,,kabuki ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,limited ,,london ,,bombay ,,calcutta ,,madras ,,melbourne ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,boston ,,chicago ,,dallas ,,san ,,francisco ,,the ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,of ,,canada1 ,ltd4 ,,toronto ,illustration3 ,the character of ,kamakura ,gongoro1 a warrior of ,old ,japan1 as presented in ,shibaraku6 7lit41 ,wait-a-,moment74 ,a famous actor improvisation1 or aragoto play1 one of the hereditary eighteen pieces of the ,ichikawa ,danjuro family4 ,from a painting on silk by ,torii ,kiyotada1 the present head of the ,torii ,school4 ,,kabuki ,,the ,,popular ,,stage ,,of ,,japan ,,by ,,zo ,,kincaid ,,with ,,illustrations ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,,limited ,,st4 ,,martin',s ,,street1 ,,london #aibe ,,copyright ,,printed ,,in ,,great ,,britain ,,acknowledgement ,in my study of ,kabuki ,i am deeply indebted to ,mr4 ,seiseiin ,ihara1 the author of several volumes on the history of the popular stage of ,japan4 ,no progress toward an understanding of the development of ,kabuki can be made without extensive reference to this valuable work4 ,i wish particularly to acknowledge ,mr4 ,ihara's investigations into the mass of chronicles of the theatre1 his lives of the actors1 his painstaking researches into drama1 also his collection of facts relating to the interference of the officials with the theatre and persecution of the actors4 ,his ,generations of the ,ichikawa ,family has also proved a record of great assistance4 ,mr4 ,ihara has not only furnished me with data for study1 but has been an indefatigable friend4 ,a true lover of the theatre1 he is one of the leading dramatic critics of ,tokyo1 and has not only given generously of his knowledge as a recognised authority on ,kabuki1 but acted on my behalf to smooth away a misunderstanding or straighten out a difficulty that sometimes arose concerning my attendance at the theatre4 ,to the late ,mr4 ,e4 ,motono1 brother of the late ,viscount ,motono1 ,i owe many of the first translations that opened up before me a new theatre world4 ,mr4 ,eishiro ,hori1 ,professor of ,english at ,keio ,university1 rendered the greatest assistance in translations that gave me an insight into the history and technique of the ,n and ,doll-theatre4 ,i also acknowledge my indebtedness to ,mr4 ,mokuan ,sekine for his ,engeki ,taizen1 or ,complete ,drama1 relating to the old customs of ,kabuki1 and to his ,fifty ,years of ,meiji ,kabuki4 ,another fruitful source of information has been ,kabuki ,sosho1 a collection of old ,kabuki records4 ,i take this opportunity to thank the friends who so often accompanied me to the theatre1 and who were unfailing in their help1 ,mrs4 ,koto-ko ,kuroda1 ,miss ,shige ,takenaka1 ,miss ,chiyo-ko ,hiraiwa1 ,mr4 ,hisashi ,fujisawa1 and ,mr4 ,m4 ,kinai4 ,nor can ,i fail to acknowledge the kindness of the three leading managers of ,tokyo who allowed me free access to their theatres1 ,mr4 ,k4 ,yamamoto of the ,imperial1 the late ,nariyoshi ,tamura of the ,ichimura-za1 and later his son and successor1 and ,mr4 ,otani1 head of the ,matsutake ,company1 which now controls the greatest number of playhouses in ,japan4 ,for twelve years ,i sat among the critics of the ,tokyo stage at the regular performances1 and cannot forget the unfailing courtesy of my journalistic associates4 ,to my good friends among the actors1 ,nakamura ,utayemon of the ,kabuki-za2 ,onoe ,baiko and ,matsumoto ,koshiro of the ,imperial2 ,onoe ,kikugoro1 the sixth1 of the ,ichimura-za2 ,nakamura ,kichiyemon of the ,kabuki-za1 and ,nakamura ,ganjiro of ,osaka2 to ,mr4 ,y4 ,ninomiya1 stage producer and playwright of the ,imperial2 ,miss ,ritsu-ko ,mori1 leading actress of the ,tokyo stage2 ,mr4 ,kiyotada ,torii1 the theatre artist2 ,mr4 ,beisai ,kubota1 stage designer1--to all the friends of long standing in the theatre1 ,i take this opportunity to express my gratitude for the privilege of their friendship and kind assistance4 ,,zo ,,kincaid4 ,london1 ,march #b1 #aibe4 ,,contents ,,page ,acknowledgement v ,introduction xv ,,kabuki ,,chapter ,i ,kabuki #c ,,chapter ,,ii ,kabuki ,audiences #i ,,chapter ,,iii ,conventions of ,kabuki #ag ,,chapter ,,iv ,craftsmanship of ,kabuki #bh ,,chapter ,v ,kabuki's ,school of ,acting #ce ,,chapter ,,vi ,actor ,ceremonials #dj ,,origin ,,of ,,kabuki ,,chapter ,,vii ,o-,kuni of ,izumo #di ,,chapter ,,viii ,onna ,kabuki3 ,the ,woman's ,stage #eh ,,chapter ,,ix ,wakashu ,kabuki3 ,the ,young ,men's ,stage #fd ,,chapter ,x ,theatres of the ,three ,towns #gd ,,yakusha ,,chapter ,,xi ,danjuro and ,tojuro #hg ,,chapter ,,xii ,yakusha of ,genroku #ii ,,chapter ,,xiii ,yakusha of ,horeki #aaa ,,chapter ,,xiv ,yakusha of ,pre-,restoration ,period #aba ,,chapter ,,xv ,onnagata #acb ,,chapter ,,xvi ,yakusha and ,marionette #add ,,chapter ,,xvii ,lives of the ,yakusha #aec ,,shibai ,,chapter ,,xviii ,customs of ,shibai #afi ,,chapter ,,xix ,shibai and ,outside ,influence #ahc ,,chapter ,,xx ,music of ,shibai #aib ,,chapter ,,xxi ,shibai and ,interference #bja ,,chapter ,,xxii ,externals of ,shibai #bae ,,sakusha ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,customs of the ,sakusha #bbe ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,representative ,sakusha #bcb ,,plays ,,chapter ,,xxv ,kabuki ,play ,forms #bec ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,motives of ,kabuki ,plays #bgf ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,kabuki ,rles #caj ,,meiji ,,kabuki ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,meiji ,kabuki #cbc ,i4 ,yakusha of ,meiji #cbc ,,ii4 ,the ,ninth ,ichikawa ,danjuro #ccj ,,iii4 ,a ,theatre ,manager of ,meiji #ccg ,,iv4 ,rise and ,fall of ,shimpa #cdb ,v4 ,reforms of ,meiji #cdg ,,vi4 ,actresses of ,meiji #cec ,,vii4 ,playwrights of ,meiji and ,taisho #ceh ,,kabuki ,,to-,,day ,,chapter ,,xxix ,contemporary ,kabuki #cfg ,bibliography #cgg ,index #cgi ,,illustrations ,,face ,,page ,the character of ,kamakura ,gongoro1 a warrior of ,old ,japan1 as presented in ,shibaraku6 7lit41 ,wait-a-,moment74 ,a famous actor improvisation1 or aragoto play1 one of the hereditary eighteen pieces of the ,ichikawa ,danjuro family4 7,from a painting on silk by ,torii ,kiyotada1 the present head of the ,torii ,school7 ,frontispiece1 in colour ,onoe ,kikugoro as a brave samurai woman mounted on a white velvet stage steed #bb ,nakamura ,matagoro1 the leading boy-actor of the ,tokyo stage in the rle of a girl-pilgrim1 ,o-,tsuru #cf ,announcing ,ceremony4 ,kojo1 or announcement ceremony1 in which the central figure is ,ichikawa ,danjuro4 ,the modest actor whose name is to be changed or rank raised bows low1 hiding his face from view4 7,colour print by ,hasegawa ,kampei1 the fourteenth1 and ,torii ,kiyosada1 father of ,kiyotada7 #dj ,the last of the ,ichikawa family1 the granddaughter of ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the ninth #db ,theatre ,treasures exhibited4 ,at the ,nakamura-za1 founded by ,saruwaka ,kansaburo1 the gifts given to him by the ,shogun were considered as treasures of the theatre and exhibited on certain anniversaries with much respect1 the actor holding the gold sai1 or battle signal1 and covering his mouth with a piece of paper lest his breath soil it4 7,colour print by ,hasegawa ,kampei1 the fourteenth1 and ,torii ,kiyosada1 father of ,kiyotada7 #fi ,ichimura ,uzaemon1 the thirteenth1 as ,yasuna in a posture dance descriptive of a man who has become demented because of the loss of his wife #hb ,onoe ,matsusuke as ,komori ,yasu1 or ,bat ,yasu1 so called because of the birth-mark on his cheek which resembles a bat4 ,a bold1 bad man of ,yedo #ii ,matsumoto ,koshiro1 of the ,imperial ,theatre1 in the character of ,townsend ,harris1 the first ,american ,minister to ,japan4 ,a photograph of the intrepid ,kentucky ,colonel is on the actor's dressing-table #aaa ,nakamura ,utayemon1 leading actor of the ,tokyo stage1 in the rle of ,yayegaki-hime1 the young princess in the play ,nijushiko1 or ,twenty-four ,filial ,persons #acb ,three onnagata of ,asia3 in the centre ,mei ,ran-fan of the ,peking stage1 to the left ,nakamura ,utayemon1 the leading onnagata of ,japan1 and on the right ,nakamura ,fukusuke1 the son of ,utayemon and one of the most fascinating impersonators of women in ,tokyo #acf ,nakamura ,jakuyemon of ,osaka1 an onnagata who imitates the acting of the marionettes #adj ,yoshida ,bungoro1 a doll-handler of the ,bunraku-za of ,osaka1 who has devoted his life to the management of female marionettes #add ,a scene from ,chushingura1 as played by the marionettes in the ,bunraku-za of ,osaka #adh ,o-,sato1 heroine of a ballad-drama of the ,doll-theatre4 ,reproduced from an oil painting by an ,osaka artist and shown in a ,tokyo art exhibition4 ,the doll-handlers are grouped behind like shadows #aej ,yakusha making a round of ,new ,year calls4 ,in the foreground a member of the ,ichikawa family1 with two pupils and his servants1 following behind an onnagata similarly attended4 ,the kites in the picture show the favourite pastime of children during the ,new ,year holidays4 7,colour print by ,hasegawa ,kampei1 the fourteenth1 and ,torii ,kiyosada1 father of ,kiyotada7 #aed ,matsumoto ,koshiro in the rle of an otokodate1 or chivalrous commoner1 ready to defend the oppressed lower classes from the blustering two-sworded samurai #afj ,nakamura ,kichiyemon as ,kumagae1 a warrior of ,old ,japan #aff ,to mark the opening of the theatre season when actors1 playwrights1 and musicians were engaged1 there was a gathering called ,seeing-for-the-,first-,time4 7,colour print by ,torii ,kiyonaga7 #age ,advertising the ,play4 ,during the performances two men garbed in long trailing feminine attire1 their heads covered with cotton towels1 attracted the passers-by by their verbal advertisement4 ,one imitated the lines of the actors1 and the other handed out wooden tickets4 7,colour print by ,hasegawa ,kampei1 the fourteenth1 and ,torii ,kiyosada1 father of ,kiyotada7 #agg ,face ,lights for the ,actors4 ,when the theatre became dark it was necessary to illumine the actor's face with candle-light4 ,here property men are holding out candles on the ends of pliant rods that the face of the dancer may be seen1 and candles form the footlights4 ,the performer is the serpent princess in the disguise of a beautiful dancer in the piece ,dojo-ji4 7,colour print by ,hasegawa ,kampei1 the fourteenth1 and ,torii ,kiyosada1 father of ,kiyotada7 #aha ,ceremony of welcoming an actor4 ,it represents the onnagata1 ,segawa ,kikunojo1 returning to the ,nakamura-za in ,yedo after an absence of two years in ,osaka4 7,from colour print by ,utagawa ,toyokuni7 #ahb ,nakamura ,ganjiro of ,osaka as a melancholy lover in a play of the people #ahf ,nakamura ,fukusuke of ,tokyo in an onnagata rle #bae ,a ,kaomise1 or face-showing ceremony at the ,nakamura-za in #aggb4 ,by this time the roof of the stage had disappeared and only its symbol remained over the front of the stage1 which now approached the long narrow style in vogue in the ,doll-theatre4 7,colour print by ,utagawa ,toyoharu7 #bag ,interior of the ,nakamura-za in #agih when ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the sixth1 was promoted to the head of the theatre4 ,by this time the roof of the stage had become a decoration overhead4 7,colour print by ,utagawa ,toyokuni7 #bah ,the largest ,n theatre in ,japan1 that of ,onishi ,ryotaro in ,osaka1 a modern structure combining architectural features representing the different periods of ,n theatre development #bbj ,kataoka ,nizaemon1 the eleventh1 as ,yuranosuke1 the leader of the ,forty-seven ,ronin1 in the play ,chushingura #bbh ,nakamura ,ganjiro of ,osaka in his favourite rle1 that of ,izaemon1 the lover of ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon's drama1 and played for two centuries by the ,kabuki actors #bef ,matsumoto ,koshiro1 the seventh1 as ,watonai1 the grotesque hero of ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon's drama1 ,kokusenya ,kassen1 or the ,battle of ,kokusenya4 ,the inner garment is bright red studded with brass1 the lower purple with a design of twisted white rope #bfb ,matsumoto ,koshiro1 the seventh1 as ,benkei1 the warrior-priest in ,kanjincho4 ,he performed in this rle when the ,prince of ,wales visited the ,imperial ,theatre #bfd ,sawamura ,sojuro1 the seventh1 of the ,imperial ,theatre1 as ,togashi1 the keeper of the barrier1 in ,kanjincho1 ,kabuki's music-drama masterpiece #bff ,morita ,kanya1 the thirteenth1 son of the aggressive theatre manager of ,meiji1 as ,yoshitsune1 the young hero of the music-drama1 ,kanjincho #bfh ,onoe ,baiko as the ,wistaria ,maiden1 in a descriptive dance #bgb ,onoe ,kikugoro1 the sixth1 as the transformation of a maid into a white fox1 in a descriptive dance1 ,kagami ,shishi1 or the ,mirror-,lion #bgd ,nakamura ,ganjiro of ,osaka as ,genzo1 the village schoolmaster in ,terakoya1 or ,the ,village ,school1 by ,takeda ,izumo #bgh ,ichikawa ,chusha as ,matsuomaru in ,terakoya 7,the ,village ,school71 who sacrifices the life of his son that the ,michizane heir may survive #bhj ,jitsukawa ,enjaku of ,osaka as ,gonta in the sacrifice play1 ,sembonzakura1 by ,takeda ,izumo #bhb ,ichikawa ,sadanji as ,sadakura1 the highwayman1 in the play ,chushingura #bhd ,the ,harakiri scene from ,chushingura #bhf ,scene from ,yotsuya ,kaidan1 or ,the ,ghost of ,yotsuya1 by ,namboku ,tsuruya4 ,onoe ,baiko is seen as the disfigured ,o-,iwa1 and ,onoe ,matsusuke the kind old masseur who holds up the mirror that she may learn the truth #bid ,banzuiin ,chobei1 a man of the people1 rle by ,matsumoto ,koshiro #cjj ,nakamura ,kichiyemon as ,sakura ,sogoro1 the ,village ,head who his life for the good of the people #cjb ,nakamura ,fukusuke of ,osaka as a belle of the gay quarters4 ,letters are made as long as possible to produce the better effect #cjd ,onoe ,baiko as the demon woman in ,ibaraki1 escaping with her severed arm #cjf ,matsumoto ,koshiro and ,onoe ,baiko in ,seikinoto1 the music-drama piece1 in which ,baiko appeared as the spirit of the cherry tree #caf ,ritsu-,ko ,mori1 the leading actress of the ,tokyo stage #cdg ,the ,imperial ,theatre of ,tokyo1 completed in #aiaa4 ,the building withstood the earthquake shocks of the great disaster of #aibc1 but the interior was destroyed by fire4 ,it has now been entirely restored4 ,the ,imperial is becoming an international theatre centre1 and has welcomed actors1 musicians1 and dancers from ,england1 ,america1 ,russia1 ,italy1 and ,china #cfh ,onoe ,baiko1 leading actor of the ,imperial ,theatre in an onnagata rle #cgj 7#a7 ,the new ,kabuki-za4 7#b7 ,entrance ,hall of the new ,kabuki-za4 ,the new ,kabuki-za1 with a seating capacity of #djjj1 which was opened on ,january #f1 #aibe4 ,under construction at the time of the earthquake disaster1 ,september #a1 #aibc1 the concrete structure remained intact4 ,japanese architectural features have been used throughout the ,kabuki-za1 and1 rising out of the ruins of the city1 it is one of the most imposing buildings in ,tokyo #cgd ,,introduction ,interest in the ,theatre1 and in the arts and crafts which belong to it1 is to-day so lively and so general that it is rather surprising how little has been written about the popular theatre in ,japan4 ,there have been several books on the ,n1 that unique form of drama which rigidly maintains unaltered all the traditions and fine conventions of the medieval period4 ,but this stationary1 aristocratic art has never entered into the life of the ,japanese people as has the ,kabuki theatre1 with which the present volume is concerned4 ,in ,january of this year was opened the new building of the ,kabuki-za1 rising from the ashes and ruins of the capital4 ,it is a huge building1 with a seating capacity of four thousand4 ,the ,japanese cannot live without the theatre3 it is in a most real sense part of the national life4 ,through the theatre the least educated become familiar with the heroic past of their country1 its legends and its actual history1 so abounding in dramatic episodes 8where duty and inclination come nobly to the grapple04 ,it stimulates and sustains their imaginative life2 it is a bond of union for all sorts and conditions of men4 ,such a theatre is worth knowing about2 and the art of this theatre is1 in all its details1 of extraordinary interest4 ,no nation is so thorough as the ,japanese in any art they undertake2 and the ,kabuki theatre exacts the most prolonged and rigorous training from childhood in those who serve it2 their art is of the most finished4 ,technically1 also1 the devices and conventions of ,kabuki scenes--the revolving stage1 for instance--offer points of comparison and contrast with the ,european theatre which we can profitably study1 as readers of this book will discover4 ,the writer of this book has lived for years in ,japan1 has assiduously frequented the theatre 7and not the ,kabuki theatre only71 and has made herself intimately acquainted with its history4 ,collectors and students of ,japanese colour-prints know how entwined with that popular art is the life of the theatre4 ,some of the finest designers of those beautiful prints devoted their lives to depicting the actors of the day in their most successful scenes4 ,and print-collectors have long been in want of a book which would tell them about the famous actors1 whether of masculine or feminine parts 7for women1 as on the ,elizabethan stage1 were played by men71 and about the plays in which they appeared4 ,only quite recently has it been discovered that the actor-prints can very often be dated by the help of theatre-records2 and thus we are enabled to distinguish between the different actors of stage-families bearing the same name4 7,the hereditary character of the actor's calling is another interesting feature of the ,japanese stage47 ,in this book one's natural curiosity about the lives and personalities of the successive ,danjuros and other great actors is in large measure satisfied3 and ,i am sure that print-collectors will welcome this illuminating aid to their study4 ,but it is to those interested in the theatre as theatre that these pages will appeal above all4 ,many of us remember the performances of ,sada ,yacco and her husband1 ,mr4 ,kawakami1 in ,london1 now many years ago4 ,they gave us just a glimpse of the fascination of ,japanese acting3 but they represented an experimental effort--,sada ,yacco herself was an actress only by accident--and in the ,west we have never seen any true representation of the national drama of ,japan4 ,i cannot but express the hope1 which ,i am sure will be shared by those who read these pages1 that before long ,tokyo may be persuaded to send a company to ,europe1 and at last allow us to enjoy and understand something of the scrupulous and intense dramatic art1 so rich in tradition yet so alive to the finger-tips1 of the ,japanese popular theatre4 ,,laurence ,,binyon4 ,,kabuki ,,chapter ,i ,,kabuki ,solid attention from the close-set heads of the playgoers kneeling on their cushions in the boxes of the pit to the crowded galleries on three sides1 and enthusiasm displayed in the tachimi1 or standing-to-see place near the ceiling1 where patient people remain on their feet for long hours--the keenest critics as well as the warmest supporters of the actors--such is the scene witnessed daily in the theatre of ,japan4 ,the ,occidental cannot long withstand the mass psychology of this audience2 that is1 if he makes an attempt to share its point of view and appreciate the excellent things provided upon the stage4 ,he feels its subtle unity1 its amazing cohesiveness2 he is carried away by an unseen stream1 engrossed1 engulfed1 and wakes up with a start to find himself an entity again2 or else1 detaching himself from the atmosphere in which he has been immersed1 wonders at this overflowing expression of ,japanese life4 ,statesmen1 publicists1 and editors of the ,occident wax eloquent about ,japan and her problems1 but here is something they quite ignore and leave out of consideration1 this manifestation of the pure spirit of the people with minds relaxed enjoying the theatre art that pleased their ancestors4 ,seekers after mystery will not find it here1 for there is nothing that is inscrutable4 ,merely the people laughing or crying as the play proceeds1 spontaneous in their approval of the triumph of right over wrong1 absorbed in the clash of evil and good1--the same theatre material that has served to amuse and attract mankind for the last two thousand years4 ,just the people1 displaying depths of human nature1 undisturbed by the questions that vex the politicians1 the propagandists1 the militarists1 and other dread phantoms that cast their dark shadows over a sunny1 smiling world4 ,the creative spirit belongs to no one land or people1 and its expression becomes the treasure of all4 ,kabuki1 the popular stage of ,japan1 is the result of three hundred years of intensive cultivation4 ,its genius and successful achievements belong to a common sum total1 and are a contribution to the world's theatre4 ,its actors are members of the same fraternity as those of the ,west1 and claim kinship with them4 ,nothing in the entire realm of ,japanese life reveals the characteristics of the people so unerringly as ,kabuki4 ,it is a store-house of history1 and has exercised a moral force upon the whole people4 ,the crowded audiences in the big theatres of ,tokyo1 ,osaka1 ,kobe1 ,kyoto1 ,yokohama1 and the countless minor places of amusement1 testify to the enjoyment and relaxation afforded by the performances4 ,there are the achievements of the actors1 who may easily be recognised as men of the first ability2 the frequent attempts of new stage writers1 that are worthy of consideration as evidence of ,japan's modern tendencies2 the living traditions of the old masterpieces to witness1 and the many interesting ceremonies of the theatre4 ,kabuki represents a whole world of creativeness both past and present1 a sphere of theatre activity that remains a terra incognita to the ,occident4 ,there is something poignant in the endeavours of generations of ,kabuki players who obeyed the voice within them1 asking no acknowledgement1 expecting no return1 doing their duty as they knew it without the least idea of the vague western hemisphere--completely unknown to their brothers in other lands4 ,for more than three hundred years these actors have lived and had their being in their own narrow spheres4 ,true to the best theatre instinct within them1 they bequeathed their accumulated treasures of style and taste1 the purest and most varied of theatre material1 to their successors1 the modern actors1 who1 so far as the ,west is concerned1 remain obscure1 unvalued1 and unappreciated1 even as did their ancestors when ,japan was isolated and had no relations with outside countries4 ,yet their art was good1 and will one day gain recognition4 ,they have carried on their traditions unswervingly2 they are the custodians of all that pertains to the theatre of the present1 and the future looms large with possibilities4 ,there are three separate and distinct theatres in ,japan3 the ,n1 or classic drama1 with its masked figures1 perfected five hundred years ago2 ,ningyo-shibai1 or the ,doll-theatre1 where marionettes interpret complicated ballad-dramas2 and ,kabuki1 the popular theatre1 in which male players reign supreme4 ,these are the ,japanese theatre arts1 interwoven into the very fabric of society1 the amusements of the people that reflect their psychology1 tastes1 and aspirations4 ,the ,n became crystallised into an art at the time of the ,shogun ,yoshimitsu 7#acfh-acih74 ,long before ,yoshimitsu held sway1 the country had been brimful of song1 dance1 poetry1 minstrelsy1 and the three theatres of modern ,japan may be said to have inherited the accumulated tendencies of a thousand years4 ,deeply rooted in the people was the love of theatrical entertainments which were held in connection with the festivals of shrines and temples4 ,from these performances developed companies of players who formed hereditary actor families1 the members of which were regarded as belonging to the common people4 ,when ,yoshimitsu saw a performance at a ,kyoto temple that pleased him he gave his patronage to the players1 and at one bound they were elevated to a new position4 ,it was at this time that the ,n was brought to a state of perfection1 and the support and encouragement given by so highly placed a personage resulted in the monopoly of this theatre by the aristocracy1 to be reserved henceforward for their own use and entertainment4 ,during the long ,tokugawa regime1 the ,n continued under the protection of the ,shogun1 and was patronised by the various daimyo4 ,when the shogunate fell1 the ,n almost went out of existence1 but slowly regained its prestige1 and within recent years it has attained unprecedented popularity4 ,it is regarded as a means of culture1 and is claimed by increasing numbers of intellectuals4 ,yet it still retains its aloofness from the common theatre1 which it continues to disdain as cheap1 vulgar1 and sensational4 ,in spite of the fact that it has come to a standstill and lives on the past1 its influence is very great4 ,as an expression of the human spirit by means of inanimate figures1 the ,doll-theatre of ,japan is unique4 ,it is a surprise to find this jewel of art in ,osaka1 the city of smoke-stacks--an art that has been alive in ,japan for more than three hundred years1 but is at present practically confined to one small theatre1 the ,bunraku-za4 ,other countries have their doll-theatres in more or less flourishing conditions1 but few have reached such a state of completeness as that of ,japan4 ,for here is a rare combination--inanimate figures instead of actors of flesh and blood2 doll-men trained from childhood to acquire the technique to manage the cold and lifeless forms through which flows the creative genius of the handlers2 minstrels and musicians who have devoted their lives to the interpretation of the plays2 and the best brains of the dramatist employed in order that the dolls may be triumphant and their use fully justified4 ,kabuki1 the popular stage1 was but the assertion of the people to the right of their own form of entertainment1 since the ,n had become the exclusive amusement of the higher classes4 ,all the materials for a theatre of the people were abundantly at hand1 and it only needed the impetus to start it flowing in the right direction4 ,ningyo-shibai1 or the ,doll-theatre1 and ,kabuki rose at the same time1 both popular theatre arts4 ,kabuki was destined to be profoundly influenced by the marionettes1 and the music of the ,doll-theatre owed its inspiration directly to the ,n4 ,while ,japan's theatre genius has not developed in the same direction as the intellectual drama of the ,occident1 her actors are the product of severe discipline4 ,kabuki is one of the most professional stages of the world4 ,the actors are trained from childhood1 and keep their place in the ranks until their steps are tottering4 ,there is no opening for the amateur to gain admittance to this well-regulated world with its set standards4 ,and of the countless plays1 but few are known to the ,west4 ,there are the dramas rich in human nature1 as romantic and sentimental as the ,west could desire1 with a realism that rivals that of the ,occident4 ,on the other hand1 there is a remarkable excursion into the realm of the unreal1 and grotesque characters cut out of the cloth of exaggeration form the characteristics of the many quaint plays that have been handed down to posterity by the nine stars of the ,ichikawa family1 the actor-line that has contributed more than any other to the development of the ,japanese theatre4 ,there are1 also1 the shosagoto1 or music-posture pieces1 ethereal1 graceful1 fairylike creations1 and associated with these a whole sphere of descriptive dancing4 ,to attempt to justify the existence of ,kabuki by seeking to explain it in the light of the ,occidental theatre means to digress1 for comparisons are idle until the whole story of the ,japanese stage is made known4 ,no doubt when ,kabuki becomes more familiar to the ,west much of a critical nature will be written as to where the two approach or diverge4 ,the aim of this book is to lay the essential facts of ,kabuki before ,occidental readers4 ,for it is believed that the way to judge such an institution is to find out first what it signifies to those who have brought it into existence4 ,after which may be considered the value it holds for the ,west4 ,when an attempt is made to explain ,kabuki in ,western terms confusion begins4 ,it becomes a much simpler matter if left to explain itself4 ,in the ,n the actor and playwright were subservient to interpretation1 and art was greater than personality2 in the ,doll-theatre1 playwrights1 minstrels1 doll-handlers--all worked so enthusiastically that they forgot themselves and were absorbed in the marionette1--a truly unselfish theatre co-operation4 ,much of ,kabuki1 however1 has been of an ephemeral nature4 ,the actors improvised as they saw fit4 ,it was their world and the playwrights were their servants4 ,the whole art of ,kabuki evolved by these players of ,japan is unconscious1 and should be of the greatest interest to lovers of the theatre in all lands1 for the reason that the relation of a people to their theatre1 the different use of dramatic materials1 the development of characteristic customs and conventions reveal by way of comparison and contrast the virtues or defects of the systems that exist elsewhere4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,kabuki ,,audiences ,an indescribable din1 thoroughly characteristic of the atmosphere of shibai1--that forms part of the pleasure of theatre-going1--is composed of a hubbub of voices1 the clatter of tea-cups1 the twang of the samisen1 the thunder of big drums1 the cries of the vendors selling pots of hot tea1 rice-cakes1 or oranges to customers in the back seats of the gallery1 and the metallic click-clack of the hyoshigi1 or wooden clappers1 that signal the beginning or end of the curtain4 ,long before the playgoers begin to arrive1 heavy1 scattered drum-beats echo through the vacant theatre4 ,this is a reminder of the old days when the drummer stationed in the yagura1 or drum-tower1 beat his tattoo to announce the opening of shibai1 and to hasten the people on their way4 ,by the time the dekata1 or ushers1 are bustling about showing the people to their places1 the great drum sounds with slow1 regular rhythms4 ,a flute begins to shrill1 weaving an intricate maze about the deep-toned measures4 ,next the light1 staccato beats of a ,n drum are added to the medley of sounds which1 becoming faster and faster1 seems to anticipate the thrilling and brilliant scenes that are about to be represented on the stage4 ,the drummers cease their clamour abruptly1 and there succeeds a quiet space broken by the noise of the stage carpenter's hammer1 and the calls of stage hands4 ,soon the pit is densely packed1 the people kneeling down on their cushions in the little square boxes that hold no more than four with comfort4 ,the galleries facing the stage1 and to right and left1 hung with many lanterns and covered with scarlet cloth1 begin to fill4 ,increasing the animation of the scene are the changing curtains of rich satins or crepes embroidered or dyed with gay designs1 presentation gifts to the actor1 symbolising his rank1 rles1 or ancestry1 that are drawn aside one after the other4 ,the many-coloured kimono and gold and silver obi worn by the fair sex heighten the brightness of the picture4 ,deluges of rain do not prevent people from crowding to the theatre1 for when ordinary pursuits are interfered with the whole day may be given up to seeing the plays and enjoying the hospitality of shibai4 ,should a typhoon be raging1 the chaya1 or tea-house1 presents a lively scene2 every second a dozen dripping1 two-wheeled kuruma arrive1 the short oilskin coats of the pullers streaming with water1 their bare legs splashed with mud1 as they unbutton the flaps of the hooded vehicles that old1 fat dowagers1 charming wives1 white-haired old gentlemen wearing silk skirts1 and geisha1 immaculate of toilet1 may emerge1 only to be succeeded by an endless variety of persons bent on relieving the monotony of the day by a visit to shibai4 ,within the chaya1 the wide cement entrance floor is quickly covered by a mountain of geta1 or clogs1 and dripping oiled-paper umbrellas1 all thrown together in what seems utter confusion1 were it not for the wooden identification tags4 ,servants add to the pandemonium by running in all directions calling out loudly as they take the honourable guests' hats and overcoats1 or escort them to their places within the theatre1 while crowds of apple-cheeked country maids struggle valiantly to fill innumerable blue and white teapots1 disputing with each other as to the destination of these indispensables1 arranging them on trays1 or filling them by dipping up the boiling water from a huge brass kettle over the charcoal fire let down in the floor4 ,outside1 the red and white paper lanterns decorating the under-eaves of the tea-house blow about wetly1 and a fusillade of vertical rain falls unceasingly upon the grey mud of the street4 ,from street to seat1 and a new world appears1 the audience kneeling down on the cushions of the small boxes1 packed in like sardines in the narrow confines--faces1 faces everywhere1 from the patient standing people of the highest gallery to the close-set heads of the first row in the pit4 ,immediately1 the piles of clogs and soggy umbrellas that must be sorted out before the dispersal of the audience1 the blustering gale without1 even the deafening roar of the unceasing rain upon the roof of the theatre are forgotten1 