war ended before any of these had reached the producing stage1 and the ,united ,states1 like ,great ,britain1 depended on imports4 ,the charts comprising ,figure #af show the influence of the war in the development of nitrogen distributively among the countries concerned4 ,the ,scandinavian developments1 while actuated from wholly commercial motives1 were so largely influenced by the politically stimulated market that they may well enough be included in that general class of politically controlled developments4 ,the same is true for the neutral countries in general4 ,figure #ah1 based on the best information obtainable1 is designed to bring out the collective influence of the war in contributing to the world's supply4 ,organic nitrogen is disregarded both because it involves too many uncertainties and because the wartime emphasis was all in the direction of chemical nitrogen4 ,this figure takes into consideration only the actual production and leaves out what was in process of construction when the war ended4 ,accordingly1 while in one respect it overrates the effect of the war by including strictly commercial operations that very possibly might have transpired anyway1 in another it underrates the situation by disregarding developments like those in this country4 ,the best that can be done is to consider these as balancing each other1 which1 all things considered1 is probably fair enough for all practical purposes4 ,taken on this basis1 the net effect of the war1 it will be observed1 was to swell the production of fixed nitrogen some #dj or #ej per cent4 above the figures indicated for the normal rate of expansion4 ,thus the wartime shortage was made up2 but all this is history4 ,now that the war is over1 the question arises as to whether the world is due to face the situation in reverse4 ,in making ready for war1 and finally in meeting its demands1 has the world been building up a #ej per cent4 over-production beyond the needs of peace8 ,offhand1 the answer would seem to be in the affirmative1 but the question is not one that can be answered offhand4 ,agriculture is capable of absorbing an indefinite amount of nitrogen1 and the war has wrought a lasting change in the agricultural situation4 ,the changed agricultural conditions make room for much1 perhaps for all1 of the increment to nitrogen production4 ,the development cannot be sustained1 however1 on its present arbitrary preferential basis of political expediency4 ,least of all can it be sustained on that basis in this country4 ,normally1 we do not and can not be made to think in terms of war4 ,the reason is evident enough1 and its recurrent force is already apparent4 ,distasteful as the fact may be in some of its extremes of application1 the only rational procedure is to accept it and fashion our measures of economic preparedness so that the normal activities of peace will keep our economic forces exercised and in trim for the test of war4 ,it was recognized all along before the war that without an assured source of nitrogen supply1 our system of defense was hollow2 but we succeeded in building up no means of supply in direct response to political needs4 ,we managed to get comfortably started during the war1 but it remains to be seen to what extent this artificially nourished development is fitted to withstand the bitter strife of competition ahead4 ,,commercial ,,aspects ,,of ,,nitrogen ,,control ,free nitrogen1 it will be recalled1 has no economic significance4 ,to be available in the industrial arts it must be in a state of chemical combination4 ,the form of compound is of secondary importance1 since this may be modified more or less readily to suit the need1 but its value is conditioned in terms of its availability in the form of nitrogen compounds4 ,in consequence1 the several sources are classifiable industrially under three heads3 ,natural compounds--nitrogen occurring naturally in the form of marketable compounds4 ,by-product compounds--nitrogen rendered available incidentally in the course of operations otherwise directed4 ,fixation compounds--nitrogen whose availability is dependent on special fixation treatment4 ,natural ,compounds4--,chile nitrate is the outstanding representative of the natural compounds4 ,the guano industry1 or what there is left of it1 and a few other odds and ends of production from organic sources1 belong here as well1 but their combined output is so relatively small that the ,chilean industry comprises what amounts to a monopoly of the natural resources4 ,it is not operated as such1 however1 but by private capital1 which owns and operates the oficinas1 paying the ,chilean government a royalty or export tax amounting to about #aa4bj per ton4 ,british and ,chilean interests share about equally in making up the far greater part of the capital invested4 ,the balance is largely ,german and ,american4 ,the total capitalization in #aiji amounted to approximately #acd1jjj1jjj1 representing an actual valuation of about #cj1jjj1jjj4 ,various efforts on the part of the commercial interests involved to effect combinations for the purpose of stabilizing production have been attempted1 but have not been entirely successful1 and the general tendency has all along been toward overproduction4 ,the operations1 as already outlined on page #dbd1 are crude1 and the cost of production is correspondingly high1 amounting to around #be to #cj per ton at seaboard1 inclusive of the #aa export tax4 ,the nitrate is marketed largely through commission houses4 ,the ,american situation is mostly in the hands of three companies1 ,w4 ,r4 ,grace ,co41 ,e4 ,i4 du ,pont de ,nemours ,powder ,co41 and ,wessel1 ,duval ,co4 ,the magnitude of the ,chilean industry as a whole and its relative importance are shown in ,figures #af to #ah and ,table #ff4 ,by-product ,compounds4--,to this class of compounds belong1 with the few minor exceptions already noted1 the nitrogenous products of organic derivation as a whole1 and those from carboniferous sources such as coal and oil shale4 ,from the former source comes a miscellany of organic refuse resulting from activities dealing with animal1 vegetable1 and fish products1 and carrying nitrogen in the form of organic ammoniates commonly left as such for use in agriculture4 ,from the latter the nitrogen recovered is all chemical nitrogen in the form of ammonia or ammonium salts1 mostly ammonium sulphate1 and is available in all capacities4 ,the organic production is impossible of definite analysis from any angle4 ,the lack of systematically compiled records1 and back of that the miscellaneous largely decentralized character of the output1 along with the fact that the producing costs are for the most part indistinguishable1 leaves altogether too much to the imagination4 ,much of the supply is derived from connections of sanitation1 especially of local sanitation1 such as the rural practice1 for which there is no measure whatever4 ,another prominent source of supply is represented in what is known as tankage1 the refuse from animal-rendering plants2 but here too the issue is lost in the scattering of the production1 the indefiniteness of composition1 and the fact that not all of the product is used as a source of nitrogen1 some of it going into the preparation of animal food4 ,the same is true of cottonseed meal and various other less prominent forms of organic waste resulting from industrial activities4 ,fish scrap and slaughter-house refuse from meat packing also contribute prominently and at the same time rather more definitely to the supply of agricultural nitrogen2 but even here adequate figures are not available4 ,the ,federal ,trade ,commission undertook to analyze the #aiac consumption1 with results given in the following table3 ,,estimated ,,consumption ,,of ,,nitrogen ,,in ,,commercial ,,fertilizers ,,for ,,the ,,year #aiac ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,fertilizing,consumption ,content ,units ,materials substance 7tons7 7per cent47consumed#aeg ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,nitrate of soda ,ammonia #bfj1jjj #ah4j #d1fhj1jjj ,sulphate of ammonia ,ammonia #acj1jjj #be4j #c1bej1jjj ,cyanamid ,ammonia #ae1dhh #ah4j #bgh1ghd ,high-grade tankage ,ammonia #baj1jjj #aj4e #b1bje1jjj ,concentrated ,ammonia #ah1cea #ad4e #bff1jij ,dried blood ,ammonia #dj1jjj #ag4j #fhj1jjj ,dried fish scrap ,ammonia #ej1jjj #aa4j #eej1jjj ,cottonseed meal ,ammonia #ffj1jjj #g4e #iej1jjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,total 444 444 444 #af1hei1hgd ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #aeg ,a unit is #a per cent4 of a ton1 or #bj pounds4 ,this estimate1 however1 takes into account only the more strictly industrial sources1 leaving rural sanitation and the like out of the reckoning4 ,aside from the conversion of organic ammoniates1 which is practiced on a large scale only in a few instances1 notably that of the ,paris system of sewage disposal1 four general types of industrial operation figure more or less in the production of by-product ammonia4 ,they include coal distillation1 bone carbonization1 oil-shale distillation1 and blast-furnace operations4 ,the ,american production1 however1 is all derived from the first two types4 ,both the others are active producers abroad1 especially in ,scotland1 but neither of them has as yet obtained a foothold in this country4 ,the ,american recovery in connection with bone carbonization is of minor consequence4 ,practically the whole supply comes from gas works and by-product coking operations4 ,figure #ag1 in the shaded area bearing the designation 8ammonium sulphate production10 shows the magnitude and trend of the production from year to year since #aijj4 ,the organic nitrogen recovered in all of the various by-product connections taken together probably constitutes #dj to #ej per cent4 of the total supply4 ,coal product ammonia in this country adds another #ab to #ae per cent4 ,so over half of our supply is of by-product derivation4 ,the domestic output is supplemented in the case of the organic form by considerable importations from ,south ,america1 and1 until interfered with by the war1 small amounts of ammonium sulphate were imported annually from ,europe4 ,essentially1 however1 the by-product supply is of domestic origin4 ,despite its magnitude1 it occupies an anomalous sort of position industrially4 ,it is recovered incidentally for what it is worth1 and sold for what it will bring4 ,the cost of production is largely charged off against the major operations with which its recovery is associated1 and the returns are credited in conformance1 as a saving in the cost of the major operations4 ,this is equally true whether the source be that of the domestic animal on the farm1 a coke oven1 or a packing house4 ,the industrial output is built up as a sequence to industrial concentration4 ,this is evidenced all down the line1 notably in the output of coke-oven ammonia from the steel industry and in that of organic ammoniates from the meat-packing industry4 ,it is this influence of co-ordinated industrial concentration1 along with the call for the major operations1 that controls the supply of by-product nitrogen2 so the development and handling of the industrial output comes naturally to be largely in the hands of trade combinations4 ,thus1 the coal-product ammonia situation is largely at the disposal of the ,barrett ,co41 the tankage and other animal-product ammoniates gather for disposal at the hands of the packing interests1 and the nitrogenous fertilizers from cottonseed are for the most part prepared and marketed by interests subsidiary to the ,cotton ,oil ,co4 ,the manufacturing interests involved are concerned primarily in the manufacture of other than nitrogen products4 ,the by-product nitrogen recovered has to compete for its market against what comes from the other two industrial classes of supply1 and its price goes just low enough to enable it to do so4 ,the limits set in the incidental character of the output leave no special incentive to carry the price competition further4 ,whatever additional latitude of advantage as to cost of production it possesses goes not to promoting a further reduction in the price of nitrogen but to lowering costs with reference to the major theme of production4 ,gas-house ammonia1 for instance1 does not affect the nitrogen market so much as it does the cost of gas1 and the organic ammoniates recovered in connection with meat packing have not lowered fertilizer costs so much as they have kept down the cost of meat to the consumer4 ,thus the by-product class of supply1 though the leading one in the point of magnitude1 and by far the cheapest to produce1 has little to do with determining the price of nitrogen4 ,the selling price of by-product nitrogen is determined by the price the product from competing sources brings4 ,in this country it is controlled by the price of ,chile nitrate1 and not1 as commonly imputed1 by the trade combinations that develop and handle the output4 ,fixation ,compounds4--,nitrogen has five general habits of combination3 with oxygen1 giving rise to nitric acid and its retinue of nitrate salts2 with hydrogen1 giving ammonia and the ammonium salts2 with carbon1 to form cyanogen and the cyanides2 with basic elements1 yielding nitrides2 and organically1 in the form of organic ammoniates4 ,various projects have been advanced for turning these to account in the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen4 ,for the most part they have met with little or no practical success1 but there are exceptions to the rule of failure in all five directions4 ,direct ,oxidation--,arc ,fixation4--,nitrogen does not oxidize at all readily under any ordinary conditions1 but its natural indisposition to combine with oxygen may be overcome by passing a mixture of the two gases through an electric arc4 ,the atmosphere furnishes the nitrogen and oxygen ready mixed1 so all that is needed in the way of raw materials is an abundant power supply4 ,arc fixation was developed in ,norway1 where the possibilities in the way of hydro-electric power give the best setting to be found anywhere in the world4 ,efforts to introduce it elsewhere have resulted unsatisfactorily1 and arc fixation has made relatively little headway1 as may be deduced from ,table #ff and ,figure #ah4 ,the reason is two-fold4 ,so far1 its use of power has proved uneconomical1 and its product unsatisfactory4 ,the former of these two objections depends for its force on the demand for power1 but the latter is more decisive4 ,the immediate end product is nitric acid1 which is both difficult to transport and limited as to use4 ,to be put in shape for agricultural use it must be neutralized in the form of a nitrate salt4 ,limestone is the only cheap neutralizing agent4 ,this gives a salt1 calcium nitrate1 which absorbs moisture1 cakes1 and is thus unsuited to the ,american agricultural practice of machine drilling4 ,an experimental plant near ,seattle1 ,wash41 aims to overcome this difficulty by turning out its arc product in the form of sodium nitrate1 but the project is of no commercial significance as it stands4 ,ammonia ,fixation4--,nitrogen is no more disposed to combine of its own accord with hydrogen to give ammonia than with oxygen to give nitric acid4 ,in the case of the ,haber process1 the only synthetic ammonia process that has stood the test of industrial application1 the native indisposition to combine is overcome by subjecting a properly proportioned mixture of the two gases to heat and pressure in the presence of a catalyzer4 ,this process was instituted in ,germany shortly before the outbreak of the war1 and as shown in ,figure #af and ,table #ff has developed steadily since then4 ,little seems to be known as to the efficiency of the ,german ,haber practice4 ,apparently1 careful manipulation is necessary to obtain results4 ,this means a skilled attention1 which is incompatible with mechanical volume production and is thus unsuited to ,american practice4 ,what aims to be an adaptation to ,american conditions was worked out by the ,general ,chemical ,co41 and a plant with a rated capacity of #fj1jjj pounds of anhydrous ammonia per day was projected at ,sheffield1 ,ala41 at the instance of the ,government4 ,the plant was completed1 but before it could be tuned up for actual production the war ended4 ,cyanide ,fixation4--,nitrogen1 in passing through a red-hot mixture of finely divided soda ash1 coke1 and iron1 reacts with the sodium and carbon to give sodium cyanide4 ,this principle of fixation is being extensively experimented with1 but has not been developed commercially1 except in a small plant with a rated daily capacity of #aj tons of sodium cyanide at ,saltville1 ,va4 ,cyanamid ,fixation4--,hot calcium carbide will absorb nitrogen1 forming a compound of calcium1 carbon1 and nitrogen1 according to the formula ,ca ,,cn1 known as cyanamid4 ,the cyanamid process1 based on this reaction1 has been extensively developed1 far more so than any other of the various processes1 as will be seen by referring to ,figure #af and ,table #ff4 ,offhand1 it looks to be the most adaptable and consequently the most promising of the lot commercially4 ,in this connection1 however1 it is interesting to examine the several charts of its growth in the warring countries given in ,figure #af4 ,in none of these is the showing indicative of a strong1 healthy development4 ,worst of all is the case of ,germany1 with the contrast offered in the ,haber and cyanamid charts4 ,until the war1 cyanamid manufacture was unable to obtain a competitive foothold in the ,united ,states1 although a small plant has been in operation at ,niagara ,falls in ,canada for some years4 ,the problem it has faced is similar to that already chronicled for arc fixation1 in that it draws heavily on power in the preparation of the necessary carbide1 and the cost of power in this country has been prohibitive4 ,under the stress of the wartime demand for nitrogen1 however1 the ,government contracted for the erection of three plants--one at ,muscle ,shoals1 ,ala41 one near ,toledo1 ,ohio1 and one near ,cincinnati1 ,ohio1 with a total rated capacity amounting to #bbj1jjj tons of ammonium nitrate per year4 ,the work on all three was well under way1 but none of the plants had reached the producing stage when the signing of the armistice brought the nitrate activities of the ,war ,department to an end4 ,nitride ,fixation4--,the only process of any prominence aiming to fix nitrogen in the nitride form is one developed by the ,aluminum ,company of ,america4 ,this has for its working principle the fact that a mixture of alumina and carbon1 highly heated1 will absorb nitrogen by reacting to give aluminum nitride4 ,the nitride when heated with caustic soda gives its end product in the form of pure ammonia4 ,the outstanding difficulty encountered in applying this process commercially seems to be that of providing a furnace capable of standing the temperature requirements4 ,at all events the process has not succeeded in making good industrially4 ,bacterial ,fixation4--,the artificial attempts at fixation have been directed almost wholly toward employing chemical principles4 ,in view of the difficulties experienced and the uncertain value of the results as a whole1 it is interesting and perhaps highly significant to reflect that after all1 as indicated in ,figure #ae1 inorganic chemical principles seemingly have little to do with developing the natural supply1 probably because of the activities of nitrifying bacteria4 ,little attention has been given to the possibilities in this direction4 ,this is only natural so far as commercially actuated research is concerned1 since it does not lead in the definite direction of patent rights2 but the failure to institute an adequate investigation governmentally can be attributed only to lack of comprehension with reference to the scope of the nitrogen issue as brought out under 8,general ,aspects of ,control0 on pages #dbe to #dcc4 ,the subject has received just enough attention to show that bacterial fixation represents a tremendous field of grossly neglected possibilities4 ,,recent ,,developments ,,and ,,changes ,,in ,,practice ,the whole matter of fixation must be regarded as in process of development4 ,true1 it was instituted some fifteen or twenty years ago and has grown to represent the largest producing source of chemical nitrogen1 with operations in practically all the important industrial countries in the world and with responsible financial backing4 ,but no one can examine the charts in ,figure #af without recognizing the premature1 mushroom quality of the upgrowth1 induced primarily in response to the political conditions leading to and through the war4 ,this is especially true for the ,american situation4 ,when the war broke out1 fixation here was confessedly still in the dependent stage of its development1 unable in every effort it had made to stand alone industrially4 ,in the main1 the developments that have transpired subsequently have followed along pre-existing lines4 ,in so far as they have done so1 little actual economic significance is to be attached to them4 ,for the rest1 the new developments1 all that can be said at this juncture is that they are disappointingly meager4 ,just one wartime achievement1 the oxidation of ammonia1 stands out as affording a worth that is unmistakably clear4 ,the nitrogen situation1 it will be recalled1 has two aspects1 the military and the agricultural4 ,the military focus is on nitric acid1 and the readiest means of insuring a supply2 the agricultural focus is on ammonium compounds or their equivalent in neutral nitrogen salts and the most economical means of supply4 ,here1 then1 is a parting of the ways to expediency1 and it is at this juncture that with military influences to the fore the nitrogen developments of the past few years were led off on an uneconomical tangent of military control4 ,the ,bureau of ,mines1 however1 taking up the work of others1 has perfected a simple1 effective means for oxidizing ammonia to nitric acid4 ,this1 beyond question1 is the most important contribution of the day4 ,its significance may perhaps best be brought out graphically in the accompanying sketch4 ,illustration ,ammonia oxidation1 it will be observed from the foregoing sketch1 gives a means of supplying the military requirement from the direct line of agricultural efficiency4 ,from the strictly military viewpoint1 it has the objection of being a roundabout procedure4 ,the dotted line of direct military procedure1 however1 has no peace-time function1 and consequently cannot be maintained in time of peace in trim for war1 but must instead be built up expressly to meet wartime exigencies4 ,we have had an illustration of what this means in the way of time and money1 and this one ought to suffice4 ,the agricultural channel1 once built up on a basis of economic efficiency1 is open at all times4 ,at the most1 all that is required is to keep an eye to the emergency needs in the way of oxidation equipment1 a relatively simple matter4 ,thus1 instead of the precarious procedure of trusting to luck which characterized our pre-war attitude toward nitrogen on the one hand1 or of attempting the impossible in the way of maintaining a military program of industrial procedure in time of peace on the other1 all that is needed is a constructive program devoted expressly to the interests of economic efficiency4 ,,the ,,nitrogen ,,outlook ,there is no import duty on nitrogen1 nor is there likely to be any1 for nitrogen is an important cog in the mechanism of food supply1 and the peacetime emphasis1 reversing the wartime order1 is primarily on cheapness and only secondarily on the point of origin4 ,accordingly1 looking ahead1 the ,american market conditions1 once world trade is fully restored1 are due to reflect the world conditions4 ,as indicated in ,figure #ah1 the sudden ending of the war1 with its calling off of the military requirement which had been building up steadily since even before the outbreak of hostilities in #aiad1 left the world with a producing capacity #cj to #dj per cent4 above normal4 ,to what extent this apparent overproduction1 amounting to some half million tons of nitrogen1 will prove real is impossible to foretell2 not all of it certainly1 for under the stimulus of a food shortage the curve of normal consumption will doubtless bend upward4 ,on the other hand1 however1 there is the producing capacity of the plants not yet in operation to be taken into consideration4 ,whatever may be the capacity of agriculture to absorb from the surplus1 it cannot be expected to take up the full amount immediately or without special inducement4 ,the inference follows that price and production will come down1 to stimulate and co-ordinate with the increase in demand4 ,where the meeting point will be between the upcurve of demand and the downcurve of production it is impossible to predict4 ,it is of interest1 however1 to figure in review on how the three types of industrial source1 the natural1 the by-product1 and the fixation types1 are equipped for the very evident strife of competition implied in the situation4 ,with the development of fixation1 there have been a lot of unfounded statements to the effect that the day of ,chile nitrate is passing4 ,whenever a synthetic development comes to the fore1 a peculiar fallacy of reasoning is indulged in which ignores the fact of inherent natural worth1 disregards the inescapable cost of its duplication1 and regards the synthetic achievement as giving open sesame to the natural treasure4 ,by way of substantiation in the case of nitrogen1 the cost of producing ,chile nitrate is high1 amounting to around #cj per ton4 ,this1 however1 is largely contributed to by the unsystematized crudity of the operations1 by the high export tax1 and by overcapitalization4 ,but these1 it will be observed1 are variable factors1 susceptible of indefinite modification in keeping with the need4 ,chile nitrate has never made any pretense of competing against by-product nitrogen1 with its advantages in the way of low incidental producing costs and proximity to the market4 ,the discrepancy between the by-product supply and the total demand for nitrogen has all along comprised the field of opportunity opening to ,chile nitrate4 ,in this its only noteworthy competitor is the fixation industry4 ,the fixation sources are impossible of analysis on a definite basis of cost4 ,too many variable factors and uncertainties are involved4 ,repeated attempts have been made1 but all they have served to bring out is that under certain conditions1 as for instance of power supply1 and for certain express purposes1 one form of project has an apparent margin of advantage over another1 and vice versa for other conditions2 but that at best the cost of production1 if not actually prohibitive1 is dangerously close to the normal pre-war price of fixed nitrogen4 ,back of it all is the fact that fixation has to deal with the problem of overcoming the native chemical inertia of nitrogen1 and the problem has not yet been solved at all convincingly4 ,always the solution advanced has called for some special measure of relief from industrial competition1 whether natural1 as in the case of the ,scandinavian power supply1 or political1 as in the case of the ,american and ,german projects4 ,fixation has been widely heralded of recent years as due not only to emancipate the world from its dependence upon the ,chilean source1 but to reduce materially the cost of nitrogenous fertilizer1 hence the cost of food production1 to the marked betterment of living conditions as well4 ,in its promise of political and economic betterment in one1 it has claimed the attention of all4 ,however1 the claim of special economic advantage coming from an industry barely1 if at all1 able to meet conditions even as they are1 has been overdrawn4 ,this does not aim to imply that there is nothing but failure ahead for fixation in the test of competition4 ,it has its possibilities of development into something commercially and economically as well as politically worth while1 but the existing hothouse order of upgrowth is unquestionably due for a lot of training down1 and much that is worthless is as certainly due to go4 ,the ,american developments have a particularly inauspicious economic setting in the prevailing scale of costs4 ,the only saving alternative for them would seem to be in one form or another of federal provision for their continued support on some such basis as that on which they were projected1 and this is unlikely1 for there is no apparent reason4 ,true1 lowered nitrogen costs tend to make for a lowering in the cost of foodstuffs1 but so1 for that matter1 would a lowering in the cost of agricultural implements1 and any arguments that apply in the case of nitrogen apply as equally for potash1 for phosphate1 for agricultural implements1 for coal--in fact for industry in general4 ,with reference to by-product nitrogen the situation is very different4 ,in general1 the by-product sources are of an order such that they were not materially affected one way or the other by the war1 and consequently are not due to be materially affected in the process of readjustment1 except in the case of coke-oven ammonia1 where the temporary slump in the steel industry will result in a temporary slump of probably #ae to #bj per cent4 from the #aiah output4 ,of special significance in connection with what lies on beyond for the by-production of nitrogen is its relationship to the progress of industrial co-ordination4 ,the whole current trend of industrialism1 as represented in integration1 volume production1 and the like1 is actuated in the interests of co-ordination and the overcoming of lost motion2 and nitrogen comes in for an important share in these developments4 ,with reference to the organic group of compounds1 the outlook for the future is as uncertain as are the actual conditions of today4 ,the centralized development of meat packing1 of animal-rendering establishments1 and of cotton ginning gave rise in their time to highly important recoveries of nitrogenous waste2 but with the forward progress of developments this usage in turn is giving way to a more advanced order4 ,cottonseed as a fertilizer is giving place to a cottonseed-products industry2 tankage as a fertilizer is giving place to the artificial compounding of animal food2 horses1 an important contributor of agricultural nitrogen in times past1 are yielding much of their place in the sun to the automotive engine4 ,meanwhile1 with the factor of dilution to be overcome1 our sewage disposal is employed to pollute streams and destroy the fish supply instead of being put to useful ends4 ,so it goes4 ,developments are on foot that lead in both directions1 and there is no telling how the balance is due to shift4 ,probably the best guess is that relatively at least it will be downward rather than upward4 ,the outlook for by-product ammonia is more definite4 ,ammonia is the end point of material refinement2 so here the nitrogen developments hold all they get1 rather than go on to lose out again in a further refinement of usage1 as in the case of the organic group4 ,the output has increased consistently and rapidly1 owing to the transition from beehive to by-product coking operations1 to the progress of centralization and co-ordination2 in other words1 with reference to coke manufacture4 ,even now1 less than half of the coal coked is treated in the retort oven2 but the beehive oven is out of the line of progress and is due to be entirely displaced4 ,also1 the industry is still expanding as the process of transition1 with its separate potentiality for doubling the present output of coal-product ammonia1 goes forward4 ,so far1 the recovery of by-products in connection with the use of coal has been confined in the one direction of coke making1 along with the analogous procedure of gas manufacture4 ,but the development which has thus started in the coke industry will not stop there4 ,the loss of motion resulting from lack of co-ordination in the use of coal is just as great in other directions as in that of coke making1 and the advantages of integral usage may confidently be expected to assert themselves4 ,already projects of the kind are coming under serious contemplation in proposals such as those for furnishing gas to cities1 for employing by-product operations located at the mine in support of the waning natural-gas supply1 and for integrated heat1 light1 and power projects operating on coal with by-product recovery4 ,meanwhile1 the motor-fuel situation is suggestive of interesting developments ahead4 ,there is every reason to believe that the petroleum resources can not continue to meet the growing demand1 in fact1 that the occasion for support is already at hand4 ,whatever the nature of these supporting developments1 whether they take the form of a shale-oil industry or what1 it seems certain they will usher in an important source of by-product nitrogen4 ,figure #ag summarizes the ,american situation with reference to chemical nitrogen1 as does ,figure #ah in less detail that for the world4 ,organic nitrogen is omitted1 partly because of the lack of information1 partly because the issues more directly involved in the situation as it stands are those of chemical nitrogen4 ,,summary ,nitrogen1 itself1 is an inert gas of no particular use1 but nitrogenous compounds are necessary to agriculture1 to refrigeration1 to munitions manufacture1 and to the applications of chemistry in general4 ,in the native gaseous state1 it makes up about four-fifths of the atmosphere1 and combined it occurs as nitrate minerals1 as organic compounds1 and in carboniferous deposits4 ,atmospheric nitrogen is of use only after it has been artificially compounded or fixed1 a proposition which the natural inertness of nitrogen renders difficult and expensive4 ,the only mineral deposits of consequence are those comprising the nitrate fields of northern ,chile4 ,the organic resources include all manner of animal and vegetable refuse4 ,coal-tar ammonia from retort-coke and gas manufacture1 along with some shale-oil ammonia1 makes up practically the whole supply derived from the carboniferous sources4 ,this range of associations1 including animal1 vegetable1 mineral1 and atmospheric sources1 transgresses all established rules of resource occurrence1 and consequently all regularly constituted research4 ,as a result the nitrogen resources and their needs for attention have never been comprehensively investigated4 ,this became strikingly apparent when the war1 threatening swift disaster in the guise of a nitrogen shortage1 showed us up to be quite devoid of any systematic nitrogen program and precipitated an hysterical effort to devise a makeshift one instead4 ,the atmosphere was found to provide the only independent source of supply available on an emergency rating2 so1 following the lead of the ,european countries1 several plants for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen were projected governmentally4 ,industrially1 the nitrogen sources may be classified as natural1 by-product1 and fixation4 ,the natural supply is almost wholly in the form of sodium nitrate from the ,chile nitrate deposits4 ,these are controlled and operated by ,british1 ,chilean1 ,german1 and ,american capital4 ,the ,american imports are largely handled by three companies1 whose system of control is effected through the medium of shipping and warehouse facilities4 ,the by-product sources include nearly all of the organic nitrogen used1 and the nitrogen from coal and oil shale as well4 ,the supply is governed as to magnitude by the progress of industrial co-ordination through the medium of centralization in the preparing of animal1 vegetable1 and coal products4 ,thus the development and marketing of the by-product supply tends naturally to gather to industrial combinations4 ,these1 however1 are natural developments1 not developments artificially created in the interest of price control4 ,the price of by-product nitrogen is controlled not by trade combinations1 but by the price of the product from other sources1 which is to say1 by the price of ,chile nitrate4 ,beyond that1 the advantages accruing in the way of low-producing costs do not go wholly to commercial profit but to the saving of costs with reference to the major production1 as for instance in the case of gas-works ammonia1 which makes its chief contribution toward lowering the price of gas to the consumer4 ,the rapid development of fixation is attributable largely to political influences1 activated by conditions leading to and through the war4 ,there are a number of projects for fixing nitrogen1 but only three have any genuine measure of industrial achievement to their credit1 are fixation in ,norway1 ,haber synthetic ammonia fixation in ,germany1 and cyanamid fixation in a number of places4 ,three of the four large ,american plants are of the last-named order2 the other is a synthetic ammonia proposition4 ,all four were contracted for by the ,government1 and so far as fixation can be said to have gained an industrial foothold in the ,united ,states it is wholly in response to the dictates of political control4 ,probably rather less than half of the nitrogen consumed is organically associated1 and rather more than half of it chemically combined4 ,practically all of the organic nitrogen and around one-fourth of the chemical nitrogen is of domestic by-product derivation4 ,so far1 the balance has been supplied from ,chile nitrate1 supplemented by small imports of guano1 animal refuse1 by-product ammonia1 and cyanamid from abroad4 ,there is no apparent likelihood of this adjustment being materially affected as an immediate outcome of developments with reference to fixation4 ,these have shown themselves to be of the utmost political significance as affording an unlimited1 independent source of nitrogen supply4 ,their genuine economic significance at the present stage of enforced expansion1 however1 is questionable4 ,in this country1 especially1 the scale of costs gives an unpromising setting4 ,the by-product sources growing out of centralized industrial co-ordination are in line with the trend of modern industrialism and may be looked to as assuring a steady increase in yield1 especially if the process of industrial evolution in the direction of co-ordinated economic efficiency is adequately cultivated instead of being interfered with4 ,in this same connection the most significant accomplishment recorded for nitrogen1 lies in the working out of a means for the oxidation of by-product ammonia1 thus rendering the growing by-product supply available for the full range of nitrogen uses4 ,with reference to the economic and political aspects of the outlook ahead1 all else is obscured and lost to view in the pressing need for a constructive program worked out on a comprehensive basis1 in keeping with the comprehensiveness of the resources themselves1 with which to supplant the uneconomical makeshift program brought into being by the war4 ,the program called for is one calculated to bring out1 and bring out co-ordinately1 the best there is in bacterial as well as chemical fixation1 in the industrial by-product sources of organic and chemical nitrogen1 and in the province of sanitation4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,pyrite ,,and ,,sulphur ,,by ,a4 ,g4 ,,white ,,uses ,,of ,,pyrite ,,and ,,sulphur ,pyrite and sulphur are closely related in their most essential uses1 and one material can in many cases be substituted for the other4 ,the largest and most important use of these minerals is in the manufacture of sulphuric acid1 which is an essential material required for a very wide variety of purposes1 including the production of acid phosphate for fertilizer1 the manufacture of modern high-power explosives1 the refining of petroleum1 pickling of iron and steel1 and for a vast number of chemical industries4 ,the competition between pyrite and sulphur for this purpose has gone through several stages4 ,with the large-scale development of ,italian deposits sulphur was largely used for acid manufacture4 ,as the prices of sulphur were increased it became cheaper to use pyrite1 which in many localities then displaced sulphur1 for this purpose4 ,with the rapid expansion of the ,american production1 and particularly with the tremendous increase in the capacity of sulphuric acid plants for war purposes1 sulphur has again been very largely used for the manufacture of acid4 ,the prospects since the close of the war are that1 due to the tremendous capacity of the sulphur mines of the ,united ,states1 sulphur may continue to compete with pyrite in this use4 ,probably the second most important use of these materials is in the manufacture of sulphite wood pulp4 ,in ,europe pyrite is largely used for this purpose1 while in the ,united ,states and ,canada sulphur is the principal material used4 ,for every ton of sulphite pulp manufactured1 under the best practice1 about #bej pounds of sulphur is required4 ,in the ,united ,states and ,canada about #age1jjj tons of sulphur is used annually for this purpose1 representing about #ej per cent4 of the total sulphur consumption of these countries4 ,there are also a number of