,transcriber's ,note ,italic text displayed as3 italic ,illustration3 ,portrait of a man ,,the ,,undertakers' ,,manual3 ,a ,,treatise ,,of ,,useful ,,and ,,reliable ,,information2 ,,embracing ,,complete ,,and ,,detailed ,,instructions ,,for ,,the ,,preservation ,,of ,,bodies4 ,,also1 ,,the ,,most ,,approved ,,embalming ,,methods2 ,,with ,,hints ,,on ,,the ,,profession ,,of ,,undertaking4 ,,by ,,auguste ,,renouard4 ,,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,a4 ,h4 ,,nirdlinger ,,co41 ,,publishers4 ,entered according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahgh1 by ,,auguste ,,renouard1 ,in the ,office of the ,librarian of ,congress1 at ,washington1 ,d4,c4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,page4 ,introduction1 iii ,to the ,profession1 vii ,undertaking as a ,profession1 #e ,embalming1 #ab ,the ,laboratory1 #ag ,drugs and ,chemicals1 #ba ,post ,mortem ,examinations1 #cj ,preservation of ,bodies1 #cf ,state of ,body after ,death1 #da ,death from ,poisoning1 #dd ,embalming ,bodies1 #di ,the ,arterial ,system1 #ef ,animal ,matter1 #fd ,thrombosis and ,embolism1 #gj ,process of ,embalming1 #gf ,explanation of ,terms1 #ia ,of ,animal ,chemistry--,section one1 #if 0 0 ,section two1 #aae ,gannal's ,process of ,embalming1 #abc ,embalming by ,maceration1 #abh ,laws of ,health1 #acj ,embalming ,process of ,worth and ,durand1 #adb ,miscellaneous ,duties1 #adf ,rapid ,decay of the ,human ,structure1 #aeg ,practices which must be ,abolished1 #afi ,management of an ,undertaking ,establishment1 #age ,modifications in ,embalming ,bodies1 #ahb ,chlorine3 its ,properties and ,uses1 #ahf ,instruments1 #aia ,gaseous ,compounds1 #aig ,general ,view of the ,circulating ,apparatus1 #bjj ,glossary and ,index1 #bji ,,introduction4 ,the author of this book has labored diligently1 and1 as ,i think1 with remarkable success1 to occupy an original and unique field in ,american literature4 ,hitherto1 a complete treatise on the important profession of ,undertaking has been unknown4 ,in fact1 until the establishment of 8,,the ,,casket0 7to which ,mr4 ,,renouard has been a regular contributor from the beginning71 there never had been published anything concerning the duties and amenities of the undertaker4 ,there seemed to be a vague notion that there was nothing to write about1 and so of course nothing had been written calculated to raise the profession to its proper dignity1 and at the same time put it in the light in which a correct estimate of it could be obtained by the public4 ,to be sure1 there had been1 and occasionally continues to be1 diatribes in the secular and religious press on the 8pomp10 8extravagances10 8oppression10 etc41 etc41 of funerals1 and plentiful rhetoric1 couched in burlesque1 sneer and satire1 on the methods of the undertaker2 but a volume of sound sense1 practical advice and valuable information for every one connected with the business never appeared important enough to command the serious thought and arduous labor of formulating into a ,manual4 ,this work1 however1 has at last been accomplished by one of their number2 a gentleman who1 by education1 industry and taste1 is fully qualified for so important an undertaking4 ,how successfully1 the following pages amply testify4 ,to occupy a great deal of space with complete instructions for the preservation of dead bodies was absolutely necessary1 for without such instructions the book would fail of its mission and be absolutely valueless4 ,to impart this important information1 required the author to devote page after page to explaining ,physiological ,chemistry and ,anatomy to the profound study of which he has devoted the best years of his active life4 ,the more closely these pages are studied1 the more satisfactory will be the knowledge gleaned by the student4 ,let no one1 however1 say that these chapters are burdened with unnecessary technical terms1 for no scientific information can be imparted without employing the words and phrases which long usage by scientists has sanctioned4 ,and if any individual supposes he can master the details without laborious study1 and without commencing with the rudimentary principles1 he may as well stop before beginning1 for he will spend his time in vain and his strength for naught4 ,the study of the facts herein inculcated will1 however1 become1 as the study of any important subject becomes to the earnest student1 not only interesting1 but really fascinating4 ,i therefore take especial pleasure in commending this ,manual to all undertakers and their assistants1 being fully persuaded that it will materially assist them in becoming more proficient in their profession4 ,and as the years roll on1 ,i am quite confident that the attainment of more accurate knowledge will be demanded1 and more exacting duties required1 of the undertaker2 hence1 he who acquires the valuable information which this book imparts will be the successful undertaker of the future4 ,,thomas ,,gliddon4 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 ,june #a1 #ahgh4 ,,to ,,the ,,profession4 ,in presenting this book to the ,american undertakers1 the object is to instruct1 as well as to create interest in the profession1 by developing scientific facts which are necessary to promote the avocation of an undertaker to the rank which it deservedly ought to occupy4 ,the several chapters1 which may at first sight seem dry and superfluous1 are nevertheless essential to a clear and thorough understanding of the several processes of embalming given in this book4 ,had these seemingly arid dissertations been left out altogether1 the work of embalming and of preserving bodies would have proved a sore puzzle to many2 and it was found necessary to elucidate the modus operandi of each process1 by giving reasons for the use of the chemicals1 their mode of action1 and the results to be expected by a careful and discriminate use of them4 ,the names of the chemicals and the quantity to be used was not found sufficient in instructing undertakers2 but1 to satisfy the investigating propensities of all1 and to make every one thoroughly conversant with the means employed1 the nature and properties of the different chemicals used have been explained at length4 ,as to the chapters devoted to anatomy1 the arterial circulation and the different parts of the human structure1 they will be found indispensable in this work1 and1 when thoroughly understood1 will be found to greatly facilitate the work of the operator4 ,how can the embalmer find the point of injection1 or go on with his work1 if he be totally ignorant of the places of the different organs1 the courses of the veins and arteries1 their relations and relative positions8 ,it is1 then1 an undeniable fact1 that without this knowledge the embalmer will accomplish his task more or less well1 and without knowing with any degree of certainty if the process of injecting is complete1 or if the parts intended to be injected have been reached by the fluid4 ,closely allied to this are the conditions of the body after death1 as governed by circumstances which may affect it1 and thereby modify the treatment thereof--admitting that different modes of treatment are required by different cases4 ,how1 then1 is the undertaker to discriminate1 if he be not warned beforehand1 or if his knowledge does not teach him what course is the best to follow8 ,and how is this knowledge to be gained1 if he has not made it a point to study at least that part of the human organism with which he may have to deal8 ,as the different processes given in this book for the preserving and embalming of bodies are founded upon practical experiments1 based upon purely scientific principles1 it becomes1 then1 necessary that these principles be fully explained1 so as throw sufficient light on points which might otherwise remain obscure4 ,what has been said about anatomy applies equally well to the study of animal chemistry4 ,the constituents of the human body1 fluid and solid1 have all more or less different properties1 as also their composition varies to a great extent4 ,it is1 therefore1 a point of material importance for undertakers to know and understand their formation1 the causes which may accelerate their decay or putrefaction1 and also the means which may be employed to the best advantage to counteract their tendency to disintegration4 ,all the points above mentioned being understood1 it follows therefrom that the knowledge thus imparted will prove of great utility to the profession1 although it may appear at first sight an unwarrantable waste of time and a mass of technicalities4 ,it may also be useful to repeat here certain injunctions as to the dangers to be encountered in the handling of the dead1 and also of the proper care to be exercised by undertakers in avoiding to rush heedlessly into danger and aggravate the perils of their calling4 ,the public at large have but a very imperfect idea of the dangerous1 and even1 in some cases1 repulsive1 character of our profession4 ,the undertaker1 and the perils attending in many instances the discharge of his duties1 as a general thing1 are very seldom thought of by those outside of the profession4 ,to a great many the business of the undertaker has something dreadful and appalling about it2 and without very well understanding themselves the nature of the feeling1 it is always associated with the horrible4 ,this impression1 which seems to have grown in the minds of the majority1 is altogether an erroneous one1 which ought to be eradicated from public sentiment4 ,undertakers1 as a class1 are men useful to society2 their calling1 far from being horrible and loathsome1 as the ignorant and shallow minded are pleased to call it1 is one which requires a great deal of self-denial1 and which often brings to the surface the finest traits of human nature4 ,granted that our profession is one fraught with dangers1 it becomes incumbent upon professionals to protect themselves against them by all the means that knowledge1 experience and science may suggest4 ,one great mistake1 and one which has been repeated too often1 is the false security some may place in the use of strong liquors to combat and render void the deadly effects of contagion4 ,this has been a stumbling block to many2 and without incurring the accusation of being a fanatic in regard to temperance1 we may safely assert that a great many of our professionals have fallen victims to the effects of alcohol1 which1 being used at first as a sort of medical preventive1 soon assumes full sway over the mind1 and baffles their best efforts to resist it4 ,if we are to look anywhere for a preventive of contagion and infection1 we must look to the directions and remedies which medical science holds in store2 and also to the undisputable fact1 that in the caution used and the care exercised in handling bodies1 assisted by a discriminate judgment1 lies our best pledge of safety4 ,as it has been remarked before1 the different modes of preserving and embalming bodies given in this book are not mere speculations as to probabilities1 nor are they simply mere recipes picked up at random2 but they are the results of long practice and successful experiments1 which have demonstrated1 in a most satisfactory manner1 that the advantages claimed for these same processes are well founded and worthy of credit4 ,the long chapter on chemistry and physiology is1 therefore1 not only essential to the full understanding of the methods given1 but it is also intended as a proof of the judicious selection of the chemicals that are employed in the operation of embalming1 as also of the system upon which this operation is based4 ,it must not be supposed that all the known modes of embalming and preserving bodies are to be found in this book1 nor was it ever intended to have it so2 only those that are known to be reliable1 and which have been found to give entire satisfaction1 have been elucidated4 ,there are other methods1 which are also said to be good2 but1 until they are found by actual and practical experiment to be worthy the merits claimed for them1 they shall not be made public4 ,however1 should they prove to be equal1 if not superior1 in one way or another1 to the methods herein illustrated1 we will bring them out in the course of time to the notice of the profession4 ,,undertakers ,,and ,,their ,,assistants4 ,among the many things important to undertakers to bear in mind is the discretion that must necessarily be employed in the choice of their help and assistants4 ,to a great number this caution will seem trivial and perhaps superfluous2 but we hope those who may think so will change their opinion after reading attentively the following4 ,we have stated at the commencement of this work that every man cannot be an undertaker2 it is equally true1 also1 that every man cannot fill with credit and satisfactorily the position of assistant to an undertaker4 ,as a good1 efficient assistant can1 to a great extent1 enhance the repute and promote the interests of his employer1 so it is that a careless1 inattentive1 self-conceited man may and will cause harm in the same ratio4 ,a first-class assistant should consider the interests of his employer as closely his own as though they were so in fact1 and perform his duties outside the store with as much promptitude1 thoroughness and correctness of deportment as if he were under the immediate supervision of his employer4 ,a slovenly appearance in public should be guarded against2 and a man who does not care for his personal appearance seldom possesses much regard for anything else2 moreover1 it is not beneficial to the establishment with which he may be connected4 ,trustworthiness is also to be looked after in such parties1 not only so far as immediate honesty is concerned1 but also in the punctual discharge of his duties4 ,the profession of an undertaker is confining and exceptional in its nature1 and requires constant attention4 ,pleasure and amusements are a secondary consideration2 and any man accustomed to self-indulgence in the above to any extent should scrupulously keep out of the business1 and select some other means of livelihood more congenial to his tastes4 ,as an assistant may be called upon to exercise his functions at any hour of the day or night1 he must be ready1 and constantly so1 to answer any call made upon his services4 ,an assistant should also enjoy sound health and a strong constitution1 as the strain upon his physical powers may be placed to a severe test at times4 ,he should be a man of some social standing1 and be a thorough master of his profession1 as he may at times be called upon to officiate instead of his employer1 and any show of ignorance or neglect on his part will not only be a stigma upon himself1 but will also reflect discredit upon the name of the party whom he may be serving4 ,an ill-mannered1 boorish assistant is a plague to any establishment2 so is also the self-conceited1 foppish1 ignorant one4 ,the first is liable to give offence by the rudeness of his speech and manners2 the last will surely alienate the good will of patrons by his overbearing demeanor and shallow pretensions to a knowledge which he does not really possess4 ,a good assistant should know all that pertains to his business1 not in superficial and light manner1 but in thorough1 complete fashion4 ,he must be able to not only line a casket1 but manufacture his own lining if necessary2 to take charge of all the details of a funeral2 assist physicians in a post mortem examination1 if required so to do2 or properly embalm a corpse4 ,on the other hand1 it must be conceded that such a man as ,i have described is a valuable one for an assistant1 and ought to receive a generous remuneration1 and also be made to feel that he is appreciated4 ,,conclusion4 ,my effort in this little volume has been to offer to my professional brethren the means employed by the most eminent chemists1 both in this country and ,europe1 to preserve bodies1 and the methods given are the best known to modern science4 ,i have also tried to make them feel aware of the necessity of knowledge1 and shall feel happy if by so doing ,i have helped to raise our profession to the standard it really deserves4 ,,undertaking4 ,it may not be amiss at the commencement of this work1 to say a few words about the profession of an undertaker1 and undertakers as a class4 ,among the many who have chosen ,,undertaking ,,as ,a ,,profession1 and carried on the business for years1 there exists a certain class who1 although pecuniarily successful1 do not have a very clear idea of the requisite qualities indispensable to the general make up of a first-class professional4 ,others seem to ignore the multitudinous duties1 the performance of which will bring either credit1 or blame1 to themselves1 according to the degree of tact or skill exhibited in the discharge thereof4 ,a great many have gone into the business simply because it is represented to them as a money making profession2 others1 because their fathers being undertakers have thought proper to train them to it1 although their mercantile ideas may run in another direction4 ,and again1 some without capital will try and battle against competition1 merely to make a living2 but above all1 there is that class of men who1 entirely ignorant of the rudimentary knowledge of the business1 having means1 and regardless of the qualifications necessary to insure success1 plunge right into it with the idea that it is a safe investment for surplus funds1 a genteel employment1 and one which1 according to their notions1 does not require any extraordinary amount of brains or labor4 ,is it then a matter of astonishment if so many of our undertakers fail1 or find themselves unable to cope with some more favored rival8 ,to them it is a source of wonder1 but to a discriminating public the cause is soon apparent4 ,it is safe to assert that every one cannot be an undertaker2 in this profession1 a man is more than in any other the architect of his own fortune2 his success depends altogether upon his tact1 skill1 discrimination and untiring efforts to please those who may honor him with their trust4 ,no small matter is it for an undertaker to perform his solemn duties with credit to himself and to the satisfaction of all present2 sorrow has not so blunted all other feelings in relations and friends as to make them relax their lynx eyed vigilance of every motion of the undertaker while performing the delicate duties of his avocation4 ,he must be endowed with the soft touch of a woman in the handling of the dear remains2 his work must be performed in silence1 with soft tread and expedition2 his presence in the house is a constant reminder to all of the irreparable loss which has bereft the family of one of its members4 ,he must be quick of perception and ready of expedients1 as there is often no time left for reflection4 ,to hesitate at times would be taken for ignorance1 and prompt action is the only means at hand to retrieve himself4 ,a clear head and a cool judgment are among the most necessary qualities4 ,urbane and affable in his manners2 your first-class professional is an accomplished gentleman2 his knowledge of the world and daily contact with people of all conditions allow him to assimilate himself with quiet dignity with persons of all rank in the social scale of life4 ,well dressed1 yet without ostentation1 punctual in his engagements1 without the flurry of general transactions1 he will treat his more wealthy customers with deferential politeness without cringing1 as also will he bring in his dealings with his more modest patrons none of the hauteur characteristic of a narrow mind and a lack of education4 ,perfect equanimity of temper is a transcendent virtue in an undertaker4 ,mistakes and delays will happen in spite of the most careful preparations and the best laid plans2 accidents1 unforeseen and unthought of1 will occur suddenly2 it is then that a clear headed man will find some prompt means to remedy all before any one of those present has taken notice of anything amiss4 ,good taste is also eminently one of the requisite attributes to be displayed in the easy1 informal laying out of the remains1 the attitude of repose devoid of the conventional rigidity of limbs2 in the chaste trimmings of the casket1 rich with elegance1 but without overloading with useless ornaments4 ,how many so-called undertakers will calculate the beauty of a casket by the accumulation of silver ornaments promiscuously scattered on the top and sides2 to such the profusion of flashy trimmings is the standard of elegance4 ,the floral decorations either in the house or the church must also be in accordance with the spirit of the scene4 ,good taste will likewise dictate to the undertaker that any attempt at a lachrymose or woe begone cast of countenance on his part1 will not be regarded by his patrons as a criterion of his sympathies for the bereaved family1 but rather as a hypocritical mask assumed for the occasion4 ,a decorous1 quiet bearing is by far better appreciated by friends and mourners4 ,the master head of a really good undertaker will show itself in every small detail and appointment of a funeral pageant2 the carriages will quietly form without confusion1 and either receive or deliver their occupants without orders being vociferously shouted from one end to the other of the line2 everything will work without bluster or any noise which may grate harshly upon the ears of sorrow stricken friends or parents4 ,on the contrary1 how is it with one who is not a proficient8 ,his advent into the house of mourning is heralded by unusual bluster1 and the often contradictory orders given to an assistant4 ,questions without number are asked from friends of the family or those present1 about the time of the funeral1 number of carriages required1 etc41 inquiries which are altogether out of place at the time1 and ought to be postponed until those having charge of the arrangements will make the wishes of the family known to the undertaker1 at his office or place of business4 ,nervousness is manifest with some as soon as they commence handling a corpse1 and is apparent through all the details of a funeral4 ,let any incident take place and everything is immediately thrown into hopeless confusion1 as the undertaker himself feels more at fault than any one else4 ,with others1 again1 a funeral is made a public display of their personal authority2 it is to them an occasion to conspicuously show in an ostentatious manner that the job is theirs2 the management of it in their hands2 they intend to run it according to their notions1 with the utmost disregard of anyone else's wishes in the matter4 ,the undertaker is1 however1 but a public servant2 a well-bred man will not try to coerce people into following his own ideas in regard to certain matters and utterly disregard their views of the same4 ,a direct conflict with the mourners in regard to some point of funeral etiquette will not place the undertaker in a very enviable position1 whereas a sensible suggestion1 deferentially offered to their better judgment1 will win a ready assent and establish his reputation as a man thoroughly posted and well qualified for the business4 ,should the point be insisted upon by the family1 and although it may be1 in the undertaker's opinion1 a breach of established rules or customs1 it is his duty to quietly submit and thereby show his moral sense of the solemnity of the occasion1 which is ill-timed for a controversy of any kind4 ,some undertakers have been known to extol the cheapness of their wares in the house of mourning1 drawing aside some of those present and stating confidentially that such a casket never was sold so low1 and were it not for the particular regard they entertain for the family1 the regular price would have been charged4 ,this mode of philanthropic advertising has seldom brought any trade to the one that had resorted to it4 ,the best advertising medium for an undertaker consists in the manner his business is carried on1 in the style and appointments of his livery1 and above all in his own deportment in public1 the integrity of his character1 and his punctuality in meeting his business engagements4 ,as the assertion was made at the beginning of this chapter that every man cannot be an undertaker1 the above enumerated qualities requisite to the make up of a first-class professional will prove conclusively that such is the case4 ,before fully entering upon the text forming the subject of this book1 ,i have thought it advisable as an introduction1 to stimulate the zeal of undertakers in self-improvement by illustrating1 in brief outlines1 the necessary qualities of a popular sexton and exposing per contra the faults others are guilty of4 ,let not therefore1 the reader accuse me of severe criticism1 for my aim has been only to try and elevate our profession above its common standard4 ,that the duties of an undertaker require a larger quota of delicacy1 tact1 and knowledge of human nature than generally falls to the lot of most men1 no one will deny2 but it is also a well known fact that1 unless he be the busiest professional in one of the largest cities1 an undertaker has ample time for ,,self-,,improvement and ,,culture4 ,it is high time the business of undertaking be truly1 and really1 raised to the rank of a profession2 let every undertaker be convinced that his calling is a solemn and responsible one1 and our ranks will soon be free from the few interlopers who1 so far1 have impeded our progress toward a just recognition from the public for a class of men whose services are often very little short of self-sacrifice4 ,the physician has an office of great responsibility thrust upon him2 into his hands we blindly confide the lives of relations and friends1 hoping and expecting that his medical knowledge1 his experience and skill1 may save the existence of some one dear to us4 ,and after science has been baffled and death claims his victim1 the undertaker is the one to whom we look to perform the last sad duties4 ,to him we intrust the care of the beloved remains1 relying entirely upon his experience and good judgment in such matters1 to carry out in a manner becoming to this age of christian feeling1 the ceremonial of sepulture with the deferential respect due to the dead4 ,,embalming4 ,it has been a custom among ancient nations to preserve the bodies of the dead for a long period of time4 ,even to this day we find traces of it in the mummies of ,egypt and the sarcophagi of ,etruria4 ,their method of achieving this result may not have been strictly in accordance with the principles of modern science2 certainly their success would hardly be satisfactory to the more refined taste of our generation4 ,still their discoveries in this art have been such that they have commanded the respect of modern savants4 ,they also show conclusively that the sciences of chemistry and physiology1 even at that remote period1 had attained a certain degree of prominence among their scientific men4 ,many of their discoveries were no doubt accidental1 still we must give them credit for the spirit of investigation which actuated their researches1 and carried them on undaunted through the many disappointments they must certainly have encountered before they satisfactorily solved the problem4 ,the imagination is carried back to the time when the mysterious worship of ,osiris and ,isis was flourishing on the banks of the river ,nile1 when the ,sphinx uttered1 or was thought to utter1 the sacred oracles of ,thormes1 and before the pyramids had entombed a long generation of kings4 ,a great number of persons cannot revert to the science of embalming without placing it among the lost arts2 to them a mummy is the contemporary of a mysterious past dimly perceived through the long vista of succeeding generations2 a tangible proof of that much vaunted ancient civilization1 which as they express regretfully will never be found again4 ,a thorough elimination of the subject would convince those unsophisticated mourners that the loss is not quite an irreparable one4 ,let us divest a mummy of his bitumen-coated and fire-scorched bandages2 we will then have before us a mass of blackened and hardened cement-like substance1 shrunken and emaciated to almost a skeleton1 and bearing semblance to the form of a human organism1 only so far as the shape of the osseous frame has retained its symmetry4 ,the lips have shrunk apart so far as to expose the row of white teeth1 the sockets of the eyes are empty1 the cheek bones are prominent1 the whole covered with patches of the dark and almost petrified epidermis4 ,such is the picture a mummy presents to our view when denuded of its envelope ,it is not to be wondered at1 therefore1 if some associate this repulsive image with the idea of modern embalming4 ,our present object in preparing bodies is two-fold3 ,in the first place we desire to keep perfect for a certain length of time the remains of those who have been dear to us while living2 but when desiccation has begun1 when the roundness of the lines loses itself into the more angular shrinkage of the tissues1 then we may take1 and without any feeling of horror1 a last look at the body1 and consign it1 not to slow1 foul corruption1 but to the gradual drying of the organic substances1 without the horrible accessions of decay and putrefaction4 ,in view of all this1 and with the help of modern chemistry1 it is not singular that the art of embalming should have received a new impetus in this country and ,europe1 especially here1 where it is customary to send back and over long distances the bodies of those that have died far from home4 ,this usage has already brought about some astonishing results4 ,the large majority of our first-class undertakers have taken the matter in hand2 they vie with each other in trying to perfect themselves in an art which is daily growing into favor4 ,almost every day a new antiseptic is1 if not discovered1 at least brought to exercise its functions in the preservation of organic substances4 ,of late1 new methods have been inaugurated on all sides1 and among the number there are certainly some which are deserving all the merits claimed for them4 ,it behooves all professionals to exert their ingenuity to bring this science to a satisfactory issue4 ,many of the preparations sold under the name of preserving liquid are good2 others are not4 ,how then are undertakers to discriminate8 ,by what means can the merits of the one1 and the utter worthlessness of the other1 be determined8 ,there is but one way1 and that is an infallible one1 of finding out the best method and preparation1 and that is simply by experimenting1 until the real means1 which is the only true one1 has been hit upon4 ,it may also be objected to1 with reason that a certain process has been known to work effectually in some cases1 whereas the same method employed in a similar manner has proved a signal failure in another instance4 ,to this but one cause can be assigned1 and that is the utter ignorance on the part of the operator of the properties1 antiseptic and otherwise1 of the materials he is employing1 also of the different conditions1 which will according to existing circumstances modify their action and govern their effect4 ,to use a certain preparation simply because it is highly recommended by some1 without knowing the constituents thereof1 is very little short of foolhardiness4 ,how is it possible for the operator to employ it with discrimination and judgment8 ,should he be successful1 well and good2 the end would be obtained without he being the wiser for it4 ,should it be otherwise1 and the result prove unsatisfactory1 how is he to account for the failure1 and how to guard against a repetition of the same in the future8 ,a good embalmer1 one that really understands his business1 does not have recourse to ready-made preparations for preserving bodies2 but he chooses the chemicals according to the properties each is known to possess4 ,his experience of their relative actions teach him beforehand how they will work out the result he anticipated4 ,i do not mean that every undertaker and embalmer should be an ,orfila in regard to ,chemistry1 nor is it expected that his knowledge of ,anatomy should enable him to fill the chair of demonstrator in a dissecting room1 but to achieve real1 legitimate success1 an embalmer ought to possess a thorough knowledge of the drugs he is manipulating1 their individual effects1 singly and collectively1 and under different circumstances1 upon subjects of different natures4 ,a certain amount of the acquaintance with the anatomy of the human body is not only required1 but strictly necessary2 a gash of the knife upon some vessel of the arterial system might jeopardize the success of an otherwise satisfactory operation4 ,it is this rudimentary knowledge of ,physiological ,chemistry and ,anatomy we shall endeavor to explain in this book1 with complete instructions upon the best methods which have been heretofore and are now employed in the preservation of bodies4 ,,the ,,laboratory4 ,before fully entering upon the subject of ,embalming1 it may not be out of place to make mention of the room devoted to that purpose4 ,as a general thing1 undertakers will find it to their advantage to have set aside1 either in the rear part of their store or at some other convenient point of the building1 a room of moderate dimensions1 exclusively for the purpose of preparing bodies4 ,it may also be used either for the purpose of holding inquests1 post mortem examinations1 and as a morgue4 ,although the purpose for which it is intended1 be that of a laboratory or room where the embalming of bodies may be carried on1 undisturbed by the traffic of the warerooms or the office1 it will be found useful for the above named objects4 ,very often physicians1 who may be wanting to investigate the immediate cause of death in some of their patients1 and who cannot prosecute the necessary investigations either in their own office or at the house of the deceased1 will avail themselves1 with pleasure1 of the opportunity thus offered to them4 ,the advantages of this arrangement to the undertaker are obvious and require no explanation4 ,the room should be well ventilated and lighted1 and everything so arranged as to be within reach2 a sink with a water faucet should occupy a corner of the room2 in the center an embalming board1 with longitudinal grooves1 on trestles1 the head elevated about a foot higher than the feet1 so as to allow all liquids to run down and be collected in a pail at the lower extremity1 without unnecessarily soiling the floor2 a closet or cupboard for chemicals1 which1 by the way1 ought always to be kept locked up4 ,it is also necessary to keep a certain amount of the preparation used in daily practice1 already mixed for use at a moment's notice4 ,the preceding recommendation will prevent mistakes1 and do away with the confusion generally attendant upon a hasty call4 ,a very useful custom1 and one that cannot be too highly praised1 is that of keeping all needful articles for laying out and keeping a body1 in a neat morocco satchel1 which can be carried about in the hand without the least inconvenience4 ,the contents should include all that is necessary to preserve bodies1 say for five or six days1 without the use of ice4 ,the annexed list will furnish the explanation3 ,two sponges for washing purposes4 ,they can be1 when dry1 kept in a very small compass2 these should be thoroughly cleaned after using1 and immediately returned to their place4 ,a small post mortem case1 containing a cartilage knife1 two scalpels1 one catheter1 one pair scissors1 chain and hooks1 nippers1 hook to raise arteries1 and four crooked needles1 assorted2 also a skein of surgeon's silk4 ,these instruments should be carefully cleaned before returning to the case4 ,two pint bottles containing antiseptic solution for injecting stomach and bowels4 ,i have here mentioned two pint bottles1 in place of a quart bottle1 for this reason3 the two former are easier carried1 less liable to break1 and thus more convenient than the latter4 ,an eight-ounce vial1 containing a concentrated solution for the complexion2 it can be diluted to suit when using4 ,some cotton for stopping air passages and rectum4 ,two cups for collecting blood from the jugulars1 should the veins be so congested as to require emptying of their contents4 ,an eight-ounce1 black rubber syringe1 for injecting either the stomach1 lungs or bowels2 this should be well cleansed after using1 and also the leather forming the head of the plunger be saturated with glycerine2 it will keep it moist and free from getting sticky1 which generally happens when oil is used for that purpose4 ,a bottle of some pungent1 aromatic1 acidulated liquid1 which will serve1 not to absorb1 but to disguise the smell1 always more or less unpleasant1 of a corpse4#a ,an eight-ounce bottle containing tannic acid to dust in cavities of the thorax or abdomen before closing the wounds4 ,and last1 but not least1 a one-ounce bottle of liquid muriate of ammonia1 which is invaluable to cauterize any scratch1 abrasion of the skin1 or cut1 on the hands of the operator while at work4 ,i would here advise that some adhesive plaster be also a part of the contents4 ,the following chapters on chemicals may be found1 by some1 dry and of no consequence2 but to a sensible person1 and a shrewd undertaker1 it will be apparent that1 unless possessed of some knowledge of physiological chemistry and morbid anatomy1 it will be impossible for him to judge1 with any degree of certainty1 what means are to be employed to secure success in embalming4 ,it will also be found1 by the more enlightened mass of the profession1 that a thorough examination of the causes of putrefaction and the means to counteract the same1 are essential to a successful practice4 ,how1 then1 can such means be resorted to8 ,how is it possible for an undertaker to prosecute the business of embalmer satisfactorily1 if he has not in his hands all the information necessary to perform his labors1 with credit to himself and satisfaction to his employers8 ,the only resource he has consists in the complete knowledge acquired from study and experience1 and the following chapters will pave the way to the desired result4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,i have found by experience that vinaigre de bully1 an imported toilet article1 completely answers the purpose in this case1 when slightly sprinkled over the clothes of a corpse4 ,,drugs ,,and ,,chemicals4 ,as it is of the utmost importance for the operator to get familiar with the drugs or chemicals he is called upon to handle1 the history and properties of each one will be detailed at length in the following chapters3 ,acetic ,acid4--,the acid liquid distilled when charcoal is prepared from wood1 in close cylinders without access of air1 contains this valuable acid in a very impure state2 by subjecting this to further distillation the liquid is collected which is known as wood vinegar1 or pyroligneous acid4 ,by saturating this acid with lime1 acetate of lime is produced1 which by decomposition with sulphate of soda1 furnishes sulphate of lime and acetate of soda2 the latter salt being crystallized in a state of purity yields1 by distillation with sulphuric acid1 pure hydrated acetic acid in solution in water4 ,acetic acid is also produced by the oxydation of alcoholic liquids1 especially cider and wine1 and in this impure and diluted form is called vinegar4 ,in chemical works it is generally classed among the derivatives of alcohol4 ,camphorated ,acetic ,acid4--,this is largely used as a pungent and refreshing perfume1 to remove fetid odors from bodies4 ,take of ,camphor1 half ounce1 ,acetic ,acid1 #f fluid ounces4 ,pulverize the camphor by means of a few drops of alcohol and dissolve it in the acetic acid4 ,aromatic ,vinegar4--,this is another pungent and