,transcriber's ,note ,italic text displayed as3 italic ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,hercules ,,some ,,borzoi ,,text ,,books ,,sociology ,,and ,,political ,,theory ,harry ,e4 ,barnes ,,the ,,oral ,,study ,,of ,,literature ,algernon ,tassin ,,the ,,basis ,,of ,,social ,,theory ,albert ,g4 ,a4 ,balz ,,essays ,,in ,,economic ,,theory ,simon ,nelson ,patten ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,journalism ,nelson ,a4 ,crawford ,,the ,,trend ,,of ,,economics ,various ,writers ,,an ,,analysis ,,of ,,writing ,harold ,p4 ,scott ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,hercules ,a ,study of ,man's ,body as the ,sole ,determinant of ,ethical ,values ,,by ,,robert ,,chenault ,,givler1 ,,ph4,d4 ,professor of ,philosophy in ,tufts ,college ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,new ,,york ,,alfred ,a ,,knopf ,,mcmxxiv ,,copyright1 #aibd1 ,,by ,,alfred ,a4 ,,knopf1 ,,inc4 ,published1 ,march1 #aibd ,set up1 electrotyped1 and printed by the ,vail-,ballou ,press1 ,inc41 ,binghamton1 ,n4 ,y4 ,paper furnished by ,w4 ,f4 ,etherington ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,bound by ,h4 ,wolff ,estate1 ,new ,york4 ,,printed ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america ,,dedicated ,,to ,,the ,,thousand ,,men ,,of ,,my ,,generation ,,whose ,,thought ,i ,,have ,,the ,,honor ,,of ,,making ,,articulate4 8,waste not free energy2 treasure it and make the best use of it40 ,,wilhelm ,,ostwald1 8,the ,imperative of ,energetics40 ,,preface ,this book deals with ethics as a strictly natural science1 and particularly as a branch of mechanistic psychology4 ,it regards the realm of ethics as coterminous with the arena of human activity1 and holds that the problems of conduct1 being exclusively man's problems1 are to be solved by the methods of applied science4 ,moreover1 since human conduct is in the last analysis dependent upon the postures and manuvres of our muscle-fabric1 he who would understand ethics must first comprehend something of the mechanics of the human organism4 ,indeed1 this book attempts to show1 not only that ethics and physiology can no longer be studied apart from one another1 but also that it is the structure and functions of the human body which have determined just what our ethical values are4 ,such a program is not strictly original1 for the student of philosophy will readily find its antecedents4 ,nevertheless1 while many ethical writers have heretofore given numerous intimations of a mechanistic scheme in ethics1 yet usually as they proceed to discuss what are called higher things1 they seem to forget that it is the human body which performs every human action1 even those deeds which move us most profoundly4 ,no such faltering1 we trust1 will be found in these pages4 ,indeed1 it may be stated at the outset that one of the fundamental conceptions from which this book originated is that the well-being of the physiological organism is the final criterion of whatever is ethically valuable4 ,the title1 8,the ,ethics of ,hercules10 is doubly symbolical4 ,those who have heard of this ancient hero will immediately recognize the emphasis which is placed upon that type of personality who with strength1 skill1 and persistence works out the problem that lies nearest at hand4 ,moreover1 ,hercules the valiant1 the thoroughbred who never once shirked from his task1 is here contrasted with ,cinderella1 the patron goddess of all those ineffectual dreamers1 who1 instead of balancing their ethical books day by day1 whimper after the supernatural1 and cultivate an inner life of subterfuge and disorder4 ,we hold here that no man can have freedom given to him1 but that he must earn it by positively constructive1 honest efforts to adjust himself to and gain control of his environment4 ,the motto of ,cinderella is1 8,where you are not1 there is happiness10 while the motto of ,hercules is1 8,friends lost1 something lost2 honor lost1 much lost2 pluck lost1 all lost40 ,the realization that in all science many false starts are made before a single true one is achieved1 makes for caution and vigilance4 ,seeing1 however1 that the trend of ethical thought has been continually growing more and more mechanistic1 it seems not unlikely that we are at the beginning rather than at the end of a chapter in the empirical science of human nature4 ,if this book utters no more than the first sentence of that chapter1 the effort will not have been in vain4 ,,contents ,i4 ,,introduction #c ,,ii4 ,a ,,physiological ,,explanation ,,of ,,the ,,antagonism ,,between ,,all ,,such ,,words ,,as 8,,good0 ,,and 8,,bad10 ,,and 8,,right0 ,,and 8,,wrong0 #ab ,,iii4 ,,the ,,biological ,,signification ,,of ,,the ,,word 8,,good0 #cf ,,iv4 ,,the ,,action-,,patterns ,,implied ,,by ,,the ,,word 8,,bad10 ,,with ,a ,,note ,,on ,,the ,,physiology ,,of 8,,evil0 #eh ,v4 8,,right0 ,,as ,a ,,gestural ,,sign #ge ,,vi4 ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,the ,,word 8,,wrong0 #aaf ,,vii4 8,,virtue0 ,,and 8,,vice0 ,,as ,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,organism #abg ,,viii4 ,,is ,,conscience ,,always ,a ,,pathological ,,phenomenon8 #aee ,,ix4 ,,the ,,mitigation ,,of ,,the ,,conflict ,,between ,,freedom ,,and ,,obligation #age ,x4 ,,the ,,acquisition ,,of ,,an ,,ethical ,,technique #ahi ,,index #bjc ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,hercules ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,it would be an impertinence for an amateur in physiological science to assert that the significance of ethical values can be understood only through a study of the mechanics of the human body1 were not the ethical implications of physiology so numerous1 so compelling1 and so plainly apparent4 ,ever since anatomists and physiologists first began to demonstrate that all the vital functions of man were dependent upon his intimate structure2 and more recently that conduct and thought are in the strictest sense of the term functions of man's flesh1 they have been laying the foundations1--even if unconsciously1--of a scrupulously natural science of ethics4 ,the purpose of this book is to attempt the formulation of such a science4 ,there is little need to state that any proposal to deal with ethics in a thoroughly naturalistic manner will be met with considerable resistance4 ,although it has been everlastingly recognized that human conduct is the direct product of human bodies1 especially as is evidenced by our bestowal of rewards and punishments on individually specified persons1 nevertheless1 the opinion still widely prevails that a man and his actions are two such different things that the former cannot be defined in terms of the latter4 ,against this naturalistic or mechanistic view1--that a man is what he does1--several classes of people tenaciously hold contradictory opinions4 ,there are1 for example1 those who consider ethics as the humble handmaid of what is curiously termed 8revealed religion10 and who consequently hold that all the knowledge necessary for the conduct of life has long ago been vouchsafed us by ,infallible ,wisdom4 ,to such persons it is of no importance that human nature has actually altered to such an extent as to make it necessary to find new solutions even for ancient problems2 nor does it seem to occur to them that the homage devoted to the past may often be simply a pleasant way of escape from the intellectual responsibilities of the present4 ,a mechanistic ethics plans to undermine the notion that the ethical truth of one generation is necessarily sufficient for the problems of the generation that succeeds it1 and aims to supersede it with the view that man's progress is dependent1 not upon his ability to escape from his problems1 but rather upon his ability to analyse and solve them4 ,again1 there are those who regard ethics solely as a subject for philosophical discussion on the basis of an ideal never illustrated by any one man1 but only conceived in abstract terms4 8,how should the ideal man behave80 is the sole burden of their discussion4 ,even the mechanist hesitates to condemn this esthetic attitude toward conduct too severely4 ,for it is well known that thinking may involve preparation for action1 and that consequently he who thinks out the best course of conduct in advance may be more likely to act accordingly when a real problem is to be solved4 ,on the other hand1 the human body and brain are so constructed that all fanciful romancing is necessarily tinged with delusion to such an extent that he who conceives an ideal apart from the actual is bound to lose his orientation4 ,and the sequel of this loss is everywhere manifest in purely philosophical discussions about ethics4 ,in the effort to extricate themselves from the verbalism in which they are entangled1 ethical theorists have invariably either rejected the world as evil1 or else they have dug themselves in under a mountain of meaningless words4 ,to all such persons a mechanistic ethics seeks to restore a glimpse of the reality they have sought in vain1 by showing that the highest ideals need not be in any way fictitious4 ,resistance to a naturalistic ethics may also be expected from those biologists and physiologists who regard the human body essentially as a corpse animated by a psyche4 ,these people are known as vitalists1 and their number is very great4 ,the customary gloom of these men is doubtless derived from their attitude toward the human body1 which they know best either in the form of specimens preserved in alcohol1 or microscopic slides of slaughtered tissue4 ,now1 to be sure1 such objects of intense study do not of themselves yield an adequate picture of a living1 thinking man4 ,but these morphologically-minded persons1 instead of pertinaciously remembering what manner of organism they have slain for research1 and instead of keeping ever in mind that all human tissues actually die while performing their normal functions1 deem it somehow necessary to postulate a vital1 that is1 an immortal principle1 which makes the organism go4 ,a more perverse logic does not arise even in the realms of theology4 ,oddly enough1 the conversation of these men is not so happy as their metaphysic might indicate4 8,no1 no10 they will repeat in a plaintive outcry1 8you can never find the secret of life40 ,the sentiment underlying such a remark is not difficult for even a casual student of psychology to detect4 ,moreover1 logicians know that when a man states a problem in terms of a mystery1 and seeks thereby to hinder the search for its solution1 he commits an error which has been called 8the fallacy of initial predication40#a ,obviously1 indeed1 we have already found out fully a thousand of the secrets of living matter1--for instance1 its principal chemical ingredients1 its dependence upon oxygen1 its optimal temperature1 its rate of dying with different vital organs removed1 and the like1--and so when a vitalist speaks of 8the ,secret of ,life10 he simply shows that he is still a worshipper of magic4 ,although the way of intellectual progress lies in another direction1 yet1 since the majority of mankind court mystery as a way of escape from the 8despotism of fact10 the vitalist can be expected to lead a voluble resistance against a mechanistic ethics4 ,nevertheless1 even he can perhaps be induced to recognize that although ,psyche does seem to regulate ,homo1 yet it is always the structure of ,homo that determines what manner of function he shall manifest4 ,and if the mechanist can elicit this admission from the vitalist1 he can at least maintain his chief contention4 ,otherwise1 seeing that the mechanists are on the whole younger men than the vitalists1 nature's own slow processes will have to soften the asperities of this conflict4 ,having thus begun our outline of a mechanistic ethics by stating the chief points of its disagreement with certain traditional ways of thinking1 let us now proceed to establish without interruptions the foundations upon which this science of human conduct is to be built4 ,and first a word as to its antecedents4 ,all modern scientific thinking1 which is essentially a pertinacity of attention1--a dogged following upon a clue sagaciously intuited1--is our heritage from ancient ,greek thought1 and particularly from ,socrates4 ,and it is quite a significant1 though oft-forgotten fact1 that while almost all our scientific inquiry has been directed toward the conquest of physical nature1 ,socrates himself scorned to devote his powers to any but the subjects of ethics and the theory of knowledge4 ,it is1 then1 something like a return to the chief interest of ,greek life to employ the methods of general science in the analysis of the ethical problem4 8,know thyself0 was the well-known motto of ,socrates2 but it has required an infinitude of other knowledge before we could see clearly enough to know ourselves4 ,nevertheless1 we may now say that in thus employing modern science strictly in the interest of ethics1 the homage to ,socrates is no less profound than the implied confidence in the trend of that civilization which originated in his brilliant mind4 ,the antecedents of a naturalistic ethics1 however1 are not all located in one man4 ,with varying emphases1 we find similar tendencies appearing in ,aristotle1 in ,leonardo da ,vinci1 in ,hobbes1 in ,spinoza1 in ,john ,stuart ,mill1 in ,herbert ,spencer1 and in many other wise and kind men4 ,today this same influence is more aggressive and expanding than ever before4 ,lucien ,levy ,brhl1 ,edwin ,holt1 ,john ,dewey1 ,william ,morris ,davis1 ,george ,clarke ,cox1 and ,roy ,wood ,sellars are typical representatives of the movement devoted to making ethics as objective as the science of mechanics4 ,consequently it would seem that the attempt we shall make here to define ethical values in terms of man's biological functions is not a forlorn hope1 either historically unforeseen1 or lacking contemporary sympathizers4 ,what1 then1 is implied by the statement that ethical values are to be defined in terms of man's biological functions8 ,in the first place1 we imply that just as man's body1 by means of brain1 sense organ1 muscle and gland1 makes1 upon stimulation1 all the mind it ever manifests1 so likewise that same body of man1 through the mechanisms just enumerated1 creates ethical notions4 ,that is to say1 the realm of ethics is coincident with the realm of human behavior in so far as that behavior is judged to be good or bad1 right or wrong1 virtuous or vicious4 ,now the body of man performs many and various functions1 some of which are called physical1 some chemical1 some mental1 and some ethical2 and any structure of man's body1 such as an arm or a leg1 can be shown to perform all these four types of function at the same time4 ,such a statement will cause no surprise to those who have followed the trend of psychological and ethical theory in the last decade4 ,and while it is obviously impossible to prove any theory to the negatively suggestible obstructionist1 it is a very hopeful sign that today great numbers of even untutored men are disbelieving in the transcendence of mental and ethical qualities1 and are relocating them among the natural phenomena of the world4 ,hereafter1 then1 we shall also understand ethical values to be achievements of man's mind1 which is a function of his protoplasm1 which is a function of the sun4 ,a second implication of our basic assertion is that since our knowledge of man has1 after a hundred false starts1 just recently become in any way accurate1 so must our views on ethical questions be regarded as still in the infancy of their truth4 ,moreover1 just as scientific inquiry in every other field is subject to revision upon each new discovery of signal importance1 so must ethical science1 during the period of its infancy1 be subject countless times to an equally sweeping revision4 ,in other words1 the scientific attitude toward ethics forestalls any attempt or wish to draw on some phantom bank account to eke out the ethical resources of mankind1 insufficient though such resources may at times appear to be4 ,he who1 like the mechanist1 believes that virtue is a strictly natural phenomenon1 must not carry a-priori standards into his work1 but must believe that an accurate description of human nature will furnish all the necessary data for an applied science of human conduct4 ,to be sure1 since man is a creature who likes and dislikes1 who prefers and rejects1 this very fact precludes an ethics without any mention of ideals of one sort or another4 ,nevertheless1 it is our particular business here not to establish or insist on any set of ideals in advance of an empirical study of human conduct1 for it may well be that what we call our highest ideals are1 in the light of science1 in need of considerable revision4 ,with this by way of introduction1 we shall at once proceed with the work already proposed4 ,and just as a new proprietor of an old business begins by taking inventory1 so shall we at once take stock of the ethical resources of man4 ,our method for the time being will be the method of the statistician4 ,following the arrangement of our data as we find them1 we shall first seek to answer that most interesting and1 indeed1 fundamental question1 namely1 ,why do our ethical judgments always occur in pairs of antonyms8 ,this enquiry will bring us to the very center of the ethical problem4 ,next we shall ask just what our ten principal ethical concepts really mean1 and shall seek to discover their relationships to one another4 ,finally1 we shall endeavor to show how the knowledge thus derived1 when combined with insight into the mechanics of body and mind1 furnishes us with an ethical technique which transcends both in scope and effectiveness all that we have hitherto possessed4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,r4 ,b4 ,perry1 8,present ,philosophical ,tendencies10 p4 #abg4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,a ,,physiological ,,explanation ,,of ,,the ,,antagonism ,,between ,,all ,,such ,,words ,,as 8,,good0 ,,and 8,,bad10 ,,and 8,,right0 ,,and 8,,wrong0 8,a word is the shadow of an act40 ,,democritus4 ,it is a fact of the greatest significance that the words by which we convey our ideas of value always occur in pairs1 one of which is the opposite of the other4 ,in esthetics the beautiful is contrasted with the ugly1 and the charming with the disgusting2 in logic the true clashes with the false1 and in philosophy the real with the unreal2 in matters of public and private economy the cheap is antithetical to the expensive1 and the generous to the miserly2 while in ethics we constantly hear the words good and bad1 right and wrong1 virtuous and vicious employed to denote the opposition and contradiction of human interests and ideals4 ,what is the ultimate reason why we thus employ such pairs of antonyms in our judgments of praise or blame1 our expressions of desire or aversion1 and in our estimations of merit or defect8 ,this modern question1 upon which the founding of a true science of ethics depends1 cannot be answered by any appeal to the speculative metaphysics of bygone generations4 ,we have passed out of that period in which men were content with an explanation based on the ,zoroastrian hypothesis of a world divided between the warring forces of light and darkness1 while our ears are now equally unresponsive to the bi-polar principles of love and hate which ,empedocles propounded4 ,even our recent ,emerson's 8,law of ,compensation10 born though it was of canny1 scientific thinking1 is not marked by the least sign of that finality which the answer we seek should possess4 ,it is1 indeed1 our conviction that the presence of antonyms in human speech is not to be accounted for by the assumption of a theory concerning the world as a whole1 but rather by an examination of some of the baldest facts of our everyday experience4 ,nay more1 it is our declared purpose to show that the metaphysical and theological notions of ,empedocles and ,zoroaster are themselves to be explained by reference to the physics and the physiology of man1--in terms of the structure and functions of the human body4 ,but before we can comprehend the significance of such a thesis1 it is first necessary to understand some of the physiological mechanisms underlying thought and speech4 ,the ,rise of ,mechanistic ,psychology ,ever since ,william ,james employed the phrase 8the stream of thought0 to describe mental phenomena1 the whole trend of psychology has been altered4 ,not only did the wide-spread use of that phrase result in the giving up of many traditional beliefs in regard to things mental1 but it also stimulated the most profitable investigations in psychological science4 ,one of the most ancient of the beliefs which it demolished was the belief in ,ideas as eternal1 external1 and immutable4 ,according to the notion of a stream of consciousness 7itself a variable conception71 ideas are sensory images which show individual variations1 which never are exactly repeated1 and which have meaning only when they refer or lead to some concrete reality4 ,this view1 which finally replaced the ancient ,platonic conception1 is now held by practically all psychologists4 ,moreover1 the influence of ,james' teaching was such as to show that will1 intellect1 feeling1 and the like were not separable parts of a mind 7i4 e41 faculties7 which were capable of acting independently1 but were merely handy words to indicate the various qualities of the stream of thought4 ,the stream flows swiftly1--call that impulsiveness2 it flows again broadly and deeply with many glancing eddies1--call that deliberation2 it flows once more with swift descent and foam1--call that strong feeling4 ,nevertheless1 the stream of thought is one stream1 and mental phenomena one and all specify its labile and fluid consistency4 ,and now let us see to what further developments this striking conception has led4 ,obviously1 the astute1 enquiring person at once asks1 8,what makes this stream of thought8 ,to what is its flowing character due80 ,at first it might seem that one must despair of any satisfactory reply4 ,one feels as did ,william ,harvey1 almost hopeless in his quest after the secret of the circulation of the blood4 ,but just as ,harvey boldly experimented with his eye on the critical features of his problem1 so have a multitude of keen investigators devised test after test to discover the laws of mental phenomena4 ,and while we cannot yet say that 8,science has laid her doomful hand0 upon all of the intricate secrets of mind1 nevertheless1 it is becoming more and more certain that the stream of thought is just as much a bodily function as is the breath-stream and the blood-stream4 ,strangely enough1 this conception is not brand-new4 ,it was ,aristotle who said1 8,if the eye were an organism1 vision would be its soul40 ,similar thinking is revealed in our modern view that mind is a function of the body1 and that it depends upon the body for its existence4 ,it 8is generated by the body as the result of its immediate contacts with the environment1 in much the same way as electricity may be generated by a turbine that has been placed in the midst of a tumbling waterfall40 ,moreover1 the stream-like character of thought1 the play of feeling1 the linger and strain of deliberation and expectation are due to the manner in which the storage battery of the brain releases energy1 and to the way in which the muscles and glands transform it4 ,william ,james wrote in #ahij1 8,all consciousness is motor10 that is1 it is dependent upon the expression mechanisms of the body2 and today we have demonstrated the fundamental rle of the muscles and glands of the body in 8the transformation of the common energies of nature into the special energies of mind40 ,it can be seen at once that such a philosophy of mind furnishes the most striking and far-reaching ethical implications4 ,if what we call our mental life turns out upon close inspection to be dependent upon bodily functions1 it follows that conduct and thought differ only in the degree to which the body is excited to activity 7molar motion74 ,in a word1 conduct is overt 7visible71 while thought is covert 7invisible71 behavior4 ,edwin ,holt1 in the 8,freudian ,wish10 speaks of thought 7#8wish' as he terms it there7 as 8a course of action which the living body executes or is prepared to execute with regard to some object or some fact of the environment40 7pp4 #ef-g47 ,john ,dewey voices a similar tendency in his 8,human ,nature and ,conduct0 when he says that bodily habits do our thinking4 7,italics mine47 8,the habit of walking is expressed in what a man sees when he keeps still1 even in dreams40 7p4 #cg47 ,thus the old idols are tumbled to the ground4 ,over the doorway of the ,germanic ,museum at ,harvard is the inscription3 8,es ist der ,geist der sich den ,koerper baut40 ,complete reversal of such an animistic and subjectivistic sentiment is proposed by ,dewey when he declares that a man stands erect1 not because he wills to1 but because he can4 ,his willing is the result1 and not the cause1 of the muscular contractions which elevate the chest and keep it convex4 ,the old dualism of mind and body1 and the older superstition that mind rules matter1 have both received their death-blows4 ,in their place a complete mechanistic philosophy is now securely enthroned4 ,it would thus seem likely that a natural history of virtue will not long hence be written4 ,of all the vexed questions which psychologists have had to answer1 perhaps none is more difficult than the question as to the place of language in the mental economy4 ,what is language for8 ,how did it originate8 ,what is its relation to thinking8 ,to overt activity8 ,it is at once apparent that the answers to these questions are highly important to ethics1 since the words good and bad1 right and wrong1 and the like1 play such a prominent rle in our judgments upon our fellow-men4 ,neither does it seem possible to understand why we employ these pairs of antonyms until we know what the single terms of the pairs signify4 ,and while it will require several of the following chapters to give a satisfactory answer to some of the above questions1 it is readily agreed that our judgments of value are employed principally for two purposes3--7#a7 to sort out some of the objects of the environment1 e4 g41 by calling these good and those bad1 etc41 and 7#b7 to indicate to other persons what kind of behavior is to be expected of us with regard to the objects thus designated4 ,that is our common experience4 ,if a man calls a shop a good shop1 his future behavior toward it can be predicted4 ,if he calls his neighbor vicious he can be expected not to leave his wheelbarrow or his lawn-mower out at night4 ,moreover1 if we know what sort of things a man calls bad1 virtuous1 or right1 his whole social philosophy can be plotted from the data provided by these particular judgments4 ,to state it briefly1 speech becomes an instrument for the transmission of meanings4 ,before we proceed further1 let us see just what this involves in terms of bodily mechanisms4 ,a ,mechanistic ,interpretation of the ,meaning of ,words ,to the superficial observer of a man who declares that something is cheap1 or beautiful1 or good1 the sight of his lips moving and the sound of the words as they are produced might appear to be the whole phenomenon4 ,nevertheless1 if anyone were to look carefully behind the scenes of this performance1 one would find a much more elaborate play being enacted than is apparent on the surface4 ,just as we know now from the findings of the physiologist that when the eye sees1 far more structures than the retina are affected1 and just as we are now certain that when the ear hears1 many more organs than the ear-drum and cochlea take part in the response to the stimulus1 so we are convinced that when the words we speak have a meaning1 a neuro-muscular drama of a very elaborate character is being silently performed within our skin4 ,novelists and story-tellers of all ages seem to have intuited this truth in their portrayal of human emotions4 ,they speak of 8pent-up anger10 of 8stifled sorrow10 and they describe often in minute detail the course of a passion that in seeking to get adequate expression causes the face to flush1 the hand to clench1 or the body as a whole to be violently agitated4 ,the ,iliad and the ,odyssey abound in descriptions of this sort1 and every novelist since the days of ,homer has felt the need of such portrayals in order to make his characters understood4 ,indeed1 the cultivation of this technique is the essence of dramatic art4 ,but mark1 that such emotions are aroused not only when a person is confronted by the physical facts of battle1 murder1 or sudden death1 for example1 but also by the bare mention of the words or phrases which appropriately describe such catastrophes4 ,the more carefully such a person is observed1 the plainer will it become that the agitation which his body is covertly manifesting would1 if it were unhindered in its free expression1 result in an elaborate pantomine appropriate to the events described by the story-teller4 ,in other words1 the emotions which a thrilling narrative arouses are substitutes for the overt activity which the auditor might be expected to manifest were he actually a participant in the scene described4 ,when1 then1 we say that a dramatic situation moves us1 the description is absolutely accurate4 ,indeed1 from the most credible scientific evidence we possess1 the emotions which are thus aroused are characterized by all the organic stresses and strains which are present in the most violent overt activity of which we are capable4 ,we inwardly writhe and tussle1 we half-start one kind of positive behavior1 only to find it checked by the initiation of its opposite1--in a word1 we display on a small scale all the conduct appropriate to the situation4 ,and this elaborate arousal to activity is1 we undertake to say1 precisely what gives every dramatic scene or narrative its meaning4 ,dr4 ,george ,w4 ,crile has coined the appropriate phrase 8action-pattern0 to describe the mechanism involved in the cases just cited4 ,crile's 8action-pattern0 is1 indeed1 practically identical with ,holt's 8specific response10 and with ,titchener's 8motor set10 of which phrases the latter two are today familiar to most students of psychology4 ,briefly1 this action-pattern is simply a more or less fixed way in which some part of the body produces a movement4 ,it depends principally upon the physical structure of the part1 as well as upon its muscle and nerve supply1 and secondly upon the habits of movement which external stimuli have repeatedly produced in it4 ,thus every healthy leg has acquired the action-patterns of walking and running1 and some legs have in addition the patterns of kicking1 or of 8stepping on the gas0 in open level country4 ,what we call the most skilful parts of the body are those which have the greatest number of action-patterns4 ,the hands1 lips1 eyes1 and tongue could on this point be properly called the reservoirs of intelligence4 ,certainly in the evolution of man they have played the strategical part4 ,moreover1 it is supposedly these action-patterns1 these habits of movement1 which are aroused whenever we are said to remember or imagine1 to cogitate or ponder2 and this is1 ,i take it1 what ,dewey implies when he says that bodily habits do our thinking4 ,i have elsewhere shown#b how one action-pattern of the human hand performs yeoman service in this respect1 and it would not be difficult to demonstrate that every action-pattern is capable of generating a multitude of thoughts4 ,when1 then1 we say that a novelist or poet has portrayed a moving1 tragic scene1 we shall now understand that he has re-aroused in us bodily habits which we started to acquire when we first became acquainted with grief4 ,while we do not claim that all cases of meaning involve such wide-spread and imperative bodily disturbances as those which occur in connection with tragic or erotic situations1 it is nevertheless a valid inference that words which stimulate us to no activity whatsoever mean nothing to us4 ,certain it is1 at least1 that the more meaningful or significant any word is1 the more does it stir up latent tendencies to action throughout our whole organism4 ,political and religious slogans are telling examples of this4 8,great is ,diana of the ,ephesians60 8,remember the ,maine60 and 8,for ,god1 for ,country1 and for ,yale60 have been for some persons phrases of the maximal philosophic content4 ,moreover1 the same word may arouse different meanings 7or action-patterns7 in different people1 depending not only on how the word is spoken1 but also on the mood of the auditor4 ,it is a matter of common observation that the shout of 8,fire60 calls forth by no means the same responses from an insured landlord as it evokes from an uninsured tenant1 while the mention of water will stimulate one sort of reflex action in a thirsty man1 and quite another sort in a man who has just been rescued from drowning4 ,it is plain1 then1 that if physiological science has achieved the least light upon the problems of psychology1 the meaning which any word or phrase possesses is not something that the sound of the word or its written symbol is endowed with1 or something that filters through from any ,platonic realm of ideas1 but the meaning of any word is given to it by the person who speaks or hears it4 ,moreover1 this endowment of meaning is implicit in the arousal of action tendencies at the time when the word is spoken or heard4 ,in the example recently cited1 the word 8fire0 had a different meaning for the insured landlord from what it had for the uninsured tenant because the habits of precaution which the former had acquired established a different motor attitude toward fire than did the procrastination of the latter4 ,consequently1 the shouting and the conflagration were stimuli in the presence of which the landlord could be calm1 while the tenant could not4 ,the application of this principle of the dependence of meaning upon action-patterns extends1 however1 to other situations than those in which emotional riots are observable4 ,indeed1 we undertake to say that even such plain1 concrete words as basket1 horse1 and river have a meaning because they arouse us to motor activities of one sort or another4 ,it may well be1 of course1 that we start to think of a basket in terms of its color1 or shape1 or its cost2 and of a horse in like terms2 while we think of a river only in connection with its height during seasons of drought or flood3 but eventually the basket will1 by implying receptacle1 lead in our imagination to the acts of filling and emptying2 while the horse will be finally pulling our loads or carrying our weight on his back2 and the river will be either waded or swum by us1 or become related to our necessities or pastimes 7our habits7 in some other manner4 ,and when we thus develop a specific action-pattern toward such an object1 we are said to know what it means4 ,it has long been a maxim in education that not until we know how to use and control our environment1 do we become fully intelligent towards it4 ,the theory and the fact of action-patterns gives unusual support to this particularly profitable maxim4 ,spinoza laid down the principle that the will and the intellect are one and the same1 and this principle too has complete verification from mechanistic psychology4 ,thought is dependent upon bodily activity1 and it does not matter for our present purpose whether that activity be overt or subtly concealed4 ,the question now arises3 ,does the meaning of abstract terms1 of the terms we use in our judgments of value1 consist in the same kind of motor tendencies as those which are aroused by concrete terms8 ,from the following considerations ,i believe we can say that it does4 ,to begin with1 abstract terms are one and all the result of the process of abstraction4 ,this process consists in our picking out some common feature or quality from a great variety of objects1 and giving it a name in order to fix it in our memory4 ,for example1 fire1 the inside of ripe watermelon1 and the outside of ripe cherries may all be called red4 ,the concept1 or abstract term1 8red0 can thereafter be used on occasion as a gestural sign for all these various objects when their color is being signified4 ,moreover1 the process of abstracting these common qualities is itself a motor process4 ,it is1 physiologically speaking1 the same sort of activity as collecting postage stamps or beetles' wings4 ,indeed1 the simplest perception of any concrete object1 any red object1 for example1 involves motor activity of a highly elaborate character4 ,when we look at such an object1 not only is the retina of the eye stimulated1 but various muscles and glands are simultaneously activated to an elaborate transformation of energy4 ,likewise1 when we hear1 taste1 smell1 or have any other perception1 other characteristic transformations of energy are taking place through the arousal of action-patterns4 ,now we have just stated that abstract terms are derived from the multifarious perception of concrete objects4 ,in what1 then1 does the meaning of abstract terms consist8 ,it consists in their function of recalling some of the particular experiences from which they were derived4 ,such an abstract word as 8red0 has1 then1 a meaning for us simply because it arouses in any of its phases that particular action-pattern which all sorts of red things have stimulated in us4 ,this same principle may now be applied to show how even the meaning which attaches to the words we employ to convey judgments of value may be explained in physiological terms4 ,for the highly abstract character which the words cheap1 beautiful1 and good seem at times to possess is simply due to the fact that at