,,debating ,,for ,,boys ,,debating ,,for ,,boys ,,by ,,william ,,horton ,,foster ,new ,york ,,sturgis ,,walton ,,company #aiae ,all rights reserved ,copyright1 #aiac ,,by ,,the ,,perry ,,mason ,,company ,copyright1 #aiac1 #aiad ,,by ,,the ,,boy ,,scouts ,,of ,,america ,copyright1 #aiae ,,by ,,sturgis ,,walton ,,company ,set up and electrotyped4 ,published1 ,august1 #aiae ,,preface ,the judge1 in awful ermine1 on the bench2 the jury1 glowering1 in its box2 the prisoner1 ,,the ,,book1 in the dock3 enter in humility1 the attorney for the defense1 ,,the ,,preface4 8,what excuse for existence has the prisoner80 thunders the judge in tones that make the culprit's leaves shake4 ,in cringing deference1 the attorney for the defense falters1 8,none1 your lordship1 none1 but44440 ,such is the scene that many prefaces suggest4 ,this preface1 however1 is different--and quite shameless4 ,it says1 merely1 that the title 8,debating for ,boys0 carries its own statement of its reason for being4 ,boys like to debate2 debating will do them good4 ,this volume is a simple1 unpretentious manual designed to help boys to debate efficiently--to get from the most manly of all sports1 and a royal sport it is1 all of the pleasure and profit it has to offer4 ,the book is designed1 first of all1 as an aid to the boy himself--in home1 club1 school1 church--and1 also1 as an aid to the father1 club director1 teacher1 clergyman1 all1 in fact1 who are his friends and advisers4 ,i wish to thank ,the ,youth's ,companion for its courteous permission to reprint one chapter which originally appeared upon its ,boys' ,page2 ,boys' ,life1 the ,boy ,scouts' magazine1 for kind consent to the republication of much matter which first saw the light of print in its columns2 ,mr4 ,henry ,smith ,chapman for valuable material upon parliamentary law2 and ,mr4 ,warren ,dunham ,foster for his general editorial direction of the book4 ,acknowledgment is due ,mr4 ,rollo ,l4 ,lyman of the ,university of ,chicago1 and ,mr4 ,george ,p4 ,baker of ,harvard1 whose methods of teaching argumentation have become standard4 ,w4 ,h4 ,f4 ,boston1 ,massachusetts4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i ,,why ,,boys ,,should ,,debate #c ,,ii ,,what ,,debate ,,really ,,is #ac ,,iii ,,what ,,to ,,debate #ai ,,iv ,,getting ,,ready #be ,v ,,terms ,,and ,,issues #cj ,,vi ,,clash ,,of ,,arguments #ch ,,vii ,,evidence #dg ,,viii ,,the ,,brief #ef ,,ix ,,refutation #ga ,x ,,delivery #gi ,,xi ,,final ,,suggestions #hc ,,xii ,,how ,,the ,,fairfield ,,boys ,,organized #hh ,,xiii ,,their ,,parliamentary ,,procedure #aja ,,xiv ,,the ,,ford ,,hall ,,town ,,meeting #aaf ,,xv ,,sources ,,of ,,material #acd ,,appendix ,a4 ,,questions ,,for ,,debate #ada ,b4 ,,how ,,to ,,judge ,a ,,debate #aec ,c4 ,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,boys' ,,debating ,,club ,,of ,,fairfield #aef ,d4 ,,table ,,of ,,parliamentary ,,rules #afj ,e4 ,,rules ,,of ,,the ,,ford ,,town ,,meeting #afd ,,debating ,,for ,,boys ,,chapter ,i ,,why ,,boys ,,should ,,debate ,for two reasons ,i am going to discuss with you the theories of debating4 ,in the first place1 the debate of the boys' club1 of the school society1 or of the city lyceum1 is the same in form and method as the debates in legislature or ,congress4 ,any lad who is trained to debate1 who knows his subject1 who is logical and direct1 who is frightened neither at his own voice nor of his opponent's ability1 will later in life be able to meet an opponent in the larger halls of the capital4 ,he will find it no different in ,washington than it was in the village school--his audience will be larger and his judges different but the rules governing his thought and its expression will be the same4 ,in the second place1 when he is effectively trained in debate1 he is also completely equipped for the more informal thought and discussion which is his daily habit4 ,when from his study and practice of debating1 he knows something of logic1 something of the ordinary rules of evidence1 something of the organization of an argument1 he will be impatient and intolerant of weak and jointless talk1 even in informal discussion4 ,every one has overheard in crowds talk which has passed for argument but has been as formless as a jelly-fish--merely talk4 ,it began nowhere and ended nowhere4 ,so ,i propose to discuss debating because it will prepare you for the highest responsibilities which may be placed upon you1 while at the same time it will equip you for the everyday duties of active boyhood and later manhood4 ,purpose of ,debating4--,remember then that debate is simply the spoken argument presented formally2 what is its purpose8 ,the answer is1 not to beat the other side1 but to get at the facts4 ,now in some games1 although of course it is of prime importance that the contest be manly and the sport clean1 there is a distinct value in the strife itself and victory is sought for its own sake2 the element of right or wrong does not enter into the question at all4 ,there is no right or wrong to it4 ,but in debate the purpose is not to win at any cost2 not to confuse the opponent1 nor to trick him1 but to win by absolute strength of argument--to present such argument as will show the facts4 ,in debates the truth is wanted--not necessarily the decision1 the victory4 ,for the purpose and object of debate is to determine upon some course of action1 to arrive at some decision2 it is a poor sort of victory which secures a decision at the expense of facts4 ,for example1 suppose that you are a ,boy ,scout and that your patrol has decided upon a hike to ,mt4 ,rainier4 ,the first question to discuss and settle will be the best route to take4 ,jack ,prentice may know the way absolutely1 but may not be nearly so fluent a talker as ,frank ,gordon1 who with very little knowledge of the proposed hike1 could easily silence poor ,jack in the discussion4 ,what will be the effect of ,frank's victory1 if he gains it8 ,if ,jack is made to look ridiculous in discussion1 if he loses his presence of mind and so stammers over his statements that his fellow ,scouts lose patience and take ,frank's more fluent speech for fact and adopt his proposed route1 what will it all avail if they take the wrong road8 ,will it not be a hollow victory in the end8 ,and will his victory add to ,frank's reputation1 although his fellows may be very willing to admit his cleverness8 ,will not that very cleverness make them all the more unwilling to trust his future arguments1 when they remember this failure8 ,on the other hand what about ,jack8 ,is our only feeling toward him one of sympathy8 ,no1 he should have trained his powers1 he should have early 8found himself0 so that he would not fall an easy victim to mere cleverness4 ,in other words1 ,frank is responsible for the use he made of his powers1 and ,jack is responsible for the use he did not make of his4 ,if the patrol got caught off the road on the hike1 ,i imagine they would blame both ,frank and ,jack about equally4 ,debate ,must ,lead to ,action4--,now you may not at first see the parallel between a debate on the best route for a proposed hike and a general debate on conservation1 for example4 ,both1 however1 are really governed by the same rules and their purpose and object is the same4 ,in the plans for your hike1 you proposed to do something1 to go somewhere2 if the question of conservation is up for discussion it is with some definite end in view1 not simply as an excuse for general talk about it4 ,the discussion which does not lead to a definite plan of action is not truly argument4 ,if after your audience1 whether it is your patrol1 your debating club1 or later your legislature1 has listened to you1 it says 8,what a fine speech60 you have failed4 ,the audience should be convinced to the point of action4 ,demosthenes said to his rival1 8,when the ,athenians listen to you they say #8,what a fine speech6' ,when they hear me they say1 #8,let's go fight against ,philip4'0 ,so any argument1 and debate1 must convince the hearers that the facts are as claimed1 that the deductions based upon these facts are sound and that the course advised is correct4 ,finally and supremely1 it must lead somewhere2 it must have a definite plan to propose and must lead the hearers to follow that plan4 ,benefits to the ,individual4--,if1 then1 the purpose of debate is to get at the facts and to determine the proper action to be taken with reference to those facts1 what are the benefits of debate to the debater himself8 ,they are many and varied4 ,training in ,self-,control4--,in the first place1 there is the training in self-control which comes to the debater4 ,sometimes one can face a physical emergency with fortitude when he shrinks from a situation which calls for no physical pluck at all4 ,only a few years ago a famous ,harvard football player who had been the mainstay of his team in many a scrimmage actually fainted away when he first attempted to take part in a debate4 ,when he was revived he was so disgusted with himself that he insisted on trying again1 and he did1 after a fashion1 go through his part in the debate4 ,mortified at his failure1 he persisted in as strenuous a course in his debating class as ever had been imposed upon him by his football coach4 ,he won1 and became one of ,harvard's star debaters4 ,you see1 the physical self-control he had acquired on the gridiron was not available to him in debate2 but it is the skill in debate which is now helping him in after life--not necessarily his football prowess4 ,training to ,meet ,emergencies4--,you will learn how to meet emergencies if you become skillful in debate4 ,most of us can frame a fair argument if we can sit quietly down and think it out with no one to bother us4 ,but to be able to control and command your resources so that they are ready for quick action--that is a different ability--an ability that work in debating will give you4 ,if ,jack has studied out his question he may be able to give a very strong argument for it4 ,but suppose ,frank is there to ask ,jack questions or to suggest measures contrary to those he is advocating1 ,jack is likely to lose in his argument unless he has so prepared himself that ,frank's counter arguments have already been considered and provided for4 ,you will see that it is not enough to have arguments--you must have them ready for use4 ,it is a good deal like a camping equipment2 it will not aid you in the woods if it is packed away at home4 ,this preparedness1 as far as argument is concerned1 debating will teach you4 ,knowing--,not ,doing4--,you know education is a process of preparing a man to get the most out of himself and the most out of life4 ,in many cases1 however1 a boy knows a great deal but can do but very little4 ,i have known boys who could tell you all about the various methods of signaling since ,gideon trained his troop of warriors2 yet1 if you should ask these boys1 they couldn't actually send the simplest message4 ,they know1 but they can not do4 ,now the training in meeting emergencies which debating gives a boy1 lays the emphasis on quick decision1 but above all on quick decision that means action4 ,this training in self-control which practice in debating gives is invaluable in after life4 ,when the boy1 for instance1 is after a job1 if he has self-control he will be able to face his possible employer with courage and to put up the front he is entitled to show4 ,the timid boy1 however1 will probably be unable to present his claims in a fashion that shows their merit4 ,many other such cases will occur to any of you4 ,debating ,forms ,habits of ,correct ,speech4--,next to its value in training for self-control1 practice in debating is valuable in the formation of correct habits of speech4 ,i do not mean the 8fine writing0 we recognize so easily1 which is sometimes beautiful but more often only funny4 ,i mean that direct ,english which aims to say certain things in the simplest fashion and in the fewest words4 ,never to use a long word when a short one will express the exact meaning1 never to use a foreign word or a word of foreign derivation when a plain ,saxon word will do--a few such rules as these will soon form a clear clean style1 and no drill equals the debate for the recognition of this style or its opposite1 huge bombastic statement4 ,haven't you noticed how much worse a poor sentence sounds than it looks8 ,it is like comparing cannon balls with toy balloons--they may look about the same size and may have the same general appearance but to use them--well1 ,i would rather juggle with toy balloons than with cannon balls but the cannon balls would surely be the more reliable in an argument2 which do you think would carry the most weight8 ,you surely recognize a clear exact style when you hear it1 and you surely recognize slovenly careless speech when you hear it4 ,now you can't in debate have a clean clear style if you haven't a clean cut incisive argument--if you haven't thought your subject through4 ,and on the contrary1 your very work thinking your argument out will strengthen your style and simplify your speech4 ,matters so ordinary as grammar and pronunciation will unconsciously correct themselves when you hear your own voice either gracing or disgracing your thought4 ,your vocabulary will be enlarged1 your diction clarified1 and1 on the physical side1 your articulation will be clearer and more distinct2 you will learn to stand squarely on both feet and not wander aimlessly about or sway as if blown upon by contending breezes4 ,you see1 if you think a moment1 that every one of these things1 so important to you whether as boy or man1 is drilled into you by practice in debate4 ,debating ,means ,constructive ,thinking4--,in the next place1 not only is practice in debate invaluable in acquiring self-control and correct habits of speech1 but also it teaches you to organize your own powers2 it drills you in constructive thinking4 ,in much of your school work1 you learn and recite the words of others--either of teachers or of textbook writers4 ,but if a subject for debate is proposed1 you must think it out yourself4 ,for example1 if some such question is proposed for your debate as3 8,is the conservation of the timber supply of the ,united ,states wise80 you at once must by your own independent thinking prepare your argument4 ,your teacher or other friends will aid you but you must work it out yourself4 ,you will first ask yourself what you mean and what is meant generally by 8conservation02 you will then ask where and how much the same policy has been tried in other countries1 why it should be tried here and what results may be reasonably expected to follow the policy here4 ,you catalogue the reasons for and against the proposed policy and weigh the moral questions involved1 if any4 ,you limit the question within its proper bounds--in short you build up the structure of your argument much as you would build a signal tower4 ,you see that your foundations are properly laid and that every upright and brace is properly placed and jointed4 ,debaters ,can ,detect ,false ,reasoning4--,then when you have found yourself1 when you have acquired mastery of yourself1 of your manner and of your argument1 practice in debating has an additional value still greater4 ,you will learn to recognize sound reasoning wherever you hear it and will detect the false with equal ease4 ,without conscious effort on your part1 you will apply to the casual argument as you meet it1 to the public address1 to the written article1 to the newspaper editorial1 those standards by which you have built up your own argument4 ,it will be difficult for you to overlook inconsistency and false reasoning1 for your mind will have become accustomed to exact and clear thinking--your habits of mind will have become standardized1 as the factory expert would say4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,what ,,debate ,,really ,,is ,i have failed in my argument so far unless ,i have accomplished two things4 ,first1 and most important1 ,i must have convinced you that ,i am right as far as ,i have gone4 ,second1 to have my argument really worth while1 ,i must have done more--,i must have made you want to debate4 ,for an argument is only half an argument unless it brings you to the point of doing4 ,in this particular it differs from many other kinds of speaking--contention for example4 ,in contention1 the contender has very little hope as a rule of changing his adversary's mind4 ,he is not arguing2 he is simply sticking up for his point4 ,how much of what passes for argument belongs to this class of effort6 ,you hear it in the street every day1 and on the baseball diamond--did you ever hear the discussion over a disputed decision by the umpire8 ,did you ever hear any argument there8 ,did ,captain ,jack1 or ,captain ,frank1 or ,captain ,chance1 or ,captain ,mc,graw1 ever really think he could convince any jury1 either of players1 umpires or spectators1 that he was really right8 ,argument ,differs ,also ,from ,persuasion4--,there are other forms of mental effort expressed in spoken word1 perfectly legitimate in themselves1 which are not arguments1 although generally classed as such4 ,there is a difference between argument and persuasion4 ,can you remember when you were trying to get your friend ,bob or perhaps your whole crowd to follow your suggestion8 ,how you coaxed and urged and teased4 ,of course that was many years ago but your argument 767 ran something like this1 didn't it8 8,oh1 ,i say1 ,bob1 come on down to the creek40 8,let's go in swimming60 8,oh1 yes60 8,let's60 8,say1 it's just fun60 8,oh1 never mind getting in that kindling1 you can do it after we get back--sure you can6 ,you'll have plenty of time1 and besides your mother won't care very much40 8,oh1 come on60 8,don't be a fraid cat60 8,you are a regular sissy6 ,you dassn't go--you have to stay close home6 ,i tell you1 ,i just do as ,i please--my ma lets me do just as ,i want to4 ,she knows ,i would1 anyway40 8,oh1 come on1 ,bob1 be a good fellow60 ,and so it would run on--not a particle of argument1 nothing but appeal to the emotions1 and those not of the loftiest kind4 ,but is that scene too boyish for you to remember8 ,how about that time only a little while ago when you were not urging ,bob to go down to the 8old swimming hole10 but to a place not quite so harmless as that1 the place where the creek backed up into a pond1 muddy and actually shallow it must be confessed1 but none the less better than any marble bath of emperor or king4 ,bob didn't want to play pool with you in that pool-room your father said was no place for a boy1 but you teased him into going4 ,your sneers at his desire to keep himself clean and sweet and 8mind his mother0 maybe were not quite so obvious as those earlier boyish effusions but they were none the less appeals to the weaker instincts4 ,and can you remember that hot day in ,july away back1 when you were only a youngster you know8 ,how you wanted the worst way to go fishing but ,bob wanted to lie on the ground under the tree and read ,campmates8 ,how it just seemed to you as though you simply must go fishing1 and yet how equally determined you were that you would not go alone but that ,bob must go too1 book or no book8 ,you can remember how you teased and coaxed and urged1 and finally how you bribed him by offering to give him that trade on the book he had wanted so long4 ,you carried your point1 but was it argument8 ,can't you remember1 too1 how you capped your final urgings of ,bob only a few days ago by offering to introduce him to your cousin ,nellie who had come from ,fairfield to visit you8 ,you knew ,bob admired her greatly and you imagined that if you couldn't get ,bob to agree to your plan by your urging and coaxing1 you could easily win him over1 if you could promise him the coveted introduction4 ,no1 lad1 these scenes are not too boyish4 ,they frame a point for you4 ,the truth is that1 so far as the fact of conviction or persuasion in argument is concerned1 the bribe of the book and of the introduction to ,nellie is on the same plane in the argument as the logic of the offer of money to the legislator to influence his mind in the debate wherein he engages4 ,argument1 therefore1 is addressed in the first instance to reason alone2 it may or may not be combined with persuasion but the two are absolutely different4 ,the perfect argument will be so absolutely convincing1 its logic will be so unanswerable that its hearers will be compelled by its very force to follow its conclusions since they can not escape them4 ,blackhawk's ,appeal4--,generally1 however1 to the reasoning of the argument must be added the persuasion of the appeal to the instincts of love1 duty1 patriotism and the like4 ,now when this appeal is used or is the essential part of the so-called argument it is outside of true debate2 it falls into a class that in some cases is higher than debate but nevertheless distinct4 ,so when in our earlier history ,blackhawk1 as we say1 debated the cause of his ,sacs and ,foxes1 he did not really argue their case with cold calm reason but appealed to the sentiment of his hearers1 to their sense of patriotism4 ,pontiac and ,osceola never presented a series of logical reasons why their ,indian brothers should be treated differently1 but they did1 as did other notable chieftains1 often in passionate oratory1 appeal to those emotions which dwell not in reason but in sentiment4 ,if the questions between the red man and the white man were debated1 reason would say that the red man had failed to use his heritage to the best advantage4 ,it would argue that he had kept millions of acres of land in an uncultivated state so that the game which formed his meat supply could roam undisturbed over hills and plains which could support in comfort millions of people4 ,it would insist that a ,god of bounty and love could never have intended that ,his gifts should be so wasted1 and ,his providence so abused4 ,it would show how the very virtues--if virtues they were--called for by a savage life1 hardness1 insensibility to pain and suffering1 fierceness1 made men more brutal and savage in their intercourse among themselves4 ,from all these arguments and from others like them1 reason would say that the red man had not justified his ownership of the soil and that he must yield its control to the white4 ,the appeal of the ,indian orator1 on the other hand1 would depict a sylvan scene of hunting lodge or trapper's camp4 ,he would picture the primval red man1 erect1 haughty1 stern1 proud1 and possessed of all those virtues found so plentifully in ,cooper's novels--and so seldom anywhere else4 ,he would show the simple qualities of the savage brain and the nobler traits which dwell among uncivilized peoples4 ,he could construct a passionately moving appeal to the white man to allow this unlettered savage1 his red brother1 to remain upon the lands over which his fathers had hunted and where his tribal lodges had been pitched since 8grass grew and water ran40 ,the first appeal would be an argument addressed to the hearer's logical powers2 the second would appeal to the hearer's sentiment and emotion4 ,it must be remembered that often the most awful results follow some forms of persuasion1 some appeals which do not aim at the higher motives but to passion and prejudice4 ,the hateful story of many a mob shows the effect of persuasion addressed to the lowest instead of the higher instincts and emotions1 but the persuasion had nothing to do with argument4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,what ,,to ,,debate ,in the first place remember that you must debate something which is debatable1 something which can be proved4 ,too many times a question is framed which could never in the reason of things be decided4 ,for example1 to refer to the ,indian again1 a question might be stated1 8,resolved3 that the treatment of the ,indian by the white man has been unjust10 which could be decided after a reasonable discussion4 ,the arguments1 though general1 would be of such a character that a more or less exact weighing could be had and a verdict taken4 ,but if with the same kindly feeling for the oppressed and hatred of oppression1 a question should be selected1 8,resolved3 that the ,indian has suffered greater wrongs from the ,american government than has the negro10 you see1 don't you1 how you could never arrive at a verdict8 ,one side could only cite instance after instance where the ,indian has suffered1 and the other side could retaliate by exactly the same number of cases of wrongs the negro has suffered1 and the scale would be even4 ,really a correct verdict could never be reached1 for to be sure and certain1 every wrong done to each race would have to be catalogued and weighed1 and only omniscience could hope successfully to accomplish that result4 ,take another illustration3 8,resolved3 that the works of nature are more beautiful than the works of art40 ,to the rainbow of the affirmative could be contrasted the electric fountain of the negative2 to the ,rock of ,gibraltar would be offered ,saint-,gaudens' statue of ,lincoln1 and so on indefinitely4 ,on the other hand you may so state your question that although the argument on both sides may consist largely of such a cataloguing of facts1 those facts may so differ in their relations to the general question that one set will clearly outweigh the other4 ,if you should suggest as a question1 for example1 8,resolved3 that ,amundson is a greater explorer than ,peary10 ,i should say that the question is not a good one because of the suggestions ,i have just made2 the debaters would simply balance the hardships of the ,antarctic explorer against the trials of the ,arctic traveler4 ,now if the question is changed so that it would read1 8,resolved3 that the explorations of ,amundson are more valuable to the world than those of ,peary10 ,i should still say the question is bad1 for the value of one ice field will simply be exchanged for that of another4 ,but if the name of ,stanley were to be substituted in the latter question for that of ,amundson1 so that the question would constitute a comparison of the respective values of arctic and equatorial exploration1 it would open up a clear field for discussion4 ,whether the products of ,africa are more valuable to the world than those of ,greenland1 whether the negroes mean more to the world than the ,esquimaux1 whether the scientific results are more valuable in the one case than in the other1--these propositions and others like them are open to argument and decision4 ,so1 to use another illustration1 if the question is1 8,resolved3 that a union of ,england and ,america would be beneficial to the world's progress10 there is room for such clear and explicit reasoning on both sides that the arguments would be reasons and not simply a catalogue of unrelated facts4 ,subjects ,should ,be ,properly ,limited4--,another rule valuable in the selection of a subject is that it should be properly limited so that too much is not attempted4 ,this is really another way of stating the proposition that the exact boundaries of the question should be properly defined4 ,for example1 one might be greatly interested in the 8,philippine question0 but that as so stated could not be debated4 ,what is the 8,philippine question08 ,has it to do with the broad proposition that the ,anglo-,saxon race in general and that composite branch of the race residing in the ,united ,states in particular has had imposed upon it the police duty commonly regarded as the 8,white ,man's ,burden08 ,or is the question one of comparison between the respective values of life in the temperate and in the tropic zones8 ,some particular branch of the question must be selected and matter outside of it rigorously put aside4 ,if you should attempt to cover the whole subject1 you could not properly discuss it in a dozen evenings1 and if you should try to debate it in one evening without some restrictions1 there would be such hopeless confusion that clear argument would be impossible4 ,even if you get away from the general character of the subject implied in a loose statement of the question1 you must still define its limits closely4 ,for example1 if your question reads1 8,resolved3 that the treatment of the ,philippines by the ,united ,states has been unjust10 it sounds as if you had narrowed the question satisfactorily4 ,you have taken it out of the domain of world civics and brought it home into national politics4 ,but the question is still too indefinite4 ,you may be talking about the original conquest of the ,islands from the ,spaniards1 one of your partners in debate about the treatment of the ,islanders themselves in the later wars1 one of your opponents be speaking of the attitude of the ,united ,states toward the ,islands in business and everyday life1 and another of your opponents1 of the alleged injustice on the part of the ,united ,states in not granting them independence4 ,any one of these interpretations would afford ample occupation for a whole evening1 but you see that unless the question is properly restricted you would all be lost in hopeless confusion4 ,to take