other important purposes where sulphur is used rather than pyrite1 the most important of which are in the manufacture of agricultural sprays and insecticides1 and in the hardening of rubber4 ,sulphur is a primary ingredient of black powder1 and considerable quantities are still used for that purpose4 ,while most of the explosives used in modern warfare require the use of sulphuric acid in their manufacture1 they do not use sulphur in its elemental form4 ,there are many other minor chemical uses4 ,substitutes for ,sulphur and ,pyrite4--,because of the large deposits of sulphur now available1 and of the extent and wide distribution of pyrite deposits1 and of the cheapness of both these materials1 there are no adequate commercial substitutes for them4 ,the increase of by-product acid1 from the copper and zinc smelters and possibly the nickel smelters of ,sudbury1 might be considered as the most important factors in replacing pyrite and sulphur4 ,as a general thing1 the factors of cost and transportation are the governing ones rather than any present or probable scarcity of materials4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,,of ,,pyrite ,while pyrite is a very widely distributed mineral1 there are relatively few deposits which are of sufficient importance to enter into the world's commerce4 ,this is generally due to the relatively small value of its sulphur content per ton1 usually from #dj to #de per cent4 of recoverable sulphur2 which means that it takes almost #b tons of pyrite to be equivalent to the ton of sulphur which competes with it for many uses4 ,consequently pyrite seldom moves far1 unless it is so situated as to take advantage of cheap ballast rates where little other freight is available for ships1 or unless it carries important copper or gold values1 which can be recovered after the sulphur content has been utilized4 ,many known deposits1 such as those in ,mexico and the ,western ,united ,states1 remain undeveloped because of their distance from market4 ,in countries such as ,russia1 ,france1 ,italy1 ,germany1 ,sweden1 ,japan1 and the ,eastern ,united ,states production is absorbed by the local market4 ,spain and ,portugal1 the most important source of world supply1 are favorably located to ship to near-by ,european countries or to secure cheap ballast rates to the ,united ,states1 and in addition much of the ore carries several per cent4 of copper4 ,norway is second in export1 with a high-grade pyrite carrying copper values1 which is shipped to ,sweden or across the ,baltic to near-by countries4 ,canada ships considerable pyrite to the near-by markets of the ,united ,states1 the ,quebec product having copper values1 while the product of ,ontario takes advantage of boat shipments on the ,great ,lakes4 ,spain and ,portugal4--,the deposits of ,spain and ,portugal are the largest and most important in the world1 furnishing approximately two-thirds of the world supply4 ,the district is essentially a unit1 and the principal deposits occur in a zone extending from ,rio ,tinto1 ,spain1 to ,san ,domingo1 ,portugal4 ,the combined annual production of iron and copper pyrites for the two countries is normally almost #d million metric tons1 #ij per cent4 of which is furnished by ,spain and #aj per cent4 by ,portugal4 ,about two-thirds of the total output carries copper values1 which may be recovered before the pyrite is roasted for its sulphur value or after4 ,when copper is to be recovered at the mine the ore is leached by spreading it out in beds exposed to the weather and frequently stirring it and wetting it down4 ,the copper goes into solution and is precipitated on scrap iron1 forming cement copper4 ,the process takes about #c years and the pyrite residue is shipped as washed ore4 ,the ore is compact and finely crystalline and carries from #dh to #ea per cent4 sulphur4 ,conservative estimates of ore reserves for the district give it from #cjj to #djj million tons1 or enough to last for one hundred years at the present rate of production4 ,consequently this district is destined to long remain the chief pyrite-producing center of the world4 ,the ,rio ,tinto ,co4 is the principal producer1 contributing about one-third of the total output of the whole district 7,spain-,portugal74 ,it is owned by ,british and ,french capital4 ,mining is largely by open-pit methods1 and the company employs #be1jjj men4 ,the ore carries about #b per cent4 copper1 making this company the largest ,european producer of that metal4 ,the reserves are estimated as #bej to #cjj million tons1 representing the major part of the whole district4 ,the ,rio ,tinto ,co4 furnishes about #fj per cent4 of the #a1jjj1jjj tons of ,spanish pyrite normally imported by the ,united ,states4 ,the second principal producer is the ,tharsis ,sulphur and ,copper ,mines 7,british71 with about one-eighth of the total production4 ,british capital is predominant in the district as a whole1 with the balance ,french and ,spanish4 ,huelva1 ,spain1 is the principal point of export1 located from #cj to #dj miles from the mines4 ,under normal conditions the pyrite moves at cheap ballast rates1 and has been sold at from #f to #g per long ton 7#ab to #af cents per unit of sulphur71 delivered in ,united ,states ports4 ,normally this ,spain-,portugal district exported one-quarter of its output to the ,united ,states1 one-eighth to ,england1 one-eighth to ,holland1 one-eighth to ,germany1 and most of the balance to ,france and ,belgium4 ,norway and ,sweden4--,norway produces from #djj to #ejj thousand tons of pyrite per year 7about #h per cent4 of the world's total71 and her output is steadily increasing4 ,the ore usually carries from #a to #c per cent4 copper and from #db to #di per cent4 sulphur2 and is free from arsenic4 ,seven-eighths of the output is exported to ,sweden1 ,germany1 ,england and ,russia4 ,when ,sweden's import of sulphur 7about #dj1jjj tons7 was cut off during the war1 she changed the equipment of her cellulose plants to burn pyrite instead of sulphur and took about one-half of the ,norwegian output1 since her own production of pyrite 7about #cj1jjj tons7 was of minor importance4 ,the ,norwegian deposits are widely distributed from south of ,bergen to the extreme northern end of the peninsula4 ,the ore is generally massive cupriferous pyrite1 occurring in flat lenses in chlorite schists in areas of regional metamorphism4 ,about #bej1jjj tons comes from the ,trondhjem district1 where the ,lokken mines of the ,orkla ,mine ,co4 are the largest producers4 ,the northern district is second in importance1 with about #aej1jjj tons annual production1 chiefly from the ,sulitjelma mine at the ,swedish frontier1 near the ,polar ,circle4 ,in the eastern district the ,fodal ,copper ,sulphur ,co4 has a production of from #ge1jjj to #ajj1jjj tons4 ,norway has sufficient known reserves to last for thirty years at the present rate of production and probably for much longer4 ,the largest reserves are in the ,trondhjem district4 ,sweden is also reported to have large reserves1 although there has been little development so far4 ,the commercial control of the mines is principally ,english and ,norwegian4 ,it was reported that mines with large reserves near ,narvik were owned by ,german interests1 but were purchased by ,swedish interests during the war4 ,france4--,for many years ,france has produced about #cjj1jjj tons of pyrite per annum1 or about #e per cent4 of the world output4 ,the principal deposits are at ,sain-,bel1 near ,lyons1 in the ,department of ,rhne4 ,the product is high in sulphur4 ,the known reserves are probably from ten to twelve million tons4 ,the output is used for home consumption1 and in the past was supplemented by the import of ,spanish pyrite1 and ,sicilian and ,united ,states sulphur4 ,italy4--,in addition to her large sulphur production ,italy has produced a considerable quantity of pyrite1 which has been used locally in the manufacture of sulphuric acid4 ,pyrite production was about #cjj1jjj tons before the war and increased to #djj1jjj tons in #aiaf1 so that ,italy produces about #f per cent4 of the world output4 ,the pyrite contains about #de per cent4 of sulphur and a small part of it carries copper values4 ,the principal production comes from a district near ,florence1 although a number of smaller mines are widely scattered4 ,russia4--,russia has large pyrite deposits located in a belt parallel to the eastern slope of the ,ural ,mountains4 ,the ,kyshtim and ,sissert districts furnish the principal output4 ,reports indicate a good grade of pyrite with high sulphur content4 ,the production has been in the neighborhood of #aej1jjj tons1 or about #b per cent4 of the world total4 ,production had been steadily increasing up to the time of ,russia's economic collapse1 but has been limited1 due to the remote location of the deposits from the chief centres of consumption at ,petrograd1 ,moscow1 and ,odessa4 ,it is to be expected that ,russia1 after she regains her balance1 will continue to import pyrite to a considerable extent1 as she has done in the past4 ,germany1 ,austria and ,hungary4--,the pre-war ,german production was from #bjj1jjj to #bej1jjj tons of pyrite per annum1 or about #d per cent4 of the world output4 ,about two-thirds of the output comes from deposits near ,meggen4 ,the pyrite is estimated to run about #dc per cent4 sulphur4 ,it is reported that the pyrite output was largely increased during the war1 as ,germany had been importing from #hjj1jjj to #a1jjj1jjj tons of pyrite4 ,she continued to import some ,norwegian pyrite1 which is especially desirable because of its recoverable copper content4 ,germany secures a considerable amount of sulphuric acid as a by-product from zinc smelters1 which helped to make up the deficiency in her sulphur resources4 ,hungary normally produces about #ajj1jjj tons of pyrite per annum1 chiefly from the deposits of ,schemnitz4 ,cyprus4--,an important deposit of cupriferous pyrite is under development in an old copper-mining region on the northwest coast of ,cyprus4 ,several million tons of ore are reported1 containing a high sulphur content and high copper values4 ,it is being developed on a large scale by the ,cyprus ,mines ,corporation1 representing ,united ,states capital1 and may be expected to become an important factor in pyrite export4 ,the ,united ,states4--,the pre-war production of the ,united ,states was about #cej1jjj long tons1 or #f per cent4 of the world's production1 compared to an import of about #a1jjj1jjj tons4 ,about #dj per cent4 of the total was produced in ,virginia and largely sold for use in acid-phosphate plants from ,maryland to ,georgia2 about #be per cent4 was produced in ,california and used for local acid manufacture in the vicinity of ,san ,francisco2 about #ae per cent4 was produced in ,new ,york ,state2 and the balance was scattered1 coming as a by-product from coal mines in ,ohio1 ,illinois1 and ,indiana1 and from the zinc-mining region of southern ,wisconsin4 ,during the war1 production was increased by about #ej per cent41 but with no discoveries which promise to greatly increase the permanent production of the country4 ,on the whole the deposits are not of very high quality1 averaging about #dj per cent4 sulphur content4 ,very large reserves of pyrrhotite are located in western ,virginia and eastern ,tennessee1 but have not been very extensively utilized4 ,large reserves of pyrite exist in ,colorado1 ,arizona1 ,utah and other western states1 but are too far from the acid plants located in the ,east and ,south to compete4 ,on the whole1 the scanty development of pyrite in the ,united ,states is due to the competition of high-grade ,spanish pyrite coming in to the ,atlantic ports at cheap ballast rates2 to the import of ,canadian pyrite either to near-by points in ,new ,england or to the ,great ,lakes ports2 to the large production of cheap sulphur from ,louisiana and ,texas1 which has monopolized the sulphite pulp trade2 and to the recovery of by-product acid from copper and zinc smelters4 ,the great increase in the production of sulphur during and since the war is very likely still further to curtail the market for pyrite4 ,the production of pyrite has been in the hands of ,american companies1 several of the larger operations being controlled by concerns either in the acid or fertilizer business4 ,canada4--,the production of pyrite in ,canada has increased rapidly1 particularly during the war1 to about #cjj1jjj tons4 ,this is due to an increased export to the ,united ,states1 principally to sulphuric-acid plants4 ,the principal producing areas in ,canada are3 7#a7 ,the district in ,quebec1 not far north of the ,vermont border1 where there are two operating mines and a number of promising prospects4 ,there are large ore reserves and the ore carries considerable copper4 ,the principal mines are controlled by ,american capital4 7#b7 ,the ,goudreau district1 located some #dj miles north of ,sault ,ste4 ,marie1 has large ore reserves1 but of rather low grade4 ,thus far an ,american company is the principal producer4 7#c7 ,the ,north ,pine district near ,graham1 ,ontario1 and a considerable distance west of ,port ,arthur1 has been a large producer of good-grade pyrite4 ,the principal producer was a subsidiary company of the ,general ,chemical ,co4 ,there is a large reserve of pyrrhotite1 estimated at about #ej1jjj1jjj tons1 much of which will average over #be per cent4 sulphur1 in connection with the ,sudbury nickel deposits4 ,at present it is not commercially important4 ,there are considerable deposits of pyrites in various parts of ,british ,columbia1 but these are unimportant commercially because of their distance from any available market4 ,the larger part of the ,canadian product is controlled by ,american interests1 chiefly the ,american ,chemical ,co41 whose headquarters are in ,new ,york ,city4 ,a large part of the ,canadian output is imported to the ,united ,states through ,chicago1 ,cleveland1 and ,buffalo2 and by rail through ,vermont1 ,boston and to ,new ,york ,city4 ,cuba4--,an important pyrite property is being developed about twenty miles from ,cienfuegos1 ,province of ,santa ,clara1 ,cuba4 ,it is reported as containing several million tons of good-grade ore1 which will average at least #dj per cent4 sulphur and may contain a recoverable copper content4 ,the property is being developed by ,united ,states capital1 interests connected with the ,davison ,chemical ,corporation1 of ,baltimore1 ,md41 who are one of the largest producers of sulphuric acid on the ,atlantic ,coast4 ,this property promises to be an important near-by source of pyrite for the ,united ,states4 ,mexico4--,important pyrite deposits are known to exist in ,mexico1 but they are of no present commercial importance because of inaccessibility and high freight rates1 and unsettled political conditions4 ,a large deposit is reported about #cj miles inland in the ,state of ,guerrero1 containing several million tons of high-grade pyrite of approximately #dh per cent4 sulphur content and free from arsenic4 ,there is no prospect that ,mexico will be of any immediate importance in the world pyrite situation4 ,japan4--,japan has a small pyrite production of from #ge1jjj to #ajj1jjj tons per year1 or about #a per cent4 of the world output4 ,much of it carries copper values4 ,the production comes from several scattered localities4 ,the state has reserved the ownership of the original mineral rights1 and the operators to whom they have been leased appear to be entirely ,japanese4 ,japan consumes her pyrite for local purposes1 and exports most of her sulphur4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,,of ,,sulphur ,italy and ,sicily4--,italy had practically a monopoly of the world's sulphur supply until #aijd1 when large-scale production began in the ,united ,states4 ,the importance of sulphur as a world mineral began with the use of gunpowder in the fourteenth century4 ,considerable export trade was early developed and has been of increasing importance since #ahcj4 ,ninety per cent4 of the ,italian production has come from the ,island of ,sicily4 ,the sulphur-bearing district of ,sicily is a central belt running across the island1 extending about #ajj miles east and west and #ej miles north and south4 ,the richer deposits are scattered as irregular lenses or basin-like bodies1 in this extensive area4 ,the deposits of commercial value are of sedimentary type1 occurring as stratified beds or sheets in limestone1 associated with gypsum and bituminous marl4 ,there are generally three or four sulphur-bearing layers1 separated by a few feet of barren rock4 ,the average thickness of the sulphur beds is from #aj to #ae feet1 although in a few places they run as high as several hundred feet4 ,the sulphur occurs as incrustations1 pockets1 or thin bands intimately associated with the limestone4 ,the average sulphur content of the ore mined is from #bj to #be per cent41 with a range from #h to #ej per cent42 and in a few places it reaches up to #ij per cent4 ,estimates as to the reserves of ore vary greatly1 but seem to indicate that there is from #dj to #fj million tons of ore still unmined1 which will average about #bc per cent4 of sulphur content4 ,mining has been mostly by hand and the ore brought out on the backs of men4 ,a few mines had modern hoisting machinery and trams4 ,the shortage of labor during the war has increased the introduction of modern appliances in some of the newer mines4 ,with increasing depth the cost of mining has increased to the point where ,american sulphur can compete in ,european markets4 ,the methods of extracting the sulphur from the ore have also been extremely crude and wasteful1 but in the last few years better types of ovens have been installed1 giving a much higher recovery through improved distillation and the use of superheated steam for melting the sulphur4 ,the sulphur industry of ,sicily furnishes a notable example of an attempted commercial control which developed into a governmental control of the industry4 ,the recent history of the industry falls into three periods4 ,the first extends from #ahge to #ahie and is characterized by a rapid increase in production1 from #bjj1jjj to #djj1jjj tons a year1 with a corresponding decrease in selling price from #be a ton to as low as #ab a ton4 ,it was a period of overproduction1 due to the ease with which shallow mining could be carried on and to the abundant supply of cheap labor available4 ,these conditions resulted in the development of a great number of small mines1 whose competition reduced prices4 ,the second period1 from #ahif to #aijf1 begins with the formation of the ,anglo-,sicilian ,sulphur ,co41 financed by ,english capital1 which entered into a five-year agreement with the principal producers1 which was later extended for an additional five years4 ,it was primarily a marketing organization1 formed by the union of ,italian and ,english interests to control production1 stabilize the industry1 and maintain prices4 ,it eventually controlled from #ge to #he per cent4 of the industry4 ,all sulphur was purchased at about #af per ton f4o4b4 ship and the selling price remained practically stable during the ten-year period1 at an average of #ah to #ai per ton4 ,in spite of efforts to restrict production1 the annual output reached #eej1jjj tons during most of this period4 ,at the same time the higher prices maintained for sulphur had stimulated the use of pyrite as a substitute4 ,in order to maintain prices under these conditions the excess production had to be purchased and stored1 so that in #aijf a stock of over #ejj1jjj tons of sulphur had been accumulated in ,sicily4 ,toward the end of this period large-scale production began in the ,united ,states 7#aijd74 ,in #aijc the ,united ,states produced less than #aj1jjj tons of sulphur and was ,italy's best customer1 buying over #agj1jjj tons in that year4 ,within three years the ,united ,states was producing more than enough to supply its own needs and was accumulating a large reserve stock4 ,the sudden loss of the ,american market and the threat of competition in other markets brought on a crisis in the ,sicilian industry1 which was intensified by the large number 7#cj1jjj7 of people employed in the industry4 ,at the termination of the agreement with the ,anglo-,sicilian company 7,july #ca1 #aijf7 steps were taken by the ,italian government to control the situation4 ,the third period1 from #aijf to the present1 is one of government intervention and control of the industry4 ,all the producers were compelled to join a company called the 8,consorzia ,obbligatoria per l',industria ,solfiefera ,siciliana10 organized under a law passed in the ,italian ,parliament4 ,the organization was managed by a commission appointed by the government1 and had complete control over exports and prices4 ,all sulphur had to be sold at fixed price to this organization4 ,a minimum interest was guaranteed on the capital invested2 local freight rates on sulphur for export were reduced2 sulphur stocks accumulated by the ,anglo-,sicilian company were taken over2 and a campaign of price-cutting was started in the ,american market1 which resulted in a decrease of several dollars a ton in the selling price of sulphur4 ,a market agreement was soon reached and prices recovered4 ,a number of the smaller mines closed down and a law was passed controlling and restricting the granting of new concessions4 ,production declined to #cej1jjj tons in #aiac4 ,at the opening of the war the principal ,united ,states producer was preparing to enter into more active competition with ,italian sulphur1 particularly in the ,french markets4 ,as a result of the war1 ,italian production dropped to only #ahj1jjj tons in #aiag1 largely due to labor shortage2 about half of the surplus stocks were used up1 leaving only #afj1jjj tons on hand at the end of #aiag2 and prices increased so that refined sulphur sold at about #hj per ton and inferior grades at #ee per ton1 f4o4b4 ,sicilian ports4 ,the increasing cost of producing sulphur1 due to deeper mining and increased labor costs1 will make it difficult to compete in the ,european markets with the greatly expanded production of the cheaper ,american article4 ,sulphur has been produced in several districts in the ,italian peninsula1 particularly ,romagna1 ,marches1 ,campania and ,calabria4 ,the yield from these districts has been decreasing in recent years and has generally been only from #be1jjj to #cj1jjj tons4 ,the sulphur content of the ores ranges from #bj to #cj per cent4 ,the deposits are of limited extent and are being mined at greater depths4 ,the production has been largely used for local agricultural purposes1 in preparations for use against vine diseases4 ,the ,united ,states4--,until #aijd1 the production of sulphur in the ,united ,states was considerably less than #aj1jjj tons per year and the bulk of our requirements had to be met by import from ,sicily4 ,from #aijd to #aiad the ,united ,states produced enough for its own use and at the end of this period was supplying ,canada1 had begun to actively enter the ,french and ,german market1 and in addition had accumulated a reserve stock1 in the hands of the producers1 of approximately one million long tons4 ,figures recently made public in connection with litigation over patent rights show that half of this stock was accumulated in a single year1 #aiab1 when production reached #gij1jjj long tons1 of which only #cjj1jjj tons was marketed and the balance of #dij1jjj tons went into storage4 ,the ,united ,states production has exceeded that of ,italy since #aiab1 although the sales have been less1 because sulphur was being withdrawn from stocks in ,italy while stocks in the ,united ,states were being increased4 ,the net effect of the war was a four-fold increase in the amount of sulphur sold in the ,united ,states1 without any reduction in stocks2 while in ,italy production fell off #ej per cent4 and stocks on hand were reduced by the same percentage4 ,from #ih to #ii per cent4 of the ,united ,states production has come from the ,gulf ,coast region of the states of ,louisiana and ,texas4 ,a number of other localities in ,west ,texas1 ,colorado1 ,wyoming1 ,idaho1 and ,nevada have surface deposits1 usually of limited extent1 which have been worked on a small scale1 but have declined in importance with the development of the better-grade and more accessible deposits of the ,gulf ,coastal region4 ,the occurrence of sulphur in the ,gulf ,coast region is in connection with a peculiar formation known as 8,saline ,domes0 or 8,mounds40 ,over twenty of these domes have been located1 scattered in an area #bjj miles long1 extending through western ,louisiana and eastern ,texas1 and generally within #ej miles of the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,commercial deposits of petroleum1 sulphur1 and salt have been developed in connection with these domes1 but so far not more than one of the minerals has been developed to commercial degree in a single dome4 ,sulphur was discovered when drilling was being carried on for oil4 ,so far1 three domes have been developed for sulphur1 namely that owned by the ,union ,sulphur ,co4 at ,sulphur1 ,la4 7#aijc71 that owned by the ,freeport ,sulphur ,co4 at ,freeport1 ,texas 7#aiab71 and that of the ,texas-,gulf ,sulphur ,co4 near ,matagordo1 ,texas 7#aiai74 ,two other domes are under exploration and a number of others may possibly contain sulphur4 ,the sulphur occurs at a depth of #cjj to #a1bjj feet and is associated with limestone and underlain by gypsum4 ,the surface area of the producing domes varies from #bjj to #a1ejj acres4 ,exploration is done by drilling at a cost of #bjj1jjj to #cjj1jjj1 and the cost of a complete plant is several million dollars4 ,the sulphur cannot be mined by shafts1 due to the quicksands and the poisonous gases encountered4 ,the deposit at ,sulphur1 ,louisiana1 remained unworked for almost #dj years after its discovery before a satisfactory process was developed to mine it4 ,this is known as the 8,frasch ,process0 and consists of the sinking of wells to the sulphur deposit1 each well being lined with a #aj to #ab in4 pipe4 ,smaller pipes are placed inside1 so that superheated water can be brought in contact with the sulphur ore1 which is melted and forced to the surface by compressed air4 ,the sulphur on cooling is ready for market and is over #ii per cent4 pure4 ,each of the three plants in operation is equipped with a boiler capacity of over #bj1jjj h4p4 for superheating the water1 and requires about a million and a quarter barrels of fuel oil per year4 ,the origin of these domes is believed to be due to deep-seated igneous intrusions1 resulting in the alteration of gypsum and the crystallization of salt and sulphur1 which has caused an upbowing of the strata4 ,because of the nature of the formation and the irregularity of the deposits it is impossible to accurately estimate the reserves of sulphur4 ,with the addition of two new plants since #aiab1 the ,united ,states now has a sulphur-producing capacity of about #a million tons per year1 or four times the normal sales before the war4 ,if an outlet is to be found for this excess sulphur1 it must compete with pyrite in the domestic market or with ,sicilian sulphur in the ,european markets4 ,in the latter part of #aiai prices of #ad to #ae per ton f4o4b4 mines were quoted1 which indicated that an effort was being made to secure part of the acid trade which formerly used pyrite4 ,there is no element of political control in the ,united ,states sulphur industry1 beyond the temporary measures taken during the war in licensing export and allocation of consumption4 ,the commercial control is entirely in the hands of ,american companies4 ,the ,union ,sulphur ,co4 has been endeavoring to prevent the use of the improved 8,frasch ,process0 by the other companies which are competing with it4 ,if the claim of infringement of patent rights should be sustained1 it would give the ,union company control of the situation similar to that which it had before the development of the two newer companies1 and might result in the restriction of output and maintenance of prices4 ,japan4--,japan takes third rank in the production of sulphur1 although it is of minor importance1 compared to either the ,united ,states or ,italy4 ,the production of sulphur in ,japan has slowly increased from #ae1jjj long tons in #aijj to #fj1jjj tons in #aiac1 or about #g per cent4 of the world output4 ,the domestic consumption is very small and about #ij per cent4 of the output was exported1 chiefly to ,australia1 the west coast of the ,united ,states and ,canada1 and to ,china and ,india4 ,during the war the output increased to a maximum of about #ajj1jjj tons1 but in #aiah production was considerably curtailed by the great advance in freight rates to ,australia1 which had been purchasing about one-half of the ,japanese output4 ,the sulphur occurs in surface deposits of limited extent and seldom reaches #ajj feet in thickness4 ,the deposits are generally of the solfataric type and occur in the numerous areas of volcanic activity4 ,the majority of the productive areas are nearly circular in outline1 and indicate that they were formed by deposition in crater lakes4 ,in some cases they are stratified and overlain by fine brown clayey or tufaceous material derived partly from the surrounding rocks and partly from the sulphur itself4 ,other deposits of minor importance may have been produced by impregnation4 ,the ore mined runs from #ej to #fj per cent4 sulphur4 ,deposits below #dj per cent4 sulphur are seldom worked4 ,approximately two-thirds of the production has come from the southwestern section of the ,island of ,hokkaido4 ,four mines average about #aj1jjj tons production each per year1 and the remainder of the production comes from #aj to #ab smaller operations1 ranging from the vicinity of ,mount ,daiton1 in ,taiwan 7,formosa71 to the ,kurile ,islands4 ,there is no accurate estimate of ore reserves available4 ,one of the most important mines was estimated as containing several million tons of #ej per cent4 ore4 ,the reserves are probably sufficient to maintain present production for many years4 ,the lack of shipping facilities has handicapped production1 and there seems little likelihood that the relative importance of ,japan in the sulphur industry will increase to any great extent4 ,the sulphur mines are all operated by ,japanese4 ,the state reserves the right of original ownership of all minerals1 except a few placer deposits4 ,right of working is granted to ,japanese companies or individuals according to priority of application4 ,the mining law1 however1 acknowledges the rights of any corporation organized by aliens under ,japanese law4 ,great ,britain4--,great ,britain has an estimated annual by-product recovery of from #cj1jjj to #dj1jjj tons of elemental sulphur4 ,the process of recovery is known as the ,chance-,claus process1 and is applied in connection with the ,le ,blanc soda process4 ,it is based upon the decomposition of calcium sulphate in vat waste by means of carbon dioxide1 and the recovery of sulphur from the sulphuretted hydrogen gas thus generated4 ,other ,countries4--,the production of sulphur outside of the ,united ,states1 ,italy and ,japan is of minor importance4 ,northern ,chile has a small production of sulphur from the volcanoes of ,tacora and ,chupiquina4 ,the reserves are estimated as quite large1 but the high elevation 7#ad1jjj to #bj1jjj ft47 and poor transportation have restricted production to local uses in the vineyard districts of ,chile4 ,the production as reported had gradually increased to about #f1jjj tons in #aiac and is reported to have doubled since then4 ,spain produces about #aj1jjj tons of sulphur annually1 from low-grade deposits located in the neighborhood of ,almeria4 ,the larger figures often reported are in terms of low-grade ore mined4 ,austria is credited with a production of from #aj to #ae thousand tons of crude sulphur ore1 probably representing only #b or #c thousand tons of actual sulphur4 ,the largest sulphur mine in ,mexico is located at ,cerritos1 #be miles south of ,guadalcazar1 ,san ,luis ,potosi4 ,fifteen years ago it was purchased by an ,american company1 the ,virginia-,carolina ,chemical ,co4 ,it was later leased to ,german interests4 ,the small output of a few thousand tons was shipped to ,germany before the war4 ,there are a number of deposits in ,san ,luis ,potosi in addition to the one at ,cerritos4 ,it has been reported several times that a ,british company was about to operate the sulphur deposits of the ,mexican volcano1 ,popocatepetl1 near ,mexico ,city4 ,statements regarding the deposits in the volcano are conflicting1 but investigations indicate that their magnitude has been much exaggerated4 ,many other deposits occur in connection with local volcanic areas1 but so far are of little economic value because of inaccessibility4 ,there are a number of deposits of sulphur in the ,aleutian ,islands 7,alaska71 probably containing considerable sulphur1 but partially covered by glaciers and difficult of access4 ,it is doubtful whether they could be developed in the face of the competition of the cheap sulphur from the coastal plain district of the ,united ,states4 ,,changes ,,in ,,practice ,no very far-reaching changes in practice are likely to occur in the near future4 ,the exhaustion of the surface sulphur deposits in ,italy and the necessity for deep mining is making necessary improvement and installation of more modern methods there4 ,improved methods in the refining of sulphur are also being installed whereby the losses under the old calcarone method will be largely eliminated4 ,the consumption of sulphur for sulphite wood pulp can be considerably reduced by the general utilization of the improved practice which is already used by the best plants4 ,in localities where pyrite is available this material may be used in the pulp industry to replace sulphur4 ,in case competition develops between the three large sulphur companies in the ,united ,states1 and the price of sulphur is considerably reduced1 it may result in the use of this material to a larger extent in the sulphuric-acid industry4 ,the sulphur burners can be installed much more quickly and cheaply than the furnaces required to roast pyrite1 and after once being installed the amount of labor and care required in their operation is less4 ,the increased recovery of sulphuric acid as a by-product from copper and zinc smelters will probably represent an increasing factor in competition with acid made either from pyrite or sulphur4 ,the further increase of this source in the ,united ,states is handicapped by the location of many of the copper smelters in the west1 at long distances from the market for sulphuric acid1 which is largely in the eastern and southern states4 ,new processes are being experimented with1 for the production of elementary sulphur from these sulphur fumes4 ,if these are successful on a large scale1 material from this source may supply any future markets located in the west1 and might compete with the ,japanese sulphur which has formerly been imported in our ,pacific ,coast ,states4 ,,political ,,control ,,of ,,sulphur ,,and ,,pyrite ,the political control of the important sulphur deposits of the world primarily corresponds to the countries in which they are located4 ,in the case of the ,united ,states1 the deposits are controlled by private companies4 ,as a strictly war measure1 control was exercised over the allocation and distribution of the output4 ,in ,italy the government had assumed control of the output and marketing of sulphur4 ,this was largely brought about by the competition of ,american sulphur and the consequent depression of the ,italian industry4 ,in #aijf what was known as the ,consorzia ,obbligatoria was organized under a law passed by the ,italian ,parliament1 which provided that this company should be administered by a royal commissioner appointed by the ,italian government4 ,under this law producers were obliged to sell their output to this company1 which had control of prices and exports4 ,in #aiaj restrictions on the granting of new concessions were made4 ,the arguments recently presented for the continuance of government control were the increasing foreign competition1 the large war increase in ,united ,states production1 the minor increase of ,japanese production and the possibilities of developments in northern ,africa4 ,the intent of this governmental control of the industry is to combine and regulate the efforts of individual producers in order to effectively meet future competition4 ,,commercial ,,control ,,of ,,sulphur ,,and ,,pyrite ,before #aijf the ,italian deposits were largely controlled by the ,anglo-,sicilian ,sulphur ,co41 representing ,english capital1 but since that time1 when the ,italian government undertook to control the industry1 the commercial control has been primarily ,italian4 ,in the ,united ,states the commercial control of sulphur output is in the hands of three companies1 one of which started producing just about the time of the outbreak of the ,european war and another whose production was just beginning in #aiai4 ,so far as is known1 there is no combination among these three interests4 ,the ,union ,sulphur ,co41 which was the first and principal producer1 controls certain patents covering the 8,frasch ,process40 ,during the war period an agreement was entered into by which alleged infringement of patents was not pushed4 ,since the close of the war it remains to be seen to what extent the patent rights involved may affect the production of the other two companies1 the ,freeport and the ,texas ,gulf1 which in general use a similar process4 ,the production of sulphur in ,japan is commercially controlled by ,japanese interests4 ,an ,american company1 the ,virginia-,carolina ,chemical ,co41 owns a sulphur deposit in ,mexico1 which was leased1 before the war1 to ,german interests4 ,several other deposits in ,mexico and ,south ,america were reported as controlled by ,german interests1 but thus far the production from all these sources has been relatively of minor importance and there is no immediate prospect of any great change4 ,the significant factor of commercial control in the pyrite situation is the large investment of ,british capital in the ,spanish deposits and to a less extent the investment of ,french capital4 ,united ,states capital controls the principal pyrite developments in ,canada1 ,cuba1 ,mexico and ,cyprus4 ,english1 ,french and ,swedish capital is invested in ,norway4 ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,powers ,the ,united ,states is the most favorably situated of any nation in its supply of sulphur4 ,in the years preceding the ,european war it produced about one-half the world's supply4 ,since that time its production has increased several fold and it is now the dominating factor in the world situation4 ,the relative position of ,italy1 which was formerly of equal importance with the ,united ,states1 is declining4 ,her cost of production is increasing1 and ,american sulphur will enter into keen competition with the ,european markets4 ,the resources of ,japan are comparatively small and the larger part of her production has been exported4 ,the post-war conditions will probably curtail the markets for ,japanese sulphur1 and there is no likelihood of any increase in ,japan's position4 ,england1 ,france and ,germany must primarily rely upon other countries for their supply of both pyrite and sulphur4 ,england secures a part of her sulphur supply from a by-product source known as the ,chance-,claus process1 which produces from #cj to #dj thousand tons annually4 ,in addition she secures large amounts of pyrite from ,spain4 ,france produces some local pyrite1 but imports large quantities of this material from ,spain2 and before the outbreak of the war was securing increasing amounts of sulphur from the ,united ,states4 ,germany and ,austria have some resources in pyrite and probably had considerable stocks of sulphur at the opening of the war4 ,it has been stated that in order to secure her needs of these materials ,germany was forced to use expensive processes1 to reduce the sulphur content of gypsum1 to expand her pyrite production1 and to increase the output of smelter acid4 ,under normal conditions she will probably have to return to imports of pyrite from ,norway and ,sweden1 or sulphur from the ,united ,states and ,italy4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,gold ,,by ,,john ,e4 ,,orchard ,,uses ,,of ,,gold ,the physical properties of gold and the difficulties connected with obtaining it have made gold through all the ages one of the most precious of the metals4 ,because of its luster1 its color1 and its indestructibility1 it was shaped by primitive man into rings1 bracelets1 and other ornaments4 ,these same properties1 together with its divisibility1 early led to the use of gold as a trading counter1 and in all but the most primitive societies it has been regarded as a measure of value and a medium of exchange4 ,the earliest known reference to gold is a reference to its use in trade1 and is contained in an edict of ,menes of ,egypt 7perhaps #chjj ,b4 ,c47 fixing the ratio of the value of gold