,,primitive ,,culture ,,primitive ,,culture ,,researches ,,into ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,mythology1 ,,philosophy1 ,,religion1 ,,language1 ,,art1 ,,and ,,custom ,,by ,,edward ,b4 ,,tylor1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,professor ,,of ,,anthropology ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,oxford ,,author ,,of 8,,researches ,,into ,,the ,,early ,,history ,,of ,,mankind10 ,,etc4 8,ce n'est pas dans les possibilits1 c'est dans l'homme mme qu'il faut tudier l'homme3 il ne s'agit pas d'imaginer ce qu'il auroit p ou d faire1 mais de regarder ce qu'il fait40--,,de ,,brosses4 ,,in ,,two ,,volumes ,,vol4 ,,ii ,,london ,,john ,,murray1 ,,albemarle ,,street1 ,w4 #aibj ,,printed ,,in ,u4,s4,a4 ,rights of ,translation and ,reproduction reserved ,,contents ,,of ,,the ,,second ,,volume4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,animism 7continued74 ,doctrine of ,soul's ,existence after ,death2 its main divisions1 ,transmigration and ,future ,life--,transmigration of ,souls3 re-birth in ,human and ,animal ,bodies1 transference to ,plants and ,objects--,resurrection of ,body3 scarcely held in savage religion--,future ,life3 a general if not universal doctrine of low races--,continued existence1 rather than ,immortality2 second death of ,soul--,ghost of ,dead remains on earth1 especially if corpse unburied2 its attachment to bodily remains--,feasts of the ,dead #a ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,animism 7continued74 ,journey of the ,soul to the ,land of the ,dead--,visits by the ,living to the ,regions of ,departed ,souls--,connexion of such legends with myths of ,sunset3 the ,land of the ,dead thus imagined as in the ,west--,realization of current religious ideas1 whether of savage or civilized theology1 in narratives of visits to the ,regions of ,souls--,localization of the ,future ,life--,distant earthly region3 ,earthly ,paradise1 ,isles of the ,blest--,subterranean ,hades or ,sheol--,sun1 ,moon1 ,stars--,heaven--,historical course of belief as to such localization--,nature of ,future ,life--,continuance-theory1 apparently original1 belongs especially to the lower races--,transitional theories--,retribution-theory1 apparently derived1 belongs especially to the higher races--,doctrine of ,moral ,retribution as developed in the higher culture--,survey of ,doctrine of ,future ,state1 from savage to civilized stages--,its practical effect on the sentiment and conduct of ,mankind #dd ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,animism 7continued74 ,animism1 expanding from the ,doctrine of ,souls to the wider ,doctrine of ,spirits1 becomes a complete ,philosophy of ,natural ,religion--,definition of ,spirits similar to and apparently modelled on that of ,souls--,transition-stage3 classes of ,souls passing into good and evil ,demons--,manes-,worship--,doctrine of ,embodiment of ,spirits in human1 animal1 vegetable1 and inert bodies--,demoniacal ,possession and ,obsession as causes of ,disease and ,oracle-inspiration--,fetishism--,diseas e-spirits embodied--,ghost attached to remains of ,corpse--,fetish produced by a ,spirit embodied in1 attached to1 or operating through1 an ,object--,analogues of ,fetish-doctrine in ,modern ,science--,stock-and-,stone-,worship--,i dolatry--,survival of ,animistic ,phraseology in modern ,language--,decline of ,animistic theory of ,nature #ajh ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,animism 7continued74 ,spirits regarded as personal causes of ,phenomena of the ,world--,pervading ,spirits as good and evil ,demons affecting man--,spirits manifest in ,dreams and ,visions3 ,nightmares2 ,incubi and ,succubi2 ,vampires2 ,visionary ,demons--,demons of darkness repelled by fire--,demons otherwise manifest3 seen by animals2 detected by footprints--,spirits conceived and treated as material--,guardian and ,familiar ,spirits--,nature-,spirits2 historical course of the doctrine--,spirits of ,volcanos1 ,whirlpools1 ,rocks--,water-,worship3 ,spirits of ,wells1 ,streams1 ,lakes1 c4--,tree-,worship3 ,spirits embodied in or inhabiting ,trees2 ,spirits of ,groves and ,forests--,animal-worship3 ,animals ,worshipped1 directly1 or as incarnations or representatives of ,deities2 ,totemism2 ,serpent-,worship--,species-,deities2 their relation to ,archetypal ,ideas #ahd ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,animism 7continued74 ,higher ,deities of ,polytheism--,human characteristics applied to ,deity--,lords of ,spiritual ,hierarchy--,polytheism3 its course of development in lower and higher ,culture--,principles of its investigation2 classification of ,deities according to central conceptions of their significance and function--,heaven-god--,rain god--,thunder-god--,wind-gods--,earth-go d--,water god--,sea-god--,fire-god--,sun-god--,moo n-god #bdg ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,animism 7continued74 ,polytheism comprises a class of great ,deities1 ruling the course of ,nature and the life of ,man--,childbirth-god--,agriculture-god- -,war-god--,god of the ,dead--,first ,man as ,divine ,ancestor--,dualism2 its rudimentary and unethical nature among low races2 its development through the course of culture--,good and ,evil ,deity--,doctrine of ,divine ,supremacy1 distinct from1 while tending towards1 the doctrine of ,monotheism--,idea of a ,highest or ,supreme ,deity evolved in various forms2 its place as completion of the ,polytheistic system and outcome of the ,animistic philosophy2 its continuance and development among higher nations--,general survey of ,animism as a ,philosophy of ,religion--,recapitulation of the theory advanced as to its development through successive stages of culture2 its primary phases best represented among the lower races1 while survivals of these among the higher races mark the transition from savage through barbaric to civilized faiths--,transition of ,animism in the ,history of ,religion2 its earlier and later stages as a ,philosophy of the ,universe2 its later stages as the principle of a ,moral ,institution #cjd ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,rites ,,and ,,ceremonies4 ,religious ,rites3 their purpose practical or symbolic--,prayer3 its continuity from low to high levels of ,culture2 its lower phases ,unethical2 its higher phases ,ethical--,sacrifice3 its original ,gift-theory passes into the ,homage-theory and the ,abnegation-theory--,manner of reception of ,sacrifice by ,deity--,material ,transfer to elements1 fetish-animals1 priests2 consumption of substance by deity or idol2 offering of blood2 transmission by fire2 incense--,essential transfer3 consumption of essence1 savour1 c4--,spiritual ,transfer3 consumption or transmission of soul of offering--,motive of ,sacrificer--,transition from ,gift-theory to ,homage-theory3 insignificant and formal offerings2 sacrificial banquets--,abnegation-theory2 sacrifice of children1 c4--,sacrifice of ,substitutes3 part given for whole2 inferior life for superior2 effigies--,modern survival of ,sacrifice in folklore and religion--,fasting1 as a means of producing ecstatic vision2 its course from lower to higher ,culture--,drugs use to produce ecstasy--,swoons and fits induced for religious purposes--,orientation3 its relation to ,sun-myth and ,sun-worship2 rules of ,east and ,west as to burial of dead1 position of worship1 and structure of temple--,lustration by ,water and ,fire3 its transition from material to symbolic purification2 its connexion with special events of life2 its appearance among the lower races--,lustration of new-born children2 of women2 of those polluted by bloodshed or the dead--,lustration continued at higher levels of ,culture--,conclusion #cfb ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,conclusion4 ,practical results of the study of ,primitive ,culture--,its bearing least upon ,positive ,science1 greatest upon ,intellectual1 ,moral1 ,social1 and ,political ,philosophy--,language--,mythology--,eth ics and ,law--,religion--,action of the ,science of ,culture1 as a means of furthering progress and removing hindrance1 effective in the course of ,civilization #ddc ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,animism 7continued74 ,doctrine of ,soul's ,existence after ,death2 its main divisions1 ,transmigration and ,future ,life--,transmigration of ,souls3 re-birth in ,human and ,animal ,bodies1 transference to ,plants and ,objects--,resurrection of ,body3 scarcely held in savage religion--,future ,life3 a general if not universal doctrine of low races--,continued existence1 rather than ,immortality2 second death of ,soul--,ghost of ,dead remains on earth1 especially if corpse unburied2 its attachment to bodily remains--,feasts of the ,dead4 ,having thus traced upward from the lower levels of culture the opinions of mankind as to the souls1 spirits1 ghosts1 or phantoms1 considered to belong to men1 to the lower animals1 to plants1 and to things1 we are now prepared to investigate one of the great religious doctrines of the world1 the belief in the soul's continued existence in a ,life after ,death4 ,here let us once more call to mind the consideration which cannot be too strongly put forward1 that the doctrine of a ,future ,life as held by the lower races is the all but necessary outcome of savage ,animism4 ,the evidence that the lower races believe the figures of the dead seen in dreams and visions to be their surviving souls1 not only goes far to account for the comparative universality of their belief in the continued existence of the soul after the death of the body1 but it gives the key to many of their speculations on the nature of this existence1 speculations rational enough from the savage point of view1 though apt to seem far-fetched absurdities to moderns in their much changed intellectual condition4 ,the belief in a ,future ,life falls into two main divisions4 ,closely connected and even largely overlapping one another1 both world-wide in their distribution1 both ranging back in time to periods of unknown antiquity1 both deeply rooted in the lowest strata of human life which lie open to our observation1 these two doctrines have in the modern world passed into wonderfully different conditions4 ,the one is the theory of the ,transmigration of ,souls1 which has indeed risen from its lower stages to establish itself among the huge religious communities of ,asia1 great in history1 enormous even in present mass1 yet arrested and as it seems henceforth unprogressive in development2 but the more highly educated world has rejected the ancient belief1 and it now only survives in ,europe in dwindling remnants4 ,far different has been the history of the other doctrine1 that of the independent existence of the personal soul after the death of the body1 in a ,future ,life4 ,passing onward through change after change in the condition of the human race1 modified and renewed in its long ethnic course1 this great belief may be traced from its crude and primitive manifestations among savage races to its establishment in the heart of modern religion1 where the faith in a future existence forms at once an inducement to goodness1 a sustaining hope through suffering and across the fear of death1 and an answer to the perplexed problem of the allotment of happiness and misery in this present world1 by the expectation of another world to set this right4 ,in investigating the doctrine of ,transmigration1 it will be well first to trace its position among the lower races1 and afterwards to follow its developments1 so far as they extend in the higher civilization4 ,the temporary migration of souls into material substances1 from human bodies down to morsels of wood and stone1 is a most important part of the lower psychology4 ,but it does not relate to the continued existence of the soul after death1 and may be more conveniently treated of elsewhere1 in connexion with such subjects as dmoniacal possession and fetish-worship4 ,we are here concerned with the more permanent tenancy of souls for successive lives in successive bodies4 ,permanent transition1 new birth1 or re-incarnation of human souls in other human bodies1 is especially considered to take place by the soul of a deceased person animating the body of an infant4 ,it is recorded by ,brebeuf that the ,hurons1 when little children died1 would bury them by the wayside1 that their souls might enter into mothers passing by1 and so be born again4#a ,in ,north-,west ,america1 among the ,tacullis1 we hear of direct transfusion of soul by the medicine-man1 who1 putting his hands on the breast of the dying or dead1 then holds them over the head of a relative and blows through them2 the next child born to this recipient of the departed soul is animated by it1 and takes the rank and name of the deceased4#b ,the ,nutka ,indians not without ingenuity accounted for the existence of a distant tribe speaking the same language as themselves1 by declaring them to be the spirits of their dead4#c ,in ,greenland1 where the wretched custom of abandoning and even plundering widows and orphans was tending to bring the whole race to extinction1 a helpless widow would seek to persuade some father that the soul of a dead child of his had passed into a living child of hers1 or vice vers1 thus gaining for herself a new relative and protector4#d ,it is mostly ancestral or kindred souls that are thought to enter into children1 and this kind of transmigration is therefore from the savage point of view a highly philosophical theory1 accounting as it does so well for the general resemblance between parents and children1 and even for the more special phenomena of atavism4 ,in ,north-,west ,america1 among the ,koloshes1 the mother sees in a dream the deceased relative whose transmitted soul will give his likeness to the child2#e and in ,vancouver's ,island in #ahfj a lad was much regarded by the ,indians because he had a mark like the scar of a gun-shot wound on his hip1 it being believed that a chief dead some four generations before1 who had such a mark1 had returned4#f ,in ,old ,calabar1 if a mother loses a child1 and another is born soon after1 she thinks the departed one to have come back4#g ,the ,wanika consider that the soul of a dead ancestor animates a child1 and this is why it resembles its father or mother2#h in ,guinea a child bearing a strong resemblance1 physical or mental1 to a dead relative1 is supposed to have inherited his soul2#i and the ,yorubas1 greeting a new-born infant with the salutation1 #8,thou art come6' look for signs to show what ancestral soul has returned among them4#aj ,among the ,khonds of ,orissa1 births are celebrated by a feast on the seventh day1 and the priest1 divining by dropping rice-grains in a cup of water1 and judging from observations made on the person of the infant1 determines which of his progenitors has reappeared1 and the child generally at least among the northern tribes receives the name of that ancestor4#aa ,in ,europe the ,lapps repeat an instructive animistic idea just noticed in ,america2 the future mother was told in a dream what name to give her child1 this message being usually given by the very spirit of the deceased ancestor1 who was about to be incarnate in her4#ab ,among the lower races generally the renewal of old family names by giving them to new-born children may always be suspected of involving some such thought4 ,the following is a curious pair of instances from the two halves of the globe4 ,the ,new ,zealand priest would repeat to the infant a long list of names of its ancestors1 fixing upon that name which the child by sneezing or crying when it was uttered1 was considered to select for itself2 while the ,cheremiss in ,russia would shake the baby till it cried1 and then repeat names to it1 till it chose itself one by leaving off crying4#ac ,the belief in the new human birth of the departed soul1 which has even led ,west ,african negroes to commit suicide when in distant slavery1 that they may revive in their own land1 in fact amounts among several of the lower races to a distinct doctrine of an earthly resurrection4 ,one of the most remarkable forms which this belief assumes is when dark-skinned races1 wanting some reasonable theory to account for the appearance among them of human creatures of a new strange sort1 the white men1 and struck with their pallid deathly hue combined with powers that seem those of superhuman spiritual beings1 have determined that the manes of their dead must have come back in this wondrous shape4 ,the aborigines of ,australia have expressed this theory in the simple formula1 #8,blackfellow tumble down1 jump up ,whitefellow4' ,thus a native who was hanged years ago at ,melbourne expressed in his last moments the hopeful belief that he would jump up ,whitefellow1 and have lots of sixpences4 ,the doctrine has been current among them since early days of ,european intercourse1 and in accordance with it they habitually regarded the ,englishmen as their own deceased kindred1 come back to their country from an attachment to it in a former life4 ,real or imagined likeness completed the delusion1 as when ,sir ,george ,grey was hugged and wept over by an old woman who found in him a son she had lost1 or when a convict1 recognized as a deceased relative1 was endowed anew with the land he had possessed during his former life4 ,a similar theory may be traced northward by the ,torres ,islands to ,new ,caledonia1 where the natives thought the white men to be the spirits of the dead who bring sickness1 and assigned this as their reason for wishing to kill white men4#ad ,in ,africa1 again1 the belief is found among the ,western negroes that they will rise again white1 and the ,bari of the ,white ,nile1 believing in the resurrection of the dead on earth1 considered the first white people they saw as departed spirits thus come back4#ae ,next1 the lower psychology1 drawing no definite line of demarcation between souls of men and of beasts1 can at least admit without difficulty the transmission of human souls into the bodies of the lower animals4 ,a series of examples from among the native tribes of ,america will serve well to show the various ways in which such ideas are worked out4 ,the ,ahts of ,vancouver's ,island consider the living man's soul able to enter into other bodies of men and animals1 going in and out like the inhabitant of a house4 ,in old times1 they say1 men existed in the forms of birds1 beasts1 and fishes1 or these had the spirits of the ,indians in their bodies2 some think that after death they will pass again into the bodies of the animals they occupied in this former state4#af ,in an ,indian district of ,north-,west ,california1 we find natives believing the spirits of their dead to enter into bears1 and travellers have heard of a tribe begging the life of a wrinkle-faced old she grizzly bear as the recipient of the soul of some particular grandam1 whom they fancied the creature to resemble4#ag ,so1 among the ,esquimaux1 a traveller noticed a widow who was living for conscience' sake upon birds1 and would not touch walrus-meat1 which the angekok had forbidden her for a time1 because her late husband had entered into a walrus4#ah ,among other ,north ,american tribes1 we hear of the ,powhatans refraining from doing harm to certain small wood-birds which received the souls of their chiefs2#ai of ,huron souls turning into turtle-doves after the burial of their bones at the ,feast of the ,dead2#bj of that pathetic funeral rite of the ,iroquois1 the setting free a bird on the evening of burial1 to carry away the soul4#ba ,in ,mexico1 the ,tlascalans thought that after death the souls of nobles would animate beautiful singing birds1 while plebeians passed into weasels and beetles and such like vile creatures4#bb ,so1 in ,brazil1 the ,iannas say that the souls of the brave will become beautiful birds1 feeding on pleasant fruits1 but cowards will be turned into reptiles4#bc ,among the ,abipones we hear of certain little ducks which fly in flocks at night1 uttering a mournful hiss1 and which fancy associates with the souls of the dead2#bd while in ,popayan it is said that doves were not killed1 as inspired by departed souls4#be ,lastly1 transmigration into brutes is also a received doctrine in ,south ,america as when a missionary heard a ,chiriquane woman of western ,brazil say of a fox1 #8,may not that be the spirit of my dead daughter8'#bf ,in ,africa1 again1 mention is made of the ,maravi thinking that the souls of bad men became jackals1 and of good men snakes4#bg ,the ,zulus1 while admitting that a man may turn into a wasp or lizard1 work out in the fullest way the idea of the dead becoming snakes1 a creature whose change of skin has so often been associated with the thought of resurrection and immortality4 ,it is especially certain green or brown harmless snakes1 which come gently and fearlessly into houses1 which are considered to be #8amatongo' or ancestors1 and therefore are treated respectfully1 and have offerings of food given them4 ,in two ways1 the dead man who has become a snake can still be recognized2 if the creature is one-eyed1 or has a scar or some other mark1 it is recognized as the #8itongo' of a man who was thus marked in life2 but if he had no mark the #8itongo' appears in human shape in dreams1 thus revealing the personality of the snake4#bh ,in ,guinea1 monkeys found near a graveyard are supposed to be animated by the spirits of the dead1 and in certain localities monkeys1 crocodiles1 and snakes1 being thought men in metempsychosis1 are held sacred4#bi ,it is to be borne in mind that notions of this kind may form in barbaric psychology but a portion of the wide doctrine of the soul's future existence4 ,for a conspicuous instance of this1 let us take the system of the ,gold-,coast negroes4 ,they believe that the #8kla' or #8kra1' the vital soul1 becomes at death a #8sisa' or ghost1 which can remain in the house with the body1 plague the living1 and cause sickness1 till it departs or is driven by the sorcerer to the bank of the ,river ,volta1 where the ghosts build themselves houses and dwell4 ,but they can and do come back from this ,land of ,souls4 ,they can be born again as souls in new human bodies1 and a soul who was poor before will now be rich4 ,many will not come back as men1 but will become animals4 ,to an ,african mother who has lost her child1 it is a consolation to say1 #8,he will come again4'#cj ,in higher levels of culture1 the theory of re-embodiment of the soul appears in strong and varied development4 ,though seemingly not received by the early ,aryans1 the doctrine of migration was adopted and adapted by ,hindu philosophy1 and forms an integral part of that great system common to ,brahmanism and ,buddhism1 wherein successive births or existences are believed to carry on the consequences of past and prepare the antecedents of future life4 ,to the ,hindu the body is but the temporary receptacle of the soul1 which1 #8bound in the chains of deeds' and #8eating the fruits of past actions1' promotes or degrades itself along a series of embodiments in plant1 beast1 man1 deity4 ,thus all creatures differ rather in degree than kind1 all are akin to man1 an elephant or ape or worm may once have been human1 and may become human again1 a pariah or barbarian is at once low-caste among men and high-caste among brutes4 ,through such bodies migrate the sinful souls which desire has drawn down from primal purity into gross material being2 the world where they do penance for the guilt incurred in past existences is a huge reformatory1 and life is the long grievous process of developing evil into good4 ,the rules are set forth in the book of ,manu how souls endowed with the quality of goodness acquire divine nature1 while souls governed by passion take up the human state1 and souls sunk in darkness are degraded to brutes4 ,thus the range of migration stretches downward from gods and saints1 through holy ascetics1 ,brahmans1 nymphs1 kings1 counsellors1 to actors1 drunkards1 birds1 dancers1 cheats1 elephants1 horses1 ,sudras1 barbarians1 wild beasts1 snakes1 worms1 insects1 and inert things4 ,obscure as the relation mostly is between the crime and its punishment in a new life1 there may be discerned through the code of penal transmigration an attempt at appropriateness of penalty1 and an intention to punish the sinner wherein he sinned4 ,for faults committed in a previous existence men are afflicted with deformities1 the stealer of food shall be dyspeptic1 the scandal-monger shall have foul breath1 the horse-stealer shall go lame1 and in consequence of their deeds men shall be born idiots1 blind1 deaf and dumb1 mis-shaped1 and thus despised of good men4 ,after expiation of their wickedness in the hells of torment1 the murderer of a ,brahman may pass into a wild beast or pariah2 he who adulterously dishonours his guru or spiritual father shall be a hundred times re-born as grass1 a bush1 a creeper1 a carrion bird1 a beast of prey2 the cruel shall become blood-thirsty beasts2 stealers of grain and meat shall turn into rats and vultures2 the thief who took dyed garments1 kitchen-herbs1 or perfumes1 shall become accordingly a red partridge1 a peacock1 or a musk-rat4 ,in short1 #8in whatever disposition of mind a man accomplishes such and such an act1 he shall reap the fruit in a body endowed with such and such a quality4'#ca ,the recognition of plants as possible receptacles of the transmigrating spirit well illustrates the conception of souls of plants4 ,the idea is one known to lower races in a district of the world which has been under ,hindu influence4 ,thus we hear among the ,dayaks of ,borneo of the human soul entering the trunks of trees1 where it may be seen damp and blood-like1 but no longer personal and sentient1 or of its being re-born from an animal which has eaten of the bark1 flower1 or fruit2#cb and the ,santals of ,bengal are said to fancy that uncharitable men and childless women are eaten eternally by worms and snakes1 while the good enter into fruit-bearing trees4#cc ,but it is an open question how far these and the ,hindu ideas of vegetable transmigration can be considered as independent4 ,a curious commentary on the ,hindu working out of the conception of plant-souls is to be found in a passage in a #agth-century work1 which describes certain ,brahmans of the ,coromandel ,coast as eating fruits1 but being careful not to pull the plants up by the roots1 lest they should dislodge a soul2 but few1 it is remarked1 are so scrupulous as this1 and the consideration has occurred to them that souls in roots and herbs are most vile and abject bodies1 so that if dislodged they may become better off by entering into the bodies of men or beasts4#cd ,moreover1 the ,brahmanic doctrine of souls transmigrating into inert things has in like manner a bearing on the savage theory of object-souls4#ce ,buddhism1 like the ,brahmanism from which it seceded1 habitually recognized transmigration between superhuman and human beings and the lower animals1 and in an exceptional way recognized a degradation even into a plant or a thing4 ,how the ,buddhist mind elaborated the doctrine of metempsychosis1 may be seen in the endless legends of ,gautama himself undergoing his #eej births1 suffering pain and misery through countless ages to gain the power of freeing sentient beings from the misery inherent in all existence4 ,four times he became ,maha ,brahma1 twenty times the dewa ,sekra1 and many times or few he passed through such stages as a hermit1 a king1 a rich man1 a slave1 a potter1 a gambler1 a curer of snake bites1 an ape1 an elephant1 a bull1 a serpent1 a snipe1 a fish1 a frog1 the dewa or genius of a tree4 ,at last1 when he became the supreme ,buddha1 his mind1 like a vessel overflowing with honey1 overflowed with the ambrosia of truth1 and he proclaimed his triumph over life3-- #8,painful are repeated births4 ,o house-builder6 ,i have seen thee1 ,thou canst not build again a house for me4 ,thy rafters are broken ,thy roof-timbers are shattered4 ,my mind is detached1 ,i have attained to the extinction of desire4' ,whether the ,buddhists receive the full ,hindu doctrine of the migration of the individual soul from birth to birth1 or whether they refine away into metaphysical subtleties the notion of continued personality1 they do consistently and systematically hold that a man's life in former existences is the cause of his now being what he is1 while at this moment he is accumulating merit or demerit whose result will determine his fate in future lives4 ,memory1 it is true1 fails generally to recall these past births1 but memory1 as we know1 stops short of the beginning even of this present life4 ,when ,king ,bimsara's feet were burned and rubbed with salt by command of his cruel son that he might not walk1 why was this torture inflicted on a man so holy8 ,because in a previous birth he had walked near a dagoba with his slippers on1 and had trodden on a priest's carpet without washing his feet4 ,a man may be prosperous for a time on account of the merit he has received in former births1 but if he does not continue to keep the precepts1 his next birth will be in one of the hells1 he will then be born in this world as a beast1 afterwards as a preta or sprite2 a proud man may be born again ugly with large lips1 or as a demon or a worm4 ,the ,buddhist theory of #8karma' or #8action1' which controls the destiny of all sentient beings1 not by judicial reward and punishment1 but by the inflexible result of cause into effect1 wherein the present is ever determined by the past in an unbroken line of causation1 is indeed one of the world's most remarkable developments of ethical speculation4#cf ,within the classic world1 the ancient ,egyptians were described as maintaining a doctrine of migration1 whether by successive embodiments of the immortal soul through creatures of earth1 sea1 and air1 and back again to man1 or by the simpler judicial penalty which sent back the wicked dead to earth as unclean beasts4#cg ,the pictures and hieroglyphic sentences of the ,book of the ,dead1 however1 do not afford the necessary confirmation for these statements1 even the mystic transformations of the soul not being of the nature of transmigrations4 ,thus it seems that the theological centre whence the doctrine of moral metempsychosis may have spread over the ancient cultured religions1 must be sought elsewhere than in ,egypt4 ,in ,greek philosophy1 great teachers stood forth to proclaim the doctrine in a highly developed form4 ,plato had mythic knowledge to convey of souls entering such new incarnations as their glimpse of real existence had made them fit for1 from the body of a philosopher or a lover down to the body of a tyrant and usurper2 of souls transmigrating into beasts and rising again to man according to the lives they led2 of birds that were light-minded souls2 of oysters suffering in banishment the penalty of utter ignorance4 ,pythagoras is made to illustrate in his own person his doctrine of metempsychosis1 by recognizing where it hung in ,here's temple the shield he had carried in a former birth1 when he was that ,euphorbos whom ,menelaos slew at the siege of ,troy4 ,afterwards he was ,hermotimos1 the ,klazomenian prophet whose funeral rites were so prematurely celebrated while his soul was out1 and after that1 as ,lucian tells the story1 his prophetic soul passed into the body of a cock4 ,mikyllos asks this cock to tell him about ,troy--were things there really as ,homer said8 ,but the cock replies1 #8,how should ,homer have known1 ,o ,mikyllos8 ,when the ,trojan war was going on1 he was a camel in ,baktria6'#ch ,in the later ,jewish philosophy1 the ,kabbalists took up the doctrine of migration1 the gilgul or #8rolling on' of souls1 and maintained it by that characteristic method of ,biblical interpretation which it is good to hold up from time to time for a warning to the mystical interpreters of our own day4 ,the soul of ,adam passed into ,david1 and shall pass into the ,messiah1 for are not these initials in the very name of ,ad7a7m1 and does not ,ezekiel say that #8my servant ,david shall be their prince for ever4' ,cain's soul passed into ,jethro1 and ,abel's into ,moses1 and therefore it was that ,jethro gave ,moses his daughter to wife4 ,souls migrate into beasts and birds and vermin1 for is not ,jehovah #8the lord of the spirits of all flesh'8 and he who has done one sin beyond his good works shall pass into a brute4 ,he who gives a ,jew unclean meat to eat1 his soul shall enter into a leaf1 blown to and fro by the wind2 #8for ye shall be as an oak whose leaf fadeth2' and he who speaks ill words1 his soul shall pass into a dumb stone1 as did ,nabal's1 #8and he became a stone4'#ci ,within the range of ,christian influence the ,manichans appear as the most remarkable exponents of the metempsychosis4 ,we hear of their ideas of sinners' souls transmigrating into beasts1 the viler according to their crimes2 that he who kills a fowl or rat will become a fowl or rat himself2 that souls can pass into plants rooted in the ground1 which thus have not only life but sense2 that the souls of reapers pass into beans and barley1 to be cut down in their turn1 and thus the elect were careful to explain to the bread when they ate it1 that it was not they who reaped the corn it was made of2 that the souls of the auditors1 that is1 the spiritually low commonalty who lived a married life1 would pass into melons and cucumbers1 to finish their purification by being eaten by the elect4 ,but these details come to us from the accounts of bitter theological adversaries1 and the question is1 how much of them did the ,manichans really and soberly believe8 ,allowing for exaggeration and constructive imputation1 there is some reason to consider the account at least founded on fact4 ,the ,manichans appear to have recognized a wandering of imperfect souls1 whether or not their composite religion may with its ,zarathustrian and ,christian elements have also absorbed in so ,indian a shape the doctrine of purification of souls by migration into animals and plants4#dj ,in later times1 the doctrine of metempsychosis has been again and again noticed in a district of ,south-,western ,asia4 ,william of ,ruysbroek speaks of the notion of souls passing from body to body as general among the medival ,nestorians1 even a somewhat intelligent priest consulting him as to the souls of brutes1 whether they could find refuge elsewhere so as not to be compelled to labour after death4 ,rabbi ,benjamin of ,tudela records in the #abth century of the ,druses of ,mount ,hermon3 #8,they say that the soul of a virtuous man is transferred to the body of a new-born child1 whereas that of the vicious transmigrates into a dog1 or some other animal4' ,such ideas indeed1 seem not yet extinct in the modern ,druse nation4 ,among the ,nassairi1 also1 transmigration is believed in as a penance and purification3 we hear of migration of unbelievers into camels1 asses1 dogs1 or sheep1 of disobedient ,nassairi into ,jews1 ,sunnis1 or ,christians1 of the faithful into new bodies of their own people1 a few such changes of #8shirt' 7i4e4 body71 bringing them to enter paradise or become stars4#da ,an instance of the belief within the limits of modern ,christian ,europe may be found among the ,bulgarians1 whose superstition is that ,turks who have never eaten pork in life will become wild boars after death4 ,a party assembled to feast on a boar has been known to throw it all away1 for the meat jumped off the spit into the fire1 and a piece of cotton was found in the ears1 which the wise man decided to be a piece of the ci-devant ,turk's turban4#db ,such cases1 however1 are exceptional4 ,metempsychosis never became one of the great doctrines of ,christendom1 though not unknown in medival scholasticism1 and though maintained by an eccentric theologian here and there into our own times4 ,it would be strange were it not so4 ,it is in the very nature of the development of religion that speculations of the earlier culture should dwindle to survivals1 yet be again and again revived4 ,doctrines transmigrate1 if souls do not2 and metempsychosis1 wandering along the course of ages1 came at last to animate the souls of ,fourier and ,soame ,jenyns4#dc ,thus we have traced the theory of metempsychosis in stage after stage of the world's civilization1 scattered among the native races of ,america and ,africa1 established in the ,asiatic nations1 especially where elaborated by the ,hindu mind into its system of ethical philosophy1 rising and falling in classic and medival ,europe1 and lingering at last in the modern world as an intellectual crotchet1 of little account but to the ethnographer who notes it down as an item of evidence for his continuity of culture4 ,what1 we may well ask1 was the original cause and motive of the doctrine of transmigration8 ,something may be said in answer1 though not at all enough for full explanation4 ,the theory that ancestral souls return1 thus imparting their own likeness of mind and body to their descendants and kindred1 has been already mentioned and commended as in itself a very reasonable and philosophical hypothesis1 accounting for the phenomenon of family likeness going on from generation to generation4 ,but why should it have been imagined that men's souls could inhabit the bodies of beasts and birds8 ,as has been already pointed out1 savages not unreasonably consider the lower animals to have souls like their own1 and this state of mind makes the idea of a man's soul transmigrating into a beast's body at least seem possible4 ,but it does not actually suggest the idea4 ,the view stated in a previous chapter as to the origin of the conception of soul in general1 may perhaps help us here4 ,as it seems that the first conception of souls may have been that of the souls of men1 this being afterwards extended by analogy to the souls of animals1 plants1 c41 so it may seem that the original idea of transmigration was the straightforward and reasonable one of human souls being re-born in new human bodies1 where they are recognized by family likenesses in successive generations4 ,this notion may have been afterwards extended to take in re-birth in bodies of animals1 c4 ,there are some well-marked savage ideas which will fit with such a course of thought4 ,the half-human features and actions and characters of animals are watched with wondering sympathy by the savage1 as by the child4 ,the beast is the very incarnation of familiar qualities of man2 and such names as lion1 bear1 fox1 owl1 parrot1 viper1 worm1 when we apply them as epithets to men1 condense into a word some leading feature of a human life4 ,consistently with this1 we see in looking over details of savage transmigration that the creatures often have an evident fitness to the character of the human beings whose souls are to pass into them1 so that the savage philosopher's fancy of transferred souls offered something like an explanation of the likeness between beast and man4 ,this comes more clearly into view among the more civilized races who have worked out the idea of transmigration into ethical schemes of retribution1 where the appropriateness of the creatures chosen is almost as manifest to the modern critic as it could have been to the ancient believer4 ,perhaps the most graphic restoration of the state of mind in which the theological doctrine of metempsychosis was worked out in long-past ages1 may be found in the writings of a modern theologian whose spiritualism often follows to the extreme the intellectual tracks of the lower races4 ,in the spiritual world1 says ,emanuel ,swedenborg1 such persons as have opened themselves for the admission of the devil and acquired the nature of beasts1 becoming foxes in cunning1 c41 appear also at a distance in the proper shape of such beasts as they represent in disposition4#dd ,lastly1 one of the most notable points about the theory of transmigration is its close bearing upon a thought which lies very deep in the history of philosophy1 the development-theory of organic life in successive stages4 ,an elevation from the vegetable to the lower animal life1 and thence onward through the higher animals to man1 to say nothing of superhuman beings1 does not here require even a succession of distinct individuals1 but is brought by the theory of metempsychosis within the compass of the successive vegetable and animal lives of a single being4 ,here a few words may be said on a subject which cannot be left out of sight1 connecting as it does the two great branches of the doctrine of future existence1 but which it is difficult to handle in definite terms1 and much more to trace historically by comparing the views of lower and higher races4 ,this is the doctrine of a bodily renewal or resurrection4 ,to the philosophy of the lower races it is by no means necessary that the surviving soul should be provided with a new body1 for it seems itself to be of a filmy or vaporous corporeal nature1 capable of carrying on an independent existence like other corporeal creatures4 ,savage descriptions of the next world are often such absolute copies of this1 that it is scarcely possible to say whether the dead are or are not thought of as having bodies like the living2 and a few pieces of evidence of this class are hardly enough to prove the lower races to hold original and distinct doctrines of corporeal resurrection4#de ,again1 attention must be given to the practice1 so common among low and high races1 of preserving relics of the dead1 from mere morsels of bone up to whole mummified bodies4 ,it is well known that the departed soul is often thought apt to revisit the remains of the body1 as is seen in the well-known pictures of the ,egyptian funeral ritual4 ,but the preservation of these remains1 even where it thus involves a permanent connexion between body and soul1 does not necessarily approach more closely to a bodily resurrection4#df ,in discussing the closely allied doctrine of metempsychosis1 ,i have described the theory of the soul's transmigration into a new human body as asserting in fact an earthly resurrection4 ,from the same point of view1 a bodily resurrection in ,heaven or ,hades is technically a transmigration of the soul4 ,this is plain among the higher races1 in whose religion these doctrines take at once clearer definition and more practical import4 ,there are some distinct mentions of bodily resurrection in the ,rig ,veda3 the dead is spoken of as glorified1 putting on his body 7tanu72 and it is even promised that the pious man shall be born in the next world with his entire body 7sarvatan74 ,in ,brahminism and ,buddhism1 the re-births of souls in bodies to inhabit heavens and hells are simply included as particular cases of transmigration4 ,the doctrine of the resurrection appears far back in the religion of ,persia1 and is thence supposed to have passed into late ,jewish belief4#dg ,in early ,christianity1 the conception of bodily resurrection is developed with especial strength and fulness in the ,pauline doctrine4 ,for an explicit interpretation of this doctrine1 such as commended itself to the minds of later theologians1 it is instructive to cite the remarkable passage of ,origen1 where he speaks of #8corporeal matter1 of which matter1 in whatever quality placed1 the soul always has use1 now indeed carnal1 but afterwards indeed subtler and purer1 which is called spiritual4'#dh ,passing from these metaphysical doctrines of civilized theology1 we now take up a series of beliefs higher in practical moment1 and more clearly conceived in savage thought4 ,there may well have been1 and there may still be1 low races destitute of any belief in a ,future ,state4 ,nevertheless1 prudent ethnographers must often doubt accounts of such1 for this reason1 that the savage who declares that the dead live no more1 may merely mean to say that they are dead4 ,when the ,east ,african is asked what becomes of his buried ancestors1 the #8old people1' he can reply that #8they are ended1' yet at the same time he fully admits that their ghosts survive4#di ,in an account of the religious ideas of the ,zulus1 taken down from a native1 it is explicitly stated that ,unkulunkulu the ,old-,old-,one said that people #8were to die and never rise again1' and that he allowed them to #8die and rise no more4'#ej ,knowing so thoroughly as we now do the theology of the ,zulus1 whose ghosts not only survive in the under-world1 but are the very deities of the living1 we can put the proper sense to these expressions4 ,but without such information1 we might have mistaken them for denials of the soul's existence after death4 ,this objection may even apply to one of the most formal denials of a future life ever placed on record among an uncultured race1 a poem of the ,dinka tribe of the ,white ,nile1 concerning ,dendid the ,creator3-- #8,on the day when ,dendid made all things1 ,he made the sun2 ,and the sun comes forth1 goes down1 and comes again3 ,he made the moon2 ,and the moon comes forth1 goes down1 and comes again3 ,he made the stars2 ,and the stars come forth1 go down1 and come again3 ,he made man2 ,and man comes forth1 goes down into the ground1 and comes no more4' ,it is to be remarked1 however1 that the close neighbours of these ,dinka1 the ,bari1 believe that the dead do return to live again on earth1 and the question arises whether it is the doctrine of bodily resurrection1 or the doctrine of the surviving ghost-soul1 that the ,dinka poem denies4 ,the missionary ,kaufmann says that the ,dinka do not believe the immortality of the soul1 that they think it but a breath1 and with death all is over2 ,brun-,rollet's contrary authority goes to prove that they do believe in another life2 both leave it an open question whether they recognize the existence of surviving ghosts4#ea ,looking at the religion of the lower races as a whole1 we shall at least not be ill-advised in taking as one of its general and principal elements the doctrine of the soul's ,future ,life4 ,but here it is needful to explain1 to limit1 and to reserve1 lest modern theological ideas should lead us to misconstrue more primitive beliefs4 ,in such enquiries the phrase #8immortality of the soul' is to be avoided as misleading4 ,it is doubtful how far the lower psychology entertains at all an absolute conception of immortality1 for past and future fade soon into utter vagueness as the savage mind quits the present to explore them1 the measure of months and years breaks down even within the narrow span of human life1 and the survivor's thought of the soul of the departed dwindles and disappears with the personal memory that kept it alive4 ,the doctrine of the surviving soul may indeed be treated as common to all known races1 though its acceptance is not unanimous4 ,in savage as in civilized life1 dull and careless natures ignore a world to come as too far off1 while sceptical intellects are apt to reject its belief as wanting proof4 ,there are even statements on record of whole classes being formally excluded from future life4 ,this may be a matter of social pride4 ,in the ,tonga ,islands1 according to ,mariner1 it was held that the chiefs and nobles would live hereafter in the happy island of ,bolotu1 but that the souls of the common people would die with their bodies4 ,so ,captain ,john ,smith relates as to the belief of the ,virginians1 that the chiefs went after death beyond the sunset mountains1 there to dance and sing with their predecessors1 #8but the common people they suppose shall not live after death4' ,in the record of a missionary examination of the ,nicaraguans1 they are made to state their belief that if a man lived well1 his soul would ascend to dwell among the gods1 but if ill it would perish with the body1 and there would be an end of it4#eb ,none of these accounts1 however1 agree with what is known of the religion of kindred peoples1 ,polynesian1 ,algonquin1 or ,aztec4 ,but granted that the soul survives the death of the body1 instance after instance from the records of the lower culture shows this soul to be regarded as a mortal being1 liable like the body itself to accident and death4 ,the ,greenlanders pitied the poor souls who must pass in winter or in storm the dreadful mountain where the dead descend to reach the other world1 for then a soul is like to come to harm1 and die the other death where there is nothing left1 and this is to them the dolefullest thing of all4#ec ,thus the ,fijians tell of the fight which the ghost of a departed warrior must wage with the soul-killing ,samu and his brethren2 this is the contest for which the dead man is armed by burying the war-club with his corpse1 and if he conquers1 the way is open for him to the judgment-seat of ,ndengei1 but if he is wounded1 his doom is to wander among the mountains1 and if killed in the encounter he is cooked and eaten by ,samu and his brethren4 ,but the souls of unmarried ,fijians will not even survive to stand this wager of battle2 such try in vain to steal at low water round to the edge of the reef past the rocks where ,nangananga1 destroyer of wifeless souls1 sits laughing at their hopeless efforts1 and asking them if they think the tide will never flow again1 till at last the rising flood drives the shivering ghosts to the beach1 and ,nangananga dashes them in pieces on the great black stone1 as one shatters rotten firewood4#ed ,such1 again1 were the tales told by the ,guinea negroes of the life or death of departed souls4 ,either the great priest before whom they must appear after death would judge them1 sending the good in peace to a happy place1 but killing the wicked a second time with the club that stands ready before his dwelling2 or else the departed shall be judged by their god at the river of death1 to be gently wafted by him to a pleasant land if they have kept feasts and oaths and abstained from forbidden meats1 but if not1 to be plunged into the river by the god1 and thus drowned and buried in eternal oblivion4#ee ,even common water can drown a negro ghost1 if we may believe the missionary ,cavazzi's story of the ,matamba widows being ducked in the river or pond to drown off the souls of their departed husbands1 who might still be hanging about them1 clinging closest to the best-loved wives4 ,after this ceremony1 they went and married again4#ef ,from such details it appears that the conception of some souls suffering extinction at death or dying a second death1 a thought still as heretofore familiar to speculative theology1 is not unknown in the lower culture4 ,the soul1 as recognized in the philosophy of the lower races1 may be defined as an ethereal surviving being1 conceptions of which preceded and led up to the more transcendental theory of the immaterial and immortal soul1 which forms part of the theology of higher nations4 ,it is principally the ethereal surviving soul of early culture that has now to be studied in the religions of savages and barbarians and the folk-lore of the civilized world4 ,that this soul should be looked on as surviving beyond death is a matter scarcely needing elaborate argument4 ,plain experience is there to teach it to every savage2 his friend or his enemy is dead1 yet still in dream or open vision he sees the spectral form which is to his philosophy a real objective being1 carrying personality as it carries likeness4 ,this thought of the soul's continued existence is1 however1 but the gateway into a complex region of belief4 ,the doctrines which1 separate or compounded1 make up the scheme of future existence among particular tribes1 are principally these3 the theories of lingering1 wandering1 and returning ghosts1 and of souls dwelling on or below or above the earth in a spirit-world1 where existence is modelled upon the earthly life1 or raised to higher glory1 or placed under reversed conditions1 and lastly1 the belief in a division between happiness and misery of departed souls1 by a retribution for deeds done in life1 determined in a judgment after death4 #8,all argument is against it2 but all belief is for it1' said ,dr4 ,johnson of the apparition of departed spirits4 ,the doctrine that ghost-souls of the dead hover among the living is indeed rooted in the lowest levels of savage culture1 extends through barbaric life almost without a break1 and survives largely and deeply in the midst of civilization4 ,from the myriad details of travellers1 missionaries1 historians1 theologians1 spiritualists1 it may be laid down as an admitted opinion1 as wide in distribution as it is natural in thought1 that the two chief hunting-grounds of the departed soul are the scenes of its fleshly life and the burial place of its body4 ,as in ,north ,america the ,chickasaws believed that the spirits of the dead in their bodily shape moved about among the living in great joy2 as the ,aleutian islanders fancied the souls of the departed walking unseen among their kindred1 and accompanying them in their journeys by sea and land2 as ,africans think that souls of the dead dwell in their midst1 and eat with them at meal times2 as ,chinese pay their respects to kindred spirits present in the hall of ancestors2#eg so multitudes in ,europe and ,america live in an atmosphere that swarms with ghostly shapes--spirits of the dead1 who sit over against the mystic by his midnight fire1 rap and write in spirit-circles1 and peep over girls' shoulders as they scare themselves into hysterics with ghost-stories4 ,almost throughout the vast range of animistic religion1 we shall find the souls of the departed hospitably entertained by the survivors on set occasions1 and manes-worship1 so deep and strong among the faiths of the world1 recognizes with a reverence not without fear and trembling those ancestral spirits which1 powerful for good or ill1 manifest their presence among mankind4 ,nevertheless death and life dwell but ill together1 and from savagery onward there is recorded many a device by which the survivors have sought to rid themselves of household ghosts4 ,though the unhappy savage custom of deserting houses after a decease may often be connected with other causes1 such as horror or abnegation of all things belonging to the dead1 there are cases where it appears that the place is simply abandoned to the ghost4 ,in ,old ,calabar it was customary for the son to leave his fathers' house to decay1 but after two years he might rebuild it1 the ghost being thought by that time to have departed2#eh the ,hottentots abandoned the dead man's house1 and were said to avoid entering it lest the ghost should be within2#ei the ,yakuts let the hut fall in ruins where any one had expired1 thinking it the habitation of demons2#fj the ,karens were said to destroy their villages to escape the dangerous neighbourhood of departed souls4#fa ,such proceedings1 however1 scarcely extend beyond the limits of barbarism1 and only a feeble survival of the old thought lingers on into civilization1 where from time to time a haunted house is left to fall in ruins1 abandoned to a ghostly tenant who cannot keep it in repair4 ,but even in the lowest culture we find flesh holding its own against spirit1 and at higher stages the householder rids himself with little scruple of an unwelcome inmate4 ,the ,greenlanders would carry the dead out by the window1 not by the door1 while an old woman1 waving a firebrand behind1 cried #8piklerrukpok6' i4e41 #8there is nothing more to be had here6'2#fb the ,hottentots removed the dead from the hut by an opening broken out on purpose1 to prevent him from finding the way back2#fc the ,siamese1 with the same intention1 break an opening through the house wall to carry the coffin through1 and then hurry it at full speed thrice round the house2#fd in ,russia the ,chuwashes fling a red-hot stone after the corpse is carried out1 for an obstacle to bar the soul from coming back2#fe so ,brandenburg peasants pour out a pail of water at the door after the coffin1 to prevent the ghost from walking2 and ,pomeranian mourners returning from the churchyard leave behind the straw from the hearse that the wandering soul may rest there1 and not come back so far as home4#ff ,in the ancient and medival world1 men habitually invoked supernatural aid beyond such material shifts as these1 calling in the priest to lay or banish intruding ghosts1 nor is this branch of the exorcist's art even yet forgotten4 ,there is1 and always has been1 a prevalent feeling that disembodied souls1 especially such as have suffered a violent or untimely death1 are baneful and malicious beings4 ,as ,meiners suggests in his #8,history of ,religions1' they were driven unwillingly from their bodies1 and have carried into their new existence an angry longing for revenge4 ,no wonder that mankind should so generally agree that if the souls of the dead must linger in the world at all1 their fitting abode should be not the haunts of the living but the resting-places of the dead4 ,after all1 it scarcely seems to the lower animistic philosophy that the connexion between body and soul is utterly broken by death4 ,various wants may keep the soul from its desired rest1 and among the chief of these is when its mortal remains have not had the funeral rites4 ,hence the deep-lying belief that the ghosts of such will walk4 ,among some ,australian tribes the #8ingna1' or evil spirits1 human in shape1 but with long tails and long upright ears1 are mostly souls of departed natives1 whose bodies were left to lie unburied or whose death the avenger of blood did not expiate1 and thus they have to prowl on the face of the earth1 and about the place of death1 with no gratification but to harm the living4#fg ,in ,new ,zealand1 the ideas were to be found that the souls of the dead were apt to linger near the bodies1 and that the spirits of men left unburied or killed in battle and eaten1 would wander2 and the bringing such malignant souls to dwell within the sacred burial-enclosure was a task for the priest to accomplish with his charms4#fh ,among the ,iroquois of ,north ,america the spirit also stays near the body for a time1 and #8unless the rites of burial were performed1 it was believed that the spirits of the dead hovered for a time upon the earth1 in a state of great unhappiness4 ,hence their extreme solicitude to procure the bodies of the slain in battle4'#fi ,among ,brazilian tribes1 the wandering shadows of the dead are said to be considered unresting till burial4#gj ,in ,turanian regions of ,north ,asia1 the spirits of the dead who have no resting-place in earth are thought of as lingering above ground1 especially where their dust remains4#ga ,south ,asia has such beliefs3 the ,karens say that the ghosts who wander on earth are not the spirits of those who go to ,plu1 the land of the dead1 but of infants1 of such as died by violence1 of the wicked1 and of those who by accident have not been buried or burned2#gb the ,siamese fear as unkindly spirits the souls of such as died a violent death or were not buried with the proper rites1 and who desiring expiation1 invisibly terrify their descendants4#gc ,nowhere in the world had such thoughts a stronger hold than in classic antiquity1 where it was the most sacred of duties to give the body its funeral rites1 that the shade should not flit moaning near the gates of ,hades1 nor wander in the dismal crowd along the banks of ,acheron4#gd ,an ,australian or a ,karen would have taken in the full significance of the fatal accusation against the ,athenian commanders1 that they abandoned the bodies of their dead in the sea-fight of ,arginousai4 ,the thought is not unknown to ,slavonic folk-lore3 #8,ha6 with the shriek the spirit flutters from the mouth1 flies up to the tree1 from tree to tree1 hither and thither till the dead is burned4'#ge ,in medival ,europe the classic stories of ghosts that haunt the living till laid by rites of burial pass here and there into new legends1 where1 under a changed dispensation1 the doleful wanderer now asks ,christian burial in consecrated earth4#gf ,it is needless to give here elaborate details of the world-wide thought that when the corpse is buried1 exposed1 burned1 or otherwise disposed of after the accepted custom of the land1 the ghost accompanies its relics4 ,the soul stays near the ,polynesian or the ,american ,indian burial-place2 it dwells among the twigs and listens joyfully to the singing birds in the trees where ,siberian tribes suspend their dead2 it lingers by the ,samoyed's scaffolded coffin2 it haunts the ,dayak's place of burial or burning2 it inhabits the little soul-hut above the ,malagasy grave1 or the ,peruvian house of sun-dried bricks2 it is deposited in the ,roman tomb 7animamque sepulchro condimus72 it comes back for judgment into the body of the later ,israelite and the ,moslem2 it inhabits1 as a divine ancestral spirit1 the palace-tombs of the old classic and new ,asiatic world2 it is kept down by the huge cairn raised over ,antar's body lest his mighty spirit should burst forth1 by the iron nails with which the ,cheremiss secures the corpse in its coffin1 by the stake that pins down the suicide's body at the four-cross way4 ,and through all the changes of religious thought from first to last in the course of human history1 the hovering ghosts of the dead make the midnight burial-ground a place where men's flesh creeps with terror4 ,not to discuss here the general subject of funeral rites of mankind1 of which only part of the multifarious details are directly relevant to the present purpose1 a custom may be selected which is admirably adapted for the study of animistic religion1 at once from the clear conception it gives of the belief in disembodied souls present among the living1 and from the distinct line of ethnographic continuity in which it may be traced onward from the lower to the higher culture4 ,this is the custom of ,feasts of the ,dead4 ,among the funeral offerings described in the last chapter of which the purpose more or less distinctly appears to be that the departed soul shall take them away in some ghostly or ideal manner1 or that they shall by some means be conveyed to him in his distant spirit-home1 there are given supplies of food and drink4 ,but the feasts of the dead with which we are now concerned are given on a different principle2 they are1 so to speak1 to be consumed on the premises4 ,they are set out in some proper place1 especially near the tombs or in the dwelling-houses1 and there the souls of the dead come and satisfy themselves4 ,in ,north ,america1 among ,algonquins who held that one of a man's two souls abides with the body after death1 the provisions brought to the grave were intended for the nourishment of this soul2 tribes would make offerings to ancestors of part of any dainty food1 and an ,indian who fell by accident into the fire would believe that the spirits of his ancestors pushed him in for neglecting to make due offerings4#gg ,the minds of the ,hurons were filled with fancies not less lifelike than this4 ,it seemed to them that the dead man's soul1 in his proper human figure1 walked in front of the corpse as they carried it to the burial-ground1 there to dwell till the great feast of the dead2 but meanwhile it would come and walk by night in the village1 and eat the remnants in the kettles1 wherefore some would not eat of these1 nor touch the food at funeral feasts--though some indeed would eat all4#gh ,in ,madagascar1 the elegant little upper chamber in ,king ,radama's mausoleum was furnished with a table and two chairs1 and a bottle of wine1 a bottle of water1 and two tumblers were placed there conformably with the ideas entertained by most of the natives1 that the ghost of the departed monarch might occasionally visit the resting-place of his body1 meet with the spirit of his father1 and partake of what he was known to be fond of in his lifetime4#gi ,the ,wanika of ,east ,africa set a coco-nut shell full of rice and tembo near the grave for the #8koma' or shade1 which cannot exist without food and drink4#hj ,in ,west ,africa the ,efik cook food and leave it on the table in the little shed or #8devil-house' near the grave1 and thither not only the spirit of the deceased1 but the spirits of the slaves sacrificed at his funeral1 come to partake of it4#ha ,farther south1 in the ,congo district1 the custom has been described of making a channel into the tomb to the head or mouth of the corpse1 whereby to send down month by month the offerings of food and drink4#hb ,among rude ,asiatic tribes1 the ,bodo of ,north-,east ,india thus celebrate the last funeral rites4 ,the friends repair to the grave1 and the nearest of kin to the deceased1 taking an individual's usual portion of food and drink1 solemnly presents it to the dead with these words1 #8,take and eat1 heretofore you have eaten and drunk with us1 you can do so no more2 you were one of us1 you can be so no longer2 we come no more to you1 come you not to us4' ,thereupon each of the party breaks off a bracelet of thread put on his wrist for this purpose1 and casts it on the grave1 a speaking symbol of breaking the bond of fellowship1 and #8next the party proceed to the river and bathe1 and having thus lustrated themselves1 they repair to the banquet and eat1 drink1 and make merry as though they never were to die4'#hc ,with more continuance of affection1 ,naga tribes of ,assam celebrate their funeral feasts month by month1 laying food and drink on the graves of the departed4#hd ,in the same region of the world1 the ,kol tribes of ,chota ,nagpur are remarkable for their pathetic reverence for their dead4 ,when a ,ho or ,munda has been burned on the funeral pile1 collected morsels of his bones are carried in procession with a solemn1 ghostly1 sliding step1 keeping time to the deep-sounding drum1 and when the old woman who carries the bones on her bamboo tray lowers it from time to time1 then girls who carry pitchers and brass vessels mournfully reverse them to show that they are empty2 thus the remains are taken to visit every house in the village1 and every dwelling of a friend or relative for miles1 and the inmates come out to mourn and praise the goodness of the departed2 the bones are carried to all the dead man's favourite haunts1 to the fields he cultivated1 to the grove he planted1 to the threshing-floor where he worked1 to the village dance-room where he made merry4 ,at last they are taken to the grave1 and buried in an earthen vase upon a store of food1 covered with one of those huge stone slabs which ,european visitors wonder at in the districts of the aborigines in ,india4 ,besides these1 monumental stones are set up outside the village to the memory of men of note2 they are fixed on an earthen plinth1 where the ghost1 resting in its walks among the living1 is supposed to sit shaded by the pillar4 ,the ,kheriahs have collections of these monuments in the little enclosures round their houses1 and offerings and libations are constantly made at them4 ,with what feelings such rites are celebrated may be judged from this ,ho dirge3-- #8,we never scolded you2 never wronged you2 ,come to us back6 ,we ever loved and cherished you2 and have lived long together ,under the same roof2 ,desert it not now6 ,the rainy nights1 and the cold blowing days1 are coming on2 ,do not wander here6 ,do not stand by the burnt ashes2 come to us again6 ,you cannot find shelter under the peepul1 when the rain comes down4 ,the saul will not shield you from the cold bitter wind4 ,come to your home6 ,it is swept for you1 and clean2 and we are there who loved you ever2 ,and there is rice put for you2 and water2 ,come home1 come home1 come to us again6' ,among the ,kol tribes this kindly hospitality to ancestral souls passes on into the belief and ceremony of full manes-worship3 votive offerings are made to the #8old folks' when their descendants go on a journey1 and when there is sickness in the family it is generally they who are first propitiated4#he ,among ,turanian races1 the ,chuwash put food and napkins on the grave1 saying1 #8,rise at night and eat your fill1 and there ye have napkins to wipe your mouths6' while the ,cheremiss simply said1 #8,that is for you1 ye dead1 there ye have food and drink6' ,in this ,tatar region we hear of offerings continued year after year1 and even of messengers sent back by a horde to carry offerings to the tombs of their forefathers in the old land whence they had emigrated4#hf ,details of this ancient rite are to be traced from the level of these rude races far upward in civilization4 ,south-,east ,asia is full of it1 and the ,chinese may stand as its representative4 ,he keeps his coffined parent for years1 serving him with meals as if alive4 ,he summons ancestral souls with prayer and beat of drum to feed on the meat and drink set out on special days when they are thought to return home4 ,he even gives entertainments for the benefit of destitute and unfortunate souls in the lower regions1 such as those of lepers and beggars4 ,lanterns are lighted to show them the way1 a feast is spread for them1 and with characteristic fancy1 some victuals are left over for any blind or feeble spirits who may be late1 and a pail of gruel is provided for headless souls1 with spoons for them to put it down their throats with4 ,such proceedings culminate in the so-called ,universal ,rescue1 now and then celebrated1 when a little house is built for the expected visitors1 with separate accommodation and bath-rooms for male and female ghosts4#hg ,the ancient ,egyptian would set out his provision of cakes and trussed ducks on reed scaffolds in the tomb1 or would even keep the mummy in the house to be present as a guest at the feast1 1 as ,lucian says4#hh ,the ,hindu1 as of old1 offers to the dead the funeral cakes1 places before the door the earthen vessels of water for him to bathe in1 of milk for him to drink1 and celebrates at new and full moon the solemn presentation of rice-cakes made with ghee1 with its attendant ceremonies so important for the soul's release from its twelvemonth's sojourn with ,yama in ,hades1 and its transition to the ,heaven of the ,pitaras1 the ,fathers4#hi ,in the classic world such rites were represented by funeral feasts and oblations of food4#ij ,in ,christian times there manifests itself that interesting kind of survival which1 keeping up the old ceremony in form1 has adapted its motive to new thoughts and feelings4 ,the classic funeral oblations became ,christian1 the silicernium was succeeded by the feast held at the martyr's tomb4 ,faustus inveighs against the ,christians for carrying on the ancient rites3 #8,their sacrifices indeed ye have turned into love-feasts1 their idols into martyrs whom with like vows ye worship2 ye appease the shades of the dead with wine and meals1 ye celebrate the ,gentiles' solemn days with them1 such as calends and solstices1--of their life certainly ye have changed nought1'#ia and so forth4 ,the story of ,monica shows how the custom of laying food on the tomb for the manes passed into the ceremony1 like to it in form1 of setting food and drink to be sanctified by the sepulchre of a ,christian saint4 ,saint-,foix1 who wrote in the time of ,louis ,,xiv41 has left us an account of the ceremonial after the death of a ,king of ,france1 during the forty days before the funeral when his wax effigy lay in state4 ,they continued to serve him at meal-times as though still alive1 the officers laid the table1 and brought the dishes1 the matre d'htel handed the napkin to the highest lord present to be presented to the king1 a prelate blessed the table1 the basins of water were handed to the royal arm-chair1 the cup was served in its due course1 and grace was said in the accustomed manner1 save that there was added to it the ,de ,profundis4#ib ,spaniards still offer bread and wine on the tombs of those they love1 on the anniversary of their decease4#ic ,the conservative ,eastern ,church still holds to ancient rite4 ,the funeral feast is served in ,russia1 with its tables for the beggars1 laden with fish pasties and bowls of shchi and jugs of kvas1 its more delicate dinner for friends and priests1 its incense and chants of #8everlasting remembrance'2 and even the repetition of the festival on the ninth1 and twentieth1 and fortieth day are not forgotten4 ,the offerings of saucers of kutiya or kolyvo are still made in the church2 this used to be of parboiled wheat and was deposited over the body1 it is now made of boiled rice and raisins1 sweetened with honey4 ,in their usual mystic fashion1 the ,orthodox ,christians now explain away into symbolism this remnant of primitive offering to the dead3 the honey is heavenly sweetness1 the shrivelled raisins will be full beauteous grapes1 the grain typifies the resurrection1 #8that which thou sowest is not quickened except it die4'#id ,in the calendar of many a people1 differing widely as they may in race and civilization1 there are to be found special yearly festivals of the dead4 ,their rites are much the same as those performed on other days for individuals2 their season differs in different districts1 but seems to have particular associations with harvest-time and the fall of the year1 and with the year's end as reckoned at midwinter or in early spring4#ie ,the ,karens make their annual offerings to the dead in the #8month of shades1' that is1 ,december2#if the ,kocch of ,north ,bengal every year at harvest-home offer fruits and a fowl to deceased parents2#ig the ,barea of ,east ,africa celebrate in ,november the feast of ,thiyot1 at once a feast of general peace and merry-making1 of thanksgiving for the harvest1 and of memorial for the deceased1 for each of whom a little pot-full of beer is set out two days1 to be drunk at last by the survivors2#ih in ,west ,africa we hear of the feast of the dead at the time of yam-harvest2#ii at the end of the year the ,haitian negroes take food to the graves for the shades to eat1 #8manger zombi1' as they say4#ajj ,the ,roman ,feralia and ,lemuralia were held in ,february and ,may4#aja ,in the last five or ten days of their year the ,zoroastrians hold their feasts for departed relatives1 when souls come back to the world to visit the living1 and receive from them offerings of food and clothing4#ajb ,the custom of setting empty seats at the ,st4 ,john's ,eve feast1 for the departed souls of kinsfolk1 is said to have lasted on in ,europe to the seventeenth century4 ,spring is the season of the time-honoured ,slavonic rite of laying food on the graves of the dead4 ,the ,bulgarians hold a feast in the cemetery on ,palm ,sunday1 and1 after much eating and drinking1 leave the remains upon the graves of their friends1 who1 they are persuaded1 will eat them during the night4 ,in ,russia such scenes may still be watched on the two appointed days called ,parents' ,days4 ,the higher classes have let the rite sink to prayer at the graves of lost relatives1 and giving alms to the beggars who flock to the cemeteries4 ,but the people still #8howl' for the dead1 and set out on their graves a handkerchief for a tablecloth1 with gingerbread1 eggs1 curd-tarts1 and even vodka1 on it2 when the weeping is over1 they eat up the food1 especially commemorating the dead in ,russian manner by partaking of his favourite dainty1 and if he were fond of a glass1 the vodka is sipped with the ejaculation1 #8,the ,kingdom of ,heaven be his6 ,he loved a drink1 the deceased6'#ajc ,when ,odilo1 ,abbot of ,cluny1 at the end of the tenth century1 instituted the celebration of ,all ,souls' ,day 7,november #b71ajd he set on foot one of those revivals which have so often given the past a new lease of life4 ,the ,western ,church at large took up the practice1 and round it there naturally gathered surviving remnants of the primitive rite of banquets to the dead4 ,the accusation against the early ,christians1 that they appeased the shades of the dead with feasts like the ,gentiles1 would not be beside the mark now1 fifteen hundred years later4 ,on the eve of ,all ,souls' begins1 within the limits of ,christendom1 a commemoration of the dead which combines some touches of pathetic imagination with relics of savage animism scarcely to be surpassed in ,africa or the ,south ,sea ,islands4 ,in ,italy the day is given to feasting and drinking in honour of the dead1 while skulls and skeletons in sugar and paste form appropriate children's toys4 ,in ,tyrol1 the poor souls released from purgatory fire for the night may come and smear their burns with the melted fat of the #8soul light' on the hearth1 or cakes are left for them on the table1 and the room is kept warm for their comfort4 ,even in ,paris the souls of the departed come to partake of the food of the living4 ,in ,brittany the crowd pours into the churchyard at evening1 to kneel bareheaded at the graves of dead kinsfolk1 to fill the hollow of the tombstone with holy water1 or to pour libations of milk upon it4 ,all night the church bells clang1 and sometimes a solemn procession of the clergy goes round to bless the graves4 ,in no household that night is the cloth removed1 for the supper must be left for the souls to come and take their part1 nor must the fire be put out1 where they will come to warm themselves4 ,and at last1 as the inmates retire to rest1 there is heard at the door a doleful chant--it is the souls1 who1 borrowing the voices of the parish poor1 have come to ask the prayers of the living4#aje ,if we ask how the spirits of the dead are in general supposed to feed on the viands set before them1 we come upon difficult questions1 which will be met with again in discussing the theory of sacrifice4 ,even where the thought is certainly that the departed soul eats1 this thought may be very indefinite1 with far less of practical intention in it than of childish make-believe4 ,now and then1 however1 the sacrificers themselves offer closer definitions of their meaning4 ,the idea of the ghost actually devouring the material food is not unexampled4 ,thus1 in ,north ,america1 ,algonquin ,indians considered that the shadow-like souls of the dead can still eat and drink1 often even telling ,father ,le ,jeune that they had found in the morning meat gnawed in the night by the souls4 ,more recently1 we read that some ,potawatomis will leave off providing the supply of food at the grave if it lies long untouched1 it being concluded that the dead no longer wants it1 but has found a rich hunting-ground in the other world4#ajf ,in ,africa1 again1 ,father ,cavazzi records of the ,congo people furnishing their dead with supplies of provisions1 that they could not be persuaded that souls did not consume material food4#ajg ,in ,europe the ,esths1 offering food for the dead on ,all ,souls'1 are said to have rejoiced if they found in the morning that any of it was gone4#ajh ,a less gross conception is that the soul consumes the steam or savour of the food1 or its essence or spirit4 ,it is said to have been with such purpose that the ,maoris placed food by the dead man's side1 and some also with him in the grave4#aji ,the idea is well displayed among the natives in ,mexican districts1 where the souls who came to the annual feast are described as hovering over and smelling the food set out for them1 or sucking out its nutritive quality4#aaj ,the ,hindu entreats the manes to quaff the sweet essence of the offered food2 thinking on them1 he slowly sets the dish of rice before the ,brahmans1 and while they silently eat the hot food1 the ancestral spirits take their part of the feast4#aaa ,at the old ,slavonic meals for the dead1 we read of the survivors sitting in silence and throwing morsels under the table1 fancying that they could hear the spirits rustle1 and see them feed on the smell and steam of the viands4 ,one account describes the mourners at the funeral banquet inviting in the departed soul thought to be standing outside the door1 and every guest throwing morsels and pouring drink under the table1 for him to refresh himself4 ,what lay on the ground was not picked up1 but was left for friendless and kinless souls4 ,when the meal was over1 the priest rose from table1 swept out the house1 and hunted out the souls of the dead #8like fleas1' with these words1 #8,ye have eaten and drunken1 souls1 now go1 now go6'#aab ,many travellers have described the imagination with which the ,chinese make such offerings4 ,it is that the spirits of the dead consume the impalpable essence of the food1 leaving behind its coarse material substance1 wherefore the dutiful sacrificers1 having set out sumptuous feasts for ancestral souls1 allow them a proper time to satisfy their appetite1 and then fall to themselves4#aac ,the ,jesuit ,father ,christoforo ,borri suggestively translates the native idea into his own scholastic phraseology4 ,in ,cochin ,china1 according to him1 people believed #8that the souls of the dead have need of corporeal sustenance and maintenance1 wherefore several times a year1 according to their custom1 they make splendid and sumptuous banquets1 children to their deceased parents1 husbands to their wives1 friends to their friends1 waiting a long while for the dead guest to come and sit down at table to eat4' ,the missionaries argued against this proceeding1 but were met by ridicule of their ignorance1 and the reply #8that there were two things in the food1 one the substance1 and the other the accidents of quantity1 quality1 smell1 taste1 and the like4 ,the immaterial souls of the dead1 taking for themselves the substance of the food1 which being immaterial is food suited to the incorporeal soul1 left only in the dishes the accidents which corporeal senses perceive2 for this the dead had no need of corporeal instruments1 as we have said4' ,thereupon the ,jesuit proceeds to remark1 as to the prospect of conversion of these people1 #8it may be judged from the distinction they make between the accidents and the substance of the food which they prepare for the dead1' that it will not be very difficult to prove to them the mystery of the ,eucharist4#aad ,now to peoples among whom prevails the rite of feasts of the dead1 whether they offer the food in mere symbolic pretence1 or whether they consider the souls really to feed on it in this spiritual way 7as well as in the cases inextricably mixed up with these1 where the offering is spiritually conveyed away to the world of spirits71 it can be of little consequence what becomes of the gross material food4 ,when the ,kafir sorcerer1 in cases of sickness1 declares that the shades of ancestors demand a particular cow1 the beast is slaughtered and left shut up for a time for the shades to eat1 or for its spirit to go to the land of shades1 and then is taken out to be eaten by the sacrificers4#aae ,so1 in more civilized ,japan1 when the survivors have placed their offering of unboiled rice and water in a hollow made for the purpose in a stone of the tomb1 it seems to them no matter that the poor or the birds really carry off the grain4#aaf ,such rites as these are especially exposed to dwindle in survival4 ,the offerings of meals and feasts to the dead may be traced at their last stage into mere traditional ceremonies1 at most tokens of affectionate remembrance of the dead1 or works of charity to the living4 ,the ,roman ,feralia in ,ovid's time were a striking example of such transition1 for while the idea was recognized that the ghosts fed upon the offerings1 #8nunc posito pascitur umbra cibo1' yet there were but #8parva munera1' fruits and grains of salt1 and corn soaked in wine1 set out for their meal in the middle of the road4 #8,little the manes ask1 the pious thought stands instead of the rich gift1 for ,styx holds no greedy gods3'-- #8,parva petunt manes4 ,pietas pro divite grata est ,munere4 ,non avidos ,styx habet ima deos4 ,tegula porrectis satis est velata coronis1 ,et sparsae fruges1 parcaque mica salis1 ,inque mero mollita ceres1 violaeque solutae3 ,haec habeat media testa relicta via4 ,nec majora veto4 ,sed et his placabilis umbra est4'#aag ,still farther back1 in old ,chinese history1 ,confucius had been called on to give an opinion as to the sacrifices to the dead4 ,maintainer of all ancient rites as he was1 he stringently kept up this1 #8he sacrificed to the dead as if they were present1' but when he was asked if the dead had knowledge of what was done or no1 he declined to answer the question2 for if he replied yes1 then dutiful descendants would injure their substance by sacrifices1 and if no1 then undutiful children would leave their parents unburied4 ,the evasion was characteristic of the teacher who expressed his theory of worship in this maxim1 #8to give oneself earnestly to the duties due to men1 and1 while respecting spiritual beings1 to keep aloof from them1 may be called wisdom4' ,it is said that in our own time the ,taepings have made a step beyond ,confucius2 they have forbidden the sacrifices to the spirits of the dead1 yet keep up the rite of visiting their tombs on the customary day1 for prayer and the renewal of vows4#aah ,how funeral offerings may pass into commemorative banquets and feasts to the poor1 has been shown already4 ,if we seek in ,england for vestiges of the old rite of funeral sacrifice1 we may find a lingering survival into modern centuries1 doles of bread and drink given to the poor at funerals1 and #8soul-mass cakes' which peasant girls perhaps to this day beg for at farmhouses with the traditional formula1 #8,soul1 soul1 for a soul cake1 ,pray you1 mistress1 a soul cake4'#aai ,were it not for our knowledge of the intermediate stages through which these fragments of old custom have come down1 it would seem far-fetched indeed to trace their origin back to the savage and barbaric times of the institution of feasts of departed souls4 ,footnote #a3 ,brebeuf in #8,rel4 des ,js4 dans la ,nouvelle ,france1' #afcf1 p4 #acj2 ,charlevoix1 #8,nouvelle ,france1' vol4 vi4 p4 #ge4 ,see ,brinton1 p4 #bec4 ,footnote #b3 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aie1 see p4 #bac4 ,morse1 #8,report on ,indian ,affairs1' p4 #cde4 ,footnote #c3 ,mayne1 #8,british ,columbia1' p4 #aha4 ,footnote #d3 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' pp4 #bdh1 #beh1 see p4 #bab4 ,see also ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #cec2 ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #gic4 ,footnote #e3 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #bh4 ,footnote #f3 ,bastian1 #8,zur vergl4 ,psychologie1' in ,lazarus and ,steinthal's #8,zeitschrift1' vol4 v4 p4 #afj1 c41 also ,papuas and other races4 ,footnote #g3 ,burton1 #8,w4 ,w4 fr4 ,w4 ,afr4' p4 #cgf4 ,footnote #h3 ,krapf1 #8,e4 ,afr4' p4 #bja4 ,footnote #i3 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr4' p4 #baj2 see also ,r4 ,clarke1 #8,sierra ,leone1' p4 #aei4 ,footnote #aj3 ,bastian1 l4 c4 ,footnote #aa3 ,macpherson1 p4 #gb2 also ,tickell in #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1' vol4 ix4 pp4 #gic1 c42 ,dalton in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vi4 p4 #bb 7similar rite of ,mundas and ,oraons74 ,footnote #ab3 ,klemm1 #8,c4 ,g4' vol4 iii4 p4 #gg2 ,k4 ,leems1 #8,lapper1' c4 xiv4 ,footnote #ac3 ,r4 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #bhd2 see ,shortland1 #8,traditions1' p4 #ade2 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #cec2 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bgi2 see also p4 #bgf 7,samoyeds74 ,compare ,charlevoix1 #8,nouvelle ,france1' vol4 v4 p4 #dbf2 ,steller1 #8,kamtschatka1' p4 #cec2 ,kracheninnikow1 ii4 #aag4 ,see ,plath1 #8,rel4 der alten ,chinesen1' ii4 p4 #ih4 ,footnote #ad3 ,grey1 #8,australia1' vol4 i4 p4 #cja1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cfc 7native's accusation against some foreign sailors who had assaulted him1 #8djanga ,taal-wurt kyle-gut bomb-gur1'--#8one of the dead struck ,taal-wurt under the ear1' c4 ,the word djanga the dead1 the spirits of deceased persons 7see ,grey1 #8,vocab4 of ,s4 ,w4 ,australia'71 had come to be the usual term for a ,european74 ,lang1 #8,queensland1' pp4 #cd1 #ccf2 ,bonwick1 #8,tasmanians1' p4 #ahc2 ,scherzer1 #8,voy4 of ,novara1' vol4 iii4 p4 #cd2 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #bbb1 #8,mensch1' vol4 iii4 pp4 #cfb-c1 and in ,lazarus and ,steinthal's #8,zeitschrift1' l4 c42 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #dbd4 ,footnote #ae3 ,rmer1 #8,guinea1' p4 #he2 ,brun-,rollet1 #8,nil ,blanc1' c4 p4 #bcd4 ,footnote #af3 ,sproat1 #8,savage ,life1' ch4 xviii41 xix41 xxi4 ,souls of the dead appear in dreams1 either in human or animal forms1 p4 #agd4 ,see also ,brinton1 p4 #ade4 ,footnote #ag3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part iii4 p4 #aac4 ,footnote #ah3 ,hayes1 #8,arctic ,boat ,journey1' p4 #aih4 ,footnote #ai3 ,brinton1 #8,myths of ,new ,world1' p4 #ajb4 ,footnote #bj3 ,brebeuf in #8,rel4 des ,js4' #afcf1 p4 #ajd4 ,footnote #ba3 ,morgan1 #8,iroquois1' p4 #agd4 ,footnote #bb3 ,clavigero1 #8,messico1' vol4 ii4 p4 #e4 ,footnote #bc3 ,martius1 #8,ethnog4 ,amer4' vol4 i4 p4 #fjb2 ,markham in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #aie4 ,footnote #bd3 ,dobrizhoffer1 #8,abipones1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #gd1 #bgj4 ,footnote #be3 ,coreal in ,brinton1 l4 c4 ,see also ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 pp4 #aci 7,natchez71 #bbc 7,caribs71 #djb 7,peru74 ,footnote #bf3 ,chom in #8,lettres ,edif4' vol4 viii42 see also ,martius1 vol4 i4 p4 #ddf4 ,footnote #bg3 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dai 7,maravi74 ,footnote #bh3 ,callaway1 #8,rel4 of ,amazulu1' p4 #aif1 c42 ,arbousset and ,daumas1 p4 #bcg4 ,footnote #bi3 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr4' pp4 #baj1 #bah4 ,see also ,brun-,rollet1 pp4 #bjj1 #bcd2 ,meiners1 vol4 i4 p4 #baa4 ,footnote #cj3 ,steinhauser in #8,mag4 der ,evang4 ,miss4' ,basel1 #ahef1 ,no4 #b1 p4 #ace4 ,footnote #ca3 ,manu1 xi4 xii4 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 i4 p4 #afd1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bae1 #cdg-eb4 ,footnote #cb3 ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 p4 #aha2 ,perelaer1 #8,ethnog4 ,beschr4 der ,dajaks1' p4 #ag4 ,footnote #cc3 ,hunter1 #8,rural ,bengal1' p4 #baj4 ,see also ,shaw in #8,as4 ,res4' vol4 iv4 p4 #df 7,rajmahal tribes74 ,footnote #cd3 ,abraham ,roger1 #8,la ,porte ,ouverte1' ,amst4 #afgj1 p4 #ajg4 ,footnote #ce3 ,manu1 xii4 #i3 #8arrajaih karmmadoshaih yti sthvaratm narah'--#8for crimes done in the body1 the man goes to the inert 7motionless7 state2' xii4 #db1 #8sthvarh krimaktcha matsyh sarph sakachhaph paavacha mrigaschaiva jaghany tmas gatih'--#8inert 7motionless7 things1 worms and insects1 fish1 serpents1 tortoises and beasts and deer also are the last dark form4' ,footnote #cf3 ,kppen1 #8,religion des ,buddha1' vol4 i4 pp4 #ce1 #bhi1 c41 #cah2 ,barthlemy ,saint-,hilaire1 #8,le ,bouddha et sa ,religion1' p4 #abb2 ,hardy1 #8,manual of ,budhism1' pp4 #ih1 c41 #ahj1 #cah1 #dde1 c4 ,footnote #cg3 ,herod4 ii4 #abc1 see ,rawlinson's ,tr42 ,plutarch4 ,de ,iside #ca1 #gb2 ,wilkinson1 #8,ancient ,eg4' vol4 ii4 ch4 xvi4 ,footnote #ch3 ,plat4 ,phdo1 ,timus1 ,phdrus1 ,repub42 ,diog4 ,laert4 ,empedokles xii42 ,pindar4 ,olymp4 ii4 antistr4 #d2 ,ovid4 ,metam4 xv4 #afj2 ,lucian4 ,somn4 #ag1 c4 ,philostr4 ,vit4 ,apollon4 ,tyan4 ,see also ,meyer's ,conversations-,lexicon1 art4 #8,seelenwanderung4' ,for re-birth in old ,scandinavia1 see ,helgakvidha1 iii41 in #8,edda4' ,footnote #ci3 ,eisenmenger1 part ii4 p4 #bc1 c4 ,footnote #dj3 ,beausobre1 #8,hist4 de ,maniche1' c41 vol4 i4 pp4 #bde-f1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #dif-i2 ,g4 ,flgel1 #8,mani4' ,see ,augustin4 ,contra ,faust42 ,de ,hres42 ,de ,quantitate ,anim4 ,footnote #da3 ,gul4 de ,rubruquis in #8,rec4 des ,voy4 ,soc4 de ,gographie de ,paris1' vol4 iv4 p4 #cef4 ,benjamin of ,tudela1 ed4 and tr4 by ,asher1 ,hebrew #bb1 ,eng4 p4 #fb4 ,niebuhr1 #8,reisebeschr4 nach ,arabien1' c41 vol4 ii4 pp4 #dch-ddc2 ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #gif4 ,footnote #db3 ,st4 ,clair and ,brophy1 #8,bulgaria1' p4 #eg4 ,compare the tenets of the ,russian sect of ,dukhobortzi1 in ,haxthausen1 #8,russian ,empire1' vol4 i4 p4 #bhh1 c4 ,footnote #dc3 ,since the first publication of the above remark1 ,m4 ,louis ,figuier has supplied a perfect modern instance by his book1 entitled #8,le ,lendemain de la ,mort1' translated into ,english as #8,the ,day after ,death3 ,our ,future ,life according to ,science4' ,his attempt to revive the ancient belief1 and to connect it with the evolution-theory of modern naturalists1 is carried out with more than ,buddhist elaborateness4 ,body is the habitat of soul1 which goes out when a man dies1 as one forsakes a burning house4 ,in the course of development1 a soul may migrate through bodies stage after stage1 zoophyte and oyster1 grasshopper and eagle1 crocodile and dog1 till it arrives at man1 thence ascending to become one of the superhuman beings or angels who dwell in the planetary ether1 and thence to a still higher state1 the secret of whose nature ,m4 ,figuier does not endeavour to penetrate1 #8because our means of investigation fail at this point4' ,the ultimate destiny of the more glorified being is the ,sun2 the pure spirits who form its mass of burning gases1 pour out germs and life to start the course of planetary existence4 7,note to #bnd edition47 ,footnote #dd3 ,swedenborg1 #8,the ,true ,christian ,religion1' #ac4 ,compare the notion attributed to the followers of ,basilides the ,gnostic1 of men whose souls are affected by spirits or dispositions as of wolf1 ape1 lion1 or bear1 wherefore their souls bear the properties of these1 and imitate their deeds 7,clem4 ,alex4 ,stromat4 ii4 c4 #bj74 ,footnote #de3 ,see ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrel4' p4 #bjh 7,caribs72 but compare ,rochefort1 p4 #dbi4 ,steller1 #8,kamtschatka1' p4 #bfi1 ,castrn1 #8,finnische ,mythologie1' p4 #aai4 ,footnote #df3 ,for ,egyptian evidence see the funeral papyri and translations of the #8,book of the ,dead4' ,compare ,brinton1 #8,myths of ,new ,world1' p4 #bed1 c4 ,footnote #dg3 ,aryan evidence in #8,rig-,veda1' x4 #ad1 #h2 xi4 #a1 #h2 ,manu1 xii4 #af-bb2 ,max ,mller1 #8,todtenbestattung1' pp4 xii4 xiv42 #8,chips1' vol4 i4 p4 #dg2 ,muir in #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1' vol4 i4 #ahfe1 p4 #cjf2 ,spiegel1 #8,avesta'2 ,haug1 #8,essays on the ,parsis4' ,footnote #dh3 ,origen1 ,de ,princip4 ii4 #c1 #b3 #8materi corporalis1 cujus materi anima usum semper habet1 in qualibet qualitate posit1 nunc quidem carnali1 postmodum vero subtiliori et puriori1 qu spiritalis appellatur4' ,footnote #di3 ,burton1 #8,central ,africa1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cde4 ,footnote #ej3 ,callaway1 #8,rel4 of ,amazulu1' p4 #hd4 ,footnote #ea3 ,kaufmann1 #8,schilderungen aus ,centralafrika1' p4 #abd2 ,g4 ,lejean in #8,rev4 des ,deux ,mondes1' ,apr4 #a1 #ahfj1 p4 #gfj2 see ,brun-,rollet1 #8,nil ,blanc1' pp4 #ajj1 #bcd4 ,a dialogue by the missionary ,beltrame 7#ahei-fj71 in ,mitterutzner1 #8,dinka-,sprache1' p4 #eg1 ascribes to the ,dinkas ideas of heaven and hell1 which1 however1 show ,christian influence4 ,footnote #eb3 ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 ii4 p4 #acf2 ,john ,smith1 #8,descr4 of ,virginia1' #cc2 ,oviedo1 #8,nicaragua1' p4 #ej4 ,the reference to the ,laos in ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #gfj1 is worthless4 ,footnote #ec3 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #bei4 ,footnote #ed3 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #bdd4 ,see #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 iii4 p4 #aac 7,dayaks74 ,compare wasting and death of souls in depths of ,hades1 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #bcb4 ,footnote #ee3 ,bosman1 #8,guinea' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #dja4 ,see also ,waitz1 #8,anthropologie1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aia 7,w4 ,afr472 ,callaway1 #8,rel4 of ,amazulu1' p4 #cee4 ,footnote #ef3 ,cavazzi1 #8,congo1 ,matamba1 et ,angola1' lib4 i4 p4 #bgj4 ,see also ,liebrecht in #8,zeitschr4 fr ,ethnologie1' vol4 v4 p4 #if 7,tartary1 ,scandinavia1 ,greece74 ,footnote #eg3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part i4 p4 #caj2 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' pp4 #aaa1 #aic2 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 i4 p4 #bce4 ,footnote #eh3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cbc4 ,footnote #ei3 ,kolben1 p4 #egi4 ,footnote #fj3 ,billings1 p4 #abe4 ,footnote #fa3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien4' vol4 i4 p4 #ade2 ,cross1 l4c41 p4 #caa4 ,for other cases of desertion of dwellings after a death1 possibly for the same motive1 see ,bourien1 #8,tribes of ,malay ,pen4' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #hb2 ,polack1 #8,m4 of ,new ,zealanders1' vol4 i4 pp4 #bjd1 #baf2 ,steiler1 #8,kamtschatka1' p4 #bga4 ,but the ,todas say that the buffaloes slaughtered and the hut burnt at the funeral are transferred to the spirit of the deceased in the next world2 ,shortt in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vii4 p4 #bdg4 ,see ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aii4 ,footnote #fb3 ,egede1 #8,greenland1' p4 #aeb2 ,cranz1 p4 #cjj4 ,footnote #fc3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cbc2 see pp4 #cbi1 #cfc4 ,footnote #fd3 ,bowring1 #8,siam1' vol4 i4 p4 #abb2 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien4' vol4 iii4 p4 #beh4 ,footnote #fe3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #abj4 ,footnote #ff3 ,wuttke1 #8,volksaberglaube1' pp4 #bac-ag4 ,other cases of taking out the dead by a gap made on purpose3 ,arbousset and ,daumas1 p4 #ejb 7,bushmen72 ,magyar1 p4 #cea 7,kimbunda72 ,moffat1 p4 #cjg 7,bechuanas72 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aii 7,ojibwas72--their motive is probably that the ghost may not find its way back by the door4 ,footnote #fg3 ,oldfield in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 pp4 #bbh1 #bcf1 #bde4 ,footnote #fh3 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #bba2 ,schirren1 p4 #ia2 see ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #bcc4 ,footnote #fi3 ,morgan1 #8,league of ,iroquois1' p4 #agd4 ,footnote #gj3 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #bhf4 ,footnote #ga3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #abf4 ,footnote #gb3 ,cross in #8,journ4 ,amer4 ,or4 ,soc4' vol4 iv4 p4 #cji2 ,mason in #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1' #ahfe1 part ii4 p4 #bjc4 ,see also ,j4 ,anderson1 #8,exp4 to ,w4 ,yunnan1' pp4 #abf1 #aca 7,shans74 ,footnote #gc3 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' pp4 #ea1 #ii-aja4 ,footnote #gd3 ,lucian4 ,de ,luctu4 ,see ,pauly1 #8,real4 ,encyclop4' and ,smith1 #8,dic4 of ,gr4 and ,rom4 ,ant4' s4v4 #8inferi4' ,footnote #ge3 ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth4' p4 #bgg4 ,footnote #gf3 ,calmet1 vol4 ii4 ch4 xxxvi42 ,brand1 vol4 iii4 p4 #fg4 ,footnote #gg3 ,charlevoix1 #8,nouvelle ,france1' vol4 vi4 p4 #ge2 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part i4 pp4 #ci1 #hc2 part iv4 p4 #fe2 ,tanner's #8,narr4' p4 #bic4 ,footnote #gh3 ,brebeuf in #8,rel4 des ,js4' #afcf1 p4 #ajd4 ,footnote #gi3 ,ellis1 #8,madagascar1' vol4 i4 pp4 #bec1 #cfd4 ,see ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #bbj4 ,footnote #hj3 ,krapf1 #8,e4 ,afr4' p4 #aej4 ,footnote #ha3 ,t4 ,j4 ,hutchinson1 p4 #bjf4 ,footnote #hb3 ,cavazzi1 #8,congo1 c4' lib4 i4 p4 #bfd4 ,so in ancient ,greece1 ,lucian4 ,charon1 #bb4 ,footnote #hc3 ,hodgson1 #8,abor4 of ,india1' p4 #ahj4 ,footnote #hd3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 ii4 p4 #bce4 ,footnote #he3 ,tickell in #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1' vol4 ix4 p4 #gie2 ,dalton1 ibid4 #ahff1 part ii4 p4 #aec1 c42 and in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vi4 p4 #a1 c42 ,latham1 #8,descr4 ,eth4' vol4 ii4 p4 #dae1 c4 ,footnote #hf3 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #fb2 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #aba4 ,footnote #hg3 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 i4 p4 #agc1 c42 vol4 ii4 p4 #ia1 c42 ,meiners1 vol4 i4 p4 #cjf4 ,footnote #hh3 ,wilkinson1 #8,ancient ,eg4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cfb2 ,lucian4 ,de ,luctu1 #ba4 ,footnote #hi3 ,manu1 iii42 ,colebrooke1 #8,essays1' vol4 i4 p4 #afa1 c42 ,pictet1 #8,origines ,indo-,europ4' part ii4 p4 #fjj2 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ccb4 ,footnote #ij3 ,pauly1 #8,real-,encyclop4' s4v4 #8funus4'2 ,smith's #8,dic4' s4v4 #8funus4' ,see ,meiners1 vol4 i4 pp4 #cje-ai4 ,footnote #ia3 ,augustin4 contra ,faustum1 xx4 #d2 ,de ,civ4 ,dei1 viii4 #bg2 conf4 vi4 #b4 ,see ,beausobre1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #fcc1 #fhe2 ,bingham1 xx4 c4 #g4 ,footnote #ib3 ,saint-,foix1 #8,essais ,historiques sur ,paris1' in #8uvres1' vol4 iv4 p4 #adg1 c4 ,footnote #ic3 ,lady ,herbert1 #8,impressions of ,spain1' p4 #h4 ,footnote #id3 ,h4 ,c4 ,romanoff1 #8,rites and ,customs of ,greco-,russian ,church1' p4 #bdi2 ,ralston1 #8,songs of the ,russian ,people1' pp4 #ace1 #cbj2 ,st4 ,clair and ,brophy1 #8,bulgaria1' p4 #gg2 ,brand1 #8,pop4 ,ant4' vol4 i4 p4 #aae4 ,footnote #ie3 ,beside the accounts of annual festivals of the dead cited here1 see the following3--,santos1 #8,ethiopia1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #fhe 7,sept472 ,brasseur1 #8,mexique1' vol4 iii4 pp4 #bc1 #ebb1 #ebh 7,aug41 ,oct41 ,nov472 ,rivero and ,tschudi1 #8,peru1' p4 #acd 7,peruvian feast dated as ,nov4 #b in coincidence with ,all ,souls'1 but this reckoning is vitiated by confusion of seasons of ,n4 and ,s4 hemisphere1 see ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #chi2 moreover1 the ,peruvian feast may have been originally held at a different date1 and transferred1 as happened elsewhere1 to the #8,spanish ,all ,souls'72 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #dd1 #fb 7esp4 ,apr472 ,caron1 #8,japan1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 vii4 p4 #fbi 7,aug474 ,footnote #if3 ,mason1 #8,karens1' l4 c4 p4 #bch4 ,footnote #ig3 ,hodgson1 #8,abor4 of ,india1' p4 #adg4 ,footnote #ih3 ,munzinger1 #8,ostafr4 ,stud4' p4 #dgc4 ,footnote #ii3 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aid4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,g4 ,d',alaux in #8,rev4 des ,deux ,mondes1' ,may #ae1 #aheb1 p4 #gf4 ,footnote #aja3 ,ovid4 ,fast4 ii4 #ecc2 v4 #dbj4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,spiegel1 #8,avesta1' vol4 ii4 p4 ci42 ,alger1 p4 #acg4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth4' pp4 #cgd1 #djh2 ,st4 ,clair and ,brophy1 #8,bulgaria1' p4 #gg2 ,romanoff1 #8,greco-,roman ,church1' p4 #bee4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,petrus ,damianus1 #8,vita ,s4 ,odilonis1' in the ,bollandist #8,acta ,sanctorum1' ,jan4 #a1 has the quaint legend attached to the new ordinance4 ,an island hermit dwelt near a volcano1 where souls of the wicked were tormented in the flames4 ,the holy man heard the officiating demons lament that their daily task of new torture was interfered with by the prayers and alms of devout persons leagued against them to save souls1 and especially they complained of the ,monks of ,cluny4 ,thereupon the hermit sent a message to ,abbot ,odilo1 who carried out the work to the efficacy of which he had received such perfect spiritual testimony1 by decreeing that ,november #b1 the day after ,all ,saints'1 should be set apart for services for the departed4 ,footnote #aje3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ccf4 ,meiners1 vol4 i4 p4 #caf2 vol4 ii4 p4 #bij4 ,wuttke1 #8,deutsche ,volksaberglaube1' p4 #baf4 ,cortet1 #8,ftes ,religieuses1' p4 #bcc2 #8,westminster ,rev4' ,jan4 #ahfj2 ,hersart de la ,villemarqu1 #8,chants de la ,bretagne1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cjg4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,le ,jeune in #8,rel4 des ,js4' #afcd1 p4 #af2 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aie4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,cavazzi1 #8,congo1' c41 book i4 #bfe4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #hfe1 but not so in the account of the ,feast of the ,dead in ,boecler1 #8,ehsten ,abergl4 ,gebr4' 7ed4 ,kreutzwald71 p4 #hi4 ,compare ,martius1 #8,ethnog4 ,amer4' vol4 i4 p4 #cde 7,gs74 ,the following passage from a spiritualist journal1 #8,the ,medium1' ,feb4 #i1 #ahgb1 shows this primitive notion curiously surviving in modern ,england4 #8,every time we sat at dinner1 we had not only spirit-voices calling to us1 but spirit-hands touching us2 and last evening1 as it was his farewell1 they gave us a special manifestation1 unasked for and unlooked for4 ,he sitting at the right hand of me1 a vacant chair opposite to him began moving1 and1 in answer to whether it would have some dinner1 said 8,yes40 ,i then asked it to select what it would take1 when it chose croquets des pommes de terre 7a ,french way of dressing potatoes1 about three inches long and two wide4 ,i will send you one that you may see it74 ,i was desired to put this on the chair1 either in a tablespoon or on a plate4 ,i placed it in a tablespoon1 thinking that probably the plate might be broken4 ,in a few seconds ,i was told that it was eaten1 and looking1 found the half of it gone1 with the marks showing the teeth4' 7,note to #bnd ed47 ,footnote #aji3 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #bbj1 see #ajd4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,brasseur1 #8,mexique1' vol4 iii4 p4 #bd4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,colebrooke1 #8,essays1' vol4 i4 p4 #afc1 c42 ,manu4 iii4 ,footnote #aab3 ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth4' p4 #djh2 ,hartknoch1 #8,preussen1' part i4 p4 #ahg4 ,footnote #aac3 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #cc1 #dh2 ,meiners1 vol4 i4 p4 #cah4 ,footnote #aad3 ,borri1 #8,relatione della ,nuova ,missione della ,comp4 di ,giesu1' ,rome1 #afca1 p4 #bjh2 and in ,pinkerton1 vol4 ix4 p4 #hbb1 c4 ,footnote #aae3 ,grout1 #8,zulu ,land1' p4 #adj2 see ,callaway1 #8,rel4 of ,amazulu1' p4 #aa4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,caron1 #8,japan1' vol4 vii4 p4 #fbi2 see ,turpin1 #8,siam1' ibid4 vol4 ix4 p4 #eij4 ,footnote #aag3 ,ovid4 ,fast4 ii4 #ecc4 ,footnote #aah3 ,legge1 #8,confucius1' pp4 #aja-b1 #acj2 ,bunsen1 #8,god in ,history1' p4 #bga4 ,footnote #aai3 ,brand1 #8,pop4 ,ant4' vol4 i4 p4 #cib1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bhi4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,animism 7continued74 ,journey of the ,soul to the ,land of the ,dead--,visits by the ,living to the ,regions of ,departed ,souls--,connexion of such legends with myths of ,sunset3 the ,land of the ,dead thus imagined as in the ,west--,realization of current religious ideas1 whether of savage or civilized theology1 in narratives of visits to the ,regions of ,souls--,localization of the ,future ,life--,distant earthly region3 ,earthly ,paradise1 ,isles of the ,blest--,subterranean ,hades or ,sheol--,sun1 ,moon1 ,stars--,heaven--,historical course of belief as to such localization--,nature of ,future ,life--,continuance-theory1 apparently original1 belongs especially to the lower races--,transitional theories--,retribution-theory1 apparently derived1 belongs especially to the higher races--,doctrine of ,moral ,retribution as developed in the higher culture--,survey of ,doctrine of ,future ,state1 from savage to civilized stages--,its practical effect on the sentiment and conduct of ,mankind4 ,the departure of the dead man's soul from the world of living men1 its journey to the distant land of spirits1 the life it will lead in its new home1 are topics on which the lower races for the most part hold explicit doctrines4 ,when these fall under the inspection of a modern ethnographer1 he treats them as myths2 often to a high degree intelligible and rational in their origin1 consistent and regular in their structure1 but not the less myths4 ,few subjects have aroused the savage poet's mind to such bold and vivid imagery as the thought of the hereafter4 ,yet also a survey of its details among mankind displays in the midst of variety a regular recurrence of episode which brings the ever-recurring question1 how far is this correspondence due to transmission of the same thought from tribe to tribe1 and how far to similar but independent development in distant lands8 ,from the savage state up into the midst of civilization1 the comparison may be carried through4 ,low races and high1 in region after region1 can point out the very spot whence the flitting souls start to travel toward their new home4 ,at the extreme western cape of ,vanua ,levu1 a calm and solemn place of cliff and forest1 the souls of the ,fijian dead embark for the judgement-seat of ,ndengei1 and thither the living come in pilgrimage1 thinking to see their ghosts and gods4#abj ,the ,baperi of ,south ,africa will venture to creep a little way into their cavern of ,marimatl1 whence men and animals came forth into the world1 and whither souls return at death4#aba ,in ,mexico the cavern of ,chalchatongo led to the plains of paradise1 and the ,aztec name of ,mictlan1 #8,land of the ,dead1' now ,mitla1 keeps up the remembrance of another subterranean temple which opened the way to the sojourn of the blessed4#abb ,how naturally a dreary place1 fit rather for the dead than the living1 suggests the thought of an entrance to the land of the departed1 is seen in the fictitious travels known under the name of ,sir ,john ,mandevill1 where the description of the ,vale ,perilous1 adapted from the terrible valley which ,friar ,odoric had seen full of corpses and heard resound with strange noise of drums1 has this appropriate ending3 #8,this vale es full of deuilles and all way has bene2 and men saise in that cuntree that thare es ane entree to hell4'#abc ,in more genuine folklore1 ,north ,german peasants still remember on the banks of the swampy ,drmling the place of access to the land of departed souls4#abd ,to us ,englishmen the shores of lake ,avernus1 trodden daily by our tourists1 are more familiar than the ,irish analogue of the place1 ,lough ,derg1 with its cavern entrance of ,st4 ,patrick's ,purgatory leading down to the awful world below4 ,the mass of mystic details need not be repeated here of the soul's dread journey by caverns and rocky paths and weary plains1 over steep and slippery mountains1 by frail bark or giddy bridge across gulfs or rushing rivers1 abiding the fierce onset of the soul-destroyer or the doom of the stern guardian of the other world4 ,but before describing the spirit-world which is the end of the soul's journey1 let us see what the proof is which sustains the belief in both4 ,the lower races claim to hold their doctrines of the future life on strong tradition1 direct revelation1 and even personal experience4 ,to them the land of souls is a discovered country1 from whose bourne many a traveller returns4 ,among the legendary visits to the world beyond the grave1 there are some that seem pure myth1 without a touch of real personal history4 ,ojibwa1 the eponymic hero of his ,north ,american tribe1 as one of his many exploits descended to the subterranean world of departed spirits1 and came up again to earth4#abe ,when the ,kamchadals were asked how they knew so well what happens to men after death1 they could answer with their legend of ,haetsh the first man4 ,he died and went down into the world below1 and a long while after came up again to his former dwelling1 and there1 standing above by the smoke-hole1 he talked down to his kindred in the house and told them about the life to come2 it was then that his two daughters whom he had left below followed him in anger and smote him so that he died a second time1 and now he is chief in the lower world1 and receives the ,italmen when they die and rise anew4#abf ,thus1 again1 in the great ,finnish epic1 the ,kalewala1 one great episode is ,wainamoinen's visit to the land of the dead4 ,seeking the last charm-words to build his boat1 the hero travelled with quick steps week after week through bush and wood till he came to the ,tuonela river1 and saw before him the island of ,tuoni the god of death4 ,loudly he called to ,tuoni's daughter to bring the ferry-boat across3-- #8,she1 the virgin of ,manala1 ,she1 the washer of the clothing1 ,she1 the wringer of the linen1 ,by the river of ,tuonela1 ,in the under-world ,manala1 ,spake in words1 and this their meaning1 ,this their answer to the hearer3-- 8,forth the boat shall come from hither1 ,when the reason thou hast given ,that hath brought thee to ,manala1 ,neither slain by any sickness1 ,nor by ,death dragged from the living1 ,nor destroyed by other ending40' ,wainamoinen replies with lying reasons4 ,iron brought him1 he says1 but ,tuoni's daughter answers that no blood drips from his garment2 ,fire brought him1 he says1 but she answers that his locks are unsinged1 and at last he tells his real mission4 ,then she ferries him over1 and ,tuonetar the hostess brings him beer in the two-eared jug1 but ,wainamoinen can see the frogs and worms within and will not drink1 for it was not to drain ,manala's beer-jug he had come4 ,he lay in the bed of ,tuoni1 and meanwhile they spread the hundred nets of iron and copper across the river that he might not escape2 but he turned into a reed in the swamp1 and as a snake crept through the meshes3-- #8,tuoni's son with hooked fingers ,iron-pointed hooked fingers ,went to draw his nets at morning-- ,salmon-trout he found a hundred1 ,thousands of the little fishes1 ,but he found no ,wainamoinen1 ,not the old friend of the billows4 ,then the ancient ,wainamoinen1 ,come from out of ,tuoni's kingdom1 ,spake in words1 and this their meaning1 ,this their answer to the hearer3-- 8,never mayst thou1 ,god of goodness1 ,never suffer such another ,who of self-will goes to ,mana1 ,thrusts his way to ,tuoni's kingdom4 ,many they who travel thither1 ,few who thence have found the home-way1 ,from the houses of ,tuoni ,from the dwellings of ,manala40'#abg ,it is enough to name the familiar classic analogues of these mythic visits to ,hades1--the descent of ,dionysos to bring back ,semele1 of ,orpheus to bring back his beloved ,eurydike1 of ,herakles to fetch up the three-headed ,kerberos at the command of his master ,eurystheus2 above all1 the voyage of ,odysseus to the ends of the deep-flowing ,ocean1 to the clouded city of ,kimmerian men1 where shining ,helios looks not down with his rays1 and deadly night stretches always over wretched mortals1--thence they passed along the banks to the entrance of the land where the shades of the departed1 quickened for a while by the taste of sacrificial blood1 talked with the hero and showed him the regions of their dismal home4#abh ,the scene of the descent into ,hades is in very deed enacted day by day before our eyes1 as it was before the eyes of the ancient myth-maker1 who watched the sun descend to the dark under-world1 and return at dawn to the land of living men4 ,these heroic legends lie in close-knit connexion with episodes of solar myth4 ,it is by the simplest poetic adaptation of the ,sun's daily life1 typifying ,man's life in dawning beauty1 in mid-day glory1 in evening death1 that mythic fancy even fixed the belief in the religions of the world1 that the ,land of ,departed ,souls lies in the ,far ,west or the ,world ,below4 ,how deeply the myth of the ,sunset has entered into the doctrine of men concerning a ,future ,state1 how the ,west and the ,under-,world have become by mere imaginative analogy ,regions of the ,dead1 how the quaint day-dreams of savage poets may pass into honoured dogmas of classic sages and modern divines1--all this the crowd of details here cited from the wide range of culture stand to prove4 ,moreover1 visits from or to the dead are matters of personal experience and personal testimony4 ,when in dream or vision the seer beholds the spirits of the departed1 they give him tidings from the other world1 or he may even rise and travel thither himself1 and return to tell the living what he has seen among the dead4 ,it is sometimes as if the traveller's material body went to visit a distant land1 and sometimes all we are told is that the man's self went1 but whether in body or in spirit is a mere detail of which the story keeps no record4 ,mostly1 however1 it is the seer's soul which goes forth1 leaving his body behind in ecstasy1 sleep1 coma1 or death4 ,some of these stories1 as we trace them on from savage into civilized times1 are no doubt given in good faith by the visionary himself1 while others are imitations of these genuine accounts4#abi ,now such visions are naturally apt to reproduce the thoughts with which the seer's mind was already furnished4 ,every idea once lodged in the mind of a savage1 a barbarian1 or an enthusiast1 is ready thus to be brought back to him from without4 ,it is a vicious circle2 what he believes he therefore sees1 and what he sees he therefore believes4 ,beholding the reflexion of his own mind like a child looking at itself in a glass1 he humbly receives the teaching of his second self4 ,the ,red ,indian visits his happy hunting-grounds1 the ,tongan his shadowy island of ,bolotu1 the ,greek enters ,hades and looks on the ,elysian ,fields1 the ,christian beholds the heights of ,heaven and the depths of ,hell4 ,among the ,north ,american ,indians1 and especially the ,algonquin tribes1 accounts are not unusual of men whose spirits1 travelling in dreams or in the hallucinations of extreme illness to the land of the dead1 have returned to reanimate their bodies1 and tell what they have seen4 ,their experiences have been in great measure what they were taught in early childhood to expect1 the journey along the path of the dead1 the monstrous strawberry at which the jebi-ug or ghosts refresh themselves1 but which turns to red rock at the touch of their spoons1 the bark offered them for dried meat and great puff-balls for squashes1 the river of the dead with its snake-bridge or swinging log1 the great dog standing on the other side1 the villages of the dead beyond4#acj ,the ,zulus of our own day tell of men who have gone down by holes in the ground into the underworld1 where mountains and rivers and all things are as here above1 and where a man may find his kindred1 for the dead live in their villages1 and may be seen milking their cattle1 which are the cattle killed on earth and come to life anew4 ,the ,zulu ,umpengula1 who told one of these stories to ,dr4 ,callaway1 remembered when he was a boy seeing an ugly little hairy man called ,uncama1 who once1 chasing a porcupine that ate his mealies1 followed it down a hole in the ground into the land of the dead4 ,when he came back to his home on earth he found that he had been given up for dead himself1 his wife had duly burnt and buried his mats and blankets and vessels1 and the wondering people at sight of him again shouted the funeral dirge4 ,of this ,zulu ,dante it used to be continually said1 #8,there is the man who went to the underground people4'#aca ,one of the most characteristic of these savage narratives is from ,new ,zealand4 ,this story1 which has an especial interest from the reminiscence it contains of the gigantic extinct ,moa1 and which may be repeated at some length as an illustration of the minute detail and lifelike reality which such visionary legends assume in barbaric life1 was told to ,mr4 ,shortland by a servant of his named ,te ,wharewera4 ,an aunt of this man died in a solitary hut near the banks of ,lake ,rotorua4 ,being a lady of rank she was left in her hut1 the door and windows were made fast1 and the dwelling was abandoned1 as her death had made it tapu4 ,but a day or two after1 ,te ,wharewera with some others paddling in a canoe near the place at early morning saw a figure on the shore beckoning to them4 ,it was the aunt come to life again1 but weak and cold and famished4 ,when sufficiently restored by their timely help1 she told her story4 ,leaving her body1 her spirit had taken flight toward the ,north ,cape1 and arrived at the entrance of ,reigna4 ,there1 holding on by the stem of the creeping akeake-plant1 she descended the precipice1 and found herself on the sandy beach of a river4 ,looking round1 she espied in the distance an enormous bird1 taller than a man1 coming towards her with rapid strides4 ,this terrible object so frightened her1 that her first thought was to try to return up the steep cliff2 but seeing an old man paddling a small canoe towards her she ran to meet him1 and so escaped the bird4 ,when she had been safely ferried across she asked the old ,charon1 mentioning the name of her family1 where the spirits of her kindred dwelt4 ,following the path the old man pointed out1 she was surprised to find it just such a path as she had been used to on earth2 the aspect of the country1 the trees1 shrubs1 and plants were all familiar to her4 ,she reached the village and among the crowd assembled there she found her father and many near relations2 they saluted her1 and welcomed her with the wailing chant which ,maoris always address to people met after long absence4 ,but when her father had asked about his living relatives1 and especially about her own child1 he told her she must go back to earth1 for no one was left to take care of his grandchild4 ,by his orders she refused to touch the food that the dead people offered her1 and in spite of their efforts to detain her1 her father got her safely into the canoe1 crossed with her1 and parting gave her from under his cloak two enormous sweet potatoes to plant at home for his grandchild's especial eating4 ,but as she began to climb the precipice again1 two pursuing infant spirits pulled her back1 and she only escaped by flinging the roots at them1 which they stopped to eat1 while she scaled the rock by help of the akeake-stem1 till she reached the earth and flew back to where she had left her body4 ,on returning to life she found herself in darkness1 and what had passed seemed as a dream1 till she perceived that she was deserted and the door fast1 and concluded that she had really died and come to life again4 ,when morning dawned1 a faint light entered by the crevices of the shut-up house1 and she saw on the floor near her a calabash partly full of red ochre mixed with water2 this she eagerly drained to the dregs1 and then feeling a little stronger1 succeeded in opening the door and crawling down to the beach1 where her friends soon after found her4 ,those who listened to her tale firmly believed the reality of her adventures1 but it was much regretted that she had not brought back at least one of the huge sweet-potatoes1 as evidence of her visit to the land of spirits4#acb ,races of ,north ,asia#acc and ,west ,africa#acd have in like manner their explorers of the world beyond the grave4 ,classic literature continues the series4 ,lucian's graphic tales represent the belief of their age1 if not of their author4 ,his ,eukrates looks down the chasm into ,hades1 and sees the dead reclining on the asphodel in companies of kinsfolk and friends2 among them he recognizes ,sokrates with his bald head and pot-belly1 and also his own father1 dressed in the clothes he was buried in4 ,then ,kleodemos caps this story with his own1 how when he was sick1 on the seventh day when his fever was burning like a furnace1 every one left him1 and the doors were shut4 ,then there stood before him an all-beauteous youth in a white garment1 who led him through a chasm into ,hades1 as he knew by seeing ,tantalos and ,tityos and ,sisyphos2 and bringing him to the court of judgement1 where were ,aiakos and the ,fates and the ,erinyes1 the youth set him before ,pluto the ,king1 who sat reading the names of those whose day of life was over4 ,but ,pluto was angry1 and said to the guide1 #8,this one's thread is not run out1 that he should depart1 but bring me ,demylos the coppersmith1 for he is living beyond the spindle4' ,so ,kleodemos came back to himself free from his fever and announced that ,demylos1 who was a sick neighbour1 would die2 and accordingly a little while after there was heard the cry of the mourners wailing for him4#ace ,plutarch's stories1 told more seriously1 are yet one in type with the mocking ,lucian's4 ,the wicked1 pleasure-seeking ,thespesios lies three days as dead1 and revives to tell his vision of the world below4 ,one ,antyllos was sick1 and seemed to the doctors to retain no trace of life2 till1 waking without sign of insanity1 he declared that he had been indeed dead1 but was ordered back to life1 those who brought him being severely chidden by their lord1 and sent to fetch ,nikander instead1 a well-known currier1 who was accordingly taken with a fever1 and died on the third day4#acf ,such stories1 old and new1 are current among the ,hindus at this day4 ,a certain man's soul1 for instance1 is carried to the realm of ,yama by mistake for a namesake1 and is sent back in haste to regain his body before it is burnt2 but in the meanwhile he has a glimpse of the hideous punishments of the wicked1 and of the glorious life of those who had mortified the flesh on earth1 and of suttee-widows now sitting in happiness by their husbands4#acg ,mutatis mutandis these tales reappear in ,christian mythology1 as when ,gregory the ,great records that a certain nobleman named ,stephen died1 who was taken to the region of ,hades1 and saw many things he had heard before but not believed2 but when he was set before the ruler there presiding1 he sent him back1 saying that it was this ,stephen's neighbour--,stephen the smith--whom he had commanded to be brought2 and accordingly the one returned to life1 and the other died4#ach ,the thought of human visitors revealing the mysteries of the world beyond the grave1 which indeed took no slight hold on ,christian belief1 attached itself in a remarkable way to the doctrine of ,christ's descent into ,hades4 ,this dogma had so strongly established itself by the end of the #dth century1 that ,augustine could ask1 #8,quis nisi infidelis negaverit fuisse apud inferos ,christum8'#aci ,a distinct statement of the dogma was afterwards introduced into the symbol commonly called the #8,apostles' ,creed3' #8,descendit ad inferos1' #8,descendit ad inferna1' #8,he descended into hell4'#adj ,the ,descent into ,hades1 which had the theological use of providing a theory of salvation applicable to the saints of the old covenant1 imprisoned in the limbo of the fathers1 is narrated in full in the apocryphal ,gospel of ,nicodemus1 and is made there to rest upon a legend which belongs to the present group of human visits to the other world4 ,it is related that two sons of ,simeon1 named ,charinus and ,leucius1 rose from their tombs at the ,resurrection1 and went about silently and prayerfully among men1 till ,annas and ,caiaphas brought them into the synagogue1 and charged them to tell of their raising from the dead4 ,then1 making the sign of the cross upon their tongues1 the two asked for parchment and wrote their record4 ,they had been set with all their fathers in the depths of ,hades1 when on a sudden there appeared the colour of the sun like gold1 and a purple royal light shining on them2 then the patriarchs and prophets1 from ,adam to ,simeon and ,john the ,baptist1 rejoicing proclaimed the coming of the light and the fulfilment of the prophecies2 ,satan and ,hades wrangled in strife together2 in vain the brazen gates were shut with their iron bars1 for the summons came to open the gates that the king of glory may come in1 who hath broken the gates of brass and cut the bars of iron in sunder2 then the mighty ,lord broke the fetters and visited them who sat in darkness and the shadow of death2 ,adam and his righteous children were delivered from ,hades1 and led into the glorious grace of ,paradise4#ada ,dante1 elaborating in the #8,divina ,commedia' the conceptions of paradise1 purgatory1 and hell familiar to the actual belief of his age1 describes them once more in the guise of a living visitor to the land of the dead4 ,echoes in medival legend of such exploring expeditions to the world below still linger faintly in the popular belief of ,europe4 ,it has been thus with ,st4 ,patrick's ,purgatory1#adb the cavern in the island of ,lough ,derg1 in the county ,donegal1 which even in the seventeenth century ,o',sullevan could describe first and foremost in his #8,catholic ,history' as #8the greatest of all memorable things of ,ireland4' ,medival visits to the other world were often made in the spirit4 ,but like ,ulysses1 ,wainamoinen1 and ,dante1 men could here make the journey in body1 as did ,sir ,owain and the monk ,gilbert4 ,when the pilgrim had spent fifteen days in prayer and fasting in the church1 and had been led with litanies and sprinkling of holy water to the entrance of the purgatory1 and the last warnings of the monks had failed to turn him from his venture1 the door was closed upon him1 and if found next morning1 he could tell the events of his awful journey--how he crossed the narrow bridge that spans the river of death1 how he saw the hideous torments of hell1 and approached the joys of paradise4 ,sir ,owain1 one of ,king ,stephen's knights1 went thither in penance for his life of violence and rapine1 and this was one of the scenes he beheld in purgatory3-- #8,there come develes other mony mo1 ,and badde the knygth with hem to go1 ,and ladde him into a fowle contreye1 ,where ever was nygth and never day1 ,for hit was derke and wonther colde3 ,yette was there never man so bolde1 ,hadde he never so mony clothes on1 ,but he wolde be colde as ony stone4 ,wynde herde he none blowe1 ,but faste hit frese bothe hye and lowe4 ,they browgte him to a felde full brode1 ,overe suche another never he yode1 ,for of the lengthe none ende he knewe ,thereover algate he moste nowe4 ,as he wente he herde a crye1 ,he wondered what hit was1 and why1 ,he syg ther men and wymmen also ,that lowde cryed1 for hem was woo4 ,they leyen thykke on every londe1 ,faste nayled bothe fote and honde ,with nayles glowyng alle of brasse3 ,they ete the erthe so wo hem was2 ,here face was nayled to the grownde4 8,spare10 they cryde1 8a lytylle stounde40 ,the develes wolde hem not spare3 ,to hem peyne they thowgte yare4' ,when ,owain had seen the other fields of punishment1 with their fiery serpents and toads1 and the fires where sinners were hung up by their offending members1 and roasted on spits1 and basted with molten metal1 and turned about on a great wheel of fire1 and when he had passed the ,devil's ,mouth over the awful bridge1 he reached the fair white glassy wall of the ,earthly ,paradise1 reaching upward and upward1 and saw before him the beautiful gate1 whence issued a ravishing perfume4 ,then he soon forgot his pains and sorrows4 #8,as he stode1 and was so fayne1 ,hym thowgth ther come hym agayne ,a swyde fayr processyoun ,of alle manere menne of relygyoun1 ,fayre vestementes they hadde on1 ,so ryche syg he never none4 ,myche joye hym thowgte to se ,bysshopes yn here dygnit2 ,ilkone wente other be and be1 ,every man yn his degr4 ,he syg ther monkes and chanones1 ,and freres with newe shavene crownes2 ,ermytes he saw there amonge1 ,and nonnes with fulle mery songe2 ,persones1 prestes1 and vycaryes2 ,they made fulle mery melodyes4 ,he syg ther kynges and emperoures1 ,and dukes that had casteles and toures1 ,erles and barones fele1 ,that some tyme hadde the worldes wele4 ,other folke he syg also1 ,never so mony as he dede thoo4 ,wymmen he syg ther that tyde3 ,myche was the joye ther on every syde3 ,for alle was joye that with hem ferde1 ,and myche solempnyt he herde4' ,the procession welcomed ,owain1 and led him about1 showing him the beauties of that country3-- #8,hyt was grene1 and fulle of flowres ,of mony dyvers colowres2 ,hyt was grene on every syde1 ,as medewus are yn someres tyde4 ,ther were trees growyng fulle grene ,fulle of fruyte ever more1 y wene2 ,for ther was frwyte of mony a kynde1 ,such yn the londe may no mon fynde4 ,ther they have the tree of lyfe1 ,theryn ys myrthe1 and never stryfe2 ,frwyte of wysdom also ther ys1 ,of the whyche ,adam and ,eve dede amysse3 ,other manere frwytes ther were fele1 ,and alle manere joye and wele4 ,moche folke he syg ther dwelle1 ,there was no tongue that mygth hem telle2 ,alle were they cloded yn ryche wede1 ,what cloth hit was he kowthe not rede4 ,there was no wronge1 but ever rygth1 ,ever day and nevere nygth4 ,they shone as brygth and more clere ,than ony sonne yn the day doth here4' ,the poem1 in fifteenth-century ,english1 from which these passages are taken1 is a version of the original legend of earlier date1 and as such contrasts with a story really dating from early in the fifteenth century--,william ,staunton's descent into ,purgatory1 where the themes of the old sincerely-believed visionary lore are fading into moral allegory1 and the traveller sees the gay gold and silver collars and girdles burning into the wearer's flesh1 and the jags that men were clothed in now become adders and dragons1 sucking and stinging them1 and the fiends drawing down the skin of women's shoulders into pokes1 and smiting into their heads with burning hammers their gay chaplets of gold and jewels turned to burning nails1 and so forth4 ,late in this fifteenth century1 ,st4 ,patrick's ,purgatory fell into discredit1 but even the destruction of the entrance-building1 in #adgi1 by ,papal order1 did not destroy the ideal road4 ,about #afic1 an excavation on the spot brought to light a window with iron stanchions2 there was a cry for holy water to keep the spirits from breaking out from prison1 and the priest smelt brimstone from the dark cavity below1 which1 however1 unfortunately turned out to be a cellar4 ,in still later times1 the yearly pilgrimage of tens of thousands of votaries to the holy place has kept up this interesting survival from the lower culture1 whereby a communication may still be traced1 if not from ,earth to ,hades1 at least from the belief of the ,new ,zealander to that of the ,irish peasant4 ,to study and compare the ideal regions where man has placed the abodes of departed souls is not an unprofitable task4 ,true1 geography has now mapped out into mere earth and water the space that lay beyond the narrower sea and land known to the older nations1 and astronomy no longer recognizes the flat earth trodden by men