another illustration3 ,we are all discussing the immigration question1 these days4 ,but one reason why there is so much loose thinking about immigration is that we are talking about different immigrants and from different angles and points of view4 ,for instance1 if we decide that immigration should be restricted1 to what immigration do we refer8 ,all immigration8 ,immigrants from southern ,europe1 from ,asia1 or from the ,anglo-,saxon or ,germanic nations8 ,or shall the restriction be governed by a literacy test8 ,if so1 what standard of literacy shall be established8 ,will the ,greeks1 such as those who shine our shoes and run our fruit stands1 be shut out because they can not read the thrilling story of 8,the ,cat saw the ,rat0 in the ,english primer1 even though they read and enjoy ,homer and ,plato in the original8 ,if you decide that the ,homer test of literacy shall be applied1 you must still connect that kind of culture with civic duties in some way before you have a question which properly belongs to the immigration problem4 ,otherwise you may wander fruitlessly among all those tangled mazes of classical learning which have afforded so many opportunities for talk and so little for debate4 ,another illustration of the necessity of proper limitation of your subject3 ,in considering the desirability of certain kinds of immigration1 you may be discussing points which go only to the question of the admission of the foreigner to this country1 and your opponent may be discussing matters relating to the treatment of that same foreigner as a worker in the factories or as a laborer on the big construction jobs of the country4 ,the first refers to ,federal restriction1 the second to the ,state's industrial treatment of the foreigner after he gets here4 ,one member of the team1 you see1 would be talking about the government and legislation in ,washington2 the other about the government and legislation at ,albany or ,springfield or ,topeka1 as the case might be4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,getting ,,ready ,you have been challenged to debate by the ,patrol from ,readville or by the ,debating ,society of ,berkeley4 ,what is the next step8 ,you should meet your opponents as early as possible and arrange the details with them4 ,since the challenge set the question1 that point is taken care of4 ,the settlement of terms and issues1 which is so important that ,i shall discuss it by itself in ,chapter ,v1 will provide for many things which would otherwise bother you much in your actual debate4 ,your conference with your friends the enemy will obviate so much haggling about shifting the burden of proof and defining terms that the ground will be cleared for real work when you actually get at your debate4 ,if your purpose is to get at the truth1 not simply to win1 you will of course at this preliminary conference seek to find as much common ground as possible4 ,you want to equalize the contest4 ,you have no desire to equip one side with a keen sword and a splendid shield and the other with a clumsy club4 ,you will seek1 therefore1 so to formulate the point at issue between you that it will be a comparatively equal task for each side to find and present its evidence and its arguments4 ,don't try to trap the other side into some unfortunate position which will prove its undoing4 ,note the difference3 in the actual debate1 be merciless to your opponent's argument1 but before the debate and during it1 treat him frankly and generously4 ,trail down his argument1 track it to its lair1 flay it1 have no respect or mercy to it1 but be sure you are remorselessly pursuing the contention and not the contender4 ,don't hold back information at this conference which may change the whole plan agreed upon if you introduce it in the debate itself4 ,in other words be honest and be fair4 ,you are under no obligation to tell the other side how you propose to handle your case1 how you propose to develop your argument1 how you expect to prove it1 what you regard as essential and what subordinate4 ,you must be fair1 however1 as to what the question really means4 ,you should be equally fair and frank with your colleagues4 ,in the first place be square with them in the division of the work4 ,take your full share and do what you agree to do4 ,don't leave things until the last minute and then depend upon hasty cramming to make up the lack of real work4 ,know a little something about all the case and all there is to know about your part of it4 ,arrange your time and place and then decide upon the order in which you will speak4 ,a very common procedure is3 ,first affirmative #g minutes ,first negative #g minutes ,second affirmative #g minutes ,second negative #g minutes ,third affirmative #g minutes ,third negative #g minutes ,first negative #e minutes in rebuttal ,first affirmative #e minutes in rebuttal4 ,no1 a seven minutes' speech is not very long but longer bursts of eloquence are likely to be tiresome4 ,it is much better to have a short snappy debate full of interest and prevented from giving weariness by the constant change of speakers than to have ponderous proceedings4 ,moreover1 in the schedule given above1 fifty-two minutes is consumed1 and that's quite a while4 ,of course the number of contestants may vary and the time allotted each may be varied also4 ,who shall preside8 ,well1 if you have a club of your own1 your president or in his absence1 your vice-president1 would naturally preside4 ,if you should desire to pay some person a compliment1 someone else may be asked1 provided1 of course1 it was agreeable to the two officers who are by the rules of society work1 entitled to that honor4 ,if you have no formal organization1 you can select anyone you choose4 ,in doing so1 you and your opponents would select someone who is dignified yet kindly1 one who will not allow any 8rough house0 or boisterous conduct but who is respected by and fond of boys and who is1 of course1 absolutely fair4 ,of course you must select your judges1 generally three4 ,do not think1 however1 that it is an easy task to judge a debate4 ,choose no one as a judge who may have a personal prejudice for or against one of the speakers4 ,if he is but indifferently or lazily honest1 he is likely to favor his friend4 ,if he is conscientious1 he may in his very effort to be fair1 and not lean toward his friend1 lean the other way and really be unfair to him4 ,choose as a judge no one who is known to have a prejudice on the question itself4 ,the harassed judge must never forget that he is deciding on the merits of the debate1 not on the merits of the question4 ,he must weigh the arguments presented1 paying no attention to other arguments1 weighty to him1 but left behind in the armory by the warring debater4 ,because this task is so onerous and1 indeed1 so valuable in its training1 it is an excellent plan to have members of your group--society1 class or patrol or whatever it may be--act as judges4 ,the practice in so weighing arguments and evidence will be invaluable to them when their time to debate comes around4 ,in formal contests1 however1 you will call upon teachers1 lawyers1 ministers2 men who are trained to think clearly and definitely and whose decision will mean something as fairly standing for the judgment of your community4 ,for it is to this community judgment your real debate in life must appeal1 and you must learn as soon as possible to aim at no less a tribunal4 ,so difficult is judging1 that to the ,appendix1 beginning on page #aec1 ,i have added a chapter designed to be helpful4 ,,chapter ,v ,,terms ,,and ,,issues ,in getting ready1 one of the most important steps is for you and your opponents to get together and talk over the question and agree beforehand on just what it covers and what it does not cover4 ,you wish to avoid all confusion on these points1 or at least you should wish to4 ,some men--and boys--think it smart to leave the question uncertain and indefinite so that--as they mistakenly suppose--they may increase their own chances of success4 ,they feel that if they can only have a wide enough range in the discussion some of their arguments will probably hit the point and win their case for them4 ,too many times1 however1 the point at which they are aiming is the decision of the judges and not the logical and irresistible culmination of the argument4 ,the difference is like that between shooting with a shot gun and a rifle4 ,in the first case if only your shot scatter enough you may bring down your game4 ,in the second case1 if your aim is true1 you are sure to score a hit4 ,the first case calls for a sense of general direction and not much more2 the second calls for precision1 accuracy1 and its result should be inevitable4 ,an ,understanding ,with ,your ,opponents4--,by thus coming to an understanding with your opponents you will avoid confusion2 you will reduce the proposition to its simplest terms1 and you can narrow your own argument to a few clearly defined channels4 ,you will1 however1 do much more than that3 you will make the contest worth while by a manly agreement which will avoid any attempt to obscure the real question4 ,you might be able so to becloud your opponents that you could possibly fool them as to your real essential points and so prevent an adequate reply4 ,if you should succeed in so doing1 although you might be able to 8put it over0 on your opponents and the judges of the debate1 you would not be fair4 ,experienced judges1 however1 would probably detect your purpose and penalize you for it4 ,not only is this determination of the essence of a question absolutely necessary in preparing for a debate2 it prepares you for even more vital work in later life4 ,remember what we have said all along1 that the real value of effective debating is its education for the unconscious exercise in later life of the mental habits thus acquired4 ,so when in later life if you and those with whom you differ get together and talk over the terms of a question before you allow yourselves to debate the substance of that question1 you will frequently find there is no question left for discussion4 ,as you define this and that term1 you will come nearer and nearer together4 ,more times than not1 you will find that you have so much in common1 that you have nothing between you for disagreement4 ,the question will always be simplified2 many times it will disappear altogether4 ,if1 however1 someone should urge that you may be losing some of the educative value of debate by thus avoiding such subtleties and trickeries as ,i have just been condemning1 let me remind you again1 that the real value of agreement1 whether in the debating club or in later and more real life1 is not in just winning but in determining just what should be done4 ,your purpose to arrive at a correct course of action will be strengthened1 not weakened1 by clearing away the unnecessary and non-essential points at the beginning4 ,remember1 moreover1 that to harmonize differences is as good mental training as to accentuate them2 to eliminate them1 as to crystallize them4 ,to think constructively is a vastly more valuable mental habit than to think negatively4 ,when you and your opponents think alike1 whether in debate or real life1 when you agree upon a certain part of the question between you1 you have cleared the way for at least that much of constructive thought4 ,finally1 such agreement is necessary to coperation1 and coperation is absolutely essential to any action whether it is a trip to ,mount ,washington1 a campaign against ,philip of ,macedon1 or the carrying out of a certain policy toward the ,philippines4 ,we must work together or not at all4 ,some may pull at the load1 some may push1 but the load must go in one direction4 ,to get the load anywhere you must have a common purpose2 this simplification of the question will help you to find it4 ,in debate1 after the question has been defined and limited1 you must present your arguments so clearly and conclusively that your opponent as well as your judges will agree that your course is wise and will be ready to follow the line of action that your conclusion calls for4 ,otherwise your opponents1 if they be equally honest and efficient1 in mind and method1 have the right to demand the same surrender from you4 ,so1 as the first step in your debate1 get together1 bar out the matter decided upon as outside of your debate1 and settle the issues clearly4 ,by the way1 that step is the first in a law suit2 when the issues are clearly defined1 the actual trial takes very little time4 ,a law suit is just one form of debate1 and your debate must have its issues settled as clearly4 ,in the ,philippine question referred to on page #bb you would select some one of the four possible subjects and you would state it something like this1 8,resolved3 that the ,united ,states should grant the ,philippines immediate independence20 now your issue is stated4 ,don't ,try to ,do ,it ,all ,alone4--,before you begin your own personal work of preparation1 you and your colleagues must meet and apportion the work among yourselves4 ,do not think you must cover all the ground yourself1 unless of course1 you are alone in the debate4 ,no matter how many associates you have1 however1 you must have a broad general view of the whole subject but each one on your side must select some particular part of the subject which he alone will present4 ,origin of the ,question4--,after these preliminaries are thus arranged and you start your own work1 first analyze your question and find its starting point1 which in any argument lies in the real or alleged existence of a human need4 ,certain evils are said to exist4 ,the first step is to prove or disprove the existence of these evils4 ,if they are shown to be facts1 the next question and the first step in the argument is to show that a certain remedy will remove the evils4 ,let us assume that the general question of conservation is prominent in the thought of your patrol1 if you are a ,scout1 and you have decided to discuss it in your debates4 ,your scout life has kept you so much in the open and scoutcraft has so much to do with forestry1 that the whole subject is of interest to you4 ,besides you realize that it is a question which really affects many public interests1 and that its correct solution means a great deal to the whole country4 ,you will first decide what branch of that subject you will consider4 ,when you have decided to consider the conservation of forests alone1 for example1 you have at once removed a good deal which would otherwise have rendered your load heavy2 you need not consider water power or coal fields or minerals of any kind and a host of such matters which under the general topic would have had an equal claim for attention4 ,now that you have limited your question to forests1 you first inquire what is really meant by conservation1 why forests should be 8conserved10 why should they be protected8 ,is there an evil which this form of conservation will remove8 ,this is the starting point of your argument1 for unless some one is complaining1 or ought to complain1 there is no need of discussing the matter at all4 ,you will therefore first find out if anyone is complaining of evils growing out of the government's policy towards its forests1 or1 if people are not complaining particularly1 will the policy now enforced be likely to produce conditions which will work hardships and produce complaints8 ,on the other hand1 will these results happen if the present policy of the government is not followed8 ,you see your argument must start somewhere and this starting point is found in some need which should be remedied4 ,this is a process very similar to the work you accomplished when you were going over matters with your opponents4 ,but it goes more into detail and it is concerned only with the question as it has finally been decided upon4 ,it is equally necessary1 however1 and you cannot be too careful at this point if you would have the debate a thing of beautiful logic4 ,definition of ,terms4--,after you have fixed and stated your starting point1 you next define all doubtful terms4 ,in a sense you thus mark out the channels for your debate1 for your argument will flow steadily and unhampered if in the beginning you clear away any dbris of misunderstood expressions or doubtful words4 ,for example1 if the form of your question is1 8,resolved3 that the present policy of the ,united ,states government toward forest conservation should be strengthened10 you would first define forests1 then conservation1 then the policy of the ,united ,states toward it1 and finally what you mean by 8strengthened40 ,unless you define 8forests10 for example1 you may talk and think of a white pine forest in ,idaho1 your opponent may have in mind some cut over forests in ,maine and their reforestration1 and your audience and judges have still other tracts in mind4 ,you may think it makes no difference what kind of forest is meant1 what particular tracts of timber are understood4 ,if so1 all right2 only say so in your definition4 ,make it clear just what you are talking about1 an ,idaho or ,maine or ,north ,carolina forest or all forests generally4 ,your definition of 8conservation0 will next follow1 then your definition of the policy of the government toward it4 ,this will be found by considering the actual laws governing forests and forest land and their enforcement and interpretation by the officials of the government administering those laws4 ,finally you will explain and define what you mean by 8strengthen40 ,you see all such terms clearly defined are a long step ahead in your argument and1 indeed1 will often constitute the major part of the argument4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,clash ,,of ,,arguments ,after you have determined your starting point and defined your terms1 the next step--and an important one--is technically termed 8the clash of arguments40 ,this phrase means a careful balancing over against each other of the leading arguments on both sides of the question4 ,be sure you have both sides4 ,it is even more important to know the strong sides of your opponent's case and to be prepared to meet them than to know your own4 ,it was frequently remarked of ,lincoln in debate that he summed up his opponent's case better than the opponent himself did4 ,lincoln could not have done so1 had he not studied every side of his case4 ,he put the arguments opposed to his own in their strongest possible light and prepared an exact answer4 ,so you must do in your debate4 ,on your question1 8,resolved3 that the policy of the ,united ,states government toward conservation of forests should be strengthened10 the clash of arguments would follow some such form as this3 ,,affirmative ,,contentions3 ,,negative ,,contentions3 #a4 ,conservation is necessary3 #a4 ,conservation is unnecessary3 ,a4 ,without it the great lumber ,a4 ,by an unlimited settlement dealers would obtain upon and barter in timber control of the timber of tracts1 enterprise is the country and thus encouraged1 individuals and increase the price of communities are financially timber1 and dictate as to benefited4 its use4 ,b4 ,to secure an adequate ,b4 ,actual rainfall has been rainfall1 as a source of largely superseded by supply for rivers1 and for irrigation and other water its effect on vegetation4 control4 ,the relation of vegetation to rainfall is uncertain anyway4 ,c4 ,to insure an adequate ,c4 ,lumber may be imported supply of lumber1 without when there is lack in wasting the growth of this country2 the use timber4 of concrete1 iron and the like will supersede it ultimately anyway4 #b4 ,the present policy of #b4 ,the present policy of conservation is insufficient conservation needs no because3 additional strength because3 ,a4 ,the present penalties are ,a4 ,its present penalties are not severe enough to secure oppressive and work proper respect and hardships upon innocent obedience4 persons4 ,b4 ,the territory now covered ,b4 ,so much land is now by the law is not withdrawn from settlement sufficient to determine under these laws that whether it worthy citizens are should be generally unable to secure applied4 homesteads1 and land is more valuable to the ,united ,states when farmed than when devoted to timber4 ,c4 ,the present officials ,c4 ,these officials are now charged with the often intolerant and enforcement of the law have overbearing4 ,to increase insufficient funds and their authority would authority and in some cases intensify this and tend are negligent or corrupt or toward the creation of a both4 permanent official class1 which is opposed to the spirit of democracy4 ,for another illustration1 let us analyze the question popularly known as the recall of judicial decisions4 ,we will assume that in the first place when your society and that rival society from ,greenburg1 after the debate was agreed upon1 decided to discuss the recall1 you got together to determine the exact question4 ,you decided that you would not discuss the recall generally1 that you did not care to go into the question of the wisdom of retiring legislators or executive officers before their term had expired4 ,you were simply interested in the question as far as it affected judges4 ,very well4 ,when you discussed the matter further you found you were all unwilling to advocate any system which might seem to encourage an attack on the independence of the judiciary and so you agreed that the question should concern not the recall of judges but only the recall of judicial decisions4 ,you felt that while the argument for and against the recall of judges generally would largely center about the necessity of preserving the independence of the judge1 in the matter of submitting only his decisions to popular verdict1 other considerations could be urged with equal effectiveness4 ,you further felt that all his decisions should not thus be subjected to the people's vote1 but only those tending to construe the constitution1 the fundamental law of the land4 ,in this preliminary meeting you therefore narrowed the question down to a form something like this3 8,resolved3 that the decision of any judge affecting the constitutionality of any civil statute may be reversed by vote of the electors of the district affected by the statute40 ,your clash of arguments on this question might read as follows3 ,,affirmative ,,contentions3 ,,negative ,,contentions3 ,it is wise because ,it is unwise because #a4 ,the ,constitution is the #a4 ,the ,constitution itself expression of the people's prescribes a method for will and1 in the last resort1 its interpretation4 only the people should decide what that will is or is not4 #b4 ,only the collective wisdom #b4 ,only a man specially of the people as a whole trained is competent to is competent to judge of such judge of such fundamental fundamentals as principles4 constitutional law4 #c4 ,it will cause the average #c4 ,because the average citizen citizen to pay greater is not educated for public attention to the important affairs1 it would encourage questions of public concern1 control by the bosses1 and and thereby increase the other manifestations of dignity of citizenship4 demagogy4 #d4 ,to know that his action is #d4 ,it will tend to lessen the likely to be reviewed by the independence of the average public in an authoritative judge--he will listen to way1 will increase the care every breath of public and attention the average opinion and hence be unable judge will give such to form an unbiased judgment questions4 based only on the law of the case4 #e4 ,the method could be easily #e4 ,it burdens the voters applied1 e4g41 by the unnecessarily and imposes an executive submitting the unwarranted expense upon the question to vote upon a community4 petition signed largely enough to show general intent4 #f4 ,it presents an orderly #f4 ,it would tend to substitute method of correcting popular prejudice and clamor interpretations of the for calm1 dispassionate organic law which are hostile reasoning4 to the moral sense of the people1 and would afford an outlet for feeling which might otherwise produce revolution or civil war2 e4g43 ,the war between the states1 '#fj-fe1 was largely the result of the ,dred ,scott decision4 ,if a peaceful method of recalling that decision had been provided1 the civil war might have been prevented4 #g4 ,the public could inform #g4 ,it would be impossible itself of the facts in each properly to acquaint the case through the press and public with the facts and the forums for public arguments necessary to a discussion now so common4 proper understanding of each case because of the partisan nature of the public press4 #h4 ,while not interfering with #h4 ,judges are almost invariably the tenure of office of the taken from the legal judge1 it would increase the profession1 a body of men who respect in which that office by special and constant study is held1 because the very and practice are peculiarly study of such questions would fitted for the exercise of convince the public of the this judicial function4 ,it delicate and arduous nature should be left to lawyers4 of his work4 ,exclusion of ,unessential ,matter4--,i do not pretend to have stated all the arguments pro and con on the question before you4 ,i have illustrated simply to you a useful method of arranging them in your own preparation4 ,as you balance them one against the other1 you will see that some are important and vitally affect the main question1 while others are comparatively unimportant and may be admitted as true or dismissed as trivial or entirely unrelated4 ,almost every subject will suggest many arguments which must be admitted4 ,don't waste your time in seeking to refute that which you can't refute and which is not vital to your argument anyway4 ,your opponent will have a decided advantage over you when he shows the weakness of your attempt1 and your main argument will surely suffer4 ,a careful analysis will many times prevent just that trouble and on the other hand your opponent may carefully prepare himself to prove some proposition which you are perfectly willing to admit if you have anticipated his position and are prepared to show that it does not affect your main case4 ,the ,vital ,issues4--,all these various steps in analysis are essential to good debating and if you have taken each step1 you have now come to the last--the statement of the special issues4 ,you have seen where the question originated1 you have defined its terms1 you have put yourself in the place of the other man and know about what he will say1 you have excluded from the argument all non-essential matter1 and there should now be left the real heart of the question1 the actual proposition you are to debate4 ,you can be very sure all this preliminary work is most important--if you have well considered all these steps1 you have your debate half won4 ,in your introductory statement1 you will give enough of your analysis to show why you present the points you select as essential4 ,you need not state every step2 in fact1 in your formal speech1 you should not let the machinery be too much in evidence1 but in your preliminary work you cannot safely omit one step4 ,so far everything has been preliminary to the argument itself1 but you are now ready to build up your actual constructive argument4 ,in your presentation of your side of the conservation question1 for instance1 you will mass your facts and arguments about the few really essential points which are left for debate4 ,you will not simply talk about the propositions4 ,you will remember that each point must be proved4 ,you will get not simply the opinions of someone else upon the question2 you will get facts4 ,for instance1 in the question of the ownership of timber tracts1 a part of the conservation problem1 it will not be enough to cite what some one thinks about it1 but get the actual number of acres owned by corporations4 ,is that enough8 ,no1 show the facts as to the relation of these corporations to one another1 or the fact that there is no such relationship1 as bearing on the fact of an ownership of these lands by one group4 ,not opinions1 not theories1 but facts are what win debates4 ,after you have established your facts1 then show how your facts prove your case4 ,don't ,prove ,what ,everybody ,knows4--,when you are considering the arrangement and proof1 do not waste your time on proof of those facts which are either self-evident or taken for granted4 ,for example1 in your discussion of conservation you can take it as self-evident that the policy of the ,united ,states government is to aid the people of the ,united ,states4 ,you can also take it for granted that the citizens of the ,united ,states are moved by love of country and love of home4 ,no doubt you could indulge in some fine writing or fine speaking on these questions1 but it is entirely unnecessary to do so4 ,so you need not take time to prove that the government is not deliberately concocting a scheme to injure some of its citizens1 nor need you stop to prove that the individual settler loves his forest home if 8prempting0 in good faith and that he should be aided4 ,the mere statement of