,,imperial ,,institute ,,handbooks ,,the ,,agricultural ,,and ,,forest ,,products ,,of ,,british ,,west ,,africa ,,imperial ,,institute ,,series ,,of ,,handbooks ,,to ,,the ,,commercial ,,resources ,,of ,,the ,,tropics1 ,,with ,,special ,,reference ,,to ,,british ,,west ,,africa ,,issued ,,under ,,the ,,authority ,,of ,,the ,,secretary ,,of ,,state ,,for ,,the ,,colonies ,,edited ,,by ,,wyndham ,r4 ,,dunstan1 ,c4,m4,g41 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s ,,director ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute2 ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,international ,,association ,,for ,,tropical ,,agriculture ,illustration3 ,,west ,,africa ,territory held by ,great ,britain under ,mandate is hatched in ,red4 ,legend ,stanford's ,geogl4 ,estabt41 ,london4 ,,imperial ,,institute ,,handbooks ,,the ,,agricultural ,,and ,,forest ,,products ,,of ,,british ,,west ,,africa ,,by ,,gerald ,c4 ,,dudgeon1 ,c4,b4,e4 ,,lately ,,consulting ,,agriculturist ,,and ,,director-,,general ,,of ,,agriculture ,,in ,,egypt2 ,,previously ,,inspector ,,of ,,agriculture ,,for ,,british ,,west ,,africa ,,with ,a ,,preface ,,by ,,wyndham ,r4 ,,dunstan1 ,c4,m4,g41 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,director ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,institute ,,second ,,edition ,,with ,,maps ,,and ,,illustrations ,,london ,,john ,,murray1 ,,albemarle ,,street1 ,w4 #aibb ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition ,since the first edition of this book appeared1 ,british ,west ,africa has experienced a serious set-back in its development through the occurrence of the ,great ,european ,war4 ,from that war1 however1 many lessons will have been learnt1 which will1 it is hoped1 make the course of progress in the future more sure and perhaps more rapid4 ,the cultivation of cotton has now been shown to be successful and profitable in ,nigeria4 ,in the ,northern ,provinces great progress has been made in perfecting a cotton originally grown from 8,american ,upland0 seed1 whilst the ,southern ,provinces have produced increasing quantities of an improved native cotton of the type of 8,middling ,american40 ,the future of cotton production in ,nigeria is now assured1 and its further development chiefly depends on effective action being taken on commercial lines4 ,the products of the oil palm and especially palm kernels have been in increased demand for edible purposes1 the war having led to a far greater use of margarine and similar materials4 ,the perfection of processes for the better extraction of palm oil from the fruits which had nearly reached success at the outbreak of war now awaits completion1 when a large additional source of edible oil will be available4 ,in the meantime the trial cultivation of this palm in other countries has been attended with remarkable success1 the growth of the palm in plantations having been entirely satisfactory and furnished yields of oil which exceed those given by the wild palm in ,west ,africa4 ,the ,dutch ,east ,indies1 where large plantations have been made1 and also ,british ,malaya1 where similar enterprise has been shown1 may before long be formidable rivals to ,west ,africa in the production of palm kernels and palm oil4 ,the neglect in ,west ,africa of the wild trees1 the imperfect methods followed in extracting the palm oil1 and the large number of palms unutilised are questions which now need renewed attention1 and in fact the entire subject of the development of the palm-oil industry in ,west ,africa demands the most serious study in all its aspects if the industry is not to be supplanted by the enterprise of other countries4 ,in this and other directions where the continuous acquisition of new knowledge is requisite1 it is satisfactory to learn that the staffs of the ,agricultural ,departments in ,west ,africa are to be extended and better remunerated4 ,in addition to this step1 and perhaps equally important1 will be the increased interest and activity of those merchants and manufacturers who utilise the raw materials of the country1 and to whom the commercial development of ,west ,africa has hitherto owed so much4 ,there are many other subjects which1 it will be seen from the new edition of this book1 have come to the front since the first edition appeared1 and now need increased attention4 ,the only rubber tree which has survived as a producer in the years of strenuous competition is ,hevea brasiliensis1 from which ,para rubber is obtained4 ,successful plantations of this tree have been established both in the ,southern ,provinces of ,nigeria and in the ,gold ,coast1 and from the former commercial rubber is now being produced of quality equal to that of the rubber plantations of the ,east4 ,the ,gold ,coast has become the chief cocoa producer of the world1 but it is clear that unremitting care and attention in connection with the cultivation and the preparation of cocoa in that country will be necessary if that supremacy is to be maintained4 ,in connection with the production of fibres1 cinchona bark1 cinnamon1 tobacco1 and many other materials1 there are promising possibilities in various parts of ,west ,africa1 including those new territories for which1 as a result of the war1 ,great ,britain is now responsible4 ,above all1 there is the dominant problem of the growth of foodstuffs sufficient to maintain the native populations of these countries4 ,mr4 ,dudgeon1 within the limits imposed in the production of a revised but not greatly enlarged edition1 has successfully brought this ,handbook up-to-date1 and it is hoped that it will continue to serve as a standard guide to all those who require general information respecting the agricultural and forest products of ,west ,africa4 ,,wyndham ,r4 ,,dunstan4 ,,imperial ,,institute1 ,march #aiba4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,edition ,the present series of ,handbooks is intended to present a general account of the principal commercial resources of the tropics1 and has been written with special reference to the resources of ,british ,west ,africa4 ,these ,handbooks will furnish a description of the occurrence1 cultivation and uses of those tropical materials1 such as cotton and other fibres1 cocoa1 rubber1 oil-seeds1 tobacco1 etc41 which are of importance to the producer in the tropics1 as well as to the manufacturer and consumer in ,europe4 ,without attempting to include all the detailed information of a systematic treatise on each of the subjects included1 it is believed that these ,volumes will contain much information which will be of value to the tropical agriculturist as well as to the merchant and manufacturer4 ,they will also be of importance to ,government ,officials in tropical ,colonies where the advancement of the ,country and the welfare of its inhabitants depend so largely on the development of natural resources4 ,in recent years those candidates who are selected for administrative appointments under the ,colonial ,office in ,british ,west ,africa are required to pass through a short course of instruction in tropical cultivation and products1 which is now arranged at the ,imperial ,institute4 ,for these prospective officials the present series of ,handbooks will be helpful in the study of a large and generally unfamiliar subject4 ,similarly it is believed that the series will provide a valuable aid to the teaching of commercial geography4 ,it is hoped also that the ,handbooks will not be without interest for the student of ,imperial and national problems4 ,the increase in the productivity of the tropics1 and especially of the tropical regions within the ,british ,empire1 is important1 not only for the natives of those countries1 and others who are actually engaged in tropical enterprise1 but for the merchant and manufacturer at home4 ,the preparation for general use of cotton and other fibres1 of tea1 coffee and cocoa1 of oils1 of tobacco1 and of numerous other products exported from the tropics1 provides the means of employment and livelihood for a very large proportion of the working population of this country1 whilst every one at home is interested in securing an adequate supply at a moderate cost of these necessaries and luxuries of life4 ,the subjects of these ,handbooks1 treated as they will be1 as far as possible1 in non-technical language1 should therefore appeal to a large class of readers4 ,the present ,handbook deals with the ,agricultural and ,forest ,products of ,british ,west ,africa and serves as an introduction to this series4 ,mr4 ,dudgeon1 who until lately was ,inspector of ,agriculture in the ,west ,african ,colonies and ,protectorates1 writes with an unrivalled knowledge of his subject1 and gives a comprehensive account of the vegetable products of that country1 which will afford to the general reader some idea of the enormous possibilities of this ,british territory now in the process of rapid commercial development4 ,,wyndham ,r4 ,,dunstan4 ,,imperial ,,institute1 ,s4,w4 ,march #aiaa4 ,,contents ,,part ,i ,,pages ,,the ,,gambia #a-ad ,,part ,,ii ,,sierra ,,leone #ae-db ,,part ,,iii ,,the ,,gold ,,coast1 ,,ashanti1 ,,and ,,the ,,northern ,,territories #dc-ib ,,part ,,iv ,,nigeria--,,southern ,,provinces #ic-aai ,,part ,v ,,nigeria--,,northern ,,provinces #abj-afd ,,index #afe-agf ,,list ,,of ,,maps ,,and ,,illustrations ,,sketch ,,map ,,of ,,british ,,west ,,africa ,frontispiece ,,gambia ,,and ,,sierra ,,leone ,,opposite ,,page ,,jolah ,,with ,,native ,,hand-,,plough1 ,,bullelai1 ,,fogni #c ,,canary ,,island ,,plough1 ,,agricultural ,,school1 ,,abuko #c ,,rubber ,,tree 7,ficus vogelii7 ,,at ,,bathurst #c ,,rubber ,,vine 7,landolphia heudelotii7 ,,at ,,kotoo #i ,,ceara ,,rubber ,,tree 7,manihot glaziovii7 ,,at ,,bakau #i ,,rubber ,,tree 7,castilloa elastica7 ,,at ,,kotoo #i ,,fruits ,,of ,,oil ,,palms1 ,,sierra ,,leone #ac ,,sweet ,,cassava1 ,,with ,,baobab ,,trees1 ,,bakau #ac ,,indigo ,,dyers1 ,,mccarthy ,,island #ac ,,sketch ,,map ,,of ,,gambia ,,and ,,sierra ,,leone #ae ,,oil ,,palms 7,elis guineensis71 ,,mafokoyia #ba ,,native ,,collecting ,,oil ,,palm ,,fruit1 ,,blama #ba ,,kola ,,tree ,,at ,,mano #ba ,,native ,,weaver ,,at ,,pendembu #ce ,,gold ,,coast ,,kumassi1 ,,the ,,capital ,,of ,,ashanti #ce ,,stone ,,vat ,,for ,,pounding ,,palm ,,fruits1 ,,with ,,surrounding #ce ,,gutter ,,and ,,oil ,,well1 ,,krobo ,,plantations ,,sketch ,,map ,,of ,,gold ,,coast #dc ,,cocoa ,,at ,,mramra ,,attacked ,,by ,,black ,,cocoa-,,bark ,,bug #ea ,,drying ,,cocoa ,,beans ,,at ,,mramra #ea ,,native ,,tapping ,,indigenous ,,rubber ,,tree 7,funtumia #ea elastica71 ,,oboamang1 ,,ashanti 8,,odum0 ,,trees 7,chlorophora excelsa7 #fa ,,para ,,rubber ,,tree 7,hevea brasiliensis71 ,,tapped ,,at ,,aburi #fa ,,rubber ,,tree ,,tapped1 ,,herring-,,bone ,,system ,,imperfect1 ,,aburi #fa ,,nigeria--,,southern ,,provinces ,,sketch ,,map ,,of ,,southern ,,nigeria #ic ,,straining ,,oil ,,from ,,the ,,fibrous ,,pulp ,,of ,,the ,,oil ,,palm1 #ig ,,oshogbo ,,cotton ,,bales1 ,,marlborough ,,ginnery1 ,,ibadan #ig ,,afara ,,tree 7,terminalia superba7 ,,at ,,olokomeji #ig ,,dwarf ,,cattle1 ,,illara #aai ,,owo #aai ,,nigeria--,,northern ,,provinces ,,haussa ,,cultivating ,,implements 7,,left ,,to ,,right3 ,i4 #aai ,,fatainya1 ,,ii4 ,,garma1 ,,iii4 ,,sangumi71 ,,northern ,,provinces ,,sketch ,,map ,,of ,,northern ,,nigeria #abj ,,shea-,,butter ,,tree 7,butyrospermum ,parkii71 ,,with #acj ,,nut-,,collectors1 ,,ilorin ,,yielding ,,gum ,,tree 7,acacia caffra7 ,,at ,,kontagora #acj ,,locust-,,bean ,,tree 7,parkia filicoidea7 ,,at ,,ilorin #acj ,,village ,,of ,,fogola1 ,,built ,,of ,,guinea-,,corn ,,stalks #acg ,,outside ,,the ,,emir',s ,,palace1 ,,kano #acg ,,near ,,the ,,southern ,,gate1 ,,zaria #acg ,,british ,,cotton ,,growing ,,association ,,ginnery1 ,,ogudu1 ,,ilorin #aee ,,gwari ,,town1 ,,opposite ,,minna1 ,,south ,,of ,,zaria #aee ,,cow ,,fulani ,,woman ,,selling ,,milk ,,at ,,gwari #aee ,,the ,,gambia ,,introductory ,,remarks4 ,geographical ,position4--,the ,gambia ,colony and ,protectorate consists of a narrow tract of country following the winding course of the river from which it takes its name1 for a distance of about #bej miles1 and extending approximately four miles from the river on both banks4 ,the whole country lies between #ab #aj and #ac #ae north latitude and #ac #ej and #af #dj west longitude4 ,it is the most northerly of the ,british ,west ,african possessions4 ,area and ,population4--,the extent of territory is said to be #c1fai square miles1 much of which consists of low-lying land intersected by creeks and rivers1 which under tidal influence are often densely afforested with mangroves4 ,according to the census of #aiaa the ,colony and ,protectorate had populations of #g1gjj and #ach1dja respectively1 totalling #adf1aja4 ,the total of #ij1djd given in the previous census is now admitted to have been below the actual amount4 ,a large migratory farming community exists1 coming annually from the adjoining countries1 for the purpose of raising groundnut crops4 ,this in #aiaa numbered #c1cfg4 ,many of these immigrants are reported to have remained and established themselves permanently under the ,british flag4 ,tribes4--,the principal tribes inhabiting the ,gambia are the ,mandingoes1 ,foulahs1 ,joloffs1 and ,jolahs4 ,the first-named are the most numerous1 and are1 generally speaking1 ,mohammedans1 although there are many 8,sonninkis0 or spirit drinkers among them4 ,the ,foulahs are identical with the ,fulanis of the ,gold ,coast and ,northern ,nigeria1 and are frequently fair-skinned without negroid features4 ,they are said to be strictly ,mohammedan1 and to have originated from the country near the source of the ,senegal river4 ,the ,joloffs occupy the northern bank of the ,gambia river1 and extend well into ,senegal4 ,the ,jolahs inhabit the province of ,fogni1 and spread into the confines of ,french territory towards the ,casamance river4 ,they are a curious race1 given to living in small family villages1 and are said to be vindictive4 ,they are of a lower type than the three other tribes mentioned1 and are jealous of their rights4 ,political ,divisions4--,the ,protectorate is divided into five districts1 each under the control of a ,travelling ,commissioner4 ,these districts are named in accordance with their positions3 ,north ,bank1 ,south ,bank1 ,m#8,carthy ,island1 ,kommbo and ,fogni1 and ,upper ,river4 ,natural ,conditions4--,the climatic conditions of the country are favourable to the breeding of cattle and horses1 although in the vicinity of the river and creeks two species of tsetse fly are common4 ,by carefully preventing animals from straying into these infested tracts the spread of fly-borne disease is held in check1 and cases are comparatively rare4 ,during the dry season1 which often occupies seven months in the year1 from ,november to ,may1 the highest maximum and the lowest minimum temperatures are recorded2 the range being from #da 7lowest minimum1 ,march #aiji7 to #aje 7highest maximum1 ,march #aiji and ,april #aiaa74 ,the rainfall1 of which official records are kept at ,bathurst1 varies considerably1 as the following extract will serve to show3 #aija #deca inches #aiaj #ddjj inches #aijb #bidb #aiaa #bhad #aijc #egac #aiab #ccii #aijd #chjb #aiac #bcfh #aije #ffjg #aiad #dhia #aijf #fdcf #aiae #dgfd #aijg #cdjj #aiaf #chjb #aijh #dced #aiag #cgfh #aiji #efei #aiah #edjc ,soil4--,the soil generally is of a light sandy nature1 becoming stiffer as the undulating regions of the upper river are approached4 ,the low countries are subject to flood in the rainy season1 and are only favourable for rice cultivation4 ,illustration3 ,,jolah ,,with ,,native ,,hand-,,plough1 ,,bullelai1 ,,fogni4 ,fig4 #a1 p4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,,canary ,,island ,,plough1 ,,agricultural ,,school1 ,,abuko4 ,fig4 #b1 p4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,,rubber ,,tree 7,,ficus ,,vogelii7 ,,at ,,bathurst4 ,fig4 #c1 p4 #i4 ,chief ,crops4--,the country is rather sparsely populated1 but1 on the whole1 the people are fair cultivators and prepare their lands in a careful manner4 ,practically the only crop grown for export is the groundnut1 monkey-nut1 or earth-pea 7,arachis hypoga71 which forms by far the most important article of cultivation4 ,alternating this with the staple food-crops of the country1 namely1 guinea-corn1 maize1 millet1 and cassava1 a fairly useful form of rotation is obtained4 ,implements4--,cultivation among the ,mandingoes and ,joloffs is performed by means of a large wooden-bladed1 iron-shod hoe1 with which the loose earth ridges are thrown up4 ,a small iron hoe is used for keeping down weeds and clearing4 ,in the ,jolah country a handplough is employed1 consisting of a flat blade attached to a pole1 and pushed in front of the operator1 so as to throw up a shallow ridge4 ,this is shown in the picture which represents a native with the implement at ,bullelai 7,fig4 #a74 ,ploughing4--,cattle are plentiful1 even to the extent of there being an insufficiency of fodder for them in the dry season in some localities4 ,they are chiefly kept for the purpose of displaying the wealth of their owners1 and are not employed for any kind of farm work4 ,notwithstanding the shortage of manual labour and the successful demonstrations made by the ,government1 through the agency of the ,roman ,catholic ,fathers at the ,abuko ,agricultural ,school1 to prove the value of substituting animal draught for manual labour in tilling the land1 the prejudice on the part of the natives against the use of their cattle for ploughing or cartage has not been overcome4 ,a photograph is given showing a native with a ,canary ,island plough drawn by locally-trained bullocks 7,fig4 #b74 ,owing to the failure attending the efforts to introduce ploughing and cattle breeding at ,abuko1 where1 for the latter purpose1 some ,ayrshire bulls were provided1 the ,govermnent withdrew the provisional subsidy in #aiaa4 ,land ,tenure4--,land ownership is hereditary and descends from father to son among the ,mandingoes and ,joloffs4 ,no fees are paid or presents given to chiefs when a transfer is made4 ,europeans can rent land from ,government in cases where it is not held or claimed by a native4 ,grants are apparently issued for various periods1 but freehold rights are not given4 ,the rules regarding the itinerant1 so-called 8strange farmers10 who annually visit the country to plant groundnuts1 vary to some extent in different parts of the ,protectorate4 ,where hereditary ruling chiefs exist1 a tax of #ds4 per head is paid to them4 ,in other places1 half of this tax goes to ,government1 one-quarter to the chief1 and one-quarter to the farmer's landlord4 ,the landowner generally gives the groundnut seed and food as well as a piece of land to be cultivated4 ,in payment for the seed and food1 it is a rule to give one-tenth of the crop4 ,during the time the strange farmer is in occupation he is expected to give one or two days' work each week on the landowner's own farm4 ,labour4--,there is no fixed rate paid by the ,government for labour4 ,all the work on a farm is done by the owner and his own boys1 but occasionally others come in to assist from the neighbouring farms1 but no payment is made--only a present of kolas being usually given4 ,agricultural ,schools4--,an agricultural school1 previously referred to1 was started at ,abuko1 near ,lammin1 under the ,roman ,catholic ,fathers there1 and a subsidy was granted by the ,government especially for the purpose of educating the sons of large cultivators and chiefs in the use of ploughs and other labour-saving implements4 ,a stipulation was made that the work should be inspected by a ,government officer from time to time4 ,in spite of this a fear was expressed at the outset that the attendance at these schools would be disappointing1 in view of the fact that ,mohammedan chiefs would be restrained by their mallams from sending their children where there might be a risk of their religious conversion4 ,although it had been specially laid down that no religious teaching would be insisted upon1 the fear proved justified and the school never became a success1 the attendance being only of a few aliens4 ,since the closing of this school no renewal of agricultural instruction seems to have been made4 ,chief ,exports4--,the following table gives the average amounts and values of the chief exports for #aijj-aj1 and the individual figures for the remaining years to #aiah4 ,groundnuts ,rubber lbs4 ,beeswax lbs4 ,palm ,kernels ,year tons and value and value and value tons and value #aijj-aj ,av4 #ci1jjj tons #df1jjj lbs4 #de1ejj lbs4 #bee tons #bej1jjj #c1ejj #b1jjj #b1bfj #aiaa #dg1ica tons #aj1gcc lbs4 #cc1hga lbs4 #ddc tons #dcg1dgb #hcf #a1ead #d1geh #aiab #fd1afi tons #d1cce lbs4 #cj1hcj lbs4 #dde tons #ejb1jfi #dji #a1afd #f1eah #aiac #fg1djd tons #ab1iie lbs4 #ca1eah lbs4 #edf tons #fbb1jih #a1jbg #iij #i1jbf #aiad #ff1hhe tons #c1edh lbs4 #ae1eac lbs4 #die tons #fej1dfa #ajb #dgc #g1hae #aiae #if1aeb tons #a1aga lbs4 #i1efc lbs4 #cbf tons #djj1dce #ca #caa #e1deg #aiaf #df1cff tons #cee lbs4 #f1iej lbs4 #ffi tons #ejf1jih #bc #ajd #ad1fga #aiag #gd1cjj tons #a1gec lbs4 #c1ifb lbs4 #ecb tons #hfi1gij #ahg #bdg #g1iid #aiah #ef1dhi tons #efd lbs4 #h1fbf lbs4 #fdd tons #hjj1cai #dj #eja #i1hjj ,note4--,cotton exports were #ei1hbh lbs4 and #b1egb lbs4 in #aijd and #aije respectively4 ,none has been exported since4 ,,groundnuts4--,this commodity is by far the most important exported product1 and is alone subject to a duty levied by the ,administration4 ,uses4--,the undecorticated nuts are shipped1 chiefly1 to the ,french ports and to ,hamburg1 for the expression of an oil of excellent quality1 of which they yield on an average about #cj per cent41 estimated on the weight of the raw material4 ,this is equivalent to about #dd per cent4 of the weight of the extracted kernels4 ,the mode of extraction in general employment in ,france is to grind the kernels into a fine meal1 from which the first quality of oil is extracted by cold expression1 yielding about #ah per cent4 ,the meal is then moistened with cold water1 and at the second expression #f per cent4 more is obtained4 ,both of these oils are useful for alimentary purposes4 ,a third expression is made from the residue treated with hot water1 and gives a further #f per cent41 which is chiefly employed for lighting purposes1 lubricating and soap-making4 ,the fine oils are substituted for1 or mixed with1 the olive-oils of commerce for salad oils1 and enter into the manufacture of oleo-margarine4 ,after these expressions of oil have been made1 the meal is pressed into cakes and used for cattle-food and manurial purposes4 ,classification and ,description of the ,groundnut ,plant4--,the groundnut belongs to the ,sub-,order ,papilionace1 of the ,order ,,leguminos1 and is termed ,arachis hypoga1 ,linn4 ,the plant cultivated in ,senegal and the ,gambia grows in a spreading form1 with branches of from #ab to #ah inches in length1 and possesses oval leaflets given off in double pairs4 ,a large number of conspicuous yellow flowers appear from the upper leaf axils1 but are not capable of fertilisation4 ,those springing from the lower leaf axils nearest the ground are small and generally hidden1 but produce fruitful pods4 ,after fertilisation the stems of these flowers become elongated1 and are directed downwards1 forcing the ovary into the ground1 in which it commences to swell to the mature size1 frequently penetrating to a depth of two inches beneath the surface4 ,the fruit is a pale straw-coloured1 irregularly-cylindrical pod1 with the surface of the shell pitted and longitudinally ribbed4 ,in the ,gambian variety1 which is identical with the common ,senegalese kind1 there are usually two kernels in each pod1 but three or one are also found4 ,the plant is of doubtful origin1 but it is generally supposed that it may have been introduced into ,africa from ,brazil 7where the genus ,arachis is well represented7 nearly four centuries ago1 by the ,portuguese slave-traders4 ,about #ahdj groundnuts began to attract the attention of ,european manufacturers1 on account of the value of the oil obtained from them1 and1 in common with the ,senegalese1 the ,gambian natives were induced to undertake cultivation upon a large scale4 ,the nuts grown in the ,gambia and in ,saloum1 in the ,french territory adjoining on the north1 are classed as of second quality2 those from ,cayor and ,rufisque holding the first1 and those from the ,casamance and ,portuguese ,guinea the third1 places4 ,the seeds are sown upon ridges with flattened tops1 and the crop occupies the ground for about four months--,july to ,october--corresponding to the period of heavy rainfall in the country4 ,when the branches commence to wither1 the whole plant is carefully pulled up1 so that the pods1 which are then mature1 remain attached4 ,the plants are then stacked in the fields1 and are often covered over with the leaves of the fan-palm4 ,the green parts dry into a hay1 which1 when the pods have been beaten out1 is used as horse-fodder4 ,the advent of rain after stacking often does great damage to the crop1 but the occurrence is so rare that it has been found difficult to induce the native to take common precautions against it4 ,during the last two years1 however1 the ,government have taken steps to enforce a regulation with regard to this1 and in consequence drains are now generally cut around the stacks1 and coverings of palm-leaves are left on until the nuts are ready to be beaten out4 ,in the ,jolah country raised platforms are constructed for stacking this crop as well as others4 ,after the nuts have been beaten out from the dried plants1 they are winnowed by allowing them to fall from a slight elevation in a gentle breeze4 ,a good crop of nuts in the ,gambia is estimated at about #dd bushels per acre1 equivalent to over half a ton1 but larger yields are frequently obtained4 ,the ,government standard bushel is used throughout the country1 and may contain from #be to #ca lbs4 of undecorticated nuts4 ,experiments have been made from time to time1 to establish a three-kernel nut instead of the two-kernel one1 but the results obtained have not shown that any advantage could be gained in this way4 ,other varieties of nuts have been introduced and cultivated1 but no extensive planting of new kinds has yet been found worth adoption4 ,the plant seldom suffers from severe attacks of disease1 although a white fungus was prevalent in some localities in #aijf4 ,this affection was termed 8tio jarankaro0 by the ,mandingoes4 ,in the succeeding year it completely disappeared1 and has not been reported to have occurred since4 ,the extermination of this disease was doubtless in a large measure due to the careful way in which the selection and distribution of seed had been carried out4 ,for several years the ,government has been accustomed to purchase a certain quantity of the best nuts each season1 and to distribute these at sowing time to the cultivators1 on credit4 ,without this precaution1 in a season when the prices for nuts were high1 the thriftless native would be induced to sell every nut1 reserving nothing for sowing the next year4 ,the system adopted is greatly appreciated by the cultivators and merchants alike1 and has without doubt contributed largely to the prosperity of the country4 ,seed is not only interchanged1 in this manner1 with advantage between different districts1 but fresh seed is sometimes also provided from ,senegal4 ,the immigrant or 8strange farmers0 are generally welcomed by the land-owners1 who usually manage to lease them the fields which require the most cleaning4 ,after the immigrant farmer has reaped his groundnut crop1 the field is left in a good state of tilth for the owner to sow his guinea corn4 ,the occurrence of ruinous competition among merchants at ,bathurst induced them to form a 8combine0 to regulate the buying price of nuts2 the purchases being pooled and then divided according to a fixed scale4 ,a recent attempt to divert ,gambian nuts to ,senegal ports for shipment1 by the levy of an import tax at ,marseilles1 was opposed by the ,french and ,british merchants alike1 and the fear that the produce might only be diverted to another destination led to its abandonment4 ,for further information regarding the cultivation1 varieties and uses of groundnuts1 see ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 viii4 7#aiaj71 pp4 #aec-gb4 ,,rubber4--,a good quality of rubber is produced in the ,jolah country1 in particular1 from ,landolphia ,heudelotii1 an apocynaceous vine1 which grows commonly in the grass lands of ,fogni4 ,the vine is tapped by women1 who1 after digging a hole near the root of the plant1 make a number of transverse cuts upon the root-stem4 ,the latex flows rapidly from such cuts1 and is coagulated by throwing salt water on the wound4 ,the scrap rubber which forms is collected the following day1 and the pieces are attached to one another1 forming an open sponge-like ball of a pinkish-white colour4 ,sand is often present in these balls owing to the fallen latex being added to the rest4 ,illustration3 ,,rubber ,,vine 7,,landolphia ,,heudelotii7 ,,at ,,kotoo4 ,fig4 #d4 p4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,,ceara ,,rubber ,,tree 7,,manihot ,,glaziovii7 ,,at ,,bakau4 ,fig4 #e1 p4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,,rubber ,,tree 7,,castilloa ,,elastica7 ,,at ,,kotoo4 ,fig4 #f1 p4 #aj4 ,in addition to the inhabitants themselves collecting rubber1 natives belonging to a tribe from ,portuguese ,guinea1 called 8,manjagos10 travel through the country for the purpose2 the rubber which they obtain being sold in the ,french ,colony to the south of the ,gambia4 ,the 8,manjagos0 are said to make a semicircular cut upon the thick vine-stems just above the ground1 to induce the better flow of latex4 ,this1 they maintain1 is not a destructive method1 and that1 as the root stock is uninjured1 the plant continues to yield latex for a long time4 ,at one time the rubber vine must have been plentiful1 but the rush for it which occurred at the beginning of the present century has had the effect of exterminating it1 except in the more inaccessible places4 ,the export has declined and is now insignificant4 ,the plant is known to the ,mandingoes as 8,folio40 ,an illustration is given showing this plant at ,kotoo 7,fig4 #d74 ,landolphia florida1 ,benth41 is common in places similar to those where the last-mentioned vine occurs1 but the latex is not used in any way to adulterate the good rubber1 nor is inferior 8paste0 rubber made from it1 as in other places in ,west ,africa4 ,ficus ,vogelii1 known as 8,kobbo0 7,mandingo71 has recently been used for extracting an inferior rubber1 which has been shipped in small quantities4 ,this tree is found growing in ,bathurst as well as in many of the large towns1 where it often attains a large size1 and affords an excellent shade for native markets1 etc4 ,a view of a tree in ,bathurst is shown 7,fig4 #c74 ,information regarding the composition and value of the rubber of ,ficus ,vogelii is given in the ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 vii4 7#aiji71 p4 #bfj4 ,some of the ,south ,american species of rubber trees have been planted at different places1 but for the most part the climatic conditions have proved unsuitable for their establishment4 ,an exception to this is the ,ceara rubber 7,manihot ,glaziovii71 large trees of which were to be seen in ,bathurst and at ,bakau1 but in the latter locality appear to have been cut down during recent years4 ,it is generally acknowledged that ,ceara rubber has not proved successful in plantations made in different parts of ,west ,africa1 for1 although rubber of the finest quality can be easily prepared from the latex1 the tree furnishes an extremely inconstant yield of latex4 ,in the ,gambia the tree reproduces readily1 and1 as far as can be judged1 produces a latex capable of being coagulated into good rubber4 ,as a shade tree it is recommended to be grown along public roads1 and it might prove expedient in the country to make small experimental plantations1 in the manner adopted in ,togoland and elsewhere4 ,by this system1 tapping is continued for a few years1 and whole blocks of trees are cut out as they cease to yield latex--the seedlings which have sprung up beneath these trees being permitted to take the place of the original trees4 ,an illustration showing a ,ceara rubber tree at ,bakau is given 7,fig4 #e74 ,one specimen of ,castilloa elastica1 of which a photograph is given 7,fig4 #f71 is growing in the ,kotoo farm1 about #ab miles from ,bathurst4 ,this tree has not1 so far1 proved successful in ,west ,africa1 and the example photographed is apparently in better condition than those grown in the ,botanic ,gardens of the ,gold ,coast and ,southern ,nigeria4 ,funtumia elastica1 the ,lagos silk rubber tree1 does not thrive in the ,gambia1 and the rainfall has been found to be insufficiently distributed for the cultivation of the ,para rubber tree 7,hevea brasiliensis74 ,the observed facts point to the conclusion that further experimental trials of certain species of rubber trees in the ,gambia should be made4 ,,beeswax4--,it will be observed that a large quantity of beeswax is annually exported1 the quality of which is high4 ,the native bee is a small form of ,apis mellifera1 var4 ,adansonii4 ,it is found in a wild state forming nests in hollow trees or rock cavities4 ,the ,mandingoes collect the wild swarms and confine them in basket-hives1 cylindrical in form and sometimes plastered over with mud4 ,these are placed in high trees or in abandoned huts4 ,the wax is sold in a crude form to the ,bathurst merchants1 who boil it down and strain it previous to shipment4 ,the ,european market value of the cleaned wax is from #e to #f per cwt4 ,a detailed description of methods for the refining of wild bees' wax for export is published in the ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 viii4 7#aiaj71 pp4 #bc-ca4 ,,palm ,,kernels4--,the ,west ,african oil palm1 ,elis guineensis1 is found commonly in some parts1 but the heads produced are small and carry small fruits1 containing little oil4 ,this oil is used locally1 and the kernels from the nuts alone are shipped4 ,the palm is chiefly valued for the production of palm wine1 which is tapped from the base of the fruiting stems into funnelled gourds1 hung beneath the holes4 ,the tree is apparently never felled for the purpose1 and1 by limiting the amount of wine extracted1 it survives for a long period4 ,,cotton4--,the ,mandingoes and ,jolahs cultivate cotton for making the yarn used in their native looms1 in which they weave the strips of cloth called 8pagns40 ,these strips are afterwards sewn together along their lateral edges and made into gowns4 ,the native cotton plant varies somewhat in appearance4 ,in ,kommbo1 a long straggling form occurs1 which is retained for two seasons to produce cotton1 but in the ,jolah country a small annual is most frequently seen4 ,the former is grown as a mixed crop and the latter in separate patches4 ,in quality1 from the ,european spinner's point of view1 the ,mandingo cotton lint compares favourably with the commercial type called 8middling ,american0 as far as length of staple is concerned1 although it is not so white1 nor is there so much silkiness apparent4 ,it has been rightly remarked that the native variety1 if properly cultivated1 would probably give a better result than would be obtained from the introduction of ,american seed4 ,the ,jolah cotton is short-stapled and woolly1 though whiter than the ,mandingo4 ,it would be more difficult to improve this kind sufficiently to suit the ,european demand4 ,egyptian cotton seed was tried in the ,gambia about twenty years ago1 and the variety was at first considered suitable2 the cultivation was1 however1 not proceeded with1 owing to local difficulties4 ,the obstacles which hindered the development of cotton-growing in the ,gambia for export were the same as those experienced in ,sierra ,leone4 ,the local demand for raw cotton precluded it from being obtained at a sufficiently low price to leave a margin of profit to exporters1 and in addition to this1 labour was not sufficiently abundant1 nor were the natives familiar with labour-saving methods in cultivation4 ,attempts to establish an interest in the matter produced a fair amount of raw cotton in #aijd1 but since that year the exported quantity rapidly diminished and has now ceased altogether4 ,for reports on the quality of the cotton produced in the ,gambia see ,professor ,dunstan's ,british ,cotton ,cultivation 7,colonial ,reports--,miscellaneous ,series1 ,cd4 #ciig1 #aijh71 p4 #bf1 and ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 #aiba4 ,samples may be seen in the ,imperial ,institute ,collections4 ,,grain ,,crops4--,no grain is exported1 as owing to the work of the scanty population being so largely applied to the cultivation of groundnuts1 scarcely sufficient food-stuff is grown for their own requirements4 ,guinea-corn 7,sorghum vulgare71 the two most important varieties of which are known as 8,bassi0 and 8,kinto0 in the ,mandingo language1 are commonly used for food1 but during recent years1 owing to the repeated annual attacks on the crop by ,aphis sorghi1 maize-growing was substituted in some parts of the country4 ,white maize seed was obtained from ,lagos1 and yellow maize seed from the ,canary ,islands1 but the grain is not appreciated to the same extent as ,guinea corn4 ,pennisetum typhoideum1 the large millet1 of which the commonest variety is known in ,mandingo as 8,sannio10 is alternated with ,guinea corn or maize1 but is often badly affected by a 8smut fungus0 7,ustilago sp471 which also attacks the 8,kinto0 variety of ,guinea corn4 ,a small grass is often grown in the millet fields1 yielding a crop of fine seed which is made into flour for the preparation of a kind of porridge4 ,this is termed 8,findi0 locally4 ,rice 7,oryza sativa7 is somewhat extensively grown in the swamp lands1 but the success of the crop is very largely dependent on the distribution of the rainfall4 ,whole tracts of rice fields are destroyed in some years1 owing to excessive floods1 as no precautions are taken to guard against them4 ,it is chiefly on account of the uncertainty of the grain crops1 that a large quantity of rice has to be imported annually to supplement that produced in the country4 ,these imports often amount to six or seven thousand tons4 ,illustration3 ,,fruits ,,of ,,oil ,,palms1 ,,sierra ,,leone4 ,fig4 #i1 p4 #ba4 ,illustration3 ,,sweet ,,cassava1 ,,with ,,baobab ,,trees1 ,,bakau4 ,fig4 #g1 p4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,,indigo ,,dyers1 ,mc,c,a,r,t,h,y ,,island4 ,fig4 #h1 p4 #ac4 ,,root ,,and ,,other ,,crops4--,sweet cassava 7,manihot palmata7 is frequently planted as a terminal crop in the crude rotation employed4 ,this variety can be eaten without previously washing or cooking4 ,an illustration of a cassava field is given 7,fig4 #g74 ,two or three kinds of beans are planted1 though not extensively in spite of a good local demand for them4 ,okra 7,hibiscus esculentus71 cultivated for the edible fruit pods1 indigo 7,indigofera sp47 employed for making the local blue dye1 and tobacco 7,nicotiana tabacum71 are planted near houses4 ,a photograph is given exhibiting the different utensils required for the preparation of indigo1 and cakes of the dried and fermented indigo stalks1 in the form in which they are preserved1 are shown suspended in the illustration 7,fig4 #h74 ,the tobacco prepared is usually ground into snuff1 in which form it is used for chewing as well as for smoking4 ,,tanning4--,goat-skins are tanned in the manner similar to that employed by the ,haussas2 ,acacia arabica pods being used in the process4 ,the people who perform the work of preparing and working leather are termed 8,korankos40 ,red and black inks1 purchased from the ,european merchants1 are used for staining the leather1 which is inferior to that produced in ,northern ,nigeria 7see p4 #adb74 ,,fibres4--,the country seems to be plentifully supplied with fibre plants in a wild state1 chiefly belonging to different species of ,hibiscus4 ,these are of the jute class1 and are used throughout the country for making native ropes4 ,indian jute 7,corchorus capsularis7 has been tried experimentally at ,kotoo1 and excellent samples were obtained1 but the quantity of fibre per acre turned out to be small1 and the working proved to be too expensive4 ,the preparation of piassava1 which had been abandoned for many years1 is said to have been taken up again by a ,british firm in #aiae4 ,the fibre is obtained from the leaf sheath of a palm 7,raphia vinifera7 which grows plentifully along the banks of the ,gambia in places4 ,for further information see ,selected ,reports from the ,imperial ,institute1 ,pt4 ,i41 ,fibres1 and ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 #aiae4 ,,timber4--,there are no trees of commercial importance1 accessible for felling for export1 although ,gambian mahogany 7,khaya senegalensis7 and ,gambian rosewood 7,pterocarpus erinaceus7 occur in many parts of the country4 ,in some remote districts the former tree is said to attain large dimensions 7,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 viii4 7#aiaj71 p4 #bdd74 ,,trade4--,the following extracts from the ,colonial ,reports show the diversion of destination of ,gambian exports which has occurred in recent years4 ,for this purpose groundnuts are regarded as representing the whole of the trade1 of which they normally constitute about #ij per cent4 ,,percentages ,,of ,,exports ,,from ,,the ,,gambia ,destination #aiaa #aiab #aiac #aiad #aiae #aiaf #aiag ,great ,britain #fcj #ijj #fgb #iib #cide #ecef #gief and ,british ,possessions ,france and #hdhj #gfjj #ei-aj #gicd #dhfj #cfeh #bjce ,french ,possessions ,holland #cbj #ijj #fjc -- -- #dbj -- ,germany -- #cfd #bdef #fhj -- -- -- ,denmark -- -- -- #aii #gfh #efc -- ,spain -- -- -- #ce #dbd -- -- ,other countries #egj #bcf #cei #afj #jjc #jjc #jji ---------------------------------------- - #ajj #ajj #ajj #ajj #ajj #ajj #ajj ---------------------------------------- - ,from the above it will be noted that ,germany began to appear in the market in #aiab1 and1 in #aiac1 had taken nearly one-quarter of the output4 ,this is probably accounted for by the rapid growth of the vegetable oil industry in ,germany and the attempt on the part of ,hamburg crushers to capture the ,gambia trade from ,marseilles4 ,it will be seen that a proportionate decrease occurred in exports to ,french ports coincident with the increased shipments to ,german ports4 ,the ,european war put ,germany out of the market1 and in #aiad ,france took nearly her normal share4 ,in #aiae and #aiaf1 however1 ,great ,britain felt the lack of imported vegetable oils to such an extent that factories for their extraction sprang up in the country2 thus it is seen that in #aiae ,great ,britain took nearly #dj per cent4 against ,france's #dh per cent41 and in #aiaf1 ,great ,britain1 for the first time in the last fifty years1 took a larger portion of the ,gambian groundnut crop than ,france4 ,illustration3 ,,gambia ,,sierra ,,leone ,stanford's ,geogl4 ,estabt41 ,london4 ,,sierra ,,leone ,,introductory ,,remarks4 ,geographical ,position4--,the ,colony and ,protectorate of ,sierra ,leone are bounded upon the north and west by ,french ,guinea1 and upon the east by ,liberia4 ,the ,colony is confined to the hill country of the ,sierra ,leone ,peninsula and ,sherbro ,island2 the remainder being ,protectorate4 ,area and ,population4--,the area of the country according to the ,blue ,book of #aiaa is #ca1jjj sq4 miles4 ,the greater part is undulating1 well watered and fairly fertile1 traversed by short ranges of mountains1 mostly running north and south4 ,the population of the ,colony1 by the census taken in #aiaa1 was #ge1egb1 and of the ,protectorate #a1cbg1efj4 ,administrative ,divisions4--,the country is divided into seven administrative districts1 two of which are in the ,colony and five in the ,protectorate4 ,the latter have been formed primarily in accordance with tribal settlements1 due to the expediency of recognising in each the native customary law2 the exception to this is the ,railway district1 in which other considerations of greater importance are involved4 ,natural ,features4--,although the country is largely of a slightly undulating type1 in the north a curious formation of hills exists1 in the ,koinadugu district2 each hill bearing a curiously-formed pinnacle of rock on its summit1 and presenting a most striking appearance4 ,the valleys between these hills contain some of the richest soil found in the country4 ,farther north1 above the #ith degree of latitude1 the country is composed chiefly of grass land interspersed with stunted trees4 ,approaching the coast1 secondary forest or scrub occurs1 which is constantly being cleared for farms2 being so used for a year or two and then allowed to revert to 8bush0 for long periods4 ,natives4--,the inhabitants of the ,colony are chiefly the descendants of liberated slaves from ,north ,america and the ,west ,indies1 but a number were rescued by ,british war-vessels from slave ships1 and represent races from all parts of ,west ,africa4 ,the language adopted by these people is a 8pidgin ,english0 of a peculiar kind1 and is easily understood after a few of the curious idiomatic phrases have been learnt4 ,the most important tribes are the ,mendis1 ,timanis1 ,limbas and ,sherbros4 ,these are followed in number by the ,konnohs1 ,port ,lokkos1 ,susus1 ,korankos1 ,bulloms1 ,krims1 ,yalunkas1 ,mandingoes1 ,gbemas1 ,foulahs1 ,gallinas or ,veis and ,gpakas4 ,the ,mendis are the largest tribe1 and are entirely pagan2 they cultivate in a wasteful manner and are otherwise improvident4 ,the ,timanis are more intelligent and careful1 and the ,veis1 occupying the sea coast to the south1 who have recently adopted cocoa planting1 are not only considered the most intelligent1 but1 alone among ,west ,african natives1 have a written language4 ,land ,tenure4--,the land in the ,colony is held by the ,crown1 and is granted on the authority of the ,governor4 ,all grants made contain reservations with regard to roads and other public requirements4 ,the tenure of ,crown lands is fee simple1 but occupation is also sanctioned under squatters' licence at a nominal rent1 and the tenure is then in the nature of a tenancy at will4 ,under ,ordinance ,no4 #ad of #ahhf1 real and personal property may be taken1 acquired1 held or disposed of by any alien in a manner similar to that allowed to a ,british-born subject4 ,fields or waste lands outside town or village limits in the ,sierra ,leone ,peninsula and ,sherbro ,island must be taken up in lots of not less than #bj1 or more than #bjj1 acres4 ,such lots are disposed of at auction1 at an upset price of #ds4 #b;d4 per acre in the former1 and #hs4 in the latter locality4 ,up to #aijb the question of land grants in the ,protectorate was unsettled1 but arrangements may now be come to with the chiefs for the lease of tracts of land for long periods on an annual rental1 agreed to between the applicant and the tribal council2 the title requiring the confirmation of the ,government4 ,according to native law1 it is generally recognised that the lands of a chiefdom are not the property of the chief1 but are held in trust by him for the tribe4 ,a chief has no power to alienate any portion of the land of a chiefdom1 or to grant to any one perpetual rights to any portion1 but the lease of land by an arrangement with the tribal council1 and with the approval of ,government1 should be satisfactory for all requirements with regard to legal title4 ,labour4--,plantations worked by chiefs at the instigation of ,government are usually supplied with labour by the chief1 although monetary assistance in the form of bonuses is occasionally given4 ,under such conditions experimental plantations of fibre1 rubber1 kola1 etc41 have been made4 ,there is no fixed rate of pay for labourers1 but the usual wage for an adult man1 when hired1 is from #f;d4 to #as4 per day4 ,cultivation4--,throughout the country a shallow type of cultivation is common1 and one in which the bush stumps and roots are not removed4 ,the seeds of a number of different kinds of agricultural crops are generally mixed together before being sown broadcast over the lightly scraped soil of the burnt bush area4 ,the object of retaining the bush stumps and roots in the fields is that1 after two or three years of cultivation1 the bush may be easily reinstated1 and again after ten or fifteen years1 when cut down and burnt1 it furnishes a supply of wood ash for the fertilisation of the field4 ,this application of ash constitutes the only form of artificial renovation which the soil ever receives4 ,recently experiments have been made in the presence of natives1 in order to show the advantages of deep cultivation4 ,to effect this1 without the employment of ploughs1 the fork kodalli hoe1 recommended by the writer1 has been introduced and generally adopted4 ,the substantial increase in the production of their rice fields obtained by the use of this implement made a fortunate impression among the natives4 ,the native agricultural implements consist of a straight-handled1 narrow-bladed hoe called 8kari0 7,mendi71 or 8katala0 7,timani71 and one formed from an angled stick with a charred point1 called 8baowe0 7,mendi71 or 8kalal0 7,timani74 ,this last is used for drilling4 ,in addition to these1 a large broad-bladed hoe1 called 8karu wai0 7,mendi71 or 8katala kabana0 7,timani71 is employed for cleaning out weeds and scraping the soil surface2 the latter being the only cultivation the growing crop receives4 ,these implements are illustrated below4 ,illustration3 ,a4 8,,kari0 7,,mendi71 8,,katala0 7,,timani74 ,b4 8,,kaku ,,wai0 7,,mendi71 8,,katala ,,kabana0 7,,timani71 ,c4 8,,baowe0 7,,mendi71 8,,kalal0 7,,timani74 ,agricultural ,schools1 etc4 ,chiefs' ,sons' ,college4--,in #aijf a college