as being the roof of subterranean halls1 nor the sky as being a solid firmament1 shutting out men's gaze from strata or spheres of empyran regions beyond4 ,yet if we carry our minds back to the state of knowledge among the lower races1 we shall not find it hard to understand the early conceptions as to the locality of the regions beyond the grave4 ,they are no secrets of high knowledge made known to sages of old2 they are the natural fancies which childlike ignorance would frame in any age4 ,the regularity with which such conceptions repeat themselves over the world bears testimony to the regularity of the processes by which opinion is formed among mankind4 ,at the same time1 the student who carefully compares them will find in them a perfect illustration of an important principle1 widely applicable to the general theory of the formation of human opinion4 ,when a problem has presented itself to mankind at large1 susceptible of a number of solutions about equally plausible1 the result is that the several opinions thus produced will be found lying scattered in country after country4 ,the problem here is1 given the existence of souls of the dead who from time to time visit the living1 where is the home of these ghosts8 ,why men in one district should have preferred the earth1 in another the under-world1 in another the sky1 as the abode of departed souls1 is a question often difficult to answer4 ,but we may at least see how again and again the question was taken in hand1 and how out of the three or four available answers some peoples adopted one1 some another1 some several at once4 ,primitive theologians had all the world before them where to choose their place of rest for the departed1 and they used to the full their speculative liberty4 ,firstly1 when the land of souls is located on the surface of the earth1 there is choice of fit places among wild and cloudy precipices1 in secluded valleys1 in far-off plains and islands4 ,in ,borneo1 ,mr4 ,st4 ,john visited the heaven of the ,idaan race1 on the summit of ,kina ,balu1 and the native guides1 who feared to pass the night in this abode of spirits1 showed the traveller the moss on which the souls of their ancestors fed1 and the footprints of the ghostly buffaloes that followed them4 ,on ,gunung ,danka1 a mountain in ,west ,java1 there is such another #8,earthly ,paradise4' ,the ,sajira who dwell in the district indeed profess themselves ,mohammedans1 but they secretly maintain their old belief1 and at death or funeral they enjoin the soul in solemn form to set aside the ,moslem ,allah1 and to take the way to the dwelling-place of his own forefathers' souls3-- #8,step up the bed of the river1 and cross the neck of land1 ,where the aren trees stand in a clump1 and the pinangs in a row1 ,thither direct thy steps1 ,laillah being set aside4' ,mr4 ,jonathan ,rigg had lived ten years among these people1 and knew them well1 yet had never found out that their paradise was on this mountain4 ,when at last he heard of it1 he made the ascent1 finding on the top only a few river-stones1 forming one of the balai1 or sacred cairns1 common in the district4 ,but the popular belief1 that a tiger would devour the chiefs who permitted a violation of the sacred place1 soon received the sort of confirmation which such beliefs receive everywhere1 for a tiger killed two children a few days later1 and the disaster was of course ascribed to ,mr4 ,rigg's profanation4#adc ,the ,chilians said that the soul goes westward over the sea to ,gulcheman1 the dwelling-place of the dead beyond the mountains2 life1 some said1 was all pleasure there1 but others thought that part would be happy and part miserable4#add ,hidden among the mountains of ,mexico lay the joyous garden-land of ,tlalocan1 where maize1 and pumpkins1 and chilis1 and tomatos never failed1 and where abode the souls of children sacrificed to ,tlaloc1 its god1 and the souls of such as died by drowning or thunderstroke1 or by leprosy or dropsy1 or other acute disease4#ade ,a survival of such thought may be traced into medival civilization1 in the legends of the ,earthly ,paradise1 the fire-girt abode of saints not yet raised to highest bliss1 localized in the utmost ,east of ,asia1 where earth stretches up towards heaven4#adf ,when ,columbus sailed west-ward across the ,atlantic to seek #8the new heaven and the new earth' he had read of in ,isaiah1 he found them1 though not as he sought4 ,it is a quaint coincidence that he found there also1 though not as he sought it1 the ,earthly ,paradise which was another main object of his venturous quest4 ,the ,haitians described to the white men their ,coaibai1 the paradise of the dead1 in the lovely ,western valleys of their island1 where the souls hidden by day among the cliffs came down at night to feed on the delicious fruit of the mamey-trees1 of which the living ate but sparingly1 lest the souls of their friends should want4#adg ,secondly1 there are ,australians who think that the spirit of the dead hovers awhile on earth and goes at last toward the setting sun1 or westward over the sea to the island of souls1 the home of his fathers4 ,thus these rudest savages have developed two thoughts which we meet with again and again far onward in the course of culture--the thought of an island of the dead1 and the thought that the world of departed souls is in the ,west1 whither the ,sun descends at evening to his daily death4#adh ,among the ,north ,american ,indians1 when once upon a time an ,algonquin hunter left his body behind and visited the land of souls in the sunny south1 he saw before him beautiful trees and plants1 but found he could walk right through them4 ,then he paddled in the canoe of white shining stone across the lake where wicked souls perish in the storm1 till he reached the beautiful and happy island where there is no cold1 no war1 no bloodshed1 but the creatures run happily about1 nourished by the air they breathe4#adi ,tongan legend says that1 long ago1 a canoe returning from ,fiji was driven by stress of weather to ,bolotu1 the island of gods and souls lying in the ocean north-west of ,tonga4 ,that island is larger than all theirs together1 full of all finest fruits and loveliest flowers1 that fill the air with fragrance1 and come anew the moment they are plucked2 birds of beauteous plumage are there1 and hogs in plenty1 all immortal save when killed for the gods to eat1 and then new living ones appear immediately to fill their places4 ,but when the hungry crew of the canoe landed1 they tried in vain to pluck the shadowy bread-fruit1 they walked through unresisting trees and houses1 even as the souls of chiefs who met them walked unchecked through their solid bodies4 ,counselled to hasten home from this land of no earthly food1 the men sailed to ,tonga1 but the deadly air of ,bolotu had infected them1 and they soon all died4#aej ,such ideas took strong hold on classic thought1 in the belief in a paradise in the ,fortunate ,islands of the far ,western ,ocean4 ,hesiod in the #8,works and ,days' tells of the half-gods of the ,fourth ,age1 between the ,age of ,bronze and the ,age of ,iron4 ,when death closed on this heroic race1 ,zeus granted them at the ends of ,earth a life and home1 apart from man and far from the immortals4 ,there ,kronos reigns over them1 and they dwell careless in the ,islands of the ,happy1 beside deep-eddying ,ocean--blest heroes1 for whom the grain-giving field bears1 thrice blooming yearly1 the honey-sweet fruit3-- #8' ' 1 ' ' 1 1 4'#aea ,these ,islands of the ,blest1 assigned as the abode of blessed spirits of the dead1 came indeed to be identified with the ,elysian ,fields4 ,thus ,pindar sings of steadfast souls1 who through three lives on either side have endured free from injustice2 then they pass by the road of ,zeus to the tower of ,kronos1 where the ocean breezes blow round the islands of the happy1 blazing with golden flowers of land and water4 ,thus1 also1 in the famous hymn of ,kallistratos in honour of ,harmodios and ,aristogeiton1 who slew the tyrant ,hipparchos3-- #8' 1 ' 1 1 4'#aeb ,this group of legends has especial interest to us ,englishmen1 who ourselves dwell1 it seems1 on such an island of the dead4 ,it is not that we or our country are of a more ghostly nature than others1 but the idea is geographical we are dwellers in the region of the setting sun1 the land of death4 ,the elaborate account by ,procopius1 the historian of the ,gothic ,war1 dates from the #fth century4 ,the island of ,brittia1 according to him1 lies opposite the mouths of the ,rhine1 some #bjj stadia off1 between ,britannia and ,thule1 and on it dwell three populous nations1 the ,angles1 ,frisians1 and ,britons4 7,by ,brittia1 it appears1 he means our ,great ,britain1 his ,britannia being the coast-land from modern ,brittany to ,holland1 and his ,thule being ,scandinavia47 ,in the course of his history it seems to him needful to record a story1 mythic and dreamlike as he thinks1 yet which numberless men vouch for as having been themselves witnesses by eye and ear to its facts4 ,this story is that the souls of the departed are conveyed across the sea to the island of ,brittia4 ,along the mainland coast are many villages1 inhabited by fishermen and tillers of the soil and traders to this island in their vessels4 ,they are subject to the ,franks1 but pay no tribute1 having from of old had to do by turns the burdensome service of transporting the souls4 ,those on duty for each night stay at home till they hear a knocking at the doors1 and a voice of one unseen calling them to their work4 ,then without delay rising from their beds1 compelled by some unknown power they go down to the beach1 and there they see boats1 not their own but others1 lying ready but empty of men4 ,going on board and taking the oars1 they find that by the burden of the multitude of souls embarked1 the vessel lies low in the water1 gunwale under within a finger's breadth4 ,in an hour they are at the opposite shore1 though in their own boats they would hardly make the voyage in a night and day4 ,when they reach the island1 the vessel becomes empty1 till it is so light that only the keel touches the waves4 ,they see no man on the voyage1 no man at the landing1 but a voice is heard that proclaims the name and rank and parentage of each newly arrived passenger1 or if women1 those of their husbands4 ,traces of this remarkable legend seem to have survived1 thirteen centuries later1 in that endmost district of the ,britannia of ,procopius which still keeps the name of ,bretagne4 ,near ,raz1 where the narrow promontory stretches westward into the ocean1 is the #8,bay of ,souls' 7bo ann anavo72 in the commune of ,plouguel the corpse is taken to the churchyard1 not by the shorter road by land1 but in a boat by the #8,passage de l',enfer1' across a little arm of the sea2 and ,breton folk-lore holds fast to the legend of the ,cur de ,braspar1 whose dog leads over to ,great ,britain the souls of the departed1 when the wheels of the soul-car are heard creaking in the air4 ,these are but mutilated fragments1 but they seem to piece together with another ,keltic myth1 told by ,macpherson in the last century1 the voyage of the boat of heroes to ,flath-,innis1 ,noble ,island1 the green island home of the departed1 which lies calm amid the storms far in the ,western ,ocean4 ,with full reason1 also1 ,mr4 ,wright traces to the situation of ,ireland in the extreme ,west its especial association with legends of descents to the land of shades4 ,claudian placed at the extremity of ,gaul the entrance where ,ulysses found a way to ,hades-- #8,est locus extremum qua pandit ,gallia litus1 ,oceani prtentus aquis1 ubi fertur ,ulysses1' c4 ,no wonder that this spot should have been since identified with ,st4 ,patrick's ,purgatory1 and that some ingenious etymologist should have found in the name of #8,ulster' a corruption of #8,ulyssisterra1' and a commemoration of the hero's visit4#aec ,thirdly1 the belief in a subterranean ,hades peopled by the ghosts of the dead is quite common among the lower races4 ,the earth is flat1 say the ,italmen of ,kamchatka1 for if it were round1 people would fall off2 it is the wrong side of another heaven1 which covers another earth below1 whither the dead will go down to their new life1 and so1 as ,steller says1 their mundane system is like a tub with three bottoms4#aed ,in ,north ,america1 the ,tacullis held that the soul goes after death into the bowels of the earth1 whence it can come back in human shape to visit friends4#aee ,in ,south ,america1 ,brazilian souls travel down to the world below in the ,west1 and ,patagonian souls will depart to enjoy eternal drunkenness in the caves of their ancestral deities4#aef ,the ,new ,zealander who says #8,the sun has returned to ,hades' 7kua hoki mai te ,ra ki te ,rua71 simply means that it has set4 ,when a ,samoan ,islander dies1 the host of spirits that surround the house1 waiting to convey his soul away1 set out with him crossing the land and swimming the sea1 to the entrance of the spirit-world4 ,this is at the westernmost point of the westernmost island1 ,savaii1 and there one may see the two circular holes or basins where souls descend1 chiefs by the bigger and plebeians by the smaller1 into the regions of the under-world4 ,there below is a heaven1 earth1 and sea1 and people with real bodies1 planting1 fishing1 cooking1 as in the present life2 but at night their bodies become like a confused collection of fiery sparks1 and in this state during the hours of darkness they come up to revisit their former abodes1 retiring at dawn to the bush or to the lower regions4#aeg ,for the state of thought on this subject among rude ,african tribes1 it is enough to cite the ,zulus1 who at death will descend to live in ,hades among their ancestors1 the #8,abapansi1' the #8people underground4'#aeh ,among rude ,asiatic tribes1 such an example may be taken from the ,karens4 ,they are not quite agreed where ,plu1 the land of the dead1 is situate2 it may be above the earth or beyond the horizon4 ,but the dominant and seemingly indigenous opinion is that it is below the earth4 ,when the sun sets on earth1 it rises in the ,karen ,hades1 and when it sets in ,hades it rises in this world4 ,here1 again1 the familiar belief of the ,european peasant is found2 the spirits of the dead may come up from the land of shades by night1 but at daybreak must return4#aei ,such ideas1 developed by uncultured races1 may be followed up in various detail1 through the stage of religion represented by the ,mexican and ,peruvian nations1#afj into higher ranges of culture4 ,the ,roman ,orcus was in the bowels of the earth1 and when the #8lapis manalis1' the stone that closed the mouth of the world below1 was moved away on certain solemn days1 the ghosts of the dead came up to the world above1 and partook of the offerings of their friends4#afa ,among the ,greeks1 the ,land of ,hades was in the world below1 nor was the thought unknown that it was the sunset realm of the ,western god 7 74 ,what ,hades seemed like to the popular mind1 ,lucian thus describes3--#8,the great crowd1 indeed1 whom the wise call 8idiots10 believing ,homer and ,hesiod1 and the other myth-makers about these things1 and setting up their poetry as a law1 have supposed a certain deep place under the earth1 ,hades1 and that it is vast1 and roomy1 and gloomy1 and sunless1 and how thought to be lighted up so as to behold every one within1 ,i know not4'#afb ,in the ancient ,egyptian doctrine of the future life1 modelled on solar myth1 the region of the departed combines the under-world and the west1 ,amenti2 the dead passes the gate of the setting sun to traverse the roads of darkness1 and behold his father ,osiris2 and with this solar thought the ,egyptian priests1 representing in symbolic ceremony the scenes of the other world1 carried the corpse in the sacred boat across to the burial-place1 on the western side of the sacred lake4#afc ,so1 too1 the cavernous ,sheol of the ,israelites1 the shadowy region of departed souls1 lay deep below the earth4 ,through the great ,aryan religious systems1 ,brahmanism1 ,zarathustrism1 ,buddhism1 and onward into the range of ,islam and of ,christianity1 subterranean hells of purgatory or punishment make the doleful contrast to heavens of light and glory4 ,it is1 however1 a point worthy of special notice that the conception of hell as a fiery abyss1 so familiar to the religions of the higher civilization1 is all but unknown to savage thought1 so much so that if met with1 its genuineness is doubtful4 ,captain ,john ,smith's #8,history of ,virginia1' published in #afbd1 contains two different accounts of the ,indians' doctrine of a future life4 ,smith's own description is of a land beyond the mountains1 toward sunset1 where chiefs and medicine-men in paint and feathers shall smoke1 and sing1 and dance with their forefathers1 while the common people have no life after death1 but rot in their graves4 ,heriot's description is of tabernacles of the gods to which the good are taken up to perpetual happiness1 while the wicked are carried to #8,popogusso1' a great pit which they think to be at the furthest parts of the world where the sun sets1 and there burn continually4#afd ,now knowing so much as we do of the religion of the ,algonquins1 to whom these ,virginians belonged1 we may judge that while the first account is genuinely native1 though perhaps not quite correctly understood1 the second was borrowed by the ,indians from the white men themselves4 ,yet even here the touch of solar myth is manifest1 and the description of the fiery abyss in the region of sunset may be compared with one from our own country1 in the ,anglo-,saxon dialogue of ,saturn and ,solomon4 #8,saga me forhwan byth seo sunne read on fen8 ,ic the secge1 forthon heo locath on helle4--,tell me1 why is the sun red at even8 ,i tell thee1 because she looketh on hell4'#afe ,to the same belief belongs another striking mythic feature4 ,the idea of volcanos being mouths of the under-world seems not unexampled among the lower races1 for we hear of certain ,new ,zealanders casting their dead down into a crater4#aff ,but in connexion with the thought of a gehenna of fire and brimstone1 ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 and ,hecla had spiritual as well as material terrors to the mind of ,christendom1 for they were believed to be places of purgatory or the very mouths of the pit where the souls of the damned were cast down4#afg ,the ,indians of ,nicaragua used in old times to offer human sacrifices to their volcano ,masaya1 flinging the corpses into the crater1 and in later years1 after the conversion of the country1 we hear of ,christian confessors sending their penitents to climb the mountain1 and 7as a glimpse of hell7 to look down upon the molten lava4#afh ,fourthly1 in old times and new1 it has come into men's minds to fix upon the sun and moon as abodes of departed souls4 ,when we have learnt from the rude ,natchez of the ,mississippi and the ,apalaches of ,florida that the sun is the bright dwelling of departed chiefs and braves1 and have traced like thoughts on into the theologies of ,mexico and ,peru1 then we may compare these savage doctrines with ,isaac ,taylor's ingenious supposition in his #8,physical ,theory of ,another ,life1'--the sun of each planetary system is the house of the higher and ultimate spiritual corporeity1 and the centre of assembly to those who have passed on the planets their preliminary era of corruptible organization4 ,or perhaps some may prefer the ,rev4 ,tobias ,swinden's book1 published in the last century1 and translated into ,french and ,german1 which proved the sun to be hell1 and its dark spots gatherings of damned souls4#afi ,and when in ,south ,america the ,saliva ,indians have pointed out the moon1 their paradise where no mosquitos are1 and the ,guaycurus have shown it as the home of chiefs and medicine-men deceased1 and the ,polynesians of ,tokelau in like manner have claimed it as the abode of departed kings and chiefs1 then these pleasant fancies may be compared with ,plutarch's description of the virtuous souls who after purification in the middle space gain their footing on the moon1 and there are crowned as victors4#agj ,the converse notion of the moon as the seat of hell1 has been elaborated in profoundest bathos by ,mr4 ,m4 ,f4 ,tupper3 #8,i know thee well1 ,o ,moon1 thou cavern'd realm1 ,sad ,satellite1 thou giant ash of death1 ,blot on ,god's firmament1 pale home of crime1 ,scarr'd prison-house of sin1 where damned souls ,feed upon punishment4 ,oh1 thought sublime1 ,that amid night's black deeds1 when evil prowls ,through the broad world1 thou1 watching sinners well1 ,glarest o'er all1 the wakeful eye of--,hell6' ,skin for skin1 the brown savage is not ill matched in such speculative lore with the white philosopher4 ,fifthly1 as ,paradise on the face of the earth1 and ,hades beneath it where the sun goes down1 are regions whose existence is asserted or not denied by savage and barbaric science1 so it is with ,heaven4 ,among the examples which display for us the real course of knowledge among mankind1 and the real relation which primitive bears to later culture1 the belief in the existence of a firmament is one of the most instructive4 ,it arises naturally in the minds of children still1 and in accordance with the simplest childlike thought1 the cosmologies of the ,north ,american ,indians#aga and the ,south ,sea ,islanders#agb describe their flat earth arched over by the solid vault of heaven4 ,like thoughts are to be traced on through such details as the ,zulu idea that the blue heaven is a rock encircling the earth1 inside which are the sun1 moon1 and stars1 and outside which dwell the people of heaven2 the modern negro's belief that there is a firmament stretched above like a cloth or web2 the ,finnish poem which tells how ,ilmarinen forged the firmament of finest steel1 and set in it the moon and stars4#agc ,the ,new ,zealander1 with his notion of a solid firmament1 through which the waters can be let down on earth through a crack or hole from the reservoir of rain above1 could well explain the passage in ,herodotus concerning that place in ,north ,africa where1 as the ,libyans said1 the sky is pierced1 as well as the ancient ,jewish conception of a firmament of heaven1 #8strong as a molten mirror1' with its windows through which the rain pours down in deluge from the reservoirs above1 windows which late ,rabbinical literature tells us were made by taking out two stars4#agd ,in nations where the theory of the firmament prevails1 accounts of bodily journeys or spiritual ascents to heaven are in general meant not as figure1 but as fact4 ,among the lower races1 the tendency to localize the region of departed souls above the sky seems less strong than that which leads them to place their world of the dead on or below the earth's surface4 ,yet some well-marked descriptions of a savage ,heaven are on record1 the following1 and others to be cited presently4 ,even some ,australians seem to think of going up to the clouds at death1 to eat and drink1 and hunt and fish as here4#age ,in ,north ,america1 the ,winnebagos placed their paradise in the sky1 where souls travel along that #8,path of the ,dead' which we call the ,milky ,way2 and working out the ever-recurring solar idea1 the modern ,iroquois speak of the soul going upward and westward1 till it comes out on the beauteous plains of heaven1 with people and trees and things as on earth4#agf ,in ,south ,america the ,guarayos1 representatives in some sort of the past condition of the ,guarani race1 worship ,tamoi the ,grandfather1 the ,ancient of ,heaven2 he was their first ancestor1 who lived among them in old days and taught them to till the ground2 then rising to heaven in the ,east he disappeared1 having promised to be the helper of his people on earth1 and to transport them1 when they died1 from the top of a sacred tree into another life1 where they shall find their kindred and have hunting in plenty1 and possess all that they possessed on earth2 therefore it is that the ,guarayos adorn their dead1 and burn their weapons for them1 and bury them with their faces to the ,east1 whither they are to go4#agg ,among ,american peoples whose culture rose to a higher level than that of these savage tribes1 we hear of the ,peruvian ,heaven1 the glorious #8,upper ,world1' and of the temporary abode of ,aztec warriors on heavenly wooded plains1 where the sun shines when it is night on earth1 wherefore it was a ,mexican saying that the sun goes at evening to lighten the dead4#agh ,what thoughts of heaven were in the minds of the old ,aryan poets1 this hymn from the ,rig-,veda may show3-- #8,where there is eternal light1 in the world where the sun is placed1 in that immortal imperishable world place me1 ,o ,soma6 ,where king ,vaivasvata reigns1 where the secret place of heaven is1 where these mighty waters are1 there make me immortal6 ,where life is free1 in the third heaven of heavens1 where the worlds are radiant1 there make me immortal6 ,where wishes and desires are1 where the place of the bright sun is1 where there is freedom and delight1 there make me immortal6 ,where there is happiness and delight1 where joy and pleasure reside1 where the desires of our desire are attained1 there make me immortal6'#agi ,in such bright vague thoughts from the poet's religion of nature1 or in cosmic schemes of ancient astronomy1 with their artificial glories of barbaric architecture exaggerated in the skies1 or in the raptures of mystic vision1 or in the calmer teaching of the theologic doctrine of a future life1 descriptions of realms of blessed souls in heaven are to be followed through the religions of the ,brahman1 the ,buddhist1 the ,parsi1 the later ,jew1 the ,moslem1 and the ,christian4 ,for the object1 not of writing a handbook of religions1 but of tracing the relation which the religion of savages bears to the religion of cultured nations1 these details are enough to show the general line of human thought regarding the local habitations of departed souls4 ,it seems plain from the most cursory inspection of these various localizations1 however much we may consider them as inherited or transmitted from people to people in the complex movements of theological history1 that they are at any rate not derived from any single religion accepted among ancient or primval men4 ,they bear evident traces of independent working out in the varied definition of the region of souls1 as on earth among men1 on earth in some distant country1 below the earth1 above or beyond the sky4 ,similar ideas of this kind are found in different lands1 but this similarity seems in large measure due to independent recurrence of thoughts so obvious4 ,not less is independent fancy compatible with the ever-recurring solar myth in such ideas1 placing the land of ,death in the land of ,evening or of ,night1 and its entrance at the gates of ,sunset4 ,barbaric poets of many a distant land must have gazed into the ,west to read the tale of ,life and ,death1 and tell it of ,man4 ,if1 however1 we look more closely into the stages of intellectual history to which these theories of the ,future ,world belong1 it will appear that the assignment of the realm of departed souls to the three great regions1 ,earth1 ,hades1 ,heaven1 has not been uniform4 ,firstly1 the doctrine of a land of souls on ,earth belongs widely and deeply to savage culture1 but dwindles in the barbaric stage1 and survives but feebly into the medival4 ,secondly1 the doctrine of a subterranean ,hades holds as large a place as this in savage belief1 and has held it firmly along the course of higher religions1 where1 however1 this under-world is looked on less and less as the proper abode of the dead1 but rather as the dismal place of purgatory and hell4 ,lastly1 the doctrine of a ,heaven1 floored upon a firmament1 or placed in the upper air1 seems in early savage belief less common than the other two1 but yields to neither of them in its vigorous retention by the thought of modern nations4 ,these local theories appear to be taken1 firstly and mostly1 in the most absolute literal sense1 and although1 under the influence of physical science1 much that was once distinctly-meant philosophy has now passed among theologians into imagery and metaphor1 yet at low levels of knowledge the new canons of interpretation find little acceptance1 and even in modern ,europe the rude cosmology of the lower races in no small measure retains its place4 ,turning now to consider the state of the departed in these their new homes1 we have to examine the definitions of the ,future ,life which prevail through the religions of mankind4 ,in these doctrines there is much similarity caused by the spreading of established beliefs into new countries1 and also much similarity that is beyond what such transmission can account for4 ,so there is much variety due to local colour and circumstance1 and also much variety beyond the reach of such explanation4 ,the main causes of both similarity and variety seem to lie far deeper1 in the very origin and inmost meaning of the doctrines4 ,the details of the future life1 among the lower races and upwards1 are no heterogeneous mass of arbitrary fancies4 ,classified1 they range themselves naturally round central ideas1 in groups whose correspondence seems to indicate the special course of their development4 ,amongst the pictures into which this world has shaped its expectations of the next1 two great conceptions are especially to be discerned4 ,the one is that the future life is1 as it were1 a reflexion of this2 in a new world1 perhaps of dreamy beauty1 perhaps of ghostly gloom1 men are to retain their earthly forms and their earthly conditions1 to have around them their earthly friends1 to possess their earthly property1 to carry on their earthly occupations4 ,the other is that the future life is a compensation for this1 where men's conditions are re-allotted as the consequence1 and especially as the reward or punishment1 of their earthly life4 ,the first of these two ideas we may call 7with ,captain ,burton7 the #8continuance-theory1' contrasting with it the second as the #8retribution-theory4' ,separately or combined1 these two doctrines are the keys of the subject1 and by grouping typical examples under their two headings1 it will be possible to survey systematically man's most characteristic schemes of his life beyond the grave4 ,to the doctrine of ,continuance belongs especially the savage view of the spirit-land1 that it is as the dream-land where the souls of the living so often go to visit the souls of the dead4 ,there the soul of the dead ,karen1 with the souls of his axe and cleaver1 builds his house and cuts his rice2 the shade of the ,algonquin hunter hunts souls of beaver and elk1 walking on the souls of his snow-shoes over the soul of the snow2 the fur-wrapped ,kamchadal drives his dog-sledge2 the ,zulu milks his cows and drives his cattle to kraal2 ,south ,american tribes live on1 whole or mutilated1 healthy or sick1 as they left this world1 leading their old lives1 and having their wives with them again1 though indeed1 as the ,araucanians said1 they have no more children1 for they are but souls4#ahj ,soul-land is dream-land in its shadowy unreal pictures1 for which1 nevertheless1 material reality so plainly furnished the models1 and it is dream-land also in its vivid idealization of the soberer thoughts and feelings of waking life4 #8,there was a time when meadow1 grove1 and stream1 ,the earth1 and every common sight1 ,to me did seem ,apparell'd in celestial light1 ,the glory and the freshness of a dream4' ,well might the ,mohawk ,indian describe the good land of paradise1 as he had seen it in a dream4 ,the shade of the ,ojibwa follows a wide and beaten path that leads toward the ,west1 he crosses a deep and rapid water1 and reaching a country full of game and all things the ,indian covets1 he joins his kindred in their long lodge4#aha ,so1 on the southern continent1 the ,bolivian ,yuracars will go1 all of them1 to a future life where there will be plenty of hunting1 and ,brazilian forest-tribes will find a pleasant forest full of calabash-trees and game1 where the souls of the dead will live happily in company4#ahb ,the ,greenlanders hoped that their souls--pale1 soft1 disembodied forms which the living could not grasp--would lead a life better than that of earth1 and never ceasing4 ,it might be in heaven1 reached by the rainbow1 where the souls pitch their tents round the great lake rich in fish and fowl1 the lake whose waters above the firmament overflowing make rain on earth1 and if its banks broke1 there would be another deluge4 ,but gaining the most and best of their living from the depths of the sea1 they were also apt to think the land of ,torngarsuk to be below the sea or earth1 and to be entered by the deep holes in the rocks4 ,perpetual summer is there1 ever beauteous sunshine1 and no night1 good water and superfluity of birds and fish1 seals and reindeer to be caught without difficulty1 or found alive seething in a great kettle4#ahc ,in the ,kimbunda country of ,south-,west ,africa1 souls live on in #8,kalunga1' the world where it is day when it is night here2 and with plenty of food and drink1 and women to serve them1 and hunting and dancing for pastime1 they lead a life which seems a corrected edition of this4#ahd ,on comparison of these pictures of the future life with such as have expressed the longings of more cultured nations1 there appear indeed different details1 but the principle is ever the same--the idealization of earthly good4 ,the ,norseman's ideal is sketched in the few broad touches which show him in ,walhalla1 where he and the other warriors without number ride forth arrayed each morning and hew each other on ,odin's plain1 till the slain have been #8chosen' as in earthly battle1 and meal-tide comes1 and slayers and slain mount and ride home to feast on the everlasting boar1 and drink mead and ale with the sir4#ahe ,to understand the ,moslem's mind1 we must read the two chapters of the ,koran where the ,prophet describes the faithful in the garden of delights1 reclining on their couches of gold and gems1 served by children ever young1 with bowls of liquor whose fumes will not rise into the drinkers' heads1 living among the thornless lotus-trees and date-palms loaded to the ground1 feasting on the fruits they love and the meat of the rarest birds1 with the houris near them with beautiful black eyes1 like pearls in the shell1 where no idle or wicked speech is heard1 but only the words #8,peace1 ,peace4' #8,they who fear the judgment of ,god shall have two gardens4 ,which of the benefits of ,god will ye deny8 ,adorned with groves4 ,which of the benefits of ,god will ye deny8 ,in each of them shall spring two fountains4 ,which of the benefits of ,god will ye deny8 ,in each of them shall grow two kinds of fruits4 ,which of the benefits of ,god will ye deny8 ,they shall lie on carpets brocaded with silk and embroidered with gold2 the fruits of the two gardens shall be near1 easy to pluck4 ,which of the benefits of ,god will ye deny8 ,there shall be young virgins with modest looks1 unprofaned by man or jinn4 ,which of the benefits of ,god will ye deny8 ,they are like jacinth and coral4 ,which of the benefits of ,god will ye deny8 ,what is the recompence of good1 if not good8 ,which of the benefits of ,god will ye deny8' c4#ahf ,with these descriptions of ,paradise idealized on secular life1 it is interesting to compare others which bear the impress of a priestly caste1 devising a heaven after their manner4 ,we can almost see the faces of the ,jewish rabbis settling their opinions about the high schools in the firmament of heaven1 where ,rabbi ,simeon ben ,yochai and the great ,rabbi ,eliezer teach ,law and ,talmud as they taught when they were here below1 and masters and learners go prosing on with the weary old disputations of cross question and crooked answer that pleased their souls on earth4#ahg ,nor less suggestively do the ,buddhist heavens reflect the minds of the ascetics who devised them4 ,as in their thoughts sensual pleasure seemed poor and despicable in comparison with mystic inward joy1 rising and rising till consciousness fades in trance1 so1 above their heavens of millions of years of mere divine happiness1 they raised other ranges of heavens where sensual pain and pleasure cease1 and enjoyment becomes intellectual1 till at a higher grade even bodily form is gone1 and after the last heaven of #8,neither-consciousness-nor-unconscious ness' there follows ,nirwna1 as ecstasy passes into swoon4#ahh ,but the doctrine of the continuance of the soul's life has another and a gloomier side4 ,there are conceptions of an abode of the dead characterized not so much by dreaminess as by ghostliness4 ,the realm of shades1 especially if it be a cavern underground1 has seemed a dim and melancholy place to the dwellers in this #8white world1' as the ,russian calls the land of the living4 ,one description of the ,hurons tells how the other world1 with its hunting and fishing1 its much-prized hatchets and robes and necklaces1 is like this world1 yet day and night the souls groan and lament4#ahi ,thus the region of ,mictlan1 the subterranean land of ,hades whither the general mass of the ,mexican nation1 high and low1 expected to descend from the natural death-bed1 was an abode looked forward to with resignation1 but scarcely with cheerfulness4 ,at the funeral the survivors were bidden not to mourn too much1 the dead was reminded that he had passed and suffered the labours of this life1 transitory as when one warms himself in the sun1 and he was bidden to have no care or anxiety to return to his kinsfolk now that he has departed for ever and aye1 for his consolation must be that they too will end their labours1 and go whither he has gone before4#aij ,among the ,basutos1 where the belief in a future life in ,hades is general1 some imagine in this underworld valleys ever green1 and herds of hornless speckled cattle owned by the dead2 but it seems more generally thought that the shades wander about in silent calm1 experiencing neither joy nor sorrow4 ,moral retribution there is none4#aia ,the ,hades of the ,west ,african seems no ecstatic paradise1 to judge by ,captain ,burton's description3 #8,it was said of the old ,egyptians that they lived rather in ,hades than upon the banks of the ,nile4 ,the ,dahomans declare that this world is man's plantation1 the next is his home1--a home which1 however1 no one visits of his own accord4 ,they of course own no future state of rewards and punishment3 there the ,king will be a ,king1 and the slave a slave for ever4 ,ku-to-men1 or ,deadman's land1 the ,dahoman's other but not better world1 is a country of ghosts1 of umbr1 who1 like the spirits of the nineteenth century in ,europe1 lead a quiet life1 except when by means of mediums they are drawn into the drawing-rooms of the living4' ,with some such hopeless expectation the neighbours of the ,dahomans1 the ,yorubas1 judge the life to come in their simple proverb that #8,a corner in this world is better than a corner in the world of spirits4'#aib ,the ,finns1 who feared the ghosts of the departed as unkind1 harmful beings1 fancied them dwelling with their bodies in the grave1 or else1 with what ,castrn thinks a later philosophy1 assigned them their dwelling in the subterranean ,tuonela4 ,tuonela was like this upper earth1 the sun shone there1 there was no lack of land and water1 wood and field1 tilth and meadow1 there were bears and wolves1 snakes and pike1 but all things were of a hurtful1 dismal kind1 the woods dark and swarming with wild beasts1 the water black1 the cornfields bearing seed of snakes' teeth1 and there stern pitiless old ,tuoni1 and his grim wife and son with the hooked fingers with iron points1 kept watch and ward over the dead lest they should escape4#aic ,scarce less dismal was the classic ideal of the dark realm below1 whither the shades of the dead must go to join the many gone before 7 2 penetrare ad plures2 andare tra i pi74 ,the ,roman ,orcus holds the pallid souls1 rapacious ,orcus1 sparing neither good nor bad4 ,gloomy is the ,greek land of ,hades1 dark dwelling of the images of departed mortals1 where the shades carry at once their living features and their dying wounds1 and glide and cluster and whisper1 and lead the shadow of a life4 ,like the savage hunter on his ghostly prairie1 the great ,orion still bears his brazen mace1 still chases over the meadows of asphodel the flying beasts he slew of yore in the lonely mountains4 ,like the rude ,african of to-day1 the swift-footed ,achilles scorns such poor1 thin1 shadowy life2 rather would he serve a mean man upon earth than be lord of all the dead4 #8,truly1 oxen and goodly sheep may be taken for booty1 ,tripods1 too1 may be bought1 and the yellow beauty of horses2 ,but from the fence of the teeth when once the soul is departed1 ,never cometh it back1 regained by plunder or purchase4'#aid ,where and what was ,sheol1 the dwelling of the ancient ,jewish dead8 ,of late years the ,biblical critic has no longer to depend on passages of the ,old ,testament for realizing its conception1 so plainly is it connected with the seven-circled ,irkalla of the ,babylonian-,assyrian religion1 the gloomy subterranean abode whence there is no return for man1 though indeed the goddess ,isthar passed through its seven gates1 and came back to earth from her errand of saving all life from destruction4 ,in the history of religions1 few passages are more instructive than those in which the prophets of the ,old ,testament recognize the ancestral connexion of their own belief with the national religions of ,babylon-,assyria1 as united in the doctrine of a gloomy prison of ghosts1 through whose gates ,jew and ,gentile alike must pass4 ,sheol 7 from 7 is1 as its name implies1 a cavernous recess1 yet it is no mere surface-grave or tomb1 but an under-world of awful depth3 #8,high as ,heaven1 what doest thou8 deeper than ,sheol1 what knowest thou8' ,asshur and all her company1 ,elam and all her multitude1 the mighty fallen of the uncircumcised1 lie there4 ,the great king of ,babylon must go down3-- #8,sheol from beneath is moved because of thee1 to meet thee at thy coming3 ,he rouseth for thee the mighty dead1 all the great chiefs of the earth2 ,he maketh to rise up from their thrones1 all the kings of the nations4 ,all of them shall accost thee1 and shall say unto thee3 ,art thou1 even thou too1 became weak as we8 ,art thou made like unto us8' ,to the ,greek ,septuagint1 ,sheol was ,hades1 and for this the ,coptic translators had their long-inherited ,egyptian name of ,amenti1 while the ,vulgate renders it as ,infernus1 the lower regions4 ,the ,gothic ,ulfilas1 translating the ,hades of the ,new ,testament1 could use ,halja in its old ,german sense of the dim shadowy home of the dead below the earth2 and the corresponding word ,hell1 if this its earlier sense be borne in mind1 fairly translates ,sheol and ,hades in the ,english version of the ,old and ,new ,testament1 though the word has become misleading to uneducated ears by being used also in the sense of ,gehenna1 the place of torment4 ,the early ,hebrew historians and prophets1 holding out neither the hope of everlasting glory nor the fear of everlasting agony as guiding motives for man's present life1 lay down little direct doctrine of a future state1 yet their incidental mentions justify the translators who regard ,sheol as ,hades4 ,sheol is a special locality where dead men go to their dead ancestors3 #8,and ,isaac gave up the ghost1 and died1 and was gathered unto his people 444 and his sons ,esau and ,jacob buried him4' ,abraham1 though not even buried in the land of his forefathers1 is thus #8gathered unto his people2' and ,jacob has no thought of his body being laid with ,joseph's body1 torn by wild beasts in the wilderness1 when he says1 #8,i shall go down to my son mourning to ,sheol 7#8 ' in the ,,lxx41 #8pest menti' in the ,coptic1 #8in infernum' in the ,vulgate74 ,the rephaim1 the #8shades' of the dead1 who dwell in ,sheol1 love not to be disturbed from their rest by the necromancer2 #8,and ,samuel said to ,saul1 why hast thou disquieted me to bring me up8' ,yet their quiet is contrasted in a tone of sadness with the life on earth2 #8,whatsoever thy hand findeth to do1 do it with thy might2 for there is no work1 nor device1 nor knowledge1 nor wisdom1 in ,sheol1 whither thou goest4'#aie ,such thoughts of the life of the shades below did not disappear when1 in the later years of the ,jewish nation1 the great change in the doctrine of the future life passed in so large a measure over the ,hebrew mind1 their earlier thoughts of ghostly continuance giving place to the doctrines of resurrection and retribution4 ,the ancient ideas have even held their place on into ,christian thought1 in pictures like that of the ,limbus ,patrum1 the ,hades where ,christ descended to set free the patriarchs4 ,the ,retribution-theory of the future life comprises in a general way the belief in different grades of future happiness1 especially in different regions of the other world allotted to men according to their lives in this4 ,this doctrine of retribution is1 as we have already seen1 far from universal among mankind1 many races recognizing the idea of a spirit outliving the body1 without considering the fate of this spirit to depend at all upon the conduct of the living man4 ,the doctrine of retribution indeed hardly seems an original part of the doctrine of the future life4 ,on the contrary1 if we judge that men in a primitive state of culture arrived at the notion of a surviving spirit1 and that some races1 but by no means all1 afterwards reached the further stage of recognizing a retribution for deeds done in the body1 this theory will not1 so far as ,i know1 be discountenanced by facts4#aif ,even among the higher savages1 however1 a connexion between man's life and his happiness or misery after death is often held as a definite article of theology1 and thence it is to be traced onward through barbaric religions1 and into the very heart of ,christianity4 ,yet the grounds of good and evil in the future life are so far from uniform among the religions of the world1 that they may differ widely within what is considered one and the same creed4 ,the result is more definite than the cause1 the end than the means4 ,men who alike look forward to a region of unearthly happiness beyond the grave1 hope to reach that happy land by roads so strangely different1 that the path of life which leads one nation to eternal bliss may seem to the next the very descent into the pit4 ,in noticing among savage and barbaric peoples the qualifications which determine future happiness1 we may with some distinctness define these as being excellence1 valour1 social rank1 religious ordinance4 ,on the whole1 however1 in the religions of the lower range of culture1 unless where they may have been affected by contact with higher religions1 the destiny of the man after death seems hardly to turn on judicial reward or punishment for his moral conduct in life4 ,such difference as is made between the future conditions of different classes of souls1 seems more often to belong to a remarkable intermediate doctrine1 standing between the earlier continuance-theory and the later retribution-theory4 ,the idea of the next life being similar to this seems to have developed into the idea that what gives prosperity and renown here will give it also there1 so that earthly conditions carry on their contrasts into the changed world after death4 ,thus a man's condition after death will be a result of1 rather than a compensation or retribution for1 his condition during life4 ,a comparison of doctrines held at various stages of culture may justify a tentative speculation as to their actual sequence in history1 favouring the opinion that through such an intermediate stage the doctrine of simple future existence was actually developed into the doctrine of future reward and punishment1 a transition which for deep import to human life has scarcely its rival in the history of religion4 ,the effect of earthly rank on the future life1 as looked at by the lower races1 brings out this intermediate stage in bold relief4 ,mere transfer from one life to another makes chiefs and slaves here chiefs and slaves hereafter1 and this natural doctrine is very usual4 ,but there are cases in which earthly caste is exaggerated into utter difference in the life to come4 ,the aerial paradise of ,raiatea1 with its fragrant ever-blooming flowers1 its throngs of youths and girls all perfection1 its luxurious feasts and merrymakings1 were for the privileged orders of ,areois and chiefs who could pay the priests their heavy charges1 but hardly for the common populace4 ,this idea reached its height in the ,tonga islands1 where aristocratic souls would pass to take their earthly rank and station in the island paradise of ,bolotu1 while plebeian souls1 if indeed they existed1 would die with the plebeian bodies they dwelt in4#aig ,in ,vancouver's ,island1 the ,ahts fancied ,quawteaht's calm sunny plenteous land in the sky as the resting-place of high chiefs1 who live in one great house as the ,creator's guests1 while the slain in battle have another to themselves4 ,but otherwise all ,indians of low degree go deep down under the earth to the land of ,chay-her1 with its poor houses and no salmon and small deer1 and blankets so small and thin that when the dead are buried the friends often bury blankets with them1 to send them to the world below with the departed soul4#aih ,the expectation of royal dignity in the life after death1 distinct from the fate of ordinary mortals1 comes well into view among the ,natchez of ,louisiana1 where the sun-descended royal family would in some way return to the ,sun2 thus also in the mightier empire of ,peru1 where each sun-descended ,inca1 feeling the approach of death1 announced to his assembled vassals that he was called to heaven to rest with his father the ,sun4#aii ,but in the higher religions1 the change in this respect from the doctrine of continuance to the doctrine of retribution is wonderful in its completeness4 ,the story of that great lady who strengthened her hopes of future happiness by the assurance1 #8,they will think twice before they refuse a person of my condition1' is a mere jest to modern ears4 ,yet1 like many other modern jest1 it is only an archaism which in an older stage of culture had in it nothing ridiculous4 ,to the happy land of ,torngarsuk the ,great ,spirit1 says ,cranz1 only such ,greenlanders came as have been valiant workers1 for other ideas of virtue they have none2 such as have done great deeds1 taken many whales and seals1 borne much hardship1 been drowned at sea1 or died in childbirth4#bjj ,thus ,charlevoix says of the ,indians further south1 that their claim to hunt after death on the prairies of eternal spring is to have been good hunters and warriors here4 ,lescarbot1 speaking of the belief among the ,indians of ,virginia that after death the good will be at rest and the wicked in pain1 remarks that their enemies are the wicked and themselves the good1 so that in their opinion they are after death much at their ease1 and principally when they have well defended their country and slain their enemies4#bja ,so ,jean de ,lery said of the rude ,tubinambas of ,brazil1 that they think the souls of such as have lived virtuously1 that is to say1 who have well avenged themselves and eaten many of their enemies1 will go behind the great mountains and dance in beautiful gardens with the souls of their fathers1 but the souls of the effeminate and worthless1 who have not striven to defend their country1 will go to ,aygnan the ,evil ,spirit1 to incessant torments4#bjb ,more characteristic and probably more genuinely native than most of these expectations1 is that of the ,caribs1 that the braves of their nation should go after death to happy islands1 where all good fruits grow wild1 there to spend their time in dancing and feasting1 and to have their enemies the ,arawaks for slaves2 but the cowards who feared to go to war should go to serve the ,arawaks1 dwelling in their waste and barren lands beyond the mountains4#bjc ,the fate of warriors slain in battle is the subject of two singularly contrasted theories4 ,we have elsewhere examined the deep-lying belief that if a man's body be wounded or mutilated1 his soul will arrive in the same state in the other world4 ,perhaps it is some such idea of the soul being injured with the body by a violent death1 that leads the ,mintira of the ,malay ,peninsula1 though not believing in a future reward and punishment1 to exclude from the happy paradise of #8,fruit ,island' 7,pulo ,bua7 the souls of such as die a bloody death1 condemning them to dwell on #8,red ,land' 7,tana ,mera71 a desolate barren place1 whence they must even go to the fortunate island to fetch their food4#bjd ,in ,north ,america1 the idea is mentioned among the ,hurons that the souls of the slain in war live in a band apart1 neither they nor suicides being admitted to the spirit-villages of their tribe4 ,a belief ascribed to certain ,indians of ,california may be cited here1 though less as a sample of real native doctrine than to illustrate that borrowing of ,christian ideas which so often spoils such evidence for ethnological purposes4 ,they held1 it is said1 that ,niparaya1 the ,great ,spirit1 hates war1 and will have no warriors in his paradise1 but that his adversary ,wac1 shut up for rebellion in a great cave1 takes thither to himself the slain in battle4#bje ,on the other hand1 the thought which shows out in such bold relief in the savage mind1 that courage is virtue1 and battle and bloodshed the hero's noblest pursuit1 leads naturally to a hope of glory for his soul when his body has been slain in fight4 ,such expectation was not strange in ,north ,america1 to that ,indian tribe1 for instance1 who talked of the ,great ,spirit walking in the moonlight on his island in ,lake ,superior1 whither slain warriors will go to him to take their pleasure in the chace4#bjf ,the ,nicaraguans declared that men who died in their houses went underground1 but the slain in war went to serve the gods in the east1 where the sun comes from4 ,this corresponds in part with a remarkable threefold contrast of the future life among their ,aztec kinsfolk4 ,mictlan1 the ,hades of the general dead1 and ,tlalocan1 the ,earthly ,paradise1 reached by certain special and acute ways of death1 have been mentioned here already4 ,but the souls of warriors slain in battle or sacrificed as captives1 and of women who died in child-birth1 were transported to the heavenly plains2 there the heroes1 peeping through the holes in their bucklers pierced by arrows in earthly fight1 watched the ,sun arise and saluted him with shout and clash of arms1 and at noon the mothers received him with music and dance to escort him on his western way4#bjg ,in such wise1 to the old ,norseman1 to die the #8straw-death' of sickness or old age was to go down into the dismal loathly house of ,hela the ,death-goddess2 if the warrior's fate on the field of battle were denied him1 and death came to fetch him from a peaceful couch1 yet at least he could have the scratch of the spear1 ,odin's mark1 and so contrive to go with a blood-stained soul to the glorious ,walhalla4 ,surely then if ever1 says a modern writer1 the kingdom of heaven suffered violence1 and the violent took it by force4#bjh ,thence we follow the idea onward to the battle-fields of holy war1 where the soldier earned with his blood the unfading crown of martyrdom1 and ,christian and ,moslem were urged in mutual onset and upheld in agony by the glimpse of paradise opening to receive the slayer of the infidel4 ,such ideas1 current among the lower races as to the soul's future happiness or misery1 do not seem1 setting aside some exceptional points1 to be thoughts adopted or degraded from doctrines of cultured nations4 ,they rather belong to the intellectual stratum in which they are found4 ,if so1 we must neither ignore nor exaggerate their standing in the lower ethics4 #8,the good are good warriors and hunters1' said a ,pawnee chief2 whereupon the author who mentions the saying remarks that this would also be the opinion of a wolf1 if he could express it4#bji ,nevertheless1 if experience has led societies of savage men to fix on certain qualities1 such as courage1 skill1 and industry1 as being virtues1 then many moralists will say that such a theory is not only ethical1 but lying at the very foundation of ethics4 ,and if these savage societies further conclude that such virtues obtain their reward in another world as in this1 then their theories of future happiness and misery1 destined for what they call good and bad men1 may be looked on in this sense as belonging to morality1 though at no high stage of development4 ,but many or most writers1 when they mention morality1 assume a narrower definition of it4 ,this must be borne in mind in appreciating what is meant by the statements of several well-qualified ethnologists1 who have1 in more or less degree1 denied a moral character to the future retribution as conceived in savage religion4 ,mr4 ,ellis1 describing the ,society ,islanders1 at least gives an explicit definition4 ,when he tried to ascertain whether they connected a person's condition in a future state with his disposition and conduct in this1 he never could learn that they expected in the world of spirits any difference in the treatment of a kind1 generous1 peaceful man1 and that of a cruel1 parsimonious1 quarrelsome one4#baj ,this remark1 it seems to me1 applies to savage religion far and wide4 ,dr4 ,brinton1 commenting on the native religions of ,america1 draws his line in a somewhat different place4 ,nowhere1 he says1 was any well-defined doctrine that moral turpitude was judged and punished in the next world4 ,no contrast is discoverable between a place of torments and a realm of joy2 at the worst but a negative castigation awaited the liar1 the coward1 or the niggard4#baa ,professor ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 in his #8,american ,religions1' yet more pointedly denies any #8ethical meaning' in the contrasts of the savage future life1 and looks upon what he well calls its #8light-side' and #8shadow-side' not as recompensing earthly virtue and vice1 but rather as carrying on earthly conditions in a new existence4#bab ,the idea that admission to the happier region depends on the performance of religious rites and the giving of offerings1 seems scarcely known to the lowest savages4 ,it is worth while1 however1 to notice some statements which seem to mark its appearance at the level of high savagery or low barbarism4 ,thus in the ,society ,islands1 though the destiny of man's spirit to the region of night or to elysium was irrespective of moral character1 we hear of neglect of rites and offerings as being visited by the displeasure of deities4#bac ,in ,florida1 the belief of the ,sun-worshipping people of ,achalaque was thus described3 those who had lived well1 and well served the ,sun1 and given many gifts to the poor in his honour1 would be happy after death and be changed into stars1 whereas the wicked would be carried to a destitute and wretched existence among mountain precipices1 where fierce wild beasts have their dens4#bad ,according to ,bosman1 the souls of ,guinea negroes reaching the river of death must answer to the divine judge how they have lived2 have they religiously observed the holy days dedicated to their god1 have they abstained from all forbidden meats and kept their vows inviolate1 they are wafted across to paradise2 but if they have sinned against these laws they are plunged in the river and there drowned for ever4#bae ,such statements among peoples at these stages of culture are not frequent1 and perhaps not very valid as accounts of original native doctrine4 ,it is in the elaborate religious systems of more organized nations1 in modern ,brahmanism and ,buddhism1 and degraded forms of ,christianity1 that the special adaptation of the doctrine of retribution to the purposes of priestcraft and ceremonialism has become a commonplace of missionary reports4 ,it is well not to speak too positively on a subject so difficult and doubtful as this of the history of the belief in future retribution4 ,careful criticism of the evidence is above all necessary4 ,for instance1 we have to deal with several statements recorded among low races1 explicitly assigning reward or punishment to men after death1 according as they were good or bad in life4 ,here the first thing to be done is to clear up1 if possible1 the question whether the doctrine of retribution may have been borrowed from some more cultured neighbouring religion1 as the very details often show to have been the case4 ,examples of direct adoption of foreign dogmas on this subject are not uncommon in the world4 ,when among the ,dayaks of ,borneo it is said that a dead man becomes a spirit and lives in the jungle1 or haunts the place of burial or burning1 or when some distant mountain-top is pointed to as the abode of spirits of departed friends1 it is hardly needful to question the originality of ideas so characteristically savage4 ,but one of these ,dayak tribes1 burning the dead1 says that #8as the smoke of the funeral pile of a good man rises1 the soul ascends with it to the sky1 and that the smoke from the pile of a wicked man descends1 and his soul with it is borne down to the earth1 and through it to the regions below4'#baf ,did not this exceptional idea come into the ,dayak's mind by contact with ,hinduism8 ,in ,orissa1 again1 ,khond souls have to leap across the black unfathomable river to gain a footing on the slippery ,leaping ,rock1 where ,dinga ,pennu1 the judge of the dead1 sits writing his register of all men's daily lives and actions1 sending virtuous souls to become blessed spirits1 keeping back wicked ones and sending them to suffer their penalties in new births on earth4#bag ,here the striking myth of the leaping rock is perfectly savage1 but the ideas of a judgment1 moral retribution1 and transmigration1 may have come from the ,hindus of the plains1 as the accompanying notion of the written book unquestionably did4 ,dr4 ,mason is no doubt right in taking as the indigenous doctrine of the ,karens their notion of an under-world where the ghosts of the dead live on as here1 while he sets down to ,hindu influence the idea of ,tha-ma1 the judge of the dead 7the ,hindu ,yama71 as allotting their fate according to their lives1 sending those who have done deeds of merit to heaven1 those who have done wickedness to hell1 and keeping in ,hades the neither good nor bad4#bah ,how the theory of moral retribution may be superposed on more primitive doctrines of the future life1 comes remarkably into view in ,turanian religion4 ,among the ,lapps1 ,jabme-,aimo1 the subterranean #8home of the dead' below the earth1 where the departed have their cattle and follow their livelihood like ,lapps above1 though they are richer1 wiser1 stronger folk1 and also ,saivo-,aimo1 a yet happier #8home of the gods1' are conceptions thoroughly in the spirit of the lower culture4 ,but in one account the subterranean abode becomes a place of transition1 where the dead stay awhile1 and then with bodies renewed are taken up to the ,heaven-god1 or if misdoers1 are flung into the abyss4 ,castrn is evidently right in rejecting this doctrine as not native1 but due to ,catholic influence4 ,so1 at the end of the #afth ,rune of the ,finnish ,kalewala1 which tells of ,wainamoinen's visit to the dismal land of the dead1 there is put into the hero's mouth a second speech1 warning the children of men to harm not the innocent1 for sad payment is in ,tuoni's dwelling--the bed of evil-doers is there1 with its glowing red-hot stones below and its canopy of snakes above4 ,but the same critic condemns this moral #8tag1' as a later addition to the genuine heathen picture of ,manala1 the under-world of the dead4#bai ,nor did ,christianity scorn to borrow details from the religions it abolished4 ,the narrative of a medival visit to the other world would be incomplete without its description of the awful ,bridge of ,death2 ,acheron and ,charon's bark were restored to their places in ,tartarus by the visionary and the poet2 the wailing of sinful souls might be heard as they were hammered white-hot in ,vulcan's smithies2 and the weighing of good and wicked souls1 as we may see it figured on every ,egyptian mummy-case1 now passed into the charge of ,st4 ,paul and the ,devil4#bbj ,the foregoing considerations having been duly weighed1 it remains to call attention to the final problem1 at what state of religious history the full theological doctrine of judicial retribution and moral compensation in a future life may have arisen4 ,it is hard1 however1 to define where this development takes place even at a barbaric stage of culture4 ,thus among the barbaric nations of ,west ,africa1 there appear such beliefs as that in ,nuffi1 that criminals who escape their punishment here will receive it in the other world2 the division of the ,yoruba under-world into an upper and a lower region for the righteous and wicked2 the ,kru doctrine that only the good will rejoin their ancestors in heaven2 the ,oji doctrine that only the good will dwell after death in the heavenly house or city of the ,deity whom they call the #8,highest4'#bba ,how far is all this to be taken as native conception1 and how far as due to ages of ,christian and ,moslem intercourse1 to which at any rate few will scruple to refer the last case8 ,in the lower ranges of civilization1 some of the most remarkable doctrines of this class are recorded in ,north ,america4 ,thus they appear in connexion with the fancy of a river or gulf to be passed by the departing soul on its way to the land of the dead1 one of the most remarkable traits of the mythology of the world4 ,this seems in its origin a nature-myth1 connected probably with the ,sun's passage across the sea into ,hades1 and in many of its versions it appears as a mere episode of the soul's journey without any moral sense attached to it4 ,brebeuf1 the same early ,jesuit missionary who says explicitly of the ,hurons that there is no difference in their future life between the fate of the virtuous and the vicious1 mentions also among them the tree-trunk that bridges the river of death2 here the dead must cross1 the dog that guards it attacks some souls1 and they fall4 ,yet in other versions this myth has a moral sense attached to it1 and the passage of the heaven-gulf becomes an ordeal to separate good and wicked4 ,to take but one instance1 there is ,catlin's account of the ,choctaw souls journeying far westward1 to whom the long slippery barkless pine-log1 stretching from hill to hill1 bridges over the deep and dreadful river2 the good pass safely to a beauteous ,indian paradise1 the wicked fall into the abyss of waters1 and go the dark hungry wretched land where they are henceforth to dwell4#bbb ,this and many similar beliefs current in the religions of the world1 which need not be particularised here1 seem best explained as originally nature-myths1 afterwards adapted to a religious purpose4 ,a different conception was recorded so early as #afbc1 by ,captain ,john ,smith among the ,massachusetts1 whose name is still borne by the ,new ,england district they once inhabited3 ,they say1 at first there was no king but ,kiehtan1 that dwelleth far westerly above the heavens1 whither all good men go when they die1 and have plenty of all things4 ,the bad men go thither also and knock at the door1 but he bids them go wander in endless want and misery1 for they shall not stay there4#bbc ,lastly1 the ,salish ,indians of ,oregon say that the good go to a happy hunting-ground of endless game1 while the bad go to a place where there is eternal snow1 hunger1 and thirst1 and are tantalised by the sight of game they cannot kill1 and water they cannot drink4#bbd ,if1 now1 in looking at these records1 the doubts which beset them can be put aside1 and the accounts of the different fates assigned to the good and wicked can be accepted as belonging to genuine native ,american religion and if1 moreover1 it be considered that the goodness and wickedness for which men are to be thus rewarded and punished are moral qualities1 however undeveloped in definition1 this will amount to an admission that the doctrine of moral retribution at any rate appears within the range of savage theology4 ,such a view1 however1 by no means invalidates the view here put forward as to the historical development of the doctrine1 but only goes to prove at how early a stage it may have begun to take place4 ,the general mass of evidence still remains to show the savage doctrine of the future state1 as originally involving no moral retribution1 or arriving at this through transitional and rudimentary stages4 ,in strong contrast with the schemes of savage future existence1 ,i need but set before the reader's mind a salient point here and there in the doctrine of distinct and unquestionable moral retribution1 as held in religions of the higher culture4 ,the inner mystic doctrines of ancient ,egypt may perhaps never be extracted now from the pictures and hieroglyphic formulas of the #8,book of the ,dead4' ,but the ethnographer may satisfy himself of two important points as to the place which the ,egyptian view of the future life occupies in the history of religion4 ,on the one hand1 the soul's quitting and revisiting the corpse1 the placing of the image in the tomb1 the offering of meat and drink1 the fearful journey to the regions of the departed1 the renewed life like that on earth1 with its houses to dwell in and fields to cultivate--all these are conceptions which connect the ,egyptian religion with the religions of the ruder races of mankind4 ,but on the other hand1 the mixed ethical and ceremonial standard by which the dead are to be judged adapts these primitive and even savage thoughts to a higher social development1 such as may be shown by fragments from that remarkable #8negative confession' which the dead must make before ,osiris and the forty-two judges in ,amenti4 #8,o ye ,lords of ,truth6 let me know you6444 ,rub ye away my faults4 ,i have not privily done evil against mankind4444 ,i have not told falsehoods in the tribunal of ,truth4444 ,i have not done any wicked thing4 ,i have not made the labouring man do more than his task daily4444 ,i have not calumniated the slave to his master4444 ,i have not murdered4444 ,i have not done fraud to men4 ,i have not changed measures of the country4 ,i have not injured the images of the gods4 ,i have not taken scraps of the bandages of the dead4 ,i have not committed adultery4 ,i have not withheld milk from the mouths of sucklings4 ,i have not hunted wild animals in the pasturages4 ,i have not netted sacred birds4444 ,i am pure6 ,i am pure6 ,i am pure6'#bbe ,the ,vedic hymns1 again1 tell of endless happiness for the good in heaven with the gods1 and speak also of the deep pit where the liars1 the lawless1 they who give no sacrifice1 will be cast4#bbf ,the rival theories of continuance and retribution are seen in instructive coexistence in classic ,greece and ,rome4 ,what seems the older belief holds its ground in the realm of ,hades2 that dim region of bodiless1 smoke-like ghosts remains the home of the undistinguished crowd in the 1 the #8middle life4' ,yet at the same time the judgment-seat of ,minos and ,rhadamanthos1 the joys of ,elysium for the just and good1 fiery ,tartarus echoing with the wail of the wicked1 represent the newer doctrine of a moral retribution4 ,the idea of purgatorial suffering1 which hardly seems to have entered the minds of the lower races1 expands in immense vigour in the great ,aryan religions of ,asia4 ,in ,brahmanism and ,buddhism1 the working out of good and evil actions into their necessary consequence of happiness and misery is the very key to the philosophy of life1 whether life's successive transmigrations be in animal1 or human1 or demon births on earth1 or in luxurious heaven-palaces of gold and jewels1 or in the agonizing hells where ,oriental fancy riots in the hideous inventory of torture--caldrons of boiling oil and liquid fire2 black dungeons and rivers of filth2 vipers1 and vultures1 and cannibals2 thorns1 and spears1 and red-hot pincers1 and whips of flame4 ,to the modern ,hindu1 it is true1 ceremonial morality seems to take the upper hand1 and the question of happiness or misery after death turns rather on ablutions and fasts1 on sacrifices and gifts to brahmans1 than on purity and beneficence of life4 ,buddhism in ,south ,east ,asia1 sadly degenerate from its once high estate1 is apt to work out the doctrine of merit and demerit into debtor and creditor accounts kept in good and bad marks from day to day2 to serve out so much tea in hot weather counts #a to the merit-side1 and putting a stop to one's women scolding for a month counts #a likewise1 but this may be balanced by the offence of letting them keep the bowls and plates dirty for a day1 which counts #a the wrong way2 and it appears that giving wood for two coffins1 which count #cj marks each1 and burying four bones1 at #aj marks a-piece1 would just be balanced by murdering a child1 which counts #ajj to the bad4#bbg ,it need hardly be said here that these two great religions of ,asia must be judged rather in their records of long past ages1 than in the lingering degeneration of their modern reality4 ,in the ,khordah-,avesta1 a document of the old ,persian religion1 the fate of good and wicked souls at death is pictured in a dialogue between ,zarathustra 7,zoroaster71 and ,ahura-,mazda and ,anra-,mainyu 7,ormuzd and ,ahriman74 ,zarathustra asks1',ahura-,mazda1 ,heavenly1 ,holiest1 ,creator of the corporeal world1 ,pure6 ,when a pure man dies1 where does his soul dwell during this night8' ,then answers ,ahura-,mazda3 #8,near his head it sits down1 reciting the ,gth ,ustavaiti1 praying happiness for itself2 8,happiness be to the man who conduces to the happiness of each4 ,may ,ahura-,mazda create1 ruling after his wish40' ,on this night the soul sees as much joyfulness as the whole living world possesses2 and so the second and the third night4 ,when the lapse of the third night turns itself to light1 then the soul of the pure man goes forward1 recollecting itself by the perfume of plants4 ,a wind blows to meet it from the mid-day regions1 a sweet-scented one1 more sweet-scented than the other winds1 and the soul of the pure man receives it--#8,whence blows this wind1 the sweetest-scented which ,i ever have smelt with the nose8' ,then comes to meet him his own law 7his rule of life7 in the figure of a maiden beautiful1 shining1 with shining arms1 powerful1 well-grown1 slender1 large-bosomed1 with praiseworthy body1 noble1 with brilliant face1 one of fifteen years1 as fair in her growth as the fairest creatures4 ,then to her speaks the soul of the pure man1 asking1 #8,what maiden art thou whom ,i have seen here as the fairest of maidens in body8' ,she answers1 #8,i am1 ,o youth1 thy good thoughts1 words1 and works1 thy good law1 the own law of thine own body4 ,thou hast made the pleasant yet pleasanter to me1 the fair yet fairer1 the desirable yet more desirable1 the sitting in a high place sitting in a yet higher place4' ,then the soul of the pure man takes the first step and comes to the first paradise1 the second and third step to the second and third paradise1 the fourth step and arrives at the ,eternal ,lights4 ,to the soul speaks a pure one deceased before1 asking it1 #8,how art thou1 ,o pure deceased1 come away from the fleshly dwellings1 from the corporeal world hither to the invisible1 from the perishable world hither to the imperishable4 ,hail6 has it happened to thee long8' #8,then speaks ,ahura-,mazda3 8,ask not him whom thou askest1 for he is come on the fearful way of trembling1 the separation of body and soul4 ,bring him hither of the food1 of the full fatness1 that is the food for a youth who thinks1 speaks1 and does good1 who is devoted to the good law after death--that is the food for a woman who especially thinks good1 speaks good1 does good1 the following1 obedient1 pure after death40' ,and now ,zarathustra asks1 when a wicked one dies1 where his soul dwells8 ,he is told how1 running about near the head1 it utters the prayer1 ,ke mam3--#8,which land shall ,i praise1 whither shall ,i go praying1 ,o ,ahura-,mazda8' ,in this night it sees as much unjoyfulness as the whole living world2 and so the second and the third night1 and it goes at dawn to the impure place1 recollecting itself by the stench4 ,an evil-smelling wind comes towards the dead from the north1 and with it the ugly hateful maiden who is his own wicked deeds1 and the soul takes the fourth step into the darkness without beginning1 and a wicked soul asks how long--woe to thee6--art thou come8 and the mocking ,anra-,mainyu1 answering in words like the words of ,ahura-,mazda to the good1 bids food to be brought--poison1 and mixed with poison1 for them who think and speak and do evil1 and follow the wicked law4 ,the ,parsi of our own time1 following in obscure tradition the ancient ,zoroastrian faith1 before he prays for forgiveness for all that he ought to have thought1 and said1 and done1 and has not1 for all that he ought not to have thought1 and said1 and done1 and has1 confesses thus his faith of the future life3--#8,i am wholly without doubt in the existence of the good ,mazadayanian faith1 in the coming of the resurrection and the later body1 in the stepping over the bridge ,chinvat1 in an invariable recompense of good deeds and their reward1 and of bad deeds and their punishment4'#bbh ,in ,jewish theology1 the doctrine of future retribution appears after the ,babylonish captivity1 not in ambiguous terms1 but as the strongly-expressed and intensely-felt religious conviction it has since remained among the children of ,israel4 ,not long afterward1 it received the sanction of ,christianity4 ,a broad survey of the doctrine of the ,future ,life among the various nations of the world shows at once how difficult and how important is a systematic theory of its development4 ,looked at ethnographically1 the general relations of the lower to the higher culture as to the belief in future existence may be defined somewhat as follows3--,if we draw a line dividing civilization at the junction of savagery and barbarism--about where the ,carib and ,new ,zealander ends and the ,aztec or ,tatar begins1 we may see clearly the difference of prevalent doctrine on either side4 ,on the savage side1 the theory of hovering ghosts is strong1 rebirth in human or animal bodies is often thought of1 but above all there prevails the expectation of a new life1 most often located in some distant earthly region1 or less commonly in the under-world or on the sky4 ,on the cultured side1 the theory of hovering ghosts continues1 but tends to subside from philosophy into folklore1 the theory of re-birth is elaborated into great philosophic systems1 but eventually dies out under the opposition of scientific biology1 while the doctrine of a new life after death maintains its place with immense power in the human mind1 although the dead have been ousted by geography from any earthly district1 and the regions of heaven and hell are more and more spiritualized out of definite locality into vague expressions of future happiness and misery4 ,again1 on the savage side we find the dominant idea to be a continuance of the soul in a new existence1 like the present life1 or idealized and exaggerated on its model2 while on the cultured side the doctrine of judgment and moral retribution prevails with paramount1 though not indeed absolute sway4 ,what1 then1 has been the historical course of theological opinion1 to have produced in different stages of culture these contrasted phases of doctrine8 ,in some respects1 theories deriving savage from more civilized ideas are tenable4 ,in certain cases1 to consider a particular savage doctrine of the future state as a fragmentary1 or changed1 or corrupted outcome of the religion of higher races1 seems as easy as to reverse this view by taking savagery as representing the starting-point4 ,it is open to anyone to suppose that the doctrine of transmigration among ,american savages and ,african barbarians may have been degraded from elaborate systems of metempsychosis established among philosophic nations like the ,hindus2 that the ,north ,american and ,south ,african doctrine of continued existence in a subterranean world may be derived from similar beliefs held by races at the level of the ancient ,greeks2 that when rude tribes in the ,old or ,new ,world assign among the dead a life of happiness to some1 and of misery to others1 this idea may have been inherited or adopted from cultured nations holding more strongly and systematically the doctrine of retribution4 ,in such cases the argument is to a great extent the same1 whether the lower race be considered degenerate descendants of a higher nation1 or whether the simpler supposition be put forward that they have adopted the ideas of some more cultured people4 ,these views ought to have full attention1 for degenerate and borrowed beliefs form no small item in the opinions of uncivilized races4 ,yet this kind of explanation is more adapted to meet special cases than general conditions2 it is rather suited to piecemeal treatment1 than to comprehensive study1 of the religions of mankind4 ,worked out on a large scale1 it would endeavour to account for the doctrines of the savage world1 as being a patchwork of fragments from various religions of high nations1 transported by not easily-conceived means from their distant homes and set down in remote regions of the earth4 ,it may be safely said that no hypothesis can account for the varied doctrines current among the lower tribes1 without the admission that religious ideas have been in no small measure developed and modified in the districts where they are current4 ,now this theory of development1 in its fullest scope1 combined with an accessory theory of degeneration and adoption1 seems best to meet the general facts of the case4 ,a hypothesis which finds the origin of the doctrine of the future life in the primitive animism of the lower races1 and thence traces it along the course of religious thought1 in varied developments fitted to exacter knowledge and forming part of loftier creeds1 may well be maintained as in reasonable accordance with the evidence4 ,such a theory1 as has been sufficiently shown in the foregoing chapters1 affords a satisfactory explanation of the occurrence1 in the midst of cultured religions1 of intellectually low superstitions1 such as that of offerings to the dead1 and various others4 ,these1 which the development theory treats naturally as survivals from a low stage of education lingering on in a higher1 are by no means so readily accounted for by the degeneration theory4 ,there are more special arguments which favour the priority of the savage to the civilized phases of the doctrine of a future life4 ,if savages did in general receive their views of another existence from the religious systems of cultured nations1 these systems can hardly have been such as recognize the dominant doctrines of heaven and hell4 ,for1 as to the locality of the future world1 savage races especially favour a view little represented in civilized belief1 namely1 that the life to come is in some distant earthly country4 ,moreover1 the belief in a fiery abyss or ,gehenna1 which excites so intensely and lays hold so firmly of the imagination of the most ignorant men1 would have been especially adapted to the minds of savages1 had it come down to them by tradition from an ancestral faith4 ,yet1 in fact1 the lower races so seldom recognize such an idea1 that even the few cases in which it occurs lie open to suspicion of not being purely native4 ,the proposition that the savage doctrines descend from the more civilized seems thus to involve the improbable supposition1 that tribes capable of keeping up traditions of ,paradise1 ,heaven1 or ,hades1 should nevertheless have forgotten or discarded a tradition of ,hell4 ,still more important is the contrast between the continuance-theory and the retribution-theory of the future existence1 in the sections of culture where they respectively predominate4 ,on the one hand1 the continuance-theory1 with its ideas of a ghostly life like this1 is directly vouched for by the evidence of the senses in dreams and visions of the dead1 and may be claimed as part of the #8,natural ,religion1' properly so called1 of the lower races4 ,on the other hand1 the retribution-theory is a dogma which this evidence of apparitions could hardly set on foot1 though capable of afterwards supporting it4 ,throughout the present study of animistic religion1 it constantly comes into view that doctrines which in the lower culture are philosophical1 tend in the higher to become ethical2 that what among savages is a science of nature1 passes among civilized nations into a moral engine4 ,herein lies the distinction of deepest import between the two great theories of the soul's existence after bodily death4 ,according to a development theory of culture1 the savage1 unethical doctrine of continuance would be taken as the more primitive1 succeeded in higher civilization by the ethical doctrine of retribution4 ,now this theory of the course of religion in the distant and obscure past is conformable with experience of its actual history1 so far as this lies within our knowledge4 ,whether we compare the early ,greek with the later ,greek1 the early ,jew with the later ,jew1 the ruder races of the world in their older condition with the same races as affected by the three missionary religions of ,buddhism1 ,mohammedanism1 ,christianity1 the testimony of history vouches for the like transition towards ethical dogma4 ,in conclusion1 though theological argument on the actual validity of doctrines relating to the future life can have no place here1 it will be well not to pass by without further remark one great practical question which lies fairly within the province of ,ethnography4 ,how1 in the various stages of culture1 has the character and conduct of the living been affected by the thought of a life to come8 ,if we take the savage beliefs as a starting-point1 it will appear that these belong rather to speculative philosophy than to practical rule of life4 ,the lower races hold opinions as to a future state because they think them true1 but it is not surprising that men who take so little thought of a contingency three days off1 should receive little practical impulse from vague anticipations of a life beyond the grave4 ,setting aside the consideration of possible races devoid of all thought of a future existence1 there unquestionably has been and is a great mass of mankind whose lives are scarcely affected by such expectations of another life as they do hold4 ,the doctrine of continuance1 making death as it were a mere journey into a new country1 can have little direct action on men's conduct1 though indirectly it has indeed an enormous and disastrous influence on society1 leading as it does to the slaughter of wives and slaves1 and the destruction of property1 for the use of the dead in the next world4 ,if this world to come be thought a happier region1 the looking forward to it makes men more willing to risk their lives in battle1 promotes the habit of despatching the sick and aged into a better life1 and encourages suicide when life is very hateful here4 ,when the half-way house between continuance and retribution is reached1 and the idea prevails that the manly virtues which give rank and wealth and honour here will lead hereafter to yet brighter glory1 then this belief must add new force to the earthly motives which make bold warriors and mighty chiefs4 ,but among men who expect to become hovering ghosts at death1 or to depart to some gloomy land of shades1 such expectation strengthens the natural horror and hatred of dissolution4 ,they tend toward the state of mind frequent among modern ,africans1 whose thought of death is that he shall drink no more rum1 wear no more fine clothes1 have no more wives4 ,the negro of our own day would feel to the utmost the sense of those lines in the beginning of the ,iliad1 which describe the heroes' #8souls' being cast down to ,hades1 but #8themselves' left a prey to dogs and carrion birds4 ,rising to the level of the higher races1 we mark the thought of future existence taking a larger and larger place in the convictions of religion1 the expectation of a judgment after death gaining in intensity and becoming1 what it scarcely seems to the savage1 a real motive in life4 ,yet this change is not to be measured as proceeding throughout in any direct proportion with the development of culture4 ,the doctrine of the future life has hardly taken deeper and stronger root in the higher than in the middle levels of civilization4 ,in the language of ancient ,egypt1 it is the dead who are emphatically called the #8living1' for their life is everlasting1 whether in the world of the departed1 or nearer home in the tomb1 the #8eternal dwelling4' ,the ,moslem says that men sleep in life and wake in death2 the ,hindu likens the body which a soul has quitted to the bed he rises from in the morning4 ,the story of the ancient ,get1 who wept at births and laughed at funerals1 embodies an idea of the relation of this life to the next which comes to the surface again and again in the history of religion1 nowhere perhaps touched in with a lighter hand than in the ,arabian ,nights' tale where ,abdallah of the ,sea indignantly breaks off his friendship with ,abdallah of the ,land1 when he hears that the dwellers on the land do not feast and sing when one of them dies1 like the dwellers in the sea1 but mourn and weep and tear their garments4 ,such thoughts lead on into the morbid asceticism that culminates in the life of the ,buddhist saint1 eating his food with loathing from the alms-bowl that he carries as though it held medicine1 wrapping himself in grave-clothes from the cemetery1 or putting on his disfigured robe as though it were a bandage to cover a sore1 whose looking forward is to death for deliverance from the misery of life1 whose dreamiest hope is that after an inconceivable series of successive existences he may find in utter dissolution and not-being a refuge even from heaven4 ,the belief in future retribution has been indeed a powerful engine in shaping the life of nations4 ,powerful both for good and evil1 it has been made the servant-of-all-work of many faiths4 ,priesthoods have used it unscrupulously for their professional ends1 to gain wealth and power for their own caste1 to stop intellectual and social progress beyond the barriers of their consecrated systems4 ,on the banks of the river of death1 a band of priests has stood for ages to bar the passage against all poor souls who cannot satisfy their demands for ceremonies1 and formulas1 and fees4 ,this is the dark side of the picture4 ,on the bright side1 as we study the moral standards of the higher nations1 and see how the hopes and fears of the life to come have been brought to enforce their teachings1 it is plain that through most widely differing religions the doctrine of future judgment has been made to further goodness and to check wickedness1 according to the shifting rules by which men have divided right from wrong4 ,the philosophic schools which from classic times onward have rejected the belief in a future existence1 appear to have come back by a new road to the very starting-point which perhaps the rudest races of men never quitted4 ,at least this seems true as regards the doctrine of future retribution1 which is alike absent from the belief of classes of men at the two extremes of culture4 ,how far the moral standard of life may have been adjusted throughout the higher races with reference to a life hereafter1 is a problem difficult of solution1 so largely do unbelievers in this second life share ethical principles which have been more or less shaped under its influence4 ,men who live for one world or for two1 have high motives of virtue in common2 the noble self-respect which impels them to the life they feel worthy of them2 the love of goodness for its own sake and for its immediate results2 and beyond this1 the desire to do good that shall survive the doer1 who will not indeed be in the land of the living to see his work1 but who can yet discount his expectations into some measure of present satisfaction4 ,yet he who believes that his thread of life will be severed once and for ever by the fatal shears1 well knows that he wants a purpose and a joy in life1 which belong to him who looks for a life to come4 ,few men feel real contentment in the expectation of vanishing out of conscious existence1 henceforth1 like the great ,buddha1 to exist only in their works4 ,to remain incarnate in the memory of friends is something4 ,a few great spirits may enjoy in the reverence of future ages a thousand years or so of #8subjective immortality2' though as for mankind at large1 the individual's personal interest hardly extends beyond those who have lived in his time1 while his own memory scarce outlives the third and fourth generation4 ,but over and above these secular motives1 the belief in immortality extends its powerful influence through life1 and culminates at the last hour1 when1 setting aside the very evidence of their senses1 the mourners smile through their tears1 and say it is not death but life4 ,footnote #abj3 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #bci2 ,seemann1 #8,viti1' p4 #cih4 ,footnote #aba3 ,arbousset and ,daumas1 p4 #cdg2 ,casalis1 p4 #bdg4 ,footnote #abb3 ,brasseur1 #8,mexique1' vol4 iii4 p4 #bj1 c4 ,footnote #abc3 ,see #8,the ,buke of ,john ,mandeuill1' #ca1 edited by ,geo4 ,f4 ,warner1 published by the ,roxburghe ,club1 #ahhi2 ,yule1 #8,cathay1' ,hakluyt ,soc4 7,note to #crd ed47 ,footnote #abd3 ,wuttke1 #8,volksaberglaube1' p4 #bae4 ,other cases in ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #eh1 #cfi1 c4 ,footnote #abe3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,algic ,res4' vol4 ii4 pp4 #cb1 #fd1 and see ante1 vol4 i4 p4 #cab4 ,footnote #abf3 ,steller1 #8,kamtschatka1' p4 #bga2 ,klemm1 #8,c4 ,g4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cab4 ,footnote #abg3 ,kalewala1 ,rune xvi42 see ,schiefner's ,german ,translation1 and ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' pp4 #abh1 #acd4 ,a ,slavonic myth in ,hanusch1 p4 #dab4 ,footnote #abh3 ,homer4 ,odyss4 xi4 ,on the vivification of ghosts by sacrifice of blood1 and on libations of milk and blood1 see ,meiners1 vol4 i4 p4 #cae1 vol4 ii4 p4 #hi2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #he2 ,rochholz1 #8,deutscher ,glaube und ,brauch1' vol4 i4 p4 #a1 c4 ,footnote #abi3 ,see for example1 various details in ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #cfi-ge1 c4 ,footnote #acj3 ,see vol4 i4 p4 #dha2 also below1 p4 #eb1 note4 ,tanner's #8,narr4' p4 #bij2 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part iii4 p4 #bcc2 ,keating1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aed2 ,loskiel1 part i4 p4 #ce2 ,smith1 #8,virginia1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xiii4 p4 #ad4 ,see ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #bfi4 ,footnote #aca3 ,callaway1 #8,zulu ,tales1' vol4 i4 pp4 #caf-bj4 ,footnote #acb3 ,shortland1 #8,traditions of ,new ,zealand1' p4 #aej2 ,r4 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #dbc4 ,the idea1 of which the classic representative belongs to the myth of ,persephone1 that the living who tastes the food of the dead may not return1 and which is so clearly stated in this ,maori story1 appears again among the ,sioux of ,north ,america4 ,ahak-tah 7#8,male ,elk'7 seems to die1 but after two days comes down from the funeral-scaffold where his body had been laid1 and tells his tale4 ,his soul had travelled by the path of braves through the beautiful land of great trees and gay loud-singing birds1 till he reached the river1 and saw the homes of the spirits of his forefathers on the shore beyond4 ,swimming across1 he entered the nearest house1 where he found his uncle sitting in a corner4 ,very hungry1 he noticed some wild rice in a bark dish4 #8,i asked my uncle for some rice to eat1 but he did not give it to me4 ,had ,i eaten of the food for spirits1 ,i never should have returned to earth4' ,eastman1 #8,dacotah1' p4 #agg4 ,footnote #acc3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #aci1 c4 ,footnote #acd3 ,bosman1 #8,guinea1' ,letter #ai1 in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #eja2 ,burton1 #8,dahome1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aeh4 ,for modern visits to hell and heaven by ,christianized negro visionaries in ,america1 see ,macrae1 #8,americans at ,home1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ia4 ,footnote #ace3 ,lucian4 ,philopseudes1 c4 #ag-bh4 ,footnote #acf3 ,plutarch4 ,de ,sera ,numinis ,vindicta1 xxii42 and in ,euseb4 ,prp4 ,evang4 xi4 #cf4 ,footnote #acg3 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 ii4 p4 #fc4 ,footnote #ach3 ,gregor4 ,dial4 iv4 #cf4 ,see ,calmet1 vol4 ii4 ch4 #di4 ,footnote #aci3 ,augustin4 ,epist4 clxiv4 #b4 ,footnote #adj3 ,see ,pearson1 #8,exposition of the ,creed2' ,bingham1 #8,ant4 ,ch4 ,ch4' book x4 ch4 iii4 ,art4 iii4 of the ,church of ,england was reduced to its present state by ,archbp4 ,parker's revision4 ,footnote #ada3 ,codex ,apocr4 ,n4 ,t4 ,evang4 ,nicod4 ed4 ,giles4 #8,apocryphal ,gospels1' c4 tr4 by ,a4 ,walker2 #8,gospel of ,nicodemus4' ,the ,greek and ,latin texts differ much4 ,footnote #adb3 ,the following details mostly from ,t4 ,wright1 #8,st4 ,patrick's ,purgatory' 7an elaborate critical dissertation on the medival legends of visits to the other world74 ,footnote #adc3 ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 p4 #bgh4 ,rigg4 in #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 iv4 p4 #aai4 ,see also ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #cig2 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 i4 p4 #hc2 ,irving1 #8,astoria1' p4 #adb4 ,footnote #add3 ,molina1 #8,chili1' vol4 ii4 p4 #hi4 ,footnote #ade3 ,brasseur1 #8,mexique1' vol4 iii4 p4 #dif2 ,sahagun1 iii4 ,app4 c4 #b1 x4 c4 #bi2 ,clavigero1 vol4 ii4 p4 #e4 ,footnote #adf3 ,see ,wright1 l4c4 c42 ,alger1 p4 #cia2 c4 ,footnote #adg3 #8,history of ,colon1' ch4 #fa2 ,pet4 ,martyr4 ,dec4 i4 lib4 ix42 ,irving1 #8,life of ,columbus1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aba4 ,footnote #adh3 ,stanbridge in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 p4 #bii2 ,g4 ,f4 ,moore1 #8,vocab4 ,w4 ,austr4' p4 #hc2 ,bonwick1 #8,tasmanians1' p4 #aha4 ,footnote #adi3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part i4 p4 #cba2 see part iii4 p4 #bbi4 ,footnote #aej3 ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 ii4 p4 #ajg4 ,see also ,burton1 #8,w4 and ,w4 fr4 ,w4 ,africa1' p4 #aed 7,gold ,coast74 ,footnote #aea3 ,hesiod4 ,opera et ,dies1 ,pindar1 ,olymp4 ii4 antistr4 #d4 ,callistrat4 ,hymn4 in ,ilgen1 ,scolia ,grca1 #aj4 ,strabo1 iii4 #b1 #ac2 ,plin4 iv4 #cf4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,loc4 cit4 ,footnote #aec3 ,procop4 ,de ,bello ,goth4 iv4 #bj2 ,plut4 ,fragm4 ,comm4 in ,hesiod4 #b2 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #gic2 ,hersart de ,villemarqu1 vol4 i4 p4 #acf2 ,souvestre1 #8,derniers ,bretons1' p4 #cg2 ,jas4 ,macpherson1 #8,introd4 to ,hist4 of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1' #bnd ed4 ,london1 #aggb1 p4 #ahj2 ,wright1 #8,st4 ,patrick's ,purgatory1' pp4 #fd1 #abi4 ,footnote #aed3 ,steller1 #8,kamtschatka1' p4 #bfi4 ,footnote #aee3 ,harmon1 #8,journal1' p4 #bii2 see ,lewis and ,clarke1 p4 #aci 7,mandans74 ,footnote #aef3 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrelig4' pp4 #adj1 #bhg2 see ,humboldt and ,bonpland1 #8,voy4' vol4 iii4 p4 #acb2 ,falkner1 #8,patagonia1' p4 #aad4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #bcb2 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #bce4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,callaway1 #8,zulu ,tales1' vol4 i4 p4 #cag1 c42 ,arbousset and ,daumas1 p4 #dgd4 ,see also ,burton1 #8,dahome1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aeg4 ,footnote #aei3 ,mason1 #8,karens1' l4c4 p4 #aie2 ,cross1 l4c4 p4 #cac4 ,turanian examples in ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #aai4 ,footnote #afj3 ,see below1 pp4 #gi1 #he4 ,footnote #afa3 ,festus1 s4v4 #8manalis1' c4 ,footnote #afb3 ,sophocl4 dip4 ,tyrann4 #agh2 ,lucian4 ,de ,luctu1 #b4 ,see classic details in ,pauly1 #8,real-,encyclop4' art4 #8inferi4' ,footnote #afc3 ,birch in ,bunsen's #8,egypt1' vol4 v42 ,wilkinson1 #8,ancient ,eg4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cfh2 ,alger1 p4 #aja4 ,footnote #afd3 ,smith1 #8,history of ,virginia1' in #8,works' ed4 by ,arber2 ,pinkerton1 vol4 xiii4 pp4 #ad1 #da2 vol4 xii4 p4 #fjd2 see below1 p4 #ie4 ,footnote #afe3 ,thorpe1 #8,analecta ,anglo-,saxonica1' p4 #aae4 ,footnote #aff3 ,schirren1 p4 #aea4 ,see ,taylor1 #8,n4 ,z4' p4 #ebe4 ,footnote #afg3 ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #gha2 ,maury1 #8,magie1' c4 p4 #agj4 ,footnote #afh3 ,oviedo1 #8,nicaragua1' p4 #afj2 ,brinton1 p4 #bhh4 ,footnote #afi3 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrel4' p4 #ach1 see also #bbj 7,caribs71 #djb 7,peru71 #eje1 #ffj 7,mexico72 ,brinton1 #8,myths of ,new ,world1' p4 #bcc2 ,taylor1 #8,physical ,theory1' ch4 xvi42 ,alger1 #8,future ,life1' p4 #eij2 see also above1 p4 #af1 note4 ,footnote #agj3 ,humboldt and ,bonpland1 #8,voy4' vol4 v4 p4 #ij2 ,martius1 #8,ethnog4 ,amer4' vol4 i4 p4 #bcc2 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #eca2 ,plutarch4 ,de ,facie in ,orbe ,lun2 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' pp4 #hj1 #hi 7souls in stars74 ,footnote #aga3 ,see ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part i4 pp4 #bfi1 #caa2 ,smith1 #8,virginia1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xiii4 p4 #ed2 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bbc2 ,squier1 #8,abor4 ,mon4 of ,n4 ,y4' p4 #aef2 ,catlin1 #8,n4 ,a4 ,ind4' vol4 i4 p4 #ahj4 ,footnote #agb3 ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 ii4 p4 #acd2 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #ajc2 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' pp4 #aja1 #aad1 #bef4 ,footnote #agc3 ,callaway1 #8,rel4 of ,amazulu1' p4 #cic2 ,burton1 #8,w4 and ,w4 fr4 ,w4 ,afr4' p4 #ded2 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #bie4 ,footnote #agd3 ,herodot4 iv4 #aeh1 see #ahe1 and ,rawlinson's note4 ,see ,smith's #8,dic4 of the ,bible1' s4v4 #8firmament4' ,eisenmenger1 part i4 p4 #djh4 ,footnote #age3 ,eyre1 #8,australia1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cfg4 ,footnote #agf3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part iv4 p4 #bdj 7but compare part v4 p4 #djc72 ,morgan1 #8,iroquois1' p4 #agf2 ,sproat1 #8,savage ,life1' p4 #bji4 ,footnote #agg3 ,d',orbigny1 #8,l',homme ,amricain1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #cai1 #cbh2 see ,martius1 vol4 i4 p4 #dhe 7,jumanas74 ,footnote #agh3 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #djc2 ,brasseur1 #8,mexique1' vol4 iii4 p4 #dif2 ,kingsborough1 #8,mexico1' ,cod4 ,letellier1 fol4 #bj4 ,footnote #agi3 ,max ,mller1 #8,chips1' vol4 i4 p4 #df2 ,roth in #8,zeitschr4 d4 ,deutsch4 ,morgenl4 ,ges4' vol4 iv4 p4 #dbg4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,cross1 #8,karens1' l4c4 pp4 #cji1 #cac2 ,le ,jeune in #8,rel4 des ,js4' #afcd1 p4 #af2 ,steller1 #8,kamtschatka1' p4 #bgb2 ,callaway1 #8,zulu ,tales1' vol4 i4 p4 #caf2 ,klemm1 #8,cultur-,gesch4' vol4 ii4 pp4 #caj1 #cae2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrel4' pp4 #aci1 #bhf4 ,footnote #aha3 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #bbd2 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part ii4 p4 #ace4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,d',orbigny1 #8,l',homme ,amricain1' vol4 i4 p4 #cfd2 ,spix and ,martius1 #8,brasilien1' vol4 i4 p4 #chc2 ,de ,laet1 ,novus ,orbis1 xv4 #b4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #beh4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,magyar1 #8,sd-,afrika1' p4 #ccf4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,edda3 #8,gylfaginning4' ,footnote #ahf3 #8,koran1' ch4 lv4 lvi4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,eisenmenger1 #8,entdecktes ,judenthum1' part i4 p4 #g4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,hardy1 #8,manual of ,budhism1' pp4 #e1 #bd2 ,kppen1 #8,rel4 des ,buddha1' vol4 i4 p4 #bce1 c4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,brebeuf in #8,rel4 des ,js4' #afcf1 p4 #aje4 ,footnote #aij3 ,sahagun1 #8,hist4 de ,nueva ,espaa1' book iii4 appendix ch4 i41 in ,kingsborough1 vol4 vii42 ,brasseur1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ega4 ,footnote #aia3 ,casalis1 #8,basutos1' pp4 #bdg1 #bed4 ,footnote #aib3 ,burton1 #8,dahome1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aef2 #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #djc2 #8,wit and ,wisdom from ,w4 ,afr4' pp4 #bhj1 #ddi2 see ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #adj4 ,footnote #aic3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #abf1 c42 ,kalewala1 ,rune xv4 xvi4 xlv4 c42 ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ghj4 ,footnote #aid3 ,homer4 ,il4 ix4 #dje2 ,odyss4 xi4 #bah1 #dge2 ,virg4 n4 vi4 #bdc1 c41 c4 ,footnote #aie3 ,gen4 xxxv4 #bi2 xxv4 #h2 xxxvii4 #ce2 ,job xi4 #h2 ,amos ix4 #b2 ,psalm lxxxix4 #dh2 ,ezek4 xxxi41 xxxii42 ,isaiah xiv4 #i1 xxxviii4 #aj-ah2 #a ,sam41 xxviii4 #ae2 ,eccles4 ix4 #aj4 #8,records of the ,past1' vol4 i4 pp4 #ada-i2 ,sayce #8,lectures on ,hist4 of ,rel4' part ii42 ,alger1 #8,critical ,history of the ,doctrine of a ,future ,life1' ch4 viii4 ,footnote #aif3 ,the doctrine of reversal1 as in ,kamchatka1 where rich and poor will change places in the other world 7,steller1 pp4 #bfi-gb71 is too exceptional in the lower culture to be generalized4 ,see ,steinhauser1 #8,rel4 des ,negers1' l4 c41 p4 #ace4 ,a ,wolof proverb is #8,the more powerful one is in this world1 the more servile one will be in the next4' 7,burton1 #8,wit and ,wisdom1' p4 #bh47 ,footnote #aig3 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 pp4 #bde1 #cig2 see also ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #bcg 7,samoans72 ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 ii4 p4 #aje4 ,footnote #aih3 ,sproat1 #8,savage ,life1' p4 #bji4 ,footnote #aii3 #8,rec4 des ,voy4 au ,nord1' vol4 v4 p4 #bc 7,natchez72 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 #8,commentarios ,reales1' lib4 i4 c4 #bc1 tr4 by ,c4 ,r4 ,markham2 ,prescott1 #8,peru1' vol4 i4 pp4 #bi1 #hc2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #djb1 c4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #bei4 ,footnote #bja3 ,charlevoix1 #8,nouvelle ,france1' vol4 vi4 p4 #gg2 ,lescarbot1 #8,hist4 de la ,nouvelle ,france1' ,paris1 #afai1 p4 #fgi4 ,footnote #bjb3 ,lery1 #8,hist4 d'un ,voy4 en ,brsil1' p4 #bcd2 ,coreal1 #8,voi4 aux ,indes ,occ4' i4 p4 #bbd4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' p4 #dcj4 ,footnote #bjd3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 i4 p4 #cbe4 ,footnote #bje3 ,brebeuf in #8,rel4 des ,js4' #afcf1 p4 #ajd2 see also ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #gfi2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 pp4 #hi1 #aci4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,chateaubriand1 #8,voy4 en ,amrique' 7,religion74 ,footnote #bjg3 ,oviedo1 #8,nicaragua1' p4 #bb2 ,torquemada1 #8,monarquia ,indiana1' book xiii4 c4 #dh2 ,sahagun1 book iii4 app4 ch4 i4-iii4 in ,kingsborough1 vol4 vii4 ,compare ,anderson1 #8,exp4 to ,w4 ,yunnan1' p4 #abe4 7,shans1 good men and mothers dying in child-birth to heaven1 bad men and those killed by the sword to hell47 ,footnote #bjh3 ,alger1 #8,future ,life1' p4 #ic4 ,footnote #bji3 ,brinton1 #8,myths of ,new ,world1' p4 #cjj4 ,footnote #baj3 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #cig2 see also ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #bdc4 ,footnote #baa3 ,brinton1 p4 #bdb1 c4 ,footnote #bab3 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrel4' pp4 #hg1 #bbd4 ,see also the opinions of ,meiners1 #8,gesch4 der ,religion1' vol4 ii4 p4 #gfh2 ,wuttke4 #8,gesch4 des ,heidenthums1' vol4 i4 p4 #aae4 ,footnote #bac3 ,ellis1 l4 c42 ,moerenhout1 #8,voyage1' vol4 i4 p4 #dcc4 ,footnote #bad3 ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' p4 #cgh4 ,footnote #bae3 ,bosman1 #8,guinea1' letter x42 in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #dja4 ,footnote #baf3 ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 p4 #aha2 see ,mundy1 #8,narrative1' vol4 i4 p4 #ccb4 ,footnote #bag3 ,macpherson1 p4 #ib4 ,compare ,moerenhout1 l4 c4 7,tahiti74 ,footnote #bah3 ,mason1 l4 c4 p4 #aie4 ,see also ,de ,brosses1 #8,nav4 aux ,terres ,australes1' vol4 ii4 p4 #dhb 7,caroline ,is474 ,footnote #bai3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' pp4 #acf1 #add4 ,see ,georgi1 #8,reise im ,russ4 ,reich1' vol4 i4 p4 #bgh4 ,compare accounts of ,purgatory among the ,north ,american ,indians1 apparently derived from missionaries1 in ,morgan1 #8,iroquois1' p4 #afi2 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cde4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,see ,t4 ,wright1 #8,st4 ,patrick's ,purgatory4' ,footnote #bba3 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aga1 #aia2 ,bowen1 #8,yoruba ,lang4' p4 xvi4 ,see ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 p4 #baj4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,brebeuf in #8,rel4 des ,js4' #afce1 p4 #ce2 #afcf1 p4 #aje4 ,catlin1 #8,n4 ,a4 ,ind4' vol4 ii4 p4 #abg2 ,long's #8,exp4' vol4 i4 p4 #ahj4 ,see ,brinton1 p4 #bdg2 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aia1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aig2 and the collection of myths of the ,heaven-,bridge and ,heaven-,gulf in #8,early ,history of ,mankind1' chap4 xii4 ,footnote #bbc3 ,smith1 #8,new ,england1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xiii4 p4 #bdd4 ,footnote #bbd3 ,wilson in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #cjc4 ,footnote #bbe3 ,birch1 ,introduction to and translation of the #8,book of the ,dead1' in ,bunsen1 vol4 v42 ,wilkinson1 #8,ancient ,eg4' vol4 v4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,for references to ,rig ,veda see ,muir1 #8,sanskrit ,texts1' sec4 xviii42 ,max ,mller1 ,lecture on ,vedas in #8,essays1' vol4 ii4 ,footnote #bbg3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' new ser4 vol4 ii4 p4 #baj4 ,see ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 iii4 p4 #chg4 ,footnote #bbh3 ,spiegel1 #8,avesta1' ed4 ,bleek1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #acf1 #afc2 see vol4 i4 pp4 xviii4 #ij1 #ada2 vol4 ii4 p4 #fh4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,animism 7continued74 ,animism1 expanding from the ,doctrine of ,souls to the wider ,doctrine of ,spirits1 becomes a complete ,philosophy of ,natural ,religion--,definition of ,spirits similar to and apparently modelled on that of ,souls--,transition stage3 classes of ,souls passing into good and evil ,demons--,manes-,worship--,doctrine of ,embodiment of ,spirits in human1 animal1 vegetable1 and inert bodies--,demoniacal ,possession and ,obsession as causes of ,disease and ,oracle-inspiration--,fetishism--,diseas e-spirits embodied--,ghost attached to remains of ,corpse--,fetish produced by a ,spirit embodied in1 attached to1 or operating through1 an ,object--,analogues of ,fetish-doctrine in ,modern ,science--,stock-and-,stone ,worship--,idolatry--,survival of ,animistic ,phraseology in modern ,language--,decline of ,animistic theory of ,nature4 ,the general scheme of ,animism1 of which the doctrine of souls hitherto discussed forms part1 thence expands to complete the full general philosophy of ,natural ,religion among mankind4 ,conformably with that early childlike philosophy in which human life seems the direct key to the understanding of nature at large1 the savage theory of the universe refers its phenomena in general to the wilful action of pervading personal spirits4 ,it was no spontaneous fancy1 but the reasonable inference that effects are due to causes1 which led the rude men of old days to people with such ethereal phantoms their own homes and haunts1 and the vast earth and sky beyond4 ,spirits are simply personified causes4 ,as men's ordinary life and actions were held to be caused by souls1 so the happy or disastrous events which affect mankind1 as well as the manifold physical operations of the outer-world1 were accounted for as caused by soul-like beings1 spirits whose essential similarity of origin is evident through all their wondrous variety of power and function4 ,much that the primitive animistic view thus explains1 has been indeed given over by more advanced education to the #8metaphysical' and #8positive' stages of thought4 ,yet animism is still plainly to be traced onward from the intellectual state of the lower races1 along the course of the higher culture1 whether its doctrines have been continued and modified into the accepted philosophy of religion1 or whether they have dwindled into mere survivals in popular superstition4 ,though all ,i here undertake is to sketch in outline such features of this spiritualistic philosophy as ,i can see plainly enough to draw at all1 scarcely attempting to clear away the haze that covers great parts of the subject1 yet even so much as ,i venture on is a hard task1 made yet harder by the responsibility attaching to it4 ,for it appears that to follow the course of animism on from its more primitive stages1 is to account for much of medival and modern opinion whose meaning and reason could hardly be comprehended without the aid of a development-theory of culture1 taking in the various processes of new formation1 abolition1 survival1 and revival4 ,thus even the despised ideas of savage races become a practically important topic to the modern world1 for here1 as usual1 whatever bears on the origin of philosophic opinion1 bears also on its validity4 ,at this point of the investigation1 we come fully into sight of the principle which has been all along implied in the use of the word ,animism1 in a sense beyond its narrower meaning of the doctrine of souls4 ,by using it to express the doctrine of spirits generally1 it is practically asserted that the idea of souls1 demons1 deities1 and any other classes of spiritual beings1 are conceptions of similar nature throughout1 the conceptions of souls being the original ones of the series4 ,it was best1 from this point of view1 to begin with a careful study of souls1 which are the spirits proper to men1 animals1 and things1 before extending the survey of the spirit-world to its fullest range4 ,if it be admitted that souls and other spiritual beings are conceived of as essentially similar in their nature1 it may be reasonably argued that the class of conceptions based on evidence most direct and accessible to ancient men1 is the earlier and fundamental class4 ,to grant this1 is in effect to agree that the doctrine of souls1 founded on the natural perceptions of primitive man1 gave rise to the doctrine of spirits1 which extends and modifies its general theory for new purposes1 but in developments less authenticated and consistent1 more fanciful and far-fetched4 ,it seems as though the conception of a human soul1 when once attained to by man1 served as a type or model on which he framed not only his ideas of other souls of lower grade1 but also his ideas of spiritual beings in general1 from the tiniest elf that sports in the long grass up to the heavenly ,creator and ,ruler of the world1 the ,great ,spirit4 ,the doctrines of the lower races fully justify us in classing their spiritual beings in general as similar in nature to the souls of men4 ,it will be incidentally shown here1 again and again1 that souls have the same qualities attributed to them as other spirits1 are treated in like fashion1 and pass without distinct breaks into every part of the general spiritual definition4 ,the similar nature of soul and other spirit is1 in fact1 one of the commonplaces of animism1 from its rudest to its most cultured stages4 ,it ranges from the native ,new ,zealanders' and ,west ,indians' conceptions of the #8atua' and the #8cemi1' beings which require special definition to show whether they are human souls or demons or deities of some other class1#bbi and so onward to the declaration of ,philo ,judus1 that souls1 demons1 and angels differ indeed in name1 but are in reality one1#bcj and to the state of mind of the modern ,roman ,catholic priest1 who is cautioned in the rubric concerning the examination of a possessed patient1 not to believe the demon if he pretends to be the soul of some saint or deceased person1 or a good angel 7neque ei credatur1 si dmon simularet se esse animam alicujus ,sancti1 vel defuncti1 vel ,angelum bonum74#bca ,nothing can bring more broadly into view the similar nature of souls and other spiritual beings than the existence of a full transitional series of ideas4 ,souls of dead men are in fact considered as actually forming one of the most important classes of demons and deities4 ,it is quite usual for savage tribes to live in terror of the souls of the dead as harmful spirits4 ,thus ,australians have been known to consider the ghosts of the unburied dead as becoming malignant demons4#bcb ,new ,zealanders have supposed the souls of their dead to become so changed in nature as to be malignant to their nearest and dearest friends in life2#bcc the ,caribs said that1 of man's various souls1 some go to the seashore and capsize boats1 others to the forest to be evil spirits2#bcd among the ,sioux ,indians the fear of a ghost's vengeance has been found to act as a check on murder2#bce of some tribes in ,central ,africa it may be said that their main religious doctrine is the belief in ghosts1 and that the main characteristic of these ghosts is to do harm to the living4#bcf ,the ,patagonians lived in terror of the souls of their wizards1 which become evil demons after death2#bcg ,turanian tribes of ,north ,asia fear their shamans even more when dead than when alive1 for they become a special class of spirits who are the hurtfullest in all nature1 and who among the ,mongols plague the living on purpose to make them bring offerings4#bch ,in ,china it is held that the multitudes of wretched destitute spirits in the world below1 such as souls of lepers and beggars1 can sorely annoy the living2 therefore at certain times they are to be appeased with offerings of food1 scant and beggarly2 and a man who feels unwell1 or fears a mishap in business1 will prudently have some mock-clothing and mock-money burnt for these #8gentlemen of the lower regions4'#bci ,notions of this sort are widely prevalent in ,indo-,china and ,india2 whole orders of demons there were formerly human souls1 especially of people left unburied or slain by plague or violence1 of bachelors or of women who died in childbirth1 and who henceforth wreak their vengeance on the living4 ,they may1 however1 be propitiated by temples and offerings1 and thus have become in fact a regular class of local deities4#bdj ,among them may be counted the diabolic soul of a certain wicked ,british officer1 whom native worshippers in the ,tinnevelly district still propitiate by offering at his grave the brandy and cheroots he loved in life4#bda ,india even carried theory into practice by an actual manufacture of demons1 as witness the two following accounts4 ,a certain brahman1 on whose lands a kshatriya raja had built a house1 ripped himself up in revenge1 and became a demon of the kind called brahmadasyu1 who has been ever since the terror of the whole country1 and is the most common village deity in ,kharakpur4#bdb ,toward the close of the last century there were two brahmans1 out of whose house a man had wrongfully1 as they thought1 taken forty rupees2 whereupon one of the brahmans proceeded to cut off his own mother's head1 with the professed view1 entertained by both mother and son1 that her spirit1 excited by the beating of a large drum during forty days1 might haunt1 torment1 and pursue to death the taker of their money and those concerned with him4 ,declaring with her last words that she would blast the thief1 the spiteful hag deliberately gave up her life to take ghostly vengeance for those forty rupees4#bdc ,by instances like these it appears that we may trace up from the psychology of the lower races the familiar ancient and modern ,european tales of baleful ghost-demons4 ,the old fear even now continues to vouch for the old belief4 ,happily for man's anticipation of death1 and for the treatment of the sick and aged1 thoughts of horror and hatred do not preponderate in ideas of deified ancestors1 who are regarded on the whole as kindly patron spirits1 at least to their own kinsfolk and worshippers4 ,manes-worship is one of the great branches of the religion of mankind4 ,its principles are not difficult to understand1 for they plainly keep up the social relations of the living world4 ,the dead ancestor1 now passed into a deity1 simply goes on protecting his own family and receiving suit and service from them as of old2 the dead chief still watches over his own tribe1 still holds his authority by helping friends and harming enemies1 still rewards the right and sharply punishes the wrong4 ,it will be enough to show by a few characteristic examples the general position of manes-worship among mankind1 from the lower culture upward4#bdd ,in the two ,americas it appears not unfrequently1 from the low savage level of the ,brazilian ,camacans1 to the somewhat higher stage of northern ,indian tribes whom we hear of as praying to the spirits of their forefathers for good weather or luck in hunting1 and fancying when an ,indian falls into the fire that the ancestral spirits pushed him in to punish neglect of the customary gifts1 while the ,natchez of ,louisiana are said to have even gone so far as to build temples for dead men4#bde ,turning to the dark races of the ,pacific1 we find the ,tasmanians laying their sick round a corpse on the funeral pile1 that the dead might come in the night and take out the devils that caused the diseases2 it is asserted in a general way of the natives1 that they believed most implicitly in the return of the spirits of their departed friends or relations to bless or injure them as the case might be4#bdf ,in ,tanna1 the gods are spirits of departed ancestors1 aged chiefs becoming deities after death1 presiding over the growth of yams and fruit trees1 and receiving from the islanders prayer and offerings of first fruits4#bdg ,nor are the fairer ,polynesians behind in this respect4 ,below the great mythological gods of ,tonga and ,new ,zealand1 the souls of chiefs and warriors form a lower but active and powerful order of deities1 who in the ,tongan paradise intercede for man's benefit with the higher deities1 who direct the ,maori war parties on the march1 hover over them and give them courage in the fight1 and1 watching jealously their own tribes and families1 punish any violation of the sacred laws of tapu4#bdh ,thence we trace the doctrine into the ,malay islands1 where the souls of deceased ancestors are looked to for prosperity in life and help in distress4#bdi ,in ,madagascar1 the worship of the spirits of the dead is remarkably associated with the ,vazimbas1 the aborigines of the island1 who are said still to survive as a distinct race in the interior1 and whose peculiar graves testify to their former occupancy of other districts4 ,these graves1 small in size1 and distinguished by a cairn and an upright stone slab or altar1 are places which the ,malagasy regard with equal fear and veneration1 and their faces become sad and serious when they even pass near4 ,to take a stone or pluck a twig from one of these graves1 to stumble against one in the dark1 would be resented by the angry ,vazimba inflicting disease1 or coming in the night to carry off the offender to the region of ghosts4 ,the ,malagasy is thus enabled to account for every otherwise unaccountable ailment by his having knowingly or unknowingly given offence to some ,vazimba4 ,they are not indeed always malevolent1 they may be placable or implacable1 or partake of both characters4 ,thus it comes to pass1 that at the altar-slab which long ago some rude native family set up for commemoration or dutiful offering of food to a dead kinsman1 a barbaric supplanting race now comes to smear the burnt fat of sacrifice1 and set up the heads of poultry and sheep and the horns of bullocks1 that the mysterious tenant may be kind1 not cruel1 with his superhuman powers4#bej ,on the continent of ,africa1 manes-worship appears with extremest definiteness and strength4 ,thus ,zulu warriors1 aided by the #8amatongo1' the spirits of their ancestors1 conquer in the battle2 but if the dead turn their backs on the living1 the living fall in the fight1 to become ancestral spirits in their turn4 ,in anger the #8itongo' seizes a living man's body and inflicts disease and death2 in beneficence he gives health1 and cattle1 and corn1 and all men wish4 ,even the little children and old women1 of small account in life1 become at death spirits having much power1 the infants for kindness1 the crones for malice4 ,but it is especially the head of each family who receives the worship of his kin4 ,why it is naturally and reasonably so1 a ,zulu thus explains4 #8,although they worship the many ,amatongo of their tribe1 making a great fence around them for their protection2 yet their father is far before all others when they worship the ,amatongo4 ,their father is a great treasure to them even when he is dead4 ,and those of his children who are already grown up know him thoroughly1 his gentleness1 and his bravery4' #8,black people do not worship all ,amatongo indifferently1 that is1 all the dead of their tribe4 ,speaking generally1 the head of each house is worshipped by the children of that house2 for they do not know the ancients who are dead1 nor their laud-giving names1 nor their names4 ,but their father whom they knew is the head by whom they begin and end in their prayer1 for they know him best1 and his love for his children2 they remember his kindness to them whilst he was living2 they compare his treatment of them whilst he was living1 support themselves by it1 and say1 8,he will still treat us in the same way now he is dead4 ,we do not know why he should regard others besides us2 he will regard us only40'#bea ,it will be seen in another place how the ,zulu follows up the doctrine of divine ancestors till he reaches a first ancestor of man and creator of the world1 the primval ,unkulunkulu4 ,in ,west ,africa1 manes-worship displays in contrast its two special types4 ,on the one hand1 we see the ,north ,guinea negroes transferring the souls of the dead1 according to their lives1 to the rank of good and evil spirits1 and if evil worshipping them the more zealously1 as fear is to their minds a stronger impulse than love4 ,on the other hand1 in ,southern ,guinea1 we see the deep respect paid to the aged during life1 passing into worship when death has raised them to yet higher influence4 ,there the living bring to the images of the dead food and drink1 and even a small portion of their profits gained in trade2 they look especially to dead relatives for help in the trials of life1 and #8it is no uncommon thing to see large groups of men and women1 in times of peril or distress1 assembled along the brow of some commanding eminence1 or along the skirts of some dense forest1 calling in the most piteous and touching tones upon the spirits of their ancestors4'#beb ,in ,asia1 manes-worship comes to the surface in all directions4 ,the rude ,veddas of ,ceylon believe in the guardianship of the spirits of the dead2 these1 they say1 are #8ever watchful1 coming to them in sickness1 visiting them in dreams1 giving them flesh when hunting2' and in every calamity and want they call for aid on the #8kindred spirits1' and especially the shades of departed children1 the #8infant spirits4'#bec ,among non-,hindu tribes of ,india1 whose religions more or less represent pr-,brahmanic and pr-,buddhistic conditions1 wide and deep traces appear of an ancient and surviving cultus of ancestors4#bed ,among ,turanian tribes spread over the northern regions of the ,old ,world1 a similar state of things may be instanced from the ,mongols1 worshipping as good deities the princely souls of ,genghis ,khan's family1 at whose head stands the divine ,genghis himself4#bee ,nor have nations of the higher ,asiatic culture generally rejected the time-honoured rite4 ,in ,japan the #8,way of the ,kami1' better known to foreigners as the ,sin-tu religion1 is one of the officially recognized faiths1 and in it there is still kept up in hut and palace the religion of the rude old mountain-tribes of the land1 who worshipped their divine ancestors1 the ,kami1 and prayed to them for help and blessing4 ,to the time of these ancient ,kami1 say the modern ,japanese1 the rude stone implements belong which are found in the ground in ,japan as elsewhere3 to modern ethnologists1 however1 these bear witness not of divine but savage parentage4#bef ,in ,siam the lower orders scruple to worship the great gods1 lest through ignorance they should blunder in the complex ritual2 they prefer to pray to the #8theparak1' a lower class of deities among whom the souls of great men take their places at death4#beg ,in ,china1 as every one knows1 ancestor-worship is the dominant religion of the land1 and interesting problems are opened out to the ,western mind by the spectacle of a great people who for thousands of years have been thus seeking the living among the dead4 ,nowhere is the connexion between parental authority and conservatism more graphically shown4 ,the worship of ancestors1 begun during their life1 is not interrupted but intensified when death makes them deities4 ,the ,chinese1 prostrate bodily and mentally before the memorial tablets that contain the souls of his ancestors1 little thinks that he is all the while proving to mankind how vast a power unlimited filial obedience1 prohibiting change from ancestral institutions1 may exert in stopping the advance of civilization4 ,the thought of the souls of the dead as sharing the happiness and glory of their descendants is one which widely pervades the world1 but most such ideas would seem vague and weak to the ,chinese1 who will try hard for honour in his competitive examination with the special motive of glorifying his dead ancestors1 and whose titles of rank will raise his deceased father and grandfather a grade above himself1 as though1 with us1 ,zachary ,macaulay and ,copley the painter should now have viscounts' coronets officially placed on their tombstones4 ,as so often happens1 what is jest to one people is sober sense to another4 ,there are #cjj millions of ,chinese who would hardly see a joke in ,charles ,lamb reviling the stupid age that would not read him1 and declaring that he would write for antiquity4 ,had he been a ,chinese himself1 he might have written his book in all seriousness for the benefit of his great-great-grandfather4 ,among the ,chinese1 manes-worship is no rite of mere affection4 ,the living want the help of the ancestral spirits1 who reward virtue and punish vice3 #8,the exalted ancestor will bring thee1 ,o ,prince1 much good6'--#8,ancestors and fathers will abandon you and give you up1 and come not to help1 and ye will die4' ,if no help comes in time of need1 the ,chinese will reproach his ancestor1 or even come to doubt his existence4 ,thus in a ,chinese ode the sufferers in a dreadful drought cry1 #8,heu-tsi cannot or will not help4444 ,our ancestors have surely perished4444 ,father1 mother1 ancestors1 how could you calmly bear this8' ,nor does manes-worship stop short with direct family ties2 it is naturally developed to produce1 by deification of the heroic dead1 a series of superior gods to whom worship is given by the public at large4 ,thus1 according to legend1 the ,war-god or ,military ,sage was once in human life a distinguished soldier1 the ,mechanics' god was a skilful workman and inventor of tools1 the ,swine-god was a hog-breeder who lost his pigs and died of sorrow1 and the ,gamblers' god1 a desperate gamester who lost his all and died of want1 is represented by a hideous image called a #8devil gambling for cash1' and in this shape receives the prayers and offerings of confirmed gamblers1 his votaries4 ,the spirits of ,san-kea ,ta-te1 and ,chang-yuen-sze go to partake of the offerings set out in their temples1 returning flushed and florid from their meal2 and the spirit of ,confucius is present in the temple1 where twice a year the ,emperor does sacrifice to him4#beh ,the ,hindu unites in some degree with the ,chinese as to ancestor-worship1 and especially as to the necessity of having a son by blood or adoption1 who shall offer the proper sacrifices to him after death4 #8,may there be born in our lineage1' the manes are supposed to say1 #8a man to offer to us1 on the thirteenth day of the moon1 rice boiled in milk1 honey and ghee4' ,offerings made to the divine manes1 the #8pitaras' 7patres1 fathers7 as they are called1 preceded and followed by offerings to the greater deities1 give to the worshipper merit and happiness4#bei ,in classic ,europe1 apotheosis lies part within the limits of myth1 where it was applied to fabled ancestors1 and part within the limits of actual history1 as where ,julius and ,augustus shared its honours with the vile ,domitian and ,commodus4 ,the most special representatives of ancestor-worship in ,europe were perhaps the ancient ,romans1 whose word #8manes' has become the recognized name for ancestral deities in modern