these two facts proves them4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,evidence ,after you have marshaled the facts you wish to prove1 you must consider the classes of evidence by which you wish to prove them4 ,in the first place there is the direct statement of the facts by witnesses1 or the opinions of those witnesses who are qualified to speak as experts4 ,then there is circumstantial evidence1 which consists of inferences fairly drawn from facts2 in other words reasoning about facts4 ,thus if you wish to prove that cutting the forest off the northern part of the lower peninsula of ,michigan has lessened the rainfall in that ,state1 you could present three classes of testimony4 ,you could bring forward an old resident who had known ,michigan when it was wooded and when it was stripped of its timber2 if from his own personal observation he could testify that as the timber was cut off the rainfall had diminished1 that would be direct evidence of that fact4 ,if you presented the statements of a scientist who would testify that when lands were stripped of their trees1 there was less rainfall1 his opinions would be entitled to consideration as proof of the facts just in the proportion that his observation and experience had been extended and at the same time exact4 ,circumstantial ,evidence4--,if the cutting of the forests in ,minnesota near the head waters of the ,mississippi was under discussion1 you might present the testimony of a man who lived on the banks of that river in ,iowa1 who had never seen ,minnesota1 but who could testify that the volume of water in the river had decreased from year to year in certain proportion4 ,his testimony would be valuable as tending to establish your position1 if you could also show that the cutting of the timber in ,minnesota had proceeded in the same ratio as the decrease in the river's volume4 ,it would then be a fair inference that the two facts were so connected that one tended to prove the other4 ,the line1 however1 between direct and circumstantial evidence is very faint--one imperceptibly glides into the other4 ,indeed some experts insist that there is no such thing as direct evidence4 ,they urge that all proof consists of deductions which may be so closely related to the fact to be established that a mere statement conclusively shows the causal relation4 ,on the other hand this relation can frequently be shown only by the most delicate fitting together of all the links of circumstance4 ,for example1 suppose the testimony of ,a is that he saw ,b point a gun at ,c1 that the gun was fired1 that immediately ,c fell dead4 ,his testimony would be1 therefore1 that ,b shot ,c and you1 if you were on the jury1 would perhaps feel justified in finding ,b guilty of murder--there would seem to be no doubt about it4 ,but after all1 his testimony is not direct evidence--even as simple and apparently as conclusive a statement as his might be explained away4 ,suppose1 for example1 an autopsy showed that ,c had heart disease and fell dead from that cause1 and that the bullet penetrated ,c's arm only4 ,what to the observer would seem like irrefutable proof would be dissipated in a moment2 it would be shown to be an unwarrantable deduction from certain circumstances4 ,remember1 however1 that the value of evidence is in this ratio3 that direct evidence of a witness who knows of his own knowledge and observation in the particular case is more to be trusted than expert evidence based on general observation1 and that both are worth more than that evidence which is the result of deduction and inference4 ,qualifications of ,witnesses4--,in weighing the value of the testimony offered to prove your facts--testimony is those statements of the witness which make up his evidence--you must ask him certain questions4 ,if he were a witness in a law suit1 the lawyers would bring out the points you must determine by four questions4 ,following their example1 you will first ask 8,is he honest or prejudiced80 ,in the conservation question considered1 you would ask whether he was the agent of a lumber company whose statements would naturally be influenced by his selfish interest1 or a homesteader who1 since his only use for land was for farming purposes1 would likely be as prejudiced the other way1 or was he a banker or merchant who served both classes equally1 whose interest lay equally with each party to the controversy8 ,you will next ask if his testimony is consistent with known facts4 ,if he testified that the absence of trees had nothing to do with rainfall and had cited as proof of that alleged fact that there was a heavy rainfall in ,sahara where there were no trees1 you could at once dismiss him as an impossible witness because his statements as to ,sahara were inconsistent with the known facts4 ,you should then inquire under what circumstances were the statements made3 were they forced from him1 were his relations such that he was a voluntary and willing witness endeavoring to assist investigation and find out the facts8 ,if so1 his testimony is probably valuable and worthy of credence4 ,then in the last place1 if the statements are made as those of an expert1 the value of his testimony is in the exact ratio of his experience in the particular field discussed4 ,here is the opportunity for a very common error in argument4 ,frank in debating might have urged the opinion of ,professor ,a or ,doctor ,b1 and ,jack in his reply urged confidently the opinions of ,judge ,c or ,general ,d as disposing of the evidence of ,frank's witnesses4 ,but they would simply offset one opinion with another unless ,jack could show that the judge and the general knew more about the subject matter than the professor and the doctor4 ,character or standing or position would avail nothing4 ,in discussing conservation1 for example1 the opinion of the most eminent professor in a theological school or the greatest expert in running electric cars would not be received in questions of soil moisture or timber culture4 ,it is not the standing of the man generally2 it is his knowledge of the subject discussed1 which makes his opinions acceptable as evidence4 ,the evidence of a farmer or hunter or trapper1 although unable to read or write1 might outweigh that of the so-called expert4 ,generalizations4--,next1 in weighing circumstantial evidence1 you will observe that there are three common forms in which it appears4 ,there is first the generalization--very frequently the shape an expert's opinion takes4 ,if he says that timber tracts are worth so many dollars an acre as timber and so many dollars an acre as farms1 his opinion is valuable or not depending upon what the basis of his judgment is4 ,if it develops that he has observed many hundreds of such tracts of land1 and that these different tracts lay in many different places1 you safely conclude that his testimony1 although a generalization1 is sound because it is based upon wide observation4 ,if he has inspected but very few such tracts1 you conclude that his generalization is unsound1 and worthless in helping you prove the facts4 ,do not hesitate to apply the probe to the qualifications of your opponent's expert1 but be equally sure you establish the right of your own witness to speak as such4 ,for example1 ,i remember a case where the question involved was whether dehorning cattle was cruel within the meaning of a statute forbidding cruelty to animals4 ,one side brought forward as expert professional witnesses certain surgeons eminent in their profession4 ,they testified that the horn of the cow contained just under the hard bony shell a thin membranous structure1 the extension of the periosteum1 which was very sensitive to pain4 ,they testified that they had known of cases where the shell of the horn had been removed by accident and this membrane exposed1 whereupon the animals had given every manifestation of suffering excruciating pain4 ,they argued from the sensitiveness of the periosteum1 through these few instances of accident1 to the deduction that dehorning cows1 that is1 sawing the horn off at right angles to this membrane1 must also be extremely painful and hence cruel4 ,opposed to these expert opinions of these surgeons based upon these few cases1 were the opinions of farmers who did not pretend to have the scientific knowledge of the surgeons but who had dehorned many cows4 ,they testified that they had seen but slight evidences of pain1 that the animals had shown annoyance rather than distress1 and had generally at once gone to eating4 ,the farmers had no titles or university degrees2 the experts had both1 and supposedly in the very field of the debate--for that was what it was1 although in a court of law4 ,the superior qualifications of the plain unlettered farmers made their evidence of much greater value as expert testimony than the deductions of the expert gentlemen from the city4 ,suppose you are discussing the adoption of a law prohibiting child labor4 ,you can quote with confidence the opinion of a social worker whose daily duties keep her among operatives in mills4 ,by her daily observation she is in a position to know the evil effects of labor on immature bodies and minds4 ,so is the doctor or the teacher who sees these children daily4 ,on the other hand1 the farmer1 who1 although honest in his deduction from the results of his own labor1 is not qualified because he himself worked as a boy on a farm to speak understandingly of the effects of child labor in mills or factories4 ,he must confine his testimony to the effect of child labor on the farm4 ,nor is the woman who knows nothing of labor on farm or in factory qualified to speak at all1 sentimentally aroused as she may be1 unless she can show observation of conditions herself or the intelligent study of the well founded opinions of others4 ,cause and ,effect4--,then again there is in circumstantial evidence the inference you draw from the relation of cause and effect4 ,to use a very familiar example3 ,suppose you pass a piece of ground where to your knowledge there stood but a very few weeks before a heavy growth of timber and observe that the trees are gone4 ,if you see piles of freshly sawed lumber1 you can argue that the trees have been cut by man2 if on the other hand you see bent and torn trees1 you can as surely reason that a cyclone has visited that neighborhood4 ,in each case you argue from effect back to cause4 ,this seems very simple1 but is often a very treacherous argument1 for the alleged cause may be entirely inadequate or may be so involved with other unrecognized causes that the deduction you make is not warranted4 ,you must examine the connection very carefully and make sure that it is a ,,causal relation and not a ,,casual one4 ,argument from ,resemblance4--,then there is the argument from resemblance1 which is simply another form of causal relationship4 ,the argument1 for example1 would run that conservation must surely be a good thing for the ,united ,states because it was a good thing for ,new ,zealand4 ,that conclusion is sound if the conditions in the two countries are the same1 but not otherwise2 and it is upon this rock of difference in conditions that arguments from resemblance so often split4 ,watch them4 ,the same rule may not apply to reforestration in ,idaho as in ,maine1 for instance1 because conditions are dissimilar in many respects4 ,if you carefully study these forms of argument1 and can estimate the value of opinions and circumstantial evidence1 you will not only be able to build up a bomb proof argument of your own but you will be able to detect fallacies in your opponent's discussion4 ,when you have mastered the one branch of the case you are equipped to meet the other1 for the two are identical4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,brief ,suppose you have decided to debate one phase of the child labor problem1 and your question reads something like this3 8,resolved3 that no children below the age of sixteen years should be allowed to work in factories40 ,you see the question omits all discussion of child labor on the farm1 for instance1 or in the street trades1 or in any occupation except those within doors under factory conditions4 ,you will see1 also1 that before you begin your actual analysis1 you and your opponents must agree on what you mean by 8factories0--just what kind of manufacturing establishments you have in mind4 ,otherwise you would be compelled to define them more carefully in the question itself as you stated it4 ,for two reasons1 you need the 8brief0 at this stage of your analysis4 ,to discuss the least important one first--you should inform your critical friend or teacher as to just what your argument is4 ,you must tell him what are the bones of the skeleton1 indicate their arrangement1 and show them to him without the beautiful covering of flesh and skin to be given them by your charming diction and eloquence4 ,the bones may not be properly articulated at all--what1 when clothed with the flesh and muscle of your finished debate1 may seem like a strong right arm adequately equipped with biceps and all the rest of the blow delivering agencies may not be properly joined at the shoulder and hence fail utterly1 when the test comes4 ,so let your friendly critic--your specialist in this kind of anatomy--see just what you have and how your various arguments hang together4 ,but more important than to satisfy your critic is it carefully to formulate your argument for your own benefit in thinking through your proposition4 ,as you think about your question1 various considerations will suggest themselves to you4 ,some you will recognize as arguments of first rank--as indispensable to your case4 ,others will take a subordinate place2 still others serve as mere illustrations or arguments from resemblance4 ,finally1 however1 your logical sequence will emerge1 and you will have a structure which will be logical throughout1 with every part fitting into every other part and pointing to an irresistible conclusion4 ,the name given to it well defines this formulation of your argument4 ,it is your argument but in brief4 ,every essential to your full argument must be there4 ,but take other warning from that name4 ,in form don't let it be too brief4 ,it is not enough to sprinkle hints over the page1 hints which may be fairly intelligible to you but be meaningless to another4 ,remember that critic of yours who will look over your brief4 ,don't make it superficial or arrange your arguments in ,,casual instead of ,,causal sequence4 ,besides1 you may find in practice that a word which to-day1 as you put it down on paper1 hot from your thinking machine1 means everything to you and is the key word to a weighty argument1 to-morrow or next week will have lost its cunning and mean anything or nothing to you4 ,so not only for the benefit of your critic but especially for the value of the exercise to yourself1 reduce your argument to definite formal organization4 ,you will be paid in the long run4 ,you may have such a command of yourself and your thinking that you can carry all this organization in your head without any brief--but most of us can't4 ,moreover1 you will find that putting these arguments down in black and white before you and then arranging them in causal logical sequence will aid your thinking immensely4 ,thoughts which were dim and misty1 which were without form and substance1 will fall into order and assume a relation to the whole subject unseen before4 ,you will also find that by a simple system of symbols you will aid this clarifying process4 ,propositions of equal dignity and rank will be introduced by equivalent symbols and thus their relationship automatically indicated4 ,no1 of course not--it is not necessary to go through this process4 ,you may get through many debates without using any of these aids--mechanical1 if you please4 ,but they are useful and have been used by hundreds of debaters4 ,don't you think it is a little foolish to insist on swimming the river and demonstrating your power in that way1 when there is available a very comfortable bridge that hundreds have used to their great convenience8 ,one other observation about the form of this 8brief40 ,it should be so arranged that1 using the words 8for0 or 8because0 to introduce your arguments1 you will have a complete clause1 with subject and predicate4 ,you will note that clauses occur in the brief given below4 ,i have connected them with their proper prepositions4 ,subdivision ,i gives us3 8,resolved3 that no children below the age of sixteen should be allowed to work in factories1 for such labor is unnecessary1 for there is an ample supply of adult labor entirely adequate to the demands of factory work40 ,,ii4 #a4 ,a4 gives us this sentence3 8,resolved3 that no children below the age of sixteen should be allowed to work in factories1 for such labor injures the child's health1 for confinement within the building1 under the conditions of factory employment1 checks the growth of the child and promotes many diseases40 ,so ,,ii4 #a4 ,b4 gives a second sentence like the one last quoted except that its last portion differs as the subordinate argument differs4 ,that reads3 8,resolved3 that no children below the age of sixteen should be allowed to work in factories1 for such labor injures the child's health1 for normal physical development demands out-of-doors activity and freedom from the strain of factory work40 ,let me hint1 too1 that frequently after you have arranged what seems to be a perfect logical argument1 if from under each head you remove the proof and connect the various sequences so that you form one sentence1 you will find that it is not logical and must be arranged all over again4 ,speaking of proof--in your proof under each subdivision you must set down the facts you expect to use to support your contentions4 ,for example1 under ,,ii4 #b4 ,a4 b4 it would not be sufficient to say in your brief 8instances0 or 8illustrations0 but3 8,the report of ,massachusetts ,board of ,education says3 #8,the fact that #da4c per cent4 of those employed in the textile industry speaking of a group out of school six years receive less than #h a week accounts1 in large part1 for the idleness among boys from eighteen to twenty-one years of age4 ,there is no system of training in the mill which fits those on low paid1 unskilled work1 for the skilled work of the mill4 ,only #ba per cent4 of the textile workers who have been in the business six years earn #aj or more1 and a negligible percentage of those who work in candy factories earn this amount4 ,only #ba per cent4 of the shoe workers earn less than #aj a week at six years out4444 ,monotonous work1 especially that which requires great speed and uses up nervous energy1 should not be done for any long period by young people under eighteen years of age1 and the years up to this time should be spent in physical and mental upbuilding in preparation for the years of industrial life to come4'0 8,a recent investigation of the ,federal ,bureau of ,labor declares of a certain number of children under sixteen years who left school to work1 that #ij per cent4 entered industries in which the wages of adults were #aj a week or less4 ,a vocational survey in ,new ,york exhibits in one group one hundred and one boys between fourteen and sixteen years and an analysis of the work they are doing4 ,in only five cases was there any opportunity for them to advance or improve2 ninety-six were in dead end occupations40 8,one woman1 in ,georgia1 thirty-four years of age1 but looking fifty1 told me she had gone to the mill when she was nine years of age1 and had been there ever since4 ,she hated the very thought of working in the mill and from all appearances was ready for the scrap heap4 ,she said when she was nine years old nothing could have kept her out of the mill and for two or three years after that she said she always listened for the whistle to blow so that she could go to work and it never blew too early for her4 ,she said she wished she could get now where she could never hear the whistle blow4 ,she makes about ninety cents per day when she works40 8,the boys in ,beverly1 ,massachusetts1 where vocational education is provided come from the common schools4 ,reports show that they are sons of clerks1 shopkeepers1 shoemakers1 tailors1 chauffeurs1 laborers1 machinists and other workmen4 ,a boy's earning capacity in ,beverly is liberally estimated at #f a week1 which capitalized on a #e per cent4 a year basis represents a working capital value of #f1jjj a year4 ,the wage earning capacity of boys1 after two and a half or three years of this public schooling1 is #ae to #ah a week4 ,capitalized on a #e per cent4 basis1 this shows the marvelous increase from #f1jjj to #ae1jjj to #ah1jjj a year working capital4 8,but the boy here is only on the threshold4 ,another set of figures is interesting4 ,professor ,james ,m4 ,dodge1 president of the ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers1 in his notable and elaborate formula1 finds that the average untrained worker in this country reaches his maximum of earning at twenty-three years of age1 the average then being #ae a week4 ,the future of the untrained beyond this becomes precarious4 ,they are in #8blind alleys' and #8no-thoroughfare' work4 ,only #e per cent4 rise above the level1 #ce per cent4 remain in employ1 #bj per cent4 leave the work of their own accord1 and #dj per cent4 are dismissed4 ,here at seventeen and a half years or eighteen1 the vocationally educated pupil of the ,beverly school has a capitalized value of #ae1jjj to #ah1jjj40 ,i will now illustrate what ,i have said by briefing the question before us4 ,such a brief would read something like this3 ,resolved3 that no children below the age of sixteen should be allowed to work in factories4 ,i4 ,it is unnecessary1 for ,there is an ample supply of adult labor entirely adequate to the demands of factory work4 ,,ii4 ,such labor injures the child1 for #a4 ,it is injurious to his health1 for ,a4 ,confinement within the building1 under the conditions of factory employment1 checks the growth of the child and promotes many diseases4 ,b4 ,normal physical development demands out-of-doors activity and freedom from the strain of factory work4 #b4 ,it is injurious to his mind and education1 for ,a4 ,the child needs the years just before sixteen for a4 general culture b4 specific vocational training4 ,b4 ,the monotony and excessive strain of work in factories tends to a4 impair the mental powers1 particularly those of young children b4 render them indifferent to subjects of general interest and educational value4 #c4 ,it impairs the efficiency of the child1 for ,a4 ,during the years when he should be absorbing knowledge which would prepare him for life1 he is prevented from doing so1 and1 when of adult age1 finds himself a4 without that suppleness of fingers which has been assumed to be the warrant for employing him1 and thus1 too old and too large longer to do child's work2 and b4 with neither education nor training to do the work of an adult4 ,,iii4 ,such labor injures the ,state1 for #a4 ,children who are forced to work under factory conditions are undeveloped physically and mentally and ,a4 ,do not make good citizens ,b4 ,cannot afterward be the parents of good citizens ,c4 ,are prematurely aged1 and 8scrapped0 at an early age1 thus imposing a burden of support upon the ,state4 #b4 ,adult laborers1 with their dependents1 whose welfare is necessary to that of the ,state1 suffer hardship1 because ,a4 ,the use of child labor1 obviously a substitute for adult labor1 will a4 deprive adults of work1 or b4 force their wages down to those of children4 #c4 ,it creates an idle class1 which is always a menace to the ,state1 because it ,a4 ,throws the child out of employment because of inefficiency when he becomes an adult4 ,b4 ,throws the adult out of employment because of the competition of child labor4 ,is the ground covered8 ,is it logical8 ,is any step taken for granted8 ,remember each position must be supported by proof1 and your brief must set out the evidence you expect to use in your argument4 ,the nature of that proof may vary1 however4 ,for example1 suppose you were proving proposition ,,ii4 #a4 ,a41 which properly set out at length would read3 8,no child below the age of sixteen should be allowed to work in a factory1 for such labor injures the child's health because confinement within the building under the conditions of factory employment checks the growth of the child and promotes many diseases40 ,that proposition might be proved in a number of ways4 7,remember now what we discussed in the chapter on evidence and read that chapter over again in connection with this discussion47 ,you could prove it first by the testimony of those who are familiar with children so employed2 second1 by statistics of mortality and morbidity among children so employed2 third1 by testimony of experts--like physicians--as to probable results of such employment because of probable effect of conditions named upon bodily organs and their functions4 ,here are some specific facts testified to in a legislative hearing on the question of child labor in mills--factories4 ,they are all admissible as testimony from the first class of witnesses 7those familiar with children so employed7 under the principles laid down in the chapter on evidence4 ,a ,french boy of fifteen was asked if he preferred ten hours to eight hours4 8,oh no1 ten hours is too long2 it seems as though ,i never would see the afternoon go by40 ,the mill work showed its effect upon his pale1 drawn face4 ,he was tired out by it4 ,a pretty little ,french girl1 fourteen years old1 who had worked in the mill a few months at two or three dollars a week1 had good reasons for her dislike of mill work4 ,getting up at #e4cj for a ten-hour day1 standing nearly all the time1 watching the threads so closely that her head ached1 she was frequently sick4 ,she had been replaced by an adult on ,september first1 and since that time had been at home doing housework4 ,her health had improved greatly in the ten weeks1 and when the investigators saw her1 she had good color and got chance enough to play so that she was1 as her mother said1 much better off than in the mill4 ,a heavy-eyed1 dull looking boy of fifteen was sent back to school as a result of the new law4 ,he preferred to work1 but he had not succeeded in securing an eight-hour job4 ,he happened to live near the place in which the investigator stayed and there was good opportunity to watch the effect of the law on him from week to week4 ,at the end of a month he had become noticeably lively and bright4 ,robert ,hunter tells us of a vagrant he once knew who 8had for years--from the day he was eleven until the day he was sixteen--made two movements of his hands each second1 or #bc1gfj1jjj mechanical movements each year1 and was at the time ,i knew him10 says ,hunter1 8at the age of thirty-five1 broken down1 drunken and diseased1 but he still remembered this period of slavery sufficiently well to tell me that he had #8paid up' for all the sins he had ever committed #8by those five years in hell4'0 8,as ,state ,factory ,inspector of ,alabama1 my attention has been called very forcibly to the child labor conditions in that ,state1 and1 as a vast majority of the child laborers are in the cotton mills and textile manufactories1 ,i will confine my remarks to the cotton mill children4 8,the health of the mill operatives is what one would expect4 ,it varies in different mills4 ,in certain localities the hookworm is pictured on the faces of nearly all the children4 ,red blood is conspicuous by its absence4 ,the trained eye of the inspector is often unable to tell whether the age of a weazened1 dried-up1 anmic specimen of the genus homo is twelve or eighteen40 ,you can see how then each proposition of your argument must be supported by adequate evidence4 ,i don't intend to carry the illustrations further4 ,the amount of evidence you produce will be governed largely by where the burden of proof lies4 ,that is rather a mysterious expression and often debaters spend a great deal of energy in trying to shift or dodge something they are not quite sure about1 but they are sure it is something awful4 ,it is really a very simple thing--its meaning is only that he who asserts must prove4 ,if ,i say a certain thing is so1 ,i must prove it4 ,i cannot expect or ask you to prove that it is not so4 ,do you see the point8 ,if you say it is #ddd miles from ,pecatonica to ,readville1 you must prove it is just #ddd miles4 ,you must bring up a surveyor or a table of distances of recognized authority or show in some authoritative way that you are correct4 ,if you have made the definite statement you must prove it in a way equally definite--it's no concern of mine to show that it is #dde miles or only five miles4 ,you will notice that this brief contains two classes of arguments--one which seems to anticipate possible contentions of the other side and the other which brings forward positive and direct contentions4 ,the first class can best be catalogued as rebuttal and refutation and will be considered in the next