reviving perfume1 formerly deemed a preventive of contagion1 and which will be found very useful in removing foul smells from the chamber of death4 ,take of ,camphor1 #b ounces1 ,alcohol1 sufficient quantity to pulverize the ,camphor1 ,oil of ,cloves1 #a fluid ounce1 ,acetic ,acid1 very strong1 #ab fluid ounces4 ,acetone1 or ,pyroacetic ,spirit1 and ,pyroxilic ,spirit1 or ,wood ,naptha4--,these are products of the distillation of wood1 which are separated from the acid liquors after they are saturated with lime by simple distillation and rectification4 ,owing to its cheapness1 pyroxilic spirit has been extensively used in ,england1 as a substitute for alcohol in the arts and manufactures4 ,uses of ,crude ,pyroligneous ,acid4--,this acid having been incidentally described as the source of the acetic acid of commerce1 it may be proper in this place to notice its uses4 ,it acts on the principle of an antiseptic and a stimulant2 the former property being chiefly due to the presence of creasote4 ,several cases in which it was successfully employed in the preservation of animal matter are reported by ,dr4 ,t4 ,y4 ,simmons1 of ,charleston1 ,s4 ,c4 ,the crude acid has been so advantageously used for the above purpose that ,mr4 ,wm4 ,ramsey was led to perform with it some very interesting experiments4 ,some fresh fish1 simply dipped in the acid and afterwards dried in the shade1 were effectually preserved1 and when eaten1 at the end of eight months1 were found very agreeable to the taste4 ,fresh beef1 dipped in the acid in summer for the space of a minute1 was perfectly sweet the following spring4 ,carbolic ,acid1 or ,phenylic ,acid4--,it occurs in castor and the urine of many domestic animals4 ,coal tar is distilled1 the product between #cjj and #djj is saturated with a strong solution of potassa1 the oil is removed1 the salt decomposed by muriatic acid2 the carbolic acid washed with water1 dried with chloride of calcium1 rectified1 cooled to about #ab ,f41 the liquid decanted and the crystals quickly dried4 ,it is in long colorless needles2 not very soluble in cold water2 more so in hot water2 in all proportions in alcohol and ether2 also soluble in concentrated acetic acid4 ,commercial ,creasote4--,when obtained from coal tar is always contaminated with phenylic acid 7carbolic acid47 ,indeed1 it is said that phenylic acid has been sold for creasote1 which it closely resembles in properties4 ,how far these properties may be similar1 deserves to be studied2 for if they should prove to be the same1 the fact would lead to its substitution as a substance to be easily obtained pure1 for the variable creasote4 ,of all the properties of creasote1 the most remarkable is its power of preserving animal matter2 this property has suggested its name1 derived from two ,greek words which mean flesh preserver4 ,dr4 ,christison finds that creasote water is as good a preservative of anatomical preparations as alcohol1 with the advantage of not hardening the parts2 it is probably to creasote that the antiseptic properties of pyroligneous acid are owing4 ,tannic ,acid4--,some powder of nut galls is macerated in a bottle1 with just enough ether to moisten it1 for #bd hours1 and then expressed in a powerful press2 and the process of maceration and expulsion is repeated in the same way until the powder is exhausted2 the liquors are mixed1 the ether distilled off1 and the residue dried by means of a water bath4 ,properties3 ,pure tannic acid is solid1 uncrystallizable1 white or slightly yellowish1 inodorous2 very soluble in water1 and much less soluble in alcohol and ether1 and insoluble in the fixed and volatile oils4 ,tannic acid precipitates solutions of starch1 albumen and gluten1 and forms with gluten an insoluble compound which is the basis of leather4 ,chromic ,acid4--,to #ajj parts1 by measure1 of cold saturated solution of bichromate of potassa1 #aej parts of sulphuric acid are added and allowed to cool2 the sulphuric acid unites with the potassa1 and the chromic acid crystallized in deep red needles1 very soluble and deliquescent4 ,it is a powerful oxydizing and bleaching agent4 ,small animals1 as mice1 etc41 after being immersed in the acid were so completely dissolved after #bj minutes1 that no traces were left of either their claws1 hair1 bones or teeth4 ,sulphurous ,acid4--,it is prepared by exposing to heat a mixture of one part concentrated sulphuric acid with one part of mercury1 or one-third part of copper filings1 washing the gas by passing it through a little water1 and condensing it in water which is well cooled4 ,professor ,proctor directs the gas evolved from four ounces of copper turnings1 and eight fluid ounces of sulphuric acid1 to be condensed into four pints of water4 ,sulphurous acid is a gas which dissolves largely in water and has a smell of burning sulphur4 ,liquor ,chlorinated ,soda--,labarraque ,disinfecting ,solution4--,it is prepared as follows3 ,chloride of ,lime1 #a pound1 ,carbonate of ,soda1 #b pounds1 ,water1 #a gallons4 ,dissolve the carbonate of soda in #c pints of water by the aid of heat2 to the remainder of the water add1 by small portions at a time1 the chloride of lime1 previously well triturated1 stirring the mixture after each addition2 set the mixture by for several hours that the drugs may subside1 then decant the clear liquid and mix it with the solution of carbonate of soda4 ,lastly1 decant the clear liquor from the precipitated carbonate of lime1 pass it through a linen cloth and keep it in bottles secluded from the light4 ,it is a colorless alkaline solution1 having a faint odor of chlorine1 and an alkaline taste2 it owes its antiseptic properties to containing hypoclorous acid which is readily liberated by the addition of even a weak acid and1 on exposure to the air1 by the absorption of carbonic acid4 ,one of its principal uses is to purify the air in dissecting rooms and hospitals1 in which case it acts by decomposing sulphurated hydrogen1 against which gas when inhaled1 it is also an antidote4 ,nitrate of ,lead4--,take of litharge #d ounces2 dilute nitric acid one pint4 ,dissolve the litharge to saturation by the aid of a gentle heat2 filter1 and set the liquor aside to crystallize2 concentrate the residual liquid to obtain more crystals4 ,this is a beautiful white salt1 of a sweet astringent taste and soluble in #g parts of water and in alcohol4 ,it has recently been found useful in the correction of fetid odors1 dependent upon the presence of sulphurated hydrogen or hydrosulphate of ammonia1 which it decomposes4 ,it will not prevent the putrefaction of animal matter1 but it will be found extremely useful1 as a disinfectant of putrescent animal fluids4 ,ledoyen's ,disinfecting ,fluid4--,which is greatly esteemed abroad1 is a solution of this salt in water1 in the proportion of two ounces of salt to one pint of water4 ,corrosive ,sublimate4--,by the action of boiling sulphuric acid on mercury1 the hipersulphate is first formed4 ,when this is heated with common salt mutual exchange takes place1 and bichloride of mercury and sulphate of soda1 the former of which sublimes are produced4 ,corrosive sublimate is in heavy1 white crystalline masses1 of a styptic and metallic taste1 soluble in about #bj parts of cold water1 much more so in alcohol4 ,a solution of corrosive sublimate precipitates albumen and forms with it a definite insoluble compound1 to which property its use as an antiseptic is due4 ,corrosive sublimate has the property of retarding putrefaction4 ,animal matters immersed in its solution shrink1 acquire firmness1 assume a white color1 and become imputrescible4 ,on account of this property it is usefully employed in preserving anatomical preparations4 ,we have seen a head prepared in this manner which had for seven years resisted the attacks of decay and insects1 and been subjected to all changes of temperature4 ,hyposulphite of ,soda4--,this salt may be economically prepared by the following process3 #af ounces finely powdered carbonate of soda are mixed with #e ounces flowers of sulphur1 and heated in a porcelain dish with constant agitation until it takes fire and burns to sulphite of soda2 this is dissolved in water and boiled with sulphur and thus forms hyposulphite acid2 it is then evaporated to crystallization4 ,it is easily soluble in water2 the solution gradually deposits sulphur2 #a to #d ounces dissolved in the necessary quantity of water1 and with the subsequent addition of #c fluid ounces of sulphuric acid for each ounce of the salt1 will liberate the hyposulphurous acid1 which immediately decomposes into sulphur and sulphurous acid4 ,solution of ,chloride of ,zinc4--,made in the proportion of #a ounce of chloride of zinc dissolved in #a pint of water4 ,it is a powerful deodorizing and disinfecting agent in neutralizing noxious effluvia and in arresting animal and vegetable decomposition4 ,the concurrent testimony of a number of observers shows that it acts as an excellent disinfectant for hospitals1 dissecting rooms1 etc4 ,when injected into the blood vessels1 it preserves bodies for dissection without injuring their texture4 ,the advantage is claimed for it1 that while it destroys putrid odors1 it has no smell of its own4 ,alumina4--,dissolve alum in six times its weight of boiling water1 add solution of carbonate of soda in slight excess1 agitate for a few minutes1 filter1 and wash the precipitate with distilled water2 the product is hydrate of alumina4 ,acetate of ,alumina4--,a solution of this salt is obtained by saturating acetic acid with hydrated alumina and cannot be evaporated without the loss of acetic acid4 ,it has a faint smell of acetic acid and a sweetish taste1 and possesses strong antiseptic properties4 ,sulphate of ,alumina4--,saturate diluted sulphuric acid with hydrated alumina1 evaporate and crystallize2 it is in thin1 flexible plates1 of a pearly lustre1 sweet and astringent taste2 soluble in twice its weight of cold water1 but not in alcohol4 ,its chief use is as an antiseptic2 a solution of #a pound to a quart of water is used to preserve dead bodies2 as a lotion it may be used in a somewhat less concentrated form4 ,the salts of alumina have been ascertained by ,mr4 ,gannal to be powerful preservatives of animal matter4 ,among these the sulphate is to be preferred on account of its easy preparation and moderate price4 ,its aqueous solution was found by ,mr4 ,gannal to be very effectual in preserving bodies1 when injected into the blood vessels2 in the summer season bodies were preserved for thirty days or more2 in the winter for three months4 ,for use in the winter1 a quantity of the solution sufficient for injecting one body1 may be made by adding a pound1 avoirdupois1 of the salt to a quart of water2 for use in warm weather1 the solution must be saturated4 ,,post ,,mortem ,,examinations4 ,before commencing the work of embalming1 and even while laying out a corpse1 it is always necessary to make an inspection of the surface of the body4 ,the minuteness of this inspection will depend upon the character of the case1 and1 in a great measure1 dictate the course of treatment to be followed so as to insure success4 ,it also behooves the operator1 for his own safety1 to look for evidences of skin diseases1 ulcers1 abscesses1 etc42 the glands1 penis and prepuce are to be carefully examined for syphilitic cicatrices4 ,it is customary to find certain changes in the external appearance of the body1 which are due to the cessation of vitality in the tissues and the commencement of decomposition4 ,i speak now of bodies which have not yet been buried1 and which have been kept in the ordinary way1 partly covered by a shroud1 and lying on the back1 in a loosely covered coffin4 ,if the bodies have been left in their ordinary clothes1 the appearances are just the same4 ,in such bodies1 one of the first noticeable changes is the paleness of the skin and its mottling with irregular livid patches4 ,after a short time the blood settles in the vessels of the more dependent portions of the body1 and the skin which covers the back of the trunk and extremities becomes of a livid red color4 ,in many cases1 if we cut through the skin1 we find the tissues beneath congested and infiltrated with bloody scum2 in bodies which have been kept for a number of days in cold weather1 this red color is also seen on the anterior portions of the body1 especially on the face and neck4 ,in hot weather1 the red color is very soon altered by decomposition2 if the epidermis has been detached at any point1 the skin beneath this is dry1 hard and red4 ,in warm weather1 we may find1 for a few hours after death1 broad1 bluish lines1 corresponding to the cutaneous veins1 ramifying in the skin of the neck and thorax4 ,these lines are formed by the escape of the coloring matter of the blood from the vessels4 ,within a few hours after death1 even in cold weather1 there is usually some escape of bloody froth and mucous from the mouth and nose4 ,if the eyelids are not closed1 the conjunctira and cornea soon become dry1 brown and hard1 the eyeballs also become flaccid4 ,after a considerable time the skin of the abdomen becomes green2 still later1 decomposition fairly sets in4 ,the entire body is of a dark green color2 the tissues are infiltrated with serum1 the abdomen is distended with gas1 then the color changes from a green to a reddish brown2 the epidermis is detached2 the skin is covered with maggots2 the entire body is swollen from the formation of gases2 the face can hardly be recognized2 the nails drop off1 and the scalp becomes detached4 ,when a body is in this condition it can hardly be determined whether a month or five months have elapsed since death occurred4 ,after this all the soft parts change into a formless1 pustulent mass4 ,the cavities are open1 the viscera are indistinguishable1 and the bones are left bare4 ,the rapidity with which these changes take place1 varies under the influence of a great number of conditions4 ,the bodies of infants usually decompose more rapidly than those of adults2 fat bodies putrefy quicker than lean ones2 the bodies of persons who die suddenly from violence1 decompose less rapidly than the average1 unless the body be considerably mangled4 ,exhausting diseases1 fevers1 and the puerperal condition1 are followed by rapid decomposition1 as is also death from suffocating gases4 ,poisoning by alcohol1 by arsenic1 and by sulphuric acid1 may preserve the bodies for an unusual length of time4 ,atmospheric air1 moisture1 and warmth1 quicken decomposition4 ,at the same temperature1 a body which has been for one week in the air1 one which has been two weeks in the water1 and one which has been eight weeks buried in the usual way1 will all exhibit the same degree of decomposition4 ,,the ,,rigor ,,mortis4 ,it is proper to notice whether or not the body is in the condition of post mortem rigidity4 ,more attention has1 perhaps1 been given to this post mortem condition than it well deserved4 ,according to ,khne1 the rigor mortis is produced by a change in the muscular fibres2 the fibres first lose their contractibility1 then there is coagulation of the myosine and loss of elasticity4 ,when this acidity has reached its height1 muscle becomes softer1 and the rigor mortis gradually disappears2 finally1 the acid condition is succeeded by an alkaline fermentation1 and decomposition ensues4 ,the rigor mortis generally begins in the muscles of the lower jaw and back of the neck2 it then extends to those of the face1 neck1 thorax1 arms1 and finally1 the legs2 it usually disappears in the same order2 it generally begins in from eight to twenty hours after death1 but often much sooner4 ,the bodies of persons killed on the field of battle1 and of those who have been drowned1 sometimes seem to be overtaken by the rigor mortis at the very instant of death2 the bodies retain the same position1 and the face the same expression1 which they had in the last moments of life4 ,the rigor mortis may continue for from one to ten days1 generally1 but not always2 death from narcotic poisons is followed by a short and feeble rigidity4 ,while death by lightning is followed by rapid and intense rigidity1 in young children1 it is feeble and of short duration4 ,the degree and duration of rigor mortis after death from violence1 from different diseases1 etc41 is stated so variedly and contradictorily by different observers1 that no definite rules can be given concerning it4 ,the temperature of the normal living body is #ih to #ii ,f4 ,in illness1 the temperature may be increased several degrees4 ,after death1 the body generally cools to the same point as the surrounding air2 this is said to take place in from fifteen to twenty hours4 ,taylor1 from the examination of one hundred bodies1 states that the average heat of the skin of the abdomen1 at a period of two to three hours after death1 is #gg2 at four to six hours1 #gd2 at six to eight hours1 #gj2 at twelve hours1 #fi4 ,the internal viscera retain their heat longer than the surface of the body4 ,it is said1 that1 after sudden death from accidents1 apoplexy1 acute disease and asphyxia1 the body retains its heat for an unusually long period4 ,it is both asserted and denied1 that after death from hemorrhage the body cools rapidly2 the body of an adult cools more slowly than that of a child or an old person2 that of a fat person more slowly than that of a lean one4 ,in some cases there is an exceptional retention and even an increase of heat in the dead body4 ,dr4 ,john ,davy reports1 that in case of death from rheumatism1 after the viscera had been exposed for several minutes1 the temperature of the left ventricle of the heart was #aac1 and that of the liver #aab4 ,in a second case1 six hours after death1 the temperature of the heart was #ajh4 ,it is stated that after death from yellow fever and cholera1 the temperature increases for several hours after death4 ,there are also recorded a number of instances in which the body retained its heat for several days1 without known cause4 ,it will be seen from what has been said1 that if we are called upon to pronounce upon the length of time that has elapsed since death1 in a given case1 this is only to be done approximately1 and it is probably necessary to take into consideration the cause and manner of death1 the condition of the individual1 the state of the atmosphere1 the manner in which the body has been kept after death2 and even after making these allowances1 we can only say that a person has probably been dead for such and such a time4 ,this chapter may prove tedious to some1 but it is1 however1 an undeniable fact1 that the preceding information 7compiled from the ,morbid ,anatomy of ,f4 ,delafield1 ,m4 ,d471 is of the utmost importance to the professional undertaker4 ,the external examination of the body1 before handling1 is a matter not to be neglected4 ,should any syphilitic sores or foul ulcers be present1 the utmost caution must be used in handling the body1 as the pus1 which is a most virulent poison1 might find its way into the system through some abrasion of the skin4 ,the effects of this poison are such1 that1 should it not prove fatal1 it will leave in the system traces that can never be completely eradicated4 ,this chapter also contains information of such character as will be found needful to fully understand the subsequent chapters4 ,,preservation ,,of ,,bodies4 ,the following process is intended to preserve bodies without the use of ice1 merely until the time of the funeral may arrive4 ,sometimes1 this ceremonial may be delayed for three or four days1 or until some member of the family1 who may be at some distance1 can arrive4 ,it is also intended to take the place of the cumbrous refrigerator1 and substitute for the labor of removing ice1 carrying the box to and from the residence1 the more simple and less laborious process of injecting the abdominal viscera4 ,the first step to be taken upon arrival in the chamber of death1 is to create a current of fresh air1 by lowering the upper part of a window1 or of a couple of them1 if there be no transom light over the door4 ,next1 remove the body from the bed and place it on a cooling board2 this board ought to be elevated about one foot at the head2 also1 the head of the body should be raised at an angle of about forty-five degrees2 this disposition of the body will allow the fluids contained in the circulatory system to go down of their own gravitation1 and leave the face1 neck1 and upper part of the body uncongested1 and therefore free from the purple spots that gradually discolor the face and neck4 ,the head is raised on the cooling board at the proper elevation as directed above1 by means of a head rest attached to the cooling board1 and provided with a catch resting on a cog scale1 which allows the rest to be raised or lowered at will4 ,the mouth must next be firmly closed by means of a ligature1 tied firmly round the head and passed under the apex of the chin2 this ligature should be kept in place until the rigor mortis has firmly set the jaws together4 ,a great improvement for the above purpose upon the old way of tying a cloth or a handkerchief round the head1 is to use a band of some wide1 elastic fabric1 of which several sizes must be kept on hand1 as when this ligature presses too tightly it leaves upon the face1 especially on fat persons1 unsightly wrinkles4 ,the eyes must next be attended to2 the lids must be brought together firmly1 avoiding at the same time interference with the lashes or the creation of wrinkles of the skin on the corners2 then fold up neatly some small pieces of linen1 well saturated in the following solution1 which is also to be used to moisten the face with3 ,alum1 #h ounces2 ,corrosive ,sublimate1 #b ounces2 ,water1 #a gallon4 ,the linen pads should not exceed the size of a quarter dollar1 and thoroughly saturated in the above solution before applying to the eyes4 ,the face1 after washing with soap and water1 should be well moistened with the same solution1 and a cloth laid carefully and evenly over the features1 so as to come into direct contact with every part of them2 this cloth must be kept moist with the above solution1 and remain over the face until such time as the body is placed in the coffin1 when the cloth may be removed previous to the lid being closed4 ,this solution should be diluted with one-half water for use on children or persons whose skin is very fine4 ,it must also be kept from a very strong light1 in a glass bottle1 and should1 when used1 never be mixed in a metallic vessel1 but in a bowl1 cup1 or some dish of queens-ware or china4 ,the next step to be taken consists in preventing frothing or purging from the mouth and nostrils2 also keeping down generation of gases1 and swelling of the stomach and bowels4 ,for this purpose an incision about #d or #e inches in length is made in the abdomen1 above the transverse arch of the colon2 this incision will reveal the colon and upper part of the large intestines1 also the stomach1 a little to the left4 ,if the bowels are distended with gas1 puncture first the colon and some of the smaller intestines1 and1 after expelling the air by firmly pressing on the abdomen1 inject into the bowels about eight ounces of the following solution3 ,dissolve in one gallon of water as much alum as the water will take up1 shaking at intervals2 then pour off the clear liquor1 and add to it two ounces chloride of zinc and two ounces corrosive sublimate4 ,keep this injecting solution in a cool1 dark place4 ,the bowels being injected1 the stomach must be emptied of its contents by puncturing its walls1 and by pressing gently upon its outer surface in a downward direction2 the matter contained in it will be forced out into the pleural cavity1 and can then be either sponged or scooped out2 the stomach is then to be injected in a similar manner as the bowels2 some of the injecting fluid may be then poured between the interstices of the bowels1 about 7#f or #h ounces71 and some cotton batting be laid evenly over the bowels2 this cotton should be well saturated with the solution after it is properly laid in its place4 ,the lips of the wound may then be neatly brought together and sewed up4 ,it will be readily understood by the above described operation1 that no gases can be generated in either the bowels or the stomach1 as the injecting fluid in those parts of the viscera will effectually prevent their formation2 and this being the case1 the purging at the mouth and nostrils1 which is the result of the escape of gas driving out the contents of the stomach1 is avoided4 ,the expansion of the abdominal viscera1 or the bowels1 is also prevented by the same cause4 ,in some instances1 when the body is that of a stout1 fleshy person1 or especially when some length of time has elapsed from the time of death until the undertaker has been called in1 and particularly if the body has been reclining in a horizontal position1 the face1 neck and shoulders1 will be found highly congested with blood2 the face1 in fact1 may be swelled and of a purple appearance1 owing to the extravasation of blood into the capillary vessels under the skin4 ,in such cases1 and after the body has been removed and placed into a proper position on the cooling board1 if the blood is not carried to some lower part of the body by its own gravitation1 it may be found necessary to cut into the jugular veins on either side of the neck1 an incision about one quarter of an inch in length2 through this opening the congested blood may be let out1 and the face will soon recover its original color4 ,this process1 which occupies about twenty minutes1 will be found preferable to the use of ice1 especially when the corpse is at some distance from the undertaker's place of business2 or when it would be almost impracticable to carry a large and cumbrous ice box1 besides the labor and bustle occasioned in the house of mourning by the carrying in and out of the box1 ice1 etc4 ,it is also well understood that this process can not be applied where the corpse is that of a person who has died of some contagious or infectious disease4 ,besides the danger to the operator in this case1 it is not customary to retain for any length of time the remains of those who may have died from the effects of an epidemic4 ,to the solution for injecting1 as given above1 must be added one ounce of creosote to the gallon of liquid1 when the preparation is to be used in warm weather4 ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,body ,,after ,,death4 ,as the object of this book is to give1 not only the best modes of preserving and embalming bodies1 but also to make comprehensive to our professionals the modus operandi1 it is a most important matter to them that the different conditions of a body1 as influenced by the cause of death1 should be made a study of1 and fully understood1 before proceeding any farther4 ,these different circumstances may so influence the state of the body1 that the process of embalming1 as given hereafter and as usually practiced1 may not be successful4 ,i repeat an assertion already made1 that one body having been treated successfully in a certain manner1 yet the same method may fail in another case4 ,although the same chemicals may have been used in both instances1 and given full satisfaction in the first1 they failed to accomplish their object in the last4 ,it is a well known fact that the arterial system must be intact and without lesions1 if the injecting fluid is to be carried in a thorough manner1 and by the natural channels through the body--therefore any rupture in the arteries may cause the fluid to escape at that point1 and fill the neighboring cavities4 ,the result would certainly not in that case be satisfactory to the operator2 for as the fluid would thus be arrested in its course1 and fail to permeate the tissues through the arteries1 veins and smaller vessels1 the corpse would soon putrefy in consequence4 ,destructive inflammation of the surrounding tissues may invade and destroy the walls of an artery4 ,thus1 ulceration of the brachia1 bronchial glands1 and sophagus1 may perforate the aorta2 gangrene of the lungs1 the pulmonary arteries1 ulcer of the stomach1 the gastric arteries1 etc4 ,let us suppose that the operator chooses the femoral artery as a point of injection4 ,the injecting fluid will fill the arteries of the abdomen and the thorax until it reaches a point where the walls of the arteries are ruptured1 and then will lose itself into the surrounding cavities1 thereby failing to reach the upper portion of the body4 ,it will of course1 in an instance of this kind1 be found necessary to inject again at some other point situate in a higher part of the body1 as for instance1 the axillary artery4 ,it is1 therefore1 easily understood that-- #ast4 ,the cause of death may so affect the arterial system that the point selected for injecting may not be the proper one4 #b;d4 ,that it may be necessary to inject the body at different points4 #c;d4 ,that1 in many cases1 the cause of failure does not lay in the lack of antiseptic properties of the chemicals used1 but in the need of discrimination on the part of the embalmer1 in choosing the proper place for injecting1 and also in his ignorance of where that place should be4 ,it is1 therefore1 patent1 that should the course of the arteries and veins be not readily understood by the operator1 it will be a rather hard matter for him to discover the cause of his failure4 ,this want1 we will try to supply in the following chapters1 by giving in detail the course of the blood vessels1 also of the different positions of the several parts of the viscera1 which it is necessary for the embalmer to be acquainted with1 and which it is absolutely indispensable to know1 so as to fully comprehend the instructions given further on in this book4 ,,death ,,from ,,poisoning4 ,by ,sulphuric ,acid4--,there does not seem to be any lesions of the arteries after death1 as the stomach is the only part which might be perforated1 as also the adjoining viscera might be blackened and softened by the action of the acid4 ,the blood is thickened1 sirupy acid1 and the body may be partially preserved from decomposition4 ,nitric ,acid4--,in this case the stomach will be found to contain a viscous1 sanguinolent yellow or greenish fluid1 which must be got rid of before injecting4 ,the lungs will also be found highly congested1 and the blood must therefore be emptied out4 ,the acid1 ,nitrate of ,mercury1 and ,muriatic ,acid1 produce about the same changes after death as those of ,nitric ,acid4 ,oxalic ,acid4--,the stomach will be found to contain a dark1 brown1 mucous fluid1 but in some cases of death from this poison there are no well marked lesions4 ,oxalate of ,potash produces the same changes4 ,potash-,soda4--,these alkalies and their carbonates are rarely used as poisons4 ,cicatrices and strictures of the sophagus and stomach may be produced4 ,ammonia4--,the vapor of strong ammonia may cause death from inflammation of the larynx and air passages4 ,but the strong solution of ,ammonia produces corrosion of the mouth1 sophagus and stomach4 ,nitrate of ,potash4--,in some cases1 there is intense congestion of the stomach1 and sometimes perforation of that organ4 ,phosphorus4--,the post mortem appearances vary with the length of time which lapses before death4 ,if death takes place in a few hours1 the only lesions are those produced by the direct action of the poison4 ,the contents of the stomach1 which must be evacuated1 are often mixed with blood1 and may have the peculiar smell of phosphorus4 ,it is said that the mucous membrane of the stomach may emit a phosphorescent light in the dark4 ,if death does not ensue until after several days1 the lesions are more marked2 the body is usually jaundiced1 and there may be found a congestion of the liver1 or there may be a small hemorrhage in the liver tissue4 ,arsenic4--,the stomach may be empty1 or contain mucous mixed with blood1 and the intestines contain a white1 rice-water fluid1 which must be emptied out4 ,corrosive ,sublimate4--,the stomach is usually contracted2 there are inflamed and congested1 sometimes gangrenous1 patches of the mucous coat4 ,the intestines may appear normal1 or there may be patches of congestion4 ,in both preceding cases it must be borne in mind that the poison may be absorbed by the skin1 therefore the operator should use great care in manipulating the stomach and bowels4 ,vegetable ,irritants4--,aloes1 colocynth1 jalap1 gamboge1 scammony1 savin1 croton oil1 colchicum1 veratria1 turpentine2 all these drugs produce congestion and inflammation of the stomach and bowels4 ,sulphate of ,copper--,verdigris4--,the post mortem appearances have only been observed in a moderate number of cases2 the stomach may be unchanged1 or there may be patches of gangrene and inflammation1 and even perforation4 ,tartar ,emetic4--,in this instance the lesions are not constant1 but the lungs may be engorged with blood4 ,opium4--,the post mortem appearances of persons who have been killed by the preparations of opium1 are negative4 ,intense congestion of the brain and lungs are spoken of by most authors1 but they seem to depend chiefly on the way in which the patient dies1 rather than on any specific action of the drug4 ,prussic ,acid4--,the skin is usually livid1 and the muscles contracted2 the stomach is congested1 and the veinous system unusually full of blood4 ,the most characteristic condition1 when this acid is present1 is the odor of bitter almonds exhaled from the stomach and tissues4 ,alcohol4--,the different preparations of alcohol may1 when taken in large quantities1 produce sudden coma and death4 ,the bodies are said to resist decomposition for an unusual length of time4 ,there is congestion1 and sometimes extravasation of the blood in the brain2 the veins everywhere are full of blood1 and the bladder distended with urine4 ,chronic alcoholic poisoning is of a different nature2 in this latter case the brain appears normal1 but the lungs are usually congested4 ,strychnia--,nux ,vomica4--,in cases of poisoning from these1 the cramping and contraction of the muscles relax after death1 but the brain is always congested with blood4 ,corium1 ,aconite1 ,belladona1 ,lobelia1 ,digitalis1 ,stramonium1 ,veratrum4--,all these poisons produce congestion of the brain1 lungs and stomach4 ,carbonic ,oxide4--,this gas is produced from burning charcoal1 and forms the poisonous ingredient of illuminating gas4 ,for post mortem appearances1 see death from suffocation4 ,carbolic ,acid4--,a number of deaths from this poison have been reported in the last few years4 ,in this case1 the stomach1 lungs and intestines are intensely congested4 ,from ,lightning4--,in persons killed by lightning the internal viscera may be so lacerated and disorganized that the injection of the embalming fluid may be rendered impossible4 ,drowning4--,persons who have been drowned usually die from asphyxia4 ,the lungs are generally congested1 the stomach contains some of the fluid in which the person may have been drowned1 and must be emptied4 ,the abdominal viscera may also be congested1 but the blood generally remains fluid throughout the body1 and is easily removed4 ,strangulation4--,in this instance the carotid arteries are generally ruptured2 the heart1 the lungs and the viscera1 are usually congested4 ,in death from suffocation the same symptoms are present4 ,in cases of sunstroke1 decomposition sets in very rapidly1 and requires an immediate check2 the lungs will frequently be found congested4 ,epidemic1 ,cerebro-,spinal ,meningitis4--,in many cases the skin of the body and face may show purpuric patches4 ,the rigor mortis is pronounced and long continued1 but decomposition sets in early4 ,the intestines may be swollen1 and even ulcerated1 and the lungs congested4 ,the character of the disease almost precluded the idea of preserving the body after death4 ,however1 should the request be insisted upon1 too many precautions cannot be taken1 for the disease is of a virulent character4 ,,embalming ,,bodies4 ,the board generally employed to lay the body on while the operation of embalming is being performed resembles any ordinary cooling board with an adjustable head-rest1 but it is also provided with a rim1 extending all around1 and raised about one inch above the level of the board2 this rim stops at the foot1 where the board remains open in all its width4 ,there are also longitudinal grooves running the full length of the board4 ,the usefulness of this arrangement is obvious1 as the liquids which are used during the washing and embalming of the body run down the grooves--the board being raised at the head about one foot during the operation--and can easily be collected in a pail placed under the foot of the board4 ,this will do away with soiling the floor or carpet1 as is often the case with the common board in use4 ,the rim around the board will also prevent any liquid from dripping over the sides1 and will save a great deal of annoyance and trouble4 ,the greatest precaution must be used by the operator4 ,all useless and unnecessary talk must be avoided while at work2 the mind must be concentrated upon the work in hand4 ,the knives1 needles and other instruments must be carefully laid away on a stand within easy reach of the operator1 and not be left laying about the board1 under sponges1 towels1 etc42 these might be grasped thoughtlessly1 and in doing so a gash might be inflicted1 which1 if not fatal1 at all events would certainly prove very serious4 ,before commencing the operation1 and after the body has been thoroughly cleansed with soap and water1 let the operator anoint and rub his hands with either lard or sweet oil2 not so much so as to soil any article used1 but let a vigorous rubbing force the oil into the pores of the skin until the hands are almost dry4 ,the eyes and the mouth being carefully closed by the usual means1 let the body be well saturated with the following solution3 ,sulphate alumina1 #b lbs4 ,corrosive sublimate1 #b ounces4 ,water1 #a gallon4 ,a cloth moistened with this solution may be laid on the face1 and remain while the operation is being performed4 ,this solution should not be wiped off1 but it should be allowed to dry on the body2 the water will evaporate and leave behind it a thin coating of the salts1 which by penetrating the pores of the skin will render it imputrescible4 ,next1 an incision about five or six inches in length is cut transversely from right to left in the abdominal region1 over the stomach1 about one inch in a line below the curvature of the lower ribs4 ,through this opening is revealed the stomach on the right1 the liver and gall bladder on the left1 the transverse arch of the colon in front1 and below the smaller intestines4 ,if the stomach is distended with food or gas1 it must in all cases be emptied of its contents and injected4 ,for this purpose1 puncture the walls of the stomach on the side exposed to view1 and passing the left hand gently between that organ and the ribs1 press down1 so as to force the contents out and through the opening made4 ,then1 after the stomach is completely emptied1 inject with the following solution1 which we shall designate1 for the sake of avoiding mistakes1 by the name of ,,embalming ,,fluid4 ,corrosive sublimate1 #b ounces4 ,chloride of zinc1 #d 0 ,creasote1 #d 0 ,alcohol1 #a gallon4 ,the chloride of zinc and corrosive sublimate must be first dissolved in the alcohol1 and the creasote then added4 ,the small intestines must then be gently and carefully drawn out1 and allowed to lay on the right side of the abdomen2 this will reveal in the abdominal region a cavity1 which may or may not be filled with serum1 according to circumstances4 ,at any rate1 should there be any liquid1 it must be carefully pumped out or sponged off until perfectly dry4 ,the cavity is then to be sprinkled heavily with tannic acid4 ,the small