as attention is focussed upon the vivid characters of the ,kabuki plays4 ,or to leave the dusty1 traffic-worn city in the yellow glare of noon1 and entering the chaya become lost in ,kabuki's dreamland1 is a pleasant sensation4 ,the old world wags4 ,afternoon gives place to evening1 and by the time the playgoer issues forth again into the sphere of actualities1 a chorus of thanks from the tea-house attendants for his coming sounding in his ears1 the stars are bright in the canopy of darkness4 ,at the time of ,o-,kuni1 the founder of ,kabuki1 shibai meant to sit on the grass or earth1 and something of its out-of-door origin still remains4 ,the buildings never at any time give the impression that the play is being enacted in some stuffy1 mouldy subterranean cavern4 ,especially in hot weather the audience has a sense of airiness and freedom4 ,going to the theatre in midsummer is made agreeable and comfortable4 ,white curtains cover the galleries2 the audience is clothed for the most part in cool1 white cotton kimono1 and the entire auditorium is a-flutter with white fans4 ,the playgoer may look away from the stage and rest his eyes by the sight of a moonlit sky1 even bats and moths venturing in from their night resting-places1 attracted by the bright interior4 ,sunlight slants through the audience and falls on the upturned faces in the pit1 and is reflected in the well-oiled and perfectly arranged coiffure of the ,japanese woman4 ,patches of brilliant sunshine stray upon the stage1 touching a golden screen or sumptuous costume4 ,the wind blows1 moving the fragile paper lanterns suspended from the galleries or in rows over the stage1 shibai's most characteristic decoration4 ,the heads of the kneeling people in the galleries are outlined against an open space of blue sky1 trees1 and roofs4 ,afternoon fades1 and the background behind the playgoers changes to dark blue velvet imperceptibly melting into the blackness of night as the play proceeds4 ,for summer audiences suggestions of coolness are made4 ,in a certain scene gold screens will be used1 on which are painted pine-clad islands1 blue water1 and white waves4 ,when that mysterious sea of faces upon which the actor plays is one fluttering mass of paper fans1 then the taste inclines to realistic typhoons with thunder and lightning and real rain1 that splashes all over the stage1 or there is shown an under-the-ocean scene in which fish and mermaids disport themselves4 ,should a piece with the savour of the sea be given1 a curtain is suspended from the galleries showing blue waves on white1 and creepy ghost plays are a cooling influence when it is necessary to forget the hot clamminess of the streets4 ,in winter1 however1 the near-to-nature aspect of shibai is not conducive to comfort4 ,then it is necessary to sit on the feet to keep them warm1 and the chill air blows through chinks and cracks4 ,the only heat provided is a small porcelain vessel filled with charcoal embers placed in a box that has an aperture in the top1 while over the whole is placed a wadded covering--a hand-warmer that theatre-goers could not very well do without4 ,but if there is signal neglect of creature comforts in the winter shibai1 there are compensations4 ,there is no lack of warm food and beverages to suit the taste of the most fastidious4 ,during the intervals between plays the people promenade along the corridors and purchase souvenirs at the stalls1 where many tempting wares are displayed to view4 ,an air of enjoyment and pleasure pervades the atmosphere4 ,april is still1 as it was in the old days1 the gayest and most attractive month for playgoers4 ,thousands of provincials flock to ,tokyo and ,osaka1 and the theatres vie with each other to provide the most attractive programmes4 ,artificial cherry blossoms form the decorations outside the theatres1 and the stage shows some special arrangement of these flowers4 ,following the old custom1 ,november is the most dignified theatre month in the calendar1 when the great actors play their finest rles to mark the opening of the theatre season4 ,the celebration of the ,new ,year is observed in a special manner1 the decorations consisting of pine1 bamboo1 and plum1 and lanterns bearing the names and crests of the leading actors4 ,december is the dullest and most uninteresting theatre month1 since the year-end settlement of outstanding accounts makes it necessary to retrench in order to meet all obligations1 and because the busy household preparations keep many a matron and maid at home4 ,not all the plays on a programme1 that lasts from noon to near midnight1 are calculated to hold the attention--in some scenes the action1 if it can be so called1 meanders gently on1 the audience manifesting a mild interest4 ,there is a deep undercurrent of repose upon the stage1 the actors going about their business leisurely1 knowing nothing of the hurry with which ,western players cram the events of a lifetime into a short two-hours-and-a-half4 ,people attend shibai not so much to be startled by sensations1 as for relaxation4 ,they take their ease1 and feel at home4 ,the dekata waits upon them1 attending to their personal needs with a courtesy that makes each individual consider himself an honoured guest4 ,in the midst of a scene that calls for passive interest1 the dekata may be seen balancing in one hand a pile of red or black lacquer boxes full of hot rice and tempting viands with which playgoers are accustomed to regale themselves1 or laden down with sake bottles or teapots1 moving dexterously from one box to another in the pit4 ,at such times the doctrine of self-realisation of ,asia is best revealed4 ,contented old men send the smoke from their small1 metallic pipes floating towards the ceiling2 grandmothers drink tea from cups that hold three mouthfuls4 ,old cronies discuss the play over sips of hot sake2 others read the programmes to acquaint themselves with the forthcoming plays2 babies are nursed1 dressed1 or put to sleep2 geisha take out their mirrors and industriously preen and powder2 children devour sweets and oranges4 ,but while each person is enjoying himself according to his own ideas1 a hush seems to envelop the entire assembly4 ,there is a sense of unity1 an undertow of quietness1 that holds the diversified units of the audience firmly together4 ,as a revelation of human nature there is nothing so illuminating in all ,japan as the ,kabuki audience4 ,quick to see the humour of a situation1 it is tragedy that it likes and which touches it to the quick4 ,it is a mistaken idea to suppose that all the people of ,japan are samurai to the extent that they never show their feelings4 ,loyal heroes who die for a cause1 victims of the conflict between love and duty1 sacrifice of self that others may live1 these always bring the tears1 and handkerchiefs are pressed to brimming feminine eyes in all parts of the theatre4 ,nor are men above the softer emotions4 ,they may be seen weeping bitterly in such scenes as that in ,chushingura when ,enya ,hangan commits harakiri and his faithful chief retainer1 ,yuranosuke1 comes just in time to catch his last words4 ,others mop their heads or cough to keep back the tears4 ,kabuki audiences seem rather to enjoy a good cry4 ,the sorrow of farewell1 mother-love1 blindness1 death1 the common human experiences move them deeply4 ,they may be dazzled by a gorgeous spectacle1 excited by a combat1 absorbed by the movements of a dancer1 but when it comes to the sentiments of everyday life the ,kabuki audience responds in a wave of sympathy4 ,formerly the audience was composed chiefly of middle or lower class people4 ,nowadays all classes attend1 and a member of the ,imperial family1 the ,prince ,regent1 witnessed ,kabuki performances for the first time when he visited the ,imperial ,theatre in ,tokyo with the ,prince of ,wales4 ,a distinctive feature of theatre-going are the parties of people who attend regularly in a body1 patrons of the leading actors4 ,firemen1 wrestlers1 and tradespeople may thus be seen1 according to the custom of their ancestors4 ,the geisha are the steadiest patrons of the actors4 ,sometimes they make a brave show gaily apparelled1 occupying the best seats in the gallery4 ,they form an interesting element of the audience1 smoking1 chatting1 weeping over the play1 and making up with powder puff to obliterate the traces of tears1 the young ones in dazzling kimono and obi1 the more sedate in sober garments4 ,when a popular actor in a piece that has withstood the shocks of time is before the audience interest becomes intense4 ,familiarity with the play adds to the keenness of the enjoyment4 ,before a favourite character makes a grand entrance by the hanamichi1 every head in the pit is turned to see him come4 ,shouts of welcome are heard as a beloved hero is about to make his appearance on the scene4 ,half of the enjoyment to the playgoers in seeing these old plays is expectancy2 not so much in the unfoldment of the plot1 for they know the story by heart1 and have witnessed the play often1 but how the actor will interpret it4 ,one of the privileges of the audience is to make audible remarks1 and they are free and unrestrained in the expression of their admiration or criticism of an actor in a well-known rle4 8,you did very well60 shouts a voice after an actor has portrayed a character to the general satisfaction4 ,if an actor is ill1 but refuses to disappoint the audience1 a sympathiser calls out3 8,take care of yourself60 or 8,thank you for coming when you are so ill60 ,should a young player1 rapidly climbing the ladder of fame1 display so much skill as to astonish1 there is a surge of great pride throughout the audience1 and shouts of 8,nippon ,ichi60 78,best in ,japan607 are showered upon him4 ,when the minstrel and the samisen player1 who are to furnish the incidental music of a doll-theatre classic1 mount their platform to the right of the stage1 there are cries of3 8,now do your best60 ,glowing memories of the varied scenes in shibai do not soon fade away2 the friendliness of the tea-house mistresses who have remained for long years at their posts2 the thrilling experience of meeting an actor off the stage in an upper room of a tea-house looking down on the blaze of oblong lanterns that form the street illuminations2 the unfailing attentiveness of the dekata1 those servitors of shibai who seem to have wandered into the present from old ,yedo2 an actor on the hanamichi surrounded by the people1 all eyes intent on his movements1 or the unrestrained applause when an actor reaches a high level of acting4 ,many shibai landmarks are passing1 giving place to more advanced ideas4 ,in the leading theatre1 chairs have now replaced the cushions laid on the matting as in a ,japanese dwelling2 steam heat ensures a well-warmed interior in winter2 maids in black frocks and white bib and tucker are replacing the dignified1 faithful dekata2 the time given to the performances is steadily being reduced4 ,shibai must progress4 ,but in their efforts to be up to date the iconoclasts would throw overboard much of the honest and simple regime that has for so long distinguished ,kabuki4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,conventions ,,of ,,kabuki ,while the development of the popular theatre of ,japan has been co-existent with that of ,england and ,europe1 and fundamentally it is the same1 there are striking differences in the conventions4 ,these are the result of the isolation of ,kabuki1 due to the seclusion policy of the shogunate which endured for two centuries and a half4 ,kabuki conventions appear at first sight so different from our own that it takes time to understand and appreciate them4 ,familiarity1 however1 reveals the taste and sincerity of the ,kabuki collaborators1 who1 far from the influence of the theatres of other lands1 worked out their own salvation4 ,one of the most interesting conventions to the ,occidental is the hanamichi1 or flower-way4 ,it is an extension of the stage proper to form a path through the audience4 ,there are always two hanamichi in a theatre1 one on either side of the stage1 that on the left being the wider and more important1 that on the right smaller and less used4 ,some of the most vital principles of ,kabuki are at work when the hanamichi is employed4 ,the modern playwrights who ignore it1 not only rob the actors of something strongly theatrical1 but at the same time take away from the audience the keen delight that comes from close contact with the creations of the stage4 ,pageantry and ceremonial claim the hanamichi as their own4 ,sweeping over it come processions of gay courtesans2 priests in stiff brocades chant as they march solemnly to some ornate stage-temple2 daimyo trains wind their way with all the pomp of feudal days2 the whole theatre becomes a stage and every person in the audience feels his connection with the play and players4 ,a company of courtesans enter by the hanamichi and fill it with as brilliant a blaze of colour as it is ever possible to see in a theatre that is justly famous in this direction4 ,the grotesque personages of the prints1 the taiyu of old ,yedo1 are reproduced1 the glittering robes of gold and bright embroidery1 the elaborately decorated headdresses1 and heavily padded brocade rolls to their many kimono1 making them the most topheavy persons that could ever be imagined1 balancing themselves on their stilt-like black geta1 or high footgear1 as they lean on the shoulders of their male attendants for support4 ,a whole hanamichi of these extraordinary creatures1 men bearing large lanterns1 and little maids in scarlet1 following in the wake1 makes a picture that fairly dazzles4 ,many priests with an aged abbot at the head pass through the audience in great dignity and enter a golden temple in the gloom of tall trees1 the incense1 wave on wave1 rising into the air and spreading out over the audience4 ,fighting men in armour suddenly swarm over the two hanamichi1 right above the heads of the bewildered people in their small boxes in the pit1 and the whole audience is taken by surprise at the number of men rushing towards the stage4 ,the greatest variety of entrances and exits is made possible by the hanamichi4 ,a hasty messenger chooses this way for entrance2 and a slow exit is made by a melancholy lover with downcast head and folded arms1 determined to depart this life4 ,there is the splendid1 imposing entrance of a shogun1 prince or brave warrior1 or the striking exit of some masquerading fox or demon1 while the actors are fond of slow introductions1 standing for a long time in the most conspicuous position on the hanamichi that they may be viewed from every vantage point in the theatre4 ,tall autumn grasses on each side of the hanamichi1 prepare for the entrance of a hero playing on his flute in the moonlight1 an assassin creeping behind him4 ,if the scene upon the stage is that of winter there will be a snowdrift on the hanamichi1 and blue and white cotton will transform this narrow audience-path into a stream of water4 ,an umbrella lies carelessly outspread on the hanamichi2 it gently moves as though by its own volition1 then there is a puff of smoke1 and out springs a beautiful maiden1 who dances4 ,by the same trap-door issue forth such characters as ,nikki ,danjo1 magician and conspirator1 who transforms himself into a rat that he may steal a family document1 and then assuming his own form1 although still resembling a rat1 stands in the midst of the people1 and the next moment mysteriously disappears through the hanamichi4 ,armour-clad fighters perched high upon velvet stage-horses thrill by their nearness1 and long-lost brothers find each other on the hanamichi4 ,with rapture lovers are united2 a wounded hero1 shot by an arrow in the eye1 reels and sinks down with exhaustion1 and two comic old females go out talking volubly to the amusement of the audience4 ,such are the characters1 gay or grave1 who have been brought into existence by the hanamichi4 ,as a means to further characters on their way1 the hanamichi is most useful4 ,two actors will leave the stage taking the hanamichi1 and cross over by a narrow footpath into the centre of the pit1 where they stand and act4 ,meanwhile a bridge has been pulled off and a red shrine pushed on1 and by the time they wander back to the stage proper they have travelled a long way on their journey4 ,travellers1 servants1 court ladies1 peasants1 and vendors1--they make a motley train as they pass over the hanamichi and are so near the people that they might1 if they wished1 reach out and touch their garments4 ,interpretative music forms part of almost every play4 ,to produce certain moods in the audience1 the drummers and samisen players are accustomed to make sounds and rhythms to increase the emotion or picturesque effect of a scene4 ,these men are called hayashikata1 or musicians1 and perform on a number of instruments1 furnishing ,kabuki's incidental music4 ,they