for the sons of chiefs was established at ,bo1 and it was intended that1 in addition to the ordinary course of instruction1 the rudiments of improved agriculture should be taught4 ,this was subsequently found to interfere with the teaching of other subjects which were considered more necessary1 and was abandoned in consequence4 ,the omission of agricultural training from the course did not preclude the scholars from cultivating small patches of vegetables for their own use1 upon ground allowed to them for the purpose4 ,thomas ,agricultural ,college4--,in #aijh the erection of an ,agricultural ,college was commenced at ,mabang1 under the terms of the will of ,mr4 ,thomas1 a native who bequeathed a large sum of money to be devoted to this purpose4 ,the ,college was expected to be completed in ,june #aiaj1 when a commencement of lectures and general instruction was to be made4 ,scholarships and some official control were provided for by the terms of the trust1 but the project was never developed1 and the buildings were not even completed4 ,principal ,crops4--,the most important food crop is rice1 but two varieties of maize are also cultivated for local consumption2 one of these is quick maturing1 and is probably identical with the white variety which is exported from ,lagos1 from which country it is said to have been introduced into ,sierra ,leone4 ,the other kind is of slower growth1 and bears a yellow grain4 ,yams1 sweet potatoes1 and cassava are grown1 especially where there is a heavy rainfall4 ,forest ,products4--,besides the agricultural crops1 the forests yield palm oil and kernels1 and kola nuts are planted for the much appreciated seed which their pods contain4 ,the latter nut is said to have a stimulating effect1 and to allay hunger and thirst when chewed4 ,the nut is in such great demand throughout ,northern ,africa that a large trade exists between ,sierra ,leone and the coast countries to the north4 ,the more important exported products are accorded the foremost positions in the following account4 ,,oil ,,palm4 ,localities and the ,influence of ,position4--,elis guineensis is found generally throughout the country from the sea-board towards the interior1 diminishing in those districts where the climate becomes drier or where rocky and mountainous tracts intervene4 ,in places1 owing1 doubtless1 to the wasteful methods of treatment and the carelessness in burning the 8bush0 for farms1 extensive areas without palms are occasionally met with1 even where the soil and climatic conditions are not unfavourable to their growth4 ,in the extreme north1 where the rainfall diminishes1 the tree is only found in the vicinity of streams4 ,the most suitable situation for growth seems to be one in which the soil is generally rather moist1 although swampy1 ill-drained land is not favourable4 ,in those parts of the country where a gravelly laterite appears as a surface soil over a deep substratum of syenite1 trees may often be met with in considerable numbers1 but it is observed that the trunks of such trees do not acquire the same thickness as those growing in a damper and lighter soil4 ,it is probable1 although no experiments have yet been made affording direct evidence for the conclusion1 that the fertility and yield of fruits of the trees growing upon the flat lands are greater than those established upon the higher undulating country because they are subject to less wash and more natural irrigation4 ,it is also quite possible that the variety of palm fruit produced in the former places will be found to furnish better commercial results4 ,no distinct varieties are1 however1 recognised by the natives1 although distinctive names are applied to the same fruit in different stages of development4 ,the oil palm does not appear to be able to thrive in heavy forest1 and in a natural state occupies open valleys with low undergrowth1 but upon the clearance of primary forest it soon becomes established4 ,the seeds or nuts1 which are large and heavy1 are distributed by the agency of frugivorous birds and mammals4 ,the grey parrot1 for example1 may be observed extracting the ripe fruits from the heads or picking them from the ground where they have fallen1 and1 after conveying these to a convenient tree1 carefully removing the oily pericarp before dropping the nut in a new position4 ,monkeys doubtless convey the fruits to even greater distances in their cheek-pouches4 ,owing to the presence of rocky and swampy strips of country in the ,protectorate1 and the direction in which farm fires have been carried by the prevailing winds1 the distribution of palms has been thought to assume the character of 8belts10 defined by fairly well-marked boundaries4 ,when looked into more closely1 however1 the distribution appears to be better described as consisting of dense patches linked sometimes by almost unrecognisable chains of widely scattered trees1 and often broken into by short ranges of hills which are completely destitute of palms4 ,the patches referred to may bear #ejj palm trees to the acre1 and these may represent #hj to #ajj per cent4 of the total tree-growth on the patch4 ,the area of such a patch may be roughly estimated at from acre to #ae sq4 miles1 or even more1 but it should be added that1 where such extensive tracts as these occur1 the difficulties of transport and the scarcity of the population have constituted obstacles to working1 and to the means of preserving the trees4 ,oil palms near ,mafokoyia are shown in the picture 7,fig4 #aj74 ,illustration3 ,,oil ,,palms 7,,el,,is ,,guineensis71 ,,mafokoyia4 ,fig4 #aj1 p4 #ba4 ,illustration3 ,,native ,,collecting ,,oil ,,palm ,,fruit1 ,,blama4 ,fig #aa1 p4 #bb4 ,illustration3 ,,kola ,,tree ,,at ,,mano4 ,fig4 #ab1 p4 #bi4 ,the appearance of a young tree is that of a thick stem throwing out annulate series of long feathery leaf fronds1 upon petioles1 which bear roughly-formed spines4 ,as the tree increases in height the lower petioles are shed1 and the trunk assumes a narrower but more regular form2 indistinct rings being traceable1 formed by the bases of the fallen leaf stems4 ,a mature tree will measure about one foot in diameter at four feet from the ground1 and at the ground surface the diameter will be two and a half to nearly three times as much4 ,the male flowers are collected in the form of a number of tassel-like pendants1 springing from a common stalk1 and one such bunch is usually found above and upon each side of the female inflorescence4 ,both sexes of flowers usually occur upon the trees1 but the natives recognise the existence of a non-fruiting tree1 and one which only produces male flowers4 ,the number of fruit heads and the weight of these vary according to the position1 age1 and treatment of the tree4 ,an idea may be given of the fruitfulness of trees1 from the accounts obtained from natives in different parts of the country4 ,the palm has two fruiting seasons1 one during the dry weather and another during the rainy season1 the latter being generally the lighter crop4 ,it is estimated that a tree in full bearing will yield from twelve to twenty fruiting heads in one year1 each of a fairly large size4 ,a younger tree may only produce four to eight heads1 but usually of a larger size2 and a tree of only five or six years old may give about the same number of heads1 but of smaller dimensions4 ,from very old trees small heads with fruits of a diminished size are obtained4 ,the weight of a moderately large head will be about thirty pounds1 and will contain about twelve hundred fruits weighing roughly #bc lbs4 ,an illustration showing two fruiting heads is given 7,fig4 #i74 ,the ripe fruiting heads are gathered by a man using a climbing sling1 with which he encircles the tree and his waist1 and by means of a skilful manipulation of the part in contact with the trunk and remote from the body1 he proceeds to ascend the tree rapidly1 almost as though walking up it4 ,on reaching the crown1 a number of dead leaves have to be removed in order to get at the fruit stem4 ,these are cut by means of a 8cutlass0 or 8machete10 which the climber carries1 and are thrown to the ground4 ,only one head ripens at a time upon each tree1 and the time occupied in climbing and cutting out the fruit head is estimated at about eight minutes4 ,a photograph showing a native climbing a palm tree is reproduced 7,fig4 #aa74 ,both the ,mendi and ,timani races distinguish the fruit1 at different periods during the advance towards maturity1 by special names given with regard to the appearance4 ,identifications of the same series of fruits by different individuals have shown that these names are widely used4 ,although it will be seen that in the ,gold ,coast and ,nigeria the natives recognise a number of different varieties of fruit1 this does not appear to be the case in ,sierra ,leone4 ,the thin-shelled forms1 so well known to the natives of the former countries1 appear unknown1 except around ,sherbro1 where there are a few trees recognised as productive of this type of fruit4 ,in the appearance of the mature fruit1 the presence or absence of black at the apex seems to be of equally common occurrence1 but no importance is attached to this feature4 ,the ,sierra ,leone form appears to be at a disadvantage with regard to the proportion of oily pericarp covering the nut1 as well as in the great thickness of its shell4 ,comparing it with the varieties obtained in the ,gold ,coast1 it is probably nearest to1 if not identical with1 that called 8,abe pa40 ,when the percentage of oil extracted from the fruit of the ,sierra ,leone trees is compared with that from other parts of ,west ,africa1 it at once becomes apparent that the amount is small4 ,the results of three series of experiments1 made in different parts of the country1 showed that the fibrous pericarp1 which contains the oil1 constituted only about #cj per cent4 of the whole1 the nut containing the kernel being large and approximating #gj per cent4 ,palm oil extracted by native methods gave #abja1 #edg1 #efcg1 and #hcbf per cent4 respectively in four tests4 ,if these results are compared with the extractions of oil from the several ,gold ,coast varieties1 the deficiency is very marked4 ,compare ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 vii4 7#aiji71 pp4 #cfd-ga4 ,a close examination of the local fruit shows that the outer fibrous portion or pericarp1 which alone contains the palm oil1 is very thin1 whereas the hard shell surrounding the kernel is thick4 ,the kernel represents about #ae per cent4 of the total weight of the fruit1 and is largely exported from the country for the extraction of another kind of oil4 ,small ,export of ,oil compared with ,kernels4--,the proportionately larger weight of kernel than of palm oil capable of extraction1 accounts for the large quantities of kernels exported compared with palm oil4 ,as an example of this1 it may be mentioned that in the year #aijf ,sierra ,leone exported only #ab gallons of palm oil to each ton of kernels1 whereas ,southern ,nigeria figures for the same year showed #adb gallons of oil per ton of kernels4 ,since this date1 up to the beginning of the war1 a comparison of the annual exports of oil and kernels shows a fluctuation between about #ab and #ai gallons of pericarp oil for every ton of kernels2 the latter still remaining disproportionately high4 ,proposal to introduce ,new ,varieties4--,since it has begun to be realised that the local variety of palm is probably constantly inferior as an oil producer to some of the varieties found farther to the south1 it has been suggested that some of the forms1 with a thicker fibrous pericarp and a thin-shelled kernel1 should be introduced and planted upon an extensive scale4 ,it is assumed that by doing so1 a better type would become established4 ,experiments made in the ,kamerun show1 however1 that the progeny of palms having a thin-shelled fruit 7,lisombe7 do not necessarily retain their important characters4 ,dr4 ,strunk has suggested that1 in the variety mentioned1 the characters are not fixed or susceptible of transmission1 but the experiments are not considered as yielding conclusive evidence1 and it is advisable that experimental plots should be planted with the more useful forms in ,sierra ,leone and elsewhere1 the seed being obtained from artificially fertilised sources4 ,improvements in the ,local ,manufacture4--,during recent years great efforts have been made by the ,administration to increase the exports of both palm oil and kernels by opening up the previously rather inaccessible areas in which palm trees were found growing almost untouched4 ,the first step in this direction was the extension of the ,sierra ,leone ,railway line from ,boia1 a small village just beyond the ,headquarters ,district boundary1 to ,mafokoyia1 lying a short distance to the north4 ,from here a road was made eastwards towards ,yonnibannah1 passing through country fairly well studded with oil palms4 ,later from ,yonnibannah the objective of the railway became ,baga1 a town on the ,maybole river1 again to the north4 ,at the present time this line has reached ,kamabai1 at the foot of the ,koinadugu mountains and to the west of ,bumban1 passing the town of ,makump on its way there4 ,the whole of this route has been chosen in order to make the oil palm regions more accessible1 and the increase in exports of both oil and kernels between #aijg and #aiac is almost entirely attributable to this development4 ,not only was it desirable to open up new areas from which palm fruits could be gathered1 but1 owing to the deficiency of pericarp oil shipped from the country in comparison with palm kernels1 it was thought that1 by the introduction of improved methods for extracting the pericarp oil1 more of this commodity might be obtainable in the future4 ,the prospect of working a large area both experimentally and commercially for oil extraction in situ1 attracted ,messrs4 ,lever ,brothers1 who installed ample mechanical apparatus at ,yonnibannah in #aiad4 ,the ,government had granted this firm a concession to work several hundred square miles on the understanding that the local traders and merchants were not thereby to be debarred from buying the hand-prepared oil from the natives as before4 ,the scheme was intended to demonstrate the advantages of mechanical means of extraction over those of hand power2 and it was thought that1 by the introduction of these greater facilities for dealing with the oil palm products1 labour would be liberated and would be employed to a greater extent in the less heavy and more remunerative direction of plantation and field work4 ,messrs4 ,lever ,brothers' factory was one designed to be equipped both from a mechanical and research standpoint1 and a special shunting yard on the railway was leased to the firm by the ,government to deal with the anticipated work4 ,the project seemed so promising that local firms were contemplating following ,messrs4 ,lever ,brothers' example in other localities4 ,the whole scheme was1 however1 abandoned after a short trial2 ,messrs4 ,lever ,brothers having probably discovered two facts in connection with the oil palm industry in ,sierra ,leone which had been lost sight of4 ,the first is that the pericarp of the common type of palm fruit found in ,sierra ,leone1 as pointed out in the first edition of this book1 is very thin and therefore contains very little oil1 and that the shell of the nuts in this thin-pericarped fruit is extremely thick4 ,the common ,sierra ,leone kind is therefore of less economic value both in respect to pericarp oil and kernel contents than the common kind found in the ,gold ,coast1 ,nigeria and ,kamerun4 ,the second point is that the ,mendis and ,timanis occupying this part of the ,protectorate are a lower type and generally poorer workers by comparison with the ,fanti tribes of the ,gold ,coast or the ,yorubas of ,nigeria4 ,one explanation given for the failure of ,messrs4 ,lever ,brothers' effort in ,sierra ,leone was that they did not offer a sufficiently high price for the oil palm fruit heads to induce the natives to collect and carry them to the factory4 ,as the chiefs and villagers saw that by selling the fruits to the factory the main occupation of their wives 7the preparation of palm oil and the cracking of nuts for the extraction of palm kernels7 would be taken away1 they were said to be averse to the establishment of a new condition of enforced idleness1 which would impose greater difficulties on them of keeping their wives in order4 ,the offer by the factory to return the nuts for cracking in the villages1 did not dispose of this difficulty1 as the villagers only saw in it an arrangement involving them in extra transport4 ,messrs4 ,lever ,brothers have now transferred their work to the ,belgian ,congo1 where1 by reason of the better type of palm fruit commonly obtainable1 the conditions are more satisfactory for the development of the mechanical extraction of palm oil on a commercial scale1 and where the inhabitants are less independent and more accustomed to co-operate with ,european enterprise4 ,export ,figures4--,the average annual export of palm oil and kernels for the first nine years of the century1 and the annual total of the subsequent ten years are given3 ,palm oil ,palm kernels ,year ,gallons ,tons #aijj-aijh ,av4 #cjc1gij #bf1fcj #aiji #hea1iih #db1hig #aiaj #fde1cci #dc1jca #aiaa #gbe1fdh #db1hib #aiab #gbh1eji #ej1gea #aiac #fag1jhh #di1bja #aiad #dcf1add #ce1iae #aiae #dha1egf #ci1fbd #aiaf #eeg1gea #de1caf #aiag #edc1aaa #eh1jbj #aiah #bfj1ddb #dj1haf ,,rubber4--,until #aijg the ,african tree rubber 7,funtumia elastica7 had not been recorded from any part of the country1 although its congener1 ,f4 africana1 was found everywhere4 ,a number of trees of the first-named species have been recently discovered in the ,panguma and ,gola forests1 and have been carefully examined4 ,the latex1 from trees tapped in the former locality1 yielded a good quality of rubber when boiled with three volumes of water4 ,native ,method of ,preparation4--,the tree is known to the ,mendis as 8,gboi-gboi10 and in order to obtain the latex it is customary to fell the tree1 afterwards ringing it at intervals of about one foot4 ,the latex1 which flows1 is collected in leaf cups or other receptacles1 and is heated in an iron pot4 ,when in a state of semi-coagulation1 induced by heat1 it is poured upon plantain leaves1 placed on the ground4 ,another plantain leaf is then used to cover the mass1 which is stamped out with the feet into a rough sheet4 ,the sheet is hung up to dry in a hut1 in which it obtains the benefit of the fumes from the wood fires used by the occupants4 ,the next process is to cut the sheet into strips1 which are subsequently wound into large oval balls and enter the ,freetown market under the name of 8,manoh twist40 ,owing to the wasteful method of tapping the trees1 the species has been exterminated in many places1 and the local ,government have had under consideration the formulation of an ordinance to prevent the continuance of such destruction4 ,as the existing trees are now practically only found in the dense forests near the ,liberian frontier1 and are probably widely scattered over a large area1 it will prove a difficult matter to enforce any regulations with regard to collection4 ,vine ,rubber3 ,method of ,preparation4--,landolphia owariensis1 var4 ,jenje1 is said to be the species of vine from which the ,sierra ,leone 8,red ,nigger0 rubber is obtained4 ,the ,mendi name for the plant is 8,djenje40 ,a very destructive method is usually employed in the preparation of the rubber4 ,the vine is cut down and the roots dug out1 both of which are cut into small pieces and soaked in water for several weeks4 ,the bark is then removed1 and the wood is pounded and washed repeatedly until a reddish mass of rubber remains1 which usually contains a large amount of woody matter4 ,this is sold in the form of balls4 ,it is less common for the native to tap the vine and to coagulate the latex upon the wound with the addition of salt or lime juice1 but this is occasionally done1 and balls of scrap rubber collected in this way are sold in some localities4 ,another vine 7,clitandra laxiflora71 which yields an inferior rubber by means of boiling the latex1 is termed 8,jawe0 by the ,mendis4 ,this was at first considered to be ,clitandra ,manni1 but more recent investigation has proved that ,c4 ,manni1 although called by the same native name1 produces a latex incapable of coagulation4 ,the ,quality of ,indigenous ,rubbers and the ,export4--,the prices obtained for ,sierra ,leone rubbers compare favourably with those of the other ,british ,west ,african countries4 ,funtumia rubber1 which is generally largely adulterated in the ,gold ,coast and ,nigeria1 is apparently not so in ,sierra ,leone1 when prepared in the form of 8,manoh twist40 ,the vine rubber1 made from the scrap1 is also of good quality1 and the root rubber is not inferior to that shipped from the other countries4 ,the trade of ,sierra ,leone is1 however1 small1 and it is probable that the larger part of that exported from ,freetown is obtained from the adjoining countries of ,liberia and ,french ,guinea4 ,the export of rubber declined since #aijf1 when it amounted to #ajg tons1 to only #f tons in #aiac1 while in #aiaf and #aiag none was exported4 ,the composition and quality of ,sierra ,leone rubbers is given in the ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 iv4 7#aijf71 p4 #bi2 vol4 vi4 7#aijh71 p4 #bd2 vol4 viii4 7#aiaj71 p4 #af2 and vol4 xii4 7#aiad71 p4 #cga4 ,rubber ,plantations4--,no plantations of ,funtumia rubber have been made although small plots have been planted with the ,south ,american ,para tree 7,hevea brasiliensis7 on an experimental scale at different times and in various parts of the country and a mixed plantation of rubber1 cocoa1 coffee and fruit has been made near ,waterloo4 ,up to #aiji1 it should be remarked1 the work was in the hands of the ,agricultural ,service1 but from #aiaj1 on the formation of the ,forestry ,department as well as the reorganisation of an ,agricultural ,department1 all forest and plantation work was transferred to the first-named ,department4 ,no plantation rubber has yet reached the commercial stage1 although further trials are still in progress1 and much experience has been gained4 ,a few ,para trees were planted at the beginning of the present century in the ,botanic ,gardens at ,freetown1 but the locality was found unsuitable1 and the trees grew slowly and yielded unsatisfactorily4 ,a small plantation was made at ,moyamba by ,madam ,yoko1 the late chief of the ,mendis1 and was well looked after until she died1 since when it seems to have been somewhat neglected4 ,at ,mano1 the chief of the town made a good plantation in #aijf1 and1 as the locality was apparently well selected1 the trees have shown satisfactory growth4 ,small plots have been put out under ,para at the ,roman ,catholic ,mission station at ,serabu1 at ,segbwema1 ,tinainahun and the ,bo school1 with variable success1 in accordance with the cultivation and care bestowed on the plants4 ,except in the gravelly positions the tree succeeds well4 ,landolphia owariensis and ,l4 ,heudelotii have been planted in forested patches in different parts of the country1 the supervision of such planting having been entrusted to a native who had seen similar work performed by the ,french authorities in the neighbouring colony4 ,near ,batkanu1 a few plants can still be seen4 ,,kola ,,nuts4--,the importance of the kola nut in ,west ,africa is very high4 ,sierra ,leone produces generally a better quality1 for local consumption and export1 than other countries4 ,the kola trees 7,kola acuminata and ,k4 vera7 do not1 however1 occur in a wild state in the country1 and the whole produce is obtained from plantations1 which are to be seen near almost every village in the moist region4 ,a photograph is given showing a kola tree at ,mano 7,fig4 #ab74 ,the destination of the exported kola is chiefly ,bathurst 7,gambia71 ,dakar 7,senegal71 ,bissao 7,portuguese ,guinea71 and to a small extent ,dahomey4 ,the exports of this commodity in recent years are given below as well as their average annual values per ton1 which1 as will be seen1 exhibit great fluctuation4 ,tons ,valued at ,equal to per ton #aijf #a1aee #ajd1jhd #ij #aijg #a1cgd #aac1fgd #hc #aijh #a1afb #ajh1hie #id #aiji #a1cbj #aec1hdh #aaf #aiaj #a1ejh #aia1hgh #abg #aiaa #a1eig #aid1bfj #aba #aiab #a1fdi #bgf1dgc #afg #aiac #a1hfe #cbh1jjc #agf #aiad #a1ibd #bgi1ahe #ade #aiae #b1jda #bcc1chh #aai #aiaf #b1dhd #cjb1gbj #abb #aiag #a1gjb #cba1aje #ahh #aiah #b1cjb #cig1gbf #agc ,kola nuts are second only to palm kernels in ,sierra ,leone in importance as an export1 although they are practically entirely consigned to other coast ports2 an insignificant amount of dried kolas only being destined for ,europe4 ,,red ,,pepper4--,capsicum annuum and ,c4 frutescens are both grown among the multitude of plants1 the seeds of which are mixed and broadcasted in the farms2 but whereas most of the other plants are annuals1 these are left in the ground for two years or more1 and yield almost continuous crops during that period4 ,the country of origin of these plants is probably ,south ,america1 but the date of their introduction is unknown4 ,beside the extensive local use of the pods1 the export statistics of #aiji show that #da tons were shipped4 ,,ginger4--,zingiber officinale is not found in a wild state in ,africa1 but has been widely introduced throughout the tropical portions1 although in ,sierra ,leone1 alone among the ,west ,african countries1 has it reached the important position of an export4 ,owing to the defective methods of agriculture employed in the ,colony1 where for the most part ginger is cultivated1 the roots or rhizomes do not attain a large size1 and1 in consequence1 present great difficulties in decortication4 ,the common native method of preparation is to rub the washed and partially dried rhizomes in sand1 and then to dry them more or less completely in the sun4 ,the effect of this treatment is to remove a small portion of the outer skin from those prominences which come into contact with the sandy surface more readily1 the depressions being left untouched4 ,the native has found that the weight of the prepared ginger is increased by the adhesion of sand1 and therefore prefers to employ this method to that of using a knife4 ,the result is a very inferior product4 ,during the last few years attempts have been made among the ginger growers to deal directly with the ,european buyers1 and a ,farmers' ,association was formed with this object in view4 ,government assistance was obtained on the assurance that better methods of cultivation and preparation would be adopted1 and this was done to a certain extent1 but greater dependence seems to have been placed upon the supposed advantage to be obtained from shipping ginger of the usual inferior quality1 without it passing through the local merchants' hands4 ,the result was1 that a small quantity of selected ginger was sold at a good price1 and a large quantity of common grade obtained a lower price than previously4 ,recent experiments have shown that good results can be obtained with ginger in ,sierra ,leone if care be taken to deep-hoe the ground and then plant out the selected eyes from clean rhizomes4 ,the custom of attempting to grow a crop in hard laterite gravel without proper cultivation is the chief cause of the malformed and small rhizomes usually obtained in native cultivation4 ,under improved conditions a crop of five tons per acre of good quality ginger has been procured4 ,export ,trade4--,the following amounts of ginger have been shipped during the last decade3 ,tons ,value ,tons ,value #aijf #egi #aj1hgi #aiac #b1jdh #ce1dfh #aijg #fah #aa1egh #aiad #a1bac #ae1fci #aijh #fcg #aa1hga #aiae #efg #h1jia #aiji #gbb #ad1adg #aiaf #iga #be1had #aiaj #a1jic #cc1bhh #aiag #a1acf #be1hfc #aiaa #a1fib #dd1ffh #aiah #a1egf #ci1cjf #aiab #b1bjj #dd1hfd ,it is reported that1 owing to the decline in price paid for ,sierra ,leone ginger in #aiac1 about one-third of the crop was left unharvested1 and that the depreciation experienced was due to the competition from other sources of a better marketed product4 ,it would be a pity if the promising opportunity of the country to become established as a large producer of ginger were altogether lost1 owing to the want of a little care in cultivation and preparation of the product for the market4 ,the plant is essentially suited to certain parts of the ,colony and ,protectorate and is not subject to any serious diseases1 the only recorded one being a fungus which attacks the rhizomes and causes yellowing of the leaves4 ,this can be prevented from spreading if the plants be removed and burned as soon as the signs of attack are apparent on them4 ,,fibres4 ,jute ,class4--,in the last few years several fibre plants indigenous to the country have been experimented with at the ,imperial ,institute1 in order to ascertain whether any were capable of being exported for use as substitutes for ,indian jute4 ,honckenya ficifolia1 known by the ,timani name of 8,napunti10 a plant which occurs in great profusion in the swamps and low lands1 yields a fibre of excellent quality1 but owing to the difficulties experienced in the extraction of it1 further experiments are necessary to devise a means by which it can be economically prepared4 ,the analyses of the fibre from this plant which have been made at the ,imperial ,institute 7see ,selected ,reports from the ,imperial ,institute1 ,part ,i4 ,cd4 #dehh1 ,fibres1 p4 #dj7 are very satisfactory1 and this1 combined with the fact that the natural supply of the plant is very large in districts which are quite useless for agricultural purposes1 renders it important that the methods of extraction should be more carefully studied4 ,among the other fibres of this class which have shown promise1 ,hibiscus quinquelobus1 to which the ,mendis give the name of 8,korwey10 is found in a wild state in variable profusion throughout the country4 ,unlike the last1 which produces erect stems growing close together1 this plant has stems of an almost scandent character1 growing under the shade of moderately large trees and perforating the upper branches1 so that the flowering stems are often seen fifteen feet or more above the ground4 ,under cultivation the experiments seemed to show that the elongated character of the stems was not maintained1 and this defect requires to be remedied if the fibre is to be prepared upon a commercial scale4 ,the extraction is easily done by retting1 and experimental shipments to ,europe of several tons have shown that the product is quite marketable and is classed with1 or a little below1 medium jutes 7ibid4 p4 #ci74 ,recently experiments were carried out in the extraction of fibre from ,hibiscus esculentus1 the 8okra0 of tropical countries4 ,a specimen of the fibre having been examined at the ,imperial ,institute and favourably reported upon 7ibid4 p4 #ce71 a plantation was made at ,kangahun1 in order to endeavour to produce a crop1 which should have the additional advantage of yielding a marketable supply of the vegetable okra pods before being cut down and made into fibre4 ,in order to do this1 the seed was sown at close intervals1 thereby introducing a straight growth of stem1 and care was exercised not to permit the fruiting to continue long enough for the stems to become coarse4 ,the fibre was extracted in the same manner as that of jute1 except that the stems were immersed in a solution of caustic soda before retting to remove the thin outer bark4 ,the marketed fibre from the first of these experiments realised an unsatisfactory price1 but it was estimated that the crop of pods yielded #c per acre4 ,corchorus capsularis1 one of the ,indian jutes1 was introduced and planted out in #aijf1 but the existing native methods of cultivation and the absence of manure rendered the conditions so different from those obtained in ,india1 that a successful result was not brought about4 ,two species of ,corchorus are found in the country1 and are used only as vegetables4 ,ramie ,fibre4--,plantations of ,ramie fibre or ,china grass were recently made in various parts of the ,protectorate1 but although the plant grows well during the rainy season1 the long period of dry weather is detrimental to it4 ,piassava4--,this fibre is produced from the sheath of the leaf stem of ,raphia vinifera1 the wine palm1 and is prepared at several places1 especially in the swampy districts near the coast4 ,the method of extraction is merely that of steeping and beating out1 and the resulting fibre is1 in appearance1 somewhat similar to fine whalebone4 ,the largest amount was exported in #aiae1 when the figure reached #a1bhc tons4 ,the price in this year attained #fa per ton4 ,the fibre is chiefly employed for the manufacture of stiff brooms4 ,,cotton4--,the native cotton of ,sierra ,leone showed promise1 at one time1 of great development1 but insurmountable difficulties met the efforts of the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association in their attempt to establish cotton growing for export upon a large scale4 ,the native mode of growing cotton is in combination with a number of other agricultural crops1 the seeds of all being mixed before being broadcasted in a field1 which has been lightly tilled4 ,cotton sown in this manner is permitted to yield crops for two seasons1 but the second crop is generally much inferior4 ,owing to this irregular manner of planting1 the amount of cotton available for use is small1 and is nearly all absorbed for the supply of the native looms2 being readily saleable in the weaving districts at about #b;d4 per lb4 of seed cotton1 or about twice as much as the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association were prepared to pay4 ,the inefficiency of the quality of the local cultivation1 and the disinclination on the part of the native to adopt better methods1 effectually prevented more cotton being grown1 and the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association were unable to obtain sufficient material to keep their ginnery employed4 ,in connection with the cotton ginnery1 erected at ,moyamba1 a large plantation was made2 the indigenous as well as many exotic varieties of the plant being put in4 ,the site1 however1 proved unsuitable1 labour was found to be expensive1 and the climatic conditions were complained of4 ,in consequence of these adverse conditions1 the ,association were reluctantly obliged to abandon the work4 ,the export of cotton was never significant and ceased altogether in #aiji4 ,indigenous ,varieties4--,three well-marked types of cotton are found throughout the country1 and are known by the native 7,mendi7 names of 7#a7 ,kwonde1 7#b7 ,fande ,wa1 7#c7 ,dhoole4 ,the first of these has a white lint and a seed covered with white wool4 ,an examination of this at the ,imperial ,institute showed that the lint from it was the most valuable of the three2 the staple measured about #a1 and was compared with very good quality 8,indian ,broach40 ,two samples1 valued in #aijg1 were priced at #e;d4 and #e;d4 respectively1 with good ,broach at #e;d41 and ,middling ,american at #fah;d4 ,the ,fande ,wa variety has a creamy lint and a green woolly seed4 ,it was said to be of good quality1 but the colour was not so good as the last1 and the value was consequently lower4 ,dhoole is rather rarer than the other two1 and has a brick-red or brown lint and a bare seed4 ,khaki or red cottons are not in demand upon an ,european market1 but locally they are somewhat sought after4 ,native ,weaving4--,a native cloth woven from the three different varieties of indigenous cottons is frequently seen2 the careful arrangement of the naturally coloured yarns yielding a distinct pattern4 ,more often1 perhaps1 only the first two kinds are used1 and the yarn made from them is dyed with the local indigo4 ,in width the native cloths are usually narrow1 and the strips are sewn together in order to form gowns1 etc4 ,a photograph is given showing a native weaver at work at ,pendembu 7,fig4 #ac74 ,in a few localities wider cloths are woven1 but of no great length4 ,these are often elaborately designed1 and command a high price among the natives1 being preferred to imported materials4 ,exotic ,cottons4--8,cambodia0 and 8,sea ,island0 have been tried experimentally4 ,the latter1 though withstanding the heavy rainfall well1 was found to be very susceptible to attacks of the local cotton stainer4 ,there is still no prospect of the revival of cotton exportation4 ,illustration3 ,,native ,,weaver ,,at ,,pendembu4 ,fig4 #ac1 p4 #cd4 ,illustration3 ,,kumassi1 ,,the ,,capital ,,of ,,ashanti4 ,fig4 #ad1 p4 #dc4 ,illustration3 ,,stone ,,vat ,,for ,,pounding ,,palm ,,fruits1 ,,with ,,surrounding ,,gutter ,,and ,,oil ,,well1 ,,krobo ,,plantations4 ,fig4 #ae1 p4 #fh ,,rice4--,two forms of rice are grown in the ,protectorate2 one under irrigation or in swampy ground1 near rivers1 etc41 and the other entirely without any conservance of water1 depending on the rainfall4 ,the use of rice is general throughout the country--in fact1 it is probably the most important food crop2 and although1 as mentioned above1 there are two forms1 divided according to their mode of cultivation1 each form contains many varieties distinguished by different native names4 ,in the ,timani country and the vicinity of ,port ,lokko the finest quality is grown1 and the husking of this is said to be a prolonged process of drying1 without previously parboiling or soaking4 ,this rice only requires to be thoroughly dried before the husk will separate on pounding4 ,in the ,mendi country1 the heads of rice at the harvesting are cut and tied in small bunches to dry in the fields4 ,the grain is then beaten out1 and the chaff winnowed on a tray or in a gentle breeze4 ,the next step is to parboil the grain while yet in the husk1 during which operation the interior swells up so as to split the husk4 ,the rice is then again thoroughly dried in the sun upon mats1 and finally lightly pounded in a wooden mortar in order to separate the loosened husk1 which is removed by winnowing4 ,from the time of harvesting until the rice is ready for sale1 the work is performed by women4 ,in spite of the fact that a very large quantity of rice is grown1 it frequently happens that in a good season much remains unharvested1 owing to the improvidence of the native4 ,the price just after harvesting may fall as low as #as4 #f;d4 per bushel1 but a few months later it may reach three times that amount4 ,it is customary for the ,protectorate native to realise at once upon his crop1 without taking the precaution to lay in a store for his future requirements4 ,in consequence of this he is compelled to buy back supplies for his own consumption at a very much enhanced rate4 ,the native at the ,coast takes advantage of this improvidence and profits considerably by it2 buying up the cheap product at harvesting and realising a handsome profit after a few months4 ,in quality the local rice is excellent1 but in appearance it is somewhat reddish1 only a few of the finer qualities being nearly white4 ,the imported rices are usually white1 but are said to contain less nutriment than the local kinds4 ,rice has always constituted the staple food of the aboriginal tribes of the ,protectorate1 for which reason its cultivation and the weather conditions necessary for its successful production locally are matters of great importance4 ,no precaution is taken to plant any other crop as a stand-by in the event of an unfavourable rice season4 ,in #aiaj a disaster actually occurred1 for the rainy season of #aiji set in so early that it prevented many farms being burned in time to sow rice4 ,most of the local varieties mature their grain from three to five months after sowing1 the earlier producing approximately #ae1 and the later from #cj to #dj bushels1 per acre4 ,owing to the failure of the rice crop in #aiaj1 the commodity should not have been allowed to be exported in that year1 but the importance of this was lost sight of in view of the remunerative trade in it which had become established with different coast ports to which it was shipped4 ,in the previous edition of this volume a recommendation was made to foster the export of surplus ,sierra ,leone rice to the ,gold ,coast1 where it was much appreciated1 and doubtless this trade may yet become important when existing restrictions are removed1 and if it is found possible to induce a larger number of the population in the ,protectorate to engage in pure agriculture1 and grow crops in excess of their immediate personal requirements4 ,the exports for the last nine years were as follows3 ,bushels ,value #aiaj #ce1aad #e1ibe #aiaa #bb1fba #d1gaf #aiab #cj1gae #e1gab #aiac #ba1edh #c1iia #aiad #ah1gje #d1hee #aiae #ai1fjj #g1bbh #aiaf #c1aib #a1cfd #aiag #a1jbb #fig #aiah #agf #ic ,in #aiae1 owing to the falling off of imports1 it was found necessary to exercise control over the exports1 but in spite of this the amount exported was higher than in the previous year4 ,in #aiaf the urgency of the matter became even more pronounced and exports were restricted4 ,the ,agricultural ,department conducted several comparative trials with ,indian and local varieties of rice4 ,the ,indian rices were much smaller in size of grain and were generally not considered so suitable as the local kinds1 with respect to which it was found that1 with a sufficiency of seed used in sowing and deep cultivation1 excellent crops could be secured4 ,the native method of using less than half a bushel of seed to sow an acre is accountable for much of the resultant crop becoming full of weeds4 ,excellent results were obtained in sowing #a to #c bushels per acre1 when the weeds were choked out4 ,,camwood4--,this material1 from which red dye is got1 is obtained from the leguminous tree ,baphia nitida4 ,the use of it in ,european countries has somewhat diminished during recent years1 owing to the substitution for it of artificial red colouring-matter1 but a small quantity is still exported1 and is made use of for colouring sausage skins4 ,the amount of camwood exported in #aiae is given as #fce tons1 valued at #h1gfa4 ,,copal4--,the tree identified as ,copaifera ,guibourtiana is tapped1 in the ,mendi country especially1 for copal4 ,the method in general practice is to cut small square patches of bark from the main trunk and branches in the month of ,january1 and to permit these to exude resin until ,april1 at which time the flow has ceased1 and the resin hardened sufficiently to be collected4 ,the tree has been recorded from a few localities in ,sierra ,leone1 but recently plantations have been made near ,moyamba and elsewhere4 ,in the ,kwalu district1 where clusters of large trees occur1 much damage has been done by overtapping1 and many dead trees are to be seen4 ,the value of ,sierra ,leone copal is high1 sometimes attaining over two shillings a pound in the ,european markets4 ,the quality is1 however1 somewhat irregular1 and the local grading is frequently inefficient4 ,information as to the quality and value of ,sierra ,leone copal in comparison with other varieties is given in ,selected ,reports from the ,imperial ,institute1 ,part ,,ii41 ,gums and ,resins ,cd4 #diga1 pp4 #agj-hb4 ,about thirty tons were annually shipped to ,europe for making varnish1 but owing to the destructive methods of collection1 the ,government has prohibited trade for five years4 ,,groundnuts4--,practically no trade at present exists in this crop1 but efforts are being made to reintroduce the cultivation into ,bullom1 where at one time a large quantity was grown for export4 ,the cultivation of groundnuts for local consumption is carried on1 but the ridge system of planting1 which is in vogue in the ,gambia1 is not adopted in ,sierra ,leone1 and the groundnut stalks are removed from the ground without the nuts attached to them4 ,the nuts in ,sierra ,leone are permitted to remain in the ground and depreciate in quality through insufficient drying4 ,the success of groundnut cultivation depends largely upon the plant being grown on a loose bed of friable soil1 and1 where such conditions exist1 the ,gambian method should prove satisfactory4 ,experiments show that the nuts should be decorticated before sowing4 ,the usual local method of sowing is to scatter the nuts upon the unbroken ground and then cover with loose earth4 ,some damage is done by rats1 bushpig and termites1 and in #aiad a fungoid disease 7,cercospora personata7 appeared in ,karene4 ,the ,agricultural ,department has obtained #ab cwts4 to the acre in its trials4 ,the variety of nut grown is apparently identical with that of the ,gambia1 from which country the seed has probably been obtained in the past4 ,,cocoa4--,some years ago cocoa was introduced into the ,colony1 but1 although some of the ,colonial planters had received their training in the cocoa estates of ,fernando ,po and ,san ,thom1 no success attended their efforts in ,sierra ,leone4 ,the heavy rainfall1 combined with the long period of drought peculiar to the country1 is detrimental to the industry4 ,more recently experiments have been conducted in the ,protectorate1 where a lighter rainfall occurs2 but here also the conditions are not generally favourable1 as the long period of dry weather is not compensated for by humidity in the atmosphere4 ,importance of ,correct ,climatic ,conditions4--,cocoa plantations1 in order to be successful1 require atmospheric moisture fairly constantly throughout the year1 and will not thrive if exposed to excessive and prolonged drought1 or too much rain4 ,meteorological records taken at ,bo1 a place not far distant from that where cocoa experiments were made1 show that the conditions in respect to distribution of rainfall1 humidity and temperature are unfavourable there4 ,many attempts have been made in other localities1 but only in ,northern ,sherbro has there been any appreciable success4 ,the soil in this locality is deep and is kept in good tilth by the ,gallinas4 ,the price obtained locally for their cocoa beans was1 in #aiac1 from #c;d4 to #d;d4 per lb42 in #aiad there was an increase in the number of plants put out1 as the price rose in that year to #f;d4 per lb4 ,a sample of native cocoa was submitted to the ,imperial ,institute for examination and report in #aiaf1 and was found to be incompletely fermented with a rather harsh flavour4 ,the trade valuation1 however1 was equal to the standard price ruling for ,accra beans at the same time 7cf4 ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 #aiaf1 p4 #ehi74 ,although the outlook for ,northern ,sherbro is promising1 cocoa cannot attain much success in the country generally1 on account of unsuitable climatic conditions and general ineptitude of most of the native tribes4 ,,coffee4--,a few years ago coffee was grown in the ,colony for export1 the indigenous variety1 ,coffea stenophylla as well as ,c4 ,liberica being planted4 ,the former bears a very small berry and yields an excellent1 strong-flavoured beverage4 ,the latter is better known and has a large berry4 ,throughout the hill villages of the ,colony a great number of trees are seen1 but1 owing to a fall in the price of the product1 most of the crop remains unpicked1 although it should not prove unremunerative even at the present prices to continue the export4 ,,indigo4--,species of ,indigofera and a scandent shrub1 ,lonchocarpus cyanescens1 or 8,gara0 7,mendi71 are used for the extraction of the blue dyes commonly employed in the country4 ,the leaves of the latter plant are said to be in such demand that a quantity is annually imported from ,southern ,nigeria4 ,a description of the method of dyeing with 8,gara10 and an explanation of the process1 are given in the ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 v4 7#aijg71 p4 #abi4 ,,fruit4--,some parts of the ,colony seem favourable for the cultivation of various tropical fruits1 such as bananas1 oranges1 mangoes1 and pineapples1 and it is possible that the proximity of ,sierra ,leone to ,european ports might enable some of these to be grown for export4 ,,beeswax4--,a small amount of beeswax is collected in the ,protectorate1 and instruction has been given to the natives in some localities with a view to the improvement of the methods employed by them4 ,the ,government has arranged for the instruction of some of the local officials while on leave in ,england in practical bee-keeping4 ,the bee found in ,sierra ,leone is identical with the variety of ,apis mellifera found throughout ,west ,africa1 and is named var4 ,adansonii4 ,it is rather small1 but produces an excellent honey1 which is much appreciated4 ,,oil ,,seeds4--,a tall tree bearing a large flattened legume1 known to the ,mendi people as 8,fai10 or 8,fawe10 has been sent for examination to the ,imperial ,institute on account of the oil contained in the seed4 ,this tree was identified as ,pentaclethra macrophylla1 and1 although common throughout the forested zone1 is not seen in profusion anywhere4 ,the oil has been tested1 and is said to be capable of utilisation for the manufacture of soap and candles1 but not for alimentary purposes4 ,the difficulties in connection with the collection of the seed in large quantities and the extraction of the kernel from the outer horny shell1 hinder the creation of a remunerative export trade4 ,another vegetable oil is that obtained from the fruit of ,pentadesma butyracea1 a tree found in some parts of ,bullom and in the ,port ,lokko district4 ,the fat extracted from the ripe fruit is occasionally brought for sale to ,freetown1 where it is known as ,mandingo butter4 ,it does not occur in sufficient quantities to be commercially useful1 although it yields an edible oil4 ,lophira alata1 which is widely distributed throughout the grass country in the north1 and is replaced by a nearly allied species1 ,l4 procera1 in the forest zone1 bears a seed which contains a large percentage of oil1 which can be used