intestines must then1 and before being replaced1 be next attended to4 ,if inflated with nothing but gas1 a simple puncture at different points1 so as to favor the escape of the gas1 and a moderate injection through the aperture1 will suffice4 ,if1 however1 the intestine should be found congested with blood1 or some other substance1 the contents must be emptied by the following method3 ,seize firmly1 between the two forefingers of the left hand1 the intestine1 at the lowest point you can reach1 and with the right hand draw the intestine through the fingers of the left2 this will have the effect of forcing the contents of the intestine forward in front of the fingers of the left hand4 ,after the matter has so accumulated that the progress is impeded1 the intestine must be cut1 the matter extracted1 the part which has thus been emptied1 injected with the embalming fluid1 and then tied up4 ,this operation must be repeated until the whole of the intestines1 small and large1 have been emptied and injected1 and then the whole is to be replaced into the cavity4 ,about four ounces of the embalming fluid must be poured over the intestines1 and the wound neatly sewed together4 ,it may be found necessary before closing the opening to lay a thickness of cotton batting over the bowels and under the walls of the abdomen4 ,should the lungs be congested with blood1 they must be emptied4 ,this object may be attained either by pressing upon the lower part of the thorax1 which will have the effect of forcing the blood out through the nostrils and mouth2 or else the diaphragm separating the thoracic cavity from the abdomen may be cut through1 and the extravasated blood can therefore be got out through the opening4 ,the injection of the thoracic cavity can also be performed through the same opening4 ,the utmost caution must be used in perforating the diaphragm1 as some of the arteries might be wounded by a careless use of the knife4 ,the above operation may be performed before closing the wound in the abdomen or replacing the intestine into the cavity1 as it will then leave more room to collect the fluid which may escape from the lungs4 ,the lungs should in all cases be well injected1 either through the trachea or by the process given above4 ,the air passages must be carefully stopped with cotton4 ,the mouth being closed1 the nostrils are about the only air passages which require the attention of the operator4 ,the eyes1 after a few days1 are liable to sink in the sockets1 which gives the body an unnatural appearance4 ,mr4 ,john ,c4 ,rulon1 of ,philadelphia1 has invented a wax shell1 which1 after being introduced under the eyelids1 prevents the sinking of the eyes4 ,the arterial system is to be injected1 and next requires attention4 ,before commencing to inject the arteries1 the jugular vein on the left side of the neck must be punctured so as to allow the blood to escape4 ,in some subjects1 the flow of blood will be very copious1 in which instance the jugular veins must be opened on both sides of the neck2 at other times the flow of blood will be very limited1 and even the opening of the veins has sometimes been found quite unnecessary4 ,the femoral artery is the vessel generally chosen for injecting1 at a point below the arch about eight inches from and below ,poupart's ,ligament4 ,after the artery has been raised1 a small incision is punctured into the coat of the artery1 large enough to admit the nozzle of the injector1 and the canula is carefully pushed upwards into it as far as its length will allow2 the artery is then safely and firmly fastened around it1 and everything is then ready for injecting4 ,on the mode of injecting depends1 in a great measure1 the success of the operation4 ,with some of the instruments now employed1 the pressure of the injecting fluid is so strong and sudden as in some instances to rupture the walls of the arteries at some weak point1 and fill the cavaties of the thorax and abdomen2 sometimes even the liquid has been forced in with such force and in such quantities as to burst the arteries1 and1 after filling the chest1 to pour out in a stream from the mouth and nostrils4 ,in the above instances1 it stands to reason that neither the arterial nor venous systems have been properly injected4 ,the injection should be performed in a slow1 regular manner4 ,after a quart of the embalming fluid 7the composition of which has been given above7 has been injected1 the operation should be suspended for about ten minutes1 after which it should be renewed in the same manner1 until a gallon and a half or two gallons have been injected4 ,sometimes the quantity injected need not be so great1 as for instance in the case of a person much emaciated by long illness1 or if the subject be a child4 ,the jugular veins must be kept open so long as the flow of blood continues1 but they must be closed as soon as the embalming fluid makes its appearance4 ,the best manner of closing the veins is by introducing into the jugulars a small pad of cotton1 and neatly sewing up the opening4 ,it should be remembered that the cloth moistened with the solution for the face should be kept on1 well saturated1 while this operation is being performed1 and even for a few hours after the body has been dressed4 ,a body prepared in this manner has been kept1 in a wooden coffin1 in a dark and moderately cool place1 for the space of nine months without any perceptible change4 ,after that time the shrinking of the tissues took place1 and the body was slowly drying up and being desiccated without in the least decaying or putrefying4 ,,the ,,arterial ,,system4 ,to understand thoroughly the process of embalming as described in the preceding chapter1 it will be necessary to give here a brief explanation of the circulatory system2 also to explain the position of the different parts of the viscera1 to which reference has been made4 ,the arteries commence from the great arterial trunk1 called the aorta1 and their branches are distributed to all parts of the system2 they are dense in structure1 and preserve for the most part their cylindrical form when emptied of their blood1 which is their condition after death4 ,the aorta arises from the left ventricle1 at the middle of the root of the heart2 it ascends at first forwards and to the right1 then curves backwards and to the left1 and descends on the left side of the vertebral column1 to the fourth lumbar vertebra2 here it is divided into the arch and descending aorta4 ,it should be here remembered that most of the branches1 which spring from the great artery and vein1 are double1 that is1 each right branch has a corresponding one on the left side--so that there are1 for instance1 the right and left carotid arteries1 the right and left jugular veins1 etc4 ,from the arch of the aorta are sent off those arteries which are distributed to the head and arms2 the principal ones among these are named as follows3 ,the carotid artery1 which ascends in the side of the neck and divides into the temporal artery which is distributed in the temple1 and the facial artery which supplies the face1 and also sends a branch called the internal carotid to the parts within the skull4 ,the sub-clavian artery1 lying beneath the clavicle1 or collar bone--that part of the continuation of this artery which passes through the axilla or arm-pit1 is called the axillary artery2 its continuation in the upper part of the arm1 the brachial artery2 and in the fore-arm it divides into the radial and ulnar arteries1 which are distributed to the hands and fingers4 ,the principal branches of the descending aorta are as follows3 ,the iliac artery1 which on passing into the thigh becomes the femoral artery1 and1 in the leg divides into the tibial and peroneal arteries1 which form numerous branches for the supply of the leg and foot4 ,before dividing into the iliac arteries the descending aorta gives off several important branches1 as the cliac artery1 from which the stomach and liver are supplied2 the renal artery1 which goes to the kidneys1 and the mesenteric artery to the intestines2 besides many other sub-divisions in various parts of its course4 ,,the ,,veins4 ,the veins are the vessels which return the blood to the heart1 after it has been circulated by the arteries through the different tissues of the body2 they are much thinner in structure than the arteries1 so that when emptied of their blood they become flattened and collapsed4 ,the veins of the trunk may be divided into1 the superior vena cava1 with its formative branches1 and the inferior vena cava with its formative branches4 ,the superior vena cava is formed by the junction of the right and left vena innominata2 it is a short trunk about three inches in length2 it descends perpendicularly on the right side of the arch of the aorta1 and terminates in the upper part of the right auricle of the heart4 ,the right vena innominata receives the veins of the neck1 which return the blood from the head as follows3 ,the internal1 external and anterior jugular veins--the external jugular vein being the one which is ordinarily open to let out the extravasated blood from the head--it will not be amiss to describe its course2 it descends the neck in the direction of a line drawn from the angle of the lower jaw to the middle of the clavicle or collar bone1 and terminates into the sub-clavian vein2 it is variable in size1 and replaced by two veins4 ,the sub-clavian vein becomes the axillary vein near the arm-pit1 and opens into the brachial veins down to the bend of the elbow1 where it is divided into several branches which supply the fore-arm and the hand4 ,the inferior vena cava is formed by the union of the two common iliac veins2 it ascends along the front of the vertebral column or back bone1 and1 passing through the fissure in the posterior border of the liver1 terminates into the inferior part of the right auricle of the heart4 ,its branches are the lumbar veins1 three or four in number1 which collect the blood from the muscles and integuments of the loins and spinal veins2 the renal veins1 which return the blood from the kidneys1 and the hepatic veins in the liver4 ,the common iliac veins1 which1 by their union form the inferior vena cava1 are in turn formed by the union of the internal and external iliac veins2 the external iliac vein passing into the thigh becomes the femoral vein1 and is found in the same sheath with the femoral artery2 further below it becomes the popliteal vein2 about one inch and a half below ,poupart's ligament in the upper part of the thigh1 the femoral vein receives the internal saphenous vein1 which commences at the inner side of the foot and great toe2 it ascends in front of the inner ankle and along the inner side of the leg2 it then passes behind1 and along the inner side of the thigh to the saphenous opening1 where it pierces the sheath of the femoral vessels and terminates as above stated1 in the femoral vein4 ,the above explanation of the circulatory blood vessels is given only for one side of the body--the right side4 ,the other vessels branching off from the two great trunks1 the aorta and the vena cava1 on the left side are the same1 with very slight modifications4 ,,digestive ,,organs4 ,the sophagus is a slightly flexuous canal1 inclining to the left in the neck1 to the right in the upper part of the thorax2 it commences at the termination of the pharynx1 which is a musculo-membranous sac1 about four inches in length1 and communicating with the cavity of the nose and mouth2 the sophagus then passes behind the arch of the aorta to the sophagal opening in the diaphragm1 where it enters the abdomen1 and terminates into the stomach4 ,the stomach in man is an oblong1 membranous bag1 placed obliquely across the abdomen and just below the diaphragm2 its average capacity in the adult is about one quart2 it has two openings1 one towards the heart called the cardiac orifice1 which receives the food from the sophagus1 and the other at the right or small end of the stomach1 called the pyloric orifice1 for the transmission of food to the small intestines4 ,the small intestines1 about twenty-five feet in length1 are coiled in various directions1 and terminate into the large intestine1 called the colon1 which is about five feet in length1 and resembles in appearance a long sac divided into numerous pouches4 ,the pancreas is a long narrow gland1 situated partly behind the right side of the stomach1 and within the first curve of the small intestine4 ,the liver is the largest gland in the body2 it is situated on the right side1 below1 and in contact with the diaphragm1 and is divided into several lobes4 ,at its lower side is the gall bladder1 into which the bile is poured after being secreted4 ,its duct opens into a duct leading direct from the liver1 and forms with it the common bile duct1 through which the bile is poured into the small intestine1 at the same point with the duct from the pancreas1 until1 at length1 it is carried with the food into the larger intestine or colon1 from whence it is excreted from the system1 through the rectum4 ,,organs ,,of ,,respiration4 ,the lungs are supplied with air through the larynx and the trachea4 ,the larynx is an irregular cartilaginous tube1 forming the upper part of the windpipe1 as the whole tube is commonly called4 ,the larynx is situated immediately below the root of the tongue1 and forms the protuberance in the front part of the neck1 called ,adam's apple4 ,the trachea1 which is a continuation of the larynx1 is composed of about eighteen cartilaginous rings1 connected together so as to form a tube1 which is capable of maintaining a uniform size4 ,on entering the chest1 the trachea divides into two trunks1 called bronchi1 one of which goes to the right1 and the other to the left1 lung4 ,as soon as the bronchi enters the lungs they branch off into numerous divisions and sub-divisions2 their ultimate extremities terminate in air cells4 ,the lungs occupy the greater part of the chest1 the heart being the only organ of much volume1 which it includes in it4 ,the chest1 or thorax1 is a cavity closed on all sides from the entrance of air1 and its bony walls afford an admirable protection to the delicate organs included within it4 ,the walls of the thorax are formed by the breast-bone in front1 by the ribs and spine on the sides and back1 and by the diaphragm below4 ,the diaphragm1 as has been stated in a previous part of this chapter1 is a large muscular partition1 which separates the chest from the abdomen4 ,the explanations given in this chapter upon the arterial and venous circulation1 also upon the names1 places and relations of the abdominal and thoracic viscera1 will be found of the utmost importance1 to understand fully the process of embalming already given1 and also the other methods which will be stated hereafter4 ,although briefly enunciated1 this review of the anatomy of the parts of the human body1 which the embalmer must be conversant with1 will be found quite sufficient for the purpose4 ,it will be seen1 that even after the arterial and venous systems have been properly injected1 there still remains a prolific source of putrefaction in the liquids contained in the intestines1 and the thoracic viscera2 for instance1 the fecal matter contained in the intestines1 and the undigested food in the stomach at the time of death1 must all be evacuated1 and the organs containing them properly cleaned and injected1 and unless this be done fermentation will set in1 and be followed by rapid decay of the surrounding tissues4 ,it is true the arteries and veins extend their branches to all parts1 and to every organ of the body1 but it is also an undeniable fact that the contents of those organs which are prone to putrefy will carry the infection to the vessels containing them4 ,the stomach and bowels are emptied of their contents for the mere reason that these same contents are already undergoing a process of fermentation1 which will generate into rapid decay and the emission of noxious gases4 ,in certain cases of consumption1 the lungs are gangrenous and decayed long before death takes place2 it will then be found necessary to introduce through the trachea some antiseptic fluid which will stop the progress of decay4 ,it is also necessary that the names of the different organs mentioned in this work should be explained1 so as to make the use of technical words comprehensive to every undertaker who is not supposed to be familiar with the terms of the dissecting room or the human organism in general4 ,besides the knowledge of the information given in the preceding pages will enable the embalmer to follow the workings of the embalming process in all its details1 and enable him to discover the causes of failure in certain cases2 also to use the proper means in the achievement of success4 ,,animal ,,matter4 ,,preservation ,,and ,,putrefaction4 ,from the great complexity of the composition of animal substances1 their decomposition is more rapid and its products more diverse than in the case of organic bodies of vegetable origin4 ,while the carbon1 hydrogen and oxygen give origin to the various kinds of ulmine and other substances of the same class1 the nitrogen is generally valued as ammonia1 and the sulphur as sulphurated hydrogen4 ,it is the presence of these bodies that give to the putrefying substances the disagreeable odors by which that process is distinguished from mere mouldering and rotting4 ,even during life1 the constituent particles of the body are in a continual state of change1 being absorbed and thrown out of the system1 while others are assimilated in their place4 ,any part of our constituents1 liquid or solid1 which become unfitted for this vital function1 is thereby killed1 and must1 if not got rid of1 induce the death of the individual4 ,hence1 precisely the same means which give to the animal substances the fixity of constitution which belongs to true chemical compounds1 and thus preserve them from decomposition by the disturbing action of their own elements 7as when we coagulate albumen by an acid1 by corrosive sublimate1 or by sulphate of copper71 produce if applied to the living body the death of the part or the whole being by depriving the blood or the tissue of the mutability of constitution1 which is required for the functions of the animal frame4 ,it is thus that the generality of metallic poisons act in producing death4 ,being absorbed into the system1 they unite with the albumen and fibrine of the blood1 and converting them into the insoluble compounds which we form in the laboratory1 unfit them for the continual absorption and secretive offices1 which1 as organs1 while they live they must fulfill4 ,if the injury be local and limited in extent1 the part so coagulated may be thrown off1 and after a certain time the functions return to their proper order4 ,if the mass1 or the importance of the affected parts be greater1 the system cannot so get rid of the portions which have thus been removed from the agency of life1 to submit to merely chemical laws2 on the contrary1 the vital powers of the remaining portions of the animal are so much weakened in the effort that general death is caused4 ,for putrefaction it is thus necessary3 #ast4 ,that the force of vitality which governs so completely the mere chemical tendencies of the elements of our tissues be removed4 #b;d4 ,that there shall not be present any powerful chemical reagent with which the organized material matter may enter into combination and thus the divellent tendencies of the affinities of its elements be overcome4 #c;d4 ,that water be present in order to give the necessary mobility4 #dth4 ,that oxygen be present1 or at least some other gas1 into the space occupied by which the gaseous products may be diffused2 and lastly1 that the temperature shall be within moderate limits1 putrefaction being impossible below #cb or above #ahb4 ,the agency of the first of these preventive powers need not be further noticed4 ,the second is extensively employed for embalming purposes1 and in the preparation of bodies for anatomical studies1 by baths1 or injections into the arteries of solutions of corrosive sublimate1 acetate of alumina1 sulphate of iron1 tannin1 wood vinegar1 and creasote2 this last body1 however1 does not appear to act by direct combination1 but by the complete 7catalytic7 coagulation it produces in all the tissues of the body that have protein for their base4 ,the necessity for the presence of water is shown by the fact that by drying the animal substances they are completely preserved4 ,it is thus that the bodies of those perishing in the ,arabian deserts are recovered years subsequently1 dried1 but completely fresh4 ,alcohol and common salt both act in the preservation of bodies by their affinity for water4 ,if a piece of flesh is covered with salt1 the water gradually passes from the pores of the flesh1 and dissolving the salt forms a brine1 which does not wet the flesh1 but trickles off its surface2 the water necessary for putrefaction is thus removed4 ,fourth1 by excluding oxygen1 the putrefactive process is retarded1 precisely as the fermentative action of the gluten in grape juice cannot begin until a certain quantity of oxygen be absorbed4 ,it is thus that meat that is sealed up in close vessels and then boiled for a moment is preserved2 the small quantity of oxygen of the air remaining then in the vessel is absorbed1 and the produce of that minute change being coagulated by heat it cannot proceed farther4 ,a high temperature stops putrefaction by coagulating the azotized materials2 a temperature below #cb by freezing the water acts as if the tissues had been dried2 in both cases putrefaction is arrested4 ,during putrefaction1 at a stage prior to any fetid gas being evolved1 a peculiar organic substance is generated1 possessed of intensely poisonous properties1 and the blood of persons who have died from its effects is found to be quite disorganized and irritating when applied to wounds4 ,this and the blood of over-driven cattle are found to produce effects similar to those of venomous reptiles1 and the wounds received in dissection are sometimes followed by similar fatal consequences4 ,the communication of disease in this way has recently been very ingeniously ascribed by ,liebig to the general principle of the communication of decomposition by contact4 ,the small quantity of diseased organic matter originally introduced into the system by absorption1 acts as a ferment and reproduces itself in the mass of the blood1 until this becomes unfitted for the performance of its functions and the animal is killed2 the active principle being thus copiously present1 is exuded from the skin and lungs and gives a contagious character to the disease1 or it remains only in the blood1 or is secreted in pustules1 constituting infection1 by which the disease may be communicated to some other person4 ,this brief enumeration of the process of putrefaction will1 to a certain extent1 elucidate the process of embalming given in this book2 it shows that the different methods herein explained1 fulfill the conditions necessary to stop the progress of decomposition4 ,a most important point1 and one which ought not to be passed upon without serious consideration is1 the communication of disease by contact and absorption4 ,in a former part of this work1 it has been suggested that too much care cannot be used in handling the bodies of persons who have died of certain diseases1 especially when their bodies are to be subjected to the embalming process1 which operation is rendered extremely dangerous to the embalmer from the fact that the hands must1 perforce1 come into direct contact with the denuded tissues1 the blood1 or some vitiated secretion of the body4 ,we shall1 in the following chapter1 find instances when the decomposition of certain parts of the body has taken place even before death4 ,it is obvious that in such cases the utmost caution is necessary to avoid serious results4 ,,thrombosis ,,and ,,embolism4 ,sometimes during life1 some portion of the body is in a condition of gangrene1 that is1 the tissues are not only dead1 but decomposing4 ,with the evolution of gases1 the softening and liquefaction of the solid parts1 and the development of minute organisms1 either animal or vegetable4 ,the bodies of persons who have died from such causes1 decompose with unusual rapidity4 ,the inner coats of the vessels are often stained with the coloring matter of the blood4 ,the viscera are soft and flabby1 the stomach may be swollen1 and the kidneys congested and degenerated4 ,people who have suppurating wounds or abscesses may1 without much change in the wounds or abscesses1 be seized with rigors followed by fever1 become jaundiced and die4 ,in such persons after death1 the same tendency to rapid decomposition1 and all the symptoms of the preceding cases are to be found4 ,there is no way of accounting for the rapid decay in the preceding cases1 except by supposing that the pus from the original wound or abscess in some way infects the system1 and renders the tissues prone to putrefy4 ,there is another modified condition of the body very different from the two preceding4 ,either in consequence of wounds1 injuries1 inflammations1 abnormal conditions of the system1 or changes in the venous walls1 the blood may become coagulated during life and form thrombi in the veins4 ,these thrombi may become organized1 or they may soften1 break down1 and their fragments be carried into the circulation2 by their mechanical action in obstructing the vessels1 they produce extravasation of blood4 ,by the irritative character of the thrombi themselves1 they excite inflammatory action in the adjoining tissues2 in this way are produced multiple abscesses4 ,therefore1 we find in persons who die under such conditions1 abscesses in the brain1 heart1 lungs1 kidneys and intestines2 further we may find purulent inflammation and abscesses in the connective tissues4 ,it is now necessary to explain the nature and composition of both the thrombus and embolus1 and how1 through their mechanical agency1 the process of embalming may become seriously impaired1 if not altogether arrested4 ,a thrombus is a clot1 composed principally of the fibrine of the blood1 formed during life in the cavities of the heart1 the arteries1 the veins1 or the capillaries4 ,an embolus is a solid body1 usually a portion of a thrombus1 carried by the blood current into some artery or capillary1 and becomes fixed there4 ,a thrombus may entirely fill the cavity of a vessel1 or it may only form a layer on its wall1 or it may project from a smaller vessel into a larger one4 ,an embolus may completely or only partly plug up a vessel2 it may remain alone or a thrombus may be formed around it4 ,a thrombus may merely become harder and whiter in time1 or it may become organized1 or it may degenerate1 soften1 and change into a mass of puriform fluid and gangrenous looking fibrine1 or it may calcify4 ,the production of thrombi is due to various causes4 7#a47 ,spontaneous thrombi are produced by any cause which seriously weakens the whole system1 as old age and chronic exhaustive diseases4 ,they are usually formed in the veins of the lower limbs and pelvis1 and in the sinuses of the dura mater4 7#b47 ,compression of the vessels by ligatures1 tumors1 dislocated bones1 and inflammatory exudation4 ,pneumonia may produce thrombosis of the pulmonary veins4 ,phthisis may produce thrombosis of the pulmonary arteries4 7#c47 ,thrombi may form into capillaries or small veins1 and increase until they project into larger veins4 7#d47 ,it may also form when there is inflammation1 especially of a gangrenous and suppurative nature1 in the parts around a vessel4 ,the causes of embolism are also various4 7#a47 ,fragments of thrombi in the veins are the most frequent material of emboli4 7#b47 ,thrombi of the heart1 vegetations on the valves and on the walls of the aorta4 7#c47 ,portions of the inner-coat of the aorta may become detached and form an embolus2 also portions of tumors which project in the veins1 and fat may form emboli4 ,in a considerable number of cases1 it is impossible to find any source for embolus4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 in emboli1 in connection with wounds1 that not only the veins of the wounded region are to be examined1 but also those of the pelvis4 ,the consequences of thrombosis vary with the situation of the clot2 thrombi in the arteries produce either a lack of circulation in the region supplied by the artery1 or else intense congestion from the collateral circulation4 ,later there may be inflammatory changes1 softening1 or gangrene4 ,thrombi in the veins produce inflammation in and around the vein1 thickening of the skin and connective tissue1 gangrene and hemorrhage4 ,the consequences of embolism vary with the character of the embolus and its situation4 ,a simple plug of fibrine in a vessel only produces changes in the circulation1 but a plug from a gangrenous thrombus has a tendency to excite suppurative inflammation wherever it lodges4 ,the size of the artery thus obstructed1 and the character of its collateral circulation also lead to a variety of results4 ,if a large artery is stopped1 the part becomes empty2 if a small one the part may become extravasated with blood from the collateral circulation4 ,thus1 if the large arteries supplying the extremities are obstructed1 paralysis of the muscles1 and finally dry gangrene1 ensue4 ,emboli of the pulmonary arteries produce sudden death2 of the coronary arteries1 sudden death2 of the cerebral arteries1 softening of the brain2 of the retina1 sudden blindness2 of the mesenteric arteries1 congestion and gangrene of the intestines4 ,abscesses are also produced4 ,this takes place when the embolus is of an irritative and gangrenous nature4 ,large abscesses are only found in the lungs and liver1 therefore the mechanical results of an embolus produce the following condition of affairs3 ,a set of vessels are first emptied of their blood1 and the nutrition of their walls thus impaired2 after a time these vessels are filled up from the veins1 their abnormal walls can no longer resist the blood pressure1 and hemorrhage takes place4 ,after an hemorrhagic infraction is formed1 the subsequent changes are of a degenerative character4 ,the blood loses its coloring matter and breaks down into a mass of granules1 forming a dry1 yellow1 wedge-shaped mass1 or it may break down and form into a puriform fluid1 or it may be surrounded by a zone of inflammation or of gangrene4 ,the above condition of the system will explain why and under the circumstances enumerated1 the injection of a blood vessel may be brought to a sudden stop without any apparent cause1 and the injecting fluid flow back towards the injecting point4 ,the various causes for such a result have been clearly demonstrated1 but with the knowledge of these causes as previous stated1 the remedy can be applied without much trouble4 ,it can be estimated by the amount of fluid injected1 about to what extent the vessel has been filled1 and by following its course the point where the obstruction is1 can be easily ascertained4 ,by reopening the vessel at a point above1 the injection may still be carried on successfully1 or the corresponding vessel on the other side of the body may be used for that purpose4 ,it is then that even a limited amount of knowledge of anatomy of the human body will be found of immense advantage to the operator1 inasmuch as it will trace the cause of action1 to be followed in this case1 and will enable him to do so with success4 ,if1 on the other hand1 too great a pressure is brought to bear1 so as to remove the obstruction by the mere weight of the fluid injected1 the walls of the vessel may not be able to resist the strain1 and the injecting fluid loses itself in the surrounding tissue and cavities1 thereby failing to accomplish its mission4 ,,process ,,of ,,embalming4 ,the following process is more laborious and requires more time than the one already given1 but at the same time it is more complete and lasting1 and when the operation is skillfully and properly performed1 the body may be said to be embalmed for an indefinite period of time4 ,but to carry out this process to a successful issue1 it will be found strictly necessary to study well1 and bear in mind1 all the details of the operation4 ,it would be impossible to omit any part of the process and still expect the same results1 for1 after repeated experiments and trials under favorable and adverse circumstances1 the result has always proved to be the same4 ,still1 this process is regulated by the same laws and governed by the same conditions which affect a body under all circumstances4 ,an explanation of these conditions has already been given1 and it will be found that a thorough knowledge of these will materially assist the operator in his work4 ,let us suppose1 for one moment1 that a man entirely unacquainted with the causes which may affect the morbid conditions of the veins and arteries1 goes recklessly on1 and commences to inject some part of the circulating system2 if that system is in a normal condition the injection will prove successful2 if not1 the worst consequences may follow4 ,how is he then to remedy his mistake8 ,his very limited knowledge1 if he has any1 will be of no avail to him4 ,it is in the lack of a sufficient understanding of the human organism that the cause of many failures is to be found4 ,when the proper antiseptics are used1 the fault does not lie in the inefficiency1 but in the manner in which they have been employed4 ,it is unnecessary to repeat here what we have before stated1 that in order to understand thoroughly the process of embalming1 the operator must make himself familiar with the explanations already given1 and also with those which shall be found hereafter4 ,it will be seen in the following pages that the mode of treatment to which the body is subjected in this process1 is entirely different from that which has already been given4 ,the completeness of this process will be readily understood after a careful study of its details1 and if strictly followed in every particular1 will be found not only satisfactory in its results1 but also lasting for an indefinite period of time4 ,it is well enough to say here1 that a metallic casket is not required to assist in keeping the body after it has been treated according to the following method4 ,quite the reverse1 a wooden casket will answer the purpose much better1 as the body is rendered perfectly inaccessible to the attacks of the ambient atmosphere by the external covering which encases the body1 in its transparent and elastic coating1 impervious alike to air and moisture4 ,the body should be placed on a table about four feet high1 and elevated nearly six inches at the head2 it must be here borne in mind that1 to perform the following operation successfully1 the operator should be left alone to his work1 in a room free from intrusion1 where idle questioning from standers by1 or the talk of the usual routine of business1 will not disturb him4 ,and as it may require some time to complete the work1 it were better that the remains were brought to the undertaker's establishment1 where there is generally1 or ought to be1 a room set apart for this branch of the business4 ,the body is first washed clean with soap and tepid water1 so as to remove every particle of fat or greasy substance which might obstruct the pores of the skin1 and thereby prevent the salts contained in the bathing lotion to penetrate the tissues and produce the desired effect4 ,the body must then be thoroughly dried by means of clean towels1 and be well saturated with the following lotion3 ,acetate of ,alumina1 #a pound4 ,sulphate of ,iron1 #d ounces4 ,corrosive ,sublimate1 #b ounces4 ,water1 #a gallon4 ,the body is to be kept constantly moist with the aforesaid solution1 and as soon as evaporation has dried up the surface of the skin1 a new application of the solution becomes necessary2 in fact1 the process should come as near complete immersion as possible4 ,the eyes must be well closed4 ,to avoid the sinking1 which after a certain time must inevitably take place1 and which will disfigure the best prepared corpse1 ,i would here suggest the use of the wax shells1 to be inserted under the eyelids--these shells1 as stated in a previous chapter1 are manufactured by ,,john ,c4 ,,rulon1 of ,philadelphia1 and can be had by the quantity on very moderate terms--to keep the eyelids in their place2 the outside of the shell must be coated with white gum shellac1 dissolved in alcohol4 ,after the insertion of the shells thus coated1 the lids are brought together and held in place by the fingers4 ,shelac dries quick1 and in about five minutes' time it will be found that the gum has acquired enough of consistency to hold the lids together4 ,as a matter of course it will get harder in time and prevent the lids from starting apart4 ,the operator will then cut a straight line through the skin with a scalpel1 the line to extend from the superior part of the sternum to the umbilical region4 ,another incision of the skin is to be made at right angles from the first1 about six inches in length1 and one inch below the lower bend of the last rib4 ,then1 with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand1 seize the skin firmly at a point where the two lines intersect each other1 and with the scalpel held in the right hand1 carefully separate the skin from the fascia underneath4 ,this operation is repeated on the four sides1 and the flaps of the skin turned over the sides of the body4 ,this will leave exposed to view a diamond shaped opening of the epidermis1 with its apex reaching above to the superior portions of the sternum1 and the lowest angle reaching to within two inches of the navel2 the two lateral points extend on both sides of the body from the region of the stomach to the liver1 and almost immediately above the transverse arch of the colon4 ,to cut through the abdominal fascia1 carefully puncture it above the stomach1 so the opening will be large enough to admit the forefinger of the right hand being introduced through the opening2 then holding the scalpel with its edge upwards1 the back resting along the extended forefinger1 introduce both into opening1 and cut from downward upwards into the fascia of the abdomen in a straight line across from the stomach to the liver in a similar way to that above described for cutting through the skin4 ,this last incision is to follow the same course as the one cut in the epidermis1 and will extend from one to the other lateral angles of the diamond shaped opening in the skin4 ,this opening will reveal the stomach on the left1 the liver on the right1 and the transverse arch of the colon immediately beneath4 ,then another cleaving of the fascia is to be performed1 downwards and in a similar manner1 from the middle of the transverse opening to within two inches of the navel2 this last opening exposes the small intestines4 ,the reason why the cutting of the fascia of the abdomen should be performed in this manner1 that is1 with the scalpel being held edge upwards along the extended forefinger1 is obvious2 the forefinger in this case acts as a guide to the scalpel in dividing the tissues1 and also protects the viscera from being wounded by the sharp point of the knife4 ,the abdominal viscera being thus exposed1 the lungs1 heart and other parts of the thoracic viscera must also be uncovered4 ,for this purpose1 and with the cartilage knife separate the ribs from the sternum about two inches on either side of the latter2 commencing from the second rib down to the last one1 and extending to the transverse opening made in the abdomen1 it will be found that the ribs at that distance from the sternum are attached to it by a cartilage1 which it is very easy to cut in children1 harder in adults1 and it may sometimes