are stationed to one side of the stage and concealed from view1 but as a concession there is an opening in the painted scenery1 or screens1 that they may survey the stage and keep in close relation to the action4 ,to accompany conversation there are irregular notes of the samisen1 and when the characters are thus engaged and what they say is of great interest the audience is so hushed that the stray notes of the samisen sound like dripping water in a silent house4 ,at other times this samisen accompaniment to dialogue is more of a hindrance than a help4 ,for people walking or marching the samisen has another rhythm1 and certain variations of measures suggest a lonely farm house4 ,when two noble persons converse together1 the flute1 sho 7an ancient reed instrument71 drum1 and samisen are played softly4 ,rippling sounds convey the merriment of a feast1 and excited rhythms are heard as a combat takes place4 ,for battle there is the confusion made of quick beats of the big drum4 ,to increase the sound of the warlike preparations1 a metal gong is struck rapidly1 there is a clash of cymbals1 and the blowing of a conch shell4 ,to make more solitary a lonely mountain scene1 a horse-driver's song is sung to the jingle of horse-bells1 and when an echo is required two small drums answer each other4 ,gay and lively festival scenes are accompanied by intricate interweaving of light drum-beats4 ,crazy persons make their appearance to irregular notes of the samisen1 while regular rhythms of the big drum suggest wind4 ,falling snow is made by soft1 muffled1 regular drum-beats4 ,waves are suggested by a vigorous stroke on the big drum1 and then a quiet tap1 in imitation of the ebb and flow of the tide4 ,at sunset there is the deep boom of a temple-bell1 when lovers are parting1 or the approach of some tragic dnouement in deserted temple or country cottage4 ,for harakiri scenes the piercingly sad flute and subdued samisen express the regret of the dying1 and for tragedy there are sad little ripples of the samisen in a high tone4 ,soft samisen measures accompany melancholy moonlit scenes1 and the striking of a wooden gong used in ,buddhist worship suggests the appearance of something frightful4 ,light taps of the big drums make known a sinister motive1 and the big drum beaten quickly announces impending evil1 while the clatter of the geta1 or wooden clogs1 on the hanamichi1 to the thumping of the samisen and the light tattoo of the small drums1 conveys an impression of light-heartedness4 ,most of the conventions in regard to make-up have been handed down by word of mouth from one ,ichikawa ,danjuro to the other1 and form a complicated subject4 ,dead white1 with broad black eyebrows1 and touches of red to eyes and corners of the mouth1 has long been the accepted stage mask for samurai1 or persons of high degree4 ,white also forms the established make-up for women4 ,villains are generally made up with red faces1 country people are tanned brown by the sun1 and comedians paint their faces with red1 white1 and blue4 ,in the exaggerated rles created by the ,ichikawa house1 the countenances of these imaginative personages give scope for the most daring attempts4 ,this elaborate design for the face is called kumadori 7lit41 to-make-borders74 ,brave men who have fought a good fight and lost1 confront their enemies with an expression of retaliation1 broad red lines around the eyes1 nose1 and chin1 with red forks over the forehead4 ,again1 such a character is made up with light pink shading out from the red strokes4 ,strong and courageous warriors1 undismayed although in the hands of their enemies1 have chins of grey1 red lips bordered by white1 broad upward strokes of red from eyes and cheeks to forehead1 and raised eyebrows like the antenn of some black beetle1 the whole giving the impression that the hero is bristling with anger2 his hair standing on end4 ,benkei1 the warrior-priest1 loyal to his young master1 ,yoshitsune1 is represented with a grey chin1 no eyebrows1 two curved lines on forehead1 outlined in pink4 ,a villain of wrathful mien is made up according to the ,ichikawa convention with the lower part of the face black1 a black and white design on the chin for a beard1 the upper portion of the face covered with a network of purple veins1 and for eyebrows the antlers of a deer in dark blue4 ,a villain of a different description appears with a bright red face1 a pink nose and mouth1 and thick black elevated eyebrows4 ,most of the conventions for the making up of ghosts have been created by the ,kikugoro family1 their specialty being the weird and ghostly4 ,a ,kikugoro ghost has a branching design of blue veins1 a red mouth outlined in black1 and eyes painted with red and black4 ,another apparition has an indistinct blue tinge over the face1 the features slightly touched with black4 ,the face of a fox in human disguise is white with sharp pink points upward from the bridge of the nose1 and slanting black eyebrows4 ,the spirit of a frog has sharp curved lines of dark and light green about eyes1 mouth1 and forehead4 ,not unlike the clown of the ,western circus1 the ,kabuki comedian makes up with a white ground on which lines of red are painted about the nostrils and eyes1 while a red circle between the eyes supports a heavy horizontal line intended for eyebrows4 ,the cheeks are decorated with a blue curved design1 suggested by a squirming eel1 which represents a moustache4 ,the modern actors are not slaves to the conventions1 but depart from them whenever they feel inclined1 making up to suit their own ideas of the characters they take4 ,the actor performs this elaborate duty himself1 laying on the lines with brush and finger tip4 ,matsumoto ,koshiro1 of the ,imperial ,theatre1 is acknowledged the most versatile and original in his making up1 always creating something new and astonishing4 ,illustration3 ,onoe ,kikugoro as a brave samurai woman mounted on a white velvet stage steed4 ,one of the most striking conventions of the ,japanese theatre is the ,kabuki horse1 supported underneath by two minor actors who specialise in supplying legs to make-believe steeds4 ,it waves its mane1 kicks and steps about to show its mettle1 or jogs along1 a patient pack animal4 ,but always it forms a necessary part of the action of a play1 as well as an important feature of the stage picture4 ,this remarkable quadruped with the very human legs and knees occupies a distinct place of its own in the old plays1 and its prestige is not dimmed even in the latest productions4 ,its ancestor may be seen on the ,doll-stage1 prancing about among the puppets1 but the velvet mount of ,kabuki is much more dignified1 and has advanced a great deal since it ceased to associate with the marionettes4 ,in a music play1 ,omori ,hikoshichi1 by ,fukuchi1 the horse becomes one of the chief characters4 ,the hero1 ,omori1 while assisting a young woman to cross the ford of a river is suddenly attacked by her4 ,he finds that she is trying to recover her father's sword1 and having it with him1 he generously gives it up4 ,to hide his act from his men1 he pretends to be overcome by uncanny influences1 but this excuse does not satisfy the retainers1 and when ,omori jumps upon his horse1 they pull the bridle this way and that1 the restive animal rearing and plunging to the strains of the samisen4 ,at length ,omori frees himself and appears in the background on a hill1 his war-fan upraised in triumphant attitude1 the very intelligent stage-horse pawing the ground1 apparently sharing its master's triumphant emotion4 ,acting a horse rle is not so easy as it may appear1 since the fore and back legs must by some stage legerdemain perform in harmony4 ,the front legs take the initiative since to this actor is given the position of look-out4 ,there is a window in the throat of the horse that allows the chief interpreter a partial vision of the stage4 ,the hind legs must follow blindly1 and moreover this actor is in a stooping position and apparently has little air for breathing purposes4 ,how the two players enter the outward frame1 and how they get along inside1 remains a mystery to playgoers1 who do not inquire about the matter too closely4 ,when the young hero1 ,atsumori1 in bright armour1 makes his entrance upon the hanamichi riding on a white velvet horse1 he has attached to the back of his saddle a series of black lacquered hoops1 from which is suspended a long1 loose covering of thin orange silk1 that streams high above his head and floats like the train of a lady at court far behind the horse4 ,kumagae1 a grizzled warrior1 is magnificent on a black horse that tosses its head as though it were truly a fiery steed4 ,he wears gold armour1 rides on a black velvet mount1 and the streaming silk is of purple4 ,they follow one another into the sea1 and the two horsemen are seen in the perspective surrounded by conventional blue and white waves1 crossing swords amid the surges4 ,the young hero is overcome4 ,then the riderless horses1 like real runaways1 dash along the hanamichi1 making a grand exit4 ,there seems no danger that the ,kabuki horse will ever become extinct1 for it is employed with too good effect in many of the best plays4 ,a samurai escaping from a battle leans with fatigue on his horse4 ,the enemy are upon him and he must say farewell to his dumb friend1 which shows affection for its master by rubbing him with its nose1 while the actor without words expresses the sorrow he feels at parting from his faithful companion4 ,again1 the central figure of a dance may be a white horse1 with gay trappings of red fringe and brass ornaments4 ,some day this interesting quadruped may be considered too antiquated in the pitiless glare of the progressive present1 and1 ashamed of itself for being a hoax so long1 slink away into oblivion4 ,but it cannot be supplanted by a real one1 so long as it forms an important part of the pageantry of the hanamichi1 when resplendent daimyo ride in state through the audience in the midst of the little boxes crammed with their human occupants craning their necks to see the passing show4 ,it would be hard to imagine ,kabuki without its devoted kurombo1 or property man4 ,concealed from head to foot in black1 the face covered by a flap1 which he seldom raises except in an emergency1 the kurombo 7lit41 black-man7 serves the stage unselfishly1 claiming no recognition1 pleased to put his own personality completely in the background2 withal he is a most important personage4 ,the variety of his tasks gives him an entire familiarity with the stage4 ,he is a super-actor and stage-manager1 entrusted with the smooth running of the performance1 responsible for a hundred details1 and yet remains the humble menial of the theatre4 ,a queer profession it seems1 to flit about the stage so unobtrusively that the audience is not aware of his presence2 yet always engaged in making inanimate objects significant4 ,he holds a piece of silver paper on the end of a long pole and a fish jumps before the eyes of the audience4 ,hiding behind a thicket of bamboo1 he causes the long feathery plumes to sway in a wind storm4 ,the pendant branches of the weeping willow are suddenly agitated by the kurombo in anticipation of some ghostly event1 or he squats down behind a clump of grass making it shiver to reveal the concealment place of some desperate character about to come forth4 ,what magic he effects by means of his long pliable rod6 ,at one time butterflies flutter from the end1 or a white moth is suspended over the face of a sleeping man near a white paper lantern1 awakening him in time that he may protect himself from danger4 ,it is the kurombo who causes snakes to glide upon the scene and wriggle in the most realistic manner1 while cats1 rats1 and even crabs make their appearance at the psychological moment at his bidding4 ,sometimes he remains so quiet that he appears to be nodding or napping1 but the next moment bounds away accomplishing his purpose4 ,always on the alert1 he watches for sliding screens that do not open1 or gates that are about to topple over1 and holds up a curtain that a dead man may disappear since he is no longer needed on the stage4 ,by a dexterous touch behind1 he changes the neutral costume of an actor to one all gold and silver1 or gives the right tug that brings the long hair of a distraught heroine all dishevelled about her4 ,his solicitude for the infants of the footlights is touching4 ,crouching behind a boy actor1 he guides his actions and gives him his cue1 waiting to escort him on and off4 ,and when the feet of the old actor become feeble the kurombo is close at hand to assist1 knowing his least movement from long association4 ,silent observer of the great men1 the actors1 creeping on all fours behind some gorgeous figure in gold brocade1 the kurombo is conscious of the sins and omissions of the players1 and he is the humourist of the situation4 ,but he never shows that he is human4 ,the audience seldom if ever catch a glimpse of his face1 perhaps only in profile as he takes up some partially exposed position1 with book in hand1 prompting the actors whose memories are not trustworthy4 ,the boy kurombo begins to learn the mysteries of the stage at an early age4 ,his father brings him to shibai when he is a mere baby1 not more than four years of age1 and he may be allowed to go upon the scene and take away a pair of sandals1 or other small property1 in order that he may begin to learn his life's duties4 ,small actors and equally diminutive kurombo thus grow up together4 ,it is customary for the kurombo in his novitiate to sit at each side of the stage unconsciously taking in every detail4 ,these children soon become accustomed to gaze in a detached way at the audience1 which must make a vast impression on their minds1 and at the same time they evince a lively interest in all that concerns the stage4 ,their eyes1 round with wonderment1 look at a play as though it were a fairy tale unfolding before them1--the ghosts and demons1 samurai and peasants of ,kabuki passing near4 ,it is small wonder that the kurombo1 whose taste for the theatre is bred in the bone1 stays with it until old age claims him--always a shadow4 ,the most perplexing convention of the ,japanese theatre to the ,occidental1 long accustomed to mixed players1 is the fact that ,kabuki is the possession of actors1 and that women characters are in consequence in the hands of males4 ,if this seems a strange business for a man1 it must be remembered that ,shakespeare's heroines were played by youthful ,english actors4 ,moreover1 it is realised that the peaceful atmosphere and orderly regime behind the stage1--the environment in which the actor lives and works1 is in many respects like a man's club in the ,west4 ,this freedom to work unhindered by the opposite sex gives the ,kabuki actor a greater opportunity to be himself1 and the remarkable calm that seems to permeate all that takes place on the stage may be one advantage of the pure male theatre4 ,masks and marionettes have had a large part in the shaping of ,kabuki conventions4 ,many of these conventions1 that seem so strange and very often absurd upon first acquaintance1 become more intelligible in the light of the debt the popular theatre owes to the ,doll-stage and to the still older form1 the ,n4 ,stepping in imaginary waves1 washing the feet in water that does not exist2 cooking food without fire1 drinking tea from empty cups2 blows that do not touch2 cold steel that does not clash1--all these have come to ,kabuki out of the inexhaustible suggestiveness of the ,n4 ,rhythmic movement to express emotions resulting in symbolic gestures1 pantomime and postures of the puppets1 were the contribution of the ,doll-theatre to the development of ,kabuki4 ,without these two restraining influences there would have been nothing to prevent ,kabuki from following the same realistic route as that of the ,western stage4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,craftsmanship ,,of ,,kabuki ,when it comes to a question of what the ,japanese ,theatre holds for the ,west1 the craftsmanship of ,kabuki should be of first importance4 ,characteristic simplicity1 taste1 and style are shown by the men accustomed to handle material for stage pictures4 ,above all1 these workers are free from a worship of things1 and do not overcrowd1 but concentrate on essentials4 ,in the management of details the producer displays a finish that is near perfection4 ,things are not allowed to clutter up the stage for their own sake1 but are necessary only as a medium to express the underlying motive of the play4 ,in the manner1 also1 in which trees1 flowers1 birds1 the sea1 mountains1 waterfalls1 lakes1 and the seasons are represented1 it is apparent that ,kabuki is still near to nature1 and a product of a non-commercial age4 ,during the three hundred years of its history1 ,kabuki experts have been designing scenery and fashioning furniture and properties1 