the mention of any such word we are simultaneously stimulated to so great a variety of actions that we are unable to follow any one of them through to its conclusion4 ,when such a condition persists1 the meaning is said to be vague4 ,it is1 of course1 not to be forgotten that every time we use a word1 whether we read it1 speak it1 or hear it1 the meaning it arouses is traceable to the fact that firm bonds have been established between the eye1 ear1 and throat mechanisms on the one hand1 and related parts of the body which are involved on the other4 ,this union of the reading-reflexes with the somatic-reflexes is provided for by a very simple mechanism called the conditioned reflex4 ,by such a device1 any two reflexes which have been aroused together frequently enough by external stimuli will ever thereafter tend to arouse each other4 ,that is why the word 8fire0 which we all were taught to use to indicate a certain kind of object1 will1 even if spoken in a wilderness of snow1 make us feel some of the effects which flame once produced upon us4 ,contrariwise1 the blindfolded man will1 by no other cue than the touch of his fingers1 name such objects as carpet1 leather1 sandpaper1 and nails4 ,and from what we have already said about the source of the meaning of abstract terms being traceable to concrete experiences1 we may now say that such words as cheap1 beautiful1 and good1 one and all owe their significance to the fact that they too exhibit the law of the conditioned reflex both in their origin and in their maturity4 ,how the 8,all-or-none0 ,principle ,helps to ,disclose an ,amazing ,secret ,it being thus apparent that words possess meaning because they arouse motor tendencies in us1 let us now see what justification there is for the assertion previously made that these motor tendencies need not be at all visible as overt actions in order to perform their epistemological function4 ,this justification is found in the all-or-none principle of nervous and muscular activity1--a principle having the most far-reaching consequences for both psychology and ethics4 ,we are all familiar with the fact that less work is involved in lifting the arm leisurely to a horizontal position than in moving it through the same radius with a heavy weight held in the hand4 ,however1 we are not all familiar with the fact that in the case of the leisurely movement only a few of the myriad nerve and muscle fibers of the arm are being innervated1 the rest being completely passive1 while in the case of lifting the heavy weight1 the proportion of fully active and inertly passive fibers is just the opposite4 ,but this is exactly the case4 ,according to the all-or-none principle discovered by ,lucas and ,adrian1#c whenever a single nerve fiber functions at all1 it acts in its maximum capacity4 ,never is such a fiber partially activated2 in its all-or-none functioning it is as uncompromising as gravity4 ,consequently1 even though the arm may feel uniformly flabby when it is indolently moved about1 some few of its nerve and muscle fibers are working to their limit4 ,this being the case1 it is readily apparent that the various qualities of muscular movement1--languid1 intentional1 unintentional1 or deliberate1--have one and all a strictly quantitative basis4 ,if a man's smile spreads out into a grin1 this change in the quality of his countenance is caused by the simple addition of fully functioning neuro-muscular units under the skin of his face4 ,if the grin dwindles to the smile1 and that again vanishes into a look only faintly reminiscent of pleasure1 the opposite process of subtraction is then taking place4 ,consider now the further implications of this law of ,lucas and ,adrian4 ,for the logical inference is that when we merely think of lifting our arm1 but do not lift it visibly1 an essential part of the arm-lifting mechanism has been nevertheless specifically stimulated to activity2 it is only because not enough muscle fibers have been innervated to overcome the inertia of the limb that the arm does not rise4 ,that is1 indeed1 our common experience4 ,when we lie abed on a cold winter morning and speculate on the question of getting up1 our imagination of the heroic deed is perfectly of a piece with the real business of shivering on the drafty floor4 ,indeed1 according to the all-or-none principle1 since even the slightest neuro-muscular activity is positive1 the terms 8overt0 or 8covert0 as applied to action refer merely to what an observer can or cannot readily perceive4 ,this principle can be justly applied to the problem of the meaning of words4 ,the implication is sound that even though the action-patterns which are aroused by words are unfelt by us or invisible to an onlooker1 these motor tendencies are just as truly positive physiological events1 so far as they go1 as are the most violent efforts we openly manifest4 ,for the pattern of action is the same2 the only difference is in the number of nerve and muscle fibers involved4 ,it was a motto of ,jesus that 8,as a man thinketh in his heart1 so is he40 ,although the particular phrase1 8in his heart10 is now regarded as too wild a hyperbole to be justified by the facts1 yet the all-or-none principle furnishes an unsuspected substantiation of the essential truth of this motto with respect to certain individuals4 ,we have long known that thinking did somehow lead to action1--that both the rogue and the philanthropist1 the slanderer and the coquette often schemed and planned secretly for years without giving any outward hint of what their future behavior was to be4 ,history is full of the trouble caused for those who had 8no art to read the mind's construction in the face0 of him who could 8smile and smile and be a villain40 ,and now the secret is out why for so many centuries it was believed that thought produced action and mind ruled matter4 ,thought is action1 but action of so elusive a character as to be totally beyond the unaided eye to detect2 and thought 8leads0 to action for the same reason that a spark can produce a conflagration and a hole in a dyke produce a flood4 ,in all three cases the greater effect is due to the magnification of the exciting cause4 ,the ancients held that mind ruled the body for the reason that1 being ignorant of the fact of covert muscular responses1 they assumed an incorporeal cause for a series of events whose end-term alone they were able to discern as embodied in the movements of matter4 ,it is thus finally apparent how by means of the law of the conditioned reflex and the all-or-none principle1 both concrete and abstract terms serve not only as gestural signs1 but also serve to imply and predict human activities4 ,we have shown that every word which has a meaning ipso facto implies action4 ,it matters not whether that action be sudden or violent1 or merely one that is carried out on 8low gear10 so to speak1 by the neuro-muscular mechanisms of the body4 ,neither does it matter whether that action be precise or groping1 specific or diffuse2 if the word has a meaning it will be accompanied by an action-tendency1 and that tendency will be added to the kinetic potentialities1--the character1--of the individual4 ,for if it is the case that by the law of the conditioned reflex1 words get meaning1 it is equally to be asserted that by virtue of the all-or-none principle1 they keep it4 ,moreover1 ,holt to the contrary notwithstanding1 it is such demonstrable physiological principles as these1 and not the mysterious ,freudian categories1 which are the keys whereby the secrets of mind will be unlocked4 ,having thus dealt with the problem of how the neuro-muscular mechanisms of the body generate and maintain the meanings of words1 let us now return to the original question of this chapter1 namely1 ,what is the ultimate reason why we employ such pairs of antonyms as 8good0 and 8bad0 in our judgments of praise or blame1 our expressions of desire or aversion1 and in our estimations of merit or defect8 ,our answer is that the felt opposition and contradiction of antonyms is due to the conflict of motor tendencies1 and in support of this theory we cite a well-recognized physiological principle1--the law of reciprocal innervation4 ,the ,physiological ,explanation of the ,opposition of ,antonyms ,every freely moving part of the body1 such as the leg1 the arm1 and the head1 is equipped principally with two sets of muscles1 called1 from their functions1 the flexors and the extensors4 ,the flexors are those muscles which for example1 upon contracting1 draw the legs and the arms toward the body and fold them close to it1 and which lower the head upon the chest2 while the extensors stretch out the arms and legs1 open wide the hands1 and raise the head to an erect posture4 ,other parts of the body are similarly equipped for producing motions of an opposite character in the skeletal system4#d ,the eyeballs are lowered by the use of a different muscle than that by which they are elevated2 the muscle which depresses the wings of the nose is a direct antagonist of the other muscles which control the movements of this organ1 and so on throughout the whole of our movable bodily structures4 ,moreover1 when one such pair of muscles is contracted1 the opposed member is normally relaxed1 and vice versa2 or1 as the physiologist would say1 the two muscles are reciprocally innervated4#e ,however1 it must not be understood that this law refers only to the visible contractions of the muscles which produce the overt behavior of a man1 for it equally explains the case where a very small number of nerve and muscle fibers are activated4 ,that is to say1 the law of all-or-none and the law of reciprocal innervation can both operate in the face or the hand at the same time4 ,indeed1 we must not neglect to consider that all of the myriad fibers of our largest muscles are never simultaneously contracted2 rather is it the rule that these fibers contract in relays1#f thereby automatically saving us from the fatigue and exhaustion which would otherwise ensue4 ,moreover1 the more intelligent and skilful we become1 or1 as we sometimes say1 the more our head saves our heels1 the fewer muscle fibers are required to generate and maintain any specific action-tendency4 ,consequently1 then1 the law of reciprocal innervation can be exhibited in the antagonism of extremely small muscular units1 such as we have postulated to be involved in certain cases of meaning provided they be anatomically situated in the correct position for producing antagonistic strains4 ,now the experimental demonstration of the law of dynamogenesis at the hands of ,richet1 ,charcot1 etc41 revealed that just such slight movements of an opposed character are produced when we merely 8think0 of up and down1 right and left1 in and out1 and the like4 ,in every case of this sort1 some part of the movable1 skeletal system performs overtly or covertly the appropriate movement1 thereby giving meaning to the word4 ,we may therefore1 unless we read all signs incorrectly1 safely affirm that whatever be the action-pattern which any abstract term arouses in us1 the antonym of that term1 if indeed it be its logical and physiological antonym1 arouses action-patterns of an opposite character4 ,our physiological explanation of the meaning of words and the contradiction of antonyms is now complete4 ,for if1 as we have previously shown1 even abstract terms acquire and keep their meaning by virtue of the reflex tendencies which they arouse1 it is likewise apparent that the basis of logical opposition and contradiction is to be found by an examination of the baldest facts of the physics and physiology of the human body4 ,in brief1 then1 antonyms are those words whose utterance stimulates us so to react as to illustrate the law of reciprocal innervation4 ,and this1 moreover1 is the only reason why cheap is the opposite of expensive1 true the contradictory of false1 and good the antithesis of bad4 ,two words more1 however1 remain to be said4 ,the first of these is1 that the number of pairs of antonyms we have in our vocabulary signifies how many different pairs of antagonistic motor tendencies or action-patterns we could1 were we fully aroused1 overtly manifest4 ,since thought is either a rehearsal for1 or a rumination upon1 action1 it is essentially a process which employs the same structures of the body as those which are activated in our buying and selling1 our giving and taking1 our toil and our play4 ,the second word is1 that if it be due strictly to our muscular architecture that antonyms occur in human speech1 we can now safely affirm that any philosophy or religion which construes the universe as divided between the warring forces of light and darkness1 or as everywhere illustrating the bi-polar principles of love and hate1 is likewise based upon the law of the reciprocal innervation of antagonistic muscles4 ,such philosophies are1 indeed1 profound1 since they attempt to inscribe on the firmament the drama of man's limitations4 ,with this by way of introduction1 we are now prepared to examine the various terms by which we are wont to convey our ideas of ethical value1 in order to see just what the words 8good10 8bad10 8right10 8wrong10 and the like really mean4 ,and while the difficulties of such a task are admittedly great1 yet the presumption is entirely in favor of the methods of mechanistic psychology to give a strictly scientific interpretation to the subject matter of ethics4 ,,footnotes3 #b 8,the ,intellectual ,significance of the ,grasping ,reflex10 ,jour4 of ,phil41 ,vol4 ,,xviii1 ,no4 #bc1 pp4 #fag-fbh4 #c ,see 8,journal of ,physiology0 7#aiji71 #ch1 #aac-acc2 ibid4 7#aiad71 #dg1 #dfj-dgd2 also ,bayliss1 ,w4 ,m41 8,principles of ,general ,physiology10 #chc-d2 ,starling1 ,e4 ,h41 8,principles of ,human ,physiology10 #bje-f4 #d ,mark carefully1 that according to this1 so-called 8voluntary0 movement 7or will7 is simply movement produced by one member of any pair of antagonistic muscles4 ,this physical equipment is of paramount importance to the function of willing4 ,note also1 that 8free will0 always did mean the choice of two alternatives6 #e ,see ,bayliss1 op4 cit41 pp4 #did-h2 ,starling1 op4 cit41 pp4 #cce-f4 #f ,this is especially observable in all free-hand or free-arm movements1 as1 for example1 when one tries to throw missiles in quick succession at a target4 ,in spite of one's own verbal suggestions1 both speed and accuracy vary with every shot4 ,this peculiar property of muscle should henceforth factor into our definitions of chance and luck4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,biological ,,signification ,,of ,,the ,,word 8,,good0 8444 ,the majority attend to words rather than to things2 and thus very frequently assent to terms without attaching to them any meaning1 either because they think they once understood them1 or imagine they received them from others by whom they were correctly understood4444 ,wherefore1 if we would philosophize in earnest1 and give ourselves to the search after all truths we are capable of knowing1 we must1 in the first place1 lay aside our prejudices2 in other words1 we must take care scrupulously to withhold our assent from the opinions we have formerly admitted1 until upon new examination we discover that they are true40 ,,descartes1 8,the ,principles of ,philosophy10 ,,lxxiv1 ,,lxxv4 ,what do we mean by the word 8good08 ,that is to say1 how shall we describe the action-pattern which the stimulus of this word arouses in us8 ,what does it mean when we use it1 and what does it mean to us when others employ it in their speech8 ,before we can answer these questions1 it is first essential to scan the list of things to which this word is applied1 for only by so doing can we identify the term good with some specific function of the human organism4#g ,although such a task is a difficult one1 the difficulty does not appear to be insurmountable4 ,in spite of the fact that nearly eighty significations are possessed by this word1 they will1 nevertheless1 if pondered long enough1 reveal some common core of meaning4 ,and if we now bear in mind that every such synonym implies a motor mechanism that is developing a specific attitude toward the environment1 we shall hope to find a true solution to the problem of the meaning of the concept 8good04 ,the term good is used as an adjective1 noun1 and adverb1 and occasionally 7,ex4 #ae7 as a verb2 in addition1 it has sometimes an idiomatic significance1 in which case its exact status as a part of speech is doubtful4 ,these differences1 however1 need not concern us here4 ,good has originally an adjectival signification1 and by derivation implies fitting or suitable4 ,this is highly important1 for since fitting and suitable exclusively describe things which help us realize our purposes1 we may consider the relationship between good and human behavior to be inseparable4 ,the type of action-pattern implied by this word may also be faintly foreseen4 ,we have now the canvas stretched on which our picture of good may be delineated4 ,let us proceed to sketch in the first faint lines of the picture4 ,in the ,new ,oxford ,dictionary it is stated that good is the 8most general adjective of commendation1 implying the existence in a high1 or at least satisfactory degree of characteristic qualities1 which are either admirable in themselves sic6 or useful for some purpose40 ,this definition succeeds far better in combining the theory of the ,epicureans 7good is what you like71 of the ,platonists 7the good is the typical71 and of the ,benthamites 7the good is the useful71 than it succeeds in throwing a clear light upon the question we are here attempting to answer1 namely1 what sort of responses does the human organism make toward those objects and persons which it calls 8good08 ,from ,palmer's definition of good as 8good for0 78,the ,nature of ,goodness10 p4 #ac71 we are able to derive even less assistance1 especially since it avoids the main issue in containing the very word to be defined4 ,let us now attack this problem by a new method4 ,a survey of all the things which this word good indicates reveals not only that it denotes 7or simply points out7 a host of distinguishable objects and properties1 but that it also connotes 7or implies7 an exceedingly numerous array of human activities4 ,and while the sum total of all these denotations and connotations appears at first to be an unwieldy mass1 it can1 ,i think1 be suitably dealt with under the following five classes3-- ,a4 ,that which is useful1 fit1 serviceable1 and the like1 for any purpose whatsoever4 ,with such primitive use of the term1 the purpose involved is neither praised nor blamed4 ,the burglar's jimmy is as 8good0 for his purpose as is an overcoat to keep out the cold4 ,some ethical writers refer to this as immediate1 as opposed to remote or mediate good1 or as non-moral as opposed to moral good4 ,it is 8good for10 without any limitations as to what the 8for0 implies4 ,william ,james might have called it 8decerebrate good40 ,b4 ,that which is useful1 fit1 or serviceable in the sense of being continuously or continually so4 ,an extended time being here introduced1 good now becomes almost synonymous with dependable4 ,our concept here may refer to anything that sustains life1 or brings peace and contentment in society1 and hence at one moment it emphasizes intelligence and skill1 while at another it points directly to benevolent1 spiritual1 and esthetic agencies4 ,moreover1 it not only denotes property 7,ex4 #bh1 8goods071 but also frequently connotes an emotional enthusiasm in the possessor of it4 ,c4 ,that which fulfils expectation4 ,this signification is sometimes equivalent to 8normal0 or 8typical10 which terms are also frequently included in the connotation of 8useful0 and 8dependable40 ,but here a distinctly new factor enters into the use of this concept1 namely1 the tone of voice by which the word 8good0 is uttered1 for all colors and shades of emotion and sentiment may be registered by this means4 ,hence the concept 8good0 may be used to imply that which just passably fulfils expectation1 or-- ,d4 ,it may be used to indicate that expectation has been greatly and even suddenly exceeded1 in which case it sometimes denotes the presence of something which is rated far above the normal1 the immediately useful1 or the mildly beneficent 7thereby identifying itself with some of the significations exhibited in ,class ,b71 or-- ,e4 ,it may be merely expletive4 ,here the use of the term 8good0 rapidly becomes exotic4 ,it signifies only surprise1 shock1 or spasm4 8,good0 as an expletive also becomes closely allied with 8good0 as an adverb1 in which case its significance as a term by which to express a judgment of value rapidly evaporates4 ,the ,results of an ,experiment to ,determine ,which of ,these ,five ,classes ,are ,implied by the ,seventy-,nine ,significations of the ,word 8,good0 ,the choice of these five classes was the result of a test carried out over a period of several years4 ,each one of the seventy-nine significations was printed on a separate slip of paper1 and then1 first choosing one of them at random1 and employing it as a tentative standard1 the points of similarity and difference between it and the remaining significations were determined and recorded4 ,from this procedure there gradually arose1 by differentiation and condensation1 the five classes we have just indicated1 which1 as may be observed1 are defined so as to include as many and to exclude as few of the uses of 8good0 as possible4 ,had our classes been defined with too great emphasis upon the meaning of any single term of our array1 the whole idea of a classification would have had to be abandoned4 ,having thus determined upon these five classes as representative and significant1 one hundred college students were asked to ponder these classes in connection with the subjoined array of the common uses of the word 8good10 to choose one of the classes as the one most appropriate in each case1 and then to choose as many other of these classes as seemed to be involved1 and to rank them in order of their importance4 ,for example1 they were shown the first two terms of the array1--7#a7 8,good food2 fit to eat1 untainted10 and 7#b7 8,good food2 nutritious1 palatable10 and were asked whether they belonged in ,class ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 or ,e4 ,it was at once seen that membership in more than one class was implied in both cases1 but it was also admitted that nutritious and palatable food 7,no4 #b7 was a more dependable 8good0 than was the food specified by example ,no4 #a4 ,first choices were consequently indicated on this basis4 ,after that1 second1 third1 and succeeding choices were made for ,nos4 #a and #b2 following which1 the remainder of the array was treated in the same manner4 ,the average of the results derived from this experiment indicates that ,class ,b 7dependable 8good07 has a majority of votes1 it being given first place #di times1 and a subsidiary place #ge times4 ,class ,c was given first place #bj times1 and a secondary ,illustration3 ,,chart ,showing the distribution of the #gi significations of the word 8,good40 7,explanation in text47 ,key ,first ,choice4 ,second ,choice4 ,third ,choice4 ,fourth ,choice4 ,not ,chosen4 ,classes ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e place #fe times4 ,class ,a was the first to be implicated in #e uses of the word 8good10 and was mentioned as a later choice #bf other times4 ,class ,d was voted to be the one most obviously implied only #b times1 but was mentioned in an associative relationship #ei times1 while ,class ,e1 which received only one vote1 got that for first place4 ,the importance of ,class ,b is thus clearly apparent4 ,however1 an almost equally significant fact seems to be that there were only five cases in which one class alone was implicated1 whereas two classes were used in #ah cases1 three classes were used in #cd cases1 and four classes were simultaneously implicated by #bj terms of this array4 ,the appended chart renders this distribution and overlapping more obvious4 ,from all this1 moreover1 we seem to be warranted in inferring that1 with all the unlikeness there is between these various synonyms for 8good0 when taken one at a time1 when taken all together 7sub specie aeternitatis1 as ,spinoza would say7 there is more of a common core of meaning in them than one might navely expect4 ,consequently1 we may safely presume that if we can satisfactorily define any one of the preceding five classes of 8good0 in physiological terms1 we shall at the same time have hinted the definitions of all the remaining classes4 ,in this connection one important thing must be borne in mind4 ,which is1 that in attempting to reach our final definition of 8good0 we need only to abstract the common characteristic1--in mathematical parlance1--the greatest common divisor of all the particular uses for which this word is employed4 ,consequently the definition we are searching for cannot be expected to have any bias toward private or provincial conceptions of the term 8good40 ,it must be catholic and unpartisan4 ,the ,action-,patterns ,implied by the ,use of the ,word 8,good0 ,we are now prepared to answer the question propounded at the opening of this chapter3 8,what do we mean by the word #8good'8 ,that is to say1 how shall we describe the action-pattern which the stimulus of this word arouses in us80 ,for if we can find out 8what the organism is doing0 when its vocal organs are uttering this concept1 we shall be able to discover what the word 8good0 means4 ,it does not appear especially difficult to find what we are now seeking4 ,we have just given the total array of uses to which this word is put1 and we have also reduced that array to some measure of coherence by means of our five classes4 ,is it not1 indeed1 a matter of the commonest observation just what conduct human beings manifest when they use the term 8good0 and signify thereby what is included in ,class ,a8 ,it will be recalled that this class includes 8that which is useful1 fit1 serviceable1 and the like1 for any purpose whatsoever40 ,keeping our eye upon the specific behavior patterns implied by this class of 8good10 we may now venture the following mechanistic interpretation3 ,when a man is ready to perform any action1 he calls anything ,,good which assists or furthers that particular action-tendency4 ,or1 the same thing may be conveyed in the following words3 ,any stimulus that evokes a response we are ready to make we are wont to call good4 ,any picture of the human race that one may draw furnishes evidence of the cogency of this definition4 ,the child calls candy 8good10 not because he knows that sugar is muscle food1 but simply because he craves it1 and sucks it in his mouth with avidity4 ,this mode of speech he got long ago from his parents4 ,his wanting the candy makes it 8good0 to him when he gets it1 because the candy is a stimulus that evokes a response he was ready to make4 ,the boy of ten wants a top that will spin like those which the other boys have1 and he calls his a 8good0 top1 when it satisfies the action-pattern which he has been developing4 ,the rough youth of seventeen gives his bullying chum a 8good0 punch in the eye1 by which he again means that the action-tendency he was covertly developing toward him has been provided a chance to expand into a full excitation4 ,the college man of twenty-two calls a dance tune a 8good0 one1 when1 by its rhythmic effects it induces him to caper and relax1 and satisfy his semi-sexual tendencies in public4 ,and the old man of sixty-five often speaks of his wife as a 8good0 woman1 because she has always had his dinner ready for him piping hot when1 upon coming home1 his whole alimentary system was keyed up to perform elaborate acts of chewing and swallowing4 ,these and countless other cases1 taken from every hour of the day and night1 fully support the mechanistic interpretation which we have just given4 ,but mark1 that no question is in place here as to whether all such persons ought to use the word 8good0 in such connections4 ,the fact that they do use it is1 for the present1 the only essential item to be considered in an empirical science of human conduct4 ,just as when we enquired into the basic nature of antonyms1 we carried our investigation a little below the surface of the organism1 so may we here carry on a similar study to advantage4 ,it is obvious that the readiness with which we respond to the objects called 8good0 is necessarily dependent upon the integrity of certain internal mechanisms1 which1 though never observed in their uninterrupted working1 have nevertheless been deduced from a multitude of scientific investigations4 ,moreover1 it has been discovered that every response we make is chiefly a function of the muscular and nervous systems of the body4 ,how1 indeed1 would a child reach out for candy unless his arm were an extensible hinge1 and how could it be extended unless something1 namely1 his triceps muscle1 pulled on the radial bone1 and how also could the muscle contract1 unless a motor nerve from the spinal cord were stimulated to perform this specific activity8 ,we do not1 of course1 specify that the definition of 8good0 be restricted to imply only this particular set of facts1 but on the other hand we stipulate that this significant mechanism be not lost sight of by him who seeks without prejudice to understand how ethical concepts originate4 ,even more specific information than this is now available4 ,any muscle that is ready to contract 7or1 as the vitalist would say1 to do ,psyche's bidding in attaining ,homo's good7 is said to be in a condition of tonus or elastic tension4 ,so far1 then1 as the muscles are concerned1 the 8good0 of ,class ,a implies a normal muscular tonus1 which can1 under the proper conditions1 be developed into a full contraction4 ,physicians know that in both of the abnormal conditions of tetanus and contractured tonus1 the organism cannot obtain some of the things which are essential for its adaptation of the world about it4 ,the possession of a normal muscular tonus is1 then1 an ethical desideratum of no mean importance4 ,every such muscular contraction as we have just described is brought about by means of a nervous impulse1 originating at a receptor organ1 either external or internal1 which impulse proceeds toward a muscle or a group of muscles4 ,however1 this impulse 7which in a sense may be thought of as a desire on its way to fulfilment71 is often subject to a rather eventful history of interruptions before it finally produces muscular action4 ,between the individual nervous strands along the pathway of its motion the impulse may encounter blockades1 unless electrically charged particles 7called ions7 are present at the various gaps in considerable numbers4 ,here again1 then1 we reach a further refinement in our understanding of what one class of 8good0 means4 ,the 8permeability of the synapses0 7to use a phrase descriptive of the above situation71 thus becomes a large determinant in human action4 ,and if one of the classes of our concept is definable in terms of actions that are facilitated1 the light which neurology throws upon ethics is not to be despised4 ,our next adventure is the search for the various implications of the term 8good0 as employed with respect to ,class ,b4 ,this class1 as previously stated1 involves the general notion of dependability4 ,things of this class are nominally useful1 fit1 or serviceable1 not merely with reference to the desire of the moment1 but also and more particularly they are useful for the future also4 ,nevertheless1 this phrase1 8useful for the future10 must be taken to mean 8imagined as continuously or continually useful10 for although we commonly regard tomorrow as a sort of package that is coming to us in the mail1 it is strictly something not yet existing and consequently unreal4 ,just as ,william ,james said1 8,the feeling of past time is a present feeling10 so is the feeling of dependability here to be interpreted not as a property of objects1 but as a condition of the organism4 ,and1 while no incontrovertible evidence of the nature of such a condition has yet been brought to light1 it is directly in line with the facts as we know them to assert that the 8good0 included in ,class ,b implies both a maintenance of muscular tone and a steady permeability of the synaptic membranes involved in the action-patterns aroused by the things we keep calling 8good40 ,to which we might also safely add1 that the receptor organ requisite for initiating such an energy transformation has also become so attuned to receiving the stimulus as to show what the psychologists call a lowered threshold4 ,suppose we now condense this whole account1 and state it more pointedly by saying that ,class ,b refers to those objects that produce the responses for which the organism has mobilized its maximum available energies4 ,some of these dependable 8goods0 may thus imply habitual responses1 while others may simply imply a craving long denied its overt satisfaction4 ,and ,i doubt not that between these two extremes every man can find his own 8highest good40 ,in passing1 it might be pertinent to remark that the 8good0 implied by ,class ,b is always life-enhancing1 were it not for the fact that this obtrudes a standard not warranted by all users of this term4 ,for the snap judgment 7or even the pondered conclusion7 of an exceedingly great number of people makes money the chief dependable 8good10 that of others puts friends and companions in this category1 while with fewer still knowledge is so regarded4 ,some of these things do not always turn out to be life-enhancing1--time1 place1 circumstance1 and the ductless glands alter the assumed value of any such hypothesis4 ,hence 8good0 has been here defined simply in terms of what the organism is doing1 and not in terms of any spurious teleological principle4 ,empirical science has no books to balance4 ,he who watches a little closely will see that as far as conduct reveals it 7which is1 indeed1 very far71 all sorts of things that are not particularly life-enhancing are chosen hourly as the 8highest goods0 in the sense of being greedily and furiously pursued4 ,sexual excitement1 drug-taking1 gourmandizing1 idling1 and the latest styles in clothing vie with any and all of these soberer values for first place in the attention of numberless people4 ,and while many a man may choose for himself1 yet none can choose for all4 ,class ,b includes skilful and kind persons as objects to which the term 8good0 is customarily applied4 ,no new difficulties confront our attempt to pronounce the physiological implications of our concept as thus employed1 even if we are obliged to alter to some slight extent our previous point of view4 ,the skilful man is called 8good0 simply because he does or can mobilize his energy to produce something which is regarded as useful1 fit1 or serviceable4 ,likewise1 the skilful or kind person is one who may be counted on to assist in maintaining1 restoring1 or increasing any state of things that is regarded as desirable4 ,and we who employ the concept 8good0 to praise or encourage such a man insinuate that the same mobilization of energy is going on within us4 ,indeed1 as could be readily shown1 all perceptions of persons involve an imitative or empathic response4 ,that is why skill and virtuosity of all sorts are agreeable to behold4 ,they furnish numerous outlets for subconscious action-tendencies4 ,as regards ,class ,c1 the concept 8good0 points to 8that which fulfils expectation10 that is1 the normal or typical thing4 ,these words 8normal0 and 8typical0 78implying the existence of characteristic qualities07 are related to the word 8good0 by means of the conditioned reflex4 ,our experience with all such things as motor-cars1 for example1 involves not only cognition1 but eventually discrimination and comparison as well4 ,thereafter1 when we hear of a good motor-car1 we think of such a one as we have been trained to regard as capable of a certain kind of performance4 ,the same thing holds with respect to all other objects and persons concerning whom we have become discriminative4 8,good10 thus employed1 seems to imply that energy is being mobilized to perform selective activity1 and also that the sense organs have become specially attuned to receive a specific stimulus4 ,the 8good0 cat is not any old beast of the back alley1 but a mouser with a certain number of catches to her credit4 ,the 8good0 grocer 7that is1 supposedly normal7 is one who gives full weight and makes prompt deliveries4 ,moreover1 there is implicit in all such uses of this value predicate some reference to that dependability which was discussed in connection with ,class ,b4 ,here1 then1 we may state that ,class ,c implies the mobilization of energy for the performance of such action as will maintain our physical or mental equilibrium4 ,and this1 physiologically speaking1 is ultimately a matter of the progressive coordination of reflexes and the maintenance of muscular tone4 ,the objects referred to by class ,d are those which greatly or even suddenly exceed expectation1 whence1 as has been hinted before1 the signification of our concept frequently approaches that of an expletive4 ,let us see what physiological mechanisms provide this shade of meaning4 ,it is generally realized that not only do our successes and failures1 our disappointments and satisfactions attune our neuro-muscular mechanism to respond to the typical or normal thing by calling it 8good10 but these same successes and failures may also whet our appetite for things which1 by exceeding the average1 shall make up for those experiences which have been especially disappointing4 ,all normal protoplasm is insatiable for the maximum success4 ,and hunger of any sort1 physiologically speaking1 may be described as a