to silver at #b to #a4 ,as a medium of exchange gold is used in a variety of forms4 ,the primitive trader accepted and gave ornaments of gold in exchange for commodities4 ,in mining camps1 gold dust and nuggets have been the circulating medium4 ,in a settled community under a government possessing the confidence of the governed1 gold coined into counters of convenient denominations by the government is accepted without question in all transactions4 ,for the settlement of balances in international trade1 gold bullion is used1 its value being determined by weight4 ,today practically all nations are on a gold standard1 and even those on a silver standard in domestic trade have adopted the gold standard for foreign trade4 ,but gold1 though it has many excellent qualities1 is one of the heaviest of metals1 and carrying it on the person is inconvenient1 especially in amounts sufficient for large transactions4 ,also1 through constant handling1 gold wears away and coins deteriorate in value4 ,accordingly a large part of the coins or the gold bullion is kept in the national treasury or in the vaults of a bank1 and some form of paper currency is used as the circulating medium4 ,upon this reserve of gold1 seen only by a few employees of the government or bank1 who have no ownership in it1 is built an intricate system of credits and trade4 ,it is true that little gold is in actual circulation and that for domestic trade mediums of exchange secured only in part by gold are being used in increasing amounts4 ,even international exchange is no longer on the gold standard1 but this situation is undoubtedly temporary and with the improvement in financial conditions in ,europe gold will be restored to its position as foundation of trade and finance1 national and international4 ,the circulating medium1 whatever its nature1 must be freely convertible1 and credit1 to remain sound1 must be founded upon an adequate gold reserve4 ,it has been officially estimated that between the years #adib and #ahid the world's production of gold equaled about #h1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,of this amount a little less than #d1jjj1jjj1jjj was held as gold reserve in #ahid1 the remainder having been lost or absorbed in the arts or in the manufacture of jewelry4 ,since #ahid the consumption of gold in the arts has been between #ej1jjj1jjj and #ajj1jjj1jjj annually1 or for the #bg years about #b1ajj1jjj1jjj out of a total production of #i1jjj1jjj1jjj--;almost #be per cent4#aeh #aeh ,,jennings1 ,,hennen3 8,the ,gold ,industry and ,gold ,standard10 #aiai4 ,,geological ,,occurrence ,gold is widely distributed1 both geographically and geologically4 ,it is found in about #fj countries in all parts of the world and occurs in rocks of all ages1 from ,archean to ,quaternary1 often in association with other metals1 as silver1 copper1 tellurium1 lead1 and iron4 ,gold deposits may be broadly classified as lodes and placers4 ,lode deposits are also known as vein or quartz deposits2 and in them the gold is found with silica or quartz in irregular masses1 strings1 scales1 plates1 and crystals1 or more often in microscopic particles in the sulphide minerals or the gangue4 ,much the same methods are used for extracting the ore as are used in mining silver1 lead1 or zinc4 ,placer or alluvial deposits are sedimentary beds of gravel or sand in which the particles of gold1 washed from the mother lode1 have been concentrated by the action of water4 ,most of the placer deposits lie in the open1 along the bed of a river1 but some are covered by a sheet of lava or other non-productive rock4 ,the gold occurs as scales1 grains1 slugs or nuggets4 ,a number of large nuggets have been found1 the largest being the ,australian 8,welcome ,stranger10 weighing #b1ebj ounces and valued at about #db1jjj4 ,usually1 however1 the particles of gold are minute4 ,placer deposits are worked by one of the following methods1 depending on the nature and richness of the alluvium3 sluice mining1 hydraulic mining1 dredging1 or drift mining4 ,during the early years of what has been called the modern era of gold mining1 beginning with the discovery of gold in ,california in #ahdh1 most of the world's annual production came from placer deposits4 ,de ,launay estimates that from #ahdh to #ahge placers contributed #hg per cent4 ,in more recent years1 with the exhaustion of the easily discovered and the easily worked placer mines1 the proportion has decreased and at present it is probably not more than #aj per cent4 ,today the great gold mines of the world are lode mines4 ,the world's deepest gold mine has attained a vertical depth of #e1ijj feet4 ,after making all allowances for further discoveries1 students of the subject are of the opinion that the world's gold production has already reached its zenith and that a decline may be expected4#aei #aei ,the above discussion of the geological occurrence of gold is based mainly on 8,the ,gold ,industry and ,gold ,standard0 and other articles by ,,hennen ,,jennings1 consulting engineer1 ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,mines4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,commercially important mines are found in every continent1 and there are few regions on the earth's surface that do not contain deposits profitably worked now or formerly4 ,the distribution of gold has played an important part in the settlement of new lands1 notably ,california1 western ,canada1 ,alaska1 ,mexico1 ,australia1 and ,south ,africa1 and will undoubtedly greatly influence the future movements of peoples4 ,yet although gold is distributed thus widely1 #cbc1iej1jjj1 or over #ge per cent4 of the total amount of gold produced in #aiag1 came from four countries1 ,transvaal1 ,united ,states1 ,australia and ,russia4 ,the outputs of the chief producing countries are given in ,table #fg and ,figure #ai4 ,,north ,,america ,united ,states4--,although at present surpassed by the ,transvaal1 the ,united ,states formerly led the world as a producer of gold4 ,it is estimated that this country since #agib has contributed about #c1iac1jjj1jjj to the gold supply of the world1 a little less than #be per cent4 of the total produced1 and an output greater than that of any other nation4#afj ,the ,united ,states first became an important producer in #ahej1 following the discovery of gold in ,california4 ,previous to that time some gold was mined in the ,appalachian states1 the total probably reaching #ej1jjj1jjj4 #afj ,report of the committee appointed by the ,secretary of the ,interior to study the gold situation4 ,in #aiae the output of the ,united ,states was #aja1jce1jjj1 the highest mark so far reached4 ,since that year there has been an annual drop of about #h1jjj1jjj in output4 ,the yield in #aiah was #fh1fdf1gjj and in #aiai1 #eh1dhh1hjj4 ,during the past four years1 eight states1 ,california1 ,colorado1 ,alaska1 ,south ,dakota1 ,nevada1 ,arizona1 ,montana1 and ,utah1 have produced more than #ij per cent4 of the gold mined in the ,united ,states4 ,,table #fg4--;,,gold ,,production ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,producing ,,countries1 #ahhj-aiagafa ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,united ,transvaal ,russia- ,rhodesia ,year ,states ,australasia #afb ,siberia #afb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #ahhjcf1jjj1jjj #bh1gfe1jjj #a1iic1hjjbh1eea1jbh 444 #ahha #cd1gjj1jjj #cj1fij1jjj #a1iic1hjj #bd1cga1cdc 444 #ahhb #cb1ejj1jjj #ca1iee1jag #a1iic1hjj #bc1hfg1ice 444 #ahhc #cj1jjj1jjj #bg1aej1jjj #gag1jjj #bj1aai1jjj 444 #ahhd #cj1hjj1jjj #bh1bhd1jjj #hcj1jjj #ba1hgd1jjj 444 #ahhe #ca1hja1jjj #bg1dci1jjj #a1chd1jjj #be4cch1jjj 444 #ahhf #cd1hfi1jjj #bf1dbe1jjj #a1dch1jjj #bj1eah1jjj 444 #ahhg #cc1acf1jjj #bg1cbg1fjj #a1iai1fjj #bj1jib1jjj 444 #ahhh #cc1afg1jjj #bh1efj1ffj #d1ejj1jjj #ba1cjb1jjj 444 #ahhi #cb1ifg1jjj #cc1jhf1gjj #g1ghh1cgb #bc1ije1fjj 444 #ahij #cb1hde1jjj #bi1hjh1jjj #aj1dch1cef #be1dhd1jjj 444 #ahia #cc1age1jjj #ca1cii1jjj #ad1hhe1fci #bd1afb1ejj 444 #ahib #cc1jae1jjj #cd1aei1jjj #bc1bbj1ajh #bd1hjf1bjj 444 #ahic #ce1iee1jjj #ce1fhh1fjj #bh1bic1hca #bg1hjh1bjj 444 #ahid #ci1ejj1jjj #da1gfj1hjj #ci1fif1ccj #bd1acc1djj 444 #ahie #df1faj1jjj #dd1gih1cjj #dc1hic1cjj #bh1hid1djj 444 #ahif #ec1jhh1jjj #de1aha1ijj #dc1ggi1ffi #ba1ece1hjj 444 #ahig #eg1cfc1jjj #eb1ffe1gjj #eg1fcc1hfa #bc1bde1gjj 444 #ahih #fd1dfc1jjj #fd1hfj1hjj #gi1bac1iec #be1dfc1djj #ddd1fag #ahii #ga1jec1djj #gi1cba1fjj #ga1chd1efa #bb1afg1ajj #a1abi1ggc #aijj #gi1aga1jjj #gc1dih1ijj #f1abd1bbf #bj1ade1ejj #a1aeh1hae #aija #gh1fff1gjj #gf1hhj1bjj #e1ccc1iid #bb1hej1ijj #b1igd1idc #aijb #hj1jjj1jjj #ha1egh1hjj #cd1ija1adj #bb1ecc1djj #c1cff1efa #aijc #gc1eia1gjj #hi1baj1ajj #fa1ded1dci #bd1fcb1bjj #d1jfe1dhi #aijd #hj1dfd1gjj #hg1gfg1cjj #gh1jjd1eei #bd1hjc1bjj #d1gid1bjh #aije #hh1ahj1gjj #he1ibf1ejjaja1dhi1aii #bb1bia1fjj #g1ccg1baa #aijf #id1cgc1hjj #hb1cia1djjaai1fah1ejg #ai1dif1ejj #aj1jhb1gdg #aijg #ij1dce1gjj #ge1fgg1gjjacc1cfa1idc #bf1fhd1cjj #aa1aii1aha #aijh #id1efj1jjj #gc1cbg1cjjade1hfb1iga #bh1jeb1bjj #ac1jbb1dfj #aiji #ii1fgc1djj #ga1jjg1ijjaej1gii1hhj #cb1cha1cjj #ac1bbc1iee #aiaj #if1bfi1ajj #fe1dgj1fjjaee1eig1bjb #ce1egi1fjj #ac1eij1feh #aiaa #if1hij1jjj #fj1ahd1bjjagj1eff1aei #cb1aea1fjj #ac1hbc1gcc #aiab #ic1dea1ejj #ed1eji1djjahh1bic1ajj #bb1aii1jjj #ad1bbf1ijj #aiac #hh1hhd1djj #ec1aac1bjjaha1hhe1cjj #bf1ejh1gjj #ad1bgd1gjj #aiad #id1eca1hjj #dg1efi1jbcagc1eei1idj #bh1ehf1cib #ag #ffc1fhf #aiaeaja1jce1gjj #di1cig1gigahh1jcc1aef #bf1cbb1gde #ah1iae1cbd #aiaf #ib1cae1cfc #ch1bac1cbhaib1ahb1ijj #bb1cjj1jjj #ai1bcb1bjj #aiag #hd1def1fjj #ce1bge1jjjahf1bed1bef #ah1jjj1jjjafdad1ihh1fjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,british ,year ,mexico ,canada ,india ,world#afc ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahhj #ihi1afj #hae1jhi 444#ajf1dcf1hjj #ahha #heh1iji #a1jid1ibf 444 #ajc1jbc1ajj #ahhb #icf1bbc #a1jid1ibf 444 #aja1iif1fjj #ahhc #iea1jjj #ied1jjj 444 #ie1cib1jjj #ahhd #a1ahc1jjj #ied1jjj 444 #aja1gbi1jjj #ahhe #hfg1jjj #a1aaf1jjj #ace1jjj #ajh #dce1jjj #ahhf #fad1jjj #a1ccj1ddb #dba1fjj #ajf1afc1jjj #ahhg #hbd1jjj #a1agh1fcg #cbj1jjj #aje1ggd1ijj #ahhh #igd1jjj #a1aaa1iei #fhe1gbj #aaj1aif1jjj #ahhi #gjj1jjj #a1bie1jjj #a1ejb1fjj #abc1dhi1bjj #ahij #gfg1jjj #a1fff1jjj #b1jjj1jjj #aah1hdh1gjj #ahia #a1jjj1jjj #icj1fff #b1die1jjj #acj1fej1jjj #ahib #a1abi1bjj #ijg1fjj #c1cah1cjj #adf1fea1ejj #ahic #a1cje1cjj #ibg1bjj #c1hac1fjj #aeg1did1hjj #ahid #d1ejj1jjjafd #a1jdb1ajj #c1hhb1ijj #aha1age1fjj #ahie #f1jjj1jjjafd #a1iaj1ijj #d1fef1bjj #aih1gfc1fjj #ahif #h1cca1gjjafd #b1haj1bjj #f1acj1ejj #bjb1bea1fjj #ahig #g1ejj1jjjafd #f1jhi1ejj #g1bdg1bjj #bcf1jhc1gjj #ahih #h1ejj1jjjafdac1hch1gjj #g1gha1ejj #bhf1hgi1gjj #ahii #h1ejj1jjjafdba1cbd1cjj #h1feh1hjj #cjf1gbd1ajj #aijj #i1jjj1jjjafdbg1hhj1ejj #i1dce1ejj #bed1egf1cjj #aijaaj1bhd1hjj #bd1abh1ejj #i1cie1ijj #bfj1iib1ijj #aijbaj1aec1ajj #ba1ccf1gjj #i1ehh1ajj #bif1gcg1fjj #aijcaj1fgg1ejj #ah1hcd1ejjaa1dbh1ijj #cbg1gjb1gjj #aijdab1fje1cjj #af1dfb1ejjaa1gbb1ijj #cdg1cgg1bjj #aijeaf1ajg1ajj #ad1faj1djjaa1iej1bjj #chj1bhh1gjj #aijfah1ecd1gjj #ab1jbc1ijjab1jhg1gjj #djb1ejc1jjj #aijgah1fha1ajj #h1chb1hjjaj1chc1fjj #dab1iff1fjj #aijhbb1cga1bjj #i1hdb1ajjaj1eih1ejj #ddb1dgf1ijj #aijibc1hdb1ijj #i1chb1bjjaj1ceh1fjj #ded1jei1ajj #aiajbd1iaj1fjj #aj1bje1hjjaj1gah1djj #dee1bci1ajj #aiaabd1hhj1ajj #i1gfb1ajjaa1jed1ajj #dfa1ici1gjj #aiabbd1ejj1jjj #ab1fdh1hjjaa1jee1gjj #dff1acf1ajj #aiacai1cjh1hjj #af1eih1ijjab1agh1jjj #dei1ida1ajj #aiad #d1ghh1age #ae1ihc1jjdaa1cgh1djj #dci1jgh1bfj #aiae #f1eei1bge #ah1igg1ijaaa1ebb1deg #dfh1gbd1iah #aiaf #g1fij1gjj #ai1bce1jjjaa1bjf1ejj #ded1agf1ejj #aiag #i1jjj1jjjafdae1ddi1dbfaj1gef1hjj #dbc1eij1bjj ---------------------------------------- ------------ #afa ,compiled from reports of the ,director of the ,mint1 #ahhj-aiag4 #afb ,previous to #ahih production of ,rhodesia and ,mozambique included in ,transvaal returns4 #afc ,total production of world1 #adib-aiag1 #af1iaf1gce1cid4 #afd ,estimated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #ai4--,production of gold in chief producing countries1 #ahhj-aiag1 based on reports of the ,director of the ,mint4 ,with the discovery of gold in a mill race at ,coloma1 ,eldorado ,county1 ,california1 by ,j4 ,a4 ,marshall in #ahdh1 the history of modern gold production began4 ,the great rush to ,california followed and the state became the leading gold-producing region of the world4 ,the output for #ahfj amounted to #de1cbj1jjj1 as compared with a total output of only #a1jjj1jjj for the remaining states4 ,for many years the gold production of ,california has been declining1 the total yield in #aiag amounting to only #bj1jjj1jjj1 a decrease of almost #b1jjj1jjj from the output of #aiaf4 ,about three-fifths of the output comes from lode mines and the remainder from placers4 ,for a number of years ,colorado was the leading gold-producing state1 principally because of the output from ,cripple ,creek1 ,teller ,county1 which was from #ahic to #aijh the leading gold camp in the ,united ,states4 ,recently the output has fallen below that of ,california4 ,over half of the yield of the state in #aiaf came from ,teller ,county4 ,the earliest discovery of gold in ,alaska was probably about #ahdi along the shores of ,cook ,inlet4 ,in #ahgi the gold-quartz veins near ,sitka were discovered1 and a year later the placers of ,juneau4 ,the discovery of the gold placers in the valley of the ,yukon was made in #ahhf and of those in the ,klondike in #ahif4 ,most of the ,alaskan output is obtained from placer deposits1 the richest being in the ,seward ,peninsula near ,nome and in the ,yukon basin4 ,the largest producing lode mines have been those near ,juneau2 of these the ,treadwell was for long the greatest gold mine in the world1 but it is now inactive4 ,during the past few years the working of large low-grade disseminated deposits of the ,treadwell type near ,juneau has been undertaken on a scale hitherto undreamed of1 but thus far these ventures 7,alaska ,gold and ,alaska ,juneau mines7 have not been financially successful4 ,the gold-producing area of ,south ,dakota is confined to an area of less than #ajj square miles1 lying in the ,black ,hills4 ,the gravels of ,whitewood and ,deadwood gulches were first washed in #ahge1 and in #ahgf the famous ,homestake lodes were discovered4 ,at present about #id per cent4 of the total output of the state is controlled by one company1 the ,homestake ,mining ,co41 the largest producing company in the ,united ,states4 ,following the exhaustion of the famous ,comstock lode1 demarcated in #ahea1 ,nevada was of little importance as a gold-producing state until the discovery of the rich deposits of ,tonopah in #aijj4 ,at present practically all the gold obtained in the state comes from the vein deposits of ,tonopah and ,goldfield4 ,divide is a newly developed camp between these two4 ,there are three main auriferous areas in ,arizona3 the vicinity of ,bisbee and ,tombstone1 ,cochise ,county2 the ,oatman district1 ,mohave ,county2 and the ,verde district1 ,yavapai ,county4 ,arizona was one of the few states to show a larger output in #aiag than in #aiaf4 ,the ,united ,eastern mine1 a new property opened in #aiac in the ,oatman district of ,mohave ,county1 produced heavily and was responsible for the increase4 ,the gold output of ,cochise and ,yavapai counties is obtained largely from copper ore4 ,during the sixties and seventies1 ,montana was second only to ,california in its yield of placer gold4 ,the most famous placers were those of ,bannack and ,alder ,gulch and later ,helena4 ,much of the present output is obtained as a by-product from copper ores4 ,few mines in ,utah are worked exclusively for their gold content1 the greater part of the yield of the state being derived from copper and lead ores4 ,gold is also mined in ,idaho1 ,new ,mexico1 ,oregon1 and ,washington4 ,small amounts were produced in #aiag in a number of the ,appalachian states4 ,before the discovery of gold in ,california1 practically all of the gold coined in the ,united ,states mint came from the mines of ,virginia1 ,maryland1 ,alabama1 ,georgia1 and the ,carolinas1 but since the ,civil ,war their output has not been important4 ,the gold production of the ,philippine ,islands in #aiag amounted to #a1djd1jjj4 ,canada4--,the total gold yield of ,canada in #aijj amounted to #bh1jjj1jjj1 but with the exhaustion of the placer deposits it declined to #h1chb1jjj in #aijg4 ,with the development of vein deposits1 production increased steadily from this low point1 and reached #ai1bce1jjj in #aiaf1 and #ae1bgb1iib in #aiag1 placing ,canada sixth in the list of gold producers4 ,three provinces1 ,ontario1 ,british ,columbia1 and the ,yukon ,territory1 yield most of the gold1 the remaining provinces producing less than #a per cent4 of the total4 ,more than one-half of the ,canadian production comes from the ,porcupine district in ,temiskaming1 ,ontario1 developed in #aiab4 ,other producing districts1 though of minor importance1 are ,kirkland ,lake and ,munro ,township1 also in ,temiskaming1 and ,long ,lake1 near ,naughton1 ,sudbury district4#afe #afe 8,production of ,copper1 ,gold1 ,lead1 ,nickel1 ,silver1 ,zinc1 and ,other ,metals in ,canada1 #aiaf40 ,canadian ,department of ,mines1 ,mines ,branch1 #aiag4 ,at one time most of the gold output of ,british ,columbia was derived from placers1 chiefly from those in the ,atlin and ,cariboo districts1 but less than #e per cent4 came from that source in #aiag4 ,the main lode mining districts are ,west ,kootenay and ,yale1 in the southern part of the province4#aff ,gold production in #aiag amounted to about half of the total for #aiaf4 #aff 8,production of ,copper1 ,gold1 ,lead1 ,nickel1 ,silver1 ,zinc1 and ,other ,metals in ,canada1 #aiag40 ,canadian ,department of ,mines1 ,mines ,branch1 #aiai4 ,gold has been known in the ,yukon ,territory since #ahfi and the deposits have been actively worked since #ahha4 ,the greater part of the placers of ,forty-mile ,river and all of ,sixty-mile ,river are within ,canadian jurisdiction4 ,in #ahig came the discovery of the ,klondike4 ,gold production reached its height in ,yukon ,territory in #aijj1 when the output was #a1jgg1fdi fine ounces1 valued at #bb1jjj1jjj4 ,practically all of the #aiag production was derived from placer deposits4 ,gold was mined in ,quebec as early as #ahbc1 but ,canada was of little importance as a gold-producing region prior to the discovery of the ,british ,columbia placers in #aheg4 ,gold deposits of little economic value are still worked in ,quebec1 ,new ,brunswick1 ,nova ,scotia1 and ,newfoundland4 ,prospecting and development work in ,manitoba1 ,saskatchewan1 and ,alberta indicate that these provinces may become important producers of gold4 ,mexico4--,for many years ,mexico ranked fourth among the gold-producing countries of the world1 being surpassed only by the ,transvaal1 the ,united ,states1 and ,australasia4 ,revolutions and bandit warfare have seriously interfered with mining operations since #aiaa1 and the output of gold in #aiag was little more than one-third of the normal annual yield4 ,with the establishment of a stable government1 able to protect foreign investments1 ,mexico will no doubt regain its former position4 ,a large part of the gold output of ,mexico is obtained as a by-product from lead1 silver1 zinc1 and copper ores4 ,the only true gold-mining district is the ,el ,oro district of the states of ,mexico and ,michoacan4 ,the chief producing mines are the ,esperanza1 ,el ,oro1 ,mexico ,mines of ,el ,oro1 and ,dos ,estrellas4 ,in #aijf the ,esperanza was considered1 in respect to both actual output and profits earned1 the most productive gold mine in the world4 ,since then it has been surpassed by mines of the ,united ,states and the ,transvaal4 ,another famous gold mine of ,mexico1 the ,dolores1 situated in western ,chihuahua1 yields ore whose silver content is almost equal in value to the gold4 ,lower ,california1 ,sonora1 ,durango1 ,hidalgo1 ,san ,luis ,potosi1 ,guanajuato1 and ,chiapas are all gold-producing states4 ,central ,america4--,at the time of the discovery of ,america1 the ,spanish were attracted to the region now included in the states of ,central ,america by reports of fabulously rich mines and of the wealth of the ,indians4 ,a number of expeditions were sent out in search of the gold and some rich mines were discovered and worked4 ,gold is still produced in ,central ,america1 but the total amount is small1 being less than #a per cent4 of the world total in #aiac4 ,honduras is the richest of the states in production and ,nicaragua ranks second1 the principal centers of the gold-mining industry being in the ,departments of ,matagalpa and ,chontales1 and in the district of ,cabo ,gracias and ,prinzapolka4#afg #afg ,u4 ,s4 ,commerce ,reports1 ,supplement #cd;a1 #aiae1 p4 #d4 ,,south ,,america ,south ,america was also an important source of gold during the years following the discovery of ,america4 ,the early conquerors obtained gold by plundering the temples1 churches1 and even the graves of the natives4 ,following the conquest1 the ,spaniards by means of their slaves systematically searched much of the continent for gold deposits4 ,about #ae per cent4 7#b1bff1jjj1jjj7 of all the gold produced between #adib and #aiag came from ,south ,america4 ,today ,south ,america is of little importance as a gold producer1 the combined yield of all the countries for #aiac being about #b4e per cent4 of the world total4 ,the great bulk of the ,south ,american production has so far been alluvial gold4 ,with the establishment of more stable governments and the improvement of transportation facilities it is likely that the production of ,south ,america will increase4 ,according to ,maclaren#afh the gold fields of ,south ,america are disposed in three somewhat sharply separated areas4 ,the chief area is that extending the length of the ,andes from the ,isthmus of ,panama to central ,chile and including the deposits of ,colombia4 ,the second area is contained in a well-marked petrographic and metallographic province extending across the rearland of the ,guianas and including also the mines of ,venezuela and northern ,brazil4 ,the third area is contained in the province of ,minas ,geraes1 ,brazil4 ,some gold is obtained from ,chile1 ,argentina1 ,bolivia1 ,peru1 ,ecuador1 and ,uruguay4 ,the chief gold-bearing areas of ,colombia are ,choco1 the ,department of ,antioquia1 and the district lying between the ,cauca and ,magdalena rivers4 ,fairly rich deposits have also been found in ,colombia near the ,ecuadorian border4#afi #afh ,,maclaren1 ,j4 ,,malcolm3 8,gold3 ,its ,geological ,occurrence and ,geographical ,distribution1 #aijh10 p4 #fai4 #afi ,u4 ,s4 ,commerce ,reports1 ,supplement #db;b1 #aiae1 p4 #ab4 ,the principal mines of ,brazil are the ,st4 ,john del ,rey mine1 and the mines owned by the ,ouro ,preto ,gold ,mines of ,brazil1 ,ltd41 both in the ,state of ,minas ,geraes4 ,the former mine is said to be the deepest in the world4 ,,europe ,although ,europe in the past has played an important part in the production of gold1 very little is mined at the present time4 ,previous to the discovery of ,america1 much of the gold in use came from the ,alps and from ,hungary4 ,deposits were also worked in ,england1 ,ireland1 ,wales1 ,spain1 and ,germany4 ,the only gold mines in ,europe of any present economic importance are in the former empire of ,austria-,hungary1 ,france1 and the ,urals of ,russia4 ,in the south of ,france gold has been produced along the streams flowing from the ,pyrenees1 and also in the eastern provinces4 ,at present only three mines are in operation1 which in #aiaa produced #b1eed kilograms of gold4 ,the ,hungarian deposits are very old1 as they were worked by the ,romans #b1jjj years ago4 ,most of the producing mines of today are in ,transylvania4 ,russia is credited with producing #e4h per cent4 of the world total in #aiac4 ,a small part of this production came from the ,urals of ,european ,russia1 chiefly as a by-product from other ores1 but the greater part was obtained in ,siberia4 ,the ,siberian deposits are discussed below1 under ,asia4 ,,asia ,since the decline in the ,mexican production1 ,russia ranks fourth among the gold-producing countries4 ,most of the output comes from ,siberia1 which has long been a source of gold1 the mines of the ,altai ,mountains being considered among the oldest in the world4 ,the production of gold in ,siberia from #ahcj to date has been estimated by ,russian authorities at approximately #a1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,maclaren#agj has divided the auriferous areas of the country into two distinct regions1 the eastern and western4 ,about four-fifths of the country's production is derived from the former region1 which extends in one fairly narrow auriferous belt from ,lake ,baikal to the southwestern shores of the ,sea of ,okhotsk4 #agj ,,maclaren1 ,j4 ,,malcolm3 8,gold3 ,its ,geological ,occurrence and ,geographical ,distribution10 p4 #baj4 ,a number of dredges have been operated in the ,ural district4 ,the most promising property is the ,riderlinsky1 east of ,omsk4 ,in the southern ,urals1 most of the mines produce copper1 pyrite1 or zinc1 the gold by-product making the profits4 ,the ,ridder mine1 in the ,altai ,mountains1 is the best-known lode mine in ,siberia4 ,placers are located along the ,manchurian frontier on the ,onon and ,amur rivers4 ,they are among the most important in ,siberia and have produced over #ajj1jjj1jjj in gold4 ,the deposits of ,irkutsk along the ,lena ,river are the most important deposits so far exploited in ,siberia and are probably the richest placers ever discovered4 ,the district produces about one-third of the ,siberian output4 ,the placers are at present about worked out as drift mines1 but will continue to produce with the installation of dredges4 ,many engineers believe that ,siberia is the richest remaining potential source of gold in the world4 ,it has been estimated that the country will produce in the future1 say in the next #cj or #dj years1 about #f1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,the unsettled political conditions have greatly interfered with mining4 ,many of the mines were taken over by the ,bolshevists1 and although it is unlikely that any attempt at systematic mining will be made1 they will probably be robbed of the richer exposed ore before they can be recovered by the owners4 ,india has long been regarded as a land of riches4 ,philologists have proved1 to their own satisfaction1 that ,ophir1 the source of the stores of gold of ,solomon1 was located there4 ,in the deserts of northern ,india lived the gold-digging ants1 described by the ,greek historians and later writers and as yet unexplained4 ,present facts do not bear out legend and tradition4 ,in #aiac ,india contributed only #b4f per cent4 of the world's total production of gold1 an amount hardly proportionate to the extent of the country4 ,the land offers to the prospector an extremely uninviting field4 ,it has been carefully prospected and its deposits have been worked assiduously for at least twenty-five centuries by a people possessing great patience and considerable mining skill4#aga ,the principal modern producing gold mines of ,india are in the ,kolar field1 where the main reef carries five large mines along its strike4 #aga ,,maclaren1 ,j4 ,,malcolm3 8,gold3 ,its ,geological ,occurrence and ,geographical ,distribution10 p4 #bch-bdj4 ,japan was one of the chief contributors to the stream of gold that poured into ,europe during the sixteenth century4 ,portuguese and ,dutch traders came to the islands to exchange ,european products for the gold mined by thousands of natives4 ,the ,japanese finally revolted against this domination of their trade and expelled the last of the ,portuguese in #afbd4 ,a few ,dutch were permitted to remain and to trade through certain ports1 but under most humiliating conditions4 ,between the years #afja and #agfd1 it is estimated that about #c1gfc1egb ounces of gold was exported from ,japan4 ,at the present the annual gold production of ,japan1 including ,formosa1 is about #f1jjj1jjj4 ,most of the gold-quartz veins of ,japan have been worked for many generations and only the poorer sulphide zones remain4 ,the ,island of ,formosa1 which was acquired by ,japan in #ahie1 had been represented by early ,european travelers as a storehouse of untold riches4 ,not until #ahij were the sites of the old workings rediscovered1 the discovery of flakes of gold during the construction of a railway precipitating a rush of ,chinese miners to the island4#agb #agb 8,mining in ,japan1 ,past and ,present10 the ,bureau of ,mines1 ,department of ,agriculture and ,commerce1 ,japan1 #aiji1 pp4 #ag and #fd4 ,the total output of gold in ,chosen 7,korea7 in #aiad approximated #e1jjj1jjj1 but at present the output is declining because of the abnormal rise in the price of chemicals and materials necessary for mining4 ,the yield for #aiah will probably not exceed #c1ejj1jjj1 #fj per cent4 of which will be obtained from three mines operated by foreign capital4 ,the chief gold-quartz mines of ,chosen are included in the ,american concession at ,unsan in ,north ,pyong-an ,province1 northwestern ,korea4 ,from these mines is derived about half of the annual gold production of ,chosen4 ,korea also contains a large number of placer deposits1 mostly small1 that have been extensively mined by ,koreans4 ,the placer deposits of the ,unsan district have not yet been worked1 but those of the ,chiksan district are being exploited by the ,japanese4#agc #agc ,u4 ,s4 ,commerce ,reports1 ,february #bf1 #aiad4 ,the small1 scattered gold deposits of ,china1 both vein and placer1 are worked almost exclusively by the ,chinese1 as none has been discovered of sufficient richness to attract foreign capital4 ,on the ,island of ,hainan1 southeast of the mainland1 the ,chinese government is operating mines4 ,exploration work carried on in ,china up to the present does not indicate that the country will ever become an important producer of gold4 ,even in the provinces contributing most of the present output--,manchuria1 ,yunnan1 and ,szechuen--the gold industry gives little promise of growth4 ,during the years #aiaa1 #aiab1 and #aiac1 #gjj streams were examined in the last two provinces and gold was found in #dcj1 but in no case in sufficient quantity to pay for working4 ,there have been many rumors concerning the gold deposits of the vast and unexplored territory of ,tibet since the very earliest expeditions to that country but the field is still closed to modern enterprise and even to careful scientific examination4 ,despite previous reports1 it has been stated by the geologist accompanying a ,british expedition about #aj years ago that the mineral value of ,tibet was not easily apparent4 ,near the frontier of the ,state of ,bhutan there are many colonies of gold washers4 ,the ,tibetan gold is found in nuggets as well as in spangles and dust1 but the ,tibetans are said to be careful to leave the nuggets intact1 or to replace them if disturbed1 under the belief that they are living and are the parents of the spangles and dust1 or the roots from which new gold grows1 which latter would disappear were the lumps removed4#agd #agd ,u4 ,s4 ,commerce ,reports1 ,february #bf1 #aiad4 ,siam1 ,burma1 ,indo-,china1 and the ,federated ,malay ,states at present contribute only a small part of the gold production of ,asia4 ,exploration and prospecting are proceeding actively and the results to date are favorable4 ,future developments may substantiate the statements of the ancient writers and cartographers that there was much gold in this region4 ,gold and other minerals are known to exist in ,afghanistan1 but with the exception of a gold mine near ,kandahar1 in charge of a ,european1 the mineral resources are almost entirely undeveloped4 ,,africa ,since #aije ,south ,africa1 including ,transvaal1 ,cape ,colony1 and ,natal1 has been the leading gold producer of the world1 a position that would have been attained several years earlier had not the ,boer ,war interfered4 ,in #aiag1 gold valued at #ahf1bee1jjj1 or nearly half of the world's output1 was produced1 the greater part being derived from the ,witwatersrand1 or ,rand1 near ,johannesburg1 ,transvaal4 ,production in #aiah fell to #agd1jfh1jjj4 ,gold was first discovered in the ,transvaal in #ahgj1 but production was not important previous to the discovery of gold on the farm ,langlaagte1 ,witwatersrand1 in #ahhe4 ,the mines are spread along a belt extending some #fb miles from ,randfontein on the west to ,holfontein on the east4 ,this belt contains the largest deposit of gold that has ever been found in one place1 and its gold content probably equals that of all the other known gold fields of the world combined4 ,the ore is not exceptionally high grade1 but can be economically treated in large quantities4 ,the deposit1 it has been estimated1 may represent #c1jjj1jjj1jjj to #d1jjj1jjj1jjj from about #dj square miles1 of which about half had been extracted by #aiaf4 ,gold occurs both in vein and placer deposits in ,natal and ,cape ,colony1 but the output is small4 ,rhodesia1 in seventh place in #aiac1 has developed rapidly in recent years as a producer of gold and now outranks ,mexico4 ,according to ,portuguese records1 gold was mined in ,rhodesia as early as #aghh4 ,the discovery in #ahff of ancient ruins and of ancient gold mines at ,zimbabwe gave rise to the hypothesis that ,rhodesia was the ,ophir of the ,scriptures4 ,although numerous attempts were made to open the gold fields1 no measure of success was obtained until #ahia1 and only during the present century has the true character of the ,rhodesian gold-quartz veins been recognized4 ,the settlement of the country and the development of the mines is the result of the efforts of ,cecil ,rhodes and the ,charter ,company4 ,the gold is widely distributed and most of the mines are small4 ,the future of the country as a gold producer would seem to depend upon the operation of the lower-grade ore bodies by large companies4 ,the ,shamva mine is a conspicuous example4 ,west ,africa1 especially the ,gold ,coast1 is the only region of ,africa1 other than the ,transvaal and ,rhodesia1 producing gold in important quantities4 ,the output of the ,british ,west ,africa colonies in #aiag amounted to about #g1ejj1jjj4 ,the unhealthful climate of the region will probably prevent for some years any extensive mining operations by white men4 ,gold mines are also worked in ,abyssinia1 ,belgian ,congo1 ,egypt1 ,french ,east ,africa1 the former ,german ,east ,africa1 ,madagascar1 and the ,sudan1 but the total annual production from all these countries is little more than #b1jjj1jjj4 ,the rock carvings and the hieroglyphics of ancient ,egypt indicate that northern ,africa and the region along the ,nile ,river were important sources of the gold of the ancient world4 ,,australasia ,for many years ,australasia was a close rival of the ,united ,states as a gold producer1 frequently outranking this country4 ,since #aijc there has been a rapid decline1 and ,australasian production in #aiag was less than one-half the production of the ,united ,states4 ,however1 ,australasia still ranks third and produced #aa4c per cent4 of the world's output in #aiac and about #h4c per cent4 in #aiag4 ,australia4--,gold was discovered in ,australia in #ahci and perhaps even as early as #ahbc4 ,fearing the unsettling effect of gold-seeking on the progress of the colony1 the government authorities kept these early discoveries a secret for a number of years4 ,in #ahea1 however1 a miner recently returned from ,california1 discovered gold near ,bathurst1 in ,new ,south ,wales1 and a rush similar to the ,californian rush began4 ,discoveries in other parts of the country followed4 ,the vein deposits of ,australia occur in two distinct areas1 well separated both geographically and geologically4 ,the first includes the gold fields of the west and northwest and the other lies along the great ,eastern ,cordillera of ,australia and stretches northward from ,tasmania through ,victoria1 ,new ,south ,wales1 and ,queensland4 ,for many years ,victoria1 the smallest of the states1 was the largest producer of gold1 and up to #aijh had produced about half of the total output of the commonwealth4 ,among the earlier returns were some of the largest nuggets known4 ,with the discovery in #ahib of the sensational field of ,coolgardie1 in ,western ,australia1 a state previously believed to be without mineral wealth1 ,victoria dropped to second place4 ,kalgoorlie is the chief town and center of the gold-mining area in ,western ,australia4 ,queensland ranks next to ,victoria4 ,a disastrous rush occurred in #aheh1 and #ae1jjj to #bj1jjj men were left starving on the banks of the ,fitzroy ,river4 ,the men were rescued by steamers sent by the governments of ,new ,south ,wales and ,victoria4 ,a few years later alluvial gold was found near ,peak ,down1 ,clermont1 to the present day the principal placer region of ,queensland4 ,charters ,towers1 the present leading field of the state1 was discovered in #ahgb4 ,the ,mount ,morgan mine is an isolated mine lying not far from the scene of the ill-fated rush of #aheh4 ,it is by far the most productive mine of ,queensland1 both in gold and copper4 ,new ,south ,wales1 although the first ,australian state to yield gold in any important quantity1 now ranks fourth4 ,tasmania and ,south ,australia produce only a small amount of gold4 ,new ,zealand4--,in #aheb1 the year following the rich discoveries in ,australia1 gold dust and gold enclosed in quartz were found in ,new ,zealand1 about #dj miles from ,auckland1 but this discovery proved to be of little importance4 ,ten years later the rich placers of ,gabriel's ,gully were discovered1 a discovery which attracted a rush from the ,australian fields4 ,the gold fields of ,new ,zealand may be divided into three well-defined and well-separated areas3 the ,huaraki gold field1 which contains valuable vein deposits but no placers2 the ,west ,coast area1 in which the vein and alluvial occurrences are of equal importance2 and the ,otago area1 in which the auriferous alluvial gravels are important and the few known quartz veins have little economic value4 ,some gold is produced in other parts of ,australasia1 notably in the ,british and ,dutch ,east ,indies1 and in ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,deposits of little importance are reported in ,new ,caledonia1 the ,fiji ,islands1 and in the former ,german ,new ,guinea4 ,,probable ,,changes ,,in ,,known ,,geographical ,,distribution ,,in ,,the ,,near ,,future ,specific predictions regarding changes in the geographical distribution of the sources of the world's gold seem valueless4 ,during the last few years the gold production of the principal fields has decreased4 ,aside from any decline due to the war and the attending scarcity of labor and high mining costs1 it seems probable that the gold output of the world has reached its zenith and that further decline is to be expected unless new ore bodies are added to known reserves or unless some revolutionary method of extracting gold from the low-grade ores is discovered4 ,although the leading fields1 ,south ,africa1 the ,united ,states1 and ,australia1 seem to have reached or passed their period of greatest output1 there are a number of fields in unsettled and unexplored regions of the world which may be expected to show increased production4 ,the possibilities of ,siberia have already been mentioned1 and it is the opinion of many engineers that this region will eventually rival ,south ,africa4 ,south ,america has produced an enormous quantity of gold1 chiefly alluvial1 and is expected to yield an increased output in the future4 ,the future of ,south ,africa is problematical4 ,during the last half century the greatly increased gold production has been due largely to the exploitation of the low-grade properties1 this being made possible by improvements in mining and metallurgy4 ,it seems1 however1 that this development has reached a point where excessive labor costs prevent the use of ores of a still lower grade4 ,in general1 therefore1 the gold output of the world may be expected to remain static or to decline1 at least until the level of prices is so changed that it is considered profitable to expend capital in the prospecting and developing of regions hitherto unexplored4 ,,political ,,control ,the political control may be summarized as follows3 ,percentage of ,country #aiac production ,british ,empire #fb4i ,united ,states #ai4c ,russia and ,siberia #e4h ,japan #a4h ,france #a4d ,belgium #j4b ,central ,power #j4ee ,mexico #d4b ,other ,countries #c4g ,great ,britain controlled politically #fb4i per cent4 of the #aiac production1 through state sovereignty over the ,transvaal1 ,australia1 ,rhodesia1 ,canada1 and ,india4 ,other ,british possessions contributing small amounts to the world output are ,british ,honduras1 ,british ,guiana1 ,british ,west ,africa1 ,british ,new ,guinea1 ,new ,zealand1 ,british ,east ,indies1 ,egypt1 and the ,british ,isles4 ,all gold produced in the ,british ,empire must be sent to ,england4 ,the ,united ,states controlled politically #ai4c per cent4 of the #aiac