unknown to their contemporaries in ,england and ,europe1 who were quite as much alive to the adornment and embellishment of their stage productions4 ,hasegawa ,kampei1 the fifteenth1 is the leader among ,kabuki craftsmen in ,tokyo4 ,he considers himself a simple workman1 and is busy designing and executing scenes in all the theatres of ,tokyo1 showing a surprising versatility and creativeness4 ,he has1 however1 to compete with the flood of westernisation that would destroy the very foundations of the art his ancestors developed4 ,the first ,kampei1 the son of a samurai1 was a skilled artisan in wood-carving and the decoration of temples1 setting up stone gateways and lanterns1 and the beautiful wooden gates of approach4 ,his ability in this direction became so well known that he was called in to help in the production of plays4 ,in #afdd1 large furniture began to be used at the ,ichimura-za in ,yedo4 ,and by the time of ,kampei1 the eleventh1 the development of odogu and kodogu1 or great and small furniture1 was at its height1 and his designs are regarded as models at the present4 ,the greatest improvement in the ,yedo stage took place from #aghj to #ahjj1 and the ,hasegawa ,kampei who presided over the destiny of the stage at that time invented new contrivances1 especially in the management of ghosts2 causing buildings to rise into the air1 and trap-door disappearances4 ,finally the fashion for realistic furniture became so great that the interior of one of the great halls of the ,imperial ,palace1 ,kyoto1 was reproduced on the stage4 ,the authorities protested against the extravagance shown in this beautiful conception1 and inferior materials were substituted by order4 ,although the members of the ,hasegawa family were skilled men1 the real source of ,yedo's stage scenery progress was due to the creativeness of the ,doll-theatre in ,osaka4 ,the collaborators for the dolls were fertile in ideas1 and developed new stage settings in bewildering rapidity4 ,if there is one direction in which ,kabuki shows the true craftsman more than another it is the pictorial4 ,it is doubtful if on any other stage in the world can be viewed more charming effects achieved by such simple means4 ,a red lacquered bridge over an iris pond1 and the characters in picturesque combinations of colours2 the soft greys and whites of a snowy scene1 and in the centre an ancient cherry tree in full bloom2 the lonely camp fire of a beggar in the mountains1 a castle moat in the moonlight2 a single fantastic pine by the seashore1 are some of the familiar ,kabuki scenes4 ,brighter and more elaborate is a maple picnic under flaming foliage1 the leaves falling1 the feast spread on a scarlet rug1 all the properties of black and gold lacquer1 and the rainbow tints of ,asia used plentifully in the costumes4 ,there is a flash of steel in the moonlight as many assailants rush upon a samurai1 and the air is filled with fireflies4 ,after the courageous hero has disposed of his enemies he wipes his sword1 and to ascertain that it is quite clean lifts up a cage of imprisoned fireflies1 by the glow of which he is able to see4 ,or again1 it is old ,nihonbashi1 the ,bridge of ,japan1 the centre of ,yedo and from which all distances were calculated2 ,mount ,fuji in the distance2 a band of firemen returning after a conflagration1 singing a characteristic song4 ,much more elaborate is a cherry-viewing party1 come to enjoy the cloud of pink blossoms1 grouped on a hill-side1 seated on a red carpet1 with a gay silk curtain for background1 made of stripes of black1 yellow1 purple1 red1 green1 the masses of drooping flowers arranged with thick red ropes strung with brass bells1 white paper lanterns in the greenery1 serving-maids in pink kimono1 merry masked dancers entertaining the company4 ,in a ,nagasaki play relating to the visit of a ,chinese envoy1 there is seen a temple interior that could not be simpler and yet suggests grandeur--the background1 a wide expanse of gold screens arranged with sliding doors on which are painted gold and black dragons1 and in the foreground the actors1 a group of daimyo in grey-blue1 the bronze-brocade and gold-clad villain receiving the gifts that are to be presented to the emissary from ,china4 ,not all ,kabuki's scenes are simple and serene1 and nothing daunts the superior stage carpenters when once1 they try their hands4 ,in a popular play there is a scene depicting a realistic earthquake1 and a mansion collapses under repeated shocks4 ,the building sinks down amid stage1 according to some secret of the carpenters1 and the hero makes his way out of the roof1 ruin and desolation around him4 ,when it comes to sensational snowstorms1 typhoons1 and conflagrations1 ,kabuki can hold its own with the ,western stage4 ,it is1 however1 in architecture that the hand of the ,kabuki craftsman is shown unmistakably4 ,he has been free from the thraldom of the picture frame of the ,western stage1 and in following his own devices has worked with a freedom that has produced some satisfactory results4 ,the producer has taken the main room of a ,japanese dwelling for his model--a straw-matted room1 sliding screens for background1 a severely plain apartment2 for its sole decoration1 an alcove containing a hanging picture1 before which stands a vase of flowers or object of art4 ,it has not been necessary for him to knock out one side of the house in order to allow the audience a view of what is passing within4 ,the ,japanese room being open to the outside1 forms an admirable setting for the action of the plays4 ,to this room1 which is in reality a platform for the players1 he has added adjoining apartments1 corridors1 bridge-passages1 verandahs1 and the sloping roof is always present1 either in part or as a whole4 ,completing the picture are gardens and rustic gates1 stone water-basins1 stepping-stones1 wells1 bridges1 ponds1 fences1 and stone lanterns1 and he has surrounded his buildings with the favourite flowers of ,kabuki1 lotus1 chrysanthemum1 peony1 iris1 and azalea4 ,with a true love of nature he has placed in his scenes cherry and plum trees in full bloom1 and has used pine trees and scarlet maples1 drooping willows and feathery bamboo4 ,with a room as scene of action1 the ,kabuki carpenters have created types for all classes of dwellings the plays require4 ,the background for a room in a great mansion will show a series of sliding panels on which are painted ,chinese castles and pagodas1 golden clouds1 and green misty hills4 ,silver screens may be decorated with black waves in motion1 or blue water1 lotus leaves and flowers4 ,the structures to be represented vary from an elaborately constructed mansion in cream wood to the realistic interior of the middle-class home in which the white-papered windows and doors form a pleasing feature4 ,temples1 a hermitage in the midst of a forest1 the thatched cottage of a farmer1 are all variations of the one theme1 which gives the widest latitude for invention and decoration4 ,much of the action in ,kabuki plays takes place in this room1 with only the screens for background1 and standing lanterns at each side4 ,but there are more elaborate architectural triumphs1 such as the great red entrance gate of ,nanzen-ji1 a ,kyoto temple1 carved1 decorated1 ornate1 two-storied1 and produced in detail4 ,the bold robber1 ,ishikawa ,goemon1 hides in the second story1 and comes forth on the railed balcony to smoke4 ,this portion of the gate is first shown1 the wall behind him in gold1 painted with many-coloured clouds4 ,as he stands there in his black velvet kimono and great overcoat of gold and black1 the gate begins slowly to rise until the lower part is completely in view1 the chief temple building in perspective within the arch of the gate1 and ,goemon looking down from his lofty position at his enemy below4 ,at another time1 the ,kabuki craftsmen spare no pains in constructing the ,yomei gate of the famous ,nikko ,shrines1 one of the best pieces of architecture in ,japan1 and so perfectly is it reproduced that the workmanship calls for admiration4 ,but when no longer needed1 the entire structure1 which towers high1 slowly turns over on end1 and the bottom represents the background for the following action4 ,from grey dilapidated temples where apparitions make their appearance1 or the nobility partaking of ceremonial tea in some landscape garden1 the ,kabuki craftsman passes to the fashioning of a red pagoda1 the under-eaves showing many brilliant colours4 ,he places two stories of the structure in a snowy scene4 ,warrior-priests in grey with white head coverings rush on the scene armed with long spears4 ,an old dignitary wearing gold armour1 over which there is a thin1 black1 priest's robe1 stands at one side with a torch in his hand4 ,another figure1 in silver brocade and white1 poses on the steps leading to the pagoda4 ,the hero in armour--red1 green1 and gold--appears on the upper gallery4 ,then ensues a big fight in the whirling snow1 the deep boom of a temple bell sounding through the fray4 ,the revolving stage that plays such an important part in the scenery of ,kabuki has a complicated technique of its own4 ,it allows of three1 and sometimes four sets of scenes1 that may be in the course of preparation while the actors are engaged in front4 ,but as a general rule the carpenters are busy with but one full set1 while the play proceeds4 ,for an extension of the stage picture1 the stage is turned to right and left1 or revolves half way for some new scene4 ,in addition to the surprises in store for the playgoer in the changes effected by the revolving stage1 there are the strange appearances of characters forced up through a large opening in the floor of the stage1 like groups of statuary1 and devices for the sudden disappearance of characters through walls and steps1 the elaborate apparatus for ghosts that emerge through lanterns or vanish into thin air1 and for chunori1 or air-riding feats1 when a character suspended in mid-air moves across the stage4 ,the kodogu1 or small properties of ,kabuki1 are a study in themselves1--the lantern in all its shapes and sizes1 the oil-paper umbrella1 vases1 and hanging pictures4 ,the articles in use are not made to look beautiful at a distance1 but are genuinely so3 tall candle-sticks in brass or lacquer1 chests1 sword-rests1 cups1 swords1 helmets1 lacquered tables1 tobacco-boxes1 bronze utensils for a temple altar1 or ,buddhist images1 they all represent the arts and crafts of the country4 ,keen to adopt and adapt new things1 ,kabuki is now sensitive to ,european stage influences1 and with a characteristic lack of confidence in its own creations1 appears to be opening the door too wide in welcoming the ideas of the ,west4 ,the thought can hardly be avoided1 however1 that the achievements of the ,kabuki craftsmen are a contribution to the world's theatre4 ,but what the place and value of their work in comparison with the stage of the ,west remain for the judgement of the future4 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,onoe ,kikugoro 7,two fans74 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,onoe ,tamizo 7,stork and plum combined74 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,arashi ,kichisaburo 7,combination three characters74 ,,chapter ,v ,,kabuki',s ,,school ,,of ,,acting ,a high standard of acting is maintained among the actors of ,kabuki4 ,it is an hereditary profession2 the actors1 trained from childhood1 are brought up in the atmosphere of the theatre4 ,tamura ,nariyoshi1 the theatre manager of ,meiji1 described the circumstances of the actors' growth when he once likened them to farmers who plant rice but know nothing of chemistry1 watch the plants shooting up yet have no scientific knowledge of the alchemy of water1 sun1 or fertilisation4 ,in the same manner are the talents of the actors cultivated4 ,they are entirely unconscious of the laws that govern their art1 and when they reach a high position among their fellows it is but the flowering of natural genius4 ,should an actor be fortunate in having sons of his own1 he early apprentices them to the stage4 ,he is a protecting spirit1 watching their efforts1 disciplining1 encouraging4 ,his sons are to inherit his mantle1 and therefore he gives abundantly of his experience1 seeing that they are given the proper advantages1 for although young they are the heirs of to-morrow1 and ,kabuki is careful of the type4 ,when an actor has no son1 he adopts a successor from among his pupils4 ,he takes a number of youths who wish to study his stage methods1 which they learn by constant association with him on and off the stage4 ,as they progress in their work they are advanced1 and carry on his traditions when he has passed away4 ,it is the custom for children of seven1 or even younger1 to be placed in the care of a leading actor1 since ,kabuki plays have many child-rles4 ,a few trials in juvenile characters with which the audience are thoroughly familiar1 and it is easy to predict whether the youthful player has a future or not4 ,the cleverest boy-actor on the ,tokyo stage to-day is ,nakamura ,matagoro1 who holds his audience in a surprising manner1 his voice1 bearing1 and face all marking him as a future star4 ,the son of an actor who possessed much talent but never rose to the top1 ,matagoro1 on his father's death1 was taken under the wing of ,nakamura ,kichiyemon1 a young actor of acknowledged ability1 whose patronage assures the lad's career4 ,thus the youthful actor begins to associate with his elders in a natural way1 and has no opportunity to gain the idea that he is a prodigy4 ,he gazes up into the faces of men who have been acting for half a century1 and old age looks benignly down as the small tot speaks his first lines4 ,even mediocre talent can grow and expand in an atmosphere of calm confidence4 ,the child is not forced or abused1 but grows up in a ,montessori fashion4 ,when the youth reaches a state of self-consciousness and its attendant awkwardness1 this is taken as a matter of course4 ,the audience tolerate his gaucheries1 knowing that he will one day bloom as a full-grown actor4 ,had the training and discipline of the actors been otherwise1 ,kabuki might have experienced a different fate4 ,this is but the education of ,old ,japan1 the apprentice to the arts and crafts growing up from childhood with a master1 profiting by his experience1 encouraged by his guidance and protection4 ,in contrast there are the doubtful benefits of modern education that does not prevent the tragic waste of the finer forces of human nature2 art impulses and aspirations of the souls of the young1 thwarted and hampered1 untrained1 unregarded1 until the neglect of their true development makes the world for them a desert rather than a paradise4 ,illustration3 ,nakamura ,matagoro1 the leading boy-actor of the ,tokyo ,stage1 in the rle of a girl-pilgrim1 ,o-,tsuru4 ,the young actor not only has the daily experience of facing the audience1 but he takes part in the busy life behind the stage1 and is like a member of a big family4 ,his work does not end in the theatre1 for instruction under a dancing master is a necessary part of his education4 ,he visits the dancing teacher's house daily1 and undergoes a training that exercises every part of his body1 and gives him that remarkable control which is one of the assets of the ,kabuki player4 ,in addition1 he must learn many stage accomplishments1 especially if he is intended to become an onnagata1 or specialist in women's rles4 ,the impersonal ,east has had much to do with the actor's power to efface himself1 and his lack of concern for self is one of his distinguishing qualities4 ,no doubt the marionette has exercised full sway over him1 for in acting in plays written originally for the dolls he is quick to imitate their movements1 and sometimes gives the impression that he has made himself into a puppet and is standing behind manipulating the strings4 ,again1 the exaggerated acting of the imaginative characters of the jidaimono1 or historical plays1 with the elaborate kimono1 covered by striking designs1 the peculiar fashion of the hair1 and strange mask-like make-up1 have proved a perfect disguise for the actor's personality1 leaving him free to emphasise his art and to lay aside personal considerations4 ,his gestures may be those inherited from the dance1 or movements from the ,n2 they may have a direct relation to real life or be copied from the marionettes4 ,he has also a wide range in styles of acting4 ,in one piece he is the centre of a music posture dance--masses of men on either side in a straight line1 diagonal or curving1 or in a pyramidical group4 ,next he is a lone figure on the stage in a descriptive dance that causes every person in the audience to be absorbed in his least movement4 ,he may strut bravely as a grotesque character2 as a hero1 symbol of loyalty1 in an historical piece2 or as a melancholy lover in a play of the people4 ,his best acting may1 however1 be in the display of skill in fencing1 jujitsu1 or swordsmanship1 and in the thick of a fight he captures his audience by an equally matched combat1 or thrills it by a one-man performance against an overwhelming number4 ,part of a stage fight is in reality an acrobatic display1 but a chief actor always leaves such tactics to the minor players1 since it is beneath his dignity to tumble about the stage in mere physical displays4 ,perhaps one of the most interesting things in the whole realm of ,kabuki acting is the manner in which he holds the audience for long periods without speaking by the power of suggestion1 a legacy from the ,n performers4 ,in ,kochiyama1 a play by ,mokuami1 there is a long scene in which the actors utter no words4 ,at night1 on the outskirts of ,yedo1 a samurai lies in wait for a passing palanquin4 ,as it comes into view his sudden rush and gleaming sword frighten the bearers1 who make off hastily1 leaving their passenger to shift for himself4 ,from the palanquin there is nothing but an awesome silence4 ,the samurai expects to find some one he wants1 and cautiously lifting the curtain with his sword he scans the occupant1 asleep4 ,one look within and the would-be assassin sees that the crest on the sleeve does not belong to the man he seeks1 and as he withdraws1 the slumberer awakened sees the flash of the samurai's sword and says3 8,is that a falling star80 ,he little dreams that his friend's overcoat lent to keep him warm has saved his life4 ,one line only is spoken in this wordless drama4 ,defeated by a court of justice1 a villain is sitting in a dejected mood4 ,a page brings him a cup of tea1 and silently leaves a short sword as a sign that the sooner he takes himself away from the world the better for all concerned4 ,the condemned person drinks his tea slowly1 then regards the sword1 and understands the message conveyed to him4 ,he picks it up1 and leaning upon it shows by the expression of his face that he is making up his mind in a very different direction1 and intends to use it upon some one else4 ,delicate and dainty1 a charming heroine assists her warrior husband to don his armour1 for he must not lose a moment in preparing for battle4 ,she attempts to lift his helmet1 but it is too heavy for her1 and placing it with difficulty on the long sleeve of her kimono1 she drags it across the stage4 ,the audience is interested in how well and how long the onnagata is able to give the impression of a frail young woman struggling with the ponderous weight of a golden helmet4 ,perhaps one of the best uses to which suggestion in acting is put is in the play ,sendaihagi1 in which ,masaoka1 the faithful nurse1 prepares the food for the little prince in her charge1 as his uncle wishes to poison him that he may administer the wealthy fief for his own purpose4 ,masaoka unfolds a low screen that discloses a black lacquer table1 under which are a gilded rice pot and water jar1 and other kitchen utensils for boiling the rice and making tea4 ,those accustomed to realism will question how real food is to be cooked with such gorgeous and apparently theatrical stage furniture1 and then will become lost in admiration1 for the actor suggests all the necessary movements without actually resorting to them4 ,the gold water ladle is used to dip up imaginary water1 and the uncooked grains of rice are seen as though the water had all been poured off4 ,masaoka's task comes to an end4 ,the bubbling of the steam against the lid of the rice pot is imitated behind the scenes1 and a black-robed property man is plainly seen to move a screen in such a manner as to place within easy reach of the faithful nurse the food that has taken fully an hour to prepare4 ,the actor plays many a rle in his time1 but it is given to those of ,kabuki to play many rles in a day4 ,he may act as a humble servant1 then as a robber1 a resplendent priest1 a drunkard1 an upright samurai1 and terminate his day's work by appearing in a comic or picturesque dance4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,actor ,,ceremonials ,the ,kabuki actor has long maintained a high regard for the dignity of his calling1 and carefully preserves the old ceremonials in connection with elevation in rank1 memorial plays in honour of an ancestor1 introductions of young actors1 succession to the headship of an actor family1 and the observances of the anniversaries of actors past and gone4 ,these are stage events which serve to deepen the personal interest the playgoer takes in the actors1 and are links that bind the player to the past1 and express his hope in the future4 ,kojo1 or the announcement ceremony1 is the one seen most frequently4 ,the curtain is drawn aside1 and there is seen a double line of actors prostrating themselves in the attitude of humility before the audience1 their faces resting upon their outstretched hands4 ,behind them plain gold screens are arranged1 they kneel on a long scarlet rug1 and are dressed in the stiff skirts and shoulder-straps that formed the actor's attire of ceremony in the old days4 ,a little apart is the announcer1 generally an elderly man who has been long in the service of the actors1 a sort of chief of staff of personal attendants4 ,he calls out in a peculiar voice1 asking every one in the audience to pay attention4 ,then the chief actor raises his head1 and addressing the audience with the utmost courtesy draws attention to the young man who has changed his name and is at the threshold of his career1 expressing the hope that the audience will pardon his mistakes1 and take an interest in his future progress4 ,the father of the actor whose rank is thus raised may also speak a few words in his son's behalf1 and the chief object of interest then raises his face modestly1 and asks the patronage of the audience4 ,illustration3 ,,announcing ,,ceremony4 ,kojo1 or announcement ceremony1 in which the central figure is ,ichikawa ,danjuro4 ,the modest actor whose name is to be changed or rank raised bows low1 hiding his face from view4 7,colour print by ,hasegawa ,kanpei1 the fourteenth1 and ,torii ,kiyosada1 father of ,kiyotada47 ,at other times1 the kojo is for an actor well on in years1 who declares that he has given his stage name to a son or pupil1 and that owing to his age and infirmities he is not able to take an active part1 and desires to enter upon a period of semi-retirement4 ,something of the close relation between father and son in ,kabuki was shown in a kojo given at the ,imperial ,theatre in connection with the succession to a new name by the son of ,onoe ,baiko1 the chief actor of this theatre4 ,baiko's son1 who is being carefully trained in the art of the onnagata1 became ,eizaburo1 the seventh1 denoting a certain state of progress in the attainment of the ,onoe stage standards4 ,the kojo on this occasion was performed with more than customary dignity1 seven stars of the ,onoe family1 including ,onoe ,kikugoro1 the sixth1 attending1 and each saying a few words of congratulation1 strewing flowers1 as it were1 in the pathway of the young actor4 ,similar to the solicitude of a mother in her care and consideration given the dbut of a daughter into society was that of ,baiko for the son who is to follow in his footsteps and inherit the traditions of his art4 ,as is the custom upon the occasion of a change of name and consequent advancement in rank1 a play was given in which ,eizaburo took an important rle1 and although he was very young and immature1 still in his teens1 he had the responsibility of acting in a character1 given to perfection by his father1 that of ,yuki-hime1 or the ,snow-,princess1 the beautiful young heroine who is made a prisoner in ,kinkaku-ji1 the ,golden ,pavilion of ,kyoto4 ,she is at last bound with ropes and tied to a cherry tree4 ,then the doll-stage1 from which the play was taken1 asserted itself4 ,eizaburo became a marionette1 and was moved by two doll-handlers1 who were none other than his father and another member of the ,onoe family4 ,yuki-hime1 true to the doll-actors1 went through a complicated pantomime to the accompaniment of minstrel and samisen player1 descriptive postures that revealed her determination to escape4 ,drawing the outline of a rat in the fallen petals about her feet by means of her big toe1 the real rodents appear by magic1 or rather on the ends of pliant black rods held by two property men on each side of her2 using their teeth upon the rope1 ,yuki-hime is soon free4 ,onoe ,matsusuke1 the veteran member of this family1 was the announcer1 following the custom of the ,doll-theatre2 the young actor1 ,morita ,kanya1 the thirteenth1 became rhythm marker1 stamping his feet to emphasise the changing beats1 while ,onoe ,baiko and ,onoe ,kozo were the doll-handlers1 who stood behind the erstwhile marionette and moved it according to the requirements of the play4 ,dressed in the black costumes of the doll-stage the handlers came to the front of the stage before the piece began1 lifted the face flaps of their black hoods and introduced themselves to the audience in their new disguise1 then assumed again the black obscurity1 and the strange but highly fascinating movements of ,yuki-hime began4 ,it is only the really great1 whether among actors or members of other professions1 those who have reached the height of their careers1 who can descend to such personal effacement as this4 ,perhaps it is only possible in the ,east1 where there still lingers some instinct for the great truth that mankind has from time to time recognised--that personality is less important than art4 ,the fifteenth anniversary of the death of ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the ninth1 was celebrated in a fitting manner by the ,tokyo stage1 and the kojo1 or salutation to the audience1 was given at the chief theatres1 the ,imperial and the ,kabuki-za4 ,thirty players1 for the most part those associated with ,danjuro during his lifetime1 and also his two daughters1 made up two long lines of bowing actors1 recalling the ceremonies of ,yedo ,kabuki4 ,all were in the terra-cotta kimono bearing the famous crest formed by three squares1 worn by the first ,ichikawa in the ,genroku period1 and used by his descendants and pupils ever since4 ,illustration3 ,the last of the ,ichikawa family1 the grand-daughter of ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the ninth4 ,in the kojo given at the ,imperial1 ,matsumoto ,koshiro1 the most talented pupil of the late ,danjuro1 acted as master of ceremony4 ,there was one very small figure among the actors1 ,danjuro's grand-daughter1 bowing before the footlights between her father1 ,ichikawa ,shinsaburo1 and her uncle1 ,ichikawa ,sansho4 ,the appearance of this last descendant of the chief actor-house of ,kabuki caused the audience to grow enthusiastic in their applause4 ,an actor's improvisation at the ,kabuki-za to honour the memory of ,danjuro was also given4 ,the stage showed the front of a ,yedo theatre with a tea-house at one side and a sign announcing the ,danjuro anniversary4 ,nine of the most popular onnagata of the ,kabuki-za and ,ichimura-za entered as maids of the tea-house and stood waiting for the appearance of otokodate1 or chivalrous commoners4 ,these popular characters were taken by fourteen of ,tokyo's best actors1 and they came in slowly by the two hanamichi and stood facing each other1 talking across the audience1 displaying by their voice and manner some characteristic which had endeared them to playgoers in past performances4 ,with the onnagata they made a brave array of actor talent4 ,into their midst came the veteran onnagata1 ,nakamura ,utayemon1 chief of the ,tokyo actors4 ,he made his entrance as the mistress of the tea-house1 and addressed the audience on ,danjuro and his work for ,kabuki4 ,the ,ichikawa crest was conspicuous in the decorations of the theatre within and without1 and high over the entrance of the ,kabuki-za1 where the yagura1 or drum tower of the ,yedo theatre was accustomed to appear1 there shone forth at night a huge ,ichikawa crest in electric globes1 somehow linking the modern actor of ,japan with the fraternity in the ,west4 ,less elaborate is the announcement of a minor actor's promotion to a grade or so above the rank and file1 made during the progress of a play1 which is done in various graceful ways4 ,two women in the establishment of a daimyo1 rivals in the play1 enter by the hanamichi with their attendants1 and the procession proceeds to the gate of a temple4 ,all enter with the exception of the rivals1 and one maid4 ,for a moment the current of the play is turned aside1 and in the gay-patterned costumes of their rles1 the two leading characters kneel down on the stage with the maid between them1 each taking turn in explaining how the young man in the female disguise has been a pupil of a stage favourite who has recently died1 of his association with him1 and that as he has now progressed in his work they crave the patronage of the audience4 ,the maid then returns thanks for the favour of the audience1 and all three rising to their feet they take up the lines of the play as though there had been no interpolation1--the maid being admonished to join the others within the temple1 as she may be needed4 ,when the adopted son of ,danjuro1 the ninth1 was fired with ambition to become an actor1 since he was a member of so distinguished an actor-house1 no teacher seemed ready to volunteer4 ,his father had been a banker1 and he was thus not born in the purple4 ,nakamura ,ganjiro of ,osaka generously consented to assist him4 ,for years he studied hard and at last made a first bow in a ,tokyo theatre4 ,his introduction planned by ,ganjiro only serves to show the esteem in which the great ,danjuro was held1 and that for his sake ,ganjiro was willing to assist a member of his family4 ,the scene selected for the introduction was that of the pine-shaded highway1 the ,tokaido1 ,mount ,fuji in the background4 ,by way of the hanamichi came a retinue of retainers in bright scarlet1 with thin over-garments of white4 ,the son-in-law of the illustrious ,danjuro appeared as a splendid daimyo riding on a horse1 a white-haired servitor leading the way4 ,on reaching the stage the rider dismounted1 and kneeling in the centre of two long rows of the retainers who bowed low over their outstretched hands1 the sponsor1 ,ganjiro1 spoke of ,ichikawa ,danjuro and expressed the wish that ,sansho1 his son-in-law1 would become a good actor4 ,sansho1 responding1 declared that he would do all he could to improve4 ,no sooner were his words spoken than a white satin curtain descended1 having for design a large carp attempting to jump up a waterfall1 symbol of the difficulties ,sansho must overcome before reaching the heights of the profession4 ,sainyu1 one of ,osaka's fine old actors1 came to say farewell to ,tokyo but a short time before his death4 ,the ceremony of retirement was most appropriate4 ,the stage was prepared for a comic dance1 and while various performers were attracting the attention of the audience1 a large box1 such as is used to contain a toy or doll1 was carried in and remained to one side while the merriment proceeded4 ,finally1 when curiosity with regard to the box had increased considerably1 property men lifted the mysterious object and placed it in the front of the stage1 removed the side nearest the audience1 and within was disclosed the venerable actor as a marionette4 ,in the many-coloured garments of ,sambasso1 the humoresque figure of the ,n stage1 and manifestation of an ancient ,shinto deity1 whose semi-religious dance was performed at dawn with the opening of the theatre1 he was brought forth limp and lifeless4 ,stage attendants attached imaginary wires to his arms and head1 and he performed this characteristic dance after the fashion of the dolls4 ,finally1 real wires were attached to his costume and he rose into the air1 still making marionette motions with his arms and legs1 and disappeared into the regions above stage1--a feat for an actor over seventy years of age4 ,his love for the ceremonial also causes the actor to cherish the memory of the real persons whose lives have formed the material for drama4 ,when the play of ,sakura ,sogoro is to be performed1 the actors repair to ,sogoro's village1 not far away from ,tokyo1 where stands a shrine sacred to the martyred village head who presented a direct appeal to the ,shogun to lessen the heavy burden of taxes imposed upon the farmers1 and in consequence forfeited his life4 ,there the actors address his spirit1 and during the run of the play a temporary shrine is erected within the theatre before which daily offerings of fruit1 vegetables1 and wine are made4 ,in the same manner1 whenever ,chushingura is performed in ,tokyo1 the actors who are to take part assemble at ,sengaku-ji1 the little ,buddhist temple where are buried the ,forty-seven ,ronin1 before whose tombs clouds of incense rise