for soap manufacture4 ,the difficulty of decorticating the seeds and their preservation during transport are disadvantages in the establishment of an export trade4 ,analyses of the fats or oils yielded by these and other ,west ,african oil seeds1 and information as to their quality1 possible uses and value will be found in ,selected ,reports from the ,imperial ,institute1 ,pt4 ,v41 ,oil ,seeds 7cf4 also ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 #aiab1 #aiac1 #aiae1 #aiag1 #aiah74 ,progress in ,agriculture4--,in #aiaj the ,agricultural ,department was reorganised on a better basis than formerly1 and the purely forestry work1 which had been previously carried on by the ,agricultural ,superintendent1 in addition to his other duties1 was then transferred to a ,forestry ,department formed in that year4 ,briefly1 the scheme of work laid down by the new ,department of ,agriculture may be said to be on the following chief lines3 7i7 ,the introduction of a cheap and effective organic manure1 and the demonstration of its value in such a manner as to induce the people to use it on their land1 and thereby to employ more economical means for the production of food1 etc4 7ii7 ,the institution of a proper rotation of crops suitable for each district or locality4 7iii7 ,the demonstration to natives of the fact1 that1 by the proper employment of manuring and crop rotation1 they would be able to farm the same piece of land for an indefinite number of years1 during which time it should increase rather than diminish in fertility4 ,by such demonstration it should be possible to put an end to the wasteful and permanently destructive methods at present employed of shifting cultivation4 ,the ,agricultural ,department has a piece of land on the ,experiment ,farm at ,njala1 which has been under crops annually for the past eight years1 and the condition of it at present is said to be a more fertile one1 owing to the system of manuring and rotation employed1 than it was at the commencement of work4 ,this is mentioned here1 as it is in contradiction to the well-worn native excuse for changing the site of farms annually1 i4e41 that it is essential for the maintenance of the fertility of land that after a few years' cultivation the 8bush0 be allowed to become re-established so that1 on burning1 a sufficient amount of wood ash may be obtained to renovate it4 7iv7 ,to encourage the natives in the formation of permanent plantations of fruit and other economic trees4 ,to these ends1 in the first place1 analyses of soils from various parts of the country have been made by the ,imperial ,institute4 ,at the same time samples of the soil taken from localities where kola1 cocoa1 rice and groundnuts were grown1 have been compared with that from uncleared 8bush40 ,the result of the examination1 in the latter case1 showed the soil had a deficiency of lime and phosphoric acid4 ,a special analysis was also made of the soil of the ,banana ,islands1 which was found to have an adequate quantity of nitrogen but to be deficient in potash and phosphoric acid4 ,with a view to producing a more satisfactory condition of soil in some parts1 different leguminous crops have been cultivated and alternated with ,sorghum millet 7,guinea corn71 maize and rice4 ,among the species tried by the ,agricultural ,department are3 soya beans 7,glycine soja71 black gram 7,phaseolus mungo71 pigeon peas 7,cajanus indicus71 ,java beans 7,phaseolus lunatus71 cowpeas 7,vigna catjang71 sword beans 7,canavalia ensiformis7 and horse-beans 7,dolichos lablab74 ,yams and groundnuts have also been tried1 and a yield of #f tons #c cwts4 per acre of the former crop was obtained at the experimental farm at ,njala in #aiad4 ,forestry4--,on the formation of a ,forestry ,department in #aiaj1 a survey was at once proceeded with1 and active steps were taken to save from extinction the small extent of forest remaining in the ,colony and ,protectorate4 ,from the survey it appeared that some #ii per cent4 of the ,protectorate primary forest had already been destroyed by the wasteful methods of farming generally practised4 ,intervals between the clearing of the bush for farms was from nine to five years1 the effect of which was to entirely eliminate the primary forest areas4 ,where patches still remain1 however1 many useful species of timber trees are found4 ,by the introduction of regular forest control and reafforestation1 it is hoped that conditions may be improved to some extent1 and economic trees especially preserved4 ,forest legislation has already been introduced to insure the preservation of copal trees4 ,illustration3 ,,gold ,,coast ,territory held by ,great ,britain under ,mandate is hatched in ,red4 ,legend ,stanford's ,geogl4 ,estabt41 ,london4 ,,the ,,gold ,,coast1 ,,ashanti ,,and ,,the ,,northern ,,territories ,,introductory ,,remarks4 ,geographical ,position4--,the ,gold ,coast ,colony1 with the dependencies of ,ashanti and the ,northern ,territories1 forms a nearly oblong tract of country1 bounded on the north by the #aath parallel of north latitude and the ,french ,sudan1 on the south by the ,gulf of ,guinea1 on the east by ,togoland1 and on the west by the ,ivory ,coast 7,french74 ,the course of the ,black ,volta forms the natural boundary on the north-west1 and that of the ,daka1 continued as the main ,volta river1 a large extent of the eastern1 which1 however1 is in course of realignment4 ,area and ,population4--,the area of the whole country is estimated at about #hb1jjj sq4 miles1 and the population at upwards of #a1ejj1jjj4 ,divisions4--,the ,colony proper forms the most southern of the three divisions of which the country is composed1 and is bounded on the north by an irregular line dividing it from ,ashanti4 ,this line commences upon the western frontier at a point about #f #dj ,n4 and #c #g ,w41 and runs to a point on the ,ofin river about #f #cj ,n4 and #b ,w41 continuing southward along the course of the ,ofin to its junction with the ,pra river1 whence it follows the last-named river in a north-easterly direction to near ,abetifi1 and continues in an irregular line to the ,volta1 meeting it below the junction of the ,assuokoko stream4 ,ashanti is separated from the ,northern ,territories by an irregular boundary-line from east to west1 on the south side of the ,black and main ,volta rivers4 ,it is almost entirely forested up to the boundaries of the largest towns4 ,a view of ,kumassi1 the capital1 is given1 showing the proximity of the forest 7,fig4 #ad74 ,from a climatic as well as an agricultural standpoint the country is more conveniently divided into two parts by a line which sharply defines the limits of the region of dense forest from that of the grass lands with few trees1 which is characteristic of the country to the north4 ,this line is probably the northern limit of the tract of country subject to a prolonged rainy season1 and owing to the density of the forest south of it seems to have constituted the extreme distance to which the ,mohammedan conquerors from the north were able to penetrate1 when attempting to subdue and convert the pagan tribes to their south4 ,the improved methods of agriculture found among the tribes inhabiting the ultra-forest country of the ,northern ,territories may be attributable to the teaching of these conquering people4 ,on account of the marked differences in the conditions and the agricultural development of the forest and ultra-forest regions1 it appears to be more convenient to refer to the products from the ,northern ,territories in a separate part1 and this course has been followed here4 ,,part ,i4--,,gold ,,coast ,,and ,,ashanti ,origin of ,tribes4--,tradition among the natives maintains that the two great tribes of ,fanti and ,ashanti were originally from the same stock1 and it is probable that this was also the case with regard to the people of ,tufel1 ,denkera1 ,assin and ,aquapim1 who are said to speak a dialect of the same language as that of the ,fantis and ,ashantis4 ,completely different languages are1 however1 spoken by the ,appolonias1 ,ahantas1 ,agoonahs1 ,accras1 and ,adampes living near the coast1 and these are supposed to represent the remains of an earlier race4 ,the native belief is that the whole people were originally composed of twelve families or tribes1 and that each was called by a separate name in some way indicating the occupation4 ,according to ,bowdich1 those calling themselves after animals of the forest probably represented the families employing their time in hunting1 and those bearing such names as cornstalk 7,abrotoo7 and plantain 7,abbradi7 applied themselves to agriculture4 ,the name ,agoonah1 implying 8oil-palm locality10 seems to have been applied to all those who were traders4 ,individuals are still said to assume these distinctive names without regard to their usual tribal affinities4 ,the probable reason for the backward condition of agriculture in the forest region is that a food supply was procurable from the forest itself1 and the continual intertribal warfare1 in which the people seemed to have been engaged1 was opposed to the cultivation of crops1 which might become an incentive to a covetous attack4 ,more recently1 since these conditions have become altered1 through the pacification of the country1 some of the tribes1 who were the first to become settled1 have adopted a form of cultivation which1 although wasteful1 seems to be common among the forest people of ,west ,africa4 ,by means of imperfect clearing of the ground before cultivation1 and superficial turning up of the soil1 small crops of grain 7maize7 and roots 7yams and cassava7 are raised1 and the land is usually left to revert to a state of weeds and 8bush0 after two or three years' use4 ,this resembles the 8,chena0 system in ,ceylon4 ,the tribes who have developed a better and more economical form of working are those in whose districts the advent of cocoa planters has so raised the value of land that they are compelled to utilise the same plot more frequently for their annual crops4 ,as an indication of this1 the best cultivated fields are those of the ,krobos1 ,akims1 ,krepes1 and ,kwahus1 while the least advanced tribes are the ,ashantis4 ,owing to the remunerative return from cocoa cultivation in parts of the country1 this commodity has attained the first place among exported agricultural and forest products4 ,in recent years1 moreover1 development has been so rapid that the country is now the largest producer of cocoa in the world4 ,among exports1 rubber1 palm oil1 palm kernels and timber follow it in order of importance4 ,,cocoa4--,as a preliminary to an account of the cocoa industry in the ,gold ,coast1 it may be considered useful to refer briefly to the botanical position of the tree which produces cocoa1 as well as to the varieties which are cultivated4 ,a comparison of the methods employed in the ,gold ,coast with those adopted elsewhere seems also necessary4 ,the tree is a native of ,trinidad and the north-eastern part of ,south ,america1 and is botanically classified in the ,natural ,order ,,sterculiace1 sub-,order ,buettnerie1 under the name of ,theobroma cacao of ,linnus4 ,in the ,west ,indies1 from which the cultivation has spread into several tropical countries1 three fairly well-marked varieties are recognised as commercially useful1 and these bear the local names of 8,criollo10 8,forastero10 and 8,calabacillo40 ,the first of these is said to be identical with that occurring at ,caracas1 in ,venezuela1 and is usually called by the name of that place when exported from ,south ,america4 ,the ,criollo variety is the source of some of the highest-priced produce1 but ,forastero has some points in its favour for general cultivation1 the chief of which appears to be greater hardiness4 ,for this reason it seems to have become easily established in the islands of ,san ,thom and ,fernando ,po1 where the sub-variety known as ,amelonado is that of general occurrence1 and to have spread from there to the mainland of ,west ,africa4 ,in ,ceylon the ,forastero variety is also much grown in plantations4 ,the third variety1 ,calabacillo1 yields an inferior product and does not appear to have been introduced into the eastern hemisphere4#a ,cocoa1 as shipped from the plantations1 is the dried bean or seed1 which has been removed from the fruit pod of the tree1 and may or may not have been fermented before drying4 ,the properly fermented seeds or beans find more favour in ,european markets than those which have not undergone the process1 but it is chiefly in an imperfectly fermented condition that cocoa beans are exported from the ,gold ,coast4 ,attempts are being made to alter this1 so as to produce a better quality4 ,cocoa forms a very nutritious food1 and beverage after preparation by the manufacturer1 entering the markets in a manufactured form under the names of cocoa or chocolate4 ,no native manufacture is employed in the ,gold ,coast1 although cocoa butter has been extracted on a small scale at ,odumase4 ,the following account is that which is generally accepted regarding the first introduction of the tree into the ,gold ,coast4 ,about the year #ahgi a native trader1 named ,tete ,quasshi1 brought some of the seed from ,fernando ,po and made a small plantation at ,mampong1 which is situated about ten miles north of ,aburi in the ,volta ,river ,district4 ,the trees grew well1 and the first crops of pods were said to have been disposed of to other natives at #a per pod4 ,following the example of this trader1 the ,basel ,mission ,trading ,association imported more pods from ,fernando ,po1 and for some time they were able to dispose of them at a large profit4 ,the variety introduced was ,forastero-,amelonado1 and was found to thrive extremely well under the local conditions prevalent in the districts of the ,volta ,river1 ,kwahu1 and ,eastern ,akim4 ,the first shipment of cocoa from the ,gold ,coast was made in #ahia1 when #hj lbs41 valued at #d1 were exported4 ,from that time onward the annual exported quantity has increased somewhat irregularly until the returns for #aiai show #agf1aee tons1 worth more than #h1jjj1jjj4 ,no estimate can be given of the area at present under cocoa cultivation1 for the reason that a large number of the cultivators only possess a few trees standing near their houses or scattered in their farms4 ,where plantations exist they are usually small1 and1 owing to the irregularity of the planting1 no efficient idea of the possible production could be obtained by measurement of the planted area alone4 ,since the settlement of the ,ashantis into more peaceful modes of living1 and the adoption by them of agricultural work1 cocoa planting has rapidly spread through ,ashanti-,akim1 and new plantations may be found even westward of ,kumassi4 ,from ,axim also there is an extension of cocoa-growing towards the north1 and it has recently been stated that the most promising land for the cultivation of the tree is to be found to the west of the railway1 between ,sekondi and ,kumassi4 ,the once proverbially truculent and warlike ,ashantis have recently1 to a large extent1 become peaceful cocoa planters4 ,plantations are also found under ,european control1 often in combination with rubber or kola2 but cocoa does not combine with rubber as satisfactorily as coffee1 which is more frequently employed4 ,under 8,rubber0 some particulars of the plantations1 whose returns are available1 are supplied4 ,in common with many other cultivated plants1 cocoa requires certain definite combinations of climate and soil to ensure remunerative cultivation1 and unless these exist the introduction is not to be recommended4 ,with regard to climate1 a considerable rainfall is generally thought necessary1 the intervals of dry weather not being too prolonged4 ,the drainage of the land should be good1 for if the water cannot drain away within a reasonably short time1 the trees will be adversely and often severely affected4 ,although it is recognised that cocoa can sustain itself under conditions of drought for a short time1 districts subject to periodical absence of rain for a month or more are unsuitable1 and trees planted in such places will generally die after a brief period4 ,the annual rainfall in the cocoa districts of ,trinidad averages about #gb inches1 but a much heavier fall is experienced in the plantations of ,ceylon4 ,in neither of these countries1 however1 is there an annual long period of complete drought1 which is a feature common in most parts of ,west ,africa2 and even when an interval without rain occurs1 the humidity of the atmosphere compensates for the absence of it4 ,ceylon is visited by a double monsoon or rainy season1 which is also the case in a less marked degree in the ,gold ,coast4 ,the next requirement of importance is a soil of suitable quality4 ,it is generally considered best to select land which possesses a moderate amount of loose clay mixed with sand1 and1 if the surface be thickly covered with vegetable deposit1 so much the better4 ,steep hillsides1 stiff1 boggy1 sandy1 or rocky land are to be avoided4 ,the presence of low scrub on uncleared land is an indication of poverty of soil1 although the presence of heavy forest does not necessarily guarantee the suitability of the locality1 as imperfectly drained land often bears a heavy forest growth4 ,good natural drainage is essential1 and is nearly always found where the land slopes and the rock underlying the soil is friable or deep4 ,natural drainage can often be improved by artificial means4 ,the last important condition necessary is the selection of a position where shade and wind protection can be obtained naturally to as great an extent as possible4 ,plantations in valleys1 sheltered by mountain spurs or by belts of high forest1 are suitable1 and such formations are met with in many parts of the ,gold ,coast and ,ashanti4 ,in these localities the climate as well as the positions and soil obtainable are generally so well adapted for the fruitful growth of cocoa that1 even where the average annual rainfall is as low as #da inches 7the average at ,aburi71 plantations are proving successful1 the regular distribution1 humidity of the atmosphere1 and the natural shade constituting a compensation for the shortage4 ,the native planter sows the seeds in small patches or in roughly prepared beds in the vicinity of water1 often in such proximity to one another as to choke a number of the young plants4 ,this form of nursery is met with throughout the forests1 and it is common to find circular patches containing two or three hundred plants adjoining a road4 ,in addition to this1 a large number of seedlings are grown at1 and distributed from1 the ,government ,botanic ,gardens4 ,native plantations are for the most part formed of irregular lines of trees1 generally planted too closely4 ,the evil effect of this does not become apparent until the trees attain a large size1 when the excessive shade they afford to their fruit-bearing branches1 which in cocoa consist of the trunk and main structure1 prevents the fruit from forming and induces rot through want of evaporation of moisture4 ,the native planter is slow to recognise this1 and disinclined to remedy the matter by removing some of the trees4 ,the distance at which cocoa trees are planted by the native is roughly from #g to #aj feet apart1 whereas that recommended for plantations in the ,west ,indies and ,ceylon varies1 with the quality of the soil and the elevation1 from #ab to #ae feet2 the latter would be more suitable for most of the ,gold ,coast plantations4 ,the advantage which the native planter sees in his method of planting is1 that in addition to getting a larger number of trees into a given space1 the density of their foliage soon becomes so great that weeds cease to grow beneath1 rendering cultivation unnecessary4 ,until such a state has been arrived at1 the cutting of weeds is an operation which may have to be performed twice1 or even three times1 in the year4 ,this is the only form of cultivation given1 no manure being used or any breaking of the soil done4 ,in the ,west ,indies it is not customary to disturb the surface soil1 except in so far as it may be necessary to apply manure or remove catch crops2 but even in these cases great care is exercised1 as it is found that the cocoa tree is to a large extent a surface feeder1 and spreads lateral fine roots at very little depth below the surface4 ,shade is obtained naturally to a large degree1 but in the early years of the tree's existence1 cassava and plantains are planted to afford it4 ,the plantation of ,para rubber with cocoa has been recommended in such a manner that each would occur alternately in a diagonal line4 ,this does not appear a very satisfactory plan1 owing to the fact that ,para rubber trees in ,west ,africa shed their leaves annually at about the time that cocoa most needs shade4 ,in the small patches of cocoa trees1 which constitute most of the native plantations1 permanent and sufficient shade is generally given by the surrounding forest trees1 and it is of small importance in such cases to consider the plantation of permanent shade trees4 ,pruning1 in the ,west ,indies1 is attended with the greatest amount of care1 and is performed for the purpose of producing a vigorous tree by the removal of all useless wood1 and of encouraging fruiting branches to increase their production4 ,in order to do the latter it is essential to remove any superfluous number of primary branches1 three or four being considered sufficient for one tree4 ,a similar regulation of growth is required with regard to the secondary and tertiary branches4 ,in addition to this1 care is given to retain the correct balance for the tree1 and1 when cutting out branches1 to avoid making jagged cuts or slashes4 ,the ,west ,african native does not prune with these objects in view1 but employs a 8cutlass0 or 8machete0 to cut out those branches which seem to be giving too much shade or which have become interlaced1 regardless of their value to the tree or of the wounds inflicted in the operation4 ,efforts have been made to teach pruning at the ,botanical ,stations1 but the demonstrations have not been largely attended1 and a great deal of damage continues to be done through ignorance of the objects and effects of pruning4 ,many of the older plantations1 owing to bad treatment and too close planting1 are yielding an annually diminishing crop1 but new ones are springing up in increasing numbers each year1 which is an obvious indication that the industry is proving a profitable one4 ,insect ,pests and ,vegetable ,parasites4--,wounds1 such as those described above1 often render the tree more susceptible to the attacks of insect pests2 but1 although it has been stated that cocoa trees in the ,gold ,coast are seriously affected in this way1 such is not often the case4 ,beetles of the ,longicorn group are found damaging the tree to some extent wherever it has been planted4 ,two species are recorded from the ,west ,indies3 ,steirastoma histrionica1 ,white1 from ,trinidad1 and ,s4 depressa1 ,linn41 from ,grenada4 ,on the trees in the ,gold ,coast ,armatosterna buquetiana1 ,white1 and a ,glenea sp4 have been found doing similar damage4 ,these insects deposit their eggs in crevices of the bark or on wounds1 and the grubs which emerge bore into the trunk1 living and growing in size in the interior of the wood until mature1 when they change into pup1 and finally into beetles4 ,the presence of these grubs is easily detected by the quantity of fine particles of wood or 8frass0 which are thrown out of the entrance hole2 and1 if a flexible wire be inserted until it reaches and impales the grub1 it will often prevent the damage becoming serious4 ,the nests of large red ants 7cophylla sp471 which feed upon the saccharine juices which exude from the pods1 may often be observed on cocoa trees1 but as the ants viciously bite any living thing which may venture upon the tree1 they are probably a safeguard against the depredations of rats and squirrels that eat out the contents of the ripe fruit while still on the tree4 ,illustration3 ,,cocoa ,,at ,,mramra ,,attacked ,,by ,,black ,,cocoa-,,bark ,,bug4 ,fig4 #af1 p4 #ea4 ,illustration3 ,,drying ,,cocoa ,,beans ,,at ,,mramra4 ,fig4 #ag1 p4 #ec4 ,illustration3 ,,native ,,tapping ,,indigenous ,,rubber ,,tree 7,,funtumia ,,elastica71 ,,oboamang1 ,,ashanti4 ,fig4 #ah1 p4 #fa4 ,in #aiji the writer drew attention to a black hemipterous insect causing destruction to plantations in the ,ashanti-,akim region1 where careless cultivation prevailed 7cf4 ,bull4 ,entom4 ,research1 vol4 i4 pt4 viii4 #aiaj74 ,this insect1 known as the 8,black cocoa-bark bug0 or 8,sankonuabe10 was named ,sahlbergella theobroma1 ,distant1 and subsists in all its stages upon the sap of cocoa branches obtained through punctures made by its proboscis4#b ,the attacked trees are atrophied or killed outright 7,fig4 #af74 ,spraying with petroleum-soap emulsion has proved an effective remedy1 but native planters do not readily adopt it4 ,recently the insect has been found sapping the silk cotton tree1 and planters are warned against having this tree in their plantations4 ,another insect1 which belongs to the same ,order as the last1 and the genus ,helopeltis1 has been observed puncturing the pods and causing them to become black-spotted1 distorted1 and sometimes killed by the attack4 ,this is allied to ,h4 ,antonii1 ,sign41 which punctures cocoa pods in the same manner in ,ceylon4 ,the insect does not appear to be numerous at present1 but should be sought on damaged pods and killed at every opportunity1 as some species of the same genus have developed into the worst enemies of tea and cinchona in other parts of the world4 ,fungoid parasites appear to be rare in the ,gold ,coast1 although they have been observed commonly in other places in ,africa4 ,in some of the damper parts of ,ashanti a fungoid thread blight was observed on cocoa1 and was found to be common upon several forest shrubs in the same places4 ,this is perhaps ,stilbum nanum1 ,massee2 it should be treated by means of scraping with a wooden knife combined with spraying with ,bordeaux mixture4 ,harvesting and ,preparing4--,the native cocoa grower collects the pods from his trees at the time when he estimates he can gather the most1 and1 in consequence1 many over-ripe and under-ripe fruits are taken with the ripe4 ,the effect of this is to give an irregular product which can never possess the attributes of a good cocoa4 ,the pods are usually pulled off the tree1 a knife being seldom used2 and in the action of pulling off1 the cushion1 upon which the pod is borne1 is often torn and injured4 ,as it is from this point1 or near it1 that the successive crops of flowers and fruits proceed1 the bearing power of the tree is frequently diminished in this way4 ,the use of a knife and the necessity for frequent pickings1 to ensure the pods being taken when mature1 are among the most important lessons which the native planter should be taught4 ,the pods after collection are thrown into a heap upon the ground1 and are often left without further attention for two or three days1 after which they are broken open with the aid of a 8cutlass10 and the contents are scooped out into a basket4 ,the result is a mixture of beans1 in their surrounding pulp1 in different stages of maturity4 ,the length of time that the beans remain in the basket is generally only regulated by the convenience of the collector4 ,the next operation is to remove as much of the pulp as possible by washing in a stream1 and this is more easily effected with the over-ripe beans or with those which have been allowed to 8sweat0 or ferment4 ,after washing1 the beans are spread thinly upon mats1 raised upon rough frames1 in order to dry them in the sun4 ,an illustration is given showing this process 7,fig4 #ag74 ,such is the crude and irregular method employed by the natives of the ,gold ,coast1 who until quite recently had little or no knowledge of the advantages of fermentation4 ,owing to the small quantities with which they worked at one time1 it is probable that the fermenting action in the pulp was seldom set up4 ,during the last few years attention has been given to this by the more intelligent planters1 and it is not uncommon to find that boxes and barrels have been brought into use by them1 and that fermentation has been allowed to proceed for from four to ten days with satisfactory results4 ,drying is still conducted in the manner described above1 and is often incomplete1 but1 to remedy the defects of this1 one of the ,european buying firms has erected a drying machine1 in which all the cocoa bought is thoroughly dried before shipment4 ,the skilled cocoa planter of the ,west ,indies and ,ceylon is careful to pick only those pods which are quite mature1 and1 in order to do this1 he is obliged to go over his plantation frequently4 ,mature pods are those which have assumed a yellowish or reddish colour1 and considerable experience is necessary to judge this with accuracy4 ,the pods are removed by means of a cutting instrument called a 8cocoa hook10 with which care can be more easily given to the preservation of the cushion4 ,the pods are placed in heaps and1 in the case of small estates where one day's picking is insufficient to procure a fermentation1 they are left for1 perhaps1 two days until a sufficient quantity has been obtained4 ,sorting1 according to variety and degree of maturity1 is resorted to before opening1 and1 again1 when cut open1 care is taken to separate such beans as are found over-ripe4 ,this practice is strictly adhered to in ,ceylon1 but is often disregarded in the ,west ,indies4 ,no washing is done at this stage1 but the beans1 with their pulp attached1 are placed in barrels1 boxes1 or vats for the purpose of fermentation1 which is brought about by the decomposition of the pulp1 and is complete when the liquor1 thus formed1 has impregnated the interior of the bean and changed the colour of it from purple to rich chocolate brown4 ,the shell becomes toughened1 and the remaining pulp is more easily removed after this process has been undergone4 ,washing1 if it is considered necessary1 is then proceeded with1 and is generally done in ,ceylon1 though not in the ,west ,indies4 ,drying is chiefly done in the sun in the ,west ,indies1 and the beans are spread thickly and turned constantly4 ,drying houses1 which have roofs capable of being slid over the cocoa on the approach of rain1 are used4 ,in ,ceylon hot air distributed by centrifugal fans is the common method4 ,polishing1 which is often employed in the ,west ,indies1 is done by sifting finely powdered red earth over the partly dried beans while they are exposed to the sun1 when1 it is maintained1 the earth assists to remove the remaining pulp as well as to absorb the moisture1 at the same time giving the surfaces of the beans a polished exterior4 ,annatto is said to be used instead of red earth in ,venezuela1 but the addition of this is1 presumably1 with the object of colouring1 rather than polishing4 8,dancing0 is an operation designed to prevent the development of mildew1 and consists of treading the beans with the bare feet4 ,some of the large manufacturers in ,europe have recommended that the ,gold ,coast planters should ferment their produce1 but should not wash the beans after fermentation4 ,markets4--,certain large cocoa-buying centres are recognised1 which1 in the ,volta ,river district1 are situated at the foot of the hilly country1 in positions convenient for transport to the ports of shipment4 ,in addition to these1 however1 a good deal of buying is proceeded with at smaller places in the midst of the growing districts1 but these probably represent the localities for the transactions carried on by agents or middlemen4 ,until the produce is actually in the hands of the shippers1 the conveyance of cocoa is almost entirely done by head-loads of about #fj lbs4 ,the head-load is the standard for trading1 and the local price quoted is always with reference to it4 ,it is customary for the buying shippers to send out their agents to the cocoa districts to arrange for the purchase of the crops1 and it is always necessary that such purchases should be paid for in silver1 no notes or cheques being accepted4 ,owing to competition during the past few years1 the agents have often paid the grower a sum of money long before his crop was ready for picking1 in order to guarantee that it may be bought by no one else4 ,this has had the effect of making the grower careless in the preparation of his crop1 and has caused the production of much bad material4 ,the report that at another town1 often distant by many days' journey1 a higher price is being paid than that obtained in a market close at hand1 will frequently induce a native to convey his head-loads to the distant market1 regardless of the fact that the extra shilling or so he may receive does not appear to be sufficient compensation for the additional labour and time expended4 ,this points to the fact that the native does not put the same value on his time and labour when he is working for himself as he does when he is employed by others4 ,the buyers of cocoa pack it in bags for shipment1 and these are conveyed to the ports by motor lorries or placed inside large casks1 similar to those used for palm oil1 and rolled along the roads4 ,some of the shipments are conveyed in river steamers on the ,volta1 and1 more recently1 owing to the growers having found a better market for a short time at ,kumassi1 a considerable amount was sent by rail from that place to ,sekondi4 ,in consequence of the imperfect state of dryness in which the cocoa is often sold by the planter1 a great amount of care should be exercised before mixing and packing4 ,sorting is not much practised1 and some of the beans often become attacked by mildew before reaching ,europe1 which depreciates the value of the whole package4 ,it is partly owing to the disregard of the precautions of sorting and final drying that the ,west ,african cocoa has earned such a bad name1 and if more shippers were to follow the example set by the one firm that has erected a drying apparatus1 it would do much to improve matters in this direction4 ,cocoa is difficult to dry completely in the growing districts by means of the sun1 as the atmosphere in these localities is often so humid that the beans absorb moisture when removed from the sun's rays1 and it is for this reason especially that the final drying should be done by the shippers4 ,transport to the ports of shipment from the growing districts will be facilitated by the construction of a short railway1 which it is contemplated making from ,accra1 and until this is ready the carriage by head-loads1 cask-rolling1 and motor lorries will probably continue4 ,the presence of the 8tsetse0 fly throughout the growing districts prevents the possibility of draught cattle being used4 ,a system of pooling purchases was agreed upon some years ago by a number of leading shippers1 in accordance with which competition among themselves was suppressed1 and a fixed price was to be given for all cocoa4 ,this action was doubtless taken in order to prevent ruinous competition1 but had the effect of checking improvement in the quality1 as no encouragement was given to the planter to prepare the cocoa with greater care4 ,the few shippers who did not join in this 8combine0 were enabled to obtain the better qualities at a very slightly enhanced price4 ,in #aijf the general quality of ,gold ,coast cocoa had so deteriorated that the merchants were asked by the ,government for their assistance to improve it4 ,this led to an inquiry which revealed the state of affairs mentioned above4 ,the obvious remedy of paying a price according to quality did not find favour with the combine1 who appear to have argued that it would not profit them to pay a higher price for the small variable lots of improved produce which might result4 ,it was stated by some of the local merchants in ,accra that ,gold ,coast cocoa was generally suitable for sale in certain ,european markets1 where it was adapted for the manufacture of a cheap form of sweetmeat1 and that1 if the quality were improved and the price raised in consequence1 damage would be done to a new and rapidly growing trade4 ,the merchants ultimately agreed to endeavour to improve the standard of quality1 and it was arranged that all the cocoa brought in to the markets at ,aimensa and ,dodowa should be graded1 with a view to regulating the price according to grade4 ,this plan fell through at the last moment1 as a test sample of picked cocoa was said to have been priced at only #as4 #f;d4 per cwt4 over ordinary 8,accra0 in the ,european market4 ,the fall in the value of the residue was said to be uncompensated for by the small increase mentioned4 ,improvement of ,quality4--,inquiries conducted by the ,imperial ,institute pointed to the fact that well-prepared ,gold ,coast cocoa could obtain high prices in ,europe4 ,in #aijg a consignment was sent to the ,imperial ,institute for examination and report1 and proved to be of good quality1 and when subsequently sold1 it obtained a high price4 ,this established confidence with regard to the possibility of fine grades being prepared in the country4 ,during this year1 owing to the action of the ,fernando ,po and ,san ,thom growers1 in withholding their crop1 a greater demand was created for ,gold ,coast cocoa1 and the advent of large buyers1 working outside the 8combine10 forced the local price to a high figure4 ,this did not assist in the improvement of the quality1 as the competition induced native buying agents to buy the produce in almost any form1 in consequence of which large quantities of imperfectly dried stuff were obtained4 ,on the market becoming steadier1 many of the more intelligent natives realised the advantage of careful preparation1 to which they are now turning their attention4 ,towards this latter result ,messrs4 ,cadbury ,bros41 ,ltd41 rendered great assistance4 ,this firm sent representatives into the country1 who proved to the natives that they were willing to pay an enhanced price for cocoa prepared in a manner suitable for their requirements4 ,a fair amount of cocoa was purchased by them1 and demonstrations were made in some places with regard to the proper mode of fermentation4 ,in addition to this a number of seedlings of the ,criollo variety were given to the ,agricultural ,department for experimental work at the ,aburi ,botanic ,station4 ,the ,forastero-amelonado variety1 a hardy but commercially inferior kind1 has been mainly employed in plantations1 and experiments have been carried on for some years at ,aburi with ,pentagona1 ,caracas and ,cundeamor besides ,criollo mentioned above4 ,such good results were obtained with ,cundeamor that1 in #aiac1 keen competition was aroused among planters to obtain seed4 ,the years #aiac and #aiad are said to have shown an improvement in the quality of the cocoa produced4 ,the attention of the ,agricultural ,department has been given to the general instruction of the natives in improved methods of cultivation and preparation1 both by means of lectures and demonstrations at the ,botanic ,stations and by the issue of pamphlets in ,english and the ,twi language4 ,there was at first an insufficient staff for instruction to be given except at the ,botanic ,stations1 and only those growers who lived in the vicinity were able to obtain benefit from it4 ,after holding several conferences with chiefs and planters in the cocoa districts it became evident that the appointment of ,european ,travelling ,instructors was necessary1 and following this the ,government detailed certain officers for the work2 the object being that they should occupy a large portion of their time in travelling through the country in order to give personal instruction to the natives in correct methods of treating cocoa and other agricultural products4 ,persons selected by chiefs are now trained to act as instructors in planting in their own native towns4 ,the preparation of a large quantity of cocoa of even quality is so greatly dependent upon the similarity of the treatment and conditions at a time when the material is undergoing fermentation and drying1 that it is almost imperative that a large quantity should be prepared at one operation4 ,this is an important consideration in ,british ,west ,africa1 where native plantations range in size from a few trees to about five acres in extent1 the average being perhaps about a hundred trees1 or1 roughly1 one-tenth of an acre4 ,the production of each plantation is at present prepared independently1 and the result of one picking of pods1 if all mature1 is often quite inadequate to yield sufficient for fermentation purposes1 it being recognised that a few hundredweights of beans in their pulp are necessary for the satisfactory accomplishment of the operation4 ,the same difficulty has presented itself in the ,west ,indies with regard to the crops picked by owners of small plantations1 and arrangements are usually made by some larger concern in the neighbourhood to purchase the pods from them4 ,the establishment of central fermenting and drying houses1 controlled by the shippers themselves1 would perhaps get over the difficulty on the ,gold ,coast and result in a superior class of cocoa being produced4 ,the planters would doubtless consent to sell their pods1 instead of performing the laborious work of preparation themselves1 and would probably be able to extend the size of their individual plantations1 which1 by reason of their inability to prepare more cocoa1 single-handed1 they have been unable1 hitherto1 to do4 ,the efforts of the ,administration to improve the preparation have been somewhat handicapped by the system employed by some merchants of securing the crop for themselves1 by money advances1 with but little regard to its preparation1 and of pooling the produce4 ,cocoa planting has revolutionised the native system of land titles4 ,where only annual crops were under consideration1 a short1 temporary occupation with subsequent reversion to tribal ownership seemed an adequate provision1 but with the establishment of permanent cocoa plantations the planter claimed perpetual and undivided proprietorship4 ,further information regarding ,gold ,coast cocoa will be found in the ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 #aijg1 p4 #cfa2 #aiab1 pp4 #bdj1 #eef2 #aiac1 p4 #aed2 #aiad1 p4 #chg2 #aiae1 pp4 #adi1 #fde2 #aiaf1 p4 #abc2 #aiag1 p4 #aag2 #aiai1 pp4 #di1 #ajb2 and ,johnson's ,cocoa1 #aiab4 ,exports of ,cocoa4--,the exports of cocoa from #aijj to #aiai are as follows3 ,year ,tons ,year ,tons ,year ,tons #aijj #ecf #aijg #i1cee #aiad #eb1hhh #aija #ihj #aijh #ab1gdc #aiae #gg1bgh #aijb #b1cif #aiji #bj1bac #aiaf #gb1afb #aijc #b1bgf #aiaj #bb1fca #aiag #ij1ifd #aijd #e1aab #aiaa #ci1gbf #aiah #ff1cdb #aije #e1jic #aiab #ch1fdg #aiai #agf1aee #aijf #h1ige #aiac #ej1eed ,,rubber4 ,indigenous ,species4--,the most important source of rubber in the ,gold ,coast and ,ashanti is the indigenous tree locally called 8,ofruntum02 a comparatively small amount is also derived from some of the vines belonging to the same ,natural ,order1 and from one or more of the wild trees of the ,ficus ,order4 ,reports on the quality and commercial value of some of the principal kinds of rubber obtained in the ,gold ,coast are published in the ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 v4 7#aijg71 p4 #bdh4 ,botanical ,position of the 8,ofruntum0 ,tree4--,the 8,ofruntum10 or ,african rubber1 is botanically placed in the ,natural ,order ,,apocynace1 under the specific name of ,funtumia elastica1 ,stapf4 ,until recently it was referred to as ,kicksia africana1 ,benth4 and others 7a genus which is not known to occur in ,west ,africa71 and it was also confused with a very nearly allied species1 occurring in the same localities1 and now known as ,funtumia africana1 ,stapf4 ,owing to the great similarity which these species of ,funtumia bear to one another1 it is important that the differences between them should be recognised1 ,f4 africana not furnishing any but very inferior rubber4 ,the most reliable method of testing the species which produces rubber1 is by rubbing a small quantity of latex between the finger and thumb1 when small particles of rubber should be quickly formed1 the latex of ,f4 africana becoming only a sticky mass under the operation4 ,the leaf of ,f4 elastica can usually be recognised by the presence of a small pit at the origin of each secondary nerve or vein on the under-surface1 which feature is not characteristic of the leaf of ,f4 africana1 although recently individual trees have been found exhibiting this peculiarity4 ,the flower bud of ,f4 elastica is typically much shorter than that of ,f4 africana1 and the double seed pod of the former species is shorter and more blunt than that of the latter4 ,distribution of ,f4 elastica4--,the ,funtumia rubber tree occurs in a wild state in the forests throughout the ,gold ,coast and ,ashanti1 although it has been nearly exterminated in some parts4 ,it appears to be most plentiful in the dense forest regions of ,northern ,ashanti4 ,native ,methods for ,preparing4--,funtumia rubber is exported under the names of 8,ashanti lump0 and 8,niggers10 which consist of much adulterated1 evil-smelling substances1 for which a low price is procurable in comparison with that paid for pure rubber4 ,in certain years the demand for this has been maintained1 but the adequate supplies of good rubber from elsewhere1 and the rapid expansion of the cocoa industry1 have caused a diminution in the export of native-made rubber1 which has been replaced to a small extent by plantation rubber4 ,the wild trees grow from #ej to #ajj feet in height1 and often have a girth of three feet at four feet from the base2 the trunk being commonly without branches for a considerable height4 ,the native ascends the trunk by means of a sling passed round it1 to one end of which is a loop which fits over his right thigh and to the other a stirrup in which he keeps his left foot4 ,by moving the rope up the tree the ascent is quickly accomplished1 and when stationary1 both hands are left free4 ,the climber carries a gouge1 or semi-cylindrically-faced chisel1 with which he cuts vertical as well as transverse oblique grooves1 forming a rough 8herring-bone0 pattern1 which may be continued for the whole length of the trunk1 and even extend on to the main branches4 ,to make the cuts the tool is either used in one hand or is held in the left and driven by blows on the end of the handle1 given with the palm of the right hand4 ,the flow of latex commences at once1 and is directed down the vertical channel into a calabash placed at the base of the tree1 into which the latex is guided by a lip of clay or a chip of wood4 ,the illustration shows a native in ,ashanti tapping a tree 7,fig4 #ah74 ,the quantity of latex procured at the one tapping varies2 an exceptionally large amount being about two quarts from a large tree4 ,the tree is not tapped again for several months and until the wounds have healed4 ,on the second tapping the same form of cuts is made upon the opposite side of the tree1 and the transverse channels often intersect those made previously2 besides this1 owing to the want of regulation in the depth of the cuts1 the inner or cambium layer of the bark may be so damaged that the intersecting cuts may ring the tree and cause death4 ,few trees probably survive the third or fourth tapping4 ,illustration3 8,,odum0 ,,trees ,,chlorophora ,,excelsa4 ,fig4 #ai1 p4 #gb4 ,illustration3 ,,para ,,rubber ,,tree 7,,hevea ,,brasiliensis71 ,,tapped ,,at ,,aburi4 ,fig4 #bj1 p4 #ff4 ,illustration3 ,,rubber ,,tree ,,tapped1 ,,herring-,,bone ,,system ,,imperfect1 ,,aburi4 ,fig4 #ba1 p4 #fa4 ,if the herring-bone cuts were made carefully upon the lower part of the trunk1 and attention given to their depth and direction1 the tree might be preserved for a longer period4 ,an illustration given shows the incorrect mode of tapping1 where the transverse cuts are opposite instead of alternate 7,fig4 #ba74 ,experiments seem to show that there is not the same 8wound response0 in the case of ,funtumia trees as is found in that of the 8,para0 tree 7,hevea brasiliensis72 the paring of the wounds some days after tapping yielding no flow of latex similar to that procured in the first instance4 ,on cutting the bark area between the transverse channels1 the latex cells appeared to be empty and to indicate that a large area is drained on the first tapping4 ,further investigation is necessary in order to compare the results obtained from this tree with those of ,hevea4 ,the latex of ,funtumia will remain in an uncoagulated state for a longer time than that of ,hevea1 but it may become damaged by fermentation if a quantity is kept in bulk for a lengthened period4 ,the native does not usually produce a pure ,funtumia rubber1 but mixes with the latex the latices of several other plants1 among which may be named 8,odum0 7,chlorophora excelsa71 8,osese0 7,funtumia africana71 8,ofo10 8,okre10 8,sindru0 7,conopharyngia crassa and ,alstonia sp474 ,having mixed some of these latices with that of the ,funtumia1 the whole is heated and poured into a hole in the ground1 which has been prepared to serve as a mould4 ,coagulation and decomposition proceed together at a slow rate1 and finally produce a rubber containing a number of holes which serve as receptacles for the liquefied decomposed constituents4 ,the rubber mass is black outwardly1 but whitish within1 and is more or less sticky4 ,it is said that the latex of ,landolphia owariensis1 the vine from which 8,krepi ball0 rubber is made1 is sometimes mixed with the rest to hasten coagulation4 ,improved ,methods4--,in #aijf attention was drawn to the use of a plant called 8,niama0 in the ,ivory ,coast1 by which ,funtumia rubber latex was coagulated by adding a hot decoction of the leaves4 ,this plant was subsequently found to be ,bauhinia reticulata1 which bears the name of 8,otakataka0 in the ,gold ,coast4 ,experiments