output1 practically all of which came from continental ,united ,states4 ,the ,philippine ,islands and ,porto ,rico produced small amounts4 ,russia is one of the principal contributors to the world's gold supply1 producing #e4h per cent4 of the #aiac output4 ,most of this #e4h per cent4 came from the mines of ,siberia1 and the political control of that region is still unsettled4 ,mexico1 with an output equal to #d4b per cent4 of the world total1 was the largest producer among the neutral powers during the war4 ,france controlled #a4d per cent4 of the world total1 a third coming from the mines in ,france and the remainder from the ,french colonies in ,south ,america and ,africa4 ,japan controlled #a4h per cent41 #a per cent4 coming from the ,japanese islands and ,formosa1 and the remainder from ,korea4 ,the rest of the #aiac production1 amounting to about #d per cent41 was widely scattered1 and was controlled by a number of nations of ,south ,america1 ,europe and ,asia4 ,it should be pointed out that although ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states control politically the important producing fields of the present1 all of which seem to have reached their maximum output1 the control of the fields expected to be important producers in the future is in different hands4 ,during the war1 particularly during its later months1 most of the belligerent nations and some of the neutrals placed restrictions on the exportation of gold1 either as bullion or in manufactured form4 ,in normal times gold is allowed to flow freely between nations1 as needed to settle international trade balances4 ,,commercial ,,control ,the commercial control of the gold resources of the world is shown in ,table #fh and in ,figure #bj4 ,in examining the table and the diagram the reader should remember that the figures and percentages are at best only estimates4 ,most gold mines are owned by companies whose shares are bearer's shares2 these are bought and sold in the stock markets of many financial centers4 ,today the control may be in the hands of one group1 tomorrow in the hands of another4 ,because of this ever-changing ownership1 it is difficult to determine the nationality of the commercial control1 particularly when there is any attempt to conceal the nationality of the capital invested4 ,table and diagram1 however1 are believed to be approximately correct4 ,the information upon which they are based was obtained from mining manuals1 the reports of mining companies1 the reports of consular agents in the various countries1 and by personal interviews with mining engineers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,political and commercial control of the gold production of the world4 ,table #fh may be summarized as follows3 ,,commercial ,,control ,,of ,,gold ,,resources ,percentage of ,country #aiag production ,british ,empire #fc4j ,united ,states #bc4j ,france #e4f ,russia #b4a ,japan #a4g ,china #j4hd ,belgium #j4e ,brazil #j4jg ,germany #j4ha ,mexico #j4ba ,unclassified #a4i ,it is interesting to note that political control and commercial control are closely identical in the case of the ,british ,empire and the ,united ,states4 ,french control is much more important commercially than politically4 ,in other countries1 little domestic capital is available1 and political control is much greater than commercial control4 ,commercial control1 if different from political control1 joins in a test of strength with it in periods of emergency or unrest1 with the result that the stronger subdues the weaker4 ,as regards governments that are strong and stable enough1 the recent war has demonstrated that the elimination of foreign capital invested in a country is easy4 ,the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain1 in particular1 have taken over a great number of companies formerly owned by ,german interests4 ,where the government is not so strong1 however1 the commercial control1 backed in many instances by the more vigorous home governments from which the invested capital comes1 wins the day1 and political events are thus determined1 even to the extent of overturning the weaker government4 ,thus the overturning of the ,boer government and the birth of ,british ,south ,africa was the result of the clash between ,british commercial control and ,boer political control4 ,the question of the control of gold stocks is discussed in the report of the gold committee of the ,department of the ,interior4#age ,the control of stocks in #aiaf is shown graphically in ,figure #ba and is discussed more in detail in the section following1 8,position of ,leading ,commercial ,nations40 #age ,report of the committee appointed by the ,secretary of the ,interior to study the gold situation4 ,the gold mines of the ,united ,states are controlled mainly by ,american capital4 ,a few of the mines are predominantly ,british1 and shares in other mining companies are undoubtedly held in ,london1 but the total production controlled by ,great ,britain is small4 ,it has been estimated that in recent years #ie per cent4 of the annual output was controlled by ,americans and the remainder by ,british4 ,over half of the gold mined in ,canada comes from the ,province of ,ontario1 chiefly from the ,porcupine district4 ,in #aiag and #aiah1 the ,hollinger mine1 owned by the ,hollinger ,gold ,mines1 ,ltd41 was the main producer4 ,it is one of the greatest gold mines in the world1 having paid over #i1jjj1jjj in dividends up to the end of #aiah4 ,the control of the company is held in the ,united ,states4 ,another mine of importance in the ,porcupine district is the ,mc,intyre1 owned by the ,mc,intyre ,porcupine ,mines1 ,ltd41 also ,american4 ,in the ,province of ,british ,columbia1 the greatest producing camp is ,rossland1 operated by the ,consolidated ,mining ,smelting ,co41 controlled by ,united ,states and ,canadian capital4 ,it has been estimated that about two-thirds of the gold mines of ,canada are controlled by ,united ,states capital and the remaining one-third by ,british capital1 including ,canadian4 ,,table #fh4--;,,financial ,,control ,,of ,,the ,,gold ,,production ,,of ,,the ,,world1 #aiag 7,percentages are only approximate7 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aiag ,production controlled financially by444 ,production ---------------------------------- #aiag ,united ,united ,country 7in dollars7 ,states ,kingdom ,france ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,north ,america3 ,united ,states #hc1gej1gjjgi1efc1afe #d1ahg1ece 444 ,canada #ae1bjj1jjj #aj1jjj1jjj #e1bjj1jjj 444 ,mexico #i1jjj1jjj #b1gjj1jjj #c1fjj1jjj #ijj1jjj ,central ,america #c1abb1jjj #gej1jjj #gej1jjj 444 ,south ,america3 ,argentina #d1fjj 444 444 444 ,bolivia #aae1jjj 444 444 444 ,chile #bjj1jjj #bjj1jjj 444 444 ,brazil #b1ieh1jjj 444 #b1ffb1bjj 444 ,colombia #f1bjj1jjj #fbj1jjj #c1jjj1jjj #ijj1jjj ,guiana3 ,british #fjj1jjj 444 #fjj1jjj 444 ,dutch #djj1jjj 444 #abe1jjj #abe1jjj ,french #a1ejj1jjj 444 444 #a1ejj1jjj ,peru #a1cjj1jjj #a1cjj1jjj 444 444 ,other ,s4 ,america #a1ceg1jjj 444 444 444 ,europe3 ,austria- #b1agi1jjj ,hungary #agf 444 444 444 ,france #gjj1jjj 444 444 #gjj1jjj ,germany #ace1fjj 444 444 444 #agf ,great ,britain #e1jjj 444 #e1jjj 444 ,italy #b1jjj 444 444 444 ,russia and ,siberia #ah1jjj1jjj 444 #i1jjj1jjj 444 ,serbia #cbh1jjj 444 444 444 #agf ,sweden #aj1jjj 444 444 444 ,turkey #agfejj 444 444 444 ,asia3 ,china #c1fjj1jjj 444 444 444 ,chosen 7,korea7 #d1ddd1jjj #b1ejj1jjj 444 444 ,dutch ,east ,indies #b1hah1jjj 444 #b1ajj1jjj 444 ,federated ,malay ,states #cdb1cjj 444 #cdb1cjj 444 ,french ,indo- ,china #ej1jjj 444 444 #ej1jjj ,japan and ,formosa #e1eie1bjj 444 444 444 ,india and ,british ,indies #aj1gef1hjj 444 #aj1gef1hjj 444 ,australa- sia #ce1ide1ejj 444 #ce1ide1ejj 444 ,africa3 ,belgian ,congo #b1jjj1jjj #ejj1jjj 444 444 ,egypt and ,sudan #aej1jjj 444 #aej1jjj 444 ,german ,east #bec1bjj ,africa #agf 444 444 444 ,madagas- car #a1jjj1jjj 444 444 #a1jjj1jjj ,rhodesia #ad1ihh1fjj 444 #ad1ihh1fjj 444 ,transvaal #ahf1bed1bef 444 #afg1fbi1bef #ah1fbe1jjj ,west ,africa 7,british7 #g1dce1dhh 444 #g1dce1dhh 444 ,undis- tributed #b1ghe1fef 444 444 444 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,total 7#aiag7 #dbb1eij1ajjih1acc1afebfh1dgg1fgibc1hjj1 jjj ,total 7in- cluding #aiac figures7 #dbe1dhf1djj ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,per cent4 of world production #ajj #bc #fc #e4f ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aiag ,production controlled financially by444 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,country ,belgium ,japan ,china ,russia ,brazil ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,north ,america3 ,united ,states 444 444 444 444 444 ,canada 444 444 444 444 444 ,mexico 444 444 444 444 444 ,central ,america 444 444 444 444 444 ,south ,america3 ,argentina 444 444 444 444 444 ,bolivia 444 444 444 444 444 ,chile 444 444 444 444 444 ,brazil 444 444 444 444#bie1hjj ,colombia #fbj1jjj 444 444 444 444 ,guiana3 ,british 444 444 444 444 444 ,dutch 444 444 444 444 444 ,french 444 444 444 444 444 ,peru 444 444 444 444 444 ,other ,s4 ,america 444 444 444 444 444 ,europe3 ,austria- ,hungary 444 444 444 444 444 ,france 444 444 444 444 444 ,germany 444 444 444 444 444 ,great ,britain 444 444 444 444 444 ,italy 444 444 444 444 444 ,russia and ,siberia 444 444 444#i1jjj1jjj 444 ,serbia 444 444 444 444 444 ,sweden 444 444 444 444 444 ,turkey 444 444 444 444 444 ,asia3 ,china 444 444#c1fjj1jjj 444 444 ,chosen 7,korea7 444#a1idd1jjj 444 444 444 ,dutch ,east ,indies 444 444 444 444 444 ,federated ,malay ,states 444 444 444 444 444 ,french ,indo- ,china 444 444 444 444 444 ,japan and ,formosa 444 #e1eie1bjj 444 444 444 ,india and ,british ,indies 444 444 444 444 444 ,australa- sia 444 444 444 444 444 ,africa3 ,belgian ,congo #a1ejj1jjj 444 444 444 444 ,egypt and ,sudan 444 444 444 444 444 ,german ,east ,africa 444 444 444 444 444 ,madagas- car 444 444 444 444 444 ,rhodesia 444 444 444 444 444 ,transvaal 444 444 444 444 444 ,west ,africa 7,british7 444 444 444 444 444 ,undis- tributed 444 444 444 444 444 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,total 7#aiag7 #b1abj1jjjg1eci1bjjc1fjj1jjji1jjj1jjjbie 1hjj ,total 7in- cluding #aiac figures7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,per cent4 of world production #j4e #a4g #j4hd #b4a #j4jg ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------- #aiag ,production controlled financially by444 ---------------------------------------- ,un- ,country ,total ,allies ,germany ,mexico classified ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,north ,america3 ,united ,states #hc1gej1gjj 444 444 444 ,canada #ae1bjj1jjj 444 444 444 ,mexico #g1bjj1jjj #ijj1jjjijj1jjj 444 ,central ,america #a1ejj1jjj 444 444#a1fbb1jjj ,south ,america3 ,argentina 444 444 444 #d1fjj ,bolivia 444 444 444 #aae1jjj ,chile #bjj1jjj 444 444 444 ,brazil #b1ieh1jjj 444 444 444 ,colombia #e1adj1jjj 444 444 #a1jfj1jjj ,guiana3 ,british #fjj1jjj 444 444 444 ,dutch #bej1jjj 444 444 #aej1jjj ,french #a1ejj1jjj 444 444 444 ,peru #a1cjj1jjj 444 444 444 ,other ,s4 ,america 444 444 444 #a1ceg1jjj ,europe3 ,austria- #b1agi1jjj ,hungary 444 #agf 444 444 ,france #gjj1jjj 444 444 444 ,germany 444 #ace1fjj 444 444 #agf ,great ,britain #e1jjj 444 444 444 ,italy 444 444 444 #b1jjj ,russia and ,siberia #ah1jjj1jjj 444 444 444 ,serbia 444 444 444 #cbh1jjj #agf ,sweden 444 444 444 #aj1jjj ,turkey 444 444 444 #agfejj ,asia3 ,china #c1fjj1jjj 444 444 444 ,chosen 7,korea7 #d1ddd1jjj 444 444 444 ,dutch ,east ,indies #b1ajj1jjj 444 444 #gah1jjj ,federated ,malay ,states #cdb1cjj 444 444 444 ,french ,indo- ,china #ej1jjj 444 444 444 ,japan and ,formosa #e1eie1bjj 444 444 444 ,india and ,british ,indies #aj1gef1hjj 444 444 444 ,australa- sia #ce1ide1ejj 444 444 444 ,africa3 ,belgian ,congo #b1jjj1jjj 444 444 444 ,egypt and ,sudan #aej1jjj 444 444 444 ,german ,east #bec1bjj ,africa #agf 444 444 ,madagas- car #a1jjj1jjj 444 444 444 ,rhodesia #ad1ihh1fjj 444 444 444 ,transvaal #ahf1bed1bef 444 444 444 ,west ,africa 7,british7 #g1dce1dhh 444 444 444 ,undis- tributed 444 444 444 #b1ghe1fef ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,total 7#aiag7 #dab1ife1hddc1dfg1hjjijj1jjjh1aeb1gef ,total 7in- cluding #aiac figures7 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,per cent4 of world production #if4ha #j4ha #j4ba #a4i ---------------------------------------- ----------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,country ,remarks ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,north ,america3 ,united #ie per cent4 by ,united ,states capital2 #e per cent4 by ,states ,british4 ,canada #ff per cent4 by ,united ,states capital2 #cc per cent4 by ,british4 ,mexico ,capital control3 ,british #dj per cent42 ,united ,states #cj per cent42 ,french #aj per cent42 ,german #aj per cent4 and ,mexican #aj per cent4 ,central #ej per cent4 by natives2 #be per cent4 each by ,united ,america ,states and ,great ,britain4 ,south ,america3 ,argentina ,bolivia ,chile ,brazil #ij per cent4 by ,british capital4 ,colombia ,capital control3 #ej per cent4 ,british2 #ae per cent4 ,french2 #aj per cent4 ,belgian2 #aj per cent4 ,united ,states2 and #ae per cent4 local4 ,guiana3 ,british ,dutch ,french ,peru ,other ,s4 ,america ,europe3 ,austria- ,hungary ,france ,germany ,great ,britain ,italy ,russia and ,large part of ,russian production probably controlled by ,siberia ,german capital4 ,situation uncertain4 ,serbia ,sweden ,turkey ,asia3 ,china ,probably controlled largely by ,japanese and other foreign capital4 ,chosen ,part of production credited to ,japan controlled by 7,korea7 ,british4 ,dutch ,east ,indies ,federated ,malay ,states ,french ,indo- ,china ,japan and ,formosa ,india and ,british ,indies ,australa-,before war considerable capital controlled by ,germans4 sia ,small blocks now owned by ,dutch and ,belgians4 ,africa3 ,belgian ,congo #be per cent4 by ,american capital4 ,egypt and ,sudan ,german ,east ,africa ,madagas- car ,rhodesia ,transvaal,before war controlled in large part by ,german interests4 ,at present3 ,british1 #ij per cent42 ,french1 #aj per cent4 ,west ,africa 7,british7,probably all controlled by ,british capital4 ,undis- tributed ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,total 7#aiag7 ,total 7in- cluding #aiac figures7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,per cent4 of world production ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #agf ,production in #aiac4 ,later figures not available4 ,the gold mines of ,mexico are owned by ,british1 ,american and ,french capital in the order named4 ,the principal mining companies of the ,el ,oro district1 the leading gold district of the republic1 are ,el ,oro ,mining ,railway ,co41 ,ltd41 ,esperanza1 ,ltd41 and the ,dos ,estrellas ,mining ,co4 ,british capital controls ,el ,oro ,mining ,railway ,co41 ,ltd41 and #ea per cent4 of the shares of ,esperanza1 ,ltd41 the remaining #di per cent4 being controlled by ,americans4 ,the ,french have been acquiring control of mining properties in ,el ,oro district in recent years4 ,they now own ,dos ,estrellas ,mining ,co41 and the ,mexico ,mines of ,el ,oro1 ,ltd4 ,both companies were previously controlled in ,london4 ,the ,dolores mine1 in the western part of the ,state of ,chihuahua1 one of the famous gold mines of ,mexico1 is owned by the ,mines ,company of ,america1 an ,american corporation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,stocks of gold in banks1 public treasuries and in circulation in principal countries of the world in #aiaf4 ,in the ,state of ,durango1 the gold mines1 most of which also produce silver1 are owned by the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 7,american71 the ,bacis ,gold ,silver ,mines ,co4 7,british71 and the ,inde ,gold ,mining ,co4 7,american74 ,most of the gold-silver mines of the ,state of ,guanajuato have been developed by ,american capital4 ,the ,state of ,sinaloa is becoming a gold-producing region2 the ,palmarito mines of the ,mocorito district and the ,minas de ,tajo at ,rosario are owned by ,american interests4 ,gold is found in the copper ores of ,sonora4 ,most of the mines of the district are controlled by ,americans4 ,the mines of ,chihuahua1 ,hidalgo1 and ,zacatecas are primarily silver mines but their ores carry some gold4 ,in ,chihuahua1 ,american capital is probably predominant1 with ,british ranking second4 ,during recent years1 ,german interests1 through the ,american ,metal ,co4 and its subsidiaries1 have been acquiring control of properties in ,chihuahua and in other parts of ,mexico4 ,german capital is also invested in ,zacatecas1 the main company being controlled by ,a4 ,goerz ,co41 ,ltd4 ,the mines of the ,state of ,hidalgo1 the leading silver-producing district of ,mexico1 are owned by ,american1 ,british and ,mexican capital4 ,the gold mines of ,central ,america#agg are of some importance at present1 and production may increase somewhat in the future4 ,the mines are owned for the most part by ,american and ,british capital1 in the order named4 ,subsidiaries of the ,united ,fruit ,co41 and the ,tonopah ,mining ,co41 both ,american1 operate properties in ,costa ,rica and ,nicaragua4 #agg 8,investments in ,latin ,america and the ,british ,west ,indies10 ,special ,agent ,series ,no4 #afi1 ,bureau of ,foreign and ,domestic ,commerce1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,commerce1 #aiah4 ,in ,colombia1 the leading gold-producing country of ,south ,america1 most of the large companies are ,british1 the most important being the ,pato ,mines1 the ,nechi ,mines1 and the ,frontino and ,bolivia ,mines4 ,a ,belgian company1 the ,platinum ,gold ,concessions of ,colombia1 ,ltd41 and a ,french company1 the ,san ,antonio ,gold ,mines ,co41 ,ltd41 have recently acquired gold-mining concessions4 ,american capital is also invested in the industry4 ,the two most important mining companies of ,brazil1 the ,st4 ,john del ,rey ,mining ,co41 ,ltd41 and the ,ouro ,preto ,gold ,mines of ,brazil1 ,ltd41 are under ,british management4 ,some ,french capital is interested in the latter property4 ,most of the mines of ,french ,guiana are controlled by ,french companies4 ,in the remaining ,south ,american countries gold mining is of comparatively little importance4 ,production is controlled largely by ,british and ,american capital4 ,the foreign capital invested in the mines of ,siberia and ,russia is mainly ,british1 though ,germany is known to have been much interested in the industry4 ,some ,russian capital1 especially that furnished by the large ,russian banks1 was invested in ,siberian mining properties4 ,the mining laws of the old ,russian ,empire provided that mineral properties could be held both by foreign and ,russian companies under concessions or leases granted by the crown or under leases from ,russian estates4 ,in many cases foreign capitalists formed holding companies to acquire a controlling interest in a ,russian company in whose name the property was held and operated4 ,most of these holding companies had their main offices in ,london and most of the directors were ,british citizens4 ,control was apparently ,british4 ,the shares of the companies were bearers' shares1 however1 and were traded in extensively on the ,petrograd exchange4 ,the most important gold-mining district of ,siberia is in the ,province of ,irkutsk1 on the ,lena ,river4 ,a ,russian company1 the ,lenskoie ,gold ,industrial ,co41 has been operating the principal properties of this district since #ahfc4 ,the directors of the company are ,russian ,jews4 ,a ,british company1 the ,lena ,goldfields1 ,ltd41 held #gj per cent4 of the shares of the ,lenskoie ,co41 but in #aiag completed the sale of #ea1jjj shares of stock to a ,petrograd group including the ,imperial ,foreign ,corporation1 ,ltd41 and the ,russian and ,english ,bank4 ,the ,lena ,goldfields1 ,ltd41 now owns less than #aj per cent4 of the ,lenskoie stock4 ,a pyrite-copper mine yielding enough gold as a by-product to make the profit is located in the government of ,perm1 southern district of the ,ural ,mountains1 and is owned by the ,kyshtim ,mining ,works1 a ,russian company controlled by the ,kyshtim ,corporation1 ,ltd41 of ,london4 ,the company holds a large concession1 including forests1 farms1 and mineral land4 ,the control of the ,kyshtim ,corporation is apparently ,british4 ,the ,tanalyk ,corporation is controlled by practically the same interests as those controlling the ,kyshtim ,corporation and was organized to acquire entire control of the ,south ,urals ,mining ,smelting ,co4 ,the property of the company1 situated in the ,county of ,orsk1 ,orenburg government1 southern ,urals1 is only a prospect and has not been fully developed4 ,it includes a total area of #bh1cej acres of timber and mineral land4 ,the ore contains copper1 gold1 and silver1 the copper content being the most valuable4 ,during #aiag1 the shares held in the ,kyshtim ,mining ,works and the ,south ,urals ,mining ,smelting ,co4 were vested in the ,canadian ,development ,corporation1 ,ltd41 a company registered in ,canada1 probably for the purpose of escaping the high ,british income taxes4 ,the transfer involved no change of control1 as the two ,british holding companies1 the ,kyshtim ,corporation and the ,tanalyk ,corporation1 ,ltd41 control the ,canadian company4 ,the ,kolchan placer property1 in the ,okhotsk mining province of ,eastern ,siberia1 has been leased1 for a royalty based on the gross output of gold1 by the ,orsk ,goldfields1 ,ltd41 a ,british company1 from the ,russo-,asiatic ,bank4 ,the ,orsk ,goldfields1 ,ltd41 originally controlled a gold-mining property in the ,province of ,orenburg1 southern ,urals1 but abandoned the lease and option4 ,a great deal of gold is produced in ,siberia as a by-product of copper1 lead1 and zinc mines4 ,the control of these mines is much the same as the control of the above-mentioned gold properties--,british with ,russian shareholders1 chiefly representative of ,russian banks4 ,japanese control is being expanded1 especially in eastern ,siberia4 ,it was reported in the ,japanese press1 in ,november1 #aiah1 that the ,japanese special financial mission was planning the establishment of a ,japan-,russian partnership enterprise similar to the ,japan-,china ,industrial ,association for the purpose of obtaining from the ,russian authorities rights in the ,siberian mining and forest areas and of exploiting the natural resources of ,siberia4 ,it was proposed that among the investors in the partnership should be included ,russian capitalists1 the ,south ,manchurian ,railway1 the ,east ,asia ,development ,co41 the ,japan-,china ,mercantile ,association1 and capitalists of the ,entente countries4 ,practically all of the output of ,india comes from the mines of the ,kolar reef of ,mysore4 ,there are six large producing companies1 as follows3 ,champion ,reefs ,mining ,co41 of ,india1 ,ltd42 ,gold ,fields of ,mysore and ,general ,exploration1 ,ltd42 ,mysore ,gold ,mining ,co41 ,ltd42 ,nundydroog ,co41 ,ltd42 ,balaghat ,gold ,mining ,co41 ,ltd42 and ,ooregum ,gold ,mining ,co4 of ,india1 ,ltd4 ,the companies are all ,british and are owned by closely connected interests4 ,other operating companies in ,india are the ,hutti 7,nizam's7 ,gold ,mines1 ,ltd41 of ,hyderabad1 southern ,india2 and the ,northern ,anantapur ,gold ,mines1 ,ltd41 and ,jibutil 7,anantapur7 ,gold ,mines1 ,ltd41 ,madras ,presidency1 all being ,british companies4 ,in ,japan the state reserves to itself the right of original ownership in all ores1 and grants to individuals or companies the right to work the deposits4 ,under the law of #ahij1 a foreigner was disqualified from working a mine and was not permitted to become a member of a mining establishment1 so that the right of working mines was exclusively reserved for ,japanese subjects4 ,by an amendment of the mining regulations in #aijj1 business establishments organized by ,japanese or foreigners or by both are now permitted to work mines1 provided such establishments are placed under ,japanese laws4 ,a bill was recently introduced into the ,japanese ,parliament proposing to grant the privilege of mining and property rights to foreigners4 ,japanese capital has almost complete control of the gold mines of the empire4 ,the principal gold mines are owned by the following companies3 ,tanak ,chobei 7,formosa71 ,mitsubishi ,co4 7,sado71 ,shimadzu ,tadashige 7,satsuma71 ,fujita ,co4 7,rikuchu and ,formosa71 ,kimura ,kintaro 7,formosa71 and ,ushio ,gold ,mine ,co4 7,satsuma74 ,the most valuable of the mineral concessions of ,chosen 7,korea71 including gold1 are in the hands of foreign companies1 the majority of which are ,american4 ,the ,oriental ,consolidated ,mining ,co41 an ,american company1 controls the ,unsan mines in ,north ,pyong-an ,province1 northwestern ,korea1 the most important gold-producing property of the country4 ,the concession includes #fjj square miles on the ,anju ,river and has about #ba years to run1 with the option of renewal for #ae years4 ,the operating company pays #ae1jjj annually to the ,korean government4 ,ore reserves were estimated on ,july #a1 #aiaf1 at #heb1jjj tons1 valued at #d1hbc1jjj4 ,the ,chiksan mines1 in ,south ,choonchong ,province1 are also managed by ,american capital4 ,the ,suan mines1 in ,whanghai ,province1 were originally controlled by a ,british company but have been leased to an ,american company4 ,an ,italian company owns mines in ,north ,pyong-an ,province1 and a ,british company is operating in ,north ,choonchong ,province4 ,a ,german company owned mines1 not in full working order1 in ,north ,pyong-an ,province1 but the properties have doubtless been seized by the ,japanese government4 ,japanese and ,korean miners own and operate the smaller mines of the country1 the output of which has decreased greatly during recent years4 ,although the gold output of ,china in #aiag amounted to #c1fjj1jjj1 the deposits are small and widely scattered and are owned and operated almost exclusively by the native miners4 ,some of the larger mines have been financed by the governments of the provinces4 ,in some provinces the owners of mining property are not permitted to seek investments of foreign capital unless they are unable to finance the property within the province4 ,prospecting has been carried on in many parts of the country in recent years1 but no deposits have been discovered sufficiently promising to attract foreign investors4 ,in view of their activity in developing the other natural resources of ,china1 it is probable that the ,japanese will attempt to control the industry should any important deposits be discovered4 ,in the ,transvaal all minerals belong to the government and not to the owners of the surface of the land4 ,when gold1 or any other mineral1 is discovered1 a part of the territory 7less than half7 is reserved for the owner of the land1 another part for the discoverer of the mineral1 and the remainder is open to location4 ,at present the ownership of mineral lands is being retained by the government4 ,the right to exploit the mineral wealth is granted on a lease to the highest bidder1 the bids being based upon a percentage of profits1 graded according to working costs and grade of ore4 ,a tax of #aj per cent4 on profits1 allowing for amortization of capital1 is levied on all gold-mining properties4 ,before the war1 practically all the gold mines of the ,witwatersrand were controlled by ,british and ,german capital4 ,the first ,american company entered the field in #aiag and some ,french capital has also been invested4 ,the ,german position was strong1 as the ,german companies controlled half1 and perhaps more1 of the capital invested in gold mines4 ,the report of the ,south ,african ,custodian of ,enemy ,property issued early in #aiah showed that no less than #bf1jjj enemy shareholders in gold1 coal1 and other mining concerns in the ,union owned stock to the aggregate nominal value of #cg1ejj1jjj4 ,as gold is by far the most important mineral of the ,transvaal1 it is probable that the greater part of this ,german capital was invested in gold mines4 ,the enemy firms were wound up or went into voluntary liquidation1 and enemy shares in mining corporations to the face value of #bd1jjj1jjj were taken charge of by the ,custodian of ,enemy ,property4#agh #agh 8,engineering and ,mining ,journal10 ,may #aa1 #aiah1 p4 #hhh4 ,the control of the gold mines of the ,transvaal is centered in the following six companies3 ,central ,mining ,investment ,corporation1 the ,consolidated ,mines ,selection ,co41 ,johannesburg ,consolidated ,investment ,co41 the ,consolidated ,goldfields of ,south ,africa1 the ,union ,corporation 7formerly ,ed ,goerz ,co471 and the ,general ,mining ,finance ,corporation4 ,the last two companies were absolutely ,german before the war4 ,the ,central ,mining ,investment ,corporation controls probably #ej per cent4 of the output of the district4 ,american capital is interested in the ,consolidated ,mines ,selection ,co4 ,another ,american company1 the ,anglo-,american ,corporation of ,south ,africa1 ,ltd41 was registered at ,pretoria on ,september #be1 #aiag1 with an issued capital of #a1jjj1jjj4 ,the immediate object of the corporation is to participate in tendering for leases of certain ,far ,east ,rand gold-mining areas4#agi #agi ,u4 ,s4 ,commerce ,reports1 ,december #ae1 #aiag1 p4 #ajcc4 ,it has been reported that ,french capital controls about #aj per cent4 of the annual output4 ,for many years the majority of the mining engineers in the ,transvaal were ,americans4 ,the ,germans had not only acquired a considerable control through the investment of capital in mining properties1 but they also exercised control through their trade in mine supplies4 ,orenstein-,arthur ,koppel ,co4 had established an important trade in rails1 mine trucks1 and similar supplies1 and continued to do business even after the beginning of the war4 ,soon after the sinking of the ,lusitania1 a mob destroyed the offices of the company in ,johannesburg and burned a stock of much-needed supplies4 ,at the outbreak of the war it was feared that there might be serious obstacles in the way of the gold-mining industry continuing a normal course1 because of the possible difficulty in obtaining enough of the cyanide1 mercury1 and zinc used in gold extraction1 much of which had been previously supplied by ,germany4 ,the necessary materials were obtained from other sources1 however4 ,rhodesia is controlled by the ,british ,south ,african ,co41 organized by ,cecil ,john ,rhodes1 for whom the colony was named4 ,the company is entirely ,british2 it is the government1 levies the taxes1 administers the laws1 and controls the mining industry4 ,companies and individuals are permitted to locate mining claims much the same as they are in ,california4 ,the ,goldfields ,rhodesian ,development ,co41 which has large ,rhodesian mining interests1 is an offshoot of the ,consolidated ,goldfields of ,south ,africa4 ,it is safe to say that the gold mines of ,rhodesia are owned and worked entirely by ,british capital4 ,a percentage tax is levied on the output of the gold mines4 ,in ,australia1 before the war1 much the same conditions existed as in ,south ,africa4 ,the large gold-mining companies were seemingly ,british2 their headquarters were either in ,australia or in ,london and their directors and managers were ,british4 ,it is certain1 however1 that a considerable amount of ,german capital was invested in the companies4 ,among the important producing companies are the ,associated ,gold ,mines of ,western ,australia1 ,great ,boulder ,proprietary ,mines1 ,ltd41 ,golden ,horseshoe ,estates ,co41 ,ltd41 ,ivanhoe ,gold ,corporation1 ,ltd41 all of ,western ,australia2 the ,mount ,morgan ,gold ,mining ,co41 of ,queensland2 the ,mount ,boppy ,gold ,mining ,co41 and the ,mount ,lyell ,mining ,railway ,co41 ,ltd41 of ,tasmania4 ,through the vigorous action of the ,australian prime minister1 ,william ,m4 ,hughes1 ,german capital was expelled early in the war from all the industries of the commonwealth1 including gold1 lead1 and zinc mines1 smelters and refineries1 and buying organizations4 ,in ,january1 #aiaf1 to safeguard the financial position of the commonwealth1 the prime minister issued decrees providing that no new flotations of companies or increases in the capital of existing companies would be allowed without the consent of the treasurer of the commonwealth2 that companies incorporated in ,australia would have three months to discontinue the holding of their shares by persons of enemy nationality or origin1 whether naturalized or not2 and that in the future no transfers of shares to persons of enemy nationality or origin would be permitted4#ahj #ahj ,u4 ,s4 ,commerce ,reports1 ,february #ba1 #aiaf1 p4 #gcc4 ,the remaining countries of the world are of little importance as gold producers2 hence a discussion of the commercial control of their mines would be of little value4 ,in most of them the mining properties are owned and operated by domestic capital1 the former ,empire of ,austria-,hungary being one exception to this general statement4 ,prior to the war1 ,british capital controlled gold mines in ,transylvania4 ,the ownership of smelters and reduction plants has little influence upon the commercial control of the gold industry4 ,most of the large gold-mining companies have their own refineries at the mines1 and smelter control is therefore identical with mine control4 ,some gold is produced as a by-product in the smelting of lead1 silver1 and copper1 particularly in the ,united ,states1 where the smelters are controlled almost entirely by ,american capital4 ,further discussion of the commercial control of smelters and refineries will be found in ,chapters ,,xiv1 ,,xv1 and ,,xxx4 ,the control of secret processes and patents is of less importance in the commercial control of the gold-mining industry than that of any other mineral4 ,the industry is peculiar in that the price of gold is always fixed and there is no competition for a market4 ,control of an improved method of extracting or refining gold might enable one company to reduce mining and refining costs and thus insure a larger profit1 but giving the improved process to a second company would not necessarily reduce the profits of the company that had discovered it4 ,,position ,,of ,,leading ,,commercial ,,nations ,the ,united ,states controlled politically through state sovereignty #ai4c per cent4 of the gold production in #aiac1 ranking next to ,great ,britain4 ,commercial control was somewhat greater1 amounting to approximately #bc per cent4 of the #aiag production4 ,the mines of the ,united ,states are owned almost exclusively by ,americans1 and ,american capital is invested in many foreign fields4 ,over half1 perhaps as much as two-thirds1 of the mines of ,canada are owned by ,united ,states corporations4 ,the largest of the ,korean companies are owned or managed by ,american capital4 ,two ,american companies were established recently in the ,transvaal4 ,probably #cj to #dj per cent4 of the gold produced in ,mexico in normal times comes from the ,united ,states owned mines4 ,the production of ,central and ,south ,america1 although at present relatively unimportant1 is largely controlled by ,americans4 ,although outranked in production by ,great ,britain1 the ,united ,states controls by far the largest stocks of gold coin and bullion of any nation4 ,in #aiaf there was in the banks1 the national treasuries1 and in circulation in the ,united ,states #b1bii1ded1jjj1 or almost twice the amount possessed by any other nation4 ,in #aiah this amount had increased to #c1jej1jjj1jjj4 ,the monetary reserve probably exceeds the total gold output of the ,united ,states since the recording of statistics of production began4 ,in view of the fact that the national debt of the ,united ,states is low as compared with the debts of the other principal nations1 the financial system of this country is on a relatively sound basis4 ,when the time comes to redeem the outstanding bonds and other forms of indebtedness that have accrued during the war1 the ,united ,states will undoubtedly be in a more favorable position than any of the other belligerents4 ,the stocks of gold in the chief gold-producing countries in #aiaf are shown diagrammatically in ,figure #ba4 ,great ,britain is the leading gold-producing nation of the world4 ,the ,british ,empire controlled politically #fb4i per cent4 of the #aiac production1 and ,british commercial control approximated #fc per cent4 ,an insignificant amount of gold is produced in the ,british ,isles1 but the empire includes such important gold producers as ,south ,africa1 ,australia1 ,rhodesia1 ,india1 and ,canada4 ,british capital also controls gold mines in ,siberia1 in ,mexico1 in ,south ,america1 and in the ,united ,states4 ,despite the large political and commercial control exercised by the ,british1 the gold stocks of the ,british ,empire have been much smaller than those of the ,united ,states and in #aiaf were surpassed by those of ,france4 ,the lands under ,french control produce little gold1 the output in #aiac being only #a4d per cent4 of the world's total production4 ,less than #j4e per cent4 came from ,france itself and the remainder was obtained from ,french ,guiana and ,madagascar4 ,french capital has not stopped at national boundaries1 however1 and has been invested in many of the principal fields1 as is shown by the fact that commercial control amounted to #e4f per cent4 of the #aiag production4 ,in ,mexico at least #aj per cent4 of the capital controlling gold mines is ,french1 and the amount is steadily increasing4 ,in ,south ,america--particularly in ,colombia1 and ,dutch and ,french ,guiana--some of the large companies are ,french1 but most of the gold controlled commercially by the ,french comes from the ,transvaal4 ,it has been estimated that ,french interests control about #aj per cent4 of the production of ,south ,africa since ,german control has been eliminated4 ,the gold reserve of ,france was large before the war and ranked second to that of the ,united ,states in #aiaf4 ,it is now 7#aibj7 reduced to very small proportions4 ,although ,russia1 with ,siberia1 is one of the most promising potential sources of the future gold supply and produced #e4h per cent4 of the total in #aiac1 ,russian capital seemingly controls only a small part of the gold production of the world4 ,the ,british are most active in ,siberia1 and ,french interests are known to have acquired property there4 ,so far as is known1 ,russian capitalists control no gold deposits in foreign countries4 ,in #aiaf the gold reserve in ,russian banks1 treasuries1 and in circulation amounted to #a1jeh1jjj1jjj1 but it is not known what has become of this stock since the ,bolshevists have been in control4 ,at present the total is probably much smaller4 ,japan controls only a small part of the gold output of the world1 either politically or commercially4 ,some gold is obtained from ,japan and ,formosa1 all of which is probably under ,japanese financial control4 ,the output of ,korea1 claimed by the ,japanese as a part of their empire since #aiaj and at present attempting to secure its independence1 is controlled by ,americans and other nationalities4 ,the smaller mines are owned by ,japanese1 but the larger concessions were granted to foreigners by the old ,korean government prior to #aiaj4 ,gold stocks of ,japan were estimated at #adc1abh1jjj in #aiaf4 ,by ,december #bf1 #aiah1 they had increased to #bbe1hbj1jjj4 ,in addition ,japanese had on deposit in ,london1 ,new ,york1 and ,paris a total of about #eej1jjj1jjj4 ,the gold production controlled1 either politically or commercially1 by ,germany and the countries of the former empire of ,austria-,hungary is relatively insignificant1 amounting in both cases to less than #a per cent4 ,germany has produced annually in its ,european territory a little over #ajj1jjj1 and its only colony yielding an appreciable amount was ,german ,east ,africa1 lost during the war4 ,the mines of ,austria-,hungary have been important in the past1 but they are now very old and in #aiac produced only #j4e per cent4 of the world's total production4 ,it is understood that one of the largest operating companies in ,transylvania before the war was ,british4 ,,summary ,the principal and most essential uses of gold are as a measure of value and a medium of exchange4 ,gold is also used in dentistry1 and in the arts for jewelry1 gilding1 and other forms of ornamentation4 ,in an emergency other materials can be substituted for the latter uses1 but any considerable substitution for the principal uses would involve radical changes in our monetary and financial system4 ,gold is found in rocks of all geological ages from ,archean to ,quaternary1 and also in minute quantities in ocean water4 ,only the more concentrated deposits can be worked profitably4 ,it is believed that the production from the present main deposits has reached its zenith1 but further important discoveries will probably be made in the ,arctic regions1 in the tropics1 or in other regions hitherto unexplored by man4 ,siberia1 ,south ,america1 and perhaps ,china are the most promising regions1 as the more settled lands have been already thoroughly prospected4 ,gold is widely