chapter4 ,some arguments1 however1 although of the nature of refutation of possible positions of your opponents may often be well introduced in the beginning of your main argument4 ,for example1 ,proposition ,i3 8,child labor is unnecessary for there is an ample supply of adult labor entirely adequate to the demands of factory work0 is practically an answer to a possible argument of your opponent that child labor is necessary because some mills could not run without it4 ,suppose he had prepared himself with an elaborate argument to prove his position and you had knowingly or unknowingly anticipated his effort and established the opposite1 he would find himself in a very awkward position4 ,he would talk to an audience--or judge--already convinced by your arguments1 or he would be compelled at least to destroy the force of your arguments before he could hope to implant his own in their place4 ,i only refer to this class of argument to show how your brief will contain the full body of your argument so that you will have all your tools ready and sharpened for your use4 ,when you actually get to work1 you may not use all of them after all4 ,but if you find your opponent presents a tough1 knotty problem for you to saw1 your implement is ready4 ,if it is only a pine lath of course a very different tool may be ample4 ,but you will be ready and as you grow experienced in debate your facility will be shown in the ease with which you select now this1 now that tool1 or discard both of them4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,refutation ,not only will your careful analysis of the question formulate your own argument1 but it will prepare you to refute that of your opponent4 ,put just as much care into this part of your preparation as into any other4 ,state to yourself his probable points just as strongly and clearly as you can4 ,if you can put his case better than he1 when you come to your refutation1 so much the better1 provided you are equipped to answer adequately4 ,of course you can't spend time enough to answer every point he has made--make up your mind which are the essential ones and strike at them4 ,this selection will be comparatively simple if you have properly analyzed your question in the first place1 but will be impossible if you have slighted that part of your work4 ,do not be misled1 however1 into thinking that refutation itself is easy or of slight importance4 ,it is neither4 ,it calls for the exercise of all of your skill in selecting the essentials and ignoring the non-essentials4 ,the young debater1 moreover1 is often impaled upon one or the other horn of the dilemma--too much or too little4 ,if you see no side of the case but your own1 your beautifully constructed argument may fall to pieces when your opponent1 perhaps using some unpretentious fact which you1 in your innocence1 had entirely overlooked1 knocks out the keystone of your arch of logic and your structure falls to ruin4 ,on the other hand1 you may demolish one after the other of your opponent's positions and yet present no counter claims for your own side of the case4 ,if you prove your opponent to be all wrong1 you do not thereby prove yourself all right4 ,you must establish your own position and not content yourself merely with destroying that of your enemy--you must be constructive as well as destructive4 ,here again the analogy between debate and the later debate of life runs close and sure4 ,the man who in the activity of his group--whether his lodge1 his club1 his society1 his church1 his city1 or his ,state--has nothing but criticism to offer is of but little value4 ,it is easy to say 8you can't1 you can't40 ,such a statement is as valueless as it is easy4 ,one most important tactical reason for a constructive argument of your own is that you can never tell whether you have destroyed all of the enemy's bridges4 ,one forgotten approach may turn the position you fancied was impregnable into a trap from which there is no escape4 ,you must remember further that in debate the question is as a rule a comparative one only2 neither side is wholly in the right4 ,for example when the case as stated lay between ,peary and ,amundson1 or between ,peary and ,stanley1 if you content yourself with disproving the claims of ,amundson or ,stanley without establishing the rights of ,peary1 you might so discredit the whole argument that to the mind of your judges the fame of some unnamed third person like ,livingstone1 or ,du ,chaillu or ,kane or even ,dr4 ,cook might intervene to give the decision to your opponent4 ,the skillful debater will1 therefore1 develop his campaign along two parallel lines2 he will demolish the defenses of his enemy with one battery of arguments while he is advancing his own position with another arm of the service marching under the flag labeled ,q4 ,e4 ,d4 ,the place of refutation in your argument1 although essential1 cannot be dictated4 ,it will depend largely upon the course the debate takes4 ,i can make certain useful suggestions1 however4 ,obviously you cannot refute until there is something to refute4 ,if your audience--and your judges--is entirely impartial and unprejudiced1 if you do not have to combat a preconceived position1 you can probably safely content yourself with advancing your own position and leave the rebuttal of your opponent's arguments until later4 ,but if you are presenting some novel proposition or some unpopular idea which cannot be entertained unless certain hostile ideas are cleared away1 you will win better attention if you demolish the fundamental ideas upon which the old theory rests before you present your constructive argument4 ,rebuttal4--,in rebuttal--which is simply refutation in action--you can readily give to your whole debate1 or at least your side of it1 a unity which might otherwise be lacking4 ,you relate your work to the work of your comrades and to that of your opponents4 ,you select his strong points2 you minimize his weak ones4 ,you shape his position into that form which best suits your views while at the same time you are advancing to your own attack4 ,but to carry the military figure a little further1 while you must therefore be prepared with a thorough knowledge of your opponent's defenses1 of his equipment of arguments1 and1 if possible1 of facts1 while you should have almost a foreknowledge of his probable lines of approach1 you must always be capable of a quick shifting of your own position as he in turn varies his attack upon you4 ,for be sure he will not be content to stand up and be fired at--you must be alert and resourceful and ready to meet any change of front on his part4 ,the skillful debater will not be content unless he is prepared to meet any attack which may be made upon him4 ,be sure1 however1 to have yourself so well in hand that your refutation will be as well organized as your constructive argument4 ,more than that1 you should not allow any acute break to appear between the two4 ,what happened in a recent college debate in the ,east is an excellent demonstration of what should not be done4 ,neither the audience nor the judges had been told what was coming1 and all were surprised when four minutes after each speaker began 7he had twelve minutes in all7 a bell rang4 ,instantly over the face of the speaker1 as one of the judges told me1 came a sort of 8,thank ,heaven0 expression1 and he forthwith swung off into a well-prepared argument on the constructive side of the case4 ,evidently each had been told to rebut for four minutes and then argue4 ,to be sure that he would know where to stop the one and begin the other1 the bell signal was arranged4 ,the effect was ludicrous in the extreme4 ,there are four special kinds of rebuttal which you can use4 ,reductio ad ,absurdum4--,if1 for illustration1 your opponent1 in debating the question of child labor1 insists that there is a certain nimbleness and quickness of the fingers in children which is necessary to the performance of certain industrial processes1 you can well answer that if that is true of children of from fourteen to sixteen it is obviously more true of the age twelve to fourteen and so children of that age should be employed4 ,if this deduction follows1 you can argue1 then it must be equally true of age ten to twelve and so on even to younger ages yet4 ,if your opponent should question the soundness of this deduction1 you could still further confound him by replying that when the employment of children of those ages was under discussion1 those identical arguments were advanced in its support4 ,enforcing the ,consequences4--,if1 for example1 in discussing conservation1 if your opponent insists that a free and unrestricted cutting of timber should be allowed1 you can show the result of such complete liberty1 if carried to its logical results--the denuding of the ,united ,states of all its timber4 ,it is not necessary1 in urging either this form of rebuttal nor the one which has just preceded it1 that the result be probable4 ,it is enough for the result to be possible4 ,the ,dilemma4--,in this method of refutation you show your opponent has only two arguments to advance1 that neither of them is true and that therefore his case falls unproved4 ,no better illustration of the effectiveness of this method can be given than a reference to the historic ,lincoln-,douglas debates4 ,you will remember that ,douglas declared he believed both in squatter sovereignty and in the ,dred ,scott decision4 ,the one said that the people of any territory had the right to decide for themselves whether they would or would not exclude slavery1 while the ,dred ,scott decision meant that a slaveholder could recover his slave in any territory into which he might escape4 ,you see the two positions are logically inconsistent4 ,when1 therefore1 ,lincoln asked ,douglas as he did in these debates1 this question1 8,can the people of a territory1 prior to the formation of a state constitution1 in any lawful way exclude slavery80 ,douglas was compelled to face a perfect dilemma4 ,if he answered 8yes0 he would repudiate the ,dred ,scott decision--he wanted the support of the ,south4 ,if he answered 8no10 he would repudiate the doctrine of squatter sovereignty and offend the ,north4 ,in endeavoring to meet the difficulty1 he maintained that while a territory could not exclude slavery it could legally enact such unfriendly legislation that it would be impossible for slavery to remain4 ,lincoln practically had ,douglas defeated before the judges of that debate--the ,american people--when he showed the absurdity of ,douglas' attempted escape from his dilemma4 ,lincoln showed that in effect ,douglas said that slavery could lawfully be excluded from a place where it had a lawful right to be4 ,the debate--and this famous 8dilemma0 was the spectacular part of it--made ,lincoln president4 ,residues4--,this method is simply an enlargement of the difficulties of the dilemma4 ,when more than two possibilities are presented and you demolish one after the other of them your hope is that nothing may be left of his case--that the residuum may be zero4 ,analyze ,your ,opponent's ,case4--,as your opponent is speaking1 note his points with care4 ,apply to them the principles we have discussed in earlier chapters4 ,is his reasoning based upon premises which you can disprove8 ,has he ignored the real issue8 ,are his alleged causes merely coincidences1 or are there other contributing causes which lessen the force of his conclusion8 ,is his observation of facts faulty and are his generalizations unsound and based upon insufficient and unfair instances8 ,apply these tests to his arguments and you will render your task of refutation easier4 ,but in your refutation1 be sure you refute4 ,don't think for a minute that either heat or violence or sarcasm is a good answer4 ,neither can the testimony of one witness be rebutted by that of another unless the latter's knowledge of the matter is shown to be the greater4 ,and the strength of refutation lies in the skill with which you make your audience believe your witnesses are more worthy of belief than those of your opponent1 provided always that is the fact4 ,,chapter ,x ,,delivery ,let your speech have form and body4 ,when you have prepared your brief1 you have indeed articulated a skeleton which may be beautiful in its logical symmetry although not as yet clothed in flesh and blood4 ,but do not destroy that beauty by losing1 when you begin to speak1 all your sense of form and arrangement4 ,do not let your spoken argument be simply unrelated chunks of thought4 ,keep your transitions in thought clear4 ,i do not mean that you should parade each step consciously before your audience and label each section neatly and appropriately4 ,let your argument all travel forward to a climactic end4 8,many speakers approach the end of their work as if it were a dreaded leap into oblivion1 and1 after trying again and again to close1 end abruptly or trail off in less and less audible sentences till the gavel falls40 ,as to your method of delivery1 as to how to learn to speak1 the best advice ,i can give you is to learn to speak by speaking4 ,don't try to force your voice or your gestures2 let them both be easy and natural4 ,the human voice is capable of wonderful things2 its tones may be rich and mellow or harsh and rasping4 ,learn to listen to your own voice as to that of another4 ,breathing4--,the secret of successful public speaking is to use your voice from the diaphragm up1 not from the throat4 ,by that statement1 ,i mean that you should do your talking with a column of vibrating air the base of which rests upon the muscles at the base of the lungs4 ,you must1 then1 breathe deeply1 filling the lower portion of the lungs4 ,let the great muscles of the diaphragm push forth your voice2 do not try to crowd it out by using those of the upper part of the chest4 ,hold your chest motionless4 ,the skillful speaker can fill a vast auditorium with a rich resonant voice--and1 all the time1 keep the upper chest muscles inactive1 the upper parts of the chest motionless4 ,for the speaker's chest to rise and fall1 for him to squeeze his chest together as he might squeeze an orange1 may show emotion1 but it doesn't show good sense4 ,if you use the muscles of the throat and neck1 you will soon injure your voice2 to speak effectively1 you must let the lower part of the lungs do the work4 ,it will1 if it is given half a chance4 ,these directions may seem to call for a difficult feat of internal gymnastics4 ,they don't4 ,correct breathing is easier than the other sort6 ,you will be surprised to find vocal powers which you never realized existed before4 ,you will also be chagrined to find1 ,i fear1 that you occasionally use tones which rasp and grate1 which strain the muscles1 parch the throat and distress generally not only the speaker but alas6 the hearer as well4 ,cultivate those tones which are flexible and resonant and discard those which grate and strain4 ,use your singing tones and don't be afraid to open your mouth and let your voice have a chance4 ,but don't get monotonous in your work4 ,you will find1 in practice1 many rich mellow tones of many keys and pitches4 ,just because one sounds good to you--and it may be everything you think it is--don't use it to the point of monotony4 ,i heard a lady read some charming verse of her own composition the other evening4 ,the poems were in every way pleasing--they were much above the ordinary4 ,but she pitched her voice in one key and one tone all the way through the verse1 her comment1 her introduction1 everything1 all in the same tone from beginning to end6 ,the effect was marred4 ,there was no break in the smooth voice from start to finish4 ,as one of her hearers remarked3 8,i could stand those canary bird tones in the verses but she should have given us a rest in the rest of it40 ,as to your gestures and your bearing on the platform1 the same rule applies2 be easy and natural4 ,remember that after all1 speaking is little more than talking4 ,if you can assist your public speech by gestures which help your meaning1 emphasizing certain points or1 as it were1 marking off certain phrases1 why1 gesture4 ,but don't wave your arms for the mere sake of doing so4 ,as one teacher of debating said 8,you may do anything on the platform you would do anywhere else in the company of ladies and gentlemen40 ,you must of course so conduct yourself physically that you will not distract the attention of your audience from what you are saying2 you wish to help your thought1 not hinder it4 ,but always be yourself--be natural4 ,it is better to be a real ,william ,smith or even a real ,bill ,smith than an imitation ,daniel ,webster4 ,study ,webster and ,calhoun and ,root and ,bryan4 ,get all the illustrations and aid you can from their methods in debate2 but remember after all you must be yourself4 ,when you were created the mold was thrown away4 ,no two natures are alike1 no two persons have the same powers4 ,you can't be someone else if you want to be4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,final ,,suggestions ,the way to learn to debate is by actual practice in debate4 ,the way to learn to speak is by trying to speak4 ,never miss a proper opportunity of speaking4 ,don't make yourself disliked1 of course1 but try every chance you get1 and listen to every debate or speech you can and apply to every argument you hear or read the tests which show whether they are real or false4 ,before you really know it1 you will prove every proposition presented to you and that without any conscious effort4 ,one excellent form of practice is in audibly talking a thing out to yourself4 ,haven't you noticed many times you have had a thought which seemed decidedly clear and worth while to yourself but which seemed misty and inconclusive when you tried to tell your friend about it8 ,you know some say that a thought is not entitled to cataloguing as a thought until it has been expressed in words2 that until that time it may have within it the germ of an idea but it is not really a thought until it has been clothed in an appropriate dress of language4 ,however that may be1 you certainly want to express your thoughts clearly and directly2 you wish to convince your hearers of the soundness of your position4 ,again1 many boys who can write clearly and beautifully are likely to become slangy and colloquial when they talk4 ,if you practice clothing your thoughts in appropriate audible language you will easily detect this trouble and it will soon become offensive to you4 ,so1 for both of these reasons1 don't be afraid to talk to yourself4 ,never mind if you are overheard and pronounced queer--it's all in the day's work4 ,in the next place1 remember that all argument is really plain exposition--that is1 you are simply setting forth the facts and 8applying to them an explanation2 a theory or a policy better or more rational1 more thorough or more for your personal advantage40 ,the rules which ,i have given you will aid you in thus setting forth the facts1 and in making your audience see your proposed solution of those facts4 ,but as ,i said before1 the way to learn to debate is to debate4 ,the rest of this book is made up of practical suggestions which will help you and your crowd to organize and conduct debates and debating societies4 ,go to it1 but go to it as a real thing1 a thing worth while and not a mere game4 ,take yourselves seriously and apply to your informal talks and discussions the rules ,i have been outlining for formal debates4 ,i don't want you to be stilted or stiff1 nor yet self-conscious prigs1 but ,i want you to realize that your life now1 in your club or society or patrol1 is but a cross-section of what your later life will be4 ,the same rules govern your mental discipline now as will then4 ,the lessons you learn now you will not have to learn then and1 what is of far more consequence1 if you now look after your training a little1 you won't have a lot of things to unlearn then4 ,i have two suggestions1 however1 which apply with equal force to both times--now and later4 ,if you are not successful in your argument1 what shall you do8 ,if the judges in the debate decide against you1 what next8 ,if your opponent instead of yourself has succeeded in rousing your hearers to the point of action1 shall you sulk in your tent like ,achilles or shall you turn in and help8 ,by all means the latter1 unless there is some moral principle involved4 ,in active life1 men are too willing to feel absolved from all responsibility unless their own special programme is adopted4 ,they will often admit that the other course of action is all right as far as it goes1 only because it does not go far enough they decline to have anything to do with it4 ,don't make this mistake yourself4 ,if your patrol decides to go to ,mount ,washington when you wanted to go to the ,thousand ,islands1 never mind2 go anyway4 ,if you wanted the age limit against child labor fixed at sixteen and your opponent is successful in making it fifteen1 why remember fifteen is better than fourteen anyway4 ,if you wanted forest reserves of twenty million acres established by law1 and your opponent succeeded in convincing the judges that ten millions was about right1 that's better than no conservation at all4 ,or for example if you believe that nation wide prohibition of the liquor traffic is the ultimate solution of that problem1 you should not therefore decline to have anything to do with state prohibition or even local option4 ,they are all steps in the right direction1 don't you see8 ,take anything you can get4 ,the step in the right direction is the right step1 whether it is a short step or a long step4 ,finally1 remember that while these suggestions are designed to aid you win your debate1 in the nature of things1 there can only be one correct position on any question4 ,one side only can be right1 and if your side is not right it should not win4 ,but it is equally true if both sides are careful in their analysis of the question1 and in their discussion of it1 it is much more likely that the actual facts will be discovered and a correct solution of the difficulties found4 ,you must therefore remember that it is your task to do the best you can so to present your side of the case that every argument to be brought forward on your side will have its just weight4 ,but do not think that because you have a certain side of an argument to present you must always thereafter take that side of the case4 ,in other words don't be afraid of changing your mind4 ,give the best work you are capable of in preparing and presenting your arguments and then sit in judgment yourself upon yourself4 ,be your own severest critic1 and be manly enough to abide by the result4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,how ,,the ,,fairfield ,,boys ,,organized ,i knew several of the boys at ,fairfield1 and because ,i was much interested in debating generally1 ,i was delighted when ,jack ,mason asked me if ,i would like to go with him to a meeting called to discuss the organization of a debating club4 ,jack was a fine lad about seventeen years old2 he was an enthusiastic ball player and delighted in outdoor sports4 ,his particular chum1 ,frank ,lawrence1 was a different lad4 ,he found his chief interest in books and reading1 although he was by no means a 8dig0 or a recluse4 ,however1 the two boys made a fine team1 and each supplied what the other may have lacked4 ,frank was really the leader in the movement to organize the club4 ,he had been reading several volumes of orations and had been impressed by the force and vigor of the great speakers4 ,like all boys who amount to anything1 he wanted to try his hand1 and naturally he didn't want to do it alone4 ,he took the matter up with ,jack and1 while ,jack at first laughed at the idea1 ,frank finally brought him round to see it was a good thing4 ,the result was that fifteen or twenty of the boys came together to talk things over4 ,when ,i arrived ,i found just a crowd of ordinary boys1 no better or no worse than average lads in a community4 ,they all wanted to do something2 they were not satisfied with waiting for something to happen2 they wanted to make something happen4 ,with that spirit in them1 they speedily got down to work and before ,i realized it they had organized their club4 ,some of the boys were ,scouts and naturally preferred to have that organization connected in some way with the club4 ,jack1 ,i think1 approved this idea1 but ,frank pointed out that although many of them were ,scouts and all of them had friends who were ,scouts1 this really was not a scout organization and they might wish to take into the club boys who possibly did not believe in the scout organization1 and might thus be prevented from joining4 ,charlie ,taylor suggested that it be called 8,the ,debating ,club of the ,epworth ,league40 ,charlie was a ,methodist and belonged to the ,epworth ,league4 ,george ,perkins1 however1 who was an ardent member of the ,christian ,endeavor ,society1 objected1 and of course when the proposal was put that way1 ,charlie at once saw that it was not fair4 ,the boys finally agreed that the only thing they had in common1 as far as the organization of the club was concerned1 was first1 that they were boys1 and second1 that they wanted to debate4 ,therefore1 they decided to call it by a name which would1 by its very simplicity1 avoid any misunderstanding and at the same time properly characterize the object of the club4 ,they decided therefore to call the club 8,the ,boys' ,debating ,club of ,fairfield40 ,when they came formally to state the purpose of their organization1 after some discussion they agreed upon this preamble3 8,we1 the undersigned1 appreciating the advantages to be derived from practice in debate1 hereby organize ourselves into a club for that purpose and agree to be governed by the following constitution30 ,frank wished to have more in this preamble and urged that they write it so that it would state that they would be benefited by drill in discussion1 in composition1 in declamation1 in elocution1 in parliamentary practice2 in fact1 in many other ways growing out of their meeting as a club1 but ,henry ,jordan1 a quiet1 unassuming member1 asked if all that really was not included in the word 8debate40 ,they said1 8,of course10 and so the short preamble stood4 ,the first few articles were adopted without much discussion1 as they all thought substantially alike on those points4 ,the question of a short term of office called forth much discussion4 ,my friend ,jack is decidedly businesslike and he could see no real reason1 he said1 for going through the fuss and bother of so many elections4 8,if a man makes a good president10 he said1 8why do we want to put him out of office after he has been working ten weeks and has just got the run of things8 ,besides1 he would scarcely have time to show what he could do in ten weeks40 ,frank replied3 8,suppose he doesn't make a good president2 even these ten weeks would be a pretty long time1 wouldn't it80 ,jack grumbled a good deal and insisted that the boys would put in most of their time electioneering for office4 ,the boys laughed him down on this point1 but ,henry ,jordan convinced them all when he said3 8,if practice is what we are after in this club1 the more the offices are passed around the more practice we will all get40 ,they decided to fill vacancies by election at any meeting of the club1 although some of the boys thought that it would be simpler to have the president appoint some boy to fill out the unexpired portion of the office1 if a vacancy should occur4 ,there was a good deal of discussion of the duties of the various officers4 ,henry ,jordan thought it would be enough if the constitution simply set out the ordinary rules governing similar bodies4 ,ralph ,parsons--the boys called him 8,tubby0--suggested1 quite ingenuously ,i thought1 that he supposed the various officers would have so much work to do that they would not be expected to take part in the debates4 ,the thought in his mind was clear to all4 ,the boys evidently knew him4 8,no1 indeed10 announced ,jack1 8the president and all the rest of the officers take part in the debates when their time comes40 8,o1 well60 sighed 8,tubby40 ,frank made a suggestion at this point which ,i thought was very good4 8,there are other debating clubs10 he said1 8we ought to get acquainted with4 ,there are societies for doing other kinds of work which is worth while4 ,there is the ,epworth ,league1 and the ,christian ,endeavor ,society1 and the ,boy ,scouts1 and the ,high ,school literary society1 and the ,girls' ,library ,club1 and lots of organizations which are just as good as ours4 ,i think it would be great to get together with them just as much as we can--have joint programmes and all that sort of thing1 you know4 ,it might be good for them1 and ,i know it would be fine for us40 8,splendid60 ,i could not help exclaiming4 8,i move that it be one of the duties of the ,president to see these clubs and carry out this idea10 said ,george ,perkins4 ,this motion was carried enthusiastically4 ,after more discussion the enumeration of