be indispensable to use a saw on old persons4 ,this cutting through the ribs must be carefully performed1 for fear of wounding some of the organs which lay immediately beneath and against the ribs4 ,the sternum being thus freed from the ribs1 it can be turned back over and against the face1 and will reveal through the opening thus made1 the lungs1 the heart1 the arch of the aorta1 etc4 ,the operator should use extreme caution whilst performing this operation1 as the jagged and sharp edges of the ribs might cut through the skin and inflict a wound1 should the hand be suddenly brought in contact with them4 ,it is also necessary to enjoin again forcibly1 the recommendation made before1 of keeping the body well saturated with the lotion while the work is progressing4 ,the bowels must then be carefully displaced1 and all fluid or serum found between or under the intestines be completely sponged out2 the intestines must also be emptied of their contents by the process which has already been given in the first method of embalming2 also the stomach1 the gall bladder1 all the organs1 in fact1 which contain foreign elements prone to putrefy4 ,the bladder can be emptied of the urine by means of a catheter1 introduced into the urinary canal4 ,all the organs which shall have been emptied of their contents1 as also the intestines1 the bladder1 and the others1 must be injected with the following solution1 or embalming liquid3 ,corrosive ,sublimate1 #b ounces4 ,chloride of ,zinc1 #c ounces4 ,alcohol1 gallon4 ,dissolve the corrosive sublimate and the chloride of zinc into the alcohol2 then after the salts are completely dissolved1 add ,pyroligneous ,acid1 gallon4 ,creasote1 #d ounces4 ,stir briskly with either a glass or wooden rod and the liquid is ready for use4 ,the above solution1 which ought always to be prepared in advance and kept on hand1 must be enclosed in green glass bottles1 well stoppered1 and kept in a dark and cool place4 ,metallic vessels should never be used to hold the embalming liquid2 neither the solution employed to bathe the body4 ,a glass or china vessel must be used in either case4 ,as to puncturing the different organs for the purpose of emptying their contents1 the manner for doing so has clearly been given in the first process for embalming bodies1 but great care must always be used so as not to perforate any of the vessels of the circulatory system4 ,the next step is to inject the arterial system4 ,for this purpose a different point for injecting the system is selected from the one pointed out in the former process4 ,by removing the small intestines out1 and on the right side of the body the descending branch of the aorta is exposed to view4 ,in its course downwards1 the aorta lies on the vertebral column to the left of the middle line1 and terminates on the fourth lumbar vertebra1 by dividing into the two common iliac arteries4 ,the descending branch of the aorta is then punctured so as to admit the nozzle of the injector2 this is introduced into the opening in an upward direction1 and the walls of the artery are then tied firmly1 but not so as to cut through1 around the nozzle4 ,after the artery has been thus prepared1 and before injecting1 the vena cava must be perforated at a point corresponding with the incision practiced in the descending portion of the aorta where the nozzle of the injector is inserted4 ,the inferior vena cava ascends along the front of the vertebral column1 and to the right of the abdominal aorta4 ,the object of severing this vein is to give the blood in the upper portions of the body a means of escape1 as the fluid is forced through and up the arteries of that part and returning through the veins forces the blood through the opening4 ,after the upper portion of the body has been injected with about half a gallon of the embalming liquid1 the nozzle of the injector must be reversed and the lower parts injected in a similar manner with about the same amount of liquid2 the injection must then be stopped for the space of about three hours1 and all the blood which may have escaped from the opening made in the vena cava into the cavity of the intestines must be sponged out as it fills up the space left4 ,the mode of injecting is also of extreme importance4 ,the injection should be done slowly and steadily1 as a strong1 sudden forcing up of the liquid into the arteries might occasion a rupture of their walls should some point be weakened from some cause arising from previous sickness1 or from lesions as described in a previous chapter4 ,the injection may then be renewed and more liquid be injected1 until a sufficient quantity has been used4 ,as there are no rules laid down for the amount of liquid to be injected1 it is left altogether to the discrimination and good judgment of the operator4 ,the bodies of children and old persons will require less liquid than adults up to the age of forty4 ,the bodies of persons killed by accident or some sudden cause1 will require a larger amount of liquid than those of persons who are emaciated by long illness1 as1 for instance1 consumption4 ,after the arterial and venous system have been thus completely injected1 the intestines must be replaced in the abdominal cavity4 ,the brains must next be removed1 and this operation is one which requires extreme caution1 as will be seen by the following explanation of the process4 ,the body is turned on the right side1 and1 by means of a trephine1 a round hole is cut into the back of the skull1 about two inches above the cerebellum2 the piece of bone thus taken out is preserved so as to be replaced into the opening after the operation is finished4 ,previous to cutting through the skull1 a small incision in the shape of a cross1 about two inches in length1 each way1 must be cut in the skin4 ,the object of this is to leave the bone denuded after the skin has been detached from the bone1 and also to bring the parts together by sewing1 after the brain has been removed4 ,through the opening thus made in the skull1 the brain1 or the portion of it which can be reached1 is easily removed by means of a small1 slender spoon1 with a long handle1 made for the purpose4 ,the cavity thus made in the head is to be filled with the following3 ,take two gallons or more of water1 and saturate with alum1 as much as it will dissolve2 then mix with plaster of paris to the consistency of very thin paste1 and fill the cavity of the brain2 some cotton may then be introduced to keep the mixture inside2 the round piece of bone cut from the skull is then replaced1 the flaps of the cut in the skin brought together and neatly sewed up2 if this operation is carefully performed1 the cuts thus made cannot be perceived under the hair4 ,great caution should be exercised while removing the brain1 in not wounding any of the veins and arteries which are inside that part of the skull1 and with a little care this can be easily avoided4 ,the body is then turned again on the back1 in the former position1 and all the cavities in the thorax and the abdomen1 between and under the intestines1 the liver1 the lungs and the heart1 must be well cleaned and dried with a sponge of all liquid or serum that might be found2 pulverize some tannic acid into fine powder1 and sprinkle heavily around and between the organs of the thorax and the abdomen2 the sternum is then replaced over the thoracic opening1 the flaps of the skin temporarily brought back over the abdomen1 and the body1 being enveloped in a sheet or some linen cloth1 well saturated with the lotion for the face as given in the first part of this chapter4 ,the face1 hands1 feet1 in fact every inch of the surface of the body1 above and under1 is to be covered with the cloth1 tightly wrapped around it and well saturated as above directed4 ,the body must be kept in this condition for about twelve hours1 when the cloth is to be removed2 the sternum is then raised again and the skin over the abdomen thrown back2 a mixture of plaster of paris and alum1 prepared as described above1 is then poured over the whole of the thoracic and abdominal viscera1 being careful to fill completely all the interstices existing between and under the different organs and the intestines4 ,this composition1 or cement1 must be brought up to a level with the ribs in the thorax1 and cover the viscera in the abdomen2 after the cement is set1 or nearly so1 sprinkle a plentiful quantity of powdered tannic acid on the top of it4 ,then bring the sternum down to its proper place between the ribs1 and also the internal fascia of the abdomen over the viscera2 and last1 the flaps of the skin are brought together and neatly sewed up1 taking a stitch alternately under and above the skin4 ,should the mouth have a tendency to remain open1 or the lips be too far apart1 sew the lips together with surgeon silk1 passing the needle up inside of the lip1 near the gums1 also through the nether lip in a similar manner1 from one corner of the mouth to the other1 where the last stitch can be tied up in a slip knot4 ,before the mouth is sewed up it is always necessary to fill the inside of the mouth with cotton1 well saturated with embalming fluid4 ,in case a great number or all the back teeth be missing1 which might cause a sinking of the cheeks1 and thereby to a great extent disfigure the body1 introduce some cotton1 prepared as above1 between the gums and the cheeks2 it will give the body an appearance more natural1 and less emaciated4 ,this rule ought to be applied not only in embalming1 but also at ordinary times4 ,when laying out a corpse1 the mourners and friends of the family will always appreciate anything of the kind1 which tends to beautify the remains and divest death of its hideousness4 ,the nostrils must also be filled with the same composition of alum and plaster of paris2 let the cement be thin enough in this case1 so it may be injected into the nasal fossea by means of an ,india rubber syringe1 until the nostrils are completely full2 then hold it in place with some cotton wads saturated with embalming fluid4 ,after the body has been so far prepared1 it remains to encase it into a transparent and elastic covering1 which will prevent the attacks from the atmosphere1 and1 at the same time1 render the body impervious to moisture4 ,for this purpose1 procure from some first-class druggist some ,canada balsam 7it must be fresh and perfectly colorless1 as it is prone to grow thick and yellow in time72 then procure a vessel--a glass jar with large mouth should be preferred2 this jar should be large enough to hold twice the amount of ,canada balsam on hand2 bring the jar near the fire1 if it is in winter1 and submit the balsam to a gentle heat until it is liquefied2 so soon as the balsam has attained the consistency of thin honey1 add to it the same amount of the best spirits of turpentine that can be obtained1 and stir with a glass rod until the balsam and turpentine have been thoroughly mixed2 then apply the mixture on the body by means of a camels-hair brush1 very wide1 and similar in shape to the brushes generally employed for moistening the paper used in copying letters4 ,a single thin layer of this mixture is quite sufficient1 and should be evenly applied to any part of the body1 where the growth of hair is not sufficient to exclude the approach of the atmosphere4 ,it will require but a very short time for this varnish to dry1 and then the body will be ready for either burial in a crypt1 easy of access1 or for transportation to some foreign country4 ,in the course of time the organic tissues will dry and desiccate1 the bony prominent parts of the joints may become more angulous1 the skin may assume a slightly yellow tinge1 but the features will always be natural and recognizable2 the skin will never shrivel up and shrink back1 exposing the teeth1 as is generally the case with the ,egyptian mummies2 and1 above all1 putrefaction with all its repulsive hideous accessories1 will never take place2 nor will noxious gases or offensive odors be emitted4 ,a wooden casket will also be found preferable to a metallic one1 as the free admission of air will favor the drying up of the tissues and the absorption of whatever little moisture which might find its way out of the only opening not hermetically sealed--the mouth4 ,undertakers will find this process to be1 without any exception1 the best method of embalming ever employed2 bodies prepared as above can be shipped to the most distant points across the seas2 or1 can be preserved for an indefinite period of time in some family vault1 where the surviving members can at any time obtain a vision of the body without having their sensibilities shocked by the horrible picture of slowly decomposing animal matter4 ,it must not be forgotten1 that1 if the above process is slow1 long and tedious1 requiring a good deal of labor and delicate handling1 the results obtained are equally important1 and the compensation commensurate with the magnitude of the undertaking4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,terms4 ,sternum4--,one of the bones of the thorax2 is situated in the middle line in the front of the chest1 and is oblique in direction1 the superior end lying within a few inches of the vertebral column1 the inferior being projected forward so as to be placed at a considerable distance from the spine4 ,the bone is flat or slightly concave in front1 and marked by five transverse lines1 which indicate its original sub-division into six pieces4 ,it is convex behind1 broad and thick above1 where it presents a concave border1 and narrow at its junction with the middle piece4 ,it is divided into the superior piece or manubrium1 the middle piece or body1 and the inferior piece1 which is the smallest of the three1 and varies in appearance1 being sometimes pointed1 at other times broad and thin1 and again1 at other times1 perforated by a round hole4 ,the seven true ribs are attached at each side of the sternum by means of the costal cartilage4 ,abdominal ,region4--,the abdomen is the inferior cavity of the trunk of the body2 it is bounded in front and at the sides by the lower ribs and abdominal muscles1 above by the diaphragm1 and below by the pelvis1 and contains the alimentary canal1 the organs subservient to digestion1 viz43 the liver1 pancreas and spleen1 and the organs of excretion1 the kidneys and the supra-renal capsules4 ,the abdomen may be divided into three regions2 in the upper region will be seen the liver1 extending across from the right to the left side1 the stomach and spleen on the left1 and the pancreas and duodenum behind2 in the middle region is the transverse part of the colon1 with the upper part of the ascending and descending colon1 omentum1 small intestines1 mesentery1 and behind1 the kidneys and supra-renal capsules2 in the inferior region is the lower part of the omentum and small intestines1 ascending and descending colon1 and ureters4 ,fascia 7from fascia1 a bandage7 is the name assigned to lamin of various extent and thickness1 which are distributed through different regions of the body for the purpose of investing or protecting the softer or more delicate organs4 ,from a consideration of their structure1 these fasci may be arranged into two groups3 areolo-fibrous fascia1 and aponeurotic fascia4 ,the areolo-fibrous fascia is best illustrated by the common subcutaneous investment of the entire body1 the superficial fascia4 ,this structure is situated immediately beneath the integument over every part of the frame1 and is the medium of connexion between that layer and the deeper parts2 it is composed of areolar and elastic tissues1 and contains an abundance of adipose cells4 ,the fat1 being a bad conductor of caloric1 serves to retain the warmth of the body1 while it forms at the same time a yielding tissue1 through which minute vessels and nerves pass to the skin without incurring the risk of obstruction from injury or pressure4 ,the aponeurotic fascia is the strongest kind of investing membrane2 it is composed of tendinous fibres running parallel with each other and connected by other fibres of the same kind passing in different directions1 together with areolar tissue and fine elastic fibres4 ,in the limbs1 it constitutes the deep fascia1 inclosing and forming distinct sheaths to all the muscles and tendons4 ,it is thick on the outer and least protected side of the limb1 and thinner at its inner side4 ,the ,skin is the exterior investment of the body1 which it serves to cover and protect4 ,it is continuous at the aperture of the internal cavities with the lining membrane of those cavities1 the internal skin or mucous membrane1 and is composed essentially of two layers--derma and epidermis4 ,the derma or cutis is chiefly composed of areola-fibrous tissues1 besides which it has entering in its structure elastic tissues and smooth muscular fibre1 together with blood vessels and nerves4 ,the epidermis or cuticle 7scarf-skin7 is a product of the derma1 which it serves to envelop and defend4 ,that surface of the epidermis which is exposed to the influence of the atmosphere and exterior sources of injury is hard and horny in texture1 while that which lies in contact with the under layer is soft and cellular4 ,viscera4--,the viscera of the human body are situated in the three great cavities--cranio-spinal1 thorax and abdomen4 ,the viscera of the cranio-spinal cavity are the brain1 with the spinal cord1 and the principal organs of sense4 ,the viscera of the chest are1 the central organs of circulation1 the heart1 the organs of respiration1 the lungs4 ,the abdominal viscera admit of a sub-division into those which properly belong to that cavity1 viz43 the alimentary canal1 the liver1 pancreas1 spleen and kidneys2 and those of the pelvis1 the bladder and the internal organs of generation4 ,cartilage4--,in the structure of joints1 cartilages serve the double purpose of a connecting and separating medium2 in the former capacity possessing great strength2 in the latter1 smoothness and elasticity4 ,for instance1 the costal cartilages unite the ribs with the sternum and form the point of separation by the knife1 when it is desired to raise the sternum1 as in the preceding process of embalming4 ,gall ,bladder is the reservoir of the bile2 it is a sac situated in a fosse on the under surface of the right lobe of the liver4 ,pancreas4--,it is a long1 flattened1 conglomerate gland2 it is about six inches in length1 and is situated transversely across the posterior wall of the abdomen and behind the stomach4 ,supra-,renal ,capsules are two small1 yellowish and flattened bodies surmounting the kidneys1 and inclining inwards and towards the vertebral column4 ,kidneys are the secreting organs of the urine2 they are situated in the lumbar region1 and at each side of the vertebral column4 ,pelvis4--,the cavity of the pelvis is that portion of the great abdominal cavity which is included between the bones of the pelvis4 ,the viscera of the pelvis in the male are the urinary bladder1 prostrate gland and rectum4 ,bladder4--,it is a hollow1 membranous viscus1 triangular and flattened against the pubes when empty1 ovoid when distended1 and in front of and upon the rectum4 ,circle of ,willis4--,the communications established between the anterior cerebral arteries in front and the internal cavities and posterior cerebral arteries behind1 by the communicating arteries1 constitute the remarkable vascular communication at the base of the brain called the circle of ,willis4 ,,of ,,animal ,,chemistry4 ,,section ,,one4 ,the purpose of the present chapter1 so far as our knowledge extends1 is to describe the chemical history of those bodies which are characterized as being rather organized than organic2 as constituting not merely a product of the vital operations of the being1 but the mechanism itself by which these vital operations are carried on2 as making part of the tissues essential to its proper organization and life2 and as being1 while in connection with the animal and participating in its life1 protected from the truly chemical reactions of their proper elements1 which after the death of the animal1 especially when in contact with air or water1 rapidly assume simpler forms of union1 and breaking up the complex animal tissue into a crowd of binary compounds1 under the change well known as putrefaction4 ,in connection with these substances which form the basis of the organs and tissues of the animal frame1 will be brought under survey the processes by which1 from the atmosphere or from the materials of our food1 the substance of our organs is continually renewed1 their growth provided for1 and the conditions necessary for the continuance of life and health maintained4 ,the following elucidation of the materials which enter into the composition of the human body is of extreme importance1 as it will help to demonstrate why the chemicals employed in the former processes of embalming have been selected in preference to others4 ,of ,fibrine4--,this substance constitutes the basis of the muscular tissue1 and forms an important constituent of the blood4 ,in the latter it exists dissolved during life1 but separates after death or extraction from the body1 producing1 with the coloring material1 the phenomenon of coagulation4 ,in the muscles the fibrine is arranged in a truly organized and living condition1 constituting the contractile fibres1 in which it is so interwoven with nervous and vascular filaments as to render its isolation impossible4 ,to obtain pure fibrine1 therefore1 we have recourse to blood1 which1 if immediately on being drawn it be briskly agitated with a little bundle of twigs1 does not coagulate1 but the fibrine is deposited on the twigs in soft1 tenacious masses1 which1 being washed to remove any adhering coloring matter1 and digested in alcohol and ether to remove any traces of fatty substances which may adhere to it1 constitute pure fibrine2 which may be dried by a gentle heat1 and appears then as a yellowish1 opaque mass1 hard1 tasteless and inodorous4 ,if it be at all transparent1 this results from traces of adhering fat4 ,it is insoluble in water1 alcohol and ether2 it absorbs1 however1 so much water as to treble its weight1 and thereby recovers the volume1 softness and flexibility it possessed before being dried4 ,if sulphate of soda or nitrate of potash be added to newly drawn blood1 its coagulation is prevented2 and if fibrine be digested in a strong solution of nitre1 it dissolves1 forming a thick liquid1 which is coagulated by heat1 by alcohol1 by acids1 and is precipitated by the salts of mercury1 lead and copper1 and by yellow prussiate of potash4 ,this property of fibrine will again come under our notice4 ,of ,albumen4--,this substance is even more extensively distributed through the animal frame than fibrine4 ,like fibrine1 it exists in two conditions1 one soluble and one insoluble in water2 but whereas the fibrine becomes insoluble almost instantly on being withdrawn from the body1 albumen may retain that state for an indefinite time1 and its history is therefore more complete4 ,in its soluble form it exists in the blood1 in the serous secretions1 in the humours of the eye2 in the soluble or coagulated form it constitutes a portion of most of the solid tissues4 ,soluble ,albumen4--,this is obtained in the solid form by evaporating to dryness1 at a temperature which does not exceed #abj1 the serum of blood2 the dry mass is yellow1 transparent1 hard1 tough1 and contains1 besides the albumen1 the salts and some other constituents of the blood in minute quantities2 these are extracted by digestion in alcohol and ether1 which leave the albumen pure4 ,when thus completely dry it maybe heated beyond #bab without passing into the coagulated condition2 if digested in cold water it gradually swells up and finally dissolves4 ,this solution1 when heated to a temperature between #adj and #aej1 coagulates2 if dilute1 the solution may even be heated to #afe without coagulating1 and when present in very small quantity the albumen may not separate until the water boils4 ,when once coagulated in this manner1 albumen is totally insoluble in water2 it is then changed into its second form4 ,the solution of albumen is precipitated by alcohol1 by acids and metallic salts1 exactly as the solution of fibrine in saltpetre2 the only distinction that can be drawn between the two is that the saline solution of fibrine is partially decomposed by the addition of a large quantity of water4 ,the precipitates yielded by a solution of albumen with metallic salts are mixture of two distinct substances1 one a compound of albumen with the acid1 the other a compound of albumen with the metallic oxide2 the former is generally somewhat soluble1 the latter insoluble1 and hence results the application of albumen as an antidote to mineral poisons1 as corrosive sublimate and blue stone4 ,albumen is also coagulated by many organic bodies1 as tannic acid and creosote1 which acts catalytically1 as a very minute quantity of it coagulates a large quantity of albumen1 without entering into combination with it4 ,of the ,gelatinous ,constituents of the ,tissues4--,when the skin1 cellular or serous1 tissues1 tendons1 and some forms of cartilage1 as that of bones1 are boiled in water1 they dissolve in great part and form a solution which gelatinizes on cooling4 ,some of these tissues1 as the skin1 dissolve easily and almost completely2 others dissolve but partly1 and leave behind a quantity of coagulated albumen4 ,in most kinds of cartilage a very prolonged boiling is necessary to extract a sensible quantity of gelatine4 ,these various tissues are thus found to consist of albumen and gelatine1 united in various proportions1 and each presenting various degrees of condensation of texture2 but by boiling they may be completely separated from each other4 ,gelatine is insoluble in alcohol and ether4 ,when a solution of gelatine is long exposed to the air1 it undergoes a commencement of putrefaction1 and loses its property of gelatinizing4 ,the action of reagents on gelatine is in some cases of high interest1 it is not precipitated by solutions of either ordinary or basic alum1 but if a solution of common salt be also mixed1 the gelatine falls down1 combined with alumina1 as it decomposes the muriate of ammonia which is then formed4 ,on this principle is founded the manufacture of white leather1 by a kind of tanning with alum4 ,the most important compound of gelatine is that with tannic acid1 which constitutes ordinary leather2 this reaction is so distinct that one part of gelatine in five thousand of water is at once detected by the infusion of galls4 ,many chemists consider that gelatine is merely a product of the decomposition of albumen and fibrine by boiling water1 and not a true constituent of the tissues2 but this idea is thought to be incorrect1 on the following grounds3 ,first1 pure fibrine or albumen gives no gelatine by boiling2 second1 in the process of tanning1 the tannic acid combines with gelatine in a skin which has never been boiled2 and third1 that we can easily understand why some tissues give more gelatine than others by the different degrees of condensation of their structure4 ,but it is rather considered that gelatine bears the same relation to the tissues of the skin or cellular membrane that protein does to the fibrine of the blood1 being really a product of its death and decomposition1 though the only representative of it which we can have4 ,of the ,fatty ,constituents of the ,tissues4--,the fatty bodies1 although contributing essentially to the support of the animal frame1 are mere secretions1 and do not form any portion of its organized tissues4 ,the substances properly included under the present head are the constituents of the nervous tissue1 such as it is found in the brain1 the spinal cord and the nerves4 ,in the composition of the brain1 it is easy to distinguish three1 perhaps five1 distinct substances of a fatty nature2 the most characteristic and important is called cerebrote2 in composition it resembles albumen1 containing a large quantity of nitrogen4 ,saline1 and ,extractive ,constituents of the ,tissues4--,we find in all the animal tissues small quantities of a great variety of salts1 the same as those which will be hereafter noticed as existing in the blood1 to the presence of which in the substance of the tissues they are probably due4 ,in the tissue of the bones and teeth1 however1 these saline matters are deposited in much greater quantities1 and in disease and old age bony deposits occur in all those tissues1 which yield true gelatine on boiling4 ,the composition of the bones will be hereafter noticed4 ,of the ,composition of the ,tissues and of the ,secretions in ,health and ,disease4--,having described thus individually the constituents of the tissues1 we shall now present such results as have been hitherto obtained as to the quantitative composition of the organized tissues formed by their reunion1 their secretory products and morbid alterations4 ,the skin of animals is a congeries of finely constructed organs1 sensitive and secretory1 imbedded in a peculiar tissue1 which is one of those most yielding gelatine1 whence the process of tanning skins4 ,on the surface of the skin there is secreted a substance1 which1 though varying in anatomical structure and appearance exceedingly1 as it forms the fine epidermis1 the nails1 the hair1 etc41 is yet throughout all their shapes identical in chemical character1 and may be described as the same substance4 ,the principal mass of hair is composed of the same substance as horn1 but the color is due to an oil which may be extracted by ether4 ,if by virtue of the sulphur contained in hair a solution of litharge in some limestone water blackens it1 a solution of nitrate of silver will also blacken the hair1 but by a deposition of the metal4 ,the perspiration from the skin varies in nature according to the part of the body2 it is generally acid1 contains traces of albumen1 fatty matter and the salts of the blood2 it often contains1 also1 an odoriferous1 volatile principle1 characteristic of the animal by which it is secreted4 ,cellular and ,serous ,tissues4--,these tissues are constituted of gelatinous materials similar to that in the skin1 and hence dissolve by boiling water1 being converted into gelatine4 ,in the natural condition of these membranes their surface is moistened by a watery liquid1 which1 accumulating in excessive quantity1 gives rise to the dropsies of the cavities1 or of the cellular tissues4 ,this serum of the cavities is clear and colorless4 ,the cells of the cellular tissues1 in which fat is usually deposited1 are often filled up by an albuminous material having considerable analogy with casein2 it is thus that the diffused hardening of the cellular tissue and the local white tumors have their origin4 ,of the ,muscular ,tissue4--,from what has been already said of fibrine1 it is evidently the essential element of the muscular tissues1 and forms with water almost the whole of their parts4 ,of the ,bones4--,in vertebrated animals with osseous skeletons the earthy material1 in all cases1 consists principally of phosphate of lime1 with phosphate of magnesia1 carbonate of lime and soda4 ,by digesting a bone in dilute muriatic acid1 all of these inorganic salts are removed1 and the cartilage remains1 preserving perfectly the form of the bone4 ,the teeth present1 in their combinations1 the greatest analogy to bone2 the principal and organized substance of the teeth is indeed true bone1 containing indeed less cartilage and more phosphate of lime than other bones4 ,the enamel1 which is an inorganic secretion from the surface of the long tooth1 is almost destitute of any animal matter4 ,of the ,composition of the ,blood4--,blood is1 in the higher classes of animals1 an opaque1 thick1 red fluid2 it has a salty and nauseous taste1 and a peculiar smell1 resembling that of the animal whence it has been derived4 ,when the blood of any red blooded animal is allowed to rest1 it gradually forms a soft jelly1 from which1 after some time1 a thin yellowish fluid 7serum7 separates1 while the red jelly or coagulum contracts in volume and acquires great consistence4 ,if this coagulation of the blood takes place slowly1 the upper portion of the coagulum becomes white or pale yellow2 forming thus1 the buffy coat4 ,there is no doubt that the blood1 while in connection with the animal1 participates in its life1 and the phenomena of coagulation are to be referred to a new arrangement of its materials consequent on the loss of that vitality4 ,the serum of the blood1 when coagulation has been perfect1 is of a yellowish1 sometimes greenish1 color2 its taste is dull and salty2 it is thick fluid1 like olive oil2 when heated to #adj it coagulates4 ,if we examine under the microscope the appearance presented by blood1 we find that it consists of a great number of red particles swimming in a nearly colorless liquor4 ,these red particles are flattened disks2 in man they are round4 ,their size is variable1 being in man from one four-thousandth to one eight-thousandth of an inch in diameter1 but larger in other animals4 ,the blood contains a large quantity of albumen1 partly dissolved and remaining in the serum after coagulation1 partly in a solid state1 forming the great mass of the globules4 ,in the living body the blood also contains fibrine in solution1 but this separates soon after extraction from the body2 it assumes a solid form1 and investing1 as a sponge1 the red globules1 forms with them the coagulum4 ,the fibrine is thus the element active in the coagulation of the blood1 the globules being but passively engaged in it4 ,in addition to this essential organic element1 the blood contains a variety of salts1 as common salt1 phosphate of magnesia1 ammonia and lime1 lactates of soda and magnesia4 ,the best analyses of the blood are those of ,lecanu1 and the results for blood and serum are that they contain1 in the human subject of each sex3 ,water1 #ge4jj ,albumen1 #e4jj ,globules1 #g4ad ,fibrine1 4#bj ,the fatty substance of the blood is a mixture of cholesterine with stearic and oleic acid and a peculiar fatty substance termed seroline1 the history of which is yet incomplete4 ,none of the fats of the brain1 however1 seem to exist in the blood4 ,the chemical history of fibrine and albumen having been already given1 it remains only to describe the peculiar coloring matter1 for the most accurate knowledge we possess concerning which1 we are indebted to ,lecanu's elaborate researches on the blood4 ,pure hematosine or coloring matter1 when it is coagulated1 is a dark brown mass1 tasteless and inodorous2 when heated it does not smell1 but swells up and evolves ammoniacal products2 it is insoluble in water1 alcohol and ether2 it forms1 with the mineral acids1 compounds which are insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol4 ,by caustic alkalies it is dissolved with a red-blood color1 and these combinations are soluble in water1 alcohol and ether4 ,hematosine contains neither phosphorus nor sulphur1 but iron in large quantities4 ,the state in which iron exists in hematosine has been1 up to the present day1 an object of much discussion among chemists2 but with the knowledge we now possess of hematosine in its pure form1 we must consider the iron to be an integral part of its organic constitution1 as sulphur in albumen1 or arsenic in alkarsine1 and the opinion of its being oxydized and combined with the true organic element as a kind of salt can no longer be supported4 ,if a solution of hematosine be acted on by chlorine gas1 a white1 flocculent precipitate is produced1 and the solution contains chloride of iron4 ,although hematosine is the coloring principle of the globules of the blood1 it is present but in very small quantity2 one hundred parts of dried globules containing but four to five parts of hematosine2 in the blood globule the hematosine exists in its uncoagulated state1 and possesses properties somewhat different from those of its coagulated form4 ,a solution of the colored blood globules in water1 when exposed to the air1 becomes of a brighter red color1 being thus partially arterialized2 it is coagulated also by alcohol and by acids2 the hematosine then passes into the condition of insolubility1 already described4 ,the colorless ingredient in the blood globules has already been spoken of as being albumen1 with which1 indeed it is identical in properties1 but differ in some points4 ,it has been termed globuline4 ,in its uncoagulated condition it can not be separated from hematosine1 and is there distinguishable from albumen1 principally by being insoluble in even a very dilute saline solution1 which dissolves albumen readily4 ,it is1 hence1 that the globules of the blood swim unaltered in the serum1 but are readily dissolved by pure water4 ,if the blood1 when extracted from the vein1 is received into a vessel containing a solution of glauber's salt1 coagulation is prevented1 as the fibrine remains dissolved1 and by filtering the liquor so obtained1 the serum and water pass off and the globules remain1 mixed only with little of the salt4 ,the globuline cannot1 however1 be separated from hematosine1 except by acids1 which1 as described in the preparation of hematosine1 then combine with the globuline4 ,alteration of the ,blood in disease4--,the examination of the state of the blood in disease1 although presenting important relations to pathology and to practice1 has been conducted in a manner too disconnected and superficial to produce any satisfactory results4 ,this branch of chemical pathology has1 however1 been taken up by the illustrious ,andral and ,gavaret1 who have published the result of the analysis of the blood in three hundred and sixty cases of disease4 ,their researches have enabled them to recognize four classes of diseases1 in which the composition of the blood is essentially altered1 though in different ways4 ,the first class presents as a constant alteration1 an increase in the quantity of fibrine2 it includes diseases remarkably different in their locality and form1 but all belonging to the class of acute inflammations in some cases of morbid deposition1 as in tubercle and cancer1 a similar increase in the quantity of fibrine is found1 but it may be doubted whether it be due to abnormal growth or to the inflammatory action which accompanies it4 ,in the second class the fibrine remains stationary1 or even diminishes in quantity1 while the globules increase in proportion to the fibrine4 ,the diseases which belong to this class1 are1 continued fevers without local inflammation1 and some form of cerebral hemorrhages4 ,cerebral ,hemorrhages4--,in the third class1 the fibrine remaining unchanged1 there is a remarkable diminution in the quantity of globules2 of these diseases1 chlorosis may be taken as an example1 and in the fourth class it is no longer the fibrine or the globules which are the subject of the morbid change1 but the quantity of the albumen in the serum is diminished2 of this class of affections is ,bright's disease4 ,it has been observed1 that in cholera the blood becomes so thick as to arrest the circulation1 and contains from thirty to forty-five per cent4 of solid matter2 it is then1 also1 less strongly alkaline than healthy blood2 this is connected probably with the matters vomited and evacuated1 which are strongly alkaline1 and contain a quantity of albumen4 ,the blood has been found1 occasionally1 in cases of ,diabetes ,mellitus1 to contain traces of sugar4 ,the great discordance of the results obtained1 may result1 perhaps1 from the sugar contained in the blood only for a short time after meals1 and then being rapidly evacuated by the kidneys4 ,in the jaundice the green coloring matter of the bile has been found mixed with the blood4 ,other observations of morbid constituents of the blood are too indefinite to justify me in occupying space with them4 ,color of the ,blood4--,in the living body1 the blood in the veins and arteries is well known to differ essentially in color2 in the former being of a dark purple-red1 in the latter of a bright vermilion color4 ,the change from the venal to the arterial state occurs during the passage of the blood through the capillary vessels of the lungs1 where it is exposed to the action of an extensive surface of atmospheric air2 while the arterial blood1 in traveling the general capillary system of the body1 assumes the red1 dark condition in which it is carried back to the heart by the veins4 ,yet1 although the vital properties of the blood depend essentially upon this change of color1 we are not able to connect it with any alteration in the composition of the constituents of the blood1 or even in their relative proportions4 ,arterial and venous blood contains sensibly the same quantity of water1 fibrine1 globules1 albumen and salts2 and1 by analysis1 the composition of those bodies is found to be identical1 no matter what kind of blood they may be derived from4 ,to trace the difference of nature between arterial and venous blood1 it is therefore necessary to study it under different points of view than its approximate or elementary composition4 ,so far as we have yet explained it1 the air which has been employed in respiration1 is found to have undergone an important change of constitution2 its volume is but slightly1 if at all1 altered2 but a quantity of oxygen has disappeared1 and is replaced by carbonic acid1 in generally equal volume4 ,air which has been once respired is found to contain from three to four per cent4 of carbonic acid1 and if the same quantity of air be continually breathed1 the animal dies with all the symptoms of narcotic poisoning4 ,when the carbonic acid has accumulated to from eight to ten per cent41 the action of the air in expiration is therefore to remove carbon from the blood4 ,the quantity so taken from the system in twenty-four hours is very large1 and makes up the principal portion of that element which we take in with our food2 yet1 such is the activity with which its assimilation provides1 that no perceptible change in the solid elements of the blood can be perceived4 ,it was1 at one time1 a much disputed point1 whether the carbon so separated from the system was directly excreted from the lungs1 and carried off as it were1 by contact with the oxygen of the air1 or whether the oxygen was first absorbed by the blood and carried by the circulation to every portion of the body1 where it combined with the carbon1 which was there present in excess1 and the carbonic acid so produced1 being dissolved by the venous blood1 was thrown off on arriving at the surface of the atmosphere1 in the lungs4 ,the progress of science has1 however1 finally decreed in favor of the latter view1 to which the fullest confirmation has been given by the careful and elaborate researches of ,magnus4 ,gases in the ,blood4--,it was found that both arterial and venous blood contain dissolved quantities of gases1 oxygen1 nitrogen and carbonic acid1 which amount to from one-tenth to one-twentieth the volume of the blood2 the proportions of these two gases to each other are different in arterial and venous blood2 the oxygen in arterial blood being about one-half of the carbonic acid1 while in the venous blood it seldom amounts to more than one-fifth2 the difference is greatest in young persons1 and probably is proportional to their activity of nutrition4 ,the quantity of nitrogen appears to be the same in both kinds of blood1 making from one-fifth to one-tenth of the gaseous mixture4 ,the physico-chemical conditions of respiration are simply explicable upon these results1 by the principle of gaseous diffusion1 the fine lining pulmonary membrane being permeable to gases4 ,when the venous blood arrives at the surface of the lungs1 a portion of the carbonic acid which it contains is evolved1 and a quantity of oxygen gas absorbed in place of it2 these two quantities are not necessarily equal at each moment1 though ultimately they become so1 and hence the volume of oxygen absorbed is generally1 though not universally1 equal to that of the carbonic acid given out4 ,there appears1 from the presence of nitrogen in equal quantity in both kinds of blood1 to be an absorption and evolution of that gas1 simply from physical laws1 and independent of any application of it to the nutrition of the animal2 hence the volume of nitrogen in air is sometimes increased1 and at others diminished1 by respiration1 and a man evolves much nitrogen when respiring an atmosphere of oxygen and hydrogen1 while it has been shown that the rate of nutrition of a man is proportionate to the quantity of nitrogen it receives as food1 and that none of that principle is really assimilated from the air4 ,it is still by no means easy to decide upon the changes of color which occur in the blood during respiration2 for this should appear connected1 not merely with the presence of certain gases in the blood1 but upon a true change in the composition of hematosine1 which analysis cannot direct4 ,stevens first attracted the attention upon the influence which saline bodies have upon the color of the blood4 ,if dark1 venous blood is put in contact with a solution of common salt1 glauber salt1 nitre1 or carbonate of soda1 it becomes as vermilion colored as if it had been truly arterialized2 on the contrary1 the presence of carbonic acid impedes this action1 and gives to blood1 so reddened by a salt1 not in excess1 the dark tint of venous blood4 ,if we consider1 therefore1 the arterial tint to be due to the material combination of the coloring matter with the saline constituents of the serum1 this will be darkened1 when1 by passing through the capillary system1 the blood takes up an excess of carbonic acid2 and again1 in the lungs1 when the carbonic acid is replaced by oxygen1 the vermilion color is restored1 not by any active agency of the oxygen1 but by the natural tint of saline hematosine becoming evident4 ,although this theory of the change of color is by no means free from objection1 it still appears to be better founded than any other that has been proposed4 ,animal ,heat4--,the phenomena of respiration consisting mainly in the conversion of carbon into carbonic acid by union with oxygen1 the heat which is developed in the body of all red blooded animals has been naturally referred to that source2 and as we know that the change from the arterial to the venous condition of the blood occurs at every point of the system1 the almost complete equality of temperature throughout the body in health is explained4 ,that the great source of heat is the respiratory process1 is abundantly proved by the temperature being highest in those animals1 and in the same animal1 at those periods when the circulation is most rapid and the quantity of air consumed the greatest4 ,but it has been calculated that the heat evolved by the combustion of the quantity of carbon thrown off from the body in twenty-four hours is no more than eight-tenths of the quantity generated in the body during that time1 and the origin of the remainder must be found in the action of the muscles and the nervous power1 which appears of itself to be a distinct source of animal heat4 ,,animal ,,chemistry4 ,,section ,,two4 ,composition of the ,digestive ,organs and of their ,secretions--,chemical ,phenomena of ,digestion4 ,mucus4--,the living membrane of the alimentary canal is moistened with a liquid possessing many of the characteristics of vegetable mucus1 but containing nitrogen4 ,it is a thick1 tenacious substance1 which contains1 dissolved in the water through which it is diffused1 the ordinary salts of the serum of the blood2 it swells up with water to a considerable mass1 but without dissolving2 it dissolves in alkaline liquors1 and is precipitated therefrom on the addition of an acid and the tincture of galls2 the mucus from different parts of the mucus membrane is1 however1 by no means identical in properties4 ,the liquid secreted by the internal surface of the stomach--the gastric juice--which exercises an important influence on digestion1 differs essentially in its character from mucus4 ,when the stomach is empty and contracted1 it contains ordinary mucus2 but if even indigestible substances are introduced1 and still more1 after taking proper food1 a liquid is abundantly poured out1 which is colorless or pale yellow1 and contains a very small quantity of solid matter 7two per cent471 which consists principally of inorganic salts 7common salts and sal ammoniac1 with a trace of a salt of iron72 it is specially characterized by the presence of a notable quantity of free muriatic acid1 the proportions of which vary with the activity of the digestive powers at the time4 ,this gastric juice possesses the remarkable property of softening down and dissolving fibrine and albumen1 and thus converts the masses of food into the uniform pulp 7chyme71 from which the absorbing vessels of the small intestines take up the nutritious elements4 ,if we form an artificial gastric juice by mixing together the muriatic acid and salts in the right proportions1 it is found to be totally incapable of dissolving the materials of the food1 and1 indeed to be quite inactive towards digestion4 ,the organic material of the gastric juice1 although its quantity be so minute1 is1 therefore1 essential to its powers1 and these may be perfectly conferred upon the previously inactive1 artificial juice1 by the addition of a little of the mucus of the stomach or by steeping in the acid liquor1 for a short time1 a small portion of a mucous membrane1 and filtering the liquor2 for this purpose it is not even necessary to use the mucous membrane of the stomach1 for that of the bladder has been found to answer equally well4 ,the substance which is dissolved out of the membrane in these cases has been termed pepsine4 ,it has not been obtained in a truly isolated or pure form1 but its properties are very remarkable4 ,for its full activity it requires the presence of a free acid1 as the artificial gastric juice becomes much less active in dissolving food when neutralized by an alkali1 though it retains other properties1 as that of coagulating milk-like rennet4 ,if the artificial juice be precipitated by nitrate of lead1 the precipitate washed1 and then decomposed by sulphuret of hydrogen2 the solution thus obtained possesses all the digestive powers of the juice4 ,hence1 the pepsine and muriatic acid act together1 by combining with oxide of lead4 ,pepsine appears to be completely decomposed by contact with alcohol or boiling water2 its powers are also destroyed by deodorizing substances2 the solution of albumen and fibrine in gastric juice differs essentially from their solution in muriatic acid1 as in the former case the quantity of acid is very minute1 in relation to the quantity of material dissolved1 and after solution the acid remains quite uncombined4 ,the action of the stomach in digestion1 appears1 therefore1 so far as our actual knowledge extends1 a purely catalytic fermentative action2 one in which the active excitant is an organic substance 7pepsine71 secreted by the mucous surface1 and whose properties are developed by the presence of muriatic acid1 which is secreted at the same time4 ,the new products into which the food1 fibrine1 albumen1 gluten1 starch1 oils1 sugar1 etc41 are converted1 and which collectively constitute the white uniform pulp1 termed by physiologists chyme1 have not been made the subject of accurate chemical researches4 ,in the mouth the mass of nutritive material is acted on by a liquid which is secreted by the salivary glands1 the saliva4 ,it is alkaline1 and holds in solution not one per cent4 of solid matter1 which contains some carbonate of soda and common salt1 admixed mucous1 and a peculiar organic body1 termed salivary matter4 ,this last substance is soluble in water2 its solution is not coagulated by heat1 nor precipitated by tincture of galls1 corrosive sublimate1 acetate of lead1 nor by acids4 ,the pancreas1 so similar in structure to the salivary glands1 has a different secretion2 it contains no salivary matter1 but albumen and some salts2 it is generally slightly acid4 ,composition of the ,bile4--,the precise part which this remarkable secretion performs in the animal economy is not yet fully known2 it has been the subject of repeated and accurate chemical examination1 although1 from the facility with which its elements are transferred into other bodies1 by the action of the reagents employed1 every succeeding analysis has led to different results4 ,the ,coloring matter of the ,bile4--is present during health but in small quantity1 but in disease it sometimes accumulates so as to form solid masses4 ,when pure1 it is a reddish-yellow powder1 which is scarcely soluble in water or in alcohol1 but dissolves easily in a solution of caustic potash4 ,this solution is of a clear yellow color1 but when exposed to the air it becomes deep green1 absorbing oxygen4 ,this change is remarkably produced by nitric acid1 and it is indeed the reaction by which the presence of the bile in the serum of the blood1 in the skin1 in the urine1 and eyes1 etc41 may be shown in cases of jaundice4 ,chyle and ,lymph4--,the nutritive materials extracted from the food by the absorbing vessels of the intestines1 is thrown into the thoracic duct1 where it meets with another fluid1 which is transmitted to the same vessel from all parts of the body by the colorless veins or lymphatics4 ,the fluid from the intestines is termed chyle2 that from the body is generally termed lymph4 ,it is the mixture of these that has alone been examined1 for the vessels which carry either separately are too minute to allow of the extraction of their contents in a pure form4 ,when taken from the thoracic duct1 a few hours after a meal1 when1 probably1 the chylous element prevails1 it is whitish1 opaque1 liquid1 like milk1 with generally a reddish shade2 a short time after separation from the body1 it coagulates2 the clot is at first pale1 but it soon becomes light crimson red2 the milkiness of the serum is due to the presence of oil2 it contains albumen1 and coagulates by heat2 except that it is more dilute1 and that the hematosine is for the most part absent1 the chyle and lymph have the same composition as the blood4 ,it appears to vary1 however1 with the nature of the food1 as ,dr4 ,prout found the chyle of persons fed on vegetables to contain a much smaller quantity of albumen than when they had had animal food4 ,dr4 ,prout also indicates in chyle the presence of a substance which he terms incipient albumen1 which is not coagulated by heat1 except after the addition of acetic acid2 the properties of this form of albumen1 however1 are not fully known4 ,constitution of the ,urine in ,health and ,disease4--,the nature of this secretion has at all times been an object of considerable interest to the chemist1 from the indications which changes in its composition give of diseases of important organs and from the number and interest of the different organic substances it contains4 ,as in almost all other branches of animal chemistry1 ,burzelius first determined its composition1 and lately ,lecaner has ascertained with great care the limits to which the proportions of its ingredients may vary in health1 and this established a correct basis of comparison for urine in the various conditions of diseases4 ,of the ,urine in ,disease and after ,death--,urinary ,calculi4--,to the chemist1 the indications of disease of the urinary and digestive organs1 formed by changes in the composition of urine1 are most valuable4 ,the majority of the substances which are taken into the circulation1 but are incapable of assimilation to our organs1 are thrown off by this secretion1 and hence a variety of medicinal substances may be traced to it after having been ingested1 sometimes quite unaltered1 at others modified in their natures4 ,thus if alkaline salts of organic acids be taken into the stomach1 the organic material is oxidized1 probably during the action of respiration1 while the alkali passes into the urine in the state of carbonate4 ,if1 however1 the organic acid be taken uncombined1 it escapes decomposition1 and1 passing into the urine1 produces an abundant precipitate of salts of lime4 ,in the case of the tartaric acid and oxalic acids1 some organic bodies1 as aspharagine and the oil of turpentine1 are decomposed1 and the products which they form are execreted1 giving to the urine peculiar odors2 in the latter case like that of violets4 ,the majority of coloring matters are thrown out of the system by this secretion1 while others are not so given off4 ,the mineral acids--alcohol1 camphor and most metallic salts--do not pass into the urine to any sensible degree4 ,urine in ,diabetes4--,the most remarkable change in the nature of urine occurs in ,diabetes ,mellitus1 it is voided in great quantity2 it is found to contain a great quantity of grape1 sugar1 and very little urea4 ,it was supposed that in this disease urea ceased to be formed by the system1 and was replaced by sugar2 but it has been shown that1 although the quantity of urea is very small in any one specimen of urine1 yet the total quantity is so much increased that in twenty-four hours the natural quantity of urea is secreted2 the secretion of sugar being an act of faulty digestion1 and totally unconnected with the urea4 ,these results have been fully confirmed by experience4 ,the diabetic urine sometimes contains albumen1 which arises from complications of other forms of disease4 ,all that has been said in the former chapter about the solid and fluid constituents of the human body may1 at first sight1 and to a great many1 seem to be superfluous and out of place in a work of this kind4 ,it is true that the different modes of preserving bodies1 as explained in this book1 do not require this long dissertation on animal chemistry in order to be understood2 still1 when we consider that the chemicals used in these different processes have an object to accomplish1 it must be granted that a thorough knowledge of the constituents of the body1 their composition and chemical proportion1 will1 to a great extent1 explain the reason why these same chemicals are used in preference to others4 ,the secondary object1 which is not less important1 consists in the fact that a thorough knowledge of the animal chemistry of the human organism is most necessary to understand the different changes which take place in the formation of the different juices and tissues of the body1 when they enter into combination with the chemicals1 the object of which is to render them imputrescible4 ,however1 the study of these combinations affords a simple and clear explanation of the means resorted to in order to preserve bodies4 ,,gannal',s ,,process ,,of ,,embalming4 ,,with ,,modifications4 ,this process1 which has been successfully employed in ,europe for a long time1 for the purpose of embalming bodies and for the preservation of anatomical preparations1 is still practised extensively1 owing to the cheapness of the materials used and to the simplicity of the modus operandi4 ,the embalming fluid in this instance is composed as follows1 viz43 ,sulphate of alumina1 #d pounds4 ,arsenious acid1 #d ounces4 ,creasote1 #d ounces4 ,water1 #a gallon4 ,to prepare this fluid1 an explanation of its constituents is required4 ,there are two different kinds of arsenious acid1 the opaque and the transparent4 ,this latter variety 7the transparent7 should be selected in preference to the other1 on account of its greater solubility2 the acid must also be procured in crystals1 and not in powder1 as it will1 in the first place1 dissolve quicker1 and will not be liable to be adulterated4 ,the water must then be heated to #ee1 and the acid dissolved in it4 ,the sulphate of alumina is then to be added1 and1 after being completely dissolved1 let the solution cool off to the usual temperature2 then add the creasote1 and1 after stirring gently1 the solution is ready for use4 ,lay the body on an inclined board1 as described in a former chapter1 and1 after thoroughly cleansing with water and soap1 saturate well with a concentrated solution of alum2 the body should be kept well moistened with the solution1 as prescribed in the processes of embalming already given1 until the operation is completed4 ,through an opening made in the skin of the abdomen1 and immediately over the transverse part of the colon1 the bowels and the stomach will then be revealed1 which must be emptied of their contents and properly cleaned1 and injected with the above preparation4 ,after the contents of the abdomen have thus been treated1 the whole abdominal viscera is to be heavily sprinkled over with tannic acid1 until the acid forms a layer about one-half inch in thickness between the bowels and the skin of the abdomen2 the flaps of the skin are then brought together and neatly sewed up4 ,the femoral vein is then opened4 ,the femoral vein ascends the thigh in the sheath of the femoral artery1 and1 entering the pelvis beneath ,poupart's ligament1 becomes the external iliac vein4 ,in the lower part of its course1 it is situated on the outer side of the artery2 it then becomes placed behind that vessel1 and at ,poupart's ligament lies to the inner side4 ,it receives the muscular veins and propenda1 and1 through the saphenous opening1 the internal saphenous vein4 ,the blood1 in some cases1 will issue very freely1 and the flow of it must continue until the embalming fluid makes its appearance4 ,to inject the circulatory system1 extend the left arm at a right angle with the body1 and open the axilliary artery about three inches from the arm-pit4 ,the axilliary artery is a continuation of the sub-clavian artery2 it passes through the axilla or arm-pit into the arm1 and is called the axilliary artery2 that part of its continuation into the upper arm is called the brachial artery1 and in the fore arm it divides into the radial and ulnar arteries1 which are distributed to the hand and fingers4 ,through the opening thus made in the axilliary artery two gallons of embalming fluid may be injected1 or such quantity as may be found necessary to completely fill the arterial and venous systems4 ,after the blood has ceased to flow from the opening in the femoral vein1 the wounds must be sewed up1 and the body1 anointed with the solution1 left to dry in a cool1 well ventilated place4 ,the surface of the body and also the face may be mottled in some places with white spots1 but the skin will soon assume a uniform color1 and the blotches will disappear4 ,after the solution on the body has become sufficiently dry and has penetrated the pores of the skin1 the excess of moisture must be wiped off with a clean towel4 ,the nostrils should be hermetically sealed1 by introducing into them some cotton1 well saturated with gum shellac dissolved in alcohol4 ,the eyes must be well closed1 and1 if no other means at hand1 the lids must be sewn together with a small circular needle1 and some silk1 saturated in spirits of turpentine4 ,the body is then saturated with a thin coating of turpentine2 and after the turpentine is dry1 the clothing can be put on1 and the body is then ready for interment4 ,as shown by the preceding1 this process is very simple1 and has given satisfactory results in all cases1 although the amount of embalming liquid and the composition thereof vary in all cases1 and according to the temperature of the season and country4 ,for instance1 if the body to be embalmed is that of a very fleshy person1 and it be in the summer season1 when animal substances are more prone to putrefy than at other seasons1 the embalming fluid must be altered as follows1 in its quantitative composition3 ,sulphate of alumina1 #f pounds4 ,arsenious acid1 transparent1 #d ounces4 ,creasote1 #f ounces4 ,water1 #a gallon4 ,for the minor parts of this process1 as1 for instance1 the closing of the eyes1 mouth1 etc41 the reader is referred to previous processes already given in former chapters4 ,the most reliable composition yet found for embalming purposes1 and the one which has given the most satisfactory results1 is the following3 ,alcohol1 one gallon2 dissolve into it eight ounces of corrosive sublimate1 and1 after complete solution1 add two pounds of creasote4 ,this solution1 for injecting purposes1 has never failed to accomplish the purpose1 and has given the most astonishing results4 ,the only objection to its use1 but one which does not in reality carry any weight with it1 is the fact that the solution will produce a white scar on the skin of the body wherever it may be dropped2 but a very moderate amount of care in the use of it will preclude the possibility of such an accident4 ,the embalming of bodies by injection has so far occupied our attention4 ,we will hereafter pass briefly in review the process of maceration employed in the preservation of bodies4 ,,embalming ,,by ,,maceration4 ,the process of embalming bodies1 as at first practised1 was founded on the principle of complete immersion of the body into some bath composed of antiseptics1 which1 by being absorbed by the system1 rendered the tissues imputrescible1 much in the same way as we now preserve anatomical preparations by immersing in alcohol4 ,at the commencement of this century a process of embalming was brought out in ,europe1 and succeeded very well for some time2 but after a certain period1 ,mr4 ,gannal and others inaugurated a new system of preserving the dead1 and the process of maceration was abandoned1 and has not since been revived to any extent4 ,the following is the manner of treatment to which a body was subjected in the above process3 ,the body was washed thoroughly with soap and water2 then the abdomen was opened and the sternum raised2 the thoracic as well as the abdominal viscera was then removed altogether1 as also the brain4 ,the body was then immersed for one week in a strong solution of alum and nitrate of potash2 the body was then taken out and the cavities filled with tow and powdered arsenic2 the bowels1 lungs1 liver1 etc41 in fact all the viscera1 were buried separately4 ,the body was then completely buried in dry sand for the space of ten days1 to absorb all the moisture contained in the tissues1 and was then dressed in the funeral habiliments and placed in a leaden coffin1 hermetically sealed2 a small1 thick glass1 immediately over the face1 allowed the friends to obtain a view of the features4 ,this process has been found objectionable for a good many reasons2 in the first place1 the eviscerating of the body is a repulsive feature of it1 and not to be had recourse to when less barbarous means are at hand2 secondly1 the skin of the body assumes a yellow and wrinkled appearance1 which1 if it does not entirely destroy the cast of the features1 alters the general appearance so much as to render them very different from the natural appearance4 ,at any rate1 the method of preserving bodies by the above means has entirely fallen into disuse1 and as1 with our perfected improvements in this branch of the undertaking business1 we are able to do away with the most repugnant features of it1 this system has been superseded by the less objectionable and more effective arterial injections4 ,,laws ,,of ,,health4 ,undertakers1 like physicians and all those who may be called at any time of the day or night to make use of their physical and mental faculties1 whose duties compel them to breathe the foul effluvia of the sick chamber1 or the noxious gases generated by the dead1 even to come into direct contact with every variety of contagious or epidemic disease--such professionals find it to their interest and physical welfare to observe certain rules of living in accordance with the requirements of their calling4 ,it is a matter of great importance that their diet1 clothing and habits be regulated by certain laws1 which will1 to a great extent1 reduce the dangers to which they are exposed in the discharge of their duties4 ,,diet4 ,man is less uniform in his diet1 and suffers more in consequence of it1 than any other animal4 ,all other animals are directed by instinct to select only those substances which are best adapted to their wants4 ,man is endowed with reason to enable him1 by the exercise of thought and reflection1 to make his choice of food4 ,he should1 therefore1 select his daily food with as much forethought and care as he would select the materials for his dwelling4 ,he should consider1 not what will gratify his taste1 but what will build up and strengthen his bodily structure1 and secure most perfectly the highest and most permanent enjoyment of all his faculties4 ,the kind of food which each individual should select is by no means uniform2 the climate1 the season of the year1 the occupation1 the temperament1 the age1 the habits of life1 and various other circumstances which might be mentioned1 demand modifications of diet4 ,,modifications ,,of ,,age4 ,the constituent elements of the body are not found in the same relative proportions at different periods of life1 or in different individuals of the same age4 ,in middle life the muscular system predominates1 and the body is remarkable for the compactness of its fibres1 its strength1 and its power of endurance4 ,in the child there is an excess of fluids1 which renders the body more plump and round and the form beautiful1 though more frail and delicate than at a later period4 ,in advanced age1 the soft tissues become greatly diminished1 and the form wrinkled and wasted4 ,,climate4 ,the inhabitants of cold climates require those articles of food which produce the largest amount of animal heat1 such as oil1 tallow and fat meats1 which contain from sixty-six to eighty per cent4 of carbon4 ,the natives of the arctic regions consume enormous quantities of fat and oil1 and seem to relish them as great luxuries2 the inhabitants of tropical regions subsist mainly on rice1 fruits1 vegetables and lean meats4 ,it would be impossible to live in ,greenland on the plaintain and rice of the ,hindoo1 or in ,hindostan on the seal fat and whale oil of the ,greenlander4 ,in temperate climates we require different kinds of food at different seasons of the year4 ,in winter we consume larger quantities of fat meat and carbonaceous food1 and in summer more fruit and vegetables4 ,were we to indulge in the summer in the same diet which we might find highly conducive to health in the winter1 the system would soon become burdened with an excess of carbonaceous matter1 and induce congestion and inflammatory diseases4 ,it is therefore highly important that each person should possess some knowledge of the properties of different articles of diet1 and select from time to time those which he may think most suitable to his own organization4 ,different substances are nutritious in proportion as they yield1 when digested1 those elements which are found to exist in the different tissues of the body4 ,animals do not possess the power of forming new elements1 or of converting one element into another1 and it necessarily follows that the elements of their growth and nutrition must be derived from the food which they take4 ,the largest part of nearly all the substances which make up the human body are composed of oxygen1 hydrogen1 nitrogen and carbon1 and different substances are regarded as nutritious in proportion as they furnish these essential elements of our organization4 ,in general1 those substances may be regarded as the most important articles of diet which furnish1 with the greatest facility of digestion1 the largest amount of these elements4 ,milk is regarded1 perhaps correctly1 as the plainest and simplest kind of food4 ,cow's milk is composed of3 ,casein1 #d4dh ,butter1 #c4ac ,sugar of milk1 #d4gg ,various salts1 4#fj ,water1 #hg4jj ,milk1 being furnished by nature as the only food for the young of the mammalia during a certain period of their existence1 contains all the elements necessary to the nutrition and the growth of the body4 ,out of the casein are formed the albumen and fibrin of the blood4 ,the butter serves for the formation of fat1 and contributes1 with the sugar1 to the support of animal heat1 by yielding carbon and hydrogen to be burnt in the lungs4 ,the earthy salts 7phosphate of lime1 etc47 are necessary for the development of the bones1 the iron required for the blood1 corpuscles and the hair4 ,in this country1 meat constitutes an important part of the diet of almost every family4 ,as a general rule1 animal food is more easily digested1 contains a greater amount of nutriment1 and is more stimulating than any of the varieties of vegetable food4 ,as minuteness of division and tenderness of fibre facilitate digestion1 young meats are more tender than old2 thus1 roasted pig is more speedily digested than broiled pork2 steak and boiled lamb sooner than boiled mutton4 ,still1 there are some exceptions to the digestibility of young meats1 veal1 and with some persons lamb1 are slower of digestion than beef or mutton4 ,the vegetable kingdom greatly exceeds the animal in the number and variety of the aliments which it furnishes to man4 ,it is well known that the four essential elements1 carbon1 oxygen1 hydrogen and nitrogen1 which form an important part of all animal compounds1 are also to be found in great abundance in all vegetable compounds2 it is owing to this fact that different animals are nourished equally well on an exclusive diet of either4 ,the lion1 tiger and other animals which live exclusively on animal food1 give no evidence of being better nourished than the deer1 the ox1 and animals which subsist wholly on vegetable food2 but the apparatus for digestion in each class is constructed with an evident adaptation to the kind of diet on which the different animals subsist4 ,in man the digestive apparatus is more extensive than in flesh-eating animals1 but is less complicated than in those which are confined to vegetable food alone4 ,man is therefore omnivorous1 both in his structure and in his habits4 ,but the universal tendency of mankind gives preference to a mixed diet4 ,the most perfect development and the greatest individual vigor are to be found among those races in which a mixed diet is the prevalent habit4 ,during the warm season vegetables and fruits may be made the means of great mischief or of great good4 ,perfectly ripe fruits or vegetables are highly useful and well adapted to the wants of the system at that season of the year2 yet they may become1 and often are1 a prolific source of disease4 ,so frequently is this kind of food a cause of bowel complaint that city physicians discard it wholly from the diet of children not under their immediate supervision4 ,vegetables and early fruits that have been long exposed1 in a malarious or filthy market1 or in transportation1 are unquestionably dangerous articles of food for all persons4 ,but the injurious consequences which follow the use of ripe and wholesome vegetables and fruit are1 in almost all cases1 the results of imprudence4 ,they are either in an improper condition to be used as food1 or the quantity is too great1 or they are taken at improper hours4 ,in either case there is a great change in the usual diet4 ,instead of a lack of refrigerant food1 there is now an excess of it4 ,active fermentation takes place in the process of digestion1 and results in serious derangement in the alimentary canal1 which leads to cholera morbus1 diarrha or dysentery4 ,during warm weather vegetables and fruit are to be regarded as safe only when used as an accompaniment to other food2 they are not adapted to meet all the wants of the system1 and therefore should not constitute a full meal at any time4 ,in the country1 where this kind of food is enjoyed daily in a proper condition to be eaten1 injurious consequences are quite rare1 and then they are the result of an excess1 or of an indulgence of an appetite at irregular hours4 ,much care is also requisite to prevent imperfect mastication of this kind of food4 ,orange peel and the skins and stones of cherries1 plums and grapes are wholly indigestible1 and often cause serious mischief when swallowed4 ,cucumbers1 green potatoes1 green fruit of all kinds should be wholly discarded from the diet4 ,,drinks4 ,water in some form is more essential to our existence than any of the solid aliments we have yet considered1 and is next in importance1 in the performance of the vital process1 to the air we breathe4 ,water enters into the formation of all the various tissues of the body1 and constitutes a very large proportion of the human system4 ,the blood contains about eighty per cent41 the flesh about seventy-six per cent41 of water2 and of the entire human body1 at least seventy-five per cent41 or three-fourths of its weight1 is water4 ,the most important purposes in the animal economy are accomplished through this medium4 ,in the blood1 the solid vital elements are transported by the medium of water from one part of the body to another1 in a form and condition to promote the vital changes which are constantly taking place4 ,in exhalation1 secretion and absorption1 the presence of water is indispensable4 ,it acts as a solvent of various alimentary substances1 and thus assists the stomach in the act of digestion2 though when taken in large quantities immediately after eating it dilutes the gastric juice and hinders digestion4 ,water enters more or less largely into the composition of all alimentary substances1 and is taken into the stomach in a pure state1 or forms the principal part of the various kinds of drinks in use4 ,water is unquestionably the natural drink of adults1 and meets the wants of the body more perfectly than any of the artificial liquids which are regarded as improvements on water4 ,whenever a man is left to the cravings of instinct1 unbiased by a vicious appetite1 he invariably resorts to water as the natural means to quench his thirst1 cool his system1 and invigorate his wasting strength4 ,when we say that water is the only fitting drink for man's daily and habitual use1 we are sustained by the facts of the case4 ,water is the only liquid which is necessary to the formation1 development and support of his frame2 it is equal to all the exigencies of thirst1 for the relief of present inconvenience1 and of dilution1 by mixing with his blood and other fluids1 to prevent further sufferings and disease4 ,,digestibility ,,of ,,alimentary ,,substances4 ,the facility with which alimentary substances are digested1 depends on a variety of circumstances4 ,some kinds of food are naturally more difficult of digestion than others4 ,this is especially the case with oily and fatty substances1 which contain a large amount of nutritive matter in a concentrated form4 ,tenderness of fibre renders the digestive process more easy2 and1 therefore1 all those circumstances which affect the texture of flesh have an influence on its digestibility4 ,violent muscular exertion previous to the death of the animal renders the flesh more easy of digestion4 ,the flesh of young animals1 though more tender than the flesh of adult animals1 is frequently not so easily digested4 ,of adult animals1 the youngest will be found more tender and digestible than old animals4 ,vegetables are generally more slowly digested than meat4 ,minute division facilitates digestion2 hence1 if food is properly masticated1 the process of digestion will be more rapid than otherwise4 ,some variety of food is unquestionably more agreeable and more conducive to health than a diet limited to one or a few simple articles4 ,accordingly1 we find that1 whenever the condition of men will admit of it1 they universally make use of more or less variety of alimentary substances1 and that variety increases very much in proportion to the wealth and ability which exists to gratify the desires of the palate4 ,too great a variety