distributed geographically4 ,it is found in all parts of the world and commercially important mines are worked in every continent4 ,over #ge per cent4 of the total annual output of the world comes from four countries1 the ,transvaal1 the ,united ,states1 ,australia1 and ,russia4 ,other important producers are ,rhodesia1 ,mexico1 ,canada1 ,india1 ,west ,africa1 and ,new ,zealand4 ,little gold is produced in ,europe or in ,south ,america4 ,the deposits of the former continent1 at one time important1 are becoming exhausted4 ,with improved transportation facilities and with further exploration work1 the production of ,south ,america is expected to increase materially4 ,great ,britain controls politically over #fj per cent4 of the annual gold production of the world1 through state sovereignty over ,south ,africa1 ,australasia1 ,rhodesia1 ,canada1 and ,india4 ,the ,united ,states ranks second1 controlling about #bj per cent4 ,russia controls about #f per cent4 and ,mexico #d per cent4 ,the remaining #aj per cent4 is controlled by many countries1 among them being ,japan1 ,france1 ,belgium1 and the ,central ,powers4 ,the extent of ,british political and commercial control is almost identical1 ,british interests controlling over #fj per cent4 of the production and owning in addition to the mines in the empire1 property in ,siberia1 ,south and ,central ,america1 ,mexico1 and the ,united ,states4 ,united ,states interests control financially about #bc per cent4 of the world's production4 ,the ,korean deposits are predominantly ,american owned4 ,united ,states capital is also invested in ,canada1 ,mexico1 ,central and ,south ,america1 and recently in the ,transvaal4 ,although the gold controlled politically by ,france is of little importance1 ,french interests control commercially about #e4f per cent4 of the total annual production1 owning mines in the ,transvaal1 in ,mexico1 and in ,central and ,south ,america4 ,before the war1 ,german interests had extensive holdings in ,south ,africa and ,australia4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,silver ,,by ,f4 ,w4 ,,paine ,,uses ,,of ,,silver ,the chief and essential use of silver is as money4 ,this form of consumption takes place mainly in ,india and ,china1 where silver serves as a basis for the settlement of foreign exchange balances4 ,in ,china1 silver is the money standard of the country4 ,in ,india a gold standard is used1 but from time immemorial the natives have hoarded silver and invested their savings in silver coins and ornaments rather than making use of banks1 bonds or other securities4 ,silver is used for subsidiary coinage in all countries1 but such coins in ,europe and the ,united ,states can normally be replaced to a considerable extent by paper1 as they circulate at more than their intrinsic value4 ,in ,mexico1 ,peru1 and other silver-producing countries silver money is extensively used4 ,a large amount of silver is used in the arts4 ,to a small degree such consumption is for photographic or chemical work but mainly for the production of jewelry and luxurious household wares4 ,the use of silver jewelry in ,india is intimately related to silver hoards1 the bank balance of the natives4 ,such hoards are now mainly coin1 however1 because coin has become of more stable value than ornaments since ,india adopted the gold standard4 ,before #aiad it was estimated by the ,director of the ,united ,states ,mint that two-thirds of the new silver annually produced went into the arts4 ,in #aiab1 however1 coinage absorbed over half of the #bbd1caj1jjj ounces produced by the world4 ,during the war the payment by the ,allies for goods purchased in the ,orient diverted enormous stores of silver to ,india and ,china4 ,in ,europe greater amounts of silver coin were needed under war conditions4 ,moreover1 the large issues of paper money make corresponding increases in the number of silver coins desirable4 ,in #aiae only #bj per cent4 of the world's silver was used in the arts2 in #aiaf1 #ae per cent4 was so used1 the balance being coined4 ,the importance of silver for essential uses during the war is best indicated by the fact that old dead stocks of silver coin1 ,united ,states dollars in the ,treasury1 ,manila dollars1 etc41 had to be called into service4 ,a stage not reached was the melting down of silver plate and ornaments4 ,this stage was reached in ,germany in the case of gold and probably of silver1 just as the ,united ,states had begun to adopt such a program to obtain platinum4 ,during #aiaf our exports of silver exceeded #baj1jjj1jjj1 surpassing by #eh1jjj1jjj the total copper exports for the same period4 ,as long as the centuries-old customs of ,india and ,china fail to change1 silver must be considered as ranking with gold as an essential money metal of intranational and international trade4 ,the large use of silver in the arts1 in the period #aijj to #aiad1 a use naturally considered as entirely a luxury1 leads to emphasis upon the non-essential character of silver consumption as a whole4 ,when the ,european war broke out1 prices for silver1 in common with most metals and other commodities1 declined4 ,but silver did not increase in price a few months later1 as did base metals4 ,it was not until the end of #aiae that silver sold as high as before the war1 and during the early part of the war it sold so low that producers felt discouraged and regarded silver as1 in the main1 an article of luxury4 ,on the other side is the fact that coinage of silver in ,europe increased tremendously in #aiad and #aiae1 although it did not seem to offset fully the curtailment in manufacture of silverware and jewelry4 ,this need for coinage continued during the war at an accelerated rate1 just as did the demands for munitions and men4 ,the 8silver bullet0 was important in ,europe1 but still more essential in bringing supplies from the ,far ,east to the battle fronts4 ,this fact is confirmed by the advance in the price of silver to substantially twice the pre-war quotation1 and had a price not then been fixed the advance would probably have been greater4 ,the normal annual silver production of the world is around #aei1jjj1jjj ounces1 whereas the actual demand for silver during #aiah exceeded #ejj1jjj1jjj ounces4 ,all silver used in the arts by no means represents consumption in luxuries4 ,silver enters the essential chemical and photographic industries to a considerable degree4 ,at least one-third of the silver consumed in the arts before the war represented jewelry used in ,india1 and this use is much more a form of investment by the natives than it is in ,europe and the ,united ,states4 ,the ,united ,states ,treasury ,department has been much concerned over the declining output of gold4 ,priorities during the war were granted to the gold industry to place it in the position of a preferred war industry4 ,silver cannot be considered as being in a different position1 although silver producers received priorities more as producers of base metals and gold than of silver alone4 ,the credit and finance of the world is greatly helped by maximum gold production1 but of little less importance is a large supply of silver1 for although gold has become the general standard of money1 silver is still1 as throughout man's history1 one of the two precious or money metals4 ,it is at least a crutch to aid gold4 ,in many parts of the world silver ranks equal with or as more important than gold for a money standard4 ,elsewhere1 in countries where paper currency is freely accepted by sellers1 it is not an essential money metal1 e4g41 in the ,united ,states4 ,however1 silver with gold helps to support the credit and standing of paper money in ,europe today1 and in countries with less elaborate financial systems it directly replaces and so conserves gold4 ,silver then is considered to be an essential metal of the world's finance1 trade1 and industry4 ,it belongs with the group of vital mineral raw materials and can not be classed with diamonds or other non-essential mineral products4 ,the unlimited mining and production of silver cannot be considered as an end in itself1 as ,spain found out in the days of the conquerors4 ,but the present silver production is not in excess of the real needs4 ,in fact there may be expected to be a great shortage of capital because of the great destructive effects of the world war4 ,silver production adds to the stock of money1 increases confidence in financial conditions and furnishes1 with and subsidiary to gold1 a basis for credit4 ,in the immediate future a maximum silver production may be of as great or greater importance to the world than ever before4 ,,geological ,,distribution ,about one-half of the silver output of the world is obtained as a by-product in the winning of other metals1 notably lead and copper4 ,such production comes from deposits of all geologic ages4 ,the silver obtained from high-grade silver ores associated with minor amounts of gold or base metals is now derived chiefly from ,tertiary deposits4 ,pre-,cambrian deposits are of some importance1 e4g4 ,cobalt1 ,ontario2 but the ,tertiary is the great source of silver ores4 ,the ,mexican mines1 which are by far the most important as producers of silver ores1 are associated with ,tertiary volcanic rocks4 ,a similar association occurs to the south1 in ,central ,america1 ,peru1 and ,bolivia4 ,the deposits of the ,united ,states1 ,nevada1 ,colorado1 ,utah1 and ,montana1 occur under similar conditions4 ,this is also true of the chief worked-out deposits of recent silver-mining history--the ,comstock ,lode4 ,a great deal of silver has been mined in ,europe in the past1 chiefly from rich silver deposits which are now largely exhausted4 ,geologic conditions here are obscure1 because the mining was completed so long ago4 ,in the future1 ,mexico and the ,rocky ,mountain-,andes ,cordillera will be the chief region for the mining of rich silver ores4 ,the pre-,cambrian areas of ,canada may continue to be of some importance4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,a generalized table of normal outputs is as follows3 ,,table #fi4--,,present ,,normal ,,output ,,of ,,silver ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,country ,by-product,straight silver silver deposits ,notes ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,western ,hemisphere3 ,mexico and ,central ,america#ab1jjj1jjj #fj1jjj1jjj ,tertiary ,peru and ,bolivia #aj1jjj1jjj #e1jjj1jjj ,tertiary ,chile #b1jjj1jjj 444,miscellaneous ,united ,states 444 #bc1jjj1jjj ,tertiary ,united ,states lead ores #bd1jjj1jjj 444,miscellaneous ,united ,states copper ores #bc1jjj1jjj 444,miscellaneous ,canada 444 #ba1jjj1jjj ,pre-,cambrian ,canada #d1jjj1jjj 444,miscellaneous ------------------------- ,total ,western ,hemisphere#ge1jjj1jjj #aji1jjj1jjj ,eastern ,hemisphere3 ,spain 444 #d1ejj1jjj ,austria and ,turkey 444 #c1jjj1jjj ,india #e1jjj1jjj 444,burma ,australia #af1jjj1jjj 444,broken ,hill ,japan #g1jjj1jjj 444 ,miscellaneous #b1jjj1jjj #a1ejj1jjj ------------------------- ,total ,eastern ,hemisphere#cj1jjj1jjj #i1jjj1jjj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,summary ,total output1 ,percentage of ounces total output ,rich silver mines #aah1jjj1jjj #ec ,by-product silver #aje1jjj1jjj #dg ----------- --- ,total #bbc1jjj1jjj #ajj ,mexico1 the great center for rich silver mines1 is now producing less than one-half of its normal output1 due to the unsettled political and social conditions4 ,in #aijg the ,mexican production declined to #ca1jjj1jjj ounces1 a loss of over #ej per cent4 ,consequently in #aiag the world's silver output was only #agj1jjj1jjj ounces2 and of this amount more than one-half was derived as a by-product in refining other metals4 ,a striking feature of the distribution of silver deposits is the large number of great producing areas in ,mexico and the western ,united ,states4 ,an argentiferous metallographic province is thus indicated2 and is well shown in the following table3 ,,table #gj4--;,,geographical ,,distribution ,,of ,,silver ,,deposits1 ,,by ,,regions ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,proportion from ,rocky ,normal ,percentage ,mountain-,andes output of world ,region region 7ounces7 total ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #a4 ,rocky ,mountain-,andes ,region3 ,united ,states #ii per cent4 of total #gj1jjj1jjj ,mexico ,all #gj1jjj1jjj ,central ,america ,all #b1jjj1jjj ,peru and ,bolivia ,all #ae1jjj1jjj ,chile ,all #b1jjj1jjj ,canada #af per cent4 of total #d1jjj1jjj ------------- ,total 444 #afc1jjj1jjj #gc #b4 ,cobalt1 ,ontario 444 #ba1jjj1jjj #i4de #c4 ,india and ,australia 7#b mines7 444 #ba1jjj1jjj #i4de #d4 ,japan 444 #g1jjj1jjj #c4a #e4 ,miscellaneous 444 #aa1jjj1jjj #e4j ----------------------- ,total for world 444 #bbc1jjj1jjj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,the relative geologic age of silver deposits is exhibited in the tabulation below3 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,probable ,future future outputpercentage ,present 7ounces7 of total proportion ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,tertiary #agj1jjj1jjj #gf #gc4j ,japanese copper 7largely ,tertiary7 #e1jjj1jjj #b #c4a ,india and ,australia 7age of deposits not stated7 #be1jjj1jjj #aa #i4de ,pre-,cambrian #ae1jjj1jjj #g #i4de ,unknown #aj1jjj1jjj #d #e4j --------------------------------- ,total #bbe1jjj1jjj #ajj #ajj4j ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,examination of the above data shows that by far the greater part of the world's silver occurs in the great petrographic and metallographic province which forms a bordering zone around the ,pacific ,ocean1 and is most productive in the western ,cordilleras of ,north and ,south ,america4 ,,changes ,,in ,,known ,,geo ,,graphical ,,distribution ,,in ,,the ,,near ,,future ,decreases may occur in ,cobalt 7,ontario7 and in ,japan2 in ,cobalt because of exhaustion of ore1 in ,japan because of lower output of copper and lead if prices of these metals fall4 ,the ,rocky ,mountain-,andes output should be maintained relatively at the proportion shown above--,mexico being back to normal in this assumption4 ,this ,rocky ,mountain-,andes production is all1 or substantially all1 associated with ,tertiary igneous rocks4 ,the above figures allow in part for the increase in ,indian output from the new ,burma mines4 ,,changes ,,in ,,practice ,it is doubtful if silver production will be materially increased in the next few years by improvement in metallurgy1 milling1 or mining methods4 ,silver production is perhaps unique in that a great part of the output1 produced as a by-product1 comes on the market at a rate determined more by the volume of lead and copper production than by current quotations for silver4 ,also rich silver mines when discovered can be operated at a large profit per ounce4 ,however1 high prices for silver will stimulate that part of the production which comes from silver mines proper4 ,the world's production increased over one-third during the period of #aijd to #aiac4 ,at the same time prices had declined even below the #ahic-ahid figures4 ,the increased output was due to production from the ,united ,states and from ,canada4 ,independent of price1 the ,cobalt discovery poured silver on the market4 ,independent of price1 the increased lead and copper of the ,united ,states poured by-product silver on the market4 ,it seems clear that discoveries of new silver deposits or enlarged and improved base-metal mining operations are the factors that will influence silver output4 ,changes in methods of silver recovery and even changed silver prices have no tremendous effect4 ,even the big drop in silver prices in the early nineties was accompanied by no decrease in silver production4 ,instead there was an increase4 ,,political ,,control ,the silver output of the world is divided among the various political groups as shown in ,table #ga3 ,,table #ga4--,,production ,,of ,,silver ,,in #aiag ,,and #aiac ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #aiag #aiac #aiac production production percentage ,country 7ounces7 7ounces7 of total ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,united ,states #ga1gdj1jjj #ff1hja1jjj #cj4j ,british ,empire 7chiefly ,canada and ,australia7 #cd1jja1jjj #ej1dbi1jjj #bb4f ,france #bce1jjj #eba1jjj #j4b ,italy #dej1jjj #dbd1jjj #j4b ------------------------------------- #ajf1dbf1jjj #aah1age1jjj #ec4j ,japan #f1ibb1jjj #d1gaf1jjj #b4a ,peru #aa1jjj1jjj #h1cea1jjj #c4g ,central ,america #b1cfi1jjj #b1ace1jjj #a4j ,bolivia #b1dcd1jjj #b1daj1jjj #a4a ,russia1 ,greece1 etc4 #a1jjj1jjj #a1jjj1jjj #j4d ,mexico #ca1bad1jjj #gj1gjd1jjj #ca4g ,chile #a1fgc1jjj #b1jjj1jjj #j4i ,spain #d1ejj1jjj #d1bcb1jjj #a4i ,germany1 ,austria #a1ejj1jjj plus #g1aie1jjj #c4b ,turkey #a1eji1jjj #j4g ,miscellaneous #a1gjj1jjj #gjj1jjj #j4c ------------------------------------- ,total #agj1jch1jjj #bbc1abf1jjj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,commercial ,,control ,through ,ownership of ,mines4--,the production of silver in the ,united ,states is all controlled by ,united ,states capital4 ,one-third is controlled by lead-mining interests1 one-third by copper-mining interests1 and the remaining third by silver miners4 ,moreover1 ,united ,states capital owns ,mexican mining property normally capable of producing over half of that country's output4 ,central ,american production and the by-product silver of ,peru are similarly controlled4 ,about one-quarter of the ,canadian production comes from properties owned in the ,united ,states4 ,in all1 the capital of the ,united ,states controls over half of the yearly output of silver throughout the world4 ,most of the ,canadian and all of the ,australian1 ,indian1 and ,african silver is controlled by ,british capital1 as is one-quarter of the ,mexican production and some from ,bolivia1 ,peru1 and ,chile4 ,in all1 ,great ,britain controls a third of the world's output4 ,germany probably controls close to #aj per cent4 of the world's silver production4 ,a part of this is produced locally1 but the main ,german control is in ,mexico1 the mines owned by ,mexicans being taken as1 in the main1 ,german properties4 ,mines owned by ,japanese1 ,spanish1 ,french1 or ,chilean capital are responsible for substantially all the remaining #e per cent4 of the world's silver output4 ,,financial ,,control ,,through ,,ownership ,,of ,,mines ,capital #aiac output1 percentage controlled ,united ,states #eb ,british #cc ,german #aj ,japanese #b ,spanish #b ,french1 etc4 #a --- #ajj ,through ,ownership of ,reduction ,plants4--,as would be expected from the geographic location of the silver deposits1 the ,united ,states and ,mexico are the centers of silver smelting and refining4 ,important silver-smelting interests are as follows ,company ,situation of smelters ,the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co4 ,united ,states and ,mexico ,the ,united ,states ,s41 ,r4 ,m4 ,co4 ,united ,states and ,mexico ,the ,international ,smelting ,co4 ,united ,states ,anaconda ,copper ,mining ,co4 ,united ,states ,consolidated ,mining ,smelting ,co4 ,canada ,compaia ,metalurgica ,mexicana4 ,mexico ,compaia ,metalurgica de ,torreon4 ,mexico ,compaia ,minera de ,peoles4 ,mexico ,through ownership of reduction plants1 the ,united ,states exercises control over a somewhat larger share of the world's silver than it does through mine ownership4 ,much of the ,canadian and ,mexican as well as most of the ,south and ,central ,american silver production enters the ,united ,states either as refined bullion or as ore and base bullion4 ,it is estimated that control through reduction plants is about as follows3 ,united ,states1 2 ,mexico1 2 ,canada1 2 ,europe and ,asia1 4 ,as regards silver1 this type of control is not at all powerful4 ,silver-bearing materials can bear a high transportation charge as soon as the first process of freeing from gangue has been completed4 ,consequently1 ownership of mines1 rather than of reduction plants1 is the vital factor of control over silver resources1 so far as production is concerned4 ,through ,trade ,combinations4--,the world's output of silver is controlled by the ,london market4 ,to a small extent this may be due to a trade combination2 to a large extent it is due to the relations of the ,london market with consumers4 ,four firms form the ,london silver market4 ,silver prices are fixed daily in ,london1 and this 8fixed0 quotation controls the price of the metal in every important financial center throughout the world4 ,there are three refineries in ,london that handle practically the whole of the silver bullion that comes on the ,london market4 ,no silver can be bought or sold in ,london unless assayed by one of the four official assayers to the ,mint1 ,bank of ,england1 etc4 ,silver treated by the ,london refineries and certain bars from ,european government refineries are exceptions to this rule4 ,the ,london refineries produce silver of the fineness to suit the ,indian market4 ,other silver current in the ,london market has a fineness of 4 ,in the words of ,benjamin ,white3 8,the care taken to safeguard the reputation of the ,london silver market1 the high standing of the firms that comprise it1 and the confidence built up by the methods and practices adopted to protect the interests of buyer and seller alike1 provide a strong guarantee that in the future1 as well as in the past1 silver will find its business center in ,london40 ,through ,relations with ,consumers--,england's ,control of ,silver4--,as already indicated1 ,india and ,china are the great consumers of silver4 ,for the five years preceding #aiad1 fully #dj per cent4 of the world's silver output was shipped from ,london to those two countries1 which1 with a combined population of over #gjj1jjj1jjj1 represent the buying side of the world's silver market1 just as ,north ,america represents the selling side4 ,since #aiad the capacity of these countries to absorb silver has steadily increased and in #aiah it was mainly a question of where the silver could be obtained4 ,current production was inadequate to meet the demands1 and old stocks of the precious metal were of necessity put on the market4 ,the world's silver business consists in getting the metal from the ,americas to the ,east4 ,why send it via ,london1 exposing the precious metal to greater marine hazards and losing interest while in transit8 ,the main reason is that the chief trade of ,china and ,india with western nations is with ,england1 and the great banking houses that finance this trade are in ,london4 ,these banks purchase silver in ,london to adjust exchange balances4 ,funds to purchase such silver usually originate in ,london1 whether from bills on ,london1 loans from ,london banks or in other ways4 ,in addition1 ,london has been the center of the world's finance and foreign trade1 and also the center from which the mail steamers1 the swiftest and cheapest routes to the principal consumers of silver1 have radiated4 ,when the submarine became a menace the ,united ,states shipped silver direct from ,san ,francisco to ,india and ,china4 ,a large part of the ,united ,states production was thus diverted from ,london1 and in #aiah exports of silver from ,london were far below normal4 ,however1 the officials of the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co41 refiners of over one-third of the world's silver output1 say that they do not expect these conditions to continue4 ,the established business of the ,london silver trade1 and1 of more importance1 the relationship between commercial ,london and the silver-consuming countries1 will no doubt quickly re-establish the normal status of ,london--importer of ,american silver1 exporter of the silver needed in the ,far ,east4 ,the ,american refiner or silver producer is glad to have a steady and broad market for his silver1 such as is furnished by the four ,london firms4 ,smelting interests and mines are able to dispose of their product through ,london2 otherwise they would have to deal with brokers or banks in the ,far ,east4 ,the ,london firms keep in close touch with the big bullion dealers of ,bombay1 ,calcutta1 and other cities1 which are the centers from which silver is distributed throughout ,india4 ,silver for the ,indian imperial coinage1 however1 is purchased in ,london by the government4 ,through the ,pittman ,act in the ,united ,states4--,the above silver trade flow-sheet has recently 7#aibj7 been materially changed by the program of the ,government of the ,united ,states to purchase domestic silver at #a an ounce4 ,if the world price for silver remains below this figure1 all ,american silver will be absorbed by the ,government for about four years1 or until the #bjg1jjj1jjj ounces specified in the ,pittman ,act are bought4 ,if silver1 however1 should rise above #a the flow to market as sketched above would be resumed4 ,position of ,china and ,japan4--,chinese foreign exchange rates depend to a large extent on the price of silver4 ,all importers or exporters dealing with ,china must deal in the silver market4 ,although copper 8cash0 is the basis of ,chinese currency1 silver is the standard legal tender for transactions involving large amounts1 and weights of silver are used as units4 ,fineness and weight of ,chinese coins are manipulated so that coins issued by the silver-producing states1 e4g41 ,mexican dollars 7two varieties71 ,british dollars1 ,spanish dollars1 etc41 are prized by the ,chinese because they are uniform in value4 ,japan produces considerable silver1 a great deal coming from her electrolytic copper refineries4 ,gold is the money standard and silver is not used extensively in the arts4 ,consequently ,japan produces more than enough silver to satisfy local consumption4 ,the government is alive to the importance of silver in connection with all dealings with ,china4 ,in #aiah1 ,japanese banks bought up ,chinese silver supplies1 paying prices in excess of all other traders4 ,it is believed that ,american silver has been flowing into ,japan via ,china and that ,japan seeks to control the ,chinese silver market4 ,a large silver reserve is being built up in ,japan4 ,on account of the international importance of the whole ,chinese problem1 ,japanese activity in silver should be noted4 ,,summary ,silver is used both for money and in the arts1 the former use being the more important and more essential4 ,in some countries1 especially those producing silver in large amounts1 it is the money standard1 either alone or with gold4 ,in other countries on a gold standard1 silver is used for subsidiary coinage4 ,in ,india and ,china it is used for the settlement of foreign trade exchange balances4 ,normally about two-thirds of the silver produced annually is used in the arts1 mainly for the manufacture of jewelry and luxurious household wares1 though some is consumed in the photographic1 chemical1 and other essential industries4 ,during the war more silver went into coinage and less into the arts than formerly1 as the large issues of paper money made corresponding increases in the number of silver coins desirable4 ,large amounts have been exported to the ,far ,east4 ,the war has shown that silver should still be considered an essential metal of the world's finance and trade1 despite the increasing amounts consumed in non-essential uses4 ,about one-half of the silver output of the world is obtained as a secondary product in the mining of other metals1 notably lead and copper1 from deposits of all geologic ages4 ,the high-grade silver ores are derived chiefly from ,tertiary deposits1 and it is probable that in the future ,mexico and the ,rocky ,mountain-,andes region will be the chief sources of ores of this type4 ,of the total world silver production over #hj per cent4 comes from the mines of the ,western ,hemisphere4 ,for many years ,mexico was the leading silver-producing country of the world1 but the unsettled political conditions have so interfered with mining operations that the production for #aiag was less than a half of that for #aiaa or #aiab4 ,the ,united ,states1 a close second to ,mexico in pre-revolutionary years1 now occupies the leading position4 ,canada and ,central and ,south ,american countries also produce important quantities of silver4 ,in the ,eastern ,hemisphere1 ,australia is the leading silver producer4 ,smaller amounts are contributed by ,spain1 ,austria1 ,turkey1 ,india1 and ,japan4 ,changes in practice of silver recovery and even silver prices have little influence on silver production4 ,it will be stimulated rather by discoveries of new silver deposits or by enlarged and improved base-metal milling operations4 ,the principal silver deposits of the world are controlled politically by the ,united ,states1 ,mexico1 and ,great ,britain1 the three nations controlling about #he per cent4 of the total production in #aiac4 ,united ,states capital controls the entire silver output of the ,united ,states1 and mines producing half of the ,mexican output1 one-fourth of the ,canadian output1 and much of that of the ,central and ,south ,american countries1 in all something over one-half of the world's normal silver production4 ,great ,britain controls probably one-third of the world production1 chiefly in ,canada1 ,australia1 ,india1 ,africa1 and ,mexico4 ,german capital owns probably one-tenth1 located partly in ,germany but mainly in ,mexico4 ,the remaining silver deposits of the world are owned by ,japanese1 ,spanish1 and ,french capital4 ,ownership of reduction plants is not a powerful form of control in the case of silver4 ,the ,united ,states owns about four-sevenths of the total smelting and refining capacity of the world1 the remaining three-sevenths being controlled largely by ,german1 ,british1 and ,mexican capital4 ,although the greater part of the silver produced each year comes from ,north and ,south ,america1 the world's silver market is located in ,london because of the close relations between ,english business interests and ,india and ,china1 the chief consumers of the metal4 ,the ,united ,states ,government1 however1 will 7#aibj7 purchase all ,american silver offered at #a per ounce1 up to #bjg1jjj1jjj ounces4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,platinum ,,by ,,james4 ,m4 ,,hill ,,uses ,,of ,,platinum ,in past discussion of the uses of platinum some confusion has resulted from the lack of appreciation that all commercial platinum is not the pure metal4 ,the pure metal is required for chemical work of all sorts1 but for other uses the iridium alloys are used4 ,electrical platinum contains #ae to #ej per cent4 iridium1 but averages #be per cent41 and jeweler's platinum carries about #aj per cent4 iridium4 ,palladium1 another of the platinum group metals1 is also of importance1 chiefly in the form of palladium-gold alloys1 which can be used to replace platinum in the dental and jewelry industries4 ,rhodium1 one of the rarer elements of crude platinum1 has a limited use in electrical pyrometers4 ,osmium and ruthenium1 the remaining members of the platinum group1 appear to have little use1 though osmium1 when properly used1 can be employed as a substitute of iridium to harden platinum alloys4 ,the essential uses of platinum metals are in the chemical and electrical industries1 and probably the dental industry should be classed as essential4 ,pure platinum is required in the chemical industry for catalysers in the manufacture of sulphuric acid 7about #ge1jjj ounces now in use in the ,united ,states7 and in the manufacture of nitric acid from ammonia4 ,for the sulphuric-acid industry1 platinum chloride is the primary material containing platinum4 ,asbestos or anhydrous magnesium sulphate soaked in platinum chloride1 and then baked to drive off the chlorine1 forms what is known as 8contact mass10 which is charged into the chambers of contact acid plants4 ,very fine-mesh platinum gauze is used for the catalyser in nitric-acid plants4 ,some gauze used for this purpose has a reinforcing edge of platinum-iridium wire4 ,pure platinum utensils of various kinds1 including crucibles1 dishes1 tongs1 and triangles1 are required in every chemical laboratory4 ,it is possible to substitute palladium-gold alloys1 or even gold1 nickel1 nichrome1 and silica1 for some utensils1 but no substitutes have yet been found which will entirely replace platinum chemical ware4 ,platinum-iridium alloys have been used extensively by the electrical industry1 but substitutes are constantly being developed4 ,tungsten1 molybdenum1 and nickel-chrome alloys are the principal substitutes used so far1 but their use has not done away with the necessity of platinum in the industry4 ,the principal use of platinum-iridium alloys in electrical work is in contact points1 and the proportion of iridium necessary in the alloys is directly dependent on the intensity of the current passing through the contacts and the speed at which the contacts move4 ,probably the largest consumption of platinum alloy is in the manufacture of telephone and telegraph equipment1 including sending and receiving instruments1 switch boards and relays4 ,there is also a large consumption of platinum for contacts in magnetos used for various kinds of internal-combustion engines4 ,automobile makers are1 however1 developing starting systems that do not require platinum1 so we can hope for a lessening future demand from that quarter4 ,platinum has an important use in dentistry1 though in emergencies palladium-gold alloys have been used as substitutes4 ,seemingly1 however1 the substitutes are not entirely satisfactory1 and it may be necessary to go back to platinum for certain dental uses4 ,the chief uses are for pins for crown work1 pins for fastening artificial teeth to plates1 and foil for making molds of cavities in which to bake porcelain fillings4 ,for the time being1 the palladium-gold substitutes can be used and perhaps they will be developed so that the use of pure platinum in the future may not be necessary4 ,the non-essential use of platinum metals is in jewelry1 and it seems certain that this misuse of platinum metals must be stopped in order that industrial development may continue4 ,it is estimated that for a number of years #ej per cent4 of the platinum consumed in the world went into jewelry4 ,a large part of platinum-mounted jewelry is in private ownership1 and as the value of the metal in a jewel is approximately #ce per cent4 of the total cost1 it is evident that it would be difficult1 if not impossible1 in case of necessity to recover more than a small proportion of the large quantity of platinum that is in the form of jewelry4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,the relative importance of the platinum-producing countries of the world can best be judged by the past output1 which is shown in the following table1#aha and graphically in the chart4 #aha ,,hill1 ,j4 ,m43 8,platinum and ,allied ,metals10 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 8,mineral ,resources1 #aiaf10 ,pt4 #a1 #aiag1 p4 #c4 ,the platinum field of ,russia is in the ,ural ,mountains1 north of ,ekaterinburg4 ,in ,colombia1 ,south ,america1 the chief production of platinum has come from the headwater streams of the ,san ,juan ,river1 which enters the ,pacific near ,buena ,ventura2 some platinum is found in the upper reaches of the ,atrato ,river1 which enters the ,caribbean ,sea near the east end of ,panama4 ,a small amount of platinum and osmiridium has come from ,new ,south ,wales and some osmiridium from ,tasmania4 ,some of the placers in southwestern ,oregon and northern ,california carry platinum as well as gold4 ,platinum has recently been determined in concentrates from several localities in ,alaska and ,canada1 and is known in some placers in ,borneo and ,india4 ,,table #gb4--;,,estimated ,,world',s ,,production ,,of ,,crude ,,platinum1 #aiji-aiag 7,in troy ounces7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,country #aiji #aiaj #aiaa #aiab #aiac ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,borneo and ,sumatra #ejj #bjj 444 444 #bjj ,canada #cj #cj #cj #cj #ej ,new ,south ,wales and ,tasmania #ddj #ccb #dgj #ggh #a1ejj ,russia #bfd1jjjbge1jjjcjj1jjjcjj1jjjbej1jjj ,united ,states #fgb #cij #fbh #gba #dhc ----------------------------------- ,totals #bga1fdbbhe1iebcac1abhcac1ebibfg1bcc ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,country #aiad #aiae #aiaf #aiag ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,borneo and ,sumatra #ahb #ahb #ahb #ahb ,canada #cj #ajj #fj #hj ,new ,south ,wales and ,tasmania #a1bdh #cjc #bbb #ahb ,russia #bda1bjjabd1jjjfc1jjjej1jjj ,united ,states #egj #gdb #gej #fje -------------------------- ,totals #bfj1edhadc1adehi1icbhb1fhe ---------------------------------------- -------------- #ahb ,no basis for estimate4 ,,geological ,,distribution ,,of ,,platinum ,practically all of the platinum metals produced in the world to date have been derived from placer deposits1 though a little platinum and palladium have been obtained as a by-product from the electrolytic refining of copper and nickel matte4 ,the platinum placers of the world are so definitely related to intrusive basic igneous rocks1 including pyroxenites1 peridotites and dunites1 that there is practically no question of the origin of the metal4 ,in fact1 in ,british ,columbia1 ,spain1 and ,russia platinum has been found in place in these types of rocks1 and it is reported that owing to the great value of platinum at present1 a project is on foot to crush and wash certain of the bodies of dunite in ,russia4 ,platinum is not found in all placers derived from basic rocks1 but so far as known it is rarely found in placers derived from other types of rocks4 ,prospecting for platinum placers therefore resolves itself first into a search for deposits of gravel derived in a large part from pyroxenite1 peridotite1 and dunite4 ,chromite is a characteristic heavy constituent of platinum sands and in some deposits can be recovered as a by-product in mining4 ,olivine is also present in considerable amounts4 ,magnetite and ilmenite are ordinarily present in the concentrates from platinum placers1 but are more characteristic of placers in which gold is the most valuable constituent4 ,a large amount of prospecting has been done in ,russia and ,spain1 based on the theory of origin outlined above4 ,much of this prospecting has been successful in locating platiniferous placers1 but many of these recent discoveries do not seem to be of commercial worth4 ,it is not possible to foretell whether placers derived from basic igneous rocks will be productive4 ,the most that can be told is that certain placers derived from these rocks hold the greatest promise for the searcher for platinum4 ,platinum is such a rare metal and is found in such small quantities in its mother rock that it is necessary to have certain physiographic conditions present to predicate commercial deposits4 ,most important of these conditions is extremely prolonged or very rapid weathering of the primary deposits4 ,in the ,russian field1 rock-weathering has been in progress for great geologic time2 on the other hand1 in ,colombia1 ,south ,america1 the period of weathering seems to have been relatively short1 but so rapid that the same result has been obtained4 ,ordinarily1 platinum is not found in commercial quantities in gravels that have not been reconcentrated1 and the richer deposits of the world seem to be the results of repeated reconcentrations of platinum-bearing material4 ,crude or placer platinum is not pure metal1 but contains1 besides other metals of the platinum group1 more or less iron1 nickel1 and copper4 ,russian crude platinum is ordinarily sold on the assumption that it contains #hc per cent4 platinum metals2 ,colombian crude1 #he per cent4 platinum metals4 ,some placer platinum1 so-called1 carries a large proportion of osmiridium4 ,thus the ,oregon and ,california crude platinum carries from #be to #de per cent4 iridium1 and ,tasmanian platinum is really nearly pure osmiridium4 ,the following analyses of ,russian1#ahc ,colombian1#ahd and ,american#ahd platinum serve to illustrate the wide divergence of metal content of crude platinum4 ,,table #gc4--;,,analyses ,,of ,,crude ,,platinum ,,from ,,various ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,world ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,north ,america#ahc ,south ,america#ahc ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,cali- ,cali- ,british ,colom-,colom-,colom- forniafornia,oregon,columbia bia bia bia ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,pt4 #he4ej #fc4cj #ea4de #gb4jg #hf4bj #hf4af #hj4jj ,ir4 #a4je #j4gj #j4dj #a4ad #j4he #a4ji #a4ee ,rh4 #a4jj #a4hj #j4fe #b4eg #a4dj #b4af #b4ej ,pd4 #j4fj #j4aj #j4ae #j4ai #j4ej #j4ce #a4jj ,os4 444 444 444 444 444 #j4ig ,io#ahf #a4aj #bb4ee #bg4cj #aj4ea #j4ie #a4ai #a4dj ,au4 #j4hj #j4cj #j4he 444 #a4jj 444 #a4ej ,fe4 #f4ge #f4dj #d4cj #h4ei #g4hj #h4jc #g4bj ,cu4 #a4dj #d4be #b4ae #c4ci #j4fj #j4dj #j4fe ,sand4 #b4ie 444 #c4jj #a4fi #j4dj 444 #d4ce ---------------------------------------- ------------ #aja4ae #ii4djajj4be #ajj4ae #ajj4beajj4ceajj4ae ---------------------------------------- ------------ ---------------------------------------- - ,oceania#ahe ------------------------------------- ,borneo,n4 ,s4 ,w4,australia,taguil ,tasmania8 ------------------------------------- ,pt4 #hb4fj #ge4ij #fa4dj #gf4af ,ir4 #j4ff #a4cj #a4aj #b4fh ,rh4 444 #a4cj #a4he #j4ed ,pd4 444 ,trace #a4hj #j4bg ,os4 ,io#ahf #c4hj #i4cj #bf4jj #a4ej ,au4 #j4bj 444 #a4bj 444 ,fe4 #aj4fg #aj4ae #d4ee #ad4gb ,cu4 #j4ac #j4da #a4aj #c4ci ,sand4 444 #a4bb #a4bj ------------------------------------- #ih4jf #ii4eh #ajj4bj #ii4bf ------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,russia#ahg ---------------------------------------- --- ,iso ,kamenonchy,koswinsky,kanjakowaky ---------------------------------------- --- ,pt4 #hj4aj #hb4df #hc4ej #fj4ci ,ir4 #a4ch #a4gi #b4gd #f4ij ,rh4 #j4cj #j4fi #j4fb #j4hj ,pd4 #j4cj #j4ah #j4bh #j4ai ,os4 ,io#ahf #d4dg #d4ii #j4gi #bj4ba ,au4 #j4ji #j4bg #j4jg ,fe4 #g4fh #i4di #aa4je #aa4af ,cu4 #j4fc #j4ed #a4ad #j4di ,sand4 ---------------------------------------- --- #id4ie #ajj4da #ajj4ai #ajj4jd ---------------------------------------- --- #ahc ,,duparc1 ,,louis3 8,le ,platine et les gtes platiniferes de l',oural03 ,soc4 des ,eng4 ,civ4 de ,france4 ,bull4 ,jan4-,mar41 #aiaf4 #ahd ,,kemp1 ,j4 ,f43 8,the ,geological ,relation and ,distribution of ,platinum and ,associated ,metals03 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey ,bull4 #aic4 #ahe ,analyses cited by ,,kemp4 #ahf ,io is abbreviation used for osmiridium4 #ahg ,analyses cited by ,,duparc4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,,of ,,platinum ,the relative importance of the platinum-producing countries of the world can best be judged by the past output1 which is shown in the following table#ahh and graphically in ,figure #bb4 #ahh ,,hill1 ,j4 ,m43 8,platinum and ,allied ,metals03 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey 8,mineral ,resources1 #aiaf10 ,pt4 ,i1 #aiag1 p4 #c4 ,,table #gd4--;,,estimated ,,world',s ,,production ,,of ,,crude ,,platinum1 #aiji-aiag 7,troy ounces7 ---------------------------------------- ---------- #aiji #aiaj #aiaa #aiab #aiac ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,borneo and ,sumatra #ejj #bjj 444 444 #cjj ,canada #cj #cj #cj #cj #ej ,colombia #f1jjj #aj1jjj #ab1jjj #ab1jjj #ae1jjj ,new ,south ,wales and ,tasmania #ddj #ccb #dgj #ggh #a1ejj ,russia #bfd1jjjbge1jjjcjj1jjjcjj1jjjbej1jjj ,united ,states #fgb #cij #fbh #gba #dhc ----------------------------------- #bga1fdbbhe1iebcac1abhcac1ebibfg1bcc ---------------------------------------- ---------- ---------------------------------------- - #aiad #aiae #aiaf #aiag ---------------------------------------- - ,borneo and ,sumatra ,canada #cj #ajj #fj #hj ,colombia #ag1ejj #ah1jjjbe1jjjcb1jjj ,new ,south ,wales and ,tasmania #a1bdh #cjc #bbb ,russia #bda1jjjabe1jjjfc1ijjej1jjj ,united ,states #egj #gdb #gej #fje -------------------------- #bfj1edhadc1adehi1icbhb1fhe ---------------------------------------- - ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,sources of crude platinum produced from #aiji to #aiag4 ,russia4--,russian placer deposits have supplied approximately #ie per cent4 of the platinum in the world4 ,the principal placer deposits rich in platinum are in the central ,urals1 in the ,perm government1 near ,nishni-,tagilsk1 ,nishni-,turinsk1 and ,verkhoturshi4 ,the richer deposits are on the eastern slope of the mountains1 principally on the ,iss and ,veeya tributaries of the ,tura ,river of the ,obi drainage4 ,several important placers are found on the west slope of the mountains on the headwaters of the ,chusovaia and ,kama rivers of the ,volga drainage4 ,near ,nishni-,tagilsk platiniferous placers occur both on the ,taguil1 a tributary of the ,obi1 and on the ,martian1 a headwater stream of the ,volga drainage4 ,in these placers platinum is the predominant metal1 but gold is also found4 ,the greater part of the output in the past has been by hand-washing1 but of recent years much of the ground has been reworked by dredges1 though it is still safe to say that over #ge per cent4 of the output is from hand labor4 ,it is hardly practicable in a report of this sort to discuss in detail the individual deposits1 even were the information at hand4 ,the best information available can be summarized as follows3 most of the platinum has undoubtedly originated from the disintegration of dunitic1 pyroxenitic1 or peridotitic rocks4 ,the period of weathering has been very long and there have been many changes in the drainage systems1 which have now reached maturity4 ,the stream grades are low2 the inter-stream relief is relatively slight4 ,the platinum has probably been reconcentrated many times and is at present won principally from present valley gravels1 though the pay channels do not always follow the present river channels4 ,some bench-ground representing old river channels is worked1 particularly in the ,nishni-,tagilsk region4 ,the pay gravels ordinarily rest on bed-rock1 though concentration on clay beds forming false bed-rock is fairly common4 ,the pay dirt ranges from a few inches to as much as #f feet in thickness4 ,it has few large boulders1 but has considerable clay in many places4 ,the overburden ranges from #b to #af feet in thickness1 averaging #h to #aj feet4 ,it consists of a thick basal portion of practically barren gravel and sand1 or clay and sand lenses interlayered with gravel1 which is overlain by #b to #c feet of clay sand and vegetable matter similar to the 8muck0 of the ,alaskan mines4 ,in shallow ground1 up to #c feet deep1 mining is carried on by open-cut methods2 in the deeper ground shafts and drifting have been employed4 ,for the deposits in river channels crude hand dredges were and still are used for raising the gravels4 ,about #ce more or less modern dredges were engaged in platinum mining prior to the war4 ,clay is so generally found in the gravels that specially designed machines have been used to save the platinum and the newer dredges have special devices to cope with this problem4 ,colombia4--,the platinum district of ,colombia covers the upper waters of the ,atrato and ,san ,juan rivers in the ,choco district of northwestern ,colombia4 ,platinum is known as far north as ,bete1 on the ,atrato1 and in many of the tributaries of the ,san ,juan which enter from the east4 ,most of the platinum exported from ,colombia has come from the ,condoto ,river1 a headwater stream of the ,san ,juan4 ,it is stated that in this stream the platinum constitutes about #ge per cent4 of the precious metal in the gravel4 ,on the ,atrato the platinum content is lower1 ranging from #e to #ae per cent4 ,platinum and osmiridium also occur in the streams south of the ,san ,juan drainage1 which enter directly into the ,pacific1 though little authentic data concerning them are available4 ,according to ,dr4 ,tulio ,ospina1#ahi ,director of the ,school of ,mines1 ,medellin1 ,colombia1 platinum is found widespread in conglomerates which cover an extensive area in the ,atrato and ,san ,juan basins4 ,the metal has been reconcentrated in the present stream channels from which the major output of platinum comes4 ,according to the statements of various observers1 there are places on the interstream areas in which platinum has been concentrated4 ,these areas are1 from all accounts1 old stream channels4 ,the primary platinum deposits evidently are to be looked for on the west slope of the western ridge of the ,andes1 though no literature which gives detailed information on the geology of this range has been found4 ,peridotite1 dunite1 and other basic igneous rocks are represented in the platiniferous gravels4 #ahi ,proceedings ,second ,pan-,american ,scientific ,congress1 vol4 #h1 #aiag4 ,there is almost no information upon which to base an estimate as to the possible reserves of platinum in ,colombia4 ,little has been published on the subject that gives good data on the geology of the country1 but from all accounts it seems safe to assume that ,colombia holds much promise and should be more carefully prospected4 ,over #ij per cent4 of the platinum mined in ,colombia is won by natives1 mostly women1 who raise the gravel in calabaches and wash the gravels in bateas4 ,the dry season is utilized1 for then the low places in the river are more exposed4 ,there is one dredge in operation in ,colombia at present1 though other dredging operations have been tried1 which1 for various causes1 were not successful4 ,canada4--,a small quantity of platinum is produced each year by the placer operations on the ,tulameen ,river1 in ,british ,columbia4 ,the metal was derived from a mass of peridotite and dunite1 which outcrops west of the main drainage4 ,the gravels of this area are apparently very deep1 but the platinum is found in the upper #h to #bj feet1 in part concentrated on a false bed-rock4 ,recent information indicates the possibility of dredging a considerable acreage of gravels on the ,tulameen in the vicinity of ,princeton4 ,reports were current during #aiag of discoveries of platiniferous placers further north in the ,canadian ,rockies1 but no definite information concerning the size or value of the deposits is available4 ,by far the greater part of the yearly output of platinum and palladium of ,canadian origin is a by-product of refining the nickel ores of the ,sudbury district1 ,ontario4 ,that a far greater production of both metals from this source is possible has been shown by the ,royal ,ontario ,nickel ,commission4 ,united ,states4--,crude platinum is won in ,california1 ,oregon1 and ,washington4 ,the dredges at the base of the ,sierra ,nevada ,mountains in ,california produce a large part of the placer platinum output of the ,united ,states1 principally because of the great yardage handled rather than because of any particular concentration of platinum in the gravels derived from the ,mother ,lode belt4 ,in northern ,california the ,klamath and ,trinity rivers1 particularly the ,hay ,fork of the ,trinity1 carry platiniferous gravels4 ,in southwestern ,oregon platiniferous gravels have been found at several places on the ,illinois and ,rogue rivers4 ,along the beach from ,bandon1 ,oregon1 to ,eureka1 ,california1 platinum occurs with the black sands and has been won at a number of mines located both on the present strand line and on ancient elevated beaches4 ,in the ,blue ,mountains of eastern ,oregon and in the ,strawberry ,range south of ,john ,day ,river a few placers have been worked which carried platinum4 ,in ,washington1 particularly on the south fork of ,lewis ,river1 near ,yacolt1 platinum has been found1 and it is reported on the beaches from the ,straits of ,juan de ,fuca south4 ,all of the platinum-bearing placers in the ,united ,states are closely associated with chromiferous serpentine derived from peridotites or pyroxenites4 ,the concentration of the platinum has not been great and the original quantity was not large1 so none of the areas seems capable of much production4 ,most of the crude platinum from the ,pacific ,coast placers carries considerable osmiridium4 ,as stated before1 the great bulk of the platinum won in the ,united ,states is from the dredging fields at the base of the ,sierra ,nevada ,mountains from ,butte to ,stanislaus ,county4 ,the gravels in these fields are the result of several reconcentrations1 but their platinum content can not be considered high4 ,in practically all of the other stream placer areas the gravels have not been subject to such extensive reconcentration1 and in some places recent gravels carry platinum4 ,the beach deposits are the result of repeated concentration4 ,the platinum and gold are excessively small1 flaky1 and difficult to separate from the heavy sands2 they are concentrated in the dark bands of sand caused by tidal and wave concentration4 ,the lenses are rarely over one foot thick and taper out in short distances4 ,correct estimates of reserves are consequently almost impossible4 ,within the past few years a little platinum has been won from widely scattered localities in ,alaska1 chiefly ,dime1 ,bear1 and ,sweepstake ,creek placers in eastern ,seward ,peninsula2 the ,boob ,creek placers1 ,tolstoi district1 ,lower ,yukon2 and the beach deposits of ,kodiak ,island4 ,platinum also occurs in the ,upper ,kahiltna drainage1 north of ,anchorage4 ,copper ores rich in palladium are produced at the ,rambler mine1 ,wyoming1 from the ,salt ,chuck ,mine1 ,alaska1 and from the ,boss mine1 in ,nevada4 ,at the two former mines the ore is associated with basic igneous rocks2 in the latter mine the ore bodies are in dolomite4 ,the oft-repeated reports of platinum in certain sandstones exposed near the ,bright ,angel trail in the ,grand ,canyon of the ,colorado1 ,arizona1 and in certain shale beds in ,chester ,county1 ,pennsylvania1 have not been verified1 though in ,june1 #aiah1 the ,united ,states ,platinum ,co4 was organized to work the deposits in ,arizona4 ,australia4--,platinum and osmiridium have been won in small quantities from ,queensland1 ,new ,south ,wales1 and ,tasmania4 ,platinum is also reported from ,new ,zealand4 ,the greater production has been from the osmiridium-bearing gravels of the ,savage ,river drainage in the ,bald ,hills mining district in the northwestern part of ,tasmania4 ,little has been published concerning the extent of these gravels1 which were derived from the weathering of a series of sediments intruded by basic igneous rocks4 ,in ,new ,south ,wales1 beach deposits much like those of ,california and ,oregon are found from ,beachy ,head north past ,clarence and ,richmond rivers into ,queensland4 ,commercial exploitation of these deposits seems to have had the ups and many downs of similar undertakings on our ,west ,coast4 ,some platinum was obtained from an old buried channel in the ,platina or ,fifield district in central ,new ,south ,wales1 where pay gravel #f to #aj feet thick lies under an overburden of #bj to #hj feet4 ,the water supply was not in sufficient quantities to warrant large-scale operations4 ,the channel seems small and has been mined about as far as is commercially possible4 ,spain4--,what may prove to be commercial placer deposits have been found in the ,sierra ,ronda1 in southern ,spain1 about #ej miles northwest of the port of ,malaga4 ,the deposits have been discussed in some detail by ,duparc4#aij ,apparently the gravels have not been rearranged by nature many times1 the concentration of platinum is not great1 and it is problematical whether extensive development will be warranted4 #aij ,,duparc1 ,,louis1 and ,,grossett1 ,,augustine3 8,etude compare des gtes platiniferes de la ,sierra de ,ronda et de l',oural03 ,soc4 ,phys4 et ,hist4 ,nat4 ,geneve1 ,mem41 t4 #ch1 fasc4 #e1 #aiaf4 ,other ,countries4--,a small amount of platinum is produced as a by-product from gold dredges on the ,irawadi ,river1 in ,india1 and from the tin dredges in the ,dutch ,east ,indies4 ,unconfirmed reports have been received of discoveries of platinum in southern ,siberia1 at various places in ,mexico1 and from several localities in ,ecuador and ,peru4 ,platinum is known to occur in some of the streams as well as in certain of the gold deposits of the ,minas ,geraes district of ,brazil4 ,in southwestern ,borneo platinum occurs in the ,tanath-,laut district4 ,several ,russian writers have given information on this region4 ,,probable ,,changes ,,in ,,known ,,geographic ,,distribution ,,in ,,the ,,near ,,future ,at present the ,russian platinum fields are practically idle4 ,the dredges are for the most part not running and the industry is disorganized4 ,it will require considerable expense and several months' time to rehabilitate the ,russian platinum industry4 ,the known deposits of the ,russian field are becoming exhausted1 and the reserves of known platiniferous gravels are stated by ,duparc to have a life of #ab years1 based on the pre-war rate of production2 or1 stated differently1 the known deposits are capable of producing between #c1jjj1jjj and #c1fjj1jjj ounces of platinum before they are exhausted4 ,colombia seems to have large reserves of unworked platinum-bearing ground1 though so little detailed information is available that it is unsafe to predict their future4 ,it is safe1 however1 to point out that all reports indicate that careful prospecting in the ,choco district will probably be repaid by the discovery of considerable areas of platinum-bearing ground4 ,the ,canadian deposits hold some promise of future production4 ,several recent discoveries of platinum along the ,rocky ,mountains in ,british ,columbia1 from the ,tulameen to the ,stikeen1 indicate that further search may be rewarded4 ,if reports are true1 there is a considerable area on the ,tulameen1 ,willow and ,peace rivers which can be dredged for the recovery of gold and platinum4 ,the most important ,canadian platinum reserves are in the ,sudbury nickel deposits1 but present metallurgical practice will have to be changed to obtain the maximum output of platinum and palladium from these ores4 ,in the ,united ,states there does not seem to be hope for a considerable increase in the output of platinum2 in fact1 it may be that the production will be materially less when the new refineries for the treatment of ,sudbury ores are completed in ,canada4 ,the placer deposits carrying platinum are for the most part relatively small2 many of those in northern ,california and ,oregon can not be worked economically and few are available for dredging4 ,as the gold-dredging field along the base of the ,sierras becomes exhausted1 the output of platinum in this country will decline in proportion1 barring the discovery of new ground and deposits of gravel richer in platinum than those now known4 ,the various ,australian platinum deposits do not seem particularly promising1 as regards production1 with the possible exception of the ,bald ,hill dredging field1 in ,tasmania4 ,the ,fifield deposits seem to be nearly exhausted and the beach deposits in ,new ,south ,wales and ,queensland are too low grade and the valuable minerals are too erratic in distribution to appear of much commercial interest4 ,the ,spanish deposits have not yet been sufficiently explored to determine their extent1 but published reports do not seem to indicate that they will prove very large or particularly rich4 ,,political ,,control ,as ,table #gd shows1 ,russia has political control of approximately #ij per cent4 of the world's supply of platinum4 ,it seems probable that ,canada1 in the nickel ore of the ,sudbury district and in the known placers in the ,tulameen and ,barkersville districts1 has control of the third largest reserve of platinum4 ,the deposits under the political control of the ,united ,states in ,alaska and on the ,pacific ,coast are relatively insignificant4 ,great ,britain naturally controls the platinum in her colonial possessions1 ,australia1 ,tasmania1 and ,india4 ,the output of the ,dutch ,east ,indies1 from ,borneo and ,sumatra1 is relatively small1 although there is a possibility that the production from these countries may be increased4 ,spain may1 perhaps1 control a small output of platinum1 though it does not seem probable that the production from this country will ever be large4 ,a large area in the ,sierra ,ronda ,mountains has been set aside by the government for further prospecting under the auspices of the government1 and it seems reasonable to believe1 judging from the general mineral policy of ,spain1 that in the event of the proving of commercial deposits they will be worked under government auspices rather than by private persons4 ,although the deposits in ,colombia are politically controlled by that country1 they are1 nevertheless1 owned largely by ,american interests4 ,,commercial ,,control ,through ,ownership of ,mines4--,prior to the war1 ,french commercial interests practically dominated the platinum industry of ,russia1 through the operations of the ,compagnie ,internationale du ,platine4 ,this company not only had extensive mining holdings but also had contracts with the two largest independent ,russian platinum producers1 namely1 the ,shouvaloff and ,demidoff companies1 for their entire output4 ,the contracts were suspended by the ,french company shortly after the declaration of war and may not be remade4 ,there are1 however1 two ,russian companies which are more or less independent of ,french control and there are a large number of small miners and peasants who know no allegiance to any particular buying concern4 ,it appears that at least #ge per cent4 of the platinum production of ,russia is 7or was1 previous to the ,bolshevist domination7 controlled by the following companies3 ,compagnie ,internationale du ,platine 7,french71 ,shouvaloff's company 7,russian71 ,demidoff company 7,russian71 ,nicolo-,pavdinski company 7,russian71 and the ,platina company 7,russian74 ,during #aiad these companies were operating approximately #ce dredges in the platinum field1 though from the best reports now available it does not seem that more than two or three of the dredges were at work during #aiag4 ,the reader should realize1 however1 that the production from dredges has always been relatively small1 as compared with the output made by other methods4 ,it is estimated that about #hj per cent4 of the platinum won from the ,russian placers is recovered by hand labor by lessees 7starateli7 who contract to dispose of their production to the companies owning the ground and pay a royalty for the privilege of working4 ,since the war the peasants and miners are virtually in control of all the mines and the original operators have little to do with operation or management4 ,the most important platinum-bearing placers in ,colombia are controlled by ,american financial interests4 ,the ,general ,development ,co41 of ,new ,york1 through two subsidiary companies1 controls a large area in the headwater region of the ,san ,juan ,river1 particularly on the ,condoto ,river4 ,recently these interests have organized the ,south ,american ,gold ,platinum ,co4 ,the ,quito ,mining ,co4 controls a considerable acreage on the ,quito ,river between ,quibdo and ,istimina4 ,there are other small ,american holdings in the vicinity of ,negua1 on the ,atrato drainage1 and on the ,tamana and ,sipi1 on the ,san ,juan drainage4 ,late in #aiag a ,british company was organized for the development of extensive holdings on the ,opogodo ,river1 in the upper ,san ,juan drainage4 ,if the present conditions are not changed by special legislation in ,colombia it would seem that ,american financial interests will continue to dominate the ,colombia platinum field4 ,the platinum deposits of the ,united ,states are apparently largely in the hands of small holders1 who are citizens of this country4 ,a few of the large dredges in ,california1 which are producing platinum as a by-product1 are1 in part1 owned by ,british capital4 ,apparently the beach deposits in ,australia 7in ,new ,south ,wales and ,queensland7 are worked in a small way by local capital1 as are the deposits near ,platina and ,fifield4 ,the ,tasmania deposits are controlled by local capital4 ,as to ,canada1 it is understood that a large part of the gravel area of the ,tulameen ,river1 near ,princeton1 ,british ,columbia1 is controlled by ,american capital4 ,a few claims on the upper ,tulameen are controlled by ,canadian capital4 ,an ,american company has recently been organized for the purpose of exploiting certain prospective areas in the ,barkersville region1 in north-central ,british ,columbia1 and it is understood that ,canadian capital has rather extensive holdings on the ,peace ,river1 in northern ,british ,columbia1 which are reported to contain considerable quantities of platinum4 ,the nickel deposits of ,ontario1 which have a considerable prospective value as producers of both platinum and palladium1 are operated by the ,mond ,nickel ,co41 under ,british control1 and the ,international ,nickel ,co41 under ,american control4 ,however1 the ,canadian government is regulating the operations of both of these companies4 ,through ,ownership of ,reduction ,plants4--,it is a peculiar fact that while the larger part of the ,russian crude platinum is sold through a ,french company1 nevertheless ,england has refined the greater part of the output of ,russia4 ,the ,johnson ,matthey ,co41 of ,london1 is the largest platinum refiner in ,england4 ,prior to the war this company is said to have refined about #gj per cent4 of the ,russian platinum production4 ,in ,germany the chief platinum refiner is ,w4 ,c4 ,heraeus1 of ,hanau4 ,this company is said to be owned chiefly by ,dr4 ,heraeus and the estate of ,heinrich ,heraeus4 ,the firm of ,f4 ,eisennad ,co41 at ,offenbach1 a small platinum refiner1 was acquired by ,heraeus' interests just prior to the war4 ,g4 ,seibert1 of ,hanau1 also refines platinum1 the operations being financed by the ,seibert ,bros41 and the ,deutsche ,gold und ,silberscheidenanstalt1 of ,frankfort4 ,according to ,russian figures1 about #be per cent4 of the ,russian output was refined by ,germany and presumably a large part of the work was done by ,heraeus4 ,heraeus interests without doubt predominate the platinum-refining industry of ,germany4 ,the chief platinum refiner of ,france is ,quenessen1 de ,belmont1 ,legendre et ,cie41 which is controlled by the estate of ,,mm4 ,desmoutis and ,lamaire4 ,other small refineries are the ,lyon ,allemand1 the ,credit ,lyonnais1 ,herique ,marrett ,bonnin1 and ,hesse ,fils1 all of ,paris4 ,apparently the first company is the controlling factor in the ,french industry4 ,in the ,united ,states the platinum industry is controlled by ,baker ,co41 ,american ,platinum ,works1 ,irvington ,smelting ,refining ,works1 ,hanovia ,chemical ,co41 and ,charles ,englehard4 ,there are several independent platinum refiners in the ,united ,states1 though their combined output is less than a quarter of the domestic industry4 ,these are ,j4 ,bishop ,co41 ,malvern1 ,pennsylvania2 ,wilson ,co41 ,newark1 ,new ,jersey2 ,belais ,cohn1 ,new ,york ,city2 ,kastenhuber ,lehrfeld1 ,new ,york ,city1 and ,goldsmith ,bros41 ,smelting ,refining ,co41 ,new ,york ,city and ,chicago1 which are operated financially by ,american capital4 ,the ,rossler ,hasslacher ,chemical ,co41 of ,new ,york ,city1 also refines some platinum4 ,prior to the war there was more or less interlocking of the interests of ,johnson and ,matthey of ,london1 ,quenessen of ,paris1 ,heraeus of ,hanau1 and ,baker ,co4 of ,new ,york4 ,it is generally conceded that prior to the war ,heraeus actually controlled the ,american interests now dominated by ,englehard4 ,however1 when war was declared these various companies1 by interchange of their stock1 were separated1 so that it now appears that ,german money is no longer interested in the ,english1 ,french1 or ,american platinum industry4 ,it is probable1 however1 that both the ,english and ,french companies still hold stock in the ,american company1 though the control of the ,american interests is now held by ,charles ,englehard through ownership of the majority of the stock of the companies mentioned above4 ,it is reported that there were two government-owned platinum refineries in ,russia prior to the war1 though apparently they handle only a very small quantity of the platinum produced in ,russia and no platinum from any foreign countries4 ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,world ,,as ,,regards ,,platinum ,as explained above1 owing to the location of the chief platinum-producing regions1 ,russia has been the source of practically all of the world's platinum1 though commercially the ,french controlled the marketing of the bulk of the ,russian output4 ,since #aiad practically no platinum has been exported and what little did get out came mostly to the ,united ,states4 ,the situation of the various countries can be summarized as follows3 ,russia normally used little of her own platinum1 exporting it to ,england1 ,germany1 and ,france4 ,the country had almost no platinum-refining capacity1 the industry being controlled by ,french and ,russian capital with more or less ,german influence4 ,since the war the platinum mines have not been extensively worked and in fact their production has decreased greatly4 ,any accumulated stocks of platinum that may have been in ,russia probably found their way into ,germany and into ,allied lands4 ,before the war ,germany refined about #be per cent4 of the ,russian production of platinum2 she has no deposits within her own territory4 ,she had built up great chemical and electrical industries1 which required large stocks of platinum1 and probably was in a fair position with regard to the metal when war was declared4 ,it seems probable that there is a shortage of platinum in ,germany at present1 for any great expansion of either chemical or electrical industries4 ,france through her control of the bulk of the ,russian output was in position to have accumulated considerable stocks of platinum1 and that she did so is indicated by the fact that the government did not undertake any regulation of the platinum industry until early in #aiah1 and it does not appear that any great expansion of the chief industries requiring platinum was necessitated4 ,about #gj per cent4 of the ,russian1 probably half of the ,colombian1 and all of the ,australian and ,indian platinum was sold in ,england prior to the war4 ,it is believed that not all of this was refined in ,england1 for considerable amounts of crude platinum were exported from ,england to the ,united ,states2 however1 large stocks of the platinum metals were on hand in ,england when war was declared4 ,england had to build a great chemical industry during the war1 and quickly used what reserves she had1 so that the government early in the war saw the necessity of controlling the use of platinum metals4 ,the ,united ,states has been and will continue to be dependent on foreign platinum4 ,at present all of the ,colombian platinum is coming to this country4 ,when we entered the war the stocks of platinum in the ,united ,states were about #ej per cent4 of the normal1 and as we had to build large chemical and electrical industries1 those stocks were rapidly exhausted4 ,colombia has no platinum refineries2 apparently she has use for none of the output of her mines4 ,before the war her crude platinum was shipped to ,england and the ,united ,states for refining1 but at present it is all coming to the ,united ,states4 ,,summary ,about #ij per cent4 of the crude platinum produced annually has come from the ,ural ,mountains1 ,russia4 ,the deposits of next importance are situated in ,colombia1 ,south ,america4 ,small amounts are produced in ,canada 7chiefly as a by-product in the refining of nickel ore71 in ,new ,south ,wales1 ,tasmania1 the ,united ,states1 ,dutch ,east ,indies1 ,india and ,spain4 ,the political control of the platinum deposits of the world corresponds to geographical distribution4 ,russia and ,colombia control the principal deposits1 and the ,united ,states1 ,great ,britain1 ,holland1 and ,spain the minor ones4 ,prior to the war1 a ,french company had extensive holdings in ,russia1 and in addition had contracts with two ,russian platinum producers for their entire output4 ,these contracts were canceled shortly after the declaration of war4 ,the remaining deposits of the ,russian fields are controlled by two independent ,russian companies and by a large number of small miners4 ,at present the peasants and miners are virtually in control of the mines and the owners have little to do with their operation or management4 ,the principal platinum-bearing placers of ,colombia are controlled by ,american interests4 ,a ,british company was organized recently to develop holdings in the upper ,san ,juan drainage4 ,with the exception of a few of the large dredges of ,california1 owned in part by ,british capital1 the platinum deposits of the ,united ,states are owned by ,american citizens4 ,the platinum deposits of ,australia are probably held for the most part by ,british capital4 ,american capital controls a large part of the platinum gravel area of ,british ,columbia4 ,a few claims are controlled by ,canadians4 ,the companies operating the nickel deposits of ,ontario1 from which platinum is produced as a by-product1 are ,american and ,british4 ,about #ge per cent4 of the ,russian platinum has been refined in ,england and most of the remainder in ,germany4 ,before the war there was an interlocking of the interests of the platinum refiners of the ,united ,states1 ,germany and ,great ,britain1 which has been broken as far as ,germany is concerned4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,,who ,,owns ,,the ,,earth8 ,,by ,j4 ,e4 ,,spurr ,let us glance over the preceding studies one by one and see what salient features each one contains4 ,,the ,,fuel ,,minerals ,petroleum is of the utmost present importance and its future importance will be even greater4 ,recently #ih per cent4 of the world's production has been contributed by the following countries in this general order of importance3 ,the ,united ,states1 ,russia1 ,mexico1 ,dutch ,east ,indies1 ,roumania1 ,india1 ,persia1 and ,galicia4 ,it is believed that the region around the ,caribbean ,sea and the ,gulf of ,mexico will be of increasing importance1 as will also the ,persian and ,mesopotamian fields4 ,united ,states capital is supreme in the commercial control of the petroleum industry in the ,western ,hemisphere2 while ,british and ,british-,dutch interests easily dominate the petroleum situation in the ,eastern ,hemisphere4 ,commercial control of petroleum is determined mainly through ownership by operating companies of lands1 leases1 or concessions4 ,state ownership is rare1 although in ,argentina the petroleum industry is owned and operated by the state4 ,the ,british government controls by direct ownership of a majority of the voting stock1 the ,anglo-,persian ,oil ,co41 which gives it a monopoly of the ,persian field1 through the concession of an area of #ejj square miles from ,persia to the company1 and closes the field to the enterprise of the ,united ,states or other nations2 moreover through ramifications of this company1 the ,british government is extending its hold to other parts of the world4 ,in the ,united ,states the commercial control of the petroleum industry is in the hands of the 8,standard ,oil ,group40 ,british and ,british-,dutch companies in the ,united ,states control a production of about #aa1jjj1jjj barrels a year1 out of a total of #cce1jjj1jjj4 ,in the important region of ,mexico1 which now takes second place in production1 the commercial control is entirely in the hands of foreigners3 ,american interests control #fe per cent4 and ,british and ,dutch interests #cb per cent4 ,in the ,eastern ,hemisphere1 the productive field of the ,dutch ,east ,indies is under absolute control of ,british-,dutch interests1 the ,royal ,dutch-,shell ,syndicate4 ,prospecting licenses and concessions are granted only to ,dutch subjects and to ,dutch companies1 and this1 with the economic monopoly of the controlling ,british-,dutch interests1 prevents foreign enterprise4 ,the absolute and exclusive control of the great oil fields of ,persia and ,mesopotamia by the ,british government will be confirmed and extended by the extension of the ,british ,empire over those portions of the ,turkish ,empire which she won by force of arms4 ,in ,russia the commercial control of the great petroleum industry seems to be ,british1 the predominant interests being ,british1 ,franco-,british1 and ,british-,dutch 7,royal ,dutch-,shell ,syndicate74 ,the principal producing areas in ,russia are or were till recently under ,british military control4 ,the production of ,india 7,burma7 is entirely in ,british hands4 8,the general policy of the ,british ,empire seems to be to control all oil development and restrict operations by foreign capital40 ,such restrictions by government regulations exist in ,australia1 ,canada1 ,india1 ,barbados1 ,british ,guiana1 ,british ,honduras1 ,trinidad and other colonies4 ,in the oil industry1 then1 we have a remarkable and striking division of the world's wealth between the two great ,anglo-,saxon nations1 ,america and ,great ,britain4 ,no mineral lends itself so readily as oil to transportation and hence to commercial control4 ,according to the present production1 ,american interests are largely in excess4 ,however1 the ,british control of the great fields of the ,eastern ,hemisphere1 many of them only partly developed1 together with her growing hold in the ,western ,hemisphere1 indicates the likelihood that the ,british grip of the world's oil resources and production may in the future become predominant4 ,striking phases of the situation are that in the case of ,great ,britain the government and the oil monopolies are united1 so that to all intents and purposes the control being obtained is by the ,british government direct2 while in the ,united ,states the control is in the hands of purely commercial interests1 operating without the control1 assistance1 or sympathy of the government4 ,american companies may not own and operate oil lands in the ,british ,empire1 in the ,french possessions1 or the ,dutch colonies1 but there are no ,american restrictions on foreign ownership or operation4 ,the policy of ,great ,britain1 furnishing her petroleum and oil bunkering stations all over the world1 and assuring her control of the seas1 will further immensely increase her already extensive world domination4 ,the ,united ,states has no such program of imperial expansion1 but she has her ,monroe ,doctrine1 which is to a mild degree an assumed protectorate over the ,western ,hemisphere4 ,coal4--,next let us take up coal1 among the most important of all minerals--source of power1 light1 and heat1 and smelter of iron and other metals4 ,here again1 as in oil1 we find the ,united ,states wonderfully endowed by nature4 ,she is credited with reserves of #c1ebg1jjj million tons out of a total #g1iji1jjj million in the world1 or practically half of the whole world's supply4 ,as the world's coal reserves are large1 the high-grade varieties1 so situated as to have cheap transportation1 are of most immediate importance4 ,great ,britain has such coal close to seaboard1 and so1 until the war1 controlled the export trade all over the world4 ,the industries of ,america leave her little coal for export1 and her coal is farther from seaboard4 ,the efforts of ,germany before the war to build up a coal-export trade were hindered by the long rail haul2 and these deposits are now being handed over to ,france4 ,besides ,france1 ,great ,britain1 and the ,united ,states1 only ,canada1 ,australia1 and ,china have sufficient reserves for extensive export trade4 ,of these countries1 ,china is the one most likely to increase exports1 on account of nearness to the coast1 and good quality of coal4 ,although the coals of the ,united ,states are not so close to the coast as in ,england1 they not only constitute by far the largest reserves1 as above stated1 but are also most immediately available1 owing to their shallow depth and the good railway transportation facilities4 ,no natural substance is so universally used1 and so necessary to every individual1 as coal1 and hence every individual feels a natural right to it1 and believes that it should be available at a minimum cost4 ,this has resulted in several countries in the nationalization of the coal industry1 as in parts of ,chile1 ,bulgaria1 ,prussia1 and ,australia4 ,in other countries1 as in parts of the ,united ,states1 the government retains the ownership of coal lands1 leasing them to private operators4 ,in ,england the present conditions point toward the nationalization of the coal industry4 ,in ,france the coal lands belong to the government1 which gives concessions for their operation1 and receives a royalty or rental and a percentage of the net earnings of the operator4 ,although the ,united ,states is pre-eminent among the world's nationalities as regards coal1 ,england has the advantage of having adequate supplies scattered all over the world1 in her colonies of ,australia1 ,canada1 ,india1 ,new ,zealand1 ,south ,africa1 ,rhodesia1 and ,borneo4 ,unlike petroleum1 coal is a mineral which does not lend itself readily to control by commercial combination4 ,the mining and marketing of coal is a simple matter1 requiring relatively little skill or equipment1 so that it is a business open to everybody2 and the vast extent of coal lands assures a multitude of owners4 ,therefore the effect of the control of coal on the world's commerce and history is almost entirely a matter of political control4 ,organization among producers exists in various countries1 as in the case of the anthracite industry of the ,united ,states1 but this does not as a rule extend to a central ownership1 nor does it usually extend to foreign countries4 ,in coal1 then1 as well as in petroleum1 we find the two dominating nations are the great ,anglo-,saxon powers1 ,england and the ,united ,states4 ,the ,united ,states mines about #dj per cent41 or two-fifths of the world's annual production1 while the ,british ,isles have produced one-fifth of the production1 making them second only to the ,united ,states4 ,in neither case have the respective governments in the past attempted to control the mining and the sale of coal1 but in ,england1 at least1 it is likely that some form of joint control1 