the other duties of the officers was left to a committee4 ,one office was created for which ,i suppose ,i am responsible4 ,the boys felt pretty 8cocky0 and ,jack said something about the good work they were going to do in their club4 ,they had asked me before to take part in their discussion and ,i ventured to ask3 8,how will you know whether your work is good or not80 8,well10 ,charlie ,taylor replied1 8when we have a debate with that ,onarga bunch and lick them good and plenty1 ,i guess they'll know we are doing good work40 8,well1 we may not find judges who will stand for #8lick them good and plenty' arguments10 interrupted ,frank4 8,that kind of talk won't go in a dignified debating club40 8,anyway10 ,i replied1 8suppose you don't know what kind of work you are doing until the result of some debate contest tells you4 ,isn't it quite a while to wait80 8,i tell you what1 boys10 ,i continued4 8,i know folks say there is a great deal of education in learning through our mistakes1 and of course there is4 ,but there is also a lot of energy wasted in doing things the wrong way4 ,we would look well1 wouldn't we1 if we insisted in finding out for ourselves every fact in geography or physics when we have available the accumulated experience of centuries4 ,so don't try to do it all alone1 boys4 ,get some older men who have gone through the mill themselves and get them to act as your critics and advisers4 ,you will save a lot of time and get along much better40 ,this advice seemed good1 and they adopted the following section3 8,the ,president shall appoint at each session of the club a ,critic1 whose duty it shall be to criticize the conduct of the meeting and of the individual members in all respects and to render to the club such other help in advice and counsel as may seem wise to him4 ,such ,critic shall1 when possible1 be appointed from the honorary members of the club40 ,when they came to the question of membership there was a hot debate4 ,there was an almost even division on the question of admitting the girls4 ,there was no nonsense about the boys2 they were not rough or boorish on the one hand1 nor 8sissified0 on the other4 ,one faction contended stoutly that it would be a good thing to have the girls with them4 ,they urged the difference in the minds of boys and girls and felt that any question would be better understood if they had both points of view about it4 ,jack led the opposition to having the girls join4 ,he said3 8,you fellows all know my sister ,polly40 7,there was a chorus of assent and several side glances at ,frank1 who looked carefully out of the window47 8,you know ,polly is great4 ,she is as good a fellow as any of you here40 ,here he glared pugnaciously about1 but as no one seemed to disagree with him in the least he continued4 8,i would as lief chum with ,polly as not--but not in this club4 ,i think we would have better times and do more business if we were alone4 ,we could easily enough have social nights in the club once in a while4 ,we can always get the girls and have a good time together outside1 but ,i believe we ought to keep the club out of it4 ,i wish they would organize a debating club of their own4 ,it would be great sport to have a joint debate40 ,the antis won1 and the word 8boy0 used in the provision on membership4 ,only two other points concerning membership made much discussion--how many votes were necessary to get a boy in and how many votes were necessary to get him out after he was in4 ,will ,morrissey had not talked much yet1 but he grew eloquent when he urged that one vote should be enough to keep a boy out4 8,why10 he said1 8if we are going to do good work here we must be careful who we have in4 ,if we have united action we must be a band of brothers4 ,we must not have in here anyone who is obnoxious to anyone else40 ,pietro ,frontenelli was an ,italian lad who had completely won the hearts of the rest of the boys since he had been in ,fairfield4 ,he was supposed to be a socialist at least1 quite likely an anarchist1 possibly a ,camorrist1 but altogether a most likable fellow4 ,the boys indifferently called him 8,pete0 or 8,nellie0 for short2 he admitted himself that his whole name made quite a mouthful4 8,pete0 thought it made little difference whether we all thought alike or not4 8,of course10 he said1 8we want to thresh out the questions we have up for discussion and get at what seems to be the correct answer4 ,but it's a sure shot we will be more likely to get at that result if we approach it from as many angles as we can4 ,i would like to see members elected by a majority vote40 ,george ,perkins thought that provision would be too liberal and finally the boys compromised on allowing election if no more than three votes were cast against the candidate4 ,they decided to follow the same rule in the election of honorary members4 ,right here ,i broke in again4 8,boys10 ,i said1 8let me repeat1 don't try to do it all alone4 ,get your older friends in4 ,get your big brothers1 your fathers1 your teachers1 the fathers of the other boys1 even if their sons don't belong4 ,it is a good thing to have a lot of them with you as honorary members4 ,of course they are busy men4 ,there will not be many of them out any one night1 but you ought to have some outsiders and advisers here every night40 8,i don't know about that10 said 8,tubby40 8,if we have folks like that here1 we won't feel free and easy4 ,we will be on dress parade all the time40 8,that's just how we should be10 said ,charlie ,taylor4 8,if we don't take ourselves seriously1 no one else will40 8,that's the way to talk10 chimed in ,jimmy ,francis4 8,we don't want any #8rough house' or bear dances or anything like that4 ,we want to do business in this club of ours40 8,now1 look here1 fellows10 said 8,tubby40 8,who said anything about rough house or anything like it8 ,i don't want that any more than you do40 ,jimmy assured him that they all knew that he wasn't standing for anything like 8rough house40 8,but it's going to be awful hard work to keep braced up all the time10 he sighed to himself4 8,i won't dare even to slide down in my chair4 ,o well60 ,when it came to considering the conduct of members within the society and methods of discipline1 the boys were decidedly at sea4 ,they wanted to maintain the dignity of the club and yet they wanted to be fair to everyone4 8,but10 as ,frank ,lawrence put it1 8what rule shall we follow in passing upon the guilt of members8 ,what standards shall we follow8 ,what is a crime and what is not a crime80 ,that was the question4 ,what should be regarded as conduct unbecoming a member of the club8 ,it was finally decided that no one code of rules could answer such a question1 but that each case should stand on its own merits4 ,consequently the section was worded like this3 8,any member who is guilty of conduct unbecoming a member of the club may1 at any regular meeting1 be suspended or expelled at the discretion of the club4 ,but the charge against such member shall be signed by one of the officers of the club or at least three members1 shall definitely state the facts constituting the alleged offense1 shall lie on the table one week1 and shall require a two-thirds vote of the members present for its adoption40 ,in arranging for their programmes the boys felt that they should allow some latitude for joint sessions with other clubs4 ,consequently they instructed their committee who had the drafting of the rules in charge to give a place for such things on the order of business4 ,while they were organizing a debating club1 they said1 they didn't want to shut out anything else they might want to do4 ,how should they provide the necessary funds8 ,since ,sam ,levi's father was a banker1 he was regarded by all the boys as an authority on finance4 ,he talked quite at length on bonds1 debentures1 income taxes1 and just dues1 and when it was all over the boys seemed to be quite clear that if they ever decided to build a club house they might want to sell bonds1 but until that time they would simply levy dues on all members equally4 ,they really did not need much money4 ,the ,school ,board had told them they could use the school assembly room for their meetings4 ,their incidental expense would not amount to much1 and they thought ten cents per member1 besides an initiation fee of twenty-five cents1 would take care of it4 ,one point did cause some discussion4 ,suppose a boy didn't pay his dues2 what then8 ,jack as usual was for drastic action4 ,he wanted such a boy 8fired0 right off4 ,sam suggested that a penalty of ten per cent4 per month on the past due fees would keep the boys up to the mark4 8,if they have to pay eleven cents instead of ten if they are behind a month10 said he1 8or twelve cents if they are back two months1 they will look out40 ,it struck the boys as good finance until ,jimmy ,francis suggested rather timidly3 8,if a fellow is hard up and couldn't get his money together just right it would rather hurt to pay the extra cent or two40 ,the boys quickly saw the other side4 ,jimmy was the son of a widow4 ,everyone respected him1 for1 although he didn't pity himself the least bit1 he was always looking out for odd jobs to help out4 ,all the lads knew he would have to find one more job to take care of his dues4 ,his mother had to count every penny as it was4 ,they finally decided not to impose any penalty for non-payment of dues4 ,as ,frank pointed out1 they felt that 8if any fellow is mean enough to quit on his dues because there is no penalty tacked on1 that's conduct unbecoming a member of the club and we can #8fire' him40 ,after they had taken care of a few miscellaneous provisions1 they found they had a good working organization4 ,i agreed with them1 and in the appendix1 beginning on page #aef1 you will find their constitution in full4 ,in the next chapter ,i am going to tell you about the rules of order they adopted4 ,they appointed a committee to draft them and ,i helped with the work4 ,we talked the rules over a good deal both in this committee and afterward in the first two or three meetings4 ,they were good enough to make me ,critic several times and most of the help ,i gave them was in parliamentary practice4 ,i have given you the rules1 together with the running discussion we had on them4 ,possibly the reasons given for the rules will help you1 as they seemed to help them4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,their ,,parliamentary ,,procedure ,knowledge of parliamentary law is1 at some time or other1 useful to almost every member of an ,american community1 yet few ever get more than a confused and mistaken idea of its principles4 ,absolute equality of rights and privileges among the members of an assembly1 the right to a full and free debate of every proposition offered1 the rule of the majority1 and the limitation of consideration to one thing at a time1 are the cardinal principles upon which the rules of order rest4 ,to enforce them1 a chairman or moderator must be chosen4 ,he always speaks of himself as 8the chair40 ,all the proceedings of an organized assembly1 whatever its purpose or composition1 are founded upon the motion1 which is really the form in which action is proposed4 ,besides the main or principal motion1 which is the proposition in its original and simple form1 there are subsidiary1 incidental1 and privileged motions4 ,they will be explained later4 ,a member who wishes to make a motion must rise in his place1 and address the chair--8,mr4 ,chairman0 or 8,mr4 ,president10 as the case may be4 ,he is not to speak further until the chair has 8recognized0 him by pronouncing his name4 ,having been recognized1 he proceeds to make his motion after this form3 8,i move that this society attend in a body the ,fourth of ,july exercises at ,riverside ,park40 ,in ,congress1 motions are not1 as a rule1 seconded2 but in most voluntary organizations1 the chairman--except in matters of routine business--waits1 before stating the question1 until some one says1 8,i second the motion40 ,that1 a member can do without rising4 ,if no one offers to second the motion1 the chairman need not state the motion at all1 and often refuses to do so4 ,as soon as a motion has been seconded1 however1 the presiding officer repeats it verbatim1 as it was made4 ,if the motion is long and complicated1 he may call for it in writing2 and it is always a good plan for one who intends to propose a motion of importance to write it out before he rises to offer it4 ,until a motion has been seconded1 the maker may withdraw it4 ,until it has been stated by the chair1 he may withdraw it with the consent of the seconder2 but after it has been stated1 it can be withdrawn only by formal vote of the meeting4 ,the question having been stated1 the chairman goes on to say1 8,are you ready for the question80 ,that opens the floor to debate4 ,if no one offers to speak1 the chairman calls for the vote3 8,all in favor of the motion will say1 #8,aye1' all opposed1 #8,no4' ,the ayes0 7or noes7 8have it1 and the motion is carried0 7or is lost1 as the case may be74 ,in case of doubt1 the chair may order the ayes and noes to rise in turn1 and remain standing until they are counted4 ,and if any member does not agree with the chair's decision of the vote by voice1 he may 8doubt0 it4 ,then a rising vote must be taken4 ,in most cases1 however1 there will be debate4 ,the chairman will then recognize the first member to rise1 who may speak as long as the rules of the particular body permit4 ,the maker of a motion has1 by custom1 the first opportunity to speak to it1 if he wishes to do so1 and usually1 also1 the right to close the debate with another speech4 ,while a member is speaking1 no other member is allowed to stand1 unless the speaker1 on being appealed to1 permits an interruption for the purpose of asking a question or making a correction4 ,but a speaker who is using discourteous or improper language may be 8called to order10 as will be explained later4 ,a member has no right to remain standing while another is speaking1 with the idea of prempting the next recognition from the chairman2 the chair should not recognize a member unless he rose after the preceding speaker had finished4 ,when a member has once spoken to a motion1 he has no right to take the floor again1 as long as any other member wishes to be heard1 except to make one of the subsidiary1 incidental1 or privileged motions above referred to4 ,those motions all supersede the consideration of the main motion4 ,when a subsidiary motion is made1 the main motion is laid aside until the subsidiary has been acted upon4 ,when one of the incidental motions is made1 the main motion or any subsidiary motions must be laid aside until the incidental motion is disposed of4 ,the privileged motions displace any of the others from consideration4 ,only one thing at a time may be before the 8house40 ,a4 ,the ,,subsidiary ,,motions1 all concerned with perfecting or advancing the disposition of a main motion1 are these3 7a7 ,amendment4--,any main motion is open to amendment1 and any amendment is open to further amendment4 ,the amendment may be by adding words or phrases1 by eliminating words or phrases1 or by the substitution of certain words for some in the original motion4 ,any number of amendments may be offered2 only one at a time can be considered4 ,when an amendment to an amendment is offered1 it displaces the amendment from consideration1 just as the first amendment displaced the original motion4 ,an amendment ought not to be offered in a negative form2 it is a good plan1 when that is done1 to amend it at once to a positive form1 so that there shall be no misunderstanding when it comes to a vote4 ,it is confusing when the vote 8,aye0 means not to do a certain thing1 and the vote 8,no0 means to do it4 ,the amendment must also conform to the subject-matter of the main motion4 ,the chairman must rule 8out of order0 an amendment that tries to introduce an entirely different subject4 ,the question on an amendment is put just as it is on a main motion1 but the chairman should be careful to repeat the whole motion1 with the proposed amendment1 so that all may understand what they are voting on4 7b7 ,indefinite ,postponement4--,at any time when the main motion alone is before the assembly1 a motion to postpone its consideration indefinitely is in order4 ,this motion is open to debate1 and if carried1 makes any further discussion of the main motion impossible at that session2 and at a later session it can be brought in only as 8new business10 as if it had never been proposed before4 7c7 ,to ,commit4--,at any time when a motion or an amendment is under discussion1 a motion to refer to a committee may be made4 ,in most legislative bodies this is the immediate fate of almost every motion of importance2 in clubs and similar organizations1 matters that require investigation and special information are properly referred to a committee4 ,the motion is debatable and open to amendment--usually as to the number of the committee1 or the time when a report shall be made4 ,if the reference is to a special1 and not a 8standing0 committee1 the chairman1 when the choice is left to him1 often appoints the member who proposed the reference1 chairman1 although he need not do so unless he chooses4 ,when a committee has prepared and presented its report1 the chairman moves its adoption--if it makes any specific proposition or recommendation4 ,reports which merely state facts or 8report progress0 are 8accepted10 not 8adopted40 ,a committee1 after making its final report1 is ipso facto discharged4 ,but a formal motion to discharge a committee may be made and entertained at its own request1 or in case of a partial report or unsatisfactory performance of its duties4 ,sometimes committees disagree1 and majority and minority reports are presented4 ,in such a case the first motion to be made is usually for the adoption of the majority report4 ,then an amendment to substitute for it the minority report often follows1 and after debate1 the vote comes on the question of substitution4 ,if that fails1 the vote recurs on the adoption of the majority report4 7d7 ,postponement4--,a motion to postpone consideration to a definite time is in order while any of the motions already described are under discussion4 ,it is debatable1 but the chairman should not let the debate extend beyond the proper time of postponement4 ,if carried1 the main motion cannot again be considered before the specified time1 except by a two-thirds vote4 ,but when that time has arrived1 if a certain hour was named1 the postponed motion takes precedence of any other business1 except the privileged questions later to be described4 ,if the postponement was to a certain day only1 the motion comes up when 8unfinished business0 is reached4 ,any of the motions already named will yield to a motion for 7e7 ,the ,previous ,question4--,that1 if carried1 closes all debate1 and puts the matter at once to a vote4 ,it is in order only when there has been a fair amount of discussion4 ,it is not itself debatable1 and requires a two-thirds vote to pass4 ,if amendments are pending when the previous question is ordered1 they must be voted on one after another2 then the main motion must be put1 without further debate4 ,but a member may1 if he please1 move the previous question on an amendment only--in which case the main motion will still be open to debate4 ,finally1 a motion 7f7 ,to ,lay on the ,table takes precedence of any of the other motions enumerated4 ,it is not debatable4 ,its effect is to postpone action on a motion1 but it permits the reintroduction of the motion at any time during that or the next following session4 ,its proper use is to lay aside a motion until further information can be obtained1 or until a more favorable time for its consideration2 but since the enemies of a motion1 if they are strong enough to lay a motion on the table1 are often strong enough to prevent its being taken from the table1 this motion often serves to suppress a question without actually voting it down4 ,a motion to take a motion from the table is in order at any time when other business is not before the house1 during the same or the next following session4 ,b4 ,the ,,incidental ,,motions are seven in number1 and are of equal parliamentary standing4 ,that is to say1 any of them may be introduced while the main or a subsidiary motion is pending1 but no one of them takes precedence over any other2 no second incidental motion may be offered while one is under consideration4 ,all of them1 save only the appeal from the decision of the chair1 are peremptory motions1 and not debatable4 ,they are as follows3 7a7 ,suspension of the ,rules4--,this is a motion to suspend the operation of the rules of order that the particular body has adopted1 in order to permit the consideration of some pressing matter out of its usual place4 ,by-laws may not thus be suspended1 and the rules of order may be suspended only by a two-thirds vote4 ,nor can the motion1 if voted down1 be renewed while the same question is under consideration2 the chairman must rule it 8out of order0 if the attempt is made4 ,the motion should be made in this form3 8,mr4 ,chairman1 ,i move the suspension of the rules for the consideration of the question--0 which should then be stated in full4 7b7 ,withdrawing a ,motion4--,when a motion is fairly before the house1 the mover may withdraw it only by rising and moving its withdrawal4 ,no one but the maker of the original motion can move to withdraw4 ,there can be no debate1 and a majority vote permits the withdrawal4 7c7 ,dividing a ,motion4--,if a motion contains two or more distinct propositions1 it is sometimes convenient to divide it1 and vote separately on each proposition1 especially if one seems likely to encounter more opposition than the others4 ,the motion is not debatable4 7d7 ,to ,read ,papers4--,this is a motion to have the pending motion read again for the information and guidance of members1 or to have other material read which seems likely to help in the intelligent consideration of the question4 ,when such a motion is made1 the chairman usually says1 8,if there is no objection1 the paper0 7or the motion7 8will be read40 ,if any one objects1 the motion must be put to vote4 ,a majority vote carries it4 7e7 ,objection to ,consideration4--,sometimes silly or needless motions are made1 or motions which are likely to stir up ill feeling4 ,objection to the consideration of such business may be made by any member as soon as the motion has been stated by the chair4 ,no second is needed1 no debate is allowed1 and a two-thirds vote is required4 ,the proceeding is often a useful one1 but it requires quick wit to employ it2 for as soon as debate has actually begun1 the objection is out of order4 ,in such a case the indefinite postponement already described is the best way of suppressing the troublesome motion4 ,it should be noted that when the objection is put to vote1 all those who are in favor of considering the question are asked to vote 8,aye02 those who oppose its consideration and sustain the objection are asked to vote 8,no40 7f7 ,points of ,order4--,the chairman is1 of course1 in constant charge of the meeting1 enforcing the rules of order and the principles of parliamentary law1 and calling to order members whose language is unduly violent or discourteous4 ,if he fails to perform any of these duties1 it is proper for a member to 8rise to a point of order10 and call the chair's attention to the infraction of the rules4 ,thus if a member moves to commit a motion while the assembly is debating on the proposal to postpone it to a definite time1 a member may say3 8,mr4 ,chairman1 ,i rise to a point of order40 ,the ,chair3 8,state your point40 8,the motion to refer to a committee is not in order until the motion to postpone has been voted on40 8,the point is well taken2 the motion to refer to a committee is out of order40 ,or the chair may decide the point 8not well taken40 ,in that case1 the member who made it may1 if he please3 7g7 ,appeal4--,the appeal requires a second1 and when made1 is sometimes open to debate4 ,the question is put in the form3 8,shall the decision of the chair be sustained80 ,the ayes1 therefore1 vote for the chair1 and the noes in favor of the appeal4 ,a tie vote sustains the chair4 ,when an appeal has been sustained1 the chair must act in accordance with it1 even though he knows he is violating the rules in doing so4 ,he is the servant of the house1 and must take his instructions from it4 ,a member may also object to the language used by another member1 and call him to order4 ,a member thus called to order must at once take his seat until the chair has ruled on the point4 ,if the decision is against him1 he may resume speaking only after offering an apology1 and the assembly may1 if it please1 deny him the right to speak further4 ,c4 ,the ,,privileged ,,questions are few in number1 but they displace all the motions already described1 and also have certain relative values among themselves4 7a7 ,orders of the ,day4--,a society sometimes fixes a certain order of business to be carried out at a particular time at each meeting2 this is the general order4 ,when1 at a previous meeting1 a question has been postponed to a particular hour of a succeeding meeting1 that question becomes a special order for that day4 ,when the proper time arrives1 the chair may call the attention of the meeting to the fact1 or a member may rise and 8call for the order of the day40 ,whatever business is pending must at once be suspended4 ,once before the meeting1 the question may be again postponed if the house so votes1 in which case the suspended business is resumed4 ,otherwise the order passes to a decision in the regular way4 ,the order of the day must be called for at the proper time2 if forgotten or neglected then1 it loses its privilege1 and can be taken up only as unfinished business later4 ,when it is called for1 the meeting may vote not to take it up4 ,that means that it prefers to dispose first of the business already before it4 ,but as soon as that is done with1 the order of the day must be taken up next4 7b7 ,questions of ,privilege4--,these are matters affecting the rights1 dignity1 or reputation of individual members or of the whole assembly1 and any business may be interrupted to state them4 ,a member who feels that his right to debate is infringed by the chair or by other members1 who feels that his character is assailed or his views misrepresented1 may 8rise to a question of privilege40 ,also unsatisfactory conditions of light or ventilation1 unseemly behavior of members or visitors1 charges against the official conduct of officers of the body1 and so forth1 are suitable matters for questions of privilege4 ,the chair need not entertain the question if he thinks it of insufficient importance1 but his decision is subject to appeal4 ,if the question is put as a motion1 it is like any motion subject to amendment1 commitment1 postponement1 and so forth4 ,all such questions are debatable4 7c7 ,recess4--,the motion to take a recess outranks all motions already enumerated4 ,it cannot be amended or debated4 7d7 ,adjournment4--,a motion to adjourn outranks all others1 and may be made at any time except while a member is speaking1 while voting is going on1 or while the chair is stating a question4 ,it is not debatable1 and may be renewed if lost4 ,but if repeated motions to adjourn are made simply to obstruct business1 the chair may finally refuse to entertain them4 ,a special form of this motion of still greater privilege is that fixing the time and place of adjournment4 ,when adjournment has been carried in a body that is meeting in continuous session1 day after day1 the business left unfinished comes up at once on reassembling1 unless displaced by the order of the day4 ,when a body has only a weekly or a monthly meeting1 such business would be considered when unfinished business was reached in the regular order4 ,d4 ,there are a few other motions which do not fall under any of the heads named4 ,for example3 7a7 ,a motion may be made to limit the length of time which each speaker may occupy1 or which the entire debate may occupy1 or to extend the time already decided upon1 or to fix the hour when the debate shall close and a vote be taken4 ,these are undebatable1 but may be amended1 and require a two-thirds vote to pass4 7b7 ,after a motion has been adopted or defeated1 a motion to 8reconsider0 is in order1 either during that meeting or the next one4 ,it must be made by one who voted on the prevailing side1 whether affirmative or negative4 ,if it is carried1 the question is again before the house for debate and amendment1 just as it stood when the vote passing or defeating it was taken4 ,the motion to reconsider is in order at any time1 even while other business is under consideration4 ,when so made1 however1 the fact is entered on the minutes1 and the motion waits until the pending business is disposed of4 7c7 ,when the time has expired during which reconsideration may be moved1 a motion to rescind action already taken may be made4 ,this may be made when no other matter