of alimentary substances is always injurious when it becomes a temptation to excess4 ,thus1 a much larger amount of food is taken than the wants of the body require1 and more than the digestive organs have the capacity to dispose of4 ,it is impossible to point out to each individual the kind of diet which will suit best4 ,this1 to some extent1 must be a matter of personal observation and experience4 ,peculiarities of constitution1 habits of life1 age1 sex1 etc41 require modifications of diet in accordance with the natural wants of each individual4 ,abstinence from all that is found or suspected to be injurious1 uniform hours and temperate indulgence should be observed by all who value lasting health more than the mere temporary gratification of the palate4 ,,clothing4 ,dress does not make the man1 but it is often indicative of his character4 ,some men dress in such a manner as to indicate that they estimate themselves by the cost per yard of the garments they wear2 others dress so as to carry an impression of perfect indifference to the feelings and sentiments of those around them4 ,both are wrong4 ,our personal appearance1 which depends to a great extent on dress1 is a matter of some consequence2 and the man who wholly disregards the customs and habits of others in this respect will be very likely to be indifferent to the sentiments and feelings of society in other particulars1 and at least may be in danger of passing for less than his true worth4 ,but the fop1 whose only accomplishment is the dress he wears1 is usually despised as thoughtless and vain4 ,the style of dress which is most to be commended is that which will not draw attention either for its gaudiness or its plainness4 ,the external appearance of our clothing should always be regarded as less important than its practical uses1 inasmuch as bodily health is infinitely more important than personal appearance4 ,during the warm season we require clothing which will protect the body without retaining too large an amount of heat4 ,for this purpose we prefer1 in summer1 materials which are good conductors of heat4 ,cotton and worsted1 though not as good conductors as linen1 are usually found sufficiently cool for the temperature of the ,northern ,states1 where the climate is so changeable that there are but few days in the season when linen can be worn with safety4 ,winter clothing should correspond somewhat with the exposure1 both in quality and amount4 ,the object to be sought in winter clothing is1 not to produce heat1 but to retain the heat which the body is constantly evolving4 ,woolen is one of our best non-conductors of heat1 and all garments formed from this material are regarded as warm clothing4 ,all kinds of furs are good non-conductors1 but they are liable to two serious objections3 ,first1 furs are too warm for ordinary exposure1 and cause too great a change of temperature when they are removed2 second1 they prevent the escape of perspiration1 and confine it within the garments usually worn inside of the fur4 ,the amount of clothing should depend on the constitutional vigor and the exposure of each individual4 ,indoors we require less than during an outdoors exposure2 less when taking active exercise than when inactive4 ,the amount of clothing1 therefore1 should be sufficient to insure a constant and uniform protection against sudden changes4 ,it is especially injurious to bundle up the face and neck with fur collars and shawls1 which are so warm that colds will be induced when they are removed4 ,in a changeable climate1 the constant wearing of flannel under garments next to the skin should be recommended4 ,flannel absorbs the perspiration and preserves a uniform temperature of the surface of the body1 and prevents that sense of chilliness which we are liable to experience without flannels4 ,,embalming ,,process ,,of ,,worth ,,and ,,durand4 ,this process1 often employed in ,europe1 has given very satisfactory results1 and seems to deserve a good deal of attention4 ,the mode of proceeding differs in some particulars from the methods already given2 also the preparations used in this process are very different from the others1 although the principles upon which it is founded are the same4 ,the solution employed as an injecting fluid in this process is as follows3 ,arsenious acid1 #c ounces4 ,carbonate of soda1 #d ounces ,water1 #c quarts4 ,dissolve the arsenious acid and soda in hot water1 in a glass or porcelain vessel1 and1 after solution1 let the liquor cool off2 then add enough of water to make up a gallon of the mixture4 ,in the making and using of this preparation a great amount of care should be exercised1 as it must be borne in mind that arsenious acid is a violent poison4 ,the stomach is then opened1 as described in former chapters1 and emptied of its contents2 the bowels1 also1 must be subjected to the same process4 ,the trachea is punctured1 and the bronchial tubes completely filled with the solution through the opening thus made4 ,the stomach and intestines should also be injected with the solution1 and also the surrounding parts4 ,the main point of injection is the common carotid artery4 ,before injecting the stomach and bowels1 and before replacing the intestines into the abdominal cavity1 the inferior vena cava is punctured a little below the renal vein1 and the flow of blood allowed to take place in the cavity1 from whence it may be either sponged or pumped out4 ,the right carotid artery is selected as the point of injection1 instead of the left1 for the following reasons3 ,the right common carotid artery is shorter than the left2 it is also more anterior1 and1 in consequence of proceeding from a branch instead of from the main trunk1 is larger than its fellow4 ,the common carotid artery in the neck is inclosed in a fibrous sheath1 which also contains the internal jugular vein lying to the outer side of the artery1 and the pneumogastric nerve1 which lies between and behind both2 the sheath rests on the vertebral column4 ,to the inner side of the carotid is the trachea and larynx2 to its outer side1 and inclosed in its sheath1 the jugular vein4 ,it may be inferred from the above that the jugular vein in the neck is in close proximity with the carotid artery1 and great care must be exercised in puncturing the artery not to injure the vein lying at its side4 ,after the injection has proceeded upwards1 until the arteries of the head and neck are filled1 a very small puncture may be cut into the jugular vein1 and the blood allowed to escape at that point and for a few minutes1 until the flow decreases1 when the vein may be tied up4 ,the nozzle of the injector is then turned in a downward direction1 and the injection continued until a sufficient quantity of the liquid has been injected4 ,the artery is then tied up1 and the wound neatly brought together and sewed up4 ,the blood which may have escaped from the vena cava is taken out of the abdominal cavity1 and the stomach and bowels injected with the solution4 ,some of the same solution may also be poured around the bowels before and after their being replaced in their former position1 and the opening in the abdomen is then closed4 ,another preparation1 which has been employed with some success1 was as follows3 ,hyposulphite of soda1 #ab ounces4 ,sulphuric acid1 #f ounces4 ,water1 #a gallon4 ,the sulphuric acid liberates the hyposulphurous acid1 which immediately decomposes into sulphur and sulphurous acid4 ,it is to the antiseptic properties of the sulphurous acid that this preparation owes its preserving qualities4 ,a strong solution of bichromate of potash has also been used several times for an injection1 but the result has not always proved satisfactory1 as the liquid1 when concentrated1 is too much of an oxydizing agent4 ,,miscellaneous4 ,when the services of the undertaker are required1 the party or parties--generally some friend of the deceased--who may have charge of the arrangements will1 in a few words1 make the undertaker acquainted with the nature of the case and the particular duties he is expected to perform4 ,sometimes they will there and then select the style of case or casket1 order the carriages1 and arrange all the other details of the funeral4 ,at other times1 again1 these particular points are to be decided upon only after consulting the wishes of the family in this respect4 ,in either case it is the undertaker's most imperative duty to hasten to the house of mourning with all the implements necessary for washing1 laying out1 dressing1 and if necessary preserving the body4 ,that is1 where the party has died at his own house2 for1 in many cases1 where death has taken place either at a hotel1 boarding house1 or any other place of a like public character1 the proprietor thereof may wish the remains removed1 at as short notice as convenient1 to the rooms of the undertaker1 where the remains may be properly cared for without any annoyance or discomfort to the other inmates4 ,before the undertaker brings in any of the appliances necessary to the laying out of the corpse1 it will be well for him to make his entrance unincumbered1 and be introduced to the persons present4 ,he must also view the remains1 and make such arrangements or alteration in the furniture of the room as may be necessary to facilitate the operation of laying out1 washing1 etc4 ,the assistant may then be called in1 and he shall dispose of the funeral implements according to the directions given by the undertaker4 ,after the preliminaries have thus been disposed of1 none but the intimate friends or relatives of the deceased are allowed to remain while the work of dressing the corpse is being performed4 ,this is subservient to the wish and good judgment of the undertaker1 who is supposed to be vested with powers of expelling those whose presence is not justifiable1 or retaining others who may have claim to the privilege4 ,it should be here borne in mind that the work must be done as silently and noiselessly as the nature of the case admits of2 and that any subject of discourse between the undertaker and his assistant1 not immediately connected with the matter in hand1 is very much out of place1 and will be regarded by the persons present as a lack of good manners1 not to say a disrespectful behavior4 ,let it be also remembered that a mortuary chamber is not the place fitly chosen to consummate the ulterior arrangements of the funeral1 but some other apartment in the house1 or even the undertaker's own office1 are the proper places to perfect subsequent proceedings4 ,the laying out and dressing of the body being completed1 the assistant may retire1 after having carefully removed whatever articles may have been used in the process2 while the undertaker1 who may have some directions to give about the proper care of the body until the time of burial1 or some instructions to receive from the persons in charge of the funeral1 will wait until every point is settled2 or some other time and place may be selected for the purpose4 ,it is not the sphere of the undertaker1 especially at such time1 to press with questions the parties whom he may chance to serve2 but he will abide his time and accept their decisions with becoming respect1 unless some imperative object should make it incumbent upon him to hasten the proceedings1 as1 for instance1 the danger of contagion from some infectious disease1 or some other equally important reason4 ,in the matter of dressing the body1 especially if it be that of a lady1 this duty is usually performed by some lady attached to the establishment1 or by some lady friend of the deceased1 although the undertaker is often called to perform this office himself4 ,it is at such a time that good taste and refinement will show conspicuous in the professional undertaker4 ,the same may be said about the floral decorations and the ornamenting of the casket2 a certain amount of good sound common sense and discrimination should be used in both cases4 ,some parties will consider it a mark of good taste to have but a few elegant and well chosen gold or silver trimmings1 while others would consider a superfluity of these as needful to the complete decoration of the casket4 ,this part of the business must be well understood by the undertaker1 and it requires a certain amount of tact to pamper successfully to the taste of the different parties he may be called upon to serve4 ,the remains1 after being placed in the coffin a few hours previous to the time of the funeral1 do not require much of his attention1 but he is expected to be on hand at the specified time4 ,as the hearse and carriages arrive at the house of mourning and take the places allotted to them without confusion or unnecessary noise1 the undertaker will see that each carriage driver has his place assigned in the cortge and observes the directions given him4 ,the assistant stands ready to receive the casket and help the pall bearers in placing it properly in the hearse2 he will also see that each carriage approaches in time and receives the occupants1 as his employer may direct4 ,should the religious ceremonies be performed in the house of the deceased1 his duties will end there until the cemetery is reached2 should1 however1 the services be performed at some public place of worship1 it will be his duty to precede the arrival of the procession1 to see that everything is in readiness1 to give timely warning to the sexton1 and to assist in removing the casket from the hearse2 also in preserving order in the loading and unloading of carriages2 while the undertaker takes the lead in the carrying of the remains into the church1 and will see that the casket is laid up with proper care at the place appointed4 ,the undertaker is expected to occupy a position not far remote from the officiating clergyman1 so as to be within hearing of the latter should it be necessary for him to request some service or make some inquiries4 ,the funeral services over1 the undertaker is expected to lead the march out of the church1 preceding the casket bearers1 but following the minister1 who1 in many instances1 will walk at the head as far as the door4 ,the assistant will be found ready to assist in placing the casket in the hearse1 as before mentioned1 and will also have the carriages move up in the right order1 open and close the carriage doors1 while the undertaker ushers the occupants into the vehicles4 ,the undertaker may also require the services of an assistant at the grave1 but this will depend in great measure upon the nature of the funeral itself1 whether it be of a certain magnitude1 or if it be one of less importance4 ,this brief elucidation of the duties of an undertaker in the discharge of his functions is not given as a general rule to be strictly adhered to without any exception1 but merely as a ground plan to work upon1 and to be subject to different modifications1 as circumstances may require4 ,one undisputable fact is1 that in the general management of a funeral pageant1 and for the better and more systematic working of the details1 especially if the funeral is one on a large scale1 the services of a well trained assistant will be found almost indispensable to the undertaker1 and will be conducive of the happiest results in securing perfect system1 dispatch2 and also in preventing delays and mistakes1 which might otherwise happen where the responsibility and the smooth working of the whole rests upon one man4 ,the laying out1 washing1 dressing1 etc41 of a corpse1 under any and every circumstance1 ought to be so systematized and arranged1 that either the undertaker or his assistant may be able to perform these duties alone and singly1 with ease and promptness1 should circumstances so require4 ,as the undertaker is supposed to understand the wants required by different cases1 it will be his duty1 so soon as he is acquainted with the nature of the cause of death1 to take such steps as his experience will suggest1 as regards the safety of those who may trust him with the care of properly disposing of the remains4 ,should the disease be of a contagious or infectious character1 it will be incumbent upon the undertaker to see that perfect ventilation be established in the chamber where the body lies2 that all cloths which are removed from the corpse be disposed of in a cautious manner2 that the bed-clothes be either carried immediately out of the room and exposed outside to the light and heat of the sun1 or be burned up1 if the character of the disease be so dangerous as to require it4 ,he will see that proper means of disinfecting the house be used1 so as to a great extent neutralize1 if not completely destroy1 the germ of the epidemic4 ,a good preparation to combat noxious and poisonous miasma1 besides the other disinfecting liquids which have been enumerated in previous chapters1 consists of the following3 ,nitrate of potash 7saltpetre71 #f ounces4 ,water1 #b quarts4 ,sulphuric acid1 #d ounces4 ,dissolve the nitrate of potash in the water4 ,if the water be moderately warm it will dissolve quicker4 ,for this purpose use a large china wash bowl 7no metallic vessel71 which must hold at least twice the amount of the solution1 or about one gallon4 ,when the solution is completed1 gradually pour into it the sulphuric acid2 it will effervesce1 and care must be taken not to let any of it fall on the carpet1 as it will not only destroy the color but also the texture of the fabric2 the effervescence will1 however1 soon subside1 and the foul effluvia of the room will soon lose its offensive odor4 ,this fumigation has been successfully employed in ,southern cities1 in times of severe epidemics4 ,although it may be questioned by some whether or no these measures come within the sphere of the undertaker's duties1 it is by no means a reason why they should be discarded by our professionals1 or why undertakers should not be familiar with all the means that will tend to enhance the success of the profession1 as well as to promote the comfort and safety of those whom they may be called upon to serve2 besides the credit they will receive from the family for their well directed efforts in securing their approval4 ,,chloride ,,of ,,lead ,,as ,a ,,deodorizer ,,and ,,disinfectant4 ,dr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,goolden calls attention in the ,lancet to the value of chloride of lead1 which he says is the most powerful deodorizer and disinfectant4 ,to prepare it for use1 he directs to take half a drachm of nitrate of lead1 dissolve in a pint or more of boiling water2 then dissolve two drachms of common salt in a bucket of water1 and mix the two solutions together2 allow the sediment to subside4 ,the clear supernatant fluid will be a solution of chloride of lead4 ,a cloth dipped in this solution and hung up in a room will sweeten a fetid atmosphere instantaneously2 or if the solution be sprinkled over the bed-clothes or clothing of a fast decomposing body1 it will produce a like result4 ,even the tarnishing of gold and silver ornaments may be prevented1 by a rag dipped in the solution being hung up in the room or window where they are exposed4 ,he relates some striking instances of the instantaneous and efficient action of this preparation4 ,,dangers ,,of ,,absorption ,,of ,,carbolic ,,acid4 ,undertakers and others using carbolic acid to some extent should always use extreme caution in the handling of it4 ,the carelessness with which certain papers take up some popular recipe is not always without its dangers4 ,for instance1 there appeared lately in some public print an article upon the poison of vipers1 which is very similar to that of the virus from a putrefying corpse2 the article recommended that carbolic acid should be immediately introduced into the wound1 the acid to be mixed with alcohol in the proportion of two to one4 ,observe the off-hand manner with which a toxic agent is spoken of1 as if it were the most inoffensive thing in the world4 ,in order to try the experiment1 a cat was selected1 upon whose skin1 denuded of hair alone1 a saturated solution of carbolic acid in alcohol1 with an equal quantity of water1 was rubbed2 this produced no effect2 but when the same solution was rubbed into a scratch upon the end of the nose two or three times1 the animal fell immediately into convulsions and very shortly succumbed4 ,prussic acid could not have acted more promptly4 ,the moral of this experiment is obvious4 ,,disinfectants4 ,dr4 ,baxter has executed a great number of very careful experiments1 with a view to testing the different disinfecting properties of the so-called disinfectants commonly used4 ,evidence was adduced to show that carbolic acid1 sulphur1 permanganate of potash and chlorine are all endowed with true disinfectant properties1 though in very varying degrees4 ,the effectual disinfectant operation of chlorine and permanganate of potash appeared to depend far more on the nature of the medium through which the particles of infective matter are distributed than on the specific character of the particles themselves4 ,a virulent liquid cannot be regarded as certainly and completely disinfected by sulphur1 unless it has been rendered permanently and thoroughly acid4 ,no virulent liquid can be considered disinfected by carbolic acid1 unless it contains at least two per cent41 by weight1 of the pure acid4 ,when disinfectants are mixed with a liquid1 it is very important to make sure that they are thoroughly incorporated with it1 and that no solid matters capable of shielding contagion from immediate contact with its destroyer be overlooked4 ,aerial disinfection1 as commonly practised in the sick room1 is either useless or positively objectionable1 owing to the false sense of security it is calculated to produce4 ,to make the air of a room smell strongly of carbolic acid1 by scattering carbolic powder about the floor1 or of chlorine1 by placing a tray of chloride of lime in a corner1 is1 so far as the specific destruction of contagion is concerned1 an utterly futile proceeding4 ,the practical result of these experiments goes to prove1 first1 that dry heat1 when it can be applied1 is probably the most perfect of all disinfectants2 second1 that the old plan of stopping up crevices and fumigating with sulphur and charcoal is more efficacious than any other proceeding with more modern disinfectants2 third1 that the use of carbolic vapor for disinfecting purposes should be abandoned1 owing to the relative feebleness and uncertainty of its action4 ,a ,,reliable ,,sign ,,of ,,death4 ,this sign consists in the absence of contraction of the pupil1 after puncture of the cornea and evacuation of the aqueous humor4 ,when the pupil contracts1 life is still present2 when it remains immovable1 it is a certain sign of death4 ,the puncture of the cornea may be made with a cataract knife1 or even an ordinary lancet4 ,it is a harmless operation4 ,,rapid ,,decay ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,structure4 ,under this heading1 we will present to our readers an essay upon the causes of the dissolution of the human body4 ,the writer1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,w4 ,,ball1 of ,bangor1 ,michigan1 who published the following in ,,the ,,casket of ,march1 #ahgg1 has kindly allowed us to republish it1 for the benefit of those who have not read it1 and also as a proof that the theories advanced in this volume cannot be refuted4 ,we give the article at length4 ,the statements advanced in the essay1 also the course of treatment adopted in the preservation of bodies1 will be found to possess great similarity with the different methods herein given4 ,,by ,w4 ,w4 ,,ball4 ,as soon as the vital action ceases1 decomposition ensues in the substances which were before the very elements of life1 viz43 blood1 lymph1 chyme1 chyle and gastric juice1 become active agents in its destruction4 ,in the blood1 the most important agent during life1 as soon as life ceases it becomes one of the first to produce that blackened1 putrid and sloughing condition we find shortly after death4 ,the blood being left in every part of the body1 it breaks up and forms new compounds1 of which only a general outline is attainable1 for want of definite chemical analysis or microscopical observation4 ,the fibrine and serum separate2 the former1 which contains most of the red corpuscles1 albumen1 saline and fatty substances1 glutinates or coagulates on the sides of the vessels themselves1 while the serum permeates the surrounding tissues1 uniting with oxygen carried off from the pulmonary structure during life1 and these1 having an affinity for the tissues1 form those compounds termed sulphuretted and carburetted hydrogen gases1 giving rise to that effluvium which characterize deceased bodies4 ,,condition ,,of ,,the ,,blood4 ,after death the blood is found in two forms4 ,this is owing to certain diseases and circumstances4 ,the first is encountered when death has ensued after a long stage of sickness4 ,the vital fluids become exhausted by disease1 and the organs of circulation become too weak to perform their office of circulating the fluid they contain2 hence1 dissolution takes place in the blood from want of constant and rapid action4 ,thus the fibrine becomes lodged and coagulated in the veins and capillary system4 ,the fibrine and serum separate1 leaving the fibrine coagulated or clotted1 and the serum1 a transparent1 fatty or oily liquid1 permeates the tissues of the flesh4 ,usually the arteries are found without any blood remaining in them4 ,in instances of this kind there will be no difficulty encountered from the corpse turning black1 as the gases cannot force the blood to the surface into the capillary system1 because the fibrine is lodged elsewhere1 but the flesh may turn brown or saffron color to some extent4 ,,difficult ,,cases4 ,the second condition of the blood is found when death resulted from accident or short duration of sickness4 ,in these instances there is usually a large abundance of fluids remaining in the system4 ,these foster fermentation in every structure1 and evolve the gases so rapidly as to cause the cavities of the thorax and abdomen to become extended to their utmost capacity with gases that induce the blood to leave the vessels in the thorax and appear at the surface in the capillary system4 ,in this instance the fibrine and serum of the blood remain together in an inky or eccymosed condition4 ,thus it is observed that the gases are so rapidly evolved by the destructive fluids1 that before the fibrine coagulates it is forced from the vessels of the thorax 7especially the superior vena cava71 and caused to appear above the surface into the neck and face4 ,the great pressure of the gases depresses the vessels of the thorax in the same manner that it does the stomach when purging takes place1 which occurs invariably whenever the stomach contains any movable matter4 ,the lymph1 chyle and chyme1 which are the same or similar1 as soon as death ensues take on new molecular changes2 the lymph especially1 which is retained in all the glands and vessels of the lymphatic system1 enters into the process of decomposition1 fostering putrefaction in the whole structure2 while the gastric juice1 a peculiar fluid so subservient to digestion1 which affects the food only during life1 immediately attacks the substances of the stomach when life is extinct1 in the same or similar manner as it affected the food during life1 corroding and completely destroying everything with which it comes in contact1 as there is no vitality to resist its action4 ,elements having other affinities1 and the organism generally1 hurry back to their primeval state4 ,nature knows no delays4 ,the work to be done is to disorganize the body and destroy its form4 ,this is the work of heat1 moisture1 air and germs in unison1 causing the fluids and tissues of the body to decay rapidly1 while the albumenoid matters are decomposed into fetid gases escaping into the air1 which in a short time accomplish the work of dissolution1 leaving the body a mass of corruption and the receptacle of myriads of germs of microscopic beings4 ,the corpse is their natural aliment1 and death their chosen laboratory4 ,the products of putrefying animal matter are carbonic acid1 water1 ammonia and carburetted hydrogen gases1 which are generally mixed with various portions of phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen gases4 ,the blackened or mortified appearance in those instances is usually caused by the eccymosed or dark blood from the vessels of the thorax 7especially the superior vena cava74 ,the great pressure of the gases in the abdomen and thorax prevents the liquid from gravitating to the regions of the heart and large vessels1 producing the black and livid appearance of the face and neck by its retention in the capillary system of the epidermis4 ,man has been facetiously described as twelve pounds of solid matter wet up with six pails of water2 hence1 the great abundance of water in the human structure gives the necessary mobility for putrefaction4 ,this is proven by this fact3 that by drying the animal substances they are completely preserved4 ,it is thus that the bodies of those perishing in the ,arabian deserts are recovered years subsequently1 dried1 but otherwise fresh and life-like4 ,this fact also proves that the atmosphere and climate in ,asia is far more favorable for the preservation of animal substances than in this country1 and the writer thinks it has far more to do in preserving the many thousand mummies of the ancient ,egyptians than any art or untold science4 ,if it were not for want of space1 ,i would dwell more upon this subject2 but as the public generally have no desire to be wafted into untold centuries1 ,i shall confine this writing to further the progress of science in this direction1 if possible4 ,having no secret nostrum to impose upon the public1 ,i will offer a few hints which ,i hope will prove to be of importance to the profession generally4 ,,embalming ,,processes4 ,for chemical embalming1 it is well known to those having experience as undertakers and embalmers1 that in order to successfully perform this kind of work1 it requires knowledge as well as experience4 ,the various circumstances encountered necessarily govern the work4 ,in the writer's experience1 he finds that when difficult and obstinate cases are to be retained for some length of time 7especially in warm weather71 it will be necessary to complete the work with care4 ,a very important matter in this work is to renovate the stomach thoroughly2 then1 with simple instruments1 similar to an aspirator needle or trocar1 give vent to the gases and thus expel them from the cavities of the system4 ,then1 with pump1 draw off or force out the fluids and gases from the organs of circulation1 and in this manner disinfect the body as far as possible4 ,elevate the head and shoulders for the purpose of letting the inky fluid gravitate from the capillary system of the face to the large vessels of the thorax4 ,this will renew the life's characteristics in a remarkable and satisfactory manner1 if the gases be properly removed4 ,a simple method of disposing of the gastric juice of the stomach is to inject into the nose or mouth one or two ounces of an aqueous solution of any powerful antiseptic1 similar to those mentioned in this article1 and after a few moments carry the head off the bed1 and1 by gently pressing the stomach1 empty its contents4 ,this will prevent further difficulty from purging1 if refilled with the solution and carefully sealed4 ,insert an instrument into the trachea1 and thus give vent to the gases in the lungs1 and inject full of the solution4 ,in the same manner dispose of the gases from the thorax1 and fill with solution4 ,also1 the abdominal cavities1 by completing thus1 will preserve the viscera4 ,the reagents or coagulants spoken of render the albumenoids or azotized material incapable of putrefaction1 by the impervious nature of the compounds it forms of all substances that have protein for their base1 as the tissues readily absorb the preserving solutions after being prepared as mentioned above4 ,this unites the antiseptic and deodorizing agent with the very substances that it is necessary to render inactive in order to successfully retain the remains of deceased persons4 ,,deodorizing ,,agents4 ,the following are very good antiseptics and deodorizing agents3 ,chloride of zinc1 corrosive sublimate1 hyposulphite1 oxymuriate of mercury1 carbolic acid1 bicarbonate of potassa1 aqueous solution of alumina4 ,the two latter may be rendered more subservient by combining them with the higher oxides4 ,the metallic salts are much the best for chemical embalming1 if properly used4 ,the remains of drowned persons may be prepared in the manner as above1 with no small degree of success1 as giving vent to the gases and freely applying antiseptics and deodorizing agents will readily correct1 to a great extent1 the difficulties thus encountered by this process4 ,we have removed the most destructive fluids1 or effected a combination with them1 thus preventing the fermenting process and dispersing the gases1 rendering the body absolutely free from those disagreeable and noxious odors which are termed phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen gases1 as well as low types or germs of disease1 while the life's characteristics in this state of preservation invariably present a most pleasant appearance1 allaying all natural repugnance to the dead1 as they seem so natural and life-like1 and remain in this state of preservation for a great length of time1 either in transit or various changes of atmosphere1 while this manner of operation is simple and without complication1 affording appropriate means that undertakers may apply successfully and save themselves annoyance1 time1 labor and expense1 by a little practice and observing closely the directions herein given4 ,the enlightenment of the public demands more attention to these important matters1 as there is no necessity for the untimely and indecent burial of the loved but unfortunate victims of mortality1 when due observance is given to the progress of art in modern science4 ,to successfully retain the dead for such a period of time as will enable the bereaved friends to make such arrangements for burial as the occasion may require1 without the necessity of mutilating or eviscerating in the horrible manner that has been practised in many instances1 has been the design of the writer1 who has devoted much time in the work1 and hopes1 with the aid of others1 in the no distant future1 to make such additional suggestions and contributions as will practically apply to the wants of the profession1 as well as meet the approbation of a grateful public4 ,scientific research has defined and established those fixed laws of nature with that precision whereby organic matters may be traced to their simple elements4 ,we will herein endeavor to very briefly trace1 as far as possible1 the chemical changes that are observed in dead animal matter4 ,we assert that in the majority of cases 7with a given temperature maintained71 the first described subject will be the first to become an uncontrollable mass from the agents of putrefaction2 first1 simply by the abundance of those fluids contained in subjects that immediately become active agents of dissolution1 while such agents have been completely exhausted by the disease of the second4 ,the apparent healthy condition of the flesh after death is produced by the favorable temperature that is maintained1 dryness of the atmosphere1 etc41 together with the general favorable conditions of the subject1 which will render the preservation of such remains quite perfect1 in some instances for a surprisingly long time4 ,it is shown that disease of long standing completely exhausts the vital fluids before death1 especially when the functions of the body have failed to produce the necessary nutrition4 ,thus it will be observed that the process of decomposition is very different than when the system is full of albumenoids and watery fluids1 notwithstanding the tissues may have been seized upon by putridity before death4 ,with consumptives1 the disease reduces the flesh to dry parchment1 or nearly so1 leaving but a very small portion of water in the system4 ,hence1 as putrefaction is impossible in the absence of moisture1 and the active agent1 albumen1 equally reduced1 decomposition of such substances that remain ensues only by a process of decay1 slow combustion or oxidation1 the slowly uniting of oxygen with the substance4 ,in this the constituent parts of the animal tissues break up into simpler compounds by the chemical changes that nature produces1 and differs from other forms of putrefaction only by the length of time employed4 ,in cases like typhoid fever1 the flesh1 after death1 assumes more of a putrid and sloughing condition1 as the fluids are not so completely exhausted as in the former disease1 thus leaving more of the active agents in the body for its immediate destruction4 ,when death is the result of a putrid malady1 putrefaction begins almost immediately when the body grows cold2 its effects are noticeable much sooner when the atmosphere is warm4 ,in general1 in our climate1 the work of decomposition becomes evident after from thirty-five to forty hours4 ,its first effects are noticeable on the skin of the stomach2 this takes on a greenish discoloration1 which soon spreads and covers the whole surface of the body2 at the same time everything is seized upon by what is termed putridity2 the moist parts soften and decay2 little by little the flesh sinks and grows watery1 and is thus carried away or burned up by the air's oxygen4 ,and now1 dear reader1 we would impress your mind with the fact that the moment of the appearance of putrefaction absolutely varies with the degree of outward temperature1 the causes of death1 and the general condition of the remains1 and just in accordance to the quantity of fluids remaining in the system4 ,the degree of difficulty in retaining the life's characteristics are encountered1 first1 because of the albumenoids1 the active agents of putrefaction2 second1 the large per cent4 of water they contain2 hence we have the necessary mobility of putrefaction1 and the very substances that are most prone to the active ferments1 united with the agents of disorganization1 vibrois and bacteria1 or rather the germs of those thread-like corpuscles which penetrate the skin and wind their way through the ducts into the vessels of circulation1 which seem to conduct the rabid element to every structure4 ,the living germs that collect on the surface of the body and in the digestive canal1 develope1 multiply1 pierce into all the points of the organism1 and produce in it a complete separation of all the tissues and humors4 ,when persons have been killed suddenly1 there being no disease to tamper with the functions of the body1 the process of nutrition would be complete until the very moment the vitality is removed2 hence the supply of fuel for this fire of dissolution4 ,the corruption of these animal matters is not more possible than the fermentive action of gluten in grape juice1 and precisely the same4 ,when these animal matters maintain a high temperature1 the products formed are said to be destructive distillation4 ,many cases are recorded of similar stages of decomposition1 which is an apparent spontaneous combustion1 renewing the normal temperature of life1 many times giving flushness to the cheeks1 and thus appearing to have life renewed1 notwithstanding the body had been cold for many hours previous to this phenomenon taking place1 the result of a peculiar chemical action4 ,but these instances seldom or never occur1 while the difficulty encountered is in completely reducing the heat from the bodies of those persons killed by accident1 which fact renders the successful preservation of such remains for any length of time