condition in which the motor mechanism is activated to greater efforts than usual in order to relieve the condition of want4 ,consequently1 the physiological implications of the concept 8good0 may be made as precise with respect to ,class ,d as with any of the preceding classes4 ,the action-patterns implied by this class are those which are exhibited by anyone when1 after long privation1 the tensions he has accumulated are suddenly relieved by the appearance of the desired stimulus4 ,indeed1 such action-patterns may sometimes be described as rapacity1 as is illustrated in the case of our crying out 8,good60 when some misfortune has befallen a particularly annoying prig4 ,the physiological implications of the term 8good0 as regards ,class ,e have already been sufficiently hinted in our delineation of that class4 ,moreover1 the surprise1 shock1 and spasm which it connotes prevent its having an important rle to play in our judgments of value4 ,let us now sum up and condense these several points4 ,from the foregoing it appears that he who uses the word 8good0 is at the same time exhibiting a certain specific motor attitude toward the environment which gives this word its meaning4 ,as we have already shown1 the action-pattern involves the following physiological conditions3--7#a7 the presence1 maintenance1 or even heightening of muscular tone1 7#b7 the permeability of the synaptic membranes1 especially of those along the motor pathways1 7#c7 selective activity and selective excitability1 and 7#d7 normally1 the nice coordination of the motor responses involved in overt action4 ,this positively responsive condition of the organism may now be expressed in simpler words by saying that the word 8good0 is the sign of an outgoing reaction4 ,that is to say1 in the first place1 the things we call 8good0 release the energy that is ready to be discharged2 in the second place1 we participate more fully in that environment which contains a 8good0 than in one that does not2 and in the third place1 the effect of the presence of continuously 8good0 stimuli is to render us more and more responsive1 and to provide a wide margin of resiliency for our organic interior4 ,our definition of good in physiological terms has now been achieved4 ,,footnotes3 #g ,the following list of uses of the word 8good0 has been taken from ,murray's ,new ,oxford ,dictionary1 ,the ,century ,dictionary and ,encyclopedia1 ,webster's1 and the ,standard ,dictionary4 ,from the same sources also were derived the lists given in the following five chapters4 ,it should1 however1 be well noted that the lexicographer rarely attempts such an analytical definition of words as we are in search of here4 ,he confines himself chiefly to the etymology of a word and its synonyms1 and to citing quotations which illustrate the accepted usage of words4 ,as a result1 the man who looks into a dictionary will increase his range of associations long before he will be stimulated to perform that most fruitful of all mental activities1--critical analysis4 ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,the ,,word 8,,good0 #a4 ,good food2 fit to eat1 untainted4 #b4 ,good food2 nutritious1 palatable4 #c4 ,good medicine2 useful as a remedy4 #d4 ,good soil2 fertile1 arable4 #e4 ,good ice2 easy to skate on4 #f4 ,good ice2 fit to dissolve in drinking water4 #g4 ,good ship2 capable1 or under sail1 or expressing pride in the owner1 or as an expression of well-wishing4 #h4 ,good cat2 able mouser1 house-broken1 etc4 #i4 ,good child2 quiet1 obedient1 not troublesome4 #aj4 ,good person for3 capable1 thorough1 skilful1 competent1 clever at1 in concord with4 #aa4 8,to can no good10 7colloq472 to be untrained4 #ab4 ,good for a period of time2 well able to accomplish4 #ac4 ,in good earnest2 vigorously and effectively4 #ad4 ,good king2 one who fulfils his function1 or is beloved by his subjects4 #ae4 ,to good2 to improve land by manuring it4 #af4 ,good space or time for2 available for the purpose4 #ag4 ,good opinion2 favorable or approving1 laudatory4 #ah4 ,good cry2 beneficent1 profitable1 salutary1 wholesome4 #ai4 ,good spirits2 not depressed or dejected1 indicative of resilience or ambition4 #bj4 ,good offices2 friendly use of power4 #ba4 ,good man2 kind1 benevolent1 gentle1 gracious1 friendly1 favorably disposed1 virtuous1 skilful1 commendable1 pious1 devout1 or religiously approved4 #bb4 ,good season2 holy days4 #bc4 ,the good book2 8tending to spiritual edification40 #bd4 ,the good ,god2 8connoting perfection or benevolence40 #be4 ,highest good2 conventional phrase of philosophers4 #bf4 8,antonio is a good man02 reliable1 safe1 able to fulfil his engagements1 financially sound4 #bg4 8,a man of good02 of property1 standing1 rank4 #bh4 ,goods2 property1 merchandise1 wares1 live-stock1 cattle1 etc4 #bi4 8,a great good02 a large sum of money4 #cj4 ,to yield a good product or result2 to turn to a person's advantage4 #ca4 ,to the good2 balance on the credit side1 excess of assets over liabilities4 #cb4 8,good fors02 colloquial in ,south ,africa for promissory notes1 drafts1 8,i4,o4,u4's10 etc4 #cc4 ,good wind2 favorable1 not too weak or too strong4 #cd4 ,good health2 conducive to peace of mind and longevity4 #ce4 ,good order2 stable1 satisfying4 #cf4 ,good complexion2 gratifying1 favorable1 advantageous1 etc4 #cg4 ,good face2 fair or smooth1 or indicating intellectual ability or trustworthiness of character4 #ch4 ,good play2 agreeable1 amusing1 skilful4 #ci4 ,good fame2 honorable1 not sullied4 #dj4 ,to have a good night of it2 to sleep undisturbedly and to be refreshed by so doing4 #da4 ,to have a good time of it2 period of enjoyment4 #db4 ,good will2 benevolence4 #dc4 8,good morning02 elliptical for well wishing4 #dd4 8,good bye02 elliptical for well wishing at departure4 #de4 ,to take in good part2 to be somewhat pleased1 or at least not displeased4 #df4 8,good to overcome02 easy to overcome4 #dg4 ,to appear or seem good2 implying various degrees of commendation1 depending1 however1 upon the accent of the speaker4 #dh4 ,a good deal2 an amount greater than expected4 #di4 ,a good deal2 adequate1 abundant1 ample1 sufficient4 #ej4 ,as good as2 practically or to all intents and purposes the same4 #ea4 ,to be as good as one's word2 to act up to the full sense of the letter or the meaning4 #eb4 ,to make good2 to succeed1 fulfil1 or perform1 carry out or succeed in performing4 #ec4 ,to make good2 to fill up even or level4 #ed4 ,to make good2 to repair or restore1 to compensate for1 to supply a deficiency1 to pay a debt4 #ee4 ,to make good2 to secure prisoners for the night4 #ef4 ,to make good2 to prove to be true or valid1 to demonstrate or substantiate a statement4 #eg4 ,good for a certain amount2 spoken of a person expected to pay or contribute4 #eh4 ,good debts2 those which are expected to be paid in full4 #ei4 ,to make one's part good2 to make a successful resistance4 #fj4 ,to become good for2 to fulfil expectation4 #fa4 ,to come to good2 spoken of a dream that comes true4 #fb4 ,good birth2 average or above the average1 not humble or mean4 #fc4 ,good coin2 genuine1 not counterfeit4 #fd4 ,good purpose or conduct2 commendable1 acceptable1 up to standard1 not causing trouble4 #fe4 ,good jest2 smart1 witty1 typical1 or even exceptional4 #ff4 ,good right1 claim1 reason1 plea1 proposition2 valid1 sound4 #fg4 ,good legal decision1 or contract2 valid1 effectual1 not vitiated by any flaw4 #fh4 ,to have a good mind to2 to be ready to act1 to have a matured intention4 #fi4 8,our good wishes go with you02 expectation of happiness or prosperity4 #gj4 ,for good and all2 valid conclusion1 finally4 #ga4 8,good my lord02 courteous address1 deferential attitude1 expectation of favor or esteem4 #gb4 ,good life insurance risk2 likely to live a long time4 #gc4 8,good men and true02 spoken of a jury that is expected to render a fair verdict4 #gd4 ,good old2 possibly a term of praise1 or merely meaning very old4 #ge4 8,good words602 equivalent to 8do not speak so fiercely10 or 8,i expected kind words from you40 #gf4 8,the good people02 palliatory with reference to the fairies or witches4 #gg4 ,good gracious6 good ,peter6 good ,god62 exclamatory1 possibly signifying the presence of something that is unexpected1 which may be either welcome or otherwise4 #gh4 ,good folk2 used in a jocular or depreciatory sense4 #gi4 ,goody good2 mildly depreciatory of trustful simplicity4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,action-,,patterns ,,implied ,,by ,,the ,,word 8,,bad10 ,,with ,a ,,note ,,on ,,the ,,physiology ,,of 8,,evil0 8,it is noteworthy that there has never been a problem of good1 but always a problem of evil4 ,man takes the good in his life for granted1 while he bewails the presence of evil in all its forms4 ,may not reality be of such a character that evil is as natural as good80 ,r4 ,w4 ,,sellars1 8,the ,next ,step in ,religion10 pp4 #aec-e4 ,good and bad1 or good and evil1 have from the most ancient times been held to be diametrical and thoroughgoing opposites of each other4 ,in the system of ,zoroaster this antithesis is metaphorically projected into the remotest heavens1 where ,mazda1 the ,god of ,light1 whose deeds were goodness itself1 endlessly strove to annihilate ,angra1 the tireless perpetrator of deceit4 ,the ,christian mythologists1 in a characteristic imitation of pagan creeds1 loved to imagine a final ,day of ,judgment1 when the mild1 spotless followers of the ,lamb were to be rewarded by an eternal separation from the sooty henchmen of ,satan4 ,similar conceptions1 though none of them nearly so poetic1 have tinged the thought of every subsequent era4 ,most of us are familiar with ,milton's fabulous version of the theology of the ,middle ,ages1 in which ,god the ,father is depicted as struggling against the powers of darkness1 not1 however1 by sending irresistible cohorts to besiege and conquer ,hell1 but rather by counteracting their insidious propaganda in the playground of ,adam's ,eden4 ,indeed1 one has but to learn to read the simplest literature in any language to realize how much of what is called thinking consists simply in devising contrasts and antitheses4 ,it is the orator's chief tour de force1 the historian's commonplace1 the dramatist's all-important method of producing a plot1 and1 in fact1 without it1 no literature would seem to give an adequate picture of the realities of human life4 ,small wonder then1 that in the philosophy of ,empedocles1 the world-view of ,zoroaster1 and the theology of ,christendom1 this stereotyped way of thinking1 originating in and generated by the physics and physiology of man's musculature1 should be manifest2 or that the common man should so readily and persistently hold to the diametrical opposition between good and bad1 and right and wrong4 ,the law of reciprocal innervation1 being implicit in the body's architecture1 is necessarily a basic formula for man's thought4 ,even though this be admitted1 it guides us only a little ways through the tangle of ethical problems4 ,in the first place1 no such dramatic portrayal as1 for example1 that of ,zoroaster1--whatever theatrical agonies it might provoke1--has either reduced the sum of the world's distresses1 or furnished the least insight into the nature of the supposed opposites of goodness4 ,for that matter1 indeed1 very little knowledge of this character has arisen out of ethical debate or speculation4 ,the assumptions have been many1 the facts few2 and usually1 whenever this discrepancy has been realized1 overdrafts have been written on the phantom bank of theory with the vain hope that by this means ethical solvency could be attained4 ,in the second place1 it has scarcely occurred to any one to ask whether there was not some other way of looking at the ethical problem than in this duplex manner1 for if an irreconcilable opposition in the field of ethics is assumed as a fundamental principle1 nothing but an eternal deadlock can result in the conclusion4 ,now the empirical fact is that man's muscles 7the functions of which determine his thoughts71 can do other things than oppose and counteract each other1 for every day of our lives we see these other motor activities manifested4 ,however1 our traditional ethical theory would have it that the dilemma is inescapable1--that things are either good or bad1 or actions either right or wrong1 and people either virtuous or vicious1 and that there is no middle ground1 or possibility of reconciliation4 ,mark1 however1 that only in serious pathological cases do we observe a complete rigidity of the body due to chronic muscular antagonisms4 ,is it not therefore a valid inference that the mental rigidity of most adherents to the bi-polar theory in ethics is likewise a pathological sign1 and1 if so1 are we not driven to the conclusion that man's traditional ethical notions are symptoms of physiological malfunctioning8 ,important as all this is1 however1 it cannot turn us aside from our interest in finding out just to what an extent the word 8bad0 is a real antonym to the word 8good10 especially since knowledge of this sort is first necessary before we can employ the method of science in the service of the problems of human conduct4 ,let us1 then1 resume our original search4 ,the term 8bad0 is a gestural sign which we employ in two different senses1--to point out a deficiency or lack1 7that is1 to indicate merely the absence of good71 and in a positive sense1 to hint the presence of something definitely antagonistic to good4 ,by an analogy1 if money is a good1 we should call it 8bad0 in the privative sense of the term for one to be without it2 while it is 8bad0 in the positive sense for one to be deeply in debt4 ,but even while we ponder these two behavior situations1 they tend1 at least partly1 to coalesce1 very much indeed as ,classes ,a and ,b of 8good0 merged at times imperceptibly into one another4 ,for if the man who is without money1 but not in debt1 passionately desires to purchase and spend1 he will immediately place himself in the class of debtors1 and experience therewith the positive form of 8badness10 at least so far as his feelings of inhibition are concerned4 ,however1 just to what an extent these two categories of 8bad0 may be identified cannot be shown until we have first reviewed the separate uses to which this term is put1#h and have also deduced the action-patterns which it implies4 ,it can be divined at once from a careful perusal of this brief array1 herewith subjoined1 that the concept 8bad0 is1 on the whole1 a far less variegated symbol than is the concept 8good40 ,its use is more restricted1 its connotation is less rich in variety1 and1 as can be already predicted1 the number of separate classes into which our array may be distributed is fewer than was the case with the term 8good40 ,for while we have here hints of three classes which are1 roughly speaking1 negatives of ,classes ,a1 ,b1 and ,c of 8good10 we have nothing at all comparable to the negatives of ,classes ,d and ,e4 ,to wit3-- ,class ,a4 ,that which is useless1 unfit1 unserviceable1 and the like1 for any purpose whatever4 ,class ,b4 ,that which brings pain1 discomfort1 loss1 or death4 ,in some respects this class is the negative of ,class ,b of 8good10 having the general meaning of undependable4 ,however1 it is not the negative of every shade of meaning implied by that class1 as can at once be seen when we consider that there are no 8bads0 which are the antitheses of goods1 that is1 property4 ,for1 as we have already observed1 even some debts are good debts4 ,class ,c4 ,that which disappoints expectation4#i ,here also the negation is limited1 for while with ,class ,c of 8good0 the tone of the voice could convey an immense variety of meanings1 here no such great array of nuances is found4 ,in consideration1 then1 of what has just preceded1 we may emphatically deny that 8bad0 is a true antonym of the word 8good40 ,not only is this to be instantly deduced from the array of uses to which these terms are put1 but also from the contents of the five classes of 8good0 and the three classes of 8bad40 ,we shall presently discover whether 8evil10 as an adjunct of the concept 8bad10 makes up this discrepancy4 ,resuming1 then1 our main theme1 how shall we proceed to define privative and positive 8bad0 in physiological terms1 and by what means shall we discover the action-patterns which are implied by the three classes of 8bad0 which we have just delimited8 ,in general1 and from the reader's own experience1 8bad0 means thwarting1 inhibition1 opposition1 the interruption of action1 the durable dissatisfactions of life4 ,we need1 however1 to come at the matter a little more closely4 ,in the preceding chapter we saw that when we are ready to act1 the stimulus that elicits the reaction for which we are keyed up is called 8good40 ,employing the methods of inductive science1 with our eye on the behavior possibilities of the human organism1 we find the following stimulus-response situations adequate to reveal the origin of the word 8bad40 #a4 ,when we are ready to act in some precise manner1 but no stimulus1 that is1 opportunity1 is afforded for such action1 the term 8bad0 adequately describes the situation4 ,here it becomes a gestural sign which may point either to the environment or to the organism4 ,it is for this reason that a man in debt1 hungry1 and in want is said to be 8in a bad way02 while in his predicament counterfeit money and tainted food would be unequivocally bad4 #b4 ,when we are ready to act1 but are prevented from releasing the energy we have mobilized because the stimulus is inadequate1 and does not call forth the exact response which we have been preparing to make1 the situation may again be described as 8bad40 8,that's too bad10 we sometimes say of a suit of clothes which1 while adequately keeping out the winter's cold1 does not quite fit the shoulders4 #c4 ,when we are unready1 to act in a certain way1 but are summarily called upon to mobilize our energy for this purpose1 the situation is again often described as 8bad40 ,unexpected1 excess taxes always produce an emotional situation specifically related to this value predicate4 #d4 ,any inadequate response1 in other words1 one that is faulty1 erroneous1 and the like1 may be called 8bad40 ,sometimes1 also1 the person making such a response is described by the same term4 ,from this it appears that the general meaning of 8bad0 is within the scope of our discovery4 ,not only is this deducible from our previous identification of this concept with the useless1 the independable1 and with that which disappoints1 but it is also plainly foreshadowed by the four behavior situations we have just described4 8,bad0 seems to imply that action1 interest1 purpose1 and the like1 have been thwarted2 that the organism has become a center of inhibitions1 and is in discomfort either because the energy which it has mobilized cannot be released into action1 or because demands for such release cannot be met4 ,such a physiological condition is best described as incoordinate4 ,and this term covers all three of our classes of 8bad40 ,moreover1 by partial contrast with good1 8bad0 implies a withdrawing reaction1 with either a slump in muscular tone 7in which case we have privative 8bad071 or else a sudden onset of unrelieved tensions--7positive 8bad074 ,accompanying such a condition1 we may safely postulate synaptic impermeability and inhibition1 together with varying degrees of unpleasant strain sensations4 ,but mark1 that we do not say that the 8bad0 is always equivalent to the painful4 ,were physiological science sufficiently advanced1 it would be possible for us to complete our definition of badness in terms of the mal-functioning of such internal systems as the alimentary canal1 the cardiac1 respiratory1 and excretory mechanisms1 and the endocrine glands4 ,our common experience indubitably indicates that all forms of thwarting and inhibition which prompt our exclamations1 react violently upon the internal machinery4 ,indeed1 it is not too much to claim that both the centrifugal and centripetal types of behavior which are implied by the terms 8good0 and 8bad0 respectively just as often as not have their source in the postures and manuvres of our organic interior4 ,that is1 brief to say1 why the healthy man and the dyspeptic1 the optimist and the pessimist1 will give precisely opposite accounts of the same external world4 ,we remarked before that speech not only points out and distinguishes objects for us1 but also implies and predicts human activities4 ,our analysis of good and bad fortifies this thesis beyond contradiction1 and shows that any value predicate that has a specific reference to the environment has specific implications for the organism as well4 ,the ,physiology of 8,evil0 ,in some minds the term 8evil0 has primarily what is called a moral signification1 and implies first and foremost anything 8contrary to an accepted standard of righteousness10 or anything 8inconsistent with or violating the moral law02 and consequently1 it is equivalent to the terms 8sinful0 and 8wicked40 ,let us not meet such minds too intimately4 ,speaking in this fashion is not only vague1 but misleading as well4 ,for when duly examined1 almost every so-called 8standard of righteousness0 becomes a totally unspecific category of behavior1 while the term 8moral law0 is not law in any dependable sense of the term at all4 ,certainly it is not a law of nature1--of human nature1--for it does not adequately describe any typical behavior situations4 ,neither is it law to a jurist1 since there is no organized force that can be brought to bear upon human beings to compel them to obey it in their actions1 much less in their thinking4 ,moreover1 the terms 8sinful0 and 8wicked0 are so narrow and provincial and so exclusively employed by religionists 8to pelt their adversaries with10 that their equivalence to 8evil0 as a term of value in the broadest ethical sense is1 to say the least of it1 problematical4 ,whether unfortunately or not1 none of the purely moral categories are fundamental for an understanding of the actual behavior of human beings4 ,indeed1 as a usual thing1 they hint uncritical and disorderly thinking in him who uses them1 rather than specify any intelligent and sympathetic appreciation of human interests1 or any analytical insight into the environment which now thwarts and now furthers such interests4 ,and now to our analysis4 ,the term 8evil0 is much more assertive than is the word 8bad10 and more forceful than all but a few significations of the word 8good40 ,it originally had the adverbial force of up or over1 two words whose empathic significance is worthy of remark4 ,today the term 8evil0 signifies either 7a7 8that which exceeds due measure10 or 7b7 8that which oversteps proper limits40 ,here1 then1 we notice at the outset that 8evil10 unlike either good or bad1 always carries with it the presumption of standards or rules4 ,to a large extent the place in the language formerly occupied by the term 8evil0 is now held by the term 8bad40 ,with the reasons for this change we are not especially concerned here1 although it may be appropriate to point out that the popularity of any term that has been used almost exclusively by religionists for purposes of anathema is doomed4 ,besides1 the word 8evil0 calls up literary associations which condemn it to modern minds4 ,such expressions as 8,the ,evil ,one0 7that is1 the ,devil of the ,middle ,ages71 the 8evil eye0 7another outworn superstition71 the 8,king's ,evil10 and a dozen other equally obsolete terms have fallen into such low repute that they have weakened1 so to speak1 the gestural significance of the remnants of this concept4 ,nevertheless1 it must be admitted that there is far more dramatic vocal quality attaching to the term 8evil0 than to either of the words 8good0 or 8bad40 ,few words in the language provide such an opportunity as does this one for the simultaneous display of eye-1 lip-1 and jaw-gestures1 whose combined effects are none the less striking1 no matter how empathically unpleasant they have become4 ,we invite you to stand before the mirror1 and say the word 8evil0 with clenched teeth and canines showing1 and verify this remark4 ,while the term 8evil0 is employed as an adjective1 a noun1 and an adverb1 we do not need to stop here to catalogue its uses under these three headings4 ,all we need to consider is that 8evil0 is an intensification of 8bad0 in the positive sense of that term4#aj ,it is also a forceful negative of ,class ,b of good1 in the sense that it implies that which actively operates to produce incoordination1 mal-adjustment1 discomfort1 and the like4 ,it will be recalled that ,class ,b of 8good0 included whatever conduced to life1 health1 pleasure1 and stability4 ,on the contrary1 8evil0 is a gestural sign that indicates any and all processes of disintegration1 disruption1 and confusion4 ,it at once implies something which is energetically antagonistic to our purposes4 ,the definition of evil in mechanistic terms is now within our reach4 ,we have said before that 8evil0 is an intensification of the term 8bad10 which latter term was used to describe an incoordinate condition of the organism brought about because its wishes1 interests1 and purposes1--in a word1 its action-patterns1--had been thwarted4 ,just what more than this does 8evil0 imply8 ,it implies that our wishes have been thwarted to such an extent as to call forth from us the most energetic1 antagonistic reactions of which we are capable4 8,good0 signifies an outgoing reaction1 8bad0 signifies a withdrawing reaction1 while 8evil0 means that within the organism some of the available energies are being hastily mobilized to compensate for an outgoing reaction that has been thwarted4 ,of course1 there are many persons who never attempt any compensation of such a constructive character as to prevent the recurrence of the same evil situation1 either because they are physically unfit1 or are poor in spirit1 but in such cases the word 8evil0 is used without very much meaning4 ,our definition of this concept will1 ,i think1 serve to provide a new interpretation of the statement made previously1 namely1 that 8evil always carries with it the presumption of standards or rules40 ,what1 precisely1 does this statement mean8 ,it means that whenever we have lost our organic equilibrium in the presence of a situation described as evil1 whatever we do to recover it ipso facto at that moment defines not only the standard and rule by which our conduct is regulated1 but such behavior also reveals to others just what the 8problem of evil0 really means to us4 ,for example1 if we are vexed and become profane1 profanity is patently an integral factor in our philosophy of compensation4 ,if we lose our money1 and steal another's to make good our loss1 theft is a cardinal principle in our doctrine of equalization4 ,we may1 to be sure1 immediately thereafter lament the outburst by which we attempted to 8set things to rights10 but we cannot retrieve the action by which we defined and exhibited our practical ethical philosophy4 ,our recent ,emerson had this scientific truth in mind when he said1 8,what you are speaks so loud1 ,i cannot hear what you say40 ,examples of another sort are equally illuminating4 ,if ,socrates is condemned to death for corrupting the ,athenian youth1 and calmly drinks the hemlock in order to remain a law-abiding citizen to the end1 this deed of probity defines the dominant action-pattern in his philosophy of retaliation4 ,if ,jesus is crucified for blasphemy and inciting to insurrection1 and manifests an attitude of non-resistance and equanimity1 these action-patterns once more exhibit his method of dealing with the problem of evil4 ,in every such case the bodily habits which have long accumulated are automatically released by the appropriate stimulus into overt behavior4 ,in physiological terms1 what a man does in response to evil1 shows what sort of reciprocal innervations his body has acquired4 ,and while such a mechanistic interpretation of an ethical standard may seem astonishing1 yet such a modus agendi is1 unless we are greatly deceived1 the one which human beings actually employ1 and consequently it is the only one which has any place in an empirical science of conduct4 ,a ,further ,remark on the ,opposites of 8,good0 ,from our definition of 8evil0 as an intensification of 8bad0 in the positive sense of that term1 it can at once be noted that these two words do not even together supply a thoroughgoing antonym to the word 8good40 ,for they do not strictly imply action-patterns which in the minute and fine are opposed to those underlying all the valid uses of the word 8good40 ,it is not to the point that 8in general0 7which can only mean here vaguely7 these words are antithetical to each other2 our analysis has produced knowledge that henceforth discounts all such remarks4 ,and1 if anyone says that for the purposes of morality1 the traditional antithesis is still valid1 the answer is that morality1 after all1 is only custom1 while ethics is primarily a critical insight into that reality which the moralist has always sought to make obscure4 ,a more important conclusion1 however1 is still to be drawn from the foregoing analysis4 ,which is1 that 8evil0 is not1 as has usually been concluded1 an opposite of 8good40 ,indeed1 if we have described the situation fairly1 when we say that #8evil denotes that our wishes have been thwarted to such an extent as to call forth from us the most energetic1 antagonistic reactions of which we are capable1' we can only deduce from this that the antagonistic reactions are aroused for the purpose of replacing something that is 8bad0 by something that is 8good40 ,but if this be the case1 then the emphatic quality attaching to the word 8evil0 is really a sign that we have already started an outgoing reaction that shall furnish the desired compensation4 ,this two-fold meaning of the word 8evil0 is worthy of more than a passing remark1 but suffice it to say that in the light of what has gone before1 the 8problem of evil0 now becomes the problem of educating a man how to replace the 8bad0 with the 8good10 rather than a problem over which the metaphysician may dawdle or the moralist mope4 ,,footnotes3 #h ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,the ,,word 8,,bad0 ,i4 ,the ,privative ,significations of the ,word 8,bad40 #a4 ,bad air2 vitiated1 which cannot sustain healthy respiration4 #b4 ,bad coin2 debased1 counterfeit4 #c4 ,bad food2 deficient in nourishment4 #d4 ,bad food2 repugnant on account of its smell or taste1 whether deficient in nourishment or not4 #e4 ,bad shot or guess2 incorrect1 faulty1 below standard or par4 #f4 ,bad debts2 those which cannot or are not expected to be paid4 #g4 ,to go bad2 to decay4 #h4 ,bad workmanship2 defective1 below par1 sometimes called poor or worthless4 #i4 ,in a bad way2 in a wretched or miserable state1 unfortunate1 unfavorable4 #aj4 ,with a bad grace2 unwillingly4 ,,ii4 ,the ,positive ,significations of the ,word 8,bad40 #a4 ,bad air2 noxious1 poisonous4 #b4 ,bad food or water2 injurious to health1 hurtful1 dangerous1 pernicious4 #c4 ,bad company2 depraved1 wicked1 vicious4 #d4 ,bad fit 7as of a shoe72 causing inconvenience1 displeasure1 or pain4 #e4 ,bad smell2 unpleasant1 offensive1 disagreeable1 troublesome1 painful4 #f4 8,bad blood02 harsh1 angry feeling4 #g4 ,in bad health2 suffering from disease or injury1 7in pain74 #h4 8,to the bad02 to ruin1 in deficit4 #i4 8,in bad0 7slang72 spoken of a man who has made trouble for himself and others4 #i ,in passing1 it might be pertinent to consider the question as to whether the word 8bad0 is synonymous with #8that which disappoints expectation4' ,one might ask1 for example1 8,do not chronic pessimists literally expect catastrophe80 ,here1 as elsewhere1 we must not be deceived by a trick of speech4 ,for he who says1 8,i expect disaster10 is unwittingly making an equivocal statement4 ,the man who makes such a remark cannot be implying that his whole body1 with its numerous action-patterns1 is completely set to receive the stimulus that will demolish his equilibrium4 ,rather should we infer from this utterance that he is at least partly prepared to resist it1 partly to rejoice at the incident discomfiture to others1 with the hope thereby of making his own troubles dwindle by comparison1 and perhaps also partly anticipating the relief that will come when the suspense of waiting is over4 ,none of these interpretations disallow the formulation of any of the above classes of 8bad40 ,to be sure1 there are certain abnormal types1 like the sadist and the masochist1 to whom pain is an erotic stimulus1 but even so1 their expectations are always directed to that particular element of the situation which1 by affording an outgoing reaction1 is for them a 8good40 #aj ,,the ,,significations ,,of ,,the ,,term 8,,evil0 #a4 ,that which causes or increases harm1 injury1 misfortune1 or disease4 #b4 ,such advice as is misleading1 mischievous1 or disastrous4 #c4 ,any wish whose fulfilment would lead to calamity1 trouble1 or death4 #d4 ,any abusive1 malicious1 or slanderous statement1 7compare 8evil tongue074 #e4 ,any period of time characterized by misfortune or suffering4 #f4 ,the term 8evil0 is also used in special senses1 such as in the expression 8social evil0 7that is1 prostitution74 ,but such a use of this word1 being special and more or less provincial1 should not be over-emphasized in our definition4 ,there are1 moreover1 many other social evils than prostitution1 and some producing far more ethical disaster4 ,,chapter ,v 8,,right0 ,,as ,a ,,gestural ,,sign 8,from every point of view1 the overwhelming and portentous character ascribed to universal conceptions is surprising4 ,why1 from ,plato and ,aristotle downwards1 philosophers should have vied with each other in scorn of the knowledge of the particular1 and in adoration of that of the general1 is hard to understand1 seeing that the more adorable knowledge ought to be that of the more adorable things1 and that the things of worth are all concretes and singulars4 ,the only value of universal characters is that they help us1 by reasoning1 to know new truths about individual things4444 ,in sum1 therefore1 the traditional universal-worship can only be called a bit of perverse sentimentalism1 a philosophic #8idol of the tribe4'0 ,w4 ,,james1 8,principles of ,psychology10 ,vol4 ,i1 ,chap4 ,,xii1 pp4 #dgi-hj4 ,there had been a murder in the ,maritime ,provinces1 and two men1 a jurist and a layman1 were discussing it4 ,the murdered man1 it appeared1 had from time to time missed some of his sheep1 and one day1 upon hearing a shot fired1 ran down into his pasture1 and came upon two boys1 one of whom was carrying a gun1 and the other a bag whose contours plainly revealed that it contained the body of a sheep4 ,the farmer ordered the boys to follow him to town to give an account of their misbehavior2 and this they proceeded to do without any show of resistance or word of objection4 ,but suddenly1 and without any warning1 the boy who carried the gun shot the farmer in the back of the head1 killing him instantly4 ,the murderer was later apprehended1 and put into the county jail1 awaiting trial4 8,and would they hang a boy of seventeen in ,canada80 asked the layman4 8,why not80 enquired the jurist1 8,they can hang anyone here who has reached the age of discretion1 and who knows the difference between right and wrong40 8,and will you tell me10 parried the layman1 8just what that age is1 and exactly what that difference is80 ,the jurist eyed his inquisitor for a moment1 and burst into a laugh4 8,only a fool would ask such a question60 he retorted1 and turned away4 ,all of which goes to show that a man may be proficient in legal technique1 and yet be an ignoramus in ethics4 ,knowledge of the meaning of the word 8right0 is both possible and profitable1 and it is hardly too much to suppose that such knowledge1 when disseminated1 might even produce a salutary effect upon legal theory and legal practice4 ,anyone who endeavors to marshal the array of all the uses to which the word 8right0 is put1 will be astonished to find out how extensive the list is4 ,in point of the richness of its denotation and connotation1 this concept exceeds the term 8good40 ,and while it resembles that word in being used as a noun1 a verb1 an adjective1 and an adverb1 it significantly differs from the term 8good0 in that it is employed to refer principally to the relations and functions of things1 and hardly ever to objects of the physical environment4 ,no man's span of perception is large enough1 or his span of attention long enough1 to surround the complete array of the uses of the word 8right0 unless this array be divided into classes4 ,such division will presently appear4 ,and ,i think it can be shown that no matter how little in common some of the terms of this array seem1 to a casual observer1 to possess1 when they are thus grouped into classes1 they will be subtly linked together by adequate bonds4 ,let us then introduce3 ,,class ,a ,the ,word 8,right0 as a ,term that is ,descriptive of ,certain ,mathematical ,relationships and ,physical ,functions4#aa ,the original signification of our concept was straight1 a word1 be it noted1 that is usually defined in the negative4 7,see ,ex4 #a1 p4 #gf47 ,why we have a negative definition for a word that seems to have a positive meaning1 especially to mathematicians and draughtsmen1 is not at first quite obvious4 ,however1 when this phenomenon is duly examined from the point of view of the mechanics of man's locomotor apparatus1 its secret is no longer hidden4 ,all of the movements naturally produced by the appendages of the body are curvilinear3 the arm being a lever1 or radius vector1 it always draws arcs in space or on paper2 so does the hand as a whole1 and so do the fingers4 8,right0 signifying