is pending1 and is fully debatable4 7d7 ,although it is a general rule that a motion once voted down can be taken up only through a motion to reconsider1 most motions1 except main motions and amendments1 may be renewed if the status of the business before the house has been changed in the meantime4 ,for example1 a motion to lay a question on the table is made and voted down4 ,then a motion to postpone it to a certain time is made4 ,the motion to lay on the table may now be renewed1 although it could not be renewed after the motion to postpone was defeated1 since in that case the status of the question would again be what it was when the first motion to lay on the table was defeated4 7e7 ,parliamentary inquiries are allowable at any time1 when a member is not speaking4 ,they are questions addressed to the chair concerning the propriety of motions that the questioner wishes to offer if they would be in order1 the meaning of rules or decisions1 and the like4 ,order of ,business4--,this may well be different for different bodies1 but the following is a useful form3 ,meeting called to order4 ,minutes of last meeting read and approved4 ,communications from other bodies or persons4 ,reports of any officers which are due4 ,reports from standing or special committees4 ,unfinished business4 ,new business4 ,literary or other programme1 if any4 ,adjournment4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,ford ,,hall ,,town ,,meeting ,the ,ford ,hall ,town ,meeting is a school of democracy at work2 it is a school of applied brotherhood4 ,that statement may sound like an attempt at fine writing but ,i want to show you that applied to the ,town ,meeting it is justified4 ,i want to show you also that after you have carried on a debating club for a few years1 the ,town ,meeting is a good graduate school for the further development of the art of debate4 ,you will remember that throughout this book ,i have insisted that the real purpose of debate is to get worth while things done4 ,to a peculiar degree1 the ,ford ,hall ,town ,meeting does enable debate to get worth while things done4 ,i said it was a school of democracy at work2 but what is democracy8 ,you have learned that there are three kinds of states1 monarchies1 aristocracies and democracies4 ,you all believe1 moreover1 that in this age of the world1 the first two are outgrown and that the democratic state is the only one that should exist nowadays4 ,if ,i should ask you to define a democratic state you would immediately answer that the democratic state is one based upon democracy4 ,if ,i should then ask you to define democracy1 you would hesitate long4 ,i have tried many definitions before ,i found one which was satisfactory4 ,how does this strike you8 8,democracy is the equality of opportunity for self-expression40 ,i think that statement covers it all4 ,you see1 for instance1 the opportunity to the slave was not equal to that of the free man4 ,the child of twelve who works in the factory all day has no equality of opportunity with other children4 ,the man who is willing to work but can't find a job1 has no equality of opportunity4 ,to the slave1 the child1 and the jobless man1 democracy means nothing4 ,we all believe that ,god intended every child to have his chance4 ,somehow1 though1 things have become twisted and warped4 ,because we believe1 however1 that after a while things will be right1 we keep on trying to help make our democracy the common property of all of us4 ,we try to keep these children out of the factory and get them into school4 ,we try to get a job for this man who wants work1 or1 better yet1 so arrange things that there will be plenty of jobs for him and for his friends4 ,after ,jimmy ,francis' mother has lost ,jimmy's father by death and she is left without means1 we want our democratic state to say3 8,oh6 ,mrs4 ,francis1 what a loss6 ,we are truly sorry for ,jimmy and for you4 ,to show that we are1 we have arranged so you will have a few dollars a week1 enough to help take care of ,jimmy1 so you won't be anxious and worried about his bringing up40 ,you see many a widowed mother hasn't had her equal chance to bring up her boy as she wanted to4 ,democracy didn't exist as far as she was concerned4 ,her ,jimmy began to live in the streets1 then in the pool-rooms1 then in the saloons4 ,he wasn't a good boy any more2 he knew all about vice and crime4 ,he knew all about reform schools and jails and possibly ,state prisons4 ,her ,jimmy was lost to democracy4 ,but was it ,jimmy's fault8 ,or his mother's8 ,did he have his chance8 ,was the ,state really democratic to him8 ,you see there are many questions which will tax all our thinking powers properly to answer4 ,really1 however1 the kind of a state which gives every boy his opportunity to make the most of himself1 is just like one great family4 ,you know in the family1 ,jimmy has a chance equal to that of ,bob1 and ,bill and ,frank share alike in everything4 ,why8 ,because they are brothers4 ,don't you see then that democracy is but another name for brotherhood8 ,if all men are brothers1 if they really are brothers1 and mean brotherhood when they say brotherhood1 most of our perplexing questions would settle themselves right off4 ,the idea seems very simple2 it is simple4 ,its working out1 however1 is not so simple4 ,how shall we put at work this idea of democracy8 ,that's not so simple1 and men everywhere are studying how best to bring into action this simple principle of democracy1 brotherhood4 ,one of the best of the schools working out this idea is the ,ford ,hall ,town ,meeting4 ,i want to show you just what it is doing1 and how its example affects you4 ,really to understand the ,town ,meeting you must know something about the 8,ford ,hall ,idea10 for the ,town ,meeting is but its latest development4 ,like many other ideas1 this one centers about one man4 ,i don't mean that this man discovered it4 ,no4 ,the ,idea was as old as time4 ,hebrew prophets taught it4 ,david sang it4 ,jesus lived it4 ,paul preached it4 ,this man made a new application of the old vision4 ,he was1 eight years ago1 an ordinary business man1 who was more and more grieved at the way people went on misunderstanding one another4 ,class was clashing with class4 ,men didn't know what other men thought1 and because they didn't know1 they doubted2 because they doubted1 they feared4 ,and1 the worst1 men evidently didn't care to find out what other men thought4 ,they seemed to hunt for points of differences instead of points upon which they could agree4 ,this was the situation that ,george ,w4 ,coleman saw4 ,he began to wonder what he could do to bring men together4 ,he felt sure that if they could only know each other1 they would find so many points where they did agree that they would forget those upon which they did not agree4 ,if that much progress proved impossible1 he thought that at least they would see the real merit on both sides1 see the sincerity of each other1 and make a working agreement which would put tolerance in the place of hate4 ,mr4 ,coleman was at that time president of the ,boston ,baptist ,social ,union to which ,daniel ,sharp ,ford had left a building on ,beacon ,hill1 ,boston1 and an income to be used 8to soften the inevitable conflict between capital and labor in ,boston40 ,mr4 ,ford was the owner of ,the ,youth's ,companion4 8,there is my chance10 said ,mr4 ,coleman4 8,what can better carry out the spirit of ,mr4 ,ford's will than a ,sunday night service where the ,jew and the ,baptist1 the ,methodist and the ,socialist1 the ,congregationalist and the ,catholic1 the ,churched and the ,unchurched1 can get together and discuss the vital things of life1 and learn to know each other40 ,the ,social ,union agreed1 and now for seven winters every ,sunday night has seen twelve hundred earnest men and women gathered in ,ford ,hall to listen to one who has a message and is not afraid to let the other man talk back4 ,the speaker speaks1 and then the listeners ask questions4 ,they have the right to talk out in meeting1 you see1 and understand the great difference between being talked at and being talked with4 ,at the ,ford ,hall ,meetings1 speaker and audience talk with each other4 ,of course1 much of the success of ,ford ,hall has come from the choice of the subjects of the addresses4 ,no one would think1 for example1 of discussing the ,alsace-,lorraine affair1 interesting as it all is to the student of history1 and fitting as it would be for the ,debating ,club4 ,nor would a speaker at ,ford ,hall discuss the authorship of the book of ,amos1 for example1 important as is such a question for a theological school4 ,but the teachings of ,amos on the questions of land ownership1 the points of similarity between ,amos and ,henry ,george--that's different1 you see4 ,it is right that we should know whether ,cook or ,peary discovered the ,north ,pole1 but that problem does not affect the life of the man who lives in the congested city slum4 ,he would go right on living just the same whether there was a ,north ,pole or wasn't4 ,the racial differences between the ,slavs and the ,yankees suggest interesting questions1 but they assume a different importance when they are related to the immigration of those ,slavs to ,america4 ,in the first instance1 the ,ford ,hall audience would be but politely interested2 in the second discussion they would be vitally concerned4 ,if we can group these questions under one class1 then1 we should say ,ford ,hall ,folks1 as they have come to call themselves1 are concerned in ,social ,civics4 ,the ,idea1 then1 that ,mr4 ,coleman had1 was that if a place could be provided where men and women of all races and beliefs and creeds and of no creeds could get together to discuss together ,social ,civics--that is1 those questions which vitally concern the common life of all--that they would learn to know each other1 to understand each other1 to respect each other's point of view4 ,in short they would become neighbors instead of enemies4 ,and the idea worked6 ,they have not lost their independence4 ,oh1 no6 ,they think just as intensely as they ever did4 ,but they realize that the other man is doing the same thing too4 ,in the ,ford ,hall audiences1 are men of all faiths and of none1 of all economic and political creeds4 ,most of them are workers with their hands4 ,most of them are poor1 many extremely so4 ,many of them have fled the terrors of oppression and massacre1 and1 in too many cases1 when they arrived in ,america they found misunderstanding and even brutality1 little less than that which they escaped overseas4 ,so when they did find ,ford ,hall1 the place where brotherhood is preached and1 better yet1 where it is lived1 you can see that liberty1 justice1 equality and freedom1 came to mean something to them4 ,i am telling you these things in such detail for ,i want you to realize that democracy and brotherhood are very real things2 they touch our lives closely and intimately4 ,if you have been fortunate enough to have escaped the miseries so many of these brothers of ours have had to endure1 you ought to feel an added sense of responsibility for the maintenance of the democracy they believe in4 ,in the ,ford ,hall meetings1 then1 we have a group of people with a passion for brotherhood trying to find the ground common to all their beliefs4 ,but these meetings were only discussing the theories of democracy4 ,how should the theory be converted into practice8 ,the answer is ,the ,town ,meeting4 ,all the ,ford ,hall ,folks are enthusiastically democratic4 ,they said3 8,we all want to do something4 ,what shall we do8 ,what can we do8 ,what are people who think as we do1 doing now8 ,have we laws which would do what we want done1 if they were enforced8 ,if they are not enforced1 why aren't they8 ,is it because of remediable defect in the law1 or is it because the people need further education80 ,you see how different the abstract idea may be from the measure necessary to carry it into practice8 ,for example1 during the winter of #aiad we all agreed that the man who wants work and is starving because he can't get it ought to have his chance1 ought to have work4 ,one speaker at a ,ford ,hall meeting discussed3 8,the ,right to ,work40 ,he was eloquent1 logical1 forceful2 his hearers again received the message of democracy1 that every man had the right to self expression in terms of his industrial life--had a right to a job4 ,but there could be no discussion of how he was going to get that job4 ,the next ,thursday night1 however1 a bill was introduced in the ,town ,meeting providing that the ,state should engage in active work in reforesting and reclaiming waste land1 thereby providing work for the unemployed4 ,do you see the difference8 ,do you see how the ,town ,meeting supplements and carries into definite expression the ,ford ,hall ,idea8 ,the ,sunday night speaker discussed the theory of the rights of the jobless man4 ,the ,town ,meeting sought to put that theory into practice the next ,thursday night4 ,that's the ,town ,meeting angle of the ,ford ,hall ,idea4 ,i hope ,i have made clear to you the reasons for organizing the ,town ,meeting4 ,we all felt that there was plenty of talk lying around loose1 good talk1 full of good ideas and worth while4 ,but if that talk could be translated into workable measures1 into specific plans for doing things1 we would be taking a distinct step ahead4 ,so the ,town ,meeting was organized4 ,the ,town ,meeting1 in form1 is a group of men and women who are organized to discuss such measures as would be introduced into a real town meeting1 a city council or a state legislature1 to relieve social ills4 ,the ordinance or bill1 as the case may be1 is not a mere declaration of a theory1 but a definite programme for carrying some theory of betterment into action4 ,we confined the sphere of its discussions to matters arising within a ,state1 and not the nation1 because we wished1 for the sake of simplicity1 to avoid the complications of inherent and delegated sovereignty4 ,we assumed1 therefore1 that the ,town ,meeting could legislate on all matters except those belonging to the ,national or ,federal government4 ,in ,town ,meeting citizenship1 there are no distinctions of sex1 race1 creed1 or position or rank of any kind4 ,the suggestion of an age limit was voted down after a lad in knee trousers had made an impassioned plea for a chance to supplement the work of the schools4 ,young and old1 rich and poor1 foreigner and native1 join in a citizenship whose sole test is service4 ,we believe in each other1 in the ,town ,meeting4 ,we trust each other4 ,take1 for instance1 the single matter of taxes4 ,of course we need money to pay our bills4 ,therefore we arranged our budget and levied our appropriation to meet it but imposed no taxes4 ,our citizens know that we must have money2 they know our needs1 and every meeting envelopes like this are passed around3 ,,season ,,of #aiad ,,ford ,,hall ,,town ,,meeting ,income ,tax ,put ,your ,weekly ,tax in this ,,envelope ,minimum ,tax #e cents per ,meeting ,,suggested ,,schedule ,income #i weekly or less #e cts4 ,income #ab weekly or less #f cts4 ,income #ae weekly or less #g cts4 ,income #ah weekly or less #h cts4 ,income #ba weekly or less #i cts4 ,income #bd weekly or less #aj cts4 ,income #bg weekly or less #ab cts4 ,income #cj weekly or less #ae cts4 ,income more than #cj weekly #be cts4 ,every citizen may well give as much as she_/he can afford without regard to schedule4 ,in the future it will be clearly seen that the citizen who gives most generously in time and money to the public welfare1 will get most in honor and happiness4 ,noblesse oblige ,assessors3 ,,mrs4 ,,william ,,horton ,,foster1 ,treasurer ,,jacob ,s4 ,,london ,,george ,,brewster ,,gallup ,the citizen determines how much he should pay1 how much he can pay1 inserts that much1 seals his envelope and hands it to the treasurer4 ,no mark of any kind is placed upon the envelope and no one but the citizen knows the amount he has paid4 ,the question is one between himself and his honor4 ,the organization is called the ,town ,meeting because we wished to emphasize the absolute and fundamental democracy of the group4 ,you remember how in the town meetings of ,new ,england the citizens came together every year and decided what the town should do and should not do4 ,as community life became more complicated1 however1 the town meeting proved inadequate4 ,the various towns1 therefore1 appointed delegates to discuss together the questions of large concern while the town meetings cared for purely local matters4 ,furthermore1 as cities increased in importance and in the variety of their business1 city councils often took the place of town meetings4 ,so we soon had the three legislative bodies1 the town meeting1 the city council1 and the legislature4 ,out of this increasing perplexity of modern conditions has arisen the need of a more highly organized legislative system4 ,now men cannot get together and offhand decide what should or should not be done4 ,men1 even of the highest motives1 can't legislate intelligently upon questions that they have not studied4 ,hence the committee system of ,congress and the various legislatures has grown up4 ,under this system1 committees are appointed1 from the members1 to which are referred the various questions which come before the legislative bodies4 ,for instance1 if a bill which sought to regulate the employment of boys in factories were presented to a state legislature1 it would probably be referred to the ,committee on ,labor1 or perhaps to the ,committee on ,industries4 ,if in that ,state there were many questions about child labor1 it might have a special committee on child labor alone4 ,but whatever the committee might be1 there would be some one committee to which would be referred every bill affecting the labor of children in factories4 ,this committee would be in a position to discuss all these measures more intelligently and study them more carefully than could be done in the legislature itself4 ,it would invite before it people who knew the subject thoroughly and would then report its conclusions to the legislature1 perhaps together with its information carefully organized4 ,the ,ford ,hall ,town ,meeting is organized1 like a legislature1 with a series of committees to which are referred the various questions which come before it4 ,the ,calendar of the ,town ,meeting on a recent date will indicate clearly what kind of measures we are considering and what committees have them in charge4 ,when you look at the ,calendar you will notice that there are 8orders0 on the list1 and 8bills40 ,in other ,calendars 8resolves0 appeared also4 ,what is the difference8 ,generally speaking1 the bill is a measure introduced into the legislature1 an order 7ordinance7 is a measure introduced into a city council1 and a resolve 7resolution7 is a measure introduced into a town meeting4 ,yes1 ,i mean to say we introduce them all indiscriminately1 but we don't mix them up4 ,you may have a perfectly good idea for helping solve a problem but many a time you don't know whether it is something the ,state should take up or whether it belongs to the city or possibly to the town4 ,so in the ,town ,meeting the citizen must make up his mind where his proposed measure belongs4 ,that's part of his drill4 ,look at the ,calendar again4 ,see the practical nature of the measures introduced4 ,the history of ,order ,no4 #a illustrates a valuable feature of the ,town ,meeting4 ,the order directed the ,city of ,boston to expend #ej1jjj on a model municipal lodging house4 ,that winter the question of unemployment and the care of the unemployed was very much before us in ,boston and in other parts of the country4 ,it is easy to say3 8,yes1 we will have a model municipal lodging house0 and order one built4 ,but in regular routine ,i1 as ,moderator1 referred this order to the ,committee on ,city ,planning4 7,you know it is the duty of the ,moderator to refer every measure when it is introduced1 to what1 in his judgment1 is the proper committee47 ,the chairman of this committee didn't render a perfunctory report on the bill but started his committee at work studying municipal lodging houses everywhere4 ,the members of the committee asked themselves3 8,what constitutes a model lodging house80 and then set themselves to find out4 ,they have been studying such institutions at home and abroad4 ,they are accumulating such a mass of information upon the questions involved that when they do bring in a report it will be supported by evidence which will command attention4 ,such a report will be a very much worth while document2 it will be a sociological study worthy of any civic body4 ,,number ,,subject ,,referred ,,to ,,reported ,,committee ,,on ,order #a municipal lodging house4 city planning4 ,in committee4 ,bill #e to investigate unemployment4 labor4 unfavorably4 ,on order of day4 ,bill #f individual license act4 liquor laws4 ,in committee4 ,bill #g to give effect to ,declaration judiciary4 unfavorably4 of ,independence4 ,on order of day4 ,bill #h lights in tenement houses4 housing4 ,in committee4 ,bill #aj occupancy of cellars and housing4 ,in committee4 basements4 ,bill #af sale of liquors by druggists liquor laws4 favorably4 and apothecaries4 ,on order of day4 ,bill #ah removal of hats by ladies4 rules and ,in committee4 courtesies1 jointly4 ,bill #ai 8tin plate law10 introduced ,on order of day4 by committee on publicity4 ,order #f condemning ,ward #h municipal municipal ,in committee4 building4 affairs4 ,bill #ba publication of weekly by judiciary4 unfavorably4 ,massachusetts towns4 ,recommitted4 ,bill #bb recreation evening in education and ,in committee4 public schools4 play and recreation jointly4 ,bill #bc open air concerts4 play and ,in committee4 recreation4 ,bill #bd insurance commission4 judiciary4 ,in committee4 ,bill #be ,state recreation board4 play and ,in committee4 recreation4 ,bill #bi system to pay public debts4 judiciary4 ,in committee4 ,bill #cj summer outings4 courtesies4 ,in committee4 ,bill #ca ,american and other flags4 labor4 ,in committee4 ,bill #cb coperation with transportation4 ,in committee4 ,postmaster-,general4 ,bill #cc straw vote on equal suffrage4 judiciary4 ,in committee4 ,bill #cd children as actors4 play and ,in committee4 recreation4 ,bill #ce equal suffrage4 judiciary4 ,in committee4 ,bill #cg investigating department labor4 ,in committee4 stores4 ,bill #ch abolishing capital punishment4 judiciary4 ,in committee4 ,bill #ci removing ,charles ,street ,jail4 municipal ,in committee4 affairs4 ,bill #dj investigating ,wayfarer's ,lodge4 city planning4 ,in committee4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,the next on the ,calendar1 ,bill ,no4 #e1 concerned the notice which must be given before discharge of employs4 ,now notice4 ,the great majority of the citizens of the ,town ,meeting are workers with their hands--laborers1 and sympathetic with labor2 yet they defeated that bill1 because it was unfair and impractical4 ,the ,town ,meeting takes itself very seriously1 and so must you when you organize one4 ,it doesn't for a moment think it is just playing at life4 ,it studies these questions and then seeks to translate its decisions into civic action4 ,for example1 after deciding that a certain policy was for the best interest of the city1 it memorialized the city to that end4 ,the city authorities heard our arguments1 and the matter is now laid over awaiting the settlement of certain questions upon which our question depends4 ,as far as this point is concerned it makes no difference what the city eventually does with our memorial4 ,the point is that the city takes us as seriously as we take ourselves4 ,have ,i told you enough to give you the spirit and genius of the ,ford ,hall ,town ,meeting8 ,you can see how it gives training in parliamentary practice and debate4 ,you see how it educates in the finer graces of club life and intercourse4 ,you can see how its committee activities can weld workers together4 ,you can see how its investigations of city conditions are truly educational1 how they train the citizens for usefulness to the state4 ,have ,i justified the insertion of this description of the ,ford ,hall ,town ,meeting in a book on ,debating for ,boys8 ,i have told you about it because all your debating and all your clubs won't be worth much to you unless you catch the same spirit of applied democracy1 of brotherhood--the spirit that has gripped the ,ford ,hall ,folks4 ,truly they were baptized with a passion for it4 ,they found it here after great suffering and trial4 ,you boys can govern your lives by the same spirit2 you can fill your lives with the same service4 ,so after you have tried yourselves out in the regular debating clubs1 organize a ,town ,meeting1 or do it now if you feel the kindling of the idea strongly enough4 ,everything ,i have said about debating applies to the work of the ,town ,meeting as well as that of the debating society4 ,and even more than that of the club is the work of the ,town ,meeting related to real life1 preparation for which is the aim of this book4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,sources ,,of ,,material ,how can you obtain the necessary information for your debate8 ,where can you get your evidence8 ,how will you proceed to obtain the facts upon which your debate will win or lose8 ,in part these questions have been answered by the chapter on evidence4 ,let me advise you to read it over again carefully4 ,the first persons to consult are the other members of your own family4 ,their experience in public affairs you will find in many cases to be much larger than you have thought4 ,how many times1 for instance1 do your neighbors or perhaps the township supervisor drop in upon your father to talk with him in the evening about matters of public policy8 ,how many times does the school teacher1 on her way home from work1 stop to pass a word with your grandfather who was a member of legislature back in ,connecticut long before the family moved ,west8 ,obviously the next best source of information is your teacher4 ,in almost all cases you will find that your school instructors are very glad to help you1 not only by telling you what they themselves know but by referring you to easily available sources of information4 ,do not hesitate to ask specific questions of your teachers4 ,it is well1 of course1 to request in general their advice and counsel but you can well supplement this general appeal for help by specific questions the answer to which will solve troublesome problems as they come up4 ,be sure to ask your teachers for lists of available books and advice as to the best magazine articles to consult4 ,next go to the librarian in your own home town4 ,she will be glad to tell you the best books and magazine articles upon the subject of your debate4 ,in case her own information is scant you might well advise her to communicate with the ,division of ,bibliography of the ,library of ,congress at ,washington4 ,this ,division issues memoranda1 type-written lists and printed lists1 giving references upon all topics of current interest4 ,private individuals can purchase these lists from the ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,government ,printing ,office1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,in case you have no library within reaching distance the list will be lent to you4 ,in that case you should address the ,librarian of ,congress1 ,washington1 ,d4,c4 ,there is an immense amount of literature to be obtained from the various branches of the ,government1 and there is hardly a subject which a boy might be called upon to debate1 upon which he could not obtain enlightenment by applying to the proper ,government officer4 ,the difficulty is to know who is the proper person to address in a particular case4 ,probably the ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,government ,printing ,office1 would be the first one to whom to apply4 ,he has ,government publications for sale1 and is in a position to give information about the publications issued by any branch of the ,government4 ,he also furnishes classified lists on various subjects4 ,these will give an idea of what bureaus handle the different subjects4 ,with such information a boy can then apply directly to the right bureau4 ,most1 if not all1 of the ,departments issue lists of their publications4 ,the ,congressional ,directory contains a list of the ,government offices1 with a statement of their functions4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture issues a ,monthly ,list of ,publications1 which is sent regularly to all who ask to have it so sent4 ,it also issues from time to time a list giving titles of all the ,farmers' ,bulletins available4 ,your own ,congressman will be glad to answer specific questions4 ,of course all debaters--boys who are good enough citizens to be interested in current topics--know the name of their representative in ,congress4 ,you will find also that the colleges in your own ,state will be very glad to help you all they can4 ,let me urge you particularly to make full use of the ,agricultural ,college and ,state ,university of your own ,commonwealth4 ,the ,agricultural ,college has at command a vast fund of questions all relating to life--social and economic as well as scientific and historical4 ,probably in this day1 your ,state ,university has an extension division which has special facilities for giving you definite and accurate advice upon any topic4 ,it may be that your ,state is one of the progressive ones which have a system of 8traveling libraries0--packets of books which are shipped to persons who have special interest in special topics4 ,really one of the first studies for you when you are securing evidence is to become thoroughly acquainted with the facilities of your ,state institutions of higher education4 ,by all means1 however1 include the other colleges which may be in your vicinity4 ,professors and other members of the departments of sociology1 political science1 political economy1 history and similar departments will be particularly ready to give help4 ,of almost equal value with the official documents are the writings of interested men in magazines and newspapers4 ,these articles will not only contain many facts but will be both stimulating and suggestive to the debater in opening to him new lines of thought upon the subject4 ,poole's ,index1 ,the ,cumulative ,index1 ,the ,reader's ,guide to ,periodical ,literature are catalogues of the articles appearing in general periodicals4 ,some one of them is sure to be found in your library4 ,almost every subject now prominently before the public has based upon it a society of some kind or other which generally issues publications upon the subject1 or1 at any rate1 has available facts and arguments of value to the debater4 ,the ,society for the ,prevention of ,this1 the ,society for the ,promotion of ,that1 the ,society for the ,study of ,this ,other ,matter1 are full of value and interesting information4 ,write to them if your subject falls within their respective fields4 ,,appendices ,,appendix ,a ,,questions ,,for ,,debate ,the following questions are given as suggestions for your work in debate4 ,many of them are purposely left loose in their statement in order that the club may adapt the subject to local conditions4 ,for example1 a question is given3 8,resolved3 ,that the ,state should prohibit the employment in factories of all children under sixteen years of age40 ,obviously the word 8factories0 does not include all the places where the labor of children is harmful and should be prohibited4 ,if the question sought to name all such places1 however1 it would be cumbersome4 ,i suggest1 therefore1 that if you should desire to discuss the question of child labor1 you should substitute for 8factories0 the particular industry you are interested in2 like1 for instance1 cotton mills1 oyster canneries1 button factories4 ,make your questions1 when you can1 local in their interest4 ,you will be more interested in the affairs of ,fairfield than in those of a city in ,patagonia4 ,your school will interest you more than the schools of the other ,states4 ,besides1 as ,i tried to show you all the way through the book1 the application of your work in debating is what really counts and using local questions freely will help tie up debate with life4 ,study your local problems and debate them4 ,formulate your own questions2 mine are only suggestive4 ,resolved3 ,that the ,state should prohibit the employment in factories of all children under sixteen years of age4 ,that the abolition of child labor would be beneficial to manufacturers4 ,that child labor is a menace to future prosperity4 ,that child labor tends to lower adult wages4 ,that eight hours should be a day's work for minors under eighteen employed in factories4 ,that factory efficiency is not conducive to the best interests of the working class4 ,that coperation in trading offers relief to the high cost of living4 ,that labor organizations promote the best interests of workingmen4 ,that an eight-hour working day should be adopted within the ,united ,states by law4 ,that the contract system of employing convict labor ought to be abolished4 ,that in times of depression municipalities should provide work for the unemployed4 ,that the provisions of ,state child labor laws should be extended to canneries4 ,that wages of women should not be lower than those of men performing the same service in the same occupation4 ,that governments should grant old age pensions4 ,that the increase of machinery is disadvantageous to the working classes4 ,that the factory system has been a benefit to the working classes4 ,that the boycott is a legitimate weapon of labor4 ,that trade unions are justified in restricting the number of persons allowed to learn a trade4 ,that members of trade unions are justified in refusing to work with non-union men4 ,that no girl under twenty-one should be allowed to engage in any street trade or occupation4 ,that no boy under sixteen should be allowed to engage in any street trade or occupation4 ,that no boy under twenty-one should be allowed to engage in any street trade or occupation between the hours of seven ,p4 ,m4 and seven ,a4 ,m4 ,that strikes are never justifiable4 ,that compulsory arbitration is wise and feasible4 ,that free public employment agencies should be established by the ,state4 ,that the ,state should allow no employer to pay a wage lower than the minimum required to maintain the employ in decent living4 ,that the ,state should establish chattel loan institutions in every city of over ten thousand population4 ,that the increase of wages to employs of the ,ford ,automobile ,company was premature and unjust to other manufacturing concerns4 ,that the increase of wages to employs of the ,ford ,automobile ,company was injurious to the employs themselves4 ,that compulsory arbitration will solve difficulties between employer and employs4 ,that the miners were justified in their #aiac-aiad strike at the ,calumet-,hecla mines4 ,that the public school course should include trade education4 ,that cultural education is of more value to the average individual than industrial education4 ,that the regulation of conduct in high schools should rest in the hands of the students4 ,that coperation between the public schools and factories affords the best means of imparting industrial education4 ,that any city in the ,united ,states having over two million inhabitants should be organized as a ,state4 ,that the moving picture theater offers wholesome amusement to the people4 ,that the moving picture theater offers valuable educational possibilities4 ,that coeducation in colleges is desirable4 ,that inter-collegiate football promotes the best interests of colleges4 ,that college athletics1 as now conducted1 are not beneficial to the majority of the students4 ,that the ,state should provide for education for all vocations4 ,that college degrees should be required for entrance to professional schools4 ,that students should have a part in college government4 ,that college education unfits a man for business life4 ,that small colleges are preferable to large ones4 ,that the teaching of ,latin and ,greek in our public schools is not justifiable4 ,that the function of education is to prepare the student for life and not primarily to prepare him to make a living4 ,that the novel dealing with current events has more educational value than the historical novel4 ,that school boards should furnish students lunches at cost4 ,that school boards should furnish lunches free to pupils unable to pay4 ,that one daily school session is preferable to two4 ,that high schools should be in session six days a week and eleven months a year1 with the entire course thereby shortened to three years4 ,that the elementary school should teach each pupil the technique of a trade4 ,that the elementary school should teach each pupil who wishes such instruction the technique of a trade4 ,that the secondary school should teach each pupil the technique of a trade4 ,that the secondary school should teach each pupil who wishes such instruction the technique of a trade4 ,that socialism is more of a promise than a menace to society4 ,that the doctrines of syndicalism and of the ,i4 ,w4 ,w4 are identical4 ,that the doctrines of the ,i4 ,w4 ,w4 are sound and justifiable in practice4 ,that the efforts of the ,russian nihilists are entitled to the sympathy of a free people4 ,that socialism is the best solution of ,american labor problems4 ,that the doctrines of socialism are inconsistent with those of ,christianity4 ,that socialism contains within its doctrines all the essential elements of a sufficient religion4 ,that the present social unrest is due to removable causes4 ,that socialism is the latest development of coperation and brotherhood4 ,that a belief in socialism is inconsistent with a belief in organized religion4 ,that the principles of anarchism are hostile to real progress4 ,that deeds of violence amounting to the taking of life are a necessary corollary to the teachings of anarchism4 ,that socialism is a logical deduction from the doctrines of anarchism4 ,that the trust is a legitimate development of industrial coperation and contains within itself the roots of the doctrines of socialism4 ,that the retention of ,alsace-,lorraine by ,germany is justifiable4 ,that colonies are serviceable to the mother country4 ,that public hospitals should introduce home treatment of their discharged patients to prevent the return of disease4 ,that interlocking directorates of corporations are inimical to the best interests of the ,united ,states4 ,that the position of the ,english ,government with reference to ,ulster in #aiad was justifiable4 ,that ,zionism will restore to the ,jews a national life in ,palestine4 ,that public opinion is the controlling factor in life4 ,that the moral character of the ,american people is deteriorating4 ,that home rule should be granted to ,ireland4 ,that the victory of ,japan over ,russia in #aijd-je was for the interest of civilization4 ,that heredity has more influence upon character than environment4 ,that the ,massachusetts ,bay ,colony was justified in banishing ,anne ,hutchinson4 ,that climate has an influence on national character4 ,that vegetarianism is conducive to health1 strength and longevity4 ,that poverty rather than riches tends to develop character4 ,that the parcels post system should be more extensively adopted in the ,united ,states4 ,that as women are largely the buyers for the family they are largely responsible for the misleading advertisements so common in the public press4 ,that vivisection should be prohibited by law4 ,that the mind of the ,caucasian race is naturally superior to that of the ,african4 ,that social progress has been greater abroad than in the ,united ,states4 ,that poverty is more of an opportunity than an obstacle in the development of character4 ,that the element of personal sympathy is of greater value in charitable work than organization or system4 ,that no one can do effective work in administering charitable relief who has not been trained in the approved and scientific methods of such work4 ,that ,shakespeare's representations of common people were unjust to the ,england of his day4 ,that aeroplanes are more practical both in commerce and in war than dirigible balloons4 ,that boys' clubs organized in connection with rural life are of greater value to society than city boys' clubs4 ,that credit unions are essential to the development of rural life4 ,that the ,balkan states were justified in demanding in #aiac the withdrawal of ,turkey from ,europe4 ,that the great powers were justified in depriving the ,balkan states of some of the fruits of their victories in the war in #aiac4 ,that art galleries and museums are not essential to civic development4 ,that concrete will supersede all other building materials4 ,that the rural social center is an effective method of promoting rural development4 ,that the ,raiffeisen system should be introduced into the ,united ,states4 ,that the rural telephone has injured rural social life4 ,that it was the duty of ,united ,states to intervene in the internal affairs of ,mexico in #aiad and restore peace4 ,that ,president ,wilson was justified in not recognizing ,huerta4 ,that ,president ,wilson was justified in seizing ,vera ,cruz in #aiad4 ,that ,canada should be annexed to the ,united ,states4 ,that further annexation of territory is not for the best interests of the ,american people4 ,that the ,united ,states should annex ,cuba4 ,that the ,united ,states should annex ,mexico4 ,that the ,united ,states should permanently retain the ,philippines4 ,that the ,united ,states should ultimately grant the ,philippines independence4 ,that the ,monroe doctrine should be abandoned by the ,united ,states4 ,that the ,panama ,canal should be fortified4 ,that the immigration of ,hindus into the ,united ,states should not be allowed4 ,that immigration into the ,united ,states should be further restricted4 ,that the character of the ,american people has been improved by the immigration it has received from ,europe4 ,that a property qualification should be a requirement for the admission of immigrants4 ,that the ,chinese ,exclusion ,act is just4 ,that the ,chinese ,exclusion ,act should include the ,japanese4 ,that the ,federal government owes both a moral and a legal duty to protect any alien in this country4 ,that the ,federal government should demand from each ,state full protection in all their treaty rights of aliens within such ,states4 ,that the ,state should teach the immigrant the ,english language at the very earliest opportunity4 ,that the ,federal government ought to control national elections4 ,that the ,united ,states government ought to interfere to protect the southern negro in the exercise of his suffrage4 ,that the suffrage should be taken from the negroes in the southern ,states4 ,that woman suffrage is desirable4 ,that a property qualification for suffrage would be desirable4 ,that voting should be made compulsory4 ,that the standing army of the ,united ,states should be increased4 ,that there should be an educational test as a qualification of voting4 ,that the adoption of the ,fifteenth ,amendment to the ,constitution of the ,united ,states has been justified4 ,that party allegiance is preferable to independent action in politics4 ,that moral questions have no place in party politics4 ,that all nominations for office should be made by direct primaries4 ,that election of members of ,congress from a ,state at large is preferable to election from districts within such ,state4 ,that the cabinet system of government as practiced in ,england is preferable to the ,congressional system as practiced in the ,united ,states4 ,that the members of the ,president's cabinet should have seats and the right to speak in ,congress4 ,that the present tendency in the ,united ,states toward centralization in government should be resisted4 ,that ,states should be represented in the ,senate in proportion to their population4 ,that the electoral system of presidential elections should be abolished4 ,that the president should be elected for a period of seven years and be ineligible to relection4 ,that a representative should vote according to the wishes of his constituency4 ,that the initiative and referendum should be adopted in the ,united ,states4 ,that the recall should be adopted in the ,united ,states4 ,that a decision of any judge on the constitutionality of any civil question should be subject to revision by a popular vote1 when properly safeguarded4 ,that the amount of wealth transferable by inheritance should be limited by law4 ,that corporal punishment is not justifiable4 ,that capital punishment should be abolished4 ,that no conviction for crime should be based upon circumstantial evidence alone4 ,that ,switzerland has a better form of government than the ,united ,states4 ,that no alien should be allowed to own real estate in this country4 ,that the length of imprisonment as a punishment for crime should be determined by a special commission and not by the sentencing judge or jury4 ,that all corporations should operate under ,federal charter and control4 ,that the community and not the individuals are responsible if many boys 8go wrong40 ,that large department stores are beneficial to the people4 ,that city mail order houses are beneficial to the villages from which their goods are purchased4 ,that judges should be appointed and not elected by popular vote4 ,that the legislature of ,pennsylvania should erect a statue to ,robert ,e4 ,lee upon the battlefield of ,gettysburg4 ,that ,state financial aid should be extended to workmen desiring homes of their own4 ,that increase in the average size of ,american farms is for the best interests of the nation4 ,that the decrease of population living upon the land is for the best interests of agriculture and of the nation4 ,that ,state or government aid1 in the form of direct loan or guarantee of bonds should be extended to aid the drainage of land which thereby will be made suitable for agriculture4 ,that hard roads should be built at county expense4 ,that the ,united ,states government and the government of each ,state should bear equally the cost of improvement of trunk highways1 provided the work be done under ,federal direction4 ,that for this community1 main county roads should be paved with gravel instead of brick4 ,that for this community1 main county roads should be macadamized instead of surfaced with the 8sand-clay0 process4 ,that the jury system should be abolished4 ,that no immigrant should be admitted to the ,united ,states unless he can read and write his own language to an extent equivalent to the standards maintained in the average sixth grade of schools in the ,united ,states4 ,that the building and maintenance of a large navy is necessary to the safety of the ,united ,states4 ,that the time is now ripe for the disarmament of all nations4 ,that the time has now come when the policy of protection should be abandoned by the ,united ,states4 ,that a high protective tariff raises wages4 ,that the ,united ,states should establish a system of shipping subsidies4 ,that a protective tariff benefits farmers4 ,that trusts are the result of a protective tariff4 ,that combinations among railroads cheapen rates4 ,that the trust is a legitimate development of industrial coperation and should be encouraged4 ,that an income tax is desirable4 ,that a single tax based upon land values would be preferable to the present system4 ,that church property should be taxed4 ,that the entire cost of public improvements should be assessed against the property benefited4 ,that one-half of the cost of public improvements should be assessed against the property benefited4 ,that cities should be permitted the use of the principle of excess condemnation4 ,that cities should grant new industries five years' freedom from taxation4 ,that the railroads of the ,united ,states should be owned and operated by the ,federal government4 ,that all telegraph lines in the ,united ,states should be owned and controlled by the ,federal government4 ,that all public utilities should be owned and operated by the municipalities wherein they are located4 ,that ,state prohibition is preferable to high license as a method of dealing with intemperance4 ,that local option is preferable to ,state prohibition as a method of dealing with intemperance4 ,that the prohibition1 by amendment to the ,federal constitution1 of the manufacture1 sale1 importation1 exportation1 transportation of intoxicating liquors presents the most effective solution of the liquor question4 ,that 8treating0 is a great source of intemperance and should be prohibited4 ,that it is a more efficient method to remove the temptation to drink intoxicating liquors than to teach the individual to fight and overcome the appetite for such drink4 ,that alcohol is a legitimate article of diet and its use should1 properly safeguarded1 be allowed4 ,that municipal misrule in ,american cities is due to the indifference of the so-called better classes4 ,that municipal misrule in ,american cities is due to foreign immigration4 ,that the commission plan of city government should be generally adopted in the ,united ,states4 ,that the commission plan of government should be adopted by ,states4 ,that the growth of cities should be governed by some well organized plan4 ,that the commission form of city government is more advantageous than the city manager plan4 ,that the city needs for its service and life stronger and more intelligent men than does the country4 ,that school houses should be utilized at least sixteen hours out of every twenty-four in civic functions when not required for school purposes4 ,that a detached house is more conducive to proper family life than a suite in an apartment building4 ,that organized play is essential to a proper development of boy life4 ,that a city should provide municipal dance halls and similar opportunities for recreation4 ,that congested cities should furnish the capital for model garden suburbs4 ,that1 to relieve urban congestion1 model garden suburbs are preferable to model tenements4 ,that the church should provide amusements4 ,that charity organization societies are effective4 ,that the church has not performed its full duty toward the laboring man4 ,that church unity would develop a higher type of ,christianity4 ,that the conservation of the church as the form of organized religion is essential to real progress4 ,that secret fraternities in high schools should not be permitted4 ,that the ,federal control of natural resources should be further strengthened and extended4 ,that the control of natural resources within ,states should be left to ,states and not assumed by the ,federal government4 ,,appendix ,b ,,how ,,to ,,judge ,a ,,debate ,the judges of a debate have no easy task to perform4 ,they must be1 of course1 unprejudiced as between the speakers1 but they must also be unprejudiced as to the subject4 ,they must not forget that they are to decide on the merits of the debate1 not on the merits of the question4 ,they must consider the arguments and evidence offered4 ,they must set off this contention against that4 ,they must give proper weight to the respective merits of matter and form4 ,they must neither be stupefied by dull figures which may yet be pertinent1 nor1 on the other hand1 be hypnotized by brilliant rhetoric which may be but effervescent after all4 ,they must sift1 analyze1 weigh1 decide4 ,it is a task but little easier than that of the debaters themselves4 ,it is the office of the judges1 whether one or more1 and whether outsiders or members of the club1 to represent the sober second thought of the audience addressed and not to represent the immediately popular view4 ,an audience is rarely judicial in its temper4 ,it is generally partisan--often intensely so4 ,although there are always two sides to a question1 there are seldom two popular sides4 ,the unfortunate debater who by contract or by lot is called upon to defend the unpopular side has a heavier task than his opponent4 ,the judges must1 therefore1 not only refuse to allow themselves to be influenced by the hostile attitude such a speaker has to overcome but1 on the other hand1 they are justified in giving him proper credit for the way in which he either overcomes this hostility or at least partially neutralizes it4 ,because the judges do represent the critical impartial attitude1 they should frown upon any attempt improperly to influence a decision4 ,organized cheering should be discouraged4 ,it is not the business of the judges to teach etiquette or courtesy4 ,i should1 however1 if ,i were acting as a judge1 penalize the side the supporters of which deliberately seek to embarrass the opposing side4 ,the judge must1 therefore1 be fair and impartial4 ,he must judge the debate and not the question4 ,but what weight shall he give to matter and manner respectively8 ,obviously the manner of the speaker has a more immediate appeal than the subject matter4 ,however1 a debate is not a declamation contest4 ,it is a presentation of arguments for or against a proposition so arranged and related that they move to an irresistible conclusion4 ,certainly then1 what the debater says is of more importance than how he says it4 ,it would be impossible to define the relative importance of the two divisions of the subject1 but seventy-five per cent4 and twenty-five per cent4 may be taken as a fair average4 ,it would be impossible to give a set of rules by which a debater should be rated4 ,of course1 no judge will attempt critical 8scoring0 as does the judge of a poultry show4 ,he should1 however1 pay particular attention to the same points ,i have emphasized through this book4 ,he will observe whether each member of the team shows a general knowledge of the question and whether he shows evidence of having done his own work4 ,he will note also whether the important issues are selected for discussion and whether those issues are clearly defined and the line of argument indicated in the early portion of the speech4 ,it is unfair for any debater to content himself with refutation--general denials and objections--and bring up his constructive arguments toward the end of the debate when there is little time left to the other side4 ,that may be a clever trick1 but it is not honest debating1 and a judge should reward it with a penalty4 ,then1 too1 the judge should watch the structure of the argument4 ,is it well related8 ,is each part properly joined to every other part8 ,are its various divisions properly indicated8 ,are the generalizations sound8 ,are the statements of evidence facts or guesses8 ,and are these facts simply reiterative or are they carefully selected because of their significance and the credibility of their authors8 ,does the debater show weakness in his case by contenting himself with pointing out many objections to his opponent's position with no counter position of his own8 ,these are some of the questions the judge will ask himself4 ,then he will consider the debater's bearing on the platform4 ,he will not expect a presence like that of ,webster or of ,beecher1 but he will expect that erectness1 vigor and dignity which go with a consciousness of worthy effort4 ,he will not expect the ease of long practice1 but he has a right to expect courtesy to the audience and opponents and1 of course1 no conceit in personal bearing4 ,he will look for simplicity in style and gesture4 ,he will listen for a voice musical but strong and responsive to the emotion of the speaker4 ,finally1 if the judge can find in the debater that earnestness1 that conviction1 that complete identification of himself with his subject it will be clear that he has mastered the matter and made it his own4 ,this mastery cannot be put on or off like a garment1 but if the judge sees it1 he can mark that debater1 as far as the essential elements of debating are concerned1 #ajj4 ,,appendix ,c ,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,boys' ,,debating ,,club ,,of ,,fairfield ,,preamble4 ,we1 the undersigned1 appreciating the advantages to be derived from practice in debate1 hereby organize ourselves into a club for that purpose and agree to be governed by the following ,constitution4 ,,article ,i4 ,,name4 ,this society shall be called ,the ,boys' ,debating ,club of ,fairfield4 ,,article ,,ii4 ,,officers4 ,the officers of the club shall be a ,president1 ,vice-,president1 ,secretary1 and ,treasurer1 who shall be elected by ballot and shall hold office for ten weeks1 or until their successors are elected4 ,any vacancy in office shall be filled by election at the meeting when the vacancy is made known4 ,,article ,,iii4 ,,duties ,,of ,,officers4 ,president4 ,section #a4 ,the duty of the ,president shall be to preside at all meetings of the ,club2 enforce a due observance of the ,constitution and ,rules of ,order2 and perform all the duties required of him by the ,constitution4 ,he shall also visit1 when practicable1 clubs and societies of similar general purposes1 cultivate fraternal relations with them1 and1 when possible1 arrange with them joint programmes4 ,vice-,president4 ,section #b4 ,the duty of the ,vice-,president shall be to perform all the duties of the ,president in the absence of that officer4 ,secretary4 ,section #c4 ,the duty of the ,secretary shall be to take minutes of all meetings of the ,club2 call the roll1 noting members that are absent2 attend to the correspondence of the club not otherwise provided for1 and perform such other duties pertaining to his office as may be required of him by the club4 ,treasurer4 ,section #d4 ,it shall be the duty of the ,treasurer to take charge of all money belonging to the club2 to collect all fines and taxes imposed or assessed by the club2 to pay the orders of the ,secretary1 indorsed by the ,president2 to keep an accurate account of all receipts and expenditures of the club1 in books kept for that purpose and1 at the last regular meeting in his term of office1 to make a report of the same and to produce vouchers for all expenditures during his term of office1 