civilized language2 they embodied them as images1 set them up as household patrons1 gratified them with offerings and solemn homage1 and counting them as or among the infernal gods1 inscribed on tombs ,d4 ,m41 #8,diis ,manibus4'#bfj ,the occurrence of this ,d4 ,m4 in ,christian epitaphs is an often-noticed case of religious survival4 ,although full ancestor-worship is not practised in modern ,christendom1 there remains even now within its limits a well-marked worship of the dead4 ,a crowd of saints1 who were once men and women1 now form an order of inferior deities1 active in the affairs of men and receiving from them reverence and prayer1 thus coming strictly under the definition of manes4 ,this ,christian cultus of the dead1 belonging in principle to the older manes-worship1 was adapted to answer another purpose in the course of religious transition in ,europe4 ,the local gods1 the patron gods of particular ranks and crafts1 the gods from whom men sought special help in special needs1 were too near and dear to the inmost heart of pr-,christian ,europe to be done away with without substitutes4 ,it proved easier to replace them by saints who could undertake their particular professions1 and even succeed them in their sacred dwellings4 ,the system of spiritual division of labour was in time worked out with wonderful minuteness in the vast array of professional saints1 among whom the most familiar to modern ,english ears are ,st4 ,cecilia1 patroness of musicians2 ,st4 ,luke1 patron of painters2 ,st4 ,peter1 of fishmongers2 ,st4 ,valentine1 of lovers2 ,st4 ,sebastian1 of archers2 ,st4 ,crispin1 of cobblers2 ,st4 ,hubert1 who cures the bite of mad dogs2 ,st4 ,vitus1 who delivers madmen and sufferers from the disease which bears his name2 ,st4 ,fiacre1 whose name is now less known by his shrine than by the hackney-coaches called after him in the seventeenth century4 ,not to dwell here minutely on an often-treated topic1 it will be enough to touch on two particular points4 ,first1 as to the direct historical succession of the ,christian saint to the heathen deity1 the following are two very perfect illustrations4 ,it is well known that ,romulus1 mindful of his own adventurous infancy1 became after death a ,roman deity propitious to the health and safety of young children1 so that nurses and mothers would carry sickly infants to present them in his little round temple at the foot of the ,palatine4 ,in after ages the temple was replaced by the church of ,st4 ,theodorus1 and there ,dr4 ,conyers ,middleton1 who drew public attention to its curious history1 used to look in and see ten or a dozen women1 each with a sick child in her lap1 sitting in silent reverence before the altar of the saint4 ,the ceremony of blessing children1 especially after vaccination1 may still be seen there on ,thursday mornings4#bfa ,again1 ,sts4 ,cosmas and ,damianus1 according to ,maury1 owe their recognized office to a similar curious train of events4 ,they were martyrs who suffered under ,diocletian1 at g in ,cilicia4 ,now this place was celebrated for the worship of sculapius1 in whose temple incubation1 i4e4 sleeping for oracular dreams1 was practised4 ,it seems as though the idea was transferred on the spot to the two local saints1 for we next hear of them as appearing in a dream to the ,emperor ,justinian1 when he was ill at ,byzantium4 ,they cured him1 he built them a temple1 their cultus spread far and wide1 and they frequently appeared to the sick to show them what they should do4 ,legend settled that ,cosmas and ,damianus were physicians while they lived on earth1 and at any rate they are patron-saints of the profession of medicine to this day4#bfb ,second1 as to the actual state of hagiolatry in modern ,europe1 it is obvious on a broad view that it is declining among the educated classes4 ,yet modern examples may be brought forward to show ideas as extreme as those which prevailed more widely a thousand years ago4 ,in the ,church of the ,jesuit ,college at ,rome lies buried ,st4 ,aloysius ,gonzaga1 on whose festival it is customary especially for the college students to write letters to him1 which are placed on his gaily decorated and illuminated altar1 and afterwards burnt unopened4 ,the miraculous answering of these letters is vouched for in an ,english book of #ahgj4 ,to the same year belongs an ,english tract commemorating a late miraculous cure4 ,an ,italian lady afflicted with a tumour and incipient cancer of the breast was exhorted by a ,jesuit priest to recommend herself to the ,blessed ,john ,berchmans1 a pious ,jesuit novice from ,belgium1 who died in #afba1 and was beatified in #ahfe4 ,her adviser procured for her #8three small packets of dust gathered from the coffin of this saintly innocent1 a little cross made of the boards of the room the blessed youth occupied1 as well as some portion of the wadding in which his venerable head was wrapped4' ,during nine days' devotion the patient accordingly invoked the ,blessed ,john1 swallowed small portions of his dust in water1 and at last pressed the cross to her breast so vehemently that she was seized with sickness1 went to sleep1 and awoke without a symptom of the complaint4 ,and when ,dr4 ,panegrossi the physician beheld the incredible cure1 and heard that the patient had addressed herself to the ,blessed ,berchmans1 he bowed his head1 saying1 #8,when such physicians interfere1 we have nothing more to say6'#bfc ,to sum up the whole history of manes-worship1 it is plain that in our time the dead still receive worship from far the larger half of mankind1 and it may have been much the same ever since the remote periods of primitive culture in which the religion of the manes probably took its rise4 ,it has now been seen that the theory of souls recognizes them as capable either of independent existence1 or of inhabiting human1 animal1 or other bodies4 ,on the principle here maintained1 that the general theory of spirits is modelled on the theory of souls1 we shall be able to account for several important branches of the lower philosophy of religion1 which without such explanation may appear in great measure obscure or absurd4 ,like souls1 other spirits are supposed able either to exist and act flitting free about the world1 or to become incorporate for more or less time in solid bodies4 ,it will be well at once to get a secure grasp of this theory of ,embodiment1 for without it we shall be stopped every moment by a difficulty in understanding the nature of spirits1 as defined in the lower animism4 ,the theory of embodiment serves several highly important purposes in savage and barbarian philosophy4 ,on the one hand it provides an explanation of the phenomena of morbid exaltation and derangement1 especially as connected with abnormal utterance1 and this view is so far extended as to produce an almost general doctrine of disease4 ,on the other hand1 it enables the savage either to #8lay' a hurtful spirit in some foreign body1 and so get rid of it1 or to carry about a useful spirit for his service in a material object1 to set it up as a deity for worship in the body of an animal1 or in a block or stone or image or other thing1 which contains the spirit as a vessel contains a fluid3 this is the key to strict fetishism1 and in no small measure to idolatry4 ,in briefly considering these various branches of the ,embodiment-theory1 there may be conveniently included certain groups of cases often impossible to distinguish apart4 ,these cases belong theoretically rather to obsession than possession1 the spirits not actually inhabiting the bodies1 but hanging or hovering about them and affecting them from the outside4 ,as in normal conditions the man's soul1 inhabiting his body1 is held to give it life1 to think1 speak1 and act through it1 so an adaptation of the self-same principle explains abnormal conditions of body or mind1 by considering the new symptoms as due to the operation of a second soul-like being1 a strange spirit4 ,the possessed man1 tossed and shaken in fever1 pained and wrenched as though some live creature were tearing or twisting him within1 pining as though it were devouring his vitals day by day1 rationally finds a personal spiritual cause for his sufferings4 ,in hideous dreams he may even sometimes see the very ghost or nightmare-fiend that plagues him4 ,especially when the mysterious unseen power throws him helpless on the ground1 jerks and writhes him in convulsions1 makes him leap upon the bystanders with a giant's strength and a wild beast's ferocity1 impels him1 with distorted face and frantic gesture1 and voice not his own nor seemingly even human1 to pour forth wild incoherent raving1 or with thought and eloquence beyond his sober faculties to command1 to counsel1 to foretell--such a one seems to those who watch him1 and even to himself1 to have become the mere instrument of a spirit which has seized him or entered into him1 a possessing demon in whose personality the patient believes so implicitly that he often imagines a personal name for it1 which it can declare when it speaks in its own voice and character through his organs of speech2 at last1 quitting the medium's spent and jaded body1 the intruding spirit departs as it came4 ,this is the savage theory of dmoniacal possession and obsession1 which has been for ages1 and still remains1 the dominant theory of disease and inspiration among the lower races4 ,it is obviously based on an animistic interpretation1 most genuine and rational in its proper place in man's intellectual history1 of the actual symptoms of the cases4 ,the general doctrine of disease-spirits and oracle-spirits appears to have its earliest1 broadest1 and most consistent position within the limits of savagery4 ,when we have gained a clear idea of it in this its original home1 we shall be able to trace it along from grade to grade of civilization1 breaking away piecemeal under the influence of new medical theories1 yet sometimes expanding in revival1 and at least in lingering survival holding its place into the midst of our modern life4 ,the possession-theory is not merely known to us by the statements of those who describe diseases in accordance with it4 ,disease being accounted for by attack of spirits1 it naturally follows that to get rid of these spirits is the proper means of cure4 ,thus the practices of the exorcist appear side by side with the doctrine of possession1 from its first appearance in savagery to its survival in modern civilization2 and nothing could display more vividly the conception of a disease or a mental affection as caused by a personal spiritual being than the proceedings of the exorcist who talks to it1 coaxes or threatens it1 makes offerings to it1 entices or drives it out of the patient's body1 and induces it to take up its abode in some other4 ,that the two great effects ascribed to such spiritual influence in obsession and possession1 namely1 the infliction of ailments and the inspiration of oracles1 are not only mixed up together but often run into absolute coincidence1 accords with the view that both results are referred to one common cause4 ,also that the intruding or invading spirit may be either a human soul or may belong to some other class in the spiritual hierarchy1 countenances the opinion that the possession-theory is derived from1 and indeed modelled on1 the ordinary theory of the soul acting on the body4 ,in illustrating the doctrine by typical examples from the enormous mass of available details1 it will hardly be possible to discriminate among the operating spirits1 between those which are souls and those which are demons1 nor to draw an exact line between obsession by a demon outside and possession by a demon inside1 nor between the condition of the demon-tormented patient and the demon-actuated doctor1 seer1 or priest4 ,in a word1 the confusion of these conceptions in the savage mind only fairly represents their intimate connexion in the ,possession-theory itself4 ,in the ,australian-,tasmanian district1 disease and death are ascribed to more or less defined spiritual influences2 descriptions of a demon working a sorcerer's wicked will by coming slyly behind his victim and hitting him with his club on the back of his neck1 and of a dead man's ghost angered by having his name uttered1 and creeping up into the utterer's body to consume his liver1 are indeed peculiarly graphic details of savage animism4#bfd ,the theory of disease-spirits is well stated in its extreme form among the ,mintira1 a low race of the ,malay peninsula4 ,their #8hantu' or spirits have among their functions that of causing ailments2 thus the #8hantu kalumbahan' causes small-pox2 the #8hantu kamang' brings on inflammation and swellings in the hands and feet2 when a person is wounded1 the #8hantu pari' fastens on the wound and sucks1 and this is the cause of the blood flowing4 ,and thus1 as the describer says1 #8,to enumerate the remainder of the hantus would be merely to convert the name of every species of disease known to the ,mintira into a proper one4 ,if any new disease appeared1 it would be ascribed to a hantu bearing the same name4'#bfe ,it will help us to an idea of the distinct personality which the disease-demon has in the minds of the lower races1 to notice the ,orang ,laut of this district placing thorns and brush in the paths leading to a part where small-pox had broken out1 to keep the demons off2 just as the ,khonds of ,orissa try with thorns1 and ditches1 and stinking oil poured on the ground1 to barricade the paths to their hamlets against the goddess of small-pox1 ,jugah ,pennu4#bff ,among the ,dayaks of ,borneo1 #8to have been smitten by a spirit' is to be ill2 sickness may be caused by invisible spirits inflicting invisible wounds with invisible spears1 or entering men's bodies and driving out their souls1 or lodging in their hearts and making them raving mad4 ,in the ,indian ,archipelago1 the personal semi-human nature of the disease-spirits is clearly acknowledged by appeasing them with feasts and dances and offerings of food set out for them away in the woods1 to induce them to quit their victims1 or by sending tiny proas to sea with offerings1 that spirits which have taken up their abode in sick men's bowels may embark and not come back4#bfg ,the animistic theory of disease is strongly marked in ,polynesia1 where every sickness is ascribed to spiritual action of deities1 brought on by the offerings of enemies1 or by the victim's violation of the laws of tapu4 ,thus in ,new ,zealand each ailment is caused by a spirit1 particularly an infant or undeveloped human spirit1 which sent into the patient's body gnaws and feeds inside2 and the exorcist1 finding the path by which such a disease-spirit came from below to feed on the vitals of a sick relative1 will persuade it by a charm to get upon a flax-stalk and set off home4 ,we hear1 too1 of an idea of the parts of the body--forehead1 breast1 stomach1 feet1 c4--being apportioned each to a deity who inflicts aches and pains and ailments there4#bfh ,so in the ,samoan group1 when a man was near death1 people were anxious to part on good terms with him1 feeling assured that if he died with angry feelings towards any one1 he would certainly return and bring calamity on that person or some one closely allied to him4 ,this was considered a frequent source of disease and death1 the spirit of a departed member of the family returning and taking up his abode in the head1 chest1 or stomach of a living man1 and so causing sickness and death4 ,if a man died suddenly1 it was thought that he was eaten by the spirit that took him2 and though the soul of one thus devoured would go to the common spirit-land of the departed1 yet it would have no power of speech there1 and if questioned could but beat its breast4 ,it completes this account to notice that the disease-inflicting souls of the departed were the same which possessed the living under more favourable circumstances1 coming to talk through a certain member of the family1 prophesying future events1 and giving directions as to family affairs4#bfi ,farther east1 in the ,georgian and ,society ,islands1 evil demons are sent to scratch and tear people into convulsions and hysterics1 to torment poor wretches as with barbed hooks1 or to twist and knot inside them till they die writhing in agony4 ,but madmen are to be treated with great respect1 as entered by a god1 and idiots owe the kindness with which they are appeased and coaxed to the belief in their superhuman inspiration4#bgj ,here1 and elsewhere in the lower culture1 the old real belief has survived which has passed into a jest of civilized men in the famous phrase of the #8inspired idiot4' ,american ethnography carries on the record of rude races ascribing disease to the action of evil spirits4 ,thus the ,dacotas believe that the spirits punish them for misconduct1 especially for neglecting to make feasts for the dead2 these spirits have the power to send the spirit of something1 as of a bear1 deer1 turtle1 fish1 tree1 stone1 worm1 or deceased person1 which entering the patient causes disease2 the medicine-man's cure consists in reciting charms over him1 singing #8,he-le-li-lah1 c41' to the accompaniment of a gourd-rattle with beads inside1 ceremonially shooting a symbolic bark representation of the intruding creature1 sucking over the seat of pain to get the spirit out1 and firing guns at it as it is supposed to be escaping4#bga ,such processes were in full vogue in the ,west ,indies in the time of ,columbus1 when ,friar ,roman ,pane put on record his quaint account of the native sorcerer pulling the disease off the patient's legs 7as one pulls off a pair of trousers71 going out of doors to blow it away1 and bidding it begone to the mountain or the sea2 the performance concluding with the regular sucking-cure and the pretended extraction of some stone or bit of flesh1 or such thing1 which the patient is assured that his patron-spirit or deity 7cemi7 put into him to cause the disease1 in punishment for neglect to build him a temple or honour him with prayer or offerings of goods4#bgb ,patagonians considered sickness as caused by a spirit entering the patient's body2 #8they believe every sick person to be possessed of an evil demon2 hence their physicians always carry a drum with figures of devils painted on it1 which they strike at the beds of sick persons to drive out from the body the evil demon which causes the disorder4'#bgc ,in ,africa1 according to the philosophy of the ,basutos and the ,zulus1 the causes of disease are the ghosts of the dead1 come to draw the living to themselves1 or to compel them to sacrifice meat-offerings4 ,they are recognized by the diviners1 or by the patient himself1 who sees in dreams the departed spirit come to torment him4 ,congo tribes in like manner consider the souls of the dead1 passed into the ranks of powerful spirits1 to cause disease and death among mankind4 ,thus1 in both these districts1 medicine becomes an almost entirely religious matter of propitiatory sacrifice and prayer addressed to the disease-inflicting manes4 ,the ,barolong give a kind of worship to deranged persons1 as being under the direct influence of a deity2 while in ,east ,africa the explanation of madness and idiocy is simple and typical--#8he has fiends4'#bgd ,negroes of ,west ,africa1 on the supposition that an attack of illness has been caused by some spiritual being1 can ascertain to their satisfaction what manner of spirit has done it1 and why4 ,the patient may have neglected his #8wong' or fetish-spirit1 who has therefore made him ill2 or it may be his own #8kla' or personal guardian-spirit1 who on being summoned explains that he has not been treated respectfully enough1 c42 or it may be a #8sisa' or ghost of some dead man1 who has taken this means of making known that he wants perhaps a gold ornament that was left behind when he died4#bge ,of course1 the means of cure will then be to satisfy the demands of the spirit4 ,another aspect of the negro doctrine of disease-spirits is displayed in the following description from ,guinea1 by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 the missionary3--#8,demoniacal possessions are common1 and the feats performed by those who are supposed to be under such influence are certainly not unlike those described in the ,new ,testament4 ,frantic gestures1 convulsions1 foaming at the mouth1 feats of supernatural strength1 furious ravings1 bodily lacerations1 gnashing of teeth1 and other things of a similar character1 may be witnessed in most of the cases which are supposed to be under diabolical influence4'#bgf ,the remark several times made by travellers is no doubt true1 that the spiritualistic theory of disease has tended strongly to prevent progress in the medical art among the lower races4 ,thus among the ,bodo and ,dhimal of ,north-,east ,india1 who ascribe all diseases to a deity tormenting the patient for some impiety or neglect1 the exorcists divine the offended god and appease him with the promised sacrifice of a hog2 these exorcists are a class of priests1 and the people have no other doctors4#bgg ,where the world-wide doctrine of disease-demons has held sway1 men's minds1 full of spells and ceremonies1 have scarce had room for thought of drugs and regimen4 ,the cases in which disease-possession passes into oracle-possession are especially connected with hysterical1 convulsive1 and epileptic affections4 ,mr4 ,backhouse describes a ,tasmanian native sorcerer1 #8affected with fits of spasmodic contraction of the muscles of one breast1 which he attributes1 as they do all other diseases1 to the devil'2 this malady served to prove his inspiration to his people4#bgh ,when ,dr4 ,mason was preaching near a village of heathen ,pwo1 a man fell down in an epileptic fit1 his familiar spirit having come over him to forbid the people to listen to the missionary1 and he sang out his denunciations like one frantic4 ,this man was afterwards converted1 and told the missionary that #8he could not account for his former exercises1 but that it certainly appeared to him as though a spirit spoke1 and he must tell what was communicated4' ,in this ,karen district flourishes the native #8wee' or prophet1 whose business is to work himself into the state in which he can see departed spirits1 visit their distant home1 and even recall them to the body1 thus raising the dead2 these wees are nervous excitable men1 such as would become mediums1 and in giving oracles they go into actual convulsions4#bgi ,dr4 ,callaway's details of the state of the ,zulu diviners are singularly instructive4 ,their symptoms are ascribed to possession by #8amatongo' or ancestral spirits2 the disease is common1 from some it departs of its own accord1 others have the ghost laid which causes it1 and others let the affection take its course and become professional diviners1 whose powers of finding hidden things and giving apparently inaccessible information are vouched for by native witnesses1 who at the same time are not blind to their tricks and their failures4 ,the most perfect description is that of a hysterical visionary1 who had #8the disease which precedes the power to divine4' ,this man describes that well-known symptom of hysteria1 the heavy weight creeping up within him to his shoulders1 his vivid dreams1 his waking visions of objects that are not there when he approaches1 the songs that come to him without learning1 the sensation of flying in the air4 ,this man was #8of a family who are very sensitive1 and become doctors4'#bhj ,persons whose constitutional unsoundness induces morbid manifestations are indeed marked out by nature to become seers and sorcerers4 ,among the ,patagonians1 patients seized with falling sickness or ,st4 ,vitus's dance were at once selected for magicians1 as chosen by the demons themselves who possessed1 distorted1 and convulsed them4#bha ,among ,siberian tribes1 the shamans select children liable to convulsions as suitable to be brought up to the profession1 which is apt to become hereditary with the epileptic tendencies it belongs to4#bhb ,thus1 even in the lower culture1 a class of sickly brooding enthusiasts begin to have that power over the minds of their lustier fellows1 which they have kept in so remarkable a way through the course of history4 ,morbid oracular manifestations are habitually excited on purpose1 and moreover the professional sorcerer commonly exaggerates or wholly feigns them4 ,in the more genuine manifestations the medium may be so intensely wrought upon by the idea that a possessing spirit is speaking from within him1 that he may not only give this spirit's name and speak in its character1 but possibly may in good faith alter his voice to suit the spiritual utterance4 ,this gift of spirit-utterance1 which belongs to #8ventriloquism' in the ancient and proper sense of the term1 of course lapses into sheer trickery4 ,but that the phenomena should be thus artificially excited or dishonestly counterfeited1 rather confirms than alters the present argument4 ,real or simulated1 the details of oracle-possession alike illustrate popular belief4 ,the ,patagonian wizard begins his performance with drumming and rattling till the real or pretended epileptic fit comes on by the demon entering him1 who then answers questions from within him with a faint and mournful voice4#bhc ,in ,southern ,india and ,ceylon the so-called #8devil-dancers' have to work themselves into paroxysms1 to gain the inspiration whereby they profess to cure their patients4#bhd ,so1 with furious dancing to the music and chanting of the attendants1 the ,bodo priest brings on the fit of maniacal inspiration in which the deity fills him and gives oracles through him4#bhe ,in ,kamchatka the female shamans1 when ,billukai came down into them in a thunderstorm1 would prophesy2 or1 receiving spirits with a cry of #8hush6' their teeth chattered as in fever1 and they were ready to divine4#bhf ,among the ,singpho of ,south-,east ,asia1 when the #8natzo' or conjurer is sent for to a sick patient1 he calls on his #8nat' or demon1 the soul of a deceased foreign prince1 who descends into him and gives the required answers4#bhg ,in the ,pacific ,islands1 spirits of the dead would enter for a time the body of a living man1 inspiring him to declare future events1 or to execute some commission from the higher deities4 ,the symptoms of oracular possession among savages have been especially well described in this region of the world4 ,the ,fijian priest sits looking steadfastly at a whale's tooth ornament1 amid dead silence4 ,in a few minutes he trembles1 slight twitchings of face and limbs come on1 which increase to strong convulsions1 with swelling of the veins1 murmurs and sobs4 ,now the god has entered him1 and with eyes rolling and protruding1 unnatural voice1 pale face and livid lips1 sweat streaming from every pore1 and the whole aspect of a furious madman1 he gives the divine answer1 and then1 the symptoms subsiding1 he looks round with a vacant stare1 and the deity returns to the land of spirits4 ,in the ,sandwich ,islands1 where the god ,oro thus gave his oracles1 his priest ceased to act or speak as a voluntary agent1 but with his limbs convulsed1 his features distorted and terrific1 his eyes wild and strained1 he would roll on the ground foaming at the mouth1 and reveal the will of the possessing god in shrill cries and sounds violent and indistinct1 which the attending priests duly interpreted to the people4 ,in ,tahiti1 it was often noticed that men who in the natural state showed neither ability nor eloquence1 would in such convulsive delirium burst forth into earnest lofty declamation1 declaring the will and answers of the gods1 and prophesying future events1 in well-knit harangues full of the poetic figure and metaphor of the professional orator4 ,but when the fit was over1 and sober reason returned1 the prophet's gifts were gone4#bhh ,lastly1 the accounts of oracular possession in ,africa show the primitive ventriloquist in perfect types of morbid knavery4 ,in ,sofala1 after a king's funeral1 his soul would enter into a sorcerer1 and speaking in the familiar tones that all the bystanders recognized1 would give counsel to the new monarch how to govern his people4#bhi ,about a century ago1 a negro fetish-woman of ,guinea is thus described in the act of answering an enquirer who has come to consult her4 ,she is crouching on the earth1 with her head between her knees and her hands up to her face1 till1 becoming inspired by the fetish1 she snorts and foams and gasps4 ,then the suppliant may put his question1 #8,will my friend or brother get well of this sickness8'--#8,what shall ,i give thee to set him free from his sickness8' and so forth4 ,then the fetish-woman answers in a thin1 whistling voice1 and with the old-fashioned idioms of generations past2 and thus the suppliant receives his command1 perhaps to kill a white cock and put him at a four-cross way1 or tie him up for the fetish to come and fetch him1 or perhaps merely to drive a dozen wooden pegs into the ground1 so to bury his friend's disease with them4#bij ,the details of demoniacal possession among barbaric and civilized nations need no elaborate description1 so simply do they continue the savage cases4#bia ,but the state of things we notice here agrees with the conclusion that the possession-theory belongs originally to the lower culture1 and is gradually superseded by higher medical knowledge4 ,surveying its course through the middle and higher civilization1 we shall notice first a tendency to limit it to certain peculiar and severe affections1 especially connected with mental disorder1 such as epilepsy1 hysteria1 delirium1 idiocy1 madness2 and after this a tendency to abandon it altogether1 in consequence of the persistent opposition of the medical faculty4 ,among the nations of ,south-,east ,asia1 obsession and possessions by demons is strong at least in popular belief4 ,the ,chinese attacked with dizziness1 or loss of the use of his limbs1 or other unaccountable disease1 knows that he has been influenced by a malignant demon1 or punished for some offence by a deity whose name he will mention1 or affected by his wife of a former existence1 whose spirit has after a long search discovered him4 ,exorcism of course exists1 and when the evil spirit or influence is expelled1 it is especially apt to enter some person standing near2 hence the common saying1 #8idle spectators should not be present at an exorcism4' ,divination by possessed mediums is usual in ,china3 among such is the professional woman who sits at a table in contemplation1 till the soul of a deceased person from whom communication is desired enters her body and talks through her to the living2 also the man into whom a deity is brought by invocations and mesmeric passes1 when1 assuming the divine figure and attitude1 he pronounces the oracle4#bib ,in ,burma1 the fever-demon of the jungle seizes trespassers on his domain1 and shakes them in ague till he is exorcised1 while falls and apoplectic fits are the work of other spirits4 ,the dancing of women by demoniacal possession is treated by the doctor covering their heads with a garment1 and thrashing them soundly with a stick1 the demon and not the patient being considered to feel the blows2 the possessing spirit may be prevented from escaping by a knotted and charmed cord hung round the bewitched person's neck1 and when a sufficient beating has induced it to speak by the patient's voice and declare its name and business1 it may either be allowed to depart1 or the doctor tramples on the patient's stomach till the demon is stamped to death4 ,for an example of invocation and offerings1 one characteristic story told by ,dr4 ,bastian will suffice4 ,a ,bengali cook was seized with an apoplectic fit1 which his ,burmese wife declared was but a just retribution1 for the godless fellow had gone day after day to market to buy pounds and pounds of meat1 yet in spite of her remonstrances would never give a morsel to the patron-spirit of the town2 as a good wife1 however1 she now did her best for her suffering husband1 placing near him little heaps of coloured rice for the #8nat1' and putting on his fingers rings with prayers addressed to the same offended being--#8,oh ride him not6'--#8,ah let him go6'--#8,grip him not so hard6'--#8,thou shalt have rice6'--#8,ah1 how good that tastes6' ,how explicitly ,buddhism recognizes such ideas1 may be judged from one of the questions officially put to candidates for admission as monks or talapoins--#8,art thou afflicted by madness or the other ills caused by giants1 witches1 or evil demons of the forest and mountain8'#bic ,within our own domain of ,british ,india1 the possession-theory and the rite of exorcism belonging to it may be perfectly studied to this day4 ,there the doctrine of sudden ailment or nervous disease being due to a blast or possession by a #8bhut1' or being1 that is1 a demon1 is recognized as of old2 there the old witch who has possessed a man and made him sick or deranged1 will answer spiritually out of his body and say who she is and where she lives2 there the frenzied demoniac may be seen raving1 writhing1 tearing1 bursting his bonds1 till1 subdued by the exorcist1 his fury subsides1 he stares and sighs1 falls helpless to the ground1 and comes to himself2 and there the deities caused by excitement1 singing1 and incense to enter into men's bodies1 manifest their presence with the usual hysterical or epileptic symptoms1 and speaking in their own divine name and personality1 deliver oracles by the vocal organs of the inspired medium4#bid ,in the ,ancient ,babylonian-,assyrian texts1 the exorcism-formulas show the doctrine of disease-demons in full development1 and similar opinions were current in ancient ,greece and ,rome1 to whose languages indeed our own owes the technical terms of the subject1 such as #8demoniac' and #8exorcist4' ,homer's sick men racked with pain are tormented by a hateful demon 7 74 #8,epilepsy' 77 was1 as its name imports1 the #8seizure' of the patient by a superhuman agent3 the agent being more exactly defined in #8nympholepsy1' the state of being seized or possessed by a nymph1 i4e41 rapt or entranced 71 lymphatus74 ,the causation of mental derangement and delirious utterance by spiritual possession was an accepted tenet of ,greek philosophy4 ,to be insane was simply to have an evil spirit1 as when ,sokrates said of those who denied demonic or spiritual knowledge1 that they themselves were demoniac 7 71 and ,alexander ascribed to the influence of offended ,dionysos the ungovernable drunken fury in which he killed his friend ,kleitos2 raving madness was obsession or possession by an evil demon 774 ,so the ,romans called madmen #8larvati1' #8larvarum pleni1' full of ghosts4 ,patients possessed by demons stared and foamed1 and the spirits spoke from within them by their voices4 ,the craft of the exorcist was well known4 ,as for oracular possession1 its theory and practice remained in fullest vigour through the classic world1 scarce altered from the times of lowest barbarism4 ,could a ,south ,sea ,islander have gone to ,delphi to watch the convulsive struggles of the ,pythia1 and listen to her raving1 shrieking utterances1 he would have needed no explanation whatever of a rite so absolutely in conformity with his own savage philosophy4#bie ,the ,jewish doctrine of possession#bif at no time in its long course exercised a direct influence on the opinion of the civilized world comparable to that produced by the mentions of demoniacal possession in the ,new ,testament4 ,it is needless to quote here even a selection from the familiar passages of the ,gospels and ,acts which display the manner in which certain described symptoms were currently accounted for in public opinion4 ,regarding these documents from an ethnographic point of view1 it need only be said that they prove1 incidentally but absolutely1 that ,jews and ,christians at that time held the doctrine which had prevailed for ages before1 and continued to prevail for ages after1 referring to possession and obsession by spirits the symptoms of mania1 epilepsy1 dumbness1 delirious and oracular utterance1 and other morbid conditions1 mental and bodily4#big ,modern missionary works1 such as have been cited here1 give the most striking evidence of the correspondence of these demoniac symptoms with such as may still be observed among uncivilized races4 ,during the early centuries of ,christianity1 demoniacal possession indeed becomes peculiarly conspicuous1 perhaps not from unusual prevalence of the animistic theory of disease1 but simply because a period of intense religious excitement brought it more than usually into requisition4 ,ancient ecclesiastical records describe1 under the well-known names of #8dmoniacs' 771 #8possessed' 771 #8energumens' 771 the class of persons whose bodies are seized or possessed by an evil spirit2 such attacks being frequently attended with great commotions and vexations and disturbances of the body1 occasioning sometimes frenzy and madness1 sometimes epileptic fits1 and other violent tossings and contortions4 ,these energumens formed a recognised part of an early ,christian congregation1 a standing-place apart being assigned to them in the church4 ,the church indeed seems to have been the principal habitation of these afflicted creatures1 they were occupied out of service-time in such work as sweeping1 daily food was provided for them1 and they were under the charge of a special order of clergy1 the exorcists1 whose religious function was to cast out devils by prayer and adjuration and laying on of hands4 ,as to the usual symptoms of possession1 ,justin1 ,tertullian1 ,chrysostom1 ,cyril1 ,minucius1 ,cyprian1 and other early ,fathers1 give copious descriptions of demons entering into the bodies of men1 disordering their health and minds1 driving them to wander among the tombs1 forcing them to writhe and wallow and rave and foam1 howling and declaring their own diabolical names by the patients' voices1 but when overcome by conjuration or by blows administered to their victims1 quitting the bodies they had entered1 and acknowledging the pagan deities to be but devils4#bih ,on a subject so familiar to educated readers ,i may be excused from citing at length a vast mass of documents1 barbaric in nature and only more or less civilized in circumstance1 to illustrate the continuance of the doctrine of possession and the rite of exorcism through the middle ages and into modern times4 ,a few salient examples will suffice4 ,for a type of medical details1 we may instance the recipes in the #8,early ,english ,leechdoms'3 a cake of the #8thost' of a white hound baked with meal is to be taken against the attack by dwarves 7i4e4 convulsions72 a drink of herbs worked up off clear ale with the aid of garlic1 holy water1 and singing of masses1 is to be drunk by a fiend-sick patient out of a church bell4 ,philosophical argument may be followed in the dissertations of the #8,malleus ,maleficarum1' concerning demons substantially inhabiting men and causing illness in them1 enquiries which may be pursued under the auspices of ,glanvil in the #8,saducismus ,triumphatus4' ,historical anecdote bears record of the convulsive clairvoyant demon who possessed ,nicola ,aubry1 and under the ,bishop of ,laon's exorcism testified in an edifying manner to the falsity of ,calvinism2 of ,charles ,,vi4 of ,france1 who was possessed1 and whose demon a certain priest tried in vain to transfer into the bodies of twelve men who were chained up to receive it2 of the ,german woman at ,elbingerode who in a fit of toothache wished the devil might enter into her teeth1 and who was possessed by six demons accordingly1 which gave their names as ,schalk der ,wahrheit1 ,wirk1 ,widerkraut1 ,myrrha1 ,knip1 ,stp2 of ,george ,lukins of ,yatton1 whom seven devils threw into fits and talked and sang and barked out of1 and who was delivered by a solemn exorcism by seven clergymen at the ,temple ,church at ,bristol in the year #aghh4bii ,a strong sense of the permanence of the ancient doctrine may be gained from accounts of the state of public opinion in ,europe1 from ,greece and ,italy to ,france1 where within the last century derangement and hysteria were still popularly ascribed to possession and treated by exorcism1 just as in the dark ages4#cjj ,in the year #ahfa1 at ,morzine1 at the south of the ,lake of ,geneva1 there might be seen in full fury an epidemic of diabolical possession worthy of a ,red ,indian settlement or a negro kingdom of ,west ,africa1 an outburst which the exorcisms of a superstitious priest had so aggravated that there were a hundred and ten raving demoniacs in that single village4#cja ,the following is from a letter written in #ahfb by ,mgr4 ,anouilh1 a ,french missionary-bishop in ,china4 #8,le croiriez-vous8 dix villages se sont convertis4 ,le diable est furieux et fait les cent coups4 ,il y a eu1 pendant les quinze jours que je viens de prcher1 cinq ou six possessions4 ,nos catchumnes avec l'eau bnite chassent les diables1 gurissent les malades4 ,j'ai vu des choses merveilleuses4 ,le diable m'est d'un grand secours pour convertir les paens4 ,comme au temps de ,notre-,seigneur1 quoique pre du mensonge1 il ne peut s'empcher de dire la vrit4 ,voyez ce pauvre possd faisant mille contorsions et disant grands cris3 8,pourquoi prches-tu la vraie religion8 ,je ne puis souffrir que tu m'enlves mes disciples40--8,comment t'appelles-tu80 lui demande le catchiste4 ,aprs quelques refus3 8,je suis l'envoy de ,lucifer0--8,combien tes-vous80--8,nous sommes vingt-deux40 8,l'eau bnite et le signe de la croix ont dlivr ce possd40'#cjb ,to conclude the series with a modern spiritualistic instance1 one of those where the mediums feel themselves entered and acted through by a spirit other than their own soul4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,west of ,philadelphia describes how a certain possessed medium went through the sword exercise1 and fell down senseless2 when he came to himself again1 the spirit within him declared itself to be the soul of a deceased ancestor of the minister's1 who had fought and died in the ,american ,war4#cjc ,we in ,england now hardly hear of demoniacal possession except as a historical doctrine of divines4 ,we have discarded from religious services the solemn ceremony of casting out devils from the bodies of the possessed1 a rite to this day officially retained in the ,rituals of the ,greek and ,roman ,churches4 ,cases of diabolical influence alleged from time to time among ourselves are little noticed except by newspaper paragraphs on superstition and imposture4 ,if1 however1 we desire to understand the doctrine of possession1 its origin and influence in the world1 we must look beyond countries where public opinion has passed into this stage1 and must study the demoniac theory as it still prevails in lower and lowest levels of culture4 ,it has to be thoroughly understood that the changed aspect of the subject in modern opinion is not due to disappearance of the actual manifestations which early philosophy attributed to demoniacal influence4 ,hysteria and epilepsy1 delirium and mania1 and such like bodily and mental derangement1 still exist4 ,not only do they still exist1 but among the lower races1 and in superstitious districts among the higher1 they are still explained and treated as of old4 ,it is not too much to assert that the doctrine of demoniacal possession is kept up1 substantially the same theory to account for substantially the same facts1 by half the human race1 who thus stand as consistent representatives of their forefathers back into primitive antiquity4 ,it is in the civilized world1 under the influence of the medical doctrines which have been developing since classic times1 that the early animistic theory of these morbid phenomena has been gradually superseded by views more in accordance with modern science1 to the great gain of our health and happiness4 ,the transition which has taken place in the famous insane colony of ,gheel in ,belgium is typical4 ,in old days1 the lunatics were carried there in crowds to be exorcised from their demons at the church of ,st4 ,dymphna2 to ,gheel they still go1 but the physician reigns in the stead of the exorcist4 ,yet wherever1 in times old or new1 demoniacal influences are brought forward to account for affections which scientific physicians now explain on a different principle1 care must be taken not to misjudge the ancient doctrine and its place in history4 ,as belonging to the lower culture it is a perfectly rational philosophical theory to account for certain pathological facts4 ,but just as mechanical astronomy gradually superseded the animistic astronomy of the lower races1 so biological pathology gradually supersedes animistic pathology1 the immediate operation of personal spiritual beings in both cases giving place to the operation of natural processes4 ,we now pass to the consideration of another great branch of the lower religion of the world1 a development of the same principles of spiritual operation with which we have become familiar in the study of the possession-theory4 ,this is the doctrine of ,fetishism4 ,centuries ago1 the ,portuguese in ,west ,africa1 noticing the veneration paid by the negroes to certain objects1 such as trees1 fish1 plants1 idols1 pebbles1 claws of beasts1 sticks and so forth1 very fairly compared these objects to the amulets or talismans with which they were themselves familiar1 and called them feitio or #8charm1' a word derived from ,latin factitius1 in the sense of #8magically artful4' ,modern ,french and ,english adopted this word from the ,portuguese as ftiche1 fetish1 although curiously enough both languages had already possessed the word for ages in a different sense1 ,old ,french faitis1 #8well made1 beautiful1' which ,old ,english adopted as fetys1 #8well made1 neat4' ,it occurs in the commonest of all quotations from ,chaucer3 #8,and ,frensch sche spak ful faire and fetysly1 ,aftur the scole of ,stratford atte ,bowe1 ,for ,frensch of ,parys was to hire unknowe4' ,the ,president de ,brosses1 a most original thinker of the #ahth century1 struck by the descriptions of the ,african worship of material and terrestrial objects1 introduced the word ,ftichisme as a general descriptive term1#cjd and since then it has obtained great currency by ,comte's use of it to denote a general theory of primitive religion1 in which external objects are regarded as animated by a life analogous to man's4 ,it seems to me1 however1 more convenient to use the word ,animism for the doctrine of spirits in general1 and to confine the word ,fetishism to that subordinate department which it properly belongs to1 namely1 the doctrine of spirits embodied in1 or attached to1 or conveying influence through1 certain material objects4 ,fetishism will be taken as including the worship of #8stocks and stones1' and thence it passes by an imperceptible gradation into ,idolatry4 ,any object whatsoever may be a fetish4 ,of course1 among the endless multitude of objects1 not as we should say physically active1 but to which ignorant men ascribe mysterious power1 we are not to apply indiscriminately the idea of their being considered vessels or vehicles or instruments of spiritual beings4 ,they may be mere signs or tokens set up to represent ideal notions or ideal beings1 as fingers or sticks are set up to represent numbers4 ,or they may be symbolic charms working by imagined conveyance of their special properties1 as an iron ring to give firmness1 or a kite's foot to give swift flight4 ,or they may be merely regarded in some undefined way as wondrous ornaments or curiosities4 ,the tendency runs through all human nature to collect and admire objects remarkable in beauty1 form1 quality1 or scarceness4 ,the shelves of ethnological museums show heaps of the objects which the lower races treasure up and hang about their persons--teeth and claws1 roots and berries1 shells and stones1 and the like4 ,now fetishes are in great measure selected from among such things as these1 and the principle of their attraction for savage minds is clearly the same which still guides the superstitious peasant in collecting curious trifles #8for luck4' ,the principle is one which retains its force in far higher ranges of culture than the peasant's4 ,compare the ,ostyak's veneration for any peculiar little stone he has picked up1 with the ,chinese love of collecting curious varieties of tortoise-shell1 or an old-fashioned ,english conchologist's delight in a reversed shell4 ,the turn of mind which in a ,gold-,coast negro would manifest itself in a museum of monstrous and most potent fetishes1 might impel an ,englishman to collect scarce postage-stamps or queer walking-sticks4 ,in the love of abnormal curiosities there shows itself a craving for the marvellous1 an endeavour to get free from the tedious sense of law and uniformity in nature4 ,as to the lower races1 were evidence more plentiful as to the exact meaning they attach to objects which they treat with mysterious respect1 it would very likely appear more often and more certainly than it does now1 that these objects seem to them connected with the action of spirits1 so as to be1 in the strict sense in which the word is here used1 real fetishes4 ,but this must not be taken for granted4 ,to class an object as a fetish1 demands explicit statement that a spirit is considered as embodied in it or acting through it or communicating by it1 or at least that the people it belongs to do habitually think this of such objects2 or it must be shown that the object is treated as having personal consciousness and power1 is talked with1 worshipped1 prayed to1 sacrificed to1 petted or ill-treated with reference to its past or future behaviour to its votaries4 ,in the instances now selected1 it will be seen that in one way or another they more or less satisfy such conditions4 ,in investigating the exact significance of fetishes in use among men1 savage or more civilized1 the peculiar difficulty is to know whether the effect of the object is thought due to a whole personal spirit embodied in or attached to it1 or to some less definable influence exerted through it4 ,in some cases this point is made clear1 but in many it remains doubtful4 ,it will help us to a clearer conception of the nature of a fetish1 to glance at a curious group of nations which connect a disease at once with spiritual influence1 and with the presence of some material object4 ,they are a set of illustrations of the savage principle1 that a disease or an actual disease-spirit may exist embodied in a stick or stone or such-like material object4 ,among the natives of ,australia1 one hears of the sorcerers extracting from their own bodies by passes and manipulations a magical essence called #8boylya1' which they can make to enter the patient's body like pieces of quartz1 which causes pain there and consumes the flesh1 and may be magically extracted either as invisible or in the form of a bit of quartz4 ,even the spirit of the waters1 #8nguk-wonga1' which had caused an attack of erysipelas in a boy's leg 7he had been bathing too long when heated7 is declared to have been extracted by the conjurers from the affected part in the shape of a sharp stone4#cje ,the ,caribs1 who very distinctly referred diseases to the action of hostile demons or deities1 had a similar sorcerer's process of extracting thorns or splinters from the affected part as the peccant causes1 and it is said that in the ,antilles morsels of stone and bone so extracted were wrapped up in cotton by the women1 as protective fetishes in childbirth4#cjf ,the ,malagasy1 considering all diseases as inflicted by an evil spirit1 consult a diviner1 whose method is often to remove the disease by means of a #8faditra2' this is some object1 such as a little grass1 ashes1 a sheep1 a pumpkin1 the water the patient has rinsed his mouth with1 or what not1 and when the priest has counted on it the evils that may injure the patient1 and charged the faditra to take them away for ever1 it is thrown away1 and the malady with it4#cjg ,among those strong believers in disease-spirits1 the ,dayaks of ,borneo1 the priest1 waving and jingling charms over the affected part of the patient1 pretends to extract stones1 splinters1 and bits of rag1 which he declares are spirits2 of such evil spirits he will occasionally bring half-a-dozen out of a man's stomach1 and as he is paid a fee of six gallons of rice for each1 he is probably disposed 7like a chiropodist under similar circumstances7 to extract a good many4#cjh ,the most instructive accounts of this kind are those which reach us from ,africa4 ,dr4 ,callaway has taken down at length a ,zulu account of the method of stopping out disease caused by spirits of the dead4 ,if a widow is troubled by her late husband's ghost coming and talking to her night after night as though still alive1 till her health is affected and she begins to waste away1 they find a #8nyanga' or sorcerer who can bar out the disease4 ,he bids her not lose the spittle collected in her mouth while she is dreaming1 and gives her medicine to chew when she wakes4 ,then he goes with her to lay the #8itongo1' or ghost2 perhaps he shuts it up in a bulb of the inkomfe plant1 making a hole in the side of this1 putting in the medicine and the dream-spittle1 closing the hole with a stopper1 and re-planting the bulb4 ,leaving the place1 he charges her not to look back till she gets home4 ,thus the dream is barred2 it may still come occasionally1 but no longer infests the woman2 the doctor prevails over the dead man as regards that dream4 ,in other cases the cure of a sick man attacked by the ancestral spirits may be effected with some of his blood put into a hole in an anthill by the doctor1 who closes the hole with a stone1 and departs without looking back2 or the patient may be scarified over the painful place1 and the blood put into the mouth of a frog1 caught for the purpose and carried back4 ,so the disease is barred out from the man4#cji ,in ,west ,africa1 a case in point is the practice of transferring a sick man's ailment to a live fowl1 which is set free with it1 and if any one catches the fowl1 the disease goes to him4#caj ,captain ,burton's account from ,central ,africa is as follows4 ,disease being possession by a spirit or ghost1 the #8mganga' or sorcerer has to expel it1 the principal remedies being drumming1 dancing1 and drinking1 till at last the spirit is enticed from the body of the patient into some inanimate article1 technically called a #8keti' or stool for it4 ,this may be an ornament1 such as a peculiar bead or a leopard's claw1 or it may be a nail or rag1 which by being driven into or hung to a #8devil's tree' has the effect of laying the disease-spirit4 ,or disease-spirits may be extracted by chants1 one departing at the end of each stave1 when a little painted stick made for it is flung on the ground1 and some patients may have as many as a dozen ghosts extracted1 for here also the fee is so much apiece4#caa ,in ,siam1 the ,laos sorcerer can send his #8phi phob' or demon into a victim's body1 where it turns into a fleshy or leathery lump1 and causes disease ending in death4#cab ,thus1 on the one hand1 the spirit-theory of disease is seen to be connected with that sorcerer's practice prevalent among the lower races1 of pretending to extract objects from the patient's body1 such as stones1 bones1 balls of hair1 c41 which are declared to be causes of disease conveyed by magical means into him2 of this proceeding ,i have given a detailed account elsewhere1 under the name of the #8sucking-cure4'#cac ,on the other hand1 there appears among the lower races that well-known conception of a disease or evil influence as an individual being1 which may be not merely conveyed by an infected object 7though this of course may have much to do with the idea71 but may be removed by actual transfer from the patient into some other animal or object4 ,thus ,pliny informs us how pains in the stomach may be cured by transmitting the ailment from the patient's body into a puppy or duck1 which will probably die of it2#cad it is considered baneful to a ,hindu woman to be a man's third wife1 wherefore the precaution is taken of first betrothing him to a tree1 which dies in her stead2#cae after the birth of a ,chinese baby1 its father's trousers are hung in the room wrong side up1 that all evil influences may enter into them instead of into the child4#caf ,modern folklore still cherishes such ideas4 ,the ethnographer may still study in the #8white witchcraft' of ,european peasants the arts of curing a man's fever or headache by transferring it to a crawfish or a bird1 or of getting rid of ague or gout or warts by giving them to a willow1 elder1 fir1 or ash-tree1 with suitable charms1 #8,goe morgen1 olde1 ick geef oe de ,kolde1' #8,goden ,abend1 ,herr ,fleder1 hier bring ick mien ,feber1 ick bind em di an und gah davan1' #8,ash-tree1 ashen tree1 pray buy this wart of me1' and so forth2 or of nailing or plugging an ailment into a tree-trunk1 or conveying it away by some of the patient's hair or nail-parings or some such thing1 and so burying it4 ,looking at these proceedings from a moral point of view1 the practice of transferring the ailment to a knot or a lock of hair and burying it is the most harmless1 but another device is a very pattern of wicked selfishness4 ,in ,england1 warts may be touched each with a pebble1 and the pebbles in a bag left on the road to church1 to give up their ailments to the unlucky finder2 in ,germany1 a plaister from a sore may be left at a cross-way to transfer the disease to a passer-by2 ,i am told on medical authority that the bunches of flowers which children offer to travellers in ,southern ,europe are sometimes intended for the ungracious purpose of sending some disease away from their homes4#cag ,one case of this group1 mentioned to me by ,mr4 ,spottiswoode1 is particularly interesting4 ,in ,thuringia it is considered that a string of rowan-berries1 a rag1 or any small article1 touched by a sick person and then hung on a bush beside some forest path1 imparts the malady to any person who may touch this article in passing1 and frees the sick person from the disease4 ,this gives great probability to ,captain ,burton's suggestion that the rags1 locks of hair1 and what not1 hung on trees near sacred places by the superstitious from ,mexico to ,india and from ,ethiopia to ,ireland1 are deposited there as actual receptacles of disease2 the ,african #8devil's trees' and the sacred trees of ,sindh1 hung with rags through which votaries have transferred their complaints1 being typical cases of a practice surviving in lands of higher culture4 ,the spirits which enter or otherwise attach themselves to objects may be human souls4 ,indeed one of the most natural cases of the fetish-theory is when a soul inhabits or haunts what is left of its former body4 ,it is plain enough that by a simple association of ideas the dead person is imagined to keep up a connexion with his remains4 ,thus we read of the ,mandan women going year after year to take food to the skulls of their dead kinsfolk1 and sitting by the hour to chat and jest in their most endearing strain with the relics of a husband or child2#cah thus the ,guinea negroes1 who keep the bones of parents in chests1 will go to talk with them in the little huts which serve for their tombs4#cai ,and thus1 from the savage who keeps and carries with his household property the cleaned bones of his forefathers1#cbj to the mourner among ourselves who goes to weep at the grave of one beloved1 imagination keeps together the personality and the relics of the dead4 ,here1 then1 is a course of thought open to the animistic thinker1 leading him on from fancied association to a belief in the real presence of a spiritual being in a material object4 ,thus there is no difficulty in understanding how the ,karens thought the spirits of the dead might come back from the other world to reanimate their bodies2#cba nor how the ,marian islanders should have kept the dried bodies of their dead ancestors in their huts as household gods1 and even expected them to give oracles out of their skulls2#cbb nor how the soul of a dead ,carib might be thought to abide in one of his bones1 taken from the grave and carefully wrapped in cotton1 in which state it could answer questions1 and even bewitch an enemy if a morsel of his property were wrapped up with it2#cbc nor how the dead ,santal should be sent to his fathers by the ceremony of committing to the sacred river morsels of his skull from the funeral-pile4#cbd ,such ideas are of great interest in studying the burial rites of mankind1 especially the habit of keeping relics of the dead as vehicles of superhuman power1 and of even preserving the whole body as a mummy1 as in ,peru and ,egypt4 ,the conception of such human relics becoming fetishes1 inhabited or at least acted through by the souls which formerly belonged to them1 will give a rational explanation of much relic-worship otherwise obscure4 ,a further stretch of imagination enables the lower races to associate the souls of the dead with mere objects1 a practice which may have had its origin in the merest childish make-believe1 but which would lead a thorough savage animist straight on to the conception of the soul entering the object as a body4 ,mr4 ,darwin saw two ,malay women in ,keeling ,island who held a wooden spoon dressed in clothes like a doll2 this spoon had been carried to the grave of a dead man1 and becoming inspired at full moon1 in fact lunatic1 it danced about convulsively like a table or a hat at a modern spirit-sance4#cbe ,among the ,salish ,indians of ,oregon1 the conjurers bring back men's lost souls as little stones or bones or splinters1 and pretend to pass them down through the tops of their heads into their hearts1 but great care must be taken to remove the spirits of any dead people that may be in the lot1 for the patient receiving one would die4#cbf ,there are indigenous ,kol tribes of ,india who work out this idea curiously in bringing back the soul of a deceased man into the house after the funeral1 apparently to be worshipped as a household spirit2 while some catch the spirit re-embodied in a fowl or fish1 the ,binjwar of ,raepore bring it home in a pot of water1 and the ,bunjia in a pot of flour4#cbg ,the ,chinese hold such theories with extreme distinctness1 considering one of a man's three spirits to take up its abode in the ancestral tablet1 where it receives messages and worship from the survivors2 while the long keeping of the dead man's gilt and lacquered coffin1 and the reverence and offerings continued at the tomb1 are connected with the thought of a spirit lingering about the corpse4 ,consistent with these quaint ideas are ceremonies in vogue in ,china1 of bringing home in a cock 7live or artificial7 the spirit of a man deceased in a distant place1 and of enticing into a sick man's coat the departing spirit which has already left his body1 and so conveying it back4#cbh ,tatar folklore illustrates the idea of soul-embodiment in the quaint but intelligible story of the demon-giant who could not be slain1 for he did not keep his soul in his body1 but in a twelve-headed snake carried in a bag on his horse's back2 the hero finds out the secret and kills the snake1 and then the giant dies too4 ,this tale is curious1 as very likely indicating the original sense of a well-known group of stories in ,european folklore1 the ,scandinavian one1 for instance1 where the giant cannot be made an end of1 because he keeps his heart not in his body1 but in a duck's egg in a well far away2 at last the young champion finds the egg and crushes it1 and the giant bursts4#cbi ,following the notion of soul-embodiment into civilized times1 we learn that #8,a ghost may be laid for any term less than an hundred years1 and in any place or body1 full or empty2 as1 a solid oak--the pommel of a sword--a barrel of beer1 if a yeoman or simple gentleman--or a pipe of wine1 if an esquire or a justice4' ,this is from ,grose's bantering description in the #ahth century of the art of #8laying' ghosts1#ccj and it is one of the many good instances of articles of serious savage belief surviving as jests among civilized men4 ,thus other spiritual beings1 roaming free about the world1 find fetish-objects to act through1 to embody themselves in1 to present them visibly to their votaries4 ,it is extremely difficult to draw a distinct line of separation between the two prevailing sets of ideas relating to spiritual action through what we call inanimate objects4 ,theoretically we can distinguish the notion of the object acting as it were by the will and force of its own proper soul or spirit1 from the notion of some foreign spirit entering its substance or acting on it from without1 and so using it as a body or instrument4 ,but in practice these conceptions blend almost inextricably4 ,this state of things is again a confirmation of the theory of animism here advanced1 which treats both sets of ideas as similar developments of the same original idea1 that of the human soul1 so that they may well shade imperceptibly into one another4 ,to depend on some typical descriptions of fetishism and its allied doctrines in different grades of culture1 is a safer mode of treatment than to attempt too accurate a general definition4 ,there is a quaint story1 dating from the time of ,columbus1 which shows what mysterious personality and power rude tribes could attach to lifeless matter4 ,the cacique ,hatuey1 it is related1 heard by his spies in ,hispaniola that the ,spaniards were coming to ,cuba4 ,so he called his people together1 and talked to them of the ,spaniards--how they persecuted the natives of the islands1 and how they did such things for the sake of a great lord whom they much desired and loved4 ,then1 taking out a basket with gold in it1 he said1 #8,ye see here their lord whom they serve and go after2 and1 as ye have heard1 they are coming hither to seek this lord4 ,therefore let us make him a feast1 that when they come he may tell them not to do us harm4' ,so they danced and sang from night to morning before the gold-basket1 and then the cacique told them not to keep the ,christian's lord anywhere1 for if they kept him in their very bowels they would have to bring him out2 so he bade them cast him to the bottom of the river1 and this they did4#cca ,if this story be thought too good to be true1 at any rate it does not exaggerate authentic savage ideas4 ,the #8maraca' or ceremonial rattle1 used by certain rude ,brazilian tribes1 was an eminent fetish4 ,it was a calabash with a handle and a hole for a mouth1 and stones inside2 yet to its votaries it seemed no mere rattle1 but the receptacle of a spirit that spoke from it when shaken2 therefore the ,indians set up their maracas1 talked to them1 set food and drink and burned incense before them1 held annual feasts in their honour1 and would even go to war with their neighbours to satisfy the rattle-spirits' demand for human victims4#ccb ,among the ,north ,american ,indians1 the fetish-theory seems involved in that remarkable and general proceeding known as getting #8medicine4' ,each youth obtains in a vision or dream a sight of his medicine1 and considering how thoroughly the idea prevails that the forms seen in visions and dreams are spirits1 this of itself shows the animistic nature of the matter4 ,the medicine thus seen may be an animal1 or part of one1 such as skin or claws1 feather or shell1 or such a thing as a plant1 a stone1 a knife1 a pipe2 this object he must obtain1 and thenceforward through life it becomes his protector4 ,considered as a vehicle or receptacle of a spirit1 its fetish-nature is shown in many ways2 its owner will do homage to it1 make feasts in its honour1 sacrifice horses1 dogs1 and other valuable objects to it or its spirit1 fast to appease it if offended1 have it burned with him to conduct him as a guardian-spirit to the happy hunting-grounds4 ,beside these special protective objects1 the ,indians1 especially the medicine-men 7the word is ,french1 #8mdecin1' applied to these native doctors or conjurers1 and since stretched to take in all that concerns their art71 use multitudes of other fetishes as means of spiritual influence4#ccc ,among the ,turanian tribes of ,northern ,asia1 where ,castrn describes the idea of spirits contained in material objects1 to which they belong1 and wherein they dwell in the same incomprehensible way as the souls in a man's body1 we may notice the ,ostyak's worship of objects of scarce or peculiar quality1 and also the connexion of the shamans or sorcerers with fetish-objects1 as where the ,tatars consider the innumerable rags and tags1 bells and bits of iron1 that adorn the shaman's magic costume1 to contain spirits helpful to their owner in his magic craft4#ccd ,john ,bell1 in his journey across ,asia in #agai1 relates a story which well illustrates ,mongol ideas as to the action of self-moving objects4 ,a certain ,russian merchant told him that once some pieces of damask were stolen out of his tent4 ,he complained1 and the ,kutuchtu ,lama ordered the proper steps to be taken to find out the thief4 ,one of the ,lamas took a bench with four feet1 and after turning it several times in different directions1 at last it pointed directly to the tent where the stolen goods lay concealed4 ,the ,lama now mounted astride the bench1 and soon carried it1 or1 as was commonly believed1 it carried him1 to the very tent1 where he ordered the damask to be produced4 ,the demand was directly complied with3 for it is vain in such cases to offer any excuse4#cce ,a more recent account from ,central ,africa may be placed as a pendant to this ,asiatic account of divination by a fetish-object4 ,the ,rev4 ,h4 ,rowley says of the ,manganja1 that they believed the medicine-men could impart a power for good or evil to objects either animate or inanimate1 which objects the people feared1 though they did not worship them4 ,this missionary once saw this art employed to detect the thief who had stolen some corn4 ,the people assembled round a large fig-tree4 ,the magician1 a wild-looking man1 produced two sticks1 like our broomsticks1 which after mysterious manipulation and gibberish he delivered to four young men1 two holding each stick4 ,a zebra-tail and a calabash-rattle were given to a young man and a boy4 ,the medicine-man rolled himself about in hideous fashion1 and chanted an unceasing incantation2 the bearers of the tail and rattle went round the stick-holders1 and shook these implements over their heads4 ,after a while the men with the sticks had spasmodic twitchings of the arms and legs1 these increased nearly to convulsions1 they foamed at the mouth1 their eyes seemed starting from their heads1 they realized to the full the idea of demoniacal possession4 ,according to the native notion1 it was the sticks which were possessed primarily1 and through them the men1 who could hardly hold them4 ,the sticks whirled and dragged the men round and round like mad1 through bush and thorny shrub1 and over every obstacle1 nothing stopped them1 their bodies were torn and bleeding2 at last they came back to the assembly1 whirled round again1 and rushed down the path to fall panting and exhausted in the hut of one of a chief's wives1 the sticks rolling to her very feet1 denouncing her as the thief4 ,she denied it1 but the medicine-man answered1 #8,the spirit has declared her guilty1 the spirit never lies4' ,however1 the #8muavi' or ordeal-poison was administered to a cock1 as deputy for the woman2 the bird threw it up1 and she was acquitted4#ccf ,fetishism in the lower civilization is thus by no means confined to the ,west ,african negro with whom we specially associate the term4 ,yet1 what with its being in fact extremely prevalent there1 and what with the attention of foreign observers having been particularly drawn to it1 the accounts from ,west ,africa are certainly the fullest and most minute on record4 ,the late ,professor ,waitz's generalization of the principle involved in these is much to the purpose4 ,he thus describes the negro's conception of his fetish4 #8,according to his view1 a spirit dwells or can dwell in every sensible object1 and often a very great and mighty one in an insignificant thing4 ,this spirit he does not consider as bound fast and unchangeably to the corporeal thing it dwells in1 but it has only its usual or principal abode in it4 ,the negro indeed in his conception not uncommonly separates the spirit from the sensible object which it inhabits1 he even sometimes contrasts the one with the other1 but most usually combines the two as forming a whole1 and this whole is 7as the ,europeans call it7 the 8fetish10 the object of his religious worship4' ,some further particulars will show how this principle is worked out4 ,fetishes 7native names for them are #8grigri1' #8juju1' c47 may be mere curious mysterious objects that strike a negro's fancy1 or they may be consecrated or affected by a priest or fetish-man2 the theory of their influence is that they belong to or are made effectual by a spirit or demon yet they have to stand the test of experience1 and if they fail to bring their owner luck and safety1 he discards them for some more powerful medium4 ,the fetish can see and hear and understand and act1 its possessor worships it1 talks familiarly with it as a dear and faithful friend1 pours libations of rum over it1 and in times of danger calls loudly and earnestly on it as if to wake up its spirit and energy4 ,to give an idea of the sort of things which are chosen as fetishes1 and of the manner in which they are associated with spiritual influences1 ,rmer's account from ,guinea about a century ago may serve4 ,in the fetish-house1 he says1 there hang or lie thousands of rubbishy trifles1 a pot with red earth and a cock's feather stuck in it1 pegs wound over with yarn1 red parrots' feathers1 men's hair1 and so forth4 ,the principal thing in the hut is the stool for the fetish to sit on1 and the mattress for him to rest on1 the mattress being no bigger than a man's hand and the stool in proportion1 and there is a little bottle of brandy always ready for him4 ,here the word fetish is used as it often is1 to denote the spirit which dwells in this rudimentary temple1 but we see that the innumerable quaint trifles which we call fetishes were associated with the deity in his house4 ,rmer once peeped in at an open door1 and found an old negro caboceer sitting amid twenty thousand fetishes in his private fetish-museum1 thus performing his devotions4 ,the old man told him he did not know the hundredth part of the use they had been to him2 his ancestors and he had collected them1 each had done some service4 ,the visitor took up a stone about as big as a hen's egg1 and its owner told its history4 ,he was once going out on important business1 but crossing the threshold he trod on this stone and hurt himself4 ,ha ha6 thought he1 art thou here8 ,so he took the stone1 and it helped him through his undertaking for days4 ,in our own time1 ,west ,africa is still a world of fetishes4 ,the traveller finds them on every path1 at every ford1 on every house-door1 they hang as amulets round every man's neck1 they guard against sickness or inflict it if neglected1 they bring rain1 they fill the sea with fishes willing to swim into the fisherman's net1 they catch and punish thieves1 they give their owner a bold heart and confound his enemies1 there is nothing that the fetish cannot do or undo1 if it be but the right fetish4 ,thus the one-sided logic of the barbarian1 making the most of all that fits and glossing over all that fails1 has shaped a universal fetish-philosophy of the events of life4 ,so strong is the pervading influence1 that the ,european in ,africa is apt to catch it from the negro1 and himself1 as the saying is1 #8become black4' ,thus even yet some traveller1 watching a white companion asleep1 may catch a glimpse of some claw or bone or such-like sorcerer's trash secretly fastened round his neck4#ccg ,european life1 lastly1 shows well-marked traces of the ancient doctrine of spirits or mysterious influences inhabiting objects4 ,thus a medival devil might go into an old sow1 a straw1 a barleycorn1 or a willow-tree4 ,a spirit might be carried about in a solid receptacle for use3-- #8,besides in glistering glasses fayre1 or else in christall cleare1 ,they sprightes enclose4' ,modern peasant folklore knows that spirits must have some animal body or other object to dwell in1 a feather1 a bag1 a bush1 for instance4 ,the ,tyrolese object to using grass for toothpicks because of the demons that may have taken up their abode in the straws4 ,the ,bulgarians hold it a great sin not to fumigate the flour when it is brought from the mill 7particularly if the mill be kept by a ,turk7 in order to prevent the devil from entering into it4#cch ,amulets are still carried in the most civilized countries of the world1 by the ignorant and superstitious with real savage faith in their mysterious virtues1 by the more enlightened in quaint survival from the past4 ,the mental and physical phenomena of what is now called #8table-turning' belong to a class of proceedings which have here been shown to be familiar to the lower races1 and accounted for by them on a theory of extra-human influence which is in the most extreme sense spiritualistic4 ,in giving its place in the history of mental development to the doctrine of the lower races as to embodiment in or penetration of an object by a spirit or an influence1 there is no slight interest in comparing it with theories familiar to the philosophy of cultured nations4 ,thus ,bishop ,berkeley remarks on the obscure expressions of those who have described the relation of power to the objects which exert it4 ,he cites ,torricelli as likening matter to an enchanted vase of ,circe serving as a receptacle of force1 and declaring that power and impulse are such subtle abstracts and refined quintessences1 that they cannot be enclosed in any other vessels but the inmost materiality of natural solids2 also ,leibnitz as comparing active primitive power to soul or substantial form4 ,thus1 says ,berkeley1 must even the greatest men1 when they give way to abstraction1 have recourse to words having no certain signification1 and indeed mere scholastic shadows4#cci ,we may fairly add that such passages show the civilized metaphysician falling back on such primitive conceptions as still occupy the minds of the rude natives of ,siberia and ,guinea4 ,to go yet farther1 ,i will venture to assert that the scientific conceptions current in my own schoolboy days1 of heat and electricity as invisible fluids passing in and out of solid bodies1 are ideas which reproduce with extreme closeness the special doctrine of ,fetishism4 ,under the general heading of ,fetishism1 but for convenience' sake separately1 may be considered the worship of #8stocks and stones4' ,such objects1 if merely used as altars1 are not of the nature of fetishes1 and it is first necessary to ascertain that worship is actually addressed to them4 ,then arises the difficult question1 are the stocks and stones set up as mere ideal representatives of deities1 or are these deities considered as physically connected with them1 embodied in them1 hovering about them1 acting through them8 ,in other words1 are they only symbols1 or have they passed in the minds of their votaries into real fetishes8 ,the conceptions of the worshippers are sometimes in this respect explicitly stated1 may sometimes be fairly inferred from the circumstances1 and are often doubtful4 ,among the lower races of ,america1 the ,dacotas would pick up a round boulder1 paint it1 and then1 addressing it as grandfather1 make offerings to it and pray to it to deliver them from danger2#cdj in the ,west ,india ,islands1 mention is made of three stones to which the natives paid great devotion--one was profitable for the crops1 another for women to be delivered without pain1 the third for sunshine and rain when they were wanted2#cda and we hear of ,brazilian tribes setting up stakes in the ground1 and making offerings before them to appease their deities or demons4#cdb ,stone-worship held an important place in the midst of the comparatively high culture of ,peru1 where not only was reverence given to especial curious pebbles and the like1 but stones were placed to represent the penates of households and the patron-deities of villages4 ,it is related by ,montesinos that when the worship of a certain sacred stone was given up1 a parrot flew from it into another stone1 to which adoration was paid3 and though this author is not of good credit1 he can hardly have invented a story which1 as we shall see1 so curiously coincides with the ,polynesian idea of a bird conveying to and from an idol the spirit which embodies itself in it4#cdc ,in ,africa1 stock-and-stone worship is found among the ,damaras of the ,south1 whose ancestors are represented at the sacrificial feasts by stakes cut from trees or bushes consecrated to them1 to which stakes the meat is first offered2#cdd among the ,dinkas of the ,white ,nile1 where the missionaries saw an old woman in her hut offering the first of her food and drink before a short thick staff planted in the ground1 that the demon might not hurt her2#cde among the ,gallas of ,abyssinia1 a people with a well-marked doctrine of deities1 and who are known to worship stones and logs1 but not idols4#cdf ,in the island of ,sambawa1 the ,orang ,dongo attribute all supernatural or incomprehensible force to the sun1 moon1 trees1 c41 but especially to stones1 and when troubled by accident or disease1 they carry offerings to certain stones to implore the favour of their genius or dewa4#cdg ,similar ideas are to be traced through the ,pacific islands1 both among the lighter and the darker races4 ,thus in the ,society ,islands1 rude logs or fragments of basalt columns1 clothed in native cloth and anointed with oil1 received adoration and sacrifice as divinely powerful by virtue of the atua or deity which had filled them4#cdh ,so in the ,new ,hebrides worship was given to water-worn pebbles1#cdi while ,fijian gods and goddesses had their abodes or shrines in black stones like smooth round milestones1 and there received their offerings of food4#cej ,the curiously anthropomorphic idea of stones being husbands and wives1 and even having children1 is familiar to the ,fijians as it is to the ,peruvians and the ,lapps4 ,the ,turanian tribes of ,north ,asia display stock-and-stone worship in full sense and vigour4 ,not only were stones1 especially curious ones and such as were like men or animals1 objects of veneration1 but we learn that they were venerated because mighty spirits dwelt in them4 ,the ,samoyed travelling ark-sledge1 with its two deities1 one with a stone head1 the other a mere black stone1 both dressed in green robes with red lappets1 and both smeared with sacrificial blood1 may serve as a type of stone-worship4 ,and as for the ,ostyaks1 had the famous ,king ,log presented himself among them1 they would without more ado have wrapped his sacred person in rags1 and set him up for worship on a mountain-top or in the forest4#cea ,the frequent stock-and-stone worship of modern ,india belongs especially to races non-,hindu or part-,hindu in race and culture4 ,among such may serve as examples the bamboo which stands for the ,bodo goddess ,mainou1 and for her receives the annual hog1 and the monthly eggs offered by the women2#ceb the stone under the great cotton-tree of every ,khond village1 shrine of ,nadzu ,pennu the village deity2#cec the clod or stone under a tree1 which in ,behar will represent the deified soul of some dead personage who receives worship and inspires oracles there2#ced the stone kept in every house by the ,bakadra and ,betadra1 which represents their god ,bta1 whom they induce by sacrifice to restrain the demon-souls of the dead from troubling them2#cee the two rude stones placed under a shed among the ,shanars of ,tinnevelly1 by the medium of which the great god and goddess receive sacrifice1 but which are thrown away or neglected when done with4#cef ,the remarkable groups of standing-stones in ,india are1 in many cases at least1 set up for each stone to represent or embody a deity4 ,mr4 ,hislop remarks that in every part of ,southern ,india1 four or five stones may often be seen in the ryot's field1 placed in a row and daubed with red paint1 which they consider as guardians of the field and call the five ,pndus2 he reasonably takes these ,hindu names to have superseded more ancient native appellations4 ,in the ,indian groups it is a usual practice to daub each stone with red paint1 forming as it were a great blood-spot where the face would be if it were a shaped idol4#ceg ,in ,india1 moreover1 the rites of stone-worship are not unexampled among the ,hindus proper4 ,shasht1 protectress of children1 receives worship1 vows1 and offerings1 especially from women2 yet they provide her with no idol or temple1 but her proper representative is a rough stone as big as a man's head1 smeared with red paint and set at the foot of the sacred vata-tree4 ,even ,siva is worshipped as a stone1 especially that ,siva who will afflict a child with epileptic fits1 and then1 speaking by its voice1 will announce that he is ,panchnana the ,five-faced1 and is punishing the child for insulting his image2 to this ,siva1 in the form of a clay idol or of a stone beneath a sacred tree1 there are offered not only flowers and fruits1 but also bloody sacrifices4#ceh ,this stone-worship among the ,hindus seems a survival of a rite belonging originally to a low civilization1 probably a rite of the rude indigenes of the land1 whose religion1 largely incorporated into the religion of the ,aryan invaders1 has contributed so much to form the ,hinduism of to-day4 ,it is especially interesting to survey the stock-and-stone worship of the lower culture1 for it enables us to explain by the theory of survival the appearance in the ,old ,world1 in the very midst of classic doctrine and classic art1 of the worship of the same rude objects1 whose veneration no doubt dated from remote barbaric antiquity4 ,as ,mr4 ,grote says1 speaking of ,greek worship1 #8,the primitive memorial erected to a god did not even pretend to be an image1 but was often nothing more than a pillar1 a board1 a shapeless stone or a post1 receiving care and decoration from the neighbourhood1 as well as worship4' ,such were the log that stood for ,artemis in ,euba1 the stake that represented ,pallas ,athene1 #8sine effigie rudis palus1 et informe lignum1' the unwrought stone 7 7 at ,hyettos which #8after the ancient manner' represented ,herakles1 the thirty such stones which the ,pharans in like archaic fashion worshipped for the gods1 and that one which received such honour in ,botian festivals as representing the ,thespian ,eros4 ,theophrastus1 in the #dth century ,b4,c41 depicts the superstitious ,greek passing the anointed stones in the streets1 taking out his phial and pouring oil on them1 falling on his knees to adore1 and going his way4 ,six centuries later1 ,arnobius could describe from his own heathen life the state of mind of the stock-and-stone worshipper1 telling how when he saw one of the stones anointed with oil1 he accosted it in flattering words1 and asked benefits from the senseless thing as though it contained a present power4#cei ,the ancient and graphic passage in the book of ,isaiah well marks stone-worship within the range of the ,semitic race3 #8,among the smooth stones of the valley is thy portion3 ,they1 they are thy lot3 ,even to them hast thou poured a drink-offering1 ,hast thou offered a meat-offering4'#cfj ,long afterwards1 among the local deities which ,mohammed found in ,arabia1 and which ,dr4 ,sprenger thinks he even acknowledged as divine during a moment when he well-nigh broke down in his career1 were ,manah and ,lt1 the one a rock1 the other a stone or a stone idol2 while the veneration of the black stone of the ,kaaba1 which ,captain ,burton thinks an arolite1 was undoubtedly a local rite which the ,prophet transplanted into his new religion1 where it flourishes to this day4#cfa ,the curious passage in ,sanchoniathon which speaks of the ,heaven-god forming the #8btyls1 animated stones' 7 1 1 7 perhaps refers to meteorites or supposed thunderbolts fallen from the clouds4 ,to the old ,phnician religion1 which made so deep a contact with the ,jewish world on the one side and the ,greek and ,roman on the other1 there belonged the stone pillars of ,baal and the wooden ashera-posts1 but how far these objects were of the character of altars1 symbols1 or fetishes1 is a riddle4#cfb ,we may still say with ,tacitus1 describing the conical pillar which stood instead of an image to represent the ,paphian ,venus--#8et ratio in obscuro4' ,there are accounts of formal ,christian prohibitions of stone-worship in ,france and ,england1 reaching on into the early middle ages1#cfc which show this barbaric cultus as then distinctly lingering in popular religion4 ,coupling this fact with the accounts of the groups of standing-stones set up to represent deities in ,south ,india1 a corresponding explanation has been suggested in ,europe4 ,are the menhirs1 cromlechs1 c41 idols1 and circles and lines of idols1 worshipped by remotely ancient dwellers in the land as representatives or embodiments of their gods8 ,the question at least deserves consideration1 although the ideas with which stone-worship is carried on by different races are multifarious1 and the analogy may be misleading4 ,it is remarkable to what late times full and genuine stone-worship has survived in ,europe4 ,in certain mountain districts of ,norway1 up to the end of the last century1 the peasants used to preserve round stones1 washed them every ,thursday evening 7which seems to show some connection with ,thor71 smeared them with butter before the fire1 laid them in the seat of honour on fresh straw1 and at certain times of the year steeped them in ale1 that they might bring luck and comfort to the house4#cfd ,in an account dating from #ahea1 the islanders of ,inniskea1 off ,mayo1 are declared to have a stone carefully wrapped in flannel1 which is brought out and worshipped at certain periods1 and when a storm arises it is supplicated to send a wreck on the coast4#cfe ,no savage ever showed more clearly by his treatment of a fetish that he considered it a personal being1 than did these ,norwegians and ,irishmen4 ,the ethnographic argument from the existence of stock-and-stone worship among so many nations of comparatively high culture seems to me of great weight as bearing on religious development among mankind4 ,to imagine that peoples skilled in carving wood and stone1 and using these arts habitually in making idols1 should have gone out of their way to invent a practice of worshipping logs and pebbles1 is not a likely theory4 ,but on the other hand1 when it is considered how such a rude object serves to uncultured men as a divine image or receptacle1 there is nothing strange in its being a relic of early barbarism holding its place against more artistic models through ages of advancing civilization1 by virtue of the traditional sanctity which belongs to survival from remote antiquity4 ,by a scarcely perceptible transition1 we pass to ,idolatry4 ,a few chips or scratches or daubs of paint suffice to convert the rude post or stone into an idol4 ,difficulties which complicate the study of stock-and-stone worship disappear in the worship of even the rudest of unequivocal images1 which can no longer be mere altars1 and if symbols must at least be symbols of a personal being4 ,idolatry occupies a remarkable district in the history of religion4 ,it hardly belongs to the lowest savagery1 which simply seems not to have attained to it1 and it hardly belongs to the highest civilization1 which has discarded it4 ,its place is intermediate1 ranging from the higher savagery where it first clearly appears1 to the middle civilization where it reaches its extreme development1 and thenceforward its continuance is in dwindling survival and sometimes expanding revival4 ,the position thus outlined is1 however1 very difficult to map exactly4 ,idolatry does not seem to come in uniformly among the higher savages2 it belongs1 for instance1 fully to the ,society ,islanders1 but not to the ,tongans and ,fijians4 ,among higher nations1 its presence or absence does not necessarily agree with particular national affinities or levels of culture--compare the idol-worshipping ,hindu with his ethnic kinsman the idol-hating ,parsi1 or the idolatrous ,phnician with his ethnic kinsman the ,israelite1 among whose people the incidental relapse into the proscribed image-worship was a memory of disgrace4 ,moreover1 its tendency to revive is ethnographically embarrassing4 ,the ancient ,vedic religion seems not to recognize idolatry1 yet the modern ,brahmans1 professed followers of ,vedic doctrine1 are among the greatest idolators of the world4 ,early ,christianity by no means abrogated the ,jewish law against image-worship1 yet image-worship became and still remains widely spread and deeply rooted in ,christendom4 ,of ,idolatry1 so far as its nature is symbolic or representative1 ,i have given some account elsewhere4#cff ,the old and greatest difficulty in investigating the general subject is this1 that an image may be1 even to two votaries kneeling side by side before it1 two utterly different things2 to the one it may be only a symbol1 a portrait1 a memento2 while to the other it is an intelligent and active being1 by virtue of a life or spirit dwelling in it or acting through it4 ,in both cases ,image-worship is connected with the belief in spiritual beings1 and is in fact a subordinate development of animism4 ,but it is only so far as the image approximates to the nature of a material body provided for a spirit1 that ,idolatry comes properly into connexion with ,fetishism4 ,it is from this point of view that it is proposed to examine here its purpose and its place in history4 ,an idol1 so far as it belongs to the theory of spirit-embodiment1 must combine the characters of portrait and fetish4 ,bearing this in mind1 and noticing how far the idol is looked on as in some way itself an energetic object1 or as the very receptacle enshrining a spiritual god1 let us proceed to judge how far1 along the course of civilization1 the idea of the image itself exerting power or being personally animate has prevailed in the mind of the idolater4 ,as to the actual origin of idolatry1 it need not be supposed that the earliest idols made by man seemed to their maker living or even active things4 ,it is quite likely that the primary intention of the image was simply to serve as a sign or representative of some soul or deity1 and certainly this original character is more or less maintained in the world through the long history of image-worship4 ,at a stage succeeding this original condition1 it may be argued1 the tendency to identify the symbol and the symbolized1 a tendency so strong among children and the ignorant everywhere1 led to the idol being treated as a living powerful being1 and thence even to explicit doctrines as to the manner of its energy or animation4 ,it is1 then1 in this secondary stage1 where the once merely representative image is passing into the active image-fetish1 that we are particularly concerned to understand it4 ,here it is reasonable to judge the idolater by his distinct actions and beliefs4 ,a line of illustrative examples will carry the personality of the idol through grade after grade of civilization4 ,among the lower races1 such thoughts are displayed by the ,kurile islander throwing his idol into the sea to calm the storm2 by the negro who feeds ancestral images and brings them a share of his trade profits1 but will beat an idol or fling it into the fire if it cannot give him luck or preserve him from sickness2 by famous idols of ,madagascar1 of which one goes about of himself or guides his bearers1 and another answers when spoken to--at least1 they did this till they were ignominiously found out a few years ago4 ,among ,tatar peoples of ,north ,asia and ,europe1 conceptions of this class are illustrated by the ,ostyak1 who clothes his puppet and feeds it with broth1 but if it brings him no sport will try the effect of a good thrashing on it1 after which he will clothe and feed it again2 by the ,lapps1 who fancied their uncouth images could go about at will2 or the ,esths1 who wondered that their idols did not bleed when ,dieterich the ,christian priest hewed them down4 ,among high ,asiatic nations1 what could be more anthropomorphic than the rites of modern ,hinduism1 the dances of the nautch-girls before the idols1 the taking out of ,jagannath in procession to pay visits1 the spinning of tops before ,krishna to amuse him8 ,buddhism is a religion in its principles little favourable to idolatry4 ,yet1 from setting up portrait-statues of ,gautama and other saints1 there developed itself the full worship of images1 and even of images with hidden joints and cavities1 which moved and spoke as in our own middle ages4 ,in ,china1 we read stories of worshippers abusing some idol that has failed in its duty4 #8,how now1' they say1 #8you dog of a spirit2 we have given you an abode in a splendid temple1 we gild you and feed you and fumigate you with incense1 and yet you are so ungrateful that you won't listen to our prayers6' ,so they drag him in the dirt1 and then1 if they get what they want1 it is but to clean him and set him up again1 with apologies and promises of a new coat of gilding4 ,there is what appears a genuine story of a ,chinaman who had paid an idol priest to cure his daughter1 but she died2 whereupon the swindled worshipper brought an action at law against the god1 who for his fraud was banished from the province4 ,the classic instances1 again1 are perfect--the dressing and anointing of statues1 feeding them with delicacies and diverting them with raree-shows1 summoning them as witnesses2 the story of the ,arkadian youths coming back from a bad day's hunting and revenging themselves by scourging and pricking ,pan's statue1 and the companion tale of the image which fell upon the man who ill-treated it2 the ,tyrians chaining the statue of the ,sun-god that he might not abandon their city2 ,augustus chastising in effigy the ill-behaved ,neptune2 ,apollo's statue that moved when it would give an oracle2 and the rest of the images which brandished weapons1 or wept1 or sweated1 to prove their supernatural powers4 ,such ideas continued to hold their place in ,christendom1 as was natural1 considering how directly the holy image or picture took the place of the household god or the mightier idol of the temple4 ,the ,russian boor covering up the saint's picture that it may not see him do wrong2 the ,mingrelian borrowing a successful neighbour's saint when his own crop fails1 or when about to perjure himself choosing for the witness of his deceitful oath a saint of mild countenance and merciful repute2 the peasant of ,southern ,europe1 alternately coaxing and trampling on his special saint-fetish1 and ducking the ,virgin or ,st4 ,peter for rain2 the winking and weeping images that are worked1 even at this day1 to the greater glory of ,god1 or rather to the greater shame of ,man--these are but the extreme instances of the worshipper's endowment of the sacred image with a life and personality modelled on his own4#cfg ,the appearance of idolatry at a grade above the lowest of known human culture1 and its development in extent and elaborateness under higher conditions of civilization1 are well displayed among the native races of ,america4 #8,conspicuous by its absence' among many of the lower tribes1 image-worship comes plainly into view toward the upper levels of savagery1 as where1 for instance1 ,brazilian native tribes set up in their huts1 or in the recesses of the forest1 their pygmy heaven-descended figures of wax or wood2#cfh or where the ,mandans1 howling and whining1 made their prayers before puppets of grass and skins2 or where the spiritual beings of the ,algonquins 7manitu7 or the ,hurons 7oki7 were represented by1 and in language identified with1 the carved wooden heads or more complete images to which worship and sacrifice were offered4 ,among the ,virginians and other of the more cultured ,southern tribes1 these idols even had temples to dwell in4#cfi ,the discoverers of the ,new ,world found idolatry an accepted institution among the islanders of the ,west ,indies4 ,these strong animists are recorded to have carved their little images in the shapes in which they believed the spirits themselves to have appeared to them2 and some human figures bore the names of ancestors in memory of them4 ,the images of such #8cemi' or spirits1 some animal1 but most of human type1 were found by thousands2 and it is even declared that an island near ,hayti had a population of idol-makers1 who especially made images of nocturnal spectres4 ,the spirit could be conveyed with the image1 both were called #8cemi1' and in the local accounts of sacrifices1 oracles1 and miracles1 the deity and the idol are mixed together in a way which at least shows the extreme closeness of their connexion in the native mind4#cgj ,if we pass to the far higher culture of ,peru1 we find idols in full reverence1 some of them complete figures1 but the great deities of ,sun and ,moon figured by discs with human countenances1 like those which to this day represent them in symbol among ourselves4 ,as for the conquered neighbouring tribes brought under the dominion of the ,incas1 their idols were carried1 half trophies and half hostages1 to ,cuzco1 to rank among the inferior deities of the ,peruvian ,pantheon4#cga ,in ,mexico1 idolatry had attained to its full barbaric development4 ,as in the ,aztec mind the world swarmed with spiritual deities1 so their material representatives1 the idols1 stood in the houses at the corners of the streets1 on every hill and rock1 to receive from passers-by some little offering--a nosegay1 a whiff of incense1 a drop or two of blood2 while in the temples more huge and elaborate images enjoyed the dances and processions in their honour1 were fed by the bloody sacrifice of men and beasts1 and received the tribute and reverence paid to the great national gods4#cgb ,up to a certain point1 such evidence bears upon the present question4 ,we learn that the native races of the ,new ,world had idols1 that those idols in some sort represented ancestral souls and other deities1 and for them received adoration and sacrifice4 ,but whether the native ideas of the connexion of spirit and image were obscure1 or whether the foreign observers did not get at these ideas1 or partly for both reasons1 there is a general want of express statement how far the idols of ,america remained mere symbols or portraits1 or how far they had come to be considered the animated bodies of the gods4 ,it is not always thus1 however4 ,in the island regions of the ,southern ,hemisphere1 while image-worship scarcely appears among the ,andaman islanders1 ,tasmanians1 or ,australians1 and is absent or rare in various ,papuan and ,polynesian districts1 it prevails among the majority of the island tribes who have attained to middle and high savage levels4 ,in ,polynesian islands1 where the meaning of the native idolatry has been carefully examined1 it is found to rest on the most absolute theory of spirit-embodiment4 ,thus1 ,new-,zealanders set up memorial idols of deceased persons near the burial-place1 talking affectionately to them as if still alive1 and casting garments to them when they passed by1 also they preserve in their houses small carved wooden images1 each dedicated to the spirit of an ancestor4 ,it is distinctly held that such an atua or ancestral deity enters into the substance of an image in order to hold converse with the living4 ,a priest can by repeating charms cause the spirit to enter into the idol1 which he will even jerk by a string round its neck to arrest its attention2 it is the same atua or spirit which will at times enter not the image but the priest himself1 throw him into convulsions1 and deliver oracles through him2 while it is quite understood that the images themselves are not objects of worship1 nor do they possess in themselves any virtue1 but derive their sacredness from being the temporary abodes of spirits4#cgc ,in the ,society ,islands1 it was noticed in ,captain ,cook's exploration that the carved wooden images at burial-places were not considered mere memorials1 but abodes into which the souls of the departed retired4 ,in ,mr4 ,ellis's account of the ,polynesian idolatry1 relating as it seems especially to this group1 the sacred objects might be either mere stocks and stones1 or carved wooden images1 from six or eight feet long down to as many inches4 ,some of these were to represent #8tii1' divine manes or spirits of the dead1 while others were to represent #8tu1' or deities of higher rank and power4 ,at certain seasons1 or in answer to the prayers of the priests1 these spiritual beings entered into the idols1 which then became very powerful1 but when the spirit departed1 the idol remained only a sacred object4 ,a god often came to and passed from an image in the body of a bird1 and spiritual influence could be transmitted from an idol by imparting it by contact to certain valued kinds of feathers1 which could be carried away in this #8inhabited' state1 and thus exert power elsewhere1 and transfer it to new idols4 ,here then we have the similarity of souls to other spirits shown by the similar way in which both become embodied in images1 just as these same people consider both to enter into human bodies4 ,and we have the pure fetish1 which here is a feather or a log or stone1 brought together with the more elaborate carved idol1 all under one common principle of spirit-embodiment4#cgd ,in ,borneo1 notwithstanding the ,moslem prohibition of idolatry1 not only do images remain in use1 but the doctrine of spirit-embodiment is distinctly applied to them4 ,among the tribes of ,western ,sarawak the priestesses have made for them rude figures of birds1 which none but they may touch4 ,these are supposed to become inhabited by spirits1 and at the great harvest feasts are hung up in bunches of ten or twenty in the long common room1 carefully veiled with coloured handkerchiefs4 ,again1 among some ,dayak tribes1 they will make rude figures of a naked man and woman1 and place these opposite to one another on the path to the farms4 ,on their heads are head-dresses of bark1 by their sides is the betel-nut basket1 and in their hands a short wooden spear4 ,these figures are said to be inhabited each by a spirit who prevents inimical influences from passing on to the farms1 and likewise from the farms to the village1 and evil betide the profane wretch who lifts his hand against them--violent fever and sickness would be sure to follow4#cge ,west ,africa naturally applies its familiar fetish-doctrine of spirit-embodiment to images or idols4 ,how an image may be considered a receptacle for a spirit1 is well shown here by the straw and rag figures of men and beasts made in ,calabar at the great triennial purification1 for the expelled spirits to take refuge in1 whereupon they are got rid of over the border4#cgf ,as to positive idols1 nothing could be more explicit than the ,gold-,coast account of certain wooden figures called #8amagai1' which are specially treated by a #8wong-man' or priest1 and have a #8wong' or deity in connexion with them2 so close is the connexion conceived between spirit and image1 that the idol is itself called #8wong4'#cgg ,so in the ,ewe district1 the same #8edro' or deity who inspires the priest is also present in the idol1 and #8edro' signifies both god and idol4#cgh ,waitz sums up the principles of ,west ,african idolatry in a distinct theory of embodiment1 as follows3 #8,the god himself is invisible1 but the devotional feeling and especially the lively fancy of the negro demands a visible object to which worship may be directed4 ,he wishes really and sensibly to behold the god1 and seeks to shape in wood or clay the conception he has formed of him4 ,now if the priest1 whom the god himself at times inspires and takes possession of1 consecrates this figure to him1 the idea has only to follow that the god may in consequence be pleased to take up his abode in the figure1 to which he may be specially invited by the consecration1 and thus image-worship is seen to be comprehensible enough4 ,denham found that even to take a man's portrait was dangerous and caused mistrust1 from the fear that a part of the living man's soul might be conveyed by magic into the artificial figure4 ,the idols are not1 as ,bosman thinks1 deputies of the gods1 but merely objects in which the god loves to place himself1 and which at the same time display him in sensible presence to his adorers4 ,the god is also by no means bound fast to his dwelling in the image1 he goes out and in1 or rather is present in it sometimes with more and sometimes with less intensity4'#cgi ,castrn's wide and careful researches among the rude ,turanian tribes of ,north ,asia led him to form a similar conception of the origin and nature of their idolatry4 ,the idols of these people are uncouth objects1 often mere stones or logs with some sort of human countenance1 or sometimes more finished images1 even of metal2 some are large1 some mere dolls2 they belong to individuals1 or families1 or tribes2 they may be kept in the yurts for private use1 or set up in sacred groves or on the steppes or near the hunting and fishing places they preside over1 or they may even have special temple-houses2 some open-air gods are left naked1 not to spoil good clothes1 but others under cover are decked out with all an ,ostyak's or ,samoyed's wealth of scarlet cloths and costly furs1 necklaces and trinkets2 and lastly1 to the idols are made rich offerings of food1 clothes1 furs1 kettles1 pipes1 and the rest of the inventory of ,siberian nomade riches4 ,now these idols are not to be taken as mere symbols or portraits of deities1 but the worshippers mostly imagine that the deity dwells in the image or1 so to speak1 is embodied in it1 whereby the idol becomes a real god capable of giving health and prosperity to man4 ,on the one hand1 the deity becomes serviceable to the worshipper by being thus contained and kept for his use1 and on the other hand1 the god profits by receiving richer offerings1 failing which it would depart from its receptacle4 ,we even hear of numerous spirits being contained in one image1 and flying off at the death of the shaman who owned it4 ,in ,buddhist ,tibet1 as in ,west ,africa1 the practice of conjuring into puppets the demons which molest men is a recognized rite2 while in ,siam the making of clay puppets to be exposed on trees or by the roadside1 or set adrift with food-offerings in baskets1 is a recognized manner of expelling disease-spirits4#chj ,in the image-worship of modern ,india1 there crop up traces of the embodiment-theory4 ,it is possible for the intelligent ,hindu to attach as little real personality to a divine image1 as to the man of straw which he makes in order to celebrate the funeral rites of a relative whose body cannot be recovered4 ,he can even protest against being treated as an idolater at all1 declaring the images of his gods to be but symbols1 bringing to his mind thoughts of the real deities1 as a portrait reminds one of a friend no longer to be seen in the body4 ,yet in the popular religion of his country1 what could be more in conformity with the fetish-theory than the practice of making temporary hollow clay idols by tens of thousands1 which receive no veneration for themselves1 and only become objects of worship when the officiating brahman has invited the deity to dwell in the image1 performing the ceremony of the #8adhivsa' or inhabitation1 after which he puts in the eyes and the #8prna1' i4e41 breath1 life1 or soul4#cha ,nowhere1 perhaps1 in the wide history of religion1 can we find definitions more full and absolute of the theory of deities actually animating their images1 than in those passages from early ,christian writers which describe the nature and operation of the heathen idols4 ,arnobius introduces the heathen as declaring that it is not the bronze or gold and silver material they consider to be gods1 but they worship in them those beings which sacred dedication introduces1 and causes to inhabit the artificial images4#chb ,augustine cites as follows the opinions attributed to ,hermes ,trismegistus4 ,this ,egyptian1 he tells us1 considers some gods as made by the highest ,deity1 and some by men2 #8he asserts the visible and tangible images to be as it were bodies of gods1 for there are within them certain invited spirits1 of some avail for doing harm or for fulfilling certain desires of those who pay them divine honours and rites of worship4 ,by a certain art to connect these invisible spirits with visible objects of corporeal matter1 that such may be as it were animated bodies1 effigies dedicate and subservient to the spirits--this is what he calls making gods1 and men have received this great and wondrous power4' ,and further1 this ,trismegistus is made to speak of #8statues animated with sense and full of spirit1 doing so great things2 statues prescient of the future1 and predicting it by lots1 by priests1 by dreams1 and by many other ways4'#chc ,this idea1 as accepted by the early ,christians themselves1 with the qualification that the spiritual beings inhabiting the idols were not beneficent deities but devils1 is explicitly stated by ,minucius ,felix1 in a passage in the #8,octavius1' which gives an instructive account of the animistic philosophy of ,christianity towards the beginning of the third century3 #8,thus these impure spirits or demons1 as shown by the magi1 by the philosophers1 and by ,plato1 are concealed by consecration in statues and images1 and by their afflatus obtain the authority as of a present deity when at times they inspire priests1 inhabit temples1 occasionally animate the filaments of the entrails1 govern the flight of birds1 guide the falling of lots1 give oracles enveloped in many falsehoods 444 also secretly creeping into 7men's7 bodies as thin spirits1 they feign diseases1 terrify minds1 distort limbs1 in order to compel men to their worship2 that fattening on the steam of altars or their offered victims from the flocks1 they may seem to have cured the ailments which they had constrained4 ,and these are the madmen whom ye see rush forth into public places2 and the very priests without the temple thus go mad1 thus rave1 thus whirl about4444 ,all these things most of you know1 how the very demons confess of themselves1 so often as they are expelled by us from the patients' bodies with torments of word and fires of prayer4 ,saturn himself1 and ,serapis1 and ,jupiter1 and whatsoever demons ye worship1 overcome by pain declare what they are2 nor surely do they lie concerning their iniquity1 above all when several of you are present4 ,believe these witnesses1 confessing the truth of themselves1 that they are demons4 ,for adjured by the true and only ,god1 they shudder reluctant in the wretched bodies2 and either they issue forth at once1 or vanish gradually1 according as the faith of the patient aids1 or the grace of the curer favours4'#chd ,the strangeness with which such words now fall upon our ears is full of significance4 ,it is one symptom of that vast quiet change which has come over animistic philosophy in the modern educated world4 ,whole orders of spiritual beings1 worshipped in polytheistic religion1 and degraded in early ,christendom to real but evil demons1 have since passed from objective to subjective existence1 have faded from the ,spiritual into the ,ideal4 ,by the operation of similar intellectual changes1 the general theory of spirit-embodiment1 having fulfilled the great work it had for ages to do in religion and philosophy1 has now dwindled within the limits of the educated world to near its vanishing-point4 ,the doctrines of ,disease-possession and ,oracle-possession1 once integral parts of the higher philosophy1 and still maintaining a vigorous existence in the lower culture1 seem to be dying out within the influence of the higher into dogmatic survival1 conscious metaphor1 and popular superstition4 ,the doctrine of spirit-embodiment in objects1 ,fetishism1 now scarcely appears outside barbaric regions save in the peasant folklore which keeps it up amongst us with so many other remnants of barbaric thought4 ,and the like theory of spiritual influence as applied to ,idolatry1 though still to be studied among savages and barbarians1 and on record in past ages of the civilized world1 has perished so utterly amongst ourselves1 that few but students are aware of its ever having existed4 ,to bring home to our minds the vastness of the intellectual tract which separates modern from savage philosophy1 and to enable us to look back along the path where step by step the mind's journey was made1 it will serve us to glance over the landmarks which language to this day keeps standing4 ,our modern languages reach back through the middle ages to classic and barbaric times1 where in this matter the transition from the crudest primval animism is quite manifest4 ,we keep in daily use1 and turn to modern meaning1 old words and idioms which carry us home to the philosophy of ancient days4 ,we talk of #8genius' still1 but with thought how changed4 ,the genius of ,augustus was a tutelary demon1 to be sworn by and to receive offerings on an altar as a deity4 ,in modern ,english1 ,shakspere1 ,newton1 or ,wellington1 is said to be led and prompted by his genius1 but that genius is a shrivelled philosophic metaphor4 ,so the word #8spirit' and its kindred terms keep up with wondrous pertinacity the traces which connect the thought of the savage with its hereditary successor1 the thought of the philosopher4 ,barbaric philosophy retains as real what civilized language has reduced to simile4 ,the ,siamese is made drunk with the demon of the arrack that possesses the drinker1 while we with so different sense still extract the #8spirit of wine4'#che ,look at the saying ascribed to ,pythagoras1 and mentioned by ,porphyry4 #8,the sound indeed which is given by striking brass1 is the voice of a certain demon contained in that brass4' ,these might have been the representative words of some savage animistic philosopher2 but with the changed meaning brought by centuries of philosophizing1 ,oken hit upon a definition almost identical in form1 that #8,what sounds1 announces its spirit' 7#8,was tnt1 gibt seinen ,geist kund'74#chf ,what the savage would have meant1 or ,porphyry after him did mean1 was that the brass was actually animated by a spirit of the brass apart from its matter1 but when a modern philosopher takes up the old phrase1 all he means is the qualities of the brass4 ,as in other animistic phrases of thought and feeling such as #8animal spirits1' or being in #8good and bad spirits1' the term only recalls with an effort the long-past philosophy which it once expressed4 ,the modern theory of the mind considers it capable of performing even exalted and unusual functions without the intervention of prompting or exciting demons2 yet the old recognition of such beings crops up here and there in phrases which adapt animistic ideas to commonplaces of human disposition1 as when a man is still said to be animated by a patriotic spirit1 or possessed by a spirit of disobedience4 ,in old times the 1 or #8ventriloquus' was really held to have a spirit rumbling or talking from inside his body1 as when ,eurykles the soothsayer was inspired by such a familiar2 or when a certain ,patriarch mentioning a demon heard to speak out of a man's belly1 remarks on the worthy place it had chosen to dwell in4 ,in the time of ,hippokrates1 the giving of oracular responses by such ventriloquism was practised by certain women as a profession4 ,to this day in ,china one may get an oracular response from a spirit apparently talking out of a medium's stomach1 for a fee of about twopence-halfpenny4 ,how changed a philosophy it marks1 that among ourselves the word #8ventriloquist' should have sunk to its present meaning4#chg ,nor is that change less significant which1 starting with the conception of a man being really 1 possessed by a deity within him1 carries on a metamorphosed relic of this thorough animistic thought1 from to #8enthusiasm4' ,with all this1 let it not be supposed that such change of opinion in the educated world has come about through wanton incredulity or decay of the religious temperament4 ,its source is the alteration in natural science1 assigning new causes for the operations of nature and the events of life4 ,the theory of the immediate action of personal spirits has here1 as so widely elsewhere1 given place to ideas of force and law4 ,no indwelling deity now regulates the life of the burning sun1 no guardian angels drive the stars across the arching firmament1 the divine ,ganges is water flowing down into the sea to evaporate into cloud and descend again in rain4 ,no deity simmers in the boiling pot1 no presiding spirits dwell in the volcano1 no howling demon shrieks from the mouth of the lunatic4 ,there was a period of human thought when the whole universe seemed actuated by spiritual life4 ,for our knowledge of our own history1 it is deeply interesting that there should remain rude races yet living under the philosophy which we have so far passed from1 since ,physics1 ,chemistry1 ,biology1 have seized whole provinces of the ancient ,animism1 setting force for life and law for will4 ,footnote #bbi3 ,see ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #acd2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amerikanische ,urreligionen1' p4 #aga4 ,footnote #bcj3 ,philo ,jud4 de ,gigantibus1 iv4 ,footnote #bca3 ,rituale ,romanum3 ,de ,exorcizandis ,obsessis a ,dmonio4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,oldfield1 #8,abor4 of ,australia' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #bcf4 ,see ,bonwick1 #8,tasmanians1' p4 #aha4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #ajd4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' p4 #dbi4 ,footnote #bce3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part ii4 p4 #aie2 ,m4 ,eastman1 #8,dahcotah1' p4 #gb4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,burton1 #8,central ,afr4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cdd2 ,schlegel1 #8,ewe-,sprache1' p4 xxv4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,falkner1 #8,patagonia1' p4 #aaf2 but cf4 ,musters1 p4 #ahj4 ,footnote #bch3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #abb4 ,footnote #bci3 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 i4 p4 #bjf4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #abi1 #daf2 vol4 iii4 pp4 #bi1 #beg1 #bgh2 #8,psychologie1' pp4 #gg1 #ii2 ,cross1 #8,karens1' l4 c4 p4 #caf2 ,elliot in #8,journ4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 p4 #aae2 ,buchanan1 #8,mysore1 c41' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 viii4 p4 #fgg4 ,footnote #bda3 ,shortt1 #8,tribes of ,india1' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vii4 p4 #aib2 ,tinling1 #8,tour round ,india1' p4 #ai4 ,footnote #bdb3 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #aja4 ,footnote #bdc3 ,sir ,j4 ,shore in #8,asiatic ,res4' vol4 iv4 p4 #cca4 ,footnote #bdd3 ,for some collections of details of manes-worship1 see ,meiners1 #8,geschichte der ,religionen1' vol4 i4 book #c2 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #djb-aa2 #8,psychologie1' pp4 #gb-aad4 ,footnote #bde3 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrel4' pp4 #gc1 #agc1 #bji1 #bfa2 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part i4 p4 #ci1 part iii4 p4 #bcg2 ,waitz1 #8,anthropologie1' vol4 iii4 pp4 #aia1 #bjd4 ,footnote #bdf3 ,backhouse1 #8,australia1' p4 #aje2 ,bonwick1 #8,tasmanians1' p4 #ahb4 ,footnote #bdg3 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #hh4 ,footnote #bdh3 ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 ii4 p4 #ajd2 ,s4 ,s4 ,farmer1 p4 #abf2 ,shortland1 #8,trads4 of ,n4 ,z4' p4 #ha2 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #ajh4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 #8,observations1' p4 #fjd2 ,marsden1 #8,sumatra1' p4 #beh2 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 ii4 p4 #bcd4 ,footnote #bej3 ,ellis1 #8,madagascar1' vol4 i4 pp4 #abc1 #dbc4 ,as to the connexion of the ,vazimbas with the ,mazimba of ,east ,africa1 see ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cfj1 #dbf4 ,footnote #bea3 ,callaway1 #8,religious ,system of ,amazulu1' part ii42 see also ,arbousset and ,daumas1 p4 #dfi2 ,casalis1 #8,basutos1' pp4 #bdh-ed2 ,waitz1 #8,anthropologie1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #daa1 #dai2 ,magyar1 #8,reisen in ,sd-,afrika1' pp4 #ba1 #cce 7,congo72 ,cavazzi1 #8,congo1' lib4 i4 ,footnote #beb3 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr4' pp4 #bag1 #chh-ic4 ,see ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aha1 #aid4 ,footnote #bec3 ,bailey in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cja4 ,compare ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #aec4 ,footnote #bed3 ,buchanan1 #8,mysore1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 viii4 pp4 #fgd-g4 ,see ,macpherson1 #8,india1' p4 #ie 7,khonds72 ,hunter1 #8,rural ,bengal1' p4 #ahc 7,santals74 ,footnote #bee3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #abb2 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #ij4 ,see ,palgrave1 #8,arabia1' vol4 i4 p4 #cgc4 ,footnote #bef3 ,siebold1 #8,nippon1' vol4 i4 p4 #c1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ea2 ,kempfer1 #8,japan1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 vii4 pp4 #fgb1 #fhj1 #gbc1 #gee4 ,footnote #beg3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 iii4 p4 #bej4 ,footnote #beh3 ,plath1 #8,religion der alten ,chinesen1' part i4 p4 #fe1 part ii4 p4 #hi2 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 i4 pp4 vi4 viii42 vol4 ii4 p4 #cgc2 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' ,new ,ser4 vol4 ii4 p4 #cfc2 ,legge1 #8,confucius1' p4 #ib4 ,footnote #bei3 ,manu1 book iii4 ,footnote #bfj3 ,details in ,pauly1 #8,real-,encyclop4' s4v4 #8inferi'2 ,smith's #8,dic4 of ,gr4 and ,rom4 ,biog4 and ,myth4'2 ,meiners1 ,hartung1 c4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,middleton1 #8,letter from ,rome'2 ,murray's #8,handbook of ,rome4' ,footnote #bfb3 ,l4 ,f4 ,alfred ,maury1 #8,magie1 c41' p4 #bdi2 #8,acta ,sanctorum1' #bg ,sep42 ,gregor4 ,turon4 ,de ,gloria ,martyr1 i4 #ih4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,j4 ,r4 ,beste1 #8,nowadays at ,home and ,abroad1' ,london1 #ahgj1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dd2 #8,a ,new ,miracle at ,rome2 being an ,account of a ,miraculous ,cure1 c41 c41' ,london 7,washbourne71 #ahgj4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,oldfield in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #bce2 see ,grey1 #8,australia1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ccg4 ,bonwick1 #8,tasmanians1' pp4 #ahc1 #aie4 ,footnote #bfe3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 i4 p4 #cjg4 ,footnote #bff3 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #bjd2 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #gc1 see p4 #abe 7,battas72 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' p4 #cgj4 ,see also ,mason1 #8,karens1' l4 c4 p4 #bja4 ,footnote #bfg3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 iii4 p4 #aaj1 vol4 iv4 p4 #aid2 ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 pp4 #ga1 #hg2 ,beeckman in ,pinkerton1 vol4 ix4 p4 #acc2 ,meiners1 vol4 i4 p4 #bgh4 ,see also ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 i4 p4 #aei4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,shortland1 #8,trads4 of ,n4 ,z4' pp4 #ig1 #aad1 #abe2 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' pp4 #dh1 #acg4 ,footnote #bfi3 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #bcf4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 pp4 #cfc1 #cie1 c41 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aic1 #bgd2 ,cook1 #8#crd ,voy4' vol4 iii4 p4 #aca4 ,details of the superhuman character ascribed to weak or deranged persons among other races1 in ,schoolcraft1 part iv4 p4 #di2 ,martius1 vol4 i4 p4 #fcc2 ,meiners1 vol4 i4 p4 #cbc2 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aha4 ,footnote #bga3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part i4 p4 #bej1 part ii4 pp4 #agi1 #aii1 part iii4 p4 #dih2 ,m4 ,eastman1 #8,dahcotah1' pp4 xxiii4 #cd1 #da1 #gb4 ,see also ,gregg1 #8,commerce of ,prairies1' vol4 ii4 p4 #big 7,comanches72 ,morgan1 #8,iroquois1' p4 #afc2 ,sproat1 p4 #agd 7,ahts72 ,egede1 #8,greenland1' p4 #ahf2 ,cranz1 p4 #bfi4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,roman ,pane1 xix4 in #8,life of ,colon'2 in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xii4 p4 #hg4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,d',orbigny1 #8,l',homme ,amricain1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #gc1 #afh2 ,musters1 #8,patagonians1' p4 #ahj4 ,see also ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 pp4 #bjg1 #bca 7,caribs72 ,spix and ,martius1 #8,brasilien1' vol4 i4 p4 #gj2 ,martius1 #8,ethnog4 ,amer4' vol4 i4 p4 #fdf 7,marcusis74 ,footnote #bgd3 ,casalis1 #8,basutos1' p4 #bdg2 ,callaway1 #8,rel4 of ,amazulu1' p4 #adg1 c42 ,magyar1 #8,sd-,afrika1' p4 #ba1 c42 ,burton1 #8,central ,afr4' vol4 ii4 pp4 #cbj1 #ced2 ,steere in #8,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4' vol4 i4 #ahga1 p4 cxlvii4 ,footnote #bge3 ,steinhauser1 #8,religion des ,negers1' in #8,magaz4 der ,evang4 ,missions und ,bibel-,gesellschaften1' ,basel1 #ahef1 ,no4 #b1 p4 #aci4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr4' pp4 #bag1 #chh4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,hodgson1 #8,abor4 of ,india1' pp4 #afc1 #agj4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,backhouse1 #8,australia1' p4 #ajc4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,mason1 #8,burmah1' p4 #ajg1 c4 ,cross1 l4c4 p4 #cje4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,callaway1 #8,religion of ,amazulu1' pp4 #ahc1 c41 #bei1 c4 ,footnote #bha3 ,falkner1 #8,patagonia1' p4 #aaf4 ,see also ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' p4 #dah 7,caribs74 ,footnote #bhb3 ,georgi1 #8,reise im ,russ4 ,reich1' vol4 i4 p4 #bhj2 ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dhh4 ,footnote #bhc3 ,falkner1 l4c4 ,footnote #bhd3 ,caldwell1 #8,dravidian ,languages1' ,app42 ,latham1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dfi4 ,footnote #bhe3 ,hodgson1 #8,abor4 of ,india1' p4 #agb4 ,footnote #bhf3 ,steller1 #8,kamtschatka1' p4 #bgh4 ,footnote #bhg3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cbh1 see vol4 iii4 p4 #bja1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #aci4 ,see also ,rmer1 #8,guinea1' p4 #ei4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 pp4 #ceb1 #cgc2 ,moerenhout1 #8,voyage1' vol4 i4 p4 #dgi2 ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,islands1' vol4 i4 p4 #aje2 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #cgc4 ,footnote #bhi3 ,dos ,santos1 #8,ethiopia1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #fhf4 ,footnote #bij3 ,rmer1 #8,guinea1' p4 #eg4 ,see also ,steinhauser1 l4c4 pp4 #acb1 #aci2 ,j4 ,b4 ,schlegel1 #8,ewe-,sprache1' p4 xvi4 ,footnote #bia3 ,details from ,tatar races in ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' pp4 #afd1 #agc1 c42 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #ij2 from ,abyssinia in ,parkyns1 #8,life in ,a41' ch4 xxxiii4 ,footnote #bib3 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 i4 p4 #adc1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aaj1 #cbj4 ,footnote #bic3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #ajc1 #aeb1 #cha1 #dah1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bdg1 c4 ,see also ,bowring1 #8,siam1' vol4 i4 p4 #aci2 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 iv4 p4 #ejg1 vol4 vi4 p4 #fad2 ,turpin1 in ,pinkerton1 vol4 ix4 p4 #gfa2 ,kempfer1 #8,japan1' ibid4 vol4 vii4 pp4 #gja1 #gcj1 c4 ,footnote #bid3 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 i4 p4 #aee1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ahc2 ,roberts1 #8,oriental ,illustrations of the ,scriptures1' p4 #ebi2 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' pp4 #afd1 #ahd-g4 ,sanskrit paicha-graha demon-seizure1 possession4 ,ancient evidence in ,pictet1 #8,origines ,indo-,europ4' part ii4 ch4 v4 ,footnote #bie3 ,homer4 ,odyss4 v4 #cif1 x4 #fd2 ,plat4 ,phdr4 ,tim4 c42 ,pausan4 iv4 #bg1 #b2 ,xen4 ,mem4 ,i4 i4 #i2 ,plutarch4 ,vit4 ,alex42 ,de ,orac4 ,def42 ,lucian4 ,philopseudes2 ,petron4 ,arbiter1 ,sat42 c41 c4 ,footnote #bif3 ,joseph4 ,ant4 ,jud4 viii4 #b1 #e4 ,eisenmenger1 #8,entdecktes ,judenthum1' part ii4 p4 #ded4 ,see ,maury1 p4 #bij4 ,footnote #big3 ,matth4 ix4 #cb1 xi4 #ah1 xii4 #bb1 xvii4 #ae2 ,mark1 i4 #bc1 ix4 #ag2 ,luke1 iv4 #cc1 #ci1 vii4 #cc1 viii4 #bg1 ix4 #ci1 xiii4 #aa2 ,john1 x4 #bj2 ,acts1 xvi4 #af1 xix4 #ac2 c4 ,footnote #bih3 ,for general evidence see ,bingham1 #8,antiquities of ,christian ,church1' book iii4 ch4 iv42 ,calmet1 #8,dissertation sur les ,esprits'2 ,maury1 #8,magie1' c42 ,lecky1 #8,hist4 of ,rationalism4' ,among particular passages are ,tertull4 ,apolog4 #bc2 ,de ,spectaculis1 #bf2 ,chrysostom4 ,homil4 xxviii4 in ,matth4 iv42 ,cyril4 ,hierosol4 ,catech4 xvi4 #af2 ,minuc4 ,fel4 ,octavius4 xxi42 ,concil4 ,carthag4 iv42 c41 c4 ,footnote #bii3 ,details in ,cockayne1 #8,leechdoms1 c41 of ,early ,england1' vol4 i4 p4 #cfe1 vol4 ii4 p4 #acg1 #cee2 ,sprenger1 #8,malleus ,maleficarum1' part ii42 ,calmet1 #8,dissertation1' vol4 i4 ch4 xxiv42 ,horst1 #8,zauber-,bibliothek'2 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #eeg1 c42 #8,psychologie1' p4 #aae1 c42 ,voltaire1 #8,questions sur l',encyclopdie1' art41 #8,superstition'2 #8,encyclopdia ,britannica1' #eth