straight1 therefore1 is defined negatively simply because straight lines are alien to the physics and mechanics of man's original nature4 ,where1 then1 did man get the notion of straightness1 and what has this first class of the uses of 8right0 to do with ethics8 ,man got the notion of straightness1 we surmise1 from such things as freely falling bodies1 which give not only the idea of perpendicular1 but also and at the same time the ideas of direct and immediately2 from the sunbeams which drew for him imaginary lines among the clouds and through the foliage of the forest2 from his need of taking the shortest course across the fields in pursuit of wild animals for the supply of his larder2 and from his reminiscent ponderings of the comparative merits of less and less curved and crooked arrows used in the chase4 ,moreover1 man walks with the greatest safety and pursues his game with the greatest chances of success when his feet go without hesitation on a level or straight surface4 ,under these conditions he can attain his ends directly and immediately2 as the saying is1 8,things will then come out all right40 ,consequently1 even the straight line has ethical implications3 the speed with which some actions are performed and the time required to cover the distance between man and his objective are very often the chief considerations in the attainment of a good or the avoidance of an evil thing4 ,and this brings us by a very slight transition to ,class ,b 8,right0 as ,descriptive of the ,method 7or ,object7 by ,which the ,desired ,end ,can be ,obtained4 ,here the purpose involved1 or the end sought1 is neither praised nor blamed4 ,nor have we indeed as yet reached any basis by which a criterion of purposes and ends can be established4 ,so far as we have gone1 8right0 implies technique1 and nothing more4 ,the members of this class are as follows3 #ac4 ,the 8right0 information4 #ad4 8,right0 whale2 the one to capture in order to get whalebone4 #ae4 8,rub your sarsnet well1 the right way of the sarsnet40 #af4 8,let it be a constant rule to scrub the boards the right way of the grain1 that is1 lengthwise40 #ag4 8,the ship ceased rolling and righted herself40 7,compare this signification with perpendicular1 previously given47 #ah4 8,stand it upright1 or it will fall40 #ai4 8,whose inhabitants were right shooters 7at an haires breadth and faile not740 #bj4 8,swears he will shoot no more1 but play with sparrows1 ,and be a boy right out40 #ba4 8,i am right of mine old master's humour for that40 ,,class ,c 8,right0 as ,descriptive of any ,statement ,which ,reports the ,facts2 of any ,opinion or ,judgment that is ,correct2 and of any ,person ,who ,judges1 ,thinks1 or ,acts in ,accordance with the ,facts or the ,truth about a ,matter4#ab ,it will be observed that the significations in this class are all symptomatic of a slight change in the meaning of the concept 8right40 ,the emphasis here is upon true opinions and judgments in contrast to false ones4 ,moreover1 the range of behavior covered by ,class ,c is somewhat broader than that denoted by the two preceding classes4 ,he who now uses this word 8right0 becomes judicial1 and makes statements he is willing to defend4 ,more than this we cannot say4 ,we assume many a time1 no doubt1 that the statements we call true are backed by something not ourselves2 and while in some cases nature's laws are in a sense 8behind0 our statements1 yet unless this is the case1 there is nothing whatever to fall back upon4 ,thus1 while a man may demonstrate that dynamite is1 as he says1 truly explosive1 yet in cases of the equitable adjustment of social frictions1 where both parties pour out a tumult of exaggerations1 no similar truth of opinion is obtainable4 ,it would therefore be illogical to assume that we have reached any absolute criterion in passing from ,class ,b to ,class ,c of 8right40 ,he who uses this concept in this connection has1 indeed1 ventured more than he who uses it only to imply the preceding two classes1 but he is not thereby gifted with superior powers of discretion4 ,all we can say is that he who undertakes to make a judgment with all the available information before him is more likely to be chosen as a referee again4 ,he will at least have the satisfaction of knowing that if he makes mistakes1 they will probably be some that he has never made before4 ,and this way much of human progress lies4 ,,class ,d 8,right0 as the ,distinctive ,epithet of the ,hand ,which is ,normally the ,stronger4#ac ,the use of our concept in this connection is firmly bound to its use in the preceding classes4 ,for it is no accident that in the mechanistic process called evolution human aims and purposes have come to be furthered and achieved principally through the power and skill of the arm and hand4 ,the 8right0 arm and hand point reasonably straight1 throw missiles in a fairly direct manner1 and their powerful shots bring down the quarry immediately4 7,class ,a47 ,these parts of the body are also among the most educible and skilful in the technique requisite for bringing about a desired end4 ,their action-patterns are indeed often the very method by which ambitions are achieved4 7,class ,b47 ,and when we have reached a judgment that is deemed to be true or in accordance with the facts of the matter 7,class ,c471 it is our 8right0 hand that is ready to be motivated in its defence4 ,even the art of writing1 in the original sense of cutting1 tearing1 or scratching to produce a record or a design1 is not at all distantly related to the functions of this part of the body4 ,with this clearly understood1 the transition is easy to make to ,,class ,e ,legal 8,rights02 that is1 ,those ,claims and ,interests the ,establishment and ,protection of ,which ,may ,be ,secured by ,force and even ,violence4#ad ,as used in this connection1 8right0 is partially equivalent to might1 since our concept here connotes an organized force1--a physical power1--which1 under given conditions1 can be employed for the purpose of establishing claims and protecting interests4 ,this organized force is popularly referred to as 8the ,law10 especially by those who indulge in back-yard altercations and cry out3 8,if you do that again1 ,i'll have the ,law on you60 ,and the ordinary man1 whose six or seven years of public schooling have implanted in him the fixed habit of reifying all abstractions1 understands the law as equivalent to a transcendental force of some kind which makes his threats effective4 ,as befits the mental calibre of such a man1 the law frequently becomes synonymous with the functions of the police1 who are navely supposed to know when and how to protect everybody's legal rights4 ,this is an error4 ,not only are the police extremely ignorant persons1 but they have scarcely any legal status whatever4 ,they are 8the tolerated remnant of the autocratic power which absolute monarchs once exercised over their subjects40 ,law and legal rights are functions of the courts1 while the police are simply unattached huskies hired to bring into court those who do not come there of their own initiative4 ,we must look elsewhere for the source of the might which legal rights are said and felt to possess1 namely1 in the origin and function of law itself4 ,briefly stated1 law originated as a means to protect men against loss of property1 against bodily harm1 and against damage to their personality through the actions of their fellows4 ,it did not originate as a means to prevent or repair the damage to life or property caused by cloudbursts or lightning1 or the loss of income brought about by avalanches1 laziness1 or disease2 it had only to do with actions for which some man could be held responsible4 ,now the actions which produce the loss of property1 bodily harm1 and damage to personality are usually actions arising from1 as well as leading to1 emotional disturbances4 ,theft1 murder1 and libel1 for example1 are about the most potent stimuli to violent retaliation that can be provided4 ,nevertheless1 it is sound psychology that most emotions quickly cool if the stimulus be withdrawn1 that wrath has to be nursed if it is to be kept warm1 and that absence does not make the heart grow fonder4 ,here is where the law performs its chief function4 ,for the law is simply an ingenious device to get a judgment on the conflict of human interests which shall not be tinged with the passions that provoked the conflict4 ,and while legal procedure may not always be fair1 especially in the eyes of the loser1 its methods certify that it shall not be precipitous or rancorous in rendering a decision4 ,legal rights1 therefore1 are not equivalent to the capacity for revenge1 but rather consist in the ability to get old quarrels looked at by new and unbiased eyes4 ,herein consists much of the prestige of the law1 and since prestige has always been regarded as a kind of power1 men are not slow to employ it in the establishment of their claims and the protection of their interests4 ,law1 however1 is frequently misinterpreted when its function is thought to be preventative of discord1 rather than judicial and equitable4 ,law is no guardian angel4 ,no law can prevent the unobserved ,richard ,roe from murdering the defenceless ,john ,doe2 nor can it hinder the murderer 7still unobserved7 from altering ,doe's will to his own material advantage2 neither can it be guaranteed to forestall the murderer from making the false plea that ,doe was about to assault his daughter4 ,the law did not make man in its own image2 according to scripture it was ,god who did that4 ,law does not set out to protect the careless or the poor in spirit4 ,its machinery is normally put into operation only for those with enough initiative to look out for their own interests4 ,if a patentee knowingly allows one infringement of his patent rights1 he might as well donate his invention to the public4 ,the law does not hunt for trouble1 or carry on a bureau for the exchange of expressions of malcontent4 ,it does not even demand that a clearly known offender of society1 and one conscious of his offence1 enter a plea of guilty4 ,actually1 the function of law is simply to preserve and to restore order and peace in society1 and not to define what that order and peace shall be4 ,were ninety per cent of the people in the world suddenly to become stubbornly devoted to thieving1 the public peace would have to be redefined in terms of their attitude toward property4 ,moreover1 as it is now1 the law merely attempts to imitate the security which is provided by 8gentlemen's agreements10 which security is largely maintained without the help of the courts4 ,for it is very plain that millions keep the peace1 while only a few hundreds know the law4 ,law1 then1 may be fairly characterized as an impersonal referee1 whose business it is to persuade and oblige the disturbers of the social equilibrium to employ the methods and standards of conduct which have always marked free men4 ,with this by way of introduction1 it is not difficult to understand why 8right0 in the legal sense of the word is so closely related to might4 ,for the term 8legal rights0 refers not only to those claims and interests which may be established and protected1 but also and rather to those which have long been secured by force4 ,in other words1 some of them have the advantage of the momentum of custom and tradition4 ,now custom and tradition1 whatever else they may be1 are certainly action-patterns which are generated and maintained by the bodies of human beings4 ,they are habits1 both of overt action and covert thought1--response processes of the neuro-muscular apparatus4 ,the tenacity of these habits1 moreover1 is due to the combined action of two well-known physiological mechanisms1--the conditioned reflex and the circular reflex4 ,the conditioned reflex1 which is dependent upon the repetition of stimuli1 is particularly prevalent where day by day the same persons1 the same kinds of property1 and the same predicaments of living are met with2 and so we may say that customs and traditions 7and with them the inevitable claims and interests7 are created by the environment as much as by the organism4 ,the circular reflex1 or proprio-ceptive reinforcement of any action-tendency1 governs much of our behavior1 even though we little suspect it4 ,it underlies occupational postures1 idiosyncracies of gait and of facial expression1 and indeed1 without circular reflexes we should not have either tenacity of purpose or the ability to hold a grudge4 ,its function in the establishment and maintenance of those action-patterns on which tradition depends is of paramount importance4 ,and since these two reflexes are largely responsible for the difficulty with which habits of action and thought are broken1 the support which they give to maintaining the tradition of legal rights is hardly to be overestimated4 ,thus1 from the mechanistic point of view1 the homage which we give to legal rights is after all simply equivalent to the expenditure of energy in our bodies for the purpose of maintaining particular habits of action4 ,indeed1 in those who maintain the public peace1 all the energy which goes into actions which promote the order of society is literally spent to uphold legal rights of one sort or another4 ,it is this energy1 this physical power1 which we referred to recently when we said that 8right0 is partially equivalent to might4 ,and yet1 in spite of the apparently great amount of muscle power that is1 so to speak1 behind all legal rights1 from the logical point of view1 the use and effectiveness of this power is altogether contingent upon the exact nature of the claim and interest which one desires to be secured4 ,the logical statement of the situation here involved would take the form of a hypothetical proposition1 namely1 ,if the claim or interest is of a certain kind1 then and then only may it be established and protected4 ,and while this might seem at first to indicate that legal rights were seriously lacking in point of authority1 yet this is not the case1 for the strongest possible assertions that can be made are always couched in the form of hypothetical propositions4 ,as ,couterat states in his 8,algebra of ,logic10 8,every proposition which implies another is stronger than the latter1 and the latter is weaker than the one which implies it40 ,the blunt categorical proposition is far less powerful1 since by itself it implies nothing whatever1 whereas hypotheticals leave no doubt as to the necessary consequences4 ,all the laws of nature1 which1 by the way1 cannot be broken1 are stated in hypothetical form4 ,moreover1 since it is the antecedent1 and not the consequent1 of a hypothetical proposition which gives it strength1 it is easy to see that any particular claim and interest is rendered all the more likely of being established and protected if similar claims and interests have long been recognized in the law as valid4 ,in practice we find this to be the case3 the common law which is the oldest code is also the one to which new claims to legal right are invariably referred4 ,having looked at the picture of legal rights from one angle1 let us now look at it from another4 ,while in strict logic the statement of these rights in the form of a hypothetical imperative gives them an undeniable strength1 it must now be admitted that from the pragmatic point of view it signifies at times a discouraging weakness4 ,for it has often been the case that the establishment of claims and the protection of interests has in practice depended upon such vexatious variables as the pet theories of experts 7e4 g41 alienists71 the hunger1 fatigue1 and stubbornness of jurymen1 the internal secretions of judges1 a crowded or empty condition of the jails1 current sociological theory1 and even such astonishing things as one's affiliation with secret societies1 or one's political 8pulls10 not to mention1 except by a passing remark1 the determination of a litigant to carry his case to the higher courts clear beyond the ability of his antagonist's purse to follow him there4 ,so that if we ask whether some particular claim or interest can and will be established or protected1 the real answer in a large number of border-line cases is1 8,nobody knows40 ,justice1 who carries in her hand a balance whereby to weigh the evidence fairly1 has also her eyes blindfolded against seeing what manner of weights are put into either pan4 ,this defect of law1 however1 is not to be wondered at when we remember that legal theory cannot anticipate all of the innumerable claims and interests which either honest or knavish persons are likely to support as valid4 ,if the theory of law had been as complicated as human society has become1 it could not have accomplished the half of what it has already achieved4 ,from all this it can be seen that the assertion of a legal right is not always equivalent to its substantiation4 ,times change1 bringing with them new faces and other minds1 new problems and new interpretations4 ,nor1 for that matter1 are all commonly accepted rights under the law equally to be supported by physical force4 ,strictly speaking1 only those rights which imply a correlative duty are truly legal rights4 ,reciprocity of action is essential4 ,for example1 if ,baker has a legally recognized or substantiated right to do1 receive1 or enjoy something1 it is the duty of ,atkins and others not to infringe or nullify that right4 ,mark also1 that both duty and right here imply that physical force may be directed against some specified person1 or against all persons generally in case of need1 in order to establish the claim and protect the interest involved4 ,however1 as may be already suspected1 not everything that is legally sanctioned or which enters into legal machinery has the same force behind it as in the case we have just cited4 ,the right of ownership1 for example1 which to the layman seems to be a unit right1 involves five distinct things1 as follows3 7#a7 the jus disponendi1 or right to give away1 7#b7 the jus utendi1 or right to use1 7#c7 the jus abutendi1 or the right to abuse1 7#d7 the jus prohibendi1 the right to keep others away1 and 7#e7 the jus possidendi1 or the right to recover the property4 ,but only one of these is1 strictly speaking1 a right in the sense that it involves a correlative duty1 namely1 the jus prohibendi4 ,for the jus disponendi is simply a power1 and not a right at all3 and the jus utendi is wholly negative in the legal sense1 implying non-interference in the exercise of a natural power2 whereas the jus abutendi is a liberty 7neither a right nor a power7 whose exercise is nominally unrestricted3 while the jus possidendi is simply the legal capacity to get back that which one is said to own4 ,this ends our account of legal rights4 ,we now pass to the consideration of the other uses of this most comprehensive ethical concept4 ,somewhat by way of contrast to that which has just preceded1 let us at once consider ,,class ,f1 under which are comprised what are popularly known as 8moral0 rights4#ae ,a casual glance at the appended list of the members of this class might lead one to consider them simply as a continuation of legal rights1 but this is by no means the case4 ,albeit moral rights are identical with legal rights in so far as they imply a multitude of human claims and interests1 they are nevertheless emphatically different from them on a much more important point4 ,moral rights lack all implications of an organized physical force to compel their recognition4 ,the only compulsions that can be said to assist in the establishment of the claims and the protection of the interests comprised under the scope of moral rights are the approval and disapproval of the group which undertakes to recognize and support them4 ,in fine1 these compulsions amount to the force of public opinion4 ,and while this force is at times provocative of changes in the method or content of the law which may later be recognized as good1 on the whole1 public opinion is usually so unspecific and inconstant as to be wholly negligible as a power to enforce any demands4 ,certainly no jurist regards moral right as obligatory4 ,on still another count moral rights show a serious defect4 ,for when we say that the enforcement of the claims and interests comprised within the scope of moral rights depends upon the approval of the group1 it must not be supposed that the actions of any group and the actions which it approves are necessarily one and the same4 ,this is a sour paradox1 but its appropriateness cannot be successfully denied4 ,the standard of conduct which any group subscribes to under pressure1 either in writing1 or before an audience1 is singularly different from the behavior of the group under easier circumstances4 ,moreover1 it is the exception1 and not the rule1 for those who dominate a group1--whether such masters be parents1 political bosses1 or any other form of lordling1--to hold their charges to a stricter accountability than they themselves1 removed from correlative restraints1 recognize as imperative4 ,doubtless1 in the execution of the law1 many a time privileges are granted to people of wealth and prestige which are denied to the humbler petitioners at the bar2 but the difference between legal and moral practice is significantly this3 that in legal practice evasions are no integral part of the machinery4 ,this does not amount to a condemnation of moral rights3 it is merely holding up the mirror to man1 in order that he may see himself clearly4 ,all in all1 consistency may be as impracticable as it has been unsought for in the daily affairs of men4 ,however1 when we consider the unusual claims made in behalf of moral rights1 there are valid exceptions to be taken to them4 ,for while in the strict legal sense1 moral right is impotent1 yet according to the expressed opinion of the untutored majority1 moral right is far mightier than legal right4 ,let us see why this is so4 ,in the first place1 not all human claims and interests are or can be protected by law4 ,it is not the purpose of law to be rigid4 ,however many statutes1 for example1 are enacted year by year1 the interests they are supposed to protect increase too rapidly to be covered by such statutes4 ,moreover1 as in the case with the right of ownership1 many powers and privileges are granted1 the exact enjoyment or exercise of which no law could either predict or circumscribe4 ,hence there always remains a residue of interest that is not comprised within the scope of matured legal tradition4 ,but it is just these newer interests for which some persons demand most emphatically the right to be satisfied4 ,we live not in the past1 but on the foremost edge of time1 and we are prone to demand as much support for our youngest claims as for those which have a thousand years of legal recognition behind them4 ,now1 undoubtedly1 many claims are insufficiently recognized by law4 ,when1 however1 in the pause before this recognition is secured1 people begin to claim for such interests a 8superior0 moral right to be satisfied1 and in comparison to that 8superior0 right assert that legal rights are merely unfounded prejudices1 the charge of inconsistency can be leveled directly against them4 ,ignorance of the function and scope of the law is no excuse for holding it up to ridicule4 ,indeed1 it is not at all certain that the law could include the satisfaction of every human claim and interest whatever without becoming itself destroyed by this inclusion4 ,in the second place1 there are some persons in whom the law's delays1 as well as their experience with the unevenhandedness of justice1 has provoked a deep-seated prejudice against particular lawyers and jurists1 which prejudice1 by means of the fallacy of composition1 they readily transmute into a scorn for whatever is expressly denominated as legal4 ,under such conditions the penchant for moral rights may be often nothing but the product of a mind that has become malcontent with things as they are2 with the result that solace is sought in the fiction of a set of moral rights which are regarded as possessing a 8higher0 or final authority4 ,from such a person come ,examples ,nos4 #ei and #gf1 recently cited4 ,two comments can be made upon such a case as this4 ,the first of these is that it is quite certain that no man who has become so pessimistic will see his way clear to the solution of the problem that has given him so much tragic concern4 ,as ,spinoza says1 8,the will and the intellect are one and the same10 but as ,spinoza also hinted1 the intellect and the emotions are not4 ,moreover1 such malcontentedness is relatively easy to annul3 let anyone who curses the law begin to make use of it to his advantage1 and his 8suppressed complex10 as the ,freudians would say1 rapidly evaporates4 ,a third and final reason why moral rights and the so-called moral law are sometimes regarded as superior to all things legal is that among so many persons the curious conviction obtains that they are individually the pets of ,providence1 and that consequently whether they stir themselves or not1 become sagacious or remain meek as lambs1 their affairs will be satisfactorily adjusted without their exertions4 ,under such illusions many persons take refuge throughout their lives1 forgetting curiously enough that the order of nature has not supplied them with benevolent guardians1 tutors1 and managers4 ,the result is that to such people right is synonymous merely with what ought to be1 rather than with even a small part of what already is4 ,but when they thus employ the term right1 it is debased4 ,one often hears such people say with regard to a catastrophe3 8,oh1 well1 ,i suppose we shall have to make the best of it10--a remark that is rarely prophetic of anything more than continued brooding4 ,if it prophesied the accumulation of technique for a continuous1 constructive effort1 their moral rights would not be so bereft of reality4 ,,class ,g ,here the word 8right0 signifies certain unspecified and unrestricted liberties and privileges sanctioned in the manner of customs1 the only authority behind which is the threat of social ostracism should they be disregarded4#af ,as will be observed at once1 some of the members of this class might1 if one prefers1 be included in some of the other classes of 8right40 ,,class ,h ,that which is most convenient1 desirable1 or favorable2 conforming to one's wish or desire2 to be preferred2 fortunate2 lucky1 etc4#ag ,some of these examples1 like those in the preceding class1 may in the eyes of some judges be more appropriately classified in another place4 ,if so1 let the change be made4 ,there is undoubtedly an echo of ,class ,b and of ,class ,f in several instances4 ,but a more important item seems to be that here are unmistakable hints of an adverbial or expletive signification for our concept4 ,this hint is fully carried out in the final division1 ,,class ,i in which the term 8right0 signifies 8very10 8in a great degree10 as in certain titles3 7#aaa7 8,right reverend10 7#aab7 8,right honorable10 as well as in the expressions3 7#aac7 8,right truly may it be said10 and 7#aad7 8,the word #8cootie' is right old ,scottish40 ,however1 as this use of the concept right is often to be interpreted as signifying 8justly entitled to the name of10 or 8having the true character of10 ,class ,i may be regarded as a footnote to ,classes ,c and ,g4 ,this completes our search for the significations of the word 8right40 ,nevertheless1 all this is merely a preliminary step toward the main business of our investigation1 namely1 the discovery of the action-patterns which are implied by these nine classes we have just delimited4 ,we have seen that these classes are all subtly connected1 and this leads us to hope that some greatest common denominator will be found that will factor into all of them4 ,it is also apparent that as we pass from ,class ,a to ,class ,e1 we reach a climax1 after which we decline2 that up to the climax there is order and dignity1 and that from ,class ,f onwards our array consists mostly of scraps and debris4 ,our problem1 then1 is to exhibit not only the motor attitude which each class implies1 but also the procession of such attitudes throughout the whole nine classes4 ,for only by so doing shall we be able to comprehend the meaning of this important ethical concept4 ,the ,meaning of the ,word 8,right0 #a4 ,as deduced from ,class ,a4 ,it will be recalled that this class signifies straight 7not curved or crooked in any way71 direct 7by the shortest course71 and immediately 7in the quickest time74 ,these words1 moreover1 refer not only to events in nature1 but also and more particularly1 to human activities4 ,it has also been pointed out that when a man can proceed in a straight line toward his objective1 he will proceed directly1 and arrive there in the quickest possible time4 ,such behavior is1 within the limits hitherto defined1 described as right4 ,now what does all this involve in the way of action-patterns8 ,it involves1 first1 perception of the goal1 second1 ability to keep the goal in mind1 and third1 energy sufficient to attain it4 ,according to ,max ,meyer1 one of the instincts manifested by a hungry organism is 8to proceed forward in a straight line0 767 ,and whether this be truly instinctive or not1 the example illustrates our point very nicely4 ,for any organism vexed with hunger of any sort whatsoever 7and there are1 according to the poets1 many kinds71 will do 8right0 in following ,max ,meyer's advice4 ,the action-pattern implied in all this is not difficult to determine4 ,it is the coordination of motor activities requisite for the movement of the whole body speedily through space1 unwaveringly toward its objective4 ,the complete analysis of the mechanisms by which such behavior is accomplished would be both too difficult and too exhaustive to be undertaken here4 ,we may1 however1 point out some few of the salient factors involved4 ,it has been shown that1 so far as ,class ,a is concerned1 to do right is to proceed directly and immediately1 and along a straight line1 if possible1 to the desired object4 ,such behavior requires both strength and skill2 from which it also follows that a feeble1 untrained body will be unable to do 8right0 in a great many cases1 simply because it cannot reach its goal in the face of obstacles4 ,this is our common observation4 ,before a baby learns to walk1 it cannot proceed directly or immediately across a floor4 ,neither can an exhausted man1 unable to use the sun for a compass1 find his way to safety out of a tropical forest4 ,for a person in his predicament1 things are not likely to come out 8right40 ,furthermore1 in a great many cases of the same sort1 skill and strength are both required2 neither one alone is sufficient to attain the desired end4 ,let now the psychologist tell the story of how the attainment of skill depends upon a standard equipment of sense organs1 a sound and complete brain1 and muscles from which sensory stimuli elicit precise responses4 ,let also the physiologist relate here how bodily vigor likewise depends upon the interrelation of internal functions3 how the heart1 lungs1 brain1 muscles1 thyroid1 liver1 and adrenals all work together to make any effort successful and complete4 ,when this has been said1 the meaning of the word 8right0 as defined in ,class ,a will have been more fully revealed4 #b4 ,as deduced from ,class ,b4 ,here the word 8right0 is used to describe the method or object by which any desire may be realized4 ,the requirements for membership in this class appear at first to be less rigid than was the case with ,class ,a4 ,the speed of motion that was stressed in the former class is inessential here1 as well as the necessity of proceeding by the shortest course4 ,here also a beefy body is not as imperative as are skill and sagacity4 ,but let us not make a favorite of either class before we have heard the whole story4 ,and first let us ask1 what is the typical action-pattern implied by ,class ,b8 ,the answer is not difficult to give4 ,there is a phrase1 8selective excitability10 which psychologists have long applied to the situation where a sensori-motor mechanism is attuned by practice to respond to one specific stimulus1 and to be entirely unresponsive to others4 ,we exhibit this selective excitability every time we take 8our0 hat from the crowded coat-room1 choose 8our0 favorite cigar from a case full of attractive ,havanas1 or fumble thoughtfully in 8our0 pocket for a cent to give to the crouching beggar4 ,in every such case1 we are said to employ the 8right0 object and perform the 8right0 action4 ,actions of this sort involve choice1 which as we have already hinted 7,see footnote1 p4 #cb1 ,chap4 ,,ii471 involves the use of one member of a pair of antagonistic muscles4 ,consequently1 we may describe the action-pattern underlying the use of 8right0 in ,class ,b as any sort of behavior which involves selective excitability and selective activity4 ,so that whatever ,class ,b lacks in generality as compared with ,class ,a1 is compensated for by an increase in precision and1 what is equally important1 by an economy of human energy in the pursuit of the desired object4 ,the importance of this last factor has already been sufficiently hinted at in the quotation that appears on the title-page of this book4 #c4 ,as deduced from ,class ,c4 ,the change from ,class ,a to ,class ,b involved an increase in what is known as intelligence1 that is1 the ability to solve new problems4 ,the change to ,class ,c may be regarded as involving a continued advance of the same general character4 ,but this change involves something more4 ,for1 as we have already stated1 8right0 now becomes 8descriptive of any statement which reports the facts3 of any opinion or judgment that is correct3 and of any person who judges1 thinks1 or acts in accordance with the facts or truth of a matter40 ,two changes in emphasis are consequently to be noted here4 ,first1 the word 8right0 is applied to utterances rather than to deeds alone2 and second1 a metonomy is introduced in the application of our concept to persons who make correct statements4 ,this shift of emphasis from an action to the description of it1 and from the description to the describer need not cause us any difficulty1 even though it envisages for us a million years of the education of the human race4 ,the success of our search for the meaning of our concept is here dependent upon the function of speech to imply and predict action1--a function which we have already commented upon in our second chapter4 ,words1 like thoughts1 are either reminiscent of overt action1 or else they assist in preparing us for it4 ,when1 then1 a man uses the word 8right0 to commend either statements or persons1 it is the same as if he were to say3 8,either there were1 or there are1 or there may be1 objects and events as you describe1 and ,i think as you do about them40 ,the action-pattern here implicated is plainly that of belief4 ,it involves a lowered threshold with respect to the person or statement called 8right10 and a correspondingly higher threshold toward those persons or statements which contradict what is accepted4 ,and as was the case with ,class ,b1 this action-pattern involves the use of one of the halves of a system of antagonistic muscles1 since the 8emphasis here is upon true opinions and judgments in contrast to false ones40 ,this1 however1 is not all that can be said upon this point4 ,for every case of belief is a case of constitutional readiness so to respond4 ,and while we do not exactly know how the body provides such predeterminations1 if the theory of action-patterns is sound1 the conjecture is not unfounded that belief is a function of chronic postures maintained in the muscles of the voluntary system4 ,evidences in favor of this conjecture are readily supplied from our everyday scrutiny of the faces of our fellow-men4 ,the beggar's hand is actually a different hand than the hand of the donor2 as he sits on the sidewalk1 his predetermination to receive alms is patent in the chronic posture of even his palm and fingers4 ,the courtesan not only manifests her willingness to exchange smiles by the chronic postures in her eyelids and mouth1 but with a fitness that a ,de ,maupassant might celebrate1 she also acquires a carriage that betokens her particular vocation4 ,contrariwise1 the generous1 affable man gives evidence that his traits are at least muscle-deep2 while every actor will confess that if he gets into the adequate posture1 the character he is depicting is automatically portrayed4 ,those who pray also confess that there are certain bodily attitudes which hinder1 and others which assist1 the flow of sentiment which they desire4 ,photographic evidences such as these1 however1 are not the only proofs we possess of postural predeterminations of action and thought1 for it is sound physiology that in the multifariously complex musculature of the body1 there are unnoticed postural tensions being generated and maintained all the while4 ,and since1 according to the all-or-none principle of nervous and muscular activity1 every motor tendency is a truly positive physiological event1 whenever we manifest belief1 some part of the body is preparing to execute a movement appropriate to the assertion implied4 ,indeed1 we may safely postulate that a large portion of what we call our individuality is a function of those chronic postures which our habits have hitherto established in our motor mechanism1--which postures ever thereafter determine what we shall do1 say1 and believe4 #d4 ,as deduced from ,class ,d4 ,here the word 8right0 is used to signify 8the hand which is normally the stronger10 whence1 by association1 it refers to a variety of related things1 as hitherto indicated4 ,we have previously noted that the concept 8right0 is a term we often use when the attainment of a purpose is under consideration1 