which shall be received and filed by the ,secretary2 and when his successor is qualified he shall turn over to him all books1 moneys and other property in his possession belonging to the ,club4 ,,article ,,iv4 ,,critic4 ,the ,president shall appoint at each session of the club a ,critic1 whose duty it shall be to criticise the conduct of the meeting and of the individual members in all respects1 and to render to the ,club such other help in advice and counsel as may seem wise to him4 ,the ,critic shall when possible be appointed from the honorary members of the ,club4 ,,article ,v4 ,,membership4 ,section #a4 ,any boy residing in ,fairfield may become a member of this club1 by election at any regular meeting4 ,section #b4 ,proposals for membership shall be made in writing4 ,the name shall be submitted to the ,committee on ,membership1 hereinafter provided for1 which shall1 at the next regular meeting1 report to the society the general standing and eligibility of the candidate4 ,the vote on the candidate shall be by ballot4 ,if not more than three votes appear against him1 he shall be declared elected1 and on signing the ,constitution1 taking the oath of membership1 and paying the initiation fee of twenty-five cents he shall be announced by the ,president as an active member of the ,club4 ,section #c4 ,any person may become an honorary member of the society by election at any regular meeting1 provided three votes do not appear against him4 ,he shall be entitled to all the privileges of an active member1 excepting voting and holding office4 ,he shall not be subject to any initiation fee4 ,section #d4 ,any member who is guilty of conduct unbecoming a member of the ,club may1 at any regular meeting1 be suspended or expelled at the discretion of the ,club4 ,but the charge against such member shall be signed by one of the officers of the ,club or by at least three members1 shall definitely state the facts constituting the alleged offense and shall lie on the table for one week after the offending member has been notified of the charge4 ,no member shall be convicted of the offense charged unless two-thirds of the members present vote for such conviction4 ,,article ,,vi4 ,,committees4 ,section #a4 ,the ,president1 ,vice-,president1 ,secretary1 ,treasurer and the ,chairman of the ,membership ,committee shall together constitute the ,executive ,committee1 who shall be vested with all the powers of the club during the intervals between the sessions thereof4 ,section #b4 ,the ,president1 at the first meeting of his term1 shall appoint a committee of five whose duty it shall be to investigate and report on all proposals for membership4 ,this committee shall hold office throughout the year4 ,section #c4 ,at the first meeting of his term1 the ,president shall appoint two persons who1 together with himself1 shall act as the ,programme ,committee1 whose duty it shall be to formulate the programmes1 including the selection of questions for debate1 and report the same to the ,club at least two weeks before the date of the programme4 ,the committee shall have full power to place active members1 including the officers of the ,club1 on the programme as it may see fit4 ,the ,club may at any time modify or change completely any programme in the meeting at which it is reported4 ,the ,programme ,committee shall hold office until one week after the regular election of the officers4 ,,article ,,vii4 ,,meetings4 ,regular meetings of the ,club shall be held on ,friday evening of each week at eight o'clock4 ,special meetings may be called by the ,president at any time4 ,,article ,,viii4 ,,dues4 ,each member of the ,club shall pay an initiation fee of twenty-five cents when he is elected to membership and a monthly fee of ten cents on the first day of every month4 ,,article ,,ix4 ,this constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of all the members present at any regular meeting of the ,club1 provided one week's previous notice of the proposed amendment shall have been given4 ,,appendix ,d ,,table ,,of ,,parliamentary ,,rules ,in the following table1 the principal questions arising in parliamentary practice are noted4 ,the table should serve at once as an index and summary4 ,the motions are arranged alphabetically2 the order of priority is indicated by ,roman numerals4 ,each can supersede one of lower rank4 ,none1 except to amend1 can supersede one of higher order4 ,the references 7e4g4--,c4d47 are to the paragraphs in the chapter on ,parliamentary ,procedure1 page #aja1 where the rules are discussed4 ,a motion to ,i4 ,adjourn leaves the main question first in order at the next meeting1 cannot be 7,c4d47 amended1 debated1 laid on the table1 postponed1 reconsidered1 or renewed4#a ,,xii4 ,amend can be amended 7not an amendment to an amendment71 can be committed 7,a4a47 7takes with it the principal motion71 is debatable if the main question is1 can be laid on the table 7in which case it carries with it to the table the entire subject71 can be postponed 7in which case the main question is also postponed71 is subject to previous question1 can be reconsidered but cannot be renewed4#b ,,iv4 ,appeal from decision suspends action on main question1 of chair on cannot be amended1 committed1 ,question of ,order debated1#c postponed or renewed2 it may be laid on the table 7which 7,b4f4g47 action sustains the chair7 or reconsidered4 ,,xi4 ,commit1 refer1 or commits main question and all recommit subsidiary to it2 can be amended1 debated1 laid on the table 7carrying 7,a4c47 the entire subject with it71 reconsidered or renewed1 opens main question to debate1 is subject to previous question but cannot be committed or postponed4#d ,,vii4 ,lay on the table1 tables the main question1 and all take from the table1 subsidiary questions with it2 cannot be amended1 committed1 debated1 7,a4f47 postponed2 a negative vote cannot be reconsidered1 but an affirmative vote can2 it can be renewed4#e ,,iii4 ,orders of the ,day cannot be amended1 committed1 debated1 laid on the table1 postponed1 7,c4a47 is not subject to previous question1 cannot be renewed1 but can be reconsidered4#f ,x4 ,to postpone to cannot be committed or postponed2 certain time does not open the main question to debate2 can be 7,a4d47 amended or debated as to time only2 is subject to previous question which does not thereby apply to the main question2 can be laid on the table1 reconsidered or renewed4 ,,xii4 ,to postpone indefinitely removes main question for session2 cannot be amended2 can be 7,a4b47 committed1 debated--as can the main question--laid on the table1 postponed1 reconsidered or renewed2 is subject to the previous question without affecting the main question4#g ,,ix4 ,previous ,question compels immediate vote on main question2#h cannot be amended1 7,a4e47 committed1 debated1 or postponed2 it can be laid on the table 7carrying to the table the entire subject71 reconsidered or renewed4#i ,,xiv4 ,principal ,motion can be amended1 committed1 debated1 laid on the table1 postponed1 is subject to previous question1 can be reconsidered or renewed4 ,,ii4 ,question of ,privilege suspends action on main question2 a motion concerning it can be amended1 committed1 debated1 laid 7,c4b47 on the table1 postponed1 reconsidered or renewed1 is subject to previous question4 ,,vii4 ,to reconsider cannot be amended1 committed1 postponed1 or reconsidered2 it is 7,d4b47 debatable if the main question is1 and opens the main question to debate if carried2 it can be laid on the table without tabling the main question2 it can be renewed and is subject to the previous question1 which1 however1 affects only reconsideration4#aj ,,vi4 ,to suspend a rule has no effect on the main question2 it can be amended1 committed1 7,b4a47 debated1 laid on the table1 postponed1 reconsidered or renewed2 it is subject to the previous question4#aa ,v4 ,to withdraw motion cannot be amended1 committed1 debated1 postponed2 it can be 7,b4b47 reconsidered or renewed4 #a ,a quorum is not necessary to adjournment4 #b ,a motion to amend is not in order after the previous question1 to postpone or to lay on the table1 has been ordered4 #c ,the appellant and the chair may state the respective ground for appeal and decision4 #d ,a motion to commit cannot be made after the previous question has been ordered4 #e ,motions once tabled must be removed by motion to take from table4 #f ,an affirmative vote on the ,orders of the ,day removes the main question from consideration2 a negative vote dispenses with the business set for special time4 #g ,to postpone indefinitely yields to all subsidiary questions except to amend4 #h ,when the previous question is moved on an amendment and adopted1 debate is closed on the amendment only4 #i ,the previous question applies only to debatable questions4 #aj ,it must be made by one voting on prevailing side on main question4 ,a motion to reconsider can be applied to every other question except to adjourn and to suspend rules1 and affirmative vote to lay on the table4 #aa ,it cannot suspend the constitution or by-laws4 ,,appendix ,e ,,rules ,,of ,,the ,,ford ,,hall ,,town ,,meeting ,,jurisdiction4 #a4 ,the ,ford ,hall ,town ,meeting has all the legislative powers possessed by any legislative body within and including the ,commonwealth of ,massachusetts4 ,every bill introduced into said ,town ,meeting shall begin with language appropriate to the body which is supposed to be considering the same4 ,,membership4 #b4 ,no test of race1 creed1 sex1 or property shall be applied in determining citizenship in the ,ford ,hall ,town ,meeting4 ,any person signing the roll and subscribing to the following declaration shall thereupon be regarded as a citizen4 ,,declaration4 #c4 ,i do solemnly declare that ,i will strive to advance the common good and the ,commonwealth of ,ford ,hall by all means in my power4 ,,officers4 #d4 ,the elective officers of the ,town ,meeting shall be a ,moderator1 ,clerk1 and a ,sergeant-at-,arms who shall be elected by ,preferential ,ballot at the second regular meeting of each season4 ,a majority of all the votes cast shall be necessary to a choice4 #e4 ,the ,moderator may appoint a citizen to perform the duties of the chair for such period during his term of office as he may elect4 #f4 ,in case of a vacancy in the office of ,moderator1 or in case the ,moderator or the citizen named by him in accordance with the preceding rule1 is absent at the hour to which the ,town ,meeting stands adjourned1 the ,clerk shall call the ,town ,meeting to order and shall proceed until the ,moderator appear or a temporary or a regular moderator be elected which shall be the first business in order4 ,the ,moderator is ex-officio member of all committees4 ,,clerk4 #g4 ,the ,clerk may appoint such assistants as he may desire and shall ,a4 ,keep the record of the proceedings of the ,town ,meeting4 ,b4 ,enter at large in the ,journal every question of order with the decision thereon4 ,c4 ,prepare and cause to be listed on one sheet for reference a calendar of matters for consideration at the next session of the ,town ,meeting4 ,such list shall be regarded as the ,order of the ,day for the consideration of the ,town ,meeting at its next session and the matters noted thereon shall be considered in their due order unless otherwise specially voted by the ,town ,meeting4 ,any objection to the calendar shall be made and disposed of before the ,town ,meeting votes to proceed to the consideration of the ,orders of the ,day4 ,d4 ,prepare and cause to be listed on one sheet a list of matters lying on the table4 ,,sergeant-,,at-,,arms4 #h4 ,the ,sergeant-at-,arms shall be responsible for the preservation of the order and decorum of the ,town ,meeting4 ,he may select such assistants1 doorkeepers1 and other officers as he may deem necessary4 ,he shall execute the orders of the ,moderator or the ,town ,meeting and shall have the custody of the property of the ,town ,meeting other than the records properly in the custody of the clerk4 ,,committees4 #i4 ,the following standing committees shall be elected by ballot from the citizens of the ,town ,meeting3 ,a4 ,a ,committee on ,rules1 to consist of six members and the ,moderator of the ,town ,meeting1 who shall be ex-officio chairman of said committee4 ,b4 ,a ,committee on ,education1 to consist of seven members4 ,c4 ,a ,committee on ,housing1 to consist of seven members4 ,d4 ,a ,committee on ,health1 to consist of five members4 ,e4 ,a ,committee on ,play and ,recreation1 to consist of five members4 ,f4 ,a ,committee on ,labor1 to consist of seven members4 ,g4 ,a ,committee on ,judiciary1 to consist of five members4 ,h4 ,a ,committee on ,transportation1 to consist of five members4 ,i4 ,a ,committee on ,mercantile ,affairs1 to consist of five members4 ,j4 ,a ,committee on ,courtesies1 to consist of five members4 ,k4 ,a ,committee on ,liquor ,laws1 to consist of five members4 ,l4 ,a ,committee on ,budget and ,appropriations1 to consist of seven members4 ,m4 ,a ,committee on ,municipal ,affairs1 to consist of five members4 ,n4 ,a ,committee on ,city ,planning1 to consist of seven members4 ,o4 ,a ,committee on ,immigration and ,naturalization1 to consist of seven members4 ,all of said committees shall be nominated by a nominating committee consisting of seven citizens elected by the ,town ,meeting4 ,the ,moderator of the ,town ,meeting shall designate one member of each of said committees to act as chairman thereof4 #aj4 ,the ,moderator shall appoint a committee of five to be known as the ,committee on ,ways and ,means1 who shall prepare for the consideration of the ,committee on ,budget and ,appropriations an estimate of the probable expense of the ,town ,meeting for the current season4 ,when such estimate has been considered and ordered by the said ,committee on ,budget and ,appropriations1 the said ,ways and ,means ,committee shall extend the taxes necessary to meet said budget over the ,town ,meeting and appoint all officers necessary to collect1 care for and disburse the same in orderly and regular fashion4 #aa4 ,before said ,committee on ,budget and ,appropriations shall finally appropriate any sum for the support of the ,town ,meeting in its various functions it shall report its estimate to the full ,town ,meeting1 and no such report shall be adopted unless approved by a vote of two-thirds of the members present at a regular ,town ,meeting4 #ab4 ,all measures intended for presentation by any citizen shall be presented to the ,clerk on paper furnished by the ,clerk4 ,the ,clerk shall read all measures by title and the ,moderator shall then refer them to their appropriate committees1 before the order of the day has been considered at each ,town ,meeting4 ,they shall be given a consecutive number by the ,clerk and shall thereafter be referred to by number1 title and by the name of the citizen introducing the same4 ,the committees to whom said measures are referred shall consider the same as promptly as may be and may in said consideration call before them the original sponsor of such measure or any citizen who is in favor of or opposed to said measure4 ,in addition thereto said committees may1 if they shall so elect1 call before them any person1 whether a citizen of the ,town ,meeting or not1 whose evidence or arguments might1 in their judgment1 be valuable to the committee or to the ,town ,meeting in their deliberations on the particular measure under consideration4 ,said committees shall1 as speedily as possible1 report to the ,town ,meeting1 their conclusions upon the matters referred to them1 giving in concise form the reasons upon which said conclusions are based4 ,,petitions ,,and ,,reports ,,of ,,committees4 #ac4 ,petitions1 memorials1 remonstrances and papers of a like nature1 and reports of committees shall be presented before the ,town ,meeting proceeds to the consideration of the ,order of the ,day1 and the ,moderator shall call for such papers4 ,,papers ,,addressed ,,to ,,the ,,town ,,meeting ,,not ,,petitions4 ,papers addressed to the ,town ,meeting1 other than petitions1 memorials and remonstrances1 may be presented by the ,moderator1 or by a citizen in his place1 and shall be read1 unless it is specifically ordered that the reading be dispensed with4 #ad4 ,no bill shall be acted upon by the ,town ,meeting until it has been reported by the committee to which it has been referred3 provided1 however1 that the ,moderator may call upon any committee to report a bill before it1 if in his judgment said report is unduly delayed4 ,no bill shall be put to a final vote without having been read three several times4 ,,orders ,,of ,,the ,,day4 #ae4 ,bills favorably reported to the ,town ,meeting by committees1 and bills the question of the rejection of which is negatived1 shall be placed in the ,orders for the next session1 and1 if they have been read but once1 shall go to a second reading without question4 ,resolutions reported in the ,town ,meeting by committees shall1 after they are read1 be placed in the ,orders of the ,day for the next session4 #af4 ,reports of committees not by bill or resolve shall be placed in the ,orders of the next session after that on which they are made to the ,town ,meeting2 provided1 that the report of a committee asking to be discharged from the further consideration of a subject and recommending that it be referred to another committee1 shall be immediately considered4 #ag4 ,bills ordered to a third reading shall be placed in the ,orders of the next session for such reading4 #ah4 ,after entering upon the consideration of the ,orders of the ,day1 the ,town ,meeting shall proceed with them in regular course as follows3 ,matters not giving rise to a motion or debate shall be first disposed of in the order in which they stand in the calendar2 after which the matters that were passed over shall be considered in like order and disposed of4 #ai4 ,when the ,town ,meeting does not finish the consideration of the ,orders of the ,day1 those which had not been acted upon shall be the ,orders of the next and each succeeding day until disposed of1 and shall be entered in the calendar1 without change in their order1 to precede matters added under rules #ae and #af and #ag4 ,the unfinished business in which the ,town ,meeting was engaged at the time of adjournment shall have the preference in the ,orders of the next day1 after motions to reconsider4 ,,special ,,rules ,,affecting ,,the ,,course ,,of ,,proceedings4 #bj4 ,no matter which has been duly placed in the ,orders of the ,day shall be discharged therefrom1 or considered out of the regular course4 ,this rule shall not be rescinded1 or revoked or suspended except by a vote of four-fifths of the members present and voting thereon4 #ba4 ,if1 under the operation of the previous question1 or otherwise1 an amendment is made at the second1 or third reading of a bill substantially changing the greater part of such bill1 the question shall not be put forthwith on ordering the bill to a third reading1 but the bill1 as amended1 shall be placed in the ,orders of the next session after that on which the amendment is made1 and shall then be open to further amendment before such question is put4 ,in like manner1 when1 under the operation of the previous question or otherwise1 an amendment is made in any proposition of such a nature as to change its character1 as from a bill to an order1 or the like1 the proposition as amended shall be placed in the ,orders of the next session after that on which the amendment was made4 ,,reconsideration4 #bb4 ,when a motion for reconsideration is decided1 that decision shall not be reconsidered1 and no question shall be twice reconsidered2 nor shall any vote be reconsidered upon either of the following motions3 to adjourn1 to lay on the table1 to take from the table2 or1 for the previous question4 #bc4 ,debate on motions to reconsider shall be limited to twenty minutes1 and no citizen shall occupy more than five minutes2 but on a motion to reconsider a vote upon any subsidiary or incidental question1 debate shall be limited to ten minutes1 and no citizen shall occupy more than three minutes4 ,,rules ,,of ,,debate4 #bd4 ,no citizen shall speak more than once to the prevention of those who have not spoken and desire to speak on the same question4 #be4 ,no citizen shall speak more than five minutes upon any measure4 #bf4 ,the proponent of any measure may speak for ten minutes4 #bg4 ,upon unanimous consent of all voting citizens present1 any speaker may have the privilege of such further time as the said voting citizens present may designate4 #bh4 ,every motion shall be reduced to writing1 if the ,moderator so directs4 #bi4 ,when a question is before the ,town ,meeting1 until it is disposed of1 the ,moderator shall receive no motion that does not relate to the same1 except the motion to adjourn1 or some other motion that has precedence either by express rule of the ,town ,meeting or because it is privileged in its nature2 and he shall receive no motion relating to the same1 except3 to lay on the table1 for the previous question1 to close the debate at a specified time1 to postpone to a time certain1 to commit 7or recommit71 to amend1 which several motions shall have precedence in the order in which they are arranged in this rule4 ,,previous ,,question4 #cj4 ,all questions of order arising after a motion is made for the previous question shall be decided without debate1 excepting on appeal2 and on such appeal1 no citizen shall speak except the appellant and the ,moderator4 #ca4 ,the adoption of the previous question shall put an end to all debate and bring the ,town ,meeting to a direct vote upon pending amendments1 if any1 in their regular order1 and then upon the main question4 ,,motion ,,to ,,commit4 #cb4 ,when a motion is made to commit1 and different committees are proposed1 the question shall be taken in the following order3 a standing committee of the ,town ,meeting1 a select committee of the ,town ,meeting1 and a subject may be recommitted to the same committee or to another committee at the pleasure of the ,town ,meeting4 ,,motion ,,to ,,amend4 #cc4 ,a motion to amend an amendment may be received2 but no amendment in the third degree shall be allowed4 ,,enacting ,,clause4 #cd4 ,a motion to strike out the enacting clause of a bill shall only be received when the bill is before the ,town ,meeting for enactment4 ,,parliamentary ,,practice4 #ce4 ,cushing's ,manual shall govern the ,town ,meeting in all cases to which they are applicable1 and in which they are not inconsistent with these rules4 ,,debate ,,on ,,motions ,,for ,,the ,,suspension ,,of ,,rules4 #cf4 ,debate upon a motion for the suspension of any of the rules shall be limited to fifteen minutes1 and no citizen shall occupy more than three minutes4 #cg4 ,unless otherwise stated a majority vote of those present shall decide any question4 ,,suspensions1 ,,amendment ,,and ,,repeal4 #ch4 ,nothing in these rules shall be dispensed with1 altered or repealed1 unless two-thirds of the citizens present consent thereto2 but this rule and rule twenty-one shall not be suspended1 unless by unanimous consent of the citizens present4 ,,appendix ,f ,,sources ,,of ,,material ,how can you obtain the necessary information for your debate8 ,where can you get your evidence8 ,how will you proceed to obtain the facts upon which your debate will win or lose8 ,in part these questions have been answered by the chapter on evidence4 ,let me advise you to read it over again carefully4 ,the first persons to consult are the other members of your own family4 ,their experience in public affairs you will find in many cases to be much larger than you have thought4 ,how many times1 for instance1 do your neighbors or perhaps the township supervisor drop in upon your father to talk with him in the evening about matters of public policy8 ,how many times does the school teacher1 on her way home from work1 stop to pass a word with your grandfather who was a member of the legislature back in ,connecticut long before the family moved ,west8 ,obviously the next best source of information is your teacher4 ,in almost all cases you will find that your school instructors are very glad to help you1 not only by telling you what they themselves know but by referring you to easily available sources of information4 ,do not hesitate to ask specific questions of your teachers4 ,it is well1 of course1 to request in general their advice and counsel but you can well supplement this general appeal for help by specific questions the answer to which will solve troublesome problems as they come up4 ,be sure to ask your teachers for lists of available books and advice as to the best magazine articles to consult4 ,next go to the librarian in your own home town4 ,she will be glad to tell you the best books and magazine articles upon the subject of your debate4 ,in case her own information is scant you might well advise her to communicate with the ,division of ,bibliography of the ,library of ,congress at ,washington4 ,this division issues memoranda1 type-written lists and printed lists1 giving references upon all topics of current interest4 ,private individuals can purchase these lists from the ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,government ,printing ,office1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,in case you have no library within reaching distance the list will be lent to you4 ,in that case you should address the ,librarian of ,congress1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,there is an immense amount of literature to be obtained from the various branches of the ,government1 and there is hardly a subject which a boy might be called upon to debate1 upon which he could not obtain enlightenment by applying to the proper ,government officer4 ,the difficulty is to know who is the proper person to address in a particular case4 ,probably the ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,government ,printing ,office1 would be the first one to whom to apply4 ,he has ,government publications for sale1 and is in a position to give information about the publications issued by any branch of the ,government4 ,he also furnishes classified lists on various subjects4 ,these will give an idea of what bureaus handle the different subjects4 ,with such information a boy can then apply directly to the right bureau4 ,most1 if not all1 of the ,departments issue lists of their publications4 ,the ,congressional ,directory contains a list of the ,government offices1 with a statement of their functions4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture issues a ,monthly ,list of ,publications1 which is sent regularly to all who ask to have it so sent4 ,it also issues from time to time a list giving titles of all the ,farmers' ,bulletins available4 ,your own ,congressman will be glad to answer specific questions4 ,of course all debaters--boys who are good enough citizens to be interested in current topics--know the name of their representative in ,congress4 ,you will find also that the colleges in your own ,state will be very glad to help you all they can4 ,let me urge you particularly to make full use of the ,agricultural ,college and ,state ,university of your own ,commonwealth4 ,the ,agricultural ,college has at command a vast fund of questions all relating to life--social and economic as well as scientific and historical4 ,probably in this day1 your ,state ,university has an extension division which has special facilities for giving you definite and accurate advice upon any topic4 ,it may be that your ,state is one of the progressive ones which have a system of 8traveling libraries0--packets of books which are shipped to persons who have special interest in special topics4 ,really one of the first studies for you when you are securing evidence is to become thoroughly acquainted with the facilities of your ,state institutions of higher education4 ,by all means1 however1 include the other colleges which may be in your vicinity4 ,professors and other members of the departments of sociology1 political science1 political economy1 history and similar departments will be particularly ready to give help4 ,of almost equal value with the official documents are the writings of interested men in magazines and newspapers4 ,these articles will not only contain many facts but will be both stimulating and suggestive to the debater in opening to him new lines of thought upon the subject4 ,poole's ,index1 ,the ,cumulative ,index1 ,the ,reader's ,guide to ,periodical ,literature are catalogues of the articles appearing in general periodicals4 ,some one of them is sure to be found in your library4 ,almost every subject now prominently before the public has based upon it a society of some kind or other which generally issues publications upon the subject1 or1 at any rate1 has available facts and arguments of value to the debater4 ,the ,society for the ,prevention of ,this1 the ,society for the ,promotion of ,that1 the ,society for the ,study of ,this ,other ,matter1 are full of value and interesting information4 ,write to them if your subject falls within their respective fields4 ,,the ,,end