unceasingly4 ,nor do the ,osaka actors forget to keep green the deeds of ,michizane1 the patron saint of ,japanese literature1 who departed from ,osaka on his sad exile1 and whose tragic fate inspired ,takeda ,izumo to write the ,village ,school1 and other loyalty scenes1 in his famous doll-drama4 ,whenever a portion of this play is given the actors pay their respects before the spirit that has been deified in one of ,osaka's most popular shrines4 ,so long as there are actors who delight in changing their names and giving new ones to their sons1 and to whom ceremony has a recognised place in the theatre1 the fine old ,kabuki regime will not soon pass away4 ,,origin ,,of ,,kabuki ,,chapter ,,vii ,o-,,kuni ,,of ,,izumo ,to a woman1 ,o-,kuni1 a ritual dancer attached to the great ,shinto ,shrine of ,izumo1 in the 8,province of the ,gods01 belongs the credit of founding the popular theatre1 some time in the year #aeif1 on the dry bed of the ,kamo ,river in ,kyoto4 ,according to ,izumo ,o-,kuni ,den1 or ,the ,biography of ,o-,kuni of ,izumo1 in the possession of the late ,baron ,senge1 from whose family come the hereditary ritualists of the ,shrine1 ,o-,kuni was a miko1 or sacred dancer4 ,her father was called ,nakamura ,sanyemon1 and served the ,shrine in the capacity of an artisan4 ,the family name of ,nakamura was derived from the district of ,nakamura in ,kitsuki1 where ,o-,kuni's family lived1 the site of the great ,shrine of ,izumo then as now4 ,o-,kuni left ,kitsuki on a pilgrimage1 so the story goes1 wandering through several provinces1 performing her dance1 and asking for contributions for the repair of the ,shrine1 and at last reached ,kyoto4 ,evidently the gay capital exerted such a powerful fascination over her1 that she felt no inclination to return to her duties in connection with the ,shrine4 ,there is no record that tells of ,o-,kuni's change of heart1 or what eventually prompted her to set up a platform on the banks of the ,kamo1 where were to be found all the motley train of entertainers who flourished at that time4 ,kyoto1 the birthplace of the popular theatre1 was1 when ,o-,kuni made her appearance1 a city of half-a-million inhabitants4 ,murdoch says in his ,history of ,japan3 8,it is well to remember that if ,japan had no ,free ,cities1 she had what ,germany1 or indeed any other ,european country1 had not1--a single great city with a population of half-a-million4 ,such ,kyoto was even at one of the lowest ebbs in its prosperity at the date of ,xavier's visit to it in #aeea4 ,in #adfg at the outbreak of the war of ,odin1 it contained #afj1jjj families1 or1 perhaps1 #ijj1jjj souls4 ,few cities in contemporary ,europe could boast even a tenth of that population40 ,captain ,francis ,brinkley also refers to the splendours of ,kyoto palaces and fine residences in the fifteenth century1 and says that even men who made medicine or fortune-telling their professions and petty officials such as secretaries had stately residences4 ,fenollosa in his ,epochs of ,chinese and ,japanese ,art writes about ,kyoto civilians1 and as to the patrons of the artists1 he asks3 8,who were ,okio's patrons8 ,why1 the silk weavers1 bronze casters1 the embroiderers and fine lacquerers1 the sthetic priests of ,kyoto temples1 the great potters grouped at the foot of ,arashiyama1 the great merchants who sent their fine wares all over ,japan even to the daimyo's yashiki40 ,such was ,kyoto1 the political as well as artistic centre of ,japan1 when ,o-,kuni gave the impetus that started the movement to establish ,kabuki1 the people's stage1 that to-day has inherited all the wealth of past materials and is turned resolutely toward the promise of the future4 ,her performances were of the simplest character4 ,she has been described as wearing a priest's robe of black silk1 with a small metal ,buddhist gong suspended from her neck by a vermilion silk cord1 and as she struck the gong with a mallet1 she danced and chanted a ,buddhist sutra4 ,seiseiin ,ihara1 ,kabuki's leading historian and one of the prominent dramatic critics of ,tokyo1 who was born in the shadow of the ,shrine of ,izumo1 has taken great pains to gather from the old records the story of ,o-,kuni4 ,he says that it may seem incredible that a ,buddhist dance should have been performed by the miko of ,izumo ,shrine1 but he points out that it was the period when ,shinto1 or the 8,way of the ,gods01 the reverence and worship of the ancestors of the race and departed souls who were great in life1 and ,buddhism1 the 8,way of ,buddha01 or the faith in a universal being and a future state of happiness1 lived peacefully together4 ,buddhist priests were prominent at ,izumo1 and a bronze image of ,buddha was placed in front of the ,shrine where incense was burned1 and the sutras were recited by eight females who performed to musical instruments used in ,buddhist as well as ,shinto ceremonies4 ,to-day the combination seems hard to believe1 since ,shintoism and ,buddhism are strictly separated4 ,it was therefore not unusual that ,o-,kuni's ,shinto dance should have been modified by ,buddhism1 and that her performances were later greatly influenced by the sermons of the priests1 as an old book about the people of ,kyoto records4 ,but if her dances had remained in a simple and semi-religious state1 it is doubtful if ,o-,kuni would have succeeded in impressing herself so vividly upon her day and generation as she did4 ,her art was to undergo a sudden transformation4 ,one day she met ,nagoya ,sansaburo1 one of the handsomest and bravest young samurai of ,kyoto4 ,they fell in love and married4 ,sansaburo1 who was famous for his military exploits1 joined ,o-,kuni in her public appearances and soon became renowned as an actor4 ,he recognised that her dance was not sufficiently interesting1 and set himself to carry out improvements that soon made ,o-,kuni one of the most popular personages of the time4 ,sansaburo's ancestors had been samurai in the ,province of ,owari4 ,his father served under the great general ,hideyoshi1 and was advanced to a post of honour4 ,he was blessed with ten children1 ,sansaburo being the seventh4 ,and as the father's income was not sufficient to maintain such a large family1 he was sent at an early age to ,kennin-ji1 a ,buddhist temple in ,kyoto1 to be brought up by the priests4 ,in #aeij1 when ,hideyoshi attacked the ,castle of ,odawara1 one of his right-hand men was ,gamo ,ujisato1 whom ,murdoch1 in his history of the early relations between ,japan and other countries1 characterises as the most brilliant proselyte the ,jesuits had made4 ,gamo ,ujisato was one of the bravest captains of the age1 and ,hideyoshi began to fear his ascendency4 ,he was poisoned at a tea ceremony party by an underling who acted on a hint from ,hideyoshi1 and so died in his fortieth year4 ,this ,gamo ,ujisato held a review of his troops in the neighbourhood of ,kyoto previous to the storming of a feudal stronghold4 ,the inhabitants of the city went to see the spectacle1 and young ,sansaburo clad in a priest's purple robe was among the curious throng4 ,ujisato on horseback caught sight of the acolyte and was greatly taken with the handsome boy4 ,later he asked his father if he might engage ,sansaburo as a page4 ,soon after ,ujisato returned to his domain in ,izu1 and ,sansaburo followed in his suite4 ,at the time that ,ujisato undertook one of his most daring military campaigns1 ,sansaburo followed his master1 wearing a garment of pure white silk lined with crimson1 and armour woven with variegated colours1 and carrying a spear in his hand4 ,his courageous conduct in this campaign formed the theme of a popular song1 and his name soon spread to all parts of the country4 ,after ,ujisato's death1 ,sansaburo returned to ,kyoto with considerable property left him by his lord1 and led an extravagant life1 passing his time in the pleasures of the capital4 ,it is easy to see that the alluring ,o-,kuni1 who was such a novel amusement to the citizens of ,kyoto frequenting the popular entertainment resort on the ,kamo ,river1 must have captivated his fancy1 for he quickly decided to cast in his lot with hers4 ,sansaburo1 bred in a military family and having associated with one of the celebrated feudal lords of the period1 was in consequence acquainted with the best in literature and art4 ,that he was familiar with the ,n stage1 particularly with the ,kyogen1 or comic pieces given between the ,n plays1 is very certain1 for he soon changed ,o-,kuni's simple ,shinto-,buddhist dance into the nature of ,kyogen4 ,no doubt he considered that her performances savoured too much of religion to please all and sundry1 so he taught her popular songs and also composed pieces for her4 ,she did not1 however1 succeed in winning the highest popular favour until she transformed herself into a male1 wearing swords and covering her head with a peculiar head-dress4 ,from the time that ,o-,kuni assumed the outward guise of a man1 dancing with two swords thrust through her belt1 the people flocked to see her4 ,for the first time ,sansaburo called her performances ,kabuki1 the name by which the ,japanese stage is known at the present day4 ,the word was no new invention4 ,it had been in use for a long period to signify something comic1 and gradually came to lose its original meaning and was used to denote the particular kind of theatrical entertainment that had arisen1 and from that time forward ,kabuki was applied to everything pertaining to the popular stage4 ,the word for theatre1 8shibai01 also came into general use at this time1 meaning to sit on the lawn or grass1 from the fact that the platform for performances was a temporary affair and the audience sat on the ground4 ,still later ,sansaburo introduced more and more of the ,n elements1 the externals of ,o-,kuni's stage being largely borrowed from the aristocratic theatre4 ,and how the present highly complex stage of ,japan developed out of ,o-,kuni's dance is the story of the rise of ,kabuki4 ,o-,kuni was not only popular with the masses1 the nobility patronised her4 ,on one occasion she was invited to the ,fushimi ,palace1 near ,kyoto1 to entertain ,hideyasu4 ,he was the son of ,iyeyasu1 who was later to found the ,tokugawa ,shogunate4 ,but ,hideyasu had been adopted by ,hideyoshi1 ,japan's military overlord at this period1 and was held as a hostage and guarantee of ,iyeyasu's good faith4 ,when ,o-,kuni danced before this young prince1 she wore around her neck a crystal rosary1 which is evidence of the ,jesuit influence upon ,kyoto1 for the ,portuguese and ,spanish priests at this time went about wearing their long strings of beads to which was attached the cross4 ,in imitation1 ,o-,kuni1 when performing1 hung one about her own neck1 more as a decoration than a declaration of the ,christian faith4 ,this novelty of the day interested ,hideyasu1 but he considered that it was not good enough for her1 and taking some coral ornaments from his armour presented them to her4 ,at parting1 ,o-,kuni conveyed her thanks in a poem which she composed on the spur of the moment4 ,he was so much impressed by her performance that it cast him into a melancholy mood1 and he made the comment to one of his retainers that among thousands of women this one had won fame for herself as the greatest dancer1 and yet he had not been able to obtain any special distinction4 ,hideyasu might well reflect upon ,o-,kuni's reputation1 for although he distinguished himself for his valour and military genius1 he was not chosen from among his many brothers to succeed as the second ,tokugawa ,shogun4 ,there is also an account relating how ,o-,kuni was appreciated at ,court2 how an ,imperial princess held an entertainment in #afja to which the actress was summoned to dance1 and how the younger members of the court imitated her4 ,in #afjg she went to ,yedo1 the seat of the shogunate1 now ,tokyo and the capital of the ,empire4 ,she performed on a temporary stage that had been used by ,n actors who had just held ,kwanjin ,n1 or performances to raise funds for the repairing or building of temples and shrines4 ,in ,yedo1 these ,n performances were given under the patronage of the ,shogun1 and were often not so much for religious purposes as to help swell the incomes of the ,n actors4 ,they were generally held within the compound of the ,shogun's palace1 the performances taking place on a temporary stage erected for the occasion1 to which1 as a great concession1 thousands of the common people of ,yedo were invited4 ,the leading actors of the ,kwanze and ,komparu ,n schools had just ended their programme1 and it was on this stage that ,o-,kuni appeared4 ,it is also related that she danced before ,oda ,nobunaga1 one of the foremost military leaders of the time1 by whose death ,hideyoshi was able to rise to power4 ,and it is said that both ,hideyoshi and his chief retainers patronised ,o-,kuni4 ,there is a story that she was invited by ,hideyoshi's faithful lieutenant1 ,kato ,kiyomasa1 to the southern island of ,japan1 where he held sway as the daimyo of ,kumamoto4 ,but it seems impossible to believe that ,o-,kuni should have been engaged to such an extent1 and more probable that some of the great ones recognised her talent1 and the story was applied to all the outstanding personalities of her time4 ,for1 after all1 while the great and noble of the land may have appreciated her1 it was to the people that ,o-,kuni particularly addressed herself4 ,kabuki ,koto ,hajime1 or ,beginnings of ,kabuki1 a book written by a ,kabuki playwright1 ,tamenaga ,icho1 and published in #agfb1 says that ,o-,kuni was beautiful1 that she was skilled in calligraphy--an important female accomplishment--that she had a sympathetic nature1 loved flowers and the moon1 and that a snowy evening or a maple scene in the autumn inspired her to poetry4 ,there is an account of ,o-,kuni written by an author who must have attended her performances1 and yet he does not dilate upon her beauty1 which must have been an oversight1 for judging from the general details known about her she certainly possessed some superior power of attraction4 ,both ,sansaburo and ,o-,kuni died while the ,o-,kuni ,kabuki was at its height4 ,the chroniclers do not tell how they parted company1 or ended their stage careers1 but ,sansaburo gave up acting and became a retainer of the lord of ,tsuyama1 whose wife was his sister4 ,he was killed by the daimyo's chief retainer during the building of ,tsuyama ,castle4 ,this man had been long in the service of the daimyo1 but ,sansaburo aspired to outrival him on account of his relationship1 and because of his association with the illustrious ,gamo ,ujisato4 ,the two had a dispute and fought1 and ,sansaburo was killed4 ,his friends retaliated by immediately taking the life of the chief retainer1 and his two brothers were also punished by self-inflicted death at the command of the daimyo4 ,when ,o-,kuni grew old1 and had outlived her career on the stage that she had created with ,sansaburo1 she returned to her old home in ,kitsuki1 near ,izumo ,shrine4 ,here she retired from the world1 and lived in a rustic cottage1 spent her time in reciting the sutras1 writing verse1 and died at a ripe old age4 ,this account of ,o-,kuni's last days appears to be very reliable1 as it is from ,izumo ,o-,kuni ,den1 or ,biography of ,o-,kuni of ,izumo1 from records preserved among the ,shrine archives4 ,the exact date of her death is not given in this record1 and her last resting-place is also unknown4 ,seiseiin ,ihara1 who has made exhaustive researches concerning ,o-,kuni1 finds many conflicting statements in the old books1 which were written without much care for accuracy regarding names and dates4 ,kabuki ,koto ,hajime1 or ,beginnings of ,kabuki1 says that ,yoshiteru1 one of the last ,ashikaga ,shoguns1 summoned her to dance in his presence several times and praised her4 ,but this is somewhat imaginary1 since in such a case she would have appeared in ,kyoto many years previous to #aeif1 in which year1 most of the records agree1 she began to practise the new art4 ,kabuki ,koto ,hajime also says that ,sansaburo was in the service of the ,shogun ,yoshiteru1 as was ,o-,kuni1 that they fell in love1 were dismissed and became ronin1 which is one of the many improbable tales related of the pair4 ,another book says ,o-,kuni went to ,sado ,island1 following the report that gold had been discovered there4 ,this is quite possible1 but on the strength of this story some writers state that she was a native of ,sado1 which is certainly not true4 ,other writers are so mixed up in their dates1 that they make out there was a wide gulf in years between ,o-,kuni and ,sansaburo1 and that it was impossible that he should have married a woman so much his senior1 while others declare that it was ,o-,kuni's daughter that ,sansaburo married4 ,in ,tokaido ,meishoki1 or ,noted ,places of the ,tokaido 7the great highway between ,kyoto and ,yedo71 ,o-,kuni is said