and here we again see the same motif displayed4 ,everybody knows that the 8right0 hand is important in the acquisition of skill of all sorts1 and in getting in touch with the things we call 8good40 ,evidences of the paramount usefulness of the 8right0 hand to carry out overt actions are ubiquitous4 ,moreover1 levers1 pliers1 and a hundred other tools are simply extensions of its functions and magnifications of its powers4 ,what1 then1 are the action-patterns suggested by this use of our concept8 ,the answer is extremely simple4 ,the action-patterns we seek are the innumerable activities of the right hand itself4 ,for1 as we have previously shown1 even to think of the hand involves neuro-muscular activity in it4 ,what the right hand does1 is what the concept 8right10 as applied to the hand1 means4 ,and if1 for any reason1 the 8right0 hand is incapacitated or missing1 some other part of the body executes the appropriate gesture or manuvre4 #e4 ,as deduced from ,class ,e4 ,the transition from ,class ,d to ,class ,e is made on the basis of a common element that is shared by both4 ,we have just seen that the 8right0 hand is the stronger and the more adroit1 and that consequently it is the one more adequately equipped to turn our wishes into wills4 ,no logician1 then1 is required to convince us that legal 8right10 in the sense of being equivalent to might1 connotes the same sort of strength and force as are involved in the grasp and tug of the hand4 ,were the policeman the pure embodiment of legal 8rights10 the action-patterns implied by ,class ,e would be easy to determine1 since they would be simply the total behavior of that functionary while on his beat4 ,the problem before us is1 to be sure1 not quite so easy of solution as reference to the policeman would make it1 but nevertheless1 our previous discussion of legal 8right0 has hinted just what that solution is to be4 ,for legal 8rights0 are one and all concerned with the security of whatever things a man calls his1 together with the adjustment of conflicting claims regarding them4 ,to enumerate in detail all the action-patterns here implied would be equivalent to making an inventory of all the deeds that had ever been performed to preserve property1 life1 and personality1 and to maintain and restore peace and order in society4 ,let the historian open his books and show us the panorama of these achievements4 ,and while we should see upon many of his pages portrayals of torpid conservatism1 ruthless domineering1 and magnificent cunning1 we should also behold examples of that impersonal referee of whom we have already spoken1 whose business it is to persuade and oblige the disturbers of the social equilibrium to employ the methods and standards of conduct which have always marked free men4 ,he who would clearly comprehend such a panorama must needs give it more than a fugitive glance2 for as it required time to be created1 so does it require time in which to be appreciated4 #f4 ,as deduced from ,class ,f4 ,moral 8rights0 are all those unsecured claims and inexactly specified interests whose only protection is the approval and disapproval of the community1 reinforced at times by an appeal to a super-human protagonist4 ,a comparison between the motor-attitudes implied by ,class ,e and ,class ,f reveals several important differences4 ,juristic thinking1 which we may for convenience characterize as the attitude implied by ,class ,e1 is on the whole logically coherent2 moralistic thinking1 on the contrary1 commits every known logical fallacy4 ,again1 juristic thinking is content to regard human problems capable of solution at the hands of human beings1 and to consider that the verdicts of unruffled men and of men expert in their lines is final2 while moralistic thinking is ever prone to employ methods which1 on account of their provincialism and importunity1 do not stand analysis at the hands of unbiased investigators4 ,finally1 the 8higher judge0 which moralists assert stands behind the claims they make1 is simply a misinterpretation of the meaning of long unrelieved tensions which have accumulated in their skeletal muscles4 ,for while we do not declare that all claims unsecured by law are ethically invalid1 we do nevertheless assert that the typical moralist's attitude toward all such unsecured claims is not one that is suited to bridge the gap between our liquid matter and its good4 ,nevertheless1 we may say without equivocation that behind every declaration of moral rights there is an anxiety lest some dependable good be lost1 and this motor attitude we conceive to be the greatest common divisor of all the significations included under ,class ,f4 #g4 ,as deduced from ,class ,g4 ,although this class resembles the preceding one in that it refers to customs whose maintenance depends upon the approval and disapproval of the group1 ,class ,g lacks all of the fiercely ,stoical and ,puritanical elements found in ,class ,f1 just as it lacks the logical rigor pertaining to ,class ,e4 ,the action-patterns implied by this present class are rather those of a courteous gentleman1 who persuades whenever he can by a gesture1 but who does not try twice to persuade those who will not yield to that kind of a suggestion4 #h4 ,as deduced from ,class ,h4 ,since 8right0 here signifies that which is convenient1 desirable1 favorable1 etc41 the action-patterns which it implies are practically identical with those of the first three classes of 8good40 ,certainly every example previously cited under this class points to an outgoing reaction4 #i4 ,as deduced from ,class ,i4 ,the adverbial use of our concept here implies merely a gesture of positive emphasis that may be added to any other action-pattern4 ,having previously sorted the manifold significations of the word 8right0 among these nine classes1 and having subsequently shown what the organism was doing when it employed this word with respect to each of these classes1 it now remains to discover whether any one action-tendency is commonly hinted by each and all of these nine classes4 ,if such a common tendency can be discovered1 the word 8right0 may then indeed be said to possess all these various significations indicated in our array2 otherwise1 we shall err in considering it to be one and the same word in all the examples previously cited4 ,in attempting to discover and certify such a common tendency1 moreover1 we shall employ the same method suggested for the summarizing of the meanings of the word 8good40 ,we recognize that in the title by which each class of 8right0 is denoted1 there is no presumption that such a title does more than indicate the general trend of that class2 logically1 the titles merely imply the greatest common divisors of the many phrases included in the classes4 ,so that when we now attempt to define the common tendency in all the action-patterns we have just deduced from these nine classes1 we are to consider only their similarities1 while discarding their differences4 ,there is nothing novel in this method2 it is simply the way in which all concepts have been unconsciously derived4 ,such a common tendency is not difficult to discover4 ,each class as we defined it in behavioristic terms turned out to imply an action-tendency that played an important part in the behavior of human beings while in the pursuit of the objects they desire1 or in the attainment of their ends1 however variously conceived or projected4 ,let us1 then1 bring the whole matter to a focus by saying that whenever we describe a behavior situation in which the dominant feature is the controlling and directing of human energies1 the employment of technique to further man's purposes1 or the attaining of any good whatsoever1 the critical word is 8right40 ,this is1 indeed1 what our concept1 as we have analysed it1 finally means4 ,further than this a strictly scientific ethics does not go1 and1 moreover1 further than this no intellectually honest man will go4 ,right simply means what people use the word to signify1--employing it either as a gesture to point out some object or relationship in the environment1 or else as an index of what sort of behavior may be expected of them in the future4 ,accordingly1 all insistence on a 8higher and immutable right0 as the one real meaning of the term is either a sign of mal-observation or of logorrhea4 ,and if anyone still insists on knowing how one determines what is right1 we refer such a person to our array of #aad terms1 where in each case the basis for such determination can be inferred4 ,but if such a person still demands an ultimate and irrefutable criterion1 the only thing left for him to do is to attempt to be ,god2 but it is suggested in advance that the role of deity might1 under the circumstances1 be even more difficult to play than the more familiar rle of man4 ,,footnotes3 #aa ,class ,a is divided into the following sub-classes3 ,i4 ,straight4 #a4 ,that which is not bent1 curved1 or crooked in any way2 for example1 a straight line4 #b4 ,that which is formed by1 or with reference to1 a line drawn to another line or surface by the shortest course 7i4 e41 a perpendicular71 as1 for example1 right line1 right angle1 right ascension1 etc4 #c4 ,used to describe solid figures having the ends or base at an angle of #ij degrees with the axis1 e4 g41 right solid1 right sphere1 right cone1 right helicoid1 etc4 #d4 ,right circle2 in the stereographic projection1 a circle represented by a straight line4 #e4 ,right line pen2 one that is adapted especially for ruling lines4 ,,ii4 ,direct4 #f4 ,the shortest course2 that which keeps one and the same direction throughout4 #g4 ,that which goes straight to its destination4 ,compare3 8,right across the track40 ,,iii4 ,immediately4 7,compare 8directly407 #h4 ,suddenly1 at once2 e4 g41 8,he went right home40 8,right up the mountain40 8,let thine eyes look right on40 8,he went right off40 #i4 ,right away1 right here1 right now1 right down 7,cf4 downright74 8,these strata falling1 the whole tract sinks down #8to rights' in the abyss40 ,,iv4 ,idiomatic uses derived from the foregoing4 #aj4 ,in hunting1 the scent or track of the game4 8,the dogs have got the right40 #aa4 8,right the helm10 that is1 put it in line with the keel4 #ab4 8,right aft10 that is1 in direct line with the axis and stern of the ship4 #ab ,this class includes3 #bb4 8,you say not right1 old man40 #bc4 8,a right description of our sport1 my ,lord40 #bd4 8,there hath been a terrible to-do1 ,i could not possibly learn the very right of it40 #be4 8,you are certainly in the right40 #bf4 8,to put the saddle on the right horse40 7,that is1 to impute blame where it is deserved47 #bg4 8,the clock that stands still points right twice in the four and twenty hours2 while others may keep going continually and be continually going wrong40 #bh4 8,a fool must now and then be right by chance40 #bi4 8,and this wise world of ours is mainly right40 #cj4 8,some praise at morning what they blame at night1 ,but always think the last opinion right40 ,idiomatic and archaic uses1 signifying true1 real1 actual1 genuine1 correct4 #ca4 8,if they be not right ,granado silk40 #cb4 8,a pound of ointment of right spikenard40 #cc4 8,a right pipe of ,trinidad40 #cd4 8,my ryghte doghter1 tresoure of myn herte40 #ce4 8,the ,poet is indeed the right ,popular ,philosopher1 whereof ,esops tales giue good proofe40 #cf4 8,be sure you're right1 then go ahead40 #cg4 ,right6 ,right-,o6 ,right you are6 7,slang47 #ac ,this class includes3 #ch4 ,that side of the body which is on the east when the face is toward the north1 its limbs1 their clothing1 etc41 as1 for example1 right arm1 cheek1 leg1 ear1 coat-sleeve1 and so on4 #ci4 ,motions in the direction implied in the preceding example3 8,go to the right40 8,right about40 #dj4 ,anything1 usually one member of a pair1 shaped or otherwise adapted for a right-hand position or use1 e4 g41 gloves1 shoes1 etc4 #da4 ,a right-side tool4 ,a right-hand thread on a machine screw4 #db4 ,right camphor2 8,the camphor produced from the ,lauraceae which gives a right polarization to light4 #dc4 ,right bower2 in euchre the knave of trumps1 which is the highest card next to the joker4 ,this card has a place in our study of 8right0 if for no other reason than that it signifies power of achievement in that player who finds it in his hand4 #dd4 ,the right hand of fellowship4 ,this expression denotes a custom of very ancient origin1 practised in treaties by the ,persians and ,parthians1 not only as an inviolable pledge of fidelity 78,in union there is strength4071 but also as a proof that no club or other weapon was concealed in the hand4 #de4 ,in the politics of continental ,europe1--that party which occupies the position to the right of the president in the legislative assembly4 #df4 ,by metonomy 7conditioned reflex7 the conservative political party4 #dg4 ,by selective association1 the party or party principles which one approves4 #ad ,as a partial list of the significations included in this class1 may be cited3 #dh4 ,in the legal sense1 that which justly accrues or falls to anyone1 that which one may properly claim1 one's due1 e4 g41 territory1 estate1 dominion4 #di4 ,particular cases of the preceding3 ,right of eminent domain1 ,constitutional rights1 ,corporeal rights1 ,inchoate right of dower1 ,innominate rights1 etc4 #ej4 ,idiomatic expressions3 8,to be in the right10 8,to have the right10 8,with right10 8,by right or rights10 8,of right10 8,to have due right10 etc4 #ea4 ,joint rights2 a title or claim to something properly possessed by two or more persons4 #eb4 ,a document substantiating a legally recognized claim or title4 #ec4 ,legally just or equitable treatment4 #ed4 8,right drawn sword10 drawn in a just cause4 #ee4 ,the person1 party1 or cause which is sustained in a controversy4 7,compare ,ex4 #dg1 ,class ,d47 #ef4 ,to do one right2 to do one justice4 #eg4 8,right money02 money paid as the condition or consideration of acquiring a 8right0 to the purchase of land4 #eh4 ,the title or claim to the enjoyment of privileges or indemnities4 7,a relatively unemphatic use of the term 8legal right407 #ae ,the significations included in this class are numerous and various4 ,as follows3 #ei4 8,in conformity with the moral law2 permitted by the principle which ought to regulate conduct2 in accordance with truth1 justice1 duty1 or the will of ,god2 ethically good1 equitable1 just40 #fj4 8,a poor man has no legal right to relief1 but it is morally right that he should have it4 ,a rich man has a legal right to destroy the harvest of his fields1 but to do so would not be morally right40 #fa4 8,goodness in actions is like unto straightness2 wherefore that which is done well we term right40 #fb4 8,cousin of ,hereford1 as thy cause is right1 ,so be thy fortune in this royal fight40 #fc4 8,he ,who now is ,sovran can dispose and bid ,what shall be right40 #fd4 8,that which is consonant with equity1 or the light of nature2 that which is morally just or due40 #fe4 8,right conduct2 a just and good act1 or course of action2 anything which justly may or should be done40 #ff4 8,wrest once the law to your authority2 ,to do a great right1 do a little wrong40 #fg4 8,too fond of the right to do the expedient40 #fh4 8,with firmness in the right as ,god gives us to see the right40 #fi4 ,the right2 the cause of truth and justice4 #gj4 ,that which is proper for or incumbent on one to do3 one's duty4 7,obsolete47 #ga4 ,the standard of permitted and forbidden action within a certain sphere4 7,obsolete47 #gb4 8,obedience to or harmony with the rules of morality1 justice1 truth1 and propriety40 #gc4 8,acting in accordance with the highest moral standard2 free from guilt or blame40 #gd4 8,a ,god of truth and without iniquity1 just and right is his name40 #ge4 8,i have made him just and right1 ,sufficient to have stood1 though free to fall40 #gf4 8,right reason3 that which recommends itself to enlightened intelligence3 some inward intimation for which great respect is felt and which is supposed to be common to the mass of mankind40 #gg4 ,to be in the right2 8to have justice1 fact1 or reason upon one's side40 #gh4 ,in prepositional phrases1 with1 by1 of right2 properly1 with reason1 justice1 etc4 #gi4 ,to have a right4 ,to have reason or cause2 hence1 to come near1 have a narrow escape from 7sic672 e4 g41 8,i'd a good right to be run over by the train this morning40 7,colloquial47 #hj4 8,divine right of kings40 #ha4 8,right way2 the way of moral excellence or spiritual salvation40 8,but you are a presbyterian44480 8,i am1 sir2 praised be the light that shewed me the right way60 #hb4 ,of persons and dispositions2 disposed to do what is just4 #hc4 ,of belief2 orthodox1 true4 ,that which ought to be accepted or followed4 #hd4 ,to do justice to2 to relieve from distress2 to vindicate2 often used reflexively4 8,so just is ,god1 to right the innocent40 #he4 ,to do right2 to act according to the 8law or will of ,god40 #hf4 ,to feel right toward a person2 to be either kind1 or sympathetic1 or to cooperate with him4 #af ,we cite here3 #hg4 8,the first place is yours1 ,timothy1 in right of your gray hairs40 #hh4 8,i have a perfect right to grieve over him40 #hi4 8,she has a right to be admired1 for she is beautiful40 #ij4 8,not only is she a peeress1 but she has fourteen thousand a year in her own right40 #ia4 8,put your bonnet to the right use2 'tis for the head40 #ib4 8,why do you twist words out of their right use80 #ic4 8,mr4 ,right0 8,mrs4 ,right10 the destined husband or wife4 #id4 8,that part of the quarry given to the hounds as their share or due40 #ie4 8,a stag's full complement of antlers1 consisting of the brow1 the bay1 and the tray40 #if4 8,to do one right0 to pledge one in a toast4 7,compare3 8faire raison 407 #ig4 8,the right word is always a power1 and communicates its definiteness to our actions40 #ag ,for example3 #ih4 8,i should have been a woman by right40 #ii4 8,the lady has been disappointed on the right side40 #ajj4 8,if he should offer to choose1 and choose the right casket1 you should refuse to perform your father's will44440 #aja4 ,idiomatic colloquial phrases expressing satisfaction or approval3 as 8,your conduct and dress are all right40 8,he has done it all right40 8,are you ready8 ,all right1 go ahead40 #ajb4 ,to set right2 to adjust or correct something out of order4 8,your mother's hand shall right your mother's wrong40 #ajc4 ,in a satisfactory or proper state or order3 8,it's a snug little island1 a right little1 tight little island40 #ajd4 ,skilfully performed1 correctly done3 8,the sum is not right40 8,the drawing is not right40 8,nothing goes right40 #aje4 8,to rights10 properly1 fittingly1 as1 for example1 8,she put the room to rights40 #ajf4 8,i put him right on the matter10 that is1 corrected or directed him1 or both4 #ajg4 ,the safe1 advantageous1 appropriate1 or desirable side of anything1 as1 8,a widow on the right side of thirty40 #ajh4 ,fitting1 proper1 appropriate1 exactly according to what is required or suitable1 as1 8,things of the right size40 #aji4 ,the outward1 front1 or most finished surface of anything1 as1 8,the right side of a piece of cloth40 #aaj4 ,in good health or spirits1 sound1 comfortable1 or sane1 as3 8,an old uncle of mine who isn't exactly right40 8,he is not in his right mind2 he is talking nonsense and is stark mad40 8,the heart's aye the part aye ,that makes us right or wrang40 8#8,oh1' said ,mr4 ,winkle the elder1 #8,i hope you are well1 sir4' #8,right as a trivet1 sir1' replied ,bob ,sawyer40 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,the ,,word 8,,wrong0 8,the human mind is capable of having very many perceptions1 and the more capable1 the greater the number of ways in which its body can be disposed40 ,,spinoza1 8,ethics10 ,part ,,ii1 ,prop4 #ad4 ,lexicographers are wont to state that 8wrong0 is the opposite of 8right0 in all of its principle senses1 but as can be seen at a glance from the appended array1#ah this statement cannot be taken to imply that any such extensive list of significations as we exhibited in our analysis of 8right0 can be reproduced here4 ,indeed1 in what respect 8wrong0 is the antonym of 8right10 or1 in other words1 how far this pair of terms illustrates the law of reciprocal innervation1 can be seen only from a detailed comparison of the two1 as follows3-- ,,right ,,wrong ,class ,a4 ,the word 8right0 as descriptive of certain mathematical relationships and physical functions4 ,sub-class ,i4 8,straight10 7a word in current usage7 negated by 8,crooked10 ,ex4 ,i1 7obsolete74 ,sub-class ,,ii4 8,direct0 ,no antonym ,,footnotes3 #ah ,as follows3 #a4 ,crooked1 twisted1 or wry4 7,obsolete7 #b4 ,disordered1 not properly adjusted1 as in the expression3 8,i've heerd my aunt say as she found out summat was wrong wi' ,nancy as soon as the milk turned bingy40 #c4 ,incorrect1 or uncorrected2 that is1 not according to requirement1 intention1 purpose1 or desire1 as wrong ideas1 wrong courses1 the wrong font of type1 etc4 #d4 ,esthetically undesirable or unsuitable1 as1--8,you have put the wrong side of the cloth outermost40 #e4 ,erroneous or mistaken belief or assertion4 #f4 8,in the wrong box0 7slang71 in an awkward situation1 mistaken4 #g4 ,perverse1 wilfully mistaken or erroneous4 7,cf4 8evil407 #h4 ,unjust action2 violation of obligation or propriety2 a tort4 #i4 ,harm or 8evil0 inflicted2 damage or detriment suffered2 an injury1 mischief1 or hurt2 pain imparted or received4 #aj4 ,to be 8in the wrong02 to be mistaken1 to act or think incorrectly or unjustly4 #aa4 8,to have wrong02 to be mistaken2 to act erroneously or unjustly4 #ab4 8,to have wrong02 to suffer injury2 e4 g41 8,csar has had great wrong40 #ac4 8,to put in the wrong02 to represent erroneously4 #ad4 8,to go wrong02 not to run smoothly1 as of machinery4 #ae4 8,to go wrong02 to go astray from the intended direction4 #af4 8,to go wrong02 to do 8evil40 #ag4 ,to 8wrong02 to treat unfairly1 unjustly1 or harmfully2 to oppress1 offend1 or injure4 #ah4 8,to wrong02 in an old nautical sense1 to take the wind from the sails of a ship which is sailing in line with another to windward4 ,sub-class ,,iii4 8,immediately0 ,no antonym ,class ,b4 8,right0 as descriptive of the method 7or object7 by which the desired end can be obtained negated by ,examples #c and #e2 but only if we override the objection that 8right0 here usually refers to one specific method or object1 while 8wrong0 can refer to any one of a number of unspecified things4 ,class ,c4 8,right0 as descriptive of any statement that reports the facts2 of any opinion or judgment that is correct2 and of any person who judges1 thinks1 or acts in accordance with the facts or the truth about a matter negated by ,examples #c1 #e1 #g1 #i1 #aj1 and #aa1 except for the difference just previously mentioned1 and omitting examples #ca-ce inclusive on p4 #hj4 ,class ,d4 8,right0 as the distinctive epithet of the hand which is normally the stronger ,no antonym ,class ,e4 ,legal 8rights02 those claims and interests the establishment and protection of which may be secured by force and even violence negated only with respect to some particular cases of 8right0 by ,examples #h1 #i1 and #ag4 ,class ,f4 ,moral 8rights0 negated by ,examples #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ac1 #af1 and #ag2 but only in the same way that moral 8right0 is incompatible with legal 8right40 ,class ,g4 ,unspecified and unrestricted liberties and privileges negated restrictively by the single example of ,no4 #ah4 ,class ,h4 ,that which is most convenient1 desirable1 or favorable2 conforming to one's wish or desire2 to be preferred1 etc41 negated by ,examples #b1 #d1 #f1 #i1 #aj1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 and #ae4 ,class ,i4 8,right0 signifying very1 in great degree ,no antonym ,this comparison obviously reveals no basis for the statement that 8wrong0 and 8right0 are complete antitheses to each other1 at least in the fine sense that up is the opposite of down1 in of out1 or east of west4 ,so that1 if we accept the word 8right0 as descriptive of a behavior situation in which the dominant feature is the controlling and directing of human energies1 the employment of technique to further man's purposes1 or the attainment of any 8good0 whatsoever1 the word 8wrong0 cannot1--either according to the detailed list of its uses just presented1 or according to the above scheme of its logical relationship to 8right10--be said to be the true antonym of that word4 ,the law of reciprocal innervation does not1 in its integrity1 apply here4 ,how then shall we explain the fact that people so habitually say and feel that 8wrong0 is the opposite of 8right10 if it cannot be admitted that antagonistic muscles are always employed in the thoughts and the acts to which these two words refer8 ,perhaps the following interpretation will answer4 ,logicians are accustomed to say that any universal proposition1 any sweeping statement1 such as1 8,every swan is white10 or 8,no aliens need apply10 is contradicted by the admission that one single exception is to be allowed4 ,but obviously1 such logical contradiction1 such admission of a lone but effective exception1 is not equivalent to granting that 8,no swans are white10 or that 8,every alien is requested to apply40 ,nevertheless1 the tradition among logicians is that with the granting of one such exception1 the sweeping statement originally made is held to be untrue1 and hence1 false4 ,in physiological terms 7than which there are none more fundamental71 contradiction is for the logician equivalent to a partial but effective inhibition of any fully developed action-tendency4 ,when ,plato would say1 8,you may all now come in to dinner10 but is deterred by seeing ,diogenes muddying his feet in order to tread the more scornfully on the clean banquet floor1 ,plato's action-pattern of wholesale1 cordial invitation is suddenly interrupted4 ,and1 so far as ,plato's emotions are concerned1 the need to make one important exception in his invitation1 is very much like having to turn the whole company out of doors4 ,this tendency for an emotional repugnance to blot out all sense of proportion is clearly illustrated in certain oft-repeated fables4 ,the story of the involuntary guest who had not on a wedding garment1 of the ninety and nine sheep1 and of the rich young man are cases in point4 ,similar examples may be found in the behavior of any household4 ,the vexed hostess is heard complaining that one little faux pas on the part of her serving-girl 8completely spoiled the whole evening40 ,the sweet young thing whose lover arrives a quarter of an hour later than his appointment accuses him of being elsewhere enamoured to stay4 ,the wife whose husband forgets only one of her twenty birthdays since their marriage often finds it impossible to overlook the single1 unhabitual fault4 ,it is not that such people crave or dote on perfection2 they do nothing of the sort3 it is only that their behavior mechanisms are unable to readjust quickly to another stimulus than the one which they have expected1 and this failure to readjust releases energies by way of the viscera instead of along other and more pacific pathways4 ,all this has an important bearing on the meaning of the word 8wrong40 ,we saw that this word has only #ah significations1 as compared with the #aad significations of 8right40 ,we also saw that it is only partially antagonistic to the concept to which it is commonly opposed4 ,and it has further been revealed that our customary logic makes a single exception the grounds for an assumption of contradiction4 ,on the basis of these observations1 then1 we may declare that 8wrong0 refers to some very special behavior situations where human energies cannot be controlled and directed as desired1 where the employment of technique to further man's purposes has been hindered1 and where 8good0 cannot be obtained4 ,this1 however1 is not equivalent to saying that 8wrong0 is the antonym1 the unqualified contradictory1 of 8right10 any more than red is the opposite of blue1 or coffee the opposite of tea4 ,a ,physiological ,warrant for ,ethical ,optimism ,a question of considerable importance both in physiology and in ethics arises when we ask why the concepts 8right0 and 8good0 have so many more significations than do 8wrong10 8evil10 and 8bad40 ,we have already emphasized the relation between speech and conduct sufficiently to indicate that upon the answer to such a question something essential for a technique in ethics depends4 ,a word can have a great number of significations only by its being employed in a great variety of situations1 and this means that very many different specific responses are implicit in the use of our most comprehensive concepts4 ,contrariwise1 with a word of fewer significations1 fewer such responses are implied4 ,now we have already cited the fact that 8good0 and 8right0 refer primarily to outgoing 7extensor7 reactions1 and that 8wrong10 8evil10 and 8bad0 signify withdrawing 7flexor7 reactions4 ,are we1 then1 summarily to conclude1 without any further knowledge of the body's mechanisms1 that since we seem to use our extensor system in a more diversified manner than our flexor system1 the muscular equipment of the former is superior to that of the latter8 ,if we do so conclude1 we shall be in error4 ,it is the opposite that is nearer the truth4 ,both larger and stronger1 and1 on the whole1 more easily educated muscles exist in the flexor than in the extensor system4 ,the innumerable capacities of the half-closed hand are representative of this superiority4 ,still more important1 however1 is the fact that the flexor system is practically the dominant system in the human body4 ,the hinges of the knee1 hip1 shoulder1 elbow1 wrist1 and jaw are more often1 more strongly1 and more readily closed maximally than they are expanded to the full4 ,besides1 occupational postures are almost universally crystallized withdrawing responses4 ,where1 then1 shall we look for the answer to our question8 ,we shall look directly at the behavior of the organism as a whole4 ,while it is admitted that flexor actions are stronger1 more numerous1 and more universal than are extensor reactions1 yet when we consider how the flexor reactions dispose the body toward its environment1 we shall at once have light on this curious problem4 ,for the effect of such reactions is to cut off the body from a large part of the environment1 and consequently to reduce the possibility of effective contact with it4 ,stooping1 crouching1 bowing the head1 and lowering the eye are significant examples of flexor responses which reduce the span of perception1 while every man knows that activities of the opposite character allow a greater number of stimuli to come in contact with his eyes and his ears4 ,consequently1 even though flexor actions will always be in the majority1 extensor actions have the advantage of providing the conditions under which a greater variety of stimuli can be presented to the organism4 ,this is the same as saying that the open-minded person necessarily becomes discriminative and exploratory1 while the opposite type is left to stew in his own juice4 ,the flexor type of man is1 indeed1 in the end reduced to contacts with his own body1 while to the extensor type of man his body is only one of the many sources of motivation1 the rest being in the external environment4 ,it seems thus to be primarily due to the very mechanics of the organism that the words 8right0 and 8good0 have a greater variety of significations than have the words 8bad10 8evil10 and 8wrong40 ,one additional word1 however1 can still be said4 ,as we have already indicated1 these three so-called negative ethical concepts are all descriptive of behavior situations in which thwarting and inhibition are dominant symptoms4 ,henceforth1 however1 thwarting and inhibition will be understood as temporary interruptions of an outgoing reaction which would have eventuated had the environment contained the stimulus to which the organism was attuned to respond4 ,as we say in common speech1 a desire is not satisfied by being denied1 and from our every-day experience we know that great aggravations produce as much scheming as do our easiest successes4 ,he who casts his eye over the numerous significations of our two positive ethical concepts will now realize where much of the adroitness and sagacity which characterizes them originates4 ,in these two simple facts1 namely1 that extensor actions bring more of the world of action within our range1 and that even the thwarted man imaginatively explores the environment to find substitute stimuli to release his energy upon1 we find the reason why man has more uses for the words 8right0 and 8good0 than he has for the words 8bad10 8evil10 and 8wrong40 ,and with this we achieve by a purely empirical and anti-supernaturalistic method a physiological warrant for ethical optimism4 ,if anyone is looking for a 8higher0 truth1 let him ponder this one4 ,,chapter ,,vii 8,,virtue0 ,,and 8,,vice0 ,,as ,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,organism 8,in nearly all these philosophic discussions of ethics one has somehow the haunting sense of a wrongness of direction4 ,virtue is somehow imposed from above1 it is descending upon us4 ,and the unfortunate part of this is that it has to descend very low indeed before it reaches us2 and when there1 it has lost the buoyancy wherewith to lift us up40 ,,edwin ,,holt1 8,the ,freudian ,wish40 ,in the foregoing analysis of the five most frequently used ethical concepts we have had to feel our way rather carefully1 inasmuch as a completely new path was being cut through the tangle of human experience2 henceforth1 however1 our task will be somewhat easier1 since we shall now be able to apply the truth we have already discovered in the remainder of our investigations4 ,directly1 then1 we shall proceed to ask what another pair of ethical antonyms1 namely1 virtue and vice1 signify in terms of our physiological functions4 ,it will be recalled that our first five ethical concepts were rather largely employed to point out objects and relationships in the external environment4 ,it is common to speak of good and bad automobile tires1 of the right golf club to use near a bunker1 of the wrong side of a sheet of drawing paper1 and of the evil that men do which lives after them4 ,when1 however1 we take up the study1 first of 8virtue0 and 8vice10 and later on1 that of 8conscience10 8duty10 and 8freedom10 we are no longer to be primarily concerned with things outside of the organism1 but rather with processes going on within it4 ,significantly enough1 this deepening of our absorption into the field of ethics involves a further penetration into the realm of physiology4 ,thus in a curious and unforeseen way our fundamental thesis with regard to the close relationship between physiology and ethics obtains additional support4 ,consequently1 we are not to turn suddenly from objective to subjective ethics1 as has usually been the case when the five concepts we are forthwith to analyse have been discussed2 on the contrary1 just as we began by defining ethical values in terms of human activities1 so shall we continue until we have made an end4 ,and although it is commonly asserted that the deepest meanings are inner meanings1 yet in a universe that has neither an inside1 nor an outside1 nor an edge1 such a figure of speech simply betokens an introversive tendency on the part of him who uses it4 ,herewith1 also1 the need to combat another equally stultifying tendency is manifest4 ,i refer to the proclivity of all second-rate minds to reify abstract terms4 8,virtue0 and 8vice0 have been so reified1 as have likewise 8conscience10 8duty10 and 8freedom0 to such an extent as to make it almost impossible to get a fair hearing for any one who wishes to discover the sources from which these concepts have been derived4 ,it is admitted1 of course1 that the evolution of man has been greatly hastened by his ability to make and use abstract terms2 but when a man uses an abstract term without knowing or caring from what sources it has been derived1 he is manifesting little more than a desire to escape from reality4#ai ,indeed1 it might be said that unless the use of abstractions assists us in dealing more effectively with concrete persons and things1 it is time to regret that language has been universally acquired4 ,the terms 8virtue0 and 8vice10 therefore1 instead of being treated as abstract entities which existed even prior to man's advent on the planet1 and which will survive his leave-taking of it1 will be here regarded simply as words by which a man describes the behavior of himself and of his fellows4 ,and1 as was the case five times previously1 our definitions of these particular concepts will be the result of a search for the greatest common divisors of all the particular virtues and vices respectively4 ,strangely enough1 however1 no complete catalogue of either the virtues or the vices exists4 ,moreover1 every list which the different philosophies and religions furnish reflects a different bias or determining tendency4 ,one need only to scan the ,platonic1 the ,aristotelian1 and the ,christian inventories#bj in order to verify this remark4 ,the determining tendency thus revealed turns out upon analysis to contain two elements3--first1 the desire to reduce the essential virtues to the smallest number possible1 and second1 the inclination to rank them from the highest1 or supreme virtue1 to the lowest4 ,such a procedure as the latter1--that of building the edifice of virtue down from the top1--is1 in our estimation1 no part of a scientific method in ethics4 ,neither does it tell us what a virtue is4 ,besides1 as might be expected from such biased and provincial system-making1 what one philosophy or religion calls a virtue1 may be classified by another as a vice4 ,witness the ambiguous status of humility