participated in by the government and the miners1 will come4 ,the methods of mining necessary for maximum production of ,british coal mines during the war resulted in putting the mines in such poor condition that it will be a year or two before they can supply all of the former ,british export trade4 ,the demands of ,british workmen for shorter hours 7resulting in decreased production7 will hinder still further a resumption of large exports4 ,one of the important phases of this1 to ,england and ,america alike1 is the ,south ,american trade4 ,england has always supplied this market1 but the ,united ,states will probably do so for the present1 and should take care to do so if she desires ,south ,american trade1 and on the commercial theory of the ,monroe ,doctrine4 ,up till recently1 the ,united ,states has exported by sea only about #d per cent4 of her production1 whereas ,england sent out #be per cent4 ,our own expanding industries have provided an ample market4 ,aside from ,america and ,england1 there is no dominating factor in the future control of the coal industry in the lands surrounding the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,germany was a strong factor before the war1 but the loss to ,france of the ,saar coal district1 and the possible loss1 to ,poland1 of the ,dombrova field1 in ,silesia1 will deprive her of her importance2 and the division among several nations of these resources will prevent any one of them from becoming a world's factor in the coal trade4 ,in the lands about the ,pacific ,ocean1 however1 the most important future factor is the coal fields of ,china4 ,no country except the ,united ,states has larger reserves of high-grade coal ready for development and not far from ocean transport4 ,it is likely that the ,japanese may attempt this development and the fostering of an export trade in the ,orient4 ,the high-grade coals of the ,united ,states are remote from the ,pacific ,ocean1 and could only be available for ,pacific trade by the long route of the ,panama ,canal4 ,it is not unlikely1 therefore1 that ,chinese coal may in the future be supplied to our own ,pacific ports by the ,japanese at a less price than ,american coal can be put there1 and that through this development ,japan may be able to dominate the ,pacific trade1 as ,england has dominated that of the ,atlantic and the ,pacific in the past4 ,,the ,,steel ,,and ,,ferro-,,alloy ,,minerals ,iron4--,the iron supplies for the world's consumption have been obtained principally from four countries3 the ,united ,states1 ,germany1 ,france1 and ,great ,britain4 ,more than one-third of the total production has come from the ,united ,states1 and of the ,american output about #he per cent4 has come from the ,lake ,superior district1 which alone produces annually over #cj per cent4 of the world's total4 ,next in importance to the ,united ,states have been ,germany and ,france1 and about #hj per cent4 of the production of these two countries has come from the ,lorraine fields on the border4 ,the annual output of these fields has been #be per cent4 of the world's production1 or nearly as much as the ,lake ,superior district4 ,linked with the coal industry as it is1 no world-wide or even national monopolies of iron ore have been attempted4 ,the greatest single commercial organization in the world is the ,united ,states ,steel ,corporation1 with a total annual capacity 7in #aiac7 of over #ag million tons of pig iron1 or about half of the total ,american production4 ,but this organization is not a monopoly1 and there are a large number of powerful independent companies4 ,in ,france and ,germany no dominating organizations have been noted4 ,in ,england up to the time of the war the iron industry was controlled by middlemen1 and the manufacturers were insufficiently organized4 ,to meet this condition 7page #hf7 the ,british ,board of ,trade ,committee advised a consolidation of iron interests4 ,extension of commercial control by the dominant iron-producing nations to the ore reserves and to the iron industry of foreign countries1 so establishing that commercial penumbra of empire which is so apt to deepen into actual sovereignty1 is1 however1 much more marked in the case of iron than of coal1 though less significant than in the case of oil4 ,the control by ownership of great iron fields in ,south ,america by ,england and the ,united ,states1 and the extension of ,japanese control of iron-ore reserves in ,china1 are the most significant features of this situation4 ,in ,france1 even before the war1 ,germany controlled over one-third of the iron and steel business4 ,with the passing of ,german ,lorraine to ,france1 it is likely that much ,german capital will remain4 ,japan has an iron and steel industry which1 although small as compared with that of the ,united ,states1 ,germany1 and ,great ,britain1 and the other leading iron and steel manufacturing countries1 is rapidly expanding4 ,blast furnaces1 steel-making furnaces1 and steel mills are being erected in ,japan and in ,korea1 ,manchuria1 and ,china by ,japanese interests4 ,japan is still very far from supplying her own consumption of iron and steel1 which is a million and a half tons annually4 ,in brief1 as regards the world's iron and steel1 the ,united ,states has a greatly preponderant position1 which it will tend to increase1 with the desirable tendency of drawing ,north and ,south ,america more closely together4 ,in ,europe1 ,france and ,germany are oddly yoked in the control of the second greatest steel industry in the world4 ,in the future great arena of the ,pacific1 ,japan is patiently building up her steel industry1 with far-reaching ,oriental vision4 ,coal mines and an iron blast furnace are included in the ,german 8rights0 recently acquired by ,japan4 ,will ,japan return ,shantung8 ,did ,germany return ,alsace ,lorraine8 ,in her forward-looking plans1 ,japan has two national rivals--,england and ,america4 ,she has a vast fertile field to work in1 except for these 7especially ,england7--all of eastern ,asia4 ,she has a great disorganized nation which is no longer a rival--but a field whereon to feed and grow stronger--,siberia and ,russia4 ,in the train of steel1 and next after the problems of coal and iron1 come a number of less-known and less-abundant metals--the ferro-alloys1 metals that alloy with iron to make steels of special hardness or toughness1 or with some other special quality4 ,relatively inconspicuous as they are1 they are indispensable in the industries4 ,manganese4--,manganese is far more than a ferro-alloy4 ,it is essential in the manufacture of all open-hearth process and ,bessemer process steel1 which make up #ii per cent4 of the total ,united ,states production1 for it acts as a remover of the carbon which makes the difference in quality between steel and cast iron4 ,for this purpose it is mixed with the iron in the form of alloys4 ,one of these is high in manganese--ferromanganese--and one low--spiegeleisen4 ,the principal manganese fields are those of ,russia1 ,india1 and ,brazil1 which are so large and readily available for exploitation and transportation to markets that there is little prospect that they will be displaced as the principal sources of the world's supply for many years4 ,in contrast with the situation regarding other important minerals1 most manganese deposits throughout the world are owned by residents of the countries in which they occur4 ,this is due to the superficial and irregular character of the oxide deposits 7the only ones as a rule of high enough grade to find a market7 and the simple nature of the mining and washing of ores1 which does not require much capital4 ,the ,united ,states is poorly provided with high-grade manganese ores1 and hence has always been and will always be a heavy importer4 ,previous to the war1 the supplies were mostly drawn from ,russia and ,india2 and during the war from ,brazil1 in addition to an increased domestic production under the stimulus of high war prices4 ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany--in fact the whole industrial world--have the same sources of supply4 ,there is little necessity of sharp competition1 leading to commercial combinations1 or of strict governmental control1 since the productive capacity of the principal deposits is very large1 and far exceeds the world's demand for steel making4 ,chromite4--,next in importance in the ferro-alloy group of metals is chromium1 found in nature on a commercial scale only as the oxide chromite4 ,chrome is used extensively in the steel industry and the leather industry--in the former for making a specially tough steel 7and also a refractory lining for iron furnaces72 in the latter1 for tanning4 ,chromite is found in many countries1 but in most 7as in the ,united ,states and ,canada7 in small and scattered deposits1 easily exhausted4 ,the largest and most important sources of supply are in the ,french colony of ,new ,caledonia1 in the ,south ,pacific2 in ,rhodesia1 in ,africa2 in ,asia ,minor2 and in the ,ural ,mountains1 ,russia4 ,up to #ahcj the ,ural region supplied the world's chromium2 from #ahcj to #ahgj1 the ,eastern ,united ,states 7,maryland and ,pennsylvania7 became the chief source2 from #ahgj to about #aijj the scene of chief activity shifted to ,asia ,minor2 and since then ,new ,caledonian and ,rhodesian ores have occupied the world's markets4 ,new ,caledonian ore is produced with cheap labor1 and the deposits are near the coast2 and the ,rhodesian deposits are large and rich4 ,high prices during the war1 due to lack of shipping1 brought about a great increase of production in the ,pacific ,states of the ,united ,states2 but with a return to normal conditions this region cannot survive competition1 unless especially protected by legislation4 ,in normal times1 the ,united ,states consumes more than one-third of the world's annual consumption of chromite1 but depends upon foreign sources--,rhodesia and ,new ,caledonia4 ,during the war1 deposits of limited extent in ,brazil and ,cuba were drawn on1 as well as ,canadian and domestic ores4 ,so far as developed1 however1 the ,western ,hemisphere is relatively poor in chromite deposits4 ,the chrome industry in the ,united ,states is highly centralized1 the ,electrometallurgical ,company having an almost absolute monopoly of the ferrochrome industry1 and being probably the largest producers of ferrochrome in the world1 and the ,mutual ,chemical ,company having a great preponderance in the chemical chrome industry4 ,the chromite supply of the world is therefore at present essentially a monopoly controlled by ,british-,french capital1 and the great supplies occur in the colonies of ,england and ,france4 ,nickel4--,the position of nickel is rather unusual1 in that workable deposits are rarely met with1 and deposits of great importance are confined to a few places4 ,the only really commercially important deposits are those of ,sudbury1 in ,canada1 and of ,new ,caledonia2 although small deposits of workable ore have been mined in ,norway1 and nickeliferous and chromiferous iron ore occurs in ,cuba4 ,the deposits of ,sudbury are relatively far more important than those of any other field4 ,therefore ,great ,britain 7through ,canada7 possesses by all means the largest and most important nickel deposits1 amounting practically to an exclusive control4 ,previously ,american capital exerted a dominant commercial control over the nickel industry1 through its ownership of the largest ore reserves and its control of smelting and refining plants in the ,united ,states4 ,one of these ,american companies has also the second largest holdings in ,new ,caledonia4 ,the ,british government plainly has taken means to overcome this commercial domination4 ,a large company has gone into business at ,sudbury1 in which the ,british government has the controlling interest4 ,the government has also brought about the transfer of the refining operations of the ,international ,nickel ,company from ,new ,jersey to ,ontario1 so that the entire industry will be confined to ,canada4 ,tungsten4--,the greatest tungsten-producing region is that of eastern ,asia2 the region of the ,united ,states and ,mexico second2 that of ,bolivia and neighboring countries in ,south ,america third2 and fourth comes the province of ,portugal1 ,spain1 and ,italy4 ,there seem to be no very large and concentrated tungsten deposits2 and nearly all of those worked give signs of being easily exhausted4 ,there may be therefore a world tungsten shortage in the future4 ,possibly ,bolivia will prove to be the most durable field4 ,as to the commercial control1 it is entirely in ,british hands1 and this through the active policy of the ,british government4 ,actual control is obtained through the ferrotungsten makers1 to whom the ores go for treatment4 ,on this basis the commercial control in #aiag was3 ,british #ad1fjf tons2 ,american #i1dgi tons2 ,japanese #a1afe tons2 ,french #a1jeg tons2 and ,germany #cfj tons4 ,american capital controls the tungsten deposits within its own borders and in ,mexico1 and is largely interested in ,bolivia and ,china4 ,before the war ,germany controlled probably half the tungsten output1 the other half being divided among the ,united ,states1 ,england and ,france4 ,at the present time1 the control through ownership of mines and smelters is as follows3 ,great ,britain #ed per cent42 ,united ,states #ce per cent42 ,japan #d per cent42 ,france #d per cent42 and ,germany #a per cent4 ,vanadium4--,vanadium is an important ferro-alloy metal4 ,vanadium steel has great toughness and torsional strength1 and is used in automobile parts1 gun barrels1 and the like4 ,chromium-vanadium steels have an extensive market4 ,the largest and most important deposits of vanadium in the world are in ,peru1 and until recently were controlled by the ,american ,vanadium ,company 7an ,american firm71 which has a concession from the ,peruvian government4 ,otherwise the most important deposits are found in southwest ,colorado1 and were till very lately controlled by the ,primos ,chemical ,company1 of ,pennsylvania4 ,the ,american ,vanadium ,company had an absolute world monopoly of vanadium products and ferrovanadium1 until the entrance into the field of the ,primos company4 ,quite recently the holdings of both these companies have been taken over by the ,vanadium ,corporation1 allied to the ,bethlehem ,steel ,corporation4 ,antimony4--,antimony has a relatively restricted use in peace-time1 but war creates 7for the manufacture of shrapnel7 a vastly increased demand4 ,under normal circumstances the supply is far in excess of the demand4 ,china has long been the most important source of supply1 and is likely so to continue4 ,france and ,algeria are also producers1 as is ,mexico2 and other countries produce under the stimulus of high prices4 ,the ,united ,states1 as well as ,canada1 has relatively small reserves and normally small production4 ,in the early part of the ,european war1 however1 in #aiae and #aiaf1 countries like ,bolivia1 ,mexico1 ,australia1 the ,united ,states1 ,peru1 ,burma1 and ,spain contributed important amounts2 but none of these will be important factors at the usual low prices4 ,prior to the war1 ,england was the chief antimony-smelting center of the world4 ,ores from all over the world were there treated1 and the ,british brands were considered purer than others1 and virtually monopolized the world's markets1 including those of the ,united ,states4 ,during the great demand in #aiae and #aiaf1 ,british interests completely controlled the ,bolivian industry4 ,until #aiad one of the principal ,english companies held contracts for the production of the ,wah ,chang ,company1 the most important antimony producers in ,china2 but in #aiad this company established an independent selling agency in the ,united ,states4 ,this tends to transfer the control of the antimony market from ,england to ,china4 ,with all her vast mineral resources1 ,china has been able to obtain an important position in the world's markets with regard to but few metals4 ,of these antimony is the most striking example4 ,since #aijh over #ej per cent4 of the world's total antimony production has come from ,china4 ,molybdenum4--,the use of molybdenum in steel making is as yet almost in the experimental stage1 but it is likely to become important4 ,it is valuable in electric work4 ,up to about #aiaf practically all the molybdenum ore 7molybdenite1 a sulphide of molybdenum7 came from ,australia and ,norway4 ,shortly after the opening of the war1 the molybdenite in ,canada became prominent2 and later the ,united ,states came to the fore as a producer4 ,at present the ,united ,states can probably produce as much if not more molybdenum than all the rest of the world put together1 principally from the great newly discovered deposits at ,climax1 ,colorado4 ,before this development1 ,great ,britain was the largest producer1 in ,australia and ,canada4 ,both the ,british and the ,canadian governments have been much interested in the development of the ,canadian molybdenum1 and the ,canadian government has built a mill for the concentration of the ores4 ,prior to the war1 the ,german-controlled ,american ,metal ,company1 a branch of the ,german 8metal octopus10 obtained1 through a subsidiary1 a large share in the control of the ,climax deposits2 and the ,primos ,chemical ,company1 which had strong ,german connections before the war1 produced ferromolybdenum from ore from its own mine at ,empire1 ,colorado4 ,this1 together with the great interest taken by ,germany and ,german capital in molybdenum elsewhere1 led to the rumor of attempted ,german control of ,american molybdenum4 ,uranium4--,uranium is valuable for the manufacture of special steel1 although only used in small quantities4 ,it is of extraordinary interest on account of its association with radium1 both being obtained principally from the minerals carnotite and uraninite 7including pitchblende74 ,radium is used in medicine1 and for luminous paint4 ,the only regions which have yet produced large amounts of radium and uranium on a commercial scale are in the ,united ,states and ,austria4 ,at the present time the ,united ,states is producing several times as much as all other countries combined4 ,zirconium4--,zirconium is used in electric lighting1 and experiments have been made with zirconium steel4 ,during the war it was at one time thought to be of unusual value as a ferro-alloy4 ,zirconium occurs in nature as the mixed oxide and silicate1 baddeleyite1 and as the silicate zircon4 ,the baddeleyite deposits1 having a higher percentage of zirconium1 will probably become the chief source of the metal4 ,it occurs in commercial quantities only in ,brazil4 ,zircon deposits are found in ,brazil1 and also in ,india2 and a deposit of minor note occurs in the ,united ,states 7,florida74 ,thorium and ,mesothorium4--,with zirconium must be considered monazite1 a mineral which is the source of thorium and mesothorium4 ,thorium nitrate is used in the manufacture of ,welsbach mantles for gas burners2 mesothorium is a by-product of its manufacture from monazite1 and is a radioactive substance used as a substitute for radium in making luminous paints and for therapeutic purposes4 ,the zircon minerals and monazite typically occur together in river or beach sands4 ,like the zirconium minerals1 monazite comes mainly from ,brazil and ,india2 although it has in the past been mined successfully in the ,united ,states1 the industry is now extinct4 ,the thorium nitrate industry of the ,united ,states is closely controlled by two companies1 the ,american ,welsbach ,company1 and the ,lindsay ,light ,company4 ,during the war they furnished thorium nitrate also to ,england and ,france1 thus exercising a world-wide control4 ,,the ,,major ,,non-,,ferrous ,,metals ,copper4--,the ,united ,states stands out predominantly as the world's great copper producer1 producing in #aiag #fj per cent4 of the world's output4 ,no other country produces one-sixth as much as the ,united ,states4 ,american capital controls 7in part through control of refining7 #gh per cent4 of the world's production4 ,germany has been one of the largest consumers of copper1 though not a large producer4 ,because of this1 ,german interests have in the past secured a considerable control over copper supplies1 as well as those of lead1 zinc1 and other metals1 through refining and selling contracts with mining companies4 ,such control does not as a rule extend to ownership of mines or smelters4 ,thus for many years companies affiliated with the great ,german ,metal ,combine 7,metallgeselschaft7 were influential in the copper business of the ,united ,states4 ,there were three of these companies in the ,united ,states1 the ,american ,metal ,company1 ,l4 ,vogelstein ,co41 and ,beer-,sondheimer ,co4 ,recently the first two have consolidated2 and all were ,americanized during the war4 ,the commercial control of the copper in the world1 as based on ownership of mines1 is1 in even figures3 ,united ,states capital1 #fi per cent4 7entirely in the ,western ,hemisphere72 ,british capital1 #ac per cent4 7in both hemispheres1 but mainly in the ,eastern72 ,japanese1 #h per cent4 7entirely domestic72 ,german1 #f per cent42 and ,french1 #b per cent4 ,it will be noted that of the present production three-quarters comes from the ,western ,hemisphere 7,north and ,south ,america7 and only one-quarter from the rest of the world4 ,it is probable that this is a fair index of the relative wealth4 ,the future production of ,south ,america will probably increase more rapidly than that of ,north ,america1 which was earlier developed4 ,it is necessary for the permanent control of the copper situation by the ,united ,states that ,american capital should continue to be foremost in the development of ,south ,america4 ,lead4--,the ,united ,states is the largest producer of lead in the world and has large resources4 ,next to the ,united ,states1 in the order named1 come ,australia1 ,spain1 ,germany1 and ,mexico4 ,three powers--the ,united ,states1 ,british ,empire1 and ,spain--produce #gf per cent4 of the total2 and of these the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain produce #fj per cent4 ,the most striking feature about the lead industry is the fact that as the ,german system of far-reaching commercial control under government auspices--through smelting1 refining1 and selling--was destroyed1 this system was at once adopted by the ,british and ,french4 ,in other words1 they found that the ,german plan had been so effective that they not only blocked it permanently so far as their own countries were concerned1 but organized similar commercial-political combinations which should not only take care of all their own lead business1 but1 like the ,german organization1 should reach out into other countries4 ,the ,german combination still remains active outside the territory of the former ,allies4 ,of all the great lead-producing powers the ,united ,states is the only one which does not possess a government-controlled lead monopoly4 ,threatened commercial world monopolies of lead1 as of other minerals1 have therefore1 through the revival of nationalistic spirit due to the war1 given place to national-commercial monopolies by three powers 7,germany1 ,france1 and ,great ,britain71 each intended to become as world-wide as possible1 and thus competitive with each other and with the purely commercial organizations of the ,american lead industry4 ,in ,england this movement has taken the form of a ,british ,metals ,corporation 7covering not only lead but other metals74 ,the ,british ,treasury is represented on the ,board of ,directors4 ,in ,france1 the nationalist movement has resulted in the formation of consortiums or trade monopolies for each industry1 organized under government auspices4 ,that of the mineral industry is the ,socit ,minerais et ,metaux4 ,the official announcement states that this society is organized under the auspices of the ,french government1 in order to group the ,french metal producers1 operating both at home and abroad1 into a co-operative association for the purchase and sale of metallurgical products4 ,in ,america1 the principal commercial factor is the ,american ,smelting ,refining ,co41 dominating the market through its control of reduction plants1 although it controls directly only one-third the production4 ,zinc4--,zinc and lead are commonly associated in mineral deposits1 so that their geological and geographical distribution is nearly identical4 ,of the world's production of zinc1 the ,united ,states produces #ce per cent41 ,germany #be per cent41 ,australia #ae per cent41 and ,italy #e per cent4 ,up to the outbreak of the war in #aiad1 the position of zinc was extreme among the metals1 in that political control or state sovereignty exercised only a minor effect upon the industry4 8,economic factors10 says our author1 8made ineffective any control not international in scope4 ,a very large percentage of the zinc ores of the world were transported from the country of production to another for treatment1 in some cases even being re-exported40 ,during the war1 however1 political control was largely invoked to strengthen and restore commercial control to the chief belligerent nations4 ,this movement was particularly marked in the ,british ,empire1 where there now exists1 as above noted in the paragraphs discussing lead1 a joint political and commercial control4 ,alien interests were eliminated by government action1 and the government retained a share in the control through interests in marketing organizations or financial participation in treatment works4 ,in the zinc industry1 as in that of its closely associated metals1 copper and lead1 the ownership or control of reduction plants1 and more particularly marketing organizations1 have been more important in determining commercial control than state sovereignty or commercial ownership of mines4 ,in recent years the marketing organizations became world-wide and completely dominated the industry4 ,the ambition of ,german commercial interests to control the metal markets and resources of the world was more nearly realized in the case of zinc than of any other metal4 ,in ,france1 as noted above in the case of lead1 a government-controlled metal marketing organization has been formed for the same purpose--protection and advantage in competition4 ,however1 ,british domination of the ,european zinc industry seems certain4 ,only the ,american industry remains untouched by close organization under government auspices4 ,should ,germany lose ,silesia1 she will probably become a small factor in the zinc industry4 ,with so many doors closed in her face by the ,british and ,french political and commercial combinations1 there should be governmental precautions taken by the ,american ,government that she should not re-establish herself in the ,united ,states1 nor so far as possible 7following out to its logical conclusion the ,monroe ,doctrine7 in the rest of ,north and ,south ,america4 ,note that in the zinc industry1 as well as in every other industry1 ,japan is rapidly expanding1 and having reached the limit of her own resources1 her field of growth is in ,korea1 ,china1 and ,siberia4 ,japan's present zinc-smelting capacity is greater than her domestic consumption1 and much greater than the domestic ore supply2 and ore is imported from ,china1 ,siberia1 ,indo-,china1 and ,australia4 ,tin4--,tin belongs to a group of minerals that are classifiable together by the fact that they are not of widespread distribution1 but are found in really commercial quantity only on a few spots of the globe1 and yet are absolutely necessary for our industrial civilization4 ,such also are chromium1 platinum1 potash salts1 nitrates1 and nickel4 ,of this political-commercial group1 tin is an important member4 ,it is noteworthy of this group that the ,united ,states is not the lucky holder of the first prize in any of these cases4 ,in the case of chromium1 it is mainly the ,french and ,british colonies1 of platinum it is ,russia and ,colombia1 of potash salts it is ,germany1 of nitrates it is ,chili1 of nickel again the ,british and ,french colonies1 and in the case of tin it is southeastern ,asia and ,bolivia4 ,the ,united ,states produces less than one-fifth of #a per cent4 of its requirements1 and its control of foreign tin resources through mine ownership is negligible4 ,on the other hand1 the ,united ,states consumes over half the tin of the world1 and is the largest manufacturer and distributor of tin products4 ,the tin-mining and smelting industry of the world is dominated by ,great ,britain4 ,tin is used in the manufacture of tin plate1 in solder1 brass1 and many other essential uses1 and no satisfactory substitute is available4 ,in war as well as peace1 tin cans are as necessary as rifles4 ,aluminum is the most likely possible substitute for tin in containers1 and the ,united ,states controls the aluminum industry4 ,about #fh per cent4 of the tin is produced at present from southeastern ,asia and neighboring islands1 #ba per cent4 from ,bolivia1 #d per cent4 from ,nigeria and ,south ,africa1 and #c per cent4 from ,england4 ,the ,bolivian production will probably tend to increase4 ,mercury4--,mercury1 or quicksilver1 is a mineral of some importance1 although by far not in the class of the last four discussed above4 ,it is useful for drugs and chemicals2 as a detonator for high explosives2 as a pigment2 for treating gold and silver ores2 and for many other uses4 ,the greatest quicksilver deposits in the world are in ,spain4 ,the ,united ,states comes second4 ,the important ,idria mine1 near ,trieste1 formerly ,austrian1 but at last accounts in possession of ,italy1 takes third place4 ,the production from the rest of the world is small4 ,spain1 ,italy1 and the ,united ,states1 therefore1 divide the production and the control through state sovereignty4 ,the great mine of ,spain1 the ,almaden 7the greatest in the world71 is also owned and worked by the ,spanish government4 ,the ,spanish government contracts1 on the basis of competitive proposals1 with the successful bidder for the sale of quicksilver for a term of ten years4 ,for a number of successive periods1 the contract has been awarded to the ,rothschilds of ,london4 ,by this arrangement the market is controlled in ,london2 and during the war the sale was taken over by the ,british government4 ,the control of the marketing of the product of this mine enables those in control to fix the price of quicksilver in the world's markets4 ,aluminum4--,an important metal at present1 and one bound to be eventually still more important1 is aluminum4 ,while one of the principal constituents of all rocks1 in the form of silicates1 its release from that combination is so difficult that it has not been solved on a commercial scale4 ,since there is much more aluminum than iron in the earth's compounds1 however1 there will never be a shortage1 if cost is disregarded4 ,commercial aluminum is manufactured from the oxide1 bauxite4 ,bauxite is also used directly as an abrasive and also as a refractory4 ,the largest bauxite deposits are controlled politically by the ,united ,states and ,france1 with the ,british ,empire in a favorable prospective position4 ,the aluminum works of the world are controlled by ,great ,britain1 ,france1 and ,germany1 and also ,switzerland1 ,italy1 and ,norway4 ,the aluminum industry of the ,united ,states and ,canada is practically in the hands of one company1 the ,aluminum ,company of ,america1 which also holds interests in ,south ,america and other countries4 ,the ,french producers of aluminum have effected a central organization through the incorporation of a selling company1 ,l',aluminium ,franaise4 ,the ,british ,aluminium ,company is the sole producer in ,england1 and controls the ,irish deposits4 ,,the ,,non-,,metallic ,,minerals ,emery and ,corundum4--,abrasives are essential and important in the industries4 ,chief1 perhaps1 in the group of natural abrasives are emery and corundum1 which are superior in hardness to other abrasives such as quartz1 tripoli1 garnet1 and pumice4 ,they are used in grinding and polishing metals--chiefly iron and steel--and glass4 ,commercially important deposits of emery and corundum are located in the ,appalachian region of the ,united ,states1 on the islands of the ,grecian ,archipelago 7especially ,naxos71 in ,asia ,minor1 ,india1 ,madagascar1 and ,south ,africa4 ,there is little control other than that inherent in state sovereignty4 ,magnesite4--,magnesite is a mineral of some importance1 used mainly in metallurgical operations and as a refractory material for lining furnaces2 also for the manufacture of a cement for flooring4 ,magnesite is not a rare mineral1 and deposits are widespread4 ,productive and commercial deposits are located in the ,united ,states 7,california and ,washington71 ,canada1 ,mexico 7,lower ,california71 ,venezuela1 ,austria1 ,germany1 ,spain1 ,greece1 and other countries4 ,not rare enough to be the subject of great combinations1 the interesting international feature of the trade is that which centers in the ,united ,states4 ,until recently large magnesite deposits were not known in the ,united ,states1 but in the last few years vast deposits have been developed in ,california and ,oregon4 ,previous to the war1 the deposits of ,austria were mainly drawn on by consumers in the ,eastern ,united ,states1 and during the war ,canadian magnesite was mainly used4 ,american firms own considerable interests in the deposits in ,austria1 and probably in some of those in ,canada1 ,mexico and ,venezuela4 ,graphite4--,graphite is used for crucibles for steel and brass making1 for foundry facings1 pencils1 shoe polish1 as a lubricant1 etc4 ,crystalline graphite only is used for crucibles4 ,the supply of this for ,american consumption was one of the problems of the war4 ,of the crystalline graphite deposits1 it is believed that those of the ,french colony of ,madagascar will1 on account of their richness--if competition is free--supplant ,american and ,german deposits2 the deposits of ,ceylon are regarded as on the wane4 ,amorphous graphite will probably come from ,austria1 ,mexico and ,korea4 ,the deposits of the ,united ,states are extensive but of low grade4 ,mica4--,mica is an essential mineral1 especially in electrical work4 ,one of the commonest minerals of nearly all rocks1 it becomes valuable only when it occurs in crystals or sheets of large size1 which are of comparatively rare occurrence1 being found only in certain pegmatite dikes4 ,india1 ,canada1 and the ,united ,states produce about #ih per cent4 of the sheet mica of the world4 ,brazil1 ,argentina1 and the former ,german ,east ,africa are becoming important4 ,india produces #fe per cent4 of the total world production2 the ,united ,states only #ae per cent4 ,brazilian mica is expected to be of much greater importance in the future than in the past1 although ,india will doubtless retain its position as the most important producer4 ,the ,british ,empire controls #ge per cent4 of the sheet-mica production4 ,before the war1 ,germany had obtained a large measure of commercial control in ,indian mines1 and by virtue of her dominant position in the electrical industry1 threatened to control the mica market of the world4 ,the ,united ,states is now the largest consumer2 but as the important development of the electrical industry in ,england during the war places it in the position formerly occupied by ,germany and ,austria1 it requires a larger supply of the mica from ,india1 and this may lead to a permanent ,british control4 ,london is the distributing center for ,indian mica1 and ,london prices regulate the market4 ,during the war ,indian mica was controlled by the ,british government and allotted to the ,allied nations at fixed prices4 ,a permanent ,british monopoly of the mica market can probably best be obviated by the development of the ,brazilian field by ,american electrical manufacturers4 ,asbestos4--,asbestos is an essential mineral1 on account of its incombustibility and insulating qualities1 together with its fibrous structure1 which enables it to be spun or woven into ropes and fabrics2 and on this account it has a wide and varied use4 ,there are mineralogically three kinds of asbestos--chrysotile1 crocidolite1 and anthophyllite--the last being1 as a rule1 of non-spinning quality4 ,chrysotile is the most valuable commercially3 crocidolite1 or blue asbestos1 will not bear high temperature like the other varieties1 and on account of its low fusibility is useful for electric welding4 ,therefore1 the main asbestos problem centers about the deposits of high-grade chrysotile1 especially as the supplies of anthophyllite asbestos are abundant1 and with its restricted uses1 ample for an indefinite period4 ,the most important deposits of chrysotile asbestos are in ,quebec1 ,canada1 but large deposits are also worked in ,russia and ,rhodesia4 ,the ,united ,states is by far the largest manufacturer of asbestos products in the world1 but produces only a small fraction of the necessary materials4 ,the presence of the deposits in ,canada1 however1 provides the ,american industry with an ample supply4 ,british companies hold exclusive control of the production of ,south ,africa1 ,australasia1 and ,italy3 of these1 ,south ,africa includes the ,rhodesian deposits of chrysotile1 which are among the most important in the world4 ,altogether1 the ,british ,empire is in a dominating position1 controlling about #hh per cent4 of the annual asbestos production of the world and approximately #gj per cent4 of the estimated reserves4 ,canada is in the lead of all countries1 supplying about #he per cent4 of the world's production4 ,should the ,british policy as to other mineral industries be carried out in the case of asbestos we may expect action on the part of the ,british or ,canadian government to transfer the center of asbestos manufacture from the ,united ,states to ,canada or ,england4 ,,the ,,fertilizer ,,minerals ,we have above touched on four great groups of minerals--the fuel minerals1 the steel and ferro-alloy minerals1 the major non-ferrous minerals1 and the non-metallic minerals4 ,next comes a group by itself--the fertilizer minerals or elementary substances1 chief among which are phosphate rock1 potash1 nitrates1 and sulphur and sulphuric acid4 ,all of these appear essential to the re-invigorating of the soil as successive crops are removed1 and so to securing a permanency of its original productivity4 ,phosphate ,rock4--,phosphate rock is a natural substance which is used mainly as an ingredient of fertilizers1 being finely ground and used directly4 ,large quantities are also used for making phosphoric acid and phosphorus1 the latter being used in matches1 etc4 ,phosphate rock is a bedded or sedimentary deposit containing phosphate of lime2 phosphate of lime also occurs as nodules in stream beds4 ,another type of deposit commonly classed as phosphate rock is the porous coral or limestone of tropical islands1 permeated with phosphate leached from guano4 ,the phosphate rock deposits of present commercial importance are located in the ,united ,states1 ,algeria1 ,tunis1 and ,egypt1 the ,united ,states possessing by far the largest reserves4 ,the ,united ,states has also the largest industry of production4 ,politically the principal deposits are controlled by the ,united ,states1 ,france 7,tunis and ,algeria7 and ,great ,britain 7,egypt74 ,the commercial control of the deposits of the ,united ,states is mainly in the hands of ,americans1 although ,german and ,french interests own some of the hard-rock deposits4 ,the deposits of ,algeria and ,tunis are controlled by two companies1 one ,british and the other ,italian4 ,germany will be without a source of supply under her own control now that her colonies have been forfeited4 ,from the above it will be seen that there is no probability of a world control or monopoly of phosphates4 ,the ,united ,states is in a position to command the market unless nationalistic legislation in the various countries is enacted to protect and advance their own industries4 ,potash4--,potash is a most important fertilizer1 over #ij per cent4 of all potash used being so employed1 the remainder going into the manufacture of explosives and glass1 and into the chemical industry4 ,up to #aiad practically all the world's supply of potash came from the great natural rock-salt deposits of ,stassfurt1 ,germany4 ,next in importance come the deposits of ,alsace1 containing sufficient to supply the world's present demands for #cjj years4 ,large undeveloped deposits exist in northeastern ,spain4 ,germany made active practical use of her natural potash wealth in erecting a government monopoly1 which supplied the world4 ,this advantage was made much of in her plans for further political and commercial conquest1 and in the writings of the vainglorious ,teutons4 ,in potash1 they openly boasted1 they had an all-powerful commercial weapon which would oblige other nations to supply in exchange raw materials such as ,germany needed1 as cotton and copper from the ,united ,states4 ,with her political collapse1 however1 her commercial potash monopoly has also gone4 ,the vast deposits of ,alsatian potash