with this afforded excellent results4 ,an examination of the plant made at the ,imperial ,institute proved that the tannin contained in the leaves was responsible for the coagulation of the latex1 and that the infusion of any plant containing tannin is equally effective4 ,the obstacle to the general use of ,b4 reticulata for coagulation1 is that the plant does not occur in the same localities as the wild ,funtumia tree4 ,doubtless other tannin-yielding plants may be found in the rubber forests which would answer the purpose equally well1 among them the pods of ,acacia arabica4 ,a simple method of coagulation1 which was demonstrated to the chiefs and rubber collectors in #aijh1 is that of diluting the latex with about four or more times the volume of water1 straining and boiling it1 when the rubber quickly separates and can be collected from the surface of the water by means of a stick and immediately pressed into a rough biscuit4 ,the rubber made in the manner mentioned above has been valued at more than twice the price obtained for the adulterated stuff1 but it appears difficult to persuade the local merchants to offer a higher price for it1 and it therefore suits the rubber collector better to make the inferior quality4 ,so long as this state of things continues1 it is to be feared that instruction in the improvement of quality will not lead to the adoption of better methods4 ,in #aijh a ,commission of ,enquiry was appointed and made certain recommendations for legislation for the protection of the industry4 ,articles on ,gold ,coast rubber will be found in the ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vols4 viii4 7#aiaj71 x4 7#aiab71 xi4 7#aiac71 xii4 7#aiad71 xii4 7#aiae7 and xv4 7#aiag74 ,plantations4--,large numbers of ,funtumia seedlings have been grown at and distributed from the ,government ,botanic ,gardens at ,aburi1 ,tarkwa1 and ,kumassi1 and some of the ,ashanti kings and chiefs1 who have expressed a wish to attempt to renovate their rubber forests1 have obtained assistance from the officers of the ,agricultural ,department1 who have conducted planting operations in the forests in the presence of those interested4 ,plantations under ,european management and with ,european capital are in progress in the vicinity of ,axim and ,sekondi4 ,most of the recently made plantations are said to consist more of ,para than of ,funtumia rubber trees1 although in #aiac one of these in the ,dunkwa district of ,ashanti was reported to contain #bj1jjj trees of the latter kind4 ,the tree appears to thrive well when planted closely1 and straight trunks are soon formed4 ,insect ,pest4--,at ,aburi and elsewhere the ,funtumia tree is found to be attacked by the larva of a moth of the family ,pyralid1 identified as ,glyphodes ocellata1 ,hampson1 which denudes it of leaves4 ,no severe damage seems to be done by this pest1 which has only been observed in plantations1 and was destroyed at ,aburi by repeated applications of lime and ashes4 ,fungoid ,pest4--,a sooty fungoid growth is sometimes seen upon the leaves1 similar to that occurring on orange trees in the country1 and probably belongs to the genus ,meliola4 ,it is destroyed by the application of sprays of ,bordeaux mixture4 ,rubber ,machinery4--,a fully equipped installation of rubber-washing and crpeing machinery was exhibited at the ,kumassi ,agricultural ,exhibition of #aijh1 and was subsequently taken over by one of the leading mercantile firms at that place1 where the local rubber is now washed1 crped1 and pressed before export4 ,it might prove advantageous to come to an arrangement with the rubber collectors to bring the latex to ,kumassi1 where1 under proper supervision1 it could be made into rubber of high quality4 ,as the latex will remain for a considerable time without alteration1 it should not be difficult to bring it in from places several days' journey distant4 ,vine ,rubber4--,several species of vines1 belonging to the ,natural ,order ,,apocynace1 produce rubber in ,africa1 but the only one of commercial importance occurring in the ,gold ,coast is ,landolphia owariensis1 ,pal4 ,beauv41 from which 8,krepi0 or 8,white ball0 is obtained4 ,unless the plant is observed during the flowering as well as the fruiting season1 it is difficult to distinguish it from some nearly allied1 but useless1 species of the same genus1 which are found commonly in the same localities4 ,the vine is found throughout the forest region of the ,gold ,coast and ,ashanti1 climbing over and interlacing the main branches of large forest trees2 but an apparently terrestrial form of the same species has recently been discovered in the ultra-forest region1 where the stunted habit in which it grows is probably occasioned by the annual grass fires4 ,under different atmospheric conditions the latex of ,l4 owariensis behaves differently4 ,in the drier regions it coagulates upon the wound almost immediately upon exposure to the air1 whereas in other and moister places it runs from the cut in such a manner as to allow it to be collected in a vessel4 ,the acid juices of some of the local wild fruits are added to hasten coagulation1 when this is necessary1 or the collector is said to smear the fresh latex upon his naked body1 until enough has been coagulated to form a small ball1 which serves as a nucleus for winding on the strings of fresh latex as the new cuts are made4 ,there is a quantity of 8scrap rubber0 formed on the wedge-shaped cuts which it is usual to make1 and this is added to the ball1 which attains a diameter of three or four inches when complete4 ,the crushing of the root and stem for the manufacture of so-called 8root-rubber0 does not appear to be practised in this country1 although common elsewhere in ,west ,africa4 ,on account of the colour and form of this rubber1 the name of 8,white ball0 is usually applied to it1 although1 from the fact that the ,krepi tribes1 living on the east bank of the ,volta river1 produce a large quantity of it1 the name of 8,krepi ball0 is frequently given4 ,white ball rubber is seldom adulterated by the addition of other latices1 as these would retard coagulation and interfere with the preparation of it in the manner mentioned4 ,for this reason the rubber sold under this name usually obtains a higher price than other rubber4 ,landolphia owariensis presents many disadvantages for cultivation in plantations1 and the yield is small in proportion to the space which the plant occupies4 ,several species of this and allied genera are being grown experimentally at the ,aburi ,botanic ,gardens4 8,flake rubber0 is a name given to a very inferior quality of rubber which is produced upon a small scale in many parts of ,west ,africa1 but it has not been determined from which species of vine that exported from the ,gold ,coast is obtained4 ,in ,northern ,nigeria ,carpodinus hirsutus1 ,hua1 is said to be the source of the exported rubber of this name4 ,fig ,rubber4--,one or more species of wild fig trees 7,ficus sp47 are tapped for the production of what is locally termed 8,memeluku0 rubber1 and it is generally supposed that ,f4 ,vogelii is that mostly employed4 ,the trees attain a large size1 and the rubber is composed of the scrap1 collected from a large number of small cuts made on the trunk and branches4 ,this scrap rubber is pressed together into thick biscuits4 ,the rubber has usually little resiliency and breaks easily2 it is1 in consequence1 of small value4 ,introduced ,species4--,experiments have been carried on for several years with 8,para0 rubber 7,hevea brasiliensis71 8,ceara0 7,manihot ,glaziovii71 and ,castilloa elastica1 all indigenous to ,south ,america4 ,the last-named has been so badly attacked in the ,botanic ,stations by boring beetle larv that it has shown no promise of success4 ,ceara grows well1 but for some reason the production of latex from it is uncertain1 and this has caused little value to be attached to it in the ,gold ,coast1 although in the drier region of ,togoland this species is being planted4 ,para rubber seems to show much better results1 although1 up to the present1 no extensive experiments to ascertain the yield of rubber have been made4 ,tapping two trees growing at ,aburi1 ,mr4 ,johnson obtained a larger quantity of latex than from ,funtumia elastica under the same conditions2 and following this an extensive area was planted with ,hevea trees at the ,tarkwa ,botanic ,gardens1 where the experiment appears to be proving successful4 ,views are given of a tree at ,aburi 7,fig4 #bj74 ,large plantations of ,hevea are being made near ,tarkwa1 ,axim and ,sekondi as well as in the ,kwahu district1 where the tree seems to thrive remarkably well4 ,a few of these plantations made returns in #aiac showing promise of success4 ,at one1 on the ,offin river1 there were said to be #ij1jjj ,para trees of different ages1 #bj1jjj ,funtumia and #f1jjj coffee 7,c4 robusta74 ,at another the yield of rubber from a number of mature trees gave an average of #ajh lb4 of dry rubber per tree in eight months' tapping1 and a third had #bb1jjj ,para trees of which about #h1dej had been tapped and yielded #aj1efe lbs4 of rubber1 or #a lb4 per tree tapped4 ,labour was reported plentiful and good4 ,there are said to be many more rubber plantations in the country from which returns had not been received4 ,up to #aiac the ,agricultural ,department had distributed #bej1jjj ,para seedlings and #a1ejj1jjj seeds4 ,commenting on the fluctuation in the exported amounts of rubber1 ,his ,excellency the ,governor 7,sir ,hugh ,clifford71 in his message to the ,legislative ,council in ,october #aiah1 explained the recrudescence during #aiaf and #aiag as due to the development of rubber plantations under ,european control4 ,it remains to be seen whether the ,gold ,coast will be able to successfully compete in this work with the ,far ,east4 ,articles on ,para rubber from the ,gold ,coast are to be found in the ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 x4 7#aiab71 vol4 xi4 7#aiac71 vol4 xii4 7#aiad71 vol4 xv4 7#aiag7 and vol4 xvii4 7#aiai74 ,,palm ,,oil ,,and ,,kernels4--,records are available showing that the export of palm oil from ,west ,africa has continued for over one hundred years1 but the quantity shipped from the ,gold ,coast during the last fifteen years shows a rapid decrease from the average of the twenty years previous4 ,the tree which yields the oil of commerce is known as ,elis guineensis1 ,jacq41 and is placed in the ,tribe ,,cocoine of the ,natural ,order ,,palm1 together with the genus ,cocos1 to which the ,coconut palm belongs4 7,cf4 ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 #aiji1 p4 #ceg2 #aibj1 p4 #bji47 ,habits of the ,oil ,palm4--,the oil palm occurs most plentifully in the moist regions near the coast1 although it will not thrive on land which is perpetually marshy4 ,the palm becomes scarcer when the dense forests of ,ashanti are reached1 but it is not entirely absent until the ultra-forest tract commences4 ,the tree often bears fruit when it has only attained the height of ten feet1 which it is said to do about the seventh year1 but the yield is supposed to increase annually until the tree is thirty or more years old1 often continuing for a much longer time4 ,it is not possible to give any positive assurance on this point1 as observations have not been recorded for any length of time4 ,although the oil is principally obtained from wild trees1 one extensive plantation in the ,krobo ,hills has been successfully carried on for many years by the chief of ,odumassi4 ,his trees are planted at regular intervals and care is given to their upkeep and cleanliness4 ,concessions have recently been granted to ,europeans for planting as well as exploiting the wild palms1 and experimental work in the mechanical extraction of pericarp and kernel oil have given some promise4 ,two ,british companies that have erected extraction plants in the ,western ,province have laid tram-lines designed to keep them constantly supplied with the palm fruit4 ,trees that have become old and practically barren are usually tapped for the extraction of 8palm wine10 being frequently cut down for the purpose4 ,in some parts of the country fruitful trees are tapped while standing1 and1 as this necessitates the base of the terminal shoot being cut into1 the tree is generally killed in consequence4 ,two crops of fruiting heads are yielded by a tree in full bearing each year1 but the autumn crop is heavier than the earlier one1 and the aggregate weight of fruit yielded by a tree in one year is generally estimated at #dj lbs4 ,the fruiting heads consist of large bunches which hang from near the crown of the tree1 and each fruit is partly enveloped in a husk-like covering4 ,when removed from this it is found to be smooth1 somewhat conical or irregularly compressed1 tapering towards an abrupt point4 ,the colour when fresh varies from orange-red to nearly white1 with a more or less broad black apex4 ,in section it appears to be composed of a thick fibrous layer over a hard1 somewhat rounded stone1 which contains a whitish kernel4 ,it is from the fibrous portion1 which is included in what is botanically termed the pericarp1 that the oil is obtained1 but the kernel also contains another valuable oil1 for the extraction of which it is shipped to ,europe to a large extent4 ,preparation of ,palm ,oil4--,when the ripe head has been cut from the tree1 it is left upon the ground for a few days in order that a shrinkage in the fruits may occur1 which renders them more easily dislodged from their husk-lined places4 ,the fruit also becomes slightly dull in colour4 ,the heads bearing the fruit are often beaten to remove the latter1 or they are individually broken out by hand4 ,in order to facilitate the extraction of the fruit kernels1 the fruits are usually buried in the ground in a pit lined with plantain leaves4 ,here they remain for from three weeks to a month1 during which time decomposition is set up4 ,the subsequent quality of the oil is dependent upon the degree to which this is allowed to proceed1 rancid and thick oils resulting when it has been overdone4 ,on the other hand1 the higher the state of decomposition the greater is the facility for separating the fibrous pulp from the stones4 ,on removing the fruits from the ground they are placed in an open vat 7,fig4 #ae7 and pounded by a number of people using long poles1 after which they are covered up for several hours in order that the oil may drain into the small well shown at the side4 ,several consecutive poundings are applied1 until the fibrous pulp is quite separated and most of the oil has drained out1 after which the stones are combed out with the fingers1 and the pulp is placed in a bag and pressed on a horizontal bar until the oil flows from it into a pit below4 ,the oils from these extractions are boiled and cleared1 and the residual pulp is often placed in the boiling pot so as to extract as much oil as possible4 ,this is the method employed at the ,krobo ,plantations1 but the operation varies slightly in different districts4 ,kernel ,oil--,the value of the kernel for the extraction of oil was recognised at a much later date than the pericarp1 although1 in a few places in the ,gold ,coast1 oil had probably been expressed from kernels for local consumption for some time4 ,among the ,krobos the medicine-men prevented the trade in kernels from becoming established for several years1 but they were finally overruled by the chiefs4 ,a large and increasing trade in kernels continued for a number of years1 but this has fallen off to a small extent more recently4 ,the shell of the variety of kernel which appears to be the most common in this country is usually thick1 and the laborious work of cracking each stone individually between two stones1 in such a manner that the kernel is extracted in an unbroken state1 prevents a larger quantity being prepared for sale1 and results in much waste4 ,nut-cracking machines have been brought into the country1 and are said to prove successful to some extent1 but the native is not in a position to use machinery1 and most of the material shipped is extracted in the primitive method mentioned4 ,cf4 ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vols4 vii41 viii4 and xv4 7#aiji-ag74 ,before the cracking can be accomplished without breaking the interior1 the kernel requires to be exposed to the sun and thoroughly dried4 ,kernel oil prepared in a native way is of two kinds1 one which expressed without heat being white1 whilst that made from the roasted kernels is dark brown4 ,both are made by pounding and grinding the kernel into fine meal1 the extraction of the one being effected by cold and the other by boiling water4 ,in #aiaf a ,special ,committee was appointed to consider the position of the palm-kernel trade1 chiefly with reference to the protection of the newly-established ,british oil-crushing industry against ,german competition2 and it was considered advisable to recommend the imposition of a differential export duty of #b per ton on all palm kernels from ,british ,west ,african ports4 ,the ,colonies concerned imposed the duty at the rate mentioned and in some instances have since supplemented it by a direct revenue-producing tax4 ,commercial ,uses4--,the chief commercial uses of the oils are for the manufacture of soap1 candles1 and glycerine1 some qualities of palm oil being made use of in the manufacture of tin plates4 ,with improved methods the supply of palm oil and kernels could be largely increased4 ,varieties of ,oil ,palms4--,in #aijg information was obtained from the ,imperial ,institute that a variety of oil palm was being propagated in the ,kameruns the fruit of which contained a thin-shelled kernel and was called 8,lisombe40 ,further investigation in the ,british ,west ,african countries led to the discovery that a number of well-marked varieties of ,elis guineensis were distinguished by the natives1 and were called by distinct names4 ,among these one possessed a thin-shelled kernel1 and1 together with about eight others1 has been under investigation at the ,imperial ,institute1 with the object of ascertaining their respective merits4 ,the thin-shelled 8,lisombe0 and the 8,gamopale0 varieties from the ,kameruns have recently been tried experimentally in the ,gold ,coast1 and the advantages they possess over the other kinds have been clearly established4 ,from the descriptions given below of the more important varieties found on the ,gold ,coast1 it will be seen that particulars of the comparative weight of the fruit crop and the quality of the oil yielded are required to determine the relative values4 ,in addition the proportions of fruit- and kernel-oil of each as well as the facilities for extracting the kernel must be considered4 ,a reference is given below to six varieties1 which have been fully examined at the ,imperial ,institute4 ,the native names are given1 and the percentages have been calculated for comparison1 from the more elaborate figures which have been published 7,bulletin ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 vii4 #aiji1 p4 #cff2 cf4 also vol4 xi4 #aiac1 p4 #bjh74 ,the characteristic variations of each variety are as follows3-- #a4 8,abe-pa40 ,fruit large1 orange-red1 with or without black tip1 pericarp thin1 nut large with thick shell4 ,this is the commonest form in the country1 and is probably identical with the variety found in ,sierra ,leone4 #b4 8,abe-dam40 ,fruit of irregular shape1 fairly large1 bright red1 pericarp slightly thicker than the last1 nut large with a thick shell4 ,this is not uncommon4 #c4 8,abe-tuntum40 ,fruit moderately large1 dark purplish-black1 pericarp very thin1 and nut with thick shell4 ,uncommon4 #d4 8,abe-bobe40 ,fruit usually rather small1 red and black1 pericarp thick and soft1 nut with a thin kernel 7easily broken in the teeth74 ,trees rather scarce4 ,this is probably identical with the 8,lisombe0 variety from the ,kameruns4 #e4 8,intermediate form between #b and #d40 ,similar to the last but with a thicker shell to the nut4 #f4 8,seedless kind40 ,a very rare kind1 nearly corresponding with the 8,difumbe0 variety from ,angola1 which1 however1 possesses a kernel but no shell4 ,the following are the percentages based on the total weight of the fruit1 in each case taken as #ajj3-- ,name ,pulp ,contg4 ,fibre ,nut ,contg4 ,shell oil etc4 ,kernel #a4 8,abe-pa0 #cj #bjac #ihg #gj #aif #ejd #b4 8,abe-dam0 #cge #bdjc #acad #fbe #afhg #defc #c4 8,abe-tuntum0 #cbe #adcc #ahag #fge #agee #diie #d4 8,abe-bobe0 #fc #cfjb #bfih #cg #aiih #agjb #e4 8,interm4 #b and #d0 #ea #cjcd #bjff #di #bjeh #bhdb #f4 8,seedless0 #ajj #gfjj #bdjj rarely a trace ,nos4 #d and #e seem to be most valuable from a commercial standpoint1 although at present ,nos4 #a and #b are the most commonly used1 owing to the comparative scarcity of the first two mentioned4 ,no4 #f is chiefly interesting from a botanical aspect1 and is probably incapable of reproduction4 ,the sacred palm known in the ,gold ,coast as 8,abe-ohene10 and identical with 8,ope-,ifa0 of ,southern ,nigeria1 belongs to a new species called ,e4 ,thompsonii1 ,chev41 but the fruits are not employed for the extraction of oil4 ,,other ,,oil ,,seeds4--,experiments were conducted at the ,imperial ,institute in #aijh with the kernels of the 8,crabnut0 7,carapa procera1 ,d4,c474 ,the kernels were found to contain nearly #ej per cent4 of oil1 which was reported to be worth about #bj #ajs4 per ton1 but the residual cake could not be used for feeding purposes1 owing to the presence in it of a bitter constituent1 and1 on account of the rather low manurial value1 was estimated as worth only #b per ton 7,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 vi41 #aijh1 p4 #cfb74 ,the oil seemed to be well suited for soap-making1 but would not be suitable for lubricating or for edible purposes4 ,the nut does not occur in such profusion as to warrant profitable exportation from localities where the oil palm is found4 ,,timber4 ,mahogany4--,the most valuable and commonly exported timber is that known in the ,european and ,american markets as 8,african ,mahogany40 ,the value of that shipped from the ,gold ,coast in #aiac was estimated at #cff1jjj4 ,several red woods are included under the name of ,mahogany1 but the best quality is said to be obtained from ,khaya senegalensis1 a large tree of the ,natural ,order ,,meliace4 ,this tree is known by the native 7,fanti7 name of 8,dubini40 ,in the same language the names 8,okumankra0 and 8,akwabohori0 are applied to two trees which are said to be exported as ,mahogany1 but of these the identity has not yet been determined4 ,other ,timber-trees4--,the 8,odum0 tree 7,chlorophora excelsa7 produces a hard and useful wood1 which is much used in the forest region1 but is not often shipped 7,fig4 #ai74 ,in the dry country of the ,northern ,territories ,pseudocedrela ,kotschyi may be found of value as a red wood for decorative purposes4 ,among the other trees which show evidence of yielding hard and useful woods are 8,ahedua0 7,cyanothyrsus sp471 8,opapeh0 7,afzelia africana71 and 8,bako0 7,mimusops sp474 ,information about the working-quality and suitability for export of these and other ,gold ,coast timbers is given in the ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 viii41 #aiaj4 p4 #bcb4 ,the largest1 and consequently the most valuable1 trees belonging to the different species mentioned1 are found in the western part of the ,gold ,coast and ,ashanti1 and most of the mahogany logs are shipped from ,sekondi1 ,axim1 and other places farther to the westward4 ,the ,pra and ,ankobra rivers are utilised to float down the squared logs1 which are then moored at the river mouths1 to await shipment4 ,the export of logs is only limited by the facilities with which they can be brought to a river or the railway1 and large1 valuable trees are plentiful in many of the forests1 although they would be unprofitable to fell and trim in some cases1 owing to their remote situations and the difficulties connected with conveyance4 ,,kola4--,kola-nut is the name usually applied to the fruit of a tree belonging to the ,natural ,order ,,sterculiace1 and the wild as well as the cultivated forms found in the ,gold ,coast and ,ashanti are1 probably1 all referable to the species ,kola acuminata1 ,r4 ,the fruits or nuts are borne in large pods1 each of which contains a variable number4 ,the nuts themselves are irregular in form1 and have an inconstant number of cotyledons1 or seed divisions1 varying from two to five4 ,some confusion seems to have been caused owing to this variation1 as well as on account of the colour and shape of the nuts4 ,in some trees they are red1 in others white1 and others again pink1 and they may be elongate or nearly round4 ,these1 however1 are not reliable as distinguishing characters1 since nuts of the three colours have been found on the same tree1 and even in the same pod4 ,analyses and commercial valuations of several varieties of kola nuts from the ,gold ,coast are published in ,selected ,reports from the ,imperial ,institute1 ,part ,,iii41 8,foodstuffs0 7,colonial ,reports1 ,misc41 ,cd4 #eacg1 #aiaj71 pp4 #bei-fa2 vide also ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 vols4 x4 7#aiab7 and xvii4 7#aiai74 ,in the forests to the north of ,kumassi large wild kola trees are found1 and the nuts are collected by the natives inhabiting the villages in the vicinity1 where they are sold at from #f;d4 to #i;d4 a hundred4 ,in other places the trees are planted1 commonly on the outskirts of villages1 especially in ,akim and ,kwahu4 ,kola nuts are used in tropical ,africa in the same manner as betel nuts are in ,asia4 ,their taste is somewhat bitter1 and the mastication of fresh nuts seems to increase the flow of saliva4 ,chewing kola nuts is resorted to by the natives in order to allay thirst1 or even hunger1 and for this reason they are in great demand among the inhabitants of the ,sudan1 to which country they are largely exported1 being carried by men and donkeys in caravans1 which travel from the forest limits of ,ashanti through the ,northern ,territories4 ,the donkeys1 which are chiefly used to transport the nuts1 do not generally enter the forests1 but the kola nuts are packed in elongated head-loads1 in bamboo or palm-stalk frames1 in which form they are carried to the place where the donkeys have been left4 ,the caravans bring shea-butter1 guinea corn1 cattle1 and skins1 which they exchange for kola4 ,the weight of nuts exported from the ,gold ,coast is about #ej per cent4 above that of ,sierra ,leone1 but1 in value1 the latter are worth from three to five times as much per ton4 ,the fresh nuts are shipped to ,lagos and are transported far into the interior by ,haussa traders4 ,,cotton4--,no record is available to show when the tribes of the forest country commenced to cultivate and use cotton for local requirements4 ,it has been stated that the people of the kingdoms of the ,western ,sudan were acquainted with the uses of the fibre1 and have cultivated the plant1 from a remote period1 and it is probable that contact with these people1 during their expeditions against the tribes to their south1 led to the adoption by the latter of cotton-growing upon the small scale in which it still remains at present4 ,cruickshank1 writing of the ,fantis in #ahec1 says3 8,they spin the thread from the cotton which grows in the country1 but they more commonly make use of the thread out of ,english cloths1 which they pick to pieces40 ,in speaking of the ,appolonians1 a tribe inhabiting the coast region near ,axim1 ,cruickshank remarks that they 8make fine grass cloths1 which are strong and durable40 ,in ,ashanti1 until recently1 a cloth was commonly made from the inner bark of a tree1 generally supposed to be ,antiaris toxicaria var4 africana1 which was produced by the removal of the woody portions by beating1 leaving a pliable material composed of the interlacing fibres4 ,these instances are cited to show that the value of cotton for cultivation has not been recognised by some of the large and dominant tribes in comparatively recent times4 ,since cotton clothing has begun to be appreciated1 the necessity of growing the plant and weaving has been somewhat checked by the large imports of finished material from ,europe4 ,throughout the forest region occasional plants of cotton may be seen growing near villages1 but the systematic cultivation of the plant is only met with on the outer northern boundary of the dense forest and in the ,krepi country to the east of the ,volta river4 ,the inhabitants of the northern forest boundary are a mixed people1 many of whom have probably been driven from the countries farther north1 where cotton is a recognised field crop1 whence they have introduced the cultivation4 ,the adoption of cotton-growing by the ,krepi tribes may be due to similar reasons1 although there appears to be no evidence in support of this conjecture4 ,in the last-named places the seed is sown in rows on the tops of ridges1 on the sides of which maize plants may be also grown1 but it is not uncommon to find cotton plants growing alone4 ,this is especially the case on the northern limits of ,ashanti4 ,the large varieties grown in these places are often left in the ground for a second season and produce two crops1 the last of which is said to be inferior4 ,no system of rotation has been observed1 although it is probable that the cotton is planted during the early years of cultivation immediately following the yam crop1 which is the practice in some other ,west ,african countries4 ,three distinct forms or varieties of cotton are cultivated in the forest region4 ,the first variety is usually referred to as 8,green seed10 and is the commonest one grown4 ,the lint is long-stapled and nearly white1 but experiments seem to show that this form does not yield heavily4 ,the second form is recognised by the seed being dark brown or black1 without any fuzz1 except a small brown tuft at the apex1 which has a sharp spike4 ,the lint of this kind is creamy white1 and the plant is known as 8,volta40 ,the third form differs in having the dark brown seeds adjoining one another1 and forming a conical mass1 from which it is difficult to separate the individual seeds4 ,at the point of connection each seed bears a small light brown patch4 ,this form is generally known to the officers at the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association plantation as 8,kidney40 ,all these varieties are cultivated throughout the forest country1 and extend to some distance beyond2 being replaced in the drier parts of the ,northern ,territories by a small plant with a white woolly seed4 ,no cotton in a wild state has been seen in the country1 and isolated plants1 found springing up in open places surrounded by forest1 are generally easily traceable to formerly existing cultivation4 ,the 8,green seed10 8,volta10 and 8,kidney0 cottons1 which are grown in the ,gold ,coast1 are different in habit from the ,american and ,indian plants1 although in form they are similar to ,sea ,island and ,egyptian1 having1 perhaps1 arisen from the same original stock4 ,the forms mentioned as cultivated locally attain the height of from seven to ten feet in nine months from the time of planting1 and the stem near the base is often thicker than a man's wrist4 ,the cotton bolls continue to open for three months or more1 and often as many as two hundred bolls are produced on a single plant in one season4 ,if left for a second year the bolls are generally diminished in size4 ,the soil which appears most favourable for growth is a sandy loam containing much humus4 ,from ,january to ,april the bolls ripen continuously1 and the cotton is placed in the sun as soon as it is picked1 in order that the 8,seed bugs0 may be driven out4 ,in native markets small quantities are usually exposed for sale in an unginned form throughout the harvesting season4 ,no gin seems to be in use in the ,gold ,coast for native work1 and the lint is pulled off the seeds by hand when a supply is required for spinning4 ,the greatest damage is done by 8,seed bugs0 of three species--,oxycarenus hyalinipennis1 ,o4 ,dudgeoni1 and ,o4 gossipinus--that infest the lint as soon as the bolls open1 and undergo their complete and rapid metamorphoses during the period between the opening and the throwing out of the cotton1 feeding meanwhile upon the juices which they suck from the seeds4 ,the injury caused by the puncturing of the seed often renders it unfertile4 ,a 8cotton stainer0 is also common on the plants1 and damages the unopened bolls by puncturing1 and the lint by a yellowish stain which it makes4 ,this insect is known as ,dysdercus nigrofasciatus1 and it is at least four times as large as any of the species of ,oxycarenus1 on which it may possibly feed to some extent4 ,an attempt was evidently made1 in the middle of the last century1 to establish the cultivation of cotton for export1 and ,cruickshank mentions that an association had taken the matter up1 and that several of the native chiefs were beginning to give it their attention about that time4 ,very little success seems to have attended these efforts4 ,about #aijc the ,government of the ,gold ,coast commenced the plantation of an area in the ,krepi country1 at a place called ,anum1 and1 under the control of the ,agricultural ,department1 this was transferred to a better site soon afterwards1 at a place named ,labolabo on the east bank of the ,volta river4 ,in addition to the extension of about two hundred acres of land1 which were planted with native and ,american varieties of cotton1 encouragement was given to the natives in the vicinity to grow more1 on the understanding that their crops would be purchased from them at one penny per pound4 ,unfortunately no arrangements had been made to store or gin a large quantity of seed cotton1 and the entire native crop could not be taken over when brought in4 ,this seems to have induced the native growers to convey most of their cotton into ,togoland1 where they were able to dispose of it at a fair price4 ,arrangements had to be made with a local firm possessing a ginning machine1 which was erected about sixty miles lower down the ,volta river1 by which1 on payment of a certain rate1 the seed cotton grown on the ,labolabo plantation was ginned and prepared for shipment4 ,it was soon recognised that the expense of transport of the seed cotton for this distance1 and the price charged for ginning1 prevented the production of cotton for export except at a heavy financial loss4 ,the co-operation of the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association was asked for1 in order to supply gins at ,labolabo1 and in #aijf three hand gins were sent from the ,gold ,coast ,exhibition1 which had just been held4 ,the machines were much damaged in transit1 and it was some time before the large stock of seed cotton1 which had accumulated1 could be worked off4 ,soon after this the ,labolabo plantation was transferred entirely to the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association1 and an annual grant was made by the ,government to assist in the working4 ,in #aijg a large steam-power ginnery was put up1 and the native farmers again began to bring in their seed cotton for sale1 but still a considerable quantity was reported to be diverted to ,togoland1 where the price offered was a fraction higher than that paid by the ,association4 ,the cotton bales are transported from the ginnery by means of native canoes as far as ,amedika1 which is the highest point on the ,volta to which small steamers can ascend1 but great risk is entailed in descending the rapids between ,labolabo and this place4 ,the cost of carriage by native canoe is arranged at twenty shillings a ton1 and the bales are pressed into a suitable form for conveyance4 ,american and other ,exotic ,cottons at ,labolabo4--,a large number of different kinds of ,american cottons have been tried at ,labolabo1 but most of them have proved unsuccessful4 ,those which yielded a good crop for the first year have generally been found to produce seed1 which1 owing to the greater susceptibility of the plants to the attacks of insects1 refused to germinate in the following year4 ,some of the lint produced was1 apparently1 of excellent quality and sold well1 but the necessity for the renewal of seed each year formed a serious obstacle to the establishment of a new variety4 ,the plants from ,american seed are not so hardy as those from native seed1 and the necessity for greater care in cultivation renders them unsuitable for use by the natives4 ,sea ,island and various ,egyptian cottons have not proved successful4 ,see ,british ,cotton ,cultivation1 by ,professor ,dunstan 78,colonial ,reports10 ,miscellaneous1 ,cd4 #ciig1 #aijh1 pp4 #bh-cj71 and the ,bulletins of the ,imperial ,institute1 vols4 vii41 x41 xi41 xiii41 xiv4 7#aiji-af74 ,attempts at ,hybridisation4--,in the early days of the plantation the ,agricultural ,department made several experiments with a view to the establishment of a cross between the native and the ,american plants1 but the subsequent changes in the management of the plantation resulted in the disappearance of most of these2 subsequently several others were attempted in #aijf and #aijg by ,mr4 ,fisher4 ,in all cases plants of the 8,green seed0 or the 8,volta0 native forms were made use of as female parents1 and the descendant plants partook of the characters of the native forms in every way for the first generation1 but in later generations seem to have produced a number of various types1 from which it is now necessary to make a careful selection4 ,the quantity of lint yielded by the first generation of plants1 from the experiments made by ,mr4 ,fisher in #aijf1 is said to have reached a higher figure1 per acre1 than that of any other form grown on the plantation1 and the quality was satisfactory2 but that of the second generation appeared to be unequal in type1 and could scarcely be compared for quantity owing to the unfavourable season4 ,the ,american plants used for pollination in the #aijf crosses were those which have given the best results among the exotic forms planted1 and are called 8,black ,rattler0 and 8,richmond40 ,of the four crosses attempted in that year1 that of 8,black ,rattler0 8,volta0 was said to have proved the most successful in point of yield4 ,small plots of native and ,american cottons have been planted at ,kumassi1 and experimental plants at ,aburi1 but the conditions have not been so favourable at these places as at ,labolabo4 ,at ,obuassi1 in ,ashanti1 an attempt was also made1 but the soil seemed too stiff and the plants were not healthy4 ,land suitable for native cotton farms seems to be that on the west bank of the ,volta river1 north of the ,labolabo plantation4 ,valuations of ,samples examined at the ,imperial ,institute4--,the following selection of specimens of ,gold ,coast cottons examined and reported on at different times by the ,imperial ,institute will give some indication of the relative values3-- ,standard at time of ,place ,variety ,staple ,value valuation 8,middl4 ,amer40 ,labolabo ,volta clean-seed #jh-ad #e-e;d4 #eje;d4 ,green-seed #a-ad #e;d4 #eje;d4 ,black ,volta1 small woolly #a-ad #e-f;d4 #fdc;d4 seeded from ,n4 ,terr4 ,black ,rattler #ab-ah #g;d4 #fg;d4 ,native ,allens #ab-af #f;d4 ,native ,russels #ab-ae #d;d4 ,native ,peruvian #ab-af #g;d4 ,native ,culpepper #aa-ae #f-g;d4 ,volta ,black ,rattler #aa-ae #e;d4 ,volta ,richmond #aa-af #f-f;d4 ,greenseed ,black ,rattler #a-ad #e;d4 ,greenseed ,richmond #a-ad #g;d4 ,tamale1 ,n4 ,terr41 ,native #jg-aj #e;d4 ,the cottons from native varieties crossed with ,american represent the first generation only1 as in no case were the following generations found constant4 ,the large profits which have been made from cocoa in the forest country have caused cotton-growing to be neglected1 and it seems improbable that large quantities of cotton will be exported from this region during the next few years4 ,in the same part of the country palm oil and rubber are easily collected1 and1 besides being more remunerative products1 require comparatively small exertion in preparation4 ,an attempt to establish cotton cultivation upon a commercial scale1 among the industrious people of the ,northern ,territories1 was made by the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association1 but the immense distances of the inhabited tracts from a shipping port and the consequent expense of transport1 combined with the uncertainty of the rainfall in these ultra-forest regions1 compelled the abandonment of the venture in #aiaf4 ,,fibres4--,piassava fibre1 which has sometimes been called 8vegetable whalebone10 is prepared from the sheath of the lower parts of the leaf-stem of a tree belonging to the ,natural ,order ,,palm1 and classified as ,raphia vinifera1 ,p4 ,beauv4 ,this tree is found growing in the vicinity of streams1 and occurs commonly in the forest regions near the coast4 ,the natives prepare the fibre1 which is sold in the ,european markets under the name of 8,piassava10 by cutting the stem-sheaths and steeping them in water for a considerable time until the fibrous strands are easily separated by beating4 ,after being extracted in this manner they are dried in the sun4 ,only a small quantity is exported from the country1 but it is a more important article of export from ,sierra ,leone and ,liberia4 ,as the specific name denotes1 wine is extracted from the tree1 by tapping the standing or felled tree1 in the last case with the aid of fire4 ,on the estate of the ,african ,plantations1 ,ltd41 near ,axim1 a fibre of excellent quality1 commercially allied to jute1 has been prepared from the stems of a herbaceous plant1 which was supposed to be ,triumfetta semitriloba1 ,linn41 but which has since been determined at ,kew to be ,t4 cordifolia var4 ,hollandii1 ,sprague4 ,the plant belongs to the same ,natural ,order as ,indian jute--namely1 ,,tiliace4 ,a description of this fibre is given in the ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 vi4 7#aijh71 p4 #bda4 ,this species has been observed commonly in a wild state in the forests near ,sekondi and ,axim1 but does not seem to be present in the interior of ,ashanti or in the country towards the ,volta river4 ,experiments made at the estate of the ,african ,plantations1 ,ltd41 are said to show that the best fibre is obtained from stalks which have been retted or steeped in water for five days1 but it will probably be found that the period required for the operation is dependent to a great extent upon the age of the stalks used4 ,the fibre may be prepared by stripping the bark layers from the soaked stalks and beating these upon the surface of the water until the actual bark is removed1 when the fibre may be dried in the sun2 being finally picked over to get rid of the small remaining bark particles4 ,the plant exhibits some advantages for cultivation over jute1 in that it may be cropped twice in one year and treated as a perennial4 ,collection of the wild growths would be unsatisfactory for the production of the fibre upon a large scale1 owing to the time occupied in searching for the plants1 but it seems probable that the plant would repay planting1 especially if some better method of extraction were devised4 ,the composition1 quality1 and commercial value of a large number of fibres obtained from plants indigenous to1 or cultivated in1 the ,gold ,coast are discussed in ,selected ,reports from the ,imperial ,institute1 ,part ,i41 8,fibres0 7,colonial ,reports1 ,miscellaneous1 ,cd4 #dehh1 #aiji71 pp4 #dc1 #ea1 #hd1 #hi1 #ij1 #aae4 ,,silk4--,a species of wild silkworm is commonly distributed throughout the forests to the north of ,kumassi1 and has been identified as ,anaphe venata4 ,the silk cocoons of this species and those of ,anaphe infracta are used in ,nigeria for spinning into yarn for weaving the 8,saya0 cloths of that country1 but no use is apparently made of them in ,ashanti4 ,the worms live in small colonies1 and form their cocoons in a common envelope of silk1 from which two or three somewhat tubular processes project to enable the moths to emerge when the time arrives4 ,the food plant of the silkworm has not been definitely ascertained1 but1 as the cocoons are found on a large number of herbaceous plants as well as trees1 it seems probable that several plants are eaten by it4 ,the quality of the silk is said to be good1 and the colour is usually a golden or light brown4#c ,,copal4--,the tree which produces this resin1 often miscalled 8gum10 which is commercially known as 8,accra copal10 occurs throughout the forests of ,ashanti and ,akim1 and has not yet been specifically determined4 ,investigations have shown that it is allied to ,cyanothyrsus oblongus1 ,oliver1 which yields the 8,ogea0 resin of ,lagos1 and which belongs to the ,natural ,order ,,leguminos4 ,the flowers obtained from the ,ashanti trees are of a similar construction to those of ,cyanothyrsus4 ,locally the resin is commonly used for torches and for the preparation of a scented pigment called 8,krobo10 which is used for elaborating patterns upon the skin1 being commonly employed by the ,akim people for this purpose4 ,for export the chief value is for the preparation of varnish4 ,the quantity exported reached #agh tons in #aijg1 after which it declined1 and now no longer reaches a significant figure4 ,the overwhelming interest attracted by cocoa has led to its disappearance4 ,cf4 ,selected ,reports ,imperial ,institute1 pt4 ii41 8,gums and ,resins0 7,col4 ,rep4 ,misc41 ,cd4 #diga1 #aiji71 pp4 #agb-e2 ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 vol4 xii4 7#aiad71 p4 #bbj4 ,the copal-yielding trees are generally of immense size1 and the resinous liquid may be observed exuding from the main trunk as well as the branches1 in such a way as to form elongated 8tears0 or slabs1 which harden on exposure to the air4 ,when these become brittle they are broken off by wind and fall to the ground4 ,often the flow of resinous liquid seems to be so profuse that quantities reach the ground and form what is termed 8fossil copal10 owing to the fact that it is dug from the ground beneath the trees4 ,there is evidence to show that in some instances the original flow of the resinous liquid is caused by deep borings in the sap wood made by insect larv 7probably ,coleoptera--beetles71 signs of which are commonly apparent on old trees1 which yield the most copal4 ,specimens of branches1 which have been tunnelled by these larv1 have been collected1 exhibiting all the cavities filled with hardened resin4 ,compared with the copal produced by ,copaifera ,guibourtiana1 a tree which is found in ,sierra ,leone1 the ,ashanti product is much inferior1 although the price paid renders it sufficiently valuable for collection and export4 ,several different types of the ,accra copal are known1 some of which appear to be of less value than others1 although apparently yielded by the same tree4 ,that which is deemed preferable is clear and pale yellow2 milky pieces should be sorted out1 as they are valued at a lower figure4 ,blocks have been obtained which weighed over twenty pounds4 ,sorting is said to have been adopted by some of the local merchants1 and as high a price as #fjs4 per cwt4 is reported to have been obtained for sorted copal4 ,,copra4--,some special attention has been given to the extension of the copra industry on the coast1 and it will be observed that the average annual exports have nearly doubled during the last eight years4 ,the coconut 7,cocos nucifera7 is found on the greater part of the coastline1 and the dried contents of the nut constitute the product known as copra4 7,cf4 ,oil ,seeds and ,feeding ,cakes1 ,imp4 ,inst4 ,monograph1 #aiae47 ,no use is apparently made of the fibrous covering of the nuts1 which is exported from other parts of the world under the name of coir4 ,locally the nuts are cut down in an unripe condition1 and the 8milk0 from the interior is used as a drink4 ,,dyes ,,and ,,pigments4--,camwood is the trade name applied to the wood of a tree known as ,baphia nitida1 ,afzelius1 belonging to the ,natural ,order ,,leguminos4 ,it has been suggested that the bright red colouring-matter is produced by decomposition on exposure to air1 the material shipped from different places in ,west ,africa being apparently in this condition1 but investigations in other parts of ,west ,africa show that the fresh wood is frequently used in making the colouring-matter4 ,a very small quantity is exported from the ,gold ,coast1 but the natives make some use of it for staining different materials4 ,indigo4--,this is prepared from two or three species of ,indigofera1 which are found growing near villages1 but the process of preparation in the ,gold ,coast does not appear to have been recorded1 though probably similar to that employed in the other ,west ,african countries4 ,the resin from the copal tree1 mentioned above1 is crushed1 together with the bark of a tree called 8,krobo10 in ,akim especially1 and the balls formed from this mixture are rubbed down1 with the addition of a little water1 into a fine sort of lather1 when a greenish-grey-coloured thin paste is procured4 ,with this designs are traced upon the body and arms as an adornment for women1 the resin imparting to the mixture a pleasant odour4 ,,field ,,crops4--,the soil throughout a large part of the forest country is very fertile1 and no difficulty is experienced in producing sufficient crops for local needs from a small area of ground4 ,the usual method is to cut down a piece of forest1 leaving those trees which are too large to be removed or burnt1 or which may yield one of the wild fruits which is appreciated4 ,the stumps and roots are not removed when only maize 7,zea mays7 is intended to be grown1 but are1 to some extent1 when yams 7,dioscorea sp471 or groundnuts 7,arachis hypogea71 are to be cultivated4 ,the cut 8bush0 is permitted to dry in the sun for several weeks1 when it is burned1 and the ashes are sometimes scattered over the land4 ,for plantations of maize1 the soil is only turned