as treated now by the followers of ,nietzsche1 and again by the early ,christians4 ,perhaps1 however1 such ambiguities may be traced to the fact that the term 8vice0 is of uncertain etymology1 while no such perplexity arises concerning the origin of the word 8virtue40 ,this lack of unanimity or completeness in the various invoices of virtue is not in any way fatal to our purpose4 ,in spite of special emphases philosophies and religions may exhibit or insist upon1 every particular virtue is undeniably some quality1 trait1 or performance which is admired or esteemed4 ,taking this description as our point of departure1 let us first consider what sort of traits and performances have been thus commended1 after which we shall be able to discover to what an extent virtue and vice are contradictory4 ,for it is by no means obvious at the start that they are true antonyms4 ,let it be recognized1 then1 that the original signification of virtue refers to the so-called manly or noble qualities of bravery1 valor1 daring1 courage1 and the like4 ,from this it is inferable that just as might and right were found to have much in common1 so do virtue and physical power4 ,perhaps the biologist would call this phase of virtue a manifestation of positive thigmotaxis1 that is1 the tendency to face and fight against physical obstacles4 ,we might also call these manly or noble qualities the spectacular virtues1 since he who displays them is always subject-matter for the dramatist1 whether a man exhibit his valor in the midst of a crowd on ,broadway1 or alone in the fastnesses of the ,yukon4 ,how far this sort of virtue can be attributed to the dumb animals has not yet become part of ethical inquiry4 ,in ,plato's ,dialogue 8,laches0 ,socrates argues that the virtue that is strength1 in so far as it pertains to human beings1 contains an intellectual element that is wanting in the lower animals1 however pluckily they may defend their young against an intruder4 ,nevertheless1 sympathetic and careful observers of animal behavior are becoming more and more convinced that the defence which such a bird as the penguin makes against the egg-eating skua-gulls is just as courageous an act1 and therewith just as virtuous1 as that of a weak nation against a mighty invader4 ,reduced to its lowest terms1 every act of bravery is the same3 it is only the interests involved which make the sacrifices of ,regulus and ,andreas ,hofer seem fundamentally different from those of dumb animals at bay before the merciless hunter4 ,but evidences of a growing doubt on this point are manifest today in the fact of our awarding hero-medals to dogs and horses in the same manner as we award them to men4 ,a second class of traits which have been traditionally commended includes such things as caution1 probity1 temperance1 sobriety1 honesty1 and the like4 ,these virtues are at once seen to lack the theatrical or spectacular quality which attaches to displays of physical courage or intrepidity4 ,they might1 therefore1 perhaps be called the unobtrusive virtues4 ,it is not to be understood1 however1 that these unobtrusive virtues require any less physical energy than do those with which they have just been contrasted4 ,to be sure1 the energy expended is on the whole less suddenly released1 for it may involve far more work to acquire the habitual trait of honesty than to be gallant for an hour or so on the field of battle4 ,perhaps it is due to the recognition of this fact that today raw physical fortitude is not the first association which the mention of 8virtue0 calls up in our minds4 ,a third use of the term 8virtue0 signifies any inherent property capable of producing certain effects1 in which connection it particularly refers to the medicinal efficacy of drugs distilled from plants4 ,this sort of virtue is good for something1 and is usually regarded as life-enhancing4 ,finally1 this concept appears in certain familiar phrases1 such as 8by virtue of10 8in virtue of10 and the like1 where it usually connotes strength1 or efficacy1 or even reason1 and right4 ,thus we see that the word 8virtue10 like the other ethical concepts we have analysed1 loses almost all of its specificity when it enters into idiomatic phrases4 ,these four classes exhaust the uses to which this concept has been put4 ,what1 then1 shall we declare to be the common element in them which we may call the essence of virtue with respect to human beings8 ,in giving our answer1 it is necessary to call attention to the fact that our third use of the word 8virtue0 7signifying the medicinal efficacy of drugs7 will occupy a minor1 or even negligible place in our definition4 ,as for the rest1 seeing that the virtues are one and all traits which are commended or praised1 they may be considered as action-patterns or action-tendencies which human beings manifest4 ,we can also go further than this4 ,employing the physiological principles hitherto used in defining ethical concepts1 it appears at once that the word 8virtue0 means that energy is either being mobilized or expended to obtain what the organism considers to be a dependable good4 ,this can also be stated in another way1 by saying that those human traits which have been expressly denominated virtues are some of the attributes of what is commonly called a 8good0 man4 7,see ,ex4 #ba1 p4 #ch47 ,in this restricted sense1 furthermore1 the virtuous1 or good1 man is the one whose acts are called right4 ,and this leads us at once to a very important question4 ,why is it1 we ask1 that so few of the innumerable human traits that are commended every day--not only by words of praise1 but also by that subtler and more emphatic sign of unconscious imitation--have been chosen as virtues1 while so many others have been left out of the list8 ,the four cardinal virtues1--courage1 prudence1 temperance1 and justice1--exemplify this high degree of selectiveness1 while this inventory omits all mention of human skill in any form1 in spite of the fact that when the list was made by ,plato1 human skill in the fine arts had reached one of its limits of excellence4 ,the answer here sought is highly significant as a comment upon ethical speculation in a pre-scientific age4 ,the list of cardinal virtues is merely an index of the bias of its maker with regard to the outstanding problems of his own time4 ,these four traits which ,plato elevated to the top of his system are not1 then1 to be taken as an indication of what ,plato saw most frequently exhibited by the citizens of ,athens1 but1 if anything1 just the contrary4 ,anyone who has read ,plato's 8,republic0 will recall that his aim was to describe an ideal1 that is1 a not-yet-existing state1 and that these four virtues were lauded1 not because they had been found in actual life to be either sufficient or practicable1 but rather because they seemed to ,plato to fit into his ideal scheme4 ,now it is seldom denied that courageous men1 prudent men1 temperate men1 and just men are to be soundly commended1 or do we in any sense deny it here4 ,our only question is1 ,should these four traits be called the cardinal or supreme virtues before the whole list of commendable traits has been scrutinized8 ,the answer which the scientifically trained mind gives is in the negative4 ,something else1 however1 is even more important for the foundation of an empirical ethics1 namely1 the question3 ,are those traits which we openly praise to be regarded1 in the study of actual conduct1 of prior importance to those which1 by being unconsciously imitated1 receive our silent1 and therewith more significant approval8 ,this1 however1 is the same as asking whether man has ever dared to face with courage and sincerity the real ethical problem4 ,a glance at another well-known list of selected virtues reveals even less of a tendency toward the statistical method in ethics than even ,plato showed4 ,we refer to those significantly unobtrusive virtues which characterized the ethics of primitive ,christianity1 and which were doubtless derived from the ,beatitudes4 ,readers of the ,english ,bible may recall that the epithet 8blessed0 was employed by ,jesus to describe 7#a7 those who were poor in spirit1 7#b7 those who mourn1 7#c7 the meek1 7#d7 those who hunger and thirst after righteousness1 7#e7 the merciful1 7#f7 the pure in heart1 7#g7 the peacemakers1 7#h7 those who have been persecuted for righteousness' sake1 7#i7 those falsely reproached1 7#aj7 the poor1 and 7#aa7 those who weep1 which persons1 in the average1 are an entirely different class of organisms from those whom ,plato would have called 8blessed10 that is1 commendable4#ba ,there is evidence to believe that this novel emphasis upon a certain type of person1--a type hitherto openly unpraised in the ethical thought of man1--gave rise to the tendency to elevate such traits as humility1 kindliness1 self-denial1 meekness1 patience1 and the like1 to a supreme position in the minds of primitive ,christians4 ,however1 this class of virtues is again not to be considered as indicative of the only traits which people commend1 either openly1 or by more subtle and significant signs4 ,it is even safe to say that no group of ,christians1 be it either small or large1 existing in a remote or a modern generation1 were ever navely satisfied1 or brought by dint of training1 to act on the principle that these unobtrusive traits were the chief virtues4 ,the reason for this plainly lies in the one-sidedness of such traits4 ,paulsen1 in his 8,system of ,ethics10 points out that whereas the ,greeks found positive values in 7#a7 scientific knowledge1 7#b7 esthetic and other pleasures1 7#c7 temperance1 7#d7 courage1 7#e7 justice1 7#f7 honor and high-mindedness1 7#g7 bodily cultivation1 7#h7 economic solvency1 7#i7 family life1 and 7#aj7 the state1 the early ,christians considered almost none of these things to be worth their while4 ,and whereas it would be more or less insulting to the memory of ,jesus to call the doctrines of the early ,christians an extension of his teachings1 yet we can say that the unobtrusive virtues which early official ,christianity sought to emphasize1 are one and all withdrawing reactions1 and as such must be rejected as the sole basis of a scientific ethics4 ,we reject them because they are not based upon a sufficient consideration of the total needs of man's body1--that on which his life and mind depend4 ,man has not only a flexor system1 but an extensor system of muscles as well1 and it must be plain from the discussions in the preceding chapters that both of these systems are ethical mechanisms4 ,however1 official ,christianity has often seen fit1 by its exclusive emphasis upon those virtues which involve withdrawing reactions1 literally to declare that the extensor system shall be denied a stimulus4 ,the ,greeks were far wiser2 for even though they may have failed to achieve a conception of virtue which took into consideration the wholesome balance between flexor and extensor activities1 they nevertheless did not err in propounding a doctrine that ignored the simplest principles of human behavior4 ,as a matter of historical record1 primitive ,christians did not succeed1 by the exhibition of these unobtrusive virtues1 in making themselves either inconspicuous or immune to their persecutors4 ,if anything1 indeed1 they were all the more actively hounded because of their queer traits4 ,and why8 ,for the simple reason that the typical ,christian virtues1 being withdrawing reactions1 and consequently allied to and confused with the attitudes of secretiveness and dissimulation1 led the ,roman officials quite reasonably to suspect that the early ,christians were dangerous to the state4 ,and it can be substantiated that primitive ,christianity was far from being a patriotic movement4 ,in those days1 at least1 the man who did not retaliate a blow was regarded first with amazement1 then with contempt1 then fear1 and finally with the most diabolical hatred4 ,such a silent man might know something very important1 might have knowledge of a world-wide insurrection ready to break tonight4 ,tear him to pieces1 then2 he shall at least not maintain that exasperating smile6 ,how is such a meek man 8blessed08 ,it may be true that our sentiments can partially apologize for a system of ethics based upon the functions of the flexor system alone1 yet the sense of proportion which we inherit from the ,greeks demands that we strike out on new paths which are not littered with the blunders of the past4 ,we must not forget to say1 however1 that one reason why these unobtrusive virtues have been given a chief place1 not only in official ,christianity1 but also in ,mohammedanism and ,buddhism1 is because of the simple1 even though disquieting1 fact that the flexor system is by nature stronger than the extensor system4 ,man1 then1 is by endowment more inclined to be humble and secretive than to be bold and frank1 since the larger and stronger and more often activated muscles of his body are those which produce withdrawing reactions4 ,that is also why man is prone to introspection1 and to cultivate an inner life1 and why also1 to borrow a phrase of ,dr4 ,morton ,prince1 he is frequently more interested in his own 8mental mud-puddle0 than in the external environment4 ,again1 this physiological fact is responsible for each man having his own house1 his nest1 into which he retreats to escape from the novelties he can no longer adjust to1 and where he may 8bathe his receptors in comfort-giving stimuli40 ,and so1 one is finally tempted to say that the unobtrusive virtues have obtained such a vogue because they are the only ones which over sixty per cent of mankind can appreciate and will ever really attempt to achieve4 ,perhaps1 also1 it is for the same reason that today the word 8virtue0 signifies almost exclusively chastity1 a trait of character and an action-pattern which any physician will tell you is dependent for its existence and maintenance upon the contractions of very powerful flexor muscles4 ,the upshot of all this discussion is that from the study of man's body as an ethical machine1 it appears that he who would formulate a list of the chiefly desirable traits or virtues should first carefully consider the total needs of the organism4 ,this new catalogue of virtues will be based upon the realization that man possesses both a flexor and an extensor mechanism4 ,we know already that many ailments of the body are traceable to a lop-sided use of it1 by which is usually meant the acquisition of chronic fatigue-postures in the flexor muscles4 ,indeed1 chronic postures are recognized to be of such paramount importance1 that experts have been employed to devise adequate stretching exercises 7actuating the disused extensor system7 in order to restore the organic balance of a nation4 ,moreover1 just as the hygiene of the body depends upon a liberal use of all of its muscles1 so likewise the ethical balance of the organism can be maintained only by the cultivation and commendation of a sufficient variety of traits to provide an outlet for all the action-tendencies which man naturally possesses4 ,virtue1 then1 we may henceforth regard as being based directly upon our physiological needs1 and not upon the assumption1 so frequently employed in the past1 that ideals must be unattainable in order to be respectable4 ,moreover1 a strictly natural science of ethics will have a regard for the fact of individual differences among men1 and1 recognizing that blood-pressure1 metabolism1 talents1 and capacities differ so widely as to make it impossible for any one trait to be the 8highest0 virtue for all persons1 it will place the emphasis solely upon the needs of the individual case4 ,already this development has become wide-spread4 ,the juvenile courts1 the ,society for ,mental ,hygiene1 the ,national ,child ,welfare ,association are all examples of an ethical technique based entirely upon the sciences of physiology1 psychology1 and medicine4 ,this emancipation of ethics from official religion is one of the most momentous events in the history of civilization4 ,and finally1 we may say that it is time to recognize that since each one of the 8seven ages of man0 has its own particular mental and physical characteristics1 so likewise does each of these ages have its own particular virtues4 ,too long have parents whispered themselves into the belief that the child ought to strive to copy the man1 for the result of this unconscious egotism has only forced such parents to discover that when their child has grown up1 they immediately wanted him to be an infant again6 ,but it is becoming recognized among those who learn to look at the world without such an exaggerated self-preference1 that every phase of life1--infancy1 puberty1 youth1 manhood1 middle-age1 maturity1 and senescence1--brings with it ever new ethical opportunities in the appearance of traits peculiar to each phase1 and that it is in the development of these various potentialities into their own natural end-product that the ultimate ethical values consist4 ,is ,vice the ,opposite of ,virtue8 ,it now remains to be seen what the word 8vice0 means1 first by scanning the uses to which it is popularly put1 and second1 by reference to its physiological implications4 ,accordingly1 then1 we find the following general classes of things called vices4 ,any fault1 mistake1 or error may be called a vice1 as1 for instance1 a 8vice of method40 ,this signification is practically identical with one use of the term 8bad40 7,e4 g41 bad workmanship1 defective1 below par2 sometimes called poor or worthless47 ,likewise1 any imperfection1 defect1 or blemish falls under this category1 as 8a vice of conformation10 8a vice of literary style40 ,here again this use of the concept may be identified with some of the significations of 8bad0 and 8wrong40 ,these first two classes of vice may be related to one another in the sense that the first is the cause1 and the latter the effect1--the erroneous 7vicious7 method producing the blemish 7vice7 in the product4 ,in our third class are found the significations most commonly implied by this concept today1 namely1 those habits or actions contrary to public policy1 and especially those which arouse violent censure4 ,such are gluttony1 indolence1 mendacity1 drunkenness1 debauchery1 and the like1 which might also be included in any complete list of the things which are called 8bad10 8evil10 and 8wrong40 ,the peculiarly specific element which enters here1 however1 is the damage to the organism which these vices entail4 ,sometimes1 also1 this concept is used in the expression1 8an age of vice10 a phrase which denotes a period of time in which these censured practices are extremely prevalent1 or given particular notice4 ,the term 8vice0 is also used in describing animals not thoroughly trained1 as when it is said3 8,that bird-dog has the vice of mouthing the quarry10 or 8,i must break this horse of his vice of cribbing40 ,formerly1 indeed1 some inherited bodily defects were spoken of as 8constitutional vices10 but this use of the term is now rare4 ,it can be seen at once that while virtue and vice are popularly regarded as opposites1 no amount of stretching applied to either of these concepts will make it the true antonym of the other4 ,it is idle for anyone to remark that they ought nevertheless to be regarded as diametrically opposed2 empirically they are not1 as the following analytical table plainly shows3-- ,,virtues ,,vices ,valor1 courage1 intrepidity1 ,no antonym1 except in the 7strength74 ,the spectacular rare cases where cowardice virtues4 may be regarded as vicious4 ,caution1 probity1 temperance1 ,negated by mendacity1 sobriety 7and the unobtrusive drunkenness1 and debauchery1 ,christian virtues74 but not precisely2 nor popularly by gluttony and indolence4 ,medicinal efficacy of drugs4 ,no antonym4 ,the phrases1 8by virtue of10 ,no antonym4 8in virtue of10 etc4 ,no antonym4 ,fault mistake1 error4 ,no antonym4 ,imperfection1 defect1 or blemish4 ,no antonym4 ,the faults of untrained animals4 ,no antonym4 ,constitutional vices4 ,how1 now1 shall we proceed to construct our definition of the ethical concept 8vice08 ,it will be recalled that we used the term virtue to describe a situation in which energy was being either mobilized or expended to obtain what the organism considered to be a dependable good4 ,does vice imply the opposite of this8 ,hardly1 for it must be admitted by the uncensorious observer that many of even the most violently condemned actions could be described as part of somebody's program to attain a durable satisfaction4 ,the glutton1 remembering once more how comfortable a full belly makes him feel1 may gorge himself without stint2 and even if he has been warned that diabetes and gout are likely to be the final results of such persistent devotion to the pastry and the roast1 he may still pursue these foods with avidity1 cheerfully and hopefully making himself an exception to the general rule of impending disaster4 ,in the same way1 the lusty pursuer of sex enjoyments may be dispassionately regarded as planning and achieving his own type of satisfaction1 and while he may often 8in a cool hour0 be aware of the likelihood of entangling alliances1 yet even his self-censure is not guaranteed to keep him from mobilizing his energy for the attainment of his chosen1 private 8good40 ,once more1 then1 we realize that 8virtue0 and 8vice0 are not true antonyms4 ,we saw this to be the case with 8good0 and 8bad10 and likewise with 8right0 and 8wrong40 ,it is only when these pairs of terms are used with the most severely restricted denotation1 that is1 with a provincial bias1 that their opposition and contradiction appears4 ,such bias is also shown1 when it is said that the glutton and the debauch 8really know that they shouldn't0 indulge themselves as they do1 a statement which signifies something like this3 ,if these men who do what ,i call 8wrong0 were only to act as ,i direct1 they would not be censured4 ,obviously so1 but what a host of fallible assumptions this involves6 ,it is merely ignoring the problem1 and such a treatment furnishes no hint as to its solution4 ,one begins to doubt the validity of all praise and blame as profitable ethical instruments4 ,besides1 the appeal to self-censure1 as employed in the above case1 is1 in the end1 relatively inefficacious in actual practice1 and is hence illogical as a basic principle in ethical theory4 ,indeed1 it is idle to say that we all know what we should do2 if we had that much information1 we would act upon it1 for the will and the intellect1 as ,spinoza remarked1 are one and the same4 ,the great need in ethics is to get right down to the empirical facts of conduct and to let them teach us1 rather than to hide the facts behind a screen of pious insincerity4 ,importunate chiding may be a traditional tool of morality1 but it does not contribute anything to the establishment of an ethical science4 ,consequently we shall have to reject any definition of the vices which goes no further than to describe them as those actions which some observer regards as unprofitable4 ,it may be that such a definition superficially fits a great many cases1 but great danger lies in accepting it without scrutiny1 since it tends to imply that ethics is merely a study of opinions about conduct1 and not of conduct itself4 ,now1 no other science is a study of opinions1 not even the normative sciences of bridge-building or landscape gardening2 and ethics is no exception to this general rule4 ,moreover1 since we do not know of any absolutely wise observer to whose opinion we can appeal in every doubtful case1 a true definition of vice has not yet been achieved4 ,however1 if we bear in mind that praise and blame1 or commendation and censure are always relative to certain environmental conditions1 and if1 furthermore1 we can discover what they really imply1 we shall doubtless be able to arrive at a conception of virtue and vice that will square with the observable facts of human conduct4 ,and the first point to be emphasized is that whenever these concepts are used1 some standard seems to be implied4 ,what is this seemingly hidden standard1 this presupposed line1 which1 especially in the case of the vices1 one is forbidden to cross under pain of censure8 ,sometimes it seems to be a line drawn within a family1 sometimes within a neighborhood1 while often it is confined to a class or profession1 and again it is delimited by a national culture4 ,would it not seem that every such tacitly assumed standard is created by the relatively unconscious judgment of the group in the very effort to have a group1 the members of which recognize each other as belonging to it8 ,in other words1 are not all such standards a function of the desire of the group to employ the pronouns 8we0 and 8us0 significantly8 ,this is not oversimplifying the matter1 since the use of such pronouns implies much more than is commonly realized4 ,indeed1 when man says 8we0 instead of 8,i10 he indicates that a point in evolution has been reached where a similarity of predicaments has produced a similarity of aims4 ,to fight a common foe1 to till a common land1 and to keep a common eye upon strangers are one and all actions implicit in the establishment of group standards4 ,and even though these standards are often ill-defined1 and frequently neglected by certain individuals within the group1 nevertheless they remain as a background of reference 7in strict mechanistic terms1 as an old habit-posture71 whenever there is any danger felt lest the word 8we0 should become meaningless4 ,danger felt by whom8 ,particularly1 we are obliged to say1 by the most conservative members of the group1 for be it remembered that praise and blame1 and reward and punishment are insisted upon most violently by undiscriminating persons4 ,such persons1 it seems1 are most sensitive to the waxing and waning of certain benefits which others have achieved for them1 and which they regard as valuable to retain and dangerous to lose4 ,if anyone wishes to know what such benefits are he has only to recall what traits his own group calls virtues and vices1 and to ask in every case just what they imply in terms of the needs of the group which sanctions or condemns them4 ,for example1 valor1 courage1 and intrepidity1 together with the other spectacular virtues1 have certainly been commended because they supply two very obvious and well-nigh universal group needs4 ,the first is a common1 stalwart defence1 and the second is a healthy progeny4 ,cripples and deformed persons have never been objects of admiration or praise4 ,as for the unobtrusive virtues1 many of these have likewise been commended by such a group as feels itself beset or insecure on account of its inability to compete with the strong on their own terms1 and this group has adopted them in a semi-paradoxical attempt to acquire solidarity4 ,to turn at once to the other side of the picture1 we find that the vices of gluttony1 drunkenness1 and lechery have been condemned not only because they effeminate and debilitate1 and thereby undermine the defence-power of the group1 but also because they tend to reduce the capacity of the group to create a sound and fertile offspring4 ,this is doubtless why certain congenital abnormalities were formerly spoken of as 8constitutional vices40 ,as for the word 8vice0 being sometimes applied to botchy work1 incorrect methods1 and the faults of untrained animals1 we can see how in special instances a group might regard these things as peculiarly detrimental to its solidarity4 ,contrariwise1 the 8virtue0 of a medicinal plant might1 under the harassing circumstances of a plague or an epidemic1 be the chief cause of even a nation's concern4 ,in thus defining virtue and vice in terms of the assets and liabilities of the group1 what becomes of our previous attempt to define virtue in individualistic terms8 ,the answer is that this previous conception remains as a necessary complement to1 and check upon1 group intolerance4 ,for while the desires of the group and those of the individual may sometimes clash1 they do not need to be considered as basically or essentially opposed to one another4 ,the historical fact is often manifest that when group solidarity tends to produce mediocrity1 there is a sudden overt demonstration of individualism4 ,our own generation shows an example of this type of reaction4 ,when1 again1 extreme individualism fails to yield group assets1 the conservative tendencies begin to reassert themselves more powerfully once more4 ,yet it is doubtful whether exactly the same type of conservatism is ever repeated1 since the individualism which it seeks to counteract is1 in succeeding generations1 different from the type which preceded it4 ,is ,virtue ,its ,own ,reward8 ,from the foregoing it is apparent that the ethical concept 8virtue0 has two alternative interpretations4 ,one of these involves the commendation of the group on the basis of what its members feel to be required for the maintenance of its traditions4 ,the other interpretation is based upon what the individual mobilizes and expends his energy to obtain4 ,which of these is superior to the other1 that is1 which would survive in case of mutual conflict1 only the last volume of recorded history will relate4 ,what is more of a real problem to us is the question1 commonly asked1 ,is virtue its own reward8 ,this curious question involves the philosophical theory of internal relations1--a theory of very doubtful validity4 ,the statement that virtue is its own reward is equivalent to the assertion that virtue is valuable in and for itself4 ,but if so1 then virtue is unique1 and this again is doubtful1 for whether we observe the individual devoting his energies to the attainment of some dependable good1 or the group commending him for it1 it appears at once that virtuous actions are never undertaken without some hope of reward either in the shape of praise or of tangible results4 ,upon hearing this1 some will groan1 claiming that a good man should act ever and only on principle1 and leave the rest to the gods4 ,and yet nobody ever did so4 ,moreover1 it is plain that the truly virtuous man1 whether acting within the taboos of his clan1 or striking out on entirely new paths after a 8good0 that he could depend securely upon1 received a three-fold reward of a very substantial nature4 ,he achieved power1 he attained wisdom1 and he secured peace2 and these rewards1 moreover1 in the degree to which they were gained1 automatically thereafter became the measure by which the dependability of any good could be estimated4 ,and we also venture to say that the same criterion could be employed in determining to what extent any particular trait of character was a vice4 ,even more than this1 however1 can now be said4 ,for such a criterion as is here suggested has significant implications for the human body1--that upon which life and mind ultimately depend4 ,experiments in psychology and psychiatry have revealed that traits of character are more than skin-deep and brain-deep2 indeed1 they are more than muscle-deep3 they are as deep as the vital organs themselves4 ,even more than this is apparent1 for these same sciences have demonstrated that not only is such a trait as anxiety just another name for a chronic muscular tension1 but also that many diseases are1 if not caused1 at least abetted by what we think1 how we act1 and what feelings we cultivate4 ,in more precise terms1 the mechanisms of thought and action1 being partly identical with the mechanisms of locomotion and metabolism1 can produce either a hygienic or an unhygienic effect upon the whole structure of man's organism4 ,and in this fact1 ,i think1 we can find an acceptable basis1 even if a new one1 for the distinction between virtue and vice4 ,this basis we propose is not altogether a novelty to keen students of human nature4 ,we know that the normal1 healthy and successfully adapted human individual is characterized by a relaxed and resilient condition1 not only of his superficial or locomotor muscles1 but also of the muscles of his alimentary tract4 ,both his voluntary and involuntary systems are constantly in a state of readiness to perform their necessary functions1 and they also return to this condition after any series of actions has been performed4 ,such a man possesses aplomb1 and is an example of the healthy ,greek ideal of a sane mind in a sound body4 ,in striking contrast to such a normal1 resilient state1 there are frequently found two other organic conditions which are readily delineated4 ,the one is called muscular flabbiness1 characterized by a powerless or a-tonic state of the muscles of either the voluntary 7or teachable7 and the involuntary 7or unteachable7 systems1 or both4 ,a man in this a-tonic plight is incapable of vigorous1 coordinate action1 and his muscles do not manifest a normal readiness to respond to successive stimulations4 ,the other abnormal condition1 at the opposite pole from this one1 is the one involving chronic muscular tensions1 a condition which may be compared to the state of a steel spring which is always kept under severe strain1 and which is never released far enough to give the metal a chance to recover from the stresses it undergoes4 ,highstrung1 over-anxious1 jealous1 irascible people illustrate this type of organism with exactness4 ,the ethical implications of the foregoing must have already been guessed4 ,is it not possible to define the virtuous man as the relaxed1 resilient1 coordinate individual1 and the vicious man as either the muscularly flabby1 and therewith the lazy1 spineless1 procrastinating1 lecherous man2 or else as the abnormally hypertonic organism1 whose muscles constantly pay dividends of wrath1 and whose grudges and malice are carried even through his slumber8 ,if so1 there should be no paradox implied in speaking of virtue and vice as functions of the human organism4 ,,footnotes3 #ai ,compare the expression1 8,and now abideth faith1 hope1 and charity0 with 8,and now there are faithful men1 hopeful men1 and charitable men40 ,only the latter of these statements has any real meaning4 #bj ,plato's list is very brief1 and his virtues correspond to the three parts of the soul as he conceived it4 ,self-control1 courage1 and wisdom are the three virtues which characterize the desire1 the will1 and the reason respectively1 while the supreme virtue is a harmony or health of the soul4 ,for ,aristotle1 virtue is found in a moderation between extremes4 ,for example1 the virtue of courage is a mean between cowardliness and rashness4 ,others of his virtues likewise derived are3 temperance1 liberality1 high-mindedness1 mildness1 friendliness1 candor1 urbanity1 and justice4 ,the ,christian virtues1 while never stated in systematic form1 are typically represented by humility1 kindliness1 self-denial1 meekness1 patience1 temperance1 and1 perhaps1 other-worldliness4 ,comparatively few ethical writers attempt to give a list or scale of virtues and vices1 and some of them ignore the question completely4 ,martineau1 in a somewhat successful attempt to free himself from an irreconcilable dualism in ethics1 presents a scale of traits beginning1 presumably1 with vices 7e4 g41 censoriousness1 vindictiveness1 suspiciousness71 and ending with virtues 7compassion1 reverence1 and veracity74 ,in the application of this system1 the chief question is1 not what is bad or what is good1 but simply1 which trait is better and which worse than another4 #ba ,it is to be observed that ,jesus was much more specific and empirical than either ,plato or ,st4 ,paul1 since in his treatment of this phase of the problem of conduct1 ,jesus often described the situation concretely1 e4 g41 8those persecuted for righteousness' sake10 rather than by employing1 as did ,plato and ,st4 ,paul1 abstract nouns1 such as 8courage10 8charity10 and the like4 ,but it must also not be forgotten that of all the ethical teachers of antiquity1 ,socrates alone consistently stuck to the concrete realities of ethics and constantly admitted the size and difficulties of the problems involved4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,is ,,conscience ,,always ,a ,,pathological ,,phenomenon8 8,when the rookery is pretty well filled1 and the nest-building is in full swing1 the birds have a busy and anxious time4 ,to get enough of suitable small stones is a matter of difficulty1 and may involve long journeys for each single stone4 ,the temptation is too strong for some of them1 and they become habitual thieves4 ,the majority remain stupidly honest4 ,amusing complications result4 ,the bearing of the thief clearly shows that he knows he is doing wrong4 ,he has a conscience1 at least a human conscience1 i4 e41 the fear of being found out4 ,very different is the furtive look of the thief1 long after he is out of danger of pursuit1 from the expression of the honest penguin coming home with a hard-earned stone4 8,an honest one was bringing stones from a long distance4 ,each stone was removed by a thief as soon as the owner's back was turned4 ,the honest one looked greatly troubled as he found that his heap didn't grow1 but he seemed incapable of suspecting the cause4 8,a thief1 sitting on his own nest1 was stealing from an adjacent nest1 whose honest owner was also at home1 but looking unsuspectingly in another direction4 ,casually he turned his head and caught the thief in the act4 ,the thief dropped the stone and pretended to be busy picking up an infinitesimal crumb from the neutral ground40 8,the ,heart of the ,antarctic10 ,,sir ,,ernest ,,shackleton1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bec 7,section on the ,adelie ,penguin1 by ,james ,murray1 ,biologist of the ,expedition74 ,the word 8conscience0 was perhaps originally synonymous with consciousness1 but it gradually came to mean self-consciousness of a very special type1 namely1 the silent commendation or