utterly impossible1 as the fetid gases are evolved in such great abundance as to literally cook the flesh and escape into the air4 ,developed in the cadaverous odor1 a pungent and ammoniacal stench1 except there be prompt application of some powerful chemical reagent1 with which the organized material may enter into combination and thus overcome the delivellant tendencies of the affinities of its elements4 ,if ice is used and the temperature of the body reduced below #cb1 the water in the system is frozen1 which acts as if the tissues had been dried1 and putrefaction is thus arrested for such time as the proper temperature is maintained4 ,,practices ,,which ,,must ,,be ,,abolished4 ,some usages which seem to be sanctioned by long practice1 but not by any remarkable amount of good judgment1 ought to be discountenanced and done away with1 simply upon the ground that these acts conflict directly with all sanitary laws1 and to a great extent endanger the lives of the persons who may be present4 ,still1 these repeated transgressions upon the common precautionary measures against contagion are not the result of a desire to do wrong1 neither do they always arise from sheer ignorance1 but they are almost always caused by an utter disregard of even the simplest prudence4 ,for instance1 how often1 where a child has succumbed to the attack of some infectious disease1 like scarlet fever1 diphtheria1 etc41 how often will parents1 regardless of the contagious character of the disease1 insist upon kissing the pallid lips of the corpse1 and1 moreover1 invite other children to follow the same dangerous practice4 ,and again1 another prolific source of disease lies in the fact that funeral services will be conducted in a close1 warm1 ill ventilated room1 crowded with a sympathizing audience1 in close proximity to a corpse emitting foul and infectious effluvia1 and inhaling these into the system4 ,it is true that these same noxious gases may not always be detected by the smell1 as the floral ornamentations1 the crowded state of the room1 etc41 all tend to disguise any unpleasant odors2 but the germ of contagion is still there and actively at work4 ,it is a fact1 patent and undeniable1 that carelessness in the keeping and disposing of bodies is an act of guilty neglect1 and the sooner the community be made acquainted with the danger attending such practices as those above spoken of1 the better it will be for the enforcement of those sanitary measures which are necessary in every well regulated city or town4 ,we have already spoken of dangers to be encountered in the handling of bodies1 but the subject is of so much importance to undertakers1 and concerns the profession so closely1 that it may not be amiss here to renew our former cautions1 also to add a few more suggestions1 so as to modify the danger thereof1 even if it cannot be completely eradicated4 ,,dangers ,,arising ,,from ,,handling ,,the ,,dead4 ,to those who1 like physicians1 students and nurses1 are almost constantly thrown into direct contact with every form of epidemic1 contagious and infectious diseases1 the dangers arising therefrom are considerable4 ,but undertakers are exposed to a still greater risk1 namely3 that of handling the remains of those who have died from the effects of those same diseases4 ,not only do they have to guard against the infectious character of the contagion1 but they have also to protect themselves against the malignant effluvia which emanates from the victims of the contagion after disintegration of the body has taken place1 the nauseous and sickening gases which are generated by decay1 and the deadly virus which may be innoculated into the system1 either through some puncture or abrasion of the skin2 the virulent effects of the poison may be carried carelessly to the mouth1 the nose or the eyes by a thoughtless action4 ,too much care cannot be exercised by undertakers in handling a corpse1 especially if the subject is known to be afflicted with some infectious or malignant complaint4 ,still1 the precautions generally in use among undertakers1 and the different preparations that are commonly recommended as preventives1 are useless in most cases1 as there are conditions of the system which will increase the danger1 and in some instances leave it open to the insidious attacks of disease and contagion4 ,too much importance has been attached1 so far1 by undertakers1 to the artificial means devised by some1 under the names of preservatives1 antidotes1 etc41 etc4 ,the reliance placed on them1 in a great many cases1 has proved futile1 and although some possess real and undisputed merit1 they proved ineffectual when the system has been influenced by the following ,,conditions ,,of ,,the ,,system1 which will increase the danger of contagion3 ,fear4--,almost in every case1 if a person is brought in sudden contact with the remains of one who has died of either cholera1 small pox1 yellow fever1 or any of those terrible epidemic and contagious diseases which will in a few weeks decimate a populous city1 the feeling will be one of repulsive horror2 in some this feeling will amount to absolute fear1 which will show itself in the dilated pupil1 the bleached countenance1 and the momentous forebodings which assail the mind and predispose the system to the attacks of the disease4 ,in this case1 the mind influences the body to such an extent that the disease has already fastened itself upon the system1 before the first symptoms are felt4 ,another and potent cause of danger is that which proceeds from a debilitated condition of the system1 the causes of which are numerous3 over-exertion of either the body or the mind2 labor carried on incessantly without due regard to relaxation2 imperfect nutrition1 or long fast1 are all causes which will tend to render the system more vulnerable to the aggressions of sickness4 ,but the most pernicious and fatal of all mistakes1 is that of using stimulants to ward off the effects of contagion4 ,how many of our professionals and their assistants have given way to the use of ardent spirits1 under the delusion that it was absolutely necessary1 to avoid the noxious effects of infectious diseases4 ,it is a well authenticated fact1 and one worthy of notice1 that persons who generally indulge in the use of spirituous liquors1 even in a moderate quantity1 are those who are first attacked by epidemic or contagious diseases1 and who almost always fall victims to it4 ,take1 for instance1 the case of a surgeon about to perform a dangerous operation4 ,his first inquiry will be about the habits of the patient2 he knows well enough that a man addicted to drink will not bear up under the trial4 ,the only means we have to protect ourselves from the dangers of infection from dead bodies are1 first1 a perfect ventilation of the room where the remains lie1 so as to obviate the bad tendency which the air of the death-chamber might have upon the system4 ,attention must also be paid to the diet2 the food eaten should be generous and nutritious1 and it is proper to take a small quantity of wine at a time when the body and mind are debilitated by long and exhaustive manipulation of the dead1 but avoid all excess of fluids or solids4 ,temperance is strictly necessary4 ,wounds received while handling a corpse should not be neglected2 if a simple abrasion1 it should be covered2 if pricked1 the liquid muriate of ammonia or caustic potass are recommended to be applied as cauteries4 ,these are the early measures to be pursued2 but after absorption has taken place1 a different course must be practised1 and a good physician consulted without delay4 ,the garments ordinarily worn should never be brought into direct contact with the remains of a person tainted with some infectious disease4 ,but it is to the hands we must pay particular attention4 ,gangrenous or syphilitic sores may be found on a subject1 in which case extreme caution must be exerted2 the hands should be first well rubbed with lard or sweet oil mixed with carbolate of camphor1 and thoroughly washed after the handling of the body is over2 then the hands should be well soaked in chlorinated soda 7,labarraque solution71 as the disinfecting properties of chlorine will be found here particularly useful4 ,if the above suggestions are faithfully followed1 they will be found to greatly diminish the dangers attending the handling of the dead--dangers which can never be entirely avoided4 ,,management ,,and ,,discipline ,,of ,,an ,,undertaking ,,establishment4 ,much of the success of an undertaking establishment will be dependent1 not only upon the head of the firm himself1 but also upon the discipline maintained among those to whom the details of the business are entrusted2 and the difficulties surrounding proper management will increase as it extends and involves the employment of more numerous operatives1 unless the general duties of all are specifically laid down1 and the particular duties of each well defined and insisted upon4 ,the rules which follow were prepared by a gentleman of considerable experience and unusual success in business2 they were designed for a store employing three assistants4 ,although1 of course1 they require modifications to suit the circumstances of different establishments1 their general tenor is adapted to all1 and the high tone of professional and moral aptitude they require renders them worthy the acceptance of every assistant who would deserve the approval of his employer1 and of every employer who desires the best interests of his assistants4 ,,specific ,,duties ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,assistant4 #ast4--,to see that the specific duties of the other assistants are promptly and well performed4 #b;d4--,to attend to mail orders from dealers in the country2 select the goods to be packed up and sent out2 to wait on customers1 etc41 that the two other assistants may not be hindered in the performance of their duties4 #c;d4--,he is to attend to the laying out of bodies2 and in the absence of the proprietor1 or if the pressure of business should require it1 he is to take charge of the funerals1 with the assistance of the second assistant4 #dth4--,in case of the absence of either of his juniors1 to take the place of the second assistant4 #eth4--,he is to take charge of the books1 collections1 etc41 should the proprietor wish him to do so4 #fth4--,he is to take knowledge of and properly note any articles that may be needed for the store1 including goods to be purchased and work to be attended to4 #gth4--,to see that the stock of goods is well supplied with those items which are generally kept by the quantity4 ,should the place of business be remote from any manufacturing firm of undertakers' goods1 such as coffins1 hardware1 caskets1 etc41 he is to keep a faithful and strict account of the sizes1 styles and grades of caskets and coffins on hand1 as also of the needful requirements in that line2 he should also call the attention of the proprietor to the quality1 style1 etc41 of the goods needed1 and place in the hands of his employer a list of the goods to be ordered1 or likely to be called for4 #hth4--,to keep a note book of what is necessary to be done in the ordinary business of the store1 and to designate employment for the other assistants4 #ith4--,he is to superintend1 and if need be to help1 in the lining and trimming of coffins1 and1 in the absence of the proprietor1 to attend to the embalming and preserving of bodies4 #ajth4--,in short1 he must1 during the absence of the proprietor1 take entire charge of the store1 and be alone responsible for its business4 ,,specific ,,duties ,,of ,,the ,,second ,,assistant4 #ast4--,it will be his duty to dust the cases1 desks1 etc41 thoroughly every morning4 ,this service must be performed before breakfast1 and as often repeated through the day as necessary4 #b;d4--,in the absence of the third assistant1 he is to perform his duties4 #c;d4--,he shall assist the proprietor1 or the first assistant1 in the laying out1 washing and dressing of bodies2 and also at funerals1 in the management of the hearse and carriages4 #dth4--,he is to trim caskets according to the directions of the first assistant1 and follow the instructions given him as to the choice of materials used in their ornamentation4 #eth4--,he shall see that a sample of each size1 style and grade of coffin and casket be always on hand in the show room1 and ready to be turned out in the shortest space of time possible4 #fth4--,he is to keep an exact record1 in the book devoted to that purpose1 of the name1 residence1 cause of death1 age and place of burial1 of all parties which may have been interred by the firm4 ,this register must always be posted up to date4 #gth4--,it will be his duty to clean the show cases1 work room1 and the stock in general1 once a week1 and oftener if necessary4 ,,specific ,,duties ,,of ,,the ,,third ,,assistant4 #ast4--,he is to open the store in the morning2 make the fire1 and attend to it through the day2 sweep out the store2 wash the windows2 and see that all tools and implements are in their proper place and ready for instant use4 #b;d4--,it shall be his duty to keep cooling boards clean and tidy2 to have palls1 stools and pedestals dusted and in shape4 #c;d4--,it shall be his duty to pack goods and make boxes when required4 #dth4--,it will be required of him to do such errands as the business of the store may demand1 and also to close the store at night4 ,,general ,,regulations ,,of ,,the ,,store4 #ast4--,business hours will include the time between breakfast and six o'clock1 ,p4 ,m41 except when special duty may require it otherwise4 #b;d4--,during business hours1 all hands must be employed at some regular store duty4 #c;d4--,as waiting on customers is a duty which requires most knowledge and experience1 the first assistant must always serve when there is one customer2 the other assistants may help if need be4 #dth4--,the first assistant must always take that part of the duty which requires most knowledge and skill4 ,this order of duty must never be deviated from1 if circumstances will admit of it4 #eth4--,all other duty must give way to that of waiting on customers4 #fth4--,every person entering the store1 whether pauper or president1 infant or adult1 white or colored1 must be treated with courtesy and kindness4 #gth4--,boisterous mirth and a sullen temper are to be equally avoided1 as productive of neither business nor business character4 ,the acquisition of a uniformly cheerful temperament is an attainment worth far beyond the price it usually costs4 #hth4--,there are to be no masters and no servants4 ,each one is to feel conscious of the fact that the performance of the duties assigned to him is just as necessary and as important as what pertains to any other hand in the store4 ,all useful employment is honorable2 indolence is a disgrace4 #ith4--,an afternoon of every week will be devoted to the cleaning of the store1 in which all must share as occasion offers4 #ajth4--,as neatness1 order and cleanliness are necessary1 and not mere accomplishments1 in an undertaking establishment1 all are required to practice them constantly4 #aath4--,assistants should be rather select in the choice of their acquaintances2 while the occasional visit of a well behaved friend will be countenanced1 lounging in the store will not be tolerated4 #abth4--,each assistant shall have1 if business permits1 one afternoon and evening every week1 and every other ,sunday2 the afternoon will comprise the time between twelve o'clock at noon and six o'clock ,p4 ,m42 the evening1 between six o'clock ,p4 ,m4 and the closing of the store4 ,these privileges must not be interfered with unnecessarily4 #acth4--,no assistant residing in the house will be allowed to be absent at night after the closing of the store1 without special permission4 #adth4--,a vacation of two weeks every year will be allowed each assistant4 #aeth4--,it is not the wish of the proprietor that any of his employes should extol the goods beyond their merits to advance his pecuniary interests1 or to say or do aught in the performance of his duties that he would not be willing that others should say or do to him under the same circumstances4 ,a cheerful compliance with the foregoing rules is confidently expected1 and the repeated infraction of a regulation of the store will be cause for dismissal4 ,in certain establishments1 where a driver is kept for the purpose of taking care of horses and driving the hearse or other vehicles1 this employe shall be under the immediate supervision of the proprietor4 ,,modifications ,,in ,,the ,,mode ,,of ,,embalming ,,bodies4 ,there are modifications in the processes used for the preservation of bodies1 which are governed by circumstances affecting the different conditions of the body at the time of death4 ,although we may lay general rules for the quantity and variety of antiseptics used in embalming1 there are certain cases where the quantity of the chemicals which enter into the composition of the injecting fluid must be either increased or curtailed1 as well as the amount of the injection4 ,it would require the scope of a cyclopedia to give in detail the proportions of each constituent in the number of different cases which may come under the notice of the embalmer4 ,the mode of operation in all cases may be the same1 but the nature and quantity of the injection will vary1 first1 with the climatic circumstances of the atmosphere2 second1 with the cause of death2 third1 with the age of the deceased2 fourth1 with the state of the body after death2 fifth1 with the length of time which has elapsed since death took place4 ,it has been demonstrated in a previous chapter that a high temperature is conducive to rapid decomposition of organic matter1 also that a warm1 moist atmosphere will operate in the same manner2 it is therefore incumbent upon the operator to guard against these two agents of putrefaction by keeping the body in a moderately cool and well ventilated place until the work of preserving is accomplished2 also to give the antiseptics employed time to successfully destroy and render harmless the dangerous effects of the heat4 ,it must not be understood by the preceding caution that a body cannot be embalmed in an ordinary room during the heat of the summer1 but the suggestion herein given is solely for the purpose of facilitating the operation and rendering the success certain2 besides1 as it has been illustrated in some of the processes precedingly given1 the strength as well as the quantity of the injection have been increased when used during the warm season4 ,as to the modifications to be observed in the treatment of bodies1 when the cause of death is taken into consideration4 ,it has formed the subject of some chapters to show that1 in cases where death is the result of a certain class of diseases1 the body is more prone to putrefy than in others2 whilst in other cases1 again1 the body is to a certain extent preserved from corruption by the agents which have proved fatal to the organism2 as1 for instance1 when death has been the result of poisoning1 either by alcohol or arsenic4 ,the age of the person deceased1 and the condition of the body after death1 as also the length of time elapsed since death took place1 as affecting the mode of treatment1 have all been discussed in a former part of this work1 and it would hardly be necessary to have a new elucidation upon the same subject4 ,the important point we wish to impress now upon the minds of our professionals is1 that circumstances in this case are to be strictly investigated2 also1 that a uniform treatment of all cases1 however different the circumstances and conditions1 will not prove successful2 and that a thorough knowledge and experience are necessary to achieve satisfactory results4 ,discrimination and judgment are to be used in every case4 ,some are too ready to condemn a certain process1 or to question the properties of some antiseptics1 because their first trial of either has proved an ignominious failure2 whereas the real cause of all the trouble lies in their ignorance of the laws which govern the mode of proceeding1 and the use of the chemicals placed at their disposition4 ,others1 again1 are prone to extol the merits of some preparation1 the component parts of which they do not know1 but it may have done them good service in several instances2 and when1 contrary to their expectations1 it fails to answer the purpose1 they lose faith in it1 discard it altogether as worthless1 and never entertain the idea that an alteration in the quantity used1 or in the combination and strength of the constituents1 is the real source of mischief4 ,hence1 it is a fact not to be denied that a diagnosis 7if it may be called so7 is necessary before the work of embalming be entered into4 ,and he who would endeavor to preserve the body of a stout1 fleshy person by the same means employed in the preserving of a body emaciated by long sufferings1 and under different conditions of temperature1 might not meet with a success equal to his expectations4 ,,chlorine3 ,,its ,,properties ,,and ,,uses4 ,chlorinated ,lime4--,in consequence of its powers as a disinfectant1 chlorinated lime is a very important compound in its application to medical police2 it possesses the property of arresting or preventing animal or vegetable putrefaction1 and perhaps of destroying pestilential and infectious miasma4 ,it is used with advantage in preventing bodies from exhaling an unpleasant odor before interment in the summer season4 ,in juridical exhumations its use is indispensable1 as it effectually removes the disgusting and insupportable fetor of the corpse4 ,the mode in which it is applied in these cases is1 to envelope the body in a sheet completely wet with a solution made by adding about one pound of the chloride to a bucketful of water4 ,it is employed also for disinfecting dissecting rooms1 vaults1 cemeteries and other places1 which exhale offensive effluvia4 ,in destroying contagion and infection it appears to be highly useful4 ,in short1 all places deemed infectious from having been the receptacle of virulent disease may be more or less disinfected by its use1 after having undergone the ordinary process of cleansing4 ,chlorinated lime acts exclusively by its chlorine1 which1 being loosely combined1 is disengaged by the slightest affinities4 ,all acids1 even the carbonic1 disengage it2 and as this acid is a product of animal and vegetable decomposition1 noxious effluvia furnish the means1 to a certain extent1 of their own disinfection4 ,but the stronger acids disengage it more freely1 and amongst these sulphuric acid is the most convenient4 ,accordingly1 the powder may be dissolved in a very dilute solution of this acid2 or a small quantity of the acid may be added to an aqueous solution already formed1 if a more copious evolution of chlorine be desired than that which takes place from the mere action of the carbonic acid of the atmosphere4 ,the great and only objection1 so far1 against the use of chlorinated lime by the profession1 has been the strong smell of the chlorine evolved2 but taking into consideration the great antiseptic properties1 and also the strong bleaching and disinfecting qualities of the chlorine1 we find that it cannot be overlooked as an agent of major importance in the preservation of bodies4 ,there are certain modes of using the chlorinated lime whereby the offensive odor can be to a great extent diminished1 if not altogether done away with4 ,when used in its crude state1 it will be found difficult to handle2 besides1 it could not be used for the purpose of an injection2 it needs1 then1 a certain amount of preparation before it be used in a liquid form4 ,the following has been given as the simplest manner of preparing it for injecting3 ,take1 of chlorinated lime1 one pound1 carbonate of soda1 two pounds1 water1 one gallon2 dissolve the carbonate of soda in three pints of water by the aid of heat2 to the remainder of the water add1 by small portions at a time1 the chlorinated lime1 previously well triturated1 stirring the mixture after each addition4 ,set the mixture by for several hours1 that the dregs may subside2 then decant the clear liquor1 and mix it with the solution of carbonate of soda4 ,lastly1 decant the clear liquor from the precipitated carbonate of lime1 pass it through a linen cloth1 and keep it in bottles secluded from the light4 ,the ,london ,pharmacopia gives a still better process for preparing it1 for reasons which will be given hereafter3 ,take1 of carbonate of soda1 one pound1 water1 forty-eight fluid ounces1 chloride of sodium 7common salt71 four ounces1 black oxide of manganese1 three ounces1 sulphuric acid1 two fluid ounces and a half2 dissolve the carbonate of soda in two pints of water2 then put the chloride of sodium and the binoxide or black oxide of manganese1 rubbed to powder1 in a retort1 and add to them the acid1 previously mixed with three fluid ounces of water1 and cooled4 ,heat the mixture1 and pass the chlorine first through five fluid ounces of water1 and afterwards into the solution of the carbonate above directed4 ,upon the addition of muriatic acid1 both these solutions emit carbonic acid and chlorine together4 ,the foregoing given preparation will be found to answer the purpose for disinfecting1 injecting and preserving corpses4 ,for injecting purposes1 the solution should be used fresh1 and the muriatic acid only added to it1 for a more copious liberation of both carbonic acid and chlorine1 when ready to inject the liquid1 as the antiseptic properties of the solution depend altogether on its gaseous evolutions4 ,to inject the solution1 it will be found that the axillary artery on the left side is a good point2 also1 the right jugular vein should be punctured1 so as to facilitate the flow of blood from the head4 ,but to make the operation complete1 and to be sure of a perfect and thorough injection1 the ascending aorta should be injected1 and the inferior vena cava severed at a corresponding point4 ,this mode of injecting has been described in a former chapter4 ,it is not possible to specify here the amount of liquid to be injected2 but as a general rule there should be enough of the solution injected to fill the circulatory system1 and the injection be continued until after the blood has ceased to flow from the wound in the vena cava and the injecting fluid appears in its place4 ,when injected with this solution1 a corpse may present for a few hours afterwards a bloated and swollen appearance1 and the face and body may be marbled over with white spots2 but these symptoms will soon disappear1 the body will collapse again to its normal size1 and the color become of a uniform shade4 ,to preserve bodies during the summer season for a few days and without ice2 also to prevent the swelling up of the abdomen and the purging at the mouth and nostrils1 open the stomach1 as explained in a previous chapter1 empty out the contents1 and inject into it some of the above solution2 the bowels must be treated in the same manner1 and also inject the lungs through the nostrils1 by producing artificial respiration4 ,if the liquid cannot be injected in this manner1 cut into the trachea an incision large enough to admit of the nozzle of the injector being inserted1 and pour in the necessary quantity4 ,if any fetor is exhaled from the corpse after being placed in the coffin1 a sponge well saturated with the solution and being placed at the feet of the corpse will remove all foul effluvia2 or better still1 a china or porcelain bowl filled with the solution may be placed inside the case until a few minutes before the funeral and the screwing down of the lid4 ,the air of the room may also be purified by saturating some cloths with the solution and hanging them in different parts of the apartment4 ,the vessels containing excretions should not be neglected1 and some of the solution poured into them4 ,in fact1 undertakers will find the above solution to be adapted to all purposes of disinfecting1 deodorizing and preserving corpses4 ,,instruments4 ,undertakers will find it to their advantage to possess instruments of the best materials and make2 they are always cheaper in the end1 as they will resist the wear and tear to a greater extent1 and will not be liable to get out of order when most needed4 ,especially in injecting apparatus should a great amount of care be exercised about the selection4 ,the greatest danger to be guarded against is corrosion1 as all injecting fluids which are now in use contain more or less of either acids or metallic salts1 all of which will attack and corrode1 to a lesser or greater extent1 the metals and other substances with which they come in direct contact4 ,any injector1 therefore1 so constructed as to be free from danger to its mechanism from the corroding effects of the liquids above mentioned1 will be the one to be chosen4 ,according to the statements above given1 any part of an apparatus which is required to operate with a certain degree of nicety must be kept from the corrosive effects of the fluids1 and this result is to be gained only by the peculiar construction of the apparatus4 ,in the greater part of the injecting pumps now manufactured and in use in this country1 the body of the pump1 which contains the working part of the apparatus1 is also filled with the liquid while in use2 and1 therefore1 this part1 which ought to be protected from injury1 is constantly immersed in the strong corrosive solution during all the time that the injector is being worked4 ,the result of this constant corroding action upon the apparatus will soon show itself in the working of it1 and constant repairs will be found necessary to keep it in order or in a state of comparative effectiveness4 ,it must be well remembered1 that upon the working of the apparatus depends1 to a great extent1 the good or poor success of embalming2 also1 that upon the manner of using an apparatus1 of whatever description it may be1 the length of its duration and its effectiveness will be in the same ratio4 ,the automatic apparatus of ,girard1 for injecting purposes1 is a marvel of simplicity and durability2 there is no piston or force pump1 which is liable at any moment to get out of order2 no valves1 which will wear out by friction1 or leak from the effects of the liquid used4 ,the force used in ejecting the fluid is that of a gas1 highly antiseptic in its nature1 and which1 being generated inside of a cylinder1 saturates the injecting fluid 7itself an antiseptic solution71 and by its expansive force propels it into the arteries of the body4 ,all the appliances necessary to the perfect working of the apparatus are condensed into a small compass4 ,the amount of gas generated can be increased or diminished at will4 ,a pressure gage indicates the force of expansion acquired by the gas4 ,a glass tube1 similar to the water tube in use on some boilers1 and with a graduated scale attached1 shows both the amount of liquid used and also the quantity remaining in the apparatus2 while a relief-cock insures safety to the operator against too rapid an accumulation of gas4 ,this last danger need scarcely be apprehended1 as1 after the pressure gage indicates the force of expansion required1 the further generation of the gas can be entirely stopped1 until the vacuum created by the outflow of liquid needs to be replaced by a new supply of gas4 ,for it is a fact well understood1 that the force of expansion of the generating power decreases in the same proportion as the volume of the liquid is diminished1 thereby causing a greater vacuum in the apparatus4 ,the inside of the apparatus is thickly coated with lead1 as that metal is not sensibly acted on by either muriatic or sulphuric acid1 except at very high temperatures4 ,the jet or stream of liquid can be regulated by a screw cock1 attached to the neck of a metallic tube reaching to the bottom of the apparatus1 inside1 and provided at its inner extremity with a perforated bulb1 which1 acting as a filter1 prevents any impurity or sediment from finding its way into and stopping the circulation of the fluid through the arterial system2 at the same time it prevents any excessive amount of pressure upon the rubber tube five or six feet in length1 which is connected with the delivery tube outside1 and at the end of which the nozzle is attached4 ,the nozzle or cannula itself is a very important part of the apparatus1 and is of a peculiar shape2 it consists of a thin copper tube about eight inches in length and a little over an eighth of an inch in diameter2 it is to be inserted at full length1 or nearly so1 into the artery to be injected1 as by doing so it meets a point where the walls of the artery are strengthened by the surrounding tissues4 ,the shape of the apparatus is that of an elongated cylinder1 rounded off at both ends1 resembling somewhat a soda fountain2 it stands upright1 upon four curved legs about four inches in height1 and possesses a symmetrical and substantial appearance4 ,the other apparatus--,ronsard's--is about similar in construction1 but the power exerted in forcing out the liquid is not gas1 as in the former apparatus1 but compressed air1 forced into the body of the reservoir by means of a pump4 ,the body of the apparatus consists of a cylinder holding about five gallons2 this constitutes the reservoir containing the liquid to be injected4 ,outside of this cylinder and running alongside of it is the body of the pump4 ,the pipe communicating the air forced inside the cylinder above the liquid enters the bottom of the reservoir1 and1 passing through the liquid1 runs along the inner side of the vessel until it has reached a point almost to the top of the cylinder4 ,in the center of the apex at the top of the cylinder is a small funnel connected to a pipe running inside of the apparatus2 this pipe1 which is furnished with a cock1 is intended to conduct inside the apparatus the liquid poured in at the funnel2 it will act also as a relief cock1 should it be found necessary to relieve the pressure on the liquid4 ,this apparatus is not provided1 like the other1 with a pressure gage1 from the fact that the pressure being the result of a mechanical cause1 the operator will soon be able to judge the amount of pressure by the number of strokes of the piston4 ,the delivery pipe is similar in every respect to the one in the apparatus described formerly2 the graduated tube outside showing the quantity of liquid inside the apparatus is also the same2 in fact1 the similarity between the two is striking4 ,but the principal feature of the apparatus1 and that which recommends it to the profession1 is the perfect isolation of all the working parts of the apparatus from direct contact with the liquid injected4 ,the greatest objection in this case1 as in the other1 is removed1 as the most important part of the work1 namely3 that of compressing the air1 is performed without any danger to the generator4 ,another apparatus--that of ,waldon--combines the two systems in one1 and can be operated with equal facility either by means of compressed air or by means of gaseous expansion4 ,still1 these instruments require a certain amount of familiarity in the handling before they can be operated with efficiency1 as1 to a person not fully conversant with their mechanism1 they may prove awkward4 ,the instruments of ,messrs4 ,g4 ,tiemann ,co41 of ,new ,york1 which ,i have employed so far very successfully1 could be rendered perfect by adopting some modifications in their make4 ,,gaseous ,,compounds4 ,too little attention has been paid heretofore to the antiseptic powers of certain gases4 ,it is a well known fact1 that some of the gases which are the result of animal and vegetable decomposition are1 to a certain extent1 the means of their own disinfection2 hence1 some of these are endowed with deodorizing as well as antiseptic properties4 ,we have already given at length the properties of chlorine4 ,carbonic acid gas is another of those antiseptic agents which will occupy our attention4 ,it exists in the atmosphere as a product of combustion and of the respiration of animals2 it is a result1 also1 of the slow decomposition of most vegetable substances1 and is evolved in great quantities from the ground in volcanic countries4 ,in the formation of sugar it is produced in abundance1 along with alcohol4 ,for the purposes of the chemist1 it is generally prepared by decomposing marble by means of some stronger acid4 ,from its cheapness and the solubility of the residual salt1 muriatic acid is generally employed4 ,the properties of carbonic acid are very remarkable2 it is perfectly colorless and invisible2 it is irrespirable1 producing1 when an attempt is made to breathe it1 violent spasms of the glottis4 ,if it be respired mixed with air1 even in the proportion of one to ten1 it gradually produces stupor and death1 acting as a narcotic poison4 ,hence1 when disengaged in large quantities1 whether by natural operations or in process of manufacture1 it accumulates in all cavities within its reach1 and may cause fatal accidents to animals who enter unadvisedly4 ,carbonic acid does not support combustion2 a taper plunged into a jar full of the gas is instantly extinguished4 ,carbonic acid is also a check on putrefaction1 and arrests decay4 ,,sulphurous ,,acid4 ,sulphurous acid exists at ordinary temperature and pressure in the gaseous form2 it is one1 however1 of the most easily liquified gases4 ,it is produced always when sulphur burns1 either in air or in pure oxygen2 sulphur not being capable of passing directly to a higher degree of oxydation4 ,in the burning of sulphur1 the volume of sulphurous acid gas formed is exactly equal to the amount of oxygen consumed4 ,sulphurous acid gas may also be simply prepared by heating three parts of flowers of sulphur with four of peroxide of manganese4 ,the reaction is very simple3 one part of the sulphur uniting with the metal1 and another with the oxygen1 form sulphuret of manganese and sulphurous acid4 ,another and quicker way to obtain this gas in small quantities is1 to decompose a solution of hyposulphate of soda1 by adding muriatic acid to it1 so as to liberate the hyposulphurous acid1 which immediately decomposes into sulphur and sulphurous acid4 ,sulphurous acid is absorbed by water4 ,it is colorless and transparent1 possessing an odor peculiarly irritating 7the smell of burning sulphur71 and cannot be breathed4 ,it is not combustible1 nor does it support combustion4 ,water dissolves about thirty-seven times its volume of sulphurous acid2 the solution possesses the properties of the gas in a very high degree1 and bleaches vegetable colors with great power2 when kept for some time it gradually absorbs oxygen1 and the sulphurous becomes changed into sulphuric acid4 ,the sulphuric acid is one of the feeblest acids1 and is expelled from its combinations by almost all but the carbonic acid4 ,as has been demonstrated1 all these gases are absorbed by water1 and a saturated solution possesses the properties of the gases themselves4 ,,physiology4 ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,circulating ,,apparatus ,,of ,,man4 ,the course and relative positions of the principal arteries and veins of the ,systemic circulation are shown in this plate4 ,the arteries commence from the great arterial trunk1 called the aorta1 and their branches are distributed to all parts of the system4 ,the venous branches1 which accompany the arteries1 unite into two great veins1 the superior and inferior vena cava1 which convey the blood back to the heart4 a1 ,the left ventricle of the heart4 b1 ,the right auricle4 c1 ,the superior vena cava4 d1 ,the root of the pulmonary artery4 e1 e1 ,the aorta1 which is seen arching backward over the heart1 and passing downward into the abdomen1 where it divides into its two great branches1 the iliac arteries1 through which the blood passes to