up at the spots where the seed is to be put in1 and very little cultivation is given for the remainder of the year1 although weeding and earthing up are resorted to in a few places4 ,for the cultivation of yams or groundnuts1 the larger roots are dug out1 and the whole field is dug with small hoes1 the soil being scraped together into small mounds1 on the top of which the yams or groundnuts are planted4 ,in the case of the former1 stakes are also put in1 upon which the yams are trained to grow4 ,in addition to this it is usual1 in most places1 to plant maize upon the sides of the mounds1 and okra 7,hibiscus esculentus7 and peppers 7,capsicum sp47 in various parts of the field4 ,guinea corn 7,sorghum vulgare7 is rarely seen within the forest limits4 ,between the mounds1 at wide intervals1 plantains 7,musa sapientum7 are generally grown1 and occupy the ground after all the other crops have been removed4 ,in the country near the coast1 as well as in the ,volta district1 cassava 7,manihot utilissima7 is a common terminal crop1 although it is not frequently grown in ,ashanti4 ,the length of time during which the land usually continues to yield a grain or root crop1 of the kinds above mentioned1 seems limited to about three years4 ,koko yams 7,colocasia antiquorum7 are planted in damp places near the villages or beside streams1 and1 in the ,volta district1 sweet potatoes 7,ipoma batatas7 are cultivated to a small extent4 ,small gourds 7,cucurbitace7 are cultivated in the villages1 but are not common1 and pineapples1 paw-paws1 guavas1 oranges1 custard apples1 sour-sops1 and limes may be found growing in the places near the older ,european settlements4 ,plantains and yams seem to form the chief food of the people in the interior1 but maize is largely used by those near the coast1 who are better cultivators4 ,plantains are prepared by roasting or by chopping up and boiling4 ,in some parts1 especially in the ,krepi country1 the fruits are split and cut in pieces1 after which they are dried in the sun4 ,they become hard and white in the process1 and can be kept for some time4 ,yams of several kinds are cut up after peeling1 and boiled with peppers or made up with palm oil1 when they form a favourite dish4 ,they are sometimes pounded in a wooden mortar and made into balls4 ,maize is ground on flat or grooved stones by means of a stone hand-roller1 after which the flour is made into dough and baked1 a little palm wine having been added to make it rise4 ,cassava is treated in the same manner as yams1 but the former requires long soaking before cooking4 ,palm oil or groundnut oil is generally used for cooking1 and the pulp of the palm fruit1 after the oil has been removed1 is eaten4 ,a fermented drink is made from maize1 which is said to taste like weak beer1 but the chief intoxicant made locally is the fermented juice of the oil and the fibre palms4 ,with the exception of cotton1 which has been separately referred to1 groundnuts appear to have been the only field crop of importance that has been exported4 ,in #aijh a substantial figure was reached1 but has since declined4 ,,part ,,ii4--,,the ,,northern ,,territories ,tribes4--,the country which is included under the ,northern ,territories is inhabited by a number of tribes1 now chiefly located in the northern half2 the central portion being liable to inundation at certain times1 and therefore almost unoccupied1 and the southern being1 perhaps1 considered unsafe owing to the proximity to the warlike ,ashantis4 ,the more important tribes are the ,mamprussis1 under the king of ,gambaga2 the ,gonjas1 under the king of ,kombe2 the ,walas1 under the king of ,wa2 and two sections of the ,dagombas1 under the chiefs of ,savelugu and ,karaga 7formerly under the king of ,yendi1 in ,german territory74 ,the ,lobis1 ,dagartis1 ,grunshis1 ,kussassis1 and several others were dispersed by ,samory and ,barbetu in #ahif and #ahih1 and have now only nominal chiefs4 7,see ,colonial ,reports--,annual1 ,no4 #eff1 8,northern ,territories of the ,gold ,coast10 #aijg1 p4 #h47 ,the ,moshis1 whose country extended into the northern limits of the ,northern ,territories1 were employed at one time as native levies1 but since they were disbanded they have interfered with the tribes on the ,gambaga-,kumassi road1 in the ,sapari ,hills1 and made trading by that route unsafe4 7,see ,colonial ,reports1 loc4 cit41 p4 #aj47 ,steps have been taken to expel them from the country1 and it is hoped that the people living in the hills1 who are said to be good agriculturists1 will now come into closer contact with civilisation4 ,the ,dagombas are apparently the most industrious tribe in the country1 and they seem to be numerous4 ,although there does not appear to be any actual record of the invasion of the eastern part of the country by the ,mohammedan rulers of the ,western ,sudan1 they are said to have overrun the pagan countries between themselves and the region of dense forest on several occasions4 ,in #adhc the kingdom of ,mossi 7,moshi7 was conquered by ,sonni ,ali1 ,king of ,songhay1 who was a native of the ,eastern ,sudan1 and had come from ,egypt4 ,two years later he extended his conquest through the mountain territory to the south and far into the pagan belt4 ,sonni ,ali was followed by ,askia1 who again overran ,mossi1 in order to abolish paganism and establish the ,mohammedan faith4 ,this occurred in about the year #aejj1 and doubtless the people learnt to adopt the improved methods of agriculture which the conquerors had introduced into the ,western ,sudan from ,egypt and the east4 ,many of the tribes have relapsed completely into paganism1 but amongst others there is a mixture of ,mohammedanism and paganism1 which is evidence of the impression made4 ,more recently1 ,samodu ,almami of ,ouassoulou1 generally known as ,samory1 was driven from his kingdom in the ,western ,sudan by the ,french1 and overran the ,northern ,territories with his ,sofa troops2 subduing ,wa1 ,bole1 and the whole of the western part of the country4 ,it is1 however1 unlikely that agriculture was further improved by his invasion1 as large tracts of country were devastated to feed his troops4 ,,field ,,crops4--,the soil is of a lighter and more sandy nature than that generally found in the forest region1 but it is well adapted for the cultivation of many different kinds of crops1 notably ,guinea corn1 millet1 groundnuts1 and cotton1 while it is less satisfactory for yams4 ,the latter are consequently of smaller size4 ,cotton4--,the cotton grown by the ,dagombas is whiter than those found in the south1 and the plants are of small stature2 the species has a wide-opening pale flower1 and has been grown at ,labolabo from seed procured in the ,northern ,territories4 ,the cotton fields are planted with regular lines of plants1 and the ground appears to be exclusively used for the crop during the season4 ,the seed is sown upon ridges which have been constructed from the high conical mounds1 upon which the combined crop of millet 7,pennisetum spp47 or ,guinea corn and yams were grown in the previous year4 ,cultivation is performed by means of a short-handled hoe1 and the ridges are kept clear of weeds and grass until the crop is ready4 ,the seed-cotton is sold in the markets1 and is in good demand for the manufacture of native cloths4 ,no insect pests have been observed attacking the plants1 and it is probable that if an outside demand were established for the produce a large quantity could be grown4 ,it might be necessary to introduce a better variety than that at present cultivated1 as this yields a rather coarse and short staple4 ,if cotton from this part of the country is to become an article of export1 the difficulties at present experienced in transport will first have to be overcome2 indeed1 this applies to all the produce capable of being grown in the country4 ,the navigation of the ,volta river and the two main branches seems to suggest a means which might be employed1 for1 although there are several rapids in the course from ,daboya and ,bole to ,labolabo1 only one is impassable for canoes1 even in the dry season4 ,this rapid is at ,krachi where a short line has been laid for transporting loaded canoes4 ,the cost of the hire of canoes for making the journey would probably be prohibitive1 but if the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association undertook the carriage by their own canoes of the salt and stores required by the merchants who have commenced business in ,yeji and ,tamale1 the freight on these in the journey upwards would probably be found to cover the cost of bringing cotton down-stream1 and the export trade in it could be developed in this manner4 ,the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association made an effort to act upon the suggestion made here1 but discontinued their operations in ,july #aiaf1 when they handed over their buildings1 at ,tamale1 to the ,government1 as it was shown that under the existing conditions and with but one ,european representative to further its interests1 cotton-growing in the ,northern ,territories could not hope to become a remunerative export business 7,colonial ,reports1 ,northern ,territories1 ,g4,c4 #aiaf1 ,no4 #ief74 ,the irregularity of the rainfall is a matter which must be borne in mind in any future attempts to develop the industry here1 but the possibilities of providing artificial irrigation should not be overlooked1 as large tracts of flat land exist near the ,white ,volta river capable of becoming fertile under proper irrigation and drainage4 ,other ,field ,crops4--,yams are grown as a primary crop on mounds1 and three different kinds are common1 probably referable to ,d4 alata1 ,d4 sativa1 and ,d4 colocasifolia1 the last being what is termed the water yam and the first the winged yam4 ,guinea corn is the most important food grain grown1 but millet is sometimes planted4 ,a red species of sorghum 7,s4 guineensis1 var4 robustum7 is cultivated on a small scale for use in staining leather1 but is not used for food4 ,rice 7,oryza sativa7 is grown in the vicinity of the large rivers1 but is said to suffer damage from elephants and hippopotami4 ,the variety seems to be similar to the red rice grown in the ,gambia and ,sierra ,leone4 ,very little maize is planted1 but some is grown near ,salaga4 ,cassava is only seen in the south near the forest boundary1 and groundnuts are not plentiful1 owing1 perhaps1 to the fact that cooking oil is obtainable from shea butter trees1 which are common in a wild state4 ,pigeon peas are often planted round the borders of fields1 and are left to yield more than one crop4 ,this pea is identical with one of the common 8,dhalls0 of ,india 7,cajanus indicus72 the origin of the introduction is obscure4 ,small beans are grown as well as ,indigofera spp4 ,sweet potatoes1 okra1 capsicum-peppers1 sorrel-hibiscus 7,h4 ,sabdariffa71 and the ,fra-,fra potato 7,plectranthus1 sp41 8,tumuku0 of the ,haussas7 are also grown4 ,fibre4--,plants belonging to two species of ,hibiscus are used for the extraction of fibre for the preparation of cordage1 the cleaned fibre being similar to jute4 ,these plants grow1 with perfectly straight stems1 to eight or ten feet in height1 bearing short thin branches with axillary flowers4 ,tobacco4--,the tobacco grown is used for smoking or the manufacture of snuff in many parts of the ,northern ,territories1 and is prepared in a special manner4 ,for smoking tobacco the green leaves are pressed into small gourds until a quantity of juice exudes1 the mass being rolled in this until it assumes an oval form1 in which it is sold in the markets before drying4 ,for snuff it is ground up between heated stones until the requisite fineness has been obtained1 and is then mixed with a small quantity of the powdered seeds of ,monodora myristica4 ,the tobacco fields are usually confined to small patches near houses1 and wood ashes as well as sweepings are applied as a top dressing4 ,this appears to be the only crop to which manure or fertiliser is given4 ,the leaves always seem to be stripped off the stems at one operation1 whereby old and immature leaves are mixed with mature4 ,,gums4--,two species of ,acacia 7,a4 arabica and ,a4 ,sieberiana7 are found1 especially in the uninhabited tracts in the centre of the country1 and the last named appears to yield a large flow of gum1 which1 however1 is not collected4 ,examination of this at the ,imperial ,institute has shown it to be about equal in quality to inferior ,sudan grades2 ,a4 arabica does not seem to yield gum with such frequency in this locality as elsewhere4 ,burkea africana and ,pseudocedrela ,kotschyi produce a quality of gum comparable with 8,talh0 from the ,sudan4 7,cf4 ,selected ,reports from the ,imperial ,institute1 ,pt4 ,,ii41 ,gums and ,resins1 pp4 #aec1 #afe-g47 ,,wood ,,oil4--,by cutting deeply into the base of a tree known as 8,neou0 7,dagomba71 and 8,kawa0 7,haussa71 a rather copious flow of resinous liquid is induced1 which1 when solidified1 is a resin somewhat similar1 but inferior1 to copal4 ,the tree from which this is procured is botanically known as ,daniellia thurifera1 ,oliv41 and the so-called 8oil0 obtained was at one time shipped from ,northern ,nigeria under the name of ,african ,balsam of ,copaiba4 ,it is used in the ,northern ,territories for lighting purposes1 as well as medicinally4 ,the tree yields a handsomely grained timber4 7,cf4 ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 #aiae47 ,,shea ,,butter4--,a tree known botanically as ,butyrospermum ,parkii bears a fruit1 from the kernel of which this valuable vegetable fat is procured4 ,the fat forms the cooking oil of the ultra-forest country1 taking the place of palm oil in this respect4 ,the mode of preparation in the ,northern ,territories is1 doubtless1 similar to that employed in ,northern ,nigeria4 ,the prepared butter is one of the products carried by the ,haussa traders1 who visit ,ashanti for the purpose of purchasing kola1 and is much appreciated in ,kumassi1 where it obtains a high price4 ,a small quantity is carried down the ,volta river by the canoes which bring salt from ,adda to ,yeji and ,daboya4 ,an analysis made at the ,imperial ,institute of ,shea butter from the ,northern ,territories showed that the material is in no way inferior to the better-known 8,shea butter0 of ,northern ,nigeria4 ,cf4 ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 vi4 7#aijh71 p4 #cgj4 ,,rubber4--,recently some species of ,landolphia were found growing in the district of ,wa and elsewhere1 and1 upon examination1 one of these proved to be ,l4 owariensis1 ,p4 ,beauv4 ,this was at first thought to occur plentifully1 and to assume the underground habits of ,l4 ,thollonii1 one of the most important sources of root or rhizome rubber in the ,congo4 ,specimens1 which were found growing near the south bank of the ,black ,volta river1 in grass land1 exhibited a trailing form of growth owing to the absence of supporting trees1 but1 although the plants were probably dwarfed by the annual grass fires1 no development of root growth was observed in excess of that ordinarily produced within the forests4 ,the plant is now reported to occur rather rarely in the ,northern ,territories2 another nearly allied1 though useless1 species having been mistaken for it4 ,,dyes4--,for dyeing the yarn made from the native cotton1 indigo is made from a species of ,indigofera1 or from the young leaves of ,lonchocarpus cyanescens1 but the process of preparation employed in this country has not been carefully observed4 ,it is1 however1 probably similar to that in common use in ,sierra ,leone1 ,northern ,nigeria1 and the ,gambia4 ,,beeswax4--,bees are attracted to hive in calabashes placed in trees1 the honey and wax being taken from them and sold in the markets4 ,the bee belongs to a small variety of ,apis mellifera1 known as var4 ,adansonii4 ,a sample of beeswax obtained at ,tamale was examined at the ,imperial ,institute1 and proved to be of excellent quality and worth #f #aes4 per cwt4 7,dec4 #aijh74 ,,leather4--,tanning of sheep and goats' skins is done to a small extent1 the same process as that described for the preparation of ,kano leather in ,northern ,nigeria being followed4 ,the ,acacia pods used for the purpose are obtained from trees often found planted in the middle of towns4 ,,cattle ,,and ,,poultry4--,a large breed of cattle with a dorsal hump exists in the ,salaga district1 and a straight-backed smaller kind throughout the country to the north4 ,although 8tsetse0 flies of three species are common on the stream banks1 the cattle seem to be healthy for the most part1 and often form part of a caravan travelling to the forest belt1 where a good price is said to be obtained for them from the ,ashantis4 ,they are usually killed for food very soon after entering the forest1 where they can no longer be kept free from the attacks of the three species of 8tsetse0 7,glossina morsitans1 ,g4 palpalis1 and ,g4 pallidipes71 all of which seem to attack them4 ,horses are bred in some parts1 but not to a large extent4 ,wire-haired sheep and goats are seen everywhere1 and can be obtained in many places at a low price4 ,fowls and ,guinea-fowls are reared in several villages1 and are carried to the south for sale4 ,long open-work baskets are used1 and the fowls are usually conveyed as head-loads4 ,guinea-fowls1 purchasable for threepence each in some of the villages south of ,daboya1 are sold at four or five shillings each near the coast4 ,no coops seem to be employed in the villages to confine the guinea-fowls1 which habitually roost upon the house-tops and which may frequently be seen in the adjoining fields4 ,they are scarcely distinguishable from the wild birds which occur usually in the same localities4 ,there is1 however1 a marked tendency on the part of the domesticated examples to acquire white feathers upon the breast or wings to a greater or lesser extent4 ,it should be recorded that a considerable local trade is carried on in the country in the sale of a flour-like substance obtained from the interior of the pods of ,parkia filicoidea4 ,this is made up with the seeds of the plant into an edible paste1 locally termed 8,dawadawa40 ,,exports4--,excluding cocoa1 which is treated separately in its place1 the following table shows the progress of the export trade between #aiaj and #aiai3-- ,,kola4 ,,copra4 ,,copal4 ,,year4 ,lbs4 ,tons4 ,lbs4 #aiaj #e1aef1ejj #gg1gaf #gee #ac1jcb #ec1hdg #fdg #aiaa #e1gia1ica #ic1jii #ggi #ac1beg #hj1jdb #a1aaj #aiab #g1acc1afe #acd1bca #fbj #aa1hda #fg1acc #a1jgg #aiac #g1jbd1hfh #add1gje #fbi #ad1bib #ch1bje #eee #aiad #g1hfb1dad #adb1aij #fef #aa1hbe #ah1edi #bfe #aiae #h1bfg1ajj #aci1afc #ggj #ab1hba #bh1hhh #dje #aiaf #f1gfj1hih #acj1eff #fcc #ad1chd #ab1edi #acb #aiag #aa1ihe1fde #bci1acd #gce #ai1iaf #b1cjf #bd #aiah #ac1bed1ech #bfb1add #ii #b1ggb #a1fic #ce #aiai #af1cai1igb #cej1bdi #ihd #cj1jia #ac1gdh #agd ,,rubber4 ,,palm ,,oil4 ,,palm ,,kernels4 ,lbs4 ,galls4 ,tons4 #aiaj #c1bbc1bfe #ceh1hgf #b1jdd1hfh #afa1chh #ad1ahb #ahe1jeh #aiaa #b1ffh1ffg #bai1ddg #a1faj1bji #abh1iaf #ac1bed #age1hia #aiab #a1iij1fii #afh1gbi #a1ddd1dcb #aab1hhe #ad1fbh #bje1cfe #aiac #a1cag1cfi #hg1iae #hfj1aee #fe1feb #i1gdd #aei1abh #aiad #fed1acc #ba1fca #die1gfc #cg1fdf #e1fcc #hh1fga #aiae #fdg1ihb #be1afg #ccj1iij #be1gfi #d1jfd #ej1eab #aiaf #b1bae1igc #gh1hfe #dej1cfj #ch1bii #e1heg #he1hii #aiag #b1ifa1bjd #aaj1bgb #aih1ijj #bd1ggj #d1gfh #gd1iaa #aiah #a1cia1jig #eg1jjf #fgj1hfg #hc1fhi #h1icc #aeb1ibb #aiai #gba1ehh #cc1fcg #ich1eie #adj1afc #i1hib #bec1bdc ,,groundnuts4 ,,lumber4 ,,cotton4 ,tons4 ,feet4 ,lbs4 #aijg3 #aiaj #ad1ich1gdi #adh1abb #aa1dba #bfc #aig #a1hae #aiaa #ac1igc1cif #ach1hba #i1gja #bch not given #aiab #bc1egc1fea #bbh1gde #bj1cie #ejf do4 #aiac #cg1cia1hdh #cff1jid #bg1dig #fhh do4 #aiad #bd1ehg1bag #bdj1hgh #bc1ead #ehh do4 #aiae #i1bag1fbb #ij1ffa #ab1jaf #cjj do4 #aiaf #aj1ccd1gic #ic1ihj #ag1hif #ddg do4 #aiag #g1dha1dfh #fi1abh #dc1hgj #bbg do4 #aiah #ad1fhj1hbc #acg1fdi #bj1fdj #bab do4 #aiai #aj1dcb1bej #ajc1bch nil4 #g #baj ,illustration3 ,,nigeria1 ,,southern ,,provinces ,territory held by ,great ,britain under ,mandate is hatched in ,red4 ,legend ,stanford's ,geogl4 ,estabt41 ,london4 ,,nigeria-,,southern ,,provinces ,,introductory ,,remarks4 ,administrative ,divisions4--,on ,january #a1 #aiad1 the countries1 hitherto administered separately under the names of ,northern and ,southern ,nigeria1 were amalgamated and placed under a ,governor-,general4 ,it is1 nevertheless1 convenient1 from the point of view of their agricultural and commercial interests1 to deal with them in this place separately4 ,the inhabitants of the ,northern and ,southern ,provinces are to a very large extent dissimilar in languages1 religion and customs1 and the climatic conditions1 by which distinct varieties of life are so much influenced1 are so suitably defined by the artificial boundary which1 until recently1 divided ,northern and ,southern ,nigeria1 that little excuse need be offered for the maintenance of old division in the discussion of the subjects within the competence of this book4 ,following then the plan adopted in the first edition1 ,southern ,nigeria1 referred to now as the ,southern ,provinces1 is being first dealt with and treated1 as far as possible1 independently of ,northern ,nigeria1 now entitled the ,northern ,provinces1 the separate account of which follows4 ,geographical ,position4--,pending the adjustment of the eastern frontier1 occasioned by the outcome of the recent war1 the ,southern ,provinces of ,nigeria extend from #b #de ,e4 to #aj #ae ,e4 long43 the ,western ,province reaching #i #aj ,n41 and the ,central and ,eastern about #g #ae ,n4 lat4 ,area and ,population4--,the estimated area of the country before adjustment was #id1jjj sq4 miles1 and the census of #aiaa showed the population as #g1heg1ihc4 ,natural ,divisions4--,the ,southern ,provinces are conveniently divided for agricultural considerations into wet and dry zones4 ,in the former the rainfall ranges from about #ij inches at ,bendi to #bej inches at ,opobo4 ,in the latter zone the highest rainfall is reached in ,lagos ,town1 where about #ge inches are annually registered2 the lowest reading being that of #dj inches at ,olokemeji4 ,the densely forested area is practically entirely within the wet zone2 this also including a tract of brackish-water forest 7mangrove7 and swamp4 ,in the dry zone grass-land and open 8bush10 with trees peculiar to such localities1 occur1 and it is in this portion of the country that most of the agricultural people are found4 ,the inhabitants of the forested area in the wet zone give more attention to the collection of forest products1 such as palm oil and rubber1 and only grow sufficient grain and roots for their own consumption4 ,inhabitants4--,the tribes found in the ,western ,province are chiefly ,yorubas1 and among these are some of the most intelligent people in the country4 ,in the ,central ,province there are a large number of tribes speaking different languages1 but among these the ,benis are perhaps of most importance4 ,the ,ijoas1 ,ibos1 ,aros1 and many other tribes inhabit the ,eastern ,province1 and are generally of a lower grade of civilisation than the others mentioned4 ,the country between the northern part of the ,cross river and the ,niger is populated by other pagan tribes1 who seem to be careful cultivators1 but very little is known of them at present4 ,cultivation4--,the ,yoruba race are industrious cultivators1 and show considerably more ambition than most of the other ,west ,african peoples4 ,the country in which they live is particularly adapted to farming1 and the climatic conditions are suitable for the cultivation of cotton and fibrous plants1 in addition to the various grain crops4 ,in some parts cocoa1 rubber1 and kola are being cultivated1 but these are not so suitable under the prevailing conditions as they would be within the wet zone--the ,western ,province1 which these people inhabit1 being entirely within the dry region4 ,although farming is so extensive1 continuous cultivation is not found1 and the use of manure is practically unknown4 ,the usual practice is to farm a piece of land for a few years1 and to permit it then to return to a wild state for a long period4 ,in their want of knowledge concerning the value of manure and the application of artificial irrigation1 the ,yoruba farmers are behind the ,haussas of ,northern ,nigeria1 but are more careful than the ,nupes of the same country4 ,the depth of the ,yoruba cultivation is greater than that of the northern ,haussa1 and this in some measure compensates for the non-employment of manure1 etc4 ,the people of the ,central ,province are generally less careful in their farming methods2 the ,benis often planting their grain crops in only partially cleared land4 ,farther to the north in the same province a better system is noticeable among the ,ishans1 ,ifons1 and the people of ,agbede4 ,during recent years1 owing to the energetic efforts of the ,forestry ,department1 the cultivation and better treatment of the indigenous rubber tree 7,funtumia elastica7 have been extensively adopted1 especially by the people in the neighbourhood of ,benin ,city1 where the climate is well suited to the species4 ,in addition to rubber1 cocoa and kola plantations might prove successful in the same localities1 but as yet no large plantations of either exist4 ,in the ,eastern ,province farming is generally of poor quality until the region of heavy rainfall is left1 when extremely large areas are met with1 highly cultivated1 with the earth thrown up into loose mounds1 often five or six feet in height1 for the purpose of growing yams1 maize1 pepper1 okra1 ,guinea corn1 pumpkins1 etc41 all of which are found planted upon each mound2 the yams being carefully trained to climb along fibre strings towards central poles4 ,principal ,crops4--,the chief crops grown in the ,western ,province are maize1 cotton1 cassava1 yams1 sweet potatoes1 groundnuts1 and to a small extent ,guinea corn1 sugar-cane1 tobacco1 ,colocasia yams1 peppers1 okra1 rice1 eggplant1 and native beans4 ,indigo is extracted from ,lonchocarpus cyanescens1 which occurs in a wild state1 and is preserved when making clearances for farms4 ,the ,indigofera spp4 are used to a smaller degree for the same purpose4 7,see ,sierra ,leone ,section1 p4 #ci2 also ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 #aiji1 p4 #cai2 #aiah1 p4 #aa2 and #aiai1 p4 #ca47 ,fruits are not grown plentifully1 and are generally left in an uncultivated condition4 ,the chief kinds are pineapples1 bananas1 pawpaws1 akee apple 7,blighia sapida71 oranges1 and guavas4 ,there are several fruits and spices which are collected from the forest strips1 but1 taken generally1 the ,western ,province people are not great fruit eaters4 ,on the sea coast and for a considerable distance inland1 coconut plantations are common1 and1 near ,badagry1 copra is prepared from them for shipment4 ,the crops cultivated in the ,central ,province are similar to those of the ,western1 but yams become more1 and groundnuts less prominent4 ,large quantities of palm oil are prepared1 and rubber is collected1 the labour available for farm work being thereby reduced4 ,the most important product of the ,eastern ,province is undoubtedly palm oil1 but fairly large quantities of yams and maize are grown outside the forest zone and are transported by native canoes to the coast ports1 in the vicinity of which there is very little cultivation4 ,with the exception of the oil palm1 which is of general occurrence throughout the country1 the ,lagos silk rubber tree 7,funtumia elastica7 is of the most importance from a commercial standpoint4 ,rubber vines of the genera ,landolphia and ,carpodinus are also valuable wild plants1 from which some of the finest rubbers are at present extracted4 ,copal1 known as 8,ogea0 gum1 and collected from a tree which has been determined as ,cyanothyrsus oblongus 7syn4 ogea71 is exported in varying quantity according to the market value4 ,a fairly extensive local trade is done in 8chew-sticks0 in the ,western ,province2 the sticks being cut from a tree which occurs in the grass country1 and is recognised as ,anogeissus leiocarpus4 ,the ash made from the wood of the same tree is sold for use as a mordant in indigo dyeing4 ,camwood is a red dye-wood prepared from at least three different species of trees--,baphia nitida1 ,pterocarpus tinctorius1 and ,pterocarpus sp4--and is almost entirely used locally for staining the human skin or dyeing leather4 ,fibre plants do not appear to be cultivated in any part of the country1 but occur to some extent in all the forested parts4 ,hibiscus guineensis and ,dombeya buettneri are usually employed for native ropes1 and the bark of ,sterculia barteri is said to be prepared for the same purpose4 ,,oil ,,palm4--,a description of this tree and information in connection with the principal characteristics and mode of propagation have been given in the ,sierra ,leone portion of this work1 and it may merely be remarked that there is no difference in a general way between trees grown in the two localities4 ,with regard to the form of fruit1 however1 that of ,southern ,nigeria is separated into several kinds1 varying in the relative proportion of pericarp and kernel1 and these will be referred to later4 ,the method of preparing palm oil varies to a large degree in the different localities4 ,the best quality of oil is that produced in the ,western ,province4 ,the oil1 which on the market is classed as 8,lagos fine grade10 and obtains the highest price among ,west ,african oils1 is made from the fresh fruits boiled and pounded in the manner described for the ,sierra ,leone oil1 but the extracted oil is further cleared by straining and boiling until a uniformly clear and limpid product is obtained4 ,illustration3 ,,straining ,,oil ,,from ,,the ,,fibrous ,,pulp ,,of ,,the ,,oil ,,palm1 ,,oshogbo4 ,fig4 #bb1 p4 #ig4 ,illustration3 ,,cotton ,,bales1 ,,marlborough ,,ginnery1 ,,ibadan4 ,fig4 #bc1 p4 #aac4 ,illustration3 ,,afara ,,tree 7,,terminalia ,,superba7 ,,at ,,olokomeji4 ,fig4 #bd1 p4 #aah4 ,an inferior quality is that made at ,oshogbo and north of ,ibadan generally4 ,the fruits1 after having been boiled for about three hours1 have the fibrous pulp sufficiently loosened1 so that the whole is easily separated from the nuts by pounding in a wooden mortar4 ,the fibrous mass thus obtained is then put into a pit1 which is filled to a depth of about eighteen inches with cold water1 and the oil is expressed by women and young girls1 who tread it out with their feet4 ,after leaving the water undisturbed for a short time1 the oil rises to the surface1 from which it is skimmed1 or it may be precipitated1 by the removal of a plug placed in the side of the pit1 into a vessel placed to receive it4 ,the treading process is repeated until most of the oil is extracted4 ,the oil is then separated from the water which it contains by boiling4 ,the fibrous pulp is next removed1 strained in baskets1 and is placed upon rocks to dry in the sun1 after which it is pressed into large balls1 which are sold in the local markets at #a;d4 each4 ,much of this finds its way to ,lagos ,town1 where it is sold for fuel at the rate of #h;d4 for #h lb4 ,in this connection it may be mentioned that there appears to be no foundation for the statement which has been made to the effect that this residual pulp is exported in large quantities from ,lagos for the further extraction of oil by chemical means in ,europe4 ,an illustration is given showing a girl straining fibrous pulp in an oil pit at ,oshogbo 7,fig4 #bb74 ,in the ,central and ,eastern ,provinces 8hard0 oil is the commercial name applied to the kind which is generally made4 ,at ,onitsha the natives may be seen bringing in this oil1 which is of such a consistency that even at an atmospheric temperature of #ij it remains in a solid wax-like condition4 ,the earthen vessels in which such oil is conveyed to the factories1 when accidentally dropped and broken1 do not necessarily occasion the loss of any oil4 ,the thickened condition is entirely due to the method of preparation1 during which important chemical changes occur1 which appear to be detrimental to the oil for some of its most important uses1 especially that of soap manufacture1 while rendering it suitable for employment for making candles4 ,the important difference in the preparation of this oil lies in the fact that instead of the fresh fruits being used1 the pericarp is separated from the nuts by means of partial decomposition1 induced by burying the fruits in the ground for a period varying from three weeks to two months4 ,the semi-decomposed pericarp is then easily removed by pounding or treading out in a canoe-shaped receptacle1 after which the fibrous mass is boiled1 and the liquid oil is skimmed and allowed to set in earthen jars1 in which it is carried for sale to the factories4 ,the extraction of kernels from the nuts is one of the usual occupations of the women and children of a village1 when not assisting in the preparation of oil4 ,the nuts are spread in the sun for about a week or more until a shrinkage of the kernel occurs1 which renders the nut-shell capable of being easily cracked without damage to the interior4 ,it is said that in the ,jebu district1 to the north-east of ,lagos1 the local price paid for kernels ranges from #d;d4 to #d;d4 for a filled tin bowl having the diameter of nine inches4 ,the primitive method of extracting kernels1 by means of cracking the nut-shell between stones and picking out the contents1 has not yet given way to the employment of the various machines which have been introduced from time to time to supersede it4 ,a black oil is extracted at ,oshogbo by roasting the kernels in an earthen pot until black1 and stirring meanwhile until the whole mass becomes covered with exuded oil4 ,a small quantity of cold water is then sprinkled into the pot after removing it from the fire1 and the contents are pounded in a mortar until an oily meal is produced4 ,this is boiled1 and1 when the mixture is cool1 the oil is skimmed from the surface of the water which has been added for the boiling4 ,this oil is apparently only used locally4 ,the existing native social system1 under which the male head of a family receives almost exclusive consideration1 is opposed to native co-operation in any mechanical process1 whereby a relief from labour of his numerous dependants--wives1 children1 and aged or infirm relatives--would be incurred at the expense of his enhanced personal labour2 he being the carrier and disposer of the produce at the market4 ,by the conveyance and sale of nuts instead of kernels1 a much smaller return in value would be obtained for the same weight of material1 i4e4 a similar amount of personal energy4 ,the dependants1 incapable of assisting in transporting1 would remain idle1 unless some similar work could be found for them4 ,up to a short distance from the delivery point 7which would determine itself7 the nuts instead of the kernels would be brought in for sale1 and1 limited by the capabilities of the available palm-tree climbers1 the family dependants would be able to prepare larger quantities of pericarp oil2 but the increased accumulation of kernels would further decrease the radius from the selling centre at which the carriers would be able to work4 ,if the entire fruit were to be bought up for mechanical extraction of pericarp oil as well as kernels1 the carrying labour would be still further enhanced1 and the work of the oil-manufacturing communities would resolve itself into three operations--viz4 climbing trees1 chopping out fruit1 and transporting--which would mean the exclusion from work of all but the strong adults1 or the reduction of workers by #cj to #ej per cent4 perhaps4 ,the number of skilled palm-tree climbers is said to be decreasing in many districts1 and1 owing to the sparsity of the population in some localities1 a very large proportion of the annual yield of fruit remains unharvested4 ,the investigation of the several varieties of the oil palm of the country is in progress at the ,imperial ,institute1 and the characters of the most important are now well known1 and may be compared here with the varieties from the ,gold ,coast1 ,sierra ,leone1 ,gambia1 and ,northern ,nigeria4 ,the typical form1 which1 although subject to some variation1 possesses certain marked characteristics1 may be said to fall under the following general description3 ,fruiting heads generally large4 ,fruit large1 orange to scarlet in colour1 with a variable amount of purplish black suffusion at the apex1 which may extend over more than half of the fruit or may be altogether absent4 ,pericarp thin1 kernel large with a thick shell4 ,names3 8,ope yope0 or 8,ope pankora0 7,yoruba71 8,ok-poruk-pu0 7,ibo71 8,udin0 7,beni71 8,ak-porro-jub0 7,efik71 8,irk-,eyop0 7,ibibio71 8,abe pa0 and perhaps 8,abe dam0 7,fanti1 ,gold ,coast71 8,tug bore0 7,mendi1 ,sierra ,leone71 8,tabel-tiloli0 7,timani1 ,sierra ,leone71 8,tengo0 7,mandingo1 ,gambia71 8,kabe-kalako0 7,jolah1 ,gambia71 8,neul0 7,joloff1 ,gambia71 8,qua-qua0 7,haussa1 ,n4 ,nigeria71 8,yi-ku-niche0 7,nupe1 ,n4 ,nigeria74 ,only the typical form has as yet been observed in ,sierra ,leone1 ,gambia1 and ,northern ,nigeria4 ,the other particularly important variety is that commonly referred to as the 8soft-shelled0 or 8thin-shelled0 palm fruit1 which has been recorded from many localities in ,west ,africa4 ,the following description will include the forms contained in this group3 ,fruiting heads often large4 ,fruits large or small1 generally the latter1 dark coloured4 ,pericarp thick1 kernel rather small1 with a thin shell4 ,names3 8,ope-,arunfo0 7,yoruba71 8,au-su-ku0 7,ibo71 8,ivioronmila0 7,beni71 8,asoge-e-jub0 7,efik71 8,eduege ,eyop0 7,ibibio71 8,abe-bobe0 7,fanti1 ,gold ,coast74 ,the third kind is that frequently called the 8,fetish0 or 8,king0 palm nut4 ,it is rare wherever it occurs1 and is scarcely worth consideration from an economic standpoint4 ,the tree which bears this fruit has been described under the distinct specific name of ,elis ,thompsoni1 ,chevalier4 ,fruiting heads generally small4 ,fruits medium-sized1 red with black markings occasionally present4 ,pericarp moderately thick1 kernel and shell medium4 ,the nuts1 which possess four eyes1 are not used in the manufacture of commercial oil1 but are employed in connection with the worship of the deity ,ifa 7,dennett74 ,names3 8,ope ,ifa0 7,yoruba71 8,ojuku0 7,ibo71 8,oged-udin0 7,beni71 8,affia-ko-jub0 7,efik71 8,efiako-,eyop0 7,ibibio71 8,abe-ohene0 7,fanti1 ,gold ,coast74 ,the above are the three most marked forms of oil palm recognisable1 although other varieties are given special names by natives in different parts of the country1 distinctions being frequently made between the fruit from trees which assume a tall growth and those which remain stunted4 7,cf4 also ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 #aiji1 p4 #cfb2 and #aibj1 p4 #bbc47 ,as far as investigations have progressed1 the advantage with regard to yield of oil as well as quality is maintained by the thin-shelled variety1 the greater proportion of pericarp enabling a larger amount of pericarp oil to be expressed1 while the thin kernel-covering facilitates the extraction of the kernel4 ,before being able to definitely state that this variety is of the greatest economic value1 it is necessary that a comparison of the weight of the annual crops from all varieties should be made4 ,the advisability of planting any particular variety of oil palm would in the first place depend on the results obtained from the complete investigation of all2 but at the present time such a project on a large scale is not likely to be practicable1 as it is generally acknowledged that only a comparatively small proportion of the existing wild trees are at present utilised4 ,experiments in the ,kamerun1 with different varieties of oil palms1 seemed to indicate that the thin-shelled character was not a fixed one4 ,in #aiaj a forest officer in ,nigeria was detailed to study the distribution1 cultivation and preparation of the oil1 of the most appreciated varieties1 and a quantity of nuts of the soft-shelled 8,lisombe0 kind from the ,kamerun were distributed for planting among the natives of the ,eastern ,province4 ,the export figures of this trade from #aiaj to #aiah are tabulated below4 ,up to the year #aiad1 those of ,northern were separated from those of ,southern ,nigeria4 ,in this account1 subsequent to that year1 the two sets of figures have been taken together4 ,a quantity of kernels is imported from ,dahomey for re-export1 amounting in #aiaj to #ba1abj tons4 ,the figures indicate that the increase has been irregular1 and1 during the last few years1 has been influenced by the war4 ,in #aiai here1 as in the other ,w4 ,african ,colonies1 a differential export tax of #b per ton was imposed1 with respect to palm kernels4 ,year ,palm oil in tons ,palm kernels in tons 7#bhj galls4 #a ton7 #aiaj #gf1hej #agb1iih #aiaa #gi1ccg #agf1cij #aiab #gf1iid #ahd1fbd #aiac #hc1jhh #agd1gah #aiad #gb1eca #afb1deb #aiae #gb1iid #aec1cai #aiaf #fg1dbb #afa1dci #aiag #gd1fai #ahe1iih #aiah #hf1dbe #bje1afg #aiai #ajj1ifg #baf1iac ,it is interesting to compare the amount of oil produced in proportion to kernels collected1 there being a marked difference in this respect between the output of the ,western ,province 7,lagos7 and the ,central and ,eastern ,provinces4 ,a previous series of thirteen years' exports from the former showed an average of #fji gallons of oil to the ton of kernels2 while for the latter a twelve-year period at the same time gave #baif gallons of oil to the ton of kernels4 ,the mean for the whole was #adjbe gallons at that time1 but during the last seven years it has fallen to #abeg gallons4 ,in #aiab the first shipments of kernel oil and cake were made from factories established under ,european control at ,opobo and ,lagos1 the amounts exported being #ejj tons of oil and #fce tons of cake4 ,in the following year the value of both products turned out by these factories is given as #afa1jjj1 and in #aiad as #gb1jjj1 when1 without any assigned reason1 both factories were closed down4 ,articles on the ,african palm-oil industry in the ,southern ,provinces of ,nigeria will be found in ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 #aiji1 #aiaa1 #aiab1 #aiac1 #aiad1 #aiae1 #aiai4 ,an interesting article appears in the ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 xviii41 ,no4 #b 7#aibj71 entitled 8,the ,cultivation of the ,african ,oil ,palm1 with special reference to the ,east ,indies40 ,from this it appears that the tree thrives and yields very satisfactorily1 especially in ,sumatra2 the oil content of the fruit and kernels being both high4 ,attention is drawn in this article to the extension of the use of palm oil in ,europe as an edible fat1 in addition to its present uses4 ,other ,oil ,seeds4--,excluding the shea nut tree1 which will be referred to later on1 three trees have been considered of sufficient importance for their seeds to be shipped to ,europe in order that their value may be determined4 ,these are ,pentaclethra macrophylla 7,cutlass bean71 ,irvingia ,barteri 7,african mango71 and ,lophira alata4 ,although the trials proved that the oils of all might be valuable for the manufacture of soap and candles1 none of the trees occur in sufficient profusion to permit a large export trade in the seeds being established4 7,see ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 v4 #aijg1 pp4 #aj-ad1 and vol4 vi4 #aijh1 pp4 #bdc1 #ced-hj47 ,,rubber4--,following the progress made by the ,forestry ,department in re-establishing the indigenous rubber tree 7,funtumia elastica7 in places from which it had almost disappeared1 an excellent system of communal plantations was established4 ,this system1 which has been largely adopted by the chiefs1 is one to encourage the village inhabitants to re-establish rubber trees in their proximity2 the planting and tapping and preparation of the rubber being under the direction of the ,government officers4 ,the resulting rubber is marketed by the ,government1 who retain one-third of the sale price to cover the cost of supervision1 etc42 the remaining two-thirds being paid to the village community4 ,in this manner a large number of communal plantations have now been established4 ,in #aiaa over #djj new plantations of this kind were made2 about #ajj1jjj ,funtumia plants being put in4 ,at the same time #abi1jjj ,para rubber seeds and some #d1jjj seedlings were distributed under the same scheme1 while ,ceara plantations were made in the drier parts of the country4 ,licences to collect wild rubber were simultaneously made compulsory4 ,the rubber produced on the ,government plantation at ,mamu ,forest1 by the boiling method1 proved very satisfactory4 ,in #aiaj such rubber was sold at #fs4 #f;d4 per lb41 being only #f;d4 less than the best ,para fetched at the same time4 ,three hundred communal plantations yielded rubber in #aiaa against eighty-four in the previous year1 the average yield per tree being #aei oz4 against #adjf oz4 ,in #aiab communal rubber amounted to #c1jca lbs41 which sold at about #cs4 #d;d4 per lb42 and in the same year ,government plantation rubber was #c1eja lbs41 which realised #cs4 #aj;d4 per lb4 ,the next rubber plant of importance is the vine1 ,landolphia owariensis1 which is somewhat variable in the form of growth4 ,the latex at certain seasons coagulates almost instantaneously1 but at other times it runs freely1 and can be collected for coagulation by heat1 the admixture of acid1 alkali or alcohol1 or by spontaneous exposure4 ,the scrap rubber1 which is collected from that coagulated upon the stem1 is made into balls1 and comes into the market under the name of 8first ,niggers10 and commands a high price4 ,the native has discovered that a larger amount of rubber can be obtained at one time if the roots and stems are cut and pounded up4 ,the result is a product known as 8root rubber10 the collection of which can be justified only where the plant1 from which it is obtained1 develops an extensive rhizome or subterranean growth1 capable of being partially removed without killing the plant4 ,such vines1 although found in some other parts of ,africa1 do not occur in ,southern ,nigeria1 and the collection of so-called 8root rubber0 from ,l4 owariensis only leads to the complete destruction of the plant1 and should be discouraged4 ,the small yield of latex from this species after many years of growth1 and the difficulties in connection with the collection of the rubber1 render its cultivation in plantations unprofitable1 although planting has been attempted in the ,french and ,german ,colonies4 ,clitandra elastica is another vine said to yield a copious supply of latex1 capable of being coagulated by means of heating after dilution with water4 ,in appearance the vine is somewhat similar to ,l4 owariensis1 but does not appear to be common4 ,the rubber produced from this species is reported to be of excellent quality4 ,carpodinus hirsutus1 a common vine in the dry zone and on the ,niger river banks1 furnishes a plentiful supply of latex of inferior quality1 and is made into 8root0 and 8paste0 rubber by boiling2 the latter being a sticky product of the consistency of birdlime1 and only saleable in ,europe at a low price4 ,the latices of ,landolphia ,thompsonii and ,l4 senegalensis are used similarly4 ,both species are nearly allied to ,l4 florida1 which is prepared elsewhere4 ,a number of latex-yielding plants are employed in the adulteration of good rubber1 among which the following may be mentioned as the commonest3 ,funtumia africana1 ,conopharyngia sp41 ,alstonia congoensis1 and ,holarrhena ,wulfsburgii4 ,the admixture of these is usually detected by the stickiness which they impart to good rubber4 ,the introduction of licences for permission to collect wild rubber and that of the communal plantation system1 previously referred to1 have rendered the position more secure than previously1 and insured the preservation of the wild plants which were threatened with extinction4 ,this has moreover been effected in the most economical manner4 ,the results of the tappings on the ,para rubber plantations in different parts of the country are of interest4 ,in #aiaa at ,ebute ,metta1 trees eighteen years old yielded #c lbs4 #e oz4 per tree2 at ,calabar six year old trees gave an average of #f oz4 per tree2 while at ,sapele in the same year1 five year old trees yielded from #ad oz4 to #a lb4 #f oz4 per tree4 ,in the following year the same trees at ,ebute ,metta gave #g lbs4 #d oz41 while those at ,sapele yielded from #a lb4 #d oz4 to #a lb4 #aa oz4 ,in #aiae from two ,para rubber estates at ,sapele #id1dac lbs4 of dry rubber was harvested4 7,cf4 ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 #aiaj1 #aiab1 #aiac1 #aiah47 ,export of ,rubber4--,the ,commercial ,intelligence ,officer of ,southern ,nigeria1 in his report on the trade of the country for #aijg1 gives a table showing the rubber exported from ,southern ,nigerian ports from #aijj to #aijg2 but as these figures include large quantities of the product from ,northern ,nigeria1 shipped through ,southern ,nigerian ports1 they do not represent the output from the latter country alone4 ,until #aijg apparently no record of the ,northern ,nigerian rubber exported was kept1 but in the year mentioned #a1ahg1ehh lbs41 valued at #ia1jgd1 were recorded as having passed the customs post of ,northern ,nigeria at ,ida1 on the ,niger4 ,the amounts1 in tons1 exported from the ,southern ,provinces alone were3 #aijg1 #fij2 #aijh1 #ede2 #aiji1 #fbj2 and from the whole of ,nigeria from that time3 #aiaj1 #a1ahj2 #aiaa1 #iff2 #aiab1 #gje2 #aiac1 #eaj2 #aiad1 no figures2 #aiae1 #bdh2 #aiaf1 #cif2 #aiag1 #cib2 #aiah1 #aeg2 #aiai1 #cih4 ,the rubber production of the country is to some extent controlled by the market price1 which is at present very low 7#aiba74 ,,copal4--,some quantity of