censure which a man may bestow upon his actions or his projects4 ,this word 8conscience0 replaced the ,middle ,english term inwit1--a term made famous in the title of a book 7circa #acdj7 called the 8,ayenbite of ,inwit0 7that is1 the 8,again-bite or ,remorse of ,conscience074 ,the concept of conscience has played an important part in modern ethical theory1 and it is supposed by many persons to be the foundation of all morality4 ,what place it deserves to hold in a constructive1 mechanistic ethics can be determined1 however1 only by careful analysis4 ,so many extravagant claims have been advanced in its behalf as to make one suspect that none of them are true4 ,things which people have 8always heard lauded and never discussed0 are only with difficulty saved from oblivion when intellectual revolutions have altered the emphasis which man puts on the values of life4 ,it was thus with the word 8soul10 and with the word 8immortality10 and it is likely to be the same with the word 8conscience40 ,at least it will be an advantage to look at the philosophical pedigree of this once mighty shibboleth4 ,it may be surprising to learn that as far as ethical theory is concerned1 the doctrine of an infallible conscience is the product of no less recent a time than the ,,xviii century4 ,the ,conscience-theory is the philosophical property of such men as ,butler1 ,clarke1 ,kant1 ,shaftesbury1 and ,reid1 rather than of their predecessors4 ,thomas ,hobbes 7#aehh-afgi71 who founded critical ,english ethics1 flatly refused to give to the then immature concept of conscience any recognition2 indeed1 he declared it to be nothing less than a 8disease0 of the state1 and one 8of those things that weaken or tend to the dissolution of a commonwealth40 ,in ,chapter ,,xxix of the 8,leviathan10 he states the current notions of conscience3 7#a7 8,that every private man is judge of good and evil actions10 and 7#b7 8,that whatsoever a man does against his conscience is sin40 ,both of these notions ,hobbes condemns4 8,for10 he observes with characteristic sagacity1 8a man's conscience and his judgment is the same thing1 and as the judgment so also the conscience may be erroneous40 ,this emphasis which ,hobbes placed upon the untrustworthiness of private ethical judgments was fatal to his purpose4 ,his successors began straightway to reanimate that which he had sought to bury once and for all1 and1 whether on account of their temperamental antipathy to the intellectualism of ,hobbes1 or because they were honestly seeking for some valid ethical principle1 they asserted1 first timidly1 and later with a surprising boldness the very thing which ,hobbes had sought especially to efface from the docket of ethical discussion4 ,we find this reaction beginning in ,shaftesbury 7#afga-agac74 ,albeit this author gives a minor place in his ethical theory to the notion of a 8moral sense10 or rational1 reflex affection which approves only socially beneficial actions1 yet the positive emphasis which he puts upon it is nevertheless significant4 ,the affirmation proved to be contagious1 for those who followed ,shaftesbury immediately elevated conscience to a central position in their systems4 ,we refer here to ,butler1 ,clarke1 ,kant1 and ,reid1 who are known as intuitionists4 ,according to ,butler 7#afib-ageb71 conscience is a 8principle of reflection0 and not a mere feeling4 ,and this principle of reflection is for him a natural or inherent property of man's mind4 ,it is the principle by which a man 8approves or disapproves his heart1 temper1 and actions02 it is a faculty which 8tends to restrain men from doing mischief to each other1 and leads them to do good40 ,be it noted here that ,butler says nothing about the so-called infallibility of conscience1 nor does he argue that it must be the same for all persons4 ,moreover1 he gives a somewhat analytical definition of it1 and is willing to grant that its function is utilitarian4 ,the old belief in the certainty of conscience now begins to reappear4 ,it was ,clarke 7#afge--agbi7 who attempted to defend it by the use of a mathematical analogy4 ,we are all familiar with the axiom 7or truism7 that things which are equal to the same thing are equal to each other4 ,if now we keep the general form1 but alter the substance of this axiom1 so that it reads3 8,whatever ,i judge reasonable or unreasonable for another to do for me1 that by the same judgment ,i declare reasonable or unreasonable that ,i in the like case should do for him10 we have ,clarke's ,law of ,equity4 ,to an arm-chair philosopher such a statement sounds fairly cogent1 but its empirical value is not thereby guaranteed4 ,as every student of psychology knows1 individual differences1 individual preferences1 and the capacity of individuals by this method of give-and-take are completely ignored in the formulation of this law4 ,besides1 ,clarke's conception of conscience may be said to contain a hint of ethical solipsism1 or the theory that oneself is the only accurate authority on social justice4 ,we need not pause longer over the insuperable difficulties of such a point of view4 ,it is1 however1 in the writings of ,kant and ,reid that the conscience-theory attains its modern1 sentimental form4 ,in his 8,metaphysic of ,morality0 ,kant 7#agbd-ahjd7 makes the following straddling assertion3 8,nothing in the whole world1 or even outside of the world sic6 can possibly be regarded as good without limitation except a good will40 ,but this is not the full extent to which this philosopher presses his claims4 ,for he continues1 8,a man's will is good1 not because the consequences which flow from it are good1 nor because it is capable of attaining the ends which it seeks1 but it is good in itself1 or because it wills the good4 ,its intrinsic value is in no way increased by success or lessened by failure40 ,from all of which ,kant concludes that 8,as the will must not be moved to act from any desire for the results expected to follow from obedience to a certain law1 the only principle of the will which remains is that of the conformity of actions to universal law4 ,in all cases ,i must act in such a way that ,i can at the same time will that my maxim should become a universal law40 ,this last statement is the famous categorical imperative4 ,at first glance this appears to have profundity1 but it turns out even upon the slightest analysis to be quite the opposite4 ,for example1 the first passage quoted 78,nothing 444 can be regarded as good without limitation except a good will07 contains assertions that nobody can know enough to make4 ,it is ritualistic philosophy4 ,moreover1 the expression 8good will0 actually does 7,kant to the contrary1 notwithstanding7 put a logical limitation upon the concept good1 just as 8good0 cat1 or 8good0 razor does4 ,besides1 the term 8will0 or volition always refers to a phenomenon which is strictly dependent upon circumstances1 for a man wills only when there is something to be possessed4 ,these are not all the errors which ,kant here commits4 ,his attempt to explain why the good will is good 7itself a statement exhibiting the fallacy of ambiguity7 reveals that ,kant was a very poorly equipped psychologist4 ,i ask you1 how many persons is it possible to find1--indeed1 is it possible to find one single man except among the psychopathic cases1--who would ever be stimulated to live1--much less to subscribe to ,kant's theory1--if his successes or failures had no effect whatever upon his future volitions8 ,we do not imply by this rhetorical question that every man is1 or can be1 or should be immoderately egoistical1 but only that ,kant had no insight whatever into the psychological problems involved in ethics4 ,consequently1 the categorical imperative as a deduction from ,kant's first principles is to be regarded as completely erroneous4 ,how1 indeed1 can a man act in such a way as to make the maxim of his action a universal law8 ,suppose we offer a simple example4 ,when ,i am hungry1 and food is before me1 ,i eat it4 ,does this imply that my will to eat becomes a universal law1 namely1 that all the hungry should eat8 ,but when ,i learn of the many hungry who are unable to eat1 my will to eat illustrates not a universal law1 but an extremely particular law1 that is to say1 the law that if ,i am hungry1 and if food is supplied1 and1 furthermore1 if ,i am willing to risk that food1 then1 but only then1 do ,i eat it4 ,there seems to be no way to establish the validity of ,kant's imperative1 regardless of the direction one's thought takes4 ,to cite a different example entirely1 let us imagine a hungry man who1 having cornered all the food of his tribe1 eats it on the assumption that every other man would do the same thing if he were similarly fortunate4 ,here the categorical imperative appears in such a light as to shock its author profoundly4 ,and yet in strict logic1 this interpretation is a valid one for an intuitionist ethics4 ,do we wonder that ,levy-,brhl speaks of 8the ambiguous and bastard concept of the moral law10 when they who attempt to state such a law have neither comprehension nor patience enough to discover the simplest principles of human conduct8 ,it is1 however1 in the 8,essays on the ,active ,powers of ,man10 by ,thomas ,reid 7#agaj-agif7 that the commonplace notion of conscience receives its principal philosophical support4 ,concerning this 8moral sense10 as ,reid calls it in reminiscence of ,shaftesbury1 the following formidable assertions are made4 ,in the first place1 8,it is without doubt far superior to every other power of the mind40 ,in the second place1 8,the testimony of this moral sense10 like that of the rest of the senses1 8is the testimony of nature1 and we have the same reason to rely upon it40 ,in addition1 just as the sense of vision is fundamental for space perception1 so 8,the truths immediately testified by our moral faculty are the first principles of all moral reasoning40 ,reid would also have us note that this reasoning is not inductive1 but deductive1 for he says1 8,the first principles of morals are the immediate dictates of the moral faculty40 ,the outstanding fault of such a theory is that it assumes that every name we choose to manufacture has a reality corresponding to it4 ,this is the fallacy of hypostatization1 to which all idealistic philosophers are addicted4 ,granted that it is true1 as ,butler says1 that we approve and disapprove of some of our actions1 yet this does not imply that there is a transcendent faculty within us which we are at liberty to substantialize as ,conscience or a ,moral ,sense4 ,such language is merely noun-worship4 ,it is granted that the words 8moral0 and 8sense0 have each separately a meaning1 but it does not follow that the compound term 8moral-sense0 must therefore have one4 ,moreover1 all of these intuitionists are wilful and unperspicuous rationalists1 demanding a fundamental principle in ethics before they have employed any induction or experimentation that might help them to frame such a principle correctly4 ,they are willing to do no hard work1 and to perform no crucial tests in order to see whether their guesses are facts or fictions4 ,to complete our criticism1 we must not omit to state that ,reid's elevation of conscience to a place among the senses merely reveals the extent to which he was willing to go in his defence of the testimony of the senses in general against the idealists of his age4 ,his use of the 8moral sense0 was a debater's trick4 ,the high esteem in which conscience was held by his antagonists tempted him to turn one of their own weapons against them4 ,we can now better understand the statement previously made that the personification of conscience was the peculiar artifice1 the 8useful dodge10 of a certain school of ethical thinkers in the ,,xviii century4 ,consequently it is erroneous to suppose that the commonplace view of this phenomenon has always held undisputed sway over theoretical ethics4 ,it had no place whatever in the minds of ,greek ethical writers4 ,plato1 ,socrates1 ,aristotle1 and their contemporaries founded the science of ethics without even dreaming that there was a conscience4 ,epictetus1 ,epicurus1 and ,marcus ,aurelius showed no poverty of constructive thought for the lack of it4 ,even ,helvetius1 a contemporary of the intuitionists1 rejected it as spurious when he wrote3 8,he who will warrant his virtue in every situation is either an impostor or a fool2 characters equally to be mistrusted40 ,most people who have heard the name of ,john ,locke will recall his arguments against the assumptions of the moral intuitionists in those passages where he combats the theory of innate moral ideas4 ,according to ,locke1 all such ideas would have to be 7#a7 independent of geographical location and climate1 7#b7 independent of the age of the person and of his training1 and 7#c7 recognized by all persons as fundamental4 ,but none of these conditions are found to be satisfied by anyone who makes the shortest pilgrimage through the world in the search for these statistics4 ,and consequently the intellectually honest ,locke rejects the philosophical theory of conscience1 independently of his recognition of the facts of self-approval and self-disapproval4 ,it remained1 however1 for ,john ,stuart ,mill to foreshadow the beginning of the end of this fantastic theory of the moral faculty in ,chapter ,,iii of his 8,utilitarianism40 ,he writes3-- 8,the internal sanction of duty1 whatever our standard of duty may be1 is one and the same--a feeling in our own mind2 a pain1 more or less intense1 attendant on violation of duty1 which in properly cultivated moral natures rises1 in more serious cases1 into shrinking from it as an impossibility4 ,this feeling 444 is the essence of ,conscience2 though in that complex phenomenon as it actually exists1 the simple fact is in general all encrusted over with collateral associations1 derived from sympathy1 from love1 and still more from fear2 from all the forms of religious feeling2 from the recollections of childhood and of all our past life2 from self-esteem1 desire of the esteem of others1 and occasionally even self-abasement40 ,this analysis of ,mill's reveals that what the intuitionists loosely termed conscience is a far more complex phenomenon than they had suspected1 and with this revelation the whole logical structure of intuitionism breaks down4 ,for if conscience is not the simple1 innate1 infallible principle or faculty which the intuitionists postulated it to be1 the deductions they made from this hypothesis become more and more untenable the longer they are scrutinized4 ,mill's analysis of the psychological factors in conscience1 together with ,locke's discovery of the cultural and geographical limitations of any moral sense make it necessary to define this ethical phenomenon in purely empirical terms4 ,such a definition as we seek1 however1 could only be obtained by securing an elaborate census of cases in which the words 8conscience0 or 8moral sense0 were used4 ,the census-taker would have to roam over the whole earth1 ask questions all day long1 and even become an eavesdropper at night1 in order to gain the information he desired4 ,even this method would hardly be exhaustive1 since perhaps far more 8pangs of conscience0 are felt than are ever expressed in language2 and so our census-taker1 were he as thorough as we might desire him to be1 would have to be equipped with a sort of ultra-stethoscope1--one that could elevate a blush into an audible phenomenon1--in order to return with a full and complete report4 ,the lack of such exhaustive statistics must1 of course1 be permanent2 not only for want of census-takers1 and for want of accuracy and sincerity on the part of those giving their introspection1 but also because the concept of conscience may be slowly evolving1 so that the end of the census might not harmonize with its beginning4 ,granting1 indeed1 that such an evolution exists1 it does not now appear to be either uniform or universal4 ,for while1 as we have recently shown1 the concept of conscience first attained a philosophic importance in the ,,xviii century1 and was thereafter variously modified and developed1 yet the popular notion of a moral sense1--of 8this deity within my bosom10 as some have even expressed it1--has actually degenerated into something unworthy of a place among the positive ethical values4 ,our quotation from ,james ,murray's account of the behavior of the ,adelie penguin is extremely pertinent here4 8,the fear of being found out0 is1 we venture to say1 the very nucleus and core of the consciences of the majority of men4 ,and while without doubt some forms of fear are well-grounded1 as1 for example1 the farmer's fear lest the oncoming storm wash out his seedlings1 yet when fear tends to limit prudence1 or take the place of prevision1 the organism in which that fear arises is sub-normal and unsound4 ,conscience1 then1 in so far as it is identical with this degrading emotion of fear1 and in so far as it begins and ends in a withdrawing reaction1 is nothing but a blight4 ,yet something more remains to be said about the popular conception of the word 8conscience40 ,this word1 as commonly used1 denotes an emotional state which1 far from being in harmony with the ideals of the group1 often denotes the very opposite condition4 ,it is hardly necessary to remark that the fear of being found out does not imply loyalty to the group any more than it implies the recognition of that which makes for power1 wisdom1 and peace in the individual4 ,indeed1 conscience as popularly experienced1 involving as it does anxiety1 trepidation1 self-abasement1 and a host of other introversive tendencies1 is an ethical liability1 both to the group and to the individual4 ,the man who has transgressed the will of the group is surely not a bit better off because of his fear of being caught1 nor can he regard his fear1 even though he has already been tortured by it1 as giving him any right to a mitigation of the penalty4 ,as for himself1 the conscience-stricken individual may have so long squandered his energy in his effort to conceal his offence as to bring him very close to ethical bankruptcy4 ,the picture we draw is not extreme1--it can be duplicated in every neighborhood1 if not in every family on the globe4 ,for conscience1 as it is usually experienced1 is a painful1 withdrawing reaction1 implying negation rather than affirmation1 incoordination rather than skilful prevision1 and morbidity instead of frank1 overt1 constructive action4 ,accurate indeed is the phrase1 8,the pangs of conscience10 as a description of the organic turmoil incident to this condition of mal-adjustment4 ,can it not1 then1 be truthfully said1 that in the cases just described conscience is a pathological phenomenon8 ,thus to discover that the popular form of conscience implies a vice rather than a virtue is not1 however1 enough4 ,we wish also to know how and why this form of conscience has attained so great a vogue4 ,and here again we touch upon matters of the greatest importance for a mechanistic ethics4 ,conscience as a form of fear is so strong and so wide-spread for two reasons4 ,the first is already familiar to us1 and is briefly repeated4 ,it is that the flexor system is originally stronger than the extensor system4 ,and so in the great majority of men whose natures are less evolved1 fear is almost a daily experience1--not only the fear of nature and of the unknown1 but also the fear of the group by whose tolerance they exist4 ,moreover1 sentiment and not knowledge is the great group asset1 by which we imply no such educated sentiments as are derived from analytical inquiry1 or from an open search after the facts1 but rather that kind of sentiment which passively bars and actively hinders the enlargement of the understanding4 ,the group really never explains4 ,when offended1 it simply becomes suspicious1 and its gossips freely translate this suspicion into rumor and inuendo4 ,it is small wonder1 then1 that the conscience-stricken individual1 as a product of his group1 has as his first1 and sometimes his only reaction1 the tendency to shrink and become unresilient when he realizes that his acts1 or worse still1 his thoughts1 have transgressed the taboos of his tribe4 ,it is a case of like master1 like man2 the group does not usually know what its purposes are1 much less does it ask to have those purposes examined and revealed2 and so the conscience-stricken individual1--the sentimental child of the group1--reacts to his realization of estrangement from the group in a manner that makes his last state worse than his first4 ,this cannot be taken to imply that it is a sign of intellectual maturity to transgress all the taboos of the group4 ,yet the argument still holds that the influences produced by the exclusive use of this negative form of conscience are baleful4 ,very early in the life of the average child the expressions3 8,don't10 8,if you dare to do that again1 ,i'll whip you10 8,what would people say80 and a score of other negations are employed by his parents and teachers on the principle that ethical guidance is achieved by such means4 ,as a result1 says ,edwin ,holt1 8,the parent has set a barrier between the child and a portion of reality2 and forever after the child will be in some measure impeded in its dealings0 with those things which have become taboo1 always first feeling the prohibition1 rather than the urgency to act discriminatively upon a knowledge which a close contact with the reality should produce4 ,such a parent has not 8trusted the truth10 and the final result is that the child has actually become 8a second-rate mind1 not in harmony with itself10 since not in creative touch with the environment4 ,even more pointedly ,john ,dewey writes in his criticism of the doctrine of self-denial4 8,morals is a matter of direction1 not of suppression4 ,the urgency of desires cannot be got rid of2 nature cannot be expelled4 ,if the need of happiness1 of satisfaction of capacity1 is checked in one direction1 it will manifest itself in another4 ,if the direction which is checked is an unconscious and wholesome one1 the one which is taken will be likely to be morbid and perverse4 ,the one who is conscious of continually denying himself cannot rid himself of the idea that it ought to be #8made up' to him2 that a compensating happiness is due him for what he has sacrificed1 somewhat increased1 if anything1 on account of the unnatural virtue he has displayed4 ,to be self-sacrificing is to #8lay up' merit1 and this achievement must surely be rewarded with happiness--if not now1 then later4 ,those who habitually live on the basis of conscious self-denial are likely to be exorbitant in the demands which they make on some one near them1 some member of their family or some friend2 likely to blame others if their own #8virtue' does not secure for itself an exacting attention which reduces others to the plane of servility4 ,often the doctrine of self-sacrifice leads to an inverted hedonism2 we are to be good--that is1 forego pleasure--now1 that we may have a greater measure of enjoyment in some future paradise of bliss4 ,or1 the individual who has taken vows of renunciation is entitled by that very fact to represent spiritual authority on earth and to lord it over others40 ,they who wish even a more striking picture of the extent to which the negative type of conscience degrades the intellect1 have only to consult ,alfred ,adler's 8,the ,neurotic ,constitution40 ,if ,dr4 ,adler correctly depicts the salient traits of the neurotic1 many intuitionists themselves are by implication introverts1 and consequently forfeit their claims to ethical leadership4 ,the neurotic is described as 8a person possessing anxiety10 8the self-sacrificing virtue10 8a marked sensitiveness10 8an irritable debility10 8an estrangement from reality10 as well as 8a person with a strong tendency to symbolization10 and a penchant for 8guiding fictions0 invented for the purpose of compensating him for his feeling of inferiority at having lost solid contacts with reality4 ,this1 then1 is the success which the conscience-theory has met with at the hands of scientific experts1--keen and sympathetic observers of the ways of men4 ,such an account of the degeneration of conscience into a self-annihilating sentiment is1 however1 only one chapter in the history of this concept4 ,and while the list of uses to which the word 8conscience0 has been put does not furnish as solid a basis upon which to build a constructive ethical technique as did the uses of 8good10 8right10 and 8virtue10 we can nevertheless still find a positive ethical value for this term4 ,how1 then1 will this value be discovered8 ,it will be found by a study of those persons who have attained the power to view the world in a purely objective and empirical manner2 of those persons who treat their own and other peoples' actions as experiments in the great laboratory of time1 rather than as timid ventures to be apologized for on the slightest provocation2 of those persons who have evolved to that point where their knowledge determines their sentiments1 and not their sentiments their knowledge2 and of those who1 having by this means chosen their dependable goods1 learn the right methods to attain them1 and thereafter employ plain judgments of fact in estimating the success which they acquire and the quality of the virtue which they achieve4 ,in such persons the positive1 constructive1 liberalizing type of conscience exists1--a conscience which1 through being built up of objectively tested judgments1 becomes the outstanding ethical asset of the personality4 ,this type of conscience is not a myth1 for it may be acquired in the same way as any other skill is acquired4 ,the objective knowledge which it presupposes can be gained where every natural curiosity of a child or an adult is developed into a frank acquaintance with the object of curiosity2 where fear is turned into intrepidity by a bold analysis of its cause and by a frontal attack upon the exciting stimulus2 where one learns that ethical problems are always solved by forming serviceable habits and never by the cultivation of permanent anxieties2 and where1 finally1 all the entangling alliances forced upon one by unprofitable acquaintances are boldly1 but politely1 annihilated4 ,even though many strongly entrenched traditions and institutions of the world would decay were the type of conscience we here describe to become wide-spread1 yet this cannot deter the wise man from making it his life work to add as many new names to the list of those possessing ethical insight as it is within his power to do4 ,indeed1 whenever this list becomes so large as to be generally regarded by autocrats as dangerous1 we shall have come to that place in the course of civilization where the first real ethical advance is to be made4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,mitigation ,,of ,,the ,,conflict ,,between ,,freedom ,,and ,,obligation 8,there is a phrase #8liberty of conscience' which well expresses the modern conception of moral obligation4 ,it recognizes that duty in the last analysis is imposed upon the individual neither by society nor even by ,god1 but by himself2 that there is no authority in moral matters more ultimate than a man's own rational conviction of what is best40 ,r4 ,b4 ,,perry1 8,the ,moral ,economy10 p4 #cd4 8,one could scarcely construct a more erroneous view than that every human being is endowed at birth with the same #8lump sum' of freedom1 which remains an inalienable possession throughout life4 ,our freedom is not complete1 it is in the making4444 ,the process by which freedom is won is the process of enlightenment4 ,it is the truth that sets men free1 the clear perception of moral relations and moral laws1 the understanding of human nature and its true needs40 ,w4 ,g4 ,,everett1 8,moral ,values10 pp4 #ceh-i4 ,one of the most revolutionary changes which the scientific study of psychology has wrought consists in the demolition of all the barriers which formerly divided the body from the mind4 ,the intellect1 once securely enthroned as the highest faculty in the mental hierarchy2 the reason1 erstwhile religiously devoted to the contemplation of pure truth2 and the will1 which formerly completed this trio of sublime1 unitary faculties1 have1 in the unbiased and careful scrutiny of laboratory science1 been shown to be not only highly complicated processes1 but products of experience as well2 and not only products of experience1 but functions of brain and gland4 ,furthermore1 they have been revealed to be not solely functions of a biological mechanism controlled by external stimuli1 but also in a larger sense they are now regarded as means by which the body of a man adjusts itself to and gains control of its physical and social environments4 ,no longer do we ask the old question3 8,why has the mind a body80 but rather1 8,why does the body have a mind80 ,and the answer is3 ,the body has a mind to enable the body to experiment with its environment so that when it gets what it seems to want1 it can know that it has really wanted what it has gotten4 ,some results of this highly reconstructive iconoclasm upon ethical thought have already been depicted in the preceding chapters4 ,here we are soon to see what effect such a doctrine has upon the last two ethical concepts we shall analyze1 namely1 duty and freedom4 ,as may have already been divined1 a mechanistic ethics on its constructive side does not maintain a pension list for the outworn conceptions of an earlier day4 ,consequently1 in this place we shall not ask what used to be thought of the 8,freedom of the ,will10 nor shall we quote ,wordsworth's 8,ode to ,duty0 as a prologue to our theme4 ,for while only a hundred years ago no ethical teacher could have safely omitted giving great emphasis to the theological setting of these two concepts1 today such a treatment would not arouse the slightest 8problematic thrill40 ,what used to be called 8the ,will0 is now an obsolete expression2--indeed1 ever since ,spinoza wrote1 it has been regarded as a myth4 ,in its stead1 we speak of the individual or particular volitions of men1 and we discuss their value in reducing the gap between our liquid matter and its good4 ,likewise1 what was once called the lump-sum of our ,duty has now become separated and analyzed into claims1 interests1 other-regarding sentiments1 and the like1 each one of which has a history and a real meaning for our flesh-and-blood personality4 ,all such changes1 while perhaps highly disconcerting to those persons who feel that they cannot get along without their 8guiding fictions10 are really signs of a salutary advance along ethical lines4 ,once it is realized that what is popularly termed 8will-power0 is after all only skill-power1 and that 8moral obligation0 should be translated into pragmatic urgency1 it will be plain that only clearly-prevised action-tendencies can properly be called either right or virtuous4 ,it may be true that many a successful action has been performed in the name of a fetichistic belief1 but who will doubt that an even more profitable action could have been motivated with less waste of the body's energies1 had there been correct insight and a frank facing of the facts4 ,as long as people are afraid of life1 so long are they bound to allege some false cause of their actions4 ,conversely1 as soon as they realize that they are what they do1 and whenever they learn that their ethical books cannot be balanced by drawing on a phantom bank account1 they begin to pile up ethical assets1 and to reduce their ethical liabilities4 ,from our earlier remark that the science of ethics is primarily concerned with what is rather than what ought to be1 it may be difficult to imagine what place the concept of human freedom can have in a mechanistic treatment of the problems of conduct4 ,it might seem easier to foreshadow what will be the fate of the concept of obligation1 especially when we realize that oughting is always hypothetical1 rather than categorical4 ,for every obligation is specific and particular1--it depends upon conditions1 places1 times1 and persons1 just as does every signification of good and bad1 and right and wrong4 ,there is no general ,ought1 as our recent discussion of ,kant's categorical imperative clearly implied4 ,when1 then1 we ask from whom or from what obligation arises1 what answer does a mechanistic ethics provide8 ,some may expect us to make the traditional answer1 namely1 that it comes from the group1 and that the feeling of obligation is a variation of the elemental type of conscience4 ,this sort of an answer is not to be given here4 ,although the group largely determines how we shall feel with regard to what ought to be done1 yet the final education of an ethically adult person leaves him with a different mind on this point4 ,indeed1 it is our purpose here not only to show that the concept of ethical freedom is a valid concept for a mechanistic ethics1 but also and more particularly that a true conception of ethical obligation depends upon the discovery of what ethical freedom implies4 ,that this involves no paradox will be understood as soon as we comprehend what it means to say that a man is free4 ,herewith we shall state five conditions under which freedom of action is guaranteed4 ,the first meaning of free action is action that is physically possible4 ,i am not now1 ,i never was1 and ,i never shall be free 7that is1 able7 to walk backward and forward at the same time1 or to be in ,boston and ,new ,york simultaneously4 ,neither can ,i1 while kissing ,jennie at her fireside1 be also kissing ,kate at her doorway a mile from ,jennie's house4 ,on the other hand1 the man who is sound of limb1 sensorially acute1 and otherwise endowed with natural capacities1 can be said to be free to employ these capacities whenever and wherever the conditions provide the opportunity4 ,right here we ask whether this first meaning of freedom does not have an important bearing on the question of ethical obligation4 ,is it1 indeed1 not plain that just as we cannot do what is physically impossible1 so there is no valid obligation under these conditions8 ,this1 however1 is something which the intuitionists and the idealists have persistently ignored1 regarding it often as somehow the very acme of virtue to declare as an ideal of conduct something which is totally impossible of realization1 and thereby fostering the neurotic temperament instead of ethical enlightenment4 ,yet it is plain that if1 while being unable to do the impossible1 ,i still am pathologically anxious about it1 ,i shall succeed only in accumulating impatience and turmoil1 and be forced to get what sour consolation ,i can from ,schopenhauer1 or else to 8gnaw the file0 in some other fashion4 ,moreover1 according to a mechanistic ethics1 ,i am an evil person as long as ,i waste energy in this fashion1 or in demanding consolation for my erroneous sentiment4 ,not only am ,i bound to fail1 and thereby to create discord rather than relieve it1 but ,i am also losing time and energy which might have gone into more profitable pursuits4 ,on the other hand1 while we do not yet say that we are under obligation to perform every physically possible action1 yet every valid urgency still lies in that direction4 ,the second meaning of the word 8freedom0 is absence of external restraints imposed by physical obstacles or generated by human beings4 ,no man is free to act when external hindrances are too great for him to overcome4 ,thus while it is possible for a sound man to walk either forward or backward1 he cannot keep on walking in a straight line if his path is intercepted by the sheer wall of a hundred-foot cliff1 or if some one stronger than himself obstructs his going4 ,excellent examples of such thwarting occur in the ,greek mythology of ,hades4 ,tantalus was forever hindered by the gusts of wind from plucking the fruit from the tree2 ,sisyphus could not force the stone over the brow of the hill2 and the daughters of ,danaus lost all the water they carried in their sieves4 ,they were not1 therefore1 free to perform these actions4 ,they may1 it is true1 have everlastingly wished them1 but they could not will them4 ,nevertheless1 while many similar hindrances to human action exist1 such as the friction-hindrance to perpetual motion1 and the wall which kept ,pyramus from ,thisbe1 yet1 on the whole1 most of the so-called external restraints are far less serious barriers to freedom than we realize4 ,this is not only attested by the magnificent conquests of nature recently made by applied science1 but it might also be deduced from the properties of man's protoplasm as modified in his muscular architecture4 ,for protoplasm is liquid1 and liquids flow2 and man's stream of thought as a derivative of his liquid protoplasm acquires its labile character as a sort of natural right4 ,just as a liquid under pressure transmits that pressure in all directions1 so a man who is made of good protoplasm tends1 when confronted by such obstacles as we have just described1 to think1 and plan1 and experiment1 that is1 ,,to ,,flow1 out of the difficulty4 ,his neuro-muscular equipment also singularly facilitates the turning of his wish into a will4 ,our muscles do not only contract and relax to produce lever movements in one plane1 but they also combine their movements into pronation1 supination1 and rotation1 and these synergic actions enable us to explore the obstacle and almost literally to flow around it4 ,this is also the mechanism by which we puzzle out any problem4 ,the all-or-none principle makes mental analysis always possible and often accurate4 ,applied to ,pyramus1 this means that the wall that separates him from ,thisbe stimulates him with her aid so variously that he not only rebels and laments1 but also starts to explore its surface and its