the lower extremities4 f1 ,the inferior vena cava1 which accompanies the descending aorta and its branches1 and returns the blood from the lower extremities4 ,the dotted lines represent the outlines of the kidneys4 ,illustration3 full body drawing ,,principal ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,aorta ,,and ,,vena ,,cava4 ,it should be remembered that most of the branches which spring from the great artery and vein are double--that is1 each right branch has a corresponding one at the left side--so that there are1 for instance1 the right and the left carotid arteries1 the right and the left jugular veins1 etc4 ,from the arch of the aorta are sent off those arteries which are distributed to the head and arms4 ,the principal ones among these are named as follows3 g1 ,the carotid artery1 which ascends in the side of the neck1 and divides into the temporal artery1 h1 which is distributed in the temple1 and the facial artery1 i1 which supplies the face2 and also sends a branch1 called the internal carotid1 to the parts within the skull4 j1 ,the sub-clavian artery1 lying beneath the clavicle or collar-bone4 ,that part of the continuation of this artery which passes through the axilla or arm-pit is called the axillary artery1 k2 that which lies in the upper arm1 the brachial artery1 l2 and in the fore-arm it divides into the radial and ulnar arteries1 m1 n1 which are distributed to the hand and fingers in the manner indicated in the plate4 ,the principal branches of the descending aorta are named as follows3 ,the iliac artery1 o1 on passing into the thigh becomes the femoral artery1 p1 and in the leg divides into the tibial and peroneal arteries1 q1 r1 which form numerous branches for the supply of the leg and foot4 ,before dividing into the iliac arteries1 the descending aorta gives off several important branches1 as the cliac artery1 from which the stomach and liver are supplied2 the renal artery1 which goes to the kidneys1 and the mesenteric artery1 to the intestines2 besides many other sub-divisions in various parts of its course4 ,the branches of the vena cava generally accompany those of the aorta in their distribution1 as shown in the figure1 and are often called by the same names4 ,the principal divisions of the superior vena cava are3 ,the jugular vein1 s1 which accompanies the carotid artery the sub-clavian vein1 t1 which accompanies the artery of the same name1 and receives the blood from the arm and hand4 ,the inferior vena cava1 like the aorta1 divides into two great branches1 the iliac veins1 u1 the sub-divisions of which accompany those of the arteries1 and are called by the same names4 ,the manner in which the superficial veins ramify and anastomose with each other is shown on the upper and lower extremity of the left side4 ,,organs ,,of ,,digestion4 ,,figure #a4--;,general ,view of the ,digestive ,organs of ,man4--,this figure is intended to give a general idea of the forms and relative positions of the organs of digestion4--a1 ,the sophagus4 b1 ,the stomach4 c1 ,the duodenum1 d1 d1 d1 ,convolutions of the small intestine4 e1 ,the ccum4 f1 ,appendix of the ccum4 g1 ,opening of the small into the large intestine4 h1 ,the ascending colon4 i1 i1 ,transverse arch of the colon4 j1 ,the descending colon4 k1 ,the liver4 l1 ,the gall-bladder4 m1 ,the pancreas1 mostly covered by the stomach4 o1 ,the spleen4--,in this figure1 the liver is raised up and the transverse arch of the colon drawn down1 in order to show parts which they cover when in their natural situation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,,figure #b4--;,general ,aspect of the ,abdominal ,viscera4--,in this figure1 the anterior walls of the abdomen are removed1 so as to show the organs in their natural positions4 ,the small intestine is removed4--a1 ,the liver1 situated beneath the right arch of the diaphragm4 b1 ,the stomach4 c1 ,epiploa1 or floating folds of the peritoneum4 d1 ,summit of the gall-bladder4 e1 e1 ,large intestine1 showing all its courses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,,organs ,,of ,,circulation4--,,heart ,,and ,,lungs4 ,,figure #a4--;,front ,view of ,heart and ,lungs4--,both organs are stripped of their envelopes1 the pleura and pericardium4 ,the right lung is drawn aside1 so as to uncover the heart and large vessels4 ,the left lung is deeply dissected1 to show the distribution and mode of ramification of the air-tubes and blood-vessels4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a a1 ,the larynx4 b1 ,the trachea4--,the right lung is somewhat shorter than the left1 and is divided into three lobes1 c1 d1 e2 while the left lung has but two lobes1 f1 g4 ,the surface of the lobes is sub-divided into lobules1 by the intersection of great numbers of depressed lines4 h1 ,right auricle of the heart4 i1 ,right ventricle4 j1 ,left auricle4 k1 ,left ventricle4 l1 ,the aorta4 m1 ,the pulmonary artery4 n1 ,left pulmonary veins4--,these veins are four in number1 two for each lung2 and they return to the heart the blood which has been conveyed into the lungs by the pulmonary artery4 ,the division of the pulmonary artery into right and left branches cannot be seen in this figure1 being hidden by the aorta4 o1 ,the superior vena cava4 p1 ,root of the right innominate artery1 springing from the arch of the aorta4 q1 ,root of the left sub-clavian artery4 r1 ,root of the left carotid artery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,,figure #b4--;,back ,view of the ,heart and ,lungs4--a1 ,larynx4 b1 ,trachea4 c1 ,right bronchus4 d1 ,left bronchus4 e1 ,left auricle of the heart4 f1 ,left ventricle4 g1 ,right pulmonary veins4 h1 ,left pulmonary veins4 i1 ,left pulmonary artery4 j1 ,section of the aorta4 k1 ,trunks of the brachio-cephalic veins 7those which belong to the arms and head74 l1 ,the opening of the inferior vena cava4--,the sub-divisions of the pulmonary arteries and veins1 and of the air-tubes or bronchi1 are seen accompanying each other in the left lung in both figures4 ,,glossary ,,and ,,index4 ,a ,,abdomen 7,l4 abdo1 to hide74 ,so called from its containing the intestines1 c4 ,,abductor 7,l4 abduco1 to draw from74 ,abducent4 ,a muscle whose office is to draw one part of the body away from another4 ,,absorption4 ,the act or process of imbibing or swallowing4 ,,absorbents4 ,vessels which imbibe1 as lymphatics and lacteals4 ,,albumen 7,l4 albus1 white74 ,albumen is of two kinds1 animal and vegetable3 #a4 ,animal albumen exists in two forms1 the liquid and the solid4 ,in the liquid state1 it is a thick1 glairy fluid1 constituting the principal part of the white of egg4 ,in the solid state1 it is contained in several of the textures of the body1 as the cellular membrane1 the skin1 glands and vessels4--#b4 ,vegetable albumen closely resembles animal albumen1 and has been found in wheat1 rye1 barley1 peas and beans4 ,,anastomosis 7,gr4 an1 through1 and stoma1 a mouth74 ,the communication of vessels with each other1 as of the arteries with the veins1 which1 by touching at numerous points1 form a net-work or reticulation4 ,see ,inosculation4 ,,anatomy 7,gr4 anatmn1 to cut up74 ,the science of organization2 the science whose object is the examination of the organs or instruments of life4 ,animal anatomy is divided into human anatomy and comparative anatomy1 according as it treats of the organization of the human body1 or of that of other animals4 ,,aorta 7,gr4 ar1 air1 ter1 to keep2 as having been formerly supposed to contain only air74 ,the great artery of the heart4 ,it is distinguished into the ascending and descending4 ,,aqueous4 ,watery4 ,,aracanoid ,,membrane 7,gr4 arachn1 a spider1 and edos1 likeness74 ,the fine cobweb-like membrane situated between the dura and pia mater4 ,it is the serous membrane of the cerebro-spinal centers4 ,,arbor ,,vit4 ,literally1 tree of life4 ,a term applied to the arborescent appearance presented by the cerebellum1 when cut into vertically4 ,,artery 7,gr4 ar1 air1 and ter1 to hold74 ,a vessel which carries the blood from the heart2 formerly supposed1 from its being found empty after death1 to contain only air4 ,,aryt,,noid 7,gr4 artaina1 a ewer1 and edos1 likeness74 ,a term applied to two triangular cartilages of the larynx4 ,,auditory 7,l4 audio1 to hear74 ,belonging to parts connected with the sense of hearing4 ,,auricula 7,l4 dim of auris1 the ear74 ,an auricle2 the prominent part of the ear4 ,also1 the name of two cavities of the heart4 ,,automatic ,,motions 7,gr4 automatos1 of his own accord74 ,those muscular actions which are not dependent on the mind4 ,b ,,bilis4 ,bile1 gall1 or choler2 the secretion of the liver4 ,a term employed to characterize a class of diseases caused by a too copious secretion of bile4 ,,bronchus 7,gr4 brngchos1 the windpipe1 from brch1 to moisten74 ,the windpipe2 a ramification of the trachea2 so called from ancient belief that the solids were conveyed into the stomach by the sophagus1 and the fluids by the bronchia4 ,,bronchial-,,tubes4 ,the minute ramifications of the bronchi1 terminating in the bronchial cells1 or air cells of the lungs4 ,,bronchitis4 ,inflammation of the bronchi or ramifications of the trachea4 ,,burs ,,mucos 7mucous bags74 ,small sacs situated about the joints1 being parts of the sheaths of tendons4 ,c ,c,,cum1 or ,c,,cum 7,l4 ccus1 blind74 ,the first part of the colon or blind intestine4 ,,callus 7,latin1 hardness74 ,new bone1 or the substance which serves to join together the ends of a fracture1 and to restore destroyed portions of bone4 ,,capillary 7,l4 capillus1 a hair74 ,resembling a hair in size2 a term applied to the vessels which intervene between the minute arteries and veins4 ,,capsula 7,l4 dim4 of capsa1 a chest74 ,literally1 a little chest4 ,a capsule or bag1 which incloses any part4 ,,carbon 7,l4 carbo1 a coal74 ,a substance well known under the form of coal1 charcoal1 lamp-black1 c4 ,in chemical language1 it denotes the pure inflammable principle of charcoal2 in its state of absolute purity it constitutes the diamond4 ,,carbonic ,,acid4 ,carbon and oxygen combined4 ,,cardia 7,gr4 kardia1 the heart74 ,the entrance into the stomach2 so called from being near the heart4 ,,cardiac 7,gr4 kardia1 the heart74 ,relating to the heart4 ,,carotid 7,gr4 kar1 to induce sleep74 ,the name of two large arteries of the neck2 so called from an idea that tying them would induce stupor4 ,,carpus 7,gr4 karps1 fruit74 ,the wrist4 ,the ossa carpi1 or carpal bones1 are eight in number1 and form two rows4 ,,cartilage4 ,gristle4 ,it is attached to bones1 and must be distinguished from the ligaments of joints and tendons of muscles4 ,,cerebellum 7dim4 of cerebrum74 ,the little brain1 situated behind the larger or cerebrum4 ,,cerebrum 7,gr4 kre1 the head74 ,the brain2 the chief portion of the brain1 occupying the whole upper cavity of the skull4 ,,cerebro-,,spinal4 ,system4 ,,cervix4 ,the neck2 the hinder part of the neck4 ,the fore part is called collum4 ,,chest4 ,thorax4 ,an old ,english term1 commonly traced to the ,latin cista4--8,when it is considered that the same word was anciently used for a basket1 the appropriation of it to the human thorax will appear quite natural to any one who has ever seen a skeleton40--,forbes4 ,,chyle 7,gr4 chuls1 juice74 ,the milk-like fluid absorbed by the lacteal vessels4 ,,chylification 7,l4 fio1 to become74 ,the process by which the chyle is separated from the chyme4 ,,chyme 7,gr4 chums1 juice74 ,the semi-fluid matter which passes from the stomach into the duodenum4 ,,chymification 7,l4 fio1 to become74 ,the process by which the aliment is converted into chyme4 ,,clavicula 7dim4 of clavis1 a key74 ,the clavicle1 or collar-bone2 so called from its resemblance to an ancient key4 ,,coccyx 7,gr4 kkkux1 a cuckoo74 ,the lower end of the spine2 so called from its resemblance to a cuckoo's beak4 ,,colon 7,gr4 koln1 quasi1 kolon1 hollow74 ,the first of the large intestines1 commencing at the ccum1 and terminating at the rectum4 ,,coma 7,gr4 kma1 drowsiness1 from k1 to lie74 ,drowsiness2 lethargic sleep2 dead sleep2 torpor4 ,,commissure 7,l4 commissura74 ,to joint or sever the place where two bodies or parts of a body meet and unite4 ,,condyle 7,gr4 kndulos1 a knuckle74 ,a rounded eminence in the joints of several bones1 as the humerus and the femur4 ,,congestion 7,l4 congero1 to amass74 ,undue fullness of the blood-vessels4 ,,conjunctiva 7,l4 conjungo1 to unite74 ,the mucous membrane which lines the posterior surface of the eyelids1 and is continued over the fore-part of the globe of the eye4 ,,corium4 ,leather4 ,the deep layer of cutis1 or true skin1 forming the basis of the support of the skin4 ,,corpusculum 7,l4 dim4 of corpus1 a body74 ,a corpuscle1 or little body4 ,,cranium 7,gr4 kra1 the head74 ,the skull1 or cavity1 which contains the brain1 its membranes and vessels4 ,,cricos 7,gr4 krikos1 a ring74 ,whence crcod1 the name of the ring-like cartilage of the larynx4 ,,crystalline 7,gr4 krstallos1 ice74 ,a term applied to the lens of the eye4 ,,cuticle 7,l4 dim4 of cutis74 ,the epidermis or scarf-skin4 ,,cutis 7,gr4 ktos1 the skin74 ,the true skin1 as distinguished from the cuticle1 epidermis or scarf-skin4 ,d ,,deglutition 7,l4 deglutio1 to swallow74 ,the act of swallowing4 ,,diaphragm 7,gr4 diphragma1 a partition74 ,the midriff2 the transverse muscular partition which separates the thorax from the abdomen4 ,,digestion 7,l4 digero1 from diversim gero1 to carry into different parts74 ,in ,physiology1 the change of food into chyme by the mouth1 stomach and small intestines2 and the absorption and distribution of the more nutritious parts1 or the chyle1 through the system4 ,,dorsum 7,latin74 ,the back2 the round part of the back of a man or beast4 ,whence ,dorsal1 appertaining to the back1 as applied to a region1 ligaments1 c4 ,,duodenum 7,l4 duodeni1 twelve74 ,the twelve-inch intestine2 so called from its being equal in length to the breadth of twelve fingers4 ,the first portion of the small intestines1 beginning from the pylorus4 ,,dura ,,mater 7hard-mother74 ,the outermost membrane of the brain4 ,e ,,effluvia 7,l4 effluo1 to flow out74 ,exhalations1 vapors1 c4 ,,elasticity4 ,the property or power by which a body compressed or extended returns to its former state4 ,,enamel4 ,the hard exterior surface of the teeth4 ,,encephalon 7,gr4 n1 in1 kephal1 the head74 ,the brain2 the contents of the skull1 consisting of the cerebrum1 cerebellum1 medulla oblongata1 and membranes4 ,,epidermis 7,gr4 epi1 upon1 and drma1 the skin7 ,the cuticle1 or scarf-skin2 the thin1 horny layer which protects the surface of the integument4 ,,epiglottis4 ,a cartilage of the larynx1 situated above the glottis4 ,,epiploon 7,gr4 plo1 to sail74 ,the omentum2 a membranous expansion which floats upon the intestines4 ,,epithelium 7,gr4 tthmi1 to place74 ,the cuticle on the red part of the lips1 and on the mucous membranes in general4 ,,excretion 7,l4 excerno1 to separate from74 ,a general term for the perspiration1 fces1 c41 which are separated and voided from the blood or the food4 ,,expiration 7,l4 expiro1 to breathe74 ,that part of the respiration in which the air is expelled4 ,compare ,inspiration4 ,,exudation4 ,transpiration4 ,the flow of liquid from the surface of the skin or membrane1 an ulcer1 c4 ,f ,,facial 7,l4 facies1 the face74 ,belonging to the face2 as facial nerve1 facial vein1 c4 ,,falx4 ,a scythe or sickle4 ,the sickle-like processes of the dura mater1 situated between the lobes of the cerebrum and cerebellum4 ,,fascia 7,l4 fascis1 a bundle74 ,literally1 a scarf or large band4 ,hence it is applied to the aponeurotic expansion of a muscle4 ,,fasciculus 7,l4 dim4 of fascis1 a bundle74 ,a little bundle2 a handful4 ,thus1 a muscle consists of fasciculi of fibres4 ,,fauces4 ,the gullet or upper part of the throat2 the space surrounded by the vellum palati1 the uvula1 the tonsils1 and the posterior part of the tongue4 ,,femur1 ,,femoris4 ,os femoris4 ,the thigh-bone2 the longest1 largest and heaviest of all the bones of the body4 ,,fibre 7,l4 fibra1 a filament74 ,a filament or thread1 of animal1 vegetable or mineral composition4 ,,fibril4 ,a small filament or fibre1 as the ultimate division of a nerve4 ,the term is derived from fibrilla1 ,l4 dim4 of fibra1 a filament4 ,,fibrin4 ,a tough1 fibrous mass1 which1 together with albumen1 forms the basis of muscle4 ,,fibro-,,cartilage4 ,membraniform cartilage2 a substance intermediate between proper cartilage and ligament4 ,,filament 7,l4 filum1 a thread1 forma1 likeness74 ,thread-like2 applied to the papill at the edges of the tongue4 ,,fissure4 ,a cleft2 a longitudinal opening4 ,,flexor 7,l4 flecto1 to bend74 ,a muscle which bends the part into which it is inserted4 ,its antagonist is termed extensor4 ,,fluids4 ,substances which have the quality of fluidity1 and are1 in consequence1 of no fixed shape4 ,,follicle 7,l4 dim4 of follis1 a pair of bellows74 ,literally1 a little bag or scrip of leather4 ,in anatomy1 a very minute secreting cavity4 ,,foramen 7,l4 foro1 to pierce74 ,an opening4 ,,fossa 7,l4 fodio1 to dig74 ,a ditch or trench2 a little depression1 or sinus4 ,,function 7,l4 fungor1 to discharge an office74 ,the office of an organ in the animal or vegetable economy2 as of the heart in circulation1 of the leaf in respiration1 c4 ,g ,,gall-,,bladder4 ,a membranous reservoir1 lodged in a fissure on the under surface of the right lobe of the liver1 and containing the bile4 ,,gall-,,ducts4 ,these are the cystic1 proceeding from the gall-bladder2 the hepatic1 proceeding from the liver2 and the ductus communis choledochus1 resulting from the union of the two preceding4 ,,ganglion 7,gr4 gangglon1 a nerve-knot74 ,a small nervous center1 or an enlargement in the course of a nerve1 sometimes termed a diminutive brain4 ,,gaster4 ,the ,greek term for stomach4 ,,gastric 7,gr4 gaster1 the stomach74 ,pertaining to the stomach2 as the gastric juice1 c4 ,,gastric ,,juice4 ,the peculiar digestive fluid secreted by the stomach4 ,,gelatine 7,l4 gelu1 frost74 ,the principle of jelly4 ,it is found in the skin1 cartilages1 tendons1 membranes and bones4 ,the purest variety of gelatine is isinglass4 ,,gland 7,l4 glans1 glandis1 an acorn74 ,a soft body1 composed of various tissues1 vessels1 nerves1 c41 usually destined to separate some fluids from the blood4 ,,glenoid 7,gr4 glne1 a cavity1 edos1 likeness74 ,the name of a part having a shallow cavity2 as the socket of the shoulder joint4 ,,globules ,,red 7,l4 dim4 of globus1 a ball74 ,the red coloring matter of the blood2 a peculiar animal principle4 ,,glossa1 or ,,glotta 7,gr4 gltta74 ,the tongue2 the organ of speech4 ,glosso4 ,terms compounded of this word belong to nerves or muscles attached to the tongue4 ,,glottis4 ,the aperture of the larynx between the arytnod cartilages4 ,it is covered by a cartilage called the epi-glottis4 ,,granule4 ,a small particle4 ,h ,h,,matosin 7,gr4 haima1 blood74 ,a characteristic constituent of the blood1 derived from the globules4 ,h,,morrhage4 ,a rupture of a blood-vessel2 a bursting forth of blood2 loss of blood4 ,,hepatic4 ,a term applied to any part belonging to the liver4 ,,humerus4 ,the bone of the upper arm4 ,,humor 7,l4 humeo1 to be moist74 ,an aqueous substance2 as the humors of the eye4 ,,hygiene 7,gr4 to be well74 ,health2 the preservation of health2 that part of medicine which regards the preservation of health4 ,,hyoides 7the ,greek letter upsilon74 ,a bone situated between the root of the tongue and the larynx4 ,,hypogastrium4 ,the lower anterior region of the abdomen4 ,,hypoglossal4 ,the name of the lingualis1 or ninth pair of nerves1 situated beneath the tongue4 ,i1 ,j ,,ichor4 ,a thin1 acrid discharge1 issuing from wounds1 ulcers1 c4 ,,jejunum 7,l4 jejunus1 hungry74 ,the upper two-fifths of the small intestines2 so named from this portion being generally found empty4 ,,ileum 7to turn about74 ,the lower three-fifths of the small intestines2 so called from their convolutions or peristaltic motions4 ,,iliac ,,bone4 ,another name for the os innominatum1 derived from the circumstance that this compound bone supports the parts which the ancients called ilia1 or the flanks4 ,,iliac ,,region4 ,the region situated on each side of the hypogastrium4 ,,index 7,l4 indico1 to point out74 ,the forefinger2 the finger usually employed in pointing at any object4 ,,infra-,,spinatus4 ,a muscle arising from the scapula below the spine1 and inserted into the humerus4 ,,innominatus 7,l4 in1 priv41 nomen1 name74 ,hence1 ,innominatum os1 a bone composed of three portions1 viz3 #a1 ,the ilium1 or haunch-bone2 #b1 ,the ischium1 or hip-bone2 #c1 ,the os pubis1 or share bone4 ,,integument 7,l4 in1 and tego1 to cover74 ,the covering of any part of the body1 as the cuticle1 cutis1 c4 ,,inter-,,costal4 ,the name of two sets of muscles between the ribs--the external and the internal4 ,,intestines 7,l4 intus1 within74 ,that part of the alimentary canal which extends from the stomach to the anus4 ,,jugular4 ,belonging to the neck2 applied chiefly to the principal veins of the neck4 ,k ,,kingdom4 ,a term denoting any of the principal divisions of nature4 ,thus we have the organic kingdom1 comprehending substances which organize2 and the inorganic kingdom1 comprehending substances which crystallize4 ,,knee-,,pan4 ,patella2 the small round bone at the front of the knee-joint4 ,,kidneys4 ,two oblong glands1 which secrete the urine4 ,l ,,labia4 ,the lips4 ,they are laterally united by means of two acute angles1 which are called their commissures4 ,,labyrinth4 ,the name of a series of cavities of the inner ear1 viz3 the vestibule1 the cochlea1 and the semi-circular canals4 ,,lachryma4 ,a tear2 the fluid secreted by the lachrymal gland1 and flowing on the surface of the eye4 ,,lacteals 7,l4 lac1 milk74 ,numerous minute tubes which absorb or take up the chyle1 or milk-like fluid1 from the alimentary canal4 ,,lactic ,,acid 7,l4 lac1 lactis1 milk74 ,an acid produced whenever milk--and perhaps most animal fluids--become spontaneously sour4 ,,lamina4 ,literally1 a small plate of any metal4 ,a term applied to the foliated structure of bones or other organs4 ,,larynx 7,gr4 larungx1 the larynx74 ,the superior part of the trachea1 situated immediately under the os hyodes4 ,,lens 7,l4 lens1 lentis1 a bean74 ,properly1 a small roundish glass1 shaped like a lentil1 or bean4 ,,ligament 7,l4 ligo1 to bind74 ,a membrane of a flexible but compact texture1 which connects the articular surfaces of bones and cartilages2 and sometimes protects the joints by a capsular envelope4 ,,lingua 7,l4 lingo1 to lick74 ,the tongue2 the organ of taste and speech4 ,,liver4 ,the largest glandular apparatus in the body1 the office of which is to secrete the bile4 ,,lumbi4 ,the loins2 the inferior part of the back2 whence ,lumbar1 the designation of nerves1 arteries1 veins1 c41 belonging to the region of the loins4 ,,lungs4 ,the organs of respiration4 ,,luxation 7,l4 luxo1 to put out of joint74 ,dislocation2 or the removal of the articular surface of bones out of their proper situation4 ,,lymph 7,l4 lympha1 water74 ,a colorless liquid which circulates in the lymphatics4 ,,lymphatics 7,l4 lympha1 water74 ,minute tubes which pervade every part of the body1 which they absorb1 or take up1 in the form of lymph4 ,m ,,magnesium4 ,a metal having the color and lustre of silver4 ,,masseter 7,gr4 to chew74 ,a muscle which assists in chewing4 ,,mastoid 7,gr4 a breast74 ,shaped like the breast or nipple2 as applied to a process1 and a foramen of the temporal bone4 ,,meatus 7,l4 meo1 to pass1 to flow74 ,literally1 a passage4 ,,medulla4 ,marrow2 a kind of fixed oil1 occupying the cavities of bones4 ,,medulla ,,oblongata4 ,the upper enlarged portion of the spinal cord4 ,,medulla ,,spinalis4 ,the spinal marrow or cord4 ,,medullary4 ,the designation of the white substance of the brain4 ,,mesentery 7,gr4 between the bowels74 ,the membrane which connects the small intestines and the posterior wall of the abdomen4 ,,meta-,,carpus 7,gr4 after1 the wrist74 ,that part of the hand which is situated between the carpus and the fingers4 ,,meta-,,tarsus4 ,that part of the foot which is situated between the tarsus and the toes4 ,,midriff4 ,diaphragm4 ,the muscle which divides the body into the thorax and the abdomen4 ,,mitral ,,valves 7,l4 mitra1 a mitre74 ,the name of two valves which guard the left ventricle of the heart4 ,,molar 7,l4 mola1 a mill-stone74 ,the double or grinding teeth4 ,those with two fangs are called bicuspid1 or false molars4 ,,motor 7,l4 moveo1 to move74 ,a mover2 a part whose function is motion4 ,,mucus4 ,the liquid secreted by the mucous surfaces1 as of the nostrils1 intended as a protection to the parts exposed to external influences4 ,n ,,narcotics 7,gr4 stupor74 ,medicines which induce sleep or stupor1 as opiates4 ,,nasus4 ,the nose1 or organ of smell2 whence nasal1 belonging to the nose4 ,,nerves 7,l4 nervus1 a string74 ,white cords arising from the brain or the spinal marrow1 and distributed to every part of the system4 ,,neuron 7,gr47 ,a nerve2 a cord arising from the brain or spinal marrow4 ,whence ,neurilemma1 the sheath of a nerve2 and ,neurology1 the doctrine of the nerves4 ,,nitrogen4 ,azote4 ,an elementary principle1 constituting four-fifths of the volume of atmospheric air4 ,,nutrition 7,l4 nutrio1 to nourish74 ,the process of nourishing the frame4 ,o ,,obturator 7,l4 obturo1 to stop up74 ,the name of two muscles of the thigh1 and of a nerve4 ,,occiput 7,l4 ob caput74 ,the back part of the head2 the part opposite to the front or sinciput4 ,,sophagus 7,gr4 to carry1 to eat74 ,a canal leading from the mouth to the stomach4 ,,oleaginous 7,l4 oleum1 oil74 ,that which contains or resembles oil4 ,,olfactory 7,l4 olfacio1 to smell74 ,belonging to the smell2 the name of the first pair of cerebral nerves1 c4 ,,omentum4 ,the caul2 a fold or reflexion of the peritoneum4 ,,omo 7,gr4 the shoulder74 ,words compounded with this term belong to muscles attached to the scapula4 ,,optic4 ,belonging to the sight4 ,,orbit 7,l4 orbita1 an orbit1 a track74 ,the cavity under the forehead1 in which the eye is fixed4 ,,organ4 ,a part which has a determinate office in the animal economy4 ,,organization4 ,a term applied to a system1 composed of several individual parts1 each of which has its proper function1 but all conduce to the existence of the entire system4 ,,origin 7,l4 origo74 ,the commencement of a muscle from any part4 ,its attachment to the part it moves is called its insertion4 ,,os1 ,,ossis4 ,a bone2 a portion of the skeleton1 constituting a passive organ of locomotion1 as distinguished from a muscle or active organ of this faculty4 ,,ossification4 ,the formation of bone2 the deposition of calcareous phosphate1 or carbonate1 on the soft solids of animal bodies4 ,,oxides4 ,substances combined with oxygen1 without being in the state of an acid4 ,,oxygen4 ,a gas which forms about one-fifth of atmospheric air1 is capable of supporting flame1 and is essential to the respiration of animals4 ,p ,,pancreas4 ,a gland1 situated transversely across the posterior wall of the abdomen4 ,in cattle it is called the sweet-bread4 ,,pancreatic ,,juice4 ,the peculiar fluid secreted by the pancreas4 ,,papilla4 ,the term papill denotes the small eminences which constitute the roughness of the upper surface of the tongue4 ,,paralysis4 ,palsy2 the total loss1 or diminution1 of sensation or of motion1 or of both4 ,,parotid4 ,the name of the large1 salivary gland situated near the ear4 ,,paries1 ,,parietis4 ,the wall of a house or any other building2 whence ,parietal1 belonging to the walls of an organ4 ,,patella 7,l4 dim4 of patina1 a pan74 ,literally1 a small pan4 ,the knee-pan4 ,,pectoral 7,l4 pectus1 the breast74 ,pertaining to the breast4 ,,pectoralis4 ,the name of two muscles of the trunk4 ,,pedal 7,l4 pedules74 ,pertaining to a foot4 ,,pelvis 7,gr4 a basin74 ,the basin or large bony cavity which terminates the trunk inferiorly4 ,,pericardium 7,gr4 around the heart74 ,a fibro-serous membrane which surrounds the heart4 ,,pericranium4 ,the periosteum or membrane which covers the bones of the cranium4 ,,periosteum4 ,the membrane which surrounds the bones4 ,,peristaltic4 ,a term applied to the vermicular contractions of the intestines upon themselves4 ,,periton,,um4 ,the serous membrane which lines the interior of the abdomen1 and invests all the viscera contained therein4 ,,permeability 7,l4 per1 through1 meo1 to pass74 ,that property of certain bodies by which they admit the passage of other bodies through their substance4 ,,perspiration 7,l4 perspiro1 to breathe through74 ,the watery vapor which is constantly passing off through the skin4 ,,pharynx 7,gr4 the throat74 ,a musculo-membranous bag1 situated at the back part of the mouth1 leading to the stomach4 ,,phrenes 7,gr4 the mind74 ,the diaphragm2 so called because the ancients supposed it to be the seat of the mind4 ,hence the term ,phrenic1 a designation of the internal respiratory nerve1 which goes to the diaphragm4 ,,phrenology 7,gr4 an account74 ,a description of the mind2 a science1 introduced by ,gall and ,spurzheim1 by which particular characters and propensities are indicated by the conformation and protuberances of the skull4 ,,physiology 7,gr4 phusis1 nature1 logos1 an account74 ,the science which treats of the properties of organic bodies1 animal and vegetable1 of the phenomena which they present1 and of the laws which govern their actions4 ,,pia ,,mater4 ,a vascular membrane1 investing the whole surface of the brain4 ,,pituitary ,,membrane4 ,a designation of the ,schneiderian membrane1 which lines the cavities of the nose4 ,,plexus 7,l4 plecto1 to weave74 ,a kind of net-work of blood-vessels or nerves4 ,,pneumo-,,gastric ,,nerves 7,gr4 pneumon1 the lung1 gastr1 the stomach74 ,the par vagnum1 nervi vagi1 or eighth pair of nerves1 distributed to the stomach4 ,,portal ,,circulation4 ,a subordinate part of the venous circulation1 in which the blood makes an additional circuit before it joins the rest of the venous blood4 ,,portal ,,vein 7,l4 vena port74 ,a vein originating from the organs within the abdomen4 ,,potassium4 ,the metallic base of the well known alkaline substance1 potassa4 ,,process4 ,apophysis4 ,a process or eminence of a bone4 ,also1 a lobe or portion of the brain4 ,,pronation 7,l4 pronus1 bending downward74 ,the act of turning the palm of the hand downwards1 by rotating the radius upon the ulna by means of the pronator muscles4 ,,pronator 7,l4 pronus1 bending downward74 ,the name of two muscles which turn the radius and the hand inwards and downwards4 ,,proximate ,,principle4 ,a term applied1 in analyzing any body1 to the principle which is nearest to the natural constitution of the body1 and more immediately the object of sense1 as distinguished from intermediate or ultimate principles4 ,ultimate principles are the elements of which proximate principles are composed4 ,,pulmonary1 pulmonic 7,l4 pulmo1 the lungs74 ,relating or belonging to the lungs4 ,,pulse 7,l4 pulsus1 a stroke74 ,a beating or striking2 and hence1 the stroke or beat of an artery4 ,,puncta ,,lachrymalia4 ,the external commencements of the lacrymal ducts4 ,,pupila 7,l4 dim4 of pupa1 a puppet74 ,the pupil1 or the round aperture in the center of the iris of the eye4 ,,pylorus 7,gr4 ple1 a gate1 ora1 care74 ,literally a gate-keeper4 ,the lower and contracted orifice of the stomach1 guarding the entrance into the bowels4 ,q ,,quartz4 ,a species of silicious minerals4 ,r ,,ramification 7,l4 ramus1 a branch1 fio1 to become74 ,the issuing of a small branch from a large one1 as of the minute branches from the larger arteries4 ,,ramus4 ,a branch of a tree2 the designation of portions of several bones4 ,,rectum 7,l4 rectus1 straight74 ,the last portion of the intestines4 ,,refraction 7,l4 refractus1 broken back74 ,the property of light1 by which a ray becomes bent1 or refracted1 when passing from a rarer into a denser medium1 and vice vers4 ,,respiration4 ,the function of breathing4 ,,retina 7,l4 rete1 a net74 ,the net like expansion of the optic nerve on the inner surface of the eye4 ,s ,,sac 7,l4 saccus1 a bag74 ,a term applied to a small cavity1 as the lacrymal sac4 ,,sacrum 7,l4 sacred74 ,the bone which forms the basis of the vertebral column2 so called from its having been offered in sacrifice1 and hence considered sacred4 ,,sacro4 ,a term applied to parts connected with the sacrum4 ,hence we have sacro-iliac symphysis1 sacro-spinal ligament1 sacro-vertebral angle1 c4 ,,saliva4 ,the insipid1 transparent1 viscous liquid secreted by the salivary glands1 principally the parotid4 ,,sanguis4 ,blood2 the fluid which circulates in the heart1 arteries and veins4 ,,sartorius 7,l4 sartor1 a tailor74 ,the muscle by means of which the tailor crosses his legs4 ,,scapula4 ,the shoulder-blade4 ,,schneiderian ,,membrane4 ,the pituitary membrane1 which secretes the mucous of the nose2 so named from ,schneider1 who first described it4 ,,sclerotica 7,gr4 sklrs1 hard74 ,the dense fibrous membrane which1 with the cornea1 forms the external tunic of the eye ball4 ,,sebaceous 7,l4 sebum1 suet74 ,suety2 a term applied to follicles1 which secrete a peculiar oily matter1 and are abundant in some parts of the skin1 as in the nose1 c4 ,,secretion 7,l4 secerno1 to separate74 ,a substance secreted or separated from the blood by the action of a secreting organ4 ,,serum4 ,the thin yellowish fluid constituent of the blood4 ,,sinciput4 ,the fore part of the head4 ,the back part is called occiput4 ,,sinew4 ,the ligament which joins two bones4 ,,sinus4 ,a gulf4 ,hence it denotes a cavity or cell within the substance of a bone1 as of the forehead2 also a large venous canal1 as those of the dura mater4 ,,skeleton 7,gr4 skllo1 to dry up74 ,the dry1 bony frame work of an animal1 which sustains the other organs4 ,,spinal ,,cord4 ,medulla spinalis4 ,the medullary matter contained within the spine1 or vertebral column4 ,,spleen4 ,a spongy organ situated at the left and behind the stomach4 ,,splint-,,bone4 ,the fibula or small bone of the leg2 so named from its resembling a surgical splint4 ,,sternum4 ,the breast bone4 ,,sub4 ,a ,latin preposition1 denoting a position beneath any body4 ,,sub-,,clavian4 ,situated under the clavicle4 ,,sub-,,clavius4 ,a muscle arising from the cartilage of the first rib1 and inserted into the lower surface of the clavicle4 ,,sub-,,cutaneous4 ,beneath the skin4 ,,sub-,,lingual4 ,beneath the tongue4 ,,sub-,,maxillary4 ,beneath the jaw4 ,,sudor 7,l4 sudo1 to sweat74 ,sweat2 the vapor which passes through the skin and condenses on the surface of the body4 ,,sudoriferous ,,canals4 ,minute spiral follicles1 distributed over the whole surface of the skin1 for the secretion of the sweat4 ,,suture 7,l4 suo1 to sew74 ,a seam2 the junction of the bones of the cranium by a serrated line1 resembling the stitches of a seam4 ,,sympathetic ,,nerve4 ,a nerve consisting of a chain of ganglia1 extending along the side of the vertebral column from the head to the coccyx1 communicating with all the other nerves of the body1 and supposed to produce a sympathy between the affections of different parts4 ,t ,,tarsus4 ,the instep2 the space between the bones of the leg and metatarsus4 ,,tears4 ,a peculiar fluid which lubricates the eye4 ,,tempora 7,l4 pl4 of tempus1 time74 ,the temples1 or that part of the head on which the hair generally begins to turn gray1 thus indicating the age2 whence temporal1 pertaining to the temples1 as temporal bones4 ,,tenacity 7,l4 teneo1 to hold74 ,the degree of force with which the particles of bodies cohere or are held together4 ,,tendon 7,l4 tino1 to stretch74 ,a fibrous cord at the extremity of a muscle1 by which the muscle is attached to a bone4 ,,tensor 7,l4 tendo1 to stretch74 ,a muscle which stretches any part4 ,,tentacula4 ,a filliform process or organ on the bodies of various animals4 ,,thorax 7,gr4 thrax74 ,the chest2 or that cavity of the body which contains the heart and lungs4 ,,thoracic ,,duct4 ,the great trunk formed by the junction of the absorbent vessels4 ,,thyroid 7,gr4 thures1 a shield74 ,the name given to a shield-shaped cartilage of the larynx1 and of a gland situated on the trachea4 ,,tibia4 ,literally1 a flute or pipe4 ,the shin-bone1 or the great bone of the leg4 ,,tibial4 ,tibialis4 ,pertaining to the tibia4 ,,tissue4 ,a web1 or web-like structure1 constituting the elementary structures of animals and plants4 ,,tonsils 7,l4 tondeo1 to clip or shear74 ,the round gland situated in the throat between the pillars of the velum palati4 ,,trachea 7,gr4 trachus1 rough74 ,the windpipe4 ,the term is derived from the inequality of its cartilages4 ,,triceps4 ,having three heads4 ,applied to several muscles4 ,,tricuspid4 ,having three points4 ,a term applied to three triangular fords or valves situated between the right auricle and the right ventricle of the heart4 ,,trifacial4 ,triple-facial4 ,a term applied to the fifth pair of nerves1 the grand sensitive nerve of the head and face4 ,,trochanter 7,gr4 trocho1 to run or roll74 ,the name of two processes of the thigh-bone--the major and the minor4 ,,tunic4 ,the upper garment of the ,romans4 ,hence it is applied to several membranes of the body4 ,,tympanum 7,gr4 tmpanon1 a drum74 ,the drum of the ear4 ,u ,,ulna 7,gr4 oln1 the cubit74 ,the large bone of the fore-arm2 so named from its being often used as a measure1 under the term ell4 ,,uvea 7,l4 uva1 grape74 ,the posterior surface of the iris2 so called from its resemblance in color to a ripe grape4 ,v ,,vacuum 7,l4 vaccus1 empty74 ,literally1 an empty place4 ,this term generally denotes the interior of a close vessel1 from which the atmospheric air and every other gas have been extracted4 ,,valve 7,l4 valv1 folding-doors74 ,a close lid affixed to a tube or opening in some vessel1 by means of a hinge or other movable joint1 and which can be opened only in one direction4 ,hence it signifies a little membrane which prevents the return of fluid in the blood-vessels and absorbents4 ,,valvula 7,l4 dim4 of valve74 ,a little valve4 ,,vas1 ,,vasis4 ,plural1 ,vasa4 ,a vessel1 or any utensil to hold liquor4 ,,vascular ,,system4 ,that part of the animal economy which relates to the vessels4 ,,venous4 ,belonging to a vein4 ,,ventriculus 7,l4 dim4 of venter1 the belly74 ,the term ventricle is also applied to two cavities of the heart1 and to several cavities in other parts of the body4 ,,vertebra 7,l4 verto1 to turn74 ,a bone of the spine2 so named from its turning upon the adjoining one4 ,,vertebral4 ,connected with the vertebra4 ,,vessicle 7,l4 dim4 of vesica1 a bladder74 ,a little bladder4 ,,villus4 ,literally1 the shaggy hair of beasts4 ,some of the membranes of the body1 as the mucous membrane of the intestinal canal1 present a surface of minute papill1 termed villi1 villosities1 resembling a downy tissue1 continually covered with fluid4 ,,vitreous ,,body 7,l4 vitrum1 glass74 ,vitreous humour4 ,a transparent mass1 resembling melted glass1 occupying the globe of the eye1 and inclosed in the hyalod membrane4 ,w ,,warm-,,blooded4 ,a term applied to the mammalia and birds which have a two-fold circulation4 ,x ,,xyphoid 7,gr4 xphos1 a sword1 edos1 likeness74 ,sword-like2 a term applied to the cartilage of the sternum4 ,,the ,,end4 ,transcriber's ,notes pg #fg ,changed3 ,alcohol and common salt both act in the preservavation to3 ,alcohol and common salt both act in the preservation pg #gf ,changed3 that a man entirely unaquainted to3 that a man entirely unacquainted pg #hj ,changed3 upwards into the the fascia to3 upwards into the fascia pg #ajb ,changed3 as to the quantitive composition to3 as to the quantitative composition pg #abf ,changed3 the lids must be sown together to3 the lids must be sewn together pg #abf ,changed3 in its quantitive composition to3 in its quantitative composition pg #acg ,changed3 unbiased by a viscious appetite to3 unbiased by a vicious appetite pg #aib ,changed3 being generated insdie of a cylinder to3 being generated inside of a cylinder