a kind of copal resin is collected from ,cyanothyrsus oblongus 7syn4 ,c4 ogea71 and is exported under the name of 8,ogea gum40 ,the quality appears to be similar to that obtained from the ,gold ,coast ,cyanothyrsus sp41 and which is sold under the name of 8,accra copal40 ,both are obtained in a fresh and a fossil state4 ,owing to the recent fall in the price of ogea gum1 the collection of it has diminished1 but there are said to be large quantities available which would be collected as soon as a better demand occurred4 7,see articles on 8,copal ,resins from ,british ,west ,africa10 ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 #aijh1 p4 #bde2 and #aiad1 p4 #bah47 ,,cocoa4--,the good fortune which has recently attended the planters in ,west ,africa1 owing to a sudden demand for their cocoa1 has encouraged them1 especially to the north and north-east of ,lagos1 to make more extensive plantations4 ,the climatic conditions in the ,western ,province1 however1 are not favourable1 and the repeated failures of trees1 due to the exhausting effect of the long dry seasons1 give the plantations an irregular appearance4 ,the trees in the plantations made at ,agege1 where many well-to-do planters have made farms1 are stunted1 and planted in too close proximity1 mostly without permanent shade trees4 ,in some instances the trees showed disease from the sapping of the bark juices occasioned by a ,capsid1 the species of which is as yet undetermined4 ,the chief cause of their sterility and death seems1 however1 to be the unfavourable climatic conditions4 ,in the direction of the ,abeokuta-,ibadan boundary1 better planting seems to have been done and permanent shade trees preserved4 ,it is said that the ,agege planters are dissatisfied with the prices they obtain for their cocoa1 which they maintain is properly fermented and of better quality than that of their neighbours4 ,an association of the local planters was recently formed to ship their own produce direct to the ,european markets4 ,the ,agege cocoa generally1 however1 does not appear to be more carefully prepared or of better quality than the other local kinds4 ,fermentation is certainly practised in many places1 and is becoming popular throughout the ,western ,province1 owing to the discovery that the fermented pulp juice forms a beverage1 which is said to be used as a substitute for palm wine1 but the beans are frequently improperly dried4 ,in the ,eastern ,province the climatic conditions appear to be more favourable for the plant1 and there are now a number of small plantations near ,eket1 ,old ,calabar1 and ,itu4 ,the product is still improperly prepared and usually unfermented1 but time and experience will remedy this4 ,in the ,central ,province from #aiae some activity in cocoa planting has occurred in the ,benin district1 but attention there is still mainly devoted to rubber planting4 ,see also ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 #aiad1 p4 #bac2 #aiae1 p4 #eec2 and #aiai1 p4 #bhi4 ,the exports of cocoa have been as follows3 ,year ,lagos 7,w4 ,province7 ,s4 ,nigeria 7,c4 ,e4 ,provs47 lbs4 value lbs4 value #ahij #ac1feg #cbb ,no record #ahia #ae1bed #ccb #ahib #ae1hbj #cij #ahic #ah1jbg #dhh #df1igg #fee #ahid #ci1agg #ibi #eh1ahj #iib #ahie #dh1ahg #hcb #a1ebj #ahif #bg1ifh #ddb #aji1cii #a1ecb #ahig #aja1ahf #a1ebh #aja1bad #a1cic #ahih #gf1ife #a1egi #abj1fcc #a1dei #ahii #aeg1gjh #c1daa #adb1bce #b1edh #aijj #bef1bcd #e1iac #aif1dee #b1gaj #aija #bbi1ieb #e1jdb #bcj1gbf #c1aci #aijb #che1edj #g1ecj #cjb1cje #c1fgg #aijc #cda1dfa #f1gje #bhh1fad #c1fec #aijd #hba1gcb #ac1hib #cfg1gbh #d1ihb #aije #hif1cej #aj1hhi #chh1dgi #f1jai #aijf #a1aec1dci #bj1hic #dff1edh #f1afa #aijg ,combined #b1jhi1bbe #dg1hdj #aijh #c1jfj1fji #ej1ehg #aiji #e1jai1dag #ga1iag #aiaj #f1efg1aha #aja1aej #aiaa #i1heh1ggd #afd1ffd #aiab #g1eic1gaa #acj1edb #aiac #h1aaa1ibj #aeg1dhj #aiad #e1jjj tons app4 #aga1gea #aiae #i1aje #cac1idf #aiaf #h1ief #cic1aja #aiag #ae1ddb #dii1jji #aiah #aj1bai #bce1hgj #aiai #be1gaa #a1jfg1fge ,,cotton4--,reviewing the work which has been done in inducing the agricultural population of the country to cultivate cotton for export1 by far the greatest prominence must be given to the untiring efforts of the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association1 who are gradually surmounting all the obstacles which retarded their progress4 ,the condition of the industry1 especially in the ,western ,province1 is extremely favourable1 and shows signs of further development4 ,in every ,yoruba market sales of cotton are now conducted as a part of the regular transactions of the day1 and cotton from distant villages filters through from market to market1 increasing in value as it approaches a ginnery1 where the full price for it may be ultimately claimed by the trader who has collected it4 ,on account of this system of passing from one market to another1 chiefly in the form of barter for other produce1 it becomes nearly impossible to accurately determine the origin of the supplies brought to the ginneries2 and1 by reference to the records kept1 very large quantities of cotton often appear as having been sent from towns which are little more than accumulating centres1 and in the vicinity of which there is little or no cotton grown4 ,experience in the plantation of cotton under ,european control has shown that without combining the work of a general trader1 farmer1 and ginner with that of grower1 such an attempt is not likely to prove remunerative4 ,the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association have abandoned development upon these lines1 directing their attention solely towards buying1 ginning and inducing the native farmers to cultivate the plant in their ordinary field rotations4 ,such plantations as still exist are now under the direct control of the ,government and are maintained for the purpose of experimental work and for the propagation of improved types4 ,the local varieties of cotton may be roughly classed under five heads1 which are easily recognisable by the characters of the seed and lint4 ,these are3 #a4 ,black1 clean-seeded with a brown tuft or brown woolly and a brick-red lint4--8,eponkon40 #b4 ,black1 clean-seeded1 with a creamy white lint4--,common ,western ,province kind2 rarer in the ,central ,province 7,ishan74 #c4 ,black1 adhering seeds1 8kidney0 kind1 lint creamy4--,common ,central ,province4 #d4 ,white or brownish woolly seeded1 lint creamy4--,meko and ,agbede kinds4 #e4 ,green woolly seeded1 lint creamy4--,rather uncommon except at ,agege4 ,the characters of the above classes do not appear to be sufficiently constant to render it easy to give each class a specific position1 although some of them are doubtless separable4 ,all native forms of plant are constantly of greater stature than ,american1 and in this particular resemble ,egyptian kinds4 ,the red-linted form known as 8,eponkon0 is identical with the 8,dhoole0 of ,sierra ,leone1 and1 although prolific1 yields a cotton which is of little value for export4 ,the other four kinds are those from which the ,southern ,nigerian output of exported cotton is almost wholly obtained1 and the price realised varies from d4 under to #a;d4 or more over ,middling ,american4 ,the finest cottons are those grown at ,agege and ,meko2 the former being supposed to be a hybrid with an ,american variety1 and the latter a constant local variety4 ,some of the shipments1 from ,illushi1 of cotton grown near ,agbede appear to have been of equally desirable quality4 ,a large number of specimens of cotton have been examined at the ,imperial ,institute1 and the length of fibre is generally found to be over one inch in average1 but the colour is yellowish1 and there is less lustre than is found in the ,american kinds4 ,although the price obtained is often somewhat higher than that of the standard ,middling ,american grade1 ,manchester spinners do not regard ,west ,african cotton as quite suitable for their ordinary requirements1 and it appears that the higher prices have only been paid for small quantities which were capable of being used for special purposes4 ,for the reason mentioned1 efforts have been made to replace the indigenous cottons by ,american kinds1 or to hybridise the two1 but the results have not yet been successful1 the tendency being to produce an irregular mixed lint1 which is commercially inferior4 ,american and ,egyptian cottons seem to be less capable of withstanding the attacks of the local insect pests1 and a large proportion of the seed is rendered sterile by the cotton seed bug4 ,grown experimentally on a small scale at ,olokemeji1 the following results were obtained from several exotic and local cottons 7,american ,middling at #ffd;d4 per lb473-- ,yield ,staple ,variety per ,a4 ,lint average ,value lbs4 #a4 ,black ,rattler #hbe #cfcf #ac in4 #f--f;d4 #b4 ,richmond #adj #bhe #aa #f-f;d4 #c4 ,eponkon #ebe #bdg #ab no demand #d4 ,abassi #baj #ca #ae #g;d4 #e4 ,ashmouni #cjj #ccc #ac #f;d4 #f4 ,jannovitch #abj #ccc #aj #f-f;d4 #g4 ,kidney #cdj #da #ab #f;d4 #h4 ,georgia #aej #cff #aa #f-f;d4 #i4 ,ogudu #dij #bhe #ae #g;d4 #aj4 ,sea ,island #fj #ccc #ad #f;d4 #aa4 ,allen's ,improved #aie #cjg #af #g;d4 #ab4 ,culpepper ,b4 ,boll4 #aej #ccc #ab #f-f;d4 #ac4 ,jannovitch #bdj #ccc #ae #g;d4 #ad4 ,peruvian #djj #age #ab #f-f;d4 #ae4 ,abassi #cbj #cdd #ad #g;d4 #af4 ,jones' improved #hbe #cfcf #ad #f;d4 #ag4 ,russell's ,b4,b4 ,crop entire failure #ah4 ,hawkins' ,extra ,prolific #ai4 ,sunflower ,box ,staple ,of the above ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #h1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ad1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 and #ai are ,american varieties1 and were grown from seed supplied by the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association2 ,nos4 #d1 #e1 #f1 #ac and #ae are ,egyptian2 ,no4 #i is a ,northern ,nigerian variety from ,north ,ilorin1 and ,nos4 #c and #g appear to be local kinds4 ,these cottons are referred to in ,professor ,dunstan's ,report 7#aijg71 8,british ,cotton ,cultivation40 ,in addition to the susceptibility of the ,american varieties to the attacks of the local insect pests1 the seed produced from plants grown in the country is often sterile4 ,in the districts in the vicinity of the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association's ginneries ,american and native cottons are often seen growing in the same field1 but as the time of reaching maturity differs in the various forms1 and the cotton is not easily kept separate in the native methods of harvesting1 a mixed crop is obtained4 ,experimenting at the ,moor ,plantation at ,ibadan1 the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association have obtained occasionally satisfactory results from the ,american plots1 as appeared to be the case in the #aijh-i season1 when an ,american 8,upland0 variety is said to have yielded #hjj lbs4 of seed cotton per acre4 ,in the previous year an indigenous variety called 8,meko0 is recorded as having produced over #ijj lbs4 to the acre4 ,these results are largely dependent upon the season and the time of sowing4 ,artificial pollination of the female flowers of the local forms with pollen taken from ,american kinds has not yet succeeded in producing a permanent hybrid1 although the result in the first generation has frequently shown great promise4 ,there is no doubt that the establishment of a hybrid which would carry the lint of the best ,american kind and retain the hardiness and blight-resisting powers of the indigenous forms would be very desirable1 but such a type could only be evolved after careful experiment and selection for a prolonged period4 ,such work may probably be undertaken by the ,agricultural ,department in the future4 ,until this can be scientifically taken up1 the improvement of the existing forms by a more gradual means should be attempted1 namely by a careful selection of seed and elimination of undesirable forms of plants in the field4 ,where cotton is planted by natives1 the cultivation is usually carefully carried out4 ,planting takes place in ,june1 ,july1 or ,august1 and the crop is harvested from ,january until ,april4 ,for the most part cotton is grown by the ,yorubas as a separate crop1 although occasionally it may be found in conjunction with maize4 ,no manuring is carried on1 but the crops are generally fair1 except in the proximity of the ,niger1 for an unexplained reason4 ,no estimate can be made of the yield per acre from native cotton fields1 but from #fj to #hj bolls are frequently found upon a single plant4 ,before passing to other matters in connection with the condition of the cotton plant in the country1 and the appliances in use for the preparation of the lint for export1 it seems advisable to emphasise the main points which require attention in the field4 #a4 ,improvement of the indigenous forms1 by the careful selection of seed at the ginneries1 for distribution1 and the subsequent elimination of undesirable types of plant in the field4 #b4 ,demonstration to the native farmer of a useful method of combination of cotton with the existing field crops1 and especially the advantage of introducing leguminous crops into the rotation with cotton4 #c4 ,special efforts to be made in those countries outside the oil palm districts1 where the natives have little else capable of being produced for barter for imported material4 ,alter a series of experimental trials it was decided in #aiae to encourage the planting of ,georgia cotton in the ,western ,province4 ,in the year mentioned this ,american variety had yielded #hjj lbs4 of seed cotton per acre at ,ibadan4 ,a number of insect pests of a more or less serious nature attack the plant at different periods of growth4 ,the ,american boll-worm 7,chloridea obsoleta7 does some damage annually in the ,central ,province 7,ugboha1 ,agbede and ,ishan72 ,earias insulana1 ,f41 the ,egyptian boll-worm2 ,e4 imbricata1 an allied species1 and ,diparopsis castanea ,hamp41 the ,sudan boll-worm1 are common at ,ibadan4 ,the immature boll is often punctured by a scarlet and brown bug1 identified as ,dysdercus superstitiosus1 ,fabr41 which enters the opened bolls also1 and exudes a yellowish liquid1 which stains the lint4 ,the opened boll is also infested with three species of cotton-seed bugs--,oxycarenus hyalinipennis1 ,o4 gossipinus1 and ,o4 ,dudgeoni--which do a large amount of damage in sapping the juices from the seed and rendering it unproductive4 ,the most satisfactory method of dispersing this insect is to place the seed-cotton in a hot sun for several hours4 ,both ,oxycarenus and ,dysdercus may be trapped by placing piles of seed in the field at intervals1 and treating them with kerosene when the insects have collected on them4 ,a small caterpillar belonging to the family ,gelechiad#d is often found in the boll feeding on the seed1 and a leaf-blistering blight1 probably ,chlorita flavescens1 appears to be common in several places4 ,a malady1 chiefly on stems of exotic cottons1 and known as 8black-arm0 in ,georgia1 ,u4,s4,a41 is seen occasionally4 ,the affection is not attributed to any animal or vegetable parasite4 ,the ginneries erected by the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association are probably some of the best equipped in the world4 ,the ,marlborough ,ginnery at ,ibadan 7,fig4 #bc7 has at present the largest output1 although the ,jones ,ginnery at ,oshogbo is larger1 and is expected to receive a greater quantity of cotton for treatment in the future4 ,the third1 which is working in the ,western ,province1 is the ,churchill ,ginnery at ,lafenwa1 near ,abeokuta4 ,smaller ginneries have been erected at ,eruwa ,road1 ,iwo1 ,oyo1 and ,agege in the ,western ,province1 but are at present unused4 ,in the ,central ,province the ,illushi ,ginnery on the ,niger is capable of treating all the cotton of the adjoining districts4 ,a photograph of cotton bales at ,ibadan is reproduced 7,fig4 #bc74 ,at ,ibadan an oil mill has been erected in connection with the ,marlborough ,ginnery1 and the expression of oil from the seed is regularly carried on4 ,the seed cake which is turned out is found to be of rather inferior quality for ,european consumption1 as the excess of woolly seed renders it undesirable for cattle food4 ,a very economical local use for this cake has recently been discovered--namely the employment of it to generate gas to drive the machinery of the ginnery4 ,it has been found that #f cwt4 of cotton-seed cake is sufficient to generate gas to drive the #cj h4p4 oil-mill engine for nine and a half hours4 ,this discovery suggests the possibility of doing without coal entirely at the ginneries1 which would mean a very large saving in the cost of production of cotton4 ,the cotton ginned by the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association is baled for the most part in rectangular oblong form1 each bale weighing approximately #djj lbs4 ,the production of the country has shown a rapid increase1 especially in the earlier years1 though more recently one of the seasons proved a short one owing to adverse climatic conditions4 ,weight cwts4 ,weight cwts4 ,weight cwts4 #aijb #aaj #aijh #bj1dhe #aiad no figure given #aijc #b1ehh #aiji #dd1icg #aiae #bd1jha #aijd #aj1bee #aiaj #bb1abh #aiaf #ff1eee #aije #ab1bge #aiaa #ai1ihd #aiag #dg1acg #aijf #bd1jga #aiab #ci1jdc #aiah #ac1bad #aijg #cf1eac #aiac #ef1gif #aiai #fj1bba ,the exports of cotton-seed in #aiab and #aiac reached #d1jeh tons and #e1hhg tons respectively4 78,cotton ,varieties10 cf4 ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 vol4 xv4 #aiag74 ,much is expected from this new development4 ,,maize4--,in the last few years the cultivation of a short-season 8white0 maize has been taken up1 especially among the ,yorubas1 in the ,western ,province1 although the variety is also found in the fields farther to the east4 7,see ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 vii4 #aiji1 pp4 #ade-h47 ,tons ,value ,tons ,value #aijg #i1hia #bh1ebj #aiac #aa1hda #dj1cdi #aijh #ae1ebi #ea1fie #aiad -- #e1hjc #aiji #aj1iag #cd1cce #aiae #bgb #ida #aiaj #e1jif #af1fhi #aiaf #iha #e1jfd #aiaa #hfg #c1abh #aiag #hgf #d1cfg #aiab #g1hii #bh1gac #aiah #dje #c1fif ,a difficulty has arisen in connection with the preparation of the crop for shipment2 it having been found that very large quantities arrive in ,europe in a weevilly condition4 ,various methods have been suggested to remedy this1 including disinfection with carbon bisulphide1 but the use of this last is dangerous4 ,a restriction with regard to the time of buying the ,july--,august crop is recommended for adoption by the merchants1 in order to prevent immature1 insufficiently dried corn being shipped4 ,it is insisted1 however1 in some quarters1 that1 until the holds of ships are systematically cleaned out before loading1 no amount of precaution on shore will prevent shipments becoming weevilled during the voyage4 7,see article on 8,the ,cultivation and ,marketing of ,maize0 in the ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 vi4 #aijh1 pp4 #bfa-gg47 ,experiments were carried out in #aiaa1 #aiab and #aiac to determine the most profitable time for sowing maize4 ,the results were1 however1 conflicting1 and no definite recommendation could be made owing to the irregularity of rainfall4 ,,cassava4--,among the more important field crops1 cassava has to be reckoned4 ,two well-marked forms occur1 which are readily recognised by the different characters of their leaves1 one having the leaflets digitate and pointed1 and the other digitate and spathulate1 with the central leaflet shortened4 ,cassava forms an important food in many parts of the country1 and is widely cultivated1 especially in the ,western ,province4 ,no tapioca is prepared from the root in ,southern ,nigeria1 such as is the case in the ,west ,indies and elsewhere4 ,,yams4--,in many parts of the country1 more especially in the ,central and ,eastern ,provinces1 the various forms of yam 7,dioscorea7 are extensively cultivated alone or with maize1 but the presence of five or six other crops growing upon the heightened yam mounds is not uncommon1 in the ,cross ,river districts particularly4 ,from the latter locality quantities of yams are sent by river canoes to the large ports in the vicinity of which cultivated land is often scarce4 ,the ,koko yam 7,colocasia antiquorum7 is also common in the wet zone4 ,,groundnuts4--,the cultivation of groundnuts 7,arachis hypogea71 upon a more extensive scale than at present1 is to be recommended1 as there are too few leguminous crops grown in the local rotation4 ,the colour of most of the ,southern ,nigerian nuts is probably an obstacle to their ready sale in ,europe2 the shell being usually a dirty greyish instead of a light straw colour4 ,the kernels are1 however1 satisfactory4 ,it would1 perhaps1 therefore be advantageous to ship decorticated nuts1 as is done in the ,northern ,provinces4 ,although new seed and instructors have been brought recently from the ,gambia1 very little more is grown than formerly4 ,the variety seen in the ,western ,province is a larger one than that of the ,gambia1 and has generally two kernels4 ,the market price for groundnuts at ,lapita near ,oyo was #bjj for #a;d41 which will indicate the scarcity of the product4 ,,shea ,,nuts ,,and ,,butter4--,the export trade in shea nuts 7,butyrospermum ,parkii7 was expected to develop with the extension of the railway through ,ibadan and ,ilorin to the ,northern ,provinces1 but the exported product still has its main source from localities north of the ,niger4 ,the demand does not seem sufficient to induce expansion to a great extent 7,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 vol4 vi4 #aijh74 ,the butter or fat is much appreciated in the country for culinary purposes1 and has been found of value in ,europe for soap and candle-making1 as well as for the manufacture of vegetable butter4 ,,kola4--,two species of kola 7,k4 acuminata and ,k4 vera7 are cultivated1 the latter being the indigenous ,gold ,coast form1 the fruit of which is said to be especially valued in the ,haussa countries to the north4 ,the local native names are1 respectively1 8,obi abatta0 and 8,obi gbanja40 ,in general appearance the trees are similar1 except that the former has narrower and smaller leaves4 ,the 8gbanja0 form of nut is generally pink and divisible into from two to three parts 7cotyledons71 whereas the 8abatta0 form may vary in colour from deep crimson to white and be separable into from three to five parts4 ,the price paid for kolas in ,lagos is said to vary from #as4 #c;d4 to #es4 per hundred4 ,although a considerable number of trees have been planted and are bearing fruit in the ,western ,province1 the demand for kolas for native consumption is so great that there is a large import trade from the ,gold ,coast4 ,the kola nut is chewed in much the same manner as the betel nut in the ,east4 ,it is greatly appreciated for its sustaining qualities1 and forms a token of friendship exchanged among high-grade natives1 as a preliminary to an important discussion of any kind4 ,,fibre4--,experiments have been made at the ,olokemeji ,botanic ,station with indigenous fibres1 and a small factory has been erected at ,ilaro1 where a machine capable of extracting fibre is said to have been instituted4 ,the reports upon some of the local ,hibiscus fibres have been satisfactory4 ,these are capable of utilisation as jute substitutes1 and it may be possible to grow them in the crop rotation of the country at some future time for the purpose of export4 7,see ,selected ,reports from the ,imperial ,institute1 ,no4 #a 8,fibres10 pp4 #ch1 #eb1 #hc1 #hi1 and #aad47 ,piassava 7,raphia vinifera7 fibre is prepared and shipped1 especially from ,uwet in the ,eastern ,province1 the export amounting to #cai tons in #aiaj4 ,,leather4--,a small trade in leather is done among the ,yorubas1 and tanners may be met with chiefly in the north of the ,western ,province4 ,the process employed in the preparation of the goat and sheep skins used is similar to that of ,northern ,nigeria4 7,see ,report on 8,leather from ,lagos10 ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 iv4 #aijf1 p4 #cff1 and articles on 8,native ,leather of ,west ,africa10 ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 vi4 #aijh1 pp4 #age-ha and vol4 viii4 #aiaj1 pp4 #djb47 ,,tobacco4--,tobacco is produced near ,ibadan1 and large quantities are sold in the ,king's market of that town4 ,it is probable that the curing of the leaf is done completely in the sun1 as the prepared material is of a rather light colour and has a mild flavour4 ,the leaves are apparently rather mixed1 and old or immature examples are frequently included in the same grade4 ,experiments will be taken in hand with a view to the improvement of the quality1 but at present the local demand is so great that there is little prospect of an export trade becoming established4 ,recent work in ,nyasa-land has shown that good pipe smoking tobacco1 suitable for consumption in ,england1 can be produced in ,africa4 ,,silk4--,the preparation of a silk yarn1 carded and spun from the boiled cocoons of wild silkworms1 is a common occupation of some of the women of ,ibadan4 ,the identity of the insects producing the silk has been determined to be ,anaphe infracta and ,a4 venata1 both of which form congregated masses of cocoons4 ,the yarn is of a brown colour1 and is woven with cotton into a cloth which is called locally 8,saya40 ,it is much valued by the natives on account of its durability4 ,the silkworms show some sign of becoming scarce owing to the utilisation of the pup as food4 7,see ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 #aiaj1 p4 #aej2 #aiaf1 p4 #afh2 and #aibj1 p4 #cai47 ,,coconuts4--,the preparation of copra is carried on at ,badagri1 where a large coconut plantation exists4 ,great alarm was recently caused to the proprietors through the attack of a scale insect 7,aspidiotus destructor71 which destroyed the leaves of a very large number of trees4 ,the advent of this pest was1 however1 quickly followed by the vast multiplication of the numbers of a species of large ladybird beetle1 which soon checked the spread of the scale4 ,the directions issued by the ,forestry ,department with regard to the means of destroying the infected leaves also assisted in the extermination of the blight4 ,,mahogany ,,and ,,ebony4--,among the valuable exported products from the country1 mahogany and ebony must be regarded as occupying an important place4 ,the largest proportion of the timbers exported to ,europe and sold under the name of mahogany are obtained in the ,central ,province1 and are cut from trees belonging to the genera ,khaya1 ,pseudocedrela1 and ,entandrophragma1 of the ,natural ,order ,,meliace4 ,mr4 ,thompson1 ,conservator of ,forests1 remarks that a fair number of logs cut from a species of ,guarea1 of the same ,natural ,order1 have been shipped1 and have obtained good prices in ,europe4 ,a red wood1 called locally 8,iroko0 7,chlorophora excelsa71 which is in good demand in the country for making furniture1 etc41 has been shipped to ,europe1 but at present there is little demand for it4 ,a photograph of another timber tree 7,terminalia superba7 is given 7,fig4 #bd74 ,mahogany cannot be relied upon as a product capable of permanent exportation1 as trees are only useful for felling in the vicinity of creeks and rivers1 whence the logs may be inexpensively transported to the sea4 ,the rate at which the available trees are becoming worked out is much greater than that at which they can be replaced by nature4 ,the export values for some recent years are as under3-- #aiaj #fj1aia #aiae #ed1eei #aiaa #ee1ege #aiaf #di1cfa #aiab #gh1jjg #aiag #ba1bhb #aiac #aje1ddj #aiah #fh1dhj #aiad #hf1ebb #aiai #aaf1hbj ,the ebony exported from the country is chiefly obtained in the ,cross ,river ,district of the ,eastern ,province1 but during recent years the trade in it has diminished1 and it is said that immature trees are frequently felled4 ,the sources of ebony are two species of trees belonging to the genus ,diospyros4 ,the value of ebony exported during the two years #aiji and #aiaj is stated to have been #a1bih and #aff respectively4 ,several other trees have recently been examined for export value1 most of them coming into the mahogany or red-wood class4 7,see articles on 8,timbers from ,southern ,nigeria10 ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 vol4 vi4 #aijh1 p4 #add1 vol4 xviii4 #aibj1 p4 #aii1 and note on next page47 ,,cattle4--,the greater part of the moist zone is almost devoid of cattle1 partly owing to the prevalence of 8tsetse0 fly1 although mainly1 perhaps1 to the less advanced condition of the inhabitants4 ,as soon as the intermediate and dry-zone country is entered1 small herds are frequently seen4 ,that the presence of tsetse fly is not entirely accountable for the scarcity of cattle in the forested region is shown by the occurrence of the peculiar dwarfed variety with short legs1 which is found in ,ondo1 ,ilesha1 ,ifon1 ,ishan1 and even in the ,bassa ,province in ,northern ,nigeria1 in all of which districts 8tsetse0 flies of at least two species are met with4 7,glossina palpalis and ,g4 pallidipes47 ,it is stated by the natives that the dwarf cattle are immune from fly disease1 but that introduced animals succumb to it4 ,the appearance of these animals1 an illustration of one of which is given1 reproduced from a photograph taken at ,illara 7,fig4 #be71 is remarkable4 ,the prevailing colours are black and white1 black1 and more rarely fawn-coloured4 ,there is no dorsal hump1 and the forequarters are generally lower than the hind4 ,a second illustration1 from a photograph taken at ,owo 7,fig4 #bf71 gives an idea of the relative size of a full-grown animal compared with that of a boy4 ,another peculiarity of the above-mentioned districts is that the goats occurring there are similarly short-legged and diminutive2 there is also said to be a stunted variety of horse1 which is bred for use at ,ondo4 ,when the open country is reached1 two varieties of cattle are seen1 one of the ,indian zebu type1 with a large dorsal hump1 the prevailing colour of which is white1 and another with a straight back4 ,the latter kind is seen as far south as ,onitsha1 on the east bank of the ,niger4 ,illustration3 ,,dwarf ,,cattle1 ,,illara4 ,fig4 #be1 p4 #aai4 ,illustration3 ,,owo4 ,fig4 #bf1 p4 #aai4 ,illustration3 ,,haussa ,,cultivating ,,implements 7,,left ,,to ,,right3 ,i4 ,,fatainya1 ,,ii4 ,,garma1 ,,iii4 ,,sangumi71 ,,northern ,,provinces4 ,fig4 #bg1 p4 #abe4 ,,pottery4--,earthen pots are made in several parts of the country1 and are usually symmetrically formed1 although no wheel is used in their preparation4 ,the large earthen jars made at ,abeokuta are used in the palm oil1 native beer1 and indigo industries4 ,,forest ,,reserves4--,these are now being formed everywhere in order to replace the destruction of recent years4 ,the irregular rainfall renders natural regeneration very poor1 and artificial regeneration by means of planting by leaseholders for trees cut down has proved unsatisfactory4 ,in #aiac some villages in the ,central ,province started small mahogany plantations1 and trees for fuel are now being grown in several districts4 ,the value of such trees as ,afzelia africana and ,triplochiton johnsoni has been recently demonstrated4 ,illustration3 ,,nigeria1 ,,northern ,,provinces ,territory held by ,great ,britain under ,mandate is hatched in ,red4 ,legend ,stanford's ,geogl4 ,estabt41 ,london4 ,,nigeria-,,northern ,,provinces ,,introductory ,,remarks--,until #aiad the ,northern ,provinces of ,nigeria were separately administered under the designation of ,northern ,nigeria1 and were the largest as well as the most recent of our ,west ,african ,colonies4 ,they lie between #g #c and #ac #ed north latitude1 and #b #ej and #ad #e east longitude1 and are bounded on the north by the ,french ,sudan1 on the east by the ,kameruns and on the west by ,dahomey and ,french ,guinea4 ,the ,southern ,provinces of ,nigeria almost completely adjoin the southern boundary4 ,the estimate of the populations and areas of the thirteen provinces given below is taken from the ,colonial ,office ,report ,no4 #hba for #aiac3-- ,area1 sq4 miles4 ,population4 ,sokoto #cb1fjj #a1cjj1jjj ,kano #bi1ejj #c1ejj1jjj ,bornu #cc1fjj #gjj1jjj ,central#e #bc1gjj #gjj1jjj ,zaria #ac1cbj #djb1jjj ,niger#e #af1ggj #djj1jjj ,kontagora #bg1hjj #abb1jjj ,ilorin #f1ejj #bjj1jjj ,muri #bh1gjj #gjj1jjj ,nassarawa #af1gaj #fjj1jjj ,yola #aa1fjj #cjj1jjj ,kabba #h1bjj #adj1jjj ,bassa #f1gjj #bje1jjj ------- --------- #bee1gjj #i1bfi1jjj ,the total population is thus nearly double that of the estimation of #aijg-h4 ,for convenience the ,northern ,provinces may in places still be referred to in this work by the old title of ,northern ,nigeria4 ,as will be seen below there is less variation in the rainfall of the different provinces than is found elsewhere in ,west ,africa4 ,the averages of the following centres for as many years as are available until #aiac are given for comparison3-- ,av4 inches4 ,av4 inches4 ,naraguta #ejbh ,knepp #djhj ,ilorin #dige ,yola #chfd ,kontagora #dggg ,kano #ccfe ,zaria #dfei ,maifoni #bghe ,baro #dfef ,sokoto #bdhf ,lokoja #degg ,kataguni #aihg ,zungeru #dafg ,geidam #aead ,of the places mentioned the highest single year's rainfall was reached at ,ilorin when #feah inches fell1 and the lowest at ,geidam in #aiac when only #egf were recorded4 ,there are localities where the rainfall exceeds the highest given here and others where it is undoubtedly much lower1 but no records are available4 ,the highest shade temperatures have been at ,dumjeri and ,maifoni 7,north ,bornu71 where #abj was attained1 the lowest being at ,kano1 where it fell to #ci4 ,in ,kano and ,zaria rain seldom falls between ,november #a and the end of ,march1 but the distribution is more general in the south4 ,administration and ,political ,divisions4--,the administration of ,northern ,nigeria was taken over by the ,crown in #aijj1 having previously been carried on by the ,royal ,niger ,company4 ,protectorates were gradually assumed1 and the country placed upon a secure footing by the suppression of raiding1 which had constantly been carried on by the different ,emirs1 chiefly upon the pagan tribes4 ,the devastation caused by these raids is still visible in the country to the south of ,kontagora and elsewhere1 and the fear of the raiders kept the inhabitants within or in close proximity to their walled towns1 leaving large tracts of fertile country unexploited4 ,the work accomplished by ,sir ,frederick ,lugard1 the first ,high ,commissioner1 was largely that of pacification and reassurance of the people1 and until this had been completed1 and facilities for transport provided1 it could not be expected that the country could make much progress from a commercial standpoint4 ,the further opening up of the country by means of roads and railways1 and the assessment of land revenue upon lines completely understood and recognised as fair by the natives1 was effected by ,sir ,percy ,girouard1 who succeeded ,sir ,frederick ,lugard's first administration4 ,sir ,frederick subsequently returned as ,governor-,general of the amalgamated ,nigeria4 ,until ,april #aijg the country was divided into fourteen provinces1 one of which1 ,borgu1 was absorbed in ,kontagora at that time1 making the thirteen mentioned above4 ,by a later reconstruction the provincial limits of the two provinces of ,bauchi and ,nupe were reformed1 and the provinces reconstituted under the names of the ,central and ,niger ,provinces respectively4 ,groups of provinces were then placed under ,first-class ,residents4 ,photographs are given of ,kano and ,zaria 7,figs4 #cb and #cc74 ,natural ,divisions4--,there is less apparent possibility of defining limits to the natural conditions of any part of the country than is found in the countries nearer the coast4 ,there is no afforested zone in ,northern ,nigeria1 although fairly densely wooded tracts occur in several places near the larger rivers4 ,it may be said that grass land studded with well-separated trees is the condition of the country throughout1 the trees becoming more stunted towards the northern and desert boundaries4 ,to the north of the #aath degree of latitude1 the botanical aspect becomes different2 more trees of the ,mimosa group1 including the gum-bearing ,acacias1 becoming apparent4 ,cattle thrive well in this region1 where the 8tsetse0 fly has not yet been observed4 ,haussa ,land1 a term applied to the northern parts of the country1 alone among the ,british ,west ,african territories1 may be said to have been controlled by an ordered form of government from early times1 and to have had a recorded history4 ,unfortunately these records were destroyed1 wherever possible1 by the ,fulani conquerors1 who came from the source of the river ,senegal and overran the country at the beginning of the last century1 and whose object seemed to be to endeavour to eliminate from the minds of the conquered people all recollection of their previous power4 ,in spite of strenuous efforts in this direction1 a few documents have been preserved1 and these1 combined with traditions1 which have not had time to become completely distorted1 show that1 in spite of severe wars1 famines1 and other disturbing incidents1 the ,haussa has maintained his characteristic traits4 ,the origin of the ,haussa race is still a matter of uncertainty1 although there is some reason to suppose that it came from the east1 and gradually penetrated the ,western ,sudan from the north4 ,the ,haussa language1 which is claimed to be more in use than any other native language in ,west ,africa1 is said1 by ,lady ,lugard1 to be classed with ,coptic among the ,hamitic languages4#f ,history has established the fact that there were seven divisions or states in ,haussa ,land1 the people of which1 although regarded as having come from a common stock1 were almost perpetually at war with one another4 ,the mythical account of the formation of these states relates that each had particular duties assigned to it2 those of ,kano and ,rano1 to the north of ,zaria1 being specially industrial4 ,at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 when the ,songhay kingdom was at the summit of its power1 ,kano and ,gober1 among other ,haussa towns1 were specially referred to by ,leo ,africanus on account of their cotton trade4#g ,everywhere along the ,west ,coast the name ,haussa is associated with the idea of trade2 the itinerant nature of the race inducing individuals to visit the remote parts of the pagan countries1 thus creating trade routes in all directions4 ,the ,haussa trader of the present day does not necessarily bring goods from his own country for trading1 but buys in one market to sell or exchange in another4 ,it is by this means that many ,european manufactured goods penetrate into localities where no ,european trader has yet set foot4 ,the ,haussa is also regarded as a good soldier1 and is largely enlisted in the native regiments of ,west ,africa under ,european officers4 ,the ,nupes1 ,yorubas1 ,gwaris1 ,yauris1 and others were constantly in contact with the ,haussas1 and to a small extent the ,haussa language is spoken by them4 ,nupe is regarded as an ancient kingdom1 occupying at one time a position of great importance4 ,the ,yorubas1 who inhabit nearly the whole of the ,ilorin ,province and the ,western ,province of ,southern ,nigeria1 trace their origin from the ,phnicians of the tribe of ,nimrod1 and claim that all the pagan tribes of ,haussa ,land are descended from them4 ,the ,gwaris1 apparently1 have no records1 but are a scattered race living among the rocky hills and caves in the country lying to the south of ,zaria4 ,bornu was not evidently included in the ,songhay kingdom or associated with the ,haussa states1 the inhabitants belonging to a distinct race with separate traditions4 ,their history in comparison with that of the ,haussas is of recent date4 ,in #ahjh1 after the successful ,fulani conquests of ,zaria1 ,zanfara1 ,kano1 ,katsena1 and ,bauchi1 ,bornu was overrun4 ,shortly after this a sheikh1 from the country extending eastwards from ,lake ,tchad1 believing himself to be inspired to liberate the country1 raised a small army1 drove out the ,fulani forces1 and founded the present dynasty of ,bornu4 ,some years later he attempted to expel the ,fulanis from the ,bauchi ,province1 but failed1 and was compelled to come to terms4 ,the ,haussas as well as the ,bornuese are chiefly ,mohammedans1 but it is only among the higher ranks of the other tribes that a semblance of that religion has been adopted4 ,the tribes which had migrated from the ,east brought with them the agricultural knowledge of the ,eastern nations4 ,among the noticeable evidences of this may be mentioned the 8shaduf10 or dipping beam1 used for irrigation in ,egypt1 which is similarly employed near ,kano and ,zaria4 ,the absence of ploughs and the non-employment of cattle are1 however1 difficult to account for1 as excellent cattle are common and thrive well in the most populous parts of the country4 ,tillage of the soil is still done entirely by hand1 and1 in those parts where the shallowest form exists1 manure is extensively used4 ,among the many crops grown which are common to ,oriental countries1 as well as ,northern ,nigeria1 are ,guinea corn1 maize1 cotton1 groundnuts1 millet1 benniseed1 artichokes1 wheat1 and rice4 ,agriculture shows the greatest development in the ,province of ,kano1 where the population is dense1 especially in the vicinity of the town from which the ,province takes its name4 ,the concentration of a large population in this locality was doubtless occasioned by the protection thus obtained against local enemies2 and1 as the realisation of the necessity for this becomes less each year1 so will the inhabitants spread out into the richer lands towards the south4 ,at a radius of thirty miles from ,kano1 it may be said that every available acre of ground is cultivated4 ,it may also be said that nearly all the cultivation is continuous1 and has been so for a long period1 the renovation of the soil being secured each year by manuring4 ,the mode of cultivation in these localities is for the most part shallow1 and in many places the crops grown subsist entirely upon the manure applied4 ,the ,director of ,agriculture1 in the ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 xi4 7#aiac71 p4 #fbf1 refers to the lack of fertility in the soil and to the common practice of cropping without a fallow for a number of years in succession4 ,he also mentions1 among other matters of interest1 the recent expansion in cultivation of cowpeas and groundnuts2 these being respectively third and fourth in order of importance among the cultivated crops4 ,implements4--,an illustration is given showing the method of using the three important agricultural implements employed by the ,haussa cultivator 7,fig4 #bg74 ,the first of these is locally termed 8,fatainya10 and is a curved-handled hoe with a blade of variable width4 ,it is used for all operations of cultivation with the exception of turning up broad ridges and drilling4 ,the implement shown in the centre is termed 8,garma10 and is a broad1 spade-like hoe1 composed of an iron ,w-shaped frame1 with several strips of iron riveted on the face1 filling the interval between the arms4 ,in the ,zaria ,province the iron strips are generally omitted1 and the implement is called 8,owya40 ,it is used for throwing up large spadefuls of soil in the preparation of the broad ridges which are made for nearly all kinds of crops4 ,the last implement is the 8,sangumi10 which is a thin rod with a small blade placed near one end and at right angles to it2 its use is entirely for making drills for sowing seed4 ,all the fields for growing ordinary food crops1 with the exception of cassava1 rice1 and sugar-cane1 are prepared in ridge formation2 the latter appearing to average about #h in4 high from the original surface4 ,the furrows from which the loose soil has been removed increase the apparent height by the extent of their depth1 and give the appearance of a good form of tillage having been practised4 ,this is1 however1 seldom the case1 as1 except where irrigated crops are being treated1 the ground is left untilled beneath the thrown-up soil4 ,to compensate for the shallow state of the cultivation1 manure is applied in large quantity1 all animal refuse and ashes being carefully preserved1 and often conveyed for long distances to the fields by men or donkeys4 ,the above conditions apparently apply only to the ,haussa race1 the pagan ,gwaris and ,bassas resorting to a much deeper form of cultivation and employing no manure4 ,the ,nupes and ,yorubas do not know the use of manure for any crops except onions and tobacco1 for both of which wood ashes are the chief substance applied4 ,the crops of the country may be roughly divided into rainfall1 irrigated1 and swamp kinds4 ,the first are sown at the commencement of the wet season1 and are greatly affected by the distribution of the rain1 but include the most important sources of food4 ,these are ,guinea corn1 millet1 maize1 groundnuts1 cassava1 sweet potatoes1 etc4 ,an inadequate or irregular rainy season often causes famine conditions4 ,the irrigated crops are yams1 ,colocasia1 onions1 tobacco1 peppers1 rama-fibre1 and wheat1 the last being almost confined to the country north of the #aath degree4 ,cassava and sugar-cane are also frequently irrigated in the drier districts to the north4 ,irrigation is performed in the northern localities by means of the shaduf4 ,the swamp crops are rice1 ,colocasia1 and sugar-cane4 ,the first is grown upon a flat-dug surface1 the second upon high ridges made of swamp mud1 and the third on low ridges bordering the rice fields4 ,the villages north of ,kano are often entirely built of the stalks of ,guinea corn1 and ,fig4 #ca represents a principal hut within such a structure4 ,the fencing of the fields in this locality is generally made of the same material1 but in the vicinity of ,kano itself1 ,euphorbia or thorn hedges are more common4 ,near ,rogo1 fences and hedges are usually dispensed with1 paths forming the boundaries between fields4 ,the following table of value of exports shows the progress in the last five years before amalgamation with the ,southern ,provinces4 ,the subsequent years are given at the end of this chapter4 ,,values ,,of ,,exports #aijh #aiji #aiaj #aiaa #aiab ,rubber #cc1jej #dj1jjj #cg1ijj #ec1eaa #h ,shea nut products #gj1ijj #ic1jej #dc1aej #dj1dif #ea1dji ,palm kernels #dg1aej #da1gej #ff1ajj #eb1fcg #fd1dcb ,groundnuts #ac1fej #af1cej #h1aej #aj1cgg #ah1icj ,gum#i #h1hej #f1fej #i1gej #e1dcf #a1ghe ,cotton #a1cjj #d1djj #a1hej #ide #h ,benniseed #b1jjj #d1jjj #b1cjj #b1ehb #b1igb ,fibre #a1chb #d1jfa -- -- -- ,livestock #b1fjj #a1cjj #c1gej #f1ceg #i1acb ,gutta percha 78,balata07 -- -- #b1bfb #f1fie #d1bfg ,skins and hides#aj -- -- #e1bad #cg1hji #fh1hcb ,ostrich feathers -- -- #b1fae #g1bbe #ab1fba ,,rubber4--,the extent of the export of this commodity from the ,northern ,provinces was less generally recognised than that from the coast countries1 for the reason that the ,northern ,nigeria's exports are necessarily shipped from ,southern ,nigerian ports1 and have been included in the statistical figures of that country4 ,until #aijg no separate statement was furnished indicating the quantity of rubber actually originating from the ,northern ,provinces2 the whole produce leaving the country by the ,southern ,nigerian ports made it difficult to ascertain this4 ,the following imperfect records show1 however1 that the production was of significant extent3 #aije4 ,the value of the rubber exported by two of the leading firms in the ,northern ,provinces was estimated at #aja1bjg4 #aijf4 ,the amount exported in the second half-year was given as #eef1gja lbs41 valued at #cd1cdd4 ,the year's exports were said to be #egd tons4 ,estimating the whole at the same proportionate value as that given for the second half-year we have3 #aijf4 #a1bhc1ebj lbs4 #gi1ahe #aijg4 #a1ahg1ehh lbs4 #ia1jgd ,the decrease in recent years is accounted for by the fall which occurred in the price of rubber1 but is probably partly due to the extermination of the vines by the wasteful process of preparing root rubber4 ,sources4--,the following are the trees and plants which have been used for extracting rubber3-- #a4 ,funtumia elastica4--,this is only found in a wild state in ,southern ,kabba and ,bassa ,provinces1 and is recognised under the ,yoruba name of 8,ire40 ,small pieces of fairly well-prepared rubber from this tree are occasionally brought in to ,lokoja for sale4 #b4 ,landolphia sp4 7probably owariensis74--,a clean 8red nigger0 rubber is sold1 and is probably obtained from this species4 ,it is generally of good quality1 but not plentiful4 ,it appears to be collected as a scrap rubber1 and is made up in small irregular balls4 #c4 ,landolphia sp4--8,root rubber10 termed locally 8,attifufu10 and called by the trade 8,brown cluster0 or 8,brown medium40 ,it is probable that several species of vines are used for this1 which is not necessarily prepared from the root alone1 the whole stem being pounded up4 ,this seems to represent the commonest form of ,northern ,nigerian rubber1 the preparation of which was at one time prohibited4 #d4 ,landolphia florida or ,thompsonii 7874--8,paste rubber10 called locally 8,ebo10 is prepared from the latex of these vines by boiling with the admixture of 8wood oil10 or the resinous exudation of ,daniellia thurifera1 until it reaches the consistency of bird-lime1 when it is only capable of being handled in water1 in which state it is sold to the merchants1 who accumulate it in casks for shipment4 ,it is inferior in quality1 and only capable of export for cheap manufactures4 #e4 ,carpodinus hirsutus4--8,flake rubber10 called 8,aribedda10 is said to be the product of this vine1 which grows commonly in ,bassa4 ,it is without resiliency