possibilities1 with the final result that he vaults it and descends 8until he can come at ,thisbe's lips more directly40 ,there has always been an abundance of old saws to encourage the bold and the faint-hearted to regard obstacles as merely stepping-stones to future success1 but the physiological basis of such maxims we are only beginning to comprehend4 ,in fine1 then1 when we speak of a permanent obstacle to our actions1 we mean it only in so far as we do not also imply some serious deficiency in the quality of our protoplasm4 ,the relation between this second type of freedom and obligation is very obviously hinted at by the popular maxims on the theme of perseverance4 ,moreover1 it is historically demonstrable that pragmatic urgency usually increases in direct ratio to the ease with which external restraints can be surmounted4 ,on the other hand1 it is gradually becoming recognized that 8there are hundreds of thousands of human beings who can by no possibility ever do what is expected of them by society4 ,society must give over expecting such things40#bb ,those who have no power to plan1 scheme1 or supervise1 are consequently not educated enough to appreciate the obligations which such abilities involve4 ,we may now consider a third meaning of the concept 8freedom40 ,it is exhibited in those actions which we have been so well trained to perform that they occur without any conscious effort whatever4 ,accordingly1 the man with training and skill is more free than the man who lacks these abilities4 ,if the oboist of a symphony orchestra is too sick to play1 only another oboist is free to sit as a substitute at his desk4 ,a plumber will not do4 ,it will be perceived at once that many sorts of skill1 even though they be the exclusive possession of one person1 may yet be turned to the equal advantage of a great number of people1 making them all co-sharers in his freedom4 ,by using the skill of the substitute oboist1 for example1 both the managers and the patrons of the concert are free to carry out their wishes4 ,the enormous social advantages of most forms of skilful technique require only a passing comment4 ,indeed1 what we call business and trade are ultimately the bargains we make for each other's skill4 ,and here again the pragmatic urgency implicated by this form of freedom is apparent1 not only in the sharing of socially profitable skill1 but also in the acquisition of it4 ,a fourth empirical characterization of freedom may now be considered4 ,for free actions1 in addition to those which are physically possible1 externally unhindered1 and within the range of our skill1 are especially those which some mechanism of the body actually carries out in the manner in which it was originally set to do it4 ,in popular speech this form of freedom is exemplified by such expressions as1 8,i was successful10 8,i was determined to do it1 and ,i did it10 or1 8,the clerk tried to palm off a substitute1 but ,i persevered in getting the original40 ,such freedom emphatically implies a continuity in behavior which is absent in cases where the desire is thwarted or suppressed4 ,the physiological processes which guarantee this form of freedom are interesting to contemplate4 ,as the wish passes over into will1 not only are more and more muscle fibers involved in the action-scheme stimulated to their maximum contraction1 but also wider and wider synergies of muscular groups are brought into play1 until all the available kinetic energy of the body is released along the channel of one final common motor pathway4 ,moreover1 each and every muscle involved in such an action-scheme stimulates1 upon its contraction1 a receptor nerve embedded within it1 and these circular reflex stimulations automatically reinforce the contractions already begun4 ,this is nature's own contribution to the unification of our personality in the performance of this type of free activity4 ,the whole neuro-muscular architecture involved in such behavior becomes an automatic mechanism for reinforcing the centrifugal bodily posture1 and for providing against the wilting of any motor discharge in any single muscle due to its prolonged contraction4 ,such actions1 then1 which involve the steady and uninhibited output of energy that we have described we call free4 ,they are equally manifested by the cat who springs upon and catches the mouse she has been warily watching1 and by the violoncello virtuoso who scurries safely through the cadenza and arrives at the tutti without having either produced a 8wolf tone0 or dropped his bow4 ,it is such action which is connoted by the popular phrase 8free will40 ,the final touch to our delineation of freedom may be added by saying that only when a man's actions result in enlarging his environment1 and in providing him with increasing opportunities for turning his wishes into wills1 is he in the highest sense ethically free4 ,the preceding characterizations of the free man were derived from simply watching him in the midst of any of a thousand activities4 ,this last part of the picture is obtained by reckoning the permanent ethical assets which his efforts have provided4 ,these assets are1 moreover1 defined in terms of a continuing freedom4 ,for while we are all in a sense free to do anything within our ability1 and for which there is the time1 the place1 and the opportunity1 yet only under certain conditions can we follow such an action with another of our own choosing4 ,the liar1 the thief1 and the slanderer know very well to what an extent their putative freedoms produce antagonists of their own making with whom they must ever thereafter wage a dismal conflict4 ,on the other hand1 the man of frankness and a truthful tongue1 the man who makes fair bargains with the universe1 and the man who can solve his problems without the loss of his own temper or the respect of other persons1 is ipso facto equipped with the ability to synergize his muscles repeatedly into freely willed activities4 ,moreover1 while this fifth type of freedom is dependent upon the presence of the other four1 its effect upon them is reflexively beneficial1 in making more actions physically possible1 reducing the external hindrances to them1 increasing the skill by which they are performed1 and insuring the continuity with which they are carried out4 ,indeed1 we may now identify virtue with the attainment of this last type of freedom1 and vice with its loss or decline4 ,such activity is also right1 and its stimulus is a dependable good4 ,in thus defining the conditions under which human freedom exists1 we have1 ,i surmise1 also discovered the secret of ethical obligation1 of pragmatic urgency4 ,that is to say1 whenever an action is possible1 when it is not opposed by restraints beyond a man's power to overcome1 when he has the skill with which to perform it1 and when he can will it as well as wish it1 and when also the performance of this action increases the range of his effectiveness1 then1 but not till then1 can it be said that he ought to perform it4 ,the expressions1 8,i ought10 or 8,i should10 henceforth mean3 8,i imagine that there would be greater freedom if this course of action which ,i contemplate were to be carried out40 ,under this new conception of pragmatic urgency1 oughting is neither a vis a tergo1 nor a vis a fronte1 nor yet ,somebody's fiat superadded to the data of ethics1 but it is simply the logical resultant of the conditions of such human activity as produces dependable goods4 ,we recognize no valid obligations imposed upon men from above2 obligations are rather implicit in any activity which employs a man's skill to satisfy his needs at the same time that it educates his desires4 ,it is thus plain that there is no fundamental difference between ethics and any other science4 ,just as the business of physical science is to describe the conditions under which any phenomenon occurs1 so the business of ethical science is to ascertain1 by a study of the mechanisms of human behavior1 the conditions which underlie all of our ethical values4 ,wisely indeed did ,protagoras remark that 8,man is the measure of all things10 but it was not until many centuries after this statement had been made that a positively constructive interpretation1 could be put upon it4 ,,footnotes3 #bb ,george ,clarke ,cox1 8,the ,public ,conscience10 p4 #be4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,acquisition ,,of ,,an ,,ethical ,,technique 8,one of the reasons why pantheistic revery has been so popular is that it seems to offer a painless substitute for genuine spiritual effort4444 ,when pushed to a certain point the nature cult always tends towards sham spirituality4 #8,oh world as ,god has made it ,all is beauty1 ,and knowing this is love1 and ,love is duty1 ,what further can be sought for or desired8' ,it seems to follow from these lines of ,browning1 perhaps the most flaccid spiritually in the ,english language1 that to go out and mix oneself up with the landscape is the same as doing one's duty4 ,as a method of salvation this is even easier and more sthetic than that of the ,ancient ,mariner1 who1 it will be remembered1 is relieved of the burden of his transgression by admiring the color of water-snakes60 ,,irving ,,babbitt1 8,rousseau and ,romanticism40 8,objection3 ,will not this end in ethical scepticism8 ,answer3 ,nothing is further from scepticism than the conception of a reality subject to laws1 and of a rational action based on the knowledge of those laws40 ,l4 ,,levy-,,br,,hl1 8,ethics and ,moral ,science10 ,table of ,contents1 p4 xi4 8,in the preceding pages we have no doubt often hurt--but we have hurt to heal4 ,the good surgeon probes deeply in order that he may not have the operation to perform again4 ,even a minute amount of diseased tissues left behind can prevent the return of vigorous and creative health4 ,thus what may seem to the anxious patient unnecessary cruelty may be the greatest kindness4 ,a sentimental compromise is never welcomed by the mature judgment of the brave man4 ,and in this day when so many have willingly given their lives for the sake of a human ideal1 is it just and right to flinch in the spiritual warfare which confronts our generation8 ,we are seeking nothing less than a renaissance in which men's energies will be wisely and loyally directed to what is greatly human and humanly great4 ,in such a service we must will to be hard on ourselves and on others40 ,,roy ,,wood ,,sellars1 8,the ,next ,step in ,religion10 p4 #baa4 ,little did ,descartes dream that his attempt to find truth by the method of candid doubting was a sign that human evolution had 8turned a corner10 or that the method he employed was to be the precursor of an ethical renaissance4 ,yet the introduction of this one form of psychological test as a philosophic instrument was an entering wedge of such power that where great darkness had been1 much light was shed2 and where the stolid inertia of many centuries had existed1 movement and life and enlightenment began to appear4 ,but nature is slow1 and always takes plenty of time to play its elaborate game2 indeed1 often nature seems to us to proceed by circuitous paths where we would make an open right of way4 ,however1 even though it was several centuries after ,descartes before the first psychological laboratory was founded1 the development of thought toward the recognition and use of the psychological method was nevertheless steadily proceeding4 ,today there is no word we are more wont to conjure with than the word psychology4 ,and even if the foolish always use it with derision1 yet those who are wise know well to what an extent it is symbolical of a new era of human development1 on the threshold of which era we now confidently stand4 ,what is this psychological method which has so silently become established1 and what has it to do with the acquisition of an ethical technique8 ,it is the method of analysis1 experiment1 and constructive scepticism1 which treats all phenomena objectively1 that is1 by leaving out the personal equation1 and by asking not how do we preconceive that things should appear1 but only how do they appear with our personal bias in abeyance4 ,such a method1 which1 by the way1 is the essence of psychological science1 is very difficult to achieve4 ,indeed1 for many it is constitutionally impossible4 ,the history of physical science records how great were the struggles of men to become objectively-minded even toward their external environment1 struggles which have only recently become successful4 ,witness the fact that for many centuries the alchemists sought for the philosopher's stone1 a mineral which they falsely preconceived to have the power of transmuting lead into gold2 witness the fact that the science of anatomy was for generations denied its birth on account of pious prejudice and taboo2 and witness even today that many physical objects are said to be bewitched when they fail to operate as expected1 and that luck at cards is still stoutly affirmed by otherwise estimable people4 ,indeed1 there are thousands of farmers in the ,united ,states who appeal to the methods of divination in planting their crops and shingling their houses4 ,consequently1 it is plain that if the power to become objectively-minded toward the physical world is so rarely attained1 it is even more difficult to become detached and un-self-conscious toward the mental and social behavior of our fellow-men4 ,nevertheless1 this method of detachment1 of looking at old things with new eyes1 is just what hundreds of teachers of psychology are training thousands of students every year to employ2 and its salutary effects are being felt in every corner of the civilized world4 ,to some persons all this may come as a surprise1 since the criticism has already been publicly uttered that the study of psychology tends to make one incurably introspective4 ,on these grounds alone the self-styled hard-headed business man often hastily classifies psychology among the foibles of women and poets4 ,this1 however1 is simply another error due to hostile preconceptions4 ,for even though some psychologists have fallen into the practice of cultivating ,psyche for her own sake1 yet their method originated from distinctly other motives4 ,psychology1 it is true1 when cultivated by persons constitutionally possessed of an introversive bias1 may not always eradicate that bias1 any more than will the putting of an army rifle into the hands of a timid man make him forthright into a model top-sergeant4 ,in another strain1 it is sometimes alleged that psychology is simply a new head set upon the body of ancient ,roman stoicism4 ,but it must be remembered that the detachment which the ,stoics cultivated lacked all the elements of a scientific inquisitiveness4 ,it was marked chiefly by a sweet indifference and unconcern1 traits which were derived from the belief that ,reason which ruled the world was interested only in the headlines of universal news4 ,the psychologist1 far from being indifferent to the most transient phenomena of human experience1 regards them most steadfastly4 ,nevertheless1 he endeavors to maintain an equality of interest in all human affairs1 knowing full well that as soon as he takes sides1 he loses his sense of the proportions of the whole4 ,unlike the ,stoic1 he admits the reality and inevitableness of pain and anguish2 yet while he studies these phenomena1 he keeps a sharp lookout lest his personal equation obtrude itself in the shape of sympathetic sorrows1--these he steadfastly refuses to add to his report of the objective facts4 ,nevertheless1 it is conceivable that had not the elements of stoic indifference been a basic capacity of human protoplasm1 the psychological attitude might not have been evolved4 ,curiously enough1 psychology has been both defended and attacked on the basis of its supposed kinship with certain doctrines of ,jesus1 as1 for example1 the ,golden ,rule4 ,no psychologist is greatly interested in any debate carried out on these lines4 ,when ,edwin ,holt's 8,the ,freudian ,wish0 first appeared a few years ago1 some caustic reviewer accused its author of 8having gotten religion in the form of ,freud40 ,it is doubtful whether anyone1 be he ,christian or non-,christian1 would regard such a remark either as a help or a hindrance to the acceptance of psychology as a contribution to the technique of ethics4 ,as far as the ,golden ,rule is concerned1 its relations to scientific method may be briefly indicated by saying that while this maxim can be interpreted to imply a kind of other-regard which seems to possess the elements of scientific detachment1 yet other things must also be considered before final judgment is passed4 ,for this hypothetical imperative1--8,whatsoever ye would that men should do unto you1 do ye even so unto them10--is only possible of application among equals of intellect or of sentiment1 and it can be used then only by a forehanded and judicious person1 one with discriminative sympathies1 and able to mature his wishes into wills4 ,psychology ventures to make no universal rules of conduct1 especially since it must first take an inventory of human nature in order to find out what rules there are to which man will give his uncoerced and unconscious loyalty4 ,let it not be assumed1 however1 that the psychologist urges an ethical moratorium while he is pursuing his search into the secret places of human nature4 ,the method of scientific detachment has itself provided such an insight into the problems of conduct as to make any such assumption absurd4 ,he who catches a glimpse of what it means to understand his fellow-men1 rather than to regard them primarily as creatures to be classified as either good or bad1 virtuous or vicious1 begins to grow into an ethically adult person4 ,he at once loses that ancient1 clandestine1 stultifying tendency to obtrude his own bias into his social environment1 and he no longer finds his chief comfort in adoring those who are most like unto himself1 or in mentally lynching in advance those who rub his ego the wrong way4 ,scientific neutrality hath also its victories4 ,the application of the psychological method to prison reform1 where the criminal is regarded as an effect as well as a cause of social mal-adjustments1 has already been acknowledged as humanly great4 ,is it not possible that we see in such phenomena the passing of an age in which maxims were necessary1 and the birth of an era where the educative methods of wise and kind men will take their places8 ,the further drift of this would be hard1 indeed1 to conceal4 ,ethics as a branch of psychology is inevitably bound up with the abolition of praise and blame1 and of reward and punishment1 as the chief themes in the judgments we pass upon our fellow-men4 ,the tendency to make such bi-polar judgments usually implies a prejudice inherited from a pre-scientific age4 ,with this change1 of course1 many of the traditional moral categories will be replaced by the true categories of the understanding1--categories derived from psychological insight into the ethical potentialities of the natural man4 ,even now1 however1 such a replacement is in progress1 the results of which are neither small nor unimportant4 ,we refer here to the wide-spread use of trait analyses1 both in business and in education1 by which a man is estimated on the basis of his tendencies1 capacities1 and powers4 ,his body is measured for its strength and resiliency1 and where defects are discovered1 a regimen leading to the re-education of his physique is prescribed4 ,his mental developments are tested1 and the common attributes of the human mind1 such as sensory acuity1 retention1 discrimination1 and the like1 are estimated and recorded4 ,the special talents he possesses are revealed by performance tests1 and his hitherto undeveloped potentialities are induced to betray themselves4 ,the emotions from which he either profits or suffers are discovered by methods adroitly devised for the purpose4 ,likewise1 the individual's sociability1--whether it be merely gang-attachment1 or a zest for cooperative endeavors1--is made a matter of sympathetic study2 while still other bases upon which a man may be estimated are employed in the attempt to help him find out just what manner of man he is4 ,while it is admitted that physical and mental tests are often stupidly devised and bigotedly inflicted on the testee1 yet it seems likely that we have given here a method which can be employed to the greatest advantage even in every-day ethics4 ,for the psychological method1 in that it teaches one first to become analytical and discriminative1 replaces the old1 unfounded prejudice that men are unequivocally either good or bad1 virtuous or vicious1 saints or sinners1 by a desire to know just what can be done with and for them4 ,and while the methods of psychology will probably always rank men on a scale from low to high1 and will always employ opposite poles in its judgments1 yet in the multitude of such antonyms there is safety4 ,scientific judgments are1 by being unemotional1 devoid both of that extreme congratulation and sharp censure which attach to purely moral estimates1 while the wide range of observation upon which they are made provides for the greatest number of human contacts and of educative measures possible4 ,to extol a man is often not much different in effect than to blame him1 and both praise and blame can equally hinder his power to acquire an ethical technique4 ,men differ too variously to be fitted to any one ,procrustean bed2 the human mind has infinitely more than two dimensions4 ,moreover1 the moralist's use of bi-polar judgments tends inevitably to separate men1 rather than to unite them1 or to teach them to cooperate with one another4 ,and when we consider that from now on1 at least1 the predicaments of this planet will be common liabilities of the whole human race1 the pragmatic urgency to employ the methods of psychology in attaining social harmony are undisguisedly patent4 ,the benefits derived from employing the psychological method in ethics are1 however1 by no means exclusively social4 ,the use of this method reacts directly upon the user in several significant ways4 ,in the first place1 the man who employs even as few as twenty-five of the newer categories in making a trait analysis of his fellows1 soon becomes aware of the fact that his former analysis of himself is in need of revision4 ,exaggerated self-preference is thus broken down1 and replaced1 not by its opposite1--self-abasement1--but by an estimate which arises from comparisons and contrasts resulting from the use of an objective standard4 ,again1 the user of this method learns that human behavior is not the product of some mysterious mental element called 8character10 but that character itself is the product of traits1 and1 furthermore1 that every trait has had a developmental history1 which is at every point a record of the effect of environmental stimulus upon original nature4 ,his own character thereafter becomes subject to scientific scrutiny1 and he realizes1 for example1 that his previous emotional repugnances were not always signs of incorruptibility1 but very frequently1 indeed1 signs of the extent to which his own desires had been prevented from reaching their maturity4 ,and1 only to mention one more of the many benefits of such new scientific insight1 the use of this method reveals that times out of number purely moral judgments are employed to quench1 rather than to quicken thought1 and are uttered not so much to indicate that discriminative sympathies are being acquired1 as to show that they have long since ceased to germinate4 ,henceforth the employment of the psychological method goes hand in hand with the urgency to prevent as many young minds as possible from suffering on account of a retarded development4 ,such a change of emphasis from traditional morals to scientific methods implies unequivocally that the problems of ethics are henceforth to be solved by experts4 ,already the recognition of the need of such a change is evident in the reliance that is being placed upon psychiatrists and other medical men to assist in the cure of those who are maladjusted to their environment4 ,health-clinics likewise are being both promoted and attended by those who realize that the virtues go as deep as the viscera1 and that often such things as ignorance of the shape of one's stomach have been the source of many a lapse from normality4 ,this reliance upon trained experts is1 moreover1 a sign of still further changes in our occidental philosophy of life4 ,it means that we are acquiring the conviction that constructive criticism is better than ritual1 and analysis more efficacious than prayer4 ,for we have begun to see that progress must come by honest1 painstaking efforts in the here and now1 rather than by presuming upon the perfection of a universe which we have only begun to understand4 ,it is indeed the well-born sentiment of many thousands of people today that science wisely employed for the benefit and use of men is the only true word of ,god4 ,herewith1 also1 the question of what sort of ideals an applied mechanistic psychology of conduct provides may have an answer4 ,on this point we need not be dumb1 nor can we make a 8sentimental compromise40 ,when the mechanist asserts that we are what we do1 he does not thereby denounce ideals2 on the contrary1 he thus only affirms his purpose to take the whole question of ideals seriously1 more seriously1 in fact1 than it was ever taken before4 ,herein also he declares for the ,ethics of ,hercules rather than the 8,ethics of ,cinderella40 ,for while he must admit that there is1 accordingly1 no class of people who can be truthfully said to be 8the pure in heart10--owing to the fatigue of attention incident to all other-worldly contemplation1--yet he also asserts that the man who knows his capacities and powers as the result of an objective analysis1 is by that means equipped to advance to more inclusive levels of conduct than he who merely cultivates an inner life of private mystery4 ,the mechanist would therefore let new standards grow out of the development of natural human capacities1 out of the struggle to educate men so that their desires and abilities mature simultaneously1 and out of the freedom which can thus be achieved by those able to achieve it4 8,great love comes from great knowledge10 said ,leonardo da ,vinci1 and the advance of science today in all its branches corroborates this assertion4 ,although at the present hour it does not seem clear just what the universe is doing1 yet they who recognize even in seemingly disastrous tumults the struggles of man to enlarge his power to think1 will see that even if nature's way appears to be circuitous and even at times crude1 it is nevertheless nature's inevitable way4 ,much lamentation is heard today over the changes which evolution has brought to this planet1 and the outcry is even raised that science has taken away our souls4 ,is it necessary to reply that a faith in stagnation is clearly out of joint with the creative functions of time1 or that the loss of an ancient belief may be the sign of a truly ethical advance8 ,indeed1 we can well be assured that the type of soul which is composed of self-stifled desires1 of restless sentiments due to an ignoble retreat from reality1 of the fear of ultimate annihilation1 not only will die1 but it also ought to die4 ,there is another and a better kind of soul1--the one created out of sagacity1 skill1 and kindness1 which generates power1 wisdom1 and peace1--and this type of soul1 as long as the sun remains hot1 and the earth's crust keeps flowering into men1 will have its immortality guaranteed4 ,this is the mechanist's religion1--a consequence of1 rather than an apology for1 his ethics4 ,for religion1 though it be a word made base by those who claim to have an endless copyright on truth1 and a retroactive monopoly on the deeper human emotions1 means to a mechanist something more closely allied to its original signification4 ,it means a reliance on that much of nature1 and a support from that much of humanity1 as contributes to the development of a man's talents1 to the freedom of his actions1 and to his peace of mind4 ,the new labors of ,hercules will consist in making this true for the whole human race4 ,,index ,abstract terms1 #bd ,action-pattern1 #bj ,adler1 ,a41 #aga ,adrian1 ,e4 ,d41 #bg ,andreas ,hofer1 #acb ,all-or-none principle1 #bg-cj1 #aji ,aristotle1 #h1 #ae ,babbitt1 ,irving1 #ahi ,bayliss1 ,w4 ,m4 #bg1 n2 #cb-n4 ,buddhism1 #aci ,butler1 ,joseph1 #aeg-h ,charcot1 ,j4 ,m41 #cc ,circular reflex1 #hi1 #ahe ,clarke1 ,samuel1 #aeh-i ,composition1 fallacy of1 #ih ,conditioned reflex1 #bf1 #ed1 #hi ,couterat1 ,l41 #ij ,cox1 ,c4 ,g41 #h ,crile1 ,g4 ,w41 #bj ,davis1 ,w4 ,m41 #h ,democritus1 #ab ,descartes1 #cf1 #aij ,dewey1 ,i41 #h1 #af1 #ag1 #ba1 #agj-aga ,diogenes1 #aba ,dynamogenesis1 law of1 #cc ,emerson1 #ac1 #gb ,empedocles1 #ac1 #ei ,everett1 ,w4 ,g41 #age ,golden ,rule1 #aid ,harvey1 ,william1 #ae ,helvetius1 #afd ,hobbes1 #h1 #aeg ,holt1 ,e4 ,b41 #h1 #af1 #bj1 #ca1 #abg1 #agj ,homer1 #ai ,hypostatization1 fallacy of1 #afc ,initial predication1 fallacy of1 #f ,james1 ,w41 #ac1 #ea1 #ge ,jesus1 #bi1 #gb1 #acf ,language1 functions of1 #ag-ah ,law1 8moral10 #fh1 #afb ,legal rights1 #hd-id ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #h1 #bja ,levy-,brhl1 ,l41 #h1 #afb1 #ahi ,locke1 ,j41 #afd-e ,lucas1 ,keith1 #bg ,mahommedanism1 #aci ,meaning1 #ba-bd ,meyer1 ,max1 #ajd ,mill1 ,j4 ,s41 #h1 #afe ,milton1 #ei ,morality not the same as ethics1 #gc 8,moral0 rights1 #id-ajj 8,motor set10 #bj ,murray1 ,james1 #aef ,outgoing reaction1 #ef ,paulsen1 ,f41 #acg ,perry1 ,r4 ,b41 #f1 n2 #age ,plato1 #aba1 #acj ,prince1 ,morton1 #adj ,protagoras1 #ahg ,reciprocal innervation1 law of1 #cb-ce1 #ei ,regulus1 #acb ,reid1 ,t41 #afb-c ,richet1 ,c41 #cc 8,secret of ,life10 #e ,sellars1 ,r4 ,w41 #h1 #eh1 #aij ,shaftesbury1 #aeh ,socrates1 #g-h1 #gb1 #acb 8,specific response10 #bj ,spencer1 ,h41 #h ,spinoza1 #h1 #ii ,starling1 ,e4 ,h41 #bh1 n2 #cb1 n4 ,stoics1 #aic 8,stream of thought10 #ad ,thigmotaxis1 #aca ,titchener1 ,e4 ,b41 #bj ,vitalist1 #e-g ,vague1 meaning of1 #bf ,withdrawing reaction1 #ff ,zoroaster1 #ac1 #eh-i ,a ,,partial ,,list ,,of ,,borzoi ,,texts ,,early ,,civilization3 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,anthropology ,by ,alexander ,a4 ,goldenweiser1 ,lecturer on ,anthropology and ,sociology at the ,new ,school for ,social ,research1 ,new ,york ,large #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,,xxiv #dbd pages ,while offering an elementary text for the beginner in anthropology1 this volume is mainly designed as a source book of information and suggestion for students of sociology who may wish to amplify their familiarity with modern social phenomena by an inquiry into the nature of early civilization and the workings of the primitive mind4 ,,secret ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,occupation ,,of ,,egypt ,by ,wilfrid ,scawen ,blunt ,large #hvo1 ,cloth1 #dej pages ,this book makes clear the varying motives--imperialistic1 economic1 and personal--which brought about the ,english occupation of ,egypt4 ,based on personal records and contemporary documents1 its statements and conclusions have a profound interest and importance for students of history in general and of ,english history in particular4 ,,the ,,german ,,constitution ,by ,ren ,brunet1 ,professor of ,constitutional ,law at the ,university of ,caen 7translated from the ,french by ,joseph ,gollomb1 with an ,introduction by ,charles ,a4 ,beard7 #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,,xiv #cci pages ,this is a critical discussion of the new ,german ,constitution1 the actual text of which is included1 in ,english1 as an appendix4 ,it gives a lucid and unbiased account of the ,german ,revolution1 describes the conflict of forces which ended in the establishment of the ,republic1 and concludes with a systematic analysis of the new plan of government4 ,,the ,,foundations ,,of ,,social ,,science ,by ,james ,mickel ,williams1 ,professor of ,economics and ,sociology in ,hobart ,college ,large #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,,xvi #did pages ,a comparative study of the psychological aspects of the social sciences4 ,it treats of the relation of social psychology to political science1 jurisprudence1 economics1 history and sociology1 analyzing the psychological assumptions underlying the behavior of men living in social relations4 ,,principles ,,of ,,social ,,psychology ,by ,james ,mickel ,williams1 ,professor of ,economics and ,sociology in ,hobart ,college ,large #hvo ,cloth1 ,,xii #dei pages ,this book represents the first attempt that has been made to explain society concretely in psychological terms4 ,it describes the essential processes that extend thruout the social organization1 analyzing the conflict of the different types of behavior in all human relations4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,social ,,development ,by ,franz ,carl ,mller-,lyer 7translated from the ,german by ,e4 ,c4 and ,h4 ,w4 ,lake1 with ,introductions by ,l4 ,t4 ,hobhouse and ,e4 ,j4 ,urwick7 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #cfb pages ,this volume is mainly designed as a text for beginners in social studies4 ,it surveys broadly the various phases of man's origin and progress1 co-ordinating the general facts of social evolution from the earliest times and indicating the probable trend of future developments4 ,,human ,,nature ,,in ,,politics ,by ,graham ,wallas1 ,professor of ,political ,science in ,london ,university #hvo1 ,cloth1 #cbj pages ,this is a slightly revised edition1 with a new ,preface1 of ,professor ,wallas' famous work first published in ,england1 in #aijh1 and for some time out of print4 ,it offers a clear and forceful analysis of the psychological processes which underlie political thought and action1 laying special emphasis upon the application of social psychology to politics4 ,,how ,,england ,,is ,,governed ,by ,rt4 ,hon4 ,c4 ,f4 ,g4 ,masterman #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,,xvi #bic pages ,an introductory study of the working of the ,british ,constitution1 written from the standpoint of one who has had actual experience of the working of the political machinery of ,england4 ,students of politics and government will find in this volume a most interesting and valuable source of information4 ,,facing ,,old ,,age ,by ,abraham ,epstein1 ,formerly ,director of the ,pennsylvania ,commission to ,investigate ,old ,age ,pensions #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,,xvi #ceb pages ,this book offers a scientific examination of the social and economic problems presented by the aged4 ,frankly a plea for social action1 it presents in a most thoro and lucid manner the latest available data bearing upon this interesting and important question4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #bhj pages ,,our ,,war ,,with ,,germany ,by ,john ,spencer ,bassett1 ,professor of ,american ,history in ,smith ,college ,large #hvo1 ,cloth1 #cih pages ,this is a compact but complete account of the part played by the ,united ,states in the ,world ,war4 ,it is in no sense a mere record of military events1 but an analytical account of the political1 economic and military events that marked the period of the war4 ,,consumers' ,,cooperative ,,societies ,by ,charles ,gide1 ,professor of ,economics at the ,university of ,paris 7translation from the ,french1 edited by ,cedric ,long7 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #cjj pages ,this translation of ,professor ,gide's famous work is intended to meet the needs of ,american students of ,distributive ,co-operation4 ,the first three chapters are devoted to an elucidation of the meaning and history of the co-operative movement1 while the bulk of the volume deals with the practical problems of organization1 administration and development of consumers' societies themselves4 ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,hercules ,by ,robert ,chenault ,givler #abmo1 ,cloth #baj pages ,a strictly behavioristic treatment of ethical values4 ,not only is human conduct the result of external and internal stimuli upon the human body1 but even our notions of right and wrong are derived from the reactions of our nerves and muscles to the various stimuli which excite them4 ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,journalism ,by ,nelson ,antrim ,crawford #hvo1 ,cloth #bgj pages ,a clear-cut1 objective exposition and analysis of contemporary journalistic practice with reference to advertising1 news1 and editorial1 carefully documented4 ,here is a pioneer book on a subject which is attracting keen attention especially among practicing and prospective journalists4 ,,the ,,basis ,,of ,,social ,,theory ,by ,adam ,g4 ,a4 ,balz1 with the collaboration of ,william ,s4 ,a4 ,pott #abmo1 ,cloth #bec pages ,the writers of this book take the position that a science of ,human ,nature is requisite for the progress of all the social sciences1 that ,social ,psychology is failing to accomplish its fundamental purpose of clarifying the uncertainties and ambiguities concerning the nature of social facts and causes4 ,,the ,,trend ,,of ,,economics ,by ,various ,writers 7edited by ,rexford ,g4 ,tugwell7 #hvo1 ,cloth #eej pages ,a series of monographs contributed by thirteen outstanding ,american economists of the younger generation designed to set forth the present tendencies of economic thought and inquiry in the light of their historical development4 ,transcriber's ,notes pg #cj ,changed3 if the word have a meaning to3 if the word has a meaning pg #eb ,changed3 ,class ,b is always life-enchancing to3 ,class ,b is always life-enhancing pg #adi ,changed3 adopted them in a semi-parodoxical to3 adopted them in a semi-paradoxical