ed4 art4 #8,possession4' ,footnote #cjj3 ,see ,maury1 #8,magie1' c41 part ii4 ch4 ii4 ,footnote #cja3 ,a4 ,constans1 #8,rel4 sur une ,epidmie d',hystro-,dmonopathie1 en #ahfa4' #bnd ed4 ,paris1 #ahfc4 ,for descriptions of such outbreaks1 among the ,north ,american ,indians1 see ,le ,jeune in #8,rel4 des ,js4 dans la ,nouvelle ,france1' #afci2 ,brinton1 p4 #bge2 and in ,guinea1 see ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,western ,africa1' p4 #bag4 ,footnote #cjb3 ,gaume1 #8,l',eau ,bnite au ,dix-,neuvime ,sicle1' #crd ed4 ,paris1 #ahff1 p4 #cec4 ,footnote #cjc3 ,west1 in #8,spiritual ,telegraph1' cited by ,bastian4 ,footnote #cjd3 7,c4 de ,brosses47 #8,du culte des dieux ftiches ou ,parallle de l'ancienne ,religion de l',egypte avec la religion actuelle de ,nigritie4' #agfj4 7,de ,brosses supposed the word ftiche connected with chose fe1 fatum47 ,footnote #cje3 ,grey1 #8,australia1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ccg2 ,eyre1 #8,australia1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cfb2 ,oldfield in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #bce1 c42 ,g4 ,f4 ,moore1 #8,vocab4 of ,s4 ,w4 ,austr4' pp4 #ah1 #ih1 #ajc4 ,see ,bonwick1 #8,tasmanians1' p4 #aie4 ,footnote #cjf3 ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' pp4 #dai1 #ejh2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 pp4 #agc1 #bjg1 #bag4 ,footnote #cjg3 ,ellis1 #8,madagascar1' vol4 i4 pp4 #bba1 #bcb1 #dbb4 ,footnote #cjh3 ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 p4 #baa1 see #gb4 ,footnote #cji3 ,callaway1 #8,religion of ,amazulu1' p4 #cad4 ,footnote #caj3 ,steinhauser1 l4c4 p4 #ada4 ,see also ,steere1 #8,east ,afr4 ,tribes1' in #8,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 p4 cxlviii4 ,footnote #caa3 ,burton1 #8,central ,africa1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ceb4 ,see #8,sindh1' p4 #agg4 ,footnote #cab3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 iii4 p4 #bge4 ,footnote #cac3 #8,early ,hist4 of ,mankind1' ch4 x4 ,see ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aaf1 c4 ,footnote #cad3 ,plin4 xxx4 #ad1 #bj4 ,cardan1 #8,de ,var4 ,rerum1' cap4 xliii4 ,footnote #cae3 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 i4 p4 #acd1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bdg4 ,footnote #caf3 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 i4 p4 #abb4 ,footnote #cag3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' pp4 #aaah-bc2 ,wuttke1 #8,volksaberglaube1' pp4 #aee-gj2 ,brand1 #8,pop4 ,ant4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cge1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bhf2 ,halliwell1 #8,pop4 ,rhymes1' p4 #bjh2 ,r4 ,hunt1 #8,pop4 ,romances1' #bnd ,series1 p4 #baa2 ,hylten-,cavallius1 #8,wrend och ,wirdarne1' vol4 i4 p4 #agc4 ,it is said1 however1 that rags fastened on trees by ,gypsies1 which passers-by avoid with horror as having diseases thus banned into them1 are only signs left for the information of fellow vagrants2 ,liebich1 #8,die ,zigeuner1' p4 #if4 ,footnote #cah3 ,catlin1 #8,n4 ,a4 ,indians1' vol4 i4 p4 #ij4 ,footnote #cai3 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,africa1' p4 #cid4 ,footnote #cbj3 ,meiners1 #8,gesch4 der ,rel4' vol4 i4 p4 #cje2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #bji4 ,footnote #cba3 ,mason1 ,karens1 l4c4 p4 #bca4 ,footnote #cbb3 ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #gba-c4 ,footnote #cbc3 ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' p4 #dah4 ,see ,martius1 #8,ethnog4 ,amer4' vol4 i4 p4 #dhe 7,yumanas swallow ashes of deceased with liquor1 that he may live again in them74 ,footnote #cbd3 ,hunter1 #8,rural ,bengal1' p4 #baj4 ,see ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #gc2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrel4' pp4 #bji1 #bfb1 #bhi1 #dja1 #dai4 ,footnote #cbe3 ,darwin1 #8,journal1' p4 #deh4 ,footnote #cbf3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cbj4 ,footnote #cbg3 #8,report of ,jubbulpore ,ethnological ,committee1' ,nagpore1 #ahfh1 part i4 p4 #e4 ,footnote #cbh3 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 i4 pp4 #aea1 #bjg1 #bad1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dja2 see ,plath1 #8,religion der alten ,chinesen1' part i4 p4 #ei1 part ii4 p4 #aja4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #ahg2 ,dasent1 #8,norse ,tales1' p4 #fi2 ,lane1 #8,thousand and ,one ,nights1' vol4 iii4 p4 #caf2 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #ajcc4 ,see also ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #bac4 ,eisenmenger1 #8,judenthum1' part ii4 p4 #ci4 ,footnote #ccj3 ,brand1 #8,pop4 ,ant4' vol4 iii4 p4 #gb4 ,footnote #cca3 ,herrera1 #8,hist4 de las ,indias ,occidentales1' ,dec4 i4 ix4 #c4 ,footnote #ccb3 ,lery1 ,brsil1 p4 #bdi2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 pp4 #baj1 #bfb4 ,footnote #ccc3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes'2 ,waitz1 vol4 iii42 ,catlin1 #8,n4 ,a4 ,ind4' vol4 i4 p4 #cf2 ,keating1 #8,narrative1' vol4 i4 p4 #dba2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #gd1 c4 ,see ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #bgd4 ,footnote #ccd3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' pp4 #afb1 #bba1 #bcj2 ,meiners1 vol4 i4 p4 #agj4 ,footnote #cce3 ,bell1 in ,pinkerton1 vol4 vii4 p4 #ceg4 ,footnote #ccf3 ,h4 ,rowley1 #8,universities' ,mission to ,central ,africa1' p4 #bag4 ,footnote #ccg3 ,waitz1 #8,anthropologie1' vol4 ii4 p4 #agd2 ,rmer1 #8,guinea1' p4 #ef1 c42 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,west ,africa1' pp4 #ace1 #baa-f1 #bge1 #cch2 ,burton1 #8,wit and ,wisdom from ,w4 ,afr4' pp4 #agd1 #dee2 ,steinhauser1 l4c4 p4 #acd2 ,bosman1 #8,guinea1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #cig2 ,meiners1 #8,gesch4 der ,relig4' vol4 i4 p4 #agc4 ,see also ,ellis1 #8,madagascar1' vol4 i4 p4 #cif2 ,flacourt1 #8,madag4' p4 #aia4 ,footnote #cch3 ,brand1 #8,popular ,antiquities1' vol4 iii4 p4 #bee1 c4 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #aga4 ,wuttke1 #8,deutsche ,volksaberglaube1' pp4 #ge-ie1 #bbe1 c4 ,st4 ,clair and ,brophy1 #8,bulgaria1' p4 #df4 ,footnote #cci3 ,berkeley1 #8,concerning ,motion1' in #8,works1' vol4 ii4 p4 #hf4 ,footnote #cdj3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part ii4 p4 #aif1 part iii4 p4 #bbi4 ,footnote #cda3 ,herrera1 #8,indias ,occidentales1' dec4 i4 iii4 #c4 ,footnote #cdb3 ,de ,laet1 ,novus ,orbis1 xv4 #b4 ,footnote #cdc3 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 #8,commentarios ,reales1' i4 #i2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 pp4 #bfc1 #caa1 #cga1 #chg2 ,waitz1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ded2 see below1 p4 #age4 ,footnote #cdd3 ,hahn1 #8,gramm4 des ,herer1' s4v4 #8omu-makisina4' ,footnote #cde3 ,kaufmann1 #8,central-,afrika1' 7,white ,nile71 p4 #aca4 ,footnote #cdf3 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #eah1 #ebc4 ,footnote #cdg3 ,zollinger in #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 ii4 p4 #fib4 ,footnote #cdh3 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #ccg4 ,see also ,ellis1 #8,madagascar1' vol4 i4 p4 #cii4 ,footnote #cdi3 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' pp4 #cdg1 #ebf4 ,footnote #cej3 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #bbj2 ,seemann1 #8,viti1' pp4 #ff1 #hi4 ,footnote #cea3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #aic1 c41 #bjd1 c42 #8,voyages au ,nord1' vol4 viii4 pp4 #ajc1 #daj2 ,klemm1 #8,c4 ,g4' vol4 iii4 p4 #abj4 ,see also ,steller1 #8,kamtschatka1' pp4 #bfe1 #bgf4 ,footnote #ceb3 ,hodgson1 #8,abor4 of ,india1' p4 #agd4 ,see also ,macrae in #8,as4 ,res4' vol4 vii4 p4 #aif2 ,dalton1 #8,kols1' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vi4 p4 #cc4 ,footnote #cec3 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' pp4 #ajc1 #ceh4 ,footnote #ced3 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #agg4 ,see also ,shortt1 #8,tribes of ,neilgherries1' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vii4 p4 #bha4 ,footnote #cee3 ,elliot in #8,journ4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 #ahfi1 p4 #aae4 ,footnote #cef3 ,buchanan1 #8,mysore1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 vii4 p4 #gci4 ,footnote #ceg3 ,elliot in #8,journ4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 pp4 #if1 #aae1 #abe4 ,lubbock1 #8,origin of ,civilization1' p4 #bbb4 ,forbes ,leslie1 #8,early ,races of ,scotland1' vol4 ii4 p4 #dfb1 c4 ,prof4 ,liebrecht1 in #8,ztschr4 fr ,ethnologie1' vol4 v4 p4 #ajj1 compares the field-protecting ,priapos-hermes of ancient ,italy1 daubed with minium4 ,footnote #ceh3 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #adb1 #ahb1 c41 see #bba4 ,see also ,latham1 #8,descr4 ,eth4' vol4 ii4 p4 #bci4 7,siah-push1 stone offered to the representative of deity47 ,footnote #cei3 ,grote1 #8,hist4 of ,greece1' vol4 iv4 p4 #acb2 ,welcker1 #8,griechische ,gtterlehre1' vol4 i4 p4 #bbj4 ,meiners1 vol4 i4 p4 #aej1 c4 ,details esp4 in ,pausanias2 ,theophrast4 ,charact4 xvi42 ,tacit4 ,hist4 ii4 #c2 ,arnobius1 ,adv4 ,gent42 ,tertullianus2 ,clemens ,alexandr4 ,footnote #cfj3 ,is4 lvii4 #f4 ,the first line1 #8behhalkey-nahhal hhlkech1' turns on the pun on hhlk smooth 7stone71 and also lot or portion2 a double sense probably connected with the use of smooth pebbles for casting lots4 ,footnote #cfa3 ,sprenger1 #8,mohammad1' vol4 ii4 p4 #g1 c4 ,burton1 #8,el ,medinah1' c41 vol4 ii4 p4 #aeg4 ,footnote #cfb3 ,euseb4 ,prp4 ,evang4 i4 #aj4 ,deut4 xii4 #c2 ,micah v4 #ac1 c4 ,movers1 #8,phnizier1' vol4 i4 pp4 #aje1 #efi1 and see index1 #8,sule1' c4 ,see ,de ,brosses1 #8,dieux ,ftiches1' p4 #ace 7considers btyl beth-el1 c474 ,footnote #cfc3 ,for references see ,ducange s4v4 #8petra'2 ,leslie1 #8,early ,races of ,scotland1' vol4 i4 p4 #bef4 ,footnote #cfd3 ,nilsson1 #8,primitive ,inhabitants of ,scandinavia1' p4 #bda4 ,see also ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fga 7speaking stones in ,norway1 c474 ,footnote #cfe3 ,earl of ,roden1 #8,progress of ,reformation in ,ireland1' ,london1 #ahea1 p4 #ea4 ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,tennent in #8,notes and ,queries1' ,feb4 #g1 #aheb4 ,see ,borlase1 #8,antiquities of ,cornwall1' ,oxford1 #aged1 book iii4 ch4 #b4 ,footnote #cff3 #8,early ,hist4 of ,mankind1' chap4 vi4 ,footnote #cfg3 ,for general collections of evidence1 see especially ,meiners1 #8,geschichte der ,religionen1' vol4 i4 books i4 and v42 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii42 ,waitz1 #8,anthropologie2' ,de ,brosses1 #8,dieux ,ftiches1' c4 ,particular details in ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr4' p4 #cic2 ,ellis1 #8,madagascar1' vol4 i4 p4 #cie2 ,castrn1 #8,finnische ,mythologie1' p4 #aic1 c42 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 ii42 ,kppen1 #8,rel4 des ,buddha1' vol4 i4 p4 #dic1 c42 ,grote1 #8,hist1 of ,greece4' ,footnote #cfh3 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrelig4' p4 #bfc2 ,meiners1 vol4 i4 p4 #afc4 ,footnote #cfi3 ,loskiel1 #8,ind4 of ,n4 ,a4' vol4 i4 p4 #ci2 ,smith1 #8,virginia1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xiii4 p4 #ad2 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bjc2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 pp4 #ie-h1 #abh4 ,footnote #cgj3 ,fernando ,colombo1 #8,vita del ,amm4 ,cristoforo ,colombo1' ,venice1 #aega1 p4 #abg1 c42 and #8,life of ,colon1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xii4 p4 #hd4 ,herrera1 dec4 i4 iii4 #c4 ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' pp4 #dba-d4 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #chd2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 pp4 #aga-f1 #ahb1 #baj1 #bcb4 ,footnote #cga3 ,prescott1 #8,peru1' vol4 i4 pp4 #ga1 #hi2 ,waitz1 vol4 iv4 p4 #deh2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 pp4 #cbb1 #cga4 ,footnote #cgb3 ,brasseur1 #8,mexique1' vol4 iii4 p4 #dhf2 ,waitz1 vol4 iv4 p4 #adh2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #fdb4 ,footnote #cgc3 ,shortland1 #8,trads4 of ,n4 ,z4' c41 p4 #hc2 ,taylor1 pp4 #aga1 #ahc1 #bab4 ,footnote #cgd3 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 #8,obs4 during ,voyage1' ,london1 #aggh1 p4 #ecd1 c42 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #bha1 c41 #cbc1 c4 ,see also ,earl1 #8,papuans1' p4 #hd2 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #gh 7,nias74 ,footnote #cge3 ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 p4 #aih4 ,footnote #cgf3 ,hutchinson in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 p4 #ccf2 see ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #agb4 ,footnote #cgg3 ,steinhauser1 in #8,magaz4 der ,evang4 ,missionen1' ,basel1 #ahef1 ,no4 #b1 p4 #aca4 ,footnote #cgh3 ,schlegel1 #8,ewe-,sprache1' p4 xvi4 ,footnote #cgi3 ,waitz1 #8,anthropologie1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ahc2 ,denham1 #8,travels1' vol4 i4 p4 #aac2 ,rmer1 #8,guinea'2 ,bosman1 #8,guinea1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 ,see also ,livingstone1 #8,s4 ,afr4' p4 #bhb 7,balonda74 ,footnote #chj3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #aic1 c42 ,bastian1 #8,psych4' p4 #cd1 #bjh1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 iii4 pp4 #bic1 #dhf4 ,see #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cej 7,chinese74 ,footnote #cha3 ,max ,mller1 #8,chips1' vol4 i4 p4 xvii42 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 i4 p4 #aih1 vol4 ii4 pp4 xxxv1 #afd1 #bcd1 #bib1 #dhe4 ,footnote #chb3 ,arnobius1 ,adversus ,gentes1 vi4 #ag-ai4 ,footnote #chc3 ,augustinus #8,de ,civ4 ,dei1' viii4 #bc3 #8at ille visibilia et contrectabilia simulacra1 velut corpora deorum esse asserit2 inesse autem his quosdam spiritus invitatos1 c4444 ,hos ergo spiritus invisibiles per artem quandam visibilibus rebus corporalis materi copulare1 ut sint quasi animata corpora1 illis spiritibus dicata et subdita simulacra1 c4' ,see also ,tertullianus ,de ,spectaculis1 xii43 #8,in mortuorum autem idolis dmonia consistunt1 c4' ,footnote #chd3 ,marcus ,minucius ,felix1 ,octavius1 cap4 xxvii43 #8,isti igitur impuri spiritus1 dmones1 ut ostensum a magis1 a philosophis1 et a ,platone sub statuis et imaginibus consecrati delitescunt1 c4' ,footnote #che3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 ii4 p4 #dee4 ,see ,spiegel1 #8,avesta1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ed4 ,footnote #chf3 ,porphyr4 de ,vita ,pythagor4 ,oken1 #8,lehrbuch der ,naturphilosophie1' #bgec4 ,footnote #chg3 ,suidas1 s4v4 2 ,isidor4 ,gloss4 s4v4 #8prcantatores'2 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #egh4 ,maury1 #8,magie1' c4 p4 #bfi4 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aae4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,animism 7continued74 ,spirits regarded as personal causes of ,phenomena of the ,world--,pervading ,spirits as good and evil ,demons affecting man--,spirits manifest in ,dreams and ,visions3 ,nightmares2 ,incubi and ,succubi2 ,vampires2 ,visionary ,demons--,demons of darkness repelled by fire--,demons otherwise manifest3 seen by animals2 detected by footprints--,spirits conceived and treated as material--,guardian and ,familiar ,spirits--,nature-,spirits2 historical course of the doctrine--,spirits of ,volcanoes1 ,whirlpools1 ,rocks--,water-,worship3 ,spirits of ,wells1 ,streams1 ,lakes1 c4--,tree-,worship3 ,spirits embodied in or inhabiting ,trees2 ,spirits of ,groves and ,forests--,animal-,worship3 ,animals worshipped1 directly1 or as incarnations or representatives of ,deities2 ,totem-,worship2 ,serpent-,worship--,species-,deities2 their relation to ,archetypal ,ideas4 ,we have now to enter on the final topic of the investigation of ,animism1 by completing the classified survey of spiritual beings in general1 from the myriad souls1 elves1 fairies1 genii1 conceived as filling their multifarious offices in man's life and the world's1 up to the deities who reign1 few and mighty1 over the spiritual hierarchy4 ,in spite of endless diversity of detail1 the general principles of this investigation seem comparatively easy of access to the enquirer1 if he will use the two keys which the foregoing studies supply3 first1 that spiritual beings are modelled by man on his primary conception of his own human soul1 and second1 that their purpose is to explain nature on the primitive childlike theory that it is truly and throughout #8,animated ,nature4' ,if1 as the poet says1 #8,felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas1' then rude tribes of ancient men had within them this source of happiness1 that they could explain to their own content the causes of things4 ,for to them spiritual beings1 elves and gnomes1 ghosts and manes1 demons and deities1 were the living personal causes of universal life4 #8,the first men found everything easy1 the mysteries of nature were not so hidden from them as from us1' said ,jacob ,bhme the mystic4 ,true1 we may well answer1 if these primitive men believed in that animistic philosophy of nature which even now survives in the savage mind4 ,they could ascribe to kind or hostile spirits all good and evil of their own lives1 and all striking operations of nature2 they lived in familiar intercourse with the living and powerful souls of their dead ancestors1 with the spirits of the stream and grove1 plain and mountain1 they knew well the living mighty ,sun pouring his beams of light and heat upon them1 the living mighty ,sea dashing her fierce billows on the shore1 the great personal ,heaven and ,earth protecting and producing all things4 ,for as the human body was held to live and act by virtue of its own inhabiting spirit-soul1 so the operations of the world seemed to be carried on by the influence of other spirits4 ,and thus ,animism1 starting as a philosophy of human life1 extended and expanded itself till it became a philosophy of nature at large4 ,to the minds of the lower races it seems that all nature is possessed1 pervaded1 crowded1 with spiritual beings4 ,in seeking by a few types to give an idea of this conception of pervading ,spirits in its savage and barbaric stage1 it is not indeed possible to draw an absolute line of separation between spirits occupied in affecting for good and ill the life of ,man1 and spirits specially concerned in carrying on the operations of ,nature4 ,in fact these two classes of spiritual beings blend into one another as inextricably as do the original animistic doctrines they are based on4 ,as1 however1 the spirits considered directly to affect the life and fortune of ,man lie closest to the centre of the animistic scheme1 it is well to give them precedence4 ,the description and function of these beings extend upwards from among the rudest human tribes4 ,milligan writes of the ,tasmanians3 #8,they were polytheists2 that is1 they believed in guardian angels or spirits1 and in a plurality of powerful but generally evil-disposed beings1 inhabiting crevices and caverns of rocky mountains1 and making temporary abode in hollow trees and solitary valleys2 of these a few were supposed to be of great power1 while to the majority were imputed much of the nature and attributes of the goblins and elves of our native land4'#chh ,oldfield writes of the aborigines of ,australia1 #8,the number of supernatural beings1 feared if not loved1 that they acknowledge1 is exceedingly great2 for not only are the heavens peopled with such1 but the whole face of the country swarms with them2 every thicket1 most watering-places1 and all rocky places abound with evil spirits4 ,in like manner1 every natural phenomenon is believed to be the work of demons1 none of which seem of a benign nature1 one and all apparently striving to do all imaginable mischief to the poor black fellow4'#chi ,it must be indeed an unhappy race among whom such a demonology could shape itself1 and it is a relief to find that other people of low culture1 while recognizing the same spiritual world swarming about them1 do not hold its main attribute to be spite against themselves4 ,among the ,algonquin ,indians of ,north ,america1 ,schoolcraft finds the very groundwork of their religion in the belief #8that the whole visible and invisible creation is animated with various orders of malignant or benign spirits1 who preside over the daily affairs and over the final destinies of men4'#cij ,among the ,khonds of ,orissa1 ,macpherson describes the greater gods and tribal manes1 and below these the order of minor and local deities3 #8,they are the tutelary gods of every spot on earth1 having power over the functions of nature which operate there1 and over everything relating to human life in it4 ,their number is unlimited4 ,they fill all nature1 in which no power or object1 from the sea to the clods of the field1 is without its deity4 ,they are the guardians of hills1 groves1 streams1 fountains1 paths1 and hamlets1 and are cognizant of every human action1 want1 and interest in the locality1 where they preside4'#cia ,describing the animistic mythology of the ,turanian tribes of ,asia and ,europe1 ,castrn has said that every land1 mountain1 rock1 river1 brook1 spring1 tree1 or whatsoever it may be1 has a spirit for an inhabitant2 the spirits of the trees and stones1 of the lakes and brooks1 hear with pleasure the wild man's pious prayers and accept his offerings4#cib ,such are the conceptions of the ,guinea negro1 who finds the abodes of his good and evil spirits in great rocks1 hollow trees1 mountains1 deep rivers1 dense groves1 echoing caverns1 and who passing silently by these sacred places leaves some offering1 if it be but a leaf or a shell picked up on the beach4#cic ,such are examples which not unfairly picture the belief of the lower races in a world of spirits on earth1 and such descriptions apply to the state of men's minds along the course of civilization4 ,the doctrine of ancient philosophers such as ,philo#cid and ,iamblichus1#cie of spiritual beings swarming through the atmosphere we breathe1 was carried on and developed in special directions in the discussions concerning the nature and functions of the world-pervading host of angels and devils1 in the writings of the early ,christian ,fathers4#cif ,theologians of modern centuries have for the most part seen reason to reduce within comparatively narrow limits the action ascribed to external spiritual beings on mankind2 yet there are some who retain to the full the angelology and demonology of ,origen and ,tertullian4 ,these two views may be well contrasted by setting side by side the judgments of two ecclesiastics of the ,roman ,church1 as to the belief in pervading demons prevalent in uncivilized countries4 ,the celebrated commentator1 ,dom ,calmet1 lays down in the most explicit terms the doctrine of angels and demons1 as a matter of dogmatic theology4 ,but he is less inclined to receive unquestioned the narratives of particular manifestations in the medival and modern world4 ,he mentions indeed the testimony of ,louis ,vivez1 that in the newly discovered countries of ,america1 nothing is more common than to see spirits which appear at noon-day1 not only in the country but in towns and villages1 speaking1 commanding1 sometimes even striking men2 and the account by ,olaus ,magnus of the spectres or spirits seen in ,sweden and ,norway1 ,finland and ,lapland1 which do wonderful things1 some even serving men as domestics and driving the cattle out to pasture4 ,but what ,calmet remarks on these stories1 is that the greater ignorance prevails in a country1 the more superstition reigns there4#cig ,it seems that in our own day1 however1 the tendency is to encourage less sceptical views4 ,monsignor ,gaume's book on #8,holy ,water1' which not long since received the special and formal approval of ,pius ,,ix41 appears #8at an epoch when the millions of evil angels which surround us are more enterprising than ever2' and here ,olaus ,magnus' story of the demons infesting ,northern ,europe is not only cited but corroborated4#cih ,on the whole1 the survey of the doctrine of pervading spirits through all the grades of culture is a remarkable display of intellectual continuity4 ,most justly does ,ellis the missionary1 depicting the ,south ,sea ,islanders' world crowded with its innumerable pervading spirits1 point out the closeness of correspondence here between doctrines of the savage and the civilized animist1 expressed as both may be in ,milton's familiar lines3-- #8,millions of spiritual creatures walk the earth1 ,unseen1 both when we wake1 and when we sleep4'#cii ,as with souls1 so with other spirits1 man's most distinct and direct intercourse is had where they become actually present to his senses in dreams and visions4 ,the belief that such phantoms are real and personal spirits1 suggested and maintained as it is by the direct evidence of the senses of sight1 touch1 and hearing1 is naturally an opinion usual in savage philosophy1 and indeed elsewhere1 long and obstinately resisting the attacks of the later scientific doctrine4 ,the demon ,koin strives to throttle the dreaming ,australian2#djj the evil #8na' crouches on the stomach of the ,karen2#dja the ,north ,american ,indian1 gorged with feasting1 is visited by nocturnal spirits2#djb the ,caribs1 subject to hideous dreams1 often woke declaring that the demon ,maboya had beaten them in their sleep1 and they could still feel the pain4#djc ,these demons are the very elves and nightmares that to this day in benighted districts of ,europe ride and throttle the snoring peasant1 and whose names1 not forgotten among the educated1 have only made the transition from belief to jest4#djd ,a not less distinct product of the savage animistic theory of dreams as real visits from personal spiritual beings1 lasted on without a shift or break into the belief of medival ,christendom4 ,this is the doctrine of the incubi and succubi1 those male and female nocturnal demons which consort sexually with men and women4 ,we may set out with their descriptions among the islanders of the ,antilles1 where they are the ghosts of the dead1 vanishing when clutched2#dje in ,new ,zealand1 where ancestral deities #8form attachments with females and pay them repeated visits1' while in the ,samoan ,islands such intercourse of mischievious inferior gods caused #8many supernatural conceptions2'#djf and in ,lapland1 where details of this last extreme class have also been placed on record4#djg ,from these lower grades of culture the idea may be followed onward4 ,formal rites are specified in the ,hindu ,tantra1 which enable a man to obtain a companion-nymph by worshipping her and repeating her name by night in a cemetery4#djh ,augustine1 in an instructive passage1 states the popular notions of the visits of incubi1 vouched for1 he tells us1 by testimony of such quantity and quality that it may seem impudence to deny it2 yet he is careful not to commit himself to a positive belief in such spirits4#dji ,later theologians were less cautious1 and grave argumentation on nocturnal intercourse with incubi and succubi was carried on till1 at the height of medival civilization1 it is found accepted in full belief by ecclesiastics and lawyers4 ,nor is it to be counted as an ugly but harmless superstition1 when for example it is set forth in the ,bull of ,pope ,innocent ,,viii4 in #adhd1 as an accepted accusation against #8many persons of both sexes1 forgetful of their own salvation1 and falling away from the ,catholic faith4' ,the practical outcome of this belief is known to students who have traced the consequence of the ,papal ,bull in the legal manual of the witchcraft tribunals1 drawn up by the three appointed ,inquisitors1 the infamous ,malleus ,maleficarum2 and have followed the results of this again into those dreadful records which relate in their bald matter-of-fact phraseology the confessions of the crime of diabolic intercourse1 wrung from the wretched victims worked on by threat and persuasion in the intervals of the rack1 till enough evidence was accumulated for clear judgment1 and sentence of the stake4#daj ,i need not dwell on the mingled obscenity and horror of these details1 which here only have their bearing on the history of animism4 ,but it will aid the ethnographer to understand the relation of modern to savage philosophy1 if he will read ,richard ,burton's seriously believing account in the #8,anatomy of ,melancholy1' where he concludes with acquiescence in a declaration lately made by ,lipsius1 that on the showing of daily narratives and judicial sentences1 in no age had these lecherous demons appeared in such numbers as in his own time--and this was about ,a4,d4 #afjj4daa ,in connexion with the nightmare and the incubus1 another variety of nocturnal demon requires notice1 the vampire4 ,inasmuch as certain patients are seen becoming day by day1 without apparent cause1 thin1 weak1 and bloodless1 savage animism is called upon to produce a satisfactory explanation1 and does so in the doctrine that there exist certain demons which eat out the souls or hearts or suck the blood of their victims4 ,the ,polynesians said that it was the departed souls 7tii7 which quitted the graves and grave-idols to creep by night into the houses1 and devour the heart and entrails of the sleepers1 and these died4#dab ,the ,karens tell of the #8kephu1' which is a wizard's stomach going forth in the shape of a head and entrails1 to devour the souls of men1 and they die4#dac ,the ,mintira of the ,malay ,peninsula have their #8hantu penyadin2' he is a water-demon1 with a dog's head and an alligator's mouth1 who sucks blood from men's thumbs and great toes1 and they die4#dad ,it is in ,slavonia and ,hungary that the demon blood-suckers have their principal abode1 and to this district belongs their special name of vampire1 ,polish upior1 ,russian upir4 ,there is a whole literature of hideous vampire-stories1 which the student will find elaborately discussed in ,calmet4 ,the shortest way of treating the belief is to refer it directly to the principles of savage animism4 ,we shall see that most of its details fall into their places at once1 and that vampires are not mere creations of groundless fancy1 but causes conceived in spiritual form to account for specific facts of wasting disease4 ,as to their nature and physical action1 there are two principal theories1 but both keep close to the original animistic idea of spiritual beings1 and consider these demons to be human souls4 ,the first theory is that the soul of a living man1 often a sorcerer1 leaves its proper body asleep and goes forth1 perhaps in the visible form of a straw or fluff of down1 slips through keyholes and attacks its sleeping victim4 ,if the sleeper should wake in time to clutch this tiny soul-embodiment1 he may through it have his revenge by maltreating or destroying its bodily owner4 ,some say these #8mury' come by night to men1 sit upon their breasts and suck their blood1 while others think it is only children's blood they suck1 they being to grown people mere nightmares4 ,here we have the actual phenomenon of nightmare1 adapted to a particular purpose4 ,the second theory is that the soul of a dead man goes out from its buried corpse and sucks the blood of living men4 ,the victim becomes thin1 languid1 and bloodless1 falls into a rapid decline and dies4 ,here again is actual experience1 but a new fancy is developed to complete the idea4 ,the corpse thus supplied by its returning soul with blood1 is imagined to remain unnaturally fresh and supple and ruddy2 and accordingly the means of detecting a vampire is to open his grave1 where the reanimated corpse may be found to bleed when cut1 and even to move and shriek4 ,one way to lay a vampire is to stake down the corpse 7as with suicides and with the same intention72 but the more effectual plan is to behead and burn it4 ,this is the substance of the doctrine of vampires4 ,still1 as one order of demons is apt to blend into others1 the vampire-legends are much mixed with other animistic folklore4 ,vampires appear in the character of the poltergeist or knocker1 as causing those disturbances in houses which modern spiritualism refers in like manner to souls of the departed4 ,such was the ghost of a certain surly peasant who came out of his grave in the island of ,mycone in #agjj1 after he had been buried but two days2 he came into the houses1 upset the furniture1 put the lamps out1 and carried on his tricks till the whole population went wild with terror4 ,tournefort happened to be there and was present at the exhumation2 his account is curious evidence of the way an excited mob could persuade themselves1 without the least foundation of fact1 that the body was warm and its blood red4 ,again1 the blood-sucker is very generally described under the ,slavonic names of werewolf 7wilkodlak1 brukolaka1 c472 the descriptions of the two creatures are inextricably mixed up1 and a man whose eyebrows meet1 as if his soul were taking flight like a butterfly1 to enter some other body1 may be marked by this sign either as a werewolf or a vampire4 ,a modern account of vampirism in ,bulgaria well illustrates the nature of spirits as conceived in such beliefs as these4 ,a sorcerer armed with a saint's picture will hunt a vampire into a bottle containing some of the filthy food that the demon loves2 as soon as he is fairly inside he is corked down1 the bottle is thrown into the fire1 and the vampire disappears for ever4#dae ,as to the savage visionary and the phantoms he beholds1 the ,greenlander preparing for the profession of sorcerer may stand as type1 when1 rapt in contemplation in his desert solitude1 emaciated by fasting and disordered by fits1 he sees before him scenes with figures of men and animals1 which he believes to be spirits4 ,thus it is interesting to read the descriptions by ,zulu converts of the dreadful creatures which they see in moments of intense religious exaltation1 the snake with great eyes and very fearful1 the leopard creeping stealthily1 the enemy approaching with his long assagai in his hand--these coming one after another to the place where the man has gone to pray in secret1 and striving to frighten him from his knees4#daf ,thus the visionary temptations of the ,hindu ascetic and the medival saint are happening in our own day1 though their place is now rather in the medical handbook than in the record of miracle4 ,like the disease-demons and the oracle-demons1 these spiritual groups have their origin not in fancy1 but in real phenomena interpreted on animistic principles4 ,in the dark especially1 harmful spirits swarm4 ,round native ,australian encampments1 ,sir ,george ,grey used to see the bush dotted with little moving points of fire2 these were the firesticks carried by the old women sent to look after the young ones1 but who dared not quit the firelight without a brand to protect them from the evil spirits4#dag ,so ,south ,american ,indians would carry brands or torches for fear of evil demons when they ventured into the dark4#dah ,tribes of the ,malay ,peninsula light fires near a mother at childbirth1 to scare away the evil spirits4#dai ,such notions extend to higher levels of civilization4 ,in ,southern ,india1 where for fear of pervading spirits only pressing need will induce a man to go abroad after sundown1 the unlucky wight who has to venture into the dark will carry a fire-brand to keep off the spectral foes4 ,even in broad daylight1 the ,hindu lights lamps to keep off the demons1#dbj a ceremony which is to be noticed again at a ,chinese wedding4#dba ,in ,europe1 the details of the use of fire to drive off demons and witches are minute and explicit4 ,the ancient ,norse colonists in ,iceland carried fire round the lands they intended to occupy1 to expel the evil spirits4 ,such ideas have brought into existence a whole group of ,scandinavian customs1 still remembered in the country1 but dying out in practice4 ,till a child is baptized1 the fire must never be let out1 lest the trolls should be able to steal the infant2 a live coal must be cast after the mother as she goes to be churched1 to prevent the trolls from carrying her off bodily or bewitching her2 a live coal is to be thrown after a troll-wife or witch as she quits a house1 and so forth4#dbb ,into modern times1 the people of the ,hebrides continued to protect the mother and child from evil spirits1 by carrying fire round them4#dbc ,in modern ,bulgaria1 on the ,feast of ,st4 ,demetrius1 lighted candles are placed in the stables and the wood-shed1 to prevent evil spirits from entering into the domestic animals4#dbd ,nor did this ancient idea remain a mere lingering notion of peasant folklore4 ,its adoption by the ,church is obvious in the ceremonial benediction of candles in the ,roman ,ritual3 #8,ut quibuscumque locis accens1 sive posit fuerint1 discedant principes tenebrarum1 et contremiscant1 et fugiant pavidi cum omnibus ministris suis ab habitationibus illis1 c4' ,the metrical translation of ,naogeorgus shows perfectly the retention of primitive animistic ideas in the middle ages3-- #8444 a wondrous force and might ,doth in these candels lie1 which if at any time they light1 ,they sure beleve that neyther storm or tempest dare abide1 ,nor thunder in the skies be heard1 nor any devil's spide1 ,nor fearefull sprightes that walke by night1 nor hurts of frost or haile4'#dbe ,animals stare and startle when we see no cause2 is it that they see spirits invisible to man8 ,thus the ,greenlander says that the seals and wildfowl are scared by spectres1 which no human eye but the sorcerer's can behold2#dbf and thus the ,khonds hold that their flitting ethereal gods1 invisible to man1 are seen by beasts4#dbg ,the thought holds no small place in the folklore of the world4 ,telemachos could not discern ,athene standing near him1 for not to all do the gods visibly appear2 but ,odysseus saw her1 and the dogs1 and they did not bark1 but with low whine slunk across the dwelling to the further side4#dbh ,so in old ,scandinavia1 the dogs could see ,hela the death-goddess move unseen by men2#dbi so ,jew and ,moslem1 hearing the dogs howl1 know that they have seen the ,angel of ,death come on his awful errand2#dcj while the beliefs that animals see spirits1 and that a dog's melancholy howl means death somewhere near1 are still familiar to our own popular superstition4 ,another means by which men may detect the presence of invisible spirits1 is to adopt the thief-catcher's well-known device of strewing ashes4 ,according to the ideas of a certain stage of animism1 a spirit is considered substantial enough to leave a footprint4 ,the following instances relate sometimes to souls1 sometimes to other beings4 ,the ,philippine islanders expected the dead to return on the third day to his dwelling1 wherefore they set a vessel of water for him to wash himself clean from the grave-mould1 and strewed ashes to see footprints4#dca ,a more elaborate rite forms part of the funeral customs of the ,hos of ,north-,east ,india4 ,on the evening of a death1 the near relatives perform the ceremony of calling the dead4 ,boiled rice and a pot of water are placed in an inner room1 and ashes sprinkled from thence to the threshold4 ,two relatives go to the place where the body was burnt1 and walk round it beating ploughshares and chanting a plaintive dirge to call the spirit home2 while two others watch the rice and water to see if they are disturbed1 and look for the spirit-footsteps in the ashes4 ,if a sign appears1 it is received with shivering horror and weeping1 the mourners outside coming in to join4 ,till the survivors are thus satisfied of the spirit's return1 the rite must be repeated4#dcb ,in ,yucatan there is mention of the custom of leaving a child alone at night in a place strewn with ashes2 if the footprint of an animal were found next morning1 this animal was the guardian deity of the child4#dcc ,beside this may be placed the ,aztec ceremony at the second festival of the ,sun-god ,tezcatlipoca1 when they sprinkled maize-flour before his sanctuary1 and his high-priest watched till he beheld the divine footprints1 and then shouted to announce1 #8,our great god is come4'#dcd ,among such rites in the ,old ,world1 the ,talmud contains a salient instance2 there are a great multitude of devils1 it is said2 and he who will be aware of them let him take sifted ashes and strew them by his bed1 and in the early morning he shall see as it were marks of cocks' feet4#dce ,this is an idea that has widely spread in the modern world1 as where in ,german folklore the little #8earth-men' make footprints like a duck's or goose's in the strewn ashes4 ,other marks1 too1 betoken the passage of spirit-visitors2#dcf and as for ghosts1 our own superstition is among the most striking of the series4 ,on ,st4 ,mark's ,eve1 ashes are to be sifted over the hearth1 and the footprints will be seen of any one who is to die within the year2 many a mischievous wight has made a superstitious family miserable by slily coming down stairs and marking the print of some one's shoe4#dcg ,such details as these may justify us in thinking that the lower races are apt to ascribe to spirits in general that kind of ethereal materiality which we have seen they attribute to souls4 ,explicit statements on the subject are scarce till we reach the level of early ,christian theology4 ,the ideas of ,tertullian and ,origen1 as to the thin yet not immaterial substance of angels and demons1 probably represent the conceptions of primitive animism far more clearly than the doctrine which ,calmet lays down with the weight of theological dogma1 that angels1 demons1 and disembodied souls are pure immaterial spirit2 but that when by divine permission spirits appear1 act1 speak1 walk1 eat1 they must produce tangible bodies by either condensing the air1 or substituting other terrestrial solid bodies capable of performing these functions4#dch ,no wonder that men should attack such material beings by material means1 and even sometimes try to rid themselves by a general clearance from the legion of ethereal beings hovering around them4 ,as the ,australians annually drive from their midst the accumulated ghosts of the last year's dead1 so the ,gold ,coast negroes from time to time turn out with clubs and torches to drive the evil spirits from their towns2 rushing about and beating the air with frantic howling1 they drive the demons into the woods1 and then come home and sleep more easily1 and for a while afterwards enjoy better health4#dci ,when a baby was born in a ,kalmuk horde1 the neighbours would rush about crying and brandishing cudgels about the tents1 to drive off the harmful spirits who might hurt mother and child4#ddj ,keeping up a closely allied idea in modern ,europe1 the ,bohemians at ,pentecost1 and the ,tyrolese on ,walpurgisnacht1 hunt the witches1 invisible and imaginary1 out of house and stall4#dda ,closely allied to the doctrine of souls1 and almost rivalling it in the permanence with which it has held its place through all the grades of animism1 is the doctrine of patron1 guardian1 or familiar spirits4 ,these are beings specially attached to individual men1 soul-like in their nature1 and sometimes considered as actually being human souls4 ,these beings have1 like all others of the spiritual world as originally conceived1 their reason and purpose4 ,the special functions which they perform are twofold4 ,first1 while man's own proper soul serves him for the ordinary purposes of life and thought1 there are times when powers and impressions out of the course of the mind's normal action1 and words that seem spoken to him by a voice from without1 messages of mysterious knowledge1 of counsel or warning1 seem to indicate the intervention of as it were a second superior soul1 a familiar demon4 ,and as enthusiasts1 seers1 sorcerers1 are the men whose minds most often show such conditions1 so to these classes more than to others the informing and controlling patron-spirits are attached4 ,second1 while the common expected events of daily life pass unnoticed as in the regular course of things1 such events as seem to fall out with especial reference to an individual1 demand an intervening agent2 and thus the decisions1 discoveries1 and deliverances1 which civilized men variously ascribe to their own judgment1 to luck1 and to special interposition of ,providence1 are accounted for in the lower culture by the action of the patron-spirit or guardian-genius4 ,not to crowd examples from all the districts of animism to which this doctrine belongs1 let us follow it by a few illustrations from the lower grades of savagery upward4 ,among the ,watchandis of ,australia1 it is held that when a warrior slays his first man1 the spirit of the dead enters the slayer's body and becomes his #8woorie' or warning spirit2 taking up its abode near his liver1 it informs him by a scratching or tickling sensation of the approach of danger4#ddb ,in ,tasmania1 ,dr4 ,milligan heard a native ascribe his deliverance from an accident to the preserving care of his deceased father's spirit1 his guardian angel4#ddc ,that the most important act of the ,north ,american ,indian's religion is to obtain his individual patron genius or deity1 is well known4 ,among the ,esquimaux1 the sorcerer qualifies for his profession by getting a #8torngak' or spirit which will henceforth be his familiar demon1 and this spirit may be the soul of a deceased parent4#ddd ,in ,chili1 as to guardian spirits1 it has been remarked that every ,araucanian imagines he has one in his service2 #8,i keep my amchi-malghen 7guardian nymph7 still1' being a common expression when they succeed in any undertaking4#dde ,the ,caribs display the doctrine well in both its general and special forms4 ,on the one hand1 there is a guardian deity for each man1 which accompanies his soul to the next life2 on the other hand1 each sorcerer has his familiar demon1 which he evokes in mysterious darkness by chants and tobacco-smoke2 and when several sorcerers call up their familiars together1 the consequence is apt to be a quarrel among the demons1 and a fight4#ddf ,in ,africa1 the negro has his guardian spirit--how far identified with what ,europeans call soul or conscience1 it may be hard to determine2 but he certainly looks upon it as a being separate from himself1 for he summons it by sorcery1 builds a little fetish-hut for it by the wayside1 rewards and propitiates it by libations of liquor and bits of food4#ddg ,in ,asia1 the ,mongols1 each with his patron genius1#ddh and the ,laos sorcerers who can send their familiar spirits into others' bodies to cause disease1#ddi are examples equally to the purpose4 ,among the ,aryan nations of ,northern ,europe1#dej the old doctrine of man's guardian spirit may be traced1 and in classic ,greece and ,rome it renews with philosophic eloquence and cultured custom the ideas of the ,australian and the ,african4 ,the thought of the spiritual guide and protector of the individual man is happily defined by ,menander1 who calls the attendant genius1 which each man has from the hour of birth1 the good mystagogue 7i4e4 the novice's guide to the mysteries7 of this life4 4 2 ' 4 4 ,the divine warning voice which ,sokrates used to hear1 is a salient example of the mental impressions leading to the belief in guardian spirits4#dea ,in the ,roman world1 the doctrine came to be accepted as a philosophy of human life4 ,each man had his #8genius natalis1' associated with him from birth to death1 influencing his action and his fate1 standing represented by its proper image as a lar among the household gods2 and at weddings and joyous times1 and especially on the anniversary of the birthday when genius and man began their united career1 worship was paid with song and dance to the divine image1 adorned with garlands1 and propitiated with incense and libations of wine4 ,the demon or genius was1 as it were1 the man's companion soul1 a second spiritual ego4 ,the ,egyptian astrologer warned ,antonius to keep far from the young ,octavius1 #8for thy demon1' said he1 #8is in fear of his2' and truly in after years that genius of ,augustus had become an imperial deity1 by whom ,romans swore solemn oaths1 not to be broken4#deb ,the doctrine which could thus personify the character and fate of the individual man1 proved capable of a yet further development4 ,converting into animistic entities the inmost operations of the human mind1 a dualistic philosophy conceived as attached to every mortal a good and an evil genius1 whose efforts through life drew him backward and forward toward virtue and vice1 happiness and misery4 ,it was the kakodaimn of ,brutus which appeared to him by night in his tent3 #8,i am thy evil genius1' it said1 #8we meet again at ,philippi4'#dec ,as we study the shapes which the attendant spirits of the individual man assumed in early and medival ,christendom1 it is plain that the good and evil angels contending for man from birth to death1 the guardian angel watching and protecting him1 the familiar spirit giving occult knowledge or serving with magic art1 continue in principle1 and even in detail1 the philosophy of earlier culture4 ,such beings even take visible form4 ,st4 ,francisca had a familiar angel1 not merely that domestic one that is given as a guardian to every man1 but this was as it were a boy of nine years old1 with a face more splendid than the sun1 clad in a little white tunic2 it was in after years that there came to her a second angel1 with a column of splendour rising to the sky1 and three golden palm-branches in his hands4 ,or such attendant beings1 though invisible1 make their presence evident by their actions1 as in ,calmet's account of that ,cistercian monk whose familiar genius waited on him1 and used to get his chamber ready when he was coming back from the country1 so that people knew when to expect him home4#ded ,there is a pleasant quaintness in ,luther's remark concerning guardian angels1 that a prince must have a greater1 stronger1 wiser angel than a count1 and a count than a common man4#dee ,bishop ,bull1 in one of his vigorous sermons1 thus sums up a learned argument3 #8,i cannot but judge it highly probable1 that every faithful person at least hath his particular good ,genius or ,angel1 appointed by ,god over him1 as the ,guardian and ,guide of his ,life4' ,but he will not insist on the belief1 provided that the general ministry of angels be accepted4#def ,swedenborg will go beyond this4 #8,every man1' he says1 #8is attended by an associate spirit2 for without such an associate1 a man would be incapable of thinking analytically1 rationally1 and spiritually4'#deg ,yet in the modern educated world at large1 this group of beliefs has passed into the stage of survival4 ,the conception of the good and evil genius contending for man through life1 indeed1 perhaps never had much beyond the idealistic meaning which art and poetry still give it4 ,the traveller in ,france may hear in our own day the peasant's salutation1 #8,bonjour vous et votre compagnie6' 7i4e4 your guardian angel74#deh ,but at the birthday festivals of ,english children1 how few are even aware of the historical sequence1 plain as it is1 from the rites of the classic natal genius and the medival natal saint6 ,among us1 the doctrine of guardian angels is to be found in commentaries1 and may be sometimes mentioned in the pulpit2 but the once distant conception of a present guardian spirit1 acting on each individual man and interfering with circumstances on his behalf1 has all but lost its old reality4 ,the familiar demon which gave occult knowledge and did wicked work for the magician1 and sucked blood from miserable hags by witch-teats1 was two centuries ago as real to the popular mind as the alembic or the black cat with which it was associated4 ,now1 it has been cast down to the limbo of unhallowed superstitions4 ,to turn from ,man to ,nature4 ,general mention has been made already of the local spirits which belong to mountain and rock and valley1 to well and stream and lake1 in brief to those natural objects and places which in early ages aroused the savage mind to mythological ideas1 such as modern poets in their altered intellectual atmosphere strive to reproduce4 ,in discussing these imaginary beings1 it is above all things needful to bring our minds into sympathy with the lower philosophy4 ,here we must seek to realize to the utmost the definition of the ,nature-,spirits1 to understand with what distinct and full conviction savage philosophy believes in their reality1 to discern how1 as living causes1 they can fill their places and do their daily work in the natural philosophy of primval man4 ,seeing how the ,iroquois at their festivals could thank the invisible aids or good spirits1 and with them the trees1 shrubs1 and plants1 the springs and streams1 the fire and wind1 the sun1 moon1 and stars--in a word1 every object that ministered to their wants--we may judge what real personality they attached to the myriad spirits which gave animated life to the world around them4#dei ,the ,gold ,coast negro's generic name for a fetish-spirit is #8wong2' these aerial beings dwell in temple-huts and consume sacrifices1 enter into and inspire their priests1 cause health and sickness among men1 and execute the behests of the mighty ,heaven-god4 ,but part or all of them are connected with material objects1 and the negro can say1 #8,in this river1 or tree1 or amulet1 there is a wong4' ,but he more usually says1 #8,this river1 or tree1 or amulet is a wong4' ,thus among the wongs of the land are rivers1 lakes1 and springs1 districts of land1 termite-hills1 trees1 crocodiles1 apes1 snakes1 elephants1 birds4#dfj ,in a word1 his conceptions of animating souls and presiding spirits as efficient causes of all nature are two groups of ideas which we may well find it hard to distinguish1 for the sufficient reason that they are but varying developments of the same fundamental animism4 ,in the doctrine of nature-spirits among nations which have reached a higher grade of culture1 are found at once traces of such primitive thought1 and of its change under new intellectual conditions4 ,knowing the thoughts of rude ,turanian tribes of ,siberia as to pervading spirits of nature1 we are prepared to look for remodelled ideas of the same class among a nation whose religion shows plain traces of evolution from the low ,turanian stage4 ,the archaic system of manes-worship and nature-worship1 which survives as the state religion of ,china1 fully recognizes the worship of the numberless spirits which pervade the universe4 ,the belief in their personality is vouched for by the sacrifices offered to them4 #8,one must sacrifice to the spirits1' says ,confucius1 #8as though they were present at the sacrifice4' ,at the same time1 spirits were conceived as embodied in material objects4 ,confucius says1 again3 #8,the action of the spirits1 how perfect is it6 ,thou perceivest it1 and yet seest it not6 ,incorporated or immembered in things1 they cannot quit them4 ,they cause men1 clean and pure and better clothed1 to bring them sacrifice4 ,many1 many1 are there of them1 as the broad sea1 as though they were above and right and left4' ,here are traces of such a primitive doctrine of personal and embodied nature-spirits as is still at home in the religion of rude ,siberian hordes4 ,but it was natural that ,chinese philosophers should find means of refining into mere ideality these ruder animistic creations4 ,spirit 7shin71 they tell us1 is the fine or tender part in all the ten thousand things2 all that is extraordinary or supernatural is called spirit2 the unsearchable of the male and female principles is called spirit2 he who knows the way of passing away and coming to be1 he knows the working of spirit4#dfa ,the classic ,greeks had inherited from their barbaric ancestors a doctrine of the universe essentially similar to that of the ,north ,american ,indian1 the ,west ,african1 and the ,siberian4 ,we know1 more intimately than the heathen religion of our own land1 the ancient ,greek scheme of nature-spirits impelling and directing by their personal power and will the functions of the universe1 the ancient ,greek religion of nature1 developed by imagination1 adorned by poetry1 and consecrated by faith4 ,history records for our instruction1 how out of the midst of this splendid and honoured creed there were evolved the germs of the new philosophy4 ,led by minuter insight and stricter reason1 thoughtful ,greeks began the piecemeal supersession of the archaic scheme1 and set in movement the transformation of animistic into physical science1 which thence pervaded the whole cultured world4 ,such1 in brief1 is the history of the doctrine of nature-spirits from first to last4 ,let us endeavour1 by classifying some of its principal special groups1 to understand its place in the history of the human intellect4 ,what causes volcanos8 ,the ,australians account for volcanic rocks by the tradition that the sulky underground #8ingna' or demons made great fires and threw up red-hot stones4#dfb ,the ,kamchadals say that just as they themselves warm up their winter-houses1 so the #8kamuli' or mountain-spirits heat up the mountains in which they dwell1 and fling the brands out of the chimney4#dfc ,the ,nicaraguans offered human sacrifices to ,masaya or ,popogatepec 7,smoking-,mountain71 by throwing the bodies into the crater4 ,it seems as though it were a controlling deity1 not the mountain itself1 that they worshipped2 for one reads of the chiefs going to the crater1 whence a hideous old naked woman came out and gave them counsel and oracle2 at the edge were placed earthen vessels of food to please her1 or to appease her when there was a storm or earthquake4#dfd ,thus animism provided a theory of volcanoes1 and so it was likewise with whirlpools and rocks4 ,in the ,vei country in ,west ,africa1 there is a dangerous rock on the ,mafa river1 which is never passed without offering a tribute to the spirit of the flood--a leaf of tobacco1 a handful of rice1 or a drink of rum4#dfe ,an early missionary account of a rock-demon worshipped by the ,huron ,indians will show with what absolute personality savages can conceive such a being4 ,in the hollow of a certain sacred rock1 it is related1 dwells an #8oki' or spirit who can give success to travellers1 wherefore they put tobacco into one of the cracks1 and pray thus3 #8,demon who dwellest in this place1 behold tobacco ,i present to thee2 help us1 keep us from shipwreck1 defend us against our enemies1 and vouchsafe that when we have made a good trade1 we may return safe and sound to our village4' ,father ,marquette relates how1 travelling on a river in the then little known region of ,north ,america1 he was told of a dreadful place to which the canoe was just drawing near1 where dwells a demon waiting to devour such as dare to approach2 this terrific manitu proved on arrival to be some high rocks in the bend of the river1 against which the current runs violently4#dff ,thus the missionary found in living belief among the savage ,indians the very thought which had so long before passed into the classic tale of ,skylla and ,charybdis4 ,in those moments of the civilized man's life when he casts off hard dull science1 and returns to childhood's fancy1 the world-old book of animated nature is open to him anew4 ,then the well-worn thoughts come back fresh to him1 of the stream's life that is so like his own2 once more he can see the rill leap down the hillside like a child1 to wander playing among the flowers2 or can follow it as1 grown to a river1 it rushes through a mountain gorge1 henceforth in sluggish strength to carry heavy burdens across the plain4 ,in all that water does1 the poet's fancy can discern its personality of life4 ,it gives fish to the fisher1 and crops to the husbandman2 it swells in fury and lays waste the land2 it grips the bather with chill and cramp1 and holds with inexorable grasp its drowning victim3#dfg 8,tweed said to ,till1 #8,what gars ye rin sae still8' ,till said to ,tweed1 #8,though ye rin wi' speed1 ,and ,i rin slaw1 ,yet1 where ye drown ae man1 ,i drown twa4'0 ,what ethnography has to teach of that great element of the religion of mankind1 the worship of well and lake1 brook and river1 is simply this--that what is poetry to us was philosophy to early man2 that to his mind water acted not by laws of force1 but by life and will2 that the water-spirits of primval mythology are as souls which cause the water's rush and rest1 its kindness and its cruelty2 that lastly man finds1 in the beings which with such power can work him weal and woe1 deities with a wider influence over his life1 deities to be feared and loved1 to be prayed to and praised and propitiated with sacrificial gifts4 ,in ,australia1 special water-demons infest pools and watering-places4 ,in the native theory of disease and death1 no personage is more prominent than the water-spirit1 which afflicts those who go into unlawful pools or bathe at unlawful times1 the creature which causes women to pine and die1 and whose very presence is death to the beholder1 save to the native doctors1 who may visit the water-spirit's subaqueous abode and return with bleared eyes and wet clothes to tell the wonders of their stay4#dfh ,it would seem that creatures with such attributes come naturally into the category of spiritual beings1 but in such stories as that of the bunyip living in the lakes and rivers and seen floating as big as a calf1 which carries off native women to his retreat below the waters1 there appears that confusion between the spiritual water-demon and the material water-monster1 which runs on into the midst of ,european mythology in such conceptions as that of the water-kelpie and the sea-serpent4#dfi ,america gives cases of other principal animistic ideas concerning water4 ,the water has its own spirits1 writes ,cranz1 among the ,greenlanders1 so when they come to an untried spring1 an angekok or the oldest man must drink first1 to free it from a harmful spirit4#dgj #8,who makes this river flow8' asks the ,algonquin hunter in a medicine-song1 and his answer is1 #8,the spirit1 he makes this river flow4' ,in any great river1 or lake1 or cascade1 there dwell such spirits1 looked upon as mighty manitus4 ,thus ,carver mentions the habit of the ,red ,indians1 when they reached the shores of ,lake ,superior or the banks of the ,mississippi1 or any other great body of water1 to present to the spirit who resides there some kind of offering2 this he saw done by a ,winnebago chief who went with him to the ,falls of ,st4 ,anthony4 ,franklin saw a similar sacrifice made by an ,indian1 whose wife had been afflicted with sickness by the water-spirits1 and who accordingly to appease them tied up in a small bundle a knife and a piece of tobacco and some other trifling articles1 and committed them to the rapids4#dga ,on the river-bank1 the ,peruvians would scoop up a handful of water and drink it1 praying the river-deity to let them cross or to give them fish1 and they threw maize into the stream as a propitiatory offering2 even to this day the ,indians of the ,cordilleras perform the ceremonial sip before they will pass a river on foot or horseback4#dgb ,africa displays well the rites of water-worship4 ,in the ,east1 among the ,wanika1 every spring has its spirit1 to which oblations are made2 in the ,west1 in the ,akra district1 lakes1 ponds1 and rivers received worship as local deities4 ,in the ,south1 among the ,kafirs1 streams are venerated as personal beings1 or the abodes of personal deities1 as when a man crossing a river will ask leave of its spirit1 or having crossed will throw in a stone2 or when the dwellers by a stream will sacrifice a beast to it in time of drought1 or1 warned by illness in the tribe that their river is angry1 will cast into it a few handfuls of millet or the entrails of a slaughtered ox4#dgc ,not less strongly marked are such ideas among the ,tatar races of the ,north4 ,thus the ,ostyaks venerate the river ,ob1 and when fish is scanty will hang a stone about a reindeer's neck and cast it in for a sacrifice4 ,among the ,buraets1 who are professing ,buddhists1 the old worship may still be seen at the picturesque little mountain lake of ,ikeougoun1 where they come to the wooden temple on the shore to offer sacrifices of milk and butter and the fat of the animals which they burn on the altars4 ,so across in ,northern ,europe1 almost every ,esthonian village has its sacred sacrificial spring4 ,the ,esths could at times even see the churl with blue and yellow stockings rise from the holy brook ,whhanda1 no doubt that same spirit of the brook to whom in older days there were sacrificed beasts and little children2 in newer times1 when a ,german landowner dared to build a mill and dishonour the sacred water1 there came bad seasons that lasted year after year1 and the country people burned down the abominable thing4#dgd ,as for the water-worship prevailing among non-,aryan indigenes of ,british ,india1 it seems to reach its climax among the ,bodo and ,dhimal of the ,north-,east1 tribes to whom the local rivers are the local deities1#dge so that men worship according to their water-sheds1 and the map is a pantheon4 ,nor is such reverence strange to ,aryan nations4 ,to the modern ,hindu1 looking as he still does on a river as a living personal being to be adored and sworn by1 the ,ganges is no solitary water deity1 but only the first and most familiar of the long list of sacred streams4#dgf ,turn to the classic world1 and we but find the beliefs and rites of a lower barbaric culture holding their place1 consecrated by venerable antiquity and glorified by new poetry and art4 ,to the great ,olympian assembly in the halls of cloud-compelling ,zeus1 came the ,rivers1 all save ,ocean1 and thither came the nymphs who dwell in lovely groves and at the springs of streams1 and in the grassy meads2 and they sate upon the polished seats3-- #8 1 ' 1 ' ' 1 1 4 ' 1 1 4' ,even against ,hephaistos the ,fire-god1 a ,river-god dared to stand opposed1 deep-eddying ,xanthos1 called of men ,skamandros4 ,he rushed down to overwhelm ,achilles and bury him in sand and slime1 and though ,hephaistos prevailed against him with his flames1 and forced him1 with the fish skurrying hither and thither in his boiling waves and the willows scorched upon his banks1 to rush on no more but stand1 yet at the word of white-armed ,here1 that it was not fit for mortals' sake to handle so roughly an immortal god1 ,hephaistos quenched his furious fire1 and the returning flood sped again along his channel3-- #81 1 2 4 ' ' 4' ,to beings thus conceived in personal divinity1 full worship was given4 ,odysseus invokes the river of ,scheria2 ,skamandros had his priest and ,spercheios his grove2 and sacrifice was done to the rival of ,herakles1 the river-god ,acheloos1 eldest of the three thousand river-children of old ,okeanos4#dgg ,through the ages of the classic world1 the river-gods and the water-nymphs held their places1 till within the bounds of ,christendom they came to be classed with ideal beings like them in the mythology of the northern nations1 the kindly sprites to whom offerings were given at springs and lakes1 and the treacherous nixes who entice men to a watery death4 ,in times of transition1 the new ,christian authorities made protest against the old worship1 passing laws to forbid adoration and sacrifice to fountains--as when ,duke ,bretislav forbade the still half-pagan country folk of ,bohemia to offer libations and sacrifice victims at springs1#dgh and in ,england ,ecgbert's ,poenitentiale proscribed the like rites1 #8if any man vow or bring his offerings to any well1' #8if one hold his vigils at any well4'#dgi ,but the old veneration was too strong to be put down1 and with a varnish of ,christianity and sometimes the substitution of a saint's name1 water-worship has held its own to our day4 ,the ,bohemians will go to pray on the river-bank where a man has been drowned1 and there they will cast in an offering1 a loaf of new bread and a pair of wax-candles4 ,on ,christmas ,eve they will put a spoonful of each dish on a plate1 and after supper throw the food into the well1 with an appointed formula1 somewhat thus3-- #8,house-father gives thee greeting1 ,thee by me entreating3 ,springlet1 share our feast of ,yule1 ,but give us water to the full2 ,when the land is plagued with drought1 ,drive it with thy well-spring out4'#dhj ,it well shows the unchanged survival of savage thought in modern peasants' minds1 to find still in ,slavonic lands the very same fear of drinking a harmful spirit in the water1 that has been noticed among the ,esquimaux4 ,it is a sin for a ,bulgarian not to throw some water out of every bucket brought from the fountain2 some elemental spirit might be floating on the surface1 and if not thrown out1 might take up his abode in the house1 or enter into the body of some one drinking from the vessel4#dha ,elsewhere in ,europe1 the list of still existing water-rites may be extended4 ,the ancient lake-offerings of the ,south of ,france seem not yet forgotten in ,la ,lozre1 the ,bretons venerate as of old their sacred springs1 and ,scotland and ,ireland can show in parish after parish the sites and even the actual survivals of such observance at the holy wells4 ,perhaps ,welshmen no longer offer cocks and hens to ,st4 ,tecla at her sacred well and church of ,llandegla1 but ,cornish folk still drop into the old holy-wells offerings of pins1 nails1 and rags1 expecting from their waters cure for disease1 and omens from their bubbles as to health and marriage4#dhb ,the spirits of the tree and grove no less deserve our study for their illustrations of man's primitive animistic theory of nature4 ,this is remarkably displayed in that stage of thought where the individual tree is regarded as a conscious personal being1 and as such receives adoration and sacrifice4 ,whether such a tree is looked on as inhabited1 like a man1 by its own proper life or soul1 or as possessed1 like a fetish1 by some other spirit which has entered it and uses it for a body1 is often hard to determine4 ,shelley's lines well express a doubting conception familiar to old barbaric thought-- #8,whether the sensitive plant1 or that ,which within its boughs like a spirit sat ,ere its outward form had known decay1 ,now felt this change1 ,i cannot say4' ,but this vagueness is yet again a proof of the principle which ,i have confidently put forward here1 that the conceptions of the inherent soul and of the embodied spirit are but modifications of one and the same deep-lying animistic thought4 ,the ,mintira of the ,malay ,peninsula believe in #8hantu kayu1' i4e4 #8tree-spirits1' or #8tree-demons1' which frequent every species of tree1 and afflict men with diseases2 some trees are noted for the malignity of their demons4#dhc ,among the ,dayaks of ,borneo1 certain trees possessed by spirits must not be cut down2 if a missionary ventured to fell one1 any death that happened afterwards would naturally be set down to this crime4#dhd ,the belief of certain ,malays of ,sumatra is expressly stated1 that certain venerable trees are the residence1 or rather the material frame1 of spirits of the woods4#dhe ,in the ,tonga ,islands1 we hear of natives laying offerings at the foot of particular trees1 with the idea of their being inhabited by spirits4#dhf ,so in ,america1 the ,ojibwa medicine-man has heard the tree utter its complaint when wantonly cut down4#dhg ,a curious and suggestive description bearing on this point is given in ,friar ,roman ,pane's account of the religion of the ,antilles islanders1 drawn up by order of ,columbus4 ,certain trees1 he declares1 were believed to send for sorcerers1 to whom they gave orders how to shape their trunks into idols1 and these #8cemi' being then installed in temple-huts1 received prayer and inspired their priests with oracles4#dhh ,africa shows as well-defined examples4 ,the negro woodman cuts down certain trees in fear of the anger of their inhabiting demons1 but he finds his way out of the difficulty by a sacrifice to his own good genius1 or1 when he is giving the first cuts to the great asorin-tree1 and its indwelling spirit comes out to chase him1 he cunningly drops palm-oil on the ground1 and makes his escape while the spirit is licking it up4#dhi ,a negro was once worshipping a tree with an offering of food1 when some one pointed out to him that the tree did not eat2 the negro answered1 #8,o the tree is not fetish1 the fetish is a spirit and invisible1 but he has descended into this tree4 ,certainly he cannot devour our bodily food1 but he enjoys its spiritual part and leaves behind the bodily which we see4'#dij ,tree-worship is largely prevalent in ,africa1 and much of it may be of this fully animistic kind2 as where in ,whidah ,bosman says that #8the trees1 which are the gods of the second rank of this country1 are only prayed to and presented with offerings in time of sickness1 more especially fevers1 in order to restore the patients to health2'#dia or where in ,abyssinia the ,gallas made pilgrimage from all quarters to their sacred tree ,wodanabe on the banks of the ,hawash1 worshipping it and praying to it for riches1 health1 life1 and every blessing4#dib ,the position of tree-worship in ,southern ,asia in relation to ,buddhism is of particular interest4 ,to this day there are districts of this region1 ,buddhist or under strong ,buddhist influence1 where tree-worship is still displayed with absolute clearness of theory and practice4 ,here in legend a dryad is a being capable of marriage with a human hero1 while in actual fact a tree-deity is considered human enough to be pleased with dolls set up to swing in the branches4 ,the ,talein of ,burmah1 before they cut down a tree1 offer prayers to its #8kaluk' 7i4q41 #8kelah'71 its inhabiting spirit or soul4 ,the ,siamese offer cakes and rice to the takhien-tree before they fell it1 and believe the inhabiting nymphs or mothers of trees to pass into guardian-spirits of the boats built of their wood1 so that they actually go on offering sacrifice to them in this their new condition4#dic ,these people have indeed little to learn from any other race1 however savage1 of the principles of the lower animism4 ,the question now arises1 did such tree-worship belong to the local religions among which ,buddhism established itself8 ,there is strong evidence that this was the case4 ,philosophic ,buddhism1 as known to us by its theological books1 does not include trees among sentient beings possessing mind1 but it goes so far as to acknowledge the existence of the #8dewa' or genius of a tree4 ,buddha1 it is related1 told a story of a tree crying out to the brahman carpenter who was going to cut it down1 #8,i have a word to say1 hear my word6' but then the teacher goes on to explain that it was not really the tree that spoke1 but a dewa dwelling in it4 ,buddha himself was a tree-genius forty-three times in the course of his transmigrations4 ,legend says that during one such existence1 a certain brahman used to pray for protection to the tree which ,buddha was attached to2 but the transformed teacher reproved the tree-worshipper for thus addressing himself to a senseless thing which hears and knows nothing4#did ,as for the famous ,bo tree1 its miraculous glories are not confined to the ancient ,buddhist annals2 for its surviving descendant1 grown from the branch of the parent tree sent by ,king ,asoka from ,india to ,ceylon in the #crd century ,b4,c41 to this day receives the worship of the pilgrims who come by thousands to do it honour1 and offer prayer before it4 ,beyond these hints and relics of the old worship1 however1 ,mr4 ,fergusson's recent investigations1 published in his #8,tree and ,serpent ,worship1' have brought to light an ancient state of things which the orthodox ,buddhist literature gives little idea of4 ,it appears from the sculptures of the ,sanchi tope in ,central ,india1 that in the ,buddhism of about the #ast century ,a4,d41 sacred trees had no small place as objects of authorized worship4 ,it is especially notable that the representatives of indigenous race and religion in ,india1 the ,nagas1 characterized by their tutelary snakes issuing from their backs between their shoulders and curving over their heads1 and other tribes actually drawn as human apes1 are seen adoring the divine tree in the midst of unquestionable ,buddhist surroundings4#die ,tree-worship1 even now well marked among the indigenous tribes of ,india1 was obviously not abolished on the ,buddhist conversion4 ,the new philosophic religion seems to have amalgamated1 as new religions ever do1 with older native thoughts and rites4 ,and it is quite consistent with the habits of the ,buddhist theologians and hagiologists1 that when tree-worship was suppressed1 they should have slurred over the fact of its former prevalence1 and should even have used the recollection of it as a gibe against the hostile ,brahmans4 ,conceptions like those of the lower races in character1 and rivalling them in vivacity1 belong to the mythology of ,greece and ,rome4 ,the classic thought of the tree inhabited by a deity and uttering oracles1 is like that of other regions4 ,thus the sacred palm of ,negra in ,yemen1 whose demon was propitiated by prayer and sacrifice to give oracular response1#dif or the tall oaks inhabited by the gods1 where old ,slavonic people used to ask questions and hear the answers1#dig have their analogue in the prophetic oak of ,dodona1 wherein dwelt the deity1 #8 ' 4'#dih ,the ,homeric hymn to ,aphrodite tells of the tree-nymphs1 long-lived yet not immortal--they grow with their high-topped leafy pines and oaks upon the mountains1 but when the lot of death draws nigh1 and the lovely trees are sapless1 and the bark rots away and the branches fall1 then their spirits depart from the light of the sun3-- #8 1 ' ' 1 ' 4 ' 4 ' ' 1 1 1 ' 1 1 ' 1 ' ' 1 ' 4'#dii ,the hamadryad's life is bound to her tree1 she is hurt when it is wounded1 she cries when the axe threatens1 she dies with the fallen trunk3-- #8,non sine hamadryadis fato cadit arborea trabs4'#ejj ,how personal a creature the tree-nymph was to the classic mind1 is shown in legends like that of ,paraibios1 whose father1 regardless of the hamadryad's entreaties1 cut down her ancient trunk1 and in himself and in his offspring suffered her dire vengeance4#eja ,the ethnographic student finds a curious interest in transformation-myths like ,ovid's1 keeping up as they do vestiges of philosophy of archaic type--,daphne turned into the laurel that ,apollo honours for her sake1 the sorrowing sisters of ,phaethon changing into trees1 yet still dropping blood and crying for mercy when their shoots are torn4#ejb ,such episodes medival poetry could still adapt1 as in the pathless infernal forest whose knotted dusk-leaved trees revealed their human animation to the ,florentine when he plucked a twig1 #8,allor porsi la mano un poco avante1 ,e colsi un ramoscel da un gran pruno3 ,e' l tronco suo grid3 ,perch mi schiante8'#ejc or the myrtle to which ,ruggiero tied his hippogriff1 who tugged at the poor trunk till it murmured and oped its mouth1 and with doleful voice told that it was ,astolfo1 enchanted by the wicked ,alcina among her other lovers1 #8,d' entrar o in fera o in fonte o in legno o in sasso4'#ejd ,if these seem to us now conceits over quaint for beauty1 we need not scruple to say so4 ,they are not of ,dante and ,ariosto1 they are sham antiques from classic models4 ,and if even the classic originals have become unpleasing1 we need not perhaps reproach ourselves with decline of poetic taste4 ,we have lost something1 and the loss has spoiled our appreciation of many an old poetic theme1 yet it is not always our sense of the beautiful that has dwindled1 but the old animistic philosophy of nature that is gone from us1 dissipating from such fancies their meaning1 and with their meaning their loveliness4 ,still1 if we look for living men to whom trees are1 as they were to our distant forefathers1 the habitations and embodiments of spirits1 we shall not look in vain4 ,the peasant folklore of ,europe still knows of willows that bleed and weep and speak when hewn1 of the fairy maiden that sits within the fir-tree1 of that old tree in ,rugaard forest that must not be felled1 for an elf dwells within1 of that old tree on the ,heinzenberg near ,zell1 which uttered its complaint when the woodman cut it down1 for in it was ,our ,lady1 whose chapel now stands upon the spot4#eje ,one may still look on where ,franconian damsels go to a tree on ,st4 ,thomas's ,day1 knock thrice solemnly1 and listen for the indwelling spirit to give answer by raps from within1 what manner of husbands they are to have4#ejf ,in the remarkable document of mythic cosmogony1 preserved by ,eusebius under the alleged authorship of the ,phnician ,sanchoniathon1 is the following passage3 #8,but these first men consecrated the plants of the earth1 and judged them gods1 and worshipped the things upon which they themselves lived and their posterity1 and all before them1 and 7to these7 they made libations and sacrifices4'#ejg ,from examples such as have been here reviewed1 it seems that direct and absolute tree-worship of this kind may indeed lie very wide and deep in the early history of religion4 ,but the whole tree-cultus of the world must by no means be thrown indiscriminately into this one category4 ,it is only on such distinct evidence as has been here put forward1 that a sacred tree may be taken as having a spirit embodied in or attached to it4 ,beyond this limit1 there is a wider range of animistic conceptions connected with tree and forest worship4 ,the tree may be the spirit's perch or shelter or favourite haunt4 ,under this definition come the trees hung with objects which are the receptacles of disease-spirits4 ,as places of spiritual resort1 there is no real distinction between the sacred tree and the sacred grove4 ,the tree may serve as a scaffold or altar1 at once convenient and conspicuous1 where offerings can be set out for some spiritual being1 who may be a tree-spirit1 or perhaps the local deity1 living there just as a man might do who had his hut and owned his plot of land around4 ,the shelter of some single tree1 or the solemn seclusion of a forest grove1 is a place of worship set apart by nature1 of some tribes the only temple1 of many tribes perhaps the earliest4 ,lastly1 the tree may be merely a sacred object patronized by or associated with or symbolizing some divinity1 often one of those which we shall presently notice as presiding over a whole species of trees or other things4 ,how all these conceptions1 from actual embodiment or local residence or visit of a demon or deity1 down to mere ideal association1 can blend together1 how hard it often is to distinguish them1 and yet how in spite of this confusion they conform to the animistic theology in which all have their essential principles1 a few examples will show better than any theoretical comment4#ejh ,take the groups of malicious wood-fiends so obviously devised to account for the mysterious influences that beset the forest wanderer4 ,in the ,australian bush1 demons whistle in the branches1 and stooping with outstretched arms sneak among the trunks to seize the wayfarer2 the lame demon leads astray the hunter in the ,brazilian forest2 the ,karen crossing a fever-haunted jungle shudders in the grip of the spiteful #8phi1' and runs to lay an offering by the tree he rested under last1 from whose boughs the malaria-fiend came down upon him2 the negro of ,senegambia seeks to pacify the long-haired tree-demons that send diseases2 the terrific cry of the wood-demon is heard in the ,finland forest2 the baleful shapes of terror that glide at night through our own woodland are familiar still to peasant and poet4#eji ,the ,north ,american ,indians of the ,far ,west1 entering the defiles of the ,black ,mountains of ,nebraska1 will often hang offerings on the trees or place them on the rocks1 to propitiate the spirits and procure good weather and hunting4#eaj ,in ,south ,america1 ,mr4 ,darwin describes the ,indians offering their adorations by loud shouts when they came in sight of the sacred tree standing solitary on a high part of the ,pampas1 a landmark visible from afar4 ,to this tree were hanging by threads numberless offerings such as cigars1 bread1 meat1 pieces of cloth1 c41 down to the mere thread pulled from his poncho by the poor wayfarer who had nothing better to give4 ,men would pour libations of spirits and mat into a certain hole1 and smoke upwards to gratify ,walleechu1 and all around lay the bleached bones of the horses slaughtered as sacrifices4 ,all ,indians made their offerings here1 that their horses might not tire1 and that they themselves might prosper4 ,mr4 ,darwin reasonably judges on this evidence that it was to the deity ,walleechu that the worship was paid1 the sacred tree being only his altar2 but he mentions that the ,gauchos think the ,indians consider the tree as the god itself1 a good example of the misunderstanding possible in such cases4#eaa ,the ,new ,zealanders would hang an offering of food or a lock of hair on a branch at a landing place1 or near remarkable rocks or trees would throw a bunch of rushes as an offering to the spirit dwelling there4#eab ,the ,dayaks fasten rags of their clothes on trees at cross roads1 fearing for their health if they neglect the custom2#eac the ,macassar man halting to eat in the forest will put a morsel of rice or fish on a leaf1 and lay it on a stone or stump4#ead ,the divinities of ,african tribes may dwell in trees remarkable for size and age1 or inhabit sacred groves where the priest alone may enter4#eae ,trees treated as idols by the ,congo people1 who put calabashes of palm wine at their feet in case they should be thirsty1#eaf and amongst ,west ,african negro tribes farther north1 trees hung with rags by the passers-by1 and the great baobabs pegged to hang offerings to1 and serving as shrines before which sheep are sacrificed1#eag display well the rites of tree sacrifice1 though leaving undefined the precise relation conceived between deity and tree4 ,the forest theology that befits a race of hunters is dominant still among ,turanian tribes of ,siberia1 as of old it was across to ,lapland4 ,full well these tribes know the gods of the forest4 ,the ,yakuts hang on any remarkably fine tree iron1 brass1 and other trinkets2 they choose a green spot shaded by a tree for their spring sacrifice of horses and oxen1 whose heads are set up in the boughs2 they chant their extemporised songs to the ,spirit of the ,forest1 and hang for him on the branches of the trees along the roadside offerings of horsehair1 emblems of their most valued possession4 ,a clump of larches on a ,siberian steppe1 a grove in the recesses of a forest1 is the sanctuary of a ,turanian tribe4 ,gaily-decked idols in their warm fur-coats1 each set up beneath its great tree swathed with cloth or tinplate1 endless reindeer-hides and peltry hanging to the trees around1 kettles and spoons and snuff-horns and household valuables strewn as offerings before the gods--such is the description of a ,siberian holy grove1 at the stage when the contact of foreign civilization has begun by ornamenting the rude old ceremonial it must end by abolishing4#eah ,a race ethnologically allied to these tribes1 though risen to higher culture1 kept up remarkable relics of tree-worship in ,northern ,europe4 ,in ,esthonian districts1 during the last century1 the traveller might often see the sacred tree1 generally an ancient lime1 oak1 or ash1 standing inviolate in a sheltered spot near the dwelling-house1 and old memories are handed down of the time when the first blood of a slaughtered beast was sprinkled on its roots1 that the cattle might prosper1 or when an offering was laid beneath the holy linden1 on the stone where the worshipper knelt on his bare knees1 moving from east to west and back1 which stone he kissed thrice when he had said1 #8,receive the food as an offering6' ,it may well have been an indwelling tree-deity for whom this worship was intended1 for folklore shows that the ,esths recognized such a conception with the utmost distinctness2 they have a tale of the tree-elf who appeared in personal shape outside his crooked birch-tree1 whence he could be summoned by three knocks on the trunk and the inquiry1 #8,is the crooked one at home8' ,but also it may have been the ,wood-,father or ,tree-,king1 or some other deity1 who received sacrifice and answered prayer beneath his sacred tree1 as in a temple4#eai ,if1 again1 we glance at the tree-and-grove worship of the non-,aryan indigenous tribes of ,british ,india1 we shall gather clear and instructive hints of its inner significance4 ,in the courtyard of a ,bodo house is planted the sacred #8sij' or euphorbia of ,batho1 the national god1 to whom under this representation the #8deoshi' or priest offers prayer and kills a pig4#ebj ,when the ,khonds settle a new village1 the sacred cotton-tree must be planted with solemn rites1 and beneath it is placed the stone which enshrines the village deity4#eba ,nowhere1 perhaps1 in the world in these modern days is the original meaning of the sacred grove more picturesquely shown than among the ,mundas of ,chota-,nagpur1 in whose settlements a sacred grove of sal-trees1 a remnant of the primval forest spared by the woodman's axe1 is left as a home for the spirits1 and in this hallowed place offerings to the gods are made4#ebb ,here1 then1 among the lower races1 is surely evidence enough to put on their true historic footing the rites of tree and grove which are found flourishing or surviving within the range of ,semitic or ,aryan culture4 ,mentions in the ,old ,testament record the ,canaanitish ,ashera-worship1 the sacrifice under every green tree1 the incense rising beneath oak and willow and shady terebinth1 rites whose obstinate revival proves how deeply they were rooted in the old religion of the land4#ebc ,the evidence of these ,biblical passages is corroborated by other evidence from ,semitic regions1 as in the lines by ,silius ,italicus which mention the prayer and sacrifice in the ,numidian holy groves1 and the records of the council of ,carthage which show that in the #eth century1 an age after ,augustine's time1 it was still needful to urge that the relics of idolatry in trees and groves should be done away4#ebd ,from the more precise descriptions which lie within the range of ,aryan descent and influence1 examples may be drawn to illustrate every class of belief and rite of the forest4 ,modern ,hinduism is so largely derived from the religions of the non-,aryan indigenes1 that we may fairly explain thus a considerable part of the tree-worship of modern ,india1 as where in the ,birbhm district of ,bengal a great annual pilgrimage is made to a shrine in a jungle1 to give offerings of rice and money and sacrifice animals to a certain ghost who dwells in a bela-tree4#ebe ,in thoroughly ,hindu districts may be seen the pippala 7,ficus religiosa7 planted as the village tree1 the #8chaityataru' of ,sanskrit literature1 while the ,hindu in private life plants the banyan and other trees and worships them with divine honours4#ebf ,greek and ,roman mythology give perfect types not only of the beings attached to individual trees1 but of the dryads1 fauns1 and satyrs living and roaming in the forest--creatures whose analogues are our own elves and fairies of the woods4 ,above these graceful fantastic beings are the higher deities who have trees for shrines and groves for temples4 ,witness the description in ,ovid's story of ,erisichthon3-- #8,and ,ceres' grove he ravaged with the axe1 ,they say1 and shame with iron the ancient glades4 ,there stood a mighty oak of age-long strength1 ,festooned with garlands1 bearing on its trunk ,memorial tablets1 proofs of helpful vows4 ,beneath1 the dryads led their festive dance1 ,and circled hand-in-hand the giant bole4'#ebg ,in more prosaic fashion1 ,cato instructs the woodman how to gain indemnity for thinning a holy grove2 he must offer a hog in sacrifice with this prayer1 #8,be thou god or goddess to whom this grove is sacred1 permit me1 by the expiation of this pig1 and in order to restrain the overgrowth of this wood1 c41 c4'#ebh ,slavonic lands had their groves where burned the everlasting fire of ,piorun the ,heaven-god2 the old ,prussians venerated the holy oak of ,romowe1 with its drapery and images of the gods1 standing in the midst of the sacred inviolate forest where no twig might be broken nor beast slain2 and so on down to the elder-tree beneath which ,pushkait was worshipped with offerings of bread and beer4#ebi ,the ,keltic ,heaven-god1 whose image was a mighty oak1 the white-robed ,druids climbing the sacred tree to cut the mistletoe1 and sacrificing the two white bulls beneath1 are types from another national group4#ecj ,teutonic descriptions begin with ,tacitus1 #8,lucos ac nemora consecrant1 deorumque nominibus adpellant secretum illud1 quod sola reverentia vident1' and the curious passage which describes the ,semnones entering the sacred grove in bonds1 a homage to the deity that dwelt there2 many a century after1 the ,swedes were still holding solemn sacrifice and hanging the carcases of the slaughtered beasts in the grove hard by the temple of ,upsal4#eca ,with ,christianity comes a crusade against the holy trees and groves4 ,boniface hews down in the presence of the priest the huge oak of the ,hessian ,heaven-god1 and builds of the timber a chapel to ,st4 ,peter4 ,amator expostulated with the hunters who hung the heads of wild beasts to the boughs of the sacred pear-tree of ,auxerre1 #8,hoc opus idololatri cultur est1 non christian elegantissim disciplin2' but this mild persuasion not availing1 he chopped it down and burned it4 ,in spite of all such efforts1 the old religion of the tree and grove survived in ,europe often in most pristine form4 ,within the last two hundred years1 there were old men in ,gothland who would #8go to pray under a great tree1 as their forefathers had done in their time2' and to this day the sacrificial rite of pouring milk and beer over the roots of trees is said to be kept up on out-of-the-way ,swedish farms4#ecb ,in ,russia1 the ,lyeshy or wood-demon still protects the birds and beasts in his domain1 and drives his flocks of field-mice and squirrels from forest to forest1 when we should say they are migrating4 ,the hunter's luck depends on his treatment of the forest-spirit1 wherefore he will leave him as a sacrifice the first game he kills1 or some smaller offering of bread or salted pancake on a stump4 ,or if one falls ill on returning from the forest1 it is known that this is the ,lyeshy's doing1 so the patient carries to the wood some bread and salt in a clean rag1 and leaving it with a prayer1 comes home cured4#ecc ,names like ,holyoake and ,holywood record our own old memories of the holy trees and groves1 memories long lingering in the tenacious peasant mind2 and it was a great and sacred linden-tree with three stems1 standing in the parish of ,hvitaryd in ,south ,sweden1 which with curious fitness gave a name to the family of ,linnus4 ,lastly1 ,jakob ,grimm even ventures to connect historically the ancient sacred inviolate wood with the later royal forest1 an ethnological argument which would begin with the savage adoring the ,spirit of the ,forest1 and end with the modern landowner preserving his pheasants4#ecd ,to the modern educated world1 few phenomena of the lower civilization seem more pitiable than the spectacle of a man worshipping a beast4 ,we have learnt the lessons of ,natural ,history at last thoroughly enough to recognize our superiority to our #8younger brothers1' as the ,red ,indians call them1 the creatures whom it is our place not to adore but to understand and use4 ,by men at lower levels of culture1 however1 the inferior animals are viewed with a very different eye4 ,for various motives1 they have become objects of veneration ranking among the most important in the lower ranges of religion4 ,yet ,i must here speak shortly and slightly of ,animal-worship1 not as wanting in interest1 but as over-abounding in difficulty4 ,wishing rather to bring general principles into view than to mass uninterpreted facts1 all ,i can satisfactorily do is to give some select examples from the various groups of evidence1 so as at once to display the more striking features of the subject1 and to trace the ancient ideas upward from the savage level far into the higher civilization4 ,first and foremost1 uncultured man seems capable of simply worshipping a beast as beast1 looking on it as possessed of power1 courage1 cunning1 beyond his own1 and animated like a man by a soul which continues to exist after bodily death1 powerful as ever for good and harm4 ,then this idea blends with the thought of the creature as being an incarnate deity1 seeing1 hearing1 and acting even at a distance1 and continuing its power after the death of the animal body to which the divine spirit was attached4 ,thus the ,kamchadals1 in their simple veneration of all things that could do them harm or good1 worshipped the whales that could overturn their boats1 and the bears and wolves of whom they stood in fear4 ,the beasts1 they thought1 could understand their language1 and therefore they abstained from calling them by their names when they met them1 but propitiated them with certain appointed formulas4#ece ,tribes of ,peru1 says ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 worshipped the fish and vicuas that provided them food1 the monkeys for their cunning1 the sparrowhawks for their keen sight4 ,the tiger and the bear were to them ferocious deities1 and mankind1 mere strangers and intruders in the land1 might well adore these beings1 its old inhabitants and lords4#ecf ,how1 indeed1 can one wonder that in direct and simple awe1 the ,philippine islanders1 when they saw an alligator1 should have prayed him with great tenderness to do them no harm1 and to this end offered him of whatever they had in their boats1 casting it into the water4#ecg ,such rites display at least a partial truth in the famous apophthegm which attributes to fear the origin of religion3 #8,primos in orbe deos fecit timor4'#ech ,in discussing the question of the souls of animals in a previous chapter1 instances were adduced of men seeking to appease by apologetic phrase and rite the animals they killed4#eci ,it is instructive to observe how naturally such personal intercourse between man and animal may pass into full worship1 when the creature is powerful or dangerous enough to claim it4 ,when the ,stins of ,kambodia asked pardon of the beast they killed1 and offered sacrifice in expiation1 they expressly did so through fear lest the creature's disembodied soul should come and torment them4#edj ,yet1 strange to say1 even the worship of the animal as divine does not prevent the propitiatory ceremony from passing into utter mockery4 ,thus ,charlevoix describes ,north ,american ,indians who1 when they had killed a bear1 would set up its head painted with many colours1 and offer it homage and praise while they performed the painful duty of feasting on its body4#eda ,so among the ,ainos1 the indigenes of ,yesso1 the bear is a great divinity4 ,it is true they slay him when they can1 but while they are cutting him up they salute him with obeisances and fair speeches1 and set up his head outside the house to preserve them from misfortune4#edb ,in ,siberia1 the ,yakuts worship the bear in common with the spirits of the forest1 bowing toward his favourite haunts with appropriate phrases of prose and verse1 in praise of the bravery and generosity of their #8beloved uncle4' ,their kindred the ,ostyaks swear in the ,russian courts of law on a bear's head1 for the bear1 they say1 is all-knowing1 and will slay them if they lie4 ,this idea actually serves the people as a philosophical1 though one would say rather superfluous1 explanation of a whole class of accidents3 when a hunter is killed by a bear1 it is considered that he must at some time have forsworn himself1 and now has met his doom4 ,yet these ,ostyaks1 when they have overcome and slain their deity1 will stuff its skin with hay1 kick it1 spit on it1 insult and mock it till they have satiated their hatred and revenge1 and are ready to set it up in a yurt as an object of worship4#edc ,whether an animal be worshipped as the receptacle or incarnation of an indwelling divine soul or other deity1 or as one of the myriad representatives of the presiding god of its class1 the case is included under and explained by the general theory of fetish-worship already discussed4 ,evidence which displays these two conceptions and their blending is singularly perfect in the islands of the ,pacific4 ,in the ,georgian group1 certain herons1 kingfishers1 and woodpeckers were held sacred and fed on the sacrifices1 with the distinct view that the deities were embodied in the birds1 and in this form came to eat the offered food and give the oracular responses by their cries4#edd ,the ,tongans never killed certain birds1 or the shark1 whale1 c41 as being sacred shrines in which gods were in the habit of visiting earth2 and if they chanced in sailing to pass near a whale they would offer scented oil or kava to him4#ede ,in the ,fiji ,islands1 certain birds1 fish1 plants1 and some men1 were supposed to have deities closely connected with or residing in them4 ,thus the hawk1 fowl1 eel1 shark1 and nearly every other animal became the shrine of some deity1 which the worshipper of that deity might not eat1 so that some were even tabued from eating human flesh1 the shrine of their god being a man4 ,ndengei1 the dull and otiose supreme deity1 had his shrine or incarnation in the serpent4#edf ,every ,samoan islander had his tutelary deity or #8aitu1' appearing in some animal1 an eel1 shark1 dog1 turtle1 c41 which species became his fetish1 not to be slighted or injured or eaten1 an offence which the deity would avenge by entering the sinner's body and generating his proper incarnation within him till he died4#edg ,the #8atua' of the ,new ,zealander1 corresponding with this in name1 is a divine ancestral soul1 and is also apt to appear in the body of an animal4#edh ,if we pass to ,sumatra1 we shall find that the veneration paid by the ,malays to the tiger1 and their habit of apologizing to it when a trap is laid1 is connected with the idea of tigers being animated by the souls of departed men4#edi ,in other districts of the world1 one of the most important cases connected with these is the worship paid by the ,north ,american ,indian to his medicine-animal1 of which he kills one specimen to preserve its skin1 which thenceforth receives adoration and grants protection as a fetish4#eej ,in ,south ,africa1 as has been already mentioned1 the ,zulus hold that divine ancestral shades are embodied in certain tame and harmless snakes1 whom their human kinsfolk receive with kindly respect and propitiate with food4#eea ,in ,west ,africa1 monkeys near a grave-yard are supposed to be animated by the spirits of the dead1 and the general theory of sacred and worshipped crocodiles1 snakes1 birds1 bats1 elephants1 hynas1 leopards1 c41 is divided between the two great departments of the fetish-theory1 in some cases the creature being the actual embodiment or personation of the spirit1 and in other cases sacred to it or under its protection4#eeb ,hardly any region of the world displays so perfectly as this the worship of serpents as fetish-animals endowed with high spiritual qualities1 to kill one of whom would be an offence unpardonable4 ,for a single description of negro ophiolatry1 may be cited ,bosman's description from ,whydah in the ,bight of ,benin2 here the highest order of deities were a kind of snakes which swarm in the villages1 reigned over by that huge chief monster1 uppermost and greatest and as it were the grandfather of all1 who dwelt in his snake-house beneath a lofty tree1 and there received the royal offerings of meat and drink1 cattle and money and stuffs4 ,so heartfelt was the veneration of the snakes1 that the ,dutchmen made it a means of clearing their warehouses of tiresome visitors2 as ,bosman says1 #8,if we are ever tired with the natives of this country1 and would fain be rid of them1 we need only speak ill of the snake1 at which they immediately stop their ears and run out of doors4'#eec ,lastly1 among the ,tatar tribes of ,siberia1 ,castrn finds the explanation of the veneration which the nomade pays to certain animals1 in a distinct fetish-theory which he thus sums up3 #8,can he also contrive to propitiate the snake1 bear1 wolf1 swan1 and various other birds of the air and beasts of the field1 he has in them good protectors1 for in them are hidden mighty spirits4'#eed ,in the lower levels of civilization the social institution known as ,totemism is of frequent occurrence4 ,its anthropological importance was especially brought into notice by ,j4 ,f4 ,mc,lennan1 whose views as to an early totem-period of society have much influenced opinion since his time4#eee ,the totemic tribe is divided into clans1 the members of each clan connecting themselves with1 calling themselves by the name of1 and even deriving their mythic pedigree from some animal1 plant1 or thing1 but most often an animal2 these totem-clans are exogamous1 marriage not being permissible within the clan1 while permissible or obligatory between clan and clan4 ,thus among the ,ojibwa ,indians of ,north ,america1 the names of such clan-animals1 ,bear1 ,wolf1 ,tortoise1 ,deer1 ,rabbit1 c41 served to designate the intermarrying clans into which the tribes were divided1 ,indians being actually spoken of as bears1 wolves1 c41 and the figures of these animals indicating their clans in the native picture-writing4 ,the ,ojibwa word for such a clan-name has passed into ,english in the form #8totem1' and thus has become an accepted term among anthropologists to denote similar clan-names customary over the world1 this system of dividing tribes being called ,totemism4 ,unfortunately for the study of the subject1 ,john ,long1 the trader interpreter who introduced the ,ojibwa word totem into ,europe in #agia1 does not seem to have grasped its meaning in the native law of marriage and clanship1 but to have confused the totem-animal of the clan with the patron or guardian animal of the individual hunter1 his manitu or #8medicine4'#eef ,even when the ,north ,american totem-clans came to be better understood as social institutions regulating marriage1 the notion of the guardian spirit still clung to them4 ,sir ,george ,grey1 who knew of the ,american totem-clans from the #8,archologia ,americana1' put on record in #ahda a list of exogamous classes in ,west ,australia1 and mentioned the opinion frequently given by the natives as to the origin of these class-names1 that they were derived from some animal or vegetable being very common in the district which the family inhabited1 so that the name of this animal or vegetable came to be applied to the family4 ,this seems so far valuable evidence1 but ,grey was evidently led by ,john ,long's mistaken statement1 which he quotes1 to fall himself into the same confusion between the tribal name and the patron animal or vegetable1 the #8kobong' of his natives1 which he regarded as a tribal totem4#eeg ,in ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer's valuable collection of information on totemism1#eeh the use of the self-contradictory term #8individual totem' has unfortunately tended to perpetuate this confusion4 ,in the present state of the problem of totemism1 it would be premature to discuss at length its development and purpose4 ,mention may however be made of observations which tend to place it on a new footing1 as being distinctly related to the transmigration of souls4 ,in ,melanesia men may say that after death they will reappear for instance as sharks or bananas1 and the family will acknowledge the kinship by feeding the sharks and abstaining from the bananas4 ,it is not unreasonable that ,dr4 ,codrington should suggest such practices as throwing light on the origin of totemism4#eei ,the late investigations of ,spencer and ,gillen1 conducted with scrupulous care in an almost untouched district of ,central ,australia1 show totemism in the ,arunta tribe1 not as the means of regulating the intermarriage of clans1 but as based on a native theory of the ancestry of the race1 as descended from the ,alcheringa1 quasi-human animal or vegetable ancestors1 whose souls are still reborn in human form in successive generations4#efj ,this careful and definite account may be the starting-point of a new study4 ,savages would be alive to the absurdity of naming clans after animals in order to indicate a prohibition of marrying-in1 opposed to the habit of the animals themselves4 ,indeed1 it seems more likely that such animal-names may have commonly belonged to inbred clans1 before the rule of exogamy was developed4 ,at present the plainest fact as to ,totemism is its historical position as shown by its immense geographical distribution4 ,its presence in ,north ,america and ,australia has been noticed4 ,it extends its organization through the forest-region of ,south ,america from ,guyana to ,patagonia4 ,northward of ,australia it is to be traced among the more unchanged of the ,malay populations1 who underneath foreign influence still keep remains of a totemic system like that of the ,american tribes4 ,thence we follow the totem-clan into ,india1 when it appears among non-,aryan hill-tribes such as the ,oraons and ,mundas1 who have clans named after ,eel1 ,hawk1 ,heron1 and so on1 and must not kill or eat these creatures4 ,north of the ,himalaya it appears among ,mongoloid tribes in their native low cultured state1 such as the ,yakuts with their intermarrying totem-clans ,swan1 ,raven1 and the like4 ,in ,africa totemism appears in the ,bantu district up to the ,west ,coast4 ,for example1 the ,bechuana are divided into ,bakuena1 men of the crocodile2 ,batlapi1 of the fish2 ,balaung1 of the lion2 ,bamorara1 of the wild vine4 ,a man does not eat his tribe-animal1 or clothe himself in its skin1 and if he must kill it as hurtful1 the lion for instance1 he asks pardon of it1 and purifies himself from the sacrilege4 ,these few instances illustrate the generalization that totemism in its complete form belongs to the savage and early barbaric stages of culture1 only partial remains or survivals of it having lasted into the civilized period4 ,though appearing in all other quarters of the globe1 it is interesting to notice that there is no distinct case of totemism found or recorded in ,europe4#efa ,the three motives of animal-worship which have been described1 viz41 direct worship of the animal for itself1 indirect worship of it as a fetish acted through by a deity1 and veneration for it as a totem or representative of a tribe-ancestor1 no doubt account in no small measure for the phenomena of ,zoolatry among the lower races1 due allowance being also made for the effects of myth and symbolism1 of which we may gain frequent glimpses4 ,notwithstanding the obscurity and complexity of the subject1 a survey of ,animal-worship as a whole may yet justify an ethnographic view of its place in the history of civilization4 ,if we turn from its appearances among the less cultured races to notice the shapes in which it has held its place among peoples advanced to the stage of national organization and stereotyped religion1 we shall find a reasonable cause for its new position in the theory of development and survival1 whereby ideas at first belonging to savage theology have in part continued to spread and solidify in their original manner1 while in part they have been changed to accommodate them to more advanced ideas1 or have been defended from the attacks of reason by being set up as sacred mysteries4 ,ancient ,egypt was a land of sacred cats and jackals and hawks1 whose mummies are among us to this day1 but the reason of whose worship was a subject too sacred for the ,father of ,history to discuss4 ,egyptian animal-worship seems to show1 in a double line1 traces of a savage ancestry extending into ages lying far behind even the remote antiquity of the ,pyramids4 ,deities patronising special sacred animals1 incarnate in their bodies1 or represented in their figures1 have nowhere better examples than the divine bull-dynasty of ,apis1 the sacred hawks caged and fed in the temple of ,horus1 ,thoth and his cynocephalus and ibis1 ,hathor the cow and ,sebek the crocodile4 ,moreover1 the local character of many of the sacred creatures1 worshipped in certain nomes yet killed and eaten with impunity elsewhere1 fits remarkably with that character of tribe-fetishes and deified totems with which ,mr4 ,mc,lennan's argument is concerned4 ,see the men of ,oxyrynchos reverencing and sparing the fish oxyrynchos1 and those of ,latopolis likewise worshipping the latos4 ,at ,apollinopolis men hated crocodiles and never lost a chance of killing them1 while the people of the ,arsinoite nome dressed geese and fish for these sacred creatures1 adorned them with necklaces and bracelets1 and mummified them sumptuously when they died4#efb ,in the modern world the most civilized people among whom animal-worship vigorously survives1 lie within the range of ,brahmanism1 where the sacred animal1 the deity incarnate in an animal or invested with or symbolized by its shape1 may to this day be studied in clear example4 ,the sacred cow is not merely to be spared1 she is as a deity worshipped in annual ceremony1 daily perambulated and bowed to by the pious ,hindu1 who offers her fresh grass and flowers2 ,hanuman the monkey-god has his temples and his idols1 and in him ,siva is incarnate1 as ,durga is in the jackal2 the wise ,ganesa wears the elephant's head2 the divine king of birds1 ,garuda1 is ,vishnu's vehicle2 the forms of fish1 and boar1 and tortoise1 were assumed in those avatar-legends of ,vishnu which are at the intellectual level of the ,red ,indian myths they so curiously resemble4#efc ,the conceptions which underlie the ,hindu creed of divine animals were not ill displayed by that ,hindu who1 being shown the pictures of ,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke1 and ,john with their respective man1 lion1 ox1 and eagle1 explained these quite naturally and satisfactorily as the avatars or vehicles of the four evangelists4 ,in ,animal-worship1 some of the most remarkable cases of development and survival belong to a class from which striking instances have already been taken4 ,serpent-worship unfortunately fell years ago into the hands of speculative writers1 who mixed it up with occult philosophies1 ,druidical mysteries1 and that portentous nonsense called the #8,arkite ,symbolism1' till now sober students hear the very name of ,ophiolatry with a shiver4 ,yet it is in itself a rational and instructive subject of inquiry1 especially notable for its width of range in mythology and religion4 ,we may set out among the lower races1 with such accounts as those of the ,red ,indian's reverence to the rattlesnake1 as grandfather and king of snakes1 as a divine protector able to give fair winds or cause tempests2#efd or of the worship of great snakes among the tribes of ,peru before they received the religion of the ,incas1 as to whom an old author says1 #8,they adore the demon when he presents himself to them in the figure of some beast or serpent1 and talks with them4'#efe ,thenceforth such examples of direct ,ophiolatry may be traced on into classic and barbaric ,europe2 the great serpent which defended the citadel of ,athens and enjoyed its monthly honey-cakes2#eff the ,roman genius loci appearing in the form of the snake 7,nullus enim locus sine genio est1 qui per anguem plerumque ostenditur72#efg the old ,prussian serpent-worship and offering of food to the household snakes2#efh the golden viper adored by the ,lombards1 till ,barbatus got it in his hands and the goldsmiths made it into paten and chalice4#efi ,to this day1 ,europe has not forgotten in nursery tales or more serious belief the snake that comes with its golden crown and drinks milk out of the child's porringer2 the house-snake1 tame and kindly but seldom seen1 that cares for the cows and the children and gives omens of a death in the family2 the pair of household snakes which have a mystic connexion of life and death with the husband and housewife themselves4#egj ,serpent-worship1 apparently of the directest sort1 was prominent in the indigenous religions of ,southern ,asia4 ,it now even appears to have maintained no mean place in early ,indian ,buddhism1 for the sculptures of the ,sanchi tope show scenes of adoration of the five-headed snake-deity in his temple1 performed by a race of serpent-worshippers1 figuratively represented with snakes growing from their shoulders1 and whose raja himself has a five-headed snake arching hood-wise over his head4 ,here1 moreover1 the totem-theory comes into contact with ophiolatry4 ,the ,sanskrit name of the snake1 #8nga1' becomes also the accepted designation of its adorers1 and thus mythological interpretation has to reduce to reasonable sense legends of serpent-races who turn out to be simply serpent-worshippers1 tribes who have from the divine reptiles at once their generic name of ,ngas1 and with it their imagined ancestral descent from serpents4#ega ,in different ways1 these ,nga tribes of ,south ,asia are on the one hand analogues of the ,snake ,indians of ,america1 and on the other of the ,ophiogenes or ,serpent-race of the ,troad1 kindred of the vipers whose bite they could cure by touch1 and descendants of an ancient hero transformed into a snake4#egb ,serpents hold a prominent place in the religions of the world1 as the incarnations1 shrines1 or symbols of high deities4 ,such were the rattlesnake worshipped in the ,natchez temple of the ,sun1 and the snake belonging in name and figure to the ,aztec deity ,quetzalcoatl2#egc the snake as worshipped still by the ,slave ,coast negro1 not for itself but for its indwelling deity2#egd the snake kept and fed with milk in the temple of the old ,slavonic god ,potrimpos2#ege the serpent-symbol of the healing deity ,asklepios1 who abode in or manifested himself through the huge tame snakes kept in his temples#egf 7it is doubtful whether this had any original connexion with the adoption of the snake1 from its renewal by casting its old slough1 as the accepted emblem of new life or immortality in later symbolism72 and lastly1 the ,phnician serpent with its tail in its mouth1 symbol of the world and of the ,heaven-god ,taaut1 in its original meaning perhaps a mythic world-snake like the ,scandinavian ,midgard-worm1 but in the changed fancy of later ages adapted into an emblem of eternity4#egg ,it scarcely seems proved that savage races1 in all their mystic contemplations of the serpent1 ever developed out of their own minds the idea1 to us so familiar1 of adopting it as a personification of evil4#egh ,in ancient times1 we may ascribe this character perhaps to the monster whose well-known form is to be seen on the mummy-cases1 the ,apophis-serpent of the ,egyptian ,hades2#egi and it unequivocally belongs to the destroying serpent of the ,zarathustrians1 ,azhi ,dahka1#ehj a figure which bears so remarkable a relation to that of the ,semitic serpent of ,eden1 which may possibly stand in historical connexion with it4 ,a wondrous blending of the ancient rites of ,ophiolatry with mystic conceptions of ,gnosticism appears in the cultus which tradition 7in truth or slander7 declares the semi-,christian sect of ,ophites to have rendered to their tame snake1 enticing it out of its chest to coil round the sacramental bread1 and worshipping it as representing the great king from heaven who in the beginning gave to the man and woman the knowledge of the mysteries4#eha ,thus the extreme types of religious veneration1 from the soberest matter-of-fact to the dreamiest mysticism1 find their places in the worship of animals4#ehb ,hitherto in the study of animistic doctrine1 our attention has been turned especially to those minor spirits whose functions concern the closer and narrower detail of man's life and its surroundings4 ,in passing thence to the consideration of divine beings whose functions have a wider scope1 the transition may be well made through a special group4 ,an acute remark of ,auguste ,comte's calls attention to an important process of theological thought1 which we may here endeavour to bring as clearly as possible before our minds4 ,in his #8,philosophie ,positive1' he defines deities proper as differing by their general and abstract character from pure fetishes 7i4e41 animated objects71 the humble fetish governing but a single object from which it is inseparable1 while the gods administer a special order of phenomena at once in different bodies4 ,when1 he continues1 the similar vegetation of the different oaks of a forest led to a theological generalization from their common phenomena1 the abstract being thus produced was no longer the fetish of a single tree1 but became the god of the forest2 here1 then1 is the intellectual passage from fetishism to polytheism1 reduced to the inevitable preponderance of specific over individual ideas4#ehc ,now this observation of ,comte's may be more immediately applied to a class of divine beings which may be accurately called species-deities4 ,it is highly suggestive to study the crude attempts of barbaric theology to account for the uniformity observed in large classes of objects1 by making this generalization from individual to specific ideas4 ,to explain the existence of what we call a species1 they would refer it to a common ancestral stock1 or to an original archetype1 or to a species-deity1 or they combined these conceptions4 ,for such speculations1 classes of plants and animals offered perhaps an early and certainly an easy subject4 ,the uniformity of each kind not only suggested a common parentage1 but also the notion that creatures so wanting in individuality1 with qualities so measured out as it were by line and rule1 might not be independent arbitrary agents1 but mere copies from a common model1 or mere instruments used by controlling deities4 ,thus in ,polynesia1 as has been just mentioned1 certain species of animals were considered as incarnations of certain deities1 and among the ,samoans it appears that the question as to the individuality of such creatures was actually asked and answered4 ,if1 for instance1 a village god were accustomed to appear as an owl1 and one of his votaries found a dead owl by the roadside1 he would mourn over the sacred bird and bury it with much ceremony1 but the god himself would not be thought to be dead1 for he remains incarnate in all existing owls4#ehd ,according to ,father ,geronimo ,boscana1 the ,acagchemen tribe of ,upper ,california furnish a curious parallel to this notion4 ,they worshipped the #8panes' bird1 which seems to have been an eagle or vulture1 and each year1 in the temple of each village1 one of them was solemnly killed without shedding blood1 and the body burned4 ,yet the natives maintained and believed that it was the same individual bird they sacrificed each year1 and more than this1 that the same bird was slain by each of the villages4#ehe ,among the comparatively cultured ,peruvians1 ,acosta describes another theory of celestial archetypes4 ,speaking of star-deities1 he says that shepherds venerated a certain star called ,sheep1 another star called ,tiger protected men from tigers1 c43 #8,and generally1 of all the animals and birds there are on the earth1 they believed that a like one lived in heaven1 in whose charge were their procreation and increase1 and thus they accounted of divers stars1 such as that they call ,chacana1 and ,topatorca1 and ,mamana1 and ,mizco1 and ,miquiquiray1 and other such1 so that in a manner it appears that they were drawing towards the dogma of the ,platonic ideas4'#ehf ,the ,north ,american ,indians also have speculated as to the common ancestors or deities of species4 ,one missionary notes down their idea as he found it in #afcd4 #8,they say1 moreover1 that all the animals of each species have an elder brother1 who is as it were the principle and origin of all the individuals1 and this elder brother is marvellously great and powerful4 ,the elder brother of the beavers1 they told me1 is perhaps as large as our cabin4' ,another early account is that each species of animals has its archetype in the land of souls2 there exists1 for example1 a manitu or archetype of all oxen1 which animates all oxen4#ehg ,here1 again1 occurs a noteworthy correspondence with the ideas of a distant race4 ,in ,buyn1 the island paradise of ,russian myth1 there are to be found the ,snake older than all snakes1 and the prophetic ,raven1 elder brother of all ravens1 and the ,bird1 the largest and oldest of all birds1 with iron beak and copper claws1 and the ,mother of ,bees1 eldest among bees4#ehh ,morgan's comparatively modern account of the ,iroquois mentions their belief in a spirit of each species of trees and plants1 as of oak1 hemlock1 maple1 whortleberry1 raspberry1 spearmint1 tobacco2 most objects of nature being thus under the care of protecting spirits4#ehi ,the doctrine of such species-deities is perhaps nowhere more definitely stated than by ,castrn in his #8,finnish ,mythology4' ,in his description of the ,siberian nature-worship1 the lowest level is exemplified by the ,samoyeds1 whose direct worship of natural objects for themselves may perhaps indicate the original religious condition of the whole ,turanian race4 ,but the doctrine of the comparatively cultured heathen ,finns was at a different stage4 ,here every object in nature has a #8haltia1' a guardian deity or genius1 a being which was its creator and thenceforth became attached to it4 ,these deities or genii are1 however1 not bound to each single transitory object1 but are free personal beings which have movement1 form1 body1 and soul4 ,their existence in no wise depends on the existence of the individual objects1 for although no object in nature is without its guardian deity1 this deity extends to the whole race or species4 ,this ash-tree1 this stone1 this house1 has indeed its particular #8haltia1' yet these same #8haltiat' concern themselves with other ash-trees1 stones1 and houses1 of which the individuals may perish1 but their presiding genii live on in the species4#eij ,it seems as though some similar view ran through the doctrine of more civilized races1 as in the well-known ,egyptian and ,greek examples where whole species of animals1 plants1 or things1 stand as symbolic of1 and as protected by1 particular deities4 ,the thought appears with most perfect clearness in the ,rabbinical philosophy which apportions to each of the #bajj species1 of plants for instance1 a presiding angel in heaven1 and assigns this as the motive of the ,levitical prohibition of mixtures among animals and plants4#eia ,the interesting likeness pointed out by ,father ,acosta between these crude theological conceptions and the civilized philosophical conceptions which have replaced them1 was again brought into view in the last century by the ,president ,de ,brosses1 in comparing the ,red ,indians' archetypes of species with the ,platonic archetypal ideas4#eib ,as for animals and plants1 the desire of naturalists to ascend to primal unity to some extent finds satisfaction in a theory tracing each species to an origin in a single pair4 ,and though this is out of the question with inanimate objects1 our language seems in suggestive metaphor to lay hold on the same thought1 when we say of a dozen similar swords1 or garments1 or chairs1 that they have the same pattern 7patronus1 as it were father71 whereby they were shaped from their matter 7materia1 or mother substance74 ,footnote #chh3 ,f4 ,r4 ,nixon1 #8,cruise of the ,beacon'2 ,bonwick1 p4 #ahb4 ,footnote #chi3 ,oldfield in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #bbh4 ,footnote #cij3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,algic ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #da4 #8,indian ,tribes1' vol4 iii4 p4 #cbg4 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aia4 ,see also ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #age4 7,antilles ,islanders72 ,brasseur1 #8,mexique1' vol4 iii4 p4 #dhb4 ,footnote #cia3 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' p4 #ij4 ,see also ,cross1 #8,karens1' in #8,journ4 ,amer4 ,or4 ,soc4' vol4 iv4 p4 #cae2 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #bci4 ,footnote #cib3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #aad1 #ahb1 c4 ,footnote #cic3 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr4' p4 #bah1 #chh2 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aga4 ,footnote #cid3 ,philo1 ,de ,gigant4 ,i4 iv4 ,footnote #cie3 ,iamblichus1 ii4 ,footnote #cif3 ,collected passages in ,calmet1 #8,diss4 sur les ,esprits'2 ,horst1 #8,zauber-,bibliothek1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bfc1 c42 vol4 vi4 p4 #di1 c42 see ,migne's ,dictionaries4 ,footnote #cig3 ,calmet1 #8,dissertation sur les ,esprits1' vol4 i4 ch4 xlviii4 ,footnote #cih3 ,gaume1 #8,l',eau ,bnite au ,x,i,xme ,sicle1' pp4 #bie1 #cda4 ,footnote #cii3 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #cca4 ,footnote #djj3 ,backhouse1 #8,australia1' p4 #eee2 ,grey1 #8,australia1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ccg4 ,footnote #dja3 ,mason1 #8,karens1' l4c4 p4 #baa4 ,footnote #djb3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part iii4 p4 #bbf4 ,footnote #djc3 ,rochefort1 #8,antilles1' p4 #dai4 ,footnote #djd3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #aaic2 ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth4' p4 #ccb2 ,st4 ,clair and ,brophy1 #8,bulgaria1' p4 #ei2 ,wuttke1 #8,volksaberglaube1' p4 #abb2 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #ajc2 ,brand1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bgi4 ,the mare in nightmare means spirit1 elf1 or nymph2 compare ,anglo-,sax4 wudumre 7wood-mare7 echo4 ,footnote #dje3 #8,vita del ,amm4 ,christoforo ,colombo1' ch4 xiii42 and #8,life of ,colon1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xii4 p4 #hd4 ,footnote #djf3 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' pp4 #adi1 #chi4 ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 ii4 p4 #aai4 ,footnote #djg3 ,hgstrm1 #8,lapmark1' ch4 xi4 ,footnote #djh3 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aea4 ,see also ,borri1 #8,cochin-,china1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 ix4 p4 #hbc4 ,footnote #dji3 ,augustin4 #8,de ,civ4 ,dei1' xv4 #bc3 #8,et quoniam creberrima fama est1 multique se expertos1 vel ab eis qui experti essent1 de quorum fide dubitandum non esset1 audisse confirmant1 ,silvanos et ,faunos1 quos vulgo incubos vocant1 improbos spe extitisse mulieribus1 et earum appetisse ac peregisse concubitum2 et quosdam dmones1 quos ,dusios ,galli nuncupant1 hanc assidue immunditiam et tentare et efficere2 plures talesque asseverant1 ut hoc negare impudenti videatur2 non hinc aliquid audeo definire1 utrum aliqui spiritus 444 possint etiam hanc pati libidinem2 ut 444 sentientibus feminibus misceantur4' ,see also ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' pp4 #ddi1 #dgi2 ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth4' p4 #ccb2 ,cockayne1 #8,leechdoms of ,early ,england1' vol4 i4 p4 xxxviii41 vol4 ii4 p4 #cde4 ,footnote #daj3 ,the #8,malleus ,maleficarum' was published about #adhi4 ,see on the general subject1 ,horst1 #8,zauber-,bibliothek1' vol4 vi42 ,ennemoser1 #8,magic1' vol4 ii42 ,maury1 #8,magie1' c4 p4 #bef2 ,lecky1 #8,hist1 of ,rationalism1' vol4 i4 ,footnote #daa3 ,burton1 #8,anatomy of ,melancholy1' iii4 #b4 #8,unum dixero1 non opinari me ullo retro vo tantam copiam ,satyrorum1 et salacium istorum ,geniorum se ostendisse1 quantum nunc quotidian narrationes1 et judiciales sententi proferunt4' ,footnote #dab3 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 #8,observations during ,voyage round ,world1' p4 #edc4 ,footnote #dac3 ,cross1 #8,karens1' l4c4 p4 #cab4 ,footnote #dad3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 i4 p4 #cjg4 ,footnote #dae3 ,j4 ,v4 ,grohmann1 #8,aberglauben aus ,bhmen1' c41 p4 #bd2 ,calmet1 #8,diss4 sur les ,esprits1' vol4 ii42 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #ajdh1 c42 ,st4 ,clair and ,brophy1 #8,bulgaria1' p4 #di2 see ,ralston1 #8,songs of ,russian ,people1' p4 #dji4 ,footnote #daf3 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #bfh4 ,callaway1 #8,rel4 of ,amazulu1' p4 #bdf1 c4 ,footnote #dag3 ,grey1 #8,australia1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cjb4 ,see also ,bonwick1 #8,tasmanians1' p4 #ahj4 ,footnote #dah3 ,southey1 #8,brazil1' part i4 p4 #bch4 ,see also ,rochefort1 p4 #dah2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #bgc 7,caribs72 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #cja2 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part iii4 p4 #adj4 ,footnote #dai3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 i4 pp4 #bgj1 #bih2 vol4 ii4 #8,n4 ,s4' p4 #aag4 ,footnote #dbj3 ,roberts1 #8,oriental ,illustrations1' p4 #eca2 ,colebrook in #8,as4 ,res4' vol4 vii4 p4 #bgd4 ,footnote #dba3 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 i4 p4 #gg4 ,footnote #dbb3 ,hylten-,cavallius1 #8,wrend och ,wirdarne1' vol4 i4 p4 #aia2 ,atkinson1 #8,glossary of ,cleveland ,dial4' p4 #eig4 7,prof4 ,liebrecht1 in #8,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1' vol4 v4 #ahgc1 p4 #ii1 adds comparison of the still usual ,german custom of keeping a light burning in the lying-in room till the child is baptized 7,wuttke1 #bnd ed4 ,no4 #ehc71 and the similar ancient ,roman practice whence the goddess ,candelifera had her name 7note to #bnd4 ed4747 ,footnote #dbc3 ,martin1 #8,western ,islands1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 iii4 p4 #fab4 ,footnote #dbd3 ,st4 ,clair and ,brophy1 #8,bulgaria1' p4 #dd4 ,footnote #dbe3 ,rituale ,romanum2 ,benedictio ,candelarum4 ,brand1 #8,popular ,antiquities1' vol4 i4 p4 #df4 ,footnote #dbf3 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #bfg1 see #bif4 ,footnote #dbg3 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' p4 #ajj4 ,footnote #dbh3 ,homer1 ,odyss1 xvi4 #afj4 ,footnote #dbi3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #fcb4 ,footnote #dcj3 ,eisenmenger1 #8,judenthum1' part i4 p4 #hgb4 ,lane1 #8,thousand and ,one ,nights1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ef4 ,footnote #dca3 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #afb4 ,other localities in #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 iv4 p4 #ccc4 ,footnote #dcb3 ,tickell in #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1' vol4 ix4 p4 #gie4 ,the dirge is given above1 p4 #cb4 ,footnote #dcc3 ,de ,brosses1 #8,dieux ,ftiches1' p4 #df4 ,footnote #dcd3 ,clavigero1 #8,messico1' vol4 ii4 p4 #gi4 ,footnote #dce3 ,tractat4 ,berachoth4 ,footnote #dcf3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' pp4 #dbj1 #aaag2 ,st4 ,clair and ,brophy1 #8,bulgaria1' p4 #ed4 ,see also ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cbe2 ,tschudi1 #8,peru1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cee4 ,footnote #dcg3 ,brand1 #8,popular ,antiquities1' vol4 i4 p4 #aic4 ,see ,boecler1 #8,ehsten ,abergl4' p4 #gc4 ,footnote #dch3 ,tertullian1 ,de ,carne ,christi1 vi42 ,adv4 ,marcion1 ii42 ,origen1 ,de ,princip4 i4 #g4 ,see ,horst1 l4c4 ,calmet1 #8,dissertation1' vol4 i4 ch4 xlvi4 ,footnote #dci3 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr4' p4 #bag4 ,see ,bosman1 #8,guinea1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #djb4 ,footnote #ddj3 ,pallas1 #8,reisen1' vol4 i4 p4 #cfj4 ,footnote #dda3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #abab2 ,wuttke1 #8,volksaberglaube1' p4 #aai2 see ,hyltn-,cavallius1 part i4 p4 #agh 7,sweden74 ,footnote #ddb3 ,oldfield1 #8,abor4 of ,australia1' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #bdj4 ,footnote #ddc3 ,bonwick1 #8,tasmanians1' p4 #ahb4 ,footnote #ddd3 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #bfh2 ,egede1 p4 #ahg4 ,footnote #dde3 ,molina1 #8,chili1' vol4 ii4 p4 #hf4 ,footnote #ddf3 ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' pp4 #daf1 #dbi2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrel4' pp4 #aga1 #bag4 ,footnote #ddg3 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ahb2 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr4' p4 #chg2 ,steinhauser1 l4c4 p4 #acd4 ,compare ,callaway1 p4 #cbg1 c4 ,footnote #ddh3 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #gg4 ,footnote #ddi3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 iii4 p4 #bge4 ,footnote #dej3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #hbi2 ,rochholz1 #8,deutscher ,glaube1' part i4 p4 #ib2 ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth4' p4 #bdg4 ,footnote #dea3 ,menander1 #bje1 in ,clement4 ,stromat42 ,xenophon1 ,memor4 ,socr42 ,plato1 ,apol4 ,socr4 c4 ,see ,plotin4 ,ennead4 iii4 #d2 ,porphyr4 ,plotin4 ,footnote #deb3 ,paulus ,diaconus3 #8,genium appellant ,deum1 qui vim obtineret rerum omnium generandarum4' ,censorin4 de ,die ,natali1 #c3 #8,eundem esse genium et larem1 multi veteres memori prodiderunt4' ,tibull4 ,eleg4 i4 #b1 #g2 ,ovid4 ,trist4 iii4 #ac1 #ah1 v4 #e1 #aj2 ,horat4 ,epist4 ii4 #a1 #adj1 ,od4 iv4 #aa1 #g4 ,appian4 de ,bellis ,parth4 p4 #aef4 ,tertullian1 ,apol4 xxiii4 ,footnote #dec3 ,serv4 in ,virg4 n4 vi4 #gdc3 #8,cum nascimur1 duos genios sortimur3 unus hortatur ad bona1 alter depravat ad mala1 quibus assistentibus post mortem aut asserimur in meliorem vitam1 aut condemnamur in deteriorem4' ,horat4 ,epist4 ii4 #ahg2 ,valer4 ,max4 i4 #g2 ,plutarch1 ,brutus4 ,see ,pauly1 #8,real-,encyclop42' ,smith's #8,dic4 of ,biog4 ,myth4' s4v4 #8genius4' ,footnote #ded3 ,acta ,sanctorum ,bolland43 ,s4 ,francisca ,romana ix4 ,mart4 ,calmet1 #8,dissertation1' ch4 iv4 xxx42 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #adj1 #cdg1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aj2 ,wright1 #8,st4 ,patrick's ,purgatory1' p4 #cc4 ,footnote #dee3 ,rochholz1 p4 #ic4 ,footnote #def3 ,bull1 #8,sermons1' #bnd ed4 ,london1 #agad1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ejf4 ,footnote #deg3 ,swedenborg1 #8,true ,christian ,religion1' p4 #chj4 ,see also ,a4 ,j4 ,davis1 #8,philosophy of ,spiritual ,intercourse1' p4 #ch4 ,footnote #deh3 ,d4 ,monnier1 #8,traditions ,populaires1' p4 #g4 ,footnote #dei3 ,l4 ,h4 ,morgan1 #8,iroquois1' p4 #fd4 ,brebeuf in #8,rel4 des ,js4' #afcf1 p4 #ajg4 ,see ,schoolcraft1 #8,tribes1' vol4 iii4 p4 #ccg4 ,footnote #dfj3 ,steinhauser1 #8,religion des ,negers1' in #8,magazin der ,evang4 ,missionen1' ,basel1 #ahef2 ,no4 #b1 p4 #abg1 c4 ,footnote #dfa3 ,plath1 #8,religion der alten ,chinesen1' part i4 p4 #dd4 ,footnote #dfb3 ,oldfield1 #8,abor4 of ,austr4' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #bcb4 ,footnote #dfc3 ,steller1 #8,kamtschatka1' pp4 #dg1 #bfe4 ,footnote #dfd3 ,oviedo1 #8,nicaragua1' in ,ternaux-,compans1 part xiv4 pp4 #acb1 #afj4 ,compare ,catlin1 #8,n4 ,a4 ,ind4' vol4 ii4 p4 #afi4 ,footnote #dfe3 ,creswick1 #8,veys1' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vi4 p4 #cei4 ,see ,du ,chaillu1 #8,ashango-land1' p4 #ajf4 ,footnote #dff3 ,brebeuf in #8,rel4 des ,js4' #afcf1 p4 #ajh4 ,long's ,exp4 vol4 i4 p4 #df4 ,see ,loskiel1 #8,indians of ,n4 ,a4' part i4 p4 #de4 ,footnote #dfg3 ,for details of the belief in water-spirits as the cause of drowning1 see ante1 vol4 i4 p4 #aji4 ,footnote #dfh3 ,oldfield in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #cbh2 ,eyre1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cfb2 ,grey1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cci2 ,bastian1 #8,vorstellungen von ,wasser und ,feuer1' in #8,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1' vol4 i4 7contains a general collection of details as to water-worship74 ,footnote #dfi3 ,compare ,john ,morgan1 #8,life of ,william ,buckley'2 ,bonwick1 p4 #bjc2 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #dh1 with ,forbes ,leslie1 ,brand1 c4 ,footnote #dgj3 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #bfg4 ,footnote #dga3 ,tanner1 #8,narr4' p4 #cda2 ,carver1 #8,travels1' p4 #chc2 ,franklin1 #8,journey to ,polar ,sea1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bde2 ,lubbock1 #8,origin of ,civilization1' pp4 #bac-bj 7contains details as to water-worship72 see ,brinton1 p4 #abd4 ,footnote #dgb3 ,rivero and ,tschudi1 #8,peruvian ,ant4' p4 #afa2 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 #8,comm4 ,real4' i4 #aj4 ,see also ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrelig4' pp4 #beh1 #bfj1 #bhb4 ,footnote #dgc3 ,krapf1 #8,e4 ,afr4' p4 #aih2 ,steinhauser1 l4c4 p4 #aca2 ,villault in ,astley1 vol4 i4 p4 #ffh2 ,backhouse1 #8,afr4' p4 #bcj2 ,callaway1 #8,zulu ,tales1' vol4 i4 p4 #ij2 ,bastian1 l4c4 ,footnote #dgd3 ,castrn1 #8,vorlesungen ber die ,altaischen ,vlker1' p4 #aad4 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #gj4 ,atkinson1 #8,siberia1' p4 #ddd4 ,boecler1 #8,ehsten ,aberglub4 ,gebruche1' ed4 ,kreutzwald1 p4 #f4 ,footnote #dge3 ,hodgson1 #8,abor4 of ,india1' p4 #afd2 ,hunter1 #8,rural ,bengal4' p4 #ahd4 ,see also ,lubbock1 l4c42 ,forbes ,leslie1 #8,early ,races of ,scotland1' vol4 i4 p4 #afc1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dig4 ,footnote #dgf3 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bjf1 c4 ,footnote #dgg3 ,homer1 ,il4 xx4 xxi4 ,see ,gladstone1 #8,juventus ,mundi1' pp4 #aij1 #cde1 c41 c4 ,footnote #dgh3 ,cosmas1 book iii4 p4 #aig1 #8superstitiosas institutiones1 quas villani adhuc semipagani in ,pentecosten tertia sive quarta feria observabant offerentes libamina super fontes mactabant victimas et dmonibus immolabant4' ,footnote #dgi3 ,poenitentiale ,ecgberti1 ii4 #bb1 #8gif hwilc man his lmessan gehte oththe bringe to hwilcon wylle2' iv4 #ai1 #8gif hw his wccan t nigum wylle hbbe4' ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #edi1 c4 ,see ,hyltn-,cavallius1 #8,wrend och ,wirdarne1' part i4 pp4 #aca1 #aga 7,sweden74 ,footnote #dhj3 ,grohmann1 #8,aberglauben aus ,bhmen und ,mhren1' p4 #dc1 c4 ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth4' p4 #bia1 c4 ,ralston1 #8,songs of ,russian ,people1' p4 #aci1 c4 ,footnote #dha3 ,st4 ,clair and ,brophy1 #8,bulgaria1' p4 #df4 ,similar ideas in ,grohmann1 p4 #dd4 ,eisenmenger1 #8,entd4 ,judenthum1' part i4 p4 #dbf4 ,footnote #dhb3 ,maury1 #8,magie1' c41 p4 #aeh4 ,brand1 #8,pop4 ,ant4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cff1 c4 ,hunt1 #8,pop4 ,rom4 #bnd ,series1' p4 #dj1 c4 ,forbes ,leslie1 #8,early ,races of ,scotland1' vol4 i4 p4 #aef1 c4 ,footnote #dhc3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 i4 p4 #cjg4 ,footnote #dhd3 ,beeker1 #8,dyaks1' in #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 iii4 p4 #aaa4 ,footnote #dhe3 ,marsden1 #8,sumatra1' p4 #cja4 ,footnote #dhf3 ,s4 ,s4 ,farmer1 #8,tonga1' p4 #abg4 ,footnote #dhg3 ,bastian1 #8,der ,baum in vergleichender ,ethnologie1' in ,lazarus and ,steinthal's #8,zeitschrift fr ,vlkerpsychologie1' c41 vol4 v4 #ahfh4 ,footnote #dhh3 ,chr4 ,colombo1 ch4 xix42 and in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xii4 p4 #hg4 ,footnote #dhi3 ,burton1 #8,w4 ,w4 fr4 ,w4 ,afr4' pp4 #bje1 #bdc4 ,footnote #dij3 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ahh4 ,footnote #dia3 ,bosman1 letter #ai1 and in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #ejj4 ,footnote #dib3 ,krapf1 #8,e4 ,afr4' p4 #gg2 ,prichard1 #8,n4 ,h4 of ,man1' p4 #bij2 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eah4 ,see also ,merolla1 #8,congo1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #bcf4 ,footnote #dic3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #deg1 #dfa1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #ahg1 #bea1 #bhi1 #dig4 ,for details of tree-worship from other ,asiatic districts1 see ,ainsworth1 #8,yezidis1' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 p4 #bc2 ,jno4 ,wilson1 #8,parsi ,religion1' p4 #bfb4 ,footnote #did3 ,hardy1 #8,manual of ,budhism1' pp4 #ajj1 #ddc4 ,footnote #die3 ,fergusson1 #8,tree and ,serpent ,worship1' pl4 xxiv4 xxvi4 c4 ,footnote #dif3 ,tabary in ,bastian1 l4c4 p4 #bie4 ,footnote #dig3 ,hartknoch1 #8,alt4 und ,neues ,preussen1' part i4 ch4 v4 ,footnote #dih3 ,see ,pauly1 #8,real-,encyclopedie4' ,homer4 ,odyss4 xiv4 #cbg1 xix4 #bif4 ,footnote #dii3 ,hymn4 ,homer4 ,aphrod4 #beg4 ,footnote #ejj3 ,ausonii ,idyll4 ,de ,histor4 #g4 ,footnote #eja3 ,apollon4 ,rhod4 ,argonautica1 ii4 #dgf4 ,see ,welcker1 #8,griech4 ,gtterl4' vol4 iii4 p4 #eg4 ,footnote #ejb3 ,ovid4 ,metamm4 i4 #deb1 ii4 #cde1 xi4 #fg4 ,footnote #ejc3 ,dante1 #8,divina ,commedia1' #8,inferno1' canto xiii4 ,footnote #ejd3 ,ariosto1 #8,orlando ,furioso1' canto vi4 ,footnote #eje3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #fae1 c4 ,bastian1 #8,der ,baum1' l4c4 p4 #big2 ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth4' p4 #cac4 ,footnote #ejf3 ,wuttke1 #8,volksaberglaube1' p4 #eg1 see #ahc4 ,footnote #ejg3 ,euseb4 #8,prp4 ,evang4' i4 #aj4 ,footnote #ejh3 ,further details as to tree-worship in ,bastian1 #8,der ,baum1' c41 here cited2 ,lubbock1 #8,origin of ,civilization1' p4 #bjf1 c42 ,fergusson1 #8,tree and ,serpent ,worship1' c4 ,footnote #eji3 ,bastian1 #8,der ,baum1' l4c4 c4 ,footnote #eaj3 ,irving1 #8,astoria1' vol4 ii4 ch4 viii4 ,footnote #eaa3 ,darwin1 #8,journal1' p4 #fh4 ,footnote #eab3 ,polack1 #8,new ,z4' vol4 ii4 p4 #f2 ,taylor1 p4 #aga1 see #ii4 ,footnote #eac3 ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 p4 #hi4 ,footnote #ead3 ,wallace1 #8,eastern ,archipelago1' vol4 i4 p4 #cch4 ,footnote #eae3 ,prichard1 #8,nat4 ,hist4 of ,man1' p4 #eca4 ,footnote #eaf3 ,merolla in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #bcf4 ,footnote #eag3 ,lubbock1 p4 #aic2 ,bastian1 l4c42 ,park1 #8,travels1' vol4 i4 pp4 #fd1 #ajf4 ,footnote #eah3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #hf1 c41 #aia1 c42 ,latham1 #8,descr4 ,eth4' vol4 i4 p4 #cfc2 ,simpson1 #8,journey1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bfa4 ,footnote #eai3 ,boecler1 #8,ehsten ,aberglubische ,gebruche1' c41 ed4 ,kreutzwald1 pp4 #b1 #aab1 #adf4 ,footnote #ebj3 ,hodgson1 #8,abor4 of ,india1' pp4 #afe1 #agc4 ,footnote #eba3 ,macpherson1 p4 #fa4 ,footnote #ebb3 ,dalton1 #8,kols1' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vi4 p4 #cd4 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien4' vol4 i4 p4 #acd1 vol4 iii4 p4 #beb4 ,footnote #ebc3 ,deut4 xii4 #c2 xvi4 #ba4 ,judges vi4 #be4 #a ,kings xiv4 #bc2 xv4 #ac2 xviii4 #ai4 #b ,kings xvii4 #aj2 xxiii4 #d4 ,is4 lvii4 #e4 ,jerem4 xvii4 #b4 ,ezek4 vi4 #ac2 xx4 #bh4 ,hos4 iv4 #ac1 c41 c4 ,footnote #ebd3 ,sil4 ,ital4 ,punica1 iii4 #fge1 #fij4 ,harduin1 ,acta ,conciliorum1 vol4 i4 ,for further evidence as to ,semitic tree-and-grove worship1 see ,movers1 #8,phnizier1' vol4 i4 p4 #efj1 c4 ,footnote #ebe3 ,hunter1 #8,rural ,bengal1' pp4 #aca1 #aid4 ,footnote #ebf3 ,boehtlingk and ,roth1 s4v4 #8chaityataru4' ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bjd4 ,footnote #ebg3 ,ovid4 ,metamm4 viii4 #gda4 ,footnote #ebh3 ,cato de ,re ,rustica1 #aci2 ,plin4 xvii4 #dg4 ,footnote #ebi3 ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth4' pp4 #ih1 #bbi4 ,hartknoch1 part i4 ch4 v4 vii42 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #fg4 ,footnote #ecj3 ,maxim4 ,tyr4 viii42 ,plin4 xvi4 #ie4 ,footnote #eca3 ,tacit4 ,germania1 #i1 #ci1 c42 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #ff4 ,footnote #ecb3 ,hyltn-,cavallius1 #8,wrend och ,wirdarne1' part i4 p4 #adb4 ,footnote #ecc3 ,ralston1 #8,songs of ,russian ,people1' p4 #aec1 see #bch4 ,footnote #ecd3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #fb1 c4 ,footnote #ece3 ,steller1 #8,kamtschatka1' p4 #bgf4 ,footnote #ecf3 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 #8,comentarios ,reales1' i4 ch4 ix4 c4 ,footnote #ecg3 ,marsden1 #8,sumatra1' p4 #cjc4 ,footnote #ech3 ,petron4 ,arb4 ,fragm42 ,statius1 iii4 ,theb4 #ffa4 ,footnote #eci3 ,see ante1 ch4 xi4 ,footnote #edj3 ,mouhot1 #8,indo-,china1' vol4 i4 p4 #beb4 ,footnote #eda3 ,charlevoix1 #8,nouvelle ,france1' vol4 v4 p4 #ddc4 ,footnote #edb3 ,w4 ,m4 ,wood in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iv4 p4 #cf4 ,footnote #edc3 ,simpson1 #8,journey1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bfi2 ,erman1 #8,siberia1' vol4 i4 p4 #dib2 ,latham1 #8,descr4 ,eth4' vol4 i4 p4 #def2 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 iv4 p4 #eij4 ,footnote #edd3 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #ccf4 ,footnote #ede3 ,farmer1 #8,tonga1' p4 #abf2 ,mariner1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ajf4 ,footnote #edf3 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #bag1 c4 ,footnote #edg3 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #bch4 ,footnote #edh3 ,shortland1 #8,trads4 of ,n4 ,z4' ch4 iv4 ,footnote #edi3 ,marsden1 #8,sumatra1' p4 #bib4 ,footnote #eej3 ,loskiel1 #8,ind4 of ,n4 ,a4' part i4 p4 #dj2 ,catlin1 #8,n4 ,a4 ,ind4' vol4 i4 p4 #cf2 ,schoolcraft1 #8,tribes1' part i4 p4 #cd1 part v4 p4 #feb2 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aij4 ,footnote #eea3 ,see ante1 p4 #h2 ,callaway1 #8,rel4 of ,amazulu1' p4 #aif4 ,footnote #eeb3 ,steinhauser1 #8,religion des ,negers1' l4c4 p4 #acc4 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr4' pp4 #baj1 #bah4 ,schlegel1 #8,ewe-,sprache1' p4 xv4 ,footnote #eec3 ,bosman1 #8,guinea1' letter #ai2 in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #dii4 ,see ,burton1 #8,dahome1' ch4 iv41 xvii4 ,an account of the ,vaudoux serpent-worship still carried on among the negroes of ,hayti1 in #8,lippincott's ,magazine1' ,philadelphia1 ,march1 #ahgj4 ,footnote #eed3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #aif1 see #bbh4 ,footnote #eee3 ,j4 ,f4 ,mc,lennan in #8,fortnightly ,review1' #ahfi-gj2 reprinted in #8,studies in ,ancient ,history1' #bnd ,series1 pp4 #aag1 #dia4 ,footnote #eef3 ,john ,long1 #8,voyages and ,travels of an ,indian ,interpreter1' ,london1 #agia1 p4 #hf4 ,see pp4 #bcc1 #daa of present volume4 ,footnote #eeg3 ,grey1 #8,journals of ,expeditions in ,n4 ,w4 ,w4 ,australia1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #bbe-i2 #8,archologia ,americana1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aji4 ,footnote #eeh3 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 #8,totemism1' p4 #ec2 #8,golden ,bough1' #bnd ed4 vol4 iii4 pp4 #dai1 #dbc4 ,footnote #eei3 ,codrington1 #8,melanesians1' pp4 #cb-c1 #agj4 ,footnote #efj3 ,spencer and ,gillen1 #8,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1' #ahii1 pp4 #gc1 #aba4 ,footnote #efa3 ,general references in ,j4 ,f4 ,mc,lennan1 #8,studies in ,ancient ,history2' ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 #8,totemism4' ,footnote #efb3 ,herod4 ii42 ,plutarch1 ,de ,iside ,osiride2 ,strabo1 xvii4 #a2 ,wilkinson1 #8,ancient ,eg41' edited by ,birch1 vol4 iii42 ,bunsen1 #bnd ,edition1 with notes by ,birch1 vol4 i4 ,footnote #efc3 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aie1 c4 ,footnote #efd3 ,schoolcraft1 part iii4 p4 #bca2 ,brinton1 p4 #ajh1 c4 ,footnote #efe3 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 #8,comentarios ,reales1' i4 #i4 ,footnote #eff3 ,herodot4 viii4 #da4 ,footnote #efg3 ,servius ad n4 v4 #ie4 ,footnote #efh3 ,hartknoch1 #8,preussen1' part i4 pp4 #adc1 #afb4 ,footnote #efi3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #fdh4 ,footnote #egj3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #fej4 ,rochholz1 #8,deutscher ,glaube1' c41 vol4 i4 p4 #adf4 ,monnier1 #8,traditions ,populaires1' p4 #fdd4 ,grohmann1 #8,aberglauben aus ,bhmen1' c41 p4 #gh4 ,ralston1 #8,songs of ,russian ,people1' p4 #age4 ,footnote #ega3 ,fergusson #8,tree and ,serpent ,worship1' p4 #ee1 c41 pl4 xxiv4 ,mc,lennan l4c4 p4 #efc1 c4 ,footnote #egb3 ,strabo1 xiii4 #a1 #ad4 ,footnote #egc3 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrel4' pp4 #fb1 #ehe4 ,footnote #egd3 ,j4 ,b4 ,schlegel1 #8,ewe-,sprache1' p4 xiv4 ,footnote #ege3 ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth4' p4 #bag4 ,footnote #egf3 ,pausan4 ii4 #bh2 lian1 xvi4 #ci4 ,see ,welcker1 #8,griech4 ,gtterl4' vol4 ii4 p4 #gcd4 ,footnote #egg3 ,macrob4 ,saturnal4 i4 #i4 ,movers1 #8,phnizier1' vol4 i4 p4 #ejj4 ,footnote #egh3 ,details such as in ,schoolcraft1 #8,ind4 ,tribes1' part i4 pp4 #ch1 #dad1 may be ascribed to ,christian intercourse4 ,see ,brinton1 p4 #aba4 ,footnote #egi3 ,lepsius1 #8,todtenbuch1' and ,birch's transl4 in ,bunsen's #8,egypt1' vol4 v4 ,footnote #ehj3 ,spiegel1 #8,avesta1' vol4 i4 p4 #ff1 vol4 iii4 p4 lix4 ,footnote #eha3 ,epiphan4 ,adv4 ,hres4 xxxvii4 ,tertullian4 ,de ,prscript4 contra ,hreticos1 #dg4 ,footnote #ehb3 ,further collections of evidence relating to ,zoolatry in general may be found in ,bastian1 #8,das ,thier in seiner mythologischen ,bedeutung1' in ,bastian and ,hartmann's #8,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1' vol4 i41 ,meiners1 #8,geschichte der ,religionen1' vol4 i4 ,footnote #ehc3 ,comte1 #8,philosophie ,positive1' vol4 v4 p4 #aja4 ,footnote #ehd3 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #bdb4 ,footnote #ehe3 ,brinton1 #8,myths of ,new ,world1' p4 #aje4 ,footnote #ehf3 ,acosta1 #8,historia de las ,indias1' book v4 c4 iv42 ,rivero ,tschudi1 pp4 #afa1 #agi2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #cfe4 ,footnote #ehg3 ,le ,jeune in #8,rel4 des ,js4 dans la ,nouvelle ,france1' #afcd1 p4 #ac4 ,lafitau1 #8,murs des ,sauvages1' vol4 i4 p4 #cgj4 ,see also ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aid2 ,schoolcraft1 part iii4 p4 #cbg4 ,footnote #ehh3 ,ralston1 #8,songs of the ,russian ,people1' p4 #cge4 ,the ,slavonic myth of ,buyn with its dripping oak and the snake ,garafena lying beneath1 is obviously connected with the ,scandinavian myth of the dripping ash1 ,yggdrasill1 the snake ,nidhgg below1 and the two ,swans of the ,urdharfount1 parents of all swans4 ,footnote #ehi3 ,morgan1 #8,iroquois1' p4 #afb4 ,footnote #eij3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' pp4 #ajf1 #afj1 #ahi1 c4 ,footnote #eia3 ,eisenmenger1 #8,judenthum1' part ii4 p4 #cgf2 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 iii4 p4 #aid4 ,footnote #eib3 ,de ,brosses1 #8,dieux ,ftiches1' p4 #eh4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,animism 7continued74 ,higher ,deities of ,polytheism--,human characteristics applied to ,deity--,lords of ,spiritual ,hierarchy--,polytheism3 its course of development in lower and higher ,culture--,principles of its investigation2 classification of ,deities according to central conceptions of their significance and function--,heaven-god--,rain-god--,thund er-god--,wind gods--,earth-god--,water-god--,sea-god-- ,fire-god--,sun-god--,moon-god4 ,surveying the religions of the world and studying the descriptions of deity among race after race1 we may recur to old polemical terms in order to define a dominant idea of theology at large4 ,man so habitually ascribes to his deities human shape1 human passions1 human nature1 that we may declare him an ,anthropomorphite1 an ,anthropopathite1 and 7to complete the series7 an ,anthropophysite4 ,in this state of religious thought1 prevailing as it does through so immense a range among mankind1 one of the strongest confirmations may be found of the theory here advanced concerning the development of ,animism4 ,this theory that the conception of the human soul is the very #8fons et origo' of the conceptions of spirit and deity in general1 has been already vouched for by the fact of human souls being held to pass into the characters of good and evil demons1 and to ascend to the rank of deities4 ,but beyond this1 as we consider the nature of the great gods of the nations1 in whom the vastest functions of the universe are vested1 it will still be apparent that these mighty deities are modelled on human souls1 that in great measure their feeling and sympathy1 their character and habit1 their will and action1 even their material and form1 display throughout their adaptations1 exaggerations and distortions1 characteristics shaped upon those of the human spirit4 ,the key to investigation of the ,dii ,majorum ,gentium of the world is the reflex of humanity1 and as we behold their figures in their proper districts of theology1 memory ever brings back the ,psalmist's words1 #8,thou thoughtest ,i was altogether as thyself4' ,the higher deities of ,polytheism have their places in the general animistic system of mankind4 ,among nation after nation it is still clear how1 man being the type of deity1 human society and government became the model on which divine society and government were shaped4 ,as chiefs and kings are among men1 so are the great gods among the lesser spirits4 ,they differ from the souls and minor spiritual beings which we have as yet chiefly considered1 but the difference is rather of rank than of nature4 ,they are personal spirits1 reigning over personal spirits4 ,above the disembodied souls and manes1 the local genii of rocks and fountains and trees1 the host of good and evil demons1 and the rest of the spiritual commonality1 stand these mightier deities1 whose influence is less confined to local or individual interests1 and who1 as it pleases them1 can act directly within their vast domain1 or control and operate through the lower beings of their kind1 their servants1 agents1 or mediators4 ,the great gods of ,polytheism1 numerous and elaborately defined in the theology of the cultured world1 do not however make their earliest appearance there4 ,in the religions of the lower races their principal types were already cast1 and thenceforward1 for many an age of progressing or relapsing culture1 it became the work of poet and priest1 legend-monger and historian1 theologian and philosopher1 to develop and renew1 to degrade and abolish1 the mighty lords of the ,pantheon4 ,with little exception1 wherever a savage or barbaric system of religion is thoroughly described1 great gods make their appearance in the spiritual world as distinctly as chiefs in the human tribe4 ,in the lists1 it is true1 there are set down great deities1 good or evil1 who probably came in from modern ,christian missionary teaching1 or otherwise by contact with foreign religions4 ,it is often difficult to distinguish from these the true local gods1 animistic figures of native meaning and origin4 ,among the following polytheistic systems1 examples may be found of such combinations1 with the complex theological problems they suggest4 ,among the ,australians1 above the swarming souls1 nature-spirits1 demons1 there stand out mythic figures of higher divinity2 ,nguk-wonga1 the ,spirit of the ,waters2 ,biam1 who gives ceremonial songs and causes disease1 and is perhaps the same as ,baiame the creator2 ,nambajandi and ,warrugura1 lords of heaven and the nether world4#eic ,in ,south ,america1 if we look into the theology of the ,manaos 7whose name is well known in the famous legend of ,el ,dorado and the golden city of ,manoa71 we see ,mauari and ,saraua1 who may be called the ,good and ,evil ,spirit1 and beside the latter the two ,gamainhas1 ,spirits of the ,waters and the ,forest4#eid ,in ,north ,america the description of a solemn ,algonquin sacrifice introduces a list of twelve dominant manitus or gods2 first the ,great ,manitu in heaven1 then the ,sun1 ,moon1 ,earth1 ,fire1 ,water1 the ,house-god1 the ,indian corn1 and the four ,winds or ,cardinal ,points4#eie ,the ,polynesian's crowd of manes1 and the lower ranks of deities of earth1 sea1 and air1 stand below the great gods of ,peace and ,war1 ,oro and ,tane the national deities of ,tahiti and ,huahine1 ,raitubu the ,sky-producer1 ,hina who aided in the work of forming the world1 her father ,taaroa1 the uncreate ,creator who dwells in ,heaven4#eif ,among the ,land ,dayaks of ,borneo1 the commonalty of spirits consists of the souls of the departed1 and of such beings as dwell in the noble old forests on the tops of lofty hills1 or such as hover about villages and devour the stores of rice2 above these are ,tapa1 creator and preserver of man1 and ,iang1 who taught the ,dayaks their religion1 ,jirong1 whose function is the birth and death of men1 and ,tenabi1 who made1 and still causes to flourish1 the earth and all things therein save the human race4#eig ,in ,west ,africa1 an example may be taken from the theology of the ,slave ,coast1 a systematic scheme of all nature as moved and quickened by spirits1 kindly or hostile to mankind4 ,these spirits dwell in field and wood1 mountain and valley2 they live in air and water2 multitudes of them have been human souls1 such ghosts hover about the graves and near the living1 and have influence with the under-gods1 whom they worship2 among these #8edr' are the patron-deities of men and families and tribes2 through these subordinate beings works the highest god1 ,mawu4 ,the missionary who describes this negro hierarchy quite simply sees in it ,satan and his ,angels4#eih ,in ,asia1 the ,samoyed's little spirits that are bound to his little fetishes1 and the little elves of wood and stream1 have greater beings above them1 the ,forest-,spirit1 the ,river-,spirit1 the ,sun and ,moon1 the ,evil ,spirit and the ,good ,spirit above all4#eii ,the countless host of the local gods of the ,khonds pervade the world1 rule the functions of nature1 and control the life of men1 and these have their chiefs2 above them rank the deified souls of men who have become tutelary gods of tribes2 above these are the six great gods1 the ,rain-god1 the goddess of ,firstfruits1 the god of ,increase1 the god of ,hunting1 the iron god of ,war1 the god of ,boundaries1 with which group stands also the ,judge of the ,dead1 and above all other gods1 the ,sun-god and ,creator ,boora ,pennu1 and his wife the mighty ,earth-goddess1 ,tari ,pennu4#fjj ,the ,spanish conquerors found in ,mexico a complex and systematic hierarchy of spiritual beings2 numberless were the little deities who had their worship in house and lane1 grove and temple1 and from these the worshipper could pass to gods of flowers or of pulque1 of hunters and goldsmiths1 and then to the great deities of the nation and the world1 the figures which the mythologist knows so well1 ,centeotl the ,earth-goddess1 ,tlaloc the ,water-god1 ,huitzilopochtli the ,war-god1 ,mictlanteuctli the ,lord of ,hades1 ,tonatiuh and ,metztli the ,sun and ,moon4#fja ,thus1 starting from the theology of savage tribes1 the student arrives at the polytheistic hierarchies of the ,aryan nations4 ,in ancient ,greece1 the cloud-compelling ,heaven-god reigns over such deities as the god of ,war and the goddess of ,love1 the ,sun-god and the ,moon-goddess1 the ,fire-god and the ruler of the ,under-world1 the ,winds and ,rivers1 the nymphs of wood and well and forest4#fjb ,in modern ,india1 ,brahma-,vishnu-,siva reign pre-eminent over a series of divinities1 heterogeneous and often obscure in nature1 but among whom stand out in clear meaning and purpose such figures as ,indra of ,heaven and ,srya of the ,sun1 ,agni of the ,fire1 ,pavana of the ,winds and ,varuna of the ,waters1 ,yama lord of the ,under-world1 ,kma god of ,love and ,krttikeya of ,war1 ,panchnana who gives epilepsy and ,manas who preserves from snake-bites1 the divine ,rivers1 and below these the ranks of nymphs1 elves1 demons1 ministering spirits1 of heaven and earth--,gandharvas1 ,apsaras1 ,siddhas1 ,asuras1 ,bhtas1 ,rkshasas4#fjc ,the systematic comparison of polytheistic religions has been of late years worked with admirable results4 ,these have been due to the adoption of comparatively exact methods1 as where the ancient ,aryan deities of the ,veda have been brought into connexion with those of the ,homeric poems1 in some cases as clearly as where we ,englishmen can study in the ,scandinavian ,edda the old gods of our own race1 whose names stand in local names on the map of ,england1 and serve as counters to reckon our days of the week4 ,yet it need scarcely be said that to compare in full detail the deities even of closely connected nations1 and fortiori those of tribes not united in language and history1 is still a difficult and unsatisfactory task4 ,the old-fashioned identifications of the gods and heroes of different nations admitted most illusory evidence4 ,some had little more ground than similar-sounding names1 as when the ,hindu ,brahma and ,prajpati were discovered to be the ,hebrew ,abraham and ,japhet1 and when even ,sir ,william ,jones identified ,woden with ,buddha4 ,with not much more stringency1 it is still often taken as matter of course that the ,keltic ,beal1 whose bealtines correspond with a whole class of bonfire-customs among several branches of the ,aryan race1 is the ,bel or the ,baal of the ,semitic cultus4 ,unfortunately1 classical scholarship at the ,renaissance started the subject on an unsound footing1 by accepting the ,greek deities with the mystified shapes and perverted names they had assumed in ,latin literature4 ,that there was a partial soundness in such comparisons1 as in identifying ,zeus and ,jupiter1 ,hestia and ,vesta1 made the plan all the more misleading when ,kronos came to figure as ,saturn1 ,poseidon as ,neptune1 ,athene as ,minerva4 ,to judge by example of the possible results of comparative theology worked on such principles1 ,thoth being identified with ,hermes1 ,hermes with ,mercury1 and ,mercury with ,woden1 there comes to pass the absurd transition from the ,egyptian ibis-headed divine scribe of the gods1 to the ,teutonic heaven-dwelling driver of the raging tempest4 ,it is not in this loose fashion that the mental processes are to be sought out1 which led nations to arrange so similarly and yet so diversely their array of deities4 ,a twofold perplexity besets the soberest investigator on this ground1 caused by the modification of deities by development at home and adoption from abroad4 ,even among the lower races1 gods of long traditional legend and worship acquire a mixed and complex personality4 ,the mythologist who seeks to ascertain the precise definition of the ,red ,indian ,michabu in his various characters of ,heaven-god and ,water-god1 ,creator of the ,earth and first ancestor of ,man1 or who examines the personality of the ,polynesian ,maui in his relation to ,sun1 lord of ,heaven or ,hades1 first ,man1 and ,south ,sea ,island hero1 will sympathize with the ,semitic or ,aryan student bewildered among the heterogeneous attributes of ,baal and ,astarte1 ,herakles and ,athene4 ,sir ,william ,jones scarcely overstated the perplexity of the problem in the following remarkable forecast delivered more than a century ago1 in the first anniversary discourse before the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 at a time when glimpses of the relation of the ,hindu to the ,greek ,pantheon were opening into a new broad view of comparative theology in his mind4 #8,we must not be surprised1' he says1 #8at finding1 on a close examination1 that the characters of all the ,pagan deities1 male and female1 melt into each other and at last into one or two2 for it seems a well-founded opinion1 that the whole crowd of gods and goddesses in ancient ,rome1 and modern ,vrnes ,benares mean only the powers of nature1 and principally those of the ,sun1 expressed in a variety of ways and by a multitude of fanciful names4' ,as to the travelling of gods from country to country1 and the changes they are apt to suffer on the road1 we may judge by examples of what has happened within our knowledge4 ,it is not merely that one nation borrows a god from another with its proper figure and attributes and rites1 as where in ,rome the worshipper of the ,sun might take his choice whether he would adore in the temple of the ,greek ,apollo1 the ,egyptian ,osiris1 the ,persian ,mithra1 or the ,syrian ,elagabalus4 ,the intercourse of races can produce quainter results than this4 ,any ,orientalist will appreciate the wonderful hotchpot of ,hindu and ,arabic language and religion in the following details1 noted down among rude tribes of the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,we hear of ,jin ,bumi the ,earth-god 7,arabic jin demon1 ,sanskrit bhmi earth72 incense is burnt to ,jewajewa 7,sanskrit dewa god7 who intercedes with ,pirman the supreme invisible deity above the sky 7,brahma872 the ,moslem ,allah ,tala1 with his wife ,nabi ,mahamad 7,prophet ,mohammed71 appear in the ,hinduized characters of creator and destroyer of all things2 and while the spirits worshipped in stones are called by the ,hindu term of #8dewa' or deity1 ,moslem conversion has so far influenced the mind of the stone-worshipper1 that he will give to his sacred boulder the title of a ,prophet ,mohammed4#fjd ,if we would have examples nearer home1 we may trace the evil demon ,aeshma ,daeva of the ancient ,persian religion becoming the ,asmodeus of the book of ,tobit1 afterwards to find a place in the devilry of the middle ages1 and to end his career as the ,diable ,boiteux of ,le ,sage4 ,even the ,aztec war-god ,huitzilopochtli may be found figuring as the demon ,vizlipuzli in the popular drama of ,doctor ,faustus4 ,in ethnographic comparisons of the religions of mankind1 unless there is evidence of direct relation between gods belonging to two peoples1 the safe and reasonable principle is to limit the identification of deities to the attributes they have in common4 ,thus it is proper to compare the ,dendid of the ,white ,nile with the ,aryan ,indra1 in so far as both are ,heaven-gods and ,rain-gods2 the ,aztec ,tonatiuh with the ,greek ,apollo1 in so far as both are ,sun-gods2 the ,australian ,baiame with the ,scandinavian ,thor1 in so far as both are ,thunder-gods4 ,the present purpose of displaying ,polytheism as a department of ,animism does not require that elaborate comparison of systems which would be in place in a manual of the religions of the world4 ,the great gods may be scientifically ranged and treated according to their fundamental ideas1 the strongly-marked and intelligible conceptions which1 under names often obscure and personalities often mixed and mystified1 they stand to represent4 ,it is enough to show the similarity of principle on which the theologic mind of the lower races shaped those old familiar types of deity1 with which our first acquaintance was gained in the pantheon of classic mythology4 ,it will be observed that not all1 but the principal figures1 belong to strict ,nature-worship4 ,these may be here first surveyed4 ,they are ,heaven and ,earth1 ,rain and ,thunder1 ,water and ,sea1 ,fire and ,sun and ,moon1 worshipped either directly for themselves1 or as animated by their special deities1 or these deities are more fully set apart and adored in anthropomorphic shape--a group of conceptions distinctly and throughout based on the principles of savage fetishism4 ,true1 the great ,nature-gods are huge in strength and far-reaching in influence1 but this is because the natural objects they belong to are immense in size or range of action1 pre-eminent and predominant among lesser fetishes1 though still fetishes themselves4 ,in the religion of the ,north ,american ,indians1 the ,heaven-god displays perfectly the gradual blending of the material sky itself with its personal deity4 ,in the early times of ,french colonization1 ,father ,brebeuf mentions the ,hurons addressing themselves to the earth1 rivers1 lakes1 and dangerous rocks1 but above all to heaven1 believing that it is all animated1 and some powerful demon dwells therein4 ,he describes them as speaking directly to heaven by its personal name #8,aronhiat6' ,thus when they throw tobacco into the fire as sacrifice1 if it is ,heaven they address1 they say #8,aronhiat6 7,heaven67 behold my sacrifice1 have pity on me1 aid me6' ,they have recourse to ,heaven in almost all their necessities1 and respect this great body above all creatures1 remarking in it particularly something divine4 ,they imagine in the sky an #8oki1' i4e4 demon or power1 which rules the seasons of the year and controls the winds and waves4 ,they dread its anger1 calling it to witness when they make some important promise or treaty1 saying1 ,heaven hears what we do this day1 and fearing chastisement should their word be broken4 ,one of their renowned sorcerers said1 ,heaven will be angry if men mock him2 when they cry every day to ,heaven1 ,aronhiat6 yet give him nothing1 he will avenge himself4 ,etymology again suggests the divine sky as the inner meaning of the ,iroquois supreme deity1 ,taronhiawagon the #8sky-comer' or #8sky-holder1' who had his festival about the winter solstice1 who brought the ancestral race out of the mountain1 taught them hunting1 marriage1 and religion1 gave them corn and beans1 squashes and potatoes and tobacco1 and guided them on their migrations as they spread over the land4 ,among the ,north ,american tribes1 not only does the conception of the personal divine ,heaven thus seem the fundamental idea of the ,heaven-god1 but it may expand under ,christian influence into a yet more general thought of divinity in the ,great ,spirit in ,heaven4#fje ,in ,south ,africa1 the ,zulus speak of the ,heaven as a person1 ascribing to it the power of exercising a will1 and they also speak of a ,lord of ,heaven1 whose wrath they deprecate during a thunderstorm4 ,in the native legends of the ,zulu princess in the country of the ,half-,men1 the captive maiden expostulates personally with the ,sky1 for only acting in an ordinary way1 and not in the way she wishes1 to destroy her enemies3-- #8,listen1 yon heaven4 ,attend2 mayoya1 listen4 ,listen1 heaven4 ,it does not thunder with loud thunder4 ,it thunders in an undertone4 ,what is it doing8 ,it thunders to produce rain and change of season4' ,thereupon the clouds gather tumultuously2 the princess sings again and it thunders terribly1 and the ,heaven kills the ,half-,men round about her1 but she is left unharmed4#fjf ,west ,africa is another district where the ,heaven-god reigns1 in whose attributes may be traced the transition from the direct conception of the personal sky to that of the supreme creative deity4 ,thus in ,bonny1 one word serves for god1 heaven1 cloud2 and in ,aquapim1 ,yankupong is at once the highest god and the weather4 ,of this latter deity1 the ,nyankupon of the ,oji nation1 it is remarked by ,riis1 #8,the idea of him as a supreme spirit is obscure and uncertain1 and often confounded with the visible heavens or sky1 the upper world 7sorro7 which lies beyond human reach2 and hence the same word is used also for heavens1 sky1 and even for rain and thunder4'#fjg ,the same transition from the divine sky to its anthropomorphic deity shows out in the theology of the ,tatar tribes4 ,the rude ,samoyed's mind scarcely if at all separates the visible personal ,heaven from the divinity united with it under one and the same name1 ,num4 ,among the more cultured ,finns1 the cosmic attributes of the ,heaven-god1 ,ukko the ,old ,one1 display the same original nature2 he is the ancient of ,heaven1 the father of ,heaven1 the bearer of the ,firmament1 the god of the ,air1 the dweller on the ,clouds1 the ,cloud-driver1 the shepherd of the ,cloud-lambs4#fjh ,so far as the evidence of language1 and document1 and ceremony1 can preserve the record of remotely ancient thought1 ,china shows in the highest deity of the state religion a like theologic development4 ,tien1 ,heaven1 is in personal shape the ,shang-ti or ,upper ,emperor1 the ,lord of the ,universe4 ,the ,chinese books may idealize this supreme divinity2 they may say that his command is fate1 that he rewards the good and punishes the wicked1 that he loves and protects the people beneath him1 that he manifests himself through events1 that he is a spirit full of insight1 penetrating1 fearful1 majestic4 ,yet they cannot refine him so utterly away into an abstract celestial deity1 but that language and history still recognize him as what he was in the beginning1 ,tien1 ,heaven4#fji ,with such evidence perfectly accords the history of the ,heaven-god among our ,indo-,european race4 ,this being1 adored in ancient ,aryan religion1 was-- #8444 the whole circle of the heavens1 for him ,a sensitive existence1 and a ,god1 ,with lifted hands invoked1 and songs of praise4' ,the evidence of language to this effect has been set forth with extreme clearness by ,professor ,max ,mller4 ,in the first stage1 the ,sanskrit ,dyu 7,dyaus71 the bright sky1 is taken in a sense so direct that it expresses the idea of day1 and the storms are spoken of as going about in it2 while ,greek and ,latin rival this distinctness in such terms as 1 #8in the open air1' 1 #8well-skyed1 calm1' sub divo1 #8in the open air1' sub ,jove frigido1 #8under the cold sky1' and that graphic description by ,ennius of the bright firmament1 ,jove whom all invoke3-- #8,aspice hoc sublime candens1 quem invocant omnes ,jovem4' ,in the second stage1 ,dyaus pitar1 ,heaven-father1 stands in the ,veda as consort of ,prithiv mtar1 ,earth-mother1 ranked high or highest among the bright gods4 ,to the ,greek he is 1 the ,heaven-father1 ,zeus the ,all-seer1 the ,cloud-compeller1 ,king of ,gods and ,men4 ,as ,max ,mller writes3 #8,there was nothing that could be told of the sky that was not in some form or other ascribed to ,zeus4 ,it was ,zeus who rained1 who thundered1 who snowed1 who hailed1 who sent the lightning1 who gathered the clouds1 who let loose the winds1 who held the rainbow4 ,it is ,zeus who orders the days and nights1 the months1 seasons1 and years4 ,it is he who watches over the fields1 who sends rich harvests1 and who tends the flocks4 ,like the sky1 ,zeus dwells on the highest mountains2 like the sky1 ,zeus embraces the earth2 like the sky1 ,zeus is eternal1 unchanging1 the highest god4 ,for good and for evil1 ,zeus the sky and ,zeus the god are wedded together in the ,greek mind1 language triumphing over thought1 tradition over religion4' ,the same ,aryan ,heaven-father is ,jupiter1 in that original name and nature which he bore in ,rome long before they arrayed him in the borrowed garments of ,greek myth1 and adapted him to the ideas of classic philosophy4#faj ,thus1 in nation after nation1 took place the great religious development by which the ,father-,heaven became the ,father in ,heaven4 ,the ,rain-god is most often the ,heaven-god exercising a special function1 though sometimes taking a more distinctly individual form1 or blending in characteristics with a general ,water-god4 ,in ,east ,central ,africa1 the spirit of an old chief dwelling on a cloudy mountain-top may receive the worship of his votaries and send down the refreshing showers in answer to their prayers2 among the ,damaras the highest deity is ,omakuru the ,rain-giver1 who dwells in the far ,north2 while to the negro of ,west ,africa the ,heaven-god is the rain-giver1 and may pass in name into the rain itself4#faa ,pachacamac1 the ,peruvian world-creator1 has set the ,rain-goddess to pour waters over the land1 and send down hail and snow4#fab ,the ,aztec ,tlaloc was no doubt originally a ,heaven-god1 for he holds the thunder and lightning1 but he has taken especially the attributes of ,water-god and ,rain-god2 and so in ,nicaragua the ,rain-god ,quiateot 7,aztec quiahuitl rain1 teotl god7 to whom children were sacrificed to bring rain1 shows his larger celestial nature by being also sender of thunder and lightning4#fac ,the ,rain-god of the ,khonds is ,pidzu ,pennu1 whom the priests and elders propitiate with eggs and arrack and rice and a sheep1 and invoke with quaintly pathetic prayers4 ,they tell him how1 if he will not give water1 the land must remain unploughed1 the seed will rot in the ground1 they and their children and cattle will die of want1 the deer and the wild hog will seek other haunts1 and then of what avail will it be for the ,rain-god to relent1 how little any gift of water will avail1 when there shall be left neither man1 nor cattle1 nor seed2 so let him1 resting on the sky1 pour waters down upon them through his sieve1 till the deer are drowned out of the forest and take refuge in the houses1 till the soil of the mountains is washed into the valleys1 till the cooking-pots burst with the force of the swelling rice1 till the beasts gather so plentifully in the green and favoured land1 that men's axes shall be blunted with cutting up the game4#fad ,with perfect meteorological fitness1 the ,kol tribes of ,bengal consider their great deity ,marang ,buru1 ,great ,mountain1 to be the ,rain-god4 ,marang ,buru1 one of the most conspicuous hills of the plateau near ,lodmah in ,chota-,nagpur1 is the deity himself or his dwelling4 ,before the rains come on1 the women climb the hill1 led by the wives of the pahans1 with girls drumming1 to carry offerings of milk and bel-leaves1 which are put on the flat rock at the top4 ,then the wives of the pahans kneel with loosened hair and invoke the deity1 beseeching him to give the crops seasonable rain4 ,they shake their heads violently as they reiterate this prayer1 till they work themselves into a frenzy1 and the movement becomes involuntary4 ,they go on thus wildly gesticulating1 till a cloud is seen2 then they rise1 take the drums1 and dance the kurrun on the rock1 till ,marang ,buru's response to their prayer is heard in the distant rumbling of thunder1 and they go home rejoicing4 ,they must go fasting to the mount1 and stay there till there is #8a sound of abundance of rain1' when they get them down to eat and drink4 ,it is said that the rain always comes before evening1 but the old women appear to choose their own moment for beginning the fast4#fae ,it was to ,ukko the ,heaven-god1 that in old days the ,finn turned with such prayers3-- #8,ukko1 thou1 ,o ,god above us ,thou1 ,o ,father in the heavens1 ,thou who rulest in the cloud-land1 ,and the little cloud-lambs leadest1 ,send us down the rain from heaven1 ,make the clouds to drop with honey1 ,let the drooping corn look upward1 ,let the grain with plenty rustle4'#faf ,quite like this were the classic conceptions of ,jupiter ,pluvius4 ,they are typified in the famous ,athenian prayer recorded by ,marcus ,aurelius1 #8,rain1 rain1 ,o dear ,zeus1 on the plough-lands of the ,athenians1 and the plains6'#fag and in ,petronius ,arbiter's complaint of the irreligion of his times1 that now no one thinks heaven is heaven1 no one keeps a fast1 no one cares a hair for ,jove1 but all men with closed eyes reckon up their goods4 ,afore-time the ladies walked up the hill in their stoles with bare feet and loosened hair and pure minds1 and entreated ,jove for water2 then all at once it rained bucketsfull1 then or never1 and they all went home wet as drowned rats4#fah ,in later ages1 when drought parched the fields of the medival husbandman1 he transferred to other patrons the functions of the ,rain-god1 and with procession and litany sought help from ,st4 ,peter or ,st4 ,james1 or1 with more of mythological consistency1 from the ,queen of ,heaven4 ,as for ourselves1 we have lived to see the time when men shrink from addressing even to ,supreme ,deity the old customary rain-prayers1 for the rainfall is passing from the region of the supernatural1 to join the tides and seasons in the realm of physical science4 ,the place of the ,thunder-god in polytheistic religion is similar to that of the ,rain-god1 in many cases even to entire coincidence4 ,but his character is rather of wrath than of beneficence1 a character which we have half lost the power to realize1 since the agonizing terror of the thunderstorm which appals savage minds has dwindled away in ours1 now that we behold in it not the manifestation of divine wrath1 but the restoration of electric equilibrium4 ,north ,american tribes1 as the ,mandans1 heard in the thunder and saw in the lightning the clapping wings and flashing eyes of that awful heaven-bird which belongs to1 or even is1 the ,great ,manitu himself4#fai ,the ,dacotas could show at a place called ,thunder-tracks1 near the source of the ,st4 ,peter's ,river1 the footprints of the thunder-bird five and twenty miles apart4 ,it is to be noticed that these ,sioux1 among their varied fancies about thunder-birds and the like1 give unusually well a key to the great thunderbolt-myth which recurs in so many lands4 ,they consider the lightning entering the ground to scatter there in all directions thunderbolt-stones1 which are flints1 c41 their reason for this notion being the very rational one1 that these siliceous stones actually produce a flash when struck4#fbj ,in an account of certain ,carib deities1 who were men and are now stars1 occurs the name of ,savacou1 who was changed into a great bird2 he is captain of the hurricane and thunder1 he blows fire through a tube and that is lightning1 he gives the great rain4 ,rochefort describes the effect of a thunderstorm on the partly ,europeanized ,caribs of the ,west ,indies two centuries ago4 ,when they perceive its approach1 he says1 they quickly betake themselves to their cabins1 and range themselves in the kitchen on their little seats near the fire2 hiding their faces and leaning their heads in their hands and on their knees1 they fall to weeping and lamenting in their jargon #8,maboya mouche fache contre ,carabe1' i4e41 ,maboya 7the evil demon7 is very angry with the ,caribs4 ,this they say also when there comes a hurricane1 not leaving off this dismal exercise till it is over1 and there is no end to their astonishment that the ,christians on these occasions manifest no such affliction and fear4#fba ,the ,tupi tribes of ,brazil are an example of a race among whom the ,thunder or the ,thunderer1 ,tupan1 flapping his celestial wings and flashing with celestial light1 was developed into the very representative of highest deity1 whose name still stands among their ,christian descendants as the equivalent of ,god4#fbb ,in ,peru1 a mighty and far-worshipped deity was ,catequil the ,thunder-god1 child of the ,heaven-god1 he who set free the ,indian race from out of the ground by turning it up with his golden spade1 he who in thunder-flash and clap hurls from his sling the small round smooth thunderstones1 treasured in the villages as fire-fetishes and charms to kindle the flames of love4 ,how distinct in personality and high in rank was the ,thunder and ,lightning 7,chuqui yllayllapa7 in the religion of the ,incas1 may be judged from his huaca or fetish-idol standing on the bench beside the idols of the ,creator and the ,sun at the great ,solar festival in ,cuzco1 when the beasts to be sacrificed were led round them1 and the priests prayed thus3 #8,o ,creator1 and ,sun1 and ,thunder1 be for ever young6 do not grow old4 ,let all things be at peace6 let the people multiply1 and their food1 and let all other things continue to increase4'#fbc ,in ,africa1 we may contrast the ,zulu1 who perceives in thunder and lightning the direct action of ,heaven or ,heaven's lord1 with the ,yoruba1 who assigns them not to ,olorun the ,lord of ,heaven1 but to a lower deity1 ,shango the ,thunder-god1 whom they call also ,dzakuta the ,stone-caster1 for it is he who 7as among so many other peoples who have forgotten their ,stone ,age7 flings down from heaven the stone hatchets which are found in the ground1 and preserved as sacred objects4#fbd ,in the religion of the ,kamchadals1 ,billukai1 the hem of whose garment is the rainbow1 dwells in the clouds with many spirits1 and sends thunder and lightning and rain4#fbe ,among the ,ossetes of the ,caucasus the ,thunderer is ,ilya1 in whose name mythologists trace a ,christian tradition of ,elijah1 whose fiery chariot seems indeed to have been elsewhere identified with that of the ,thunder-god1 while the highest peak of gina1 once the seat of ,pan-hellenic ,zeus1 is now called ,mount ,st4 ,elias4 ,among certain ,moslem schismatics1 it is even the historical ,ali1 cousin of ,mohammed1 who is enthroned in the clouds1 where the thunder is his voice1 and the lightning the lash wherewith he smites the wicked4#fbf ,among the ,turanian or ,tatar race1 the ,european branch shows most distinctly the figure of the ,thunder-god4 ,to the ,lapps1 ,tiermes appears to have been the ,heaven-god1 especially conceived as ,aija the ,thunder-god2 of old they thought the ,thunder 7,aija7 to be a living being1 hovering in the air and hearkening to the talk of men1 smiting such as spoke of him in an unseemly way2 or1 as some said1 the ,thunder-god is the foe of sorcerers1 whom he drives from heaven and smites1 and then it is that men hear in thunder-peals the hurtling of his arrows1 as he speeds them from his bow1 the ,rainbow4 ,in ,finnish poetry1 likewise1 ,ukko the ,heaven-god is portrayed with such attributes4 ,the ,runes call him ,thunderer1 he speaks through the clouds1 his fiery shirt is the lurid storm-cloud1 men talk of his stones and his hammer1 he flashes his fiery sword and it lightens1 or he draws his mighty rainbow1 ,ukko's bow1 to shoot his fiery copper arrows1 wherewith men would invoke him to smite their enemies4 ,or when it is dark in his heavenly house he strikes fire1 and that is lightning4 ,to this day the ,finlanders call a thunderstorm an #8ukko1' or an #8ukkonen1' that is1 #8a little ukko1' and when it lightens they say1 #8,there is ,ukko striking fire6'#fbg ,what is the ,aryan conception of the ,thunder-god1 but a poetic elaboration of thoughts inherited from the savage state through which the primitive ,aryans had passed8 ,the ,hindu ,thunder-god is the ,heaven-god ,indra1 ,indra's bow is the rainbow1 ,indra hurls the thunderbolts1 he smites his enemies1 he smites the dragon-clouds1 and the rain pours down on earth1 and the sun shines forth again4 ,the ,veda is full of ,indra's glories3 #8,now will ,i sing the feats of ,indra1 which he of the thunderbolt did of old4 ,he smote ,ahi1 then he poured forth the waters2 he divided the rivers of the mountains4 ,he smote ,ahi by the mountain2 ,tvashtar forged for him the glorious bolt4'--#8,whet1 ,o strong ,indra1 the heavy strong red weapon against the enemies6'--#8,may the axe 7the thunderbolt7 appear with the light2 may the red one blaze forth bright with splendour6'--#8,when ,indra hurls again and again his thunderbolt1 then they believe in the brilliant god4' ,nor is ,indra merely a great god in the ancient ,vedic pantheon1 he is the very patron-deity of the invading ,aryan race in ,india1 to whose help they look in their conflicts with the dark-skinned tribes of the land4 #8,destroying the ,dasyus1 ,indra protected the ,aryan colour'--#8,indra protected in battle the ,aryan worshipper1 he subdued the lawless for ,manu1 he conquered the black skin4'#fbh ,this ,hindu ,indra is the offspring of ,dyaus the ,heaven4 ,but in the ,greek religion1 ,zeus is himself ,zeus ,kerauneios1 the wielder of the thunderbolt1 and thunders from the cloud-capped tops of ,ida or ,olympos4 ,in like manner the ,jupiter ,capitolinus of ,rome is himself ,jupiter ,tonans3 #8,ad penetrale ,num1 ,capitolinumque ,tonantem4'#fbi ,thus1 also1 it was in accurate language that the old ,slavonic nations were described as adoring ,jupiter ,tonans as their highest god4 ,he was the cloud-dwelling ,heaven-god1 his weapon the thunder-bolt1 the lightning-flash1 his name ,perun the ,smiter 7,perkun1 ,perkunas74 ,in the ,lithuanian district1 the thunder itself is ,perkun2 in past times the peasant would cry when he heard the thunder peal #8,dewe ,perkune apsaugog mus6--,god ,perkun spare us6' and to this day he says1 #8,perkunas gravja6--,perkun is thundering6' or #8,wezzajs barrahs6--the ,old ,one growls6'#fcj ,the old ,german and ,scandinavian theology made ,thunder1 ,donar1 ,thor1 a special deity to rule the clouds and rain1 and hurl his crushing hammer through the air4 ,he reigned high in the ,saxon heaven1 till the days came when the ,christian convert had to renounce him in solemn form1 #8ec forsacho ,thunare6--,i forsake ,thunder6' ,now1 his survival is for the most part in mere verbal form1 in the etymology of such names as ,donnersberg1 ,thorwaldsen1 ,thursday4#fca ,in the polytheism of the lower as of the higher races1 the ,wind-gods are no unknown figures4 ,the ,winds themselves1 and especially the ,four ,winds in their four regions1 take name and shape as personal divinities1 while some deity of wider range1 a ,wind-god1 ,storm-god1 ,air-god1 or the mighty ,heaven-god himself1 may stand as compeller or controller of breeze and gale and tempest4 ,we have already taken as examples from the ,algonquin mythology of ,north ,america the four winds whose native legends have been versified in #8,hiawatha2' ,mudjekeewis the ,west ,wind1 ,father of the ,winds of ,heaven1 and his children1 ,wabun the ,east ,wind1 the morning-bringer1 the lazy ,shawondasse the ,south ,wind1 the wild and cruel ,north ,wind1 the fierce ,kabibonokka4 ,viewed in their religious aspect1 these mighty beings correspond with four of the great manitus sacrificed to among the ,delawares1 the ,west1 ,south1 ,east1 and ,north2 while the ,iroquois acknowledged a deity of larger grasp1 ,goh1 the ,spirit of the ,winds1 who holds them prisoned in the mountains in the ,home of the ,winds4#fcb ,the ,polynesian ,wind-gods are thus described by ,ellis3 #8,the chief of these were ,veromatautoru and ,tairibu1 brother and sister to the children of ,taaroa1 their dwelling was near the great rock1 which was the foundation of the world4 ,hurricanes1 tempests1 and all destructive winds1 were supposed to be confined within them1 and were employed by them to punish such as neglected the worship of the gods4 ,in stormy weather their compassion was sought by the tempest-driven mariner at sea1 or the friends of such on shore4 ,liberal presents1 it was supposed1 would at any time purchase a calm4 ,if the first failed1 subsequent ones were certain of success4 ,the same means were resorted to for procuring a storm1 but with less certainty4 ,whenever the inhabitants of one island heard of invasion from those of another1 they immediately carried large offerings to these deities1 and besought them to destroy by tempest the hostile fleet whenever it might put to sea4 ,some of the most intelligent people still think evil spirits had formerly great power over the winds1 as they say there have been no such fearful storms since they abolished idolatry1 as there were before4' ,or1 again1 the great deity ,maui adds a new complication to his enigmatic solar-celestial character by appearing as a ,wind-,god4 ,in ,tahiti he was identified with the ,east ,wind2 in ,new ,zealand he holds all the winds but the west in his hands1 or he imprisons them with great stones rolled to the mouths of their caves1 save the ,west ,wind which he cannot catch or prison1 so that it almost always blows4#fcc ,to the ,kamchadal1 it is ,billukai the ,heaven-god who comes down and drives his sledge on earth1 and men see his traces in the wind-drifted snow4#fcd ,to the ,finn1 while there are traces of subordinate ,wind-gods in his mythology1 the great ruler of wind and storm is ,ukko the ,heaven-god2#fce while the ,esth looked rather to ,tuule-ema1 ,wind's ,mother1 and when the gale shrieks he will still say #8,wind's mother wails1 who knows what mothers shall wail next4'#fcf ,such instances from ,allophylian mythology#fcg show types which are found developed in full vigour by the ,aryan races4 ,in the ,vedic hymns1 the ,storm ,gods1 the ,maruts1 borne along with the fury of the boisterous winds1 with the rain-clouds distribute showers over the earth1 make darkness during the day1 rend the trees and devour the forests like wild elephants4#fch ,no effort of the ,red ,indian's personifying fancy in the tales of the dancing ,pauppuk-keewis the ,whirlwind1 or that fierce and shifty hero1 ,manabozho the ,north-,west ,wind1 can more than match the description in the ,iliad1 of ,achilles calling on ,boreas and ,zephyros with libations and vows of sacrifice1 to blow into a blaze the funeral pyre of ,patroklos-- 444 his prayer ,swift ,iris heard1 and bore it to the ,winds4 ,they in the hall of gusty ,zephyrus ,were gathered round the feast2 in haste appearing1 ,swift ,iris on the stony threshold stood4 ,they saw1 and rising all1 besought her each ,to sit beside him2 she with their requests ,refused compliance1 and addressed them thus1' c4 olus with the winds imprisoned in his cave has the office of the ,red ,indian ,spirit of the ,winds1 and of the ,polynesian ,maui4 ,with quaint adaptation to nature-myth and even to moral parable1 the ,harpies1 the ,storm-gusts that whirl and snatch and dash and smirch with eddying dust-clouds1 become the loathsome bird-monsters sent to hover over the table of ,phineus to claw and defile his dainty viands4#fci ,if we are to choose an ,aryan ,storm-god for ideal grandeur1 we must seek him in #8444 the hall where ,runic ,odin ,howls his war-song to the gale4' ,jakob ,grimm has defined ,odin or ,woden as #8the all-penetrating creative and formative power4' ,but such abstract conceptions can hardly be ascribed to his barbaric worshippers4 ,as little may his real nature be discovered among the legends which degrade him to a historical king of ,northern men1 an #8,othinus rex4' ,see the ,all-father sitting cloud-mantled on his heaven-seat1 overlooking the deeds of men1 and we may discern in him the attributes of the ,heaven-god4 ,hear the peasant say of the raging tempest1 that it is #8,odin faring by2' trace the mythological transition from ,woden's tempest to the #8,wtende ,heer1' the #8,wild ,huntsman' of our own grand storm-myth1 and we shall recognize the old ,teutonic deity in his function of cloud-compeller1 of ,tempest-god4#fdj ,the #8rude ,carinthian boor' can show a relic from a yet more primitive stage of mental history1 when he sets up a wooden bowl of various meats on a tree before his house1 to fodder the wind that it may do no harm4 ,in ,swabia1 ,tyrol1 and the ,upper ,palatinate1 when the storm rages1 they will fling a spoonful or a handful of meal in the face of the gale1 with this formula in the last-named district1 #8,da ,wind1 hast du ,mehl fr dein ,kind1 aber aufhren musst du6'#fda ,the ,earth-deity takes an important place in polytheistic religion4 ,the ,algonquins would sing medicine-songs to ,mesukkummik ,okwi1 the ,earth1 the ,great-,grandmother of all4 ,in her charge 7and she must be ever at home in her lodge7 are left the animals whose flesh and skins are man's food and clothing1 and the roots and medicines of sovereign power to heal sickness and kill game in time of hunger2 therefore good ,indians never dig up the roots of which their medicines are made1 without depositing an offering in the earth for ,mesukkummik ,okwi4#fdb ,in the list of fetish-deities of ,peruvian tribes1 the ,earth1 adored as ,mamapacha1 ,mother ,earth1 took high subordinate rank below ,sun and ,moon in the pantheon of the ,incas1 and at harvest-time ground corn and libations of chicha were offered to her that she might grant a good harvest4#fdc ,her rank is similar in the ,aquapim theology of ,west ,africa2 first the ,highest ,god in the firmament1 then the ,earth as universal mother1 then the fetish4 ,the negro1 offering his libation before some great undertaking1 thus calls upon the triad3 #8,creator1 come drink6 ,earth1 come drink6 ,bosumbra1 come drink6'#fdd ,among the indigenes of ,india1 the ,bygah tribes of ,seonee show a well-marked worship of the ,earth4 ,they call her #8,mother ,earth' or ,dhurteemah1 and before praying or eating their food1 which is looked on always as a daily sacrifice1 they invariably offer some of it to the earth1 before using the name of any other god4#fde ,of all religions of the world1 perhaps that of the ,khonds of ,orissa gives the ,earth-goddess her most remarkable place and function4 ,boora ,pennu or ,bella ,pennu1 the ,light-god or ,sun-god1 created ,tari ,pennu the ,earth-goddess for his consort1 and from them were born the other great gods4 ,but strife arose between the mighty parents1 and it became the wife's work to thwart the good creation of her husband1 and to cause all physical and moral ill4 ,thus to the ,sun-worshipping sect she stands abhorred on the bad eminence of the ,evil ,deity4 ,but her own sect1 the ,earth-worshipping sect1 seem to hold ideas of her nature which are more primitive and genuine4 ,the functions which they ascribe to her1 and the rites with which they propitiate her1 display her as the ,earth-mother1 raised by an intensely agricultural race to an extreme height of divinity4 ,it was she who with drops of her blood made the soft muddy ground harden into firm earth2 thus men learnt to offer human victims1 and the whole earth became firm2 the pastures and ploughed fields came into use1 and there were cattle and sheep and poultry for man's service2 hunting began1 and there were iron and ploughshares and harrows and axes1 and the juice of the palm-tree2 and love arose between the sons and daughters of the people1 making new households1 and society with its relations of father and mother1 and wife and child1 and the bonds between ruler and subject4 ,it was the ,khond ,earth-goddess who was propitiated with those hideous sacrifices1 the suppression of which is matter of recent ,indian history4 ,with dances and drunken orgies1 and a mystery play to explain in dramatic dialogue the purpose of the rite1 the priest offered ,tari ,pennu her sacrifice1 and prayed for children and cattle and poultry and brazen pots and all wealth2 every man and woman wished a wish1 and they tore the slave-victim piecemeal1 and spread the morsels over the fields they were to fertilize4#fdf ,in ,northern ,asia1 also1 among the ,tatar races1 the office of the ,earth-deity is strongly and widely marked4 ,thus in the nature-worship of the ,tunguz and ,buraets1 ,earth stands among the greater divinities4 ,it is especially interesting to notice among the ,finns a transition like that just observed from the god ,heaven to the ,heaven-god4 ,in the designation of ,maaem1 ,earth-mother1 given to the earth itself1 there may be traced survival from the stage of direct nature-worship1 while the passage to the conception of a divine being inhabiting and ruling the material substance1 is marked by the use of the name ,maan emo1 ,earth's mother1 for the ancient subterranean goddess whom men would ask to make the grass shoot thick and the thousandfold ears mount high1 or might even entreat to rise in person out of the earth to give them strength4 ,the analogy of other mythologies agrees with the definition of the divine pair who reign in ,finn theology3 as ,ukko the ,grandfather is the ,heaven-god1 so his spouse ,akka the ,grandmother is the ,earth-goddess4#fdg ,thus in the ancient nature-worship of ,china1 the personal ,earth holds a place below the ,heaven4 ,tien and ,tu are closely associated in the national rites1 and the idea of the pair as universal parents1 if not an original conception in ,chinese theology1 is at any rate developed in ,chinese classic symbolism4 ,heaven and ,earth receive their solemn sacrifices not at the hands of common mortals but of the ,son of ,heaven1 the ,emperor1 and his great vassals and mandarins4 ,yet their adoration is national2 they are worshipped by the people who offer incense to them on the hill-tops at their autumn festival1 they are adored by successful candidates in competitive examination2 and1 especially and appropriately1 the prostration of bride and bridegroom before the father and mother of all things1 the #8worshipping of ,heaven and ,earth1' is the all-important ceremony of a ,chinese marriage4#fdh ,the ,vedic hymns commemorate the goddess ,prithiv1 the broad ,earth1 and in their ancient strophes the modern ,brahmans still pray for benefits to mother ,earth and father ,heaven1 side by side3-- #8,tanno ,vto mayobhu vtu bheshajam tanmt ,prithiv tatpit ,dyauh4'#fdi ,greek religion shows a transition to have taken place like that among the ,turanian tribes1 for the older simpler nature-deity ,gaia1 1 ,earth the ,all-,mother1 seems to have faded into the more anthropomorphic ,dmtr1 ,earth-,mother1 whose eternal fire burned in ,mantina1 and whose temples stood far and wide over the land which she made kindly to the ,greek husbandman4#fej ,the ,romans acknowledged her plain identity as ,terra ,mater1 ,ops ,mater4#fea ,tacitus could rightly recognize this deity of his own land among ,german tribes1 worshippers of #8,nerthum 7or1 ,hertham71 id est ,terram matrem1' ,mother ,earth1 whose holy grove stood in an ocean isle1 whose chariot drawn by cows passed through the land making a season of peace and joy1 till the goddess1 satiated with mortal conversation1 was taken back by her priest to her temple1 and the chariot and garments and even the goddess herself were washed in a secret lake1 which forthwith swallowed up the ministering slaves--#8hence a mysterious terror and sacred ignorance1 what that should be which only the doomed to perish might behold4'#feb ,if in these modern days we seek in ,europe traces of ,earth-worship1 we may find them in curiously distinct survival in ,germany1 if no longer in the ,christmas food-offerings buried in and for the earth up to early in this century1#fec at any rate among ,gypsy hordes4 ,dewel1 the great god in heaven 7dewa1 deus71 is rather feared than loved by these weatherbeaten outcasts1 for he harms them on their wanderings with his thunder and lightning1 his snow and rain1 and his stars interfere with their dark doings4 ,therefore they curse him foully when misfortune falls on them1 and when a child dies1 they say that ,dewel has eaten it4 ,but ,earth1 ,mother of all good1 self-existing from the beginning1 is to them holy1 so holy that they take heed never to let the drinking-cup touch the ground1 for it would become too sacred to be used by men4#fed ,water-worship1 as has been seen1 may be classified as a special department of religion4 ,it by no means follows1 however1 that savage water-worshippers should necessarily have generalized their ideas1 and passed beyond their particular water-deities to arrive at the conception of a general deity presiding over water as an element4 ,divine springs1 streams1 and lakes1 water-spirits1 deities concerned with the clouds and rain1 are frequent1 and many details of them are cited here1 but ,i have not succeeded in finding among the lower races any divinity whose attributes1 fairly criticized1 will show him or her to be an original and absolute elemental ,water-god4 ,among the deities of the ,dakotas1 ,unktahe the fish-god of the waters is a master-spirit of sorcery and religion1 the rival even of the mighty ,thunderbird4#fee ,in the ,mexican pantheon1 ,tlaloc god of rain and waters1 fertilizer of earth and lord of paradise1 whose wife is ,chalchihuitlicue1 ,emerald-,skirt1 dwells among the mountain-tops where the clouds gather and pour down the streams4#fef ,yet neither of these mythic beings approaches the generality of conception that belongs to full elemental deity1 and even the ,greek ,nreus1 though by his name he should be the very personification of water 771 seems too exclusively marine in his home and family to be cited as the ,water-god4 ,nor is the reason of this hard to find4 ,it is an extreme stretch of the power of theological generalization to bring water in its myriad forms under one divinity1 though each individual body of water1 even the smallest stream or lake1 can have its personal individuality or indwelling spirit4 ,islanders and coast-dwellers indeed live face to face with mighty water-deities1 the divine ,sea and the great ,sea-gods4 ,what the sea may seem to an uncultured man who first beholds it1 we may learn among the ,lampongs of ,sumatra3 #8,the inland people of that country are said to pay a kind of adoration to the sea1 and to make to it an offering of cakes and sweetmeats on their beholding it for the first time1 deprecating its power of doing them mischief4'#feg ,the higher stage of such doctrine is where the sea1 no longer itself personal1 is considered as ruled by indwelling spirits4 ,thus ,tuaraatai and ,ruahatu1 principal among marine deities of ,polynesia1 send the sharks to execute their vengeance4 ,hiro descends to the depths of the ocean and dwells among the monsters1 they lull him to sleep in a cavern1 the ,wind-god profits by his absence to raise a violent storm to destroy the boats in which ,hiro's friends are sailing1 but1 roused by a friendly spirit-messenger1 the ,sea-god rises to the surface and quells the tempest4#feh ,this ,south ,sea ,island myth might well have been in the ,odyssey4 ,we may point to the ,guinea ,coast as a barbaric region where ,sea-worship survives in its extremest form4 ,it appears from ,bosman's account1 about #agjj1 that in the religion of ,whydah1 the ,sea ranked only as younger brother in the three divine orders1 below the ,serpents and ,trees4 ,but at present1 as appears from ,captain ,burton's evidence1 the religion of ,whydah extends through ,dahome1 and the divine ,sea has risen in rank4 #8,the youngest brother of the triad is ,hu1 the ocean or sea4 ,formerly it was subject to chastisement1 like the ,hellespont1 if idle or useless4 ,the ,huno1 or ocean priest1 is now considered the highest of all1 a fetish king1 at ,whydah1 where he has #ejj wives4 ,at stated times he repairs to the beach1 begs #8,agbwe1' the 444 ocean god1 not to be boisterous1 and throws in rice and corn1 oil and beans1 cloth1 cowries1 and other valuables4444 ,at times the king sends as an ocean sacrifice from ,agbome a man carried in a hammock1 with the dress1 the stool1 and the umbrella of a caboceer2 a canoe takes him out to sea1 where he is thrown to the sharks4'#fei ,while in these descriptions the individual divine personality of the sea is so well marked1 an account of the closely related ,slave ,coast religion states that a great god dwells in the sea1 and it is to him1 not to the sea itself1 that offerings are cast in4#ffj ,in ,south ,america the idea of the divine ,sea is clearly marked in the ,peruvian worship of ,mamacocha1 ,mother ,sea1 giver of food to men4#ffa ,eastern ,asia1 both in its stages of lower and higher civilization1 contributes members to the divine group4 ,in ,kamchatka1 ,mitgk the ,great ,spirit of the ,sea1 fish-like himself1 sends the fish up the rivers4#ffb ,japan deifies separately on land and at sea the lords of the waters2 ,midsuno ,kami1 the ,water-god1 is worshipped during the rainy season2 ,jebisu1 the ,sea-god1 is younger brother of the ,sun4#ffc ,among barbaric races we thus find two conceptions current1 the personal divine ,sea and the anthropomorphic ,sea-god4 ,these represent two stages of development of one idea--the view of the natural object as itself an animated being1 and the separation of its animating fetish-soul as a distinct spiritual deity4 ,to follow the enquiry into classic times shows the same distinction as strongly marked4 ,when ,kleomenes marched down to ,thyrea1 having slaughtered a bull to the sea 7 7 he embarked his army in ships for the ,tirynthian land and ,nauplia4#ffd ,cicero makes ,cotta remark to ,balbus that #8our generals1 embarking on the sea1 have been accustomed to immolate a victim to the waves1' and he goes on to argue1 not unfairly1 that if the ,earth herself is a goddess1 what is she other than ,tellus1 and #8if the ,earth1 the ,sea too1 whom thou saidst to be ,neptune4'#ffe ,here is direct nature-worship in its extremest sense of fetish-worship4 ,but in the anthropomorphic stage appear that dim pr-,olympian figure of ,nreus the ,old ,man of the ,sea1 father of the ,nereids in their ocean caves1 and the ,homeric ,poseidn the ,earth-shaker1 who stables his coursers in his cave in the gean deeps1 who harnesses the gold-maned steeds to his chariot and drives through the dividing waves1 while the subject sea-beasts come up at the passing of their lord1 a king so little bound to the element he governs1 that he can come from the brine to sit in the midst of the gods in the assembly on ,olympos1 and ask the will of ,zeus4#fff ,fire-worship brings into view again1 though under different aspects and with different results1 the problems presented by water-worship4 ,the real and absolute worship of fire falls into two great divisions1 the first belonging rather to fetishism1 the second to polytheism proper1 and the two apparently representing an earlier and later stage of theological ideas4 ,the first is the rude barbarian's adoration of the actual flame which he watches writhing1 roaring1 devouring like a live animal2 the second belongs to an advanced generalization1 that any individual fire is a manifestation of one general elemental being--the ,fire-god4 ,unfortunately1 evidence of the exact meaning of fire-worship among the lower races is scanty1 while the transition from fetishism to polytheism seems a gradual process of which the stages elude close definition4 ,moreover1 it must be borne in mind that rites performed with fire are1 though often1 yet by no means necessarily1 due to worship of the fire itself4 ,authors who have indiscriminately mixed up such rites as the new fire1 the perpetual fire1 the passing through the fire1 classing them as acts of fire-worship1 without proper evidence as to their meaning in any particular case1 have added to the perplexity of a subject not too easy to deal with1 even under strict precautions4 ,two sources of error are especially to be noted4 ,on the one hand1 fire happens to be a usual means whereby sacrifices are transmitted to departed souls and deities in general2 and on the other hand1 the ceremonies of earthly fire-worship are habitually and naturally transferred to celestial fire-worship in the religion of the ,sun4 ,it may best serve the present purpose to carry a line of some of the best-defined facts which seems to bear on fire-worship proper1 from savagery on into the higher culture4 ,in the last century1 ,loskiel1 a missionary among the ,north ,american ,indians1 remarks that #8,in great danger1 an ,indian has been observed to lie prostrate on his face1 and throwing a handful of tobacco into the fire1 to call aloud1 as in an agony of distress1 8,there1 take and smoke1 be pacified1 and don't hurt me40' ,of course this may have been a mere sacrifice transmitted to some other spiritual being through fire1 but we have in this region explicit statements as to a distinct fire-deity4 ,the ,delawares1 it appears from the same author1 acknowledged the ,fire-manitu1 first parent of all ,indian nations1 and celebrated a yearly festival in his honour1 when twelve manitus1 animal and vegetable1 attended him as subordinate deities4#ffg ,in ,north-,west ,america1 in ,washington ,irving's account of the ,chinooks and other ,columbia ,river ,tribes1 mention is made of the spirit which inhabits fire4 ,powerful both for evil and good1 and seemingly rather evil than good in nature1 this being must be kept in good humour by frequent offerings4 ,the ,fire-spirit has great influence with the winged arial supreme deity1 wherefore the ,indians implore him to be their interpreter1 to procure them success in hunting and fishing1 fleet horses1 obedient wives1 and male children4#ffh ,in the elaborately systematic religion of ,mexico1 there appears in his proper place a ,fire-god1 closely related to the ,sun-god in character1 but keeping well marked his proper identity4 ,his name was ,xiuhteuctli1 ,fire-lord1 and they called him likewise ,huehueteotl1 the old god4 ,great honour was paid to this god ,fire1 who gives them heat1 and bakes their cakes1 and roasts their meat4 ,therefore at every meal the first morsel and libation were cast into the fire1 and every day the deity had incense burnt to him4 ,twice in the year were held his solemn festivals4 ,at the first1 a felled tree was set up in his honour1 and the sacrificers danced round his fire with the human victims1 whom afterwards they cast into a great fire1 only to drag them out half roasted for the priests to complete the sacrifice4 ,the second was distinguished by the rite of the new fire1 so well known in connexion with solar worship2 the friction-fire was solemnly made before the image of ,xiuhteuctli in his sanctuary in the court of the great teocalli1 and the game brought in at the great hunt which began the festival was cooked at the sacred fire for the banquets that ended it4#ffi ,polynesia well knows from the mythological point of view ,mahuika the ,fire-god1 who keeps the volcano-fire on his subterranean hearth1 whither ,maui goes down 7as the ,sun into the ,underworld7 to bring up fire for man2 but in the ,south ,sea islands there is scarcely a trace of actual rites of fire-worship4#fgj ,in ,west ,africa1 among the gods of ,dahome is ,zo the fire-fetish2 a pot of fire is placed in a room1 and sacrifice is offered to it1 that fire may #8live' there1 and not go forth to destroy the house4#fga ,asia is a region where distinct fire-worship may be peculiarly well traced through the range of lower and higher civilization4 ,the rude ,kamchadals1 worshipping all things that did them harm or good1 worshipped the fire1 offering to it noses of foxes and other game1 so that one might tell by looking at furs whether they had been taken by baptized or heathen hunters4#fgb ,the ,ainos of ,yesso worship ,abe kamui the ,fire-deity as the benefactor of men1 the messenger to the other gods1 the purifier who heals the sick4#fgc ,turanian tribes likewise hold fire a sacred element1 many ,tunguz1 ,mongol1 and ,turk tribes sacrifice to ,fire1 and some clans will not eat meat without first throwing a morsel upon the hearth4 ,the following passage is from a ,mongol wedding-song to the personified ,fire1 #8,mother ,ut1 ,queen of ,fire1 thou who art made from the elm that grows on the mountain-tops of ,changgai-,chan and ,burchatu-,chan1 thou who didst come forth when heaven and earth divided1 didst come forth from the footsteps of ,mother ,earth1 and wast formed by the ,king of ,gods4 ,mother ,ut1 whose father is the hard steel1 whose mother is the flint1 whose ancestors are the elm-trees1 whose shining reaches to the sky and pervades the earth4 ,goddess ,ut1 we bring thee yellow oil for offering1 and a white wether with yellow head1 thou who hast a manly son1 a beauteous daughter-in-law1 bright daughters4 ,to thee1 ,mother ,ut1 who ever lookest upward1 we bring brandy in bowls1 and fat in both hands4 ,give prosperity to the ,king's son 7the bridegroom71 to the ,king's daughter 7the bride71 and to all the people6'#fgd ,as an analogue to ,hephaistos the ,greek divine smith1 may stand the ,circassian ,fire-god1 ,tleps1 patron of metal-workers1 and the peasants whom he has provided with plough and hoe4#fge ,among the most ancient cultured nations of the ,old ,world1 ,egyptians1 ,babylonians1 ,assyrians1 accounts of fire-worship are absent1 or so scanty and obscure that their study is more valuable in compiling the history than in elucidating the principles of religion4#fgf ,for this scientific purpose1 the more full and minute documents of ,aryan religion can give a better answer4 ,in various forms and under several names1 the ,fire-god is known4 ,nowhere does he carry his personality more distinctly than under his ,sanskrit name of ,agni1 a word which keeps its quality1 though not his divinity1 in the ,latin #8ignis4' ,the name of ,agni is the first word of the first hymn of the ,rig-,veda3 #8,agnim le puro-hitam yajnasya devam ritvijam6--,agni ,i entreat1 divine appointed priest of sacrifice6' ,the sacrifices which ,agni receives go to the gods1 he is the mouth of the gods1 but he is no lowly minister1 as it is said in another hymn3 #8,no god indeed1 no mortal is beyond the might of thee1 the mighty one1 with the ,maruts come hither1 ,o ,agni6' ,such the mighty ,agni is among the gods1 yet he comes within the peasant's cottage to be protector of the domestic hearth4 ,his worship has survived the transformation of the ancient patriarchal ,vedic religion of nature into the priest-ridden ,hinduism of our own day4 ,in ,india there may yet be found the so-called ,fire-priests 7,agnihotri7 who perform according to ,vedic rite the sacrifices entitling the worshippers to heavenly life4 ,the sacred fire-drill for churning the new fire by friction of wood 7arani7 is used so that ,agni still is new-born of the twirling fire-sticks1 and receives the melted butter of the sacrifice4#fgg ,among the records of fire-worship in ,asia1 is the account of ,jonas ,hanways's #8,travels1' dating from about #agdj1 of the everlasting fire at the burning wells near ,baku1 on the ,caspian4 ,at the sacred spot stood several ancient stone temples1 mostly arched vaults #aj to #ae feet high4 ,one little temple was still used for worship1 near the altar of which1 about three feet high1 a large hollow cane conveyed the gas up from the ground1 burning at the mouth with a blue flame4 ,here were generally forty or fifty poor devotees1 come on pilgrimage from their country to make expiation for themselves and others1 and subsisting on wild celery1 c4 ,these pilgrims are described as marking their foreheads with saffron1 and having great veneration for a red cow2 they wore little clothing1 and the holiest of them kept one arm on their heads1 or continued unmoved in some other posture2 they are described as ,ghebers1 or ,gours1 the usual ,moslem term for ,fire-worshippers4#fgh ,in general1 this name of ,ghebers is applied to the ,zoroastrians or ,parsis1 whom a modern ,european would all but surely point to if asked to instance a modern race of ,fire-worshippers4 ,classical accounts of the ,persian religion set down fire-worship as part and parcel of it2 the ,magi1 it is recorded1 hold the gods to be ,fire and ,earth and ,water2 and again1 the ,persians reckon the ,fire to be a god 774#fgi ,on the testimony of the old religious books of the ,parsis themselves1 ,fire1 as the greatest ,ized1 as giver of increase and health1 as craving for wood and scents and fat1 seems to take the distinctest divine personality4 ,their doctrine that ,ardebehist1 the presiding angel or spirit of fire1 is adored1 but not the material object he belongs to1 is a perfect instance of the development of the idea of an elemental divinity from that of an animated fetish4 ,when1 driven by ,moslem persecution from ,persia1 ,parsi exiles landed in ,gujarat1 they described their religion in an official document as being the worship of ,agni or ,fire1 thus claiming for themselves a place among recognized ,hindu sects4#fhj ,in modern times1 though for the most part the ,parsis have found toleration and prosperity in ,india1 yet an oppressed remnant of the race still keeps up the everlasting fires at ,yezd and ,kirman1 in their old ,persian land4 ,the modern ,parsis1 as in ,strabo's time1 scruple to defile the fire or blow it with their breath1 they abstain from smoking out of regard not to themselves but to the sacred element1 and they keep up consecrated ever-burning fires before which they do worship4 ,nevertheless1 ,prof4 ,max ,mller is able to say of the ,parsis of our own day3 #8,the so-called ,fire-worshippers certainly do not worship the fire1 and they naturally object to a name which seems to place them on a level with mere idolators4 ,all they admit is1 that in their youth they are taught to face some luminous object while worshipping ,god1 and that they regard the fire1 like other great natural phenomena1 as an emblem of the ,divine power4 ,but they assure us that they never ask assistance or blessings from an unintelligent material object1 nor is it even considered necessary to turn the face to any emblem whatever in praying to ,ormuzd4'#fha ,now1 admitting this view of fire-worship as true of the more intelligent ,parsis1 and leaving aside the question how far among the more ignorant this symbolism may blend 7as in such cases is usual7 into actual adoration1 we may ask what is the history of ceremonies which thus imitate1 yet are not1 fire-worship4 ,the ethnographic answer is clear and instructive4 ,the ,parsi is the descendant of a race in this respect represented by the modern ,hindu1 a race who did simply and actually worship ,fire4 ,fire-worship still forms a link historically connecting the ,vedic with the ,zoroastrian ritual2 for the ,agnishtoma or praise of ,agni the ,fire1 where four goats are to be sacrificed and burnt1 is represented by the ,yajishn ceremony1 where the ,parsi priests are now content to put some hair of an ox in a vessel and show it to the ,fire4 ,but the development of the more philosophic ,zarathustrian doctrines has led to a result common in the history of religion1 that the ancient distinctly meant rite has dwindled to a symbol1 to be preserved with changed sense in a new theology4 ,somewhat of the same kind may have taken place among the ,european race who seem in some respects the closest relatives of the old ,persians4 ,slavonic history possibly keeps up some trace of direct and absolute fire-worship1 as where in ,bohemia the ,pagans are described as worshipping fires1 groves1 trees1 stones4 ,but though the ,lithuanians and ,old ,prussians and ,russians are among the nations whose especial rite it was to keep up sacred everlasting fires1 yet it seems that their fire-rites were in the symbolic stage1 ceremonies of their great celestial-solar religion1 rather than acts of direct worship to a ,fire-god4#fhb ,classical religion1 on the other hand1 brings prominently into view the special deities of fire4 ,hphaistos1 ,vulcan1 the divine metallurgist who had his temples on tna and ,lipari1 stands in especial connexion with the subterranean volcanic fire1 and combines the nature of the ,polynesian ,mahuika and the ,circassian ,tleps4 ,the ,greek ,hestia1 the divine hearth1 the ever-virgin venerable goddess1 to whom ,zeus gave fair office instead of wedlock1 sits in the midst of the house1 receiving fat3-- #8 1 ' ' 4' ,in the high halls of gods and men she has her everlasting seat1 and without her are no banquets among mortals1 for to ,hestia first and last is poured the honey-sweet wine3-- #81 ' 1 1 1 ' 4'#fhc ,in ,greek civil life1 ,hestia sat in house and assembly as representative of domestic and social order4 ,like her in name and origin1 but not altogether in development1 is ,vesta with her ancient ,roman cultus1 and her retinue of virgins to keep up her pure eternal fire in her temple1 needing no image1 for she herself dwelt within3-- #8,esse diu stultus ,vest simulacra putavi3 ,mox didici curvo nulla subesse tholo4 ,ignis inextinctus templo celatur in illo4 ,effigiem nullam ,vesta nec ignis habet4'#fhd ,the last lingering relics of fire-worship in ,europe reach us1 as usual1 both through ,turanian and ,aryan channels of folklore4 ,the ,esthonian bride consecrates her new hearth and home by an offering of money cast into the fire1 or laid on the oven for ,tule-ema1 ,fire-mother4#fhe ,the ,carinthian peasant will #8fodder' the fire to make it kindly1 and throw lard or dripping to it1 that it may not burn his house4 ,to the ,bohemian it is a godless thing to spit into the fire1 #8,god's fire' as he calls it4 ,it is not right to throw away the crumbs after a meal1 for they belong to the fire4 ,of every kind of dish some should be given to the fire1 and if some runs over it is wrong to scold1 for it belongs to the fire4 ,it is because these rites are now so neglected that harmful fires so often break out4#fhf ,what the ,sea is to ,water-worship1 in some measure the ,sun is to ,fire-worship4 ,from the doctrines and rites of earthly fire1 various and ambiguous in character1 generalized from many phenomena1 applied to many purposes1 we pass to the religion of heavenly fire1 whose great deity has a perfect definiteness from his embodiment in one great individual fetish1 the ,sun4 ,rivalling in power and glory the all-encompassing ,heaven1 the ,sun moves eminent among the deities of nature1 no mere cosmic globe affecting distant material worlds by force in the guise of light and heat and gravity1 but a living reigning ,lord3-- #8,o thou1 that with surpassing glory crown'd1 ,look'st from thy sole dominion like the ,god ,of this new world4' ,it is no exaggeration to say1 with ,sir ,william ,jones1 that one great fountain of all idolatry in the four quarters of the globe was the veneration paid by men to the sun3 it is no more than an exaggeration to say with ,mr4 ,helps of the sun-worship in ,peru1 that it was inevitable4 ,sun-worship is by no means universal among the lower races of mankind1 but manifests itself in the upper levels of savage religion in districts far and wide over the earth1 often assuming the prominence which it keeps and develops in the faiths of the barbaric world4 ,why some races are sun-worshippers and others not1 is indeed too hard a question to answer in general terms4 ,yet one important reason is obvious1 that the ,sun is not so evidently the god of wild hunters and fishers1 as of the tillers of the soil1 who watch him day by day giving or taking away their wealth and their very life4 ,on the geographical significance of sun-worship1 ,d',orbigny has made a remark1 suggestive if not altogether sound1 connecting the worship of the sun not so much with the torrid regions where his glaring heat oppresses man all day long1 and drives him to the shade for refuge1 as with climates where his presence is welcomed for his life-giving heat1 and nature chills at his departure4 ,thus while the low sultry forests of ,south ,america show little prominence of ,sun-worship1 this is the dominant organized cultus of the high table-lands of ,peru and ,cundinamarca4#fhg ,the theory is ingenious1 and if not carried too far may often be supported4 ,we may well compare the feelings with which the sun-worshipping ,massaget of ,tartary must have sacrificed their horses to the deity who freed them from the miseries of winter1 with the thoughts of men in those burning lands of ,central ,africa where1 as ,sir ,samuel ,baker says1 #8the rising of the sun is always dreaded 444 the sun is regarded as the common enemy1' words which recall ,herodotus' old description of the ,atlantes or ,atarantes who dwelt in the interior of ,africa1 who cursed the sun at his rising1 and abused him with shameful epithets for afflicting them with his burning heat1 them and their land4#fhh ,the details of ,sun-worship among the native races of ,america give an epitome of its development among mankind at large4 ,among many of the ruder tribes of the northern continent1 the ,sun is looked upon as one of the great deities1 as representative of the greatest deity1 or as that greatest deity himself4 ,indian chiefs of ,hudson's ,bay smoked thrice to the rising sun4 ,in ,vancouver ,island men pray in time of need to the sun as he mounts toward the zenith4 ,among the ,delawares the sun received sacrifice as second among the twelve great manitus2 the ,virginians bowed before him with uplifted hands and eyes as he rose and set2 the ,pottawatomis would climb sometimes at sunrise on their huts1 to kneel and offer to the luminary a mess of ,indian corn2 his likeness is found representing the ,great ,manitu in ,algonquin picture-writings4 ,father ,hennepin1 whose name is well known to geologists as the earliest visitor to the ,falls of ,niagara1 about #afgh1 gives an account of the native tribes1 ,sioux and others1 of this far-west region4 ,he describes them as venerating the ,sun1 #8which they recognize1 though only in appearance1 as the ,maker and ,preserver of all things2' to him first they offer the calumet when they light it1 and to him they often present the best and most delicate of their game in the lodge of the chief1 #8who profits more by it than the ,sun4' ,the ,creeks regarded the ,sun as symbol or minister of the ,great ,spirit1 sending toward him the first puff of the calumet at treaties1 and bowing reverently toward him in confirming their council talk or haranguing their warriors to battle4#fhi ,among the rude ,botocudos of ,brazil1 the idea of the ,sun as the great good deity seems not unknown2 the ,araucanians are described as bringing offerings to him as highest deity2 the ,puelches as ascribing to the sun1 and praying to him for1 all good things they possess or desire2 the ,diaguitas of ,tucuman as having temples dedicated to the ,sun1 whom they adored1 and to whom they consecrated birds' feathers1 which they then brought back to their cabins1 and sprinkled from time to time with the blood of animals4#fij ,such accounts of ,sun-worship appearing in the lower native culture of ,america1 may be taken to represent its first stage4 ,it is on the whole within distinctly higher culture that its second stage appears1 where it has attained to full development of ritual and appurtenance1 and become in some cases even the central doctrine of national religion and statecraft4 ,sun-worship had reached this level among the ,natchez of ,louisiana1 with whom various other tribes of this district stood in close relation4 ,every morning at sunrise the great ,sun-chief stood at the house-door facing the east1 shouted and prostrated himself thrice1 and smoked first toward the sun1 and then toward the other three quarters4 ,the ,sun-temple was a circular hut some thirty feet across and dome-roofed3 here in the midst was kept up the everlasting fire1 here prayer was offered thrice daily1 and here were kept images and fetishes and the bones of dead chiefs4 ,the ,natchez government was a solar hierarchy4 ,at its head stood the great chief1 called the ,sun or the ,sun's brother1 high priest and despot over his people4 ,by his side stood his sister or nearest female relative1 the female chief who of all women was alone permitted to enter the ,sun-temple4 ,her son1 after the custom of female succession common among the lower races1 would succeed to the primacy and chiefship2 and the solar family took to themselves1 wives and husbands from the plebeian order1 who were their inferiors in life1 and were slain to follow them as attendants in death4#fia ,another nation of sun-worshippers were the ,apalaches of ,florida1 whose daily service was to salute the ,sun at their doors as he rose and set4 ,the ,sun1 they said1 had built his own conical mountain of ,olaimi1 with its spiral path leading to the cave-temple1 in the east side4 ,here1 at the four solar festivals1 the worshippers saluted the rising sun with chants and incense as his rays entered the sanctuary1 and again when at midday the sunlight poured down upon the altar through the hole or shaft pierced for this purpose in the rocky vault of the cave2 through this passage the sun-birds1 the tonatzuli1 were let fly up sunward as messengers1 and the ceremony was over4#fib ,day by day1 in the temples of ,mexico1 the rising sun was welcomed with blast of horns1 and incense1 and offering of a little of the officiators' own blood drawn from their ears1 and a sacrifice of quails4 ,saying1 the ,sun has risen1 we know not how he will fulfil his course nor whether misfortune will happen1 they prayed to him--#8,our ,lord1 do your office prosperously4' ,in distinct and absolute personality1 the divine ,sun in ,aztec theology was ,tonatiuh1 whose huge pyramid-mound stands on the plain of ,teotihuacan1 a witness of his worship for future ages4 ,beyond this1 the religion of ,mexico1 in its complex system or congeries of great gods1 such as results from the mixture and alliance of the deities of several nations1 shows the solar element rooted deeply and widely in other personages of its divine mythology1 and attributes especially to the ,sun the title of ,teotl1 ,god4#fic ,again1 the high plateau of ,bogota in ,new ,granada was the seat of the semi-civilized ,chibchas or ,muyscas1 of whose mythology and religion the leading ideas were given by the ,sun4 ,the ,sun was the great deity to whom the human sacrifices were offered1 and especially the holiest sacrifice1 the blood of a pure captive youth daubed on a rock on a mountain-top for the rising sun to shine on4 ,in native ,muysca legend1 the mythic civilizer of the land1 the teacher of agriculture1 the founder of the theocracy and institutor of sun-worship1 is a figure in whom we cannot fail to discern the personal ,sun himself4#fid ,it is thus1 lastly1 in the far more celebrated native theocracy to the south4 ,in the royal religion of ,peru1 the ,sun was at once ancestor and founder of the dynasty of ,incas1 who reigned as his representatives and almost in his person1 who took wives from the convent of virgins of the ,sun1 and whose descendants were the solar race1 the ruling aristocracy4 ,the ,sun's innumerable flocks of llamas grazed on the mountains1 and his fields were tilled in the valleys1 his temples stood throughout the land1 and first among them the #8,place of ,gold' in ,cuzco1 where his new fire was kindled at the annual solar festival of ,raymi1 and where his splendid golden disc with human countenance looked forth to receive the first rays of its divine original4 ,sun-worship was ancient in ,peru1 but it was the ,incas who made it the great state religion1 imposing it wherever their wide conquests reached1 till it became the central idea of ,peruvian life4#fie ,the culture of the ,old ,world never surpassed this highest range of ,sun-worship in the ,new4 ,in ,australia and ,polynesia the place of the solar god or hero is rather in myth than in religion4 ,in ,africa1 though found in some districts1#fif ,sun-worship is not very conspicuous out of ,egypt4 ,in tracing its ,old ,world development1 we begin among the ruder ,allophylian tribes of ,asia1 and end among the great polytheistic nations4 ,the northeast quarter of ,india shows the doctrine well defined among the indigenous stocks4 ,the ,bodo and ,dhimal place the ,sun in the pantheon as an elemental god1 though in practical rank below the sacred rivers4#fig ,the ,kol tribes of ,bengal1 ,mundas1 ,oraons1 ,santals1 know and worship as supreme1 ,sing-bonga1 the ,sun-god2 to him some tribes offer white animals in token of his purity1 and while not regarding him as author of sickness or calamity1 they will resort to him when other divine aid breaks down in sorest need4#fih ,among the ,khonds1 ,bura ,pennu the ,light-god1 or ,bella ,pennu the ,sun-god1 is creator of all things in heaven and earth1 and great first cause of good4 ,as such1 he is worshipped by his own sect above the ranks of minor deities whom he brought into being to carry out the details of the universal work4#fii ,the ,tatar tribes with much unanimity recognize as a great god the ,sun1 whose figure may be seen beside the ,moon's on their magic drums1 from ,siberia to ,lapland4 ,castrn1 the ethnologist1 speaking of the ,samoyed expression for heaven or deity in general 7jilibeambaertje71 tells an anecdote from his travels1 which gives a lively idea of the thorough simple nature-religion still possible to the wanderers of the steppes4 #8,a ,samoyed woman1' he says1 #8told me it was her habit every morning and evening to step out of her tent and bow down before the sun2 in the morning saying1 8,when thou ,jilibeambaertje risest1 ,i too rise from my bed60 in the evening1 8,when thou ,jilibeambaertje sinkest down1 ,i too get me to rest60 ,the woman brought this as a proof of her assertion that even among the ,samoyeds they said their morning and evening prayers1 but she added with pity that 8there were also among them wild people who never sent up a prayer to ,god40' ,mongol hordes may still be met with whose shamans invoke the ,sun1 and throw milk up into the air as an offering to him1 while the ,karagas ,tatars would bring to him as a sacrifice the head and heart of bear or stag4 ,tunguz1 ,ostyaks1 ,woguls1 worship him in a character blending with that of their highest deity and ,heaven-god2 while among the ,lapps1 ,baiwe the ,sun1 though a mighty deity1 stood in rank below ,tiermes the ,thunder-god1 and the great celestial ruler who had come to bear the ,norwegian name of ,storjunkare4#gjj ,in direct personal nature-worship like that of ,siberian nomades of our day1 the solar cultus of the ancient pastoral ,aryans had its source4 ,the ,vedic bards sing of the great god ,srya1 knower of beings1 the all-revealer before whom the stars depart with the nights like thieves4 ,we approach ,srya 7they say7 shining god among the gods1 light most glorious4 ,he shines on the eight regions1 the three worlds1 the seven rivers2 the golden-handed ,savitar1 all-seeing1 goes between heaven and earth4 ,to him they pray1 #8,on thy ancient paths1 ,o ,savitar1 dustless1 well made1 in the air1 on those good-going paths this day preserve us and bless us1 ,o ,god6' ,modern ,hinduism is full of the ancient ,sun-worship1 in offerings and prostrations1 in daily rites and appointed festivals1 and it is ,savitar the ,sun who is invoked in the #8gyatr1' the time-honoured formula repeated day by day since long-past ages by every ,brahman3 #8,tat ,savitur varenyam bhargo devasya dhmahi dhiyo yo nah prakodayt4--,let us meditate on the desirable light of the divine ,sun2 may he rouse our minds6' ,every morning the ,brahman worships the sun1 standing on one foot and resting the other against his ankle or heel1 looking towards the east1 holding his hands open before him in a hollow form1 and repeating to himself these prayers3 #8,the rays of light announce the splendid fiery sun1 beautifully rising to illumine the universe4'--#8,he rises1 wonderful1 the eye of the sun1 of water1 and of fire1 collective power of gods2 he fills heaven1 earth1 and sky with his luminous net2 he is the soul of all that is fixed or locomotive4'--#8,that eye1 supremely beneficial1 rises pure from the east2 may we see him a hundred years2 may we live a hundred years2 may we hear a hundred years4'--#8,may we1 preserved by the divine power1 contemplating heaven above the region of darkness1 approach the deity1 most splendid of luminaries6'#gja ,a ,vedic celestial deity1 ,mitra the ,friend1 came to be developed in the ,persian religion into that great ruling divinity of light1 the victorious ,mithra1 lord of life and head of all created beings4 ,the ancient ,persian ,mihr-,yasht invokes him in the character of the sun-light1 ,mithra with wide pastures1 whom the lords of the regions praise at early dawn1 who as the first heavenly ,yazata rises over ,hara-berezaiti before the sun1 the immortal with swift steeds1 who first with golden form seizes the fair summits1 then surrounds the whole ,aryan region4 ,mithra came to be regarded as the very ,sun1 as where ,dionysos addresses the ,tyrian ,bel1 #8 4' ,his worship spread from the ,east across the ,roman empire1 and in ,europe he takes rank among the great solar gods absolutely identified with the personal ,sun1 as in this inscription on a ,roman altar dating from ,trajan's time--#8,deo ,soli ,mithr4'#gjb ,the earlier ,sun-worship of ,europe1 upon which this new ,oriental variety was intruded1 in certain of its developments shows the same clear personality4 ,the ,greek ,helios1 to whom horses were sacrificed on the mountain-top of ,taugetos1 was that same personal ,sun to whom ,sokrates1 when he had staid rapt in thought till daybreak1 offered a prayer before he departed 7' ' 74#gjc ,csar devotes to the ,german theology of his time three lines of his ,commentaries4 ,they reckon in the number of the gods1 he says1 those only whom they perceive and whose benefits they openly enjoy1 ,sun and ,vulcan and ,moon1 the rest they know not even by report4#gjd ,it is true that ,csar's short summary does no justice to the real number and quality of the deities of the ,german pantheon1 yet his forcible description of nature-worship in its most primitive stage may probably be true of the direct adoration of the sun and moon1 and possibly of fire4 ,on the other hand1 ,european sun-worship leads into the most perplexing problems of mythology4 ,well might ,cicero exclaim1 #8,how many suns are set forth by the theologians6'#gje ,the modern student who shall undertake to discriminate among the ,sun-gods of ,european lands1 to separate the solar and non-solar elements of the ,greek ,apollo and ,herakles1 or of the ,slavonic ,swatowit1 has a task before him complicate with that all but hopeless difficulty which besets the study of myth1 the moment that the clue of direct comparison with nature falls away4 ,the religion of ancient ,egypt is one of which we know much1 yet little--much of its temples1 rites1 names of deities1 liturgical formulas1 but little of the esoteric religious ideas which lay hidden within these outer manifestations4 ,yet it is clear that central solar conceptions as it were radiate through the ,egyptian theology4 ,ra1 who traverses in his boat the upper and lower regions of the universe1 is the ,sun himself in plain cosmic personality4 ,and to take two obvious instances of solar characters in other deities1 ,osiris the manifester of good and truth1 who dies by the powers of darkness and becomes judge of the dead in the west-land of ,amenti1 is solar in his divine nature1 as is also his son ,horus1 smiter of the monster ,set4#gjf ,in the religions of the ,semitic race1 the place of the ,sun is marked through a long range of centuries4 ,the warning to the ,israelites lest they should worship and serve sun1 moon1 and stars1 and the mention of ,josiah taking away the horses that the ,kings of ,judah had given to the sun1 and burning the chariots of the sun with fire1#gjg agree with the place given in other ,semitic religions to the ,sun-god1 ,shamas of ,assyria1 or ,baal1 even expressly qualified as ,baal-,shemesh or ,lord ,sun4 ,syrian religion1 like ,persian1 introduced a new phase of ,sun-worship into ,rome1 the cultus of ,elagabal1 and the vile priest emperor who bore this divine name made it more intelligible to classic ears as ,heliogabalus4#gjh ,eusebius is a late writer as regards ,semitic religion1 but with such facts as these before us we need not withhold our confidence from him when he describes the ,phnicians and ,egyptians as holding ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,stars to be gods1 sole causes of the generation and destruction of all things4#gji ,the widely spread and deeply rooted religion of the ,sun naturally offered strenuous resistance to the invasion of ,christianity1 and it was one of the great signs of the religious change of the civilized world when ,constantine1 that ardent votary of the ,sun1 abandoned the faith of ,apollo for that of ,christ4 ,amalgamation even proved possible between the doctrines of ,sabism and ,christianity1 and in and near ,armenia a sect of ,sun-worshippers have lasted on into modern times under the profession of ,jacobite ,christians2#gaj a parallel case within the limits of ,mohammedanism being that of ,beduin ,arabs who still continue the old adoration of the rising sun1 in spite of the ,prophet's expressed command not to bow before the sun or moon1 and in spite of the good ,moslem's dictum1 that #8the sun rises between the devil's horns4'#gaa ,actual worship of the sun in ,christendom soon shrank to the stage of survival4 ,in ,lucian's time the ,greeks kissed their hands as an act of worship to the rising sun2 and ,tertullian had still to complain of many ,christians that with an affectation of adoring the heavenly bodies they would move their lips toward the sunrise 7,sed et plerique vestrum affectatione aliquando et clestia adorandi ad solis ortum labia vibratis74#gab ,in the #eth century1 ,leo the ,great complains of certain ,christians who1 before entering the ,basilica of ,st4 ,peter1 or from the top of a hill1 would turn and bow to the rising sun2 this comes1 he says1 partly of ignorance and partly of the spirit of paganism4#gac ,to this day1 in the ,upper ,palatinate1 the peasant takes off his hat to the rising sun2 and in ,pomerania1 the fever-stricken patient is to pray thrice turning toward the sun at sunrise1 #8,dear ,sun1 come soon down1 and take the seventy-seven fevers from me4 ,in the name of ,god the ,father1 c4'#gad ,for the most part1 the ancient rites of solar worship are represented in modern ,christendom in two ways2 by the ceremonies connected with turning to the east1 of which an account is given in an ensuing chapter under the heading of ,orientation2 and in the continuance of the great sun-festivals1 countenanced by or incorporated in ,christianity4 ,spring-tide1 reckoned by so many peoples as ,new-,year1 has in great measure had its solar characteristics transferred to the ,paschal festival4 ,the ,easter bonfires with which the ,north ,german hills used to be ablaze mile after mile1 are not altogether given up by local custom4 ,on ,easter morning in ,saxony and ,brandenburg1 the peasants still climb the hill-tops before dawn1 to see the rising sun give his three joyful leaps1 as our forefathers used to do in ,england in the days when ,sir ,thomas ,browne so quaintly apologized for declaring that #8the sun doth not dance on ,easter ,day4' ,the solar rite of the ,new ,fire1 adopted by the ,roman ,church as a ,paschal ceremony1 may still be witnessed in ,europe1 with its solemn curfew on ,easter ,eve1 and the ceremonial striking of the new holy fire4 ,on ,easter ,eve1 under the solemn auspices of the ,greek ,church1 a mob of howling fanatics crush and trample to death the victims who faint and fall in their struggles to approach the most shameless imposture of modern ,christendom1 the miraculous fire from heaven which descends into the ,holy ,sepulchre4#gae ,two other ,christian festivals have not merely had solar rites transferred to them1 but seem distinctly themselves of solar origin4 ,the ,roman winter-solstice festival1 as celebrated on ,december #be 7,,viii4 ,kal4 ,jan47 in connexion with the worship of the ,sun-god ,mithra1 appears to have been instituted in this special form after the ,eastern campaign of ,aurelian ,a4,d4 #bgc1 and to this festival the day owes its apposite name of ,birthday of the ,unconquered ,sun1 #8,dies ,natalis ,solis invicti4' ,with full symbolic appropriateness1 though not with historical justification1 the day was adopted in the ,western ,church1 where it appears to have been generally introduced by the #dth century1 and whence in time it passed to the ,eastern ,church1 as the solemn anniversary of the birth of ,christ1 the ,christian ,dies ,natalis1 ,christmas ,day4 ,attempts have been made to ratify this date as matter of history1 but no valid nor even consistent early ,christian tradition vouches for it4 ,the real solar origin of the festival is clear from the writings of the ,fathers after its institution4 ,in religious symbolism of the material and spiritual sun1 ,augustine and ,gregory of ,nyassa discourse on the glowing light and dwindling darkness that follow the ,nativity1 while ,leo the ,great1 among whose people the earlier solar meaning of the festival evidently remained in strong remembrance1 rebukes in a sermon the pestiferous persuasion1 as he calls it1 that this solemn day is to be honoured not for the birth of ,christ1 but for the rising1 as they say1 of the new sun4#gaf ,as for modern memory of the sun-rites of mid-winter1 ,europe recognizes ,christmas as a primitive solar festival by bonfires which our #8yule-log1' the #8souche de ,nol1' still keeps in mind2 while the adaptation of ancient solar thought to ,christian allegory is as plain as ever in the ,christmas service chant1 #8,sol novus oritur4'#gag ,the solar ,christmas festival has its pendant at ,midsummer4 ,the summer solstice was the great season of fire-festivals throughout ,europe1 of bonfires on the heights1 of dancing round and leaping through the fires1 of sending blazing fire-wheels to roll down from the hills into the valleys in sign of the sun's descending course4 ,these ancient rites attached themselves in ,christendom to ,st4 ,john's ,eve4#gah ,it seems as though the same train of symbolism which had adapted the midwinter festival to the ,nativity1 may have suggested the dedication of the midsummer festival to ,john the ,baptist1 in clear allusion to his words1 #8,he must increase1 but ,i must decrease4' ,moon-worship1 naturally ranking below ,sun-worship in importance1 ranges through nearly the same district of culture4 ,there are remarkable cases in which the ,moon is recognized as a great deity by tribes who take less account1 or none at all1 of the ,sun4 ,the rude savages of ,brazil seem especially to worship or respect the moon1 by which they regulate their time and festivals1 and draw their omens4 ,they would lift up their hands to the moon with wonder-struck exclamations of teh6 teh6 they would have children smoked by the sorcerers to preserve them from moon-given sickness1 or the women would hold up their babes to the luminary4 ,the ,botocudos are said to give the highest rank among the heavenly bodies to ,taru the ,moon1 as causing thunder and lightning and the failure of vegetables and fruits1 and as even sometimes falling to the earth1 whereby many men die4#gai ,an old account of the ,caribs describes them as esteeming the ,moon more than the ,sun1 and at new moon coming out of their houses crying #8,behold the ,moon6'#gbj ,the ,ahts of ,vancouver's ,island1 it is stated1 worship the ,sun and ,moon1 particularly the full moon and the sun ascending to the zenith4 ,regarding the ,moon as husband and the ,sun as wife1 their prayers are more generally addressed to the ,moon as the superior deity2 he is the highest object of their worship1 and they speak of him as #8looking down upon the earth in answer to prayer1 and seeing everybody4'#gba ,with a somewhat different turn of mythic fancy1 the ,hurons seem to have considered ,ataentsic the ,moon as maker of the earth and man1 and grandmother of ,iouskeha the ,sun1 with whom she governs the world4#gbb ,in ,africa1 ,moon-worship is prominent in an immense district where ,sun-worship is unknown or insignificant4 ,among south-central tribes1 men will watch for the first glimpses of the new ,moon1 which they hail with shouts of kua6 and vociferate prayers to it2 on such an occasion ,dr4 ,livingstone's ,makololo prayed1 #8,let our journey with the white man be prosperous6' c4#gbc ,these people keep holiday at new-moon1 as indeed in many countries her worship is connected with the settlement of periodic festival4 ,negro tribes seem almost universally to greet the new ,moon1 whether in delight or disgust4 ,the ,guinea people fling themselves about with droll gestures1 and pretend to throw firebrands at it2 the ,ashango men behold it with superstitious fear2 the ,fetu negroes jumped thrice into the air with hands together and gave thanks4#gbd ,the ,congo people fell on their knees1 or stood and clapped their hands1 crying1 #8,so may ,i renew my life as thou art renewed6'#gbe ,the ,hottentots are described early in the last century as dancing and singing all night at new and full moon1 calling the ,moon the ,great ,captain1 and crying to him #8,be greeted6' #8,let us get much honey6' #8,may our cattle get much to eat and give much milk6' ,with the same thought as that just noticed in the district north-west of them1 the ,hottentots connect the ,moon in legend with that fatal message sent to ,man1 which ought to have promised to the human race a moon-like renewal of life1 but which was perverted into a doom of death like that of the beast who brought it4#gbf ,the more usual status of the ,moon in the religions of the world is1 as nature suggests1 that of a subordinate companion deity to the ,sun1 such a position as is acknowledged in the precedence of ,sunday to ,monday4 ,their various mutual relations as brother and sister1 husband and wife1 have already been noticed here as matter of mythology4 ,as wide-lying rude races who place them thus side by side in their theology1 it is enough to mention the ,delawares of ,north ,america1#gbg the ,ainos of ,yesso1#gbh the ,bodos of ,north-,east-,india1#gbi the ,tunguz of ,siberia4#gcj ,this is the state of things which continues at higher levels of systematic civilization4 ,beside the ,mexican ,tonatiuh the ,sun1 ,metztli the ,moon had a smaller pyramid and temple2#gca in ,bogota1 the ,moon1 identified in local myth with the ,evil ,deity1 had her place and figure in the temple beside the ,sun her husband2#gcb the ,peruvian ,mother-,moon1 ,mama-,quilla1 had her silver disc-face to match the golden one of her brother and husband the ,sun1 whose companion she had been in the legendary civilizing of the land4#gcc ,in the ancient ,kami-religion of ,japan1 the supreme ,sun-god ranks high above the ,moon-god1 who was worshipped under the form of a fox4#gcd ,among the historic nations of the ,old ,world1 documents of ,semitic culture show ,sun and ,moon side by side4 ,for one1 we may take the ,jewish law1 to stone with stones till they died the man or woman who #8hath gone and served other gods1 and worshipped them1 either the sun1 or moon1 or any of the host of heaven4' ,for another1 let us glance over the curious record of the treaty-oath between ,philip of ,macedon and the general of the ,carthaginian and ,libyan army1 which so well shows how the original identity of nature-deities may be forgotten in their different local shapes1 so that the same divinity may come twice or even three times over in as many national names and forms4 ,herakles and ,apollo stand in company with the personal ,sun1 and as well as the personal ,moon is to be seen the #8,carthaginian deity1' whom there is reason to look on as ,astarte1 a goddess latterly of lunar nature4 ,this is the list of deities invoked3 #8,before ,zeus and ,hera and ,apollo2 before the goddess of the ,carthaginians 7 7 and ,herakles and ,iolaos2 before ,ares1 ,triton1 ,poseidon2 before the gods who fought with the armies1 and ,sun and ,moon and ,earth2 before the rivers and meadows and waters2 before all the gods who rule ,macedonia and the rest of ,greece2 before all the gods who were at the war1 they who have presided over this oath4'#gce ,when ,lucian visited the famous temple of ,hierapolis in ,syria1 he saw the images of the other gods1 #8but only of the ,sun and ,moon they show no images4' ,and when he asked why1 they told him that the forms of other gods were not seen by all1 but ,sun and ,moon are altogether clear1 and all men see them4#gcf ,in ,egyptian theology1 not to discuss other divine beings to whom a lunar nature has been ascribed1 it is at least certain that ,khonsu is the ,moon in absolute personal divinity4#gcg ,in ,aryan theology1 the personal ,moon stands as ,seln beside the more anthropomorphic forms of ,hekat and ,artemis1#gch as ,luna beside the less understood ,lucina1 and ,diana with her borrowed attributes1#gci while our ,teutonic forefathers were content with his plain name of ,moon4#gdj ,as for lunar survivals in the higher religions1 they are much like the solar4 ,monotheist as he is1 the ,moslem still claps his hands at sight of the new moon1 and says a prayer4#gda ,in ,europe in the #aeth century it was matter of complaint that some still adored the new moon with bended knee1 or hood or hat removed1 and to this day we may still see a hat raised or a curtsey dropped to her1 half in conservatism and half in jest4 ,it is with reference to silver as the lunar metal1 that money is turned when the act of adoration is performed1 while practical peasant wit dwells on the ill-luck of having no piece of silver when the new moon is first seen4#gdb ,thus1 in tracing the development of ,nature-,worship1 it appears that though ,fire1 ,air1 ,earth1 and ,water are not yet among the lower races systematized into a quaternion of elements1 their adoration1 with that of ,sun and ,moon1 shows already arising in primitive culture the familiar types of those great divinities1 who received their further development in the higher ,polytheism4 ,footnote #eic3 ,eyre1 #8,australia1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cfb2 ,oldfield in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #bbh2 ,lang1 #8,queensland1' p4 #ddd4 ,footnote #eid3 ,martius1 #8,ethnog4 ,amer4' vol4 i4 p4 #ehc4 ,footnote #eie3 ,loskiel1 #8,ind4 of ,n4 ,america1' part i4 p4 #dc4 ,footnote #eif3 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #acbb4 ,footnote #eig3 ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 p4 #ahj4 ,footnote #eih3 ,j4 ,b4 ,schlegel1 #8,schlssel zur ,ewe ,sprache1' p4 xii42 compare ,bowen1 #8,yoruba ,lang4' in #8,smithsonian ,contrib4' vol4 i4 p4 xvi4 ,footnote #eii3 ,samoiedia1 in ,pinkerton1 vol4 i4 p4 #eca4 ,footnote #fjj3 ,macpherson1 p4 #hd1 c4 ,footnote #fja3 ,clavigero1 #8,messico1' vol4 ii4 ch4 i4 ,footnote #fjb3 ,gladstone1 #8,juventus ,mundi1' ch4 vii4 c4 ,footnote #fjc3 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 ii4 ,footnote #fjd3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 i4 pp4 #cc1 #bee1 #bge1 #cch1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fib4 ,footnote #fje3 ,brebeuf in #8,rel4 des ,js41' #afcf1 p4 #ajg2 ,lafitau1 #8,murs des ,sauvages ,amriquains1' vol4 i4 p4 #acb4 ,schoolcraft1 #8,iroquois1' p4 #cf1 c4 #bcg4 ,brinton1 #8,myths of ,new ,world1' pp4 #dh1 #agb4 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrelig4' p4 #aai4 ,footnote #fjf3 ,callaway1 #8,zulu ,tales1' vol4 i4 p4 #bjc4 ,footnote #fjg3 ,waitz1 #8,anthropologie1' vol4 ii4 p4 #afh1 c42 ,burton1 #8,w4 ,w4 fr4 ,w4 ,afr4' p4 #gf4 ,footnote #fjh3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #g1 c4 ,footnote #fji3 ,plath1 #8,religion und ,cultus der alten ,chinesen1' part i4 p4 #ah1 c42 part ii4 p4 #cb2 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cif4 ,see ,max ,mller1 #8,lectures1' #bnd ,s4 p4 #dcg2 ,legge1 #8,confucius1' p4 #ajj4 ,for further evidence as to savage and barbaric worship of the ,heaven as ,supreme ,deity1 see chap4 xvii4 ,footnote #faj3 ,max ,mller1 #8,lectures1' #bnd ,series1 p4 #dbe2 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' ch4 ix42 ,cicero1 ,de ,natura ,deorum1 iii4 #d4 ,connexion of the ,sanskrit ,dyu with the ,scandinavian ,tyr and the ,anglo ,saxon ,tiw is perhaps rather of etymology than definition4 ,footnote #faa3 ,duff ,macdonald1 #8,africana1' vol4 i4 p4 #fj 7,e4 ,centr4 ,afr474 ,waitz1 #8,anthropologie1' vol4 ii4 p4 #afi 7,w4 ,afr47 p4 #daf 7,damaras74 ,footnote #fab3 ,markham1 #8,quichua ,gr4 and ,dic4' p4 #i2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrel4' pp4 #cah1 #cfh4 ,footnote #fac3 ,ibid4 pp4 #dif-i2 ,oviedo1 #8,nicaragua1' pp4 #dj1 #gb4 ,footnote #fad3 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' pp4 #hi1 #cee4 ,footnote #fae3 ,dalton1 #8,kols1' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vi4 p4 #cd4 ,compare #a ,kings xviii4 ,footnote #faf3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #cf2 ,kalewala1 ,rune ii4 #cag4 ,footnote #fag3 ,marc4 ,antonin4 v4 #g4 #8 1 1 1 1 4' ,footnote #fah3 ,petron4 ,arbiter4 ,sat4 xliv4 #8,antea stolat ibant nudis pedibus in clivum1 passis capillis1 mentibus puris1 et ,jovem aquam exorabant4 ,itaque statim urceatim pluebat3 aut tunc aut nunquam2 et omnes redibant udi tanquam mures4' ,see ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #afj4 ,footnote #fai3 ,pr4 ,max v4 ,wied1 #8,n4 ,amer4' vol4 ii4 pp4 #aeb1 #bbc2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #abj2 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #agi4 ,footnote #fbj3 ,keating1 #8,narr4' vol4 i4 p4 #djg2 ,eastman1 #8,dahcotah1' p4 #ga2 ,brinton1 p4 #aej1 c42 see ,m',coy1 #8,baptist ,indian ,missions1' p4 #cfc4 ,footnote #fba3 ,de la ,borde1 #8,carabes1' p4 #ecj2 ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' p4 #dca4 ,footnote #fbb3 ,de ,laet1 #8,novus ,orbis1' xv4 #b4 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #dag2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #bgj2 also #dba 7thunderstorms by anger of ,sun1 in ,cumana1 c474 ,footnote #fbc3 ,brinton1 p4 #aec2 ,herrera1 #8,indias ,occidentales1' ,dec41 v4 #d4 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller p4 #cbg4 #8,rites and ,laws of the ,yncas1' tr4 ed4 by ,c4 ,r4 ,markham1 p4 #af1 see #ha2 ,prescott1 #8,peru1' vol4 i4 p4 #hf4 ,footnote #fbd3 ,bowen1 #8,yoruba ,lang4' p4 xvi4 in #8,smithsonian ,contr4' vol4 i4 ,see ,burton1 #8,dahome1' vol4 ii4 p4 #adb4 ,details as to thunder-axes1 c41 in #8,early ,hist4 of ,mankind1' ch4 viii4 ,footnote #fbe3 ,steller1 #8,kamtschatka1' p4 #bff4 ,footnote #fbf3 ,klemm1 #8,c4 ,g4' vol4 iv4 p4 #he4 7,ossetes1 c47 ,see ,welcker1 vol4 i4 p4 #agj2 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #aeh4 ,bastian1 #8,mensch4' vol4 ii4 p4 #dbc 7,ali-sect474 ,footnote #fbg3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #ci1 c4 ,footnote #fbh3 #8,rig-,veda1' i4 #cb4 #a1 #ee4 #e1 #acj4 #h1 #afe2 iii4 #cd4 #i2 vi4 #bj2 x4 #dd4 #i1 #hi4 #i4 ,max ,mller1 #8,lectures1' #bnd ,s4 p4 #dbg2 #8,chips1' vol4 i4 p4 #db1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cbc4 ,see ,muir1 #8,sanskrit ,texts4' ,footnote #fbi3 ,homer4 ,il4 viii4 #agj1 xvii4 #eie4 ,ovid4 ,fast4 ii4 #fi4 ,see ,welcker1 #8,griech4 ,gtterl4' vol4 ii4 p4 #aid4 ,footnote #fcj3 ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth4' p4 #beg4 ,footnote #fca3 ,grimm1 #8,deutsche ,myth4' ch4 viii4 ,edda2 ,gylfaginning1 #ba1 #dd4 ,footnote #fcb3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,algic ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #aci1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bad2 ,loskiel1 part i4 p4 #dc2 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aij4 ,morgan1 #8,iroquois1' p4 #aeg2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #ef4 ,further ,american evidence in ,brinton1 #8,myths of ,new ,world1' pp4 #ej1 #gd2 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #bfg 7,sillagiksartok1 ,weather-spirit72 ,de la ,borde1 #8,carabes1' p4 #ecj 7,carib ,star ,curumon1 makes the billows and upsets canoes74 ,footnote #fcc3 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #cbi 7compare with the ,maori ,tempest-god ,tawhirimatea1 ,grey1 #8,polyn4 ,myth4' p4 #e72 ,schirren1 #8,wandersage der ,neuseelnder1' c4 p4 #he2 ,yate1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #add4 ,see also ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 ii4 p4 #aae4 ,footnote #fcd3 ,steller1 #8,kamschatka1' p4 #bff4 ,footnote #fce3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' pp4 #cg1 #fh4 ,footnote #fcf3 ,boecler1 pp4 #ajf1 #adg4 ,footnote #fcg3 ,see also ,klemm1 #8,cultur-,gesch4' vol4 iv4 p4 #he 7,circassian ,water-god and ,wind-god74 ,footnote #fch3 ,muir1 #8,sanskrit ,texts1' vol4 v4 p4 #aej4 ,footnote #fci3 ,homer4 ,il4 xxiii4 #aib1 ,odyss4 xx4 #ff1 #gg2 ,apollon4 ,rhod4 ,argonautica2 ,apollodor4 i4 #i4 #ba2 ,virg4 n4 i4 #ef2 ,welcker1 #8,griech4 ,gtterl4' vol4 i4 p4 #gjg1 vol4 iii4 p4 #fg4 ,footnote #fdj3 ,grimm1 #8,deutsche ,myth4' pp4 #aba1 #hga4 ,footnote #fda3 ,wuttke1 #8,deutsche ,volksabergl4' p4 #hf4 ,footnote #fdb3 ,tanner's #8,narrative1' p4 #aic2 ,loskiel1 l4c4 ,see also ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' p4 #dad2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #agh 7,antilles74 ,footnote #fdc3 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 #8,commentarios ,reales1' i4 #aj2 ,rivero ,tschudi1 p4 #afa2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #cfi4 ,footnote #fdd3 ,waitz1 #8,anthropologie1' vol4 ii4 p4 #agj4 ,footnote #fde3 #8,report of ,ethnological ,committee1 ,jubbulpore ,exhibition1' #ahff-g4 ,nagpore1 #ahfh1 part ii4 p4 #ed4 ,footnote #fdf3 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' chap4 vi4 ,footnote #fdg3 ,georgi1 #8,reise im ,russ4 ,reich1' vol4 i4 pp4 #bge1 #cag4 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth1' p4 #hf1 c4 ,footnote #fdh3 ,plath1 #8,religion der alten ,chinesen1' part i4 pp4 #cf1 #gc1 part ii4 p4 #cb4 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 i4 pp4 #hf1 #ced1 #dac1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #fg1 #chj1 #dee4 ,footnote #fdi3 #8,rig-,veda1' i4 #hi4 #d1 c41 c4 ,footnote #fej3 ,welcker1 #8,griech4 ,gtterl4' vol4 i4 p4 #che1 c4 ,footnote #fea3 ,varro de ,ling4 ,lat4 iv4 ,footnote #feb3 ,tacit4 ,germania1 #dj4 ,grimm1 #8,deutsche ,myth4' p4 #bbi1 c4 ,footnote #fec3 ,wuttke1 #8,deutsche ,volksabergl4' p4 #hg4 ,footnote #fed3 ,liebich1 #8,die ,zigeuner1' pp4 #cj1 #hd4 ,footnote #fee3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part iii4 p4 #dhe2 ,eastman1 #8,dahcotah1' pp4 i4 #aah1 #afa4 ,footnote #fef3 ,clavigero1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ad4 ,footnote #feg3 ,marsden1 #8,sumatra1' p4 #cja2 see also #cjc 7,tagals74 ,footnote #feh3 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #cbh4 ,footnote #fei3 ,bosman1 #8,guinea1' letter xix42 in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #did4 ,burton1 #8,dahome1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ada4 ,see also below1 chap4 xviii4 7sacrifice74 ,footnote #ffj3 ,schlegel1 #8,ewe ,sprache1' p4 xiv4 ,footnote #ffa3 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 #8,commentarios ,reales1' i4 #aj1 vi4 #ag2 ,rivero ,tschudi1 #8,peru1' p4 #afa4 ,footnote #ffb3 ,steller1 #8,kamtschatka1' p4 #bfe4 ,footnote #ffc3 ,siebold1 #8,nippon1' part v4 p4 #i4 ,footnote #ffd3 ,herod4 vi4 #gf4 ,footnote #ffe3 ,cicero1 ,de ,natura ,deorum1 iii4 #bj4 ,footnote #fff3 ,homer1 ,il4 i4 #ech1 xiii4 #ah1 xx4 #ac4 ,welcker1 #8,griech4 ,gtterl4' vol4 i4 p4 #faf 7,nereus71 p4 #fbb 7,poseidon74 ,cox1 #8,mythology of ,aryan ,nations1' vol4 ii4 ch4 vi4 ,footnote #ffg3 ,loskiel1 #8,ind4 of ,n4 ,a4' part i4 pp4 #da1 #de4 ,see also ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #ee4 ,footnote #ffh3 ,irving1 #8,astoria1' vol4 ii4 ch4 xxii4 ,footnote #ffi3 ,torquemada1 #8,monarquia ,indiana1' vi4 c4 #bh1 x4 c4 #bb1 #cj2 ,brasseur1 #8,mexique1' vol4 iii4 pp4 #dib1 #ebb1 #ecf4 ,footnote #fgj3 ,schirren1 #8,wandersage der ,neuseelnder1' c41 p4 #cb2 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' pp4 #beb1 #ebg4 ,footnote #fga3 ,burton1 #8,dahome1' vol4 ii4 p4 #adh2 ,schlegel1 #8,ewe ,sprache1' p4 xv4 ,footnote #fgb3 ,steller1 #8,kamtschatka1' p4 #bgf4 ,footnote #fgc3 ,batchelor in #8,tr4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,japan1' vols4 x4 xvi4 ,footnote #fgd3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #eg2 ,billings1 #8,n4 ,russia1' p4 #abc 7,yakuts72 ,bastian1 #8,vorstellungen von ,wasser und ,feuer1' in #8,zeitschr4 fr ,ethnologie1' vol4 i4 p4 #chc 7,mongols74 ,footnote #fge3 ,klemm1 #8,cultur-,gesch4' vol4 vi4 p4 #he 7,circassia74 ,welcker1 vol4 i4 p4 #ffc4 ,footnote #fgf3 ,see #8,records of the ,past1' vol4 iii4 p4 #acg1 vol4 ix4 p4 #adc2 ,sayce1 #8,lectures on ,rel4 of ,ancient ,babylonians1' p4 #agj4 ,for accounts of ,semitic fire-worship1 see ,movers1 #8,phnizier1' vol4 i4 p4 #cbg1 c41 #ccg1 c41 #dja4 ,footnote #fgg3 #8,rig-,veda1' i4 #a4 #a1 #ai4 #b1 iii4 #a4 #ah1 c42 ,max ,mller1 vol4 i4 p4 #ci2 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ec4 ,haug1 #8,essays on ,parsis1' iv42 #8,early ,hist4 of ,mankind1' p4 #bee4 ,footnote #fgh3 ,hanway1 #8,journal of ,travels1' ,london1 #agec1 vol4 i4 ch4 lvii4 ,footnote #fgi3 ,diog4 ,lrt4 ,prom4 ii4 #f4 ,sextus ,empiricus adv4 ,physicos1 ix42 ,strabo1 xv4 #c1 #ac4 ,footnote #fhj3 ,john ,wilson1 #8,the ,parsi ,religion1' ch4 iv42 #8,avesta1' tr4 by ,spiegel1 ,yacna1 i4 lxi4 ,footnote #fha3 ,max ,mller1 #8,chips1' vol4 i4 p4 #afi4 ,haug1 #8,essays on ,parsis1' p4 #bha4 ,footnote #fhb3 ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth4' pp4 #hh1 #ih4 ,footnote #fhc3 ,homer4 ,hymn4 ,aphrod4 #bi1 ,hestia #a4 ,welcker1 #8,griech4 ,gtterl4' vol4 ii4 pp4 #fhf1 #fia4 ,footnote #fhd3 ,ovid4 ,fast4 vi4 #bie4 ,footnote #fhe3 ,boecler1 #8,ehsten ,abergl4' p4 #bi1 c4 ,footnote #fhf3 ,wuttke1 #8,volksabergl4' p4 #hf4 ,grohmann1 #8,aberglauben aus ,bhmen1' p4 #da4 ,footnote #fhg3 ,d',orbigny1 #8,l',homme ,amricain1' vol4 i4 p4 #bdb4 ,footnote #fhh3 ,herod1 i4 #baf1 iv4 #ahd4 ,baker1 #8,albert ,nyanza1' vol4 i4 p4 #add4 ,footnote #fhi3 ,waitz1 #8,anthropologie1' vol4 iii4 p4 #aha 7,hudson's ,b41 ,pottawatomies71 #bje 7,virginians74 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrel4' p4 #aag 7,delawares1 ,sioux1 ,mingos1 c474 ,sproat1 #8,ind4 of ,vancouver's ,i4' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 v4 p4 #bec4 ,loskiel1 #8,ind4 of ,n4 ,a4' part i4 p4 #dc 7,delawares74 ,hennepin1 #8,voyage dans l',amrique1' p4 #cjb 7,sioux71 c4 ,bartram1 #8,creek and ,cherokee ,ind4' in #8,tr4 ,amer4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 part i4 pp4 #bj1 #bf2 see also ,schoolcraft1 #8,ind4 ,tribes1' part ii4 p4 #abg 7,comanches1 c472 ,morgan1 #8,iroquois1' p4 #afd2 ,gregg1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bch 7,shawnees72 but compare the remarks of ,brinton1 #8,myths of ,new ,world1' p4 #ada4 ,footnote #fij3 ,martius1 #8,ethnog4 ,amer4' vol4 i4 p4 #cbg 7,botocudos74 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #eah 7,araucanians74 ,dobrizhoffer1 vol4 ii4 p4 #hi 7,puelches74 ,charlevoix1 #8,hist4 du ,paraguay1' vol4 i4 p4 #cca 7,diaguitas74 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #bee 7,botocudos1 ,aucas1 ,diaguitas74 ,footnote #fia3 ,charlevoix1 #8,nouvelle ,france1' vol4 vi4 p4 #agb2 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bag4 ,footnote #fib3 ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' book ii4 ch4 viii4 ,footnote #fic3 ,torquemada1 #8,monarquia ,indiana1' ix4 c4 #cd2 ,sahagun1 #8,hist4 de ,nueva ,espaa1' ii4 ,app4 in ,kingsborough1 #8,antiquities of ,mexico2' ,waitz1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ach2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #dgd1 c42 ,brasseur1 #8,mexique1' vol4 iii4 p4 #dhg2 ,tylor1 #8,mexico1' p4 #ada4 ,footnote #fid3 ,piedrahita1 #8,hist4 ,gen4 de las ,conquistas del ,nuevo ,reyno de ,granada1' ,antwerp1 #afhh3 part i4 book i4 c4 iii4 iv42 ,humboldt1 #8,vues des ,cordillres2' ,waitz1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ceb1 c42 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #dcb1 c4 ,footnote #fie3 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 #8,commentarios ,reales1' lib4 i4 c4 #ae1 c41 iii4 c4 #bj2 v4 c4 #b1 #f2 #8,rites and ,laws of the ,yncas1' tr4 ed4 by ,c4 ,r4 ,markham1 7,hakluyt ,soc41 #ahgc7 p4 #hd2 ,prescott1 #8,peru1' book i4 ch4 iii42 ,waitz1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ddg1 c42 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #cfb1 c4 ,footnote #fif3 ,meiners1 #8,gesch4 der ,rel4' vol4 i4 p4 #chc4 ,burton1 #8,central ,afr4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cdf2 #8,dahome1' vol4 ii4 p4 #adg4 ,footnote #fig3 ,hodgson1 #8,abor4 of ,india1' pp4 #afg1 #age 7,bodos1 c474 ,footnote #fih3 ,dalton1 #8,kols1' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vi4 p4 #cc 7,oraons1 c472 ,hunter1 #8,annals of ,rural ,bengal1' p4 #ahd 7,santals74 ,footnote #fii3 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' p4 #hd1 c4 7,khonds74 ,footnote #gjj3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' pp4 #af1 #ea1 c4 ,meiners1 l4c4 ,georgi1 #8,reise im ,russ4 ,reich4' vol4 i4 pp4 #bge1 #cag4 ,klemm1 #8,cultur-,geschichte1' vol4 iii4 p4 #hg4 ,sun-,worship in ,japan1 ,siebold1 #8,nippon1' part v4 p4 #i4 ,for further evidence as to savage and barbaric worship of the ,sun as ,supreme ,deity1 see chap4 xvii4 ,footnote #gja3 #8,rig-,veda1' i4 #ce1 #ej2 iii4 #fb1 #aj4 ,max ,mller1 #8,lectures1' #bnd ,ser4 pp4 #cgh1 #daa2 #8,chips1' vol4 i4 p4 #ai4 ,colebrooke1 #8,essays1' vol4 i4 pp4 #cj1 #acc4 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 ii4 p4 #db4 ,footnote #gjb3 #8,khordah-,avesta1' xxvi4 in ,avesta tr4 by ,spiegel1 vol4 iii42 ,m4 ,haug1 #8,essays on ,parsis4' ,strabo1 xv4 #c1 #ac4 ,nonnus1 xl4 #djj4 ,movers1 #8,phnizier1' vol4 i4 p4 #ahj3 #8 '2 #8 4' ,footnote #gjc3 ,plat4 ,sympos4 xxxvi4 ,see ,welcker1 #8,griech4 ,gtterlehre1' vol4 i4 pp4 #djj1 #dab4 ,footnote #gjd3 ,csar de ,bello ,gallico1 vi4 #ba3 #8,deorum numero eos solos ducunt1 quos cernunt et quorum aperte opibus juvantur1 ,solem et ,vulcanum et ,lunam1 reliquos ne fama quidem acceperunt4' ,footnote #gje3 ,cicero de ,natura ,deorum1 iii4 #ba4 ,footnote #gjf3 ,see ,wilkinson1 #8,ancient ,egyptians'2 ,renouf1 #8,religion of ,ancient ,egypt4' ,footnote #gjg3 ,deut4 iv4 #ai1 xvii4 #c2 #b ,kings xxiii4 #aa4 ,footnote #gjh3 ,movers1 #8,phnizier1' vol4 i4 pp4 #afb1 #ahj1 c4 ,lamprid4 ,heliogabal4 i4 ,footnote #gji3 ,euseb4 ,prparat4 ,evang4 i4 #f4 ,footnote #gaj3 ,neander1 #8,church ,history1' vol4 vi4 p4 #cda4 ,carsten ,niebuhr1 #8,reisebeschr4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cif4 ,footnote #gaa3 ,palgrave1 #8,arabia1' vol4 i4 p4 #i2 vol4 ii4 p4 #beh4 ,see ,koran1 xli4 #cg4 ,footnote #gab3 ,tertullian4 ,apolog4 adv4 ,gentes1 xvi4 ,see ,lucian4 de ,saltat4 xvii42 compare ,job4 xxxi4 #bf4 ,footnote #gac3 ,leo4 ,i4 ,serm4 viii4 in ,natal4 ,dom4 ,footnote #gad3 ,wuttke1 #8,volksaberglaube1' p4 #aej4 ,footnote #gae3 ,grimm1 #8,deutsche ,myth4' p4 #eha1 c4 ,wuttke1 pp4 #ag1 #ic4 ,brand1 #8,pop4 ,ant4' vol4 i4 p4 #aeg1 c4 #8,early ,hist4 of ,mankind1' p4 #bfj4 ,murray's #8,handbook for ,syria and ,palestine1' #ahfh1 p4 #afb4 ,footnote #gaf3 ,see ,pauly1 #8,real-,encyclop4' s4v4 #8,sol2' ,petavius1 #8,juliani ,imp4 ,opera1' #bij-b1 #bgg4 ,bingham1 #8,antiquities of ,christian ,church1' book xx4 ch4 iv42 ,neander1 #8,church ,hist4' vol4 iii4 p4 #dcg2 ,beausobre1 #8,hist4 de ,maniche1' vol4 ii4 p4 #fia2 ,gibbon1 ch4 xxii42 ,creuzer1 #8,symbolik1' vol4 i4 p4 #gfa1 c4 ,footnote #gag3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' pp4 #eic1 #abbc4 ,brand1 #8,popular ,antiquities1' vol4 i4 p4 #dfg4 ,monnier1 #8,traditions ,populaires1' p4 #ahh4 ,footnote #gah3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #ehc2 ,brand1 vol4 i4 p4 #bih2 ,wuttke1 pp4 #ad1 #adj4 ,beausobre1 l4c4 ,footnote #gai3 ,spix and ,martius1 #8,reise in ,brasilien1' vol4 i4 pp4 #cgg1 #cha2 ,martius1 #8,ethnog4 ,amer4' vol4 i4 p4 #cbg2 ,pr4 ,max4 v4 ,wied1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eh2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 pp4 #bah1 #bed2 also ,musters1 #8,patagonians1' pp4 #eh1 #agi4 ,footnote #gbj3 ,de la ,borde1 #8,caraibes1' p4 #ebe4 ,footnote #gba3 ,sproat1 #8,savage ,life1' p4 #bjf2 #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 v4 p4 #bec4 ,footnote #gbb3 ,brebeuf in #8,rel4 des ,js4' #afce1 p4 #cd4 ,footnote #gbc3 ,livingstone1 #8,s4 ,afr4' p4 #bce2 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #age1 #cdb4 ,footnote #gbd3 ,rmer1 #8,guinea1' p4 #hd2 ,du ,chaillu1 #8,ashango-land1' p4 #dbh2 see ,purchas1 vol4 v4 p4 #gff4 ,mller1 #8,fetu1' p4 #dg4 ,footnote #gbe3 ,merolla1 #8,congo1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #bgc4 ,footnote #gbf3 ,kolbe1 #8,beschryving van de ,kaap de ,goede ,hoop1' part i4 xxix4 ,see ante1 vol4 i4 p4 #cee4 ,footnote #gbg3 ,loskiel1 #8,ind4 of ,n4 ,a4' part i4 p4 #dc4 ,footnote #gbh3 ,bickmore1 #8,ainos1' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vii4 p4 #bj4 ,footnote #gbi3 ,hodgson1 #8,abor4 of ,india1' p4 #afg4 ,footnote #gcj3 ,georgi1 #8,reise im ,russ4 ,r4' vol4 i4 p4 #bge4 ,footnote #gca3 ,clavigero1 #8,messico1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #i1 #ce2 ,tylor1 #8,mexico1' l4c4 ,footnote #gcb3 ,waitz1 vol4 iv4 p4 #cfb4 ,footnote #gcc3 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 #8,commentarios ,reales1' iii4 #ba4 ,footnote #gcd3 ,siebold1 #8,nippon1' part v4 p4 #i4 ,footnote #gce3 ,deuteron4 xvii4 #c2 ,polyb4 vii4 #i2 see ,movers1 #8,phnizier1' pp4 #aei1 #ecf1 #fje4 ,footnote #gcf3 ,lucian4 de ,syria ,dea1 iv4 #cd4 ,footnote #gcg3 ,wilkinson1 #8,ancient ,egyptians1' ed4 by ,birch1 vol4 iii4 p4 #agd4 ,see ,plutarch4 ,is4 et ,osir4 ,footnote #gch3 ,welcker1 #8,griech4 ,gtterl4' vol4 i4 p4 #eej1 c4 ,footnote #gci3 ,cic4 de ,nat4 ,deor4 ii4 #bg4 ,footnote #gdj3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' ch4 xxii4 ,footnote #gda3 ,akerblad1 #8,lettre ,italinsky4' ,burton1 #8,central ,afr4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cdf4 ,mungo ,park1 #8,travels1' in #8,pinkerton1' vol4 xvi4 p4 #hge4 ,footnote #gdb3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' pp4 #bi1 #ffg2 ,brand1 vol4 iii4 p4 #adf2 ,forbes ,leslie1 #8,early ,races of ,scotland1' vol4 i4 p4 #acf4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,animism 7continued74 ,polytheism comprises a class of ,great ,deities1 ruling the course of ,nature and the life of ,man--,childbirth-god--,agriculture-god- -,war-god--,god of the ,dead--,first ,man as ,divine ,ancestor--,dualism2 its rudimentary and unethical nature among low races2 its development through the course of culture--,good and ,evil ,deity--,doctrine of ,divine ,supremacy1 distinct from1 while tending towards1 the doctrine of ,monotheism--,idea of a ,highest or ,supreme ,deity evolved in various forms2 its place as completion of the ,polytheistic system and outcome of the ,animistic philosophy2 its continuance and development among higher nations--,general survey of ,animism as a ,philosophy of ,religion--,recapitulation of the theory advanced as to its development through successive stages of culture2 its primary phases best represented among the lower races1 while survivals of these among the higher races mark the transition from savage through barbaric to civilized faiths--,transition of ,animism in the ,history of ,religion2 its earlier and later stages as a ,philosophy of the ,universe2 its later stages as the principle of a ,moral ,institution4 ,polytheism acknowledges1 beside great fetish-deities like ,heaven and ,earth1 ,sun and ,moon1 another class of great gods whose importance lies not in visible presence1 but in the performance of certain great offices in the course of ,nature and the life of ,man4 ,the lower races can furnish themselves with such deities1 either by giving the recognized gods special duties to perform1 or by attributing these functions to beings invented in divine personality for the purpose4 ,the creation of such divinities is however carried to a much greater extent in the complex systems of the higher polytheism4 ,for a compact group of examples showing to what different ideas men will resort for a deity to answer a special end1 let us take the deity presiding over ,childbirth4 ,in the ,west ,indies1 a special divinity occupied with this function took rank as one of the great indigenous fetish-gods2#gdc in the ,samoan group1 the household god of the father's or mother's family was appealed to2#gdd in ,peru the ,moon takes to this office1#gde and the same natural idea recurs in ,mexico2#gdf in ,esthonian religion the productive ,earth-mother appropriately becomes patroness of human birth2#gdg in the classic theology of ,greece and ,italy1 the divine spouse of the ,heaven-king1 ,hera1#gdh ,juno1#gdi favours and protects on earth marriage and the birth of children2 and to conclude the list1 the ,chinese work out the problem from the manes-worshipper's point of view1 for the goddess whom they call #8,mother' and propitiate with many a ceremony and sacrifice to save and prosper their children1 is held to have been in human life a skilful midwife4#gej ,the deity of ,agriculture may be a cosmic being affecting the weather and the soil1 or a mythic giver of plants and teacher of their cultivation and use4 ,thus among the ,iroquois1 ,heno the ,thunder1 who rides through the heavens on the clouds1 who splits the forest-trees with the thunderbolt-stones he hurls at his enemies1 who gathers the clouds and pours out the warm rains1 was fitly chosen as patron of husbandry1 invoked at seed-time and harvest1 and called ,grandfather by his children the ,indians4#gea ,it is interesting to notice again on the southern continent the working out of this idea in the ,tupan of ,brazilian tribes2 ,thunder and ,lightning1 it is recorded1 they call ,tupan1 considering themselves to owe to him their hoes and the profitable art of tillage1 and therefore acknowledging him as a deity4#geb ,among the ,guarani race1 ,tamoi the ,ancient of ,heaven had no less rightful claim1 in his character of heaven-god1 to be venerated as the divine teacher of agriculture to his people4#gec ,in ,mexico1 ,centeotl the ,grain-goddess received homage and offerings at her two great festivals1 and took care of the growth and keeping of the corn4#ged ,in ,polynesia1 we hear in the ,society ,islands of ,ofanu the god of husbandry1 in the ,tonga ,islands of ,alo ,alo the fanner1 god of wind and weather1 bearing office as god of harvest1 and receiving his offering of yams when he had ripened them4#gee ,a picturesque figure from barbaric ,asia is ,pheebee ,yau1 the ,ceres of the ,karens1 who sits on a stump and watches the growing and ripening com1 to fill the granaries of the frugal and industrious4#gef ,the ,khonds worship at the same shrine1 a stone or tree near the village1 both ,brbi ,pennu the goddess of new vegetation1 and ,pidzu ,pennu the rain-god4#geg ,among ,finns and ,esths it is the ,earth-mother who appropriately undertakes the task of bringing forth the fruits4#geh ,and so among the ,greeks it is the same being1 ,dmtr the ,earth-mother1 who performs this function1 while the ,roman ,ceres who is confused with her is rather1 as in ,mexico1 a goddess of grain and fruit4#gei ,the ,war-god is another being wanted among the lower races1 and formed or adapted accordingly4 ,areskove the ,iroquois ,war-god seems to be himself the great celestial deity2 for his pleasant food they slaughtered human victims1 that he might give them victory over their enemies2 as a pleasant sight for him they tortured the war-captives2 on him the war-chief called in solemn council1 and the warriors1 shouting his name1 rushed into the battle he was surveying from on high4 ,canadian ,indians before the fight would look toward the sun1 or addressed the ,great ,spirit as god of war2 ,floridan ,indians prayed to the ,sun before their wars4#gfj ,araucanians of ,chili entreated ,pillan the ,thunder-god that he would scatter their enemies1 and thanked him amidst their cups after a victory4#gfa ,the very name of ,mexico seems derived from ,mexitli1 the national ,war-god1 identical or identified with the hideous gory ,huitzilopochtli4 ,not to attempt a general solution of the enigmatic nature of this inextricable compound parthenogenetic deity1 we may notice the association of his principal festival with the winter-solstice1 when his paste idol was shot through with an arrow1 and being thus killed1 was divided into morsels and eaten1 wherefore the ceremony was called the teoqualo or #8god-eating4' ,this and other details tend to show ,huitzilopochtli as originally a nature-deity1 whose life and death were connected with the year's1 while his functions of ,war-god may be of later addition4#gfb ,polynesia is a region where quite an assortment of war-gods may be collected4 ,such1 to take but one example1 was ,tairi1 war-god of ,king ,kamehameha of the ,sandwich ,islands1 whose hideous image1 covered with red feathers1 shark-toothed1 mother-of-pearl-eyed1 with helmet-crest of human hair1 was carried into battle by his special priest1 distorting his own face into hideous grins1 and uttering terrific yells which were considered to proceed from the god4#gfc ,two examples from ,asia may show what different original conceptions may serve to shape such deities as these upon4 ,the ,khond ,war-god1 who entered into all weapons1 so that from instruments of peace they became weapons of war1 who gave edge to the axe and point to the arrow1 is the very personified spirit of tribal war1 his token is the relic of iron and the iron weapons buried in his sacred grove which stands near each group of hamlets1 and his name is ,loha ,pennu or ,iron-god4#gfd ,the ,chinese ,war-god1 ,kuang ,t1 on the other hand1 is an ancient military ghost2 he was a distinguished officer1 as well as a #8faithful and honest courtier1' who flourished during the wars of the ,han dynasty1 and emperors since then have delighted to honour him by adding to his usual title more and more honorary distinctions4#gfe ,looking at these selections from the army of ,war-gods of the different regions of the world1 we may well leave their classic analogues1 ,ars and ,mars1 as beings whose warlike function we recognize1 but not so easily their original nature4#gff ,it would be easy1 going through the religious systems of ,polynesia and ,mexico1 ,greece and ,rome1 ,india and ,china1 to give the names and offices of a long list of divinities1 patrons of hunting and fishing1 carpentering and weaving1 and so forth4 ,but studying here rather the continuity of polytheistic ideas than the analysis of polytheistic divinities1 it is needless to proceed farther in the comparison of these deities of special function1 as recognized to some extent in the lower civilization1 before their elaborate development became one of the great features of the higher4 ,the great polytheistic deities we have been examining1 concerned as they are with the earthly course of nature and human life1 are gods of the living4 ,but even in savage levels man began to feel an intellectual need of a ,god of the ,dead1 to reign over the souls of men in the next life1 and this necessity has been supplied in various ways4 ,of the deities set up as lords of ,deadman's ,land1 some are beings whose original meaning is obscure4 ,some are distinctly nature-deities appointed to this office1 often for local reasons1 as happening to belong to the regions where the dead take up their abode4 ,some1 again1 are as distinctly the deified souls of men4 ,the two first classes may be briefly instanced together in ,america1 where the light-side and shadow-side 7as ,dr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller well calls them7 of the conception of a future life are broadly contrasted in the definitions of the ,lord of the ,dead4 ,among the ,northern ,indians this may be ,tarenyawagon the ,heaven-,god1 identified with the ,great ,spirit1 who receives good warriors in his happy hunting-grounds1 or his grandmother1 the ,death-goddess ,atahentsic4#gfg ,in ,brazil1 the ,under-world-god1 who places good warriors and sorcerers in ,paradise1 contrasts with ,aygnan the evil deity who takes base and cowardly ,tupi souls1#gfh much as the ,mexican ,tlaloc1 ,water-god and lord of the earthly paradise1 contrasts with ,mictlanteuctli1 ruler of the dismal dead-land in the shades below4#gfi ,in ,peru there has been placed on record a belief that the departed spirits went to be with the ,creator and ,teacher of the ,world--#8,bring us too near to thee 444 that we may be fortunate1 being near to thee1 ,o ,uira-cocha6' ,there are also statements as to an under-world of shades1 the land of the demon ,supay4#ggj ,accounts of this class must often be suspected of giving ideas mis-stated under ,european influence1 or actually adopted from ,europeans1 but there is in some a look of untouched genuineness4 ,thus in ,polynesia1 the idea of a ,devil borrowed from colonists or missionaries may be suspected in such a figure as the evil deity ,wiro1 chief of ,reigna1 the ,new ,zealander's western world of departed souls4 ,but few conceptions of deity are more quaintly original than that of the ,samoan deity ,saveasiuleo1 at once ruler of destinies of war and other affairs of men and chief of the subterranean ,bulot1 with the human upper half of his body reclining in his great house in company with the spirits of departed chiefs1 while his tail or extremity stretches far away into the sea1 in the shape of an eel or serpent4 ,under a name corresponding dialectically 7,siuleo ,hikuleo71 this composite being reappears in the kindred myths of the neighbouring group1 the ,tonga ,islands4 ,the ,tongan ,hikuleo has his home in the spirit-land of ,bulot1 here conceived as out in the far western sea4 ,here we are told the use of his tail4 ,his body goes away on journeys1 but his tail remains watching in ,bulot1 and thus he is aware of what goes on in more places than one4 ,hikuleo used to carry off the first-born sons of ,tongan chiefs1 to people his island of the blest1 and he so thinned the ranks of the living that at last the other gods were moved to compassion4 ,tangaloa and ,maui seized ,hikuleo1 passed a strong chain round him1 and fastened one end to heaven and the other to earth4 ,another god of the dead1 of well-marked native type1 is the ,rarotongan ,tiki1 an ancestral deity as in ,new ,zealand1 to whose long house1 a place of unceasing joys1 the dead are to find their way4#gga ,among ,turanian tribes1 there are ,samoyeds who believe in a deity called #8,a1' dwelling in impenetrable darkness1 sending disease and death to men and reindeer1 and ruling over a crowd of spirits which are manes of the dead4 ,tatars tell of the nine ,irle-,chans1 who in their gloomy subterranean kingdom not only rule over souls of the dead1 but have at their command a multitude of ministering spirits1 visible and invisible4 ,in the gloomy under-world of the ,finns reigns ,mana or ,tuoni1 a being whose nature is worked out by personification from the dismal dead-land or death itself4#ggb ,much the same may be said of the ,greek ,aids1 ,hades1 and the ,scandinavian ,hel1 whose names1 perhaps not so much by confusion as with a sense of their latent significance1 have become identified in language with the doleful abodes over which a personifying fancy set them to preside4#ggc ,as appropriately1 though working out a different idea1 the ancient ,egyptians conceived their great solar deity to rule in the regions of his western under-world--,osiris is ,lord of the ,dead in ,amenti4#ggd ,in the world's assembly of great gods1 an important place must be filled up by the manes-worshipper in logical development of his special system4 ,the theory of family manes1 carried back to tribal gods1 leads to the recognition of superior deities of the nature of ,divine ,ancestor or ,first ,man1 and it is of course reasonable that such a being1 if recognized1 should sometimes fill the place of lord of the dead1 whose ancestral chief he is4 ,there is an anecdote among the ,mandans told by ,prince ,maximilian von ,wied1 which brings into view conceptions lying in the deepest recesses of savage religion1 the idea of the divine first ancestor1 the mythic connexion of the sun's death and descent into the under-world1 with the like fate of man and the nature of the spiritual intercourse between man's own soul and his deity4 ,the ,first ,man1 it is said1 promised the ,mandans to be their helper in time of need1 and then departed into the ,west4 ,it came to pass that the ,mandans were attacked by foes4 ,one ,mandan would send a bird to the great ancestor to ask for help1 but no bird could fly so far4 ,another thought a look would reach him1 but the hills walled him in4 ,then said a third1 thought must be the safest way to reach the ,first ,man4 ,he wrapped himself in his buffalo-robe1 fell down1 and spoke1 #8,i think--,i have thought--,i come back4' ,throwing off the fur1 he was bathed in sweat4 ,the divine helper he had called on in his distress appeared4#gge ,there is instructive variety in the ways in which the lower ,american races work out the conception of the divine forefather4 ,the ,mingo tribes revere and make offerings to the ,first ,man1 he who was saved at the great deluge1 as a powerful deity under the ,master of ,life1 or even as identified with him2 some ,mississippi ,indians said that the ,first ,man ascended into heaven1 and thunders there2 among the ,dog-ribs1 he was creator of sun and moon2#ggf ,tamoi1 the grandfather and ancient of heaven of the ,guaranis1 was their first ancestor1 who dwelt among them and taught them to till the soil1 and rose to heaven in the east1 promising to succour them on earth1 and at death to carry them from the sacred tree into a new life where they should all meet again1 and have much hunting4#ggg ,polynesia1 again1 has thoroughly worked the theory of divine ancestors into the native system of multiform and blending nature-deities4 ,men are sprung from the divine ,maui1 whom ,europeans have therefore called the #8,adam of ,new ,zealand1' or from the ,rarotongan ,tiki1 who seems his equivalent 7,mauitiki71 and who again is the ,tii of the ,society ,islands2 it is1 however1 the son of ,tii who precisely represents a ,polynesian ,adam1 for his name is ,taata1 i4e41 ,man1 and he is the ancestor of the human race4 ,there is perhaps also reason to identify ,maui and the ,first ,man with ,akea1 first ,king of ,hawaii1 who at his earthly death descended to rule over his dark subterranean kingdom1 where his subjects are the dead who recline under the spreading kou-trees1 and drink of the infernal rivers1 and feed on lizards and butterflies4#ggh ,in the mythology of ,kamchatka1 the relation between the ,creator and the ,first ,man is one not of identity but of parentage4 ,among the sons of ,kutka the ,creator is ,haetsh the ,first ,man1 who dwelt on earth1 and died1 and descended into ,hades to be chief of the under-world2 there he receives the dead and new-risen ,kamchadals1 to continue a life like that of earth in his pleasant subterranean land where mildness and plenty prevail1 as they did in the regions above in the old days when the ,creator was still on earth4#ggi ,among all the lower races who have reasoned out this divine ancestor1 none excel those consistent manes-worshippers1 the ,zulus4 ,their worship of the manes of the dead has not only made the clan-ancestors of a few generations back into tribal deities 7,unkulunkulu71 but beyond these1 too far off and too little known for actual worship1 yet recognized as the original race-deity and identified with the ,creator1 stands the ,first ,man1 he who #8broke off in the beginning1' the ,old-,old-,one1 the great ,unkulunkulu4 ,while the ,zulu's most intense religious emotions are turned to the ghosts of the departed1 while he sacrifices his beloved oxen and prays with agonising entreaty to his grandfather1 and carries his tribal worship back to those ancestral deities whose praise-giving names are still remembered1 the ,first ,man is beyond the reach of such rites4 #8,at first we saw that we were made by ,unkulunkulu4 ,but when we were ill we did not worship him1 nor ask anything of him4 ,we worshipped those whom we had seen with our eyes1 their death and their life among us4444 ,unkulunkulu had no longer a son who could worship him2 there was no going back to the beginning1 for people increased1 and were scattered abroad1 and each house had its own connections2 there was no one who said1 8,for my part ,i am of the house of ,unkulunkulu40' ,nay more1 the ,zulus who would not dare to affront an #8idhlozi1' a common ghost1 that might be angry and kill them1 have come to make open mock of the name of the great first ancestor4 ,when the grown-up people wish to talk privately or eat something by themselves1 it is the regular thing to send the children out to call at the top of their voices for ,unkulunkulu4 #8,the name of ,unkulunkulu has no respect paid to it among black men2 for his house no longer exists4 ,it is now like the name of a very old crone1 who has no power to do even a little thing for herself1 but sits continually where she sat in the morning till the sun sets4 ,and the children make sport of her1 for she cannot catch them and flog them1 but only talk with her mouth4 ,just so is the name of ,unkulunkulu when all the children are told to go and call him4 ,he is now a means of making sport of children4'#ghj ,in ,aryan religion1 the divinities just described give us analogues for the ,hindu ,yama1 throughout his threefold nature as ,first ,man1 as solar ,god of ,hades1 as ,judge of the ,dead4 ,professor ,max ,mller thus suggests his origin1 which may indeed be inferred from his being called the child of ,vivasvat1 himself the ,sun3 #8,the sun1 conceived as setting or dying every day1 was the first who had trodden the path of life from ,east to ,west--the first mortal--the first to show us the way when our course is run1 and our sun sets in the far ,west4 ,thither the fathers followed ,yama2 there they sit with him rejoicing1 and thither we too shall go when his messengers 7day and night7 have found us out4444 ,yama is said to have crossed the rapid waters1 to have shown the way to many1 to have first known the path on which our fathers crossed over4' ,it is a perfectly consistent myth-formation1 that the solar ,yama should become the first of mortals who died and discovered the way to the other world1 who guides other men thither and assembles them in a home which is secured to them for ever4 ,as representative of death1 ,yama had even in early ,aryan times his aspects of terror1 and in later ,indian theology he becomes not only the ,lord but the awful ,judge of the ,dead1 whom some modern ,hindus are said to worship alone of all the gods1 alleging that their future state is to be determined only by ,yama1 and that they have nothing therefore to hope or fear from any beside him4 ,in these days1 ,hindu and ,parsi in ,bombay are learning from scholars in ,europe the ancient connexion of their long antagonistic faiths1 and have to hear that ,yama son of ,visavat sitting on his awful judgment-seat of the dead1 to reward the good and punish the wicked with hideous tortures1 and ,yima son of ,vivanho who in primval days reigned over his happy deathless kingdom of good ,zarathustrian men1 are but two figures developed in the course of ages out of one and the same ,aryan nature-myth4#gha ,within the limits of ,jewish1 ,christian1 and ,moslem theology1 the ,first ,man scarcely occupies more than a place of precedence among the human race in ,hades or in ,heaven1 not the high office of ,lord of the ,dead4 ,yet that tendency to deify an ideal ancestor1 which we observe to act so strongly on lower races1 has taken effect also here4 ,the ,rabbinical ,adam is a gigantic being reaching from earth to heaven1 for the definition of whose stature ,rabbi ,eliezer cites ,deuteronomy iv4 #cb1 #8,god made man 7,adam7 upon the earth1 and from one end of heaven to the other4'#ghb ,it is one of the familiar episodes of the ,koran1 how the angels were bidden to bow down before ,adam1 the regent of ,allah upon earth1 and how ,eblis 7,diabolus7 swelling with pride1 refused the act of adoration4#ghc ,among the ,gnostic sect of the ,valentinians1 ,adam the primal man in whom the ,deity had revealed himself1 stood as earthly representative of the ,demiurge1 and was even counted among the ons4#ghd ,the figures of the great deities of ,polytheism1 thus traced in outline according to the determining idea on which each is shaped1 seem to show that conceptions originating under rude and primitive conditions of human thought and passing thence into the range of higher culture1 may suffer in the course of ages the most various fates1 to be expanded1 elaborated1 transformed1 or abandoned4 ,yet the philosophy of modern ages still to a remarkable degree follows the primitive courses of savage thought1 even as the highways of our land so often follow the unchanging tracks of barbaric roads4 ,let us endeavour timidly and circumspectly to trace onward from savage times the courses of vast and pregnant generalization which tend towards the two greatest of the world's schemes of religious doctrine1 the systems of ,dualism and ,monotheism4 ,rudimentary forms of ,dualism1 the antagonism of a ,good and ,evil ,deity1 are well known among the lower races of mankind4 ,the investigation of these savage and barbaric doctrines1 however1 is a task demanding peculiar caution4 ,the ,europeans in contact with these rude tribes since their discovery1 themselves for the most part holding strongly dualistic forms of ,christianity1 to the extent of practically subjecting the world to the contending influences of armies of good and evil spirits under the antagonistic control of ,god and ,devil1 were liable on the one hand to mistake and exaggerate savage ideas in this direction1 so that their records of native religion can only be accepted with reserve1 while on the other hand there is no doubt that dualistic ideas have been largely introduced and developed among the savages themselves1 under this same ,european influence4 ,for instance1 among the natives of ,australia1 we hear of the great deity ,nambajandi who dwells in his heavenly paradise1 where the happy shades of black men feast and dance and sing for evermore2 over against him stands the great evil being ,warrgra1 who dwells in the nethermost regions1 who causes the great calamities which befall mankind1 and whom the natives represent with horns and tail1 although no horned beast is indigenous in the land4#ghe ,there may be more or less native substratum in all this1 but the hints borrowed from popular ,christian ideas are unmistakeable4 ,thus also1 among the ,north ,american ,indians1 the native religion was modified under the influence of ideas borrowed from the white men1 and there arose a full dualistic scheme1 of which ,loskiel1 a ,moravian missionary conversant especially with ,algonquin and ,iroquois tribes1 gives the following suggestive particulars1 dating from #agid4 #8,they 7the ,indians7 first received in modern times through the ,europeans the idea of the ,devil1 the ,prince of ,darkness4 ,they consider him as a very mighty spirit1 who can only do evil1 and therefore call him the ,evil ,one4 ,thus they now believe in a great good and a great evil spirit2 to the one they ascribe all good1 and to the other all evil4 ,about thirty years ago1 a remarkable change took place in the religious opinions of the ,indians4 ,some preachers of their own nation pretended to have received revelations from above1 to have travelled into heaven1 and conversed with ,god4 ,they gave different accounts of their journey to heaven1 but all agreed in this1 that no one could arrive there without great danger2 for the road runs close by the gates of hell4 ,there the ,devil lies in ambush1 and snatches at every one who is going to ,god4 ,now those who have passed by this dangerous place unhurt1 come first to the ,son of ,god1 and from him to ,god himself1 from whom they pretend to have received a commandment1 to instruct the ,indians in the way to heaven4 ,by them the ,indians were informed that heaven was the dwelling of ,god1 and hell that of the ,devil4 ,some of these preachers had not indeed reached the dwelling of ,god1 but professed to have approached near enough to hear the cocks in heaven crow1 or to see the smoke of the chimneys in heaven1 c41 c4'#ghf ,such unequivocal proofs that savage tribes can adopt and work into the midst of their native beliefs the ,european doctrine of the ,good and ,evil ,spirit1 must induce us to criticize keenly all recorded accounts of the religion of uncultured tribes1 lest we should mistake the confused reflexion of ,christendom for the indigenous theology of ,australia or ,canada4 ,it is the more needful to bring this state of things into the clearest light1 in order that the religion of the lower tribes may be placed in its proper relation to the religion of the higher nations4 ,genuine savage faiths do in fact bring to our view what seem to be rudimentary forms of ideas which underlie dualistic theological schemes among higher nations4 ,it is certain that even among rude savage hordes1 native thought has already turned toward the deep problem of good and evil4 ,their crude though earnest speculation has already tried to solve the great mystery which still resists the efforts of moralists and theologians4 ,but as in general the animistic doctrine of the lower races is not yet an ethical institution1 but a philosophy of man and nature1 so savage dualism is not yet a theory of abstract moral principles1 but a theory of pleasure or pain1 profit or loss1 affecting the individual man1 his family1 or at the utmost stretch1 his people4 ,this narrow and rudimentary distinction between good and evil was not unfairly stated by the savage who explained that if anybody took away his wife1 that would be bad1 but if he himself took someone's else's1 that would be good4 ,now by the savage or barbarian mind1 the spiritual beings which by their personal action account for the events of life and the operations of nature1 are apt to be regarded as kindly or hostile1 sometimes or always1 like the human beings on whose type they are so obviously modelled4 ,in such a case1 we may well judge by the safe analogy of disembodied human souls1 and it appears that these are habitually regarded as sometimes friends and sometimes foes of the living4 ,nothing could be more conclusive in this respect than an account of the three days' battle between two factions of ,zulu ghosts for the life of a man and wife whom the one spiritual party desired to destroy and the other to save2 the defending spirits prevailed1 dug up the bewitched charm-bags which had been buried to cause sympathetic disease1 and flung these objects into the midst of the assembly of the people watching in silence1 just as the spirits now fling real flowers at a table-rapping sance4#ghg ,for spirits less closely belonging to the definition of ghosts1 may be taken ,rochefort's remarks in the #agth century as to the two sorts of spirits1 good and bad1 recognized by the ,caribs of the ,west ,indies4 ,this writer declares that their good spirits or divinities are in fact so many demons who seduce them and keep them enchained in their damnable servitude2 but nevertheless1 he says1 the people themselves do distinguish them from their evil spirits4#ghh ,nor can we pronounce this distinction of theirs unreasonable1 learning from other authorities that it was the office of some of these spirits to attend men as familiar genii1 and of others to inflict diseases4 ,after the numerous details which have incidentally been cited in the present volumes1 it will be needless to offer farther proof that spiritual beings are really conceived by savages and barbarians as ranged in antagonistic ranks as good and evil1 i4e41 friendly and hostile to themselves4 ,the interesting enquiry on which it is here desirable to collect evidence1 is this3 how far are the doctrines of the higher nations anticipated in principle among the lower tribes1 in the assignment of the conduct of the universe to two mighty hostile beings1 in whom the contending powers of good and evil are personified1 the ,good ,deity and the ,evil ,deity1 each the head and ruler of a spiritual host like-minded8 ,the true answer seems to be that savage belief displays to us the primitive conceptions which1 when developed in systematic form and attached to ethical meaning1 take their place in religious systems of which the ,zoroastrian is the type4 ,first1 when in district after district two special deities with special native names are contrasted in native religion as the ,good and ,evil ,deity1 it is in some cases easier to explain these beings as native at least in origin1 than to suppose that foreign intercourse should have exerted the consistent and far-reaching influence needed to introduce them4 ,second1 when the deities in question are actually polytheistic gods1 such as ,sun1 ,moon1 ,heaven1 ,earth1 considered as of good or evil1 i4e41 favourable or unfavourable aspect1 this looks like native development1 not innovation derived from a foreign religion ignoring such divinities4 ,third1 when it is held that the ,good ,deity is remote and otiose1 but the ,evil ,deity present and active1 and worship is therefore directed especially to the propitiation of the hostile principle1 we have here a conception which appears native in the lower culture1 rather than derived from the higher culture to which it is unfamiliar and even hateful4 ,now ,dualism1 as prevailing among the lower races1 will be seen in a considerable degree to assert its originality by satisfying one or more of these conditions4 ,there have been recorded among the ,indians of ,north ,america a group of mythic beliefs1 which display the fundamental idea of dualism in the very act of germinating in savage religion4 ,yet the examination of these myths leads us first to destructive criticism of a picturesque but not ancient member of the series4 ,an ethnologist1 asked to point out the most striking savage dualistic legend of the world1 would be likely to name the celebrated ,iroquois myth of the ,twin ,brethren4 ,the current version of this legend is that set down in #ahbe by the ,christian chief of the ,tuscaroras1 ,david ,cusick1 as the belief of his people4 ,among the ancients1 he relates1 there were two worlds1 the lower world in darkness and possessed by monsters1 the upper world inhabited by mankind4 ,a woman near her travail sank from this upper region to the dark world below4 ,she alighted on a ,tortoise1 prepared to receive her with a little earth on his back1 which ,tortoise became an island4 ,the celestial mother bore twin sons into the dark world1 and died4 ,the tortoise increased to a great island1 and the twins grew up4 ,one was of gentle disposition1 and was called ,enigorio1 the ,good ,mind1 the other was of insolent character1 and was named ,enigonhahetgea1 the ,bad ,mind4 ,the ,good ,mind1 not contented to remain in darkness1 wished to create a great light2 the ,bad ,mind desired that the world should remain in its natural state4 ,the ,good ,mind took his dead mother's head and made it the sun1 and of a remnant of her body he made the moon4 ,these were to give light to the day and to the night4 ,also he created many spots of light1 now stars3 these were to regulate the days1 nights1 seasons1 years4 ,where the light came upon the dark world1 the monsters were displeased1 and hid themselves in the depths1 lest man should find them4 ,the ,good ,mind continued the creation1 formed many creeks and rivers on the ,great ,island1 created small and great beasts to inhabit the forests1 and fishes to inhabit the waters4 ,when he had made the universe1 he doubted concerning beings to possess the ,great ,island4 ,he formed two images of the dust of the ground in his own likeness1 male and female1 and by breathing into their nostrils gave them living souls1 and named them ,ea-gwe-howe1 that is #8real people2' and he gave the ,great ,island all the animals of game for their maintenance2 he appointed thunder to water the earth by frequent rains2 the island became fruitful1 and vegetation afforded to the animals subsistence4 ,the ,bad ,mind went throughout the island and made high mountains and waterfalls and great steeps1 and created reptiles injurious to mankind2 but the ,good ,mind restored the island to its former condition4 ,the ,bad ,mind made two clay images in the form of man1 but while he was giving them existence they became apes2 and so on4 ,the ,good ,mind accomplished the works of creation1 notwithstanding the imaginations of the ,bad ,mind were continually evil2 thus he attempted to enclose all the animals of game in the earth away from mankind1 but his brother set them free1 and traces of them were made on the rocks near the cave where they were shut in4 ,at last the brethren came to single combat for the mastery of the universe4 ,the ,good ,mind falsely persuaded the ,bad ,mind that whipping with flags would destroy his own life1 but he himself used the deer-horns1 the instrument of death4 ,after a two days' fight1 the ,good ,mind slew his brother and crushed him in the earth2 and the last words of the ,bad ,mind were that he would have equal power over men's souls after death1 then he sank down to eternal doom and became the ,evil ,spirit4 ,the ,good ,mind visited the people1 and then retired from the earth4#ghi ,this is a graphic tale4 ,its versions of the cosmic myth of the ,world-,tortoise1 and its apparent philosophical myth of fossil footprints1 have much mythological interest4 ,but its ,biblical copying extends to the very phraseology1 and only partial genuineness can be allowed to its main theme4 ,dr4 ,brinton has shown from early ,american writers how much dualistic fancy has sprung up since the times of first intercourse between natives and white men4 ,when this legend is compared with the earlier version given by ,father ,brebeuf1 missionary to the ,hurons in #afcf1 we find its whole complexion altered2 the moral dualism vanishes2 the names of ,good and ,bad ,mind do not appear2 it is the story of ,ioskeha the ,white ,one1 with his brother ,tawiscara the ,dark ,one1 and we at once perceive that ,christian influence in the course of two centuries had given the tale a meaning foreign to its real intent4 ,yet to go back to the earliest sources and examine this myth of the ,white ,one and the ,dark ,one1 proves it to be itself a perfect example of the rise of primitive dualism in the savage mind4 ,father ,brebeuf's story is as follows3 ,aataentsic the ,moon fell from heaven on earth1 and bore two sons1 ,taouiscaron and ,iouskeha1 who being grown up quarrelled2 judge1 he says1 if there be not in this a touch of the death of ,abel4 ,they came to combat1 but with very different weapons4 ,iouskeha had a stag-horn1 ,taouiscaron contented himself with some wild-rose berries1 persuading himself that as soon as he should thus smite his brother1 he would fall dead at his feet2 but it fell out quite otherwise than he had promised himself1 and ,iouskeha struck him so heavy a blow in the side that the blood gushed forth in streams4 ,the poor wretch fled1 and from his blood which fell upon the land came the flints which the savages still call ,taouiscara1 from the victim's name4 ,from this we see it to be true that the original myth of the two brothers1 the ,white ,one and the ,dark ,one1 had no moral element4 ,it seems mere nature-myth1 the contest between ,day and ,night1 for the ,hurons knew that ,iouskeha was the ,sun1 even as his mother or grandmother ,aataentsic was the ,moon4 ,yet in the contrast between these two1 the ,huron mind had already come to the rudimentary contrast of the ,good and ,evil ,deity4 ,iouskeha the ,sun1 it is expressly said1 seemed to the ,indians their benefactor2 their kettle would not boil were it not for him2 it was he who learnt from the ,tortoise the art of making fire2 without him they would have no luck in hunting2 it is he who makes the corn to grow4 ,iouskeha the ,sun takes care for the living and all things concerning life1 and therefore1 says the missionary1 they say he is good4 ,but ,aataentsic the ,moon1 the creatress of earth and man1 makes men die and has charge of their departed souls1 and they say she is evil4 ,the ,sun and ,moon dwell together in their cabin at the end of the earth1 and thither it was that the ,indians made the mythic journey of which various episodes have been more than once cited here2 true to their respective characters1 the ,sun receives the travellers kindly and saves them from the harm the beauteous but hurtful ,moon would have done them4 ,another missionary of still earlier time identifies ,iouskeha with the supreme deity ,atahocan3 #8,iouskeha1' he says1 #8is good and gives growth and fair weather2 his grandmother ,eatahentsic is wicked and spoils4'#gij ,thus in early ,iroquois legend1 the ,sun and ,moon1 as god and goddess of ,day and ,night1 had already acquired the characters of the great friend and enemy of man1 the ,good and ,evil ,deity4 ,and as to the related cosmic legend of ,day and ,night1 contrasted in the persons of the two brothers1 the ,white ,one and the ,dark ,one1 though this was originally pure unethic nature-myth1 yet it naturally took the same direction among the half-,europeanized ,indians of later times1 becoming a moral myth of ,good and ,evil4 ,the idea comes to full maturity in the modern shaping of ,iroquois religion1 where the good and great deity ,hwenneyu the ,ruler has opposed to him a rival deity keeping the same name as in the myth1 ,hnegoategeh the ,evil-minded4 ,we have thus before us the profoundly interesting fact1 that the rude ,north ,american ,indians have more than once begun the same mythologic transition which in ancient ,asia shaped the contrast of light and darkness into the contrast of righteousness and wickedness1 by following out the same thought which still in the ,european mind arrays in the hostile forms of ,light and ,darkness the contending powers of ,good and ,evil4 ,judging by such evidence1 at once of the rudimentary dualism springing up in savage animism1 and of the tendency of this to amalgamate with similar thought brought in by foreign intercourse1 it is possible to account for many systems of the dualistic class found in the native religions of ,america4 ,while the evidence may lead us to agree with ,waitz that the ,north ,american ,indian dualism1 the most distinct and universal feature of their religion1 is not to be altogether referred to a modern ,christian origin1 yet care must be taken not to claim as the result of primitive religious development what shows signs of being borrowed civilized theology4 ,the records remain of the ,jesuit missionary teaching under which the ,algonquins came to use their native term ,manitu1 that is1 spirit or demon1 in speaking of the ,christian ,god and ,devil as the good and the evil ,manitu4 ,still later1 the ,great ,spirit and the ,evil ,spirit1 ,kitchi ,manitu and ,matchi ,manitu1 gained a wider place in the beliefs of ,north ,american tribes1 who combined these adopted ,christian conceptions with older native beliefs in powers of light and warmth and life and protection1 of darkness and cold and death and destruction4 ,thus the two great antagonistic ,beings became chiefs of the kindly and harmful spirits pervading the world and struggling for the mastery over it4 ,here the nature-religion of the savage was expanded and developed rather than set on foot by the foreigner4 ,among other ,american races1 such combinations of foreign and native religious ideas are easy to find1 though hard to analyse4 ,in the extreme north-west1 we may doubt any native origin in the semi-,christianized ,kodiak's definition of ,shljem ,sho the creator of heaven and earth1 to whom offerings were made before and after the hunt1 as contrasted with ,ijak the bad spirit dwelling in the earth4 ,in the extreme south-east may be found more originality among the ,floridan ,indians two or three centuries ago1 for they are said to have paid solemn worship to the ,bad ,spirit ,toia who plagued them with visions1 but to have had small regard for the ,good ,spirit1 who troubles himself little about mankind4#gia ,on the southern continent1 ,martius makes this characteristic remark as to the rude tribes of ,brazil3 #8,all ,indians have a lively conviction of the power of an evil principle over them2 in many there dawns also a glimpse of the good2 but they revere the one less than they fear the other4 ,it might be thought that they hold the ,good ,being weaker in relation to the fate of man than the evil4' ,this generalization is to some extent supported by statements as to particular tribes4 ,the ,macusis are said to recognize the good creator ,macunaima1 #8he who works by night1' and his evil adversary ,epel or ,horiuch3 of these people it is observed that #8,all the powers of nature are products of the ,good ,spirit1 when they do not disturb the ,indian's rest and comfort1 but the work of evil spirits when they do4' ,uauloa and ,locozy1 the good and evil deity of the ,yumanas1 live above the earth and toward the sun2 the ,evil ,deity is feared by these savages1 but the ,good ,deity will come to eat fruit with the departed and take their souls to his dwelling1 wherefore they bury the dead each doubled up in his great earthen pot1 with fruit in his lap1 and looking toward the sunrise4 ,even the rude ,botocudos are thought to recognize antagonistic principles of good and evil in the persons of the ,sun and ,moon4#gib ,this idea has especial interest from its correspondence on the one hand with that of the ,iroquois tribes1 and on the other with that of the comparatively civilized ,muyscas of ,bogota1 whose good deity is unequivocally a mythic ,sun1 thwarted in his kindly labours for man by his wicked wife ,huythaca the ,moon4#gic ,the native religion of ,chili is said to have placed among the subaltern deities ,meulen1 the friend of man1 and ,huecuvu the bad spirit and author of evil4 ,these people can hardly have learnt from ,christianity to conceive their evil spirit as simply and fully the general cause of misfortune3 if the earth quakes1 ,huecuvu has given it a shock2 if a horse tires1 ,huecuvu has ridden him2 if a man falls sick1 ,huecuvu has sent the disease into his body1 and no man dies but that ,huecuvu suffocates him4#gid ,in ,africa1 again1 allowing for ,moslem influence1 dualism is not ill represented in native religion4 ,an old account from ,loango describes the natives as theoretically recognizing ,zambi the supreme deity1 creator of good and lover of justice1 and over against him ,zambi-anbi the destroyer1 the counsellor of crime1 the author of loss and accident1 of disease and death4 ,but when it comes to actual worship1 as the good god will always be favourable1 it is the god of evil who must be appeased1 and it is for his satisfaction that men abstain some from one kind of food and some from another4#gie ,among accounts of the two rival deities in ,west ,africa1 one describes the ,guinea negroes as recognizing below the ,supreme ,deity two spirits 7or classes of spirits71 ,ombwiri and ,onyambe1 the one kind and gentle1 doing good to men and rescuing them from harm1 the other hateful and wicked1 whose seldom mentioned name is heard with uneasiness and displeasure4#gif ,it would be scarcely profitable1 in an enquiry where accurate knowledge of the doctrine of any insignificant tribe is more to the purpose than vague speculation on the theology of the mightiest nation1 to dwell on the enigmatic traces of ancient ,egyptian dualism4 ,suffice it to say that the two brother-deities ,osiris and ,seti1 ,osiris the beneficent solar divinity whose nature the blessed dead took on them1 ,seti perhaps a rival national god degraded to a ,typhon1 seem to have become the representative figures of a contrasted scheme of light and darkness1 good and evil2 the sculptured granite still commemorates the contests of their long-departed sects1 where the hieroglyphic square-eared beast of ,seti has been defaced to substitute for it the figure of ,osiris4#gig ,the conception of the light-god as the good deity in contrast to a rival god of evil1 is one plainly suggested by nature1 and naturally recurring in the religions of the world4 ,the ,khonds of ,orissa may be counted its most perfect modern exponents in barbaric culture4 ,to their supreme creative deity1 ,bra ,pennu or ,bella ,pennu1 ,light-god or ,sun-god1 there stands opposed his evil consort ,tari ,pennu the ,earth-goddess1 and the history of good and evil in the world is the history of his work and her counterwork4 ,he created a world paradisaic1 happy1 harmless2 she rebelled against him1 and to blast the lot of his new creature1 man1 she brought in disease1 and poison1 and all disorder1 #8sowing the seeds of sin in mankind as in a ploughed field4' ,death became the divine punishment of wickedness1 the spontaneously fertile earth went to jungle and rock and mud1 plants and animals grew poisonous and fierce1 throughout nature good and evil were commingled1 and still the fight goes on between the two great powers4 ,so far all ,khonds agree1 and it is on the practical relation of good and evil that they split into their two hostile sects of ,bra and ,tari4 ,bra's sect hold that he triumphed over ,tari1 in sign of her discomfiture imposed the cares of childbirth on her sex1 and makes her still his subject instrument wherewith to punish2 ,tari's sect hold that she still maintains the struggle1 and even practically disposes of the happiness of man1 doing evil or good on her own account1 and allowing or not allowing the ,creator's blessings to reach mankind4#gih ,now that the sacred books of the ,zend-,avesta are open to us1 it is possible to compare the doctrines of savage tribes with those of the great faith through which of all others ,dualism seems to have impressed itself on the higher nations4 ,the religion of ,zarathustra was a schism from that ancient ,aryan nature-worship which is represented in a pure and early form in the ,veda1 and in depravity and decay in modern ,hinduism4 ,the leading thought of the ,zarathustrian faith was the contest of ,good and ,evil in the world1 a contrast typified and involved in that of ,day and ,night1 ,light and ,darkness1 and brought to personal shape in the warfare of ,ahura-,mazda and ,anra-,mainyu1 the ,good and ,evil ,deity1 ,ormuzd and ,ahriman4 ,the prophet ,zarathustra said3 #8,in the beginning there was a pair of twins1 two spirits1 each of a peculiar activity4 ,these are the good and the base in thought1 word1 and deed4 ,choose one of these two spirits4 ,be good1 not base6' ,the sacred ,vendidad begins with the record of the primval contest of the two principles4 ,ahura-,mazda created the best of regions and lands1 the ,aryan home1 ,sogdia1 ,bactria1 and the rest2 ,anra-,mainyu against his work created snow and pestilence1 buzzing insects and poisonous plants1 poverty and sickness1 sin and unbelief4 ,the modern ,parsi1 in passages of his formularies of confession1 still keeps alive the old antagonism4 ,i repent1 he says1 of all kind of sins which the evil ,ahriman produced amongst the creatures of ,ormuzd in opposition4 #8,that which was the wish of ,ormazd the ,creator1 and ,i ought to have thought and have not thought1 what ,i ought to have spoken and have not spoken1 what ,i ought to have done and have not done2 of these sins repent ,i with thoughts1 words1 and works1 corporeal as well as spiritual1 earthly as well as heavenly1 with the three words3 ,pardon1 ,o ,lord1 ,i repent of sin4 ,that which was the wish of ,ahriman1 and ,i ought not to have thought and yet have thought1 what ,i ought not to have spoken and yet have spoken1 what ,i ought not to have done and yet have done2 of these sins repent ,i with thoughts1 words1 and works1 corporeal as well as spiritual1 earthly as well as heavenly1 with the three words3 ,pardon1 ,o ,lord1 ,i repent of sin4' 444 #8,may ,ahriman be broken1 may ,ormazd increase4'#gii ,the ,izedis or ,yezidis1 the so-called ,devil-worshippers1 still remain a numerous though oppressed people in ,mesopotamia and adjacent countries4 ,their adoration of the sun and horror of defiling fire accord with the idea of a ,persian origin of their religion 7,persian ized god71 an origin underlying more superficial admixture of ,christian and ,moslem elements4 ,this remarkable sect is distinguished by a special form of dualism4 ,while recognizing the existence of a ,supreme ,being1 their peculiar reverence is given to ,satan1 chief of the angelic host1 who now has the means of doing evil to mankind1 and in his restoration will have the power of rewarding them4 #8,will not ,satan then reward the poor ,izedis1 who alone have never spoken ill of him1 and have suffered so much for him8' ,martyrdom for the rights of ,satan6 exclaims the ,german traveller to whom an old white-bearded devil-worshipper thus set forth the hopes of his religion4#hjj ,direct worship of the ,evil ,principle1 familiar as it is to low barbaric races1 is scarcely to be found among people higher in civilization than these persecuted and stubborn sectaries of ,western ,asia4 ,so far as such ideas extend in the development of religion1 they seem fair evidence how far worship among low tribes turns rather on fear than love4 ,that the adoration of a ,good ,deity should have more and more superseded the propitiation of an ,evil ,deity1 is the sign of one of the great movements in the education of mankind1 a result of happier experience of life1 and of larger and more gladsome views of the system of the universe4 ,it is not1 however1 through the inactive systems of modern ,parsism and ,izedism that the mighty ,zoroastrian dualism has exerted its main influence on mankind4 ,we must look back to long-past ages for traces of its contact with ,judaism and ,christianity4 ,it is often and reasonably thought that intercourse between ,jews and ancient ,persians was an effective agent in producing that theologic change which differences the later ,jew of the ,rabbinical books from the earlier ,jew of the ,pentateuch1 a change in which one important part is the greater prominence of the dualistic scheme4 ,so in later times 7about the fourth century71 the contact of ,zoroastrism and ,christianity appears to have been influential in producing ,manichism4 ,manichism is known mostly on the testimony of its adversaries1 but thus much seems clear1 that it is based on the very doctrine of the two antagonistic principles of good and evil1 of spirit and matter4 ,it sets on the one hand ,god1 original good and source of good alone1 primal light and lord of the kingdom of light1 and on the other hand the ,prince of ,darkness1 with his kingdom of darkness1 of matter1 of confusion1 and destruction4 ,the theory of ceaseless conflict between these contending powers becomes a key to the physical and moral nature and course of the universe4#hja ,among ,christian or semi-,christian sects1 the ,manichans stand as representatives of dualism pushed to its utmost development4 ,it need scarcely be said1 however1 that ,christian dualism is not bounded by the limits of this or that special sect4 ,in so far as the ,evil ,being1 with his subordinate powers of darkness1 is held to exist and act in any degree in independence of the ,supreme ,deity and his ministering spirits of light1 so far theological schools admit1 though in widely different grades of importance1 a philosophy of nature and of life which has its basis rather in dualism than in monotheism4 ,we now turn to the last objects of our present survey1 those theological beliefs of the lower tribes of mankind which point more or less distinctly toward a doctrine of ,monotheism4 ,here it is by no means proposed to examine savage ideas from the point of view of doctrinal theology1 an undertaking which would demand arguments quite beyond the present range4 ,their treatment is limited to classifying the actual beliefs of the lower races1 with some ethnographic considerations as to their origin and their relation to higher religions4 ,for this purpose it is desirable to distinguish the prevalent doctrines of the uncultured world from absolute monotheism4 ,at the outset1 care is needed to exclude an ambiguity of which the importance often goes unnoticed4 ,how are the mighty but subordinate divinities1 recognized in different religions1 to be classed8 ,beings who in ,christian or ,moslem theology would be called angels1 saints1 demons1 would under the same definitions be called deities in polytheistic systems4 ,this is obvious1 but we may realize it more distinctly from its actually having happened4 ,the ,chuwashes1 a race of ,tatar affinity1 are stated to reverence a god of ,death1 who takes to himself the souls of the departed1 and whom they call ,esrel2 it is curious that ,castrn1 in mentioning this1 should fail to point out that this deity is no other than ,azrael the angel of death1 adopted under ,moslem influence4#hjb ,again1 in the mixed ,pagan and ,christian religion of the ,circassians1 which at least in its recently prevalent form would be reckoned polytheistic1 there stand beneath the ,supreme ,being a number of mighty subordinate deities1 of whom the principal are ,iele the ,thunder-god1 ,tleps the ,fire-god1 ,seoseres the god of ,wind and ,water1 ,misitcha the ,forest-god1 and ,mariam the ,virgin ,mary4#hjc ,if the monotheistic criterion be simply made to consist in the ,supreme ,deity being held as creator of the universe and chief of the spiritual hierarchy1 then its application to savage and barbaric theology will lead to perplexing consequences4 ,races of ,north and ,south ,america1 of ,africa1 of ,polynesia1 recognizing a number of great deities1 are usually and reasonably considered polytheists1 yet under this definition their acknowledgment of a ,supreme ,creator1 of which various cases will here be shown1 would entitle them at the same time to the name of monotheists4 ,to mark off the doctrines of monotheism1 closer definition is required1 assigning the distinctive attributes of deity to none save the ,almighty ,creator4 ,it may be declared that1 in this strict sense1 no savage tribe of monotheists has been ever known4 ,nor are any fair representatives of the lower culture in a strict sense pantheists4 ,the doctrine which they do widely hold1 and which opens to them a course tending in one or other of these directions1 is polytheism culminating in the rule of one supreme divinity4 ,high above the doctrine of souls1 of divine manes1 of local nature-spirits1 of the great deities of class and element1 there are to be discerned in barbaric theology shadowings1 quaint or majestic1 of the conception of a ,supreme ,deity1 henceforth to be traced onward in expanding power and brightening glory along the history of religion4 ,it is no unimportant task1 partial as it is1 to select and group the typical data which show the nature and position of the doctrine of supremacy1 as it comes into view within the lower culture4 ,on the threshold of the investigation1 there meets us the same critical difficulty which obstructs the study of primitive dualism4 ,among low tribes who have been in contact with ,christianity or ,mohammedanism1 how are we to tell to what extent1 under this foreign influence1 dim1 uncouth ideas of divine supremacy may have been developed into more cultured forms1 or wholly foreign ideas implanted8 ,we know how the ,jesuit missionaries led the native ,canadians to the conception of the ,great ,manitu2 how they took up the native ,brazilian name of the divine ,thunder1 ,tupan1 and adapted its meaning to convey in ,christian teaching the idea of ,god4 ,thus1 again1 we find most distinctly-marked ,african ideas of a ,supreme ,deity in the ,west1 where intercourse with ,moslems has actually ,islamized or semi-,islamized whole negro nations1 and the name of ,allah is in all men's mouths4 ,the ethnographer must be ever on the look-out for traces of such foreign influence in the definition of the ,supreme ,deity acknowledged by any uncultured race1 a divinity whose nature and even whose name may betray his adoption from abroad4 ,thus the supreme ,iroquois deity1 ,neo or ,hawaneu1 the pre-existent creator1 has been triumphantly adduced to show the monotheism underlying the native creeds of ,america4 ,but it seems that this divinity was introduced by the ,french ,catholic missionaries1 and that ,niio is an altered form of ,dieu4#hjd ,among the list of supreme deities of the lower races who are also held to be first ancestors of man1 we hear of ,louquo1 the uncreate first ,carib1 who descended from the eternal heaven1 made the flat earth1 and produced man from his own body4 ,he lived long on earth among men1 died and came to life again after three days1 and returned to heaven4#hje ,it would be hardly reasonable to enumerate1 among genuine deities of native ,west ,indian religion1 a being with characteristics thus on the face of them adopted from the religion of the white men4 ,yet even in such extreme cases1 it does not necessarily follow that the definitions of these deities1 vitiated as they are for ethnographical use by foreign influence1 have not to some extent a native substratum4 ,in criticising details1 moreover1 it must not be forgotten how largely the similarities in the religions of different races may be of independent origin1 and how closely allied are many ideas in the rude native theologies of savages to ideas holding an immemorial place in the religions of their civilized invaders4 ,for the present purpose1 however1 it is well to dwell especially on such evidence as by characteristic traits or early date is farthest removed from suspicion of being borrowed from a foreign source4 ,in surveying the peoples of the world1 the ethnographer finds many who are not shown to have any definite conception of a supreme deity2 and even where such a conception is placed on record1 it is sometimes so vaguely asserted1 or on such questionable authority1 that he can but take note of it and pass on4 ,in numerous cases1 however1 illustrated by the following collection from different regions1 certain leading ideas1 singly or blended1 may be traced4 ,there are many savage and barbaric religions which solve their highest problem by the simple process of raising to divine primacy one of the gods of polytheism itself4 ,even the system of the manes-worshipper has been stretched to reach the limit of supreme deity1 in the person of the primval ancestor4 ,more frequently1 it is the nature-worshipper's principle which has prevailed1 giving to one of the great nature-deities the precedence of the rest4 ,here1 by no recondite speculation1 but by the plain teaching of nature1 the choice has for the most part lain between two mighty visible divinities1 the all-animating ,sun and the all-encompassing ,heaven4 ,in the study of such schemes1 we are on intellectual terra firma4 ,there is among the religions of the lower races another notable group of systems1 seemingly in close connexion with the first4 ,these display to us a heavenly pantheon arranged on the model of an earthly political constitution1 where the commonalty are crowds of human souls and other tribes of world-pervading spirits1 the aristocracy are great polytheistic gods1 and the ,king is the supreme ,deity4 ,to this comparatively intelligible side of the subject1 a more perplexed and obscure side stands contrasted4 ,among thoughtful men whose theory of the soul animating the body has already led them to suppose a divine spirit animating the huge mass of earth or sky1 this idea needs but a last expansion to become a doctrine of the universe as animated by one greatest1 all-pervading divinity1 the ,world-,spirit4 ,moreover1 where speculative philosophy grapples with the vast fundamental world-problem1 the solution is attained by ascending from the ,many to the ,one1 by striving to discern through and beyond the ,universe a ,first ,cause4 ,let the basis of such reasoning be laid in theological ground1 then the ,first ,cause is realized as the ,supreme ,deity4 ,in such ways1 the result of carrying to their utmost limits the animistic conceptions which among low races and high pervade the philosophy of religion1 is to reach an idea of as it were a soul of the world1 a shaper1 animator1 ruler of the universe4 ,entering these regions of transcendental theology1 we are not to wonder that the comparative distinctness belonging to conceptions of lower spiritual beings here fades away4 ,human souls1 subordinate nature-spirits1 and huge polytheistic nature-gods1 carry with the defined special functions they perform some defined character and figure1 but beyond such limits form and function blend into the infinite and universal in the thought of supreme divinity4 ,to realize this widest idea1 two especial ways are open4 ,the first way is to fuse the attributes of the great polytheistic powers into more or less of common personality1 thus conceiving that1 after all1 it is the same ,highest ,being who holds up the heavens1 shines in the sun1 smites his foes in the thunder1 stands first in the human pedigree as the divine ancestor4 ,the second way is to remove the limit of theologic speculation into the region of the indefinite and the inane4 ,an unshaped divine entity looming vast1 shadowy1 and calm beyond and over the material world1 too benevolent or too exalted to need human worship1 too huge1 too remote1 too indifferent1 too supine1 too merely existent1 to concern himself with the petty race of men1--this is a mystic form of formlessness in which religion has not seldom pictured the ,supreme4 ,thus1 then1 it appears that the theology of the lower races already reaches its climax in conceptions of a highest of the gods1 and that these conceptions in the savage and barbaric world are no copies stamped from one common type1 but outlines widely varying among mankind4 ,the degeneration-theory1 in some instances no doubt with justice1 may claim such beliefs as mutilated and perverted remnants of higher religions4 ,yet for the most part1 the development-theory is competent to account for them without seeking their origin in grades of culture higher than those in which they are found existing4 ,looked upon as products of natural religion1 such doctrines of divine supremacy seem in no way to transcend the powers of the low-cultured mind to reason out1 nor of the low-cultured imagination to deck with mythic fancy4 ,there have existed in times past1 and do still exist1 savage or barbaric peoples who hold such views of a highest god as they may have attained to of themselves1 without the aid of more cultured nations4 ,among these races1 ,animism has its distinct and consistent outcome1 and ,polytheism its distinct and consistent completion1 in the doctrine of a ,supreme ,deity4 ,the native religions of ,south ,america and the ,west ,indies display a well-marked series of types4 ,the primacy of the ,sun was long ago well stated by the ,moluches when a ,jesuit missionary preached to them1 and they replied1 #8,till this hour1 we never knew nor acknowledged anything greater or better than the ,sun4'#hjf ,so when a later missionary argued with the chief of the ,tobas1 #8,my god is good and punishes wicked people1' the chief replied1 #8,my ,god 7the ,sun7 is good likewise2 but he punishes nobody1 satisfied to do good to all4'#hjg ,in various manifestations1 moreover1 there reigns among barbarians a supreme being whose characteristics are those of the ,heaven-god4 ,it is thus with the ,tamoi of the ,guaranis1 #8that beneficent deity worshipped in his blended character of ancestor of mankind and ancient of heaven1 lord of the celestial paradise4'#hjh ,it is so with the highest deity of the ,araucanians1 ,pillan the ,thunder or the ,thunderer1 called also ,huenu-,pillan or ,heaven-,thunder1 and ,vuta-gen or ,great ,being4 #8,the universal government of ,pillan1' says ,molina1 #8is a prototype of the ,araucanian polity4 ,he is the great ,toqui 7,governor7 of the invisible world1 and as such has his ,apo-,ulmenes1 and his ,ulmenes1 to whom he entrusts the administration of affairs of less importance4 ,these ideas are certainly very rude1 but it must be acknowledged that the ,araucanians are not the only people who have regulated the things of heaven by those of the earth4'#hji ,a different but not less characteristic type of the ,supreme ,deity is placed on record among the ,caribs1 a beneficent power dwelling in the skies1 reposing in his own happiness1 careless of mankind1 and by them not honoured nor adored4#haj ,the theological history of ,peru1 in ages before the ,spanish conquest1 has lately had new light thrown on it by the researches of ,mr4 ,markham4 ,here the student comes into view of a rivalry full of interest in the history of barbaric religion1 the rivalry between the ,creator and the divine ,sun4 ,in the religion of the ,incas1 precedence was given to ,uiracocha1 called ,pachacamac1 #8,creator of the ,world4' ,the ,sun 7with whom was coupled his sister-wife the ,moon7 was the divine ancestor1 the dawn or origin1 the totem or lar1 of the ,inca family4 ,the three great deities were the ,creator1 ,sun1 and ,thunder2 their images were brought out together at great festivals into the square of ,cuzco1 llamas were sacrificed to all three1 and they could be addressed in prayer together1 #8,o ,creator1 and ,sun1 and ,thunder1 be for ever young1 multiply the people1 and let them always be at peace4' ,yet the ,thunder and ,lightning was held to come by the command of the ,creator1 and the following prayer shows clearly that even #8our father the ,sun' was but his creature3-- #8,uiracocha6 ,thou who gavest being to the ,sun1 and afterwards said let there be day and night4 ,raise it and cause it to shine1 and preserve that which thou hast created1 that it may give light to men4 ,grant this1 ,uiracocha6 #8,sun6 ,thou who art in peace and safety1 shine upon us1 keep us from sickness1 and keep us in health and safety4' ,among the transitions of religion1 however1 it is not strange that a subordinate ,god1 by virtue of his nearer intercourse and power1 should usurp the place of the supreme deity4 ,among the various traces of this taking place under the ,incas1 are traditions of the great temple at ,cuzco called #8,the ,golden ,place1' where ,manco ,ccapac originally set up a flat oval golden plate to signify the ,creator2 ,mayta ,ccapac1 it is said1 renewed the ,creator's symbol1 but ,huascar ,inca took it down1 and set up in its stead in the place of honour a round golden plate like the sun with rays4 ,the famous temple itself1 ,ccuricancha the #8,golden ,place1' was known to the ,spaniards as the ,temple of the ,sun2 no wonder that the idea has come to be so generally accepted1 that the ,sun was the chief god of ,peru4 ,there is even on record a memorable protest made by one ,inca1 who dared to deny that the ,sun could be the maker of all things1 comparing him to a tethered beast that must make ever the same daily round1 and to an arrow that must go whither it is sent1 not whither it will4 ,but what availed philosophic protest1 even from the head of church and state himself1 against a state church of which the world has seldom seen the equal for stiff and solid organization8 ,the ,sun reigned in ,peru till ,pizarro overthrew him1 and his splendid golden likeness came down from the temple wall to be the booty of a ,castilian soldier1 who lost it in one night at play4#haa ,among rude tribes of the ,north ,american continent1 evidence of the primacy of the divine ,sun is not unknown4 ,father ,hennepin's account of the ,sioux worshipping the ,sun as the ,creator is explicit enough1 and agrees with the argument of the modern ,shawnees1 that the ,sun animates everything1 and therefore must be the ,master of ,life or ,great ,spirit4#hab ,it is the widespread belief in this ,great ,spirit which has long and deservedly drawn the attention of ,european thinkers to the native religions of the ,north ,american tribes4 ,the name of the ,great ,spirit originates with the equivalent term ,kitchi ,manitu in the language of the ,algonquin ,indians4 ,before the ,european intercourse in the #agth century1 these tribes had indeed no deity so called1 but as has been already pointed out1 the term came first into use by the application of the native word manitu1 meaning demon or deity1 to the ,christian ,god4 ,during the following centuries1 the name of the ,great ,spirit1 with the ideas belonging to the name1 travelled far and wide over the continent4 ,it became the ordinary expression of ,europeans in their descriptions of ,indian religion1 and in discourse carried on in ,english words between ,europeans and ,indians1 and was more or less naturalized among the ,indians themselves4 ,on their religions it had on the one hand a transforming influence1 while on the other hand1 as is usual in the combination of religions1 the new divinity incorporated into himself the characteristics of native divinities1 so that native ideas remained in part represented in him4 ,a divine being whose characteristics are often so unlike what ,european intercourse would have suggested1 could be hardly altogether of foreign origin4#hac ,again1 among the ,greenlanders1 ,torngarsuk or ,great ,spirit 7his name is an augmentative of #8torngak'--#8demon'7 was known to the early ,danish missionary ,egede as the oracular deity of the angekoks1 to whose under-world souls hope to descend at death4 ,he so far held the place of supreme deity in the native mind1 that1 as ,cranz the missionary relates somewhat afterwards1 many ,greenlanders hearing of ,god and his almighty power were apt to fall on the idea that it was their ,torngarsuk who was meant2 but he was eventually identified with the ,devil4#had ,in like manner1 ,algonquin ,indians1 early in the #agth century1 hearing of the white man's ,deity1 identified him with one known to their own native belief1 ,atahocan the ,creator4 ,when ,le ,jeune the missionary talked to them of an almighty creator of heaven and earth1 they began to say to one another1 #8,atahocan1 ,atahocan1 it is ,atahocan6' ,the traditional idea of such a being seems indeed to have lain in utter mythic vagueness in their thoughts1 for they had made his name into a verb1 #8,nitatahocan1' meaning1 #8,i tell a fable1 an old fanciful story4'#hae ,in late times1 ,schoolcraft represents the ,great ,spirit as a ,soul of the ,universe1 inhabiting and animating all things1 recognized in rocks and trees1 in cataracts and clouds1 in thunder and lightning1 in tempest and zephyr1 becoming incarnate in birds and beasts as titular deities1 existing in the world under every possible form1 animate and inanimate4#haf ,whether the ,red ,indian mind even in modern times really entertained this extreme pantheistic scheme1 we may well doubt4 ,in early times of ,american discovery1 the records show a quite different and more usual conception of a supreme deity4 ,among the more noteworthy of these older documents are the following4 ,jacques ,cartier1 in his second ,canadian voyage 7#aece71 speaks of the people having no valid belief in ,god1 for they believe in one whom they call ,cudouagni1 and say that he often speaks with them1 and tells them what the weather will be2 they say that when he is angry with them he casts earth in their eyes4 ,thevet's statement somewhat later is as follows3 #8,as to their religion1 they have no worship or prayer to ,god1 except that they contemplate the new moon1 called in their language ,osannaha1 saying that ,andouagni calls it thus1 sending it little by little to advance or retard the waters4 ,for the rest1 they fully believe that there is a ,creator1 greater than the ,sun1 the ,moon1 and the ,stars1 and who holds all in his power4 ,he it is whom they call ,andouagni1 without however having any form or method of prayer to him4'#hag ,in ,virginia about #aehf1 we learn from ,heriot that the natives believed in many gods1 which they call #8mantoac1' but of different sorts and degrees1 also that there is one chief god who first made other principal gods1 and afterwards the sun1 moon1 and stars as petty gods4 ,in ,new ,england1 in #afbb1 ,winslow says that they believe1 as do the ,virginians1 in many divine powers1 yet of one above all the rest2 the ,massachusetts call their great god ,kiehtan1 who made all the other gods2 he dwells far westerly above the heavens1 whither all good men go when they die2 #8,they never saw ,kiehtan1 but they hold it a great charge and dutie1 that one age teach another2 and to him they make feasts1 and cry and sing for plentie and victorie1 or anything is good4' ,another famous native ,american name for the supreme deity is ,oki4 ,captain ,john ,smith1 the hero of the colonization of ,virginia in #afjg1 he who was befriended by ,pocahontas1 #8,la ,belle ,sauvage1' thus describes the religion of the country1 and especially of her tribe1 the ,powhatans3 #8,there is yet in ,virginia no place discovered to be so ,savage in which they haue not a ,religion1 ,deer1 and ,bow and ,arrowes4 ,all things that are able to doe them hurt beyond their prevention1 they adore with their kinde of divine worship2 as the fire1 water1 lightning1 thunder1 our ,ordnance peeces1 horses1 c4 ,but their chiefe god they worship is the ,devill4 ,him they call ,okee1 and serue him more of feare than loue4 ,they say they haue conference with him1 and fashion themselves as neare to his shape as they can imagine4 ,in their ,temples they haue his image evill favouredly carved1 and then painted and adorned with chaines of copper1 and beads1 and covered with a skin in such manner as the deformities may well suit with such a ,god4'#hah ,this quaint account deserves to be quoted at length as an example of the judgment which a half-educated and whole-prejudiced ,european is apt to pass on savage deities1 which from his point of view seem of simply diabolic nature4 ,it is known from other sources that ,oki1 a word belonging not to the ,powhatan but to the ,huron language1 was in fact a general name for spirit or deity4 ,we may judge the real belief of these ,indians better from ,father ,brebeuf's description of the ,heaven ,god1 cited here in a former chapter3 they imagine in the heavens an ,oki1 that is1 a ,demon or power ruling the seasons of the year1 and controlling the winds and waves1 a being whose anger they fear1 and whom they call on in making solemn treaties4#hai ,about a century later1 ,father ,lafitau wrote passages which illustrate well the transformation of native animistic conceptions under missionary influence into analogues of ,christian theology4 ,such general terms for spiritual beings as #8oki' or #8manitu' had become to him individual names of one supreme being4 #8,this great ,spirit1 known among the ,caribs under the name of ,chemiin1 under that of ,manitou among the ,algonquin nations1 and under that of ,okki among those who speak the ,huron tongue 444' c4 ,all ,american tribes1 he says1 use expressions which can only denote ,god3 #8they call him the great ,spirit1 sometimes the ,master and ,author of ,life 444' c4#hbj ,the longer rude tribes of ,america have been in contact with ,european belief1 the less confidently can we ascribe to purely native sources the theologic scheme their religions have settled into4 ,yet the ,creeks towards the end of the #ahth century preserved some elements of native faith4 ,they believed in the ,great ,spirit1 the ,master of ,breath 7a being whom ,bartram represents as a soul and governor of the universe73 to him they would address their frequent prayers and ejaculations1 at the same time paying a kind of homage to the sun1 moon1 and stars1 as the mediators or ministers of the ,great ,spirit1 in dispensing his attributes for their comfort and well-being in this life4#hba ,in our own day1 among the wild ,comanches of the prairies1 the ,great ,spirit1 their creator and supreme deity1 is above ,sun and ,moon and ,earth2 towards him is sent the first puff of tobacco-smoke before the ,sun receives the second1 and to him is offered the first morsel of the feast4#hbb ,turning from the simple faiths of savage tribes of ,north ,america to the complex religion of the half-civilized ,mexican nation1 we find what we might naturally expect1 a cumbrous polytheism complicated by mixture of several national pantheons1 and beside and beyond this1 certain appearances of a doctrine of divine supremacy4 ,but these doctrines seem to have been spoken of more definitely than the evidence warrants4 ,a remarkable native development of ,mexican theism must be admitted1 in so far as we may receive the native historian ,ixtlilxochitl's account of the worship paid by ,nezahualcoyotl1 the poet king of ,tezcuco1 to the invisible supreme ,tloque ,nahuaque1 he who has all in him1 the cause of causes1 in whose star-roofed pyramid stood no idol1 and who there received no bloody sacrifice1 but only flowers and incense4 ,yet it would have been more satisfactory were the stories told by this ,aztec panegyrist of his royal ancestor confirmed by other records4 ,traces of divine supremacy in ,mexican religion are especially associated with ,tezcatlipoca1 #8,shining ,mirror1' a deity who seems in his original nature the ,sun-,god1 and thence by expansion to have become the soul of the world1 creator of heaven and earth1 lord of all things1 ,supreme ,deity4 ,such conceptions may in more or less measure have arisen in native thought1 but it should be pointed out that the remarkable ,aztec religious formulas collected by ,sahagun1 in which the deity ,tezcatlipoca is so prominent a figure1 show traces of ,christian admixture in their material1 as well as of ,christian influence in their style4 ,for instance1 all students of ,mexican antiquities know the belief in ,mictlan1 the ,hades of the dead4 ,but when one of these ,aztec prayer-formulas 7concerning auricular confession1 the washing away of sins1 and a new birth7 makes mention of sinners being plunged into a lake of intolerable misery and torment1 the introduction of an idea so obviously ,european condemns the composition as not purely native4 ,the question of the actual developments of ideas verging on pantheism or theism1 among the priests and philosophers of native ,mexico1 is one to be left for further criticism4#hbc ,in the islands of the ,pacific1 the idea of ,supreme ,deity is especially manifested in that great mythologic divinity of the ,polynesian race1 whom the ,new ,zealanders call ,tangaroa1 the ,hawaiians ,kanaroa1 the ,tongans and ,samoans ,tangaloa1 the ,georgian and ,society islanders ,taaroa4 ,students of the science of religion who hold polytheism to be but the mis-development of a primal idea of divine unity1 which in spite of corruption continues to pervade it1 might well choose this ,south ,sea ,island divinity as their aptest illustration from the savage world4 ,taaroa1 says ,moerenhout1 is their supreme or rather only god2 for all the others1 as in other known polytheisms1 seem scarcely more than sensible figures and images of the infinite attributes united in his divine person4 ,the following is given as a native poetic definition of the ,creator4 #8,he was2 ,taaroa was his name2 he abode in the void4 ,no earth1 no sky1 no men4 ,taaroa calls1 but nought answers2 and alone existing1 he became the universe4 ,the props are ,taaroa2 the rocks are ,taaroa2 the sands are ,taaroa2 it is thus he himself is named4' ,according to ,ellis1 ,taaroa is described in the ,leeward ,islands as the eternal parentless uncreate ,creator1 dwelling alone in the highest heaven1 whose bodily form mortals cannot see1 who after intervals of innumerable seasons casts off his body or shell and becomes renewed4 ,it was he who created ,hina his daughter1 and with her aid formed the sky and earth and sea4 ,he founded the world on a solid rock1 which with all the creation he sustains by his invisible power4 ,then he created the ranks of lesser deities such as reign over sea and land and air1 and govern peace and war1 and preside over physic and husbandry1 and canoe-building1 and roofing1 and theft4 ,the version from the ,windward ,islands is that ,taaroa's wife was the rock1 the foundation of all things1 and she gave birth to earth and sea4 ,now1 fortunately for our understanding of this myth1 the name of ,taaroa's wife1 with whom he begat the lesser deities1 was taken down in ,tahiti in ,captain ,cook's time4 ,she was a rock called ,papa1 and her name plainly suggests her identity with ,papa the ,earth1 the wife of ,rangi the ,heaven in the ,new ,zealand myth of ,heaven and ,earth1 the great first parents4 ,if this inference be just1 then it seems that ,taaroa the ,creator is no personification of a primval theistic idea1 but simply the divine personal ,heaven transformed under ,european influence into the supreme ,heaven-god4 ,thus1 when ,turner gives the ,samoan myths of ,tangaloa in heaven presiding over the production of the earth from beneath the waters1 or throwing down from the sky rocks which are now islands1 the classic name by which he calls him is that which rightly describes his nature and mythic origin--,tangaloa1 the ,polynesian ,jupiter4 ,yet in island district after district1 we find the name of the mighty heavenly creator given to other and lesser mythic beings4 ,in ,tahiti1 the manes-worshipper's idea is applied not only to lesser deities1 but to ,taaroa the ,creator himself1 whom some maintained to be but a man deified after death4 ,in the ,new ,zealand mythology1 ,tangaroa figures on the one hand as ,sea-god and father of fish and reptiles1 on the other as the mischievous eaves-dropping god who reveals secrets4 ,in ,tonga1 ,tangaloa was god of artificers and arts1 and his priests were carpenters2 it was he who went forth to fish1 and dragged up the ,tonga islands from the bottom of the sea4 ,here1 then1 he corresponds with ,maui1 and indeed ,tangaroa and ,maui are found blending in ,polynesia even to full identification4 ,it is neither easy nor safe to fix to definite origin the ,protean shapes of ,south ,sea mythology1 but on the whole the native myths are apt to embody cosmic ideas1 and as the idea of the ,sun preponderates in ,maui1 so the idea of the ,heaven in ,taaroa4#hbd ,in the ,fiji ,islands1 whose native mythology is on the whole distinct from that of ,polynesia proper1 a strange weird figure takes the supreme place among the gods4 ,his name is ,ndengei1 the serpent is his shrine1 some traditions represent him with a serpent's head and body and the rest of him stone4 ,he passes a monotonous existence in his gloomy cavern1 feeling no emotion nor sensation1 nor any appetite but hunger2 he takes no interest in any one but ,uto1 his attendant1 and gives no sign of life beyond eating1 answering his priest1 and changing his position from one side to the other4 ,no wonder ,ndengei is less worshipped than most of the inferior gods4 ,the natives have even made a comic song about him1 where he talks with his attendant1 ,uto1 who has been to attend the feast at ,rakiraki1 where ,ndengei has especially his temple and worship4 ,ndengei4 #8,have you been to the sharing of food to-day8' ,uto4 #8,yes3 and turtles formed a part2 but only the under-shell was shared to us two4' ,ndengei4 #8,indeed1 ,uto6 ,this is very bad4 ,how is it8 ,we made them men1 placed them on the earth1 gave them food1 and yet they share to us only the under-shell4 ,uto1 how is this8'#hbe ,the native religion of ,africa1 a land pervaded by the doctrines of divine hierarchy and divine supremacy1 affords apt evidence for the problem before us4 ,the capacity of the manes-worshipper's scheme to extend in this direction may be judged from the religious speculations of the ,zulus1 where may be traced the merging of the ,first ,man1 the ,old-,old-,one1 ,unkulunkulu1 into the ideal of the ,creator1 ,thunderer1 and ,heaven-god4#hbf ,if we examine a collection of documents illustrating the doctrines of the ,west ,african races lying between the ,hottentots on the south and the ,berbers on the north1 we may fairly judge their conceptions1 evidently influenced as these have been by ,christian intercourse1 to be nevertheless based on native ideas of the personal ,heaven4#hbg ,whether they think of their supreme deity as actively pervading and governing his universe1 or as acting through his divine subordinates1 or as retiring from his creation and leaving the lesser spirits to work their will1 he is always to their minds the celestial ruler1 the ,heaven-god4 ,examples may be cited1 each in its way full of instruction4 ,in the mind of the ,gold-coast negro1 tendencies towards theistic religion seem to have been mainly developed through the idea of ,nyongmo1 the personal ,heaven1 or its animating personal deity4 ,heaven1 wide-arching1 rain-giving1 light-giving1 who has been and is and shall be1 is to him the ,supreme ,deity4 ,the sky is ,nyongmo's creature1 the clouds are his veil1 the stars his face-ornaments4 ,creator of all things1 and of their animating powers whose chief and elder he is1 he sits in majestic rest surrounded by his children1 the wongs1 the spirits of the air who serve him and represent him on earth4 ,though men's worship is for the most part paid to these1 reverence is also given to ,nyongmo1 the ,eldest1 the ,highest4 ,every day1 said a fetish-man1 we see how the grass and corn and trees spring forth by the rain and sunshine that ,nyongmo sends1 how should he not be the ,creator8 ,again1 the mighty ,heaven-god1 far removed from man and seldom roused to interfere in earthly interests1 is the type on which the ,guinea negroes may have modelled their thoughts of a ,highest ,deity who has abandoned the control of his world to lesser and evil spirits4#hbh ,the religion of another district seems to show clearly the train of thought by which such ideas may be worked out4 ,among the ,kimbunda race of ,congo1 ,suku-,vakange is the highest being4 ,he takes little interest in mankind1 leaving the real government of the world to the good and evil kilulu or spirits1 into whose ranks the souls of men pass at death4 ,now in that there are more bad spirits who torment1 than good who favour living men1 human misery would be unbearable1 were it not that from time to time ,suku-,vakange1 enraged at the wickedness of the evil spirits1 terrifies them with thunder1 and punishes the more obstinate with his thunderbolts4 ,then he returns to rest1 and lets the kilulu rule again4#hbi ,who1 we may ask1 is this divinity1 calm and indifferent save when his wrath bursts forth in storm1 but the ,heaven himself8 ,the relation of the ,supreme ,deity to the lesser gods of polytheism is graphically put in the following passage1 where an ,american missionary among the ,yorubas describes the relation of ,olorung1 the ,lord of ,heaven1 to his lesser deities 7orisa71 among whom the chief are the androgynous ,obatala1 representing the reproductive power of nature1 and ,shango the ,thunder-god4 #8,the doctrine of idolatry prevalent in ,yoruba appears to be derived by analogy from the form and customs of the civil government4 ,there is but one king in the nation1 and one ,god over the universe4 ,petitioners to the king approach him through the intervention of his servants1 courtiers1 and nobles3 and the petitioner conciliates the courtier whom he employs by good words and presents4 ,in like manner no man can directly approach ,god2 but the ,almighty himself1 they say1 has appointed various kinds of orisas1 who are mediators and intercessors between himself and mankind4 ,no sacrifices are made to ,god1 because he needs nothing2 but the orisas1 being much like men1 are pleased with offerings of sheep1 pigeons1 and other things4 ,they conciliate the orisa or mediator that he may bless them1 not in his own power1 but in the power of ,god4'#hcj ,rooted as they are in the depths of nature-worship1 the doctrines of the supreme ,sun and ,heaven both come to the surface again in the native religions of ,asia4 ,the divine ,sun holds his primacy distinctly enough among the rude indigenous tribes of ,india4 ,although one sect of the ,khonds of ,orissa especially direct their worship to ,tari ,pennu the ,earth-goddess1 yet even they agree theoretically with the sect who worship ,bura ,pennu or ,bella ,pennu1 ,light-god or ,sun-god1 in giving to him supremacy above the manes-gods and nature-gods1 and all spiritual powers4#hca ,among the ,kol tribes of ,bengal1 the acknowledged primate of all classes of divinities is the beneficent supreme deity1 ,sing-bonga1 ,sun-god4 ,among some ,munda tribes his authority is so real that they will appeal to him for help where recourse to minor deities has failed2 while among the ,santals his cultus has so dwindled away that he receives less practical worship than his malevolent inferiors1 and is scarce honoured with more than nominal dignity and an occasional feast4#hcb ,these are rude tribes who1 so far as we know1 have never been other than rude tribes4 ,the ,japanese are a comparatively civilized nation1 one of those so instructive to the student of culture from the stubborn conservatism with which they have consecrated by traditional reverence1 and kept up by state authority1 the religion of their former barbarism4 ,this is the ,kami-religion1 ,spirit-religion1 the ancient but mixed faith of divine spirits of ancestors1 nature-spirits1 and polytheistic gods1 which still holds official place by the side of the imported ,buddhism and ,confucianism4 ,the ,sun-goddess1 ,amaterasu1 #8,heaven-shiner1' though but sprung from the left eye of the parent ,izanagi1 came to be honoured above all lesser kamis or gods1 while by a fiction of ancestor-worship the solar race1 as in ,peru1 became the royal family1 her spirit descending to animate the ,mikado4 ,kaempfer1 in his #8,history of ,japan1' written early in the #ahth century1 showed how absolutely the divine ,tensio ,dai ,sin1 represented below on the imperial throne1 was looked upon as ruler of the minor powers2 he mentions the ,japanese tenth month1 called the #8godless month1' because then the lesser gods are considered to be away from their temples1 gone to pay their annual homage to the ,dairi4 ,he describes1 as it was in his time1 the great ,japanese place of pilgrimage1 ,yse4 ,there was to be seen the small cavern in a hill near the sea1 where the divine ,sun once hid herself1 depriving the world of light1 and thus showing herself to be supreme above all gods4 ,within the small ancient temple hard by1 of which an account and a picture are given from a ,japanese book1 there were to be seen round the walls the usual pieces of cut white paper1 and in the midst nothing but a polished metal mirror4#hcc ,over the vast range of the ,tatar races1 it is the type of the supreme ,heaven that comes prominently into view4 ,nature-worshippers in the extreme sense1 these rude tribes conceived their ghosts and elves and demons and great powers of the earth and air to be1 like men themselves1 within the domain of the divine ,heaven1 almighty and all-encompassing4 ,to trace the ,samoyed's thought of ,num the personal ,sky passing into vague conceptions of pervading deity2 to see with the ,tunguz how ,boa the ,heaven-god1 unseen but all-knowing1 kindly but indifferent1 has divided the business of his world among such lesser powers as sun and moon1 earth and fire2 to discern the meaning of the ,mongrel ,tengri1 shading from ,heaven into ,heaven-god1 and thence into god or spirit in general2 to follow the records of ,heaven-worship among the ancient ,turks and ,hiong-nu2 to compare the supremacy among the ,lapps of ,tiermes1 the ,thunderer1 with the supremacy among the ,finns of ,jumala and ,ukko1 the ,heaven-god and heavenly ,grandfather--such evidence seems good ground for ,castrn's argument1 that the doctrine of the divine ,sky underlay the first ,turanian conceptions1 not merely of a ,heaven-god1 but of a highest deity who in after ages of ,christian conversion blended into the ,christian ,god4#hcd ,here1 again1 we may have the advantage of studying among a cultured race the survival of religion from ruder ancient times1 kept up by official ordinance4 ,the state religion of ,china is in its dominant doctrine the worship of ,tien1 ,heaven1 identified with ,shang-ti1 the ,emperor-above1 next to whom stands ,tu1 ,earth2 while below them are worshipped great nature-spirits and ancestors4 ,it is possible that this faith1 as ,professor ,max ,mller argues1 may be ethnologically and even linguistically part and parcel of the general ,heaven-worship of the ,turanian tribes of ,siberia4 ,at any rate1 it is identical with it in its primary idea1 the adoration of the supreme ,heaven4 ,dr4 ,legge charges ,confucius with an inclination to substitute in his religious teaching the name of ,tien1 ,heaven1 for that known to more ancient religion and used in more ancient books1 ,shang-ti1 the personal ruling ,deity4 ,but it seems rather that the sage was in fact upholding the traditions of the ancient faith1 thus acting according to the character on which he prided himself1 that of a transmitter and not a maker1 a preserver of old knowledge1 not a new revealer4 ,it is in accordance with the usual course of theologic development1 for the divine ,heaven to reign in rude mythologic religion over the lesser spirits of the world before the childlike poetic thought passes into the statesman's conception of a ,celestial ,emperor4 ,as ,plath well remarks1 #8,it belongs to the ,chinese system that all nature is animated by spirits1 and that all these follow one order4 ,as the ,chinese cannot think of a ,chinese ,empire with an ,emperor only1 and without the host of vassal-princes and officials1 so he cannot think of the ,upper ,emperor without the host of spirits4' ,developed in a different line1 the idea of a supreme ,heaven comes to pervade ,chinese philosophy and ethics as a general expression of fate1 ordinance1 duty4 #8,heaven's order is nature'--#8,the wise man readily awaits ,heaven's command'--#8,man must first do his own part2 when he has done all1 then he can wait for ,heaven to complete it'--#8,all state officers are ,heaven's workmen1 and represent him'--#8,how does ,heaven speak8 ,the four seasons have their course1 the hundred things arise1 what speaks he8'--#8,no1 ,heaven speaks not2 by the course of events he makes himself understood1 no more4'#hce ,these stray scraps from old ,chinese literature are intelligible to ,european ears1 for our ,aryan race has indeed worked out religious ideas from the like source and almost in the like directions4 ,the ,samoyed or ,tunguz ,heaven-god had his analogue in ,dyu1 ,heaven1 of the ,vedic hymns4 ,once meaning the sky1 and the sky personified1 this ,zeus came to mean far more than mere heaven in the minds of ,greek poets and philosophers1 when it rose toward #8that conception which in sublimity1 brightness1 and infinity transcended all others as much as the bright blue sky transcended all other things visible upon earth4' ,at the lower level of mythic religion1 the ideal process of shaping the divine world into a monarchic constitution was worked out by the ancient ,greeks1 on the same simple plan as among such barbarians as the ,kols of ,chota-,nagpur or the ,gallas of ,abyssinia2 ,zeus is ,king over ,olympian gods1 and below these again are marshalled the crowded ranks of demigods1 heroes1 demons1 nymphs1 ghosts4 ,at the higher level of theologic speculation1 exalted thoughts of universal cause and being1 of physical and moral law1 took personality under the name of ,zeus4 ,it is in direct derivation along this historic line1 that the classical heaven-cultus still asserts itself in song and pageant among us1 in that quaintest of quaint survivals1 the factitious religion of the ,italian ,opera1 where such worship as artistic ends require is still addressed to the divine ,cielo4 ,even in our daily talk1 colloquial expressions call up before the mind of the ethnographer outlines of remotest religious history4 ,heaven grants1 forbids1 blesses still in phrase1 as heretofore in fact4 ,vast and difficult as is the research into the full scope and history of the doctrine of supremacy among the higher nations1 it may be at least seen that helpful clues exist to lead the explorer4 ,the doctrine of mighty nature-spirits1 inhabiting and controlling sky and earth and sea1 seems to expand in ,asia into such ideas as that of ,mahtman the ,great ,spirit1 ,paramtman the ,highest ,spirit1 taking personality as ,brahma the all-pervading universal soul#hcf--;in ,europe into philosophic conceptions of which a grand type stands out in ,kepler's words1 that the universe is a harmonious whole1 whose soul is ,god4 ,there is a saying of ,comte's that throws strong light upon this track of speculative theology3 he declares that the conception among the ancients of the ,soul of the ,universe1 the notion that the earth is a vast living animal1 and in our own time1 the obscure pantheism which is so rife among ,german metaphysicians1 are only fetishism generalized and made systematic4#hcg ,polytheism1 in its inextricable confusion of the persons and functions of the great divinities1 and in its assignment of the sovereignty of the world to a supreme being who combines in himself the attributes of several such minor deities1 tends toward the doctrine of fundamental unity4 ,max ,mller1 in a lecture on the ,veda1 has given the name of kathenotheism to the doctrine of divine unity in diversity which comes into view in these instructive lines3-- #8,indram ,mitram ,varunam ,agnim hur atho divyah sa suparno ,garutmn3 ,ekam sad vipr bahudha vadanti ,agnim ,yamam ,mtarivnam huh4' #8,they call him ,indra1 ,mitra1 ,varuna1 ,agni2 then he is the beautiful-winged heavenly ,garutman3 ,that which is ,one the wise call it in divers manners2 they call it ,agni1 ,yama1 ,mtarivan4'#hch ,the figure of the supreme deity1 be he ,heaven-god1 ,sun-god1 ,great ,spirit1 beginning already in uncultured thought to take the form and function of a divine ruler of the world1 represents a conception which it becomes the age-long work of systematic theology to develop and to define4 ,thus in ,greece arises ,zeus the highest1 greatest1 best1 #8who was and is and shall be1' #8beginning and chief of all things1' #8who rules over all mortals and immortals1' #8,zeus the god of gods4'#hci ,such is ,ahura ,mazda in the ,persian faith1 among whose seventy-two names of might are these3 ,creator1 ,protector1 ,nourisher1 ,holiest ,heavenly ,one1 ,healing ,priest1 ,most ,pure1 ,most ,majestic1 ,most ,knowing1 ,most ,ruling at ,will4#hdj ,there may be truth in the assertion that the esoteric religion of ancient ,egypt centred in a doctrine of divine unity1 manifested through the heterogeneous crowd of popular deities4#hda ,it may be a hopeless task to disentangle the confused personalities of ,baal1 ,bel1 and ,moloch1 and no antiquary may ever fully solve the enigma how far the divine name of ,el carried in its wide range among the ,jewish and other ,semitic nations a doctrine of divine supremacy4#hdb ,the great ,syro-,phnician kingdoms and religions have long since passed away into darkness1 leaving but antiquarian relics to vouch for their former might4 ,far other has been the history of their ,jewish kindred1 still standing fast to their ancient nationality1 still upholding to this day their patriarchal religion1 in the midst of nations who inherit from the faith of ,israel the belief in one ,god1 highest1 almighty1 who in the beginning made the heavens and the earth1 whose throne is established of old1 who is from everlasting to everlasting4 ,before now bringing these researches to a close1 it will be well to state compactly the reasons for treating the animism of the modern savage world as more or less representing the animism of remotely ancient races of mankind4 ,savage animism1 founded on a doctrine of souls carried to an extent far beyond its limits in the cultivated world1 and thence expanding to a yet wider doctrine of spiritual beings animating and controlling the universe in all its parts1 becomes a theory of personal causes developed into a general philosophy of man and nature4 ,as such1 it may be reasonably accounted for as the direct product of natural religion1 using this term according to the sense of its definition by ,bishop ,wilkins3 #8,i call that ,natural ,religion1 which men might know1 and should be obliged unto1 by the meer principles of ,reason1 improved by ,consideration and ,experience1 without the help of ,revelation4'#hdc ,it will scarcely be argued by theologians familiar with the religions of savage tribes1 that they are direct or nearly direct products of revelation1 for the theology of our time would abolish or modify their details till scarce one was left intact4 ,the main issue of the problem is this1 whether savage animism is a primary formation belonging to the lower culture1 or whether it consists1 mostly or entirely1 of beliefs originating in some higher culture1 and conveyed by adoption or degradation into the lower4 ,the evidence for the first alternative1 though not amounting to complete demonstration1 seems reasonably strong1 and not met by contrary evidence approaching it in force4 ,the animism of the lower tribes1 self-contained and self-supporting1 maintained in close contact with that direct evidence of the senses on which it appears to be originally based1 is a system which might quite reasonably exist among mankind1 had they never anywhere risen above the savage condition4 ,now it does not seem that the animism of the higher nations stands in a connexion so direct and complete with their mental state4 ,it is by no means so closely limited to doctrines evidenced by simple contemplation of nature4 ,the doctrines of the lower animism appear in the higher often more and more modified1 to bring them into accordance with an advancing intellectual condition1 to adapt them at once to the limits of stricter science and the needs of higher faith2 and in the higher animism these doctrines are retained side by side with other and special beliefs1 of which the religions of the lower world show scarce a germ4 ,in tracing the course of animistic thought from stage to stage of history1 instruction is to be gained alike from the immensity of change and from the intensity of permanence4 ,savage animism1 both by what it has and by what it wants1 seems to represent the earlier system in which began the age-long course of the education of the world4 ,especially is it to be noticed that various beliefs and practices1 which in the lower animism stand firm upon their grounds as if they grew there1 in the higher animism belong rather to peasants than philosophers1 exist rather as ancestral relics than as products belonging to their age1 are falling from full life into survival4 ,thus it is that savage religion can frequently explain doctrines and rites of civilized religion4 ,the converse is far less often the case4 ,now this is a state of things which appears to carry a historical as well as a practical meaning4 ,the degradation-theory would expect savages to hold beliefs and customs intelligible as broken-down relics of former higher civilization4 ,the development-theory would expect civilized men to keep up beliefs and customs which have their reasonable meaning in less cultured states of society4 ,so far as the study of survival enables us to judge between the two theories1 it is seen that what is intelligible religion in the lower culture is often meaningless superstition in the higher1 and thus the development-theory has the upper hand4 ,moreover1 this evidence fits with the teaching of prehistoric archology4 ,savage life1 carrying on into our own day the life of the ,stone ,age1 may be legitimately claimed as representing remotely ancient conditions of mankind1 intellectual and moral as well as material4 ,if so1 a low but progressive state of animistic religion occupies a like ground in savage and in primitive culture4 ,lastly1 a few words of explanation may be offered as to the topics which this survey has included and excluded4 ,to those who have been accustomed to find theological subjects dealt with on a dogmatic1 emotional1 and ethical1 rather than an ethnographic scheme1 the present investigation may seem misleading1 because one-sided4 ,this one-sided treatment1 however1 has been adopted with full consideration4 ,thus1 though the doctrines here examined bear not only on the development but the actual truth of religious systems1 ,i have felt neither able nor willing to enter into this great argument fully and satisfactorily1 while experience has shown that to dispose of such questions by an occasional dictatorial phrase is one of the most serious of errors4 ,the scientific value of descriptions of savage and barbarous religions1 drawn up by travellers and especially by missionaries1 is often lowered by their controversial tone1 and by the affectation of infallibility with which their relation to the absolutely true is settled4 ,there is something pathetic in the simplicity with which a narrow student will judge the doctrines of a foreign religion by their antagonism or conformity to his own orthodoxy1 on points where utter difference of opinion exists among the most learned and enlightened scholars4 ,the systematization of the lower religions1 the reduction of their multifarious details to the few and simple ideas of primitive philosophy which form the common groundwork of them all1 appeared to me an urgently needed contribution to the science of religion4 ,this work ,i have carried out to the utmost of my power1 and ,i can now only leave the result in the hands of other students1 whose province it is to deal with such evidence in wider schemes of argument4 ,again1 the intellectual rather than the emotional side of religion has here been kept in view4 ,even in the life of the rudest savage1 religious belief is associated with intense emotion1 with awful reverence1 with agonizing terror1 with rapt ecstasy when sense and thought utterly transcend the common level of daily life4 ,how much the more in faiths where not only does the believer experience such enthusiasm1 but where his utmost feelings of love and hope1 of justice and mercy1 of fortitude and tenderness and self-sacrificing devotion1 of unutterable misery and dazzling happiness1 twine and clasp round the fabric of religion4 ,language1 dropping at times from such words as soul and spirit their mere philosophic meaning1 can use them in full conformity with this tendency of the religious mind1 as phrases to convey a mystic sense of transcendent emotion4 ,yet of all this religion1 the religion of vision and of passion1 little indeed has been said in these pages1 and even that little rather in incidental touches than with purpose4 ,those to whom religion means above all things religious feeling1 may say of my argument that ,i have written soullessly of the soul1 and unspiritually of spiritual things4 ,be it so3 ,i accept the phrase not as needing an apology1 but as expressing a plan4 ,scientific progress is at times most furthered by working along a distinct intellectual line1 without being tempted to diverge from the main object to what lies beyond1 in however intimate connexion4 ,the anatomist does well to discuss bodily structure independently of the world of happiness and misery which depends upon it4 ,it would be thought a mere impertinence for a strategist to preface a dissertation on the science of war1 by an enquiry how far it is lawful for a ,christian man to bear weapons and serve in the wars4 ,my task has been here not to discuss ,religion in all its bearings1 but to portray in outline the great doctrine of ,animism1 as found in what ,i conceive to be its earliest stages among the lower races of mankind1 and to show its transmission along the lines of religious thought4 ,the almost entire exclusion of ethical questions from this investigation has more than a mere reason of arrangement4 ,it is due to the very nature of the subject4 ,to some the statement may seem startling1 yet the evidence seems to justify it1 that the relation of morality to religion is one that only belongs in its rudiments1 or not at all1 to rudimentary civilization4 ,the comparison of savage and civilized religions bring into view1 by the side of a deep-lying resemblance in their philosophy1 a deep-lying contrast in their practical action on human life4 ,so far as savage religion can stand as representing natural religion1 the popular idea that the moral government of the universe is an essential tenet of natural religion simply falls to the ground4 ,savage animism is almost devoid of that ethical element which to the educated modern mind is the very mainspring of practical religion4 ,not1 as ,i have said1 that morality is absent from the life of the lower races4 ,without a code of morals1 the very existence of the rudest tribe would be impossible2 and indeed the moral standards of even savage races are to no small extent well-defined and praiseworthy4 ,but these ethical laws stand on their own ground of tradition and public opinion1 comparatively independent of the animistic belief and rites which exist beside them4 ,the lower animism is not immoral1 it is unmoral4 ,for this plain reason1 it has seemed desirable to keep the discussion of animism1 as far as might be1 separate from that of ethics4 ,the general problem of the relation of morality to religion is difficult1 intricate1 and requiring immense array of evidence1 and may be perhaps more profitably discussed in connexion with the ethnography of morals4 ,to justify their present separation1 it will be enough to refer in general terms to the accounts of savage tribes whose ideas have been little affected by civilized intercourse2 proper caution being used not to trust vague statements about good and evil1 but to ascertain whether these are what philosophic moralists would call virtue and vice1 righteousness and wickedness1 or whether they are mere personal advantage and disadvantage4 ,the essential connexion of theology and morality is a fixed idea in many minds4 ,but it is one of the lessons of history that subjects may maintain themselves independently for ages1 till the event of coalescence takes place4 ,in the course of history1 religion has in various ways attached to itself matters small and great outside its central scheme1 such as prohibition of special meats1 observance of special days1 regulation of marriage as to kinship1 division of society into castes1 ordinance of social law and civil government4 ,looking at religion from a political point of view1 as a practical influence on human society1 it is clear that among its greatest powers have been its divine sanction of ethical laws1 its theological enforcement of morality1 its teaching of moral government of the universe1 its supplanting the #8continuance-doctrine' of a future life by the #8retribution-doctrine' supplying moral motive in the present4 ,but such alliance belongs almost or wholly to religions above the savage level1 not to the earlier and lower creeds4 ,it will aid us to see how much more the fruit of religion belongs to ethical influence than to philosophical dogma1 if we consider how the introduction of the moral element separates the religions of the world1 united as they are throughout by one animistic principle1 into two great classes1 those lower systems whose best result is to supply a crude childlike natural philosophy1 and those higher faiths which implant on this the law of righteousness and of holiness1 the inspiration of duty and of love4 ,footnote #gdc3 ,herrera1 #8,indias ,occidentales1' ,dec4 i4 #c1 #c2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrel4' pp4 #age1 #bba4 ,footnote #gdd3 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #agd4 ,footnote #gde3 ,rivero and ,tschudi1 #8,peru1' p4 #afj4 ,footnote #gdf3 ,kingsborough1 #8,mexico1' vol4 v4 p4 #agi4 ,footnote #gdg3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #hi4 ,footnote #gdh3 ,welcker1 #8,griech4 ,gtterl4' vol4 i4 p4 #cga4 ,footnote #gdi3 ,ovid4 ,fast4 ii4 #ddi4 ,footnote #gej3 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 i4 p4 #bfd4 ,footnote #gea3 ,morgan1 #8,iroquois1' p4 #aeh4 ,footnote #geb3 ,de ,laet1 #8,novus ,orbis1' xv4 #b2 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #dag2 ,brinson1 pp4 #aeb1 #ahe2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #bga1 c4 ,footnote #gec3 ,d',orbigny1 #8,l',homme ,amricain1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cai4 ,footnote #ged3 ,clavigero1 #8,messico1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #af1 #fh1 #ge4 ,footnote #gee3 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #ccc4 ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 ii4 p4 #aae4 ,footnote #gef3 ,cross1 in #8,journ4 ,amer4 ,oriental ,soc4' vol4 iv4 p4 #caf2 ,mason1 p4 #bae4 ,footnote #geg3 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' pp4 #ia1 #cee4 ,footnote #geh3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #hi4 ,footnote #gei3 ,welcker1 #8,griech4 ,gtterl4' vol4 ii4 p4 #dfg4 ,cox1 #8,mythology of ,aryan ,nations1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cjh4 ,footnote #gfj3 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrel4' pp4 #ada1 #bga1 #bgd1 #eia1 c4 ,footnote #gfa3 ,dobrizhoffer1 #8,abipones1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ij4 ,footnote #gfb3 ,clavigero1 #8,messico1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #ag1 #ha4 ,footnote #gfc3 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #cbf2 vol4 iv4 p4 #aeh4 ,see also ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 ii4 p4 #aab2 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #bah4 ,footnote #gfd3 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' pp4 #ij1 #cfj4 ,footnote #gfe3 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 i4 p4 #bfg4 ,footnote #gff3 ,welcker1 #8,griech4 ,gtterl4' vol4 i4 p4 #dac4 ,cox1 #8,myth4 of ,aryan ,n41' vol4 ii4 pp4 #bed1 #caa4 ,footnote #gfg3 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrel4' pp4 #acg1 c41 #bgb1 #bhf1 c41 #ejj1 c4 ,see ,sproat1 p4 #bac 7,ahts71 cited ante1 p4 #he4 ,chay-her signifies not only the world below1 but ,death personified as a boneless greybeard who wanders at night stealing men's souls away4 ,footnote #gfh3 ,lery1 #8,bresil1' p4 #bcd4 ,footnote #gfi3 ,clavigero1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ad1 #ag2 ,brasseur1 #8,mexique1' vol4 iii4 p4 #die4 ,footnote #ggj3 #8,rites and ,laws of ,yncas1' tr4 and ed4 by ,c4 ,r4 ,markham1 pp4 #cb1 #dh 7prayer from ,,ms4 communication by ,c4 ,r4 ,m472 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 lib4 ii4 c4 #b1 #g2 ,brinton1 #8,myths of ,new ,world1' p4 #bea4 ,footnote #gga3 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #bcg2 ,farmer1 #8,tonga1' p4 #abf4 ,yate1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #adj2 ,j4 ,williams1 #8,missionary ,enterprise1' p4 #ade4 ,see ,schirren1 #8,wandersagen der ,neuseelnder1' p4 #hi2 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #bdf4 ,footnote #ggb3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' pp4 #abh1 #adg1 #aee2 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aga 7,africa74 ,footnote #ggc3 ,welcker1 #8,griech4 ,gtterl4' vol4 i4 p4 #cie2 ,roscher1 s4v4 #8,hades4' ,grimm1 #8,deutsch4 ,myth4' p4 #bhh4 ,footnote #ggd3 ,brugsch1 #8,religion der alten ,aegypter'2 #8,book of ,dead4' ,footnote #gge3 ,pr4 ,max4 v4 ,wied1 #8,n4 ,amerika1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aeg4 ,footnote #ggf3 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrel4' pp4 #acc1 c41 #bbh1 #bee4 ,catlin1 #8,n4 ,a4 ,ind4' vol4 i4 pp4 #aei1 #agg2 ,pr4 ,max v4 ,wied1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #adi1 c4 ,compare ,sproat1 #8,savage ,life1' p4 #agi 7,quawteaht the ,great ,spirit is also ,first ,man74 ,footnote #ggg3 ,d',orbigny1 #8,l',homme ,amricain1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cai4 ,footnote #ggh3 ,schirren1 #8,wandersagen der ,neuseelnder1' p4 #fd1 c41 #hh1 c4 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #aaa1 vol4 iv4 pp4 #ade1 #cff4 ,footnote #ggi3 ,steller1 #8,kamtschatka1' p4 #bga4 ,footnote #ghj3 ,callaway1 #8,religion of ,amazulu1' pp4 #a-ajd4 ,footnote #gha3 #8,rig-,veda1' x4 #8,atharva-,veda1' xviii4 ,max ,mller1 #8,lectures1' #bnd ,ser4 p4 #ead4 ,muir1 #8,yama1' c41 in #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,n4 ,s4' vol4 i4 #ahfe4 ,roth in #8,ztschr4 ,deutsch4 ,morgenl4 ,g4' vol4 iv4 p4 #dbf4 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 ii4 p4 #fj4 ,avesta3 #8,vendidad1' ii4 ,pictet1 #8,origines ,indo-,europ4' part ii4 p4 #fba4 ,footnote #ghb3 ,eisenmenger1 part i4 p4 #cfe4 ,footnote #ghc3 ,koran1 ii4 #bh1 vii4 #aj1 c4 ,footnote #ghd3 ,neander1 #8,hist4 of ,chr4' vol4 ii4 pp4 #ha1 #aji1 #agd4 ,footnote #ghe3 ,oldfield in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #bbh4 ,see also ,eyre1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cef2 ,lang1 #8,queensland1' p4 #ddd4 ,footnote #ghf3 ,loskiel1 #8,gesch4 der ,mission unter den ,ind4 in ,nord-,amer4' part i4 ch4 #c4 ,footnote #ghg3 ,callaway1 #8,rel4 of ,amazulu1' p4 #cdh4 ,footnote #ghh3 ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' p4 #daf4 ,see ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #bjg4 ,footnote #ghi3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part v4 p4 #fcb2 see part i4 p4 #caf1 part vi4 p4 #aff2 #8,iroquois1' p4 #cf1 see #bcg2 ,brinton1 #8,myths of ,new ,world1' p4 #fc4 ,footnote #gij3 ,brebeuf in #8,rel4 des ,jsuites dans la ,nouvelle ,france1' #afce1 p4 #cd1 #afcf1 p4 #ajj4 ,sagard1 #8,histoire du ,canada1' ,paris1 #afcf1 p4 #dij4 ,l4 ,h4 ,morgan1 #8,iroquois1' p4 #aef4 ,see ante1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bhh1 #cdi4 ,footnote #gia3 ,waitz1 #8,anthropologie1' vol4 iii4 pp4 #ahb1 #ccj1 #cce1 #cde2 ,le ,jeune in #8,rel4 des ,js4' #afcg1 p4 #di2 ,la ,potherie1 #8,hist4 de l',amr4 ,septentrionale1' ,paris1 #agbb1 vol4 i4 p4 #aba2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #adi1 c4 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part i4 p4 #ce1 c41 #cbj1 #dab2 ,catlin1 vol4 i4 p4 #aef2 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #bfc4 ,footnote #gib3 ,martius1 #8,ethnog4 ,amer4' vol4 i4 pp4 #cbg1 #dhe1 #ehc1 #fde1 see #bdg1 #cic1 #dbg1 #fif4 ,see also ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrelig4' pp4 #bei1 c41 #djc1 #dbc2 ,d',orbigny1 #8,l',homme ,amricain1' vol4 i4 p4 #dje1 vol4 ii4 p4 #beg2 ,falkner1 #8,patagonia1' p4 #aad2 ,musters1 #8,patagonians1' p4 #agi2 ,fitzroy1 #8,voy4 of ,adventure and ,beagle1' vol4 i4 pp4 #ahj1 #aij4 ,footnote #gic3 ,piedrahita1 #8,hist4 de ,neuv4 ,granada1' part i4 book i4 ch4 #c4 ,footnote #gid3 ,molina1 #8,hist4 of ,chili1' vol4 ii4 p4 #hd2 ,febres1 #8,diccionario ,chileo1' s4v4 ,footnote #gie3 ,proyart1 #8,loango1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #ejd4 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aji4 ,see ,kolbe1 #8,kaap de ,goede ,hoop1' part i4 xxix43 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cdb 7,hottentots74 ,footnote #gif3 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr4' pp4 #bag1 #chg4 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #agc4 ,footnote #gig3 ,birch1 in ,bunsen1 vol4 v4 p4 #acf4 ,wilkinson1 #8,ancient ,eg4' c4 ,footnote #gih3 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' p4 #hd4 ,footnote #gii3 ,avesta1 tr4 by ,spiegel4 ,vendidad1 i42 #8,khorda-,avesta4' xlv4 xlvi4 ,max ,mller1 #8,lectures1' #ast ,ser4 p4 #bjh4 ,footnote #hjj3 ,layard1 #8,nineveh1' vol4 i4 p4 #big2 ,ainsworth1 #8,izedis1' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 p4 #aa4 ,footnote #hja3 ,beausobre1 #8,hist4 de ,maniche1' c4 ,neander1 #8,hist4 of ,christian ,religion1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aeg1 c4 ,footnote #hjb3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #aee4 ,footnote #hjc3 ,klemm1 #8,cultur-,gesch4' vol4 vi4 p4 #he4 ,footnote #hjd3 #8tudes ,philologiques sur quelques ,langues ,sauvages de l',amrique1' par ,n4 ,o4 7,j4 ,a4 ,cuoq47 ,montreal1 #ahff1 p4 #ad4 ,brinton1 #8,myths of ,new ,world1' p4 #ec4 ,schoolcraft1 #8,iroquois1' p4 #cc4 ,footnote #hje3 ,de la ,borde1 #8,caraibes1' p4 #ebd4 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrel4' p4 #bbh4 ,footnote #hjf3 ,dobrizhoffer1 #8,abipones1' vol4 ii4 p4 #hi4 ,footnote #hjg3 ,hutchinson1 #8,chaco ,ind4' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #cbg4 ,footnote #hjh3 ,d',orbigny1 #8,l',homme ,amricain1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cai4 ,footnote #hji3 ,molina1 #8,hist4 of ,chili1' vol4 ii4 p4 #hd1 c4 ,compare ,febres1 #8,diccionario ,chileo4' ,footnote #haj3 ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' p4 #dae4 ,musters1 #8,patagonians1' p4 #agi4 ,footnote #haa3 #8,narratives of the ,rites and ,laws of the ,yncas1' trans4 from the original ,spanish ,,mss41 and ed4 by ,c4 ,r4 ,markham1 ,hakluyt ,soc4 #ahgc1 p4 ix4 #e1 #af1 #cj1 #gf1 #hd1 #aed1 c4 ,the above remarks are based on the early evidence