and somewhat resembles the exudations of some of the species of ,ficus4 #f4 ,ficus platyphylla4--8,red ,kano rubber10 or 8,ballata10 known to the ,nupe people as 8,ogbagba40 ,this is prepared by boiling1 without the addition of any foreign matter1 and attains the consistency of a hardened paste1 similar to the 8guttas0 made from the latex of the ,shea-butter tree 7,butyrospermum ,parkii74 ,it is distinguished in the ,kano ,province by the name 8,danko ,gawi10 shea gutta being known as 8,danko ,kadainya40 #g4 ,ficus trachyphylla4--,this tree is called in ,ilorin by the ,yoruba name 8,oapottoa10 and yields a latex which is discoloured pink by the sap of the tree with which it becomes mixed in tapping4 ,when boiled and allowed to cool1 the product is a reddish hardened substance1 somewhat resembling guttapercha in appearance4 #h4 ,ficus ,vogelii4--,scrap rubber from this tree is said to be collected4 ,in appearance this rubber is often good1 but the shreds break up easily4 ,it will be seen from the above1 that several of the so-called rubbers are unlike the valuable kinds in appearance and composition1 and as such are1 perhaps1 incapable of being used in a pure state and for the most important manufactures for which rubber is employed4 ,all kinds1 however1 seem to be marketable at a price which is remunerative to the exporter1 so that the trade has become an extensive one4 ,plantations4--,it has been urged that ,para rubber 7,hevea brasiliensis7 might be grown upon a large scale in the moist and well-watered areas1 and ,ceara 7,manihot ,glaziovii7 and ,funtumia elastica in the drier districts2 but the country is not generally favourably adapted for growing the first and last mentioned4 ,ceara rubber seems to thrive well in climates similar to that of this country1 and the rubber made from it is of the finest quality1 but in many tropical countries it has shown great uncertainty in yield of latex1 and often unaccountable cessation of flow4 ,this has caused it to be less favourably regarded for plantation work4 7,cf4 ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 #aiac1 #aiaf47 ,many parts of the country are suitable for ,ceara cultivation1 thriving as it does in localities susceptible to long periods of drought4 ,in the ,german ,african ,colonies the method of treating the tree seems advantageous1 in view of the uncertainty of the yield after maturity is reached4 ,in these places the plants are put out in extensive plots each year1 and1 after they have reached full growth1 all the latex possible of extraction is taken out of them1 and the exhausted trees are cut out1 permitting the area to become renovated by the self-sown seedlings1 which spring up in great profusion4 ,thus1 each year a plot becomes completely renovated1 without great expense being incurred4 ,if ,ceara planting should be adopted in ,northern ,nigeria1 some such system as this might prove remunerative4 ,in the ,lokoja forest reserve1 about a hundred acres of ,funtumia elastica were planted in #aijf1 but these have not succeeded as well as was originally expected1 owing1 probably1 to want of moisture4 ,a few ,ceara and even ,hevea plants1 have been grown at ,zungeru and ,baro1 but1 as yet1 no plantations have been made4 ,,shea ,,nuts4--,the shea nut is the seed or kernel contained in the green fruit borne by ,butyrospermum ,parkii1 called locally 8,kadainya40 ,the fruit1 which ripens about ,may1 is of variable size1 from that of a pigeon's egg to as large as a hen's egg where only one nut is contained1 but is nearly twice the size where two nuts are present in the same fruit4 ,the fleshy rind is not more than one-sixth of an inch in thickness1 is sweet to the taste1 and contains a white latex1 which coagulates into a product called 8gutta-shea40 ,the natives in some places seem to regard the fruit as a delicacy1 and the roads and paths1 in districts where the tree is plentiful1 are strewn with the nuts which have been thrown away after the fruit portions have been eaten4 ,the nut is quite smooth1 and is readily separated from the fleshy part4 ,the butter1 which is extracted by the natives1 is appreciated less than palm oil or groundnut oil for cooking1 but is used as a substitute4 ,in ,europe the kernels as well as the extracted 8butter0 are employed1 especially on the ,continent1 for the manufacture of vegetable butter and in candle factories4 ,in some places the fruits are collected and put in heaps1 until the fleshy parts have decomposed and left the nuts clean1 after which the kernels are extracted1 dried in earthen stoves1 and pounded or ground into a fine flour4 ,this is then pounded again1 with the addition of a little water1 previous to being mixed in hot water to separate the fat4 ,the latter rises to the surface and solidifies on cooling1 being melted again for clarification by skimming previous to being poured into moulds made from plantain leaves or maize-cob sheaths4 ,in this form it is sold for export1 and is then known as 8shea-butter40 ,an illustration is given 7,fig4 #bh7 of some ,shea nut collectors resting beneath a ,shea tree in the ,ilorin ,province4 ,illustration3 ,,shea-,,butter ,,tree 7,,butyrospermum ,,parkii71 ,,with ,,nut-,,collectors1 ,,ilorin4 ,fig4 #bh1 p4 #acj4 ,illustration3 ,,yielding ,,gum ,,tree 7,,acacia ,,caffra7 ,,at ,,kontagora4 ,fig4 #bi1 p4 #aca4 ,illustration3 ,,locust-,,bean ,,tree 7,,parkia ,,filicoidea7 ,,at ,,ilorin4 ,fig4 #cj1 p4 #afb4 ,according to results obtained at the ,imperial ,institute 7,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 #aijh1 p4 #cgj2 #aiab1 p4 #bij71 the kernels contain from #dj to #ej per cent4 of fat1 as well as a small quantity of unsaponifiable matter resembling gutta-shea4 ,where the nuts are very plentiful1 and transport appears to be easy1 the collection is often neglected1 and the reason given is that there is some difficulty in removing the fruit from the nut1 which makes the occupation unremunerative4 ,but it is noticeable that the fleshy part quickly decomposes1 and the clean nuts are frequently seen beneath the trees themselves1 although in this situation the advent of heavy rain will often induce germination1 and so spoil the kernel4 ,this difficulty is obviated if the fruits are collected and placed under cover1 being allowed to decompose without too much moisture4 ,throughout the ,ilorin and ,nupe ,provinces the nuts are at present collected for sale to the factories1 but in size those grown in the ,zaria ,province are larger1 and are now quite accessible4 ,in this latter locality the double fruit1 above referred to1 appears to be common4 ,in the tract of country through which the ,baro-,kano railway now proceeds1 after crossing the ,kogin-,serikin-,pawa river1 as far ,zaria1 localities containing very large and prolific trees are frequently met with1 but the population is scanty1 and collection is scarcely made for export purposes4 ,trees growing in cultivated areas are generally recognised as the property of the cultivator1 forest trees only being common property4 ,women are the chief collectors of the nuts in the districts whence the supplies at present come1 and their inability to penetrate far into the forests has sometimes been urged as a reason for larger quantities not being brought in to the factories4 ,now that the railway is present1 it is probable that regular collectors will commence to exploit the forests for some distance on each side of the line1 and that people from the more populous districts will be induced to visit them for the same purpose4 ,no record is available to show the amount of nuts and butter exported previous to #aije1 but it must have been considerable1 as the ,high ,commissioner in his annual report for #aije-f says3 8,the ,shea nut export trade1 which formerly constituted the staple of ,northern ,nigeria1 continues to decrease in an unaccountable way1 and is now an almost negligible amount40 ,various reasons are given to account for a partial or gradual decrease1 the most important of which is1 that the people who used to rely on the collection of sylvan produce for a livelihood1 have found a more lucrative employment in growing foodstuffs for the troops and ,government staff1 or in working upon the ,government roads and railways4 ,but1 in spite of this1 the value of ,shea nuts and butter exported in #aijg-h reached a high figure1 and placed these products second in order of value among those exported during the year4 ,the export of ,shea nuts in the two years following showed a further increase1 being #c1ibb and #i1jhe tons for #aijh and #aiji respectively4 ,there is a growing demand for ,shea butter in ,europe1 and the supply is at present inadequate4 ,,palm ,,oil ,,and ,,kernels4--,the oil palm 7,elis guineensis7 is almost absent from a large part of the country1 and is rarely seen north of ,zungeru1 being chiefly confined to the vicinity of the rivers and the forests on the boundaries of ,southern ,nigeria4 ,an insignificant amount of palm oil is exported1 as the local demand absorbs practically all that is produced1 the kernels remaining being alone exported4 ,only one variety is recognised in the country1 and is that with a thin pericarp and thick-shelled kernel4 ,it is similar to the form termed 8,abe-pa0 in the ,gold ,coast4 ,among the ,haussa-speaking races the palm is called 8,quaqua10 and in the ,nupe language 8,yi-ku-niche40 ,extraction of the oil for local use is generally done by boiling the fresh fruits1 and a limpid product is obtained4 ,,groundnuts4--,the groundnut 7,arachis hypogea71 called 8,geda0 by the ,haussas1 is seen in two forms in ,northern ,nigeria1 dependent1 probably1 on differences in soil and climate in the localities in which they are grown4 ,the form seen commonly in the vicinity of ,bida1 from which most of the exported nuts are procured1 has a light-brown shell1 and is similar to the ordinary ,gambian kind4 ,the soil in which this is grown is red1 and1 to some extent1 this colour is imparted to the shell4 ,the nuts growing in the northern districts near ,kano1 where the soil is sandy and light1 resemble the kind which is considered the finest in the ,french ,colonies1 and is largely cultivated in ,senegal4 ,in this the shell is pale straw-coloured4 ,large exports have been made from ,kano since railway facilities were provided4 ,groundnuts are chiefly employed as a terminal crop in the cultivation adopted by the ,nupes and ,yorubas1 but in the ,kano and ,zaria ,provinces1 where land is retained for long periods in cultivation and renovated annually by manure1 they are often the first crop grown on opening new land1 and are seldom planted later4 ,from an interesting article contributed by ,mr4 ,lamb1 the ,director of ,agriculture 7,imperial ,institute ,bulletin1 vol4 xi4 #aiac71 entitled 8,agriculture in ,haussaland10 it appears that leguminous crops have recently been introduced more generally in the rotation employed among the ,haussa cultivators4 ,the author remarks that the cowpea 7,vigna catjang7 is now almost invariably grown with cereals1 and that there is such an increase in groundnut cultivation that this has come into great prominence as an exported crop4 ,this condition has been brought about entirely by the establishment of railway transport--a result which was foretold in the first edition of this work4 ,all the nuts exported at the present time are in a decorticated form1 and the reason given for decortication is that there is a large saving in weight in carriage thereby4 ,it is1 nevertheless1 generally admitted that in an undecorticated form the nuts are better preserved in transit1 and it often happens that the price for undecorticated nuts is higher than for decorticated4 ,it is1 however1 recognised that if the appearance of the shell is rusty or dirty1 it should be removed before shipment1 as this condition adversely affects the market value4 ,the demand for undecorticated nuts is for confectionery1 and is relatively small as compared with the amount used1 chiefly in ,france1 for the expression of oil4 ,the weights of groundnuts exported in #aiag and #aiah were respectively #ej1ccd and #eg1eee tons4 ,the ,kano nuts appear to be of such a clean type that it might be found more advantageous to ship them in an undecorticated state1 but this can be ascertained when transport has been facilitated sufficiently to establish a continuous trade with a particular market4 ,the chief markets for the product were ,marseilles and ,hamburg1 where it was employed for the expression of oil1 used principally for admixture with1 or as a substitute for1 olive oil4 ,although formerly almost entirely sent to the ,german port1 they now come mostly to ,england4 7,cf4 ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 vol4 xvi4 #aiah47 ,,gums4--,in the drier regions ,acacia trees of several species become plentiful1 but many of these do not seem to produce gum4 ,some of the gum in the ,sudan is said to be derived from ,a4 arabica1 ,willd41 which is not uncommon in certain localities1 but is almost entirely unproductive in this country4 ,the tree known in ,haussa as 8,gawo10 identified as ,a4 ,albida1 ,delile1 is perhaps the commonest species near ,kano1 and one which produces a small amount of reddish gum4 ,none1 however1 is apparently collected from the tree in the district4 ,the species from which most of the gum is collected in ,bornu is said to be identical with that called 8,karu0 in ,kano1 of which only immature specimens have as yet been examined4 ,this is probably referable to ,a4 ,verek1 ,guill4 ,perr41 which is the most important source of the ,senegal product1 and to which ,bentham refers ,a4 ,senegal1 ,willd4 ,in ,kontagora a good quality of gum is obtained from a tree which has been identified as ,a4 ,caffra1 ,willd4 ,this tree does not appear to occur plentifully here1 but further investigation is necessary with regard to it in the dry uninhabited regions where it is found4 ,an illustration of this tree is given 7,fig4 #bi74 ,another species which has been recorded by ,barter from the ,niger1 and is said by him to yield 8a gum like gum-arabic10 is ,a4 mellifera1 ,bentham1 and may be one of those from which the present exported product is collected4 ,on examination of the trade specimens1 it is noticeable that the quality is inferior to most of the ,sudan and ,senegal kinds1 owing1 mainly1 to the want of cleaning or sorting previous to sale4 ,it has been suggested that an improvement in the quality might be effected by sorting the gum into different grades1 cleaning it1 and spreading it in the sun to bleach4 ,the quantity of gum exported in #aijh is given as #ghi1idi lbs41 and that for #aiji as #hid1bhg lbs4 ,investigations carried out recently at the ,imperial ,institute show that ,nigerian gum is little1 if at all1 inferior to ,sudan gum1 except that its mucilage is not quite so strong4 ,gums of the better class are mainly employed in confectionery1 and for this purpose the cleaner1 lighter-coloured gums of ,northern ,nigeria are quite suitable4 7,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 #aijh1 pp4 #bi-fj2 #aiaj1 pp4 #ceb-fe2 and #aiad1 pp4 #bg-ca47 ,,cotton4--,three distinct forms of cotton are found in cultivation in the ,northern ,provinces4 ,the best of these is that grown by the natives of the ,bassa and ,nassarawa ,provinces1 and possesses lint of rather long staple and a good colour1 covering a clean seed4 ,the seed-cotton from these ,provinces is brought into ,lokoja for sale4 ,this variety seems well suited to the localities mentioned1 but1 although it has been tried in other parts of the country1 it does not seem to thrive so successfully4 ,in making a comparison of the lint for ,liverpool market requirements1 the standard employed is 8,moderately ,rough ,peruvian10 which is a grade of higher price than 8,middling ,american10 with which most of the ,west ,african cottons are compared4 ,in ,ilorin1 a woolly-seeded tall cotton plant is commonly cultivated1 and1 although yielding a fair quality of lint1 it is not equal to that mentioned above4 ,a small proportion of the cotton grown in the ,ilorin ,province finds its way to the ,ogudu ,ginnery of the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association1 on the ,niger1 but the main crop is carried to various points on the ,lagos ,government ,railway1 and is sold for delivery to the ,southern ,nigerian ginneries of the ,association4 ,small quantities of cotton belonging to this same variety are grown in ,nupe1 ,kabba1 and ,kontagora1 but the low ground of the ,niger valley does not appear to be very suitable for cotton-growing4 ,in ,zaria1 ,kano1 and ,sokoto ,provinces1 where the climate is drier1 excellent conditions exist for the production of large supplies of cotton1 but the population requires to become more distributed into the districts remote from the towns4 ,in the above-mentioned ,provinces1 cotton has existed from the earliest times1 and was long established as an important export to ,north ,africa by caravan4 ,a small-bolled variety with a short stem takes the place of the tall cottons of the ,niger valley4 ,the quality of the lint1 although fair1 is of a shorter staple1 and the plant is less prolific4 ,in addition to the three kinds referred to1 all of which are grown as field crops1 single plants of a fourth are sometimes seen near villages1 especially in the ,bassa ,province4 ,this is the crimson-flowered tree-cotton identified as ,gossypium arboreum1 var4 sanguineum1 and is nowhere cultivated upon a large scale4 ,the lint is silky and fine1 and the seed is covered with green fuzz4 ,exotic ,cottons4--,american and ,egyptian seed have been introduced in many localities1 especially in the ,provinces of the ,niger valley4 ,cotton grown from ,american ,upland seed in ,bassa ,province has been well reported upon1 but the deterioration of the quality of seed reproduced by this kind has proved a serious drawback to establishment4 ,it is generally acknowledged that the indigenous cottons are hardier and more prolific than the introduced varieties1 and are better able to withstand the attacks of the local insect pests4 ,it is probable that the climate of the ,northern ,provinces will be found more suitable for the cultivation of ,american ,upland cottons1 as the indigenous plant of that region more nearly approximates the latter type4 ,valuation of ,cottons4--,the following table shows the value of different cottons grown in ,northern ,nigeria and examined at the ,imperial ,institute4 7,see ,professor ,dunstan's 8,british ,cotton ,cultivation10 pp4 #cd-cg47 ,locality4 ,kind4 ,length of ,staple4 ,value4 ,standard value at time of test4 ,bassa ,american #i-ab in4 #g;d4 ,m4,a4 #fci;d4 #a-ac #e-f;d4 #a-ac #f;d4 #h-ab #f;d4 #a-ac #f;d4 #i-ad #f;d4 #i-ac #f;d4 #i-ab #f-f;d4 #a-ac #f;d4 ,native #i-ac #f-g;d4 #a-ad #h-i;d4 ,m4,r4,p4 #ia;d4 #a-ac #h;d4 #i-ad #h-h;d4 #h-ab #g-h;d4 #a-ac #h;d4 #ab-ae #h;d4 #a-ac #h;d4 #i-ac #h;d4 #aa-af #h-h;d4 #i-ac #f;d4 ,m4,a4 #fci;d4 ,zaria ,brazilian 787 #i-ab #d;d4 ,egyptian #i-ae #f;d4 ,f4,g4,f4,b4 #aj;d4 ,yola ,native #h-ab #d;d4 ,m4,a4 #fci;d4 ,american #i-ac #f;d4 ,munchi ,native #a-ae #h;d4 ,m4,r4,p4 #ia;d4 ,ilorin ,american #i-ac #f;d4 ,m4,a4 #fci;d4 7,m4,a4 indicates the price ruling at the time of valuation for standard 8,middling ,american10 ,m4,r4,p4 that for 8,moderately ,rough ,peruvian10 and ,f4,g4,f4,b4 that for 8,fully ,good ,fair ,brown ,egyptian407 ,illustration3 ,,village ,,of ,,fogola1 ,,built ,,of ,,guinea-,,corn ,,stalks4 ,fig4 #ca4 p4 #abf ,illustration3 ,,outside ,,the ,,emir',s ,,palace1 ,,kano4 ,fig4 #cb1 p4 #acg4 ,illustration3 ,,near ,,the ,,southern ,,gate1 ,,zaria4 ,fig4 #cc1 p4 #acg4 ,all the native cottons in the above table are from the ,niger and ,benue ,river ,provinces1 but it is considered probable that large quantities of the product1 which are looked for for export1 will be obtained from the ,kano and ,zaria ,provinces1 and after the opening of the ,baro-,kano ,railway1 the capitals of these may become important cotton-buying and ginning centres4 ,figs4 #cb and #cc illustrate views of ,kano and ,zaria4 ,in all the localities referred to1 cotton is generally cultivated as a sole crop1 in succession to food crops1 and is planted upon shallow ridges from ,july to ,september1 when the cotton is ready for picking from ,december to ,march4 ,experiments have been made at ,baro and ,zungeru to raise plants during the dry months by irrigation1 but as this causes the fruiting season to occur about the time that the first rain and wind storms commence1 the success of this is very uncertain4 ,the necessity for the application of irrigation to this crop is not apparent except as an assistance in lieu of rain when the season of rainfall is late4 ,there is no extreme drought throughout the year1 such as is the case in ,egypt1 where cotton is entirely an irrigated crop4 ,in the ,ilorin district1 in the vicinity of ,shari1 a somewhat extensive area is seen under cotton1 and the mode of planting is similar to that applied on a smaller scale near ,rabba1 ,jebba1 ,bida1 and ,egga4 ,a piece of land is usually selected for a cotton field upon which ,guinea corn and millet crops have been grown continuously for a long period1 and which has consequently become rather exhausted4 ,this is often permitted to lie fallow for several years1 after which cotton is planted in drills on ridges or mounds in ,july or ,august4 ,no manure is applied4 ,generally about a dozen or more seeds are put in each drill1 and in this way it is estimated that about a bushel and a half of seed per acre is required4 ,picking commences in ,december1 and lasts until ,february1 as much as #ejj lbs4 of seed-cotton per acre being frequently gathered4 ,in ,kano1 cotton is often grown in alternation with cassava1 and is a manured crop4 ,large fields are not seen1 as the land is chiefly required for food crops1 especially in the vicinity of towns1 where the population is dense4 ,general improvements in cultivation1 and the introduction of ploughing1 would enable a much larger area to be put under cultivation1 and would permit of the fertile tracts remote from the towns being employed largely for cotton-growing4 ,the above account indicates the direction in which efforts should be made to ensure the most fertile tract of ,northern ,nigeria1 where the population is also most industrious and dense1 becoming an important cotton-growing locality4 ,it may be safely said that the land1 climate1 and industrious population are existent and suitable1 but the population is congested1 leaving large fertile areas of land untouched4 ,transport difficulties have up to the present prevented cultivation of products useful for export1 and the non-employment of cattle for ploughing has restricted cultivation to the growth of crops entirely absorbed by local necessity4 ,improvement of ,plant4--,in addition to these requirements1 with regard to cultivation1 a rather better class of cotton is necessary in the ,northern ,provinces4 ,the local variety might perhaps be sufficiently improved under better cultivation and seed selection1 but such a process would be gradual and require the undivided attention of an experienced ,european officer1 working in the districts4 ,it has previously been suggested that the introduction of one of the many ,upland ,american kinds might be advantageous2 the local variety approaching that class of plant more nearly than do the varieties occurring in the forest regions farther to the south1 where the ,american varieties have been extensively planted with somewhat variable results4 ,one variety only should be introduced1 and this should possess cropping and lint records suitable for ,european requirements4 ,georgia or ,texas quick-maturing kinds are indicated1 but not the lowland kinds such as are grown in the ,mississippi valley4 ,the foregoing remarks apply to those regions only where it seems possible that the quality of cotton which is in most general demand in ,lancashire can be extensively grown1 but are not applicable to the ,niger ,valley4 ,as will be seen by a reference to the table of valuations1 a cotton exists in the ,bassa and ,nassarawa ,provinces which is comparable with a higher standard grade than ,middling ,american1 the type to be produced in the north4 ,efforts should be made to keep this latter variety free from the possibility of admixture with exotic kinds1 and it is therefore advisable that improvement in this class should be confined to seed selection4 ,american cottons have already been introduced into ,bassa1 but the value of the lint is lower than that of the indigenous kind4 ,with regard to the cotton grown in the ,ilorin ,province1 the common variety is similar to that of the adjoining country to the south1 and it is in this direction that the crop of the whole ,province will be sent in the future1 as it has been arranged to remove the ,ogudu ginnery on the ,niger1 to which the northern ,ilorin cotton has hitherto been sent for sale4 ,an illustration is given showing the position of this ginnery upon the southern bank of the ,niger 7,fig4 #cd74 ,the most important insect pests which attack the cotton plant in ,northern ,nigeria are three species of ,oxycarenus1 or cotton-seed bugs3 ,dysdercus superstitiosus1 a cotton-lint stainer1 the ,american cotton boll-worm1 ,chloridea obsoleta1 and a species of ,earias1#aa identical with or allied to the ,egyptian cotton boll-worm4 ,the last mentioned has only been recorded as yet from the ,bornu ,province1 but the ,american boll-worm is found at ,lokoja and near the ,niger in ,nupe4 ,the seed-bugs and stainer are generally distributed4 ,in no direction have these pests assumed large proportions1 but where they occur the following remedies are recommended for application4 ,the seed-bugs and stainer can be attracted to traps of seed placed in piles upon the ground between the lines of growing cotton1 and the insects then destroyed by petroleum or boiling water4 ,in the case of the boll-worms1 trap-crops of maize and ,hibiscus are recommended1 as well as the destruction of the moths after attraction to light at night4 7,see ,professor ,dunstan's 8,british ,cotton ,cultivation10 pp4 #ce-f47 ,the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association commenced work in ,northern ,nigeria by erecting a steam ginnery at ,lokoja1 followed by others at ,ogudu and ,zaria4 ,the natives of the ,bassa ,province were induced to grow cotton upon a larger scale than before by the favourable market established near them at ,lokoja1 but1 although the cotton brought in was generally of good quality1 the supply fell off after the first year or two1 and in #aijh it almost ceased4 ,more recently there has been some return to cultivation1 but the people are difficult to get into touch with1 and have few needs which can be supplied by the traders1 so that they have remained somewhat inactive and shy4 ,the ginnery at ,ogudu acted as an inducement to the people of ,north ,ilorin 7,shari7 to undertake cotton-growing upon an increased scale1 and as the inhabitants are chiefly of a more intelligent class 7,yorubas and ,nupes7 than the ,bassa people1 the cultivation of cotton developed well4 ,the opening of the ,baro-,kano ,railway created some activity in cotton growing1 and satisfactory quantities were brought in to the northern ginneries4 ,the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association will probably succeed well in the northern parts of the country where a large rural population is to be found4 ,an example of the development of cotton cultivation in ,west ,africa1 influenced by and following the opening of a railway1 is seen in the ,western ,province of ,southern ,nigeria and in ,ilorin2 along almost the entire route of the line the agricultural population have taken up the cultivation of the plant4 ,this has occurred even in those districts where other natural products were available for utilisation to a remunerative degree4 ,it is therefore probable that the industrious population of the ,northern ,provinces1 who have no such advantages1 owing to the absence of oil palms1 rubber1 etc41 would readily adopt cotton-growing upon a commercial scale4 ,the ,baro-,kano ,railway passes1 however1 through an extensive tract of thinly populated country before reaching the localities from which a large supply can be reasonably expected1 and this may delay the actual results4 ,it would be inadvisable1 in the meantime1 to encourage cotton cultivation in those districts which are still remote1 unless it were possible to buy the crops in advance of any prospective railway extension4 ,the following statistical statement has been supplied by the ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association1 showing the production in bales from their ginneries1 #aijf-aiji3 ,year4 ,lokoja4 ,ogudu4 ,total4 ,weight of ,bale4 ,approx4 lbs4 #aijf4 ,sept4 #ast1 #aije1 to ,aug4 #cast1 #aijf #ijc #ijc about #bjj lbs4 #ahj1fjj #aijg4 #af months4 ,sept4 #ast1 #aijf1 to ,dec4 #abth1 #aijg #a1jfg #hae #a1hhb #bjj lbs4 each #cgf1djj #bci #bci #djj lbs4 each #ie1fjj #aijh #hd #adg #bca #djj lbs4 each #ib1djj #aiji4 #h months4 ,to ,aug4 #cast1 #aiji #acc #bdf #cgi #djj lbs4 each #aea1fjj ,in #aijh the rainfall was deficient in a large part of the country1 and the cotton crop1 among others1 suffered in consequence4 ,a temporary check to cotton-growing in ,ilorin province occurred in #aiji due to the demand for labour for the railway construction1 and a subsequent one occasioned by the war2 but in spite of this1 the increase of cotton in ,nigeria is to be attributed largely to developments in the ,northern ,provinces4 ,cf4 ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 vol4 x41 p4 #dhj1 and vol4 xi4 pp4 #gj1 #afe and #fef4ab ,,capsicums4--,an increasing export trade seems to be becoming established in red peppers and chillies 7,capsicum annuum and ,c4 frutescens71 plants which thrive well in ,west ,africa4 ,in the ,ilorin and ,nupe ,provinces1 the plants are usually grown in the vicinity of houses1 but in the ,kano and ,zaria districts they are frequently met with in irrigated fields4 ,from the latter localities an almost unlimited supply could be obtained4 ,,benniseed4--,the oil seed which is exported under this name is the product of ,sesamum indicum1 ,linn41 and is identical with that known in ,india as 8til0 or 8gingelly0 seed4 ,although the specific name seems to imply that the plant is a native of ,india1 there is evidence to show that it may have been introduced into that country from ,africa1 where several species of the genus occur in a wild state4 ,the seed is pale or dark brown in colour1 and contains a large proportion of oil1 for the extraction of which it is exported4 ,in the ,east1 the dark seeds are said to produce the better quality of oil1 but this does not appear to be recognised in ,northern ,nigeria1 and the crop grown there is composed of a mixture of the two kinds4 ,the oil extracted from benniseed is clear yellow and without smell1 and is said to be capable of being preserved for a long time without becoming rancid4 ,for this reason it is highly appreciated locally for alimentary purposes1 and is said to be used in ,europe for making butter substitutes and for mixing with olive oil4 ,the seed cake furnishes a valuable cattle food and good manure4 ,although liable to fluctuation in price on the ,european market1 dependent upon the extent of the supply of olive and groundnut oils1 the seed is always in demand1 and for this reason it is worthy of special attention for cultivation in the fertile and populated tracts of ,northern ,nigeria4 ,a fair amount of benniseed is grown in the country1 but the use of it is so appreciated locally that only a small quantity is yet shipped1 most of this being apparently sent from ,bauchi and ,kabba1 although ,kano and ,zaria probably produce much more4 ,the value shipped from ,nigeria rose from #e1bbe in #aiae to #af1ebc in #aiaf4 ,benniseed is grown chiefly in separate fields1 and is seldom seen in those which have been employed for a long period under ,guinea corn or millet4 ,it is a sole crop1 and grown but once a year in this country4 ,in ,india1 it may be remarked1 the plant is cultivated in both the spring 7,rabi7 and autumn 7,kharif7 rotations1 and it should be possible to do this in the agricultural parts of ,northern ,nigeria where irrigation is employed4 ,,kano ,,leather4--,a very large trade exists in the tanned and dyed goat and sheep skins prepared throughout the country1 and generally known under the name of ,kano leather1 or1 in ,europe1 8,morocco ,leather40 ,it is said that from early times caravans have annually conveyed numbers of these skins from the ,kano markets across the ,sahara to the towns in ,north ,africa1 whence they were exported to ,trieste and other ports of the ,mediterranean4 ,during recent years the caravan trade has almost entirely disappeared1 but some quantity of skins now come to ,liverpool by way of the coast ports4 ,the value of skins in ,kano itself averages about #e;d41 but the cost of transport at present has made it almost impracticable to export remuneratively1 and a very small trade exists in consequence4 ,by far the greater number of skins1 which are tanned1 are dyed a bright red1 yellow1 or green colour1 which seems to rather depreciate them in the ,european markets for many uses to which they might otherwise be put1 undyed and even untanned skins being in greater demand4 7,see ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 vi4 #aijh1 p4 #age2 and vol4 viii4 #aiaj1 p4 #djb47 ,it has also been said that the tanning is often insufficiently done1 and the skins become blotched in consequence4 ,it is noticeable that ,kano leather quickly becomes spotted in the damp coast regions1 and for this reason it is probable that no great direct ,european trade will be established until better methods are introduced and more rapid transport is arranged4 ,there may1 however1 be a considerable trade done in the untanned skins4 ,the best class of ,kano or ,niger leather is valued at a high price for bookbinding4 ,in the country a fair amount of leather is manufactured for saddlery and horse trappings1 pillows1 mattress covers1 sword scabbards1 boots and hats1 elaborate designs being often produced by the skilful introduction of pieces of differently coloured leather4 ,in preparing the leather the skin is stripped off the animal and usually pegged out for drying in the sun1 after which it is immersed for two or three days in a liquid made by pounding the pods and seeds of ,acacia arabica 78,baggarua071 and soaking them in water4 ,the hides are then again pegged out and scraped in order to remove the hair1 and when dry the best attain a creamy white colour1 others being pale brownish4 ,palm oil or shea-butter is then rubbed in on the smooth side of the skin1 which is worked and rolled until quite soft1 after which a polish is obtained by drawing the smooth surface rapidly over a wooden upright blade4 ,the finest and lightest skins are usually reserved for making into yellow1 green1 or pale blue leather1 and the rest are converted into red1 black1 dark blue or dark yellow kinds4 ,the red dye is obtained from the stalks of a species of ,sorghum1#ac which is grown for this purpose1 and to which the ,haussas give the name of 8,karandeffi0 or 8,karantudi40 ,the dried stalks are pounded up and placed in a calabash1 to which a solution of 8potash0 is added4 ,a deep crimson liquid results1 and in this the skin is steeped until a sufficiency has been absorbed by it to render it permanently deep red in colour4 ,a pale yellow colour is imparted to the skin by an infusion made from the root of a kind of turmeric1 which is pounded up for the purpose4 ,a dark yellow is obtained from the root of a tree called by the ,yorubas 8,agbesi40 ,a black pigment is prepared from a mixture of honey and blacksmith's slag2 blue from ,lonchocarpus cyanescens1 one of the indigo producers2 green or pale blue-green from brass filings mixed with lime juice1 common salt1 and other ingredients4 ,more recently green aniline dye has been imported into the country1 and has almost superseded the use of brass filings in all the large leather-producing districts4 ,,fibres4--,owing to the demand for ropes among the cattle-keepers of the northern districts and the canoemen of the ,niger and ,benue valleys1 it is not surprising to find that the wild fibres are considered insufficient to supply so great a necessity1 and that in consequence a selected species is extensively cultivated and prepared for sale in the markets4 8,rama0 or 8,ramo0 is the name which is applied to such a plant in the ,haussa- and ,yoruba-speaking countries respectively1 but although used exclusively for fibre made from plants belonging to the genus ,hibiscus1 different species are indicated in various districts4 ,the plant to which the name 8,rama0 is given in ,ilorin1 ,nupe1 ,kontagora1 ,kano1 and ,zaria1 is apparently the same as that generally termed 8,farin 7white7 ,rama0 in ,bauchi and ,muri1 and has been recognised as ,hibiscus lunariifolius2 that called 8,rama0 in the northern territories of the ,gold ,coast is said to belong to two species allied to ,h4 ,sabdariffa1 and that grown by the ,yoruba people of the western province of ,southern ,nigeria1 and called by them 8,ramo10 has been identified as ,h4 guineensis4 ,in the present instance only ,h4 lunariifolius is referred to1 since this is the species cultivated throughout the country4 ,although in the other countries the allied plants are cultivated1 they are invariably grown upon a small scale1 and are only seen in small patches adjoining houses1 or cultivated as a mixed crop with peppers1 okra1 etc42 in ,northern ,nigeria fairly extensive tracts are planted1 and the crop is treated as carefully as the food crops in the vicinity4 ,in ,ilorin1 ,kabba1 and ,bassa the seeds are sown on ridges in drills a few inches apart1 each drill having four to six plants in it4 ,the sowing in this locality is done in the middle of ,may1 and the crop is not irrigated1 being dependent upon the rainfall for development4 ,the plants1 when they have reached the height of six or more inches1 do not appear to be adversely affected by a prolonged continuance of dry weather in the ,niger ,valley1 but this is perhaps accounted for by the humidity of the atmosphere4 ,the conditions last referred to do not1 however1 apply to the northern districts1 and the importance with which the crop is regarded is seen in the fact that it is worth while to irrigate it4 ,at ,fogola the plants are also sown in drills on ridges1 but the drills are made at about one foot apart from one another1 and ten or more plants are left in each drill4 ,the seed is sown in ,april and irrigated until the rainy season commences in ,june4 ,the stalks are said to be cut after the plant has fruited1 and are described as being retted in a manner similar to that employed for ,indian jute4 ,the unretted 8ribbons0 as well as the prepared fibre are offered for sale in the local markets1 the former being employed in the rough state for twisting into rope used for fastening roofing poles1 etc4 ,the prepared fibre produces an excellent kind of rope1 and is in appearance very similar to ,bengal jute1 although it has slightly less lustre4 ,specimens of ,northern ,nigerian rama fibre have been examined from time to time at the ,imperial ,institute1 and have been satisfactorily reported on4 ,as a result the fibre has been actually exported to ,europe4 ,in the ,selected ,reports from the ,imperial ,institute1 ,part ,i41 8,fibres0 7,colonial ,reports--,miscellaneous ,cd4 #dehh1 p4 #ch71 a full account is given of the composition of a specimen of the fibre received from ,northern ,nigeria4 ,the character is said to be similar to jute1 but it is apparently rather harsh1 and therefore more suitable for use in rope-making than for spinning4 ,the valuation placed upon it was #ab per ton1 with common jute at #aa--ab4 ,a specimen of the brown ribbons was also examined and was reported on1 the valuation being placed at about #d per ton1 with a remark that it would only be of use for paper manufacture4 ,during the last three years1 since attention was first drawn to the probable value of the fibre as a jute substitute1 the natives of ,nupe and ,muri have been urged to cultivate the plant and prepare the fibre for export4 ,this has been done to a small extent1 and the natives of the latter province are said to be willing to produce it at the local price of one penny per pound4 ,at the valuation mentioned above it might scarcely prove remunerative to pay this local price1 but it should be taken into consideration that the market price of jute was depressed at the time that the valuation was obtained4 ,it seems that the product may be usefully cultivated1 especially in the ,niger ,valley1 where river transport is available1 and it is probable that a better price would be quoted if a larger and regular supply could be relied on4 ,the value of the fibre shipped from the country in #aijh is estimated in the ,government returns at #a1chb1 and that for #aiji at #d1jdi4 ,attention should be specially directed to the time of cutting the stalks for retting1 and these should be treated before becoming too woody1 when a much better product would result4 ,experiments with ,indian jute1 as well as with certain ,hibiscus fibres in ,west ,africa1 have shown that if the stems are permitted to become woody1 the resulting fibre is harsh and coarse4 ,with regard to the probable production of fibre per acre1 there are at present no data1 but it may be stated for comparison that a good average yield of jute in ,india is taken as #bjjj lbs4 ,carefully planted and treated in the same way1 it is probable that rama would give as high a return1 judging from the growth seen in the country4 ,jute in ,india1 it should be remembered1 is a manured crop1 but rama in ,west ,africa is only manured in the northern districts of ,northern ,nigeria1 being cultivated without any special care in the ,niger ,valley4 ,,wood ,,oil4--,following the order of value shown in the list of exported products1 wood oil appears next4 ,this is the oleo-resinous exudation obtained from ,daniellia thurifera1 a tree belonging to the ,natural ,order ,,leguminos1 and allied to some of the species from which the ,west ,african copals are procured4 ,this tree is commonly found in the dry country1 but occurs also in the damp forests1 where it frequently attains large dimensions4 ,the wood oil is collected in many parts of ,west ,africa1 and is used as a substitute for 8balsam of copaiba0 in native medicine4 ,the concreted resin formed on the trunks of the trees by the borings of coleopterous larv is used for burning as incense4 ,the native use of wood oil in place of 8balsam of copaiba0 induced merchants trading upon the ,niger to export it1 and at one time a fair quantity was sold in ,england4 ,this export trade has recently diminished to a large extent4 ,the substance is an oleo-resin1 and when free from oil has a similar appearance to copal4 ,upon examination of the resin1 it has been found to be dissimilar in properties from the various freshly exuded resins which enter the market under the name of recent or soft copal4 7,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vols4 vi4 #aijh and xiii4 #aiae47 ,the mode of collecting wood-oil is somewhat destructive1 as1 in order to procure an excessive flow1 a hollow is scooped out in the main trunk and a fire is kindled in the hole thus made4 ,the oil commences to flow rapidly after the fire is extinguished1 which it is necessary that it should be before a large quantity of oil has exuded1 on account of the inflammability of the latter4 ,the application of fire to the trees does not appear to kill them1 but they are rendered liable to attacks of noxious insects1 and are often broken off by winds4 ,in addition to the local use of the oil for maladies for which balsam of copaiba is generally employed1 the rubber makers of ,ilorin and ,nupe add it to the latex of ,landolphia florida or ,l4 ,thompsonii to make paste rubber4 ,the two liquids are boiled together for some time1 until the mixture attains a consistency of birdlime4 ,the dried resin is here used for torches1 and in the ,egyptian ,sudan for incense4 ,,kola4--,although a large quantity of kola nuts is annually imported from ,lagos and the ,gold ,coast1 such a great demand exists that the price of kola in ,kano and ,zaria is very high4 ,the kola tree is seldom seen in any part of the country except on the west bank of the ,kaduna river1 where the famous plantations of the ,emir of ,bida are situated4 ,the kola nuts produced from these plantations are said to be more appreciated than any other1 and1 in order that the variety might not be grown elsewhere1 stringent measures are said to have been enforced by the ,emir1 and the nuts were always exported to the north1 where it was impossible to grow the tree1 and where a very remunerative price was obtainable4 ,this particular kind of kola nut is referred to as 8,laboji10 and is said to be white4 ,the cultivation of kola could be undertaken in the ,kabba and ,bassa ,provinces1 especially in the moist valleys protected from severe winds by high plateaux1 such as are commonly found in these localities4 ,in the export table of #aijg a small quantity of kola is shown1 but this probably represents the re-export of produce from the south4 ,,cotton ,,seed4--,the ,lokoja ,ginnery has exported a small quantity of cotton seed each year1 but the trade is not a lucrative one1 and the larger part of the cotton seed which is turned out of the ginnery is valueless for shipment4 ,,food ,,crops4--,the products which have been referred to above are those which have hitherto been exported from the country1 but by far the most important agricultural products are those upon which the population itself subsists1 and in relation to which the exported products are merely in the position of a surplus4 ,before referring to the products regularly cultivated for food1 it is necessary to mention that the seasons1 which in the temperate zones are closely associated with a rise and fall in the temperature and its effect upon vegetation1 are in ,west ,africa determined to a much greater degree by the advent and cessation of the rainy period4 ,the year is therefore divided into two seasons1 roughly described as 7#a7 that in which the conditions are hot and dry1 and 7#b7 that in which they are cooler and wet4 ,the vegetation is so directly dependent upon the timely appearance of the rainy season and its normal distribution1 that a failure of these conditions1 even in a comparatively small degree1 may have serious consequences and perhaps produce famine4 ,in no part of ,british ,west ,africa is a shortage or irregularity of the rainfall so severely felt1 nor does it affect such a large number of people1 as in the northern districts4 ,a table is given below showing the distribution of rain in ,zaria for five years1 and of that in ,kano for three years4 ,in each of these it will be seen that the fall in the year #aijg was far below the average1 and that during the most important months for the growth of the staple grain crops--,july1 ,august1 and ,september--there was a severe shortage of rainfall4 ,the effect of this in ,kano was to produce a condition of famine1 which lasted for about six weeks4 ,in a congested locality1 such as exists in the vicinity of the town of ,kano1 the difficulty of importing sufficiently large supplies to afford relief at such a period was great1 on account of lack of transport4 ,the chief crop in this year1 namely ,guinea corn1 was an almost complete failure in many places1 but the millet ,,table ,,showing ,,the ,,rainfall ,,at ,,zaria ,,for ,,five ,,years 7#aije ,,to #aiji7 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,month4 #aije4 #aijf4 #aijg4 #aijh4 #aiji4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,january nil nil nil nil nil ,february nil nil nil nil #cf ,march nil nil nil #ji nil ,april #gf #he #bbj #ahd #cef ,may #eij #iej #cfi #aia #egi ,june #gbd #eie #gje #fid #fea ,july #gai #addi #cge #gdb #acaa ,august #aejd #afci #ddf #adcf #affb ,september #acbh #iij #fcc #abjh #ffa ,october #adj #cic #bcb #hd #agd ,november nil #jd nil nil nil ,december nil nil nil nil #aej ---------------------------------------- ------ ,totals #ejha #faje #bihj #dedh #eehj ---------------------------------------- ------ 7,pennisetum7 crop1 which is an early one1 and not dependent on the rainfall after ,june1 had received a normal amount of rain to that time1 and was satisfactory2 the stored supplies1 as well as a second sowing1 of this grain to some extent made up for the failure of the other4 ,the above table has been made out from the meteorological reports obtained at ,zaria town1 and probably represents a fair average of the rainfall conditions pertaining to the cultivated country in the vicinity4 ,the more northern district1 of which ,kano is the centre1 is liable to smaller rainfall conditions than ,zaria4 ,a comparison can be made by reference to the table given below4 ,,table ,,showing ,,the ,,rainfall ,,at ,,kano ,,for ,,four ,,years 7#aijf ,,to #aiji7 --------------------------------------- ,month4 #aijf4 #aijg4 #aijh4 #aiji4 --------------------------------------- ,january nil nil nil nil ,february nil nil nil nil ,march nil nil #ed #ji ,april #ja #aj #bc #age ,may #cbd #agg #aaf #hg ,june #dff #ehh #dab #cga ,july #hge #cij #ajbd #ija ,august #aefa #ieh #acib #aggb ,september #dff #ceg #dfc #fhc ,october #hg #ja #jb #gg ,november nil nil nil nil ,december nil nil nil #de --------------------------------------- ,totals #cghj #bdha #cdhf #dijc --------------------------------------- ,the remarks made above serve to emphasise two points in connection with the densely populated districts of the north1 the first being the necessity of cultivating larger areas to permit of surplus supplies being stored1 and the second the requirement of quick transport to enable supplies to be brought in from the ,niger valley in cases of urgent