have gone to ,france1 and while ,german potash may still perhaps be produced and sold more cheaply1 the ,alsatian deposits will act as a check4 ,a commercial combination between the two1 and including the ,spanish deposits1 is1 however1 not at all out of the question4 ,potash is one of the commonest elements in the earth1 and in the ,united ,states there is an abundant supply but it is largely in the form of silicates1 and so more difficult and expensive to extract than from the soluble natural salts of ,germany4 ,nitrates4--,nitrates are essential in an extraordinary degree1 in various ways3 as fertilizer1 and so essential to food and life2 as the source of ammonia1 and therefore necessary to the modern system of food refrigeration2 as an essential ingredient in explosives1 and thus indispensable for the national defense4 ,just as potash is one of the commonest elements of the earth1 so nitrogen is one of the commonest elements of the air1 of which it constitutes four-fifths4 ,it should not1 therefore1 be hard to get2 but to isolate it and catch it in usable form--in technical terms1 to 8fix0 it--is difficult1 slow and expensive4 ,nature has not done much toward 8fixing0 nitrogen in her mineral supplies2 and although it is constantly being 8fixed0 in animal and vegetable organisms1 it is largely soon returned to the atmosphere as ammonia or in other forms1 or1 being in the form of soluble salts1 is leached from the soil and carried away1 either to be transformed again to the atmosphere1 or1 rarely1 to be accumulated under arid conditions by evaporation into mineral deposits4 ,for some hitherto unexplained reason1 only in ,chili have mineral deposits of importance thus been formed2 and the ,chilean deposits have till lately supplied the world1 giving ,chile even a far more exclusive position as regards nitrates than was held by ,germany as regards potash2 but there has never been any monopolistic control of the ,chilean nitrate supply4 ,besides this mineral source1 and the obtaining of nitrogen from the air by fixation1 important sources of fertilizer nitrogen are contained in organic matter--refuse vegetable or animal remains1 or animal excreta--and also from coal1 as a by-product of coke manufacture4 ,previous to the war1 ,germany anticipated being deprived of ,chilean nitrate by developing fixation and by-product processes1 through which she supplied herself during the war4 ,other countries have not been so thorough4 ,during the war1 the danger of the ,united ,states being cut off from supplies of ,chilean nitrates by the ,german submarine campaign1 led to the ,government projecting and starting four large and expensive plants for nitrogen fixation4 ,they were unfinished when the war closed4 ,about five-eighths or less of the nitrogen consumed has been from various organic sources1 including the by-production from coke making4 ,by-product nitrogen in the ,united ,states is estimated at around one-eighth of the entire supply4 ,the remaining three-eighths has been furnished largely by ,chilean nitrates4 ,,the ,,precious ,,metals ,gold4--,in the group of precious metals1 gold is of the most importance1 mainly as the time-honored and unreplaceable measure of value and medium of exchange4 ,this position it has sometimes shared with silver1 but no country has ever refused to thus recognize gold4 ,gold is found all over the world1 but the ,british ,empire produces #fj per cent4 of it1 while the ,united ,states produces #bj per cent4 ,political and commercial control are nearly identical in the case of gold1 which is easily reduced to the metal state and thenceforth passes current1 requiring no selling agencies4 ,due to the commerce brought on by the war1 the ,united ,states now has a larger gold reserve than any other nation4 ,silver4--8,silver10 says our author1 8is used both for money and in the arts1 the former use being the more important and more essential4 ,in some countries1 especially those producing silver in large amounts1 it is the money standard1 either alone or with gold4 ,in other countries on a gold standard silver is used for subsidiary coinage4 ,in ,india and ,china it is used for the settlement of foreign trade exchange balances40 ,in countries with elaborate financial systems1 where paper currency is freely accepted1 as in the ,united ,states and ,europe1 it is not such an essential money metal2 but in other countries it directly replaces and conserves gold4 ,on this account silver is not an article of luxury1 but an essential4 ,the coinage of silver increased in ,europe as the war progressed1 and was essential in bringing supplies from the ,far ,east to the battle fronts4 ,while the normal annual silver production is around #aei1jjj1jjj ounces1 the demand during #aiah exceeded #ejj1jjj1jjj ounces4 ,silver production adds to the stock of money1 increases confidence in financial conditions1 and furnishes1 with and subsidiary to gold1 a basis for credit4 ,about half of the world's silver output is as a by-product of the production of other metals1 notably lead and copper2 and accordingly the production of silver is largely independent of the price4 ,of the world's total silver production1 over #hj per cent4 comes from the mines of the ,western ,hemisphere4 ,for many years ,mexico was the leading producer1 until all its industries became disorganized by revolution4 ,the ,united ,states1 always a close second1 is now in a leading position4 ,canada1 ,central ,america1 and ,south ,america are important4 ,in the ,eastern ,hemisphere1 ,australia is the leading producer4 ,the principal silver deposits of the world are controlled politically by the ,united ,states1 ,mexico1 and ,great ,britain1 these three controlling #he per cent4 of the total production in #aiac4 ,platinum4--,platinum is controlled chiefly by ,russia1 being produced otherwise in important quantity only in ,colombia4 ,american interests predominate in ,colombia4 ,before the war there was an interlocking of the interests of the platinum refiners of the ,united ,states1 ,germany1 and ,great ,britain1 with the ,german influence very marked4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,the control according to political sovereignty 7territorial ownership7 of the world's mineral production4 7,facing page #edj7 ,,political ,,control 7,,territorial7 ,,iron #aiac #aia1igh1gej ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #cg ,,british ,,empire #aa ,,france #ad ,,lorraine #aj ,,rest ,,of ,,germany #f ,,austria-,,hungary #c ,,spain #f ,,russia #e ,,all ,,others #f ,,coal #aiac #a1dgh1jjj1jjj ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #ci ,,british ,,empire #bf ,,france #c ,,germany #ba ,,aust4- ,,hungary #d ,,all ,,others #g ,,petroleum #aiag #ejb1ihj1fjj ,barrels ,,united ,,states #fg ,,brit4 ,,emp4 #b ,,russia #ad ,,mexico #aa ,,all ,,others #f ,,copper #aiag #a1fjd1dgb ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #fj ,,brit4 ,,emp4 #h ,,japan #h ,,chile #e ,,central ,,powers #c ,,all ,,others #ac ,,zinc #aiac #a1jie1fhf ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #cb ,,british ,,empire #f ,,france #g ,,belgium #cj ,,germany #bh ,,all ,,others #g ,,pig ,,lead#aia #a1cga1ijj ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #de ,,british ,,empire #ac ,,france #b ,,spain #aa ,,germany #ad ,,aust4-,,hungary #b ,,all ,,others #ac ,,gold #aiag #dbe1dhf1djj ,dollars ,,united ,,states #ai ,,british ,,empire #fd ,,russia #d ,,japan #b ,,all ,,others #aa ,,silver #aiac #bbc1abg1jjj ,ounces ,,united ,,states #cj ,,british ,,empire #bc ,,central ,,powers #c ,,mexico #cb ,,all ,,others #ab ,,nickel #aiac #cb1jaf ,short ,tons ,,british ,,empire #he ,,france #aa ,,hungary #b ,,all ,,others #b ,,graphite #aiac #aci1bhc ,short ,tons ,,british ,,empire #bb ,,france #f ,,italy #i ,,germany #i ,,austria-,,hungary #ci ,,japan #h ,,all ,,others #d ,,mercury #aiac #d1gbe ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #af ,,italy #bc ,,spain #cc ,,austria-,,hungary #ba ,,all ,,others #e ,,tin #aiag #acg1aii ,short ,tons ,,british ,,empire #ej ,,netherlands #ad ,,bolivia #ba ,,china #h ,,all ,,others #i ,,manganese #aiac #b1fjg1dhc ,short ,tons ,,british ,,empire #ce ,,russia #ee ,,brazil #e ,,all ,,others #e ,,potash #aiac #a1bdg1iib ,short ,tons ,,germany 7,,stassfurt7 #ic ,,germany ,,alsace #e ,,all ,,others #b ,,tungsten #aiag #bf1ghc ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #ag ,,british ,,empire #cd ,,cen4 ,,pow4 #a ,,japan #g ,,bolivia #af ,,china #f ,,all ,,others #ai ,,platinum #aiac #bfg1bcc ,troy ,ounces ,,russia #ic ,,colombia #f ,,all ,,others #a ,,sulphur #aiaf #a1ajj1jjj ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #fe ,,italy #bc ,,japan #aj ,,all ,,others #b ,,asbestos #aiac #aeh1jaf ,short ,tons ,,british ,,empire #hg ,,russia #ab ,,all ,,others #a ,prepared by3 ,john ,e4 ,orchard1 ,assistant ,mine ,economist1 ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,mines1 ,may #a1 #aiai #aia ,recent ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,the control1 according to commercial or financial ownership of the world's mineral production4 7,insert following ,fig4 #bc7 ,,commercial ,,control 7,,financial7 7,percentages are ,estimated7 ,,iron #aiac #aia1igh1gej ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #cg ,,british ,,empire #ab ,,france #aa ,,germany #bg ,,aust4 ,,hungary #c ,,all ,,others #aj ,,coal #aiac #a1dgh1jjj1jjj ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #ce ,,british ,,empire #bd ,,france #c ,,germany #ba ,,aust4 ,,hungary #d ,,all ,,others #ac ,,petroleum #aiag #ejb1ihj1fjj ,barrels ,,united ,,states #gb ,,british ,,empire #i ,,netherlands #ge ,,germany #b ,,all ,,others #aj ,,copper #aiag #a1fjd1dgb ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #fi ,,british ,,empire #ac ,,france #b ,,germany #f ,,all ,,others #aj ,,zinc #aiac #a1jih1fhf ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #cb ,,brit4 ,,emp4 #f ,,france #ab ,,belgium #aj ,,germany #cd ,,all ,,others #f ,,pig ,,lead#aib #a1cga1ijj ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #di ,,british ,,empire #ag ,,france #ac ,,germany #ae ,,all ,,others #f ,,gold #aiag #dbe1dhf1djj ,dollars ,,united ,,states #bc ,,british ,,empire #fc ,,france #f ,,centl4 ,,powers #a ,,all ,,others #g ,,silver #aiac #bbc1abg1jjj ,ounces ,,united ,,states #eb ,,british ,,empire #cc ,,germany #aj ,,all ,,others #e ,,nickel #aiac #cb1jaf ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #ea ,,british ,,empire #ci ,,france #f ,,germany #d ,,graphite #aiac #aci1bhc ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #aa ,,british ,,empire #be ,,france #d ,,italy #g ,,germany #aj ,,austria-,,hungary #cf ,,all ,,others #g ,,mercury #aiac #d1gbe ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #af ,,british ,,empire #ce ,,italy #aa ,,germany #ac ,,austria- ,,hungary #ba ,,all ,,others #d ,,tin #aiag #acg1aii ,short ,tons ,,british ,,empire #fg ,,france #a ,,germany #a ,,netherlands #ad ,,chile #aa ,,bolivia #g ,,china #g ,,all ,,others #b ,,manganese #aiac #b1fjg1dhc ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #d ,,british ,,empire #ca ,,france #c ,,germany #ag ,,austria- ,,hungary #b ,,russia #cf ,,all ,,others #g ,,potash #aiac #a1bdg1ihb ,short ,tons ,,germany 7,,stassfurt7 #ic ,,germany 7,,alsace7 #e ,,all ,,others #b ,,tungsten #aiag #bf1ghc ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #ce ,,british ,,empire #ee ,,france #d ,,germany #a ,,all ,,others #c ,,platinum #aiac #bfg1bcc ,troy ,ounces ,,united ,,states #d ,,british ,,empire #b ,,france #gd ,,russia #ae ,,all ,,others #b ,,sulphur #aiaf #a1ajj1jjj ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #fe ,,italy #bc ,,japan #aj ,,all ,,others #b ,,asbestos #aiac #aeh1jaf ,short ,tons ,,united ,,states #bd ,,british ,,empire #fd ,,central ,,powers #aj ,,all ,,others #b ,prepared by ,john ,e4 ,orchard ,assistant ,mine ,economist ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,mines1 ,may #a1 #aiai #aib ,recent ,who ,owns the ,earth8--,the answer to our inquiry at the head of this chapter1 8,who ,owns the ,earth80 is therefore answered by these summaries1 and is further set forth in the accompanying charts1 one showing political 7or1 rather1 in this case1 strictly territorial7 control1 and the other commercial control1 ,figs4 #bc and #bd4 ,as based upon the territorial and commercial control of the fundamental minerals1 it appears that the earth is owned by the two great ,anglo-,saxon nations1 the ,united ,states and the ,british ,empire3 the former by destiny and good fortune and without political plan or policy1 in that such a vast store of mineral wealth was found in the great sparsely populated wilderness of ,america which it occupied2 the latter through the imperial policy of ,britain1 developed through hundreds of years by the need of extending commerce and the flag into far-off lands to supplant the slender resources of its own limited islands4 ,of the two1 the ,united ,states is rather in the lead1 and possesses and controls more of the world's mineral wealth than any other nation2 but ,great ,britain is a close second4 ,rapid changes occur1 however1 in these days1 and the future must be inspected4 ,the imperial policy of expansion and increasing political control has become a tradition and an instinct with ,great ,britain2 she learned since the loss of her ,american colonies to give full autonomy to her more intelligent colonies1 so that she strengthens her dominion thereby1 and persistently goes on her way putting more and more of the earth under the ,british flag4 ,the wealth and resources of the ,united ,states being so far greater than its necessities1 foreign problems have resolved into occasional questions of self-protection2 and from this condition a directly resulting theory has sprung1 of non-interference in the rest of the world4 ,like ,china1 we declare ourselves apart from the world1 and simply ask to be left alone1 in consideration of which we agree to leave the world alone4 ,our ,monroe ,doctrine as originated is part of that theory--we wanted the world to leave all the ,americas alone1 but took no responsibility for the ,americas otherwise--a selfish and one-sided position4 ,the manner in which we cling to this doctrine is stupid and ineffective3 while we have conceived of it only as applying to military or political encroachment1 we have overlooked the modern phase of commercial conquest4 ,thereby we gain the suspicion of our ,latin-,american neighbors1 who accordingly welcome more gladly ,european or ,japanese rather than ,american capital2 and thus we encourage the very encroachments we have thought to prevent4 ,we should either abandon the ,monroe ,doctrine entirely1 or define it also in terms of political control4 ,therefore1 as regards our great industries1 and1 more specifically1 our mineral industries1 we have never had any definite policy2 our troubles and problems were purely internal1 and the ,government's efforts were largely directed to preventing such solidarity of any one industry that its power should be too great1 although ,american organizing genius first successfully developed these colossal business combinations1 rising without government support4 ,england1 too1 and ,france1 with their democratic traditions1 tended to resist the overwhelming power of great business organizations1 as leading to the destruction of equal opportunity and threatening the power of the state4 ,it remained for ,germany1 pressing impudently toward the conquest of the world1 to see the advantage of combining the powers of the state with those of business monopolies1 as a means of regulating industry at home and overpowering other nations4 ,thus the old question of the union or separation of ,church and ,state becomes one of ,business and ,state4 ,the success of this plan of ,german penetration was most clearly and disagreeably brought home to the ,british mind1 as well as to the ,french and the ,american perception1 by the war1 and during the war ,england took under government control her mineral industries more definitely and systematically than did we4 ,moreover1 perceiving the success of the ,german system as a means of penetration and as a method against competitors1 she has adopted it1 there being a striking tendency to put her key industries under syndicates1 unions1 cartels1 or trusts controlled directly by the state4 ,a system of state socialism thus takes the place of the freedom of individual competition4 ,as regards the mineral industries1 much the same action has been taken by ,france4 ,but in ,america1 dropping all the problems and half-learned lessons of the war1 we return to the status quo ante4 ,if this difference continues1 it is certain that ,british control of the earth--whereby we mean its minerals--will eventually preponderate4 ,as far as we are concerned1 we should perhaps rather see it in the hands of ,great ,britain than of any other power1 but must we not decide upon our own course as a rich and populous nation of an increasingly close-packed but seething and yet unorganized globe8 ,our statesmen1 newspapers1 and financiers proclaim to the world that we intend to take the lion's share of the world's shipping and commerce4 ,england says nothing1 but puts her government directly behind her own industries1 while the ,american ,government still holds aloof from them4 ,nationalism has been revived in ,europe1 and especially in ,england and ,france1 as the result of the struggle to prevail against the intense ,german nationalistic spirit1 which all but subjugated a world drifting comfortably into internationalism4 ,it is conceivably a step backward1 a reversion1 but what attitude shall ,america take8 ,the ,british and ,french nationalism need not disquiet us so much as that of the ,japanese1 still more intense and purposeful1 and working with the same ,german tools 7not invented in ,germany1 but in ,america1 but1 like most ,german arts1 successfully copied and utilized71 now adopted by ,england and ,france in self-defense4 ,america also has had a rebirth of nationalism1 quite necessary in the existing state of affairs4 ,as the case now stands1 the ,united ,states largely predominates in the petroleum industry1 with #ga per cent4 of the world's production in #aiag2 ,england1 far behind1 is in a way to overtake us with giant strides under her new system4 ,in the basic necessities of coal and iron1 the ,united ,states also leads4 ,the second place in the steel industry1 held by ,germany1 was presumably lost as a result of the war1 and probably passes to ,england1 already second in coal and with her iron industries in charge of a government-controlled syndicate for purposes of protection and expansion4 ,in copper1 the ,united ,states is far away in the lead1 with ,england a long second1 and in lead1 also1 with half the world's production1 with ,england second4 ,before the war ,england and ,germany were about tied for second place1 and the latter was rapidly drawing ahead through her state-controlled commercial methods2 but the war will set her back greatly4 ,in zinc1 the ,united ,states had the greatest production 7#cb per cent47 before the war1 slightly more than ,germany 7#bh per cent471 but ,german methods gave it the preponderance of actual commercial control4 ,the result of the war will restore the commercial supremacy to the ,united ,states1 and the importance of ,england will increase4 ,in silver1 the ,united ,states now leads in production and in both territorial and commercial control1 and1 by her commercial control over ,mexican production1 controls one-half of the world's output1 with ,great ,britain a strong commercial second1 having nearly #dj per cent4 of it4 ,in the production of the important mineral1 sulphur1 the ,united ,states is far in advance of the world1 with #fe per cent4 of the world's production in #aiaf4 ,italy is second1 ,japan third1 and ,england is practically unrepresented4 ,phosphate rock is dominated1 both territorially and commercially1 by the ,united ,states1 but there are other supplies for ,england1 and ,france has abundance in her own territory4 ,vanadium is commercially controlled by the ,united ,states1 although territorially by ,peru4 ,molybdenum has very lately come to be controlled by the ,united ,states1 with ,great ,britain1 formerly first1 now second4 ,in uranium and radium the ,united ,states also has first place1 with ,austria a long second4 ,the aluminum industry is strongest in the ,united ,states1 although very important also in ,france4 ,in the following1 however1 ,great ,britain has control3 the important 8key industry0 of tin1 where her territorial control is one-half and her commercial control absolute1 whereas the ,united ,states is not represented2 in the important nickel industry1 by territorial control of #hj per cent41 and by a commercial control that is now probably predominant over the strong ,american interests1 as a result of an active government policy2 in tungsten1 where she controls territorially the greatest production 7#cd per cent471 and where she has commercial supremacy1 controlling #ed per cent4 7#aiag71 the ,united ,states being second1 with a commercial control of #ce per cent4 7although its territorial control is only #ag per cent41 about equal to that of ,bolivia74 ,in manganese1 ,russia nominally leads1 with #cf per cent4 commercial control 7#ee per cent4 of the world's production in #aiac72 but under present conditions the effect is to give ,england the lead1 with the ,united ,states in a position of minor importance4 ,in chromium1 ,great ,britain and ,france control through a syndicate1 in which the ,british interest is in the majority1 and the ,united ,states occupies a subordinate position with regard to both these countries4 ,in gold production the ,british ,empire controls #fc per cent42 the ,united ,states #bc per cent4 ,in graphite in #aiac the ,british ,empire was second to ,austria-,hungary4 ,it will now take the first place1 and the ,united ,states will be a competitor4 ,in asbestos1 the ,british ,empire produces #hg per cent4 and controls commercially #fc per cent4 of the world's total1 the ,united ,states being negligible in production1 but second in commercial control 7of ,canadian asbestos74 ,mercury1 territorially1 is mainly in the hands of ,spain1 but the industry is actually dominated by ,england1 under selling arrangements4 ,antimony has long been controlled by ,england1 but control may revert to ,china1 which means the possibility of its becoming ,japanese4 ,mica1 essential for electrical work1 is controlled by ,great ,britain4 ,only a few minerals remain in which most of the industry is not in the hands of either the ,united ,states or ,england3 potash1 formerly a ,german monopoly1 and now divided between ,germany and ,france1 with ,germany likely predominant2 and mineral nitrates1 in ,chilean territory1 with no marked national commercial control other than that of ,chile4 ,both ,america and ,england are strong in their grip on the world's mineral industries--,england much stronger than before the war and with a freshly set purpose to expand4 ,a combination of these two countries would amount to a practical world control of minerals1 and1 with ,france1 a little stronger control4 ,this much for the present1 but uncertain quantities loom shadowy1 in the destiny of ,russia1 the future of ,asia1 and the progress of ,japan4 ,japan is intently embarking on a course toward the domination of ,asia1 politically and commercially4 ,her present position is not so significant as the consideration of her rapid progress1 the knowledge of the rich field in which she is to work1 and a study of her militaristic methods1 which remind one of those of ,germany4 ,japan holds to no ally that will not 7temporarily7 aid her in her forward march1 and in the weakness of ,russia1 ,china1 and ,korea she sees her opportunity4 ,the war to her was an unmixed blessing4 ,she took no chances1 and seized enormous advantages4 ,there are three great figures of nations which seem to have been destined to be1 in these times1 of critical importance to the ,united ,states3 in the past ,germany2 in the present1 ,great ,britain2 in the future1 ,japan4 ,the ,german question was settled in the only possible way2 for ,england the only sane solution is a closer-knit alliance2 and for ,japan1 watchfulness and friendly intentions4 ,,index ,africa ,asbestos in1 #cid ,bauxite and aluminum in1 #cej ,chrome in1 #aad ,copper in1 #bdf ,copper1 exports to ,united ,states1 #bdi2 copper production1 #bdf1 #bdi ,east ,africa ,mica in1 #chc ,emery and corundum in1 #cei ,gold in1 #dgc ,magnesite in1 #cfh ,north ,africa ,copper in1 #bdh ,phosphate in1 #dje ,south ,africa ,gold in1 #dgc2 gold1 financial control1 #dhh ,mica in1 #chd ,tin in1 #cbc ,west ,africa ,copper in1 #bdh ,gold in1 #dgd ,alaska4 ,see ,united ,states4 ,algeria ,antimony in1 #ahe ,iron ores of1 #ga ,lead in1 #bgc ,phosphate in1 #djf ,zinc in1 #cjc ,alloys of antimony1 #agb2 of chrome1 #aji2 of manganese1 #ij2 of molybdenum1 #aia2 of nickel1 #abi2 of platinum and iridium1 #ejf2 of tungsten1 #adb2 of vanadium1 #afc2 of zirconium1 #baj ,alsace4 ,see ,france and ,germany4 ,petroleum control in1 #af ,potash control in1 #dah ,aluminum 7bauxite7 ,changes in practice1 #cdi ,chapter on1 #cdi ,aluminum ,control of aluminum1 commercial1 #ceb2 in ,france1 #cec2 in ,germany-,austria1 #ced2 in ,great ,britain1 #cec2 in ,italy1 #ced2 in ,norway1 #cec2 in the ,guianas1 #cec2 in the ,united ,states and ,canada1 #ceb ,geographical distribution1 #cej2 in ,africa1 #cej2 in ,australia1 #cej2 in ,china1 #cea2 in ,south ,america1 #cej2 in the ,united ,states1 #cej2 in ,europe1 #cej2 in ,india1 #cej ,summary1 #ced ,uses of1 #cdi ,works1 capacity1 #ceb ,world's output1 #cea ,antimony ,alloys of1 #agb ,chapter on1 #agb ,geographical distribution1 #agc1 #agd1 #age2 in ,africa1 #ahe2 in ,algeria1 #ahe2 in ,asia1 #ahb2 in ,australia1 #ahf2 in ,austria and ,hungary1 #agi2 in ,bolivia1 #agh2 in ,borneo1 #ahb2 in ,canada1 #agg2 in ,china1 #ahb1 #ahc2 in ,europe1 #agi2 in ,france1 #agi2 in ,germany1 #ahj2 in ,great ,britain1 #ahj2 in ,india1 #ahd2 in ,indo-,china1 #ahd2 in ,italy1 #aha2 in ,japan1 #ahd2 in ,mexico1 #agg2 in ,north ,america1 #agf2 in ,peru1 #agi2 in ,portugal1 #ahb2 in ,russia1 #ahb2 in ,serbia1 #ahb2 in ,south ,africa1 #ahe2 in ,south ,america1 #agh2 in ,spain1 #ahb2 in ,turkey1 #ahd2 in the ,united ,states1 #agf ,position of ,england1 #ahg2 position of ,france1 #ahh2 position of ,germany1 #ahh2 position of ,japan1 #ahh2 position of ,united ,states1 #ahg ,production of world1 #ahf ,recent industrial conditions1 #ahh ,summary1 #ahi ,uses of1 #agb ,world situation1 #ecj ,argentina ,copper in1 #bde ,petroleum control in1 #af ,asbestos in ,africa1 #cid2 in ,asia1 #cid2 in ,canada and ,newfoundland1 #cic2 in ,europe1 #cic2 in ,italy1 #cic2 in ,mexico1 ,central and ,south ,america1 #cic2 in the ,united ,states1 #cia ,anthophyllite1 in ,united ,states1 #cib ,changes in practice1 #chi ,chapter on1 #chh ,chrysolite1 in ,united ,states1 #cia ,control in ,canada1 #cih2 in ,south ,africa1 #cih2 in ,united ,states1 #cig ,control1 political and commercial1 #cig ,future changes1 #cie ,geographical distribution1 #cia ,geological distribution1 #chi ,position of ,great ,britain1 #cii2 position of the ,united ,states1 #cii ,substitutes for1 #chi ,summary1 #djj ,uses of1 #chh ,world situation1 #ecg ,asia ,antimony in1 #ahb ,asbestos in1 #cid ,chrome in1 #aae ,coal in1 #bg ,copper in1 #bec ,emery and corundum in1 #ceh ,gold in1 #dga ,graphite in1 #cgd ,iron in1 #gd-gg ,magnesite in1 #cfh ,manganese in1 #ii ,mercury in1 #cda ,monazite in1 #bag ,petroleum in1 #i ,phosphate in1 #djf ,tin in1 #cai1 #cbc1 #cbg1 #cbi1 #ccj ,tungsten in1 #adi ,zinc in1 #cjc1 #cje1 #cjf ,asia ,minor ,chrome in1 #aae ,magnesite in1 #cfh ,mercury in1 #cda ,australasia ,asbestos in1 #cie ,chrome in1 #aaa ,copper in1 #bdi ,gold in1 #dgd ,lead in1 #bfh1 #bfi ,manganese in1 #aja ,nickel in1 #acd1 #ace ,phosphate in1 #djf ,tin in1 #cbe1 #cbf1 #cbi ,tungsten in1 #adi ,zinc in1 #cjb1 #cjc ,australia ,antimony in1 #ahf ,bauxite and aluminum in1 #cej ,coal position1 #ca ,copper1 production in #aiag1 #bej ,gold in1 #dge ,gold1 political and commercial control1 #dij ,iron in1 #hj ,lead in1 #bfh ,lead1 commercial control1 #bhb ,lead position1 #bhh ,magnesite in1 #cfh ,manganese in1 #aja ,mica in1 #chd ,molybdenum in1 #aia2 molybdenum1 commercial control1 #aig ,platinum in1 #ead ,radium in1 #bjg ,tin in1 #cbe ,tungsten1 future of1 #adi ,uranium in1 #bjg ,zinc in1 #cjb2 commercial control1 #caa ,austria ,copper in1 #beh ,lead position1 #bij ,magnesite control1 #cfi ,mercury in1 #cdj ,radium resources1 #bjf2 uranium resources1 #bjf ,zinc in1 #cje ,austrian ,empire ,chrome in1 #aah ,mercury in1 #cdj ,austria and ,hungary ,antimony in1 #agi ,iron1 political and commercial control1 #gj2 iron position1 #hg ,manganese in1 #if ,balkan ,peninsula ,chrome in1 #aah ,bauxite ,chapter on1 #cdi ,geographical distribution1 #cej ,geological distribution1 #cej ,uses of1 #cdi ,world control1 #cea ,belgian ,congo ,copper in1 #bdf1 #bdg ,manganese in1 #aja ,belgium ,coal in1 #bd1 #bf ,iron position1 #hg ,lead in1 #bgf2 lead position1 #bij ,manganese in1 #if ,zinc position1 #cac ,bolivia ,antimony in1 #agh ,copper in1 #bde ,lead in1 #bgf ,silver in1 #dih1 #eja ,tin in1 #cbh2 tin control1 #ccc ,tungsten in1 #aej ,zinc in1 #cjf ,borneo ,antimony in1 #ahb ,manganese in1 #aja ,bowles1 ,oliver ,chapter on ,asbestos1 #chh ,brazil ,chrome in1 #abj ,coal position1 #ca ,gold in1 #dgj1 #dhj ,iron1 control1 #gh ,manganese in1 #id ,mica in1 #chc ,monazite in1 #bag2 monazite1 commercial control1 #bah1 #bai1 #bbj ,zirconium in1 #bab1 #bac2 zirconium1 political control1 #bac ,british ,empire4 ,see ,great ,britain4 ,british ,guiana ,gold in1 #dhj ,petroleum control in1 #ag ,bulgaria ,iron in1 #gg ,lead in1 #bgf ,burma ,lead in1 #bgd2 lead position1 #bhi2 lead smelters1 #bhc ,petroleum in1 #ae ,tungsten1 future of1 #adi ,california ,chrome in1 #aai ,gold in1 #dff ,magnesite in1 #cfe ,mercury in1 #cdb ,platinum in1 #eac ,canada ,aluminum control in1 #ceb ,antimony in1 #agg ,asbestos in1 #cic2 asbestos control in1 #cih ,chrome in1 #aah ,copper1 commercial control1 #bch ,emery and corundum in1 #ceh ,gold in1 #dfh ,iron1 commercial control1 #gc ,lead in1 #bgc2 lead position1 #bhi2 lead smelters1 #bhc ,magnesite in1 #cfe ,manganese in1 #id ,mica in1 #chb ,molybdenum in1 #aic2 molybdenum1 commercial control1 #aig ,nickel in1 #acc ,petroleum control in1 #af ,phosphate in1 #dje ,platinum in1 #eac2 platinum ownership1 #eah ,pyrite in1 #deb ,zinc in1 #cjf ,cape ,colony1 ,africa ,asbestos in1 #cid ,copper in1 #bdh ,gold in1 #dgc ,central ,america ,chrome in1 #abj ,copper in1 #bci ,gold in1 #dfi2 gold control1 #dhe ,petroleum in1 #ag ,chile ,coal position1 #ca ,copper control1 #bda2 copper1 commercial control1 #bdb2 copper1 ,united ,states control1 #bdc ,iron1 control1 #gh ,manganese in1 #if ,nitrate ores1 #dbc2 nitrate1 outlook for1 #dda ,sulphur in1 #deh ,china ,antimony in1 #ahb ,coal position1 #ca1 #dg ,copper in1 #bee ,gold in1 #dgc2 gold1 financial control1 #dhh ,iron position1 #hh ,lead in1 #bgc ,mica in1 #chd ,petroleum control in1 #ag ,silver position1 #ejd ,tin in1 #cbi2 tin control1 #ccb ,tungsten1 future of1 #adi ,zinc in1 #cjf ,china and ,manchuria ,iron1 control of1 #gd ,chrome 7chromite7 ,alloys of1 #aji in ,australasia1 #aaa ,chapter on1 #aji ,chief producing countries1 #ebh ,commercial control of1 #aaa-aad2 in ,france1 #abe1 #abf2 in ,great ,britain1 #abd2 in the ,united ,states1 #abb1 #abc1 #abd ,control1 commercial and political1 #abg ,geographical distribution1 #aaa1 #aab ,geological distribution1 #aaj2 in ,africa1 #aad2 in ,asia1 #aae2 in ,asia ,minor1 #aae2 in the ,austrian ,empire1 #aah2 in the ,balkan ,peninsula1 #aah2 in ,brazil1 #abj2 in ,canada1 #aah2 in ,central ,america1 #abj2 in ,colombia1 #abj2 in ,cuba1 #abj2 in ,europe1 #aah2 in ,greece1 #aah2 in ,india1 #aag2 in ,japan1 #aag2 in ,macedonia1 #aah2 in ,new ,caledonia1 #aaa2 in ,north ,america1 #aah2 in ,rhodesia1 #aad2 in ,russia1 #aag2 in ,serbia1 #aah2 in ,south ,america1 #abj2 in ,turkey1 #aae2 in the ,united ,states1 #aai2 in ,venezuela1 #abj ,position of ,france1 #abe2 of ,germany1 #abf2 of ,great ,britain1 #abd2 of leading nations1 #aba2 of ,russia1 #abg2 of the ,united ,states1 #abb ,production of1 #aac ,uses of1 #aji ,world situation1 #ebh ,coal ,asia and ,australia1 statistics for1 #ec ,changes in practice1 #bc ,chapter on1 #bb ,commercial control1 #cc ,control in ,germany1 #ce2 in ,great ,britain1 #cf2 in the ,united ,states1 #cf1 #cg ,control1 political1 #cc ,domination by ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states1 #ebe ,europe1 statistics for1 #aiac1 #di1 #ej ,exports1 and imports1 #aiac1 #eb1 #ec1 #ed ,geographical distribution1 #be ,geological distribution1 #bc2 in ,africa1 #bf2 in ,europe1 #bd2 in ,north ,america1 #bd2 in ,south ,america1 #bd ,imports1 #aiac1 #eb1 #ec1 #ed2 in the ,united ,states1 #ebd ,position of ,australia1 #ca2 of ,brazil1 #ca2 of ,chile1 #ca2 of ,china1 #ca1 #dg2 of ,france1 #df1 #dg2 of ,germany1 #cj1 #df2 of ,great ,britain1 #cj1 #dd2 of ,italy1 #dg2 of ,japan1 #dg2 of ,russia1 #dg2 of ,south ,america1 #ca2 of ,united ,states1 #dc2 of world1 #cb ,production1 #aiac1 #di1 #ej1 #ea2 production of principal countries1 #bf2 production of world1 #bg1 #bh2 future production1 #cb ,reserves of world1 #bh ,situation as effected by ,world ,war1 #ci1 #dj1 #da ,south ,america1 statistics for1 #aiac1 #eb2 trade1 probable changes in1 #db ,summary of control1 #ebd ,united ,states1 statistics for #aiac1 #di ,uses of1 #bb ,colombia ,chrome in1 #abj ,petroleum control in1 #ag ,platinum in1 #eab2 platinum ownership1 #eag ,copper in ,africa1 ,katanga district1 #bdf1 #bdi ,chapter on1 #bbc ,control1 business1 #bbe2 control1 geographical and financial1 #bbd2 in ,canada1 commercial control1 #bch2 in ,chile1 commercial control1 #bdb2 ,united ,states control1 #bdc2 in ,cuba and the ,caribbean1 commercial control1 #bci2 in ,europe1 control of1 #beg2 control1 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,geographical distribution1 #adf ,geological distribution1 #ade ,production1 #adg1 #adh1 #aeb ,substitutes for1 #adb ,united ,states imports1 #aeg ,uses of1 #adb ,world situation1 #ebi ,tunis ,iron ores in1 #ga ,lead ores in1 #bgb ,manganese in1 #aja ,phosphate in1 #dje ,turkey ,chrome in1 #aae ,iron in1 #gg ,lead in1 #bgc ,united ,states ,aluminum1 control of1 #ceb ,antimony in1 #agf2 antimony position1 #ahg ,asbestos in1 #cia2 asbestos control1 #cig2 asbestos position1 #cii ,bauxite and aluminum in1 #cej ,chrome in1 #aai2 chrome position1 #abb ,coal control1 #cf1 #cg1 #ebd2 coal position1 #dc ,control of minerals1 #edb ,copper1 control of1 #bbh ,copper control in ,chile1 #bda-bdc2 in ,mexico1 #bci ,copper in1 #bbh ,copper shipments from ,africa1 #bdi ,emery and corundum in1 #ceg1 #ceh2 emery and corundum position1 #cfa ,gold in1 #dfd2 gold control1 #dgg1 #dgh2 gold position1 #dia ,graphite position1 #cgf ,iron1 political and commercial control1 #fa ,iron-ore reserves1 #fa2 iron position1 #hb ,lead in1 #bfe2 lead1 commercial control1 #bgi2 lead1 financial groups1 #bha2 lead position1 #bhg2 lead-silver smelters1 #bha ,magnesite in1 #cfe2 magnesite control1 #cfh ,manganese position1 #ajf ,mica in1 #chc2 mica position1 #chf ,molybdenum in1 #aic2 molybdenum1 commercial control1 #aig2 molybdenum1 position of1 #aih ,monazite in1 #baf2 monazite1 commercial control1 #bah-bba2 monazite position1 #bba ,nickel in1 #acd2 nickel position1 #ada ,nitrogen developments in1 #dcj1 #dcb ,petroleum position1 #ag ,phosphate in1 #djc2 phosphate position1 #dji ,platinum in1 #eac2 control of platinum1 #eai ,potash in1 #dad ,pyrite in1 #dea ,radium resources1 #bjd ,silver in1 #dih1 #eja ,sulphur in1 #dee ,tin in1 #ccj2 tin position1 #cce ,tungsten control1 #aef1 #afj2 future of tungsten1 #aej2 imports of tungsten1 #aeg2 tungsten1 proposed tariff1 #afa ,uranium resources1 #bjd ,vanadium in1 #aff ,zinc in1 #big2 zinc1 commercial control1 #cji2 zinc position1 #cac ,zirconium in1 #bac ,uranium ,chapter on1 #bja ,future prospects1 #bjh ,geographical and geological distribution1 #bjc2 in ,australia1 #bjg2 in ,england1 #bjg2 in ,germany1 #bjg ,ores of1 #bjb ,production1 ,austria1 #bjf2 production1 ,europe1 #bjf2 production1 ,united ,states1 #bje ,united ,states resources1 #bjd ,uses of1 #bjb ,world situation1 #eca ,uruguay ,manganese in1 #if ,vanadium ,alloys of1 #afc ,changes in practice1 #afd ,chapter on1 #afc ,control1 commercial1 #afe1 #agj ,control1 political1 #agj ,future developments1 #agj ,geographical distribution1 #afe1 #afi2 in ,arizona1 #aff2 in ,california1 #aff2 in ,colorado1 #aff2 in ,peru1 #afe2 in the ,united ,states1 #aff ,geological distribution1 #afe ,position of leading nations1 #agj ,uses of1 #afc ,world situation1 #ebi ,venezuela ,chrome in1 #abj ,copper in1 #bde ,gold in1 #dgj ,petroleum control in1 #ag ,washington ,magnesite in1 #cff ,platinum in1 #ead ,white1 ,a4 ,g4 ,chapter on ,pyrite and ,sulphur1 #ddg ,who ,owns the ,earth8 ,chapter by ,j4 ,e4 ,spurr1 #ebb2 ,who owns the earth8 #eda ,world ,control of ,minerals1 #eda ,wyoming ,phosphate in1 #djd ,platinum in1 #ead ,zinc ,australia1 commercial control1 #caa ,changes in practice1 #bie ,chapter on1 #bid ,control1 commercial1 #cjh2 in ,australia1 #caa2 in ,france1 #cac2 in ,germany1 #caa2 in the ,united ,states1 #cji ,control1 political1 #cjh ,deposits of world1 #bih ,geographical distribution1 #big2 zinc in ,algeria1 #cjc2 in ,australia1 #cjb2 in ,austria1 #cje2 in ,bolivia1 #cjf2 in ,canada1 #cjf2 in ,china1 #cjf2 in ,egypt1 #cjf2 in ,france1 #cjd2 in ,germany1 #cja2 in ,great ,britain1 #cje2 in ,greece1 #cjd2 in ,india1 #cjf2 in ,indo-,china1 #cje2 in ,italy1 #cjc2 in ,japan1 #cjc2 in ,mexico1 #cje2 in ,new ,south ,wales1 #cjb2 in ,peru1 #cjg2 in ,russia1 #cjd2 in ,south ,africa1 #cjf2 in ,spain1 #cjd2 in ,sweden1 #cje2 in ,tasmania1 #cjc2 in the ,united ,states1 #big ,geological distribution1 #bif ,germany1 commercial control1 #caa ,industry in #aiac1 #bii ,position of ,belgium1 #cac2 of ,germany1 #cac2 of ,great ,britain1 #cad2 of ,japan1 #cad2 of ,russia1 #cae2 of the ,united ,states1 #cac ,production1 #aiac1 #bii2 future changes in production1 #cjg ,summary1 #cae ,united ,states1 commercial control1 #cji ,uses of1 #bid ,world situation1 #ecc ,zirconium ,alloys1 #baj ,baddeleyite or brazilite1 #baa ,chapter on1 #bji ,control of1 #bac1 ,geographical distribution1 #baa2 in ,brazil1 #bab1 #bac2 in ,india1 #bac2 in the ,united ,states1 #bac ,geological distribution1 #baa ,production1 #bae ,refractory uses of1 #bji ,summary1 #bae ,uses of1 #bji ,world situation1 #eca ,zircon1 #bab ,transcriber's ,notes ,depending on the hard- and software used to read this text and their settings1 not all elements may display as intended4 ,some of the tables may be illegible on small screens or in narrow windows4 ,spelling1 capitalisation and hyphenation as used in the source document 7including the errors and inconsistencies in company1 geographic and proper names1 titles of publications1 etc47 have not been corrected or standardised1 except as mentioned under ,changes made below4 ,results of calculations in tables are given in this text as they appear in the source document1 even though they appear to contain occasional calculation and_/or rounding off errors or are based on incomplete or contradictory data4 ,page #ej1 ,table #g1 table row ,austria3 the remark in the last column may be better suited for the row ,hungary4 ,page #bgh1 ,footnote #acb ,percentage of mean of totals used in a and b3 a and b refer to the columns with footnotes #acj and #aca respectively4 ,pages #ejh and #eaj1 ,tables #gb and #gd3 these tables are 7almost7 identical in the source document as well4 ,changes made ,tables and illustrations have been moved out of text paragraphs2 footnotes have been renumbered sequentially and moved to directly under the paragraph where they are referenced4 ,in several of the tables data have been aligned more consistently than in the source document4 ,some tables have been split or otherwise re-arranged to fit the available width4 ,these tables have been split so that it is straightforward to recombine them into single tables4 ,some obvious minor typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently4 ,page ix3 ,platinum1 by ,james ,h4 ,hill changed to ,platinum1 by ,james ,m4 ,hill4 ,page #ce3 ,dorfmund changed to ,dortmund4 ,page #de3 ,alden changed to ,aden4 ,page #ej1 ,table #g3 ,references to page #di 7,austria1 ,hungary7 replaced with 8above0 cf4 other entries4 ,page #adh3 footnote anchor #gh inserted in table heading4 ,page #bbd1 ,table #ce3 column header ,western ,hemisphere moved to separate row2 row ,total ,eastern ,hemisphere3 values #a1aac1jjj1 #bab1gej1 #ih1jjj1 #ca1jjj and #abe1jjj moved to row ,world ,total4 ,page #bgh1 ,table #ec3 first column ,per cent4 under ,primary pig lead1 ,smelter production 7values #j4b1 #d4e1 etc47 considered to be intended as second column under ,imports1 ,recoverable lead content of ores and concentrate4 ,page #dcb3 444 and the latter in1 exhaustibly available 444 changed to 444 and the latter inexhaustibly available 4444 ,page #eji-eaj3 ,footnote anchor #ahf inserted after both occurrences of ,,io4