here printed for the first time1 and on private suggestions for which ,i am also indebted to ,mr4 ,markham4 ,the title ,pachacamac has been also considered to mean ,animator or ,soul of the ,world1 camani ,i create1 camac creator1 cama soul 7note to #bnd ed474 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 lib4 i41 ii4 c4 #b1 iii4 c4 #bj2 ,herrera1 dec4 v4 #d2 ,brinton1 #8,myths of ,new ,world1' p4 #agg1 see #adb2 ,rivero and ,tschudi1 #8,peruvian ,antiquities1' ch4 vii42 ,waitz1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ddg2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #cag1 c4 ,footnote #hab3 ,sagard1 #8,hist4 du ,canada1' p4 #dij4 ,hennepin1 #8,voy4 dans l',amrique1' p4 #cjb4 ,gregg1 #8,commerce of ,prairies1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bcg4 ,footnote #hac3 ,le ,jeune1 #8,rel4 des ,js4' #afcg1 p4 #di2 ,brinton1 p4 #eb2 ,lafitau1 #8,murs des ,sauvages ,amriquains1' vol4 i4 pp4 #abf1 #ade 7note to #crd ed474 ,footnote #had3 ,egede1 #8,descr4 of ,greenland1' ch4 xviii42 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #bfc2 ,rink1 #8,eskimoiske ,eventyr1' c41 p4 #bh4 ,footnote #hae3 ,le ,jeune1 #afcc1 p4 #af2 #afcd1 p4 #ac4 ,footnote #haf3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part i4 p4 #ae4 ,footnote #hag3 ,cartier1 #8,relation2' ,hakluyt1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bab2 ,lescarbot1 #8,nouvelle ,france1' p4 #fac4 ,thevet1 #8,singularitez de la ,france ,antarctique1' ,paris1 #aeeh1 ch4 #gg4 ,see also ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #ajb4 ,andouagni is perhaps a miscopied form of ,cudouagni4 ,other forms1 ,cudruagni1 c41 occur4 ,footnote #hah3 ,smith1 #8,hist4 of ,virginia1' ,london1 #afcb1 in ,pinkerton1 #8,voyages1' vol4 xiii4 pp4 #ac1 #ah1 #bdd 7,new ,eng472 see ,arber's edition4 ,priority has been claimed for ,e4 ,strachey 7see ,lang1 #8,making of ,religion1' p4 #bed71 but this copyist seems only to have copied ,capt4 ,smith's #8,map of ,virginia' 7#afjh74 ,brinton1 p4 #eh2 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #agg1 c4 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 pp4 #ii1 c42 ,loskiel1 part i4 pp4 #cc1 #dc4 ,footnote #hai3 ,brebeuf in #8,rel4 des ,js4' #afcf1 p4 #ajg2 see above1 p4 #bee4 ,sagard1 p4 #did2 ,cuoq1 p4 #agf2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #ajc4 ,for other mention of a ,supreme ,deity among ,north ,american tribes see ,joutel1 #8,journal du ,voyage1' c41 ,paris1 #agac1 p4 #bbd 7,louisiana72 ,sproat in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 v4 p4 #bec 7,vancouver's ,i474 ,footnote #hbj3 ,lafitau1 #8,murs des ,sauvages ,amriquains1' #agbd1 vol4 i4 pp4 #abd-f4 ,footnote #hba3 ,bartram in #8,tr4 ,amer4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 pp4 #bj1 #bf4 ,footnote #hbb3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,ind4 ,tribes1' part ii4 p4 #abg4 ,footnote #hbc3 ,prescott1 #8,mexico1' book i4 ch4 vi4 ,sahagun1 #8,hist4 de ,nueva ,espaa1' lib4 vi4 in ,kingsborough1 vol4 v42 ,torquemada1 #8,monarq4 ,ind4' lib4 x4 c4 #ad4 ,waitz1 vol4 iv4 p4 #acf2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #fba1 c4 ,footnote #hbd3 ,moerenhout1 #8,voy4 aux ,iles du ,grand ,ocan1' vol4 i4 pp4 #dai1 #dcg4 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #cba1 c4 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 #8,voyage round the ,world1' pp4 #edj1 #efg4 ,grey1 #8,polyn4 ,myth4' p4 #f4 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #aah2 see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #cbb4 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #bdd4 ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 ii4 pp4 #aaf1 #aba4 ,schirren1 #8,wandersagen der ,neuseelnder1' pp4 #fh1 #hi4 ,footnote #hbe3 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #bag4 ,footnote #hbf3 ,callaway1 #8,religion of ,amazulu1' part i4 ,see ante1 pp4 #aaf1 #cac4 ,footnote #hbg3 ,see especially ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #afg1 c42 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr4' pp4 #bji1 #chg2 ,bosman1 ,mungo ,park1 c4 ,comp4 ,ellis1 #8,madagascar1' vol4 i4 p4 #cij4 ,footnote #hbh3 ,steinhauser1 #8,religion des ,negers1' in #8,mag4 der ,miss4' ,basel1 #ahef4 ,no4 #b1 p4 #abh4 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr4' pp4 #ib1 #bji2 ,rmer1 #8,guinea1' p4 #db4 ,see also ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aga1 #dai4 ,footnote #hbi3 ,magyar1 #8,reisen in ,sd-,afrika1' pp4 #abe1 #cce4 ,footnote #hcj3 ,bowen1 #8,gr4 and ,dic4 of ,yoruba1' p4 xvi4 in #8,smithsonian ,contr4' vol4 i4 ,footnote #hca3 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' p4 #hd1 c4 ,footnote #hcb3 ,dalton1 #8,kols1' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vi4 p4 #cb4 ,hunter1 #8,rural ,bengal1' p4 #ahd4 ,footnote #hcc3 ,siebold1 #8,nippon4' ,kaempfer1 #8,hist4 of ,japan1' #agbg1 book ,i4 ch4 ,i1 ,,iv4 ,for accurate modern information1 see papers of ,chamberlain and ,satow in #8,tr4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,japan1' and ,murray's ,handbook 7note to #crd ed474 ,footnote #hcd3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #a1 c4 ,klemm1 #8,cultur-,gesch4' vol4 iii4 p4 #aja4 #8,samoiedia1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 i4 p4 #eca4 #8,georgi1 ,reise im ,russ4 ,reich4' vol4 i4 p4 #bge4 ,footnote #hce3 ,plath1 #8,rel4 der ,alten ,chinesen1' part i4 p4 #ah1 c4 ,see ,max ,mller1 #8,lectures on ,science of ,religion1' ,no4 ,,iii4 in #8,fraser's ,mag4' #ahgj4 ,legge1 #8,confucius1' p4 #ajj4 ,footnote #hcf3 ,see ,colebrooke1 #8,essays1' vol4 ii4 ,wuttke1 #8,heidenthum1' part i4 p4 #bed4 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 i4 p4 xxi4 vol4 ii4 p4 #a4 ,footnote #hcg3 ,comte1 #8,philosophie ,positive4' ,cf4 ,bp4 ,berkeley's #8,siris'2 and for a modern dissertation on the universal ther as the divine soul of the world1 see ,phil4 ,spiller1 #8,gott im ,lichte der ,naturwissenschaften1' ,berlin1 #ahgc 7note to #bnd ed474 ,footnote #hch3 #8,rig-,veda1' i4 #afd1 #df4 ,max ,mller1 #8,chips1' vol4 i4 pp4 #bg1 #bda4 ,footnote #hci3 ,see ,welcker1 #8,griech4 ,gtterlehre1' pp4 #adc1 #age4 ,footnote #hdj3 ,avesta2 trans4 by ,spiegel1 #8,ormazd-,yasht4' #ab4 ,footnote #hda3 ,wilkinson1 #8,ancient ,eg4' vol4 iv4 ch4 xii42 ,bunsen1 #8,egypt1' vol4 iv4 p4 #cbe4 ,footnote #hdb3 ,movers1 #8,phnizier1' vol4 i4 p4 #afi1 c4 ,footnote #hdc3 #8,of the ,principles and ,duties of ,natural ,religion1' ,london1 #afgh1 book i4 ch4 vi4 ,johnson's ,dictionary1 s4v4 ,the term #8natural religion' is used in various and even incompatible senses4 ,thus ,butler in his #8,analogy of ,religion1 ,natural and ,revealed1 to the ,constitution and ,course of ,nature1' signifies by #8natural religion' a primval system which he expressly argues to have been not reasoned out1 but taught first by revelation4 ,this system1 of which the main tenets are the belief in one ,god1 the ,creator and ,moral ,governor of the ,world1 and in a future state of moral retribution1 differs in the extreme from the actual religions of the lower races4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,rites ,,and ,,ceremonies4 ,religious ,rites3 their purpose practical or symbolic--,prayer3 its continuity from low to high levels of ,culture2 its lower phases ,unethical2 its higher phases ,ethical--,sacrifice3 its original ,gift-theory passes into the ,homage-theory and the ,abnegation-theory--,manner of reception of ,sacrifice by ,deity--,material ,transfer to elements1 fetish-animals1 priests2 consumption of substance by deity or idol2 offering of blood2 transmission by fire2 incense--,essential ,transfer3 consumption of essence1 savour1 c4--,spiritual ,transfer3 consumption or transmission of soul of offering--,motive of ,sacrificer--,transition from ,gift-theory to ,homage-theory3 insignificant and formal offerings2 sacrificial banquets--,abnegation-theory2 sacrifice of children1 c4--,sacrifice of ,substitutes3 part given for whole2 inferior life for superior2 effigies--,modern survival of ,sacrifice in folklore and religion--,fasting1 as a means of producing ecstatic vision2 its course from lower to higher ,culture--,drugs used to produce ecstasy--,swoons and fits induced for religious purposes--,orientation3 its relation to ,sun-myth and ,sun-worship2 rules of ,east and ,west as to burial of dead1 position of worship1 and structure of temple--,lustration by ,water and ,fire3 its transition from material to symbolic purification2 its connexion with special events of life2 its appearance among the lower races--,lustration of new-born children2 of women2 of those polluted by bloodshed or the dead--,lustration continued at higher levels of ,culture--,conclusion4 ,religious rites fall theoretically into two divisions1 though these blend in practice4 ,in part1 they are expressive and symbolic performances1 the dramatic utterance of religious thought1 the gesture-language of theology4 ,in part1 they are means of intercourse with and influence on spiritual beings1 and as such1 their intention is as directly practical as any chemical or mechanical process1 for doctrine and worship correlate as theory and practice4 ,in the science of religion1 the study of ceremony has its strong and weak sides4 ,on the one hand1 it is generally easier to obtain accurate accounts of ceremonies by eye-witnesses1 than anything like trustworthy and intelligible statements of doctrine2 so that very much of our knowledge of religion in the savage and barbaric world consists in acquaintance with its ceremonies4 ,it is also true that some religious ceremonies are marvels of permanence1 holding substantially the same form and meaning through age after age1 and far beyond the range of historic record4 ,on the other hand1 the signification of ceremonies is not to be rashly decided on by mere inspection4 ,in the long and varied course in which religion has adapted itself to new intellectual and moral conditions1 one of the most marked processes has affected time-honoured religious customs1 whose form has been faithfully and even servilely kept up1 while their nature has often undergone transformation4 ,in the religions of the great nations1 the natural difficulty of following these changes has been added to by the sacerdotal tendency to ignore and obliterate traces of the inevitable change of religion from age to age1 and to convert into mysteries ancient rites whose real barbaric meaning is too far out of harmony with the spirit of a later time4 ,the embarrassments1 however1 which beset the enquirer into the ceremonies of a single religion1 diminish in a larger comparative study4 ,the ethnographer who brings together examples of a ceremony from different stages of culture can often give a more rational account of it1 than the priest1 to whom a special signification1 sometimes very unlike the original one1 has become matter of orthodoxy4 ,as a contribution to the theory of religion1 with especial view to its lower phases as explanatory of the higher1 ,i have here selected for ethnographic discussion a group of sacred rites1 each in its way full of instruction1 different as these ways are4 ,all have early place and rudimentary meaning in savage culture1 all belong to barbaric ages1 all have their representatives within the limits of modern ,christendom4 ,they are the rites of ,prayer1 ,sacrifice1 ,fasting and other methods of ,artificial ,ecstasy1 ,orientation1 ,lustration4 ,prayer1 #8the soul's sincere desire1 uttered or unexpressed1' is the address of personal spirit to personal spirit4 ,so far as it is actually addressed to disembodied or deified human souls1 it is simply an extension of the daily intercourse between man and man2 while the worshipper who looks up to other divine beings1 spiritual after the nature of his own spirit1 though of place and power in the universe far beyond his own1 still has his mind in a state where prayer is a reasonable and practical act4 ,so simple and familiar indeed is the nature of prayer1 that its study does not demand that detail of fact and argument which must be given to rites in comparison practically insignificant4 ,it has not indeed been placed everywhere on record as the necessary outcome of animistic belief1 for especially at low levels of civilization there are many races who distinctly admit the existence of spirits1 but are not positively known to pray to them4 ,beyond this lower level1 however1 animism and ceremonial prayer become nearly conterminous2 and a view of their relation in their earlier stages may be best gained from a selection of actual prayers taken down word for word1 within the limits of savage and barbaric life4 ,these agree with an opinion that prayer appeared in the religion of the lower culture1 but that in this its earlier stage it was unethical4 ,the accomplishment of desire is asked for1 but desire is as yet limited to personal advantage4 ,it is at later and higher moral levels1 that the worshipper begins to add to his entreaty for prosperity the claim for help toward virtue and against vice1 and prayer becomes an instrument of morality4 ,in the ,papuan ,island of ,tanna1 where the gods are the spirits of departed ancestors1 and preside over the growth of fruits1 a prayer after the offering of first-fruits is spoken aloud by the chief who acts as high priest to the silent assembly3 #8,compassionate father6 ,here is some food for you2 eat it2 be kind to us on account of it6' ,then all shout together4#hdd ,in the ,samoan ,islands1 when the libation of ava was poured out at the evening meal1 the head of the family prayed thus3-- #8,here is ava for you1 ,o gods6 ,look kindly towards this family3 let it prosper and increase2 and let us all be kept in health4 ,let our plantations be productive2 let food grow2 and may there be abundance of food for us1 your creatures4 ,here is ava for you1 our war gods6 ,let there be a strong and numerous people for you in this land4 #8,here is ava for you1 ,o sailing gods 7gods who come in ,tongan canoes and foreign vessels74 ,do not come on shore at this place2 but be pleased to depart along the ocean to some other land4'#hde ,among the ,indians of ,north ,america1 more or less under ,european influence1 the ,sioux will say1 #8,spirits of the dead1 have mercy on me6' then they will add what they want1 if good weather they say so1 if good luck in hunting1 they say so4#hdf ,among the ,osages1 prayers used not long since to be offered at daybreak to ,wohkonda1 the ,master of ,life4 ,the devotee retired a little from the camp or company1 and with affected or real weeping1 in loud uncouth voice of plaintive piteous tone1 howled such prayers as these3-- #8,wohkonda1 pity me1 ,i am very poor2 give me what ,i need2 give me success against mine enemies1 that ,i may avenge the death of my friends4 ,may ,i be able to take scalps1 to take horses6 c4' ,such prayers might or might not have allusion to some deceased relative or friend4#hdg ,how an ,algonquin ,indian undertakes a dangerous voyage1 we may judge from ,john ,tanner's account of a fleet of frail ,indian bark canoes setting out at dawn one calm morning on ,lake ,superior4 ,we had proceeded1 he writes1 about two hundred yards into the lake1 when the canoes all stopped together1 and the chief1 in a very loud voice1 addressed a prayer to the ,great ,spirit1 entreating him to give us a good look to cross the lake4 #8,you1' said he1 #8have made this lake1 and you have made us1 your children2 you can now cause that the water shall remain smooth while we pass over in safety4' ,in this manner he continued praying for five or ten minutes2 he then threw into the lake a small quantity of tobacco1 in which each of the canoes followed his example4#hdh ,a ,nootka ,indian1 preparing for war1 prayed thus3 #8,great ,quahootze1 let me live1 not be sick1 find the enemy1 not fear him1 find him asleep1 and kill a great many of him4'#hdi ,there is more pathos in these lines from the war-song of a ,delaware3-- #8,o ,great ,spirit there above ,have pity on my children ,and my wife6 ,prevent that they shall mourn for me6 ,let me succeed in this undertaking1 ,that ,i may slay my enemy ,and bring home the tokens of victory ,to my dear family and my friends ,that we may rejoice together4444 ,have pity on me and protect my life1 ,and ,i will bring thee an offering4'#hej ,the following two prayers are among those recorded by ,molina1 from the memory of aged men who described to him the religion of ,peru under the ,incas1 in whose rites they had themselves borne part4 ,the first is addressed to the ,sun1 the second to the ,world-creator3-- #8,o ,sun6 ,thou who hast said1 let there be ,cuzcos and ,tampus1 grant that these thy children may conquer all other people4 ,we beseech thee that thy children the ,yncas may be the conquerors always1 for this hast thou created them4' #8,o conquering ,uiracocha6 ,ever present ,uiracocha6 ,thou who art in the ends of the earth without equal6 ,thou who gavest life and valour to men1 saying 8,let this be a man60 and to women1 saying1 8,let this be a woman60 ,thou who madest them and gavest them being6 ,watch over them that they may live in health and peace4 ,thou who art in the high heavens1 and among the clouds of the tempest1 grant this with long life1 and accept this sacrifice1 ,o ,uiracocha6'#hea ,in ,africa1 the ,zulus1 addressing the spirits of their ancestors1 think it even enough to call upon them without saying what they want1 taking it for granted that the spirits know1 so that the mere utterance #8,people of our house6' is a prayer4 ,when a ,zulu sneezes1 and is thus for the moment in close relation to the divine spirits1 it is enough for him to mention what he wants 7#8to wish a wish1' as our own folklore has it71 and thus the words #8,a cow6' #8,children6' are prayers4 ,fuller forms are such as these3 #8,people of our house6 ,cattle6'--#8,people of our house6 ,good luck and health6'--#8,people of our house6 ,children6' ,on occasions of ancestral cattle-sacrifice the prayers extend to actual harangues1 as when1 after the feast is over1 the headman speaks thus amid dead silence3 #8,yes1 yes1 our people1 who did such and such noble acts1 ,i pray to you--,i pray for prosperity after having sacrificed this bullock of yours4 ,i say1 ,i cannot refuse to give you food1 for these cattle which are here you gave me4 ,and if you ask food of me which you have given me1 is it not proper that ,i should give it to you8 ,i pray for cattle1 that they may fill this pen4 ,i pray for corn1 that many people may come to this village of yours1 and make a noise1 and glorify you4 ,i ask also for children1 that this village may have a large population1 and that your name may never come to an end4' ,so he finishes4#heb ,from among the negro races near the equator1 the following prayers may be cited1 addressed to that ,supreme ,deity whose nature is1 as we have seen1 more or less that of the ,heaven-god4 ,the ,gold ,coast negro would raise his eyes to ,heaven and thus address him3 #8,god1 give me to-day rice and yams1 gold and agries1 give me slaves1 riches1 and health1 and that ,i may be brisk and swift6' ,the fetish-man will often in the morning take water in his mouth and say1 #8,heaven6 grant that ,i may have something to eat to-day2' and when giving medicine shown him by the fetish1 he will hold it up to heaven first1 and say1 #8,ata ,nyongmo6 7,father ,heaven67 bless this medicine that ,i now give4' ,the ,yebu would say1 #8,god in heaven1 protect me from sickness and death4 ,god give me happiness and wisdom6'#hec ,when the ,manganja of ,lake ,nyassa were offering to the ,supreme ,deity a basketful of meal and a pot of native beer1 that he might give them rain1 the priestess dropped the meal handful by handful on the ground1 each time calling1 in a high-pitched voice1 #8,hear thou1 ,o ,god1 and send rain6' and the assembled people responded1 clapping their hands softly and intoning 7they always intone their prayers7 #8,hear thou1 ,o ,god6'#hed ,typical forms of prayer may be selected in ,asia near the junction-line of savage and barbaric culture4 ,among the ,karens of ,burma1 the ,harvest-goddess has offerings made to her in a little house in the paddy-field1 in which two strings are put for her to bind the spirits of any persons who may enter her field4 ,then they entreat her on this wise3 #8,grandmother1 thou guardest my field1 thou watchest over my plantation4 ,look out for men entering2 look sharp for people coming in4 ,if they come1 bind them with this string1 tie them with this rope1 do not let them go6' ,and at the threshing of the rice they say3 #8,shake thyself1 ,grandmother1 shake thyself6 ,let the paddy ascend till it equals a hill1 equals a mountain4 ,shake thyself1 ,grandmother1 shake thyself6'#hee ,the following are extracts from the long-drawn prayers of the ,khonds of ,orissa3 #8,o ,boora ,pennu6 and ,o ,tari ,pennu1 and all other gods6 7naming them74 ,you1 ,o ,boora ,pennu6 created us1 giving us the attribute of hunger2 thence corn food was necessary to us1 and thence were necessary producing fields4 ,you gave us every seed1 and ordered us to use bullocks1 and to make ploughs1 and to plough4 ,had we not received this art1 we might still indeed have existed upon the natural fruits of the jungle and the plain1 but1 in our destitution1 we could not have performed your worship4 ,do you1 remembering this--the connexion betwixt our wealth and your honour--grant the prayers which we now offer4 ,in the morning1 we rise before the light to our labour1 carrying the seed4 ,save us from the tiger1 and the snake1 and from stumblingblocks4 ,let the seed appear earth to the eating birds1 and stones to the eating animals of the earth4 ,let the grain spring up suddenly like a dry stream that is swelled in a night4 ,let the earth yield to our ploughshares as wax melts before hot iron4 ,let the baked clods melt like hailstones4 ,let our ploughs spring through the furrows with a force like the recoil of a bent tree4 ,let there be such a return from our seed1 that so much shall fall and be neglected in the fields1 and so much on the roads in carrying it home1 that1 when we shall go out next year to sow1 the paths and the fields shall look like a young corn-field4 ,from the first times we have lived by your favour4 ,let us continue to receive it4 ,remember that the increase of our produce is the increase of your worship1 and that its diminution must be the diminution of your rites4' ,the following is the conclusion of a prayer to the ,earth-goddess3 #8,let our herds be so numerous that they cannot be housed2 let children so abound that the care of them shall overcome their parents--as shall be seen by their burned hands2 let our heads ever strike against brass pots innumerable hanging from our roofs2 let the rats form their nests of shreds of scarlet cloth and silk2 let all the kites in the country be seen in the trees of our village1 from beasts being killed there every day4 ,we are ignorant of what it is good to ask for4 ,you know what is good for us4 ,give it to us6'#hef ,such are types of prayer in the lower levels of culture1 and in no small degree they remain characteristic of the higher nations4 ,if1 in long-past ages1 the ,chinese raised themselves from the condition of rude ,siberian tribes to their peculiar culture1 at any rate their consecutive religion has scarce changed the matter-of-fact prayers for rain and good harvest1 wealth and long life1 addressed to manes and nature-spirits and merciful ,heaven4#heg ,in other great national religions of the world1 not the whole of prayer1 but a smaller or larger part of it1 holds closely to the savage definition4 ,this is a ,vedic prayer3 #8,what1 ,indra1 has not yet been given me by thee1 ,lightning-hurler1 all good things bring us hither with both hands 444 with mighty riches fill me1 with wealth of cattle1 for thou art great6'#heh ,this is ,moslem3 #8,o ,allah6 unloose the captivity of the captives1 and annul the debts of the debtors3 and make this town to be safe and secure1 and blessed with wealth and plenty1 and all the towns of the ,moslems1 ,o ,lord of all creatures6 and decree safety and health to us and to all travellers1 and pilgrims1 and warriors1 and wanderers1 upon thy earth1 and upon thy sea1 such as are ,moslems1 ,o ,lord of all creatures6'#hei ,thus also1 throughout the rituals of ,christendom1 stand an endless array of supplications unaltered in principle from savage times--that the weather may be adjusted to our local needs1 that we may have the victory over all our enemies1 that life and health and wealth and happiness may be ours4 ,so far1 then1 is permanence in culture3 but now let us glance at the not less marked lines of modification and new formation4 ,the vast political effect of a common faith in developing the idea of exclusive nationality1 a process scarcely expanding beyond the germ among savage tribes1 but reaching its full growth in the barbaric world1 is apt to have its outward manifestation in hostility to those of another creed1 a sentiment which finds vent in characteristic prayers4 ,such are these from the ,rig-,veda3 #8,take away our calamities4 ,by sacred verses may we overcome those who employ no holy hymns6 ,distinguish between the ,aryas and those who are ,dasyus3 chastising those who observe no sacred rites1 subject them to the sacrificer4444 ,indra subjects the impious to the pious1 and destroys the irreligious by the religious4'#hfj ,the following is from the closing prayer which the boys in many schools in ,cairo used to repeat some years ago1 and very likely do still3 #8,i seek refuge with ,allah from ,satan the accursed4 ,in the name of ,allah1 the ,compassionate1 the ,merciful 444 ,o ,lord of all creatures6 ,o ,allah6 destroy the infidels and polytheists1 thine enemies1 the enemies of the religion6 ,o ,allah6 make their children orphans1 and defile their abodes1 and cause their feet to slip1 and give them and their families and their households and their women and their children and their relations by marriage and their brothers and their friends and their possessions and their race and their wealth and their lands as booty to the ,moslems6 ,o ,lord of all creatures6'#hfa ,another powerful tendency of civilization1 that of regulating human affairs by fixed ordinance1 has since early ages been at work to arrange worship into mechanical routine4 ,here1 so to speak1 religion deposits itself in sharply defined shape from a supersaturated solution1 and crystallizes into formalism4 ,thus prayers1 from being at first utterances as free and flexible as requests to a living patriarch or chief1 stiffened into traditional formulas1 whose repetition required verbal accuracy1 and whose nature practically assimilated more or less to that of charms4 ,liturgies1 especially in those three quarters of the world where the ancient liturgical language has become at once unintelligible and sacred1 are crowded with examples of this historical process4 ,its extremest development in ,europe is connected with the use of the rosary4 ,this devotional calculating-machine is of ,asiatic invention2 it had if not its origin at least its special development among the ancient ,buddhists1 and its #ajh balls still slide through the modern ,buddhist's hands as of old1 measuring out the sacred formulas whose reiteration occupies so large a fraction of a pious life4 ,it was not till toward the middle ages that the rosary passed into ,mohammedan and ,christian lands1 and finding there conceptions of prayer which it was suited to accompany1 has flourished ever since4 ,how far the ,buddhist devotional formulas themselves partake of the nature of prayer1 is a question opening into instructive considerations1 which need only be suggested here4 ,by its derivation from ,brahmanism and its fusion with the beliefs of rude spirit-worshipping populations1 ,buddhism practically retains in no small measure a prayerful temper and even practice4 ,yet1 according to strict and special ,buddhist philosophy1 where personal divinity has faded into metaphysical idea1 even devotional utterances of desire are not prayers2 as ,kppen says1 there is no #8,thou6' in them4 ,it must be only with reservation that we class the rosary in ,buddhist hands as an instrument of actual prayer4 ,the same is true of the still more extreme development of mechanical religion1 the prayer-mill of the ,tibetan ,buddhists4 ,this was perhaps originally a symbolic #8chakra' or wheel of the law1 but has become a cylinder mounted on an axis1 which by each rotation is considered to repeat the sentences written on the papers it is filled with1 usually the #8,om mani padme hm6' ,prayer-mills vary in size1 from the little wooden toys held in the hand1 to the great drums turned by wind or water-power1 which repeat their sentences by the million4#hfb ,the ,buddhist idea1 that #8merit' is produced by the recitation of these sentences1 may perhaps lead us to form an opinion of large application in the study of religion and superstition1 namely1 that the theory of prayers may explain the origin of charms4 ,charm-formulas are in very many cases actual prayers1 and as such are intelligible4 ,where they are mere verbal forms1 producing their effect on nature and man by some unexplained process1 may not they or the types they were modelled on have been originally prayers1 since dwindled into mystic sentences8 ,the worshipper cannot always ask wisely what is for his good1 therefore it may be well for him to pray that the greater power of the deity may be guided by his greater wisdom--this is a thought which expands and strengthens in the theology of the higher nations4 ,the simple prayer of ,sokrates1 that the gods would give such things as are good1 for they know best what are good1#hfc raises a strain of supplication which has echoed through ,christendom from its earliest ages4 ,greatest of all changes which difference the prayers of lower from those of higher nations1 is the working out of the general principle that the ethical element1 so scanty and rudimentary in the lower forms of religion1 becomes in the higher its most vital point2 while it scarcely appears as though any savage prayer1 authentically native in its origin1 were ever directed to obtain moral goodness or to ask pardon for moral sin4 ,among the semi-civilized ,aztecs1 in the elaborate ritual which from its early record and its original characteristics may be thought to have a partial authenticity1 we mark the appearance of ethical prayer4 ,such is the supplication concerning the newly-elect ruler3 #8,make him1 ,lord1 as your true image1 and permit him not to be proud and haughty in your throne and court2 but vouchsafe1 ,lord1 that he may calmly and carefully rule and govern them whom he has in charge1 the people1 and permit not1 ,lord1 that he may injure or vex his subjects1 nor without reason and justice cause loss to any2 and permit not1 ,lord1 that he may spot or soil your throne or court with any injustice or wrong1 c4'#hfd ,moral prayer1 sometimes appearing in rudiment1 sometimes shrunk into insignificance1 sometimes overlaid by formalism1 sometimes maintained firm and vigorous in the inmost life1 has its place without as well as within the ,jewish-,christian scheme4 ,the ancient ,aryan prayed3 #8,through want of strength1 thou strong and bright god1 have ,i gone wrong2 have mercy1 almighty1 have mercy6444 ,whenever we men1 ,o ,varuna1 commit an offence before the heavenly host1 whenever we break the law through thoughtlessness1 have mercy1 almighty1 have mercy6'#hfe ,the modern ,parsi prays3 #8,of my sins which ,i have committed against the ruler ,ormazd1 against men1 and the different kinds of men4444 ,deceit1 contempt1 idol-worship1 lies1 ,i repent of4444 ,all and every kind of sin which men have committed because of me1 or which ,i have committed because of men2 pardon1 ,i repent with confession6'#hff ,as a general rule it would be misleading to judge utterances of this kind in the religions of classic ,greece and ,rome as betokening the intense habitual prayerfulness which pervades the records of ,judaism1 ,mohammedanism1 ,christianity4 ,moralists admit that prayer can be made an instrument of evil1 that it may give comfort and hope to the superstitious robber1 that it may strengthen the heart of the soldier to slay his foes in an unrighteous war1 that it may uphold the tyrant and the bigot in their persecution of freedom in life and thought4 ,philosophers dwell on the subjective operation of prayer1 as acting not directly on outward events1 but on the mind and will of the worshipper himself1 which it influences and confirms4 ,the one argument tends to guide prayer1 the other to suppress it4 ,looking on prayer in its effect on man himself through the course of history1 both must recognize it as even in savage religion a means of strengthening emotion1 of sustaining courage and exciting hope1 while in higher faiths it becomes a great motive power of the ethical system1 controlling and enforcing1 under an ever-present sense of supernatural intercourse and aid1 the emotions and energies of moral life4 ,sacrifice has its apparent origin in the same early period of culture and its place in the same animistic scheme as prayer1 with which through so long a range of history it has been carried on in the closest connexion4 ,as prayer is a request made to a deity as if he were a man1 so sacrifice is a gift made to a deity as if he were a man4 ,the human types of both may be studied unchanged in social life to this day4 ,the suppliant who bows before his chief1 laying a gift at his feet and making his humble petition1 displays the anthropomorphic model and origin at once of sacrifice and prayer4 ,but sacrifice1 though in its early stages as intelligible as prayer is in early and late stages alike1 has passed in the course of religious history into transformed conditions1 not only of the rite itself but of the intention with which the worshipper performs it4 ,and theologians1 having particularly turned their attention to sacrifice as it appears in the higher religions1 have been apt to gloss over with mysticism ceremonies which1 when traced ethnographically up from their savage forms1 seem open to simply rational interpretation4 ,many details of offerings have already been given incidentally here1 as a means of elucidating the nature of the deities they are offered to4 ,moreover1 a main part of the doctrine of sacrifice has been anticipated in examining the offerings to spirits of the dead1 and indeed the ideal distinction between soul and deity breaks down among the lower races1 when it appears how often the deities receiving sacrifice are themselves divine human souls4 ,in now attempting to classify sacrifice in its course through the religions of the world1 it seems a satisfactory plan to group the evidence as far as may be according to the manner in which the offering is given by the worshipper1 and received by the deity4 ,at the same time1 the examples may be so arranged as to bring into view the principal lines along which the rite has undergone alteration4 ,the ruder conception that the deity takes and values the offering for itself1 gives place on the one hand to the idea of mere homage expressed by a gift1 and on the other to the negative view that the virtue lies in the worshipper depriving himself of something prized4 ,these ideas may be broadly distinguished as the gift-theory1 the homage-theory1 and the abnegation-theory4 ,along all three the usual ritualistic change may be traced1 from practical reality to formal ceremony4 ,the originally valuable offering is compromised for a smaller tribute or a cheaper substitute1 dwindling at last to a mere trifling token or symbol4 ,the gift-theory1 as standing on its own independent basis1 properly takes the first place4 ,that most childlike kind of offering1 the giving of a gift with as yet no definite thought how the receiver can take and use it1 may be the most primitive as it is the most rudimentary sacrifice4 ,moreover1 in tracing the history of the ceremony from level to level of culture1 the same simple unshaped intention may still largely prevail1 and much of the reason why it is often found difficult to ascertain what savages and barbarians suppose to become of the food and valuables they offer to the gods1 may be simply due to ancient sacrificers knowing as little about it as modern ethnologists do1 and caring less4 ,yet rude races begin and civilized races continue to furnish with the details of their sacrificial ceremonies the key also to their meaning1 the explanation of the manner in which the offering is supposed to pass into the possession of the deity4 ,beginning with cases in which this transmission is performed bodily1 it appears that when the deity is the personal ,water1 ,earth1 ,fire1 ,air1 or a fetish-spirit animating or inhabiting such element1 he can receive and sometimes actually consume the offerings given over to this material medium4 ,how such notions may take shape is not ill shown in the quaintly rational thought noticed in old ,peru1 that the ,sun drinks the libations poured out before him2 and in modern ,madagascar1 that the ,angatra drinks the arrack left for him in the leaf-cup4 ,do not they see the liquids diminish from day to day8#hfg ,the sacrifice to ,water is exemplified by ,indians caught in a storm on the ,north ,american lakes1 who would appease the angry tempest-raising deity by tying the feet of a dog and throwing it overboard4#hfh ,the following case from ,guinea well shows the principle of such offerings4 ,once in #afic1 the sea being unusually rough1 the headmen complained to the king1 who desired them to be easy1 and he would make the sea quiet next day4 ,accordingly he sent his fetishman with a jar of palm oil1 a bag of rice and corn1 a jar of pitto1 a bottle of brandy1 a piece of painted calico1 and several other things to present to the sea4 ,being come to the sea-side1 he made a speech to it1 assuring it that his king was its friend1 and loved the white men2 that they were honest fellows and came to trade with him for what he wanted2 and that he requested the sea not to be angry1 nor hinder them to land their goods2 he told it1 that if it wanted palm oil1 his king had sent it some2 and so threw the jar with the oil into the sea1 as he did1 with the same compliment1 the rice1 corn1 pitto1 brandy1 calico1 c4#hfi ,among the ,north ,american ,indians the ,earth also receives offerings buried in it4 ,the distinctness of idea with which such objects may be given is well shown in a ,sioux legend4 ,the ,spirit of the earth1 it seems1 requires an offering from those who perform extraordinary achievements1 and accordingly the prairie gapes open with an earthquake before the victorious hero of the tale2 he casts a partridge into the crevice1 and springs over4#hgj ,one of the most explicit recorded instances of the offering to the ,earth is the hideous sacrifice to the ,earth-goddess among the ,khonds of ,orissa1 the tearing of the flesh of the human victim from the bones1 the priest burying half of it in a hole in the earth behind his back without looking round1 and each householder carrying off a particle to bury in like manner in his favourite field4#hga ,for offerings to the ,fire1 we may take for an example the ,yakuts1 who not only give him the first spoonful of food1 but instead of washing their earthen pots allow him to clean out the remains4#hgb ,here is a ,new ,zealand charm called ,wangaihau1 i4e41 feeding the ,wind3-- #8,lift up his offering1 ,to ,uenga a te ,rangi his offering1 ,eat1 ,o invisible one1 listen to me1 ,let that food bring you down from the sky4'#hgc ,beside this may be set the quaint description of the ,fanti negroes assisting at the sacrifice of men and cattle to the local fetish2 the victims were considered to be carried up in a whirlwind out of the midst of the small inner ring of priests and priestesses2 this whirlwind was1 however1 not perceptible to the senses of the surrounding worshippers4#hgd ,these series of details collected from the lower civilization throw light on curious problems as to sacrificial ideas in the religions of the classic world2 such questions as what ,xerxes meant when he threw the golden goblet and the sword into the ,hellespont1 which he had before chained and scourged2 why ,hannibal cast animals into the sea as victims to ,poseidon2 what religious significance underlay the patriotic ,roman legend of the leap of ,marcus ,curtius4#hge ,sacred animals1 in their various characters of divine beings1 incarnations1 representatives1 agents1 symbols1 naturally receive meat and drink offerings1 and sometimes other gifts4 ,for examples1 may be mentioned the sun-birds 7tonatzuli71 for which the ,apalaches of ,florida set out crushed maize and seed2#hgf the ,polynesian deities coming incarnate in the bodies of birds to feed on the meat-offerings and carcases of human victims set out upon the altar-scaffolds2#hgg the well-fed sacred snakes of ,west ,africa1 and local fetish animals like the alligator at ,dix ,cove which will come up at a whistle1 and follow a man half a mile if he carries a white fowl in his hands1 or the shark at ,bonny that comes to the river bank every day to see if a human victim has been provided for his repast2#hgh in modern ,india the cows reverently fed with fresh grass1 ,durga's meat-offerings laid out on stones for the jackals1 the famous alligators in their temple-tanks4#hgi ,the definition of sacred animal from this point of view distinctly includes man4 ,such in ,mexico was the captive youth adored as living representative of ,tezcatlipoca1 and to whom banquets were made during the luxurious twelvemonth which preceded his sacrifice at the festival of the deity whom he personated3 such still more definitely was ,cortes himself1 when ,montezuma supposed him to be the incarnate ,quetzalcoatl come back into the land1 and sent human victims accordingly to be slaughtered before him1 should he seem to lust for blood4#hhj ,such in modern ,india is the woman who as representative of ,radha eats and drinks the offerings at the shameless orgies of the ,saktas4#hha ,more usually it is the priest who as minister of the deities has the lion's share of the offerings or the sole privilege of consuming them1 from the ,fijian priest who watches for the turtle and puddings apportioned to his god1#hhb and the ,west ,african priest who carries the allowances of food sent to the local spirits of mountain1 or river1 or grove1 which food he eats himself as the spirit's proxy1#hhc to the ,brahmans who receive for the divine ancestors the oblation of a worshipper who has no sacred fire to consume it1 #8for there is no difference between the ,fire and a ,brahman1 such is the judgment declared by them who know the ,veda4'#hhd ,it is needless to collect details of a practice so usual in the great systematic religions of the world1 where priests have become professional ministers and agents of deity1 as for them to partake of the sacrificial meats4 ,it by no means follows from this usage that the priest is necessarily supposed to consume the food as representative of his divinity2 in the absence of express statement to such effect1 the matter can only be treated as one of ceremonial ordinance4 ,indeed1 the case shows the caution needed in interpreting religious rites1 which in particular districts may have meanings attached to them quite foreign to their general intent4 ,the feeding of an idol1 as when ,ostyaks would pour daily broth into the dish at the image's mouth1#hhe or when the ,aztecs would pour the blood and put the heart of the slaughtered human victim into the monstrous idol's mouth1#hhf seems ceremonial make-believe1 but shows that in each case the deity was somehow considered to devour the meal4 ,the conception among the lower races of deity1 as in disembodied spiritual form1 is even less compatible with the notion that such a being should consume solid matter4 ,it is true that the notion does occur4 ,in old times it appears in the legend of ,bel and the ,dragon1 where the footprints in the strewn ashes betray the knavish priests who come by secret doors to eat up the banquet set before ,bel's image4#hhg ,in modern centuries1 it may be exemplified by the negroes of ,labode1 who could hear the noise of their god ,jimawong emptying one after another the bottles of brandy handed in at the door of his straw-roofed temple2#hhh or among the ,ostyaks1 who1 as ,pallas relates1 used to leave a horn of snuff for their god1 with a shaving of willow bark to stop his nostrils with after the country fashion2 the traveller describes their astonishment when sometimes an unbelieving ,russian has emptied it in the night1 leaving the simple folk to conclude that the deity must have gone out hunting to have snuffed so much4#hhi ,but these cases turn on fraud1 whereas absurdities in which low races largely agree are apt to have their origin rather in genuine error4 ,indeed1 their dominant theories of the manner in which deities receive sacrifice are in accordance not with fraud but with facts1 and must be treated as strictly rational and honest developments of the lower animism4 ,the clearest and most general of these theories are as follows4 ,when the deity is considered to take actual possession of the food or other objects offered1 this may be conceived to happen by abstraction of their life1 savour1 essence1 quality1 and in yet more definite conception their spirit or soul4 ,the solid part may die1 decay1 be taken away or consumed or destroyed1 or may simply remain untouched4 ,among this group of conceptions1 the most materialized is that which carries out the obvious primitive world-wide doctrine that the life is the blood4 ,accordingly1 the blood is offered to the deity1 and even disembodied spirits are thought capable of consuming it1 like the ghosts for whom ,odysseus entering ,hades poured into the trench the blood of the sacrificed ram and black ewe1 and the pale shades drank and spoke2#hij or the evil spirits which the ,mintira of the ,malay ,peninsula keep away from the wife in childbirth by placing her near the fire1 for the demons are believed to drink human blood when they can find it4#hia ,thus in ,virginia the ,indians 7in pretence or reality7 sacrificed children1 whose blood the oki or spirit was said to suck from their left breast4#hib ,the ,kayans of ,borneo used to offer human sacrifice when a great chief took possession of a newly built house2 in one late case1 about #ahdg1 a ,malay slave girl was bought for the purpose and bled to death1 the blood1 which alone is efficacious1 being sprinkled on the pillars and under the house1 and the body being thrown into the river4#hic ,the same ideas appear among the indigenes of ,india1 alike in ,north ,bengal and in the ,deccan1 where the blood alone of the sacrificed animal is for the deities1 and the votary retains the meat4#hid ,thus1 in ,west ,africa1 the negroes of ,benin are described as offering a cock to the idol1 but it receives only the blood1 for they like the flesh very well themselves2#hie while in the ,yoruba country1 when a beast is sacrificed for a sick man1 the blood is sprinkled on the wall and smeared on the patient's forehead1 with the idea1 it is said1 of thus transferring to him the victim's life4#hif ,the ,jewish law of sacrifice marks clearly the distinction between shedding the blood as life1 and offering it as food4 ,as the ,israelites themselves might not eat with the flesh the blood which is the life1 but must pour it on the earth as water1 so the rule applies to sacrifice4 ,the blood must be sprinkled before the sanctuary1 put upon the horns of the altar1 and there sprinkled or poured out1 but not presented as a drink offering--#8their drink-offerings of blood will ,i not offer4'#hig ,spirit being considered in the lower animism as somewhat of the ethereal nature of smoke or mist1 there is an obvious reasonableness in the idea that offerings reduced to this condition are fit to be consumed by1 or transmitted to1 spiritual beings towards whom the vapour rises in the air4 ,this idea is well shown in the case of incense1 and especially a peculiar kind of incense offered among the native tribes of ,america4 ,the habit of smoking tobacco is not suggestive of religious rites among ourselves1 but in its native country1 where it is so widely diffused as to be perhaps the best point assignable in favour of a connexion in the culture of the northern and southern continent1 its place in worship is very important4 ,the ,osages would begin an undertaking by smoking a pipe1 with such a prayer as this3 #8,great ,spirit1 come down to smoke with me as a friend6 ,fire and ,earth1 smoke with me and help me to overthrow my foes6' ,the ,sioux in ,hennepin's time would look toward the ,sun when they smoked1 and when the calumet was lighted1 they presented it to him1 saying3 #8,smoke1 ,sun6' ,the ,natchez chief at sunrise smoked first to the east and then to the other quarters2 and so on4 ,it is not merely1 however1 that puffs from the tobacco-pipe are thus offered to deities as drops of drink or morsels of food might be4 ,the calumet is a special gift of the ,sun or the ,great ,spirit1 tobacco is a sacred herb1 and smoking is an agreeable sacrifice ascending into the air to the abode of gods and spirits4#hih ,among the ,caribs1 the native sorcerer evoking a demon would puff tobacco-smoke into the air as an agreeable perfume to attract the spirit2 while among ,brazilian tribes the sorcerers smoked round upon the bystanders and on the patient to be cured4#hii ,how thoroughly incense and burnt-offering are of the same nature1 the ,zulus well show1 burning incense together with the fat of the caul of the slaughtered beast1 to give the spirits of the people a sweet savour4#ijj ,as to incense more precisely of the sort we are familiar with1 it was in daily use in the temples of ,mexico1 where among the commonest antiquarian relics are the earthen incense-pots in which #8copalli' 7whence our word copal7 and bitumen were burnt4#ija ,though incense was hardly usual in the ancient religion of ,china1 yet in modern ,chinese houses and temples the #8joss-stick' and censer do honour to all divine beings1 from the ancestral manes to the great gods and ,heaven and ,earth4#ijb ,the history of incense in the religion of ,greece and ,rome points the contrast between old thrift and new extravagance1 where the early fumigations with herbs and chips of fragrant wood are contrasted with the later oriental perfumes1 myrrh and cassia and frankincense4#ijc ,in the temples of ancient ,egypt1 numberless representations of sacrificial ceremony show the burning of the incense-pellets in censers before the images of the gods2 and ,plutarch speaks of the incense burnt thrice daily to the ,sun1 resin at his rising1 myrrh at his meridian1 kuphi at his setting4#ijd ,the ordinance held as prominent a place among the ,semitic nations4 ,at the yearly festival of ,bel in ,babylon1 the ,chaldans are declared by ,herodotus to have burned a thousand talents of incense on the large altar in the temple where sat his golden image4#ije ,in the records of ancient ,israel1 there has come down to us the very recipe for compounding incense after the art of the apothecary4 ,the priests carried every man his censer1 and on the altar of incense1 overlaid with gold1 standing before the vail in the tabernacle1 sweet spices were burned morn and even1 a perpetual incense before the ,lord4#ijf ,the sacrifice by fire is familiar to the religion of ,north ,american tribes4 ,thus the ,algonquins knew the practice of casting into the fire the first morsel of the feast2 and throwing fat into the flames for the spirits1 they would pray to them #8make us find food4' ,catlin has described and sketched the ,mandans dancing round the fire where the first kettleful of the green-corn is being burned1 an offering to the ,great ,spirit before the feast begins4#ijg ,the ,peruvians burnt llamas as offerings to the ,creator1 ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,thunder1 and other lesser deities4 ,as to the operation of sacrifice1 an idea of theirs comes well into view in the legend of ,manco ,ccapac ordering the sacrifice of the most beautiful of his sons1 #8cutting off his head1 and sprinkling the blood over the fire1 that the smoke might reach the ,maker of heaven and earth4'#ijh ,in ,siberia the sacrifices of the ,tunguz and ,buraets1 in the course of which bits of meat and liver and fat are cast into the fire1 carry on the same idea4#iji ,chinese sacrifices to sun and moon1 stars and constellations1 show their purpose in most definite fashion2 beasts and even silks and precious stones are burned1 that their vapour may ascend to these heavenly spirits4#iaj ,no less significant1 though in a different sense1 is the ,siamese offering to the household deity1 incense and arrack and rice steaming hot2 he does not eat it all1 not always any part of it1 it is the fragrant steam which he loves to inhale4#iaa ,looking now to the records of ,aryan sacrifice1 views similar to these are not obscurely expressed4 ,when the ,brahman burns the offerings on the altar-fire1 they are received by ,agni the divine ,fire1 mouth of the gods1 messenger of the ,all-knowing1 to whom is chanted the ,vedic strophe1 #8,agni6 the sacrifice which thou encompassest whole1 it goes unto the gods6'#iab ,the ,homeric poems show the plain meaning of the hecatombs of old barbaric ,greece1 where the savour of the burnt offering went up in wreathing smoke to heaven1 #8 ' 4'#iac ,passed into a far other stage of history1 men's minds had not lost sight of the archaic thought even in ,porphyry's time1 for he knows how the demons who desire to be gods rejoice in the libations and fumes of sacrifice1 whereby their spiritual and bodily substance fattens1 for this lives on the steam and vapours and is strengthened by the fumes of the blood and flesh4#iad ,the view of commentators that sacrifice1 as a religious act of remote antiquity and world-wide prevalence1 was adopted1 regulated1 and sanctioned in the ,jewish law1 is in agreement with the general ethnography of the subject4 ,here sacrifice appears not with the lower conception of a gift acceptable and even beneficial to deity1 but with the higher significance of devout homage or expiation for sin4 ,as is so usual in the history of religion1 the offering consisted in general of food1 and the consummation of the sacrifice was by fire4 ,to the ceremonial details of the sacrificial rites of ,israel1 whether prescribing the burning of the carcases of oxen and sheep or of the bloodless gifts of flour mingled with oil1 there is appended again and again the explanation of the intent of the rite2 it is #8an offering made by fire1 of a sweet savour unto the ,lord4' ,the copious records of sacrifice in the ,old ,testament enable us to follow its expansion from the simple patriarchal forms of a pastoral tribe1 to the huge and complex system organized to carry on the ancient service in a now populous and settled kingdom4 ,among writers on the ,jewish religion1 ,dean ,stanley has vividly portrayed the aspect of the ,temple1 with the flocks of sheep and droves of cattle crowding its courts1 the vast apparatus of slaughter1 the great altar of burnt-offering towering above the people1 where the carcases were laid1 the drain beneath to carry off the streams of blood4 ,to this historian1 in sympathy rather with the spirit of the prophet than the ceremony of the priest1 it is a congenial task to dwell upon the great movement in later ,judaism to maintain the place of ethical above ceremonial religion4#iae ,in those times of ,hebrew history1 the prophets turned with stern rebuke on those who ranked ceremonial ordinance above weightier matters of the law4 #8,i desired mercy and not sacrifice1 and the knowledge of ,god more than burnt offerings4' #8,i delight not in the blood of bullocks1 or of lambs1 or of he goats4444 ,wash you1 make you clean2 put away the evil of your doings from before mine eyes4 ,cease to do evil1 learn to do well4' ,continuing the enquiry into the physical operation ascribed to sacrifice1 we turn to a different conception4 ,it is an idea well vouched for in the lower culture1 that the deity1 while leaving apparently untouched the offering set out before him1 may nevertheless partake of or abstract what in a loose way may be described as its essence4 ,the ,zulus leave the flesh of the sacrificed bullock all night1 and the divine ancestral spirits come and eat1 yet next morning everything remains just as it was4 ,describing this practice1 a native ,zulu thus navely comments on it3 #8,but when we ask1 8,what do the ,amadhlozi eat8 for in the morning we still see all the meat10 the old men say1 8,the ,amatongo lick it40 ,and we are unable to contradict them1 but are silent1 for they are older than we1 and tell us all things and we listen2 for we are told all things1 and assent without seeing clearly whether they are true or not4'#iaf ,such imagination was familiar to the native religion of the ,west ,indian islands4 ,in ,columbus' time1 and with particular reference to ,hispaniola1 ,roman ,pane describes the native mode of sacrifice4 ,upon any solemn day1 when they provide much to eat1 whether fish1 flesh1 or any other thing1 they put it all into the house of the cemis1 that the idol may feed on it4 ,the next day they carry all home1 after the cemi has eaten4 ,and ,god so help them 7says the friar71 as the cemi eats of that or anything else1 they being inanimate stocks or stones4 ,a century and a half later1 a similar notion still prevailed in these islands4 ,nothing could show it more neatly than the fancy of the ,caribs that they could hear the spirits in the night moving the vessels and champing the food set out for them1 yet next morning there was nothing touched2 it was held that the viands thus partaken of by the spirits had become holy1 so that only the old men and considerable people might taste them1 and even these required a certain bodily purity4#iag ,islanders of ,pulo ,aur1 though admitting that their banished disease-spirits did not actually consume the grains of rice set out for them1 nevertheless believed them to appropriate its essence4#iah ,in ,india1 among the indigenes of the ,garo hills1 we hear of the head and blood of the sacrificed animal being placed with some rice under a bamboo arch covered with a white cloth2 the god comes and takes what he wants1 and after a time this special offering is dressed for the company with the rest of the animal4#iai ,the ,khond deities live on the flavours and essences drawn from the offerings of their votaries1 or from animals or grain which they cause to die or disappear4#ibj ,when the ,buraets of ,siberia have sacrificed a sheep and boiled the mutton1 they set it up on a scaffold for the gods while the shaman is chanting his song1 and then themselves fall to4#iba ,and thus1 in the folklore of medival ,europe1 ,domina ,abundia would come with her dames into the houses at night1 and eat and drink from the vessels left uncovered for their increase-giving visit1 yet nothing was consumed4#ibb ,the extreme animistic view of sacrifice is that the soul of the offered animal or thing is abstracted by or transmitted to the deity4 ,this notion of spirits taking souls is in a somewhat different way exemplified among the ,binua of ,johore1 who hold that the evil ,river-spirits inflict diseases on man by feeding on the #8semangat1' or unsubstantial body 7in ordinary parlance the spirit7 in which his life resides1#ibc while the ,karen demon devours not the body but the #8la1' spirit or vital principle2 thus when it eats a man's eyes1 their material part remains1 but they are blind4#ibd ,now an idea similar to this furnished the ,polynesians with a theory of sacrifice4 ,the priest might send commissions by the sacrificed human victim2 spirits of the dead are eaten by the gods or demons2 the spiritual part of the sacrifices is eaten by the spirit of the idol 7i4e4 the deity dwelling or embodied in the idol7 before whom it is presented4#ibe ,of the ,fijians it is observed that of the great offerings of food native belief apportions merely the soul to the gods1 who are described as being enormous eaters2 the substance is consumed by the worshippers4 ,as in various other districts of the world1 human sacrifice is here in fact a meat-offering2 cannibalism is a part of the ,fijian religion1 and the gods are described as delighting in human flesh4#ibf ,such ideas are explicit among ,indian tribes of the ,american lakes1 who consider that offerings1 whether abandoned or consumed by the worshippers1 go in a spiritual form to the spirit they are devoted to4 ,native legends afford the clearest illustrations4 ,the following is a passage from an ,ottawa tale which recounts the adventures of ,wassamo1 he who was conveyed by the spirit-maiden to the lodge of her father1 the ,spirit of the ,sand ,downs1 down below the waters of ,lake ,superior4 #8,son-in-law1' said the ,old ,spirit1 #8,i am in want of tobacco4 ,you shall return to visit your parents1 and can make known my wishes4 ,for it is very seldom that those few who pass these ,sand ,hills1 offer a piece of tobacco4 ,when they do it1 it immediately comes to me4 ,just so1' he added1 putting his hand out of the side of the lodge1 and drawing in several pieces of tobacco1 which some one at that moment happened to offer to the ,spirit1 for a smooth lake and prosperous voyage4 #8,you see1' he said1 #8every thing offered me on earth1 comes immediately to the side of my lodge4' ,wassamo saw the women also putting their hands to the side of the lodge1 and then handing round something1 of which all partook4 ,this he found to be offerings of food made by mortals on earth4 ,the distinctly spiritual nature of this transmission is shown immediately after1 for ,wassamo cannot eat such mere spirit-food1 wherefore his spirit-wife puts out her hand from the lodge and takes in a material fish out of the lake to cook for him4#ibg ,another ,ottawa legend1 the already cited nature-myth of the ,sun and ,moon1 is of much interest not only for its display of this special thought1 but as showing clearly the motives with which savage animists offer sacrifices to their deities1 and consider these deities to accept them4 ,onowuttokwutto1 the ,ojibwa youth who has followed the ,moon up to the lovely heaven-prairies to be her husband1 is taken one day by her brother the ,sun to see how he gets his dinner4 ,the two look down together through the hole in the sky upon the earth below1 the ,sun points out a group of children playing beside a lodge1 at the same time throwing a tiny stone to hit a beautiful boy4 ,the child falls1 they see him carried into the lodge1 they hear the sound of the sheesheegwun 7the rattle71 and the song and prayer of the medicine-man that the child's life may be spared4 ,to this entreaty of the medicine-man1 the ,sun makes answer1 #8,send me up the white dog4' ,then the two spectators above could distinguish on the earth the hurry and bustle of preparation for a feast1 a white dog killed and singed1 and the people who were called assembling at the lodge4 ,while these things were passing1 the ,sun addressed himself to ,onowuttokwutto1 saying1 #8,there are among you in the lower world some whom you call great medicine-men2 but it is because their ears are open1 and they hear my voice1 when ,i have struck any one1 that they are able to give relief to the sick4 ,they direct the people to send me whatever ,i call for and when they have sent it1 ,i remove my hand from those ,i had made sick4' ,when he had said this1 the white dog was parcelled out in dishes for those that were at the feast2 then the medicine-man when they were about to begin to eat1 said1 #8,we send thee this1 ,great ,manito4' ,immediately the ,sun and his ,ojibwa companion saw the dog1 cooked and ready to be eaten1 rising to them through the air--and then and there they dined upon it4#ibh ,how such ideas bear on the meaning of human sacrifice1 we may perhaps judge from this prayer of the ,iroquois1 offering a human victim to the ,war-god3 #8,to thee1 ,o ,spirit ,arieskoi1 we slay this sacrifice1 that thou mayst feed upon the flesh1 and be moved to give us henceforth luck and victory over our enemies6'#ibi ,so among the ,aztec prayers1 there occurs this one addressed to ,tezcatlipoca-,yautl in time of war3 #8,lord of battles2 it is a very certain and sure thing1 that a great war is beginning to make1 ordain1 form1 and concert itself2 the ,war-god opens his mouth1 hungry to swallow the blood of many who shall die in this war2 it seems that the ,sun and the ,earth-,god ,tlatecutli desire to rejoice2 they desire to give meat and drink to the gods of ,heaven and ,hades1 making them a banquet of the flesh and blood of the men who are to die in this war1' c4#icj ,there is remarkable definiteness in the ,peruvian idea that the souls of human victims are transmitted to another life in divine as in funeral sacrifice2 at one great ceremony1 where children of each tribe were sacrificed to propitiate the gods1 #8they strangled the children1 first giving them to eat and drink1 that they might not enter the presence of the ,creator discontented and hungry4'#ica ,similar ideas of spiritual sacrifice appear in other regions of the world4 ,thus in ,west ,africa we read of the tree-fetish enjoying the spirit of the food-offering1 but leaving its substance1 and an account of the religion of the ,gold ,coast mentions how each great wong or deity has his house1 and his priest and priestess to clean the room and give him daily bread kneaded with palm-oil1 #8of which1 as of all gifts of this kind1 the wong eats the invisible soul4'#icb ,so1 in ,india1 the ,limbus of ,darjeeling make small offerings of grain1 vegetables1 and sugar-cane1 and sacrifice cows1 pigs1 fowls1 c41 on the declared principle #8the life breath to the gods1 the flesh to ourselves4'#icc ,it seems likely that such meaning may largely explain the sacrificial practices of other religions4 ,in conjunction with these accounts1 the unequivocal meaning of funeral sacrifices1 whereby offerings are conveyed spiritually into the possession of spirits of the dead1 may perhaps justify us in inferring that similar ideas of spiritual transmission prevail extensively among the many nations whose sacrificial rites we know in fact1 but cannot trace with certainty to their original significance4 ,having thus examined the manner in which the operation of sacrifice is considered to take physical effect1 whether indefinitely or definitely1 and having distinguished its actual transmission as either substantial1 essential1 or spiritual1 let us now follow the question of the sacrificer's motive in presenting the sacrifice4 ,important and complex as this problem is1 its key is so obvious that it may be almost throughout treated by mere statement of general principle4 ,if the main proposition of animistic natural religion be granted1 that the idea of the human soul is the model of the idea of deity1 then the analogy of man's dealings with man ought1 inter alia1 to explain his motives in sacrifice4 ,it does so1 and very fully4 ,the proposition may be maintained in wide generality1 that the common man's present to the great man1 to gain good or avert evil1 to ask aid or to condone offence1 needs only substitution of deity for chief1 and proper adaptation of the means of conveying the gift to him1 to produce a logical doctrine of sacrificial rites1 in great measure explaining their purpose directly as they stand1 and elsewhere suggesting what was the original meaning which has passed into changed shape in the course of ages4 ,instead of offering a special collection of evidence here on this proposition1 it may be enough to ask attentive reference to any extensive general collection of accounts of sacrifice1 such for instance as those cited for various purposes in these volumes4 ,it will be noticed that offerings to divinities may be classed in the same way as earthly gifts4 ,the occasional gift made to meet some present emergency1 the periodical tribute brought by subject to lord1 the royalty paid to secure possession or protection of acquired wealth1 all these have their evident and well-marked analogues in the sacrificial systems of the world4 ,it may impress some minds with a stronger sense of the sufficiency of this theory of sacrifice1 to consider how the transition is made in the same imperceptible way from the idea of substantial value received1 to that of ceremonial homage rendered1 whether the recipient be man or god4 ,we do not find it easy to analyse the impression which a gift makes on our own feelings1 and to separate the actual value of the object from the sense of gratification in the giver's good-will or respect1 and thus we may well scruple to define closely how uncultured men work out this very same distinction in their dealings with their deities4 ,in a general way it may be held that the idea of practical acceptableness of the food or valuables presented to the deity1 begins early to shade into the sentiment of divine gratification or propitiation by a reverent offering1 though in itself of not much account to so mighty a divine personage4 ,these two stages of the sacrificial idea may be fairly contrasted1 the one among the ,karens who offer to a demon arrack or grain or a portion of the game they kill1 considering invocation of no avail without a gift1#icd the other among the negroes of ,sierra ,leone1 who sacrifice an ox #8to make ,god glad very much1 and do ,kroomen good4'#ice ,hopeless as it may be in hundreds of accounts of sacrifice to guess whether the worshipper means to benefit or merely to gratify the deity1 there are also numbers of cases in which the thought in the sacrificer's mind can scarcely be more than an idea of ceremonial homage4 ,one of the best-marked sacrificial rites of the world is that of offering by fire or otherwise morsels or libations at meals4 ,this ranges from the religion of the ,north ,american ,indian to that of the classic ,greek and the ancient ,chinese1 and still holds its place in peasant custom in ,europe4#icf ,other groups of cases pass into yet more absolute formality of reverence4 ,see the ,guinea negro passing in silence by the sacred tree or cavern1 and dropping a leaf or a sea-shell as an offering to the local spirit2#icg the ,talein of ,burma holding up the dish at his meal to offer it to the nat1 before the company fall to2#ich the ,hindu holding up a little of his rice in his fingers to the height of his forehead1 and offering it in thought to ,siva or ,vishnu before he eats it4#ici ,the same argument applies to the cases ranging far and wide through religion1 where1 whatever may have been the original intent of the sacrifice1 it has practically passed into a feast4 ,a banquet where the deity has but the pretence and the worshippers the reality1 may seem to us a mere mockery of sacrifice4 ,yet how sincerely men regard it as a religious ceremony1 the following anecdote of a ,north ,american ,indian tribe will show4 ,a travelling party of ,potawatomis1 for three days finding no game1 were in great distress for want of food4 ,on the third night1 a chief1 named ,saugana1 had a dream1 wherein a person appearing to him showed him that they were suffering because they had set out without a sacrificial feast4 ,he had started1 on this important journey1 the dreamer said1 #8as a white man would1' without making any religious preparation4 ,therefore the ,great ,spirit had punished them with scarcity4 ,now1 however1 twelve men were to go and kill four deer before the sun was thus high 7about nine o'clock74 ,the chief in his dream had seen these four deer lying dead1 the hunters duly killed them1 and the sacrificial feast was held4#idj ,further illustrative examples of such sacred banquets may be chosen through the long range of culture4 ,the ,zulus propitiate the ,heaven-god above with a sacrifice of black cattle1 that they may have rain2 the village chiefs select the oxen1 one is killed1 the rest are merely mentioned2 the flesh of the slaughtered ox is eaten in the house in perfect silence1 a token of humble submission2 the bones are burnt outside the village2 and after the feast they chant in musical sounds1 a song without words4#ida ,the ,serwatty ,islanders sacrifice buffaloes1 pigs1 goats1 and fowls to the idols when an individual or the community undertakes an affair or expedition of importance1 and as the carcases are devoured by the devotees1 this ensures a respectable attendance when the offerings are numerous4#idb ,thus among rude tribes of ,northern ,india1 sacrifices of beasts are accompanied by libations of fermented liquor1 and in fact sacrifice and feast are convertible words4#idc ,among the ,aztecs1 prisoners of war furnished first an acceptable sacrifice to the deity1 and then the staple of a feast for the captors and their friends2#idd while in ancient ,peru whole flocks of sacrificed llamas were eaten by the people4#ide ,the history of ,greek religion plainly records the transition from the early holocausts devoted by fire to the gods1 to the great festivals where the sacrifices provided meat for the public banquets held to honour them in ceremonial homage4#idf ,beside this development from gift to homage1 there arises also a doctrine that the gist of sacrifice is rather in the worshipper giving something precious to himself1 than in the deity receiving benefit4 ,this may be called the abnegation-theory1 and its origin may be fairly explained by considering it as derived from the original gift-theory4 ,taking our own feelings again for a guide1 we know how it satisfies us to have done our part in giving1 even if the gift be ineffectual1 and how we scruple to take it back if not received1 but rather get rid of it in some other way--it is corban4 ,thus we may enter into the feelings of the ,assinaboin ,indians1 who considered that the blankets and pieces of cloth and brass kettles and such valuables abandoned in the woods as a medicine-sacrifice1 might be carried off by any friendly party who chanced to discover them2#idg or of the ,ava ,buddhists bringing to the temples offerings of boiled rice and sweetmeats and coco-nut fried in oil1 and never attempting to disturb the crows and wild dogs who devoured it before their eyes2#idh of the modern ,moslems sacrificing sheep1 oxen1 and camels in the valley of ,muna on their return from ,mekka1 it being a meritorious act to give away a victim without eating any of it1 while parties of ,takruri watch around like vultures1 ready to pounce upon the carcases4#idi ,if the offering to the deity be continued in ceremonial survival1 in spite of a growing conviction that after all the deity does not need and cannot profit by it1 sacrifice will be thus kept up in spite of having become practically unreasonable1 and the worshipper may still continue to measure its efficacy by what it costs him4 ,but to take this abnegation theory as representing the primitive intention of sacrifice would be1 ,i think1 to turn history upside down4 ,the mere fact of sacrifices to deities1 from the lowest to the highest levels of culture1 consisting to the extent of nine-tenths or more of gifts of food and sacred banquets1 tells forcibly against the originality of the abnegation-theory4 ,if the primary motive had been to give up valuable property1 we should find the sacrifice of weapons1 garments1 ornaments1 as prevalent in the lower culture as in fact it is unusual4 ,looking at the subject in a general view1 to suppose men to have started by devoting to their deities what they considered practically useless to them1 in order that they themselves might suffer a loss which none is to gain1 is to undervalue the practical sense of savages1 who are indeed apt to keep up old rites after their meaning has fallen away1 but seldom introduce new ones without a rational motive4 ,in studying the religion of the lower races1 men are found dealing with their gods in as practical and straightforward a way as with their neighbours1 and where plain original purpose is found1 it may well be accepted as sufficient explanation4 ,of the way in which gift can pass into abnegation1 an instructive example is forthcoming in ,buddhism4 ,it is held that sinful men are liable to be re-born in course of transmigration as wandering1 burning1 miserable demons 7preta74 ,now these demons may receive offerings of food and drink from their relatives1 who can further benefit them by acts of merit done in their name1 as giving food to priests1 unless the wretched spirits be so low in merit that this cannot profit them4 ,yet even in this case it is held that though the act does not benefit the spirit whom it is directed to1 it does benefit the person who performs it4#iej ,unequivocal examples of abnegation in sacrifice may be best found among those offerings of which the value to the offerer utterly exceeds the value they can be supposed to have to the deity4 ,the most striking of these found among nations somewhat advanced in general culture1 appear in the history of human sacrifice among ,semitic nations4 ,the king of ,moab1 when the battle was too sore for him1 offered up his eldest son for a burnt-offering on the wall4 ,the ,phnicians sacrificed the dearest children to propitiate the angry gods1 they enhanced their value by choosing them of noble families1 and there was not wanting among them even the utmost proof that the efficacy of the sacrifice lay in the sacrificer's grievous loss1 for they must have for yearly sacrifice only-begotten sons of their parents 7 ' 74 ,heliogabalus brought the hideous ,oriental rite into ,italy1 choosing for victims to his solar divinity high-born lads throughout the land4 ,of all such cases1 the breaking of the sacred law of hospitality by sacrificing the guest to ,jupiter hospitalis1 1 shows in the strongest light in ,semitic regions how the value to the offerer might become the measure of acceptableness to the god4#iea ,in such ways1 slightly within the range of the lower culture1 but strongly in the religion of the higher nations1 the transition from the gift-theory to the abnegation theory seems to have come about4 ,our language displays it in a word1 if we do but compare the sense of presentation and acceptance which #8sacrificium' had in a ,roman temple1 with the sense of mere giving up and loss which #8sacrifice' conveys in an ,english market4 ,through the history of sacrifice1 it has occurred to many nations that cost may be economized without impairing efficiency4 ,the result is seen in ingenious devices to lighten the burden on the worshipper by substituting something less valuable than what he ought to offer1 or pretends to4 ,even in such a matter as this1 the innate correspondence in the minds of men is enough to produce in distant and independent races so much uniformity of development1 that three or four headings will serve to class the chief divisions of sacrificial substitution among mankind4 ,to give part for the whole is a proceeding so closely conformed to ordinary tribute by subject to lord1 that in great measure it comes directly under the gift-theory1 and as such has already had its examples here4 ,it is only when the part given to the gods is of contemptible value in proportion to the whole1 that full sacrifice passes gradually into substitution4 ,this is the case when in ,madagascar the head of the sacrificed beast is set up on a pole1 and the blood and fat are rubbed on the stones of the altar1 but the sacrificers and their friends and the officiating priest devour the whole carcase2#ieb when rich ,guinea negroes sacrifice a sheep or goat to the fetish1 and feast on it with their friends1 only leaving for the deity himself part of the entrails2#iec when ,tunguz1 sacrificing cattle1 would give a bit of liver and fat and perhaps hang up the hide in the woods as the god's share1 or ,mongols would set the heart of the beast before the idol till next day4#ied ,thus the most ancient whole burnt-offering of the ,greeks dwindled to burning for the gods only the bones and fat of the slaughtered ox1 while the worshippers feasted themselves on the meat1 an economic rite which takes mythic shape in the legend of the sly ,prometheus giving ,zeus the choice of the two parts of the sacrificed ox he had divided for gods and mortals1 on the one side bones covered seemly with white fat1 on the other the joints hidden under repulsive hide and entrails4#iee ,with a different motive1 not that of parsimony1 but of keeping up in survival an ancient custom1 the ,zarathustrian religion performed by substitution the old ,aryan sacrifice by fire4 ,the ,vedic sacrifice ,agnishtoma required that animals should be slain1 and their flesh partly committed to the gods by fire1 partly eaten by sacrificers and priests4 ,the ,parsi ceremony ,izeshne1 formal successor of this bloody rite1 requires no animal to be killed1 but it suffices to place the hair of an ox in a vessel1 and show it to the fire4#ief ,the offering of a part of the worshipper's own body is a most usual act1 whether its intention is simply that of gift or tribute1 or whether it is considered as a pars pro toto representing the whole man1 either in danger and requiring to be ransomed1 or destined to actual sacrifice for another and requiring to be redeemed4 ,how a finger-joint may thus represent a whole body1 is perfectly shown in the funeral sacrifices of the ,nicobar islanders2 they bury the dead man's property with him1 and his wife has a finger-joint cut off 7obviously a substitute for herself71 and if she refuses even this1 a deep notch is cut in a pillar of the house4#ieg ,we are now concerned1 however1 with the finger-offering1 not as a sacrifice to the dead1 but as addressed to other deities4 ,this idea is apparently worked out in the ,tongan custom of tutu-nima1 the chopping off a portion of the little finger with a hatchet or sharp stone as a sacrifice to the gods1 for the recovery of a sick relation of higher rank2 ,mariner saw children of five years old quarrelling for the honour of having it done to them4#ieh ,in the ,mandan ceremonies of initiation into manhood1 when the youth at last hung senseless and 7as they called it7 lifeless by the cords made fast to splints through his flesh1 he was let down1 and coming to himself crawled on hands and feet round the medicine-lodge to where an old ,indian sat with hatchet in his hand and a buffalo skull before him2 then the youth1 holding up the little finger of his left hand to the ,great ,spirit1 offered it as a sacrifice1 and it was chopped off1 and sometimes the fore-finger afterwards1 upon the skull4#iei ,in ,india1 probably as a ,dravidian rather than ,aryan rite1 the practice with full meaning comes into view2 as ,siva cut off his finger to appease the wrath of ,kali1 so in the southern provinces mothers will cut off their own fingers as sacrifices lest they lose their children1 and one hears of a golden finger being allowed instead1 the substitute of a substitute4#ifj ,the ,new ,zealanders hang locks of hair on branches of trees in the burying-ground1 a recognised place for offerings4#ifa ,that hair may be a substitute for its owner is well shown in ,malabar1 where we read of the demon being expelled from the possessed patient and flogged by the exorcist to a tree2 there the sick man's hair is nailed fast1 cut away1 and left for a propitiation to the demon4#ifb ,thus there is some ground for interpreting the consecration of the boy's cut hair in ,europe as a representative sacrifice4#ifc ,as for the formal shedding of blood1 it may represent fatal bloodshed1 as when the ,jagas or priests in ,quilombo only marked with spears the children brought in1 instead of running them through2#ifd or when in ,greece a few drops of human blood had come to stand instead of the earlier and more barbaric human sacrifice2#ife or when in our own time and under our own rule a ,vishnuite who has inadvertently killed a monkey1 a garuda1 or a cobra1 may expiate his offence by a mock sacrifice1 in which a human victim is wounded in the thigh1 pretends to die1 and goes through the farce of resuscitation1 his drawn blood serving as substitute for his life4#iff ,one of the most noteworthy cases of the survival of such formal bloodshed within modern memory in ,europe must be classed as not ,aryan but ,turanian1 belonging as it does to the folklore of ,esthonia4 ,the sacrificer had to draw drops of blood from his forefinger1 and therewith to pray this prayer1 which was taken down verbatim from one who remembered it3--#8,i name thee with my blood and betroth thee with my blood1 and point thee out my buildings to be blessed1 stables and cattle-pens and hen-roosts2 let them be blessed through my blood and thy might6' #8,be my joy1 thou ,almighty1 upholder of my forefathers1 my protector and guardian of my life6 ,i beseech thee by strength of flesh and blood2 receive the food that ,i bring thee to thy sustenance and the joy of my body2 keep me as thy good child1 and ,i will thank and praise thee4 ,by the help of the ,almighty1 my own ,god1 hearken to me6 ,what through negligence ,i have done imperfectly toward thee1 do thou forget6 ,but keep it truly in remembrance1 that ,i have honestly paid my gifts to my parents' honour and joy and requital4 ,moreover falling down ,i thrice kiss the earth4 ,be with me quick in doing1 and peace be with thee hitherto6'#ifg ,these various rites of finger-cutting1 hair-cutting1 and blood-letting1 have required mention here from the special point of view of their connexion with sacrifice4 ,they belong to an extensive series of practices1 due to various and often obscure motives1 which come under the general heading of ceremonial mutilations4 ,when a life is given for a life1 it is still possible to offer a life less valued than the life in danger4 ,when in ,peru the ,inca or some great lord fell sick1 he would offer to the deity one of his sons1 imploring him to take this victim in his stead4#ifh ,the ,greeks found it sufficient to offer to the gods criminals or captives2#ifi and the like was the practice of the heathen tribes of northern ,europe1 to whom indeed ,christian dealers were accused of selling slaves for sacrificial purposes4#igj ,among such accounts1 the typical story belongs to ,punic history4 ,the ,carthaginians1 overcome and hard pressed in the war with ,agathokles1 set down the defeat to divine wrath4 ,now ,kronos had in former times received his sacrifice of the chosen of their sons1 but of late they had put him off with children bought and nourished for the purpose4 ,in fact they had obeyed the sacrificer's natural tendency to substitution1 but now in time of misfortune the reaction set in4 ,to balance the account and condone the parsimonious fraud1 a monstrous sacrifice was celebrated4 ,two hundred children1 of the noblest of the land1 were brought to the idol4 #8,for there was among them a brazen statue of ,kronos1 holding out his hands sloping downward1 so that the child placed on them rolled off and fell into a certain chasm full of fire4'#iga ,the ,phnician god here called ,kronos is commonly though not certainly identified with ,moloch4 ,next1 it will help us to realize how the sacrifice of an animal may atone for a human life1 if we notice in ,south ,africa how a ,zulu will redeem a lost child from the finder by a bullock1 or a ,kimbunda will expiate the blood of a slave by the offering of an ox1 whose blood will wash away the other4#igb ,for instances of the animal substituted for man in sacrifice the following may serve4 ,among the ,khonds of ,orissa1 when ,colonel ,macpherson was engaged in putting down the sacrifice of human victims by the sect of the ,earth-goddess1 they at once began to discuss the plan of sacrificing cattle by way of substitutes4 ,now there is some reason to think that this same course of ceremonial change may account for the following sacrificial practice in the other ,khond sect4 ,it appears that those who worship the ,light-god hold a festival in his honour1 when they slaughter a buffalo in commemoration of the time when1 as they say1 the ,earth-goddess was prevailing on men to offer human sacrifices to her1 but the ,light-god sent a tribe-deity who crushed the bloody-minded ,earth-goddess under a mountain1 and dragged a buffalo out of the jungle1 saying1 #8,liberate the man1 and sacrifice the buffalo6'#igc ,this legend1 divested of its mythic garb1 may really record a historical substitution of animal for human sacrifice4 ,in ,ceylon1 the exorcist will demand the name of the demon possessing a demoniac1 and the patient in frenzy answers1 giving the demon's name1 #8,i am ,so-and-so1 ,i demand a human sacrifice and will not go out without6' ,the victim is promised1 the patient comes to from the fit1 and a few weeks later the sacrifice is made1 but instead of a man they offer a fowl4#igd ,classic examples of substitution of this sort may be found in the sacrifice of a doe for a virgin to ,artemis in ,laodica1 a goat for a boy to ,dionysos at ,potni4 ,there appears to be ,semitic connexion here1 as there clearly is in the story of the olians of ,tenedos sacrificing to ,melikertes 7,melkarth7 instead of a new-born child a new-born calf1 shoeing it with buskins and tending the mother-cow as if a human mother4#ige ,one step more in the course of substitution leads the worshipper to make his sacrifice by effigy4 ,an instructive example of the way in which this kind of substitution arises may be found in the rites of ancient ,mexico4 ,at the yearly festival of the water-gods and mountain-gods1 certain actual sacrifices of human victims took place in the temples4 ,at the same time1 in the houses of the people1 there was celebrated an unequivocal but harmless imitation of this bloody rite4 ,they made paste images1 adored them1 and in due pretence of sacrifice cut them open at the breast1 took out their hearts1 cut off their heads1 divided and devoured their limbs4#igf ,in the classic religions of ,greece and ,rome1 the desire to keep up the consecrated rites of ages more barbaric1 more bloodthirsty1 or more profuse1 worked itself out in many a compromise of this class1 such as the brazen statues offered for human victims1 the cakes of dough or wax in the figure of the beasts for which they were presented as symbolic substitutes4#igg ,not for economy1 but to avoid taking life1 ,brahmanic sacrifice has been known to be brought down to offering models of the victim-animals in meal and butter4#igh ,the modern ,chinese1 whose satisfaction in this kind of make-believe is so well shown by their despatching paper figures to serve as attendants for the dead1 work out in the same fanciful way the idea of the sacrificial effigy1 in propitiating the presiding deity of the year for the cure of a sick man4 ,the rude figure of a man is drawn on or cut out of a piece of paper1 pasted on a slip of bamboo1 and stuck upright in a packet of mock-money4 ,with proper exorcism1 this representative is carried out into the street with the disease1 the priest squirts water from his mouth over patient1 image1 and mock-money1 the two latter are burnt1 and the company eat up the little feast laid out for the year-deity4#igi ,there is curious historical significance in the custom at the inundation of the ,nile at ,cairo1 of setting up a conical pillar of earth which the flood washes away as it rises4 ,this is called the arseh or bride1 and appears to be a substitute introduced under humaner ,moslem influence1 for the young virgin in gay apparel who in older time was thrown into the river1 a sacrifice to obtain a plentiful inundation4#ihj ,again1 the patient's offering the model of his diseased limb is distinctly of the nature of a sacrifice1 whether it be propitiatory offering before cure1 or thank-offering after4 ,on the one hand1 the ex-voto models of arms and ears dedicated in ancient ,egyptian temples are thought to be grateful memorials1#iha as seems to have been the case with metal models of faces1 breasts1 hands1 c41 in ,botian temples4#ihb ,on the other hand1 there are cases where the model and1 as it were1 substitute of the diseased part is given to obtain a cure2 thus in early ,christian times in ,germany protest was made against the heathen custom of hanging up carved wooden limbs to a helpful idol for relief1#ihc and in modern ,india the pilgrim coming for cure will deposit in the temple the image of his diseased limb1 in gold or silver or copper according to his means4#ihd ,if now we look for the sacrificial idea within the range of modern ,christendom1 we shall find it in two ways not obscurely manifest4 ,it survives in traditional folklore1 and it holds a place in established religion4 ,one of its most remarkable survivals may be seen in ,bulgaria1 where sacrifice of live victims is to this day one of the accepted rites of the land4 ,they sacrifice a lamb on ,st4 ,george's day1 telling to account for the custom a legend which combines the episodes of the offering of ,isaac and the miracle of the ,three ,children4 ,on the feast of the ,panagia 7,virgin ,mary7 sacrifices of lambs1 kids1 honey1 wine1 c41 are offered in order that the children of the house may enjoy good health throughout the year4 ,a little child divines by touching one of three saints' candles to which the offering is to be dedicated2 when the choice is thus made1 the bystanders each drink a cup of wine1 saying #8,saint ,so-and-,so1 to thee is the offering4' ,then they cut the throat of the lamb1 or smother the bees1 and in the evening the whole village assembles to eat the various sacrifices1 and the men end the ceremony with the usual drunken bout4#ihe ,within the borders of ,russia1 many and various sacrifices are still offered2 such is the horse with head smeared with honey and mane decked with ribbons1 cast into the river with two millstones to its neck to appease the water-spirit1 the ,vodyany1 at his spiteful flood-time in early spring2 and such is the portion of supper left out for the house-demon1 the domovoy1 who if not thus fed is apt to turn spirit-rapper1 and knock the tables and benches about at night4#ihf ,in many another district of ,europe1 the tenacious memory of the tiller of the soil has kept up in wondrous perfection heirlooms from pr-,christian faiths4 ,in ,franconia1 people will pour on the ground a libation before drinking2 entering a forest they will put offerings of bread and fruit on a stone1 to avert the attacks of the demon of the woods1 the #8bilberry-man2' the bakers will throw white rolls into the oven flue for luck1 and say1 #8,here1 devil1 they are thine6' ,the ,carinthian peasant will fodder the wind by setting up a dish of food in a tree before his house1 and the fire by casting in lard and dripping1 in order that gale and conflagration may not hurt him4 ,at least up to the end of the #ahth century this most direct elemental sacrifice might be seen in ,germany at the midsummer festival in the most perfect form2 some of the porridge from the table was thrown into the fire1 and some into running water1 some was buried in the earth1 and some smeared on leaves and put on the chimney-top for the winds4#ihg ,relics of such ancient sacrifice may be found in ,scandinavia to this day2 to give but one example1 the old country altars1 rough earth-fast stones with cup-like hollows1 are still visited by mothers whose children have been smitten with sickness by the trolls1 and who smear lard into the hollows and leave rag-dolls as offerings4#ihh ,france may be represented by the country-women's custom of beginning a meal by throwing down a spoonful of milk or bouillon2 and by the record of the custom of ,andrieux in ,dauphiny1 where at the solstice the villagers went out upon the bridge when the sun rose1 and offered him an omelet4#ihi ,the custom of burning alive the finest calf1 to save a murrain-struck herd1 had its last examples in ,cornwall in the #aith century2 the records of bealtuinn sacrifices in ,scotland continue in the ,highlands within a century ago2 and ,scotchmen still living remember the corner of a field being left untilled for the ,goodman's ,croft 7i4e41 the ,devil's71 but the principle of #8cheating the devil' was already in vogue1 and the piece of land allotted was but a worthless scrap4#iij ,it is a remnant of old sacrificial rite1 when the ,swedes still bake at yule-tide a cake in the shape of a boar1 representing the boar sacrificed of old to ,freyr1 and ,oxford to this day commemorates the same ancestral ceremony1 when the boar's head is carried in to the ,christmas feast at ,queen's ,college1 with its appointed carol1 #8,caput apri defero1 ,reddens laudes ,domino4'#iia ,with a lingering recollection of the old libations1 the ,german toper's saying still runs that heeltaps are a devil's offering4#iib ,as for sacrificial rites most fully and officially existing in modern ,christendom1 the presentation of ex-votos is one4 ,the ecclesiastical opposition to the continuance of these classic thank-offerings was but temporary and partial4 ,in the #eth century it seems to have been usual to offer silver and gold eyes1 feet1 c41 to saints in acknowledgment of cures they had effected4 ,at the beginning of the #afth century1 ,polydore ,vergil1 describing the classic custom1 goes on to say3 #8,in the same manner do we now offer up in our churches sigillaria1 that is1 little images of wax1 and oscilla4 ,as oft as any part of the body is hurt1 as the hand1 foot1 breast1 we presently make a vow to ,god1 and his saints1 to whom upon our recovery we make an offering of that hand or foot or breast shaped in wax1 which custom has so far obtained that this kind of images have passed to the other animals4 ,wherefore so for an ox1 so for a horse1 so for a sheep1 we place puppets in the temples4 ,in which thing any modestly scrupulous person may perhaps say he knows not whether we are rivalling the religion or the superstition of the ancients4'#iic ,in modern ,europe the custom prevails largely1 but has perhaps somewhat subsided into low levels of society1 to judge by the general use of mock silver and such-like worthless materials for the dedicated effigies4 ,in ,christian as in pr-,christian temples1 clouds of incense rise as of old4 ,above all1 though the ceremony of sacrifice did not form an original part of ,christian worship1 its prominent place in the ritual was obtained in early centuries4 ,in that ,christianity was recruited among nations to whom the conception of sacrifice was among the deepest of religious ideas1 and the ceremony of sacrifice among the sincerest efforts of worship1 there arose an observance suited to supply the vacant place4 ,this result was obtained not by new introduction1 but by transmutation4 ,the solemn eucharistic meal of the primitive ,christians in time assumed the name of the sacrifice of the mass1 and was adapted to a ceremonial in which an offering of food and drink is set out by a priest on an altar in a temple1 and consumed by priest and worshippers4 ,the natural conclusion of an ethnographic survey of sacrifice1 is to point to the controversy between ,protestants and ,catholics1 for centuries past one of the keenest which have divided the ,christian world1 on this express question whether sacrifice is or is not a ,christian rite4 ,the next group of rites to be considered comprises ,fasting and certain other means of producing ecstasy and other morbid exaltation for religious ends4 ,in the foregoing researches on animism1 it is frequently observed or implied that the religious beliefs of the lower races are in no small measure based on the evidence of visions and dreams1 regarded as actual intercourse with spiritual beings4 ,from the earliest phases of culture upward1 we find religion in close alliance with ecstatic physical conditions4 ,these are brought on by various means of interference with the healthy action of body and mind1 and it is scarcely needful to remind the reader that1 according to philosophic theories antecedent to those of modern medicine1 such morbid disturbances are explained as symptoms of divine visitation1 or at least of superhuman spirituality4 ,among the strongest means of disturbing the functions of the mind so as to produce ecstatic vision1 is fasting1 accompanied as it so usually is with other privations1 and with prolonged solitary contemplation in the desert or the forest4 ,among the ordinary vicissitudes of savage life1 the wild hunter has many a time to try involuntarily the effects of such a life for days and weeks together1 and under these circumstances he soon comes to see and talk with phantoms which are to him visible personal spirits4 ,the secret of spiritual intercourse thus learnt1 he has thenceforth but to reproduce the cause in order to renew the effects4 ,the rite of fasting1 and the utter objective reality ascribed to what we call its morbid symptoms1 are shown in striking details among the savage tribes of ,north ,america4 ,among the ,indians 7the accounts mostly refer to the ,algonquin tribes71 long and rigorous fasting is enjoined among boys and girls from a very early age2 to be able to fast long is an enviable distinction1 and they will abstain from food three to seven days1 or even more1 taking only a little water4 ,during these fasts1 especial attention is paid to dreams4 ,thus ,tanner tells the story of a certain ,net-no-kwa1 who at twelve years old fasted ten successive days1 till in a dream a man came and stood before her1 and after speaking of many things gave her two sticks1 saying1 #8,i give you these to walk upon1 and your hair ,i give it to be like snow2' this assurance of extreme old age was through life a support to her in times of danger and distress4 ,at manhood the ,indian lad1 retiring to a solitary place to fast and meditate and pray1 receives visionary impressions which stamp his character for life1 and especially he waits till there appears to him in a dream some animal or thing which will be henceforth his #8medicine1' the fetish-representative of his manitu or protecting genius4 ,for instance1 an aged warrior who had thus in his youth dreamed of a bat coming to him1 wore the skin of a bat on the crown of his head henceforth1 and was all his life invulnerable to his enemies as a bat on the wing4 ,in after life1 an ,indian who wants anything will fast till he has a dream that his manitu will grant it him4 ,while the men are away hunting1 the children are sometimes made to fast1 that in their dreams they may obtain omens of the chase4 ,hunters fasting before an expedition are informed in dreams of the haunts of the game1 and the means of appeasing the wrath of the bad spirits2 if the dreamer fancies he sees an ,indian who has been long dead1 and hears him say1 #8,if thou wilt sacrifice to me thou shalt shoot deer at pleasure1' he will prepare a sacrifice1 and burn the whole or part of a deer1 in honour of the apparition4 ,especially the #8meda' or #8medicine-man' receives in fasts much of his qualification for his sacred office4 ,the ,ojibwa prophetess1 known in after life as ,catherine ,wabose1 in telling the story of her early years1 relates how at the age of womanhood she fasted in her secluded lodge till she went up into the heavens and saw the spirit at the entrance1 the ,bright ,blue ,sky2 this was the first supernatural communication of her prophetic career4 ,the account given to ,schoolcraft by ,chingwauk1 an ,algonquin chief deeply versed in the mystic lore and picture-writing of his people1 is as follows3 #8,chingwauk began by saying that the ancient ,indians made a great merit of fasting4 ,they fasted sometimes six or seven days1 till both their bodies and minds became free and light1 which prepared them to dream4 ,the object of the ancient seers was to dream of the sun1 as it was believed that such a dream would enable them to see everything on the earth4 ,and by fasting long and thinking much on the subject1 they generally succeeded4 ,fasts and dreams were at first attempted at an early age4 ,what a young man sees and experiences during these dreams and fasts1 is adopted by him as truth1 and it becomes a principle to regulate his future life4 ,he relies for success on these revelations4 ,if he has been much favoured in his fasts1 and the people believe that he has the art of looking into futurity1 the path is open to the highest honours4 ,the prophet1 he continued1 begins to try his power in secret1 with only one assistant1 whose testimony is necessary should he succeed4 ,as he goes on1 he puts down the figures of his dreams and revelations1 by symbols1 on bark or other material1 till a whole winter is sometimes passed in pursuing the subject1 and he thus has a record of his principal revelations4 ,if what he predicts is verified1 the assistant mentions it1 and the record is then appealed to as proof of his prophetic power and skill4 ,time increases his fame4 ,his kee-ke-wins1 or records1 are finally shown to the old people1 who meet together and consult upon them1 for the whole nation believe in these revelations4 ,they in the end give their approval1 and declare that he is gifted as a prophet--is inspired with wisdom1 and is fit to lead the opinions of the nation4 ,such1 he concluded1 was the ancient custom1 and the celebrated old war-captains rose to their power in this manner4' ,it remains to say that among these ,american tribes1 the #8jossakeed' or soothsayer prepares himself by fasting and the use of the sweating-bath for the state of convulsive ecstasy in which he utters the dictates of his familiar spirits4#iid ,the practice of fasting is described in other districts of the uncultured world as carried on to produce similar ecstasy and supernatural converse4 ,the account by ,roman ,pane in the ,life of ,colon describes the practice in ,hayti of fasting to obtain knowledge of future events from the spirits 7cemi72 and a century or two later1 rigorous fasting formed part of the apprentice's preparation for the craft of #8boy' or sorcerer1 evoker1 consulter1 propitiator1 and exorciser of spirits4#iie ,the #8keebt' or conjurers of the ,abipones were believed by the natives to be able to inflict disease and death1 cure all disorders1 make known distant and future events1 cause rain1 hail1 and tempests1 call up the shades of the dead1 put on the form of tigers1 handle serpents unharmed1 c4 ,these powers were imparted by diabolical assistance1 and ,father ,dobrizhoffer thus describes the manner of obtaining them3--#8,those who aspire to the office of juggler are said to sit upon an aged willow1 overhanging some lake1 and to abstain from food for several days1 till they begin to see into futurity4 ,it always appeared probable to me that these rogues1 from long fasting1 contract a weakness of brain1 a giddiness1 and kind of delirium1 which makes them imagine that they are gifted with superior wisdom1 and give themselves out for magicians4 ,they impose upon themselves first1 and afterwards upon others4'#iif ,the ,malay1 to make himself invulnerable1 retires for three days to solitude and scanty food in the jungle1 and if on the third day he dreams of a beautiful spirit descending to speak to him1 the charm is worked4#iig ,the ,zulu doctor qualifies himself for intercourse with the #8amadhlozi1' or ghosts1 from whom he is to obtain direction in his craft1 by spare abstemious diet1 want1 suffering1 castigation1 and solitary wandering1 till fainting fits or coma bring him into direct intercourse with the spirits4 ,these native diviners fast often1 and are worn out by fastings1 sometimes of several days' duration1 when they become partially or wholly ecstatic1 and see visions4 ,so thoroughly is the connexion between fasting and spiritual intercourse acknowledged by the ,zulus1 that it has become a saying among them1 #8,the continually stuffed body cannot see secret things4' ,they have no faith in a fat prophet4#iih ,the effects thus looked for and attained by fasting among uncultured tribes continue into the midst of advanced civilization4 ,no wonder that1 in the ,hindu tale1 king ,vasavadatta and his queen after a solemn penance and a three days' fast should see ,siva in a dream and receive his gracious tidings2 no wonder that1 in the actual experience of to-day1 the ,hindu yogi should bring on by fasting a state in which he can with bodily eyes behold the gods4#iii ,the ,greek oracle-priests recognized fasting as a means of bringing on prophetic dreams and visions2 the ,pythia of ,delphi herself fasted for inspiration2 ,galen remarks that fasting dreams are the clearer4#ajjj ,through after ages1 both cause and consequence have held their places in ,christendom4 ,thus ,michael the ,archangel1 with sword in right hand and scales in left1 appears to a certain priest of ,siponte1 who during a twelvemonth's course of prayer and fasting had been asking if he would have a temple built in his honour3-- #8precibus jejunia longis ,addiderat1 totoque orans se afflixerat anno4'#ajja ,reading the narratives of the wondrous sights seen by ,st4 ,theresa and her companions1 how the saint went in spirit into hell and saw the darkness and fire and unutterable despair1 how she had often by her side her good patrons ,peter and ,paul1 how when she was raised in rapture above the grate at the nunnery where she was to take the sacrament1 ,sister ,mary ,baptist and others being present1 they saw an angel by her with a golden fiery dart at the end whereof was a little fire1 and he thrust it through her heart and bowels and pulled them out with it1 leaving her wholly inflamed with a great love of ,god--the modern reader naturally looks for details of physical condition and habit of life among the sisterhood1 and as naturally finds that ,st4 ,theresa was of morbid constitution and subject to trances from her childhood1 in after life subduing her flesh by long watchings and religious discipline1 and keeping severe fast during eight months of the year4#ajjb ,it is needless to multiply such medival records of fasts which have produced their natural effects in beatific vision--are they not written page after page in the huge folios of the ,bollandists8 ,so long as fasting is continued as a religious rite1 so long its consequences in morbid mental exaltation will continue the old and savage doctrine that morbid phantasy is supernatural experience4 ,bread and meat would have robbed the ascetic of many an angel's visit2 the opening of the refectory door must many a time have closed the gates of heaven to his gaze4 ,it is indeed not the complete theory of fasting as a religious rite1 but only an important and perhaps original part of it1 that here comes into view4 ,abstinence from food has a principal place among acts of self-mortification or penance1 a province of religious ordinance into which the present argument scarcely enters4 ,looking at the practice of fasting here from an animistic point of view1 as a process of bringing on dreams and visions1 it will be well to mention with it certain other means by which ecstatic phenomena are habitually induced4 ,one of these means is the use of drugs4 ,in the ,west ,india ,islands at the time of the discovery1 ,columbus describes the religious ceremony of placing a platter containing #8cohoba' powder on the head of the idol1 the worshippers then snuffing up this powder through a cane with two branches put to the nose4 ,pane further describes how the native priest1 when brought to a sick man1 would put himself in communication with the spirits by thus snuffing cohoba1 #8which makes him drunk1 that he knows not what he does1 and so says many extraordinary things1 wherein they affirm that they are talking with the cemis1 and that from them it is told them that the infirmity came4' ,on the ,amazons1 the ,omaguas have continued to modern times the use of narcotic plants1 producing an intoxication lasting twenty-four hours1 during which they are subject to extraordinary visions2 from one of these plants they obtain the #8curupa' powder which they snuff into their nostrils with a ,y-shaped reed4#ajjc ,here the similar names and uses of the drug plainly show historical connexion between the ,omaguas and the ,antilles islanders4 ,the ,californian ,indians would give children narcotic potions1 in order to gain from the ensuing visions information about their enemies2 and thus the ,mundrucus of ,north ,brazil1 desiring to discover murderers1 would administer such drinks to seers1 in whose dreams the criminals appeared4#ajjd ,the ,darien ,indians used the seeds of the ,datura sanguinea to bring on in children prophetic delirium1 in which they revealed hidden treasure4 ,in ,peru the priests who talked with the #8huaca' or fetishes used to throw themselves into an ecstatic condition by a narcotic drink called #8tonca1' made from the same plant1 whence its name of #8huacacacha' or fetish-herb4#ajje ,the ,mexican priests also appear to have used an ointment or drink made with seeds of #8ololiuhqui1' which produced delirium and visions4#ajjf ,in both ,americas tobacco served for such purposes4 ,it must be noticed that smoking is more or less practised among native races to produce full intoxication1 the smoke being swallowed for the purpose4 ,by smoking tobacco1 the sorcerers of ,brazilian tribes raised themselves to ecstasy in their convulsive orgies1 and saw spirits2 no wonder tobacco came to be called the #8holy herb4'#ajjg ,so ,north ,american ,indians held intoxication by tobacco to be supernatural ecstasy1 and the dreams of men in this state to be inspired4#ajjh ,this idea may explain a remarkable proceeding of the ,delaware ,indians4 ,at their festival in honour of the ,fire-god with his twelve attendant manitus1 inside the house of sacrifice a small oven-hut was set up1 consisting of twelve poles tied together at the top and covered with blankets1 high enough for a man to stand nearly upright within it4 ,after the feast this oven was heated with twelve red-hot stones1 and twelve men crept inside4 ,an old man threw twelve pipefulls of tobacco on these stones1 and when the patients had borne to the utmost the heat and suffocating smoke1 they were taken out1 generally falling in a swoon4#ajji ,this practice1 which was carried on in the last century1 is remarkable for its coincidence with the ,scythian mode of purification after a funeral1 as described by ,herodotus4 ,he relates that they make their hut with three stakes sloping together at the top and covered in with wooden felts2 then they cast red-hot stones into a trough placed within and throw hemp-seed on them1 which sends forth fumes such as no ,greek vapour-bath could exceed1 and the ,scyths in their sweating-hut roar with delight4#ajaj ,not to dwell on the ancient ,aryan deification of an intoxicating drink1 the original of the divine ,soma of the ,hindus and the divine ,haoma of the ,parsis1 nor on the drunken orgies of the worship of ,dionysos in ancient ,greece1 we find more exact ,old ,world analogues of the ecstatic medicaments used in the lower culture4 ,such are the decoctions of thalassgle which ,pliny speaks of as drunk to produce delirium and visions2 the drugs mentioned by ,hesychius1 whereby ,hekate was evoked2 the medival witch-ointments which brought visionary beings into the presence of the patient1 transported him to the witches' sabbath1 enabled him to turn into a beast4#ajaa ,the survival of such practices is most thorough among the ,persian dervishes of our own day4 ,these mystics are not only opium-eaters1 like so large a proportion of their countrymen2 they are hashish-smokers1 and the effect of this drug is to bring them into a state of exaltation passing into utter hallucination4 ,to a patient in this condition1 says ,dr4 ,polak1 a little stone in the road will seem a great block that he must stride over2 a gutter becomes a wide stream to his eyes1 and he calls for a boat to ferry him across2 men's voices sound like thunder in his ears2 he fancies he has wings and can rise from the ground4 ,these ecstatic effects1 in which miracle is matter of hourly experience1 are considered in ,persia as high religious developments2 the visionaries and their rites are looked on as holy1 and they make converts4#ajab ,many details of the production of ecstasy and swoon by bodily exercises1 chanting and screaming1 c41 have been incidentally given in describing the doctrine of demoniacal possession4 ,i will only further cite a few typical cases to show that the practice of bringing on swoons or fits by religious exercises1 in reality or pretence1 is one belonging originally to savagery1 whence it has been continued into higher grades of civilization4 ,we may judge of the mental and bodily condition of the priest or sorcerer in ,guyana1 by his preparation for his sacred office4 ,this consisted in the first place in fasting and flagellation of extreme severity2 at the end of his fast he had to dance till he fell senseless1 and was revived by a potion of tobacco-juice causing violent nausea and vomiting of blood2 day after day this treatment was continued till the candidate1 brought into or confirmed in the condition of a #8convulsionary1' was ready to pass from patient into doctor4#ajac ,again1 at the ,winnebago medicine-feast1 members of the fraternity assemble in a long arched booth1 and with them the candidates for initiation1 whose preparation is a three days' fast1 with severe sweating and steaming with herbs1 under the direction of the old medicine-men4 ,the initiation is performed in the assembly by a number of medicine-men4 ,these advance in line1 as many abreast as there are candidates2 holding their medicine-bags before them with both hands1 they dance forward slowly at first1 uttering low guttural sounds as they approach the candidates1 their step and voice increasing in energy1 until with a violent #8,ough6' they thrust their medicine-bags at their breasts4 ,instantly1 as if struck with an electric shock1 the candidates fall prostrate on their faces1 their limbs extended1 their muscles rigid and quivering4 ,blankets are now thrown over them1 and they are suffered to lie thus a few moments2 as soon as they show signs of recovering from the shock1 they are assisted to their feet and led forward4 ,medicine-bags are then put in their hands1 and medicine-stones in their mouths2 they are now medicine men or women1 as the case may be1 in full communion and fellowship2 and they now go round the bower in company with the old members1 knocking others down promiscuously by thrusting their medicine-bags at them4 ,a feast and dance to the music of drum and rattle carry on the festival4#ajad ,another instance may be taken from among the ,alfurus of ,celebes1 inviting ,empong ,lembej to descend into their midst4 ,the priests chant1 the chief priest with twitching and trembling limbs turns his eyes towards heaven2 ,lembej descends into him1 and with horrible gestures he springs upon a board1 beats about with a bundle of leaves1 leaps and dances1 chanting legends of an ancient deity4 ,after some hours another priest relieves him1 and sings of another deity4 ,so it goes on day and night till the fifth day1 and then the chief priest's tongue is cut1 he falls into a swoon like death1 and they cover him up4 ,they fumigate with benzoin the piece taken from his tongue1 and swing a censer over his body1 calling back his soul2 he revives and dances about1 lively but speechless1 till they give him back the rest of his tongue1 and with it his power of speech4#ajae ,thus1 in the religion of uncultured races1 the phenomenon of being #8struck' holds so recognised a position that impostors will even counterfeit it4 ,in its morbid nature1 its genuine cases at least plainly correspond with the fits which history records among the convulsionnaires of ,st4 ,medard and the enthusiasts of the ,cevennes4 ,nor need we go even a generation back to see symptoms of the same type accepted as signs of grace among ourselves4 ,medical descriptions of the scenes brought on by fanatical preachers at #8revivals' in ,england1 ,ireland1 and ,america1 are full of interest to students of the history of religious rites4 ,i will but quote a single case4 #8,a young woman is described as lying extended at full length2 her eyes closed1 her hands clasped and elevated1 and her body curved in a spasm so violent that it appeared to rest arch-like upon her heels and the back portion of her head4 ,in that position she lay without speech or motion for several minutes4 ,suddenly she uttered a terrific scream1 and tore handfuls of hair from her uncovered head4 ,extending her open hands in a repelling attitude of the most appalling terror1 she exclaimed1 8,oh1 that fearful pit60 ,during this paroxysm three strong men were hardly able to restrain her4 ,she extended her arms on either side1 clutching spasmodically at the grass1 shuddering with terror1 and shrinking from some fearful inward vision2 but she ultimately fell back exhausted1 nerveless1 and apparently insensible4'#ajaf ,such descriptions carry us far back in the history of the human mind1 showing modern men still in ignorant sincerity producing the very fits and swoons to which for untold ages savage tribes have given religious import4 ,these manifestations in modern ,europe indeed form part of a revival of religion1 the religion of mental disease4 ,from this series of rites1 practical with often harmful practicality1 we turn to a group of ceremonies whose characteristic is picturesque symbolism4 ,in discussing sun-myth and sun-worship1 it has come into view how deeply the association in men's mind of the east with light and warmth1 life and happiness and glory1 of the west with darkness and chill1 death and decay1 has from remote ages rooted itself in religious belief4 ,it will illustrate and confirm this view to observe how the same symbolism of east and west has taken shape in actual ceremony1 giving rise to a series of practices concerning the posture of the dead in their graves and the living in their temples1 practices which may be classed under the general heading of ,orientation4 ,while the setting sun has shown to men1 from savage ages onward1 the western region of death1 the rising sun has displayed a scene more hopeful1 an eastern home of deity4 ,it seems to be the working out of the solar analogy1 on the one hand in death as sunset1 on the other in new life as sunrise1 that has produced two contrasted rules of burial1 which agree in placing the dead in the sun's path1 the line of east and west4 ,thus the natives of ,australia have in some districts well-marked thoughts of the western land of the dead1 yet the custom of burying the dead sitting with face to the east is also known among them4#ajag ,the ,samoans and ,fijians1 agreeing that the land of the departed lies in the far west1 bury the corpse lying with head east and feet west2#ajah the body would but have to rise and walk straight onward to follow its soul home4 ,this idea is stated explicitly among the ,winnebagos of ,north ,america2 they will sometimes bury a dead man sitting up to the breast in a hole in the ground1 looking westward2 or graves are dug east and west1 and the bodies laid in them with the head eastward1 with the motive #8that they may look towards the happy land in the west4'#ajai ,with these customs may be compared those of certain ,south ,american tribes4 ,the ,yumanas bury their dead bent double with faces looking toward the heavenly region of the sunrise1 the home of their great good deity1 who they trust will take their souls with him to his dwelling2#ajbj the ,guarayos bury the corpses with heads turned to the east1 for it is in the eastern sky that their god ,tamoi1 the ,ancient of ,heaven1 has his happy hunting-grounds where the dead will meet again4#ajba ,on the other hand the ,peruvian custom was to place the dead huddled up in a sitting posture and with faces turned to the west4#ajbb ,barbaric ,asia may be represented by the modern ,ainos of ,yesso1 burying the dead lying robed in white with the head to the east1 #8because that is where the sun rises2' or by the ,tunguz who bury with the head to the west2 or by the medival ,tatars1 raising a great mound over the dead1 and setting up thereon a statue with face turned toward the east1 holding a drinking-cup in his hand before his navel2 or by the modern ,siamese1 who do not sleep with their heads to the west1 because it is in this significant position that the dead are burned4#ajbc ,the burial of the dead among the ancient ,greeks in the line of east and west1 whether according to ,athenian custom of the head toward the sunset1 or the converse1 is another link in the chain of custom4#ajbd ,thus it is not to late and isolated fancy1 but to the carrying on of ancient and widespread solar ideas1 that we trace the well-known legend that the body of ,christ was laid with the head toward the west1 thus looking eastward1 and the ,christian usage of digging graves east and west1 which prevailed through medival times and is not yet forgotten4 ,the rule of laying the head to the west1 and its meaning that the dead shall rise looking toward the east1 are perfectly stated in the following passage from an ecclesiastical treatise of the #afth century3 #8,debet autem quis sic sepeliri1 ut capite ad occidentem posito1 pedes dirigat ad orientem1 in quo quasi ipsa positione orat3 et innuit quod promptus est1 ut de occasu festinet ad ortum3 de mundo ad seculum4'#ajbe ,where among the lower races sun-worship begins to consolidate itself in systematic ritual1 the orientation of the worshipper and the temple becomes usual and distinct4 ,the sun-worshipping ,comanches1 preparing for the war-path1 will place their weapons betimes on the east side of the lodge to receive the sun's first rays2 it is a remnant of old solar rite1 that the ,christianized ,pueblo ,indians of ,new ,mexico turn to the sun at his rising4#ajbf ,it has been already noticed how in old times each morning at sunrise the ,sun-chief of the ,natchez of ,louisiana stood facing the east at the door of his house1 and smoked toward the sun first1 before he turned to the other three quarters of the world4#ajbg ,the cave-temple of the sun-worshipping ,apalaches of ,florida had its opening looking east1 and within stood the priests on festival days at dawn1 waiting till the first rays entered to begin the appointed rites of chant and incense and offering4#ajbh ,in old ,mexico1 where sun-worship was the central doctrine of the complex religion1 men knelt in prayer towards the east1 and the doors of the sanctuaries looked mostly westward4#ajbi ,it was characteristic of the solar worship of ,peru that even the villages were habitually built on slopes toward the east1 that the people might see and greet the national deity at his rising4 ,in the temple of the sun at ,cuzco1 his splendid golden disc on the western wall looked out through the eastern door1 so that as he rose his first beams fell upon it1 reflected thence to light up the sanctuary4#ajcj ,in ,asia1 the ancient ,aryan religion of the sun manifests itself not less plainly in rites of orientation4 ,they have their place in the weary ceremonial routine which the ,brahman must daily accomplish4 ,when he has performed the dawn ablution1 and meditated on the effulgent sun-light which is ,brahma1 the supreme soul1 he proceeds to worship the sun1 standing on one foot and resting the other against his ankle or heel1 looking toward the east1 and holding his hands open before him in a hollow form4 ,at noon1 when he has again adored the sun1 it is sitting with his face to the east that he must read his daily portion of the ,veda2 it is looking toward the east that his offering of barley and water must be first presented to the gods1 before he turns to north and south2 it is with first and principal direction to the east that the consecration of the fire and the sacrificial implements1 a ceremony which is the groundwork of all his religious acts1 has to be performed4#ajca ,the significance of such reverence paid by adorers of the sun to the glorious eastern region of his rising1 may be heightened to us by setting beside it a ceremony of a darker faith1 displaying the awe-struck horror of the western home of death4 ,the antithesis to the eastward consecration by the orthodox ,brahmans is the westward consecration by the ,thugs1 worshippers of ,kali the death-goddess4 ,in honour of ,kali their victims were murdered1 and to her the sacred pickaxe was consecrated1 wherewith the graves of the slain were dug4 ,at the time of the suppression of ,thuggee1 ,englishmen had the consecration of the pickaxe performed in make-believe in their presence by those who well knew the dark ritual4 ,on the dreadful implement no shadow of any living thing must fall1 its consecrator sits facing the west to perform the fourfold washing and the sevenfold passing through the fire1 and then it being proved duly consecrated by the omen of the coco-nut divided at a single cut1 it is placed on the ground1 and the bystanders worship it1 turning to the west4#ajcb ,these two contrasted rites of east and west established themselves and still remain established in modern ,european religion4 ,in judging of the course of history that has brought about this state of things1 it scarcely seems that ,jewish influence was effective4 ,the ,jewish temple had the entrance in the east1 and the sanctuary in the west4 ,sun-worship was an abomination to the ,jews1 and the orientation especially belonging to it appears as utterly opposed to ,jewish usage1 in ,ezekiel's horror-stricken vision3 #8and1 behold1 at the door of the temple of ,jehovah1 between the porch and the altar1 about five-and-twenty men1 with their backs toward the temple of ,jehovah1 and their faces toward the east1 and they worshipped the sun toward the east4'#ajcc ,nor is there reason to suppose that in later ages such orientation gained ground in ,jewish ceremony4 ,the solar rites of other nations whose ideas were prominent in the early development of ,christianity1 are sufficient to account for the rise of ,christian orientation4 ,on the one hand there was the ,asiatic sun-worship1 perhaps specially related to the veneration of the rising sun in old ,persian religion1 and which has left relics in the east of the ,turkish empire into modern years2 ,christian sects praying toward the sun1 and ,yezidis turning to the east as their kibleh and burying their dead looking thither4#ajcd ,on the other hand1 orientation was recognized in classic ,greek religion1 not indeed in slavish obedience to a uniform law1 but as a principle to be worked out in converse ways4 ,thus it was an ,athenian practice for the temple to have its entrance east1 looking out through which the divine image stood to behold the rising sun4 ,this rule it is that ,lucian refers to1 when he talks of the delight of gazing toward the loveliest and most longed-for of the day1 of welcoming the sun as he peeps forth1 of taking one's fill of light through the wide-open doors1 even as the ancients built their temples looking forth4 ,nor was the contrary rule as stated by ,vitruvius less plain in meaning2 the sacred houses of the immortal gods shall be so arranged1 that if no reason prevents and choice is free1 the temple and the statue erected in the cell shall look toward the west1 so that they who approach the altar to sacrifice and vow and pray may look at once toward the statue and the eastern sky1 the divine figures thus seeming to arise and look upon them4 ,altars of the gods were to stand toward the east4#ajce ,unknown in primitive ,christianity1 the ceremony of orientation was developed within its first four centuries4 ,it became an accepted custom to turn in prayer toward the east1 the mystic region of the ,light of the ,world1 the ,sun of ,righteousness4 ,augustine says1 #8,when we stand at prayer1 we turn to the east1 where the heaven arises1 not as though ,god were only there1 and had forsaken all other parts of the world1 but to admonish our mind to turn to a more excellent nature1 that is1 to the ,lord4' ,no wonder that the early ,christians were thought to practise in substance the rite of sun-worship which they practised in form4 ,thus ,tertullian writes3 #8,others indeed with greater truth and verisimilitude believe the sun to be our ,god 444 the suspicion arising from its being known that we pray toward the region of the east4' ,though some of the most ancient and honoured churches of ,christendom stand to show that orientation was no original law of ecclesiastical architecture1 yet it became dominant in early centuries4 ,that the author of the #8,apostolical ,constitutions' should be able to give directions for building churches toward the east 7 1 ' 71 just as ,vitruvius had laid down the rule as to the temples of the gods1 is only a part of that assimilation of the church to the temple which took effect so largely in the scheme of worship4 ,of all ,christian ceremony1 however1 it was in the rite of baptism that orientation took its fullest and most picturesque form4 ,the catechumen was placed with face toward the west1 and then commanded to renounce ,satan with gestures of abhorrence1 stretching out his hands against him1 or smiting them together1 and blowing or spitting against him thrice4 ,cyril of ,jerusalem1 in his #8,mystagogic ,catechism1' thus depicts the scene3 #8,ye first came into the ante-room of the baptistery1 and standing toward the west 7 7 ye were commanded to put away ,satan1 stretching out your hands as though he were present4444 ,and why did ye stand toward the west8 ,it was needful1 for sunset is the type of darkness1 and he is darkness and has his strength in darkness2 therefore symbolically looking toward the west ye renounce that dark and gloomy ruler4' ,then turning round to the east1 the catechumen took up his allegiance to his new master1 ,christ4 ,the ceremony and its significance are clearly set forth by ,jerome1 thus3 #8,in the mysteries meaning baptism we first renounce him who is in the west1 and dies to us with our sins2 and so1 turning to the east1 we make a covenant with the ,sun of righteousness1 promising to be his servants4'#ajcf ,this perfect double rite of east and west1 retained in the baptismal ceremony of the ,greek ,church1 may be seen in ,russia to this day4 ,the orientation of churches and the practice of turning to the east as an act of worship1 are common to both ,greek and ,latin ritual4 ,in our own country they declined from the ,reformation1 till at the beginning of the #aith century they seemed falling out of use2 since then1 however1 they have been restored to a certain prominence by the revived medivalism of our own day4 ,to the student of history1 it is a striking example of the connexion of thought and ceremony through the religions of the lower and higher culture1 to see surviving in our midst1 with meaning dwindled into symbolism1 this ancient solar rite4 ,the influence of the divine ,sun upon his rude and ancient worshippers still subsists before our eyes as a mechanical force1 acting diamagnetically to adjust the axis of the church and turn the body of the worshipper4 ,the last group of rites whose course through religious history is to be outlined here1 takes in the varied dramatic acts of ceremonial purification of ,lustration4 ,with all the obscurity and intricacy due to age-long modification1 the primitive thought which underlies these ceremonies is still open to view4 ,it is the transition from practical to symbolic cleansing1 from removal of bodily impurity to deliverance from invisible1 spiritual1 and at last moral evil4 ,our language follows this ideal movement to its utmost stretch1 where such words as cleansing and purification have passed from their first material meaning1 to signify removal of ceremonial contamination1 legal guilt1 and moral sin4 ,what we thus express in metaphor1 the men of the lower culture began early to act in ceremony1 purifying persons and objects by various prescribed rites1 especially by dipping them in and sprinkling them with water1 or fumigating them with and passing them through fire4 ,it is the plainest proof of the original practicality of proceedings now passed into formalism1 to point out how far the ceremonial lustrations still keep their connexion with times of life when real purification is necessary1 how far they still consist in formal cleansing of the new-born child and the mother1 of the man-slayer who has shed blood1 or the mourner who has touched a corpse4 ,in studying the distribution of the forms of lustration among the races of the world1 while allowing for the large effect of their transmission from religion to religion1 and from nation to nation1 we may judge that their diversity of detail and purpose scarcely favours a theory of their being all historically derived from one or even several special religions of the ancient world4 ,they seem more largely to exemplify independent working out1 in different directions1 of an idea common to mankind at large4 ,this view may be justified by surveying lustration through a series of typical instances1 which show its appearance and character in savage and barbaric culture1 as being an act belonging to certain well-marked events of human life4 ,the purification of the new-born child appears among the lower races in various forms1 but perhaps in some particular instances borrowed from the higher4 ,it should be noticed that though the naming of the child is often associated with its ceremonial cleansing1 there is no real connexion between the two rites1 beyond their coming due at the same early time of life4 ,to those who look for the matter-of-fact origin of such ceremonies1 one of the most suggestive of the accounts available is a simple mention of the two necessary acts of washing and name-giving1 as done together in mere practical purpose1 but not as yet passed into formal ceremony--the ,kichtak ,islanders1 it is remarked1 at birth wash the child1 and give it a name4#ajcg ,among the ,yumanas of ,brazil1 as soon as the child can sit up1 it is sprinkled with a decoction of certain herbs1 and receives a name which has belonged to an ancestor4#ajch ,among some ,jakun tribes of the ,malay ,peninsula1 as soon as the child is born it is carried to the nearest stream and washed2 it is then brought back to the house1 the fire is kindled1 and fragrant wood thrown on1 over which it is passed several times4#ajci ,the ,new ,zealanders' infant baptism is no new practice1 and is considered by them an old traditional rite1 but nothing very similar is observed among other branches of the ,polynesian race4 ,whether independently invented or not1 it was thoroughly worked into the native religious scheme4 ,the baptism was performed on the eighth day or earlier1 at the side of a stream or elsewhere1 by a native priest who sprinkled water on the child with a branch or twig2 sometimes the child was immersed4 ,with this lustration it received its name1 the priest repeating a list of ancestral names till the child chose one for itself by sneezing at it4 ,the ceremony was of the nature of a dedication1 and was accompanied by rhythmical formulas of exhortation4 ,the future warrior was bidden to flame with anger1 to leap nimbly and ward off the spears1 to be angry and bold and industrious1 to work before the dew is off the ground2 the future housewife was bidden to get food and go for firewood and weave garments with panting of breath4 ,in after years1 a second sacred sprinkling was performed to admit a lad into the rank of warriors4 ,it has to be noticed with reference to the reason of this ceremonial washing1 that a new-born child is in the highest degree tapu1 and may only be touched by a few special persons till the restriction is removed4#ajdj ,in ,madagascar1 a fire is kept up in the room for several days1 then the child in its best clothes is in due form carried out of the house and back to its mother1 both times being carefully lifted over the fire1 which is made near the door4#ajda ,in ,africa1 some of the most noticeable ceremonies of the class are these4 ,the people of ,sarac wash the child three days after birth with holy water4#ajdb ,when a ,mandingo child was about a week old its hair was cut1 and the priest1 invoking blessings1 took it in his arms1 whispered in its ear1 spat thrice in its face1 and pronounced its name aloud before the assembled company4#ajdc ,in ,guinea1 when a child is born1 the event is publicly proclaimed1 the new-born babe is brought into the streets1 and the headman of the town or family sprinkles it with water from a basin1 giving it a name and invoking blessings of health and wealth upon it2 other friends follow the example1 till the child is thoroughly drenched4#ajdd ,in these various examples of lustration of infants1 the purifications by fire have especial importance ethnologically1 not because this proceeding is more natural to the savage mind than that of bathing or sprinkling with water1 but because this latter ceremony may sometimes have been imitated from ,christian baptism4 ,the fact of savage and barbaric lustration of infants being in several cases associated with the belief in re-birth of ancestral souls seems to mark the rite as belonging to remote pre-,christian ages4#ajde ,the purification of women at childbirth1 c41 is ceremonially practised by the lower races under circumstances which do not suggest adoption from more civilized nations4 ,the seclusion and lustration among ,north ,american ,indian tribes have been compared with those of the ,levitical law1 but the resemblance is not remarkably close1 and belongs rather to a stage of civilization than to the ordinance of a particular nation4 ,it is a good case of independent development in such customs1 that the rite of putting out the fires and kindling #8new fire' on the woman's return is common to the ,iroquois and ,sioux in ,north ,america1#ajdf and the ,basutos in ,south ,africa4 ,these latter have a well-marked rite of lustration by sprinkling1 performed on girls at womanhood4#ajdg ,the ,hottentots considered mother and child unclean till they had been washed and smeared after the uncleanly native fashion4#ajdh ,lustrations with water were usual in ,west ,africa4#ajdi ,tatar tribes in ,mongolia used bathing1 while in ,siberia the custom of leaping over a fire answered the purpose of purification4#ajej ,the ,mantras of the ,malay ,peninsula have made the bathing of the mother after childbirth into a ceremonial ordinance4#ajea ,it is so among the indigenes of ,india1 where both in northern and southern districts the naming of the child comes into connexion with the purification of the mother1 both ceremonies being performed on the same day4#ajeb ,without extending further this list of instances1 it is sufficiently plain that we have before us the record of a practical custom becoming consecrated by traditional habit1 and making its way into the range of religious ceremony4 ,much the same may be said of the purification of savage and barbaric races on occasion of contamination by bloodshed or funeral4 ,in ,north ,america1 the ,dacotas use the vapour-bath not only as a remedy1 but also for the removal of ceremonial uncleanness1 such as is caused by killing a person1 or touching a dead body4#ajec ,so among the ,navajos1 the man who has been deputed to carry a dead body to burial1 holds himself unclean until he has thoroughly washed himself in water prepared for the purpose by certain ceremonies4#ajed ,in ,madagascar1 no one who has attended a funeral may enter the palace courtyard till he has bathed1 and in all cases there must be an ablution of the mourner's garments on returning from the grave4#ajee ,among the ,basutos of ,south ,africa1 warriors returning from battle must rid themselves of the blood they have shed1 or the shades of their victims would pursue them and disturb their sleep4 ,therefore they go in procession in full armour to the nearest stream to wash1 and their weapons are washed also4 ,it is usual in this ceremony for a sorcerer higher up the stream to put in some magical ingredient1 such as he also uses in the preparation of the holy water which is sprinkled over the people with a beast's tail at the frequent public purifications4 ,these ,basutos1 moreover1 use fumigation with burning wood to purify growing corn1 and cattle taken from the enemy4 ,fire serves for purification in cases too trifling to require sacrifice2 thus when a mother sees her child walk over a grave1 she hastens to call it1 makes it stand before her1 and lights a small fire at its feet4#ajef ,the ,zulus1 whose horror of a dead body will induce them to cast out and leave in the woods their sick people1 at least strangers1 purify themselves by an ablution after a funeral4 ,it is to be noticed that these ceremonial practices have come to mean something distinct from mere cleanliness4 ,kaffirs who will purify themselves from ceremonial uncleanness by washing1 are not in the habit of washing themselves or their vessels for ordinary purposes1 and the dogs and the cockroaches divide between them the duty of cleaning out the milk-baskets4#ajeg ,medival ,tatar tribes1 some of whom had conscientious scruples against bathing1 have found passing through fire or between two fires a sufficient purification1 and the household stuff of the dead was lustrated in this latter way4#ajeh ,in the organised nations of the semi-civilized and civilized world1 where religion shapes itself into elaborate and systematic schemes1 the practices of lustration familiar to the lower culture now become part of stringent ceremonial systems4 ,it seems to be at this stage of their existence that they often take up in addition to their earlier ceremonial significance an ethical meaning1 absent or all but absent from them at their first appearance above the religious horizon4 ,this will be made evident by glancing over the ordinances of lustration in the great national religions of history4 ,it will be well to notice first the usages of two semi-civilized nations of ,america1 which though they have scarcely produced practical effect on civilization at large1 give valuable illustration of a transition period in culture1 leaving apart the obscure question of their special civilization having been influenced in early or late times from the ,old ,world4 ,in the religion of ,peru1 lustration is well-marked and characteristic4 ,on the day of birth1 the water in which the child has been washed was poured into a hole in the ground1 charms being repeated by a wizard or priest2 an excellent instance of the ceremonial washing away of evil influences4 ,the naming of the child was also more or less generally accompanied with ceremonial washing1 as in districts where at two years old it was weaned1 baptized1 had its hair ceremonially cut with a stone knife1 and received its child-name2 ,peruvian ,indians still cut off a lock of the child's hair at its baptism4 ,moreover1 the significance of lustration as removing guilt is plainly recorded in ancient ,peru2 after confession of guilt1 an ,inca bathed in a neighbouring river and repeated this formula1 #8,o thou ,river1 receive the sins ,i have this day confessed unto the ,sun1 carry them down to the sea1 and let them never more appear4'#ajei ,in old ,mexico1 the first act of ceremonial lustration took place at birth4 ,the nurse washed the infant in the name of the water-goddess1 to remove the impurity of its birth1 to cleanse its heart and give it a good and perfect life2 then blowing on water in her right hand she washed it again1 warning it of forthcoming trials and miseries and labours1 and praying the invisible ,deity to descend upon the water1 to cleanse the child from sin and foulness1 and to deliver it from misfortune4 ,the second act took place some four days later1 unless the astrologers postponed it4 ,at a festive gathering1 amid fires kept alight from the first ceremony1 the nurse undressed the child sent by the gods into this sad and doleful world1 bade it receive the life-giving water1 and washed it1 driving out evil from each limb and offering to the deities appointed prayers for virtue and blessing4 ,it was then that the toy instruments of war or craft or household labour were placed in the boy's or girl's hand 7a custom singularly corresponding with one usual in ,china71 and the other children1 instructed by their parents1 gave the newcomer its child-name1 here again to be replaced by another at manhood or womanhood4 ,there is nothing unlikely in the statement that the child was also passed four times through the fire1 but the authority this is given on is not sufficient4 ,the religious character of ablution is well shown in ,mexico by its forming part of the daily service of the priests4 ,aztec life ended as it had begun1 with ceremonial lustration2 it was one of the funeral ceremonies to sprinkle the head of the corpse with the lustral water of this life4#ajfj ,among the nations of ,east ,asia1 and across the more civilized ,turanian districts of ,central ,asia1 ceremonial lustration comes frequently into notice2 but it would often bring in difficult points of ethnography to attempt a general judgment how far these may be native local rites1 and how far ceremonies adopted from foreign religious systems4 ,as examples may be mentioned in ,japan the sprinkling and naming of the child at a month old1 and other lustrations connected with worship2#ajfa in ,china the religious ceremony at the first washing of the three days' old infant1 the lifting of the bride over burning coals1 the sprinkling of holy-water over sacrifices and rooms and on the mourners after a funeral2#ajfb in ,burma the purification of the mother by fire1 and the annual sprinkling-festival4#ajfc ,within the range of ,buddhism in its ,lamaist form1 we find such instances as the ,tibetan and ,mongol lustration of the child a few days after birth1 the lama blessing the water and immersing the child thrice1 and giving its name2 the ,buraet consecration by threefold washing2 the ,tibetan ceremony where the mourners returning from the funeral stand before the fire1 wash their hands with warm water over the hot coals1 and fumigate themselves thrice with proper formulas4#ajfd ,with this infant baptism of ,tibetans and ,mongols may be compared the rite of their ethnological kinsfolk in ,europe4 ,the ,lapps in their semi-,christianized state had a form of baptism1 in which a new name1 that of the deceased ancestor who would live again in the child1 as the mother was spiritually informed in a dream1 was given with a threefold sprinkling and washing with warm water where mystic alder-twigs were put4 ,this ceremony1 though called by the ,scandinavian name of #8laugo' or bath1 was distinct from the ,christian baptism to which the ,lapps also conformed4#ajfe ,the natural ethnographic explanation of these two baptismal ceremonies existing together in ,northern ,europe1 is that ,christianity had brought in a new rite1 without displacing a previous native one4 ,other ,asiatic districts show lustration in more compact and characteristic religious developments4 ,the ,brahman leads a life marked by recurring ceremonial purification1 from the time when his first appearance in the world brings uncleanness on the household1 requiring ablution and clean garments to remove it1 and thenceforth through his years from youth to old age1 where bathing is a main part of the long minute ceremonial of daily worship1 and further washings and aspersions enter into more solemn religious acts1 till at last the day comes when his kinsfolk1 on their way home from his funeral1 cleanse themselves by a final bath from their contamination by his remains4 ,for the means of some of his multifarious lustrations the ,hindu has recourse to the sacred cow1 but his more frequent medium of removing uncleanness of body and soul is water1 the divine waters to which he prays1 #8,take away1 ,o ,waters1 whatsoever is wicked in me1 what ,i have done by violence or curse1 and untruth6'#ajff ,the ,parsi religion prescribes a system of lustrations which well shows its common origin with that of ,hinduism by its similar use of cow's urine and of water4 ,bathing or sprinkling with water1 or applications of #8nirang' washed off with water1 form part of the daily religious rites1 as well as of such special ceremonies as the naming of the new-born child1 the putting on of the sacred cord1 the purification of the mother after childbirth1 the purification of him who has touched a corpse1 when the unclean demon1 driven by sprinkling of the good water from the top of the head and from limb to limb1 comes forth at the left toe and departs like a fly to the evil region of the north4 ,it is1 perhaps1 the influence of this ancestral religion1 even more than the actual laws of ,islam1 that makes the modern ,persian so striking an example of the way in which ceremony may override reality4 ,it is rather in form than in fact that his cleanliness is next to godliness4 ,he carries the principle of removing legal uncleanness by ablution so far1 that a holy man will wash his eyes when they have been polluted by the sight of an infidel4 ,he will carry about a water-pot with a long spout for his ablutions1 yet he depopulates the land by his neglect of the simplest sanitary rules1 and he may be seen by the side of the little tank where scores of people have been in before him1 obliged to clear with his hand a space in the foul scum on the water1 before he plunges in to obtain ceremonial purity4#ajfg ,over against the ,aryan rites of lustration in the religions of ,asia1 may be set the well-known types in the religions of classic ,europe4 ,at the ,greek amphidromia1 when the child was about a week old1 the women who had assisted at the birth washed their hands1 and afterwards the child was carried round the fire by the nurse1 and received its name2 the ,roman child received its prnomen with a lustration at about the same age1 and the custom is recorded of the nurse touching its lips and forehead with spittle4 ,to wash before an act of worship was a ceremony handed down by ,greek and ,roman ritual through the classic ages3 1 --eo lavatum1 ut sacrificem4 ,the holy-water mingled with salt1 the holy-water vessel at the temple entrance1 the brush to sprinkle the worshippers1 all belong to classic antiquity4 ,romans1 their flocks and herds and their fields1 were purified from disease and other ill by lustrations which show perfectly the equivalent nature of water and fire as means of purification2 the passing of flocks and shepherds through fires1 the sprinkling water with laurel branches1 the fumigating with fragrant boughs and herbs and sulphur1 formed part of the rustic rites of the ,palilia4 ,bloodshed demanded the lustral ceremony4 ,hektor fears to pour with unwashen hands the libation of dark wine1 nor may he pray bespattered with gore to cloud-wrapped ,zeus2 neas may not touch the household gods till cleansed from slaughter by the living stream4 ,it was with far changed thought that ,ovid wrote his famous reproof of his too-easy countrymen1 who fancied that water could indeed wash off the crime of blood3-- #8,ah nimium faciles1 qui tristia crimina cdis ,fluminea tolli posse putetis aqua4' ,thus1 too1 the mourner must be cleansed by lustration from the contaminating presence of death4 ,at the door of the ,greek house of mourning was set the water-vessel1 that those who had been within might sprinkle themselves and be clean2 while the mourners returning from a ,roman funeral1 aspersed with water and stepping over fire1 were by this double process made pure4#ajfh ,the ordinances of purification in the ,levitical law relate especially to the removal of legal uncleanness connected with childbirth1 death1 and other pollutions4 ,washing was prescribed for such purposes1 and also sprinkling with water of separation1 water mingled with the ashes of the red heifer4 ,ablution formed part of the consecration of priests1 and without it they might not serve at the altar nor enter the tabernacle4 ,in the later times of ,jewish national history1 perhaps through intercourse with nations whose lustrations entered more into the daily routine of life1 ceremonial washings were multiplied4 ,it seems also that in this period must be dated the ceremony which in after ages has held so great a place in the religion of the world1 their rite of baptism of proselytes4#ajfi ,the ,moslem lustrations are ablutions with water1 or in default with dust or sand1 performed partially before prayer1 and totally on special days or to remove special uncleanness4 ,they are strictly religious acts1 belonging in principle to prevalent usage of ,oriental religion2 and their details1 whether invented or adopted as they stand in ,islam1 are not carried down from ,judaism or ,christianity4#ajgj ,the rites of lustration which have held and hold their places within the pale of ,christianity are in well-marked historical connexion with ,jewish and ,gentile ritual4 ,purification by fire has only appeared as an actual ceremony among some little-known ,christian sects1 and in the ,european folklore custom of passing children through or over fire1 if indeed we can be sure that this rite is lustral and not sacrificial4#ajga ,the usual medium of purification is water4 ,holy-water is in full use through the ,greek and ,roman churches4 ,it blesses the worshipper as he enters the temple1 it cures disease1 it averts sorcery from man and beast1 it drives demons from the possessed1 it stops the spirit-writer's pen1 it drives the spirit-moved table it is sprinkled upon to dash itself frantically against the wall2 at least these are among the powers attributed to it1 and some of the most striking of them have been lately vouched for by papal sanction4 ,this lustration with holy-water so exactly continues the ancient classic rite1 that its apologists are apt to explain the correspondence by arguing that ,satan stole it for his own wicked ends4#ajgb ,catholic ritual follows ancient sacrificial usage in the priest's ceremonial washing of hands before mass4 ,the priest's touching with his spittle the ears and nostrils of the infant or catechumen1 saying1 #8,ephphatha1' is obviously connected with passages in the ,gospels2 its adoption as a baptismal ceremony has been compared1 perhaps justly1 with the classical lustration by spittle4#ajgc ,finally1 it has but to be said that ceremonial purification as a ,christian act centres in baptism by water1 that symbol of initiation of the convert which history traces from the ,jewish rite to that of ,john the ,baptist1 and thence to the ,christian ordinance4 ,through later ages adult baptism carries on the ,jewish ceremony of the admission of the proselyte1 while infant baptism combines this with the lustration of the new-born infant4 ,passing through a range of meaning such as separates the sacrament of the ,roman centurion from the sacrament of the ,roman cardinal1 becoming to some a solemn symbol of new life and faith1 to some an act in itself of supernatural efficacy1 the rite of baptism has remained almost throughout the ,christian world the outward sign of the ,christian profession4 ,in considering the present group of religious ceremonies1 their manifestations in the religions of the higher nations have been but scantily outlined in comparison with their rudimentary forms in the lower culture4 ,yet this reversal of the proportions due to practical importance in no way invalidates1 but rather aids1 the ethnographic lessons to be drawn by tracing their course in history4 ,through their varied phases of survival1 modification1 and succession1 they have each in its own way brought to view the threads of continuity which connect the faiths of the lower with the faiths of the higher world2 they have shown how hardly the civilized man can understand the religious rites even of his own land without knowledge of the meaning1 often the widely unlike meaning1 which they bore to men of distant ages and countries1 representatives of grades of culture far different from his4 ,footnote #hdd3 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #hh2 see p4 #dbg4 ,footnote #hde3 ,ibid4 p4 #bjj2 see p4 #agd4 ,see also ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #cdc4 ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 ii4 p4 #bce4 ,footnote #hdf3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,ind4 ,tribes1' part iii4 p4 #bcg4 ,footnote #hdg3 ,m',coy1 #8,baptist ,indian ,missions1' p4 #cei4 ,footnote #hdh3 ,tanner1 #8,narrative1' p4 #df4 ,footnote #hdi3 ,brinton1 #8,myths of ,new ,world1' p4 #big4 ,footnote #hej3 ,heckewelder1 #8,ind4 ,vlkerschaften1' p4 #ced4 ,footnote #hea3 #8,narratives of ,rites and ,laws of ,yncas1' tr4 and ed4 by ,c4 ,r4 ,markham1 pp4 #ca1 #cc4 ,see also ,brinton1 p4 #bih4 ,footnote #heb3 ,callaway1 #8,religion of ,amazulu1' pp4 #ada1 #agd1 #ahb4 #8,remarks on ,zulu ,lang4' ,pietermaritzburg1 #ahgj1 p4 #bb4 ,footnote #hec3 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #afi4 ,steinhauser1 l4c4 p4 #abi4 ,footnote #hed3 ,rowley1 #8,universities' ,mission to ,central ,africa1' p4 #bbf4 ,footnote #hee3 ,mason1 #8,karens1' l4c4 p4 #bae4 ,footnote #hef3 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' pp4 #aaj1 #abh4 ,see also ,hunter1 #8,rural ,bengal1' p4 #ahb 7,santals74 ,footnote #heg3 ,plath1 #8,religion der ,chinesen1' part ii4 p4 #b2 ,doolittle1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aaf4 ,footnote #heh3 #8,sama-,veda1' i4 #d1 #b4 ,wuttke1 #8,gesch4 des ,heidenthums1' part ii4 p4 #cdb4 ,footnote #hei3 ,lane1 #8,modern ,egyptians1' vol4 i4 p4 #abh4 ,footnote #hfj3 #8,rig-,veda1' i4 #ea1 #h1 x4 #aje1 #h4 ,muir1 #8,sanskrit ,texts1' part ii4 ch4 iii4 ,footnote #hfa3 ,lane1 #8,modern ,egyptians1' vol4 ii4 p4 #chc4 ,footnote #hfb3 ,see ,kppen1 #8,religion des ,buddha1' vol4 i4 pp4 #cde1 #eef2 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cjc1 #cai4 ,compare ,fergusson1 #8,tree and ,serpent ,worship1' pl4 xlii4 ,footnote #hfc3 ,xenoph4 ,memorabilia ,socrat4 i4 #c1 #b4 ,footnote #hfd3 ,sahagun1 #8,retorica1 c41 de la ,gente ,mexicana1' lib4 vi4 c4 #d1 in ,kingsborough1 #8,antiquities of ,mexico1' vol4 v4 ,footnote #hfe3 #8,rig-,veda1' vii4 #hi1 #c4 ,max ,mller1 #8,chips1' vol4 i4 p4 #ci4 ,footnote #hff3 #8,avesta1' tr4 by ,spiegel2 #8,khorda-,avesta1' ,patet ,qod4 ,footnote #hfg3 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 #8,commentarios ,reales1' v4 #ai4 ,ellis1 #8,madagascar1' vol4 i41 p4 #dba4 ,footnote #hfh3 ,charlevoix1 #8,nouv4 ,fr4' vol4 i4 p4 #cid4 ,see also ,smith1 #8,virginia1' in #8,pinkerton1' vol4 xiii4 p4 #da4 ,footnote #hfi3 ,phillips in ,astley's #8,voyages1' vol4 ii4 p4 #daa2 ,lubbock1 #8,origin of ,civilization1' p4 #baf4 ,bosman1 #8,guinea1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #ejj4 ,bastian in #8,ztschr4 fr ,ethnologie1' #ahfi1 p4 #cae4 ,footnote #hgj3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,algic ,res4' vol4 ii4 p4 #ge4 ,see also ,tanner1 #8,narr4' p4 #aic1 and above1 p4 #bgj4 ,footnote #hga3 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' p4 #abi4 ,footnote #hgb3 ,billings1 #8,exp4 to ,northern ,russia1' p4 #abe4 ,chinese sacrifices buried for earth spirits1 see ante1 vol4 i4 p4 #ajg2 ,plath1 part ii4 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #hgc3 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #ahb4 ,footnote #hgd3 ,rmer1 #8,guinea1' p4 #fg4 ,footnote #hge3 ,herod4 vii4 #ce1 #ed4 ,liv4 vii4 #f4 ,grote1 #8,hist4 of ,greece1' vol4 x4 p4 #ehi1 see p4 #gae4 ,footnote #hgf3 ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' p4 #cfg4 ,footnote #hgg3 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 pp4 #ccf1 #ceh4 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #bbj4 ,footnote #hgh3 ,bosman1 #8,guinea1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #did2 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr4' p4 #bah2 ,burton1 #8,w4 ,w4 fr4 ,w4 ,afr4' p4 #cca4 ,footnote #hgi3 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aie1 c4 ,footnote #hhj3 ,clavigero1 #8,messico1' vol4 ii4 p4 #fi4 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #fca4 ,footnote #hha3 ,ward1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aid2 #8,mem4 ,anthrop4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 p4 #ccb4 ,footnote #hhb3 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #bbf4 ,footnote #hhc3 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr4' p4 #bah4 ,footnote #hhd3 ,manu1 iii4 #bab4 ,see also #8,avesta1' tr4 by ,spiegel1 vol4 ii4 p4 lxxvii4 7sacrificial cakes eaten by priest74 ,footnote #hhe3 ,ysbrants ,ides1 #8,reize naar ,china1' p4 #ch4 ,meiners1 vol4 i4 p4 #afb4 ,footnote #hhf3 ,clavigero1 vol4 ii4 p4 #df4 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #fca4 ,footnote #hhg3 ,bel and the ,dragon4 ,footnote #hhh3 ,rmer1 #8,guinea1' p4 #dg4 ,footnote #hhi3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' part ii4 p4 #baj4 ,footnote #hij3 ,homer1 ,odyss4 xi4 xii4 ,footnote #hia3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 i4 p4 #bgj4 ,footnote #hib3 ,smith1 #8,virginia1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xiii4 p4 #da2 see ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #adc2 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bjg4 ,comp4 ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #hi4 ,see also ,bollaert in #8,mem4 ,anthrop4 ,soc4' vol4 ii4 p4 #if4 ,footnote #hic3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 iii4 p4 #ade4 ,see also ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 p4 #afj4 ,footnote #hid3 ,hodgson1 #8,abor4 of ,india1' p4 #adg2 ,hunter1 #8,rural ,bengal1' p4 #aha2 ,forbes ,leslie1 #8,early ,races of ,scotland1' vol4 ii4 p4 #deh4 ,footnote #hie3 ,bosman1 #8,guinea1' letter xxi4 in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #eca4 ,see also ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aib4 ,footnote #hif3 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #if4 ,footnote #hig3 ,levit4 i4 c42 ,deuteron4 xii4 #bc2 ,psalm xvi4 #d4 ,footnote #hih3 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aha4 ,hennepin1 #8,voyage1' p4 #cjb4 ,charlevoix1 #8,nouvelle ,france1' vol4 v4 p4 #caa1 vi4 p4 #agh4 ,schoolcraft1 #8,ind4 ,tribes1' part i4 p4 #di1 part ii4 p4 #abg4 ,catlin1 vol4 i4 pp4 #aha1 #bbi4 ,morgan1 #8,iroquois1' p4 #afd4 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #eh4 ,footnote #hii3 ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' pp4 #dah1 #ejg4 ,lery1 #8,voy4 en ,brsil1' p4 #bfh4 ,see also ,musters in #8,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4' vol4 i4 p4 #bjb 7,patagonians74 ,footnote #ijj3 ,callaway1 #8,religion of ,amazulu1' pp4 #aa1 #ada1 #agg4 ,see also ,casalis1 #8,basutos1' p4 #beh4 ,footnote #ija3 ,clavigero1 #8,messico1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ci4 ,see also ,piedrahita1 part i4 lib4 i4 c4 #c 7,muyscas74 ,footnote #ijb3 ,plath1 #8,religion der alten ,chinesen1' part ii4 p4 #ca4 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese4' ,footnote #ijc3 ,porphyr4 de ,abstinentia1 ii4 #e4 ,arnob4 contra ,gentes4 vii4 #bf4 ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ad4 ,footnote #ijd3 ,wilkinson1 #8,ancient ,egyptians1' vol4 v4 pp4 #cae1 #cch4 ,plutarch1 de ,is4 et ,osir4 ,footnote #ije3 ,herodot4 i4 #ahc4 ,footnote #ijf3 ,exod4 xxx41 xxxvii4 ,lev4 x4 #a1 xvi4 #ab1 c4 ,footnote #ijg3 ,smith1 #8,virginia1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xiii4 p4 #da4 ,le ,jeune in #8,rel4 des ,js4' #afcd1 p4 #af4 ,catlin1 #8,n4 ,a4 ,ind4' vol4 i4 p4 #ahi4 ,footnote #ijh3 #8,rites and ,laws of ,incas1' p4 #af1 c41 #gi2 see #8,ollanta1 an ancient ,ynca ,drama1' tr4 by ,c4 ,r4 ,markham1 p4 #ha4 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 lib4 i4 ii4 vi4 ,footnote #iji3 ,klemm1 #8,cultur-,gesch4' vol4 iii4 pp4 #ajf1 #aad4 ,footnote #iaj3 ,plath1 part ii4 p4 #fe4 ,footnote #iaa3 ,latham1 #8,descr4 ,eth4' vol4 i4 p4 #aia4 ,footnote #iab3 #8,rig-,veda1' i4 #a1 #d4 ,footnote #iac3 ,homer1 ,il4 i4 #cag4 ,footnote #iad3 ,porphyr4 ,de ,abstinentia1 ii4 #db2 see #eh4 ,footnote #iae3 ,stanley1 #8,jewish ,church1' #b;d ,ser4 pp4 #daj1 #dbd4 ,see ,kalisch on ,leviticus2 ,barry in ,smith's #8,dictionary of the ,bible1' art4 #8sacrifice4' ,footnote #iaf3 ,callaway1 #8,religion of ,amazulu1' p4 #aa 7amadhlozi or amatongo ancestral spirits74 ,footnote #iag3 ,roman ,pane1 ch4 xvi4 in #8,life of ,colon1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xii4 p4 #hf4 ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' p4 #dah2 see ,meiners1 vol4 ii41 p4 #eaf2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #bab4 ,footnote #iah3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 iv4 p4 #aid4 ,footnote #iai3 ,eliot in #8,as4 ,res4' vol4 iii4 p4 #cj4 ,footnote #ibj3 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' pp4 #hh1 #ajj4 ,footnote #iba3 ,klemm1 #8,cultur-,gesch4' vol4 iii4 p4 #aad4 ,footnote #ibb3 ,grimm1 #8,deutsche ,myth4' p4 #bfd4 ,footnote #ibc3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 i4 p4 #bg4 ,footnote #ibd3 ,mason1 #8,karens1' l4c4 p4 #bjh4 ,footnote #ibe3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #djg4 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #ceh4 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' pp4 #ajd1 #bbj4 ,footnote #ibf3 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #bca4 ,footnote #ibg3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,algic ,researches1' vol4 ii4 p4 #adj2 see p4 #aij4 ,footnote #ibh3 ,tanner's #8,narrative1' pp4 #bhf1 #cah4 ,see also ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bjg4 ,footnote #ibi3 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #adb2 see p4 #bhb4 ,footnote #icj3 ,sahagun1 lib4 vi4 in ,kingsborough1 vol4 v4 ,footnote #ica3 #8,rites and ,laws of ,yncas1' tr4 and ed4 by ,c4 ,r4 ,markham1 pp4 #ee1 #eh1 #aff4 ,see ante1 p4 #che 7possible connexion of smoke with soul74 ,footnote #icb3 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ahh1 #aif4 ,steinhauser1 l4c4 p4 #acf4 ,see also ,schlegel1 #8,ewe-,sprache1' p4 xv42 ,magyar1 #8,sd-,afrika1' p4 #bgc4 ,footnote #icc3 ,a4 ,campbell in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vii4 p4 #aec4 ,footnote #icd3 ,o',riley1 in #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 iv4 p4 #eib4 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ab4 ,footnote #ice3 ,r4 ,clarke1 #8,sierra ,leone1' p4 #dc4 ,footnote #icf3 ,smith1 #8,virginia1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xiii4 p4 #da4 ,welcker1 #8,griech4 ,gtterlehre1' vol4 ii4 p4 #fic4 ,legge1 #8,confucius1' p4 #agi4 ,grohmann1 #8,aberglauben aus ,bhmen1' p4 #da1 c4 ,footnote #icg3 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr4' p4 #bah2 ,bosman1 #8,guinea1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #djj4 ,footnote #ich3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 ii4 p4 #chg4 ,footnote #ici3 ,roberts1 #8,oriental ,illustrations1' p4 #ede4 ,footnote #idj3 ,m',coy1 #8,baptist ,indian ,missions1' p4 #cje4 ,footnote #ida3 ,callaway1 #8,religion of ,amazulu1' p4 #ei4 ,see ,casalis1 p4 #beb4 ,footnote #idb3 ,earl in #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 iv4 p4 #agd4 ,footnote #idc3 ,hodgson1 #8,abor4 of ,india1' p4 #agj1 see p4 #adf2 ,hooker1 #8,himalayan ,journals1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bgf4 ,footnote #idd3 ,prescott1 #8,mexico1' book i4 ch4 iii4 ,footnote #ide3 #8,rites and ,laws of ,yncas1' p4 #cc1 c4 ,footnote #idf3 ,welcker1 #8,griech4 ,gtterlehre1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ej2 ,pauly1 #8,real-,encyclopedie1' s4v4 #8,sacrificia4' ,footnote #idg3 ,tanner's #8,nar4' p4 #aed2 see also ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #afg4 ,footnote #idh3 ,symes1 #8,ava1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 ix4 p4 #ddj2 ,caron1 #8,japan1' ib4 vol4 vii4 p4 #fbi4 ,footnote #idi3 ,burton1 #8,medinah1' c41 vol4 iii4 p4 #cjb2 ,lane1 #8,mod4 ,eg4' vol4 i4 p4 #acb4 ,footnote #iej3 ,hardy1 #8,manual of ,budhism1' p4 #ei4 ,footnote #iea3 #b ,kings iii4 #bg4 ,euseb4 ,prp4 ,evang4 i4 #aj1 iv4 #aef2 ,laud4 ,constant4 xiii4 ,porphyr4 ,de ,abstin4 ii4 #ef1 c4 ,lamprid4 ,heliogabal4 vii4 ,movers1 #8,phnizier1' vol4 i4 p4 #cjj1 c4 ,footnote #ieb3 ,ellis1 #8,madagascar1' vol4 i4 p4 #dai4 ,footnote #iec3 ,rmer1 #8,guinea1' p4 #ei4 ,bosman in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #cii4 ,footnote #ied3 ,klemm1 #8,cultur-,gesch4' vol4 iii4 p4 #ajf2 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #bcb4 ,footnote #iee3 ,hesiod4 ,theog4 #ecg4 ,welcker1 vol4 i4 p4 #gfd2 vol4 ii4 p4 #ea4 ,footnote #ief3 ,haug1 #8,parsis1' ,bombay1 #ahfb1 p4 #bch4 ,footnote #ieg3 ,hamilton in #8,as4 ,res4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cdb4 ,footnote #ieh3 ,mariner's #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 i4 p4 #ded2 vol4 ii4 p4 #bbb4 ,cook's #8#crd ,voy4' vol4 i4 p4 #djc4 ,details from ,s4 ,africa in ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 iii4 pp4 #d1 #bd2 ,scherzer1 #8,voy4 of ,novara1' vol4 i4 p4 #bab4 ,footnote #iei3 ,catlin1 #8,n4 ,a4 ,ind4' vol4 i4 p4 #agb2 ,klemm1 #8,cultur-,gesch4' vol4 ii4 p4 #agj4 ,see also ,venegas1 #8,noticia de la ,california1' vol4 i4 p4 #aag2 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 lib4 ii4 c4 #h 7,peru74 ,footnote #ifj3 ,buchanan1 #8,mysore1' c41 in ,pinkerton1 vol4 viii4 p4 #ffa2 ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dgb2 ,bastian1 l4c4 ,see also ,dubois1 #8,india1' vol4 i4 p4 #e4 ,footnote #ifa3 ,polack1 #8,new ,zealand1' vol4 i4 p4 #bfd4 ,footnote #ifb3 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #ahd4 ,footnote #ifc3 ,theodoret4 in ,levit4 xix42 ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth4' ,details in ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bbi1 c4 ,footnote #ifd3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 iii4 p4 #aac 7see other details74 ,footnote #ife3 ,pausan4 viii4 #bc2 ix4 #h4 ,footnote #iff3 #8,encyc4 ,brit4' art4 #8,brahma4' ,see #8,asiat4 ,res4' vol4 ix4 p4 #chg4 ,footnote #ifg3 ,boecler1 #8,ehsten ,aberglabische ,gebrache1' c41 p4 #d4 ,footnote #ifh3 ,rivero and ,tschudi1 p4 #aif4 ,see #8,rites of ,yncas1' p4 #gi4 ,footnote #ifi3 ,bastian1 p4 #aab1 c42 ,smith's #8,dic4 of ,gr4 and ,rom4 ,ant4' art4 #8,sacrificium4' ,footnote #igj3 ,grimm1 #8,deutsche ,myth4' p4 #dj4 ,footnote #iga3 ,diodor4 ,sic4 xx4 #ad4 ,footnote #igb3 ,callaway1 #8,zulu ,tales1' vol4 i4 p4 #hh2 ,magyar1 #8,sd-,afrika1' p4 #bef4 ,footnote #igc3 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' pp4 #ajh1 #ahg4 ,footnote #igd3 ,de ,silva in ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #aha4 ,footnote #ige3 ,details in ,pauly1 #8,real-,encyclop4' s4v4 #8,sacrificia'2 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 iii4 p4 #aad2 ,movers1 #8,phnizier1' vol4 i4 p4 #cjj4 ,footnote #igf3 ,clavigero1 #8,messico1' vol4 ii4 p4 #hb2 ,torquemada1 #8,monarquia ,indiana1' x4 c4 #bi2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 pp4 #ejb1 #fdj4 ,see also ibid4 p4 #cgi 7,peru72 #8,rites and ,laws of ,yncas1' pp4 #df1 #ed4 ,footnote #igg3 ,grote1 vol4 v4 p4 #cff4 ,schmidt in ,smith's #8,dic4 of ,gr4 and ,rom4 ,ant4' art4 #8,sacrificium4' ,bastian1 l4c4 ,footnote #igh3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 iii4 p4 #eja4 ,footnote #igi3 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 i4 p4 #aeb4 ,footnote #ihj3 ,lane1 #8,modern ,eg4' vol4 ii4 p4 #bfb4 ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #he4 ,footnote #iha3 ,wilkinson1 #8,ancient ,eg4' vol4 iii4 p4 #cie2 and in ,rawlinson's ,herodotus1 vol4 ii4 p4 #acg4 ,see #a ,sam4 vi4 #d4 ,footnote #ihb3 ,grimm1 #8,deutsche ,myth4' p4 #aaca4 ,footnote #ihc3 ,ibid4 ,footnote #ihd3 ,bastian1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aaf4 ,footnote #ihe3 ,st4 ,clair and ,brophy1 #8,bulgaria1' p4 #dc4 ,compare modern ,circassian sacrifice of animal before cross1 as substitute for child1 in ,bell1 #8,circassia1' vol4 ii4 ,footnote #ihf3 ,ralston1 #8,songs of ,russian ,people1' pp4 #abc1 #aec1 c4 ,footnote #ihg3 ,wuttke1 #8,deutsche ,volksaberglaube1' p4 #hf4 ,see also ,grimm1 #8,deutsche ,myth4' pp4 #dag1 #fjb4 ,footnote #ihh3 ,hyltn-,cavallius1 #8,wrend och ,wirdarne1' part i4 pp4 #aca1 #adf1 #aeg1 c4 ,footnote #ihi3 ,monnier1 #8,traditions ,populaires1' pp4 #ahg1 #fff4 ,footnote #iij3 ,r4 ,hunt1 #8,pop4 ,rom4 of ,w4 of ,england1' #ast ,ser4 p4 #bcg4 ,pennant1 #8,tour in ,scotland1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 iii4 p4 #di4 ,j4 ,y4 ,simpson1 ,address to ,soc4 ,antiq4 ,scotland1 #ahfa1 p4 #cc2 ,brand1 #8,pop4 ,ant4' vol4 iii4 pp4 #gd1 #cag4 ,footnote #iia3 ,brand1 vol4 i4 p4 #dhd4 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' pp4 #de1 #aid1 #aahh1 see p4 #bej2 #8,deutsche ,rechtsalterthmer1' p4 #ijj2 ,hyltn-,cavallius1 part i4 p4 #age4 ,footnote #iib3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #ifb4 ,footnote #iic3 ,beausobre1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ffg4 ,polydorus ,vergilius1 ,de ,inventoribus ,rerum 7,basel1 #aeba71 lib4 v4 #a4 ,footnote #iid3 ,tanner's #8,narrative1' p4 #bhh4 ,loskiel1 #8,n4 ,a4 ,ind4' part i4 p4 #gf4 ,schoolcraft1 #8,ind4 ,tribes1' part i4 pp4 #cd1 #aac1 #cfj1 #cia2 part iii4 p4 #bbg4 ,catlin1 #8,n4 ,a4 ,ind4' vol4 i4 p4 #cf4 ,charlevoix1 #8,nouv4 ,fr4' vol4 ii4 p4 #agj2 vol4 vi4 p4 #fg4 ,klemm1 #8,cultur-,gesch4' vol4 ii4 p4 #agj4 ,waitz1 #8,anthropologie1' vol4 iii4 pp4 #bjf1 #bag4 ,footnote #iie3 ,colombo1 #8,vita1' ch4 xxv4 ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' p4 #eja4 ,see also ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adc 7,guyana74 ,footnote #iif3 ,dobrizhoffer1 #8,abipones1' vol4 ii4 p4 #fh4 ,footnote #iig3 ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 p4 #add4 ,footnote #iih3 ,dhne1 #8,zulu ,dic4' s4v4 #8nyanga2' ,grout1 #8,zulu-land1' p4 #aeh2 ,callaway1 #8,religion of ,amazulu1' p4 #chg4 ,footnote #iii3 ,somadeva ,bhatta1 tr4 ,brockhaus1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ha4 ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adg4 ,footnote #ajjj3 ,maury1 #8,magic1' c41 p4 #bcg2 ,pausan4 i4 #cd2 ,philostrat4 ,apollon4 ,tyan4 i42 ,galen4 ,comment4 in ,hippocrat4 i4 ,footnote #ajja3 ,baptist4 ,mantuan4 ,fast4 ix4 #cej4 ,footnote #ajjb3 #8,acta ,sanctorum ,bolland4' ,s4 ,theresa4 ,footnote #ajjc3 ,colombo1 #8,vita1' ch4 lxii42 ,roman ,pane1 ibid4 ch4 xv42 and in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xii4 ,condamine1 #8,travels1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xiv4 p4 #bbf2 ,martius1 #8,ethnog4 ,amer4' vol4 i4 pp4 #dda1 #fca 7details of snuff-powders among ,omaguas1 ,otomacs1 c42 native names curup1 paric1 niopo1 nupa2 made from seeds of ,mimosa acacioides1 ,acacia niopo74 ,footnote #ajjd3 ,maury1 #8,magie1' c41 p4 #dbe4 ,footnote #ajje3 ,seemann1 #8,voy4 of ,herald1' vol4 i4 p4 #bef4 ,rivero and ,tschudi1 #8,peruvian ,antiquities1' p4 #ahd4 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #cig4 ,footnote #ajjf3 ,brasseur1 #8,mexique1' vol4 iii4 p4 #eeh2 ,clavigero1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dj2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #fef4 ,footnote #ajjg3 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrelig4' p4 #bgg2 ,hernandez1 #8,historia ,mexicana1' lib4 v4 c4 #ea2 ,purchas1 vol4 iv4 p4 #abib4 ,footnote #ajjh3 ,d4 ,wilson1 #8,prehistoric ,man1' vol4 i4 p4 #dhg4 ,footnote #ajji3 ,loskiel1 #8,ind4 of ,n4 ,a4' part i4 p4 #db4 ,footnote #ajaj3 ,herodot4 iv4 #gc-e4 ,footnote #ajaa3 ,maury1 #8,magie1' c41 l4c42 ,plin4 xxiv4 #ajb2 ,hesych4 s4v4 #84' ,see also ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aeb1 c42 ,baring-,gould1 #8,were-wolves1' p4 #adi4 ,footnote #ajab3 ,polak1 #8,persien1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bde2 ,vambry in #8,mem4 ,anthrop4 ,soc4' vol4 ii4 p4 #bj2 ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #baf4 ,footnote #ajac3 ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #afb4 ,footnote #ajad3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part iii4 p4 #bhf4 ,footnote #ajae3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ade4 ,compare #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bdg 7,aracan74 ,footnote #ajaf3 ,d4 ,h4 ,tuke in #8,journal of ,mental ,science1' ,oct4 #ahgj1 p4 #cfh4 ,footnote #ajag3 ,grey1 #8,australia1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cbg4 ,footnote #ajah3 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #bcj4 ,seemann1 #8,viti1' p4 #aea4 ,footnote #ajai3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part iv4 p4 #ed4 ,footnote #ajbj3 ,martius1 #8,ethnog4 ,amer4' vol4 i4 p4 #dhe4 ,footnote #ajba3 ,d',orbigny1 #8,l',homme ,amricain1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #cai1 #ccj4 ,footnote #ajbb3 ,rivero and ,tschudi1 #8,peruvian ,antiquities1' p4 #bjb4 ,see also ,arbousset and ,daumas1 #8,voyage1' p4 #bgg 7,kafirs74 ,footnote #ajbc3 ,bickmore1 in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vii4 p4 #bj4 ,georgi1 #8,reise1' vol4 i4 p4 #bff4 ,gul4 de ,rubruquis in ,hakluyt vol4 i4 p4 #gh4 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 iii4 p4 #bbh4 ,footnote #ajbd3 lian4 ,var4 ,hist4 v4 #ad1 vii4 #ai2 ,plutarch4 ,solon1 x42 ,diog4 ,laert4 ,solon2 ,welcker1 vol4 i4 p4 #djd4 ,footnote #ajbe3 ,beda in ,die ,s4 ,pasch4 ,durand1 ,rationale ,divinorum ,officiorum1 lib4 vii4 c4 #ce-i4 ,brand1 #8,popular ,antiquities1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #bie1 #cah4 ,footnote #ajbf3 ,gregg1 #8,commerce of ,prairies1' vol4 i4 pp4 #bgj1 #bgc2 vol4 ii4 p4 #cah4 ,footnote #ajbg3 ,charlevoix1 #8,nouvelle ,france1' vol4 vi4 p4 #agh4 ,footnote #ajbh3 ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' p4 #cfe4 ,footnote #ajbi3 ,clavigero1 #8,messico1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bd2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #fda4 ,see ,oviedo1 #8,nicaragua1' p4 #bi4 ,footnote #ajcj3 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #cfc2 ,prescott1 #8,peru1' book i4 ch4 #c4 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 #8,commentarios ,reales1' lib4 iii4 c4 #bj1 says it was at the east end2 cf4 lib4 vi4 c4 #ba 7llama sacrificed with head to east74 ,footnote #ajca3 ,colebrooke1 #8,essays1' vol4 i41 iv4 and v4 ,footnote #ajcb3 #8,illustrations of the ,history and ,practices of the ,thugs1' ,london1 #ahcg1 p4 #df4 ,footnote #ajcc3 ,ezek4 viii4 #af2 ,mishna1 #8,sukkoth1' v4 ,see ,fergusson in ,smith's #8,dictionary of the ,bible1' s4v4 #8,temple4' ,footnote #ajcd3 ,hyde1 #8,veterum ,persarum ,religionis ,historia1' ch4 iv4 ,niebuhr1 #8,reisebeschreibung nach ,arabien1' vol4 i4 p4 #cif4 ,layard1 #8,nineveh1' vol4 i4 ch4 ix4 ,footnote #ajce3 ,lucian4 ,de ,domo1 vi4 ,vitruv4 de ,architectura1 iv4 #e4 ,see ,welcker1 vol4 i4 p4 #djc4 ,footnote #ajcf3 ,augustin4 de ,serm4 ,dom4 in ,monte1 ii4 #e4 ,tertullian4 ,contra ,valentin4 iii42 ,apolog4 xvi4 ,constitutiones ,apostolic1 ii4 #eg4 ,cyril4 ,catech4 ,mystag4 i4 #b4 ,hieronym4 in ,amos4 vi4 #ad2 ,bingham1 #8,antiquities of ,chr4 ,church1' book viii4 ch4 #c1 book xi4 ch4 #g1 book xiii4 ch4 #h4 ,j4 ,m4 ,neale1 #8,eastern ,church1' part i4 p4 #ief2 ,romanoff1 #8,greco-,russian ,church1' p4 #fg4 ,footnote #ajcg3 ,billings1 #8,n4 ,russia1' p4 #age4 ,footnote #ajch3 ,martius1 #8,ethnog4 ,amer4' vol4 i4 p4 #dhe4 ,footnote #ajci3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 ii4 p4 #bfd4 ,footnote #ajdj3 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #ahd2 ,yate1 p4 #hb2 ,polack1 vol4 i4 p4 #ea2 ,a4 ,s4 ,thomson1 vol4 i4 p4 #aah2 ,klemm1 #8,cultur-,gesch4' vol4 iv4 p4 #cjd4 ,see ,schirren1 #8,wandersagen der ,neuseelnder1' pp4 #eh1 #ahc2 ,shortland1 p4 #ade4 ,footnote #ajda3 ,ellis1 #8,madagascar1' vol4 i4 p4 #aeb4 ,footnote #ajdb3 ,munzinger1 #8,ost-,afrika1' p4 #chg4 ,footnote #ajdc3 ,park1 #8,travels1' ch4 vi4 ,footnote #ajdd3 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,western ,africa1' p4 #cii4 ,see also ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bgi 7,watje72 #8,anthropological ,review1' ,nov4 #ahfd1 p4 #bdc 7,mpongwe72 ,barker-,webb and ,berthelot1 vol4 ii4 p4 #afc 7,tenerife74 ,footnote #ajde3 ,see pp4 #e1 #dcg4 ,footnote #ajdf3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part i4 p4 #bfa2 part iii4 p4 #bdc1 c4 ,charlevoix1 #8,nouvelle ,france1' vol4 v4 p4 #dbe4 ,wilson in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iv4 p4 #bid4 ,footnote #ajdg3 ,casalis1 #8,basutos1' p4 #bfg4 ,footnote #ajdh3 ,kolben1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bgc1 #bhc4 ,footnote #ajdi3 ,bosman1 in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 pp4 #dbc1 #ebg2 ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ajg1 #dfc4 ,footnote #ajej3 ,pallas1 #8,mongolische ,vlkerschaften1' vol4 i4 p4 #aff1 c42 ,strahlenberg1 #8,siberia1' p4 #ig4 ,footnote #ajea3 ,bourien in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #ha4 ,footnote #ajeb3 ,dalton in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vi4 p4 #bb2 ,shortt1 ibid4 vol4 iii4 p4 #cge4 ,footnote #ajec3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part i4 p4 #bee4 ,footnote #ajed3 ,brinton1 #8,myths of ,new ,world1' p4 #abg4 ,footnote #ajee3 ,ellis1 #8,madagascar1' vol4 i4 p4 #bda2 see pp4 #djg1 #dai4 ,footnote #ajef3 ,casalis1 #8,basutos1' p4 #beh4 ,footnote #ajeg3 ,grout1 #8,zulu-land1' p4 #adg2 ,backhouse1 #8,mauritius and ,s4 ,africa1' pp4 #bac1 #bbe4 ,footnote #ajeh3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 iii4 p4 #ge2 ,rubruquis1 in ,pinkerton1 vol4 vii4 p4 #hb2 ,plano ,carpini in ,hakluyt1 vol4 i4 p4 #cg4 ,footnote #ajei3 ,rivero and ,tschudi1 #8,peruvian ,antiquities1' p4 #ahj2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrelig4' p4 #chi2 ,acosta1 #8,ind4 ,occ4' v4 c4 #be2 ,brinton1 p4 #abf4 ,see account of the rite of driving out sicknesses and evils into the rivers1 #8,rites and ,laws of ,incas1' tr4 and ed4 by ,c4 ,r4 ,markham1 p4 #bb4 ,footnote #ajfj3 ,sahagun1 #8,nueva ,espaa1' lib4 vi42 ,torquemada1 #8,monarquia ,indiana1' lib4 xii42 ,clavigero1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ci1 #hf1 c42 ,humboldt1 #8,vues des ,cordillres1' ,mendoza ,cod42 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #feb4 ,footnote #ajfa3 ,siebold1 #8,nippon1' v4 p4 #bb2 ,kempfer1 #8,japan1' ch4 xiii4 in ,pinkerton1 vol4 vii4 ,footnote #ajfb3 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 i4 p4 #abj1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bgc4 ,davis1 vol4 i4 p4 #bfi4 ,footnote #ajfc3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bdg2 ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ajf2 ,symes in ,pinkerton1 vol4 ix4 p4 #dce4 ,footnote #ajfd3 ,kppen1 #8,religion des ,buddha1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cbj2 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' pp4 #aea1 #baa2 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #dii4 ,footnote #ajfe3 ,leems1 #8,finnmarkens ,lapper4' ,copenhagen1 c4 xiv41 xxii41 and ,jessen1 c4 xiv42 ,pinkerton1 vol4 i4 p4 #dhc2 ,klemm1 #8,cultur-,gesch4' vol4 iii4 p4 #gg4 ,footnote #ajff3 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #if1 #bdf1 #ccg2 ,colebrooke1 #8,essays1' vol4 ii4 ,wuttke1 #8,gesch4 des ,heidenthums1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cgh4 #8,rig-,veda1' i4 #bb1 #bc4 ,footnote #ajfg3 ,avesta1 ,vendidad1 v4-xii42 ,lord1 in ,pinkerton1 vol4 viii4 p4 #egj2 ,naoroji1 #8,parsee ,religion'2 ,polak1 #8,persien1' vol i4 p4 #cee1 c41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bga4 ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #abe4 ,footnote #ajfh3 ,details in ,smith's #8,dic4 of ,gr4 and ,rom4 ,ant4' and ,pauly1 #8,real-,encyclopedie1' s4v4 #8amphidromia1' #8lustratio1' #8sacrificium1' #8funus'2 ,meiners1 #8,gesch4 der ,religionen1' book vii42 ,lomeyer1 #8,de ,veterum ,gentilium ,lustrationibus'2 ,montfaucon1 #8,l',antiquit ,explique1' c4 ,special passages2 ,homer1 ,il4 vi4 #bff2 ,eurip4 ,ion4 #if2 ,theocrit4 xxiv4 #ie2 ,virg4 n4 ii4 #gai2 ,plaut4 ,aulular4 iii4 #f2 ,pers4 ,sat4 ii4 #ca2 ,ovid4 ,fast4 i4 #ffi1 ii4 #de1 iv4 #gbg2 ,festus1 s4v4 #8aqua et ignis1' c4 ,the obscure subject of lustration in the mysteries is here left untouched4 ,footnote #ajfi3 ,ex4 xxix4 #d1 xxx4 #ah1 xl4 #ab2 ,lev4 viii4 #f1 xiv4 #h1 xv4 #e1 xxii4 #f2 ,numb4 xix4 c42 ,lightfoot in #8,works1' vol4 xi42 ,browne in ,smith's #8,dic4 of the ,bible1' s4v4 #8baptism2' ,calmet1 #8,dic4' c4 ,footnote #ajgj3 ,reland1 #8,de ,religione ,mohammedanica2' ,lane1 #8,modern ,eg4' vol4 i4 p4 #ih1 c4 ,footnote #ajga3 ,bingham1 #8,antiquities of ,christian ,church1' book xi4 ch4 #b4 ,grimm1 #8,deutsche ,mythologie1' p4 #eib2 ,leslie1 #8,early ,races of ,scotland1' vol4 i4 p4 #aac2 ,pennant1 in ,pinkerton1 vol4 iii4 p4 #chc4 ,footnote #ajgb3 ,rituale ,romanum2 ,gaume1 #8,l',eau ,bnite2' ,middleton1 #8,letter from ,rome1' c4 ,footnote #ajgc3 ,rituale ,romanum4 ,bingham1 book x4 ch4 #b1 book xv4 ch4 #c4 ,see ,mark vii4 #cd1 viii4 #bc2 ,john ix4 #f4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,conclusion4 ,practical results of the study of ,primitive ,culture--,its bearing least upon ,positive ,science1 greatest upon ,intellectual1 ,moral1 ,social1 and ,political ,philosophy--,language--,mythology--,eth ics and ,law--,religion--,action of the ,science of ,culture1 as a means of furthering progress and removing hindrance1 effective in the course of ,civilization4 ,it now remains1 in bringing to a close these investigations on the relation of primitive to modern civilization1 to urge the practical import of the considerations raised in their course4 ,granted that archology1 leading the student's mind back to remotest known conditions of human life1 shows such life to have been of unequivocally savage type2 granted that the rough-hewn flint hatchet1 dug out from amidst the bones of mammoths in a drift gravel-bed to lie on an ethnologist's writing-table1 is to him a very type of primitive culture1 simple yet crafty1 clumsy yet purposeful1 low in artistic level yet fairly started on the ascent toward highest development--what then8 ,of course the history and pr-history of man take their proper places in the general scheme of knowledge4 ,of course the doctrine of the world-long evolution of civilization is one which philosophic minds will take up with eager interest1 as a theme of abstract science4 ,but beyond this1 such research has its practical side1 as a source of power destined to influence the course of modern ideas and actions4 ,to establish a connexion between what uncultured ancient men thought and did1 and what cultured modern men think and do1 is not a matter of inapplicable theoretic knowledge1 for it raises the issue1 how far are modern opinion and conduct based on the strong ground of soundest modern knowledge1 or how far only on such knowledge as was available in the earlier and ruder stages of culture where their types were shaped4 ,it has to be maintained that the early history of man has its bearing1 almost ignored as that bearing has been by those whom it ought most stringently to affect1 on some of the deepest and most vital points of our intellectual1 industrial1 and social state4 ,even in advanced sciences1 such as relate to measure and force and structure in the inorganic and organic world1 it is at once a common and a serious error to adopt the principle of letting bygones be bygones4 ,were scientific systems the oracular revelations they sometimes all but pretend to be1 it might be justifiable to take no note of the condition of mere opinion or fancy that preceded them4 ,but the investigator who turns from his modern text-books to the antiquated dissertations of the great thinkers of the past1 gains from the history of his own craft a truer view of the relation of theory to fact1 learns from the course of growth in each current hypothesis to appreciate its raison d'tre and full significance1 and even finds that a return to older starting-points may enable him to find new paths1 where the modern track seems stopped by impassable barriers4 ,it is true that rudimentary conditions of arts and sciences are often rather curious than practically instructive1 especially because the modern practitioner has kept up1 as mere elementary processes1 the results of the ancient or savage man's most strenuous efforts4 ,perhaps our tool-makers may not gain more than a few suggestive hints from a museum of savage implements1 our physicians may only be interested in savage recipes so far as they involve the use of local drugs1 our mathematicians may leave to the infant-school the highest flights of savage arithmetic1 our astronomers may only find in the star-craft of the lower races an uninstructive combination of myth and commonplace4 ,but there are departments of knowledge1 of not less consequence than mechanics and medicine1 arithmetic and astronomy1 in which the study of the lowest stages1 as influencing the practical acceptance of the higher1 cannot be thus carelessly set aside4 ,if we survey the state of educated opinion1 not within the limits of some special school1 but in the civilized world at large1 on such subjects especially as relate to ,man1 his intellectual and moral nature1 his place and function among his fellow-men and in the universe at large1 we see existing side by side1 as if of equal right1 opinions most diverse in real authority4 ,some1 vouched for by direct and positive evidence1 hold their ground as solid truths4 ,others1 though founded on crudest theories of the lower culture1 have been so modified under the influence of advancing knowledge1 as to afford a satisfactory framework for recognized facts2 and positive science1 mindful of the origin of its own philosophic schemes1 must admit the validity of such a title4 ,others1 lastly1 are opinions belonging properly to lower intellectual levels1 which have held their place into the higher by mere force of ancestral tradition2 these are survivals4 ,now it is the practical office of ethnography to make known to all whom it may concern the tenure of opinions in the public mind1 to show what is received on its own direct evidence1 what is ruder ancient doctrine reshaped to answer modern ends1 and what is but time-honoured superstition in the garb of modern knowledge4 ,topic after topic shows at a glimpse the way in which ethnography bears on modern intellectual conditions4 ,language1 appearing as an art in full vigour among rude tribes1 already displays the adaptation of childlike devices in self-expressive sound and pictorial metaphor1 to utter thoughts as complex and abstruse as savage minds demand speech for4 ,when it is considered how far the development of knowledge depends on full and exact means of expressing thought1 is it not a pregnant consideration that the language of civilized men is but the language of savages1 more or less improved in structure1 a good deal extended in vocabulary1 made more precise in the dictionary definition of words8 ,the development of language between its savage and cultured stages has been made in its details1 scarcely in its principle4 ,it is not too much to say that half the vast defect of language as a method of utterance1 and half the vast defect of thought as determined by the influence of language1 are due to the fact that speech is a scheme worked out by the rough and ready application of material metaphor and imperfect analogy1 in ways fitting rather the barbaric education of those who formed it1 than our own4 ,language is one of those intellectual departments in which we have gone too little beyond the savage stage1 but are still as it were hacking with stone celts and twirling laborious friction-fire4 ,metaphysical speculation1 again1 has been one of the potent influences on human conduct1 and although its rise1 and one may almost say also its decline and fall1 belong to comparatively civilized ages1 yet its connexion with lower stages of intellectual history may to some extent be discerned4 ,for example1 attention may be recalled to a special point brought forward in this work1 that one of the greatest metaphysical doctrines is a transfer to the field of philosophy from the field of religion1 made when philosophers familiar with the conception of object-phantoms used this to provide a doctrine of thought1 thus giving rise to the theory of ideas4 ,far more fully and distinctly1 the study of the savage and barbaric intellect opens to us the study of ,mythology4 ,the evidence here brought together as to the relation of the savage to the cultured mind in the matter of mythology has1 ,i think1 at any rate justified this claim4 ,with a consistency of action so general as to amount to mental law1 it is proved that among the lower races all over the world the operation of outward events on the inward mind leads not only to statement of fact1 but to formation of myth4 ,it gives no unimportant clues to the student of mental history1 to see by what regular processes myths are generated1 and how1 growing by wear and increasing in value at secondhand1 they pass into pseudo-historic legend4 ,poetry is full of myth1 and he who will understand it analytically will do well to study it ethnographically4 ,in so far as myth1 seriously or sportively meant1 is the subject of poetry1 and in so far as it is couched in language whose characteristic is that wild and rambling metaphor which represents the habitual expression of savage thought1 the mental condition of the lower races is the key to poetry--nor is it a small portion of the poetic realm which these definitions cover4 ,history1 again1 is an agent powerful1 and becoming more powerful1 in shaping men's minds1 and through their minds their actions in the world2 now one of the most prominent faults of historians is that1 through want of familiarity with the principles of myth-development1 they cannot apply systematically to ancient legend the appropriate test for separating chronicle from myth1 but with few exceptions are apt to treat the mingled mass of tradition partly with undiscriminating credulity and partly with undiscriminating scepticism4 ,even more injurious is the effect of such want of testing on that part of traditional or documentary record which1 among any section of mankind1 stands as sacred history4 ,it is not merely that in turning to the index of some book on savage tribes1 one comes on such a suggestive heading as this1 #8,religion--see ,mythology4' ,it is that within the upper half of the scale of civilization1 among the great historic religions of the world1 we all know that between religion and religion1 and even to no small extent between sect and sect1 the narratives which to one side are sacred history1 may seem to the other mythic legend4 ,among the reasons which retard the progress of religious history in the modern world1 one of the most conspicuous is this1 that so many of its approved historians demand from the study of mythology always weapons to destroy their adversaries' structures1 but never tools to clear and trim their own4 ,it is an indispensable qualification of the true historian that he shall be able to look dispassionately on myth as a natural and regular product of the human mind1 acting on appropriate facts in a manner suited to the intellectual state of the people producing it1 and that he shall treat it as an accretion to be deducted from professed history1 whenever it is recognized by the tests of being decidedly against evidence as fact1 and at the same time clearly explicable as myth4 ,it is from the ethnographic study of savage and barbaric races that the knowledge of the general laws of myth-development1 required for the carrying out of this critical process1 may be best or must necessarily be gained4 ,the two vast united provinces of ,morals and ,law have been as yet too imperfectly treated on a general ethnographic scheme1 to warrant distinct statement of results4 ,yet thus much may be confidently said1 that where the ground has been even superficially explored1 every glimpse reveals treasures of knowledge4 ,it is already evident that enquirers who systematically trace each department of moral and legal institutions from the savage through the barbaric and into the civilized condition of mankind1 thereby introduce into the scientific investigations of these subjects an indispensable element which merely theoretical writers are apt unscrupulously to dispense with4 ,the law or maxim which a people at some particular stage of its history might have made fresh1 according to the information and circumstances of the period1 is one thing4 ,the law or maxim which did in fact become current among them by inheritance from an earlier stage1 only more or less modified to make it compatible with the new conditions1 is another and far different thing4 ,ethnography is required to bridge over the gap between the two1 a very chasm where the arguments of moralists and legists are continually falling in1 to crawl out maimed and helpless4 ,within modern grades of civilization this historical method is now becoming more and more accepted4 ,it will not be denied that ,english law has acquired1 by modified inheritance from past ages1 a theory of primogeniture and a theory of real estate which are so far from being products of our own times that we must go back to the middle ages for anything like a satisfactory explanation of them2 and as for more absolute survival1 did not ,jewish disabilities stand practically1 and the wager of battle nominally1 in our law of not many years back8 ,but the point to be pressed here is1 that the development and survival of law are processes that did not first come into action within the range of written codes of comparatively cultured nations4 ,admitted that civilized law requires its key from barbaric law2 it must be borne in mind that the barbarian lawgiver too was guided in judgment not so much by first principles1 as by a reverent and often stupidly reverent adherence to the tradition of earlier and yet ruder ages4 ,nor can these principles be set aside in the scientific study of moral sentiment and usage4 ,when the ethical systems of mankind1 from the lowest savagery upward1 have been analyzed and arranged in their stages of evolution1 then ethical science1 no longer vitiated by too exclusive application to particular phases of morality taken unreasonably as representing morality in general1 will put its methods to fair trial on the long and intricate world-history of right and wrong4 ,in concluding a work of which full half is occupied by evidence bearing on the philosophy of religion1 it may well be asked1 how does all this array of facts stand toward the theologian's special province8 ,that the world sorely needs new evidence and method in theology1 the state of religion in our own land bears witness4 ,take ,english ,protestantism as a central district of opinion1 draw an ideal line through its centre1 and ,english thought is seen to be divided as by a polarizing force extending to the utmost limits of repulsion4 ,on one side of the dividing line stand such as keep firm hold on the results of the #afth century reformation1 or seek yet more original canons from the first ,christian ages2 on the other side stand those who1 refusing to be bound by the doctrinal judgments of past centuries1 but introducing modern science and modern criticism as new factors in theological opinion1 are eagerly pressing toward a new reformation4 ,outside these narrower limits1 extremer partizans occupy more distant ground on either side4 ,on the one hand the ,anglican blends gradually into the ,roman scheme1 a system so interesting to the ethnologist for its maintenance of rites more naturally belonging to barbaric culture2 a system so hateful to the man of science for its suppression of knowledge1 and for that usurpation of intellectual authority by a sacerdotal caste which has at last reached its climax1 now that an aged bishop can judge1 by infallible inspiration1 the results of researches whose evidence and methods are alike beyond his knowledge and his mental grasp4 ,on the other hand1 intellect1 here trampled under foot of dogma1 takes full revenge elsewhere1 even within the domain of religion1 in those theological districts where reason takes more and more the command over hereditary belief1 like a mayor of the palace superseding a nominal king4 ,in yet farther ranges of opinion1 religious authority is simply deposed and banished1 and the throne of absolute reason is set up without a rival even in name2 in secularism the feeling and imagination which in the religious world are bound to theological belief1 have to attach themselves to a positive natural philosophy1 and to a positive morality which shall of its own force control the acts of men4 ,such1 then1 is the boundless divergence of opinion among educated citizens of an enlightened country1 in an age scarcely approached by any former age in the possession of actual knowledge and the strenuous pursuit of truth as the guiding principle of life4 ,of the causes which have brought to pass so perplexed a condition of public thought1 in so momentous a matter as theology1 there is one1 and that a weighty one1 which demands mention here4 ,it is the partial and one-sided application of the historical method of enquiry into theological doctrines1 and the utter neglect of the ethnographical method which carries back the historical into remoter and more primitive regions of thought4 ,looking at each doctrine by itself and for itself1 as in the abstract true or untrue1 theologians close their eyes to the instances which history is ever holding up before them1 that one phase of a religious belief is the outcome of another1 that in all times religion has included within its limits a system of philosophy1 expressing its more or less transcendental conceptions in doctrines which form in any age their fittest representatives1 but which doctrines are liable to modification in the general course of intellectual change1 whether the ancient formulas still hold their authority with altered meaning1 or are themselves reformed or replaced4 ,christendom furnishes evidence to establish this principle1 if for example we will but candidly compare the educated opinion of ,rome in the #eth with that of ,london in the #aith century1 on such subjects as the nature and functions of soul1 spirit1 deity1 and judge by the comparison in what important respects the philosophy of religion has come to differ even among men who represent in different ages the same great principles of faith4 ,the general study of the ethnography of religion1 through all its immensity of range1 seems to countenance the theory of evolution in its highest and widest sense4 ,in the treatment of some of its topics here1 ,i have propounded special hypotheses as to the order in which various stages of doctrine and rite have succeeded one another in the history of religion4 ,yet how far these particular theories may hold good1 seems even to myself a minor matter4 ,the essential part of the ethnographic method in theology lies in admitting as relevant the compared evidence of religion in all stages of culture4 ,the action of such evidence on theology proper is in this wise1 that a vast proportion of doctrines and rites known among mankind are not to be judged as direct products of the particular religious systems which give them sanction1 for they are in fact more or less modified results adopted from previous systems4 ,the theologian1 as he comes to deal with each element of belief and worship1 ought to ascertain its place in the general scheme of religion4 ,should the doctrine or rite in question appear to have been transmitted from an earlier to a later stage of religious thought1 then it should be tested1 like any other point of culture1 as to its place in development4 ,the question has to be raised1 to which of these three categories it belongs3--is it a product of the earlier theology1 yet sound enough to maintain a rightful place in the later8--is it derived from a cruder original1 yet so modified as to become a proper representative of more advanced views8--is it a survival from a lower stage of thought1 imposing on the credit of the higher by virtue not of inherent truth but of ancestral belief8 ,these are queries the very asking of which starts trains of thought which candid minds should be encouraged to pursue1 leading as they do toward the attainment of such measure of truth as the intellectual condition of our age fits us to assimilate4 ,in the scientific study of religion1 which now shows signs of becoming for many a year an engrossing subject of the world's thought1 the decision must not rest with a council in which the theologian1 the metaphysician1 the biologist1 the physicist1 exclusively take part4 ,the historian and the ethnographer must be called upon to show the hereditary standing of each opinion and practice1 and their enquiry must go back as far as antiquity or savagery can show a vestige1 for there seems no human thought so primitive as to have lost its bearing on our own thought1 nor so ancient as to have broken its connection with our own life4 ,it is our happiness to live in one of those eventful periods of intellectual and moral history1 when the oft-closed gates of discovery and reform stand open at their widest4 ,how long these good days may last1 we cannot tell4 ,it may be that the increasing power and range of the scientific method1 with its stringency of argument and constant check of fact1 may start the world on a more steady and continuous course of progress than it has moved on heretofore4 ,but if history is to repeat itself according to precedent1 we must look forward to stiffer duller ages of traditionalists and commentators1 when the great thinkers of our time will be appealed to as authorities by men who slavishly accept their tenets1 yet cannot or dare not follow their methods through better evidence to higher ends4 ,in either case1 it is for those among us whose minds are set on the advancement of civilization1 to make the most of present opportunities1 that even when in future years progress is arrested1 it may be arrested at the higher level4 ,to the promoters of what is sound and reformers of what is faulty in modern culture1 ethnography has double help to give4 ,to impress men's minds with a doctrine of development1 will lead them in all honour to their ancestors to continue the progressive work of past ages1 to continue it the more vigorously because light has increased in the world1 and where barbaric hordes groped blindly1 cultured men can often move onward with clear view4 ,it is a harsher1 and at times even painful1 office of ethnography to expose the remains of crude old culture which have passed into harmful superstition1 and to mark these out for destruction4 ,yet this work1 if less genial1 is not less urgently needful for the good of mankind4 ,thus1 active at once in aiding progress and in removing hindrance1 the science of culture is essentially a reformer's science4 ,,index4 ,abacus1 i4 #bgj4 ,accent1 i4 #agc4 ,acephali1 i4 #cij4 ,achilles3--vulnerable spot1 i4 #ceh2 dream1 i4 #ddd2 in ,hades1 ii4 #ha4 ,acosta1 on ,american archetypal deities1 ii4 #bdd4 ,adam1 ii4 #cab1 #cae4 lian1 i4 #cgb1 ii4 #dbc2 on ,kynokephali1 i4 #chi4 olus1 i4 #cfa1 ii4 #bfi4 sculapius3--incubation in temple1 ii4 #aba2 serpents of1 ii4 #bda4 ,affirmative and negative particles1 i4 #aib4 ,afghans1 race-genealogy of1 i4 #djc4 ,agni1 ii4 #bha1 #chf4 ,agreement in custom and opinion no proof of soundness1 i4 #ac4 ,agriculture1 god of1 ii4 #cje4 ,ahriman1 ii4 #cbh4 ,ahura-,mazda1 ii4 #bhc1 #cbh1 #cee4 ,alexander the ,great1 i4 #cie1 ii4 #ach4 ,alfonso di ,liguori1 ,st41 bilocation of1 i4 #ddg4 ,alger1 ,w4 ,r41 i4 #dga1 #dhd1 ii4 #hc4 ,algonquin languages1 animate and inanimate genders1 i4 #cjb4 ,ali as ,thunder-god1 ii4 #bfd4 ,all ,souls'1 feast of dead1 ii4 #cg4 ,allegory1 i4 #bgg1 #djh4 ,aloysius ,gonzaga1 ,st41 letters to1 ii4 #abb4 ,alphabet1 i4 #aga2 by raps1 i4 #ade2 as numeral series1 i4 #beh4 ,amatongo1 i4 #ddc1 ii4 #aae1 #aca1 #cac1 #cfg1 #chg4 ,amenti1 ,egyptian dead-land1 ii4 #fg1 #ha1 #if1 #bie1 #caa4 ,amphidromia1 ii4 #dci4 ,analogy1 myth product of1 i4 #big4 ,ancestors1 eponymic myths of1 i4 #cih1 ii4 #bcd2 worship of divine1 ii4 #aac1 #caa2 see ,manes-worship1 ,totem-worship4 ,ancestral names indicate re-birth of souls1 ii4 #e4 ,ancestral tablet1 ,chinese1 ii4 #aah1 #aeb4 ,andaman ,islanders1 mythic origin of1 i4 #cfi1 #chi4 ,angang1 omen from meeting animal1 i41 #abj4 ,angel1 see ,spirit2 of death1 i4 #bie1 ii4 #aif1 #cbb4 ,angelo1 ,st41 legend of1 i4 #bie4 ,anima1 animus1 i4 #dcc1 #dgj4 ,animals3--omens from1 i4 #abj2 calls to and cries of1 #agg2 imitative names from cries1 c41 #bjf2 treated as human1 i4 #dfg1 ii4 #bcj2 souls of1 i4 #dfi2 future life and funeral sacrifice of1 i4 #dfi1 ii4 #ge1 c42 entry and transmigration of souls into and possession by spirits1 ii4 #g1 #aeb1 #afa1 #age1 #bca1 #bda1 #cgh1 c42 diseases transferred to1 ii4 #adg2 see spirits invisible to men1 ii4 #aif4 ,animals1 sacred1 incarnations or representatives of deities1 ii4 #bca2 receive and consume sacrifices1 #cgh4 ,animal-worship1 i4 #dfg1 ii4 #bbi1 #cgh4 ,animism3--defined1 i4 #bc1 #dbe2 is the philosophy of religion1 i4 #dbf1 ii4 #cef2 is a primitive scientific system of man and nature based on the conception of the human soul1 i4 #dbh1 #dii1 ii4 #ajh1 #ahd1 #cef2 its stages of development1 survival1 and decline1 i4 #dii1 ii4 #aha1 #cef4 ,see ,soul1 ,spirit1 c41 c4 ,anra-,mainyu1 ii4 #cbh4 ,antar1 tumulus of1 ii4 #bi4 ,anthropomorphic conceptions of spirit and deity1 ii4 #aaj1 #ahd1 #bdg1 #cce4 ,antipodes1 i4 #cib4 ,ape-men1 i4 #cgi2 apes degenerate men1 #cgf2 can but will not talk1 #cgi4 ,apollo1 ii4 #bid4 ,apophis-serpent1 ii4 #bda4 ,apotheosis1 ii4 #abj4 ,apparitional soul1 i4 #dbh2 its likeness to body1 #dej4 ,apparitions1 i4 #adc1 #ddj1 #dde1 #dgh1 ii4 #bd1 #ahg1 #daj1 c4 ,archetypal deities and ideas1 ii4 #bdc4 ,ares1 ii4 #cjh4 ,argos ,panoptes1 i4 #cbj4 ,argyll1 ,duke of1 on primval man1 i4 #fj4 ,arithmetic1 see ,counting4 ,arriero1 i4 #aia4 ,arrows1 magic1 i4 #cde4 ,artemidorus1 on dream-omens1 i4 #abb4 ,artemis1 ii4 #cjb4 ,aryan race3--no savage tribe among1 i4 #di2 antiquity of culture1 i4 #ed4 ,ascendant in horoscope1 i4 #abi4 ,ashera1 worship of1 ii4 #aff1 #bbf4 ,ashes strewn for spirit-footprints1 i4 #dee4 ii4 #aig4 ,asmodeus1 ii4 #bed4 ,association of ideas1 foundation of magic1 i4 #aaf4 ,astrology1 i4 #abh1 #bia4 ,atahentsic1 ii4 #bii1 #cji1 #cbc4 ,atahocan1 ii4 #cbc1 #cdj4 ,atavism1 explained by transmigration1 ii4 #c4 ,atheist1 use of word1 i4 #dbj4 ,augury1 c41 i4 #aai4 ,see ii4 #agi1 #bcb4 ,augustine1 ,st41 i4 #aii1 #dda1 ii4 #ed1 #dbg2 on dreams1 i4 #dda2 on incubi1 ii4 #aij4 ,augustus1 genius of1 ii4 #bjb4 ,avatars1 ii4 #bci4 ,avernus1 ,lake1 ii4 #de4 ,ayenbite of ,inwyt1 i4 #def4 ,baal-,shemesh1 ii4 #bie4 ,bacon1 ,lord1 on allegory1 i4 #bgg4 ,btyls1 animated stones1 ii4 #aff4 ,baku1 burning wells of1 ii4 #bha4 ,baldr1 i4 #dfd4 ,bale1 ,bishop1 i4 #chd2 on witchcraft1 i4 #adb4 ,bands1 clerical1 i4 #ah4 ,baptism1 ii4 #ddj2 orientation in1 #dbg4 ,baring-,gould1 ,s41 on werewolves1 i4 #cad4 ,bastian1 ,adolf1 ,mensch in der ,geschichte1 i4 vi42 ii4 #bji1 #bbb1 #bdb1 #bhj1 c4 ,baudet1 etymology of1 i4 #dac4 ,beal1 ii4 #beb1 #djh4 ,bear1 ,great1 i4 #cei4 ,beast-fables1 i4 #cha1 #dji4 ,bees1 telling1 i4 #bhg4 ,bel1 ii4 #bic1 #chj1 #chd4 ,berkeley1 ,bishop1 on ideas1 i4 #dii2 on force and matter1 ii4 #afj4 ,bewitching by objects1 i4 #aaf4 ,bible and key1 ordeal by1 i4 #abh4 ,bilocation1 i4 #ddg4 ,bird1 of thunder1 i4 #cfb2 bird conveys spirit1 ii4 #afa1 #age4 ,blackstone's ,commentaries1 i4 #bj4 ,blemmy1 headless men1 i4 #cij4 ,blood3--related to soul1 i4 #dca2 revives ghosts1 ii4 #dh2 offered to deities1 #cha2 substitute for life1 #djb4 ,blood-red stain1 myths to account for1 i4 #djf4 ,bloodsuckers1 ii4 #aia4 ,blow-tube1 i4 #fg4 ,bo tree1 ii4 #bah4 ,boar's head1 ii4 #djh4 ,boats without iron1 myth on1 i4 #cgd4 ,bochica1 i4 #cec1 ii4 #bij4 ,boehme1 ,jacob1 on man's primitive knowledge1 ii4 #ahe4 ,bolotu1 ii4 #bb1 #fb1 #caj4 ,boni ,homines1 i4 #gg4 ,book of ,dead1 ,egyptian1 ii4 #ac1 #if4 ,boomerang1 i4 #fg4 ,boreas1 i4 #cfb1 ii4 #bfh4 ,bosjesman1 etymology of word1 i4 #cha4 ,bow and ,arrow1 i4 #g1 #ae1 #fd1 #gc4 ,brahma1 ii4 #ced1 #dbe4 ,brahmanism3--funeral rites1 i4 #dfe1 c42 transmigration1 ii4 #i1 #ai1 #ig2 manes-worship1 #aai2 stone-worship1 #afd2 idolatry1 #agh2 animal-worship1 #bch2 sun-worship1 #bib2 orientation1 #dbe2 lustration1 #dcg4 ,breath1 its relation to soul1 i4 #dcb4 ,bride-capture1 game of1 i4 #gb4 ,bridge1 first crossing1 i4 #ajf2 of dead1 i4 #die1 ii4 #ej1 #id1 #ajj1 c4 ,brinton1 ,d4 ,g41 i4 #ec1 #cfa1 ii4 #ij1 #cdj2 on dualistic myths1 ii4 #cbj4 ,britain1 eponymic kings of1 i4 #djj2 voyage of souls to1 ii4 #fd4 ,brosses1 ,c4 de1 on degeneration and development1 i4 #cf2 origin of language1 #afa2 fetishism1 ii4 #add2 species-deities1 #bdf4 ,browne1 ,sir ,thos41 on magnetic mountain1 i4 #cge4 ,brutus1 evil genius of1 ii4 #bjc4 ,brynhild1 i4 #dfe4 ,buck1 buck1 game of1 i4 #gd4 ,buddha1 transmigrations of1 i4 #dad1 ii4 #aa4 ,buddhism3--culture-tradition1 i4 #da2 saints rise in air1 i4 #adi2 transmigration1 ii4 #aa1 #bj1 #ig2 nirvana1 ii4 #gi2 tree-worship1 i4 #dgf1 ii4 #bag2 serpent-worship1 #bdj2 religious formulas1 #cgb4 ,buildings1 victim immured in foundation1 i4 #ajd1 c42 mythic founders of1 i4 #cid4 ,bull1 ,bishop1 on guardian angels1 ii4 #bjc4 ,bura ,pennu1 ii4 #cbg1 #cej1 #cfh1 #djd4 ,burial1 ghost wanders till1 ii4 #bg2 corpse laid east and west1 #dbc4 ,burning oats from straw1 i4 #dd4 ,burton1 ,r4 ,f41 continuance-theory of future life1 ii4 #ge2 disease-spirits1 #aej4 ,burton1 ,anatomy of ,melancholy1 incubi1 c41 ii4 #aia4 ,buschmann1 on nature-sound1 i4 #bbc4 ,butler1 ,bishop1 on natural religion1 ii4 #cef4 ,cacodmon1 ii4 #ach1 #bjb4 ,csar1 on ,german deities1 ii4 #bid4 ,cagots1 i4 #aae1 #chd4 ,calls to animals1 i4 #agg4 ,calmet1 on souls1 i4 #deg2 on spirits1 ii4 #ahh1 c4 ,calumet1 i4 #baj4 ,candles against demons1 ii4 #aid4 ,cant1 myth on word1 i4 #cig4 ,cardinal numbers1 i4 #beg4 ,cards1 ,playing1 i4 #hb1 #abf4 ,cassava1 i4 #fc4 ,castrn1 ii4 #hj1 #aee1 #agg1 #bde1 #cea1 c4 ,cave-men1 condition of1 i4 #ei4 ,ceremonies1 religious1 ii4 #cfb1 c4 ,ceres1 ii4 #cjf4 ,chances1 games of1 their relation to arts of divination1 i4 #gh4 ,chanticleer1 i4 #dac4 ,charivari at eclipse1 i4 #cbi4 ,charms3--objects1 i4 #aah1 ii4 #adh2 formulas1 their relation to prayers1 ii4 #cgc4 ,charon1 i4 #dij1 ii4 #ic4 ,chesterfield1 ,lord1 on customs1 i4 #ie2 on omens1 i4 #aah4 ,chic1 myth on word1 i4 #cig4 ,child-birth-goddess1 ii4 #cje4 ,children1 numerical series of names for1 i4 #bed2 suckled by wild beasts1 i4 #bha2 receive ancestors' souls and names1 ii4 #d2 sacrifice of1 ii4 #cih1 #djc4 ,children's language1 i4 #bbc4 ,china1 religion of3--funeral rites1 i4 #dfd1 #dic2 manes-worship1 ii4 #aah2 cultus of heaven and earth1 #beg1 #bgb1 #ceb2 divine hierarchy1 #ceb2 prayer1 #cgj2 sacrifices1 #che1 #dje4 ,chinese culture-tradition1 i4 #dj2 remains in ,borneo1 i4 #eg4 ,chiromancy or palmistry1 i4 #abe4 ,chirp or twitter of ghosts1 c41 i4 #dec4 ,christmas1 origin of1 ii4 #big4 ,chronology1 limits of ancient1 i4 #ed4 ,cicero1 on dreams1 i4 #ddd2 sun-gods1 ii4 #bid4 ,civilization1 see ,culture4 ,civilization-myths1 i4 #ci1 #cec4 ,civilized men adopt savage life1 i4 #de4 ,clairvoyance1 by objects1 i4 #aaf4 ,clashing rocks1 myth of1 i4 #cdg4 ,clicks1 i4 #aga1 #aib4 ,cocoa-nut1 divination by1 i4 #hj4 ,coin placed with dead1 i4 #dij1 #did4 ,columba1 ,st41 legend of1 i4 #ajd4 ,columbus1 his quest of ,earthly ,paradise1 ii4 #fa4 ,common1 right of1 i4 #bj4 ,comparative theology1 ii4 #bea4 ,comte1 ,auguste1 i4 #ai2 fetishism1 i4 #dgg1 ii4 #add1 #ced2 species-deities1 #bdb4 ,confucius1 i4 #aeg2 funeral sacrifice1 i4 #dfd1 ii4 #db2 spirits1 #bjf2 name of supreme deity1 #ceb4 ,consonants1 i4 #afi4 ,constellations1 myths of1 i4 #bij1 #cef4 ,continuance-theory of future life1 ii4 #ge4 ,convulsions3--by demoniacal possession1 ii4 #acj2 artificially produced1 #daf4 ,convulsionnaires1 ii4 #dbj4 ,copal incense1 ii4 #chd4 ,cord1 magical connexion by1 i4 #aag4 ,corpse taken out by special opening in house1 ii4 #bf2 soul remains near1 ii4 #bi1 #aej4 ,cortes1 i4 #cai4 ,costume1 i4 #ah4 ,counting1 art of i4 #bb1 #bdj1 c42 on fingers and toes1 #bdd2 by letters of alphabet1 c41 #beh2 derivation of numeral words1 #bdg2 evidence of independent development of low tribes1 #bga4 ,counting games1 i4 #ge1 #hg4 ,couvade1 in ,south ,india1 i4 #hd4 ,cow1 name of1 i4 #bjh2 purification by nirang1 c41 ii4 #dch4 ,cox1 ,g4 ,w41 i4 #cda1 #cdf1 #cfb4 ,creator1 doctrine of1 ii4 #bdi1 #cab1 #cba1 c4 ,credibility of tradition1 i4 #bge1 #cgj4 ,crete1 earth of1 fatal to serpents1 i4 #cgb4 ,cromlechs and menhirs objects of worship1 ii4 #afd4 ,culture3-- definition of1 i4 #a2 scale of1 i4 #bf2 primitive1 represented by modern savages1 i4 #ba1 #fh1 ii4 #ddc1 c42 development of1 i4 #ba1 c41 #fb1 c41 #bcg1 #bgj1 #dag1 c41 ii4 #cef1 #dde2 evidence of independent progress from low stages1 i4 #ef1 c42 survival in culture1 #gj1 c42 evidence of early culture from language1 #bcf2 art of counting1 #bgj2 myth1 #bhd2 religion1 i4 #ejj1 ii4 #ajb1 #ahd1 #cef1 c42 practical import of study of culture1 #ddc4 ,curtius1 ,marcus1 leap of1 ii4 #cgh4 ,curupa1 cohoba1 narcotic used in ,w4 ,ind4 and ,s4 ,amer41 ii4 #daf4 ,customs1 permanence of1 i4 #gj1 #aef2 rational origin of1 #id4 ,customs of ,dahome1 i4 #dfb4 ,cyclops1 i4 #cia4 ,cyrus1 i4 #bha1 #bhf4 ,dancing for religious excitement1 ii4 #acc1 #dbj4 ,danse ,macabre1 myth on name1 i4 #cig4 ,dante1 ,divina ,commedia1 ii4 #ee1 #bbj4 ,daphne1 ii4 #bbj4 ,dark1 evil spirits in1 ii4 #aid4 ,darwin1 ,charles1 i4 vii41 ii4 #aeb1 #bbc4 ,dasent1 ,g4 ,w41 i4 #ai4 ,davenport ,brothers1 i4 #aeb1 #caa4 ,dawn1 i4 #cch1 c4 ,day1 sun as eye of1 i4 #cej4 ,day and ,night1 myths of1 i4 #cbb1 #ccg1 c41 ii4 #dh1 #cbc4 ,dead1 use objects sacrificed for them1 i4 #dhe2 feasts of1 ii4 #bi2 region of future life of1 ii4 #ei1 #gd1 #bdd2 god and judge of1 ii4 #ge1 c41 #cjh4 ,deaf and ,dumb1 counting1 i4 #bdd1 #bfb2 their mythic ideas1 i4 #bih1 #dac4 ,death3-- ascribed to sorcery1 i4 #ach2 omens of1 i4 #ade1 #ddi2 angel of1 i4 #bie1 ii4 #aif1 #ccb2 personification and myths of1 i4 #bie1 #cdi1 #cee1 ii4 #df1 c41 #cji2 death and sunset1 myths of1 i4 #cce1 ii4 #dh2 exit of soul at death1 i4 #ddh1 ii4 #a1 c42 death of soul1 ii4 #bb4 ,death-watch1 i4 #adf4 ,decimal notation1 i4 #bfa4 ,degeneration in culture1 i4 #ce1 c42 is a secondary action1 i4 #ch1 #fi2 examples of1 in ,africa1 ,north ,america1 c41 i4 #dg4 ,delphi1 oracle of1 i4 #id1 ii4 #ach4 ,demeter1 i4 #cbh1 ii4 #bgc1 #cjf4 ,democritus1 theory of ideas1 i4 #dig4 ,demons3--souls become1 ii4 #bg1 #aaa1 c42 iron1 charm against1 i4 #adj2 pervade world1 ii4 #aaa1 #acg1 #ahe1 c42 disease-demons1 #abf1 c41 #agg1 #aib1 #bae2 water-demons1 i4 #aji1 ii4 #bji2 tree and forest demons1 ii4 #bae1 #bbb2 possession and obsession by demons1 i4 #ih1 #aeb1 #cji1 ii4 #aaa1 #abc1 c41 #agi1 #djd2 expulsion of1 i4 #ajc1 ii4 #abe1 #aii1 #dch2 answer in own name through patient or medium1 ii4 #abd1 c41 #ahb1 #djd4 ,dendid1 creation-poem of1 ii4 #ba4 ,deodand1 origin of1 i4 #bj1 #bhg4 ,destruction of objects sacrificed to dead1 i4 #dhc2 to deities1 ii4 #cgf1 c4 ,development of culture1 see ,culture4 ,development myths1 men from apes1 c41 i4 #cgf4 ,devil3--as satyr1 i4 #cjg2 devils' tree1 ii4 #adh2 devil-dancers1 ii4 #acc2 devil-worshippers1 ii4 #cbi4 ,dice1 for divination and gambling1 i4 #hb4 ,dies ,natalis1 ii4 #bjb1 #big4 ,differential words1 phonetic expression of distance and sex1 i4 #bbj4 ,dirge1 ,lyke-wake1 i4 #die2 of ,ho1 ii4 #cb4 ,disease3--personification and myths of1 i4 #bie2 caused by exit of soul1 i4 #dcf2 by demoniacal possession1 c41 i4 #abg1 ii4 #aad1 #abc1 #djd2 disease-spirits1 ii4 #abe1 c41 #agh1 #bae1 #djh2 embodied in objects or animals1 #adf1 #agh1 c41 see ,demons1 ,vampires4 ,distance expressed by phonetic modification1 i4 #bbj4 ,divination3--lots1 i4 #gh2 symbolic processes1 #ha1 #aag2 augury1 c41 #aai2 dreams1 #aba2 haruspication1 #abd2 swinging ring1 c41 #abf2 astrology1 #abh2 possessed objects1 i4 #abe1 ii4 #aee4 ,divining rod and pendulum1 i4 #abg4 ,doctrines borrowed by low from high races3--on future life1 ii4 #ia2 dualism1 #caf2 supremacy1 #ccc4 ,dodona1 oak of1 ii4 #bai4 ,dog-headed men1 i4 #chi4 ,dolmens1 c41 myths suggested by1 i4 #chg4 ,domina ,abundia1 ii4 #chi4 ,dook1 ghost1 i4 #dcc4 ,d',orbigny1 on religion of low tribes1 i4 #dai2 on sun-worship1 ii4 #bhf4 ,dravidian languages1 high and low gender1 i4 #cjb4 ,dreams3-- omens by1 i4 #aba2 by contraries1 #abb2 caused by exit of soul1 i4 #ddj2 by spiritual visit to soul1 i4 #ddb1 #dgh2 evidence of future life1 ii4 #bd1 #di1 #ge2 oracular fasting for1 #daj2 narcotizing for1 #daf4 ,drift1 stone implements from1 i4 #eh4 ,drivers' and ,drovers' words1 i4 #ahj4 ,drowning1 superstition against rescuing from1 i4 #ajg2 caused by spirits1 #aji1 ii4 #bji4 ,drugs used to produce morbid excitement1 dreams1 visions1 c41 ii4 #daf4 ,dual and plural numbers in primitive culture1 i4 #bfe4 ,dualism3--good and evil spirits1 ii4 #ahf2 good and evil genius1 #bjb2 good and evil deity1 #caf4 ,dusii1 ii4 #aij4 ,dwarfs1 myths of1 i4 #che4 ,dyu1 ii4 #beh4 ,earth1 myths of1 i4 #cbb1 c41 #cfd1 ii4 #bgj1 #cbj4 ,earth-bearer1 i4 #cfd4 ,earth-goddess and earth-worship1 i4 #cbb1 c41 ii4 #bgj1 #cjf1 #cde4 ,earth-mother1 i4 #cbf1 c41 #cfe4 ,earthquake1 myths of1 i4 #cfd4 ,earthly ,paradise1 ii4 #eg1 c4 ,earthly resurrection1 ii4 #e4 ,east and ,west1 burial of dead1 turning to in worship1 adjusting temples toward1 ii4 #chc1 #dbb4 ,easter fires and festivals1 ii4 #big4 ,eclipse1 myths of1 i4 #bhh1 #cbi1 #cef2 driving off eclipse monster1 i4 #cbh4 ,ecstasy1 swoon1 c43-- by exit of soul1 i4 #dci3 by demoniacal possession1 ii4 #acj2 induced by fasting1 drugs1 excitement1 ii4 #daj1 c4 ,edda1 i4 #hd1 ii4 #gg1 c4 ,egypt1 antiquity of culture1 i4 #ed2 religion of1 future life1 ii4 #ac1 #if2 animal worship1 #bch2 sun-worship1 #bie1 #caa2 dualism1 #cbg2 polytheism and supremacy1 #cee4 ,el1 ii4 #cee4 ,elagabal1 ,elagabalus1 ,heliogabalus1 ii4 #bie1 #cih4 ,elements1 worship of the four1 ii4 #cjc4 ,elf-furrows1 myth of1 i4 #cic4 ,elijah as thunder-god1 ii4 #bfd4 ,elysium1 ii4 #ig4 ,embodiment of souls and spirits1 ii4 #c1 #abc1 c4 ,emotional tone1 i4 #aff1 c4 ,emphasis1 i4 #agc4 ,endor1 witch of1 i4 #ddf4 ,energumens or demoniacs1 ii4 #aci4 ,englishman1 ,peruvian myth of1 i4 #ced4 ,enigmas1 ,greek1 i4 #ic4 ,enoch1 ,book of1 i4 #djh4 ,enthusiasm1 changed signification of1 ii4 #ahc4 ,epicurean theory of development of culture1 i4 #cg1 #fj2 of soul1 #def2 of ideas1 #dig4 ,epileptic fits by demoniacal possession1 ii4 #acj1 #acg2 induced1 #dai4 ,eponymic ancestors1 c41 myths of1 i4 #chg1 #cih1 c41 ii4 #bce4 ,essence of food consumed by souls1 ii4 #ci2 by deities1 #cha4 ,ethereal substance of soul1 i4 #ded2 of spirit1 ii4 #aih4 ,ethnological evidence from myths of monstrous tribes1 i4 #cgi1 c42 from eponymic race-genealogies1 #dja4 ,etiquette1 significance of1 i4 #ie4 ,etymological myths3-- names of places1 i4 #cie2 of persons1 #cif2 nations1 cities1 c41 traced to eponymic ancestors or founders1 #cih1 c4 ,euhemerism1 i4 #bgi4 ,evans1 ,sir ,john1 on stone implements1 i4 #fe2 ,sebastian1 i4 #ajf1 #dec4 ,evil deity1 ii4 #caf1 c42 worshipped only1 #cbj4 ,excitement of convulsions1 c41 for religious purposes1 ii4 #acc1 #dai4 ,exeter1 myth on name of1 i4 #cif4 ,exorcism and expulsion of souls and spirits1 i4 #ajb1 #ded1 ii4 #bf1 #dj1 #abe1 c41 #adf1 #agi1 #aii1 #dch4 ,expression of feature causes corresponding tone1 i4 #afe1 #ahc4 ,expressive sound modifies words1 i4 #bae4 ,ex-voto offering1 ii4 #djf1 #dji4 ,eye of day1 of ,odin1 of ,grai1 i4 #cej4 ,fables of animals1 i4 #cha1 #dji4 ,familiar spirits1 ii4 #aii4 ,fancy1 in mythology1 i4 #cae1 #dje4 ,fasting for dreams and visions1 i4 #cjf1 #dde1 ii4 #daj4 ,fauns and satyrs1 ii4 #bbg4 ,feasts of the dead1 ii4 #cj2 sacrificial banquets1 #cie4 ,feralia1 ii4 #db4 ,fergusson1 ,jas41 on tree-worship1 ii4 #bah2 serpent-worship1 #bdj4 ,fetch or wraith1 i4 #ddh1 #deb4 ,fetish1 etymology of1 ii4 #adc4 ,fetishism3--defined1 ii4 #adc2 doctrine of1 i4 #dgg1 ii4 #aeg1 c41 #age1 #bje1 #bae1 #bgj1 c42 survival of1 ii4 #afj2 its relation to philosophical theory of force1 #afj2 to nature-worship1 #bje2 to animal-worship1 #bca2 transition to polytheism1 #bdc2 to supremacy1 #cce2 to pantheism1 #ced4 ,fiji and ,s4 ,africa1 moon-myth common to1 i4 #cee4 ,finger-joints cut off as sacrifice1 ii4 #djj4 ,fingers and toes1 counting on1 i4 #bdb4 ,finns1 as sorcerers1 i4 #hd1 #aae4 ,fire1 passing through or over1 i4 #he1 ii4 #bha1 #dbi1 c42 lighted on grave1 i4 #dhd2 drives off spirits1 ii4 #aid2 new fire1 ii4 #bgh1 #bij1 #big1 #dcb2 perpetual fire1 #bgh2 sacrifice by fire1 #chc1 c4 ,fire-drill1 i4 #ae1 #ej2 ceremonial and sportive survival of1 #ge1 ii4 #bha4 ,fire-god and fire-worship1 ii4 #bgg1 #cgf1 c41 #djc4 ,firmament1 belief in existence of1 i4 #bii1 ii4 #gj4 ,first ,cause1 doctrine of1 ii4 #cce4 ,food offered to dead1 i4 #dhe1 ii4 #cj1 c42 to deities1 ii4 #cig2 how consumed1 ii4 #ci1 #cgf4 ,footprints of souls and spirits1 ii4 #aig4 ,forest-spirits1 ii4 #bae1 c4 ,formalism1 ii4 #cfc1 #cga4 ,formulas3--prayers1 ii4 #cga2 charms1 #cgc4 ,fortunate ,isles1 ii4 #fc4 ,four winds1 cardinal points1 i4 #cfa4 ,frances1 ,st41 her guardian angels1 ii4 #bjc4 ,french numeral series in ,english1 i4 #bfh4 ,fumigation1 see ,lustration4 ,funeral procession3-- horse led in1 i4 #dfc1 #dgd2 kill persons meeting1 #dfd4 ,funeral sacrifice3-- attendants and wives killed for service of dead1 i4 #deh2 animals1 #dgb2 objects deposited or destroyed1 #dha2 motives of1 #deh1 #dgb1 #dhc2 survival of1 #dfc1 #dgd1 #dib2 see ,feast of ,dead4 ,future ,life1 i4 #dai1 #dfi1 #dhj1 ii4 #a1 c41 #ajj2 transmigration of soul1 ii4 #b2 remaining on earth or departure to spirit-world1 ii4 #bb2 whether races without belief in1 #bj2 connexion with evidence of senses in dreams and visions1 #bd1 #di2 locality of region of departed souls1 #dd1 #gd2 visionary visits to1 #df2 connexion of solar ideas with1 #dh1 #gd1 #caa1 #dbb2 character of future life1 #gd2 continuance-theory1 #ge2 retribution-theory1 #hc2 introduction of moral element1 #aj1 #hc2 stages or doctrine of future life1 #ajj2 its practical effect on mankind1 #ajd2 god of the dead1 #cjh4 ,gambling numerals1 i4 #bfh4 ,games3-- children's games related to serious occupations1 i4 #gb2 counting-games1 #gd2 games of chance related to arts of divination1 #gh4 ,gataker1 on lots1 i4 #gi4 ,gates of ,hades1 ,night1 ,death1 i4 #cdg4 ,gayatri1 daily sun-prayer of ,brahmans1 ii4 #bib4 ,genders1 distinguished as male and female1 animate and inanimate1 c41 i4 #cja4 ,genghis-,khan1 worshipped1 ii4 #aag4 ,genius1 patron or natal1 ii4 #aii1 #baf2 good and evil1 #bjc2 changed signification of word1 #aha4 ,german and ,scandinavian mythology and religion3-- funeral sacrifice1 i4 #dfd1 #dia2 ,walhalla1 ii4 #gi1 #hh2 ,hel1 i4 #cdg1 ii4 #hh2 ,odin1 ,woden1 i4 #cea1 #cfb1 ii4 #bfi2 ,loki1 i4 #hc1 #cfe2 ,thor1 ,thunder1 ii4 #bff2 ,sun and ,moon1 i4 #bhi1 ii4 #bid4 ,gesture-language1 and gesture accompanying language1 i4 #afc2 effect of gesture on vocal tone1 #afe2 gesture-counting original method1 i4 #bdf4 ,ghebers or ,gours1 fire-worshippers1 ii4 #bhb4 ,gheel1 treatment of lunatics at1 ii4 #adc4 ,ghost3--ghost-soul1 i4 #adb1 #dbh1 #dcc1 #dde1 #dhh2 seen in dreams and visions1 #ddj1 c42 voice of1 #deb2 substance and weight of1 #dec2 of men1 animals1 and objects1 #dbi1 #dfi1 #dgi2 popular theory inconsistent and broken down from primitive1 #dgi2 ghost as harmful and vengeful demons1 ii4 #bg2 ghosts of unburied wander1 ii4 #bh2 ghosts remain near corpse or dwelling1 ii4 #bi1 c42 laying ghosts1 ii4 #aec1 #aid4 ,giants1 myths of1 i4 #chf4 ,gibbon1 on development of culture1 i4 #cc4 ,glanvil1 ,saducismus ,triumphatus1 ii4 #adj4 ,glass-mountain1 ,anafielas1 i4 #dib4 ,godless month1 ii4 #cej4 ,gods3--seen in vision1 i4 #cjf2 of waters1 ii4 #bji2 of trees1 groves1 and forests1 #bae2 embodied in or represented by animals1 #bca2 gods of species1 #bdb2 higher gods of polytheism1 #bdg1 c42 of dualism1 #caf2 gods of different religions compared1 #bej2 classified by common attributes1 #bed4 ,gog and ,magog1 i4 #chf1 c4 ,goguet1 on degeneration and development1 i4 #cb4 ,gold1 worshipped1 ii4 #aed4 ,good and evil1 rudimentary distinction of1 ii4 #hi1 #cah2 good and evil spirits and dualistic deities1 #cag4 ,goodman's croft1 ii4 #djh4 ,grai1 eye of1 i4 #ceb4 ,great ,spirit1 ii4 #bef1 #cbd1 #cci1 #cdc1 #ced1 #cfe1 #cie4 ,great-eared tribes1 i4 #chh4 ,greek mythology and religion3--nature-myths1 i4 #cbj1 #cbh1 #cdi2 funeral rites1 #dfd1 #dij2 future life1 ii4 #ec1 #fc1 c42 nature-spirits and polytheism1 #bjf1 c42 ,zeus1 #beh1 c41 #cee2 ,demeter1 #bgc1 #cjf2 ,nereus1 ,poseidon1 #bgg2 ,hephaistos1 ,hestia1 #bhd2 ,apollo1 #bid2 ,hekate1 ,artemis1 #cjb2 stone-worship1 #afe2 sacrifice1 #chf1 #cif2 orientation1 #dbf2 lustration1 #dci4 ,grey1 ,sir ,george1 i4 #cbb4 ,grote1 ,george1 on mythology1 i4 #bgf1 #djj4 ,grove-spirits1 ii4 #bae4 ,guarani1 name of1 i4 #dja4 ,guardian spirits and angels1 ii4 #aii4 ,gulf of dead1 ii4 #fb4 ,gunthram1 dream of i4 #ddb4 ,gypsies1 i4 #di1 #aae4 ,hades1 under-world of departed souls1 i4 #cce1 #cdj1 ii4 #fe1 c41 #ha1 #ig1 #cji2 descent into1 i4 #cdj1 #cde1 ii4 #de1 #ed1 #hc2 personification of1 i4 #cdj1 ii4 #ee1 #cji1 #caa4 ,haetsh1 ,kamchadal1 ii4 #df1 #cac4 ,hagiology1 ii4 #abj1 #bfa2 rising in air1 i4 #aea2 miracles1 i4 #aeg1 #cga2 second-sight1 i4 #ddi2 hagiolatry1 ii4 #abj4 ,hair1 lock of1 as offering1 ii4 #dja4 ,half-men1 tribes of1 i4 #cia4 ,haliburton1 on sneezing-rite1 i4 #ajc4 ,hamadryad1 ii4 #bae4 ,hand-numerals1 from counting on fingers1 c41 i4 #bdf4 ,hanuman1 monkey-god1 i4 #cgh4 ,harakari1 i4 #dfc4 ,harmosios and ,aristogeiton1 ii4 #fc4 ,harpies1 ii4 #bfi4 ,harpocrates1 ii4 #bie4 ,haruspication1 i4 #abc1 ii4 #agi4 ,harvest-deity1 ii4 #cje1 #cfd1 #cfh4 ,hashish1 ii4 #cgi4 ,head-hunting1 ,dayak1 i4 #dei4 ,headless tribes1 myths of1 i4 #cij4 ,healths1 drinking1 i4 #if4 ,heart1 related to soul1 i4 #dca1 ii4 #aeb4 ,heaven1 region of departed souls1 ii4 #gj4 ,heaven and earth1 universal father and mother1 i4 #cbb1 ii4 #bgb1 #cde4 ,heaven-god1 and heaven-worship1 i4 #cjf1 #cbb1 ii4 #bee1 c41 #ccg1 c41 #cfg1 #cie4 ,hebrides1 low culture in1 i4 #de4 ,hekate1 i4 #aej1 ii4 #cjb1 #dah4 ,hel1 death-goddess1 i4 #cja1 #cdg1 ii4 #hh1 #caa4 ,hell1 ii4 #ef1 #fh1 #ig2 related to ,hades1 ii4 #gd1 c42 as place of torment1 not conception of savage religion1 #ajc4 ,hellenic race-genealogy1 i4 #djb4 ,hellshoon1 i4 #dia4 ,hephaistos1 ii4 #bab1 #bhj4 ,hera1 ii4 #cje4 ,herakles1 ii4 #bid2 and ,hesione1 i4 #cci4 ,hermes ,trismegistus1 ii4 #agh4 ,hermotimos1 i4 #dci1 ii4 #ac4 ,hero-children suckled by beasts1 i4 #bha4 ,hesiod1 ,isles of ,blest1 ii4 #fc4 ,hestia1 ii4 #bhd4 ,hiawatha1 poem of1 i4 #cde1 #cfa4 ,hide-boiling1 i4 #dd4 ,hierarchy1 polytheistic1 ii4 #bdh1 #ccg1 #cdi1 c4 ,hissing1 for silence1 contempt1 respect1 i4 #aig4 ,history1 relation of myth to1 i4 #bgh1 #daf1 ii4 #ddg2 criticism of1 i4 #bhj2 similarity of nature-myth to1 #cbj4 ,hole to let out soul1 i4 #dec4 ,holocaust1 ii4 #che1 #cif4 ,holyoake1 ,holywood1 c41 ii4 #bbi4 ,holy ,sepulchre1 ,easter fire at1 ii4 #big4 ,holy water1 ii4 #ahh1 #dci4 ,holy wells1 ii4 #bad4 ,horne ,tooke on interjections1 i4 #age4 ,horse1 sacrificed or led at funeral1 i4 #dfc1 #dgc4 ,horseshoes1 against witches and demons1 i4 #adj4 ,house abandoned to ghost1 ii4 #be4 ,hucklesbones1 i4 #hb4 ,huitzilopochtli1 ii4 #bed1 #cjg4 ,human sacrifice3--funerals1 i4 #deh2 to deities1 ii4 #bga1 #che1 #chi1 #cih1 #djc4 ,humbolt1 ,w4 v41 on continuity1 i4 #ai2 on language1 #bcf2 on numerals1 #bec4 ,hume1 ,natural ,history of religion1 i4 #dgg4 ,huns1 as giants1 i4 #chf4 ,hunting-calls1 i4 #aha4 ,hurricane1 i4 #cfc4 ,hyades1 i4 #ceh4 ,hysteria1 c41 by possession1 ii4 #aca1 c42 induced1 #dai4 ,iamblichus1 i4 #aej1 ii4 #ahg4 ,ideas3--,epicurean related to object-souls1 i4 #dig2 ,platonic related to species-deities1 ii4 #bdd4 ,idiots1 inspired1 ii4 #abh4 ,idol1 see ,image4 ,idolatry as related to fetishism1 ii4 #afh4 ,images3--fallen from heaven1 i4 #aeg2 as substitutes in sacrifice1 i4 #dfc1 ii4 #dje2 fed and treated as alive1 ii4 #agj2 moving1 weeping1 sweating1 c41 #aga2 animated by spirits or deities1 #agb4 ,imagination1 based on experience1 i4 #bgc1 #bih1 #cjd4 ,imitative words1 i4 #bjj2 verbs1 c41 of blowing1 swelling1 mumbling1 spitting1 sneezing1 eating1 c41 #bjc1 c42 names of animals1 #bjf2 names of musical instruments1 #bjh2 verbs1 c41 of striking1 cracking1 clapping1 falling1 c41 #baa2 prevalence of imitative words in savage language1 #bab2 imitative adaptation of words1 #bad4 ,immateriality of soul1 not conception of lower culture1 i4 #def1 ii4 #aih4 ,immortality of soul1 not conception of lower culture1 ii4 #bb4 ,implements1 inventions of1 i4 #fd1 c4 ,incas1 myth of ancestry and civilization1 i4 #bhh1 #ced1 ii4 #bij1 #cja4 ,incense1 ii4 #chc4 ,incubi and succubi1 ii4 #ahi4 ,indigenes of low culture1 i4 #ej1 c42 considered as sorcerers1 #aac2 myths of1 as monsters1 #cgf1 c4 ,indo-,chinese languages1 musical pitch of vowels1 i4 #afi4 ,indra1 i4 #cbj1 ii4 #bfe4 ,infant1 lustration of1 ii4 #dcj1 c4 ,infernus1 ii4 #ha4 ,innocent ,,viii41 bull against witchcraft1 i4 #aci1 ii4 #aij4 ,inspiration1 ii4 #abd1 c4 ,inspired idiot1 ii4 #abh4 ,interjectional words3--verbs1 c4 of wailing1 laughing1 insulting1 complaining1 fearing1 driving1 c41 i4 #ahg2 hushing1 hissing1 loathing1 hating1 c41 #aig4 ,interjections1 i4 #age2 sense-words used as1 #agf2 directly expressive sounds1 #ahc4 ,intoxicating liquor1 absence of1 i4 #fc4 ,intoxication as a rite1 ii4 #dag4 ,inventions1 development of1 i4 #ad1 #fb2 myths of1 #ci1 #cib4 ,iosco1 ,ioskeha and ,tawiscara1 myth of1 i4 #bhh1 #cdh1 ii4 #cbc4 ,ireland1 low culture in1 i4 #dd4 ,iron1 charm against witches1 elves1 c41 i4 #adj4 ,islands1 earth of1 fatal to serpents1 i4 #cgb2 of ,blest1 ii4 #eg4 ,italian numeral series in ,english1 i4 #bfh4 ,jameson1 ,mrs41 on parables1 i4 #dad4 ,januarius1 ,st41 blood of1 i4 #aeg4 ,jerome1 ,st41 ii4 #dbh4 ,jew's harp1 vowels sounded with1 i4 #afh4 ,john1 ,st41 ,midsummer festival of1 ii4 #bih4 ,johnson1 ,dr41 i4 #f1 ii4 #bd4 ,jonah1 i4 #cbi4 ,jones1 ,sir ,w41 on nature deities1 ii4 #bec1 #bhf4 ,joss-sticks1 ii4 #chd4 ,journey to spirit-world1 region of dead1 i4 #dha1 ii4 #dd1 c4 ,judge of dead1 ii4 #ib1 #cad4 ,julius ,csar1 i4 #cbj4 ,jupiter1 i4 #cej1 ii4 #beh1 c4 ,kaaba1 black stone of1 ii4 #aff4 ,kalewala1 ,finnish epic1 ii4 #df1 #hj1 #ic1 #bfa4 ,kali1 ii4 #dbe4 ,kami-religion of ,japan1 ii4 #aag1 #cja1 #cej4 ,kang-hi on magnetic needle1 i4 #cge4 ,kathenotheism1 ii4 #ced4 ,keltic counting by scores continued in ,french and ,english1 i4 #bfc4 ,kepler on world-soul1 ii4 #ced4 ,kimmerian darkness1 ii4 #dh4 ,kissing1 i4 #fc4 ,kitchi ,manitu and ,matchi ,manitu1 ,great and ,evil ,spirit1 ii4 #cbd4 ,klemm1 ,gustav1 on development of implements1 i4 #fd4 ,kobong1 ii4 #bce4 ,koran1 i4 #djg1 ii4 #gg1 #bif4 ,kottabos1 game of1 i4 #hb4 ,kronos swallowing children1 i4 #cda4 ,kynokephali1 i4 #chi4 ,lake-dwellers1 i4 #fa4 ,language3--i4 #ag1 #bcf1 ii4 #dde2 directly expressive element in1 i4 #afj2 correspondence of this in different languages1 #afc2 interjectional forms1 #age2 imitative forms1 #bjj2 differential forms1 #bbj2 children's language1 #bbc2 origin and development of language1 #bbi2 relation of language to mythology1 #bii2 gender1 #cja2 language attributed to birds1 c41 #ai1 #dfi2 place of language in development of culture1 ii4 #dde4 ,langue d'oc1 c41 i4 #aic4 ,last breath1 inhaling1 i4 #dcc4 ,laying ghosts1 ii4 #be1 #aec4 ,legge1 ,j41 on ,confucius1 ii4 #ceb4 ,leibnitz1 i4 #b4 ,lewes1 ,g4 ,h41 i4 #dig4 ,liebrecht1 ,felix1 i4 vii41 #ajh1 #agg1 #cdh-i1 ii4 #bd1 #afd1 #aie1 c4 ,life caused by soul1 i4 #dcf4 ,light and darkness1 analogy of good and evil1 ii4 #cbd4 ,likeness of relatives accounted for by re-birth of soul1 ii4 #c4 ,limbus ,patrum1 ii4 #hc4 ,linnus1 name of1 ii4 #bbi4 ,little ,red ,riding-hood1 i4 #cda4 ,loki1 #hc1 #cfe4 ,lots1 divination and gambling by1 i4 #gh4 ,lubbock1 ,sir ,j43-- evidence of metallurgy and pottery1 against degeneration-theory1 i4 #eg2 on low tribes described as without religious ideas1 i4 #dba2 on water-worship1 ii4 #baj2 on totemism1 ii4 #bcg4 ,lucian1 i4 #adi1 ii4 #ac1 #eb1 #fg1 #cjb1 #dbf4 ,lucina1 ii4 #cjb4 ,lucretius1 i4 #dj1 #fj1 #dih4 ,lunatics1 demoniacal possession of1 ii4 #abd1 c4 ,lustration1 by water and fire1 ii4 #dbi1 c42 of new-born children1 #dcj2 of women1 #dcb2 of those polluted by blood or corpse1 #dcc2 general1 #dcd1 c4 ,luther1 on witches1 i4 #acg2 on guardian angels1 ii4 #bjc4 ,lyell1 ,sir ,c41 on degeneration-theory1 i4 #eg4 ,lying in state1 of ,king of ,france1 ii4 #ce4 ,lyke-wake dirge1 i4 #die4 ,mc,lennan1 ,j4 ,f41 theory of totemism1 ii4 #bcf4 ,macrocosm1 i4 #cej1 ii4 #ced4 ,madness and idiocy by possession1 ii4 #abh1 c41 #agi4 ,magic3-- origin and development1 i4 #aab1 #acb2 belongs to low level of culture1 #aab2 attributed to low tribes1 #aac2 based on association of ideas1 #aaf2 processes of divination1 #gh1 #aah2 relation to ,stone ,age1 #abg2 see ,fetishism4 ,magnetic ,mountain1 philosophical myth of1 i4 #cgd4 ,maistre1 ,count de1 on degeneration in culture1 i4 #ce2 astrology1 #abh2 animation of stars1 #bia4 ,makrokephali1 i4 #cia4 ,malleus ,maleficarum1 ii4 #adj1 #aia4 ,man1 primitive condition of1 i4 #ba1 ii4 #ddc2 see ,savage4 ,man of the woods1 bushman1 orang-utan1 i4 #cha4 ,man swallowed by monster1 nature-myth of1 i4 #cce1 c4 ,manco ,capac1 i4 #ced4 ,manes and manes-worship1 i4 #ih1 #adc1 #dcd1 ii4 #h1 #aaa1 c41 #abi1 #afb1 #cjg1 #cfd2 theory of1 ii4 #aac1 c42 divine ancestor or first man as great deity1 #caa1 #cdg4 ,manichism1 ii4 #ad1 #ccj4 ,manitu1 ii4 #bdi1 #cbd1 #cci4 ,manoa1 golden city of1 ii4 #bdi4 ,manu1 laws of3--ordeal by water1 i4 #ada2 pitris1 ii4 #aai4 ,marcus ,curtius1 leap of1 ii4 #cgh4 ,margaret1 ,st41 i4 #cdj4 ,markham1 ,c4 ,r41 i4 vii41 ii4 #ccg1 #cff1 #cib1 c4 ,marriages in ,may1 i4 #gj4 ,mars1 ii4 #cjh4 ,martius1 ,dr4 ,v41 on dualism1 ii4 #cbe4 ,maruts1 ,vedic1 i4 #cfb1 ii4 #bfh4 ,mass1 ii4 #daj4 ,master of life or breath1 ii4 #cci1 #cdc1 #cfe4 ,materiality of soul1 i4 #dec2 of spirit1 ii4 #aih4 ,maui1 i4 #cce1 #cdc1 #cfj1 ii4 #bec1 #bfg1 #bgi4 ,maundevile1 ,sir ,john1 i4 #cge1 ii4 #de4 ,medicine1 of ,n4 ,a4 ,indians1 ii4 #aed1 #bjj1 #bcc1 #cgb1 c41 #daa4 ,meiners1 ,history of ,religions1 ii4 #bg1 #dh1 c4 ,melissa1 i4 #dia4 ,men descended from apes1 myths of1 i4 #cgf2 men with tails1 #chc4 ,menander1 guardian genius1 ii4 #bja4 ,merit and demerit1 ,buddhist1 ii4 #ab1 #ih4 ,messalians1 i4 #ajc4 ,metaphor1 i4 #bcd1 #big2 myths from1 #dje4 ,metaphysics1 relation of animism to1 i4 #dig1 ii4 #bdb1 #caa4 ,metempsychosis1 i4 #cgi1 #dji1 #dfi1 #dgf1 ii4 #b2 origin of1 ii4 #af4 ,micare digitis1 i4 #ge4 ,middleton1 ,conyers1 i4 #aeg1 ii4 #aba4 ,midgard-snake1 ii4 #bda4 ,midsummer festival1 ii4 #bih4 ,milk and blood1 sacrifices of1 ii4 #dh2 see ,blood4 ,milky ,way1 myths of1 i4 #cei1 ii4 #gb4 ,mill1 ,j4 ,s41 on ideas of number1 i4 #bdj4 ,milton1 on eponymic kings of ,britain1 i4 #djj4 ,minne1 drinking1 i4 #if4 ,minucius ,felix1 on spirits1 c41 ii4 #agi4 ,miracles1 i4 #bgf1 #cga1 ii4 #aba4 ,mithra1 i4 #cea1 ii4 #bic1 #big4 ,moa1 legend of1 ii4 #ej4 ,mohammed1 legend of1 i4 #djg4 ,moloch1 ii4 #djc4 ,money borrowed to be repaid in next life1 i4 #dia4 ,monkeys1 preserved as dwarfs1 i4 #chh2 see ,apes4 ,monotheism1 ii4 #cca4 ,monster1 driven off at eclipse1 i4 #cbh2 hero or maiden devoured by1 #cce4 ,monstrous mythic human tribes1 ape-like1 tailed1 gigantic and dwarfish1 noseless1 great-eared1 dog-headed1 c41 i4 #cgf1 c42 their ethnological significance1 #cgi1 c4 ,month's mind1 i4 #hc4 ,moon3-- omens and influence by changes1 i4 #acj2 myths of1 #bhh1 #ced2 inconstant1 #ced2 changes typical of death and new life1 i4 #ced1 ii4 #cjj2 moon-myths common to ,s4 ,africa and ,fiji1 i4 #ced1 and to ,bengal and ,malay ,peninsula1 #cef2 moon abode of departed souls1 ii4 #gj4 ,moon-god and moon-worship1 i4 #bhi1 ii4 #bii1 c41 #cbc4 ,moral and social condition of low tribes1 i4 #bi1 c4 ,moral element in culture1 i4 #bh2 absent or scanty in lower religions1 i4 #bdg1 ii4 #cfa2 divides lower from higher religions1 ii4 #cfa2 introduced in funeral sacrifice1 i4 #die2 in transmigration1 ii4 #ab2 in future life1 #he1 c42 in dualism1 #caf1 c42 in prayer1 #cgc2 in sacrifice1 #chf1 c42 in lustration1 #dbi4 ,morals and law1 ii4 #ddh4 ,morbid imagination related to myth1 i4 #cje4 ,morbid excitement for religious purposes1 ii4 #daf1 c4 ,morning and evening stars1 myths of1 i4 #cdd1 #cej4 ,morra1 game of1 in ,europe and ,china1 i4 #ge4 ,morzine1 demoniacal possessions at1 i4 #aeb1 ii4 #ada4 ,mound-builders1 i4 #ef4 ,mountain1 abode of departed souls on1 ii4 #fj2 ascending for rain1 #bfj4 ,mouth of ,night and ,death1 myths of1 i4 #cdg4 ,mller1 ,j4 ,g41 on future life1 ii4 #ij1 c4 ,mller1 ,max3--on language and myth1 i4 #bii2 funeral rites of ,brahmans1 #dff2 heaven-god1 ii4 #beh1 #cec2 sun-myth of ,yama1 #cad2 ,chinese ,religion1 #ceb2 kathenotheism1 #ced4 ,mummies1 ii4 #ai1 #cd1 #aea4 ,musical instruments named from sound1 i4 #bjh4 ,musical tone used in language1 i4 #afh1 #agd4 ,mutilation of soul with body1 i4 #dea4 ,mythology3--i4 #bc1 #bgc1 c42 formation and laws of1 #bgc1 c42 allegorical interpretation1 #bgg2 mixture with history1 #bgh2 rationalization1 euhemerism1 c41 #bgh2 classification and interpretation1 #bha1 #cag1 c42 nature-myths1 #bhd1 #caf1 c42 personification and animation of nature1 #bhe2 grammatical gender as related to1 #cja2 personal names of objects as related to1 #cjc2 morbid delusion1 #cje2 similarity of nature-myths to real history1 #cai2 historical import of mythology1 i4 #daf1 ii4 #ddf2 its place in culture1 ii4 #ddf2 philosophical myths1 i4 #cff2 explanatory legends1 #cib2 etymological myths1 #cie2 eponymic myths1 #cii2 legends from fancy and metaphor1 #dje2 realized or pragmatic legends1 #djg2 allegory and parables1 #djh4 ,myths3--myth-riddles1 i4 #ic2 origin of sneezing-rite1 #aja2 foundation-sacrifice1 #ajd2 heroes suckled by beasts1 #bha2 sun1 moon1 and stars1 #bhh1 c42 eclipse1 #bhh2 waterspout1 #bib2 sand-pillar1 #bic2 rainbow1 #bic1 #big2 waterfalls1 rocks1 c41 #bie2 disease1 death1 pestilence1 #bie2 phenomena of nature1 #big1 #cbj2 heaven and earth1 i4 #cbb1 ii4 #cde2 sunrise and sunset1 day and night1 death and life1 i4 #cce1 ii4 #dh1 #fb1 #cbb2 moon1 inconstant1 typical of death1 i4 #cec2 civilization-legends1 #ci1 #cec2 winds1 i4 #cfa1 ii4 #bff2 thunder1 i4 #cfb1 ii4 #bfd2 men and apes1 development and degeneration1 i4 #cgh2 ape-men1 #cgi2 men with tails1 #chb2 giants and dwarfs1 #che2 monstrous men1 #chi2 personal names introduced1 #cid2 race-genealogies of nations1 #djb2 beast-fables1 #dji2 visits to spirit-world1 ii4 #df1 c42 giant with soul in egg1 #aec2 transformation into trees1 #bai2 dualistic myth of two brothers1 #cbj4 ,nagas1 serpent-worshippers1 ii4 #bah1 #bdj4 ,names3-- of children in numerical series1 i4 #bed2 of objects as related to myth1 #cjc2 of personal heroes introduced into myths1 #cid2 of places1 tribes1 countries1 c41 myths formed from1 #cif2 ancestral names given to children1 ii4 #d2 name-giving ceremonials1 ii4 #dbi4 ,natural religion1 i4 #dbg1 ii4 #ajc1 #cef4 ,nature1 conceived of as personal and animated1 i4 #bhe1 #dgh1 ii4 #ahd4 ,nature-deities1 polytheistic1 ii4 #bee1 #cgf4 ,nature-myths1 i4 #bhd1 #caf1 c41 #cbf4 ,nature-spirits1 elves1 nymphs1 c41 ii4 #ahd1 #bjd1 c4 ,necromancy1 i4 #adc1 #cab1 #ddf2 see ,manes4 ,negative and affirmative particles1 i4 #aib4 ,negroes re-born as whites1 ii4 #e4 ,neo or ,hawaneu1 ii4 #ccc4 ,neptune1 ii4 #bgf4 ,nereus1 ii4 #bgd1 #bgg4 ,neuri1 i4 #cac4 ,new birth of soul1 ii4 #c4 ,newton1 ,sir ,isaac1 on sensible species1 i4 #dih4 ,nicene ,council1 spirit-writing at1 i4 #adh4 ,nicodemus1 ,gospel of1 ii4 #ed4 ,niebuhr1 on origin of culture1 i4 #da4 ,night1 myths of1 i4 #ccd1 ii4 #dh1 #fa4 ,nightmare-demon1 ii4 #ahi1 #aic4 ,nilsson1 ,sven1 on development of culture1 i4 #fa1 #fd4 ,nirvana1 ii4 #ab1 #gi4 ,nix1 water-demon1 i4 #aaj1 ii4 #bac4 ,norns or ,fates1 i4 #ceb4 ,noseless tribes1 i4 #chh4 ,notation1 arithmetical1 quinary1 decimal1 vigesimal1 i4 #bfa4 ,numerals3--low tribes only to #c or #e1 i4 #bdb2 derivation of numerals from counting fingers and toes1 #bdf2 from other significant objects1 #bea2 series of number-names of children1 #bed2 new formation of numerals1 #bee2 etymology of1 #bei1 #bgj2 numerals borrowed from foreign languages1 #bff2 initials of numerals1 used as figures1 #bfi2 see ,notation4 ,nympholepsy1 ii4 #acg4 ,nymphs3--water-nymphs1 ii4 #bab2 tree-nymphs1 #bai1 #bbg4 ,objectivity of dreams and visions1 i4 #ddb1 #dgi2 abandoned1 #ejj4 ,objects treated as personal1 i4 #bhf1 #dgg1 ii4 #bje2 souls or phantoms of objects1 i4 #dgh1 #dig1 ii4 #i2 dispatched to dead by funeral sacrifice1 i4 #dha4 ,occult sciences1 see ,magic4 ,odin1 or ,woden1 as heaven-god1 i4 #cea1 #cfb1 ii4 #bfi2 one-eyed1 i4 #cea4 ,odysseus1 unbinding of1 i4 #aec2 descent to ,hades1 i4 #cdf1 ii4 #dh1 #fe4 ,ohio1 ,ontario1 i4 #aij4 ,ojibwa1 myth of1 i4 #cde1 ii4 #df4 ,oki1 demon1 ii4 #bjh1 #bee1 #cdb4 ,old man of sea1 ii4 #bgg4 ,omens1 i4 #ig1 #aah1 c41 #ade1 #ddi4 ,omophore1 ,manichan1 i4 #cfe4 ,one-eyed tribes1 i4 #cia4 ,oneiromancy1 i4 #aba4 ,opening to let out soul1 i4 #dec4 ,ophiolatry1 see ,serpent-worship4 ,ophites1 ii4 #bdb4 ,oracles1 i4 #id1 ii4 #daa2 by inspiration or possession1 ii4 #abd1 c41 #agi4 ,orang-utan1 i4 #cha4 ,orcus1 ii4 #fg1 #hj4 ,ordeal by fire1 i4 #he2 by sieve and shears1 #abh2 by water1 #adj2 by bear's head1 ii4 #bca4 ,ordinal numbers1 i4 #beg4 ,oregon1 ,orejones1 i4 #chi4 ,orientation1 solar rite or symbolism1 ii4 #dbb4 ,origin of language1 i4 #bca2 numerals1 #bdg4 ,orion1 i4 #ceh1 ii4 #ha4 ,ormuzd1 ii4 #bhc1 #cbh4 ,orpheus and ,eurydike1 i4 #cdf1 ii4 #dh4 ,osiris1 ii4 #fg1 #bie2 and ,isis1 i4 #bhi4 ,otiose supreme deity1 ii4 #cbj1 #ccf1 c4 ,outcasts1 distinct from savages1 i4 #dc1 #di4 ,owain1 ,sir1 visit to ,purgatory1 ii4 #ef4 ,pachacamac1 ii4 #ccg1 #cff4 ,pandora1 myth of1 i4 #djh4 ,panotii1 i4 #chi4 ,pantheism1 ii4 #ccb1 #cda1 #ced4 ,papa1 mamma1 c41 i4 #bbc4 ,paper figures substitutes in sacrifice1 i4 #dfd1 #dic1 ii4 #dje4 ,parables1 i4 #daa4 ,pars pro toto in sacrifice1 ii4 #cii4 ,parthenogenesis1 ii4 #aij1 #cjg4 ,particles1 affirmative and negative1 i4 #aib2 of distance1 #bbj4 ,passage de l',enfer1 ii4 #fe4 ,patrick1 ,st41 i4 #cgb2 his ,purgatory1 i4 #de1 #ee4 ,patroklos1 i4 #ddd1 #dfd4 ,patron saints1 ii4 #abj2 patron spirits1 #aii4 ,pattern and matter1 ii4 #bdf4 ,pennycomequick1 i4 #cif4 ,periander1 i4 #dia4 ,perkun1 ,perun1 ii4 #bff4 ,persephone1 myth of1 i4 #cba4 ,perseus and ,andromeda1 i4 #cci4 ,persian race-genealogy1 i4 #djc4 ,personal names1 in mythology1 i4 #cjc1 #cid1 #cif4 ,personification3--natural phenomena1 i4 #bh1 c41 #cbj1 #dgg1 ii4 #bje1 #bed2 disease1 death1 c41 i4 #bie2 ideas1 #cjj2 tribes1 cities1 countries1 c41 #cci2 ,hades1 i4 #cci1 ii4 #ee4 ,pestilence1 personification and myths of1 i4 #bie4 ,peter and ,paul1 ,acts of1 i4 #cgb4 ,petit bonhomme1 game of1 i4 #gg4 ,petronius ,arbiter1 i4 #ge1 ii4 #bfa4 ,philology1 ,generative1 i4 #aih1 #bcj4 ,philosophical myths1 i4 #cfh4 ,phrase-melody1 i4 #agd4 ,pillars of ,hercules1 i4 #cie4 ,pipe1 i4 #bjh4 ,pithecus1 i4 #cgg4 ,places1 myths from names of1 i4 #cie4 ,planchette1 i4 #adg4 ,plants1 souls of1 i4 #dgd4 ,plath1 on ,chinese religion1 ii4 #ceb1 c4 ,plato1 on transmigration1 ii4 #ac2 ,platonic ideas1 #bdd4 ,pleiades1 i4 #bia1 #ceh4 ,pliny on magic1 i4 #acc2 on eclipses1 #ccd4 ,plurality of souls1 i4 #dcc4 ,plutarch1 visits to spirit-world1 ii4 #ec4 ,pneuma1 psyche1 i4 #dcc1 c4 ,pointer-facts1 i4 #fb4 ,polytheism1 ii4 #bdg1 c42 based on analogy of human society1 ii4 #bdh1 #ccg1 #cdi1 #ceb2 classification of deities by attributes1 #bee2 heaven-god1 #bee1 #ccd1 c42 rain-god1 #bei2 thunder-god1 #bfb2 wind-god1 #bff2 earth-god1 #bgj2 water-god1 #bgd2 sea-god1 #bge2 fire-god1 #bgg2 sun-god1 #bhf1 #cce1 c42 moon-god1 #bii2 gods of childbirth1 agriculture1 war1 c41 #cjd2 god and judge of dead1 #cjh2 first man1 divine ancestor1 #caa2 evil deity1 #caf2 supreme deity1 #ccb2 relation of polytheism to monotheism1 #cca4 ,popular rhymes1 c41 i4 #hf2 sayings1 i4 #ai1 #hc1 #abb1 #cac1 ii4 #bfh1 #cec4 ,poseidon1 i4 #cfe1 ii4 #bgg1 #cgh4 ,possession and obsession1 see ,demons1 ,embodiment4 ,pott1 ,a4 ,f41 on reduplication1 i4 #bai2 on numerals1 #bfa4 ,pottery1 evidence from remains1 i4 #ef2 absence of potter's wheel1 #de1 #fc4 ,pozzuoli1 myth of subsidence of1 i4 #cgb4 ,pragmatic or realized myths1 i4 #djg4 ,prayer3-- doctrine of1 ii4 #cfd1 c42 relation to nationality1 #cga2 introduction of moral element1 #cgc2 prayers1 i4 #ih1 ii4 #acf1 #bjh1 #bfa1 #bhj1 #bib1 #cbi1 #cch1 #cfd1 c41 #dce2 rosary1 ii4 #cgb2 prayer-mill and prayer-wheel1 #cgb4 ,prehistoric archology1 i4 #ee1 c42 ii4 #ddc4 ,priests consume sacrifices1 ii4 #cgi4 ,prithivi1 i4 #cbg1 ii4 #beh1 #bgb4 ,procopius1 voyage of souls to ,britain1 ii4 #fd4 ,progression in culture1 i4 #ad1 #cb2 inventions1 #fb1 c42 language1 #bcf2 arithmetic1 #bgj2 philosophy of religion1 see ,animism4 ,prometheus1 i4 #cfe1 ii4 #djj4 ,proverbs1 i4 #hd1 c42 see ,popular ,sayings4 ,psychology1 i4 #dbh4 ,pupil of eye1 related to soul1 i4 #dca4 ,purgatory1 ii4 #fh1 #ib2 ,st4 ,patrick's1 #ee4 ,purification1 see ,lustration4 ,puss1 i4 #agh4 ,pygmies1 myths of1 i4 #che2 connected with dolmens1 #chg2 monkeys as1 #chh4 ,pythagoras1 metempsychosis1 ii4 #ac4 ,quaternary period1 i4 #eh4 ,quetelet1 on social laws1 i4 #aa4 ,quinary numeration and notation1 i4 #bfa2 in ,roman numeral letters1 #bfc4 ,races3-- distribution of culture among1 i4 #di2 culture of mixed races1 ,gauchos1 c41 #df1 #eb2 ethnology in eponymic genealogies1 #dja2 moral condition of low races1 #bf2 considered as magicians1 #aac2 as monsters1 #chj4 ,rahu and ,ketu1 eclipse-monsters1 i4 #cgi4 ,rain-god1 ii4 #bed1 #bei4 ,rainbow1 myths of1 i4 vii4 #bic1 ii4 #bci4 ,ralston1 ,w4 ,r41 i4 #cdb1 ii4 #bde1 c4 ,rangi and ,papa1 i4 #cbb1 ii4 #cde4 ,rapping1 omens and communications by1 i4 #add1 ii4 #bba4 ,rationalization of myths1 i4 #bgh4 ,red ,swan1 myth of1 i4 #cde4 ,reduplication1 i4 #bai4 ,reid1 ,dr41 on ideas1 i4 #dii4 ,relics1 ii4 #aej4 ,religion1 i4 #bb1 ii4 #ceg1 #ddi2 whether any tribes without1 i4 #dag2 accounts misleading among low tribes1 #dai2 rudimentary definition of1 #dbd2 adoption from foreign religions1 future life1 ii4 #ia2 ideas and names of deities1 #bed1 #cji1 #cca1 #cdd2 dualism1 #caf1 #cbb2 supreme deity1 #ccc2 natural religion1 i4 #dbg1 ii4 #ajc1 #cef4 ,resurrection1 ii4 #e1 #ah4 ,retribution-theory of future life1 ii4 #hc2 not conception of lower culture1 #hc4 ,return and restoration of soul1 i4 #dcf4 ,revival1 in culture1 i4 #acf1 #ada4 ,revivals1 morbid symptoms in religious1 ii4 #dba4 ,reynard the ,fox1 i4 #dab4 ,riddles1 i4 #ij4 ,ring1 divination by swinging1 i4 #abf4 ,rising in air1 supernatural1 i4 #adi1 ii4 #dae4 ,rites1 religious1 ii4 #cfb1 c4 ,river of death1 i4 #dgc1 #dhj1 ii4 #bc1 #bi1 #ea1 #id4 ,river-gods and river-worship1 ii4 #bji4 ,river-spirits1 i4 #aji1 ii4 #bji1 #djg4 ,rock1 spirit of1 ii4 #bjg4 ,roman mythology and religion3--funeral rites1 ii4 #db2 future life1 #de1 #fg1 #ha2 nature-spirits1 #bbj1 #bbg2 polytheism1 #bea2 ,jupiter1 #beh1 #bfe2 ,neptune1 #bgg2 ,vesta1 #bhe2 ,lucina1 #cjb1 c4 ,roman numeral letters1 i4 #bfc4 ,romulus1 patron deity of children1 ii4 #aba2 and ,remus1 i4 #bha4 ,rosary1 ii4 #cgb4 ,sabism1 ii4 #bif4 ,sacred springs1 streams1 c41 ii4 #bji2 trees and groves1 #bbb2 animals1 #bcd1 #cgh4 ,sacrifice3--origin and theory of1 ii4 #cge1 c41 #bjg1 #bfi2 manner of consumption or reception by deity1 #baf1 #cgf1 c41 see #ci2 motive of sacrificer1 #cic1 c42 substitution1 #cii2 survival1 i4 #gf1 ii4 #bad1 #bbh1 #djf4 ,saint-,foix1 i4 #dgd1 ii4 #ce4 ,saints1 worship of1 ii4 #abj4 ,samson's riddle1 i4 #ic4 ,sanchoniathon1 ii4 #bba4 ,sand-pillar1 myths of1 i4 #bic4 ,sanskrit roots1 i4 #aig1 #bbd4 ,savage1 man of woods1 i4 #chb4 ,savage culture as representative of primitive culture3--i4 #ba1 ii4 #ddc2 magic1 witchcraft1 and spiritualism1 i4 #aab1 c42 language1 i4 #bcf1 ii4 #dde2 numerals1 i4 #bdb2 myth1 #bhd1 #cbd2 doctrine of souls1 #dii2 future life1 ii4 #ajb2 animistic theory of nature1 i4 #bhe1 ii4 #ahj1 #cef2 polytheism1 #bdh2 dualism1 #cag2 supremacy1 #ccd2 rites and ceremonies1 #cfc1 #cge1 #daa1 #dba1 #dbi4 ,savitar1 ii4 #bib4 ,scalp1 i4 #dfj4 ,scores1 counting by1 i4 #bfc4 ,sea1 myths of1 ii4 #bge4 ,sea-god and sea-worship1 ii4 #bge1 #cgg4 ,second death1 ii4 #bb4 ,second sight1 i4 #adc1 #ddg4 ,semitic race1 no savage tribe among1 i4 #di2 antiquity of culture1 #ed2 race-genealogy1 #djd4 ,sennaar1 i4 #cie4 ,serpent emblem of immortality and eternity1 ii4 #bda4 ,serpent-worship1 ii4 #h1 #bci1 #caj1 #cdg4 ,sex distinguished by phonetic modification1 i4 #bbb4 ,shadow related to soul1 i4 #dcj1 #dce2 shadowless men1 #he1 #dcj4 ,shell-mounds1 i4 #fa4 ,sheol1 ii4 #fh1 #ha2 gates of1 i4 #cdg4 ,shingles1 disease1 i4 #cjg4 ,shoulder-blade1 divination by1 i4 #abd4 ,sieve and shears1 oracle by1 i4 #abh4 ,silver at new moon1 ii4 #cjb4 ,sing-bonga1 ii4 #bia1 #cej4 ,skylla and ,charybdis1 ii4 #bjh4 ,slaves sacrificed to serve dead1 i4 #deh4 ,sling1 i4 #gc4 ,snakes1 destroyed in ,ireland1 c41 i4 #cgb4 ,sneezing1 salutation on1 i4 #ig2 connected with spiritual influence1 #ig4 ,social rank retained in future life1 ii4 #bb1 #hd4 ,sokrates1 ii4 #acg1 #bid2 demon of #bjb2 prayer of1 #cgc4 ,soma1 ,haoma1 ii4 #dah4 ,soul1 doctrine of1 definition and general course in history1 i4 #dbh1 #dii2 cause of life1 #dbh2 qualities as conceived by lower races1 #dbh2 conception of1 related to dreams and visions1 i4 #dbi1 ii4 #bd1 #daj2 related to shadow1 heart1 blood1 pupil of eye1 breath1 i4 #dcj2 plurality or division of1 #dcd2 exit of1 i4 #cji1 #dch1 c41 #ddh1 ii4 #ej2 restoration of1 i4 #dcf1 #dge2 trance1 ecstasy1 #dci2 dreams1 #ddj2 visions1 #dde2 soul not visible to all1 #ddf2 likeness to body1 i4 #dej2 mutilated with body1 #dea2 voice1 a whisper1 chirp1 c41 #deb2 material substance of soul1 i4 #dec1 ii4 #aih2 ethereality not immateriality of1 in lower culture1 i4 #def2 human souls transmitted by funeral sacrifice to future life1 i4 #deh1 ii4 #ca2 souls of animals1 i4 #dfg1 ii4 #da2 their future life and transmission by funeral sacrifice1 i4 #dfi2 souls of plants1 trees1 c41 i4 #dgd1 ii4 #aj2 souls of objects1 i4 #dgf1 ii4 #i1 #ge1 #aec1 c42 transmission by funeral sacrifice1 i4 #dha2 conveyed or consumed in sacrifice to deities1 ii4 #baf1 #chi2 object-souls related to ideas1 i4 #dig2 existence of soul after death of body1 i4 #dbh1 c41 ii4 #a1 c42 transmigration or metempsychosis1 ii4 #b2 new birth in human body1 #c2 in animal body1 plant1 inert object1 #i1 c42 souls remain on earth among survivors1 near dwelling1 corpse1 or tomb1 i4 #adh1 #ddg1 ii4 #be1 c41 #aej2 souls called up by necromancer or medium1 i4 #adc1 #cab1 #ddf1 ii4 #acf1 c42 food set out for1 ii4 #cj1 c42 region of departed souls1 ii4 #ei1 c41 #gc1 #bdd2 future life of1 i4 #deh1 c41 ii4 #gd1 c42 relation of soul to spirit in general1 ii4 #aji2 souls pass into demons1 patron-spirits1 deities1 #aaa1 #abd1 #aib1 #bjj1 #cfd1 #cge2 manes-worship1 #aab1 c42 souls embodied in men1 animals1 plants1 objects1 #adg1 #aec1 #aib1 #bcb2 mystic meaning of word soul1 #cei4 ,soul of world1 ii4 #cce1 c41 #ced4 ,soul-mass cake1 ii4 #dc4 ,sound-words1 i4 #bca4 ,speaking machine1 i4 #agj4 ,spear-thrower1 i4 #ff4 ,species-deities1 ii4 #bdb4 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ii4 #bcf4 ,sphinx1 i4 #ij4 ,spirit3--course of meaning of word1 i4 #dcc1 ii4 #aha1 #bjf1 #cei2 animism1 doctrine of spirits1 i4 #dbd1 ii4 #ajh1 #cef2 doctrine of spirit founded on that of soul1 ii4 #aji2 spirits connected and confounded with souls1 ii4 #aji1 #cfc2 spirits seen in dreams and visions1 i4 #cjf1 #ddj1 ii4 #aed1 #ahi1 #aid1 #daa2 action of spirits1 i4 #abe1 ii4 #aaa1 c42 embodiment of spirits1 ii4 #abc2 disease by attack of1 #abf2 oracular inspiration by1 #acj2 whistling1 c41 voice of1 i4 #dec1 ii4 #ace2 act through fetishes1 ii4 #adc1 c42 through idols1 #afg2 spirits causes of nature1 #ahe1 #bjd1 c41 #bej2 good and evil spirits1 #ahf1 #cai2 spirits swarm in dark1 fire drives off1 #aid2 seen by animals1 #aif2 footprints of1 i4 #dee1 ii4 #aig2 ethereal-material substance of1 ii4 #aih2 exclusion1 expulsion1 exorcism of1 #abe1 #aii2 patron1 guardian1 and familiar spirits1 #aii2 nature-spirits of volcanoes1 whirlpools1 rocks1 c41 #bjg2 water-spirits and deities1 #bji1 #djg2 tree-spirits and deities1 #bae2 spirits subordinate to great polytheistic deities1 #bdh1 c42 spirits receive prayer1 #cfc2 sacrifice1 #ge2 see ,animism1 c4 ,spirit1 ,great1 ii4 #bef1 #cbd1 #cci1 c41 #ced1 #cfe1 #cie4 ,spirit-footprints1 i4 #dee1 ii4 #aig4 ,spiritualism1 modern3-- its origin in savage culture1 i4 #ada1 #aee1 #dbf1 ii4 #be1 #ci2 spirit-rapping1 i4 #add1 ii4 #aic1 #bba1 #djg2 spirit-writing1 #adg2 rising in air1 #adi2 supernatural unbinding1 #aec2 moving objects1 c41 i4 #dci1 ii4 #aef1 #cai1 #dda2 mediums1 i4 #adf1 #cab1 ii4 #acb1 #daj2 oracular possession1 i4 #adh1 ii4 #ace1 #ada4 ,spirit-world1 journey or visit to1 by soul1 i4 #dci1 #dha1 ii4 #dd1 c4 ,spitting1 i4 #ajc2 lustration with spittle1 ii4 #dci1 #dda4 ,standing-stones1 objects of worship1 ii4 #afd4 ,stanley1 ,a4 ,p41 ii4 #chg4 ,stars1 myths of1 i4 #bhh1 #cef2 souls of1 i4 #bia4 ,staunton1 ,william1 his visit to ,purgatory1 ii4 #eh4 ,stock-and-stone-worship1 ii4 #afa1 c41 #bed1 #chh4 ,stone1 myths of men turned to1 i4 #cec2 stone-worship1 ii4 #afj1 c41 #bed1 #chh4 ,stone ,age1 i4 #ef1 c42 magic as belonging to1 #adj2 myths of giants and dwarfs as belonging to1 #che4 ,storm1 myths of1 i4 #cbb2 storm-god1 i4 #cbc1 ii4 #bff4 ,strut1 i4 #fb4 ,substitutes in sacrifice1 i4 #ajf1 #dfc1 ii4 #cii1 c4 ,succubi1 see ,incubi4 ,sucking cure1 ii4 #adf4 ,suicide1 body of1 staked down1 ii4 #bi1 #aic4 ,sun1 myths of1 i4 #bhh1 #cai1 #cce1 c41 ii4 #dh1 #ff1 #cbc2 sunset1 myths of1 connected with death and future life1 i4 #cce1 #cde1 ii4 #dh1 c41 #caa2 sun abode of departed souls1 ii4 #fi4 ,sun-god and sun-worship1 i4 #ii1 #bhh1 #cec1 ii4 #bfc1 #bhe1 #cbc1 c41 #cgf1 c41 #djh1 #dbb1 c42 sun and moon as good and evil deity1 ii4 #cbd1 c4 ,superlative1 triple1 i4 #bfe4 ,superstition1 case of survival1 i4 #af1 #gb1 c4 ,supreme deity1 ii4 #ccb1 #cfg2 heaven-god1 c41 as1 #bee1 #ccg1 c42 sun-god as1 #bij1 #ccg1 c42 conception of1 in manes-worship1 #ccd2 as chief of divine hierarchy1 #cce1 c42 first cause1 #cce4 ,survival in culture1 i4 #af1 c41 #gj1 c41 ii4 #djc2 children's games1 i4 #gb2 games of chance1 c41 #gh2 proverbs1 #hi2 riddles1 #ia2 sneezing-salutation1 #ih2 foundation-sacrifice1 #ajd2 not save drowning1 #ajh2 magic1 witchcraft1 c41 #aab2 spiritualism1 #ada2 numeration1 #bfb1 #bga2 deodand1 #bhg2 were-wolves1 #cac2 eclipse-monster1 #ccj2 animism1 i4 #ejj1 ii4 #cef2 funeral sacrifice1 i4 #dfc1 #dgd1 #dib2 feasts of dead1 ii4 #ce1 #da2 possession1 #adj2 fetishism1 #aei2 stone-worship1 #afh2 water-worship1 #bac2 fire-worship1 #bhe2 sun-worship1 #big2 moon-worship1 #cjb2 heaven-worship1 #cec2 sacrifice1 #djf1 c4 ,susurrus necromanticus1 i4 #dec1 ii4 #ace4 ,suttee1 i4 #dfe4 ,swedenborg1 spiritualism of1 i4 #add1 #dej1 ii4 #ah1 #bjd4 ,symbolic connexion in magic1 c41 i4 #aaf1 c41 ii4 #add2 symbolism in religious ceremony1 ii4 #cfb1 c4 ,symplegades1 i4 #cej4 ,tabor1 i4 #bji4 ,tacitus1 i4 #ccc1 ii4 #bbh1 #bgc4 ,tailed men1 i4 #chc4 ,tangaroa1 ,taaroa1 ii4 #cde4 ,tari ,pennu1 ii4 #bga1 #cdi1 #cfh1 #djd4 ,taronhiawagon1 ii4 #bef1 #cji4 ,tarots1 i4 #hb4 ,tartarus1 ii4 #ig4 ,tatar race1 culture of1 i4 #ea2 race-genealogy of1 #djd4 ,tattooing1 mythic origin of1 i4 #cic4 ,taylor1 ,jeremy1 on lots1 i4 #gi4 ,teeth-defacing1 mythic origin of1 i4 #cic4 ,temple1 ,jewish1 ii4 #dbf4 ,tertullian1 i4 #def1 ii4 #ahh1 #dbg4 ,tezcatlipoca1 ii4 #aig1 #cdd1 #cia4 ,theodorus1 ,st41 church of1 ii4 #aba4 ,theophrastus1 ii4 #afe4 ,theresa1 ,st41 her visions1 ii4 #dae4 ,thor1 ii4 #bff4 ,thought1 conveyance of1 by vocal tone1 i4 #aff2 ,epicurean theory of1 #dig2 savage conception of1 ii4 #caa4 ,thousand and ,one ,nights3 --water-spout and sand-pillar1 i4 #bib2 ,magnetic ,mountain1 #cgd2 ,abdallah of ,sea and ,abdallah of ,land1 ii4 #ajf4 ,thunder-bird1 myths of1 i4 #cfc1 ii4 #bfb2 thunder-bolt1 ii4 #bfb4 ,thunder-god1 ii4 #bfb1 #cje1 #cab1 #ccg1 c4 ,tien and ,tu1 ii4 #beg1 #bgb1 #ceb4 ,tlaloc1 ,tlalocan1 ii4 #fa1 #bgd1 #cji4 ,tobacco smoked as sacrifice or incense1 ii4 #bhg1 #cdc1 #chc2 to cause morbid vision1 c41 #dag4 ,torngarsuk1 ii4 #cdj4 ,tortoise1 ,world1 i4 #cfd4 ,totem-ancestors1 i4 #djb1 ii4 #bce2 totemism1 ii4 #bce4 ,traditions1 credibility of1 i4 #bge1 #bhj1 #cgj2 of early culture1 i4 #ci1 #eb4 ,transformation-myths1 i4 #cjh1 #cgg1 ii4 #aj1 #bbj4 ,transmigration of souls1 i4 #cgi1 #dji1 #dfi1 #dgf1 ii4 #b1 c42 theory of1 ii4 #af4 ,trapezus1 i4 #cif4 ,trees1 objects suspended to1 ii4 #aej1 #bbc4 ,tree-souls1 i4 #dge1 ii4 #aj1 #bae2 tree-spirits1 i4 #dgf1 ii4 #adh1 #bae4 ,tribe-names1 mythic ancestors1 i4 #cih2 tribe-deities1 ii4 #bcd4 ,tribes without religion1 i4 #dag4 ,tuckett1 ,f4 ,f41 i4 #cgc4 ,tumuli1 remains of funeral sacrifice in1 i4 #dhf4 ,tupan1 ii4 #bfc1 #cje1 #ccc4 ,turks1 race-genealogy of1 i4 #djc4 ,turnskins1 i4 #cjh1 c4 ,twin brethren1 ,n4 ,a4 dualistic myth1 ii4 #cbj1 c4 ,two paths1 allegory of1 i4 #dji4 ,uiracocha1 ii4 #cch1 #cff4 ,ukko1 ii4 #beg1 #bfa1 #bfe4 ,ulster1 mythic etymology of1 ii4 #fe4 ,unbinding1 supernatural1 i4 #aec4 ,under-world1 sun and souls of dead descend to1 ii4 #ff2 see ,hades4 ,unkulunkulu1 ii4 #aaf1 #cac1 #cdg4 ,vampires1 ii4 #aia4 ,vapour-bath1 narcotic1 of ,scyths and ,n4 ,a4 ,indians1 ii4 #dag4 ,vasilissa the ,beautiful1 i4 #cdb4 ,vatnsdla ,saga1 i4 #dci4 ,veda1 i4 #ed1 #cea1 #cfb1 #dfe1 ii4 #gb1 #bfe1 #bha1 #ced1 #cga1 #chf4 ,vegetal1 sensitive1 and rational souls1 i4 #dce4 ,ventriloquism1 i4 #dec1 ii4 #acb1 #ahb4 ,vergil1 ,polydore1 ii4 #dji4 ,versipelles1 i4 #cjh1 c4 ,vesta1 ii4 #bhe4 ,vigesimal notation1 i4 #bfa2 survival in ,french and ,english1 #bfc4 ,visions3-- mythic fancy in1 i4 #cje2 are apparitions of spirits1 #adc1 #dde1 #dgh1 ii4 #aid1 #daj2 as evidence of future life1 #bd1 #di2 fasting for1 #daj2 use of drugs to cause1 #daf4 ,visits to spirit-world1 i4 #dcf1 #dha1 ii4 #df1 c4 ,vitruvius1 on orientation1 ii4 #dbg4 ,vocal tone1 i4 #aff1 c4 ,voice of ghosts and other spirits1 whisper1 twitter1 murmur1 i4 #deb1 ii4 #acd4 ,volcano1 mouth of underworld1 i4 #cdd1 #cfd1 ii4 #fi2 caused by spirits1 #bjg4 ,vowels1 i4 #afh4 ,vulcan1 ii4 #bhj1 #bhd4 ,wainamoinen1 ii4 #df1 #ic4 ,waitz1 ,theodor1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 i4 vi42 fetishism1 ii4 #aeg1 #agf4 ,walhalla1 i4 #dia1 ii4 #gg1 #hh4 ,war-god1 ii4 #cjf4 ,warriors1 fate of souls of1 ii4 #hg4 ,wassail1 i4 #ig1 #aja4 ,water1 spirits not cross1 i4 #ddb4 ,waterfalls and waterspouts1 myths1 of1 i4 #bib1 #bid4 ,water-gods and water-worship1 ii4 #bji1 #bgd1 #cgf1 #djg4 ,water-spirits and water-monsters1 i4 #aji1 ii4 #bjh1 c4 ,watling ,street1 ,milky ,way1 i4 #cfj4 ,weapons1 i4 #fd1 c42 personal names given to1 #cjc4 ,wedgwood1 ,hensleigh1 on imitative language1 i4 #afa4 ,weight of soul1 i4 #dee2 of spirit1 ii4 #aih4 ,well-worship1 ii4 #bji1 c4 ,werewolves1 c41 doctrine of1 i4 #aac1 #cjh1 c41 #dce1 ii4 #aic4 ,west1 mythic conceptions of1 as region of night and death1 i4 #ccg1 #cdc1 ii4 #dh1 #fa1 #ff1 #caa1 c41 #dbb1 c42 see ,east and ,west4 ,whately1 ,archbishop1 on origin of culture1 i4 #ch1 #da4 ,wheatstone1 ,sir ,c41 i4 #agj4 ,wheel-lock1 i4 #ae4 ,whirlpool1 spirit of1 ii4 #bjg4 ,widow-sacrifice1 i4 #deh4 ,wild ,hunt1 i4 #cfb1 ii4 #bfi4 ,wilson1 ,daniel1 on dual and plural1 i4 #bfe4 ,wind gods1 ii4 #bff4 ,winds1 myths of1 i4 #cfj4 ,witchcraft1 i4 #aaf1 c42 origin in savage culture1 #ach2 medival revival1 #ach2 iron charm against1 #adj2 ordeal by water1 #adj2 rising in air1 #aeb2 doctrine of werewolves1 #cab2 incubi and succubi1 ii4 #aij2 witch ointment1 #dah4 ,woden1 see ,odin4 ,wolf of ,night1 i4 #cda4 ,wong1 ii4 #agf1 #bje1 #cdh4 ,world pervaded by spirits1 ii4 #acg1 #ahj1 #ahe1 #bje1 #bej4 ,worship as related to belief1 i4 #dbg1 ii4 #cfb4 ,wraith or fetch1 i4 #ddh1 #dea4 ,wright1 ,thomas1 ii4 #ef1 #fe4 ,wuttke1 ,adolf1 i4 #def1 c4 ,xerxes1 i4 #bhf1 ii4 #cgh4 ,yama1 ii4 #ed1 #cad4 ,yawning1 possession1 i4 #ajb4 ,yezidism1 ii4 #cbi4 ,zend-,avesta1 i4 #aaf1 #cea1 ii4 #ih1 #bic1 #cbh1 #dch4 ,zeus1 i4 #cbh1 #cej1 ii4 #beh1 c41 #cec4 ,zingani1 myth of name1 i4 #djj4 ,zoroastrism1 ii4 #bj1 #ih1 #bhb1 #cai1 #cbh1 #ced1 #cgd1 #djj1 #dch4 ,,the ,,end4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores 7italics74 ,footnotes have been moved to follow the chapters in which they are referenced4