need4 ,the first of these also indicates the necessity for the improvement of agricultural methods by the introduction of ploughing1 the extension of irrigation and dry-season crops1 and the better distribution of the population4 ,the second--the supply of quick transport--is becoming rapidly established1 by means of the railway and improved roads4 ,the extension of irrigated crops can only be made in the vicinity of the larger rivers1 or where good wells exist1 and it may be found more expedient1 therefore1 that the inhabitants of the ,niger1 ,benue1 ,kaduna1 ,gongola1 and ,gurara valleys should be urged to cultivate rice and maize under these conditions4 ,the use of the land for two crops in each year would be made possible by the introduction of a leguminous crop as an intermediate1 being sown later but in the same field with the irrigated crop1 and being permitted to ripen1 after the grain has been harvested1 upon the stubble4 ,a leguminous grain suitable for human food would be necessary in the river valleys where cattle are scarce1 but a cattle food could be grown in the north where cattle are common1 and where milk forms an important article of human consumption4 ,,guinea ,,corn 7,sorghum vulgare7--8,dawa0 7,haussa71 otherwise known as the ,great or ,indian ,millet 8,juar0 7,hindustani71 8,dhura0 7,egyptian7--forms the most important food-grain of the inhabitants of the ultra-forest region of ,west ,africa4 ,a large number of different varieties are recognised in ,northern ,nigeria1 and are distinguished in the manner stated below4 ,most of these have a grain which is commonly used for human food1 but at least two varieties are grown for other purposes4 ,the following list states the characters by which the various kinds can be determined from the appearance of the seed and form of the stem4 #a4 8,asidinono40--,seed with white shell and black adherent envelope4 #b4 8,farafara40--,seed with white shell and red adherent envelope4 #c4 8,boganderi40--,seed with straw-coloured shell and red adherent envelope4 #d4 8,janari40--,seed with pink shell and red adherent envelope4 #e4 8,kaura-ferin-sosia40--,seed with straw-coloured shell and straw-coloured adherent envelope4 #f4 8,bokin-sosia40--,seed with straw-coloured shell and black adherent envelope4 #g4 8,makafo-dewayo40--,seed with straw-coloured shell and pointed straw-coloured adherent envelope1 which scarcely opens4 #h4 8,asidigero40--,small pink-shelled seed with red adherent envelope4 #i4 8,mazgua40--,very large whitish seed with a straw-coloured envelope4 #aj4 8,karandeffi40--,seed with red shell and red adherent envelope4 ,never used for food1 but employed in native medicine1 as well as for the production of the red dye used for leather 7,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 vol4 vi4 #aijh74 #aa4 8,takanda0 or 8,karantalaka40--,the seed has not been examined1 but the stem contains a large quantity of saccharine juice1 and the plant is grown entirely as a cattle food4 ,probably identical with ,s4 saccharum4 ,the first four kinds are regularly employed as food1 and are found growing as a mixed crop2 although the white grains are more appreciated and frequently predominate4 ,nos4 #e and #f are not considered so good for human food1 but are largely employed for feeding cattle and horses1 for which latter purpose they are greatly in demand4 ,no4 #g is used for the same purpose as the last1 but is a rarity and of no special value4 ,these seven kinds are grown as six-months' crops1 and are harvested in ,october when the rains cease4 ,no4 #h is a three-months' cropping kind1 which in this particular resembles 8,gero0 7,pennisetum typhoideum71 as its native name indicates4 ,the grain is much smaller than the others1 and it is said to be cultivated to some extent in the ,sokoto ,province4 ,no4 #i is a variety which is said to be cultivated in ,bornu in the fertile depressions which retain moisture for long periods1 or by means of irrigation from the rivers4 7,see ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 iv4 #aijf1 p4 #bbf47 ,guinea corn is permitted to occupy the land for a number of years successively1 being often grown with 8bulrush millet0 7,pennisetum typhoideum74 ,in this case the millet occupies the furrow whilst the ,guinea corn is on the ridge1 and this is reversed when the soil from the ridge has been hoed into the furrow and the previous ridge becomes the furrow4 ,in many parts of the northern districts it is customary to permit the ,guinea corn root-stocks to remain in the ground for two or three years1 and to fill in the vacancies only with new seed when the old plants die4 ,by this system it is found that the crops are better assured1 as the old root-stocks withstand a prolonged drought better than new plants4 ,this custom1 if persisted in1 would be a direct hindrance to the introduction of ploughing4 ,manure is applied regularly to this crop in the northern districts1 but never in the ,niger valley4 ,the method of applying manure varies according to the condition of the crop4 ,where entirely new plants are to be grown1 a shallow bed is made upon the top of the ridge or in the furrow1 and the goat1 sheep1 and cow manure mixed with ashes1 and accumulated carefully in the villages1 is spread thinly upon the bed before the seed is sown4 ,in other places1 where old root-stocks occur1 handfuls of manure are applied to the growing plants in ,may4 ,this is sometimes adopted where young plants only are growing4 ,manure is so necessary for the system of cultivation adopted in the ,kano and ,zaria ,provinces that every scrap of material which is of manurial value is carefully preserved1 being carried to the fields by men and donkeys4 ,the heads are cut when ripe and tied in bundles to dry1 after which the grain is readily beaten out in wooden mortars or with sticks4 ,the flour made from the grain is ground between stones1 and is frequently eaten in the form of a thin porridge4 ,two varieties of ,nigerian ,guinea corn have been examined at the ,imperial ,institute and shown to be superior to ,indian ,guinea corn1 though not quite so good as the ,syrian grain 7,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 vii4 #aiji1 p4 #adh47 ,smut-blights1 ,ustilago ,reiliana and ,tolyposporium sp4 7called in ,haussa 8domana071 attack the heads1 and a ,capnodium sp4 7called 8derba071 the honeydew produced on the leaves by ,aphis sorghi 7cf4 ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 vol4 xi4 #aiac74 ,at certain stages1 green ,guinea corn is poisonous to cattle1 and for this reason goats1 sheep1 and cows are muzzled in the ,kano and ,zaria ,provinces4 ,local knowledge of this fact confirms what has been observed elsewhere with regard to this species1 and is explained by investigations conducted at the ,imperial ,institute4 7,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 i4 #aijc1 and vol4 viii4 #aiaj47 ,,bulrush ,,millet4--,this plant1 which is supposed to be of ,african origin and is usually called millet in ,west ,africa1 belongs to that group of grasses of which the seeding head is in a compact form and in appearance resembles the head of a bulrush1 from which the common name applied to it has been derived4 ,the botanical name is ,pennisetum typhoideum1 and the plant is known in the country as 8,gero0 or 8,giro0 7,haussa71 and in ,india as 8,bajra40 ,at least two varieties1 a smooth and an awned form1 are grown as three-months' crops1 and are sown either alone or as described before with ,guinea corn4 ,it is usual to plant millet seed before the ,guinea corn1 generally about the middle of ,april1 or as soon as the first showers are experienced4 ,the crop is then ready for picking in ,june and ,july4 ,if the rainfall by this time has been deficient to such an extent that the ,guinea-corn crop promises to prove a failure1 a second crop of millet is often put in1 and1 as very much less rain is required for this crop than is necessary for ,guinea corn1 the severe effects of a short rainfall are minimised4 ,the grain yielded by ,pennisetum typhoideum would be classed commercially as a millet1 and a sample from ,nigeria examined at the ,imperial ,institute was valued at #bbs4 per quarter of #dhj lb4 7,july #aijh74 ,in addition to the two varieties mentioned which are employed as three-months' crops1 there is another kind with a smooth greyish-white large grain which is called 8,maiwa0 or 8,dauro10 and is cultivated in the same manner as ,guinea corn2 occupying the land for from five to six months4 ,the pagan ,gwaris to the south of ,zaria grow this in large quantities1 but it is uncommon north of ,zaria4 ,these grains are easily stored1 and keep in good condition for a long time4 ,flour is made from the grain by grinding1 and both the grain and leaves are used for cattle food4 ,from the malted grain of millet1 and sometimes of ,guinea corn1 an intoxicating beverage is made which is known as 8,gir0 7,haussa74 ,a fine grass seed called 8,acha0 7,digitaria ternata7 is grown in the fields with millet1 and attains a height of about two and a half feet4 ,it is used for making a sort of porridge4 8,tomba0 7,eleusine coracana87 and 8,iboru0 are grown in a similar manner4 ,the composition1 nutritive value and commercial value of several of these food grains are fully dealt with in the ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 vii4 #aiji1 p4 #adh4 ,illustration3 ,,british ,,cotton ,,growing ,,association ,,ginnery1 ,,ogudu1 ,,ilorin4 ,fig4 #cd1 p4 #aci4 ,illustration3 ,,gwari ,,town1 ,,opposite ,,minna1 ,,south ,,of ,,zaria4 ,fig4 #ce1 p4 #aee4 ,illustration3 ,,cow ,,fulani ,,woman ,,selling ,,milk ,,at ,,gwari4 ,fig4 #cf1 p4 #afc4 ,,maize4--8,mussara0 7,haussa7 is the name applied to this plant 7,zea mays74 ,the crop is more common in the ,niger valley among the ,nupe and ,yoruba people than in the higher plateaux of ,zaria and ,kano4 ,it is probable that maize requires a larger rainfall than the grain crops which have been mentioned above--which may account for the infrequency of its cultivation in the dry country4 ,among the ,gwari pagans1 inhabiting the country in the vicinity of ,minna1 and the ,nupe people to the south1 fairly large quantities of maize are grown and seem to represent the chief food crop4 ,the sowers drop only one seed1 or at most two1 into the drills1 where they would put five or six ,guinea-corn seeds4 ,the only variety grown commonly has a bright yellow grain and is apparently a three-months' crop2 being sown at the commencement and in the middle of the rains1 thus giving two crops in the year in some localities4 ,an illustration is given at ,fig4 #ce showing a view of the ,gwari town at ,minna4 ,,wheat4--,the cultivation of wheat is confined to the drier parts of ,northern ,nigeria1 where it is grown as a rainfall as well as an irrigated crop4 ,in ,zaria it is frequently sown in ,october1 and occupies land which may have been under rice cultivation just previously4 ,goat manure is especially applied to wheat1 and irrigation is carried out from wells or by the employment of shadufs on the banks of streams4 ,this crop is harvested in ,january4 ,in ,kano1 wheat is more generally grown as a rainfall-crop in similar situations1 and is1 in this case1 sown in ,may1 being harvested in ,september4 ,the variety seems to be constant throughout the country1 and appears to have been established from very early times4 ,the grain is similar in appearance to the wheat seen in the ,nile valley1 and may be ,triticum compositum 7,egyptian wheat74 ,specimens from ,kano and ,zaria have been examined at the ,imperial ,institute1 and the analyses made show about #aa per cent4 of gluten including #e to #f per cent4 of gliadin1 and the commercial experts consulted were of opinion that an unlimited quantity of this type of wheat would be readily saleable on the ,european market 7,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 viii4 #aiaj1 p4 #aah47 ,the ,kano wheat in particular gave excellent results in milling and baking trials4 ,as a food1 wheat is regarded with great favour in the country1 and is bought up chiefly by the wealthy classes for making a brown flour4 ,it makes an excellent bread1 and is in demand among the ,european residents for mixing with ,european tinned flour for breadmaking4 ,in order to separate the grain from the ear1 the dried corn is threshed by the village women2 thin sticks being used for the purpose4 ,the chaff is then winnowed in the wind4 ,the ,haussa name is 8,alkama40 ,in addition to ,zaria and ,kano districts1 the grain is said to be plentiful and cheap in ,sokoto and ,bornu1 but does not appear to be grown south of the #aath degree4 ,,rice4--,the cultivation of rice extends over a much larger portion of the country than wheat4 ,it is said to be especially plentiful in the low-lying districts to the south of ,sokoto1 where large tracts of swampy country exist1 which are annually planted with the crop4 ,on the banks of the ,kaduna river1 near ,dakman and ,dagomba1 as well as in the valley of the ,baku river in the ,nupe country1 irrigated rice fields are common1 and the product from the ,nupe ,province is much appreciated by the inhabitants of the middle ,niger4 ,the local name for rice is 8,shinkafa40 ,near ,zaria and ,kano comparatively little rice is cultivated1 and where seen is generally found in swampy places where other food grains are not capable of being utilised4 ,rice in these localities is one of the few unmanured crops1 and is planted at the commencement of the rainy season4 ,the harvesting is done about ,november or ,december1 and the paddy or husk-rice is cleaned by soaking the grain in hot water1 drying in the sun and then pounding in a wooden mortar4 ,the chaff is winnowed1 and a fairly clean rice with a slight reddish tint remains4 ,all the rice appears to be of the same type1 and is held in high estimation for its nutritious quality4 ,the imported white rices1 which occasionally enter the country1 are regarded with less favour than the local kind4 ,it is possible to develop the cultivation of the crop in the valleys of all the large rivers1 and it seems probable that1 with improved methods of irrigation1 two crops might be grown annually4 ,a sample of rice from ,ilorin examined at the ,imperial ,institute proved to be about equal in quality to average ,bengal rice 7,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 vii4 #aiji1 p4 #adi71 but it is improbable that it would at present prove remunerative to export this rice to ,europe4 ,a good market might1 however1 be found for it at the coast ports of ,southern ,nigeria1 where imported rice is in demand4 ,it might be necessary1 in order to compete with the present trade1 to grow and prepare a cleaner 7less red7 variety1 which would resemble more nearly the imported kinds1 and to this end the acclimatised ,american rice of ,sierra ,leone might be tried 7cf4 ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 vol4 xv4 #aiag74 ,,sugar-,,cane4--,the cultivation of sugar-cane 7,saccharum officinale7 is confined to small patches or strips of land on the edges of rice fields1 where it may be said to be under irrigation4 ,the ,haussa name is 8,reke40 ,the preparation of sugar does not appear to be known in the country1 and the sole use to which the plant is put1 seems to be the consumption of the green stalks by the inhabitants and their cattle4 ,the variety seen in ,kano district appears to have a reddish stalk1 and cane is said to be a feature in the ,maigana district4 ,,leguminous ,,plants4--,several kinds of small beans are grown1 of which the most valuable appears to be that known as 8,wanki40 ,this is a white-skinned kind1 similar to1 but about half the size of1 the white haricot of ,europe4 ,the cultivation of these beans is somewhat irregular2 a few being occasionally sown among the millet and ,guinea-corn crops4 ,they are apparently never grown as a sole crop4 ,a similar bean of a brown colour is common in the ,bassa ,province1 but the white bean is generally distributed throughout the whole country4 ,the 8,bambarra groundnut0 7,voandzeia subterranea7 is grown in a similar manner to the common groundnut 7,arachis hypogea7 which has been referred to among the exported products4 ,the cultivation is similar1 and the plant is seen occupying elevated ridges4 ,the ,haussa name is 8,paruru40 ,an unidentified bean1 which is called 8,girigiri10 has been described as being grown by the pagan ,gwari tribes to the south of ,zaria1 but apart from the fact that it is much larger than the 8,wanki0 bean1 nothing seems to be known about it4 ,indian dhall 7,cajanus indicus71 frequently termed the pigeon pea1 has been introduced into many parts of the country1 with the object of inducing the native to grow a leguminous crop1 which would serve the dual purpose of providing a palatable food as well as being beneficial to the soil1 but in only a few localities do the natives appear to make use of the peas for food4 ,it has been recommended to grow the plant upon land which has become somewhat exhausted by the repeated growth of grain crops1 and to permit the peas to remain upon such land for two or three seasons1 during which time they will yield successive crops4 ,the beneficial action which such a plant exerts by nitrifying the soil1 and the manurial value of the leaves1 which are shed in thick profusion1 are important reasons for its introduction1 but the value will not be fully appreciated until it has been adopted generally as a food4 ,,soya ,,bean4--,the ,manchurian or soya bean 7,glycine hispida or soja71 which has the additional merit of yielding about #ae per cent4 of a valuable oil1 and which is highly appreciated as another kind of dhall in ,india1 is being experimented with in various parts of ,british ,west ,africa 7see ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 vol4 viii4 #aiaj1 p4 #dj74 ,the recent expansion in the cultivation of leguminous crops is a promising step4 ,,cassava4--,among the ,haussas as well as the ,yorubas and ,nupes1 the cultivation of cassava 7,manihot utilissima7 is extensively carried on4 ,in ,haussa cultivation it is an unmanured plant1 and is usually grown in separate fields surrounded by mud walls1 thorn hedges1 or ,guinea-corn matting4 ,the ground from which a crop of cassava has been harvested is rarely used for ,guinea corn2 the succeeding crop being usually cotton1 with the application of manure4 ,in the ,nupe country1 near ,bida1 cassava is frequently employed as a shade crop for onions2 in this case being planted around the onion beds and obtaining the benefit of the high state of cultivation1 manuring and irrigation which is applied to that crop4 ,cassava grown under these conditions is planted twenty days later than the onions1 and is pulled up a month later4 ,the pagan tribes of ,zaria1 and the other provinces where they are in greater numbers1 do not seem to plant cassava4 ,the ,haussa name given to the plant is 8,rogo40 ,,yams 7,dioscorea sativa1 etc474--,these climbers are commonly grown in the moist valley of the ,niger and in the ,yoruba country of ,ilorin1 but are rare and only an irrigated crop in the more northern countries4 ,where they are seen1 they are planted from root eyes upon high mounds with ditches dammed to retain the water between them1 and1 until the plant has grown up as a trailer upon the ground1 some feet in length1 no supports are put in4 ,at this time1 however1 the straw covers1 which it is customary to place on the apex of the yam mounds1 are removed and an elaborate system of stakes1 to the top of each of which strings are tied and conducted to the ground near the growing plant1 are put in1 and the plants to the number of four or more are trained to grow towards the top of each stake4 ,the large white yam is chiefly grown1 and is called in ,haussa 8,doya40 ,yams attain large dimensions in the damp localities1 but are small in the drier places4 ,colocasia antiquorum1 called by the ,haussas 8,kamu10 is usually referred to as the koko yam and is rarely grown4 ,a few may be seen in the wet localities and near ,zaria1 where they are planted in swamps upon high mounds or ridges4 ,,sweet ,,potatoes4--,this crop is grown everywhere1 and is nearly always unmanured4 ,it is said that it forms the occupant of the land upon which ,guinea corn and millet are repeatedly grown in some parts of the ,kano district in the second and eighth year--i4e4 twice in a period of eight years4 ,in the year of plantation1 the ridges are said to be heightened4 ,near ,bida very high beds are made for it1 resembling flat-topped mounds1 with an area of sixteen or more square feet4 ,the ,haussas apply the name 8,dankali0 to the root1 which is usually of the small white variety4 ,artichokes and small ,root ,crops4--,the ,jerusalem artichoke 7,helianthus tuberosus7 called 8,gwaza10 as well as 8,rizga0 7,plectranthus sp47 and 8,tumuku0 7probably ,plectranthus sp47 are cultivated by the people living to the south of ,zaria ,town4 8,gwaza0 seems to be less planted than 8,rizga10 the latter being carefully grown upon selected ground which has been previously hoed and levelled1 the surface being covered over with branches of ,bauhinia reticulata and other forest plants until the stems of the crop have reached a height of one foot or more4 ,single stems spring from the root eyes which are planted4 8,tumuku0 resembles 8,gwaza0 in appearance1 but comes up in clusters of stems and is planted upon mounds4 ,all the above roots are used in the manner in which the potato is employed in ,europe2 cassava alone being pounded to make a kind of dough ball1 in addition to being eaten in chopped up and boiled form4 ,onions4--,two kinds of onions are cultivated throughout the country3 ,allium cepa1 the large onion which is seen to perfection in the ,kano markets1 and ,allium ascalonicum which is usually termed the shallot1 and is cultivated to a larger extent in the localities where manure is scarce4 ,the variety of large onion grown in ,kano is pink upon the outside1 and for this reason1 according to inquiries conducted by the ,imperial ,institute1 is said to be quite unsuitable for the ,english market2 the white ,egyptian onion being preferred4 ,cultivation4--,the cultivation of onions is1 perhaps1 more carefully carried out than that of any other crop1 and may be described from that seen at ,lemu in ,nupe4 ,the seed is sown closely in beds of soil which have previously been enriched with manure1 and the surface is covered with straw until the young plants are a few inches in height4 ,transplanting into new beds1 which are strewn with cow and goat manure1 is the next operation1 the plants being put in at about #d-f inches apart4 ,the whole cultivation is done during the dry season1 and the beds are irrigated by means of channels supplied with water raised from streams or wells1 in the north by shadufs1 or in the ,nupe country by people conveying the water in calabashes4 ,the market price varies greatly in different districts1 and is immediately influenced by any reduced supply4 ,there is said to be a very good demand for the large onions in the ,southern ,nigerian markets1 and there should be no difficulty in getting them to ,lagos1 as they have been brought from ,kano to ,london in good condition4 ,minor ,crops4--,okra 7,hibiscus esculentus71 8,kubiewa10 a species of ,solanum resembling a small tomato called 8,yalo10 the sorrel ,hibiscus 7,h4 ,sabdariffa7 called 8,yakwa10 a pumpkin called 8,kubiwa10 and the aubergine 7,solanum melongena71 are grown upon a small scale1 and chiefly in the vicinity of houses4 ,,other ,,field ,,crops4 ,dye ,plants4--,indigo is the chief dye used in the country1 and is prepared in the northern provinces from a species of ,indigofera1 which has not been accurately determined4 ,in ,ilorin and ,kabba the plant used is ,lonchocarpus cyanescens1 and the wild trees of this species may be seen preserved in the cultivated fields4 ,camwood1 a name applied to the red wood obtained from several species of ,pterocarpus and from ,baphia nitida1 in different parts of ,west ,africa1 is obtained chiefly from ,p4 erinaceus in ,northern ,nigeria1 and is used by the natives for staining the skin4 ,it is preserved in the fields cleared for grain cultivation4 ,henna is obtained from ,lawsonia inermis1 which is regularly planted as a sole crop in the northern provinces and ,kontagora4 ,the use of it is generally to replace camwood as a red dye where that tree is scarce4 ,tobacco4--,the cultivation of tobacco 7,nicotiana tabacum7 is carried on in almost every part of the country1 but for native use is generally made into snuff or into ropes1 plaits1 and targets1 for sale in those places where it is smoked4 7,cf4 ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 vol4 xv4 #aiag1 p4 #cb47 ,the crop is usually grown in the river valleys1 and is irrigated carefully4 ,manure in the form of house sweepings1 ashes1 and cattle-shed refuse is always applied1 and the crop consists of leaves of all sizes and ages stripped from the plant at the same time4 ,the preparation of the tobacco usually consists in drying the leaves spread upon mats or upon sand in the sun4 ,when flaccid they are twisted into ropes or plaits in the form in which they are afterwards sold1 or they are completely dried and pounded up4 ,in ,ilorin an attempt has been made to prepare the leaves tied up in flat bundles1 and this method has more recently been tried at the ,baro prison farm1 but the previous curing has generally proved inefficient and requires more attention4 ,it is unlikely that tobacco fit for export will be produced except under expert guidance4 ,,miscellaneous4 ,beeswax4--,bees are kept in many of the large villages1 and are seen in hives placed in trees near the large towns in ,kano and ,zaria especially4 ,honey is employed in the country as a substitute for sugar4 ,the wax is not greatly valued1 and is frequently thrown away1 although it seems to be of fair quality4 ,locust ,bean4--,the tree which furnishes the well-known locust bean 7,parkia filicoidea7 is called 8,dorowa0 by the ,haussas4 ,the beans1 which are produced in clusters1 contain a sweet-tasting yellow flour-like substance1 which is used for making a beverage4 ,in this flour-like substance the flattened seeds are placed1 and these are greatly appreciated for making into cakes1 in the process of which they are boiled and apparently decomposed4 ,the empty pods of the bean are boiled and used for making a strong cement used in flooring1 etc4 ,the pods have been examined at the ,imperial ,institute1 and appear to be unsuitable for export as a feeding-stuff owing to their fibrous nature 7see ,report by ,professor ,dunstan on 8,cotton1 ,gum1 and ,other ,economic ,products from ,northern ,nigeria0 7,cd4 #bggh #aije71 p4 #ba74 ,fig4 #cj shows a locust bean tree in ,ilorin4 ,date ,palms 7,phnix dactylifera7 and the fruit of the ,run palm 7,borassus flabellifer71 8,giginia0 7,haussa71 are used for food and are sometimes sold in the markets towards the south1 being commonly seen in ,kano4 ,,cattle4--,large numbers of cattle are moved about through the country north of the #aath degree1 where the tsetse fly does not appear to occur4 ,the 8,cow ,fulani0 is the race whose work is confined to the care of cattle and the sale of milk and butter4 ,these people have no fixed abode1 but move with the cattle to localities suitable to the season4 ,an illustration is given of a ,cow ,fulani woman selling milk at ,gwari1 a town south of ,zaria 7,fig4 #cf74 ,the cattle are large and humped similar to the ,indian ,zebu type1 although in some places the straight-backed kind1 which are common in the south1 are seen4 ,,silk4--,four kinds of silkworm are collected for the spinning of yarn used in the embroidery on the ,haussa gowns4 ,the best of these is that which feeds upon the ,tamarind tree1 8,tsamia10 and is termed 8,tsamian tsamia40 ,the silk cocoons are collected in ,bauchi ,province and are boiled in water with wood ashes1 and subsequently washed4 ,the silk becomes nearly white1 and is carded and spun into yarn in the same manner as cotton4 ,the species of insect which produces this silk has not yet been identified1 but is almost certainly referable to the genus ,anaphe 7cf4 p4 #aag74 ,a second quality of silk is that called 8,tsamian doka10 and is obtained from the cocoon masses produced by the larv of ,anaphe ,moloneyi1 which are found in the same locality1 feeding upon the 8,bokin doka0 tree1 which has been determined to be a species of ,macrolobium4 ,several hundred worms congregate together and form a solid mass of pale brown tubular cocoons upon the bark of the tree1 covering the outer surface with a whitish envelope of silk4 ,this silk is treated in the same manner as the other1 but1 after boiling and washing1 does not become white4 ,two other species1 which are used for the same purpose1 are called 8,tsamian fakali0 and 8,tsamian bauri10 and feed on another species of ,macrolobium and a ,ficus respectively4 ,they produce inferior kinds of silk4 ,much interest is attached to these ,anaphe silks1 which1 in recent years1 have been developed in the ,german ,colonies of ,east ,africa1 especially1 on a commercial scale4 ,it is reported that1 just previous to the declaration of war1 ,german agents in ,british ,west ,africa made endeavours to obtain as much of the wild silk as possible from ,nigeria4 ,plantations of a species of ,bridelia1 the common food plant of ,anaphe infracta1 were made in the late ,german ,colonies1 and special machinery was in use there for the production of a commercial silk4 ,the following figures give the values of the chief exported products from ,nigeria as a whole1 from #aiac to #aiai3-- #aiac #aiad #aiae #aiaf ,palm kernels #c1aji1hah #b1eda1aej #a1fib1gab #a1gci1gjf ,palm oil #a1hed1chd #a1ega1fia #a1dfb1afb #a1djb1gii ,cocoa #aeg1dhj #aga1gea #cac1idf #cic1aja ,cotton lint #aei1bbc #aej1gia #ef1cea #bdc1idi ,mahogany and timber #ajf1jej #hf1ebb #ed1eei #di1cfa ,groundnuts #agd1gaf #agi1bai #gb1agg #dgc1fec ,hides and skins #aig1bad #eje1ghe #cjb1dbj #ech1iag ,shea products #gd1dga #eb1hdc #fi1hbc #cb1ebi ,rubber -- #ch1hed #ch1aac #cd1aib ,benniseed -- -- #e1bbe #af1ebc ,continued3 #aiag #aiah #aiai ,palm kernels #b1eha1gjb #c1bbf1cjf #d1idg1iie ,palm oil #a1hhb1iig #b1faj1ddh #d1bde1hic ,cocoa #dii1jjd #bce1hgj #a1jfg1fge ,cotton lint #bcd1cch #ig1cii #dhd1gdd ,mahogany and timber #ba1bhb #fh1dhj #aaf1hbj ,groundnuts #gaj1cjh #ibj1acg #fih1gjb ,hides and skins #aih1ccb #bic1jai #a1bfb1adb ,shea products #dj1ahi #d1hhd #cg1bbb ,rubber #cb1cej #ai1ffg #dc1ijc ,benniseed #b1hgf #fif #ec1eda ,,index ,abassi1 #aaj ,abbradi1 #dd 8,abe bobe10 #ga1 #ajj 8,abe dam10 #gj1 #ajj 8,abe ,ohene10 #ga1 #ajj ,abeokuta1 #aai ,abeokuta-,ibadan1 #ajf 8,abe pa10 #bb1 #gj1 #ajj1 #acb ,abetifi1 #dc 8,abe tuntum10 #gj ,abrotoo1 #dd ,abuko1 #c1 #d ,aburi1 #dg1 #di1 #eg1 #fc1 #fe1 #ff1 #gi ,acacia1 #hi1 #ia1 #abb1 #acd ,acacia albida1 #acd ,acacia arabica1 #ac1 #fb1 #hi1 #acd1 #adc ,acacia ,caffra1 #acd ,acacia mellifera1 #acd ,acacia ,senegal1 #acd ,acacia ,sieberiana1 #hi ,acacia ,verek1 #acd ,accra1 #ef1 #ajf ,accra copal1 #hb1 #ajf ,accras1 #dd 8,acha10 #aed ,adampes1 #dd ,adda1 #ij ,administration1 #aba 8,affia-ko-jub10 #ajj ,african mahogany1 #gb ,african mango1 #ajc ,african rubber1 #ei ,afzelia africana1 #gb1 #aai ,agbede1 #ie1 #aji1 #aab 8,agbesi10 #add ,agege1 #ajf1 #aji1 #aac ,agoonahs1 #dd ,agriculture in ,haussaland1 #acc ,ahantas1 #dd ,ahedua1 #gb ,aimensa1 #ef 8,akee apple10 #ie ,akim1 #gc ,akims1 #de 8,ak-poro-jub10 #ajj 8,akwabohori10 #gb 8,alkama10 #aef ,allium escalonicum1 #afj ,allium cepa1 #afj ,alstonia congoensis1 #aje ,alstonia sp41 #fb ,amedika1 #gg ,amelonado1 #df ,american rice1 #aeg ,anaphe infracta1 #ha1 #aag1 #afc ,anaphe ,moloneyi1 #afc ,anaphe venata1 #ha1 #aag ,angola1 #ga ,ankobra1 #gb ,annatto1 #ed ,anogeissus leiocarpus1 #if ,antiaris toxicaria var4 africana1 #gd ,anum1 #gg ,aphis sorghi1 #ab1 #aec ,apis mellifera var4 ,adansonii1 #aj1 #dj1 #ia ,apocynace1 #fd ,appolonias1 #dd1 #gd ,aquapim1 #dd ,arachis hypoga1 #c1 #f1 #hd1 #aae1 #acb1 #aeh 8,aribedda10 #abh ,armatosterna buquetiana1 #ea ,aros1 #id ,artichokes1 #abd1 #afj ,ashanti1 #dc1 #dd1 #ia ,ashanti-,akim1 #dg1 #ea ,ashanti kings1 #fc 8,ashanti lump10 #fj 8,ashmouni10 #aaj 8,asidigero10 #aeb 8,asidonono10 #aea ,askia1 #hf 8,asoge-e-jub10 #ajj ,aspidiotus destructor1 #aag ,assin1 #dd 8,attifufu10 #abh ,aubergine1 #afa 8,au-su-ku10 #ajj ,axim1 #dg1 #fc1 #ff1 #gb1 #gd1 #hj ,badagri1 #if1 #aag ,baga1 #bd 8,baggarua10 #adc 8,bajra10 #aed ,bakau1 #i1 #aj 8,bako10 #gb ,baku1 #aef 8,balata10 #abg1 #abh 8,balsam of ,copaiba10 #ij1 #adg 8,bambarra0 groundnut1 #aeh ,bananas1 #ci1 #ie 8,baowe10 #ag1 #ah ,baphia nitida1 #cg1 #hc1 #if1 #afa ,barbetu1 #hf ,bark cloth1 #gd ,baro1 #aba1 #acj1 #acg ,baro-,kano ,railway1 #aca1 #acg1 #adj1 #ada ,baro ,prison ,farm1 #afb ,basel ,mission1 #dg ,bassa1 #aai1 #abj1 #abf1 #abh1 #ace1 #acf1 #acg1 #aci1 #adj1 #ade1 #adh1 #aeg 8,bassi10 #ab ,bathurst1 #h1 #i1 #bi ,batkanu1 #bh ,bauchi1 #abj1 #abd1 #adb1 #add1 #afc ,bauhinia reticulata1 #fb1 #afj ,beans1 #ac1 #hh1 #ie1 #aeg ,beer1 #he ,beeswax1 #aj1 #dj1 #ia1 #afb ,belgian ,congo1 #be ,bendi1 #ic ,bengal rice1 #aeg ,benin1 #ajg ,benin ,city1 #ie ,benis1 #id1 #ie ,benniseed1 #abd1 #abg1 #adb1 #afd ,benue1 #acg1 #add1 #aea ,betel nut1 #gc1 #aaf ,bida1 #acb1 #acg1 #aei1 #afj ,bissao1 #bi 8,black arm10 #aab 8,black dye10 #add ,black gram1 #db ,black oil1 #ih 8,black ,rattler10 #gi1 #aaj 8,black smut10 #aec 8,black ,volta10 #dc1 #ij ,bleaching gum1 #ace ,blighia sapida1 #ie ,bo1 #ah1 #bh1 #ch 8,boganderi10 #aea ,boia1 #bd 8,bokin doka10 #afc 8,bokin sosia10 #aea ,bole1 #hf1 #hg ,bollworm1 #aab1 #aci ,borassus flabellifer1 #afb ,bordeaux mixture1 #eb1 #fc ,borers 7copal71 #hb ,borgu1 #abb ,boring beetles1 #ea1 #fe ,bornu1 #abj1 #abd1 #acd1 #aci1 #aeb1 #aef ,bread making1 #aef ,bridelia sp41 #afd ,british ,cotton ,cultivation1 #ab1 #gh1 #aaj1 #acf1 #adj ,british ,cotton ,growing ,association1 #cc1 #gg1 #hj1 #hg1 #hh1 #ajh1 #aaj1 #aab1 #aac1 #aca1 #ace1 #adj1 #ada ,brown beans1 #aeg 8,brown cluster10 #abh 8,brown medium10 #abh ,buettnerie1 #df ,bullelai1 #c ,bulletin of the ,imperial ,institute1 #h1 #i1 #aa1 #ad1 #bc1 #bh1 #ci1 #dj1 #ei1 #fc1 #ff1 #fg1 #fi1 #gj1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc1 #gh1 #hj1 #hb1 #ij1 #ie1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aje1 #ajf1 #aac1 #aad1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aah1 #abe1 #aca1 #acc1 #acd1 #ace1 #ada1 #adc1 #adg1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afa ,bullom1 #af1 #ch1 #dj 8,bulrush millet10 #aeb1 #aed ,bumban1 #bd ,burkea africana1 #hi 8,bush10 #ae1 #ag1 #ai1 #da1 #db1 #de1 #hd1 #id ,butter1 #ij1 #aae1 #acj1 #adb1 #afc ,butyrospermum ,parkii1 #ij1 #aae1 #abh1 #acj ,cajanus indicus1 #db1 #hh1 #aeh 8,calabacillo10 #df ,calabar1 #aje ,calabash1 #ia1 #add 8,cambodia0 cotton1 #cd ,camwood1 #cg1 #hc1 #if1 #afa ,canavalia ensiformis1 #db ,candles1 #gj1 #ih1 #ajc1 #aae1 #acj ,capnodium sp41 #aec ,capsicum annuum1 #bi1 #ada ,capsicum frutescens1 #bi1 #ada ,capsicum sp41 #hd ,capsid1 #ajf ,caracas1 #df ,caracas1 #eg ,carapa procera1 #ga ,caravans1 #gc1 #acf1 #adc ,carpodinus1 #if ,carpodinus hirsutus1 #fe1 #ajd1 #abh ,casamance ,river1 #b1 #f ,cassava1 #c1 #ac1 #ai1 #de1 #hd1 #he1 #hh1 #ie1 #aad1 #abe1 #abf1 #ach1 #aeh1 #afj ,castilloa elastica1 #aj1 #fe ,catch crops1 #di ,cattle1 #b1 #c1 #ef1 #gc1 #ia1 #aah1 #abd1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aec1 #afb1 #afc ,cattle food1 #aac1 #adb1 #aea1 #aed ,cayor1 #f ,ceara rubber1 #i1 #fe1 #ajc1 #abi1 #acj ,central ,province1 #abj1 #abb ,cercospora personata1 #ch 8,chena10 #de ,chew sticks1 #if ,chillies1 #ada ,china grass1 #cc ,chloridea obsoleta1 #aab1 #aci ,chlorita flavescens1 #aab ,chlorophora excelsa1 #fb1 #gb1 #aah ,clifford1 ,sir ,hugh1 #ff ,clitandra elastica1 #ajd ,clitandra laxiflora1 #bg ,clitandra ,manni1 #bg ,cloth1 native1 #cd ,cocoa1 #ch1 #de1 #df1 #ib1 #id1 #ie1 #ajf1 #afd ,cocoa-bark bug1 #ea ,cocoa borer1 #ea ,cocoa butter1 #df ,cocoa1 colouring1 #ed ,cocoa1 tables of exports of1 #ei1 #ajg ,,cocoine1 #fg ,coconut1 #fg1 #hc1 #if1 #aag ,cocoons1 #ha1 #aag1 #afc ,cocos1 #fg ,cocos nucifera1 #hc ,coffea ,liberica1 #ci ,coffea robusta1 #ff ,coffea stenophylla1 #ci ,coffee1 #ci1 #dg1 #ff ,coir1 #hc ,colocasia antiquorum1 #hd1 #aae1 #aei ,colocasia yams1 #ie1 #abf ,coloptera1 #hb ,colopterous larv1 #adg ,communal rubber plantations1 #ajc ,congo1 #ij ,conopharyngia crassa1 #fb ,conopharyngia sp41 #aje ,cooking oils1 #hh1 #ij ,coops1 #ia ,copaifera ,guibourtiana1 #cg ,copal1 #cg1 #ha1 #hi1 #ib1 #if1 #ajf1 #adg ,copal resin1 #abg ,copra1 #hc1 #ib1 #if ,corchorus1 #cc ,corchorus capsularis1 #ac1 #cb ,cotton1 #aa1 #cc1 #gd1 #hg1 #ib1 #id1 #ie1 #ajh1 #abd1 #abg1 #ace1 #ada1 #aei1 #afc1 #afd ,cotton1 cultivation of1 #aaa1 #adj ,cotton lint stainer1 #aab1 #aci ,cotton seed bugs1 #aaj1 #aci ,cotton seed-cake1 #aac ,cotton seeds1 #aac1 #adh ,cow ,fulani1 #afc ,cowpea1 #db1 #abe1 #acc ,crabnut1 #ga ,criollo1 #df1 #eg ,cross ,river1 #id1 #aae1 #aah ,,cucurbitace1 #hd 8,culpepper's ,big ,boll10 #aaj ,cundeamor1 #eg ,custard apples1 #he 8,cutlass10 #bb1 #ej1 #eb 8,cutlass bean10 #ajc ,cyanothyrsus oblongus1 #hd1 #if1 #ajf ,cyanothyrsus ogea1 #ajf ,cyanothyrsus sp41 #gb1 #ajf ,daboya1 #hg1 #ij1 #ia ,dagartis1 #hf ,dagomba1 #hf1 #hg1 #hi1 #aef ,dahomey1 #bi1 #aja1 #abj ,daka ,river1 #dc ,dakar1 #bi ,dakman1 #aef 8,dancing0 cocoa1 #ed ,daniella thurifera1 #hi1 #abh1 #adg 8,dankali40 #afj 8,danko ,gawa10 #abi 8,danko ,kadainya10 #abi ,date palm1 #afb ,dauro1 #aed 8,dawa10 #aea 8,dawadawa10 #ib ,denkera1 #dd 8,derba10 #aec 8,dhall10 #hh1 #aeh 8,dhoole10 #cd1 #aji 8,dhura10 #aea 8,difumbe10 #ga ,digitaria ternata1 #aed ,dioscorea alata1 #hh ,dioscorea colocasifolia1 #hh ,dioscorea sativa1 #hh1 #aei ,dioscorea sp41 #hd1 #aae ,diospyros sp41 #aah ,diparopsis castanea1 #aab 8,djenje10 #bg ,dodowa1 #ef ,dolichos lablab1 #db 8,domana10 #aec ,dombeya buettneri1 #if ,donkeys1 #gc1 #abf 8,dorowa10 #afb 8,doya10 #aei ,dressed skins1 #abg 8,dubini10 #gb 8,dumjeri10 #aba ,dunstan1 ,professor ,wyndham1 #ab1 #gh1 #aaj1 #acf1 #adj1 #afb ,dwarf cattle1 #aai ,dwarf goats1 #aai ,dwarf horses1 #aai ,dysdercus nigrofasciatus1 #gf ,dysdercus superstitiosus1 #aab1 #aci ,earias biplaga1 #aci ,earias imbricata1 #aab ,earias insulana1 #aab1 #aci ,earias sp41 #aci ,earthenware1 #aai 8,earth pea40 ,see ,groundnut ,eastern agriculture1 #abd ,eastern ,akim1 #dg ,eastern ,sudan1 #hf 8,ebo10 #abh ,ebony1 #aag1 #aah ,ebute ,metta1 #aje 8,eduege-,eyop10 #ajj 8,efi-ako-,eyop10 #ajj ,egga1 #acg ,egg-plant1 #ie ,egypt1 #hf1 #abd ,egyptian boll-worm1 #aab1 #aci ,egyptian cotton1 #aa1 #gf1 #gh1 #aji1 #aaj1 #acf1 #acg ,egyptian wheat1 #aee ,eket1 #ajg ,elis guineensis1 #aa1 #ai1 #fg1 #gj1 #acb ,elis ,thompsonii1 #ga1 #ajj ,elephants1 #hh ,eleusine coracana1 #aee ,embroidery1 silk1 #afc ,entandrophragma sp41 #aah 8,eponkon10 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaj ,euphorbia1 #abf 8,fai0 or 8,fawe0 beans1 #dj ,fallow1 #ach ,famine conditions1 #abf1 #adi ,fan palm1 #g 8,fande ,wa10 #cd ,fanti1 #be1 #dd1 #gd 8,farafara10 #aea 8,farin rama10 #add ,farmers' ,association1 #cj 8,fatainya10 #abe ,fernando ,po1 #ch1 #df1 #dg1 #eg ,fetish nut1 #ajj ,fibre preparation1 #ade ,fibres1 #ac1 #ag1 #ca1 #hj1 #hi1 #if1 #aaf1 #abg1 #add1 #adf ,fibrous plants1 #id1 #ade ,fibrous pulp 7oil palm71 #ig ,ficus1 #ei1 #fe1 #abh1 #afc ,ficus platyphylla1 #abh ,ficus trachyphylla1 #abi ,ficus ,vogelii1 #i1 #fe1 #abi ,fig rubber1 #fe 8,findi10 #ab 8,first ,niggers10 #ajd 8,flake rubber10 #fe1 #abh ,floods1 #ab ,flour1 #aec1 #aed1 #aef ,fogni1 #b1 #h ,fogola1 #ade 8,folio10 #i ,food crops1 #adh 8,forastero10 #df 8,forastero-,amelonado10 #dg1 #eg ,forest produce1 #abg ,forest products1 #de1 #id ,forest reserve1 #aai1 #acj ,forestry1 #db ,fork 8kodalli hoe10 #ag ,fossil copal1 #hb1 #ajf ,foulahs1 #a1 #af ,four-eyed palm-nuts1 #ajj ,fowls1 #ia ,fra-,fra potato1 #hi ,freetown1 #bg1 #bh1 #dj ,french ,guinea1 #bh1 #abj ,french ,sudan1 #dc1 #abj ,fruit1 #ci1 #ie ,fuel1 #ig1 #aai ,fulani1 #a1 #abb1 #abd ,funtumia africana1 #bf1 #fj1 #fb1 #aje ,funtumia elastica1 #aj1 #bf1 #fj1 #ff1 #ie1 #if1 #ajc1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj ,funtumia rubber1 #bg1 #bh1 #fj1 #fa1 #fc1 #ff1 #ajc ,furniture making1 #aah ,gallinas1 #af1 #ci ,gambaga1 #he ,gambaga-,kumassi ,road1 #hf ,gambia1 #ch1 #hh1 #ia1 #ii1 #ajj ,,gambia1 introductory remarks1 geographical position1 #a2 area and population1 #a2 tribes1 #a2 political divisions1 #b2 natural conditions1 #b2 chief crops1 #c2 implements1 #c2 ploughing1 #c2 land tenure1 #c2 labour1 #d2 agricultural schools1 #d2 chief exports1 #e2 ,,ground ,,nuts1 uses1 #e2 classification and description1 #f2 ,,rubber1 #h2 ,,beeswax1 #aj2 ,,palm ,,kernels1 #aa2 ,,cotton1 #aa2 ,,grain1 #ab2 ,,root ,,and ,,other ,,crops1 #ac2 ,,tanning1 #ac2 ,,fibres1 #ac2 ,,timber1 #ac2 ,,trade1 #ad ,gambian groundnut1 #acb 8,gamopale10 #gj 8,gara10 #ci 8,garma10 #abe 8,gawo10 #acd ,gbemas1 #af 8,gboi-gboi10 #bf 8,geda10 #acb ,geidam1 #aba ,gelechiad1 #aab ,gelechia gossypiella1 #aab 8,georgia0 cotton1 #aaj1 #aab ,german ,african ,colonies1 #abi1 #afc ,german ports1 #acd ,german territory1 #hf1 #ajd 8,gero10 #aeb1 #aed 8,giginia10 #afb ,gingelly1 #adb ,ginger1 #cj ,ginnery1 #cc1 #gg1 #ajh ,ginning centres1 #acg ,ginning machines1 #gg ,gins1 #gf 8,gir10 #aed 8,girigiri10 #aeh 8,giro10 #aed ,glenea sp41 #ea ,gliadin1 #aef ,glossina morsitans1 #ia ,glossina pallidipes1 #ia1 #aai ,glossina palpalis1 #ia1 #aai ,gluten1 #aef ,glycerine1 #gj ,glycine hispida1 #aeh ,glycine soja1 #db1 #aeh ,glyphodes ocellata1 #fc ,goat manure for wheat1 #aee ,goat skins1 #ac1 #aaf1 #adb ,gober1 #abc ,gola ,forest1 #bf ,gold ,coast1 #a1 #aj1 #bb1 #bg1 #bi1 #cf1 #ii1 #aaf1 #acb1 #ade1 #adh ,,gold ,,coast1 ,,ashanti ,,and ,,northern ,,territories1 introductory remarks1 geographical position1 #dc2 area and population1 #dc2 divisions1 #dc2 ,,part ,i4 ,,gold ,,coast ,,and ,,ashanti1 origin of tribes1 #dd2 ,,cocoa1 #de2 pruning1 #ej2 insect pests and vegetable parasites1 #ej2 harvesting and preparing1 #eb2 markets1 #ed2 improvement of quality1 #ef2 exports1 #ei2 ,,rubber1 indigenous species1 #ei2 8,ofruntum0 tree1 #ei2 distribution of ,funtumia elastica1 #fj2 native methods of preparing1 #fj2 improved methods1 #fb2 plantations1 #fc2 insect pest1 #fc2 fungoid pest1 #fc2 rubber machinery1 #fc2 vine rubber1 #fd2 fig rubber1 #fe2 introduced species1 #fe2 ,,palm ,,oil ,,and ,,kernels1 #ff2 habits of the oil palm1 #fg2 preparation of palm oil1 #fh2 kernel oil1 #fi2 commercial uses1 #fi2 varieties of oil palms1 #gj2 ,,other ,,oil ,,seeds1 #ga2 ,,timber1 mahogany1 #gb2 other timber trees1 #gb2 ,,kola1 #gc2 ,,cotton1 #gd2 ,american and other exotic cottons1 #gh2 attempts at hybridisation1 #gh2 valuation of samples at ,imperial ,institute1 #gi2 ,,fibres1 #hj2 ,,silk1 #ha2 ,,copal1 #ha2 ,,copra1 #hc2 ,,dyes and ,,pigments1 #hc2 ,indigo1 #hc2 ,,field ,,crops1 #hd2 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,northern ,,territories1 tribes1 #he2 ,,field ,,crops1 #hg2 cotton1 #hg2 other field crops1 #hh2 fibre1 #hi2 tobacco1 #hi2 ,,gums1 #hi2 ,,wood ,,oil1 #hi2 ,,shea ,,butter1 #ij2 ,,rubber1 #ij2 ,,dyes1 #ij2 ,,beeswax1 #ia2 ,,leather1 #ia2 ,,cattle ,,and ,,poultry1 #ia2 ,,exports1 #ib ,gongola1 #aea ,gonjas1 #he ,gossypium arboreum var4 sanguineum1 #acf ,gourds1 #hd ,gpakas1 #af ,grain1 #ab1 #id ,grass cloth1 #gd ,grass fires1 #ij ,great or ,indian millet1 #aea 8,green seed0 cotton1 #ge1 #gh ,groundnut1 #a1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #ab1 #ad1 #ch1 #db1 #hd1 #he1 #hg1 #hh1 #ib1 #ie1 #if1 #aae1 #abd1 #abe1 #abf1 #abg1 #acb1 #acc1 #adb1 #aeh1 #afd ,groundnut1 origin of1 #f ,grunshis1 #hf ,guarea1 #aah ,guavas1 #he1 #ie 8,guinea corn10 #c1 #ab1 #da1 #gc1 #hd1 #hg1 #hh1 #ie1 #abd1 #abf1 #acg1 #adb1 #adi1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aed1 #aee1 #aeg1 #aei 8,guinea fowls10 #ia ,gums and resins1 #cg1 #ha1 #hg1 #abg1 #acd ,gurara1 #aea 8,gutta10 #abh ,guttapercha1 #abg1 #abi 8,gutta-shea10 #acj1 #aca ,gwari1 #abc1 #abd1 #abf1 #aed1 #aee1 #aeh1 #afc 8,gwaza10 #afj ,hamburg1 #acd ,hand plough1 #c 8,hard0 oil1 #ig ,haussa1 #ac1 #gd1 #hi1 #ij1 #id1 #aaf1 #abb1 #abc1 #abd1 #abf1 #acb1 #add1 #aed1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afj1 #afb ,haussa ,land1 #abb ,head load as trading standard1 #ed ,head loads1 #gc1 #ia ,hedges1 #abf ,helianthus tuberosus1 #afj ,helopeltis1 #eb ,helopeltis ,antonii1 #eb ,henna1 #afa ,hevea brasiliensis1 #aj1 #bh1 #fa1 #fe1 #abi1 #acj ,hibiscus1 #ac1 #hi1 #aaf1 #adj1 #add1 #adf ,hibiscus esculentus1 #ac1 #cb1 #hd1 #afa ,hibiscus guineensis1 #if1 #ade ,hibiscus lunariifolius1 #add1 #ade ,hibiscus quinquelobus1 #cb ,hibiscus sabdariffa1 #hi1 #ade1 #afa ,hides1 #abg1 #afd ,hippopotami1 #hh ,hoe1 #c1 #ag1 #hg1 #abe ,holarrhena ,wulfsburgii1 #aje ,honckya ficifolia1 #ca ,honey1 #dj1 #ia1 #afb ,horse beans1 #db ,horse food1 #aeb ,horses1 #b1 #ia ,husking rice1 #aef ,hybridisation1 cotton1 #gh1 #aji1 #aaa ,ibadan1 #ig1 #aaj1 #aab1 #aac1 #aae1 #aag1 #aci 8,iboru10 #aee ,ibos1 #id ,ida1 #aje 8,ifa10 #ajj ,ifon1 #ie1 #aai ,ijoas1 #id ,ilaro1 #aaf ,ilesha1 #aai ,illara1 #aai ,illushi1 #aji1 #aac ,ilorin1 #aaj1 #aae1 #abj1 #aba1 #abc1 #abi1 #acj1 #aca1 #ace1 #acg1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada1 #add1 #ade1 #adf1 #adh1 #aeg1 #aei1 #afa1 #afb ,immunity from fly disease1 #aai ,imperial ,institute1 #ab1 #cd1 #eg1 #fb1 #gj1 #ga1 #gi1 #hb1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ii1 #ajb1 #aji1 #aca1 #ace1 #acf1 #ade1 #aec1 #aed1 #aee1 #aeg1 #afj1 #afb ,implements1 agricultural1 #ah1 #abe ,incense1 #adg1 #adh ,indigenous cotton1 #aji ,indigo1 #ac1 #cd1 #ci1 #hc1 #ij1 #ie1 #aai1 #add1 #afa ,indigofera sp41 #ac1 #ci1 #hc1 #hh1 #ie1 #afa ,ink1 #ac ,insect 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cordifolia1 #hj ,triumfetta semitriloba1 #hj 8,tsamia10 #afc 8,tsamian bauri10 #afc 8,tsamian doka10 #afc 8,tsamian fakali10 #afc 8,tsamian tsamia10 #afc 8,tsetse0 fly1 #b1 #ef1 #ia1 #aah1 #abb1 #afb ,tufel1 #dd 8,tug bore10 #ajj 8,tumuku10 #hi1 #afj ,turmeric1 #add ,twi language1 #eh 8,udin10 #ajj ,ugboha1 #aab 8,upland cotton10 #aaa1 #acf1 #ach ,ustilago sp41 #ab ,ustilago ,reiliana1 #aec ,uwet1 #aaf ,varnish1 #ca1 #hb ,vegetable butter1 #aae1 #acj ,vegetable fat1 #ij1 #aca 8,vegetable whalebone10 #hj ,veis1 #af ,vigna catjang1 #db1 #acc ,voandzeia subterranea1 #aeh ,volta1 #dc1 #ee1 #gd1 #gi1 #hj1 #hb 8,volta0 cotton1 #ge1 #gh ,volta ,river district1 #dg1 #ed ,wa1 #he1 #hf1 #ij ,walas1 #he 8,wanki10 #aeg1 #aeh ,waterloo1 #bh ,water yam1 #hh ,wax1 #ia1 #afb ,weaving1 #cd1 #gd ,weevilly maize1 #aad ,wells1 #aea1 #aee ,western ,sudan1 #abc ,west ,indies1 #af1 #df1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #ec1 #ed1 #aae ,wet season1 #abf1 #adi ,wet zone1 #ic1 #id ,whalebone1 #cc1 #hj ,wheat1 #abd1 #abf1 #aee ,white ball1 #fd1 #fe 8,white ,egyptian onion10 #afj ,white fungus1 #g ,white haricot1 #aeg ,white maize1 #aad ,white rice1 #aeg ,wild cotton1 #ge ,wild kola1 #gc ,wild sesamum1 #adb ,wine1 #hj ,wine palm1 #cc ,winged yam1 #hh ,wire-haired sheep1 #ia ,wood ashes1 #hi1 #if 8,wood oil10 #hi1 #abh1 #adg ,wood oil1 mode of collection of1 #adg 8,wound-response10 #fa ,wounds1 pruning1 #ej 8,yakwa10 #afa 8,yalo10 #afa ,yalunkas1 #af ,yams1 #ai1 #db1 #de1 #ge1 #hd1 #he1 #hg1 #hh1 #ie1 #if1 #aae1 #abf1 #aei ,yarn1 #aag1 #afc ,yauris1 #abc ,yeji1 #hh1 #ij ,yellow dye1 #add ,yellow maize1 #aee ,yendi1 #hf 8,yi-ku-niche10 #ajj1 #acb ,yola1 #abj1 #aba1 #acg ,yonnibannah1 #bd ,yoruba1 #be1 #id1 #ajh1 #aaa1 #aad1 #aaf1 #abc1 #abf1 #acc1 #adj1 #ada1 #add1 #ade1 #aee1 #aeh1 #aei ,zanfara1 #abd ,zaria1 #abj1 #aba1 #abb1 #abc1 #abd1 #abe1 #aca1 #acc1 #ace1 #acg1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb1 #add1 #adh1 #adi1 #aej1 #aec1 #aed1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afj1 #afb ,zaria ,ginnery1 #adj ,zea mays1 #hd1 #aee ,zebu1 #aai1 #afc ,zingiber officinale1 #cj ,zungeru1 #aba1 #acj1 #acb1 #acg 99 99 99 99 99 ,printed by ,hazell1 ,watson ,viney1 ,ld41 ,london and ,aylesbury1 ,england4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,hinchley ,hart1 in ,cacao1 #ahib1 pp4 #dh-eb1 discusses the three varieties mentioned here1 and shows that intermediate forms exist which connect all three4 ,the ,forastero class includes all the cocoas which have thick skins and large pods with rather flat beans4 ,footnote #b3 ,s4 singularis1 a nearly allied insect1 is common in certain localities and does similar damage4 ,footnote #c3 ,cf4 ,bull4 ,ent4 ,res41 vol4 i4 7#aiaa71 p4 #hc2 ,bull4 ,imp4 ,inst41 vol4 viii4 7#aiaj71 p4 #aej2 vol4 xiv4 7#aiaf71 p4 #agd2 vol4 xviii4 7#aibj71 p4 #cai4 ,footnote #d3 ,this has since been identified with ,gelechia gossypiella1 ,sanders1 an insect which subsequently effected such enormous damage in ,egypt4 ,footnote #e3 ,these names are substituted for ,bauchi and ,nupe in the old system4 ,footnote #f3 ,lady ,lugard1 ,a ,tropical ,dependency1 #aije1 p4 #bcf et seq4 ,footnote #g3 ,ibid41 p4 #bji4 ,footnote #h3 ,included in ,southern ,nigeria exports4 ,footnote #i3 ,including copal resin4 ,footnote #aj3 ,including dressed skins4 ,footnote #aa3 ,identical with what is termed ,e4 biplaga at ,ibadan1 but probably a local form of ,e4 insulana4 ,footnote #ab3 ,for the most recent information respecting cotton cultivation here and elsewhere in ,west ,africa1 ,professor ,dunstan's ,reports to the ,brussels ,congress of ,tropical ,agriculture 7#aiaj7 should be consulted4 ,footnote #ac3 ,since named ,s4 guineensis var4 robustum1 ,stapf4 ,transcriber's note3 pg #db ,changed3 and ,protectorate1 to3 ,protectorate4 pg #gg ,changed3 decending the rapids to3 descending pg #ia ,changed3 some localites to3 localities pg #adf ,changed3 ap-apparently rather harsh to3 apparently pg #afe ,changed3 ,apocynacea to3 ,apocynace pg #aga ,changed3 ,lophila procera to3 ,lophira pg #agb ,changed3 ,nicotiana tobacum to3 tabacum pg #agd ,changed3 ,pseudrocedrela ,kotschyi to3 ,pseudocedrela ,other spelling inconsistencies have been left unchanged4 ,underlined text is indicated with 4