to have married a ,n ,kyogen actor1 and there are other misleading and confusing stories4 ,one of the most interesting of these is attributed to ,lafcadio ,hearn4 ,he objected to the account of ,o-,kuni in ,things ,japanese by ,basil ,hall ,chamberlain1 especially to that sentence where it is written that the reputation of ,o-,kuni and her companions was far from spotless4 ,hearn's story is to the effect that ,o-,kuni was a priestess in the great temple of ,kitsuki1 and she fell in love with a swashbuckler1 ,nagoya ,sansaburo1 and fled to ,kyoto with him4 ,on the way her extraordinary beauty caused another soldier of fortune to make love to her2 ,sansaburo killed him1 and the dead man's face haunted the girl4 ,she supported her lover by giving dances on the bank of the ,kamo ,river1 and he became a famous actor4 ,when he died she returned to ,kitsuki1 becoming a nun1 and built a temple that she might pray for the soul of the man who had been killed4 ,hearn's love of the ghostly carried him very far away from the true facts1 but nevertheless he felt the romance of the ,o-,kuni legend strongly enough not to wish to tarnish her name1 as the more matter-of-fact ,mr4 ,chamberlain does so lightly4 ,it was long after ,o-,kuni's day1 when the second and third ,o-,kuni were carrying on her traditions1 and this woman's stage employed mixed players1 that the laxity of morals set in4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,onna ,,kabuki3 ,,the ,,woman',s ,,stage ,companies headed by women were formed in imitation of the ,o-,kuni ,kabuki4 ,they appeared not only in ,kyoto1 but made grand tours to distant parts of the country4 ,a feudal lord whose domains were near the present prosperous tea-trade centre1 the city of ,shidzuoka1 invited a ,kyoto actress and her company1 and when the famous ,nagoya castle was completed1 the daimyo who had co-operated in the building1 celebrated by giving an ,onna ,kabuki entertainment4 ,even ,date ,masamune1 lord of ,sendai1 one of the first daimyo to accept the ,christian faith1 and who sent an embassy to ,rome1 asked an actress to perform in his fief4 ,about this time1 the ,o-,kuni ,kabuki had finally settled at ,shijo ,bridge in ,kyoto1 the head of which was the third ,o-,kuni4 ,the popularity of these players was so widespread1 that the women of the gay quarters followed their example1 and companies of women performers were recruited from the ranks of the prostitutes4 ,a man called ,sadoshima ,yosanji taught these women dancing1 and erected a theatre4 ,schools for the training of actresses were established1 and talented dancers were developed who competed with each other for the favour of the public4 ,one of these women1 ,sadoshima ,shokichi1 gave a performance at the ,yoshiwara1 in ,yedo1 and at the time a placard was set up on ,nihonbashi1 the ,bridge of ,japan1 which was one of the chief landmarks of ,yedo1 as it is of modern ,tokyo4 ,the male musicians who performed at this time were very expert1 according to this bridge advertisement1 and attention was called to the comic nature of the pieces to be performed4 ,although the name ,onna ,kabuki signified a woman's theatre1 it was not long until the two sexes were playing together indiscriminately1 men taking the rles of women1 and the characters of men being assumed by women4 ,upon one occasion ,ikushima1 an actress1 appeared at ,nakabashi in ,yedo4 ,when the curtain was drawn1 the head actor of the company advanced in most gorgeous attire1 wearing swords ornamented with gold4 ,with him was an equally resplendent actress4 ,more than fifty females danced together during the performance4 ,they took the rles of men and wore swords4 ,the musicians sat on camp stools1 and the singers recited to the strains of the samisen4 ,this is the first mention of the samisen in the theatre1 the three-stringed instrument that was in after years to revolutionise ,kabuki as well as the ,doll-theatre4 ,the instruments in use until the introduction of the samisen were the ,n drums and flute1 but the samisen with its strident1 irregular rhythms was to be associated from this time onward with the whole gay1 frivolous world1 far removed from the austerity1 dignity1 and ritual with which the flute and ,n drums were associated4 ,the samisen had been brought to ,japan from the ,loo ,choo ,islands4 ,a similar instrument had long been in use in ,china1 so that it seems probable that it had its origin in ,china1 but was imported into ,japan from the islands to the south-west1 where ,chinese influence had long been uppermost4 ,when ,onna ,kabuki was at its height1 there were four companies in ,kyoto called ,o-,kuni1 ,sadoshima1 ,shinobu1 and a company managed by a man named ,dansuke4 ,shinobu removed to ,ise province1 ,dansuke and his company established themselves at ,osaka1 that was then as it is to-day the leading commercial centre of ,japan4 ,the ,sadoshima party was divided into two1 headed respectively by ,takeshima and ,sadoshima1 both of whom had sons who became noted actors in the first period of the male theatre4 ,they were ,takeshima ,kyozaemon and ,sadoshima ,dempachi4 ,the latter was a dokegata1 or comic actor4 ,sadoshima's grandson wrote ,sadoshima ,nikki1 or the ,journal of ,sadoshima1 which deals with the ,kabuki of his time1 and is a theatre classic4 ,had the women companies remained exemplary in conduct and kept their ranks free from the other sex1 the history of the ,japanese theatre might have been quite different4 ,but the leading actresses were prostitutes2 their art was a means to an end1 and they abused their privileges as entertainers4 ,no permanent and self-respecting theatre could have continued to exist on such an immoral foundation4 ,the degradation of the ,onna ,kabuki was due in no small degree1 however1 to the playing of men and women together4 ,the public very soon came to look down upon these players1 and they were referred to as ,kawara ,kojiki1 or ,riverside ,beggars1 derived from the fact that the first ,kabuki players had erected their temporary stages on the dry beds of ,kyoto rivers4 ,the term was from this time handed down to besmirch the reputations of generations of honest1 legitimate actors that followed4 ,in #afjh a proclamation by the ,shogun's ,government was made limiting the ,onna ,kabuki to the outskirts of the cities1 where its baneful influence might be less of a contamination to society4 ,several court ladies who had carried on flirtations with the handsome young actors of the ,onna ,kabuki were exiled1 in punishment of their misdemeanours1 and ,government interference was frequent4 ,in #afbf a notice advertising a performance was ordered to be taken down4 ,in #afbh1 when a company of actresses played at ,takanawa near ,shinagawa1 in the suburbs of ,yedo1 the theatre was so crowded that great confusion ensued1 and the place was ordered to be closed4 ,the climax came when the ,government of the third ,shogun1 ,iyemitsu1 issued a strict order 7#afbi7 forbidding female performances of any kind4 ,at one stroke the performances of women dancers1 the actresses of the ,onna ,kabuki1 and even the women minstrels who sang to the movements of the marionettes in the puppet show1 came to an abrupt end4 ,again in #afcj a company of mixed players attempted to give a performance1 the actors appearing as women and the actresses as men1 but an order was immediately issued excluding all females from the stage4 ,in #afdj a company of male and female players announced they would play together1 but their performance was stopped1 and in #afde the proprietor of a theatre was severely punished for employing female players4 ,this was done as an example1 for violations were frequent4 ,in the history of the ,doll-theatre1 also1 there had been companies of women who handled the marionettes while female minstrels sang and recited the ballad-dramas to which the dolls moved1 and women accomplished in the samisen accompanied the minstrels4 ,these ,doll-theatre companies of women were not long to endure1 and soon came to grief4 ,somewhere about the time that ,o-,kuni was beginning to dance on her temporary stage by the riverside in ,kyoto1 ,ono-no-,otsu1 a lady-in-waiting in the household of the great general1 ,oda ,nobunaga1 had composed a long ballad called ,joruri ,hime ,monogatari1 or the ,story of ,princess ,joruri4 ,it had been sung by a minstrel to the accompaniment of the samisen4 ,this was an improvement on the balladry of the blind musicians1 who had recited their stories of love and battle to the mournful minor strings of the biwa4 ,the first tayu1 or minstrel1 to sing the improved balladry inaugurated by ,ono-no-,otsu1 was a woman called ,rokuji ,namuyemon4 ,after her there were both male and female minstrels1 but the prohibition of the ,onna ,kabuki also included the female minstrel4 ,the talent of woman had repeatedly tried to express itself in the realm of the theatre1 but now the heavy hand of the puritanic shogunate fell upon her activities1 and the result was the suppression of all stage aspiration on the part of females for three hundred years4 ,ihara ,seiseiin1 commenting on this in his ,history of the ,japanese ,stage1 says that although the ,shogun's ,government was under the necessity of maintaining the morals of the people1 the prohibition had an ill effect upon the theatre1 and the injury has not been completely healed4 ,he thinks that if the ,onna ,kabuki had been left to develop naturally1 it is most probable that there would now exist a different state of affairs1 and actresses would have adorned the ,japanese theatre as they do in the ,occident4 ,but1 he continues1 it was impossible for the ,tokugawa ,shogunate to have such foresight with regard to art1 and the fact that there are no names of actresses adorning the history of the ,japanese stage must be attributed to this initial1 stern1 prohibitive measure of the shogunate4 ,these strict laws regarding the appearance of females on the stage were enforced until the last days of the shogunate1 when its grip loosened on many of the measures that had been made to regulate the morals of the people and to control their democratic tendencies4 ,with this relaxation there again came into existence a woman's theatre1 headed by a brilliant actress1 ,kumehachi1 who was a contemporary of ,danjuro1 the ninth1 the great star of ,meiji4 ,she took male rles as did other women of her company4 ,with her death her company disbanded4 ,a successor to ,kumehachi exists to-day who also acts men's characters most successfully1 ,nakamura ,kasen1 but she loses much of her prestige by acting with mixed players4 ,the establishment of a school of actresses in connection with the founding of the ,imperial ,theatre in ,tokyo belongs to the modern history of the ,japanese stage4 ,judging from the conditions that have been brought about by mixed players on the ,western stage1 it was a fortunate thing that women were excluded1 for the actors were able to develop a masculine theatre unhampered by petticoat influence4 ,whether this is an advantage to the art of the theatre remains to be seen when ,kabuki1 the unique masculine stage of ,japan1 will become known outside the land of its origin4 ,in order that men should reign supreme in the world of make-believe1 the creativeness of the ,japanese woman in the direction of the theatre has thus been clearly sacrificed4 ,but in the future their talent may be able to find scope for development in a theatre of their own1 as an expression of the spirit of women4 ,the tendency of the theatre art in ,japan is toward a separation of the sexes1 and there is hope that in the future a women's theatre1 free from the immoral influences that caused the downfall of the ,onna ,kabuki1 will coexist with ,kabuki1 the firmly established masculine stage4 ,o-,kuni's prominence began in #aeif1 when she first met ,sansaburo1 and she reached the height of her fame in #afja4 ,by #afbi women were strictly prohibited from performing in public4 ,thus the women's theatre she had founded came to an abrupt end1 after an existence of three decades4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,wakashu ,,kabuki3 ,,the ,,young ,,men',s ,,stage ,the first ,kabuki theatre to be founded in ,japan in which performances were given by companies composed entirely of men was started in the third year of ,genna1 #afag1 by ,dansuke1 who seems to have been an enterprising manager4 ,it was ,dansuke who formed companies of women from the pleasure quarters of ,kyoto1 and who was invited by no less a personage than the great daimyo1 ,date ,masamune1 to bring his players to his feudal capital1 ,sendai4 ,dansuke also established a company of female players in ,osaka1 but he is known chiefly in the history of ,kabuki as the founder of the first male theatre4 ,the tercentenary of this historical event was not allowed to pass unnoticed1 and in ,december #aiag the establishment of ,dansuke's male theatre and the three hundred years of ,kabuki development were celebrated by special performances given at the ,minami-za1 in ,kyoto1 where ,nakamura ,ganjiro1 ,osaka's leading actor1 and ,matsumoto ,koshiro of the ,imperial ,theatre1 ,tokyo1 played together to commemorate the event4 ,kyoto slumbering in its wide valley1 enclosed by its templed hills1 once the scene of great theatre activity1 is now far surpassed by the stages of ,tokyo and ,osaka1 but the leading actors of these two cities met to celebrate one of the most important anniversaries in the history of the ,japanese theatre4 ,it was before mixed companies were prohibited that the male theatre took its rise4 ,handsome youths had taken part with the women players1 and the separation was an easy step4 ,with the strict prohibition of the ,onna ,kabuki1 these young male players were left in entire possession of the field1 because the chief players were youths1 the entertainment they afforded was called ,wakashu ,kabuki1 or ,youths' ,stage4 ,numbers of these theatres arose in rapid succession in the three theatre towns1 and even spread to the provinces4 ,in ,osaka the first ,wakashu theatre was established in #afbd1 while ,saruwaka ,kansaburo founded ,yedo ,kabuki1 or the ,yedo ,stage1 in the same year4 ,from ,dansuke's first theatre in ,kyoto there grew seven flourishing theatres4 ,and they might have gone on increasing1 but the authorities considered it safer to place a limit on these places of amusement1 and licences were granted to seven persons who were considered the descendants of the first theatre proprietors in ,kyoto who had acted in the imitation ,kyogen during the intervals of ,o-,kuni's dances4 ,these men were retainers of the ,ashikaga ,shogunate1 and when this regime came to an end they were obliged to take up ,kabuki1 the new entertainment of the people1 as a means of livelihood1 and became managers of theatres4 ,if they had been in the service of the ,shogun1 who was the chief patron of the ,n1 they must have been entirely familiar with the ,n stage1 and so introduced much of this older theatre art into the newly developing stage of the people4 ,in ,osaka1 also1 theatres grew apace and were finally limited1 but it was in ,yedo1 the capital of the newly established ,tokugawa ,shoguns1 that the theatres made greatest headway4 ,saruwaka ,kansaburo founded the first theatre in ,yedo in #afbd1 when he established the ,saruwaka-za4 ,nine years later1 ,miyako ,dennai started the ,miyako-za1 and the following year ,murayama ,matasaburo opened the ,murayama-za4 ,still later ,yamamura ,kobei erected the ,yamamura-za1 and these were for some time the chief theatres of ,yedo4 ,with regard to the stage performances there was very little difference between the ,onna ,kabuki and the ,wakashu ,kabuki--the young actors always appeared as the stars1 while the older actors had to be content with minor rles4 ,the handsome youths1 attired in female costumes1 with long sleeves that swayed with their movements1 wearing their hair arranged in the most fetching fashion1 carried on ,o-,kuni's dancing traditions4 ,these had originated in the descriptive dance1 or posture movements1 of the ,n1 while the comic plays1 more or less based on the ,kyogen1 as performed by the older actors1 soon began to change into something special that was to develop still later into the varied forms of the ,japanese drama of the present4 ,the dances largely borrowed from the ,n also underwent gradual transformation into the ,shosagoto1 or modern music-drama1 that more closely resembles a ,western ballet than any other ,occidental stage form4 ,the externals of the ,wakashu theatre were also the same as those of ,o-,kuni1 except that the bamboo fence had given place to a more substantial wooden one1 and a gallery had been introduced for the entertainment of high-class patrons4 ,the drum tower of ,o-,kuni's theatre remained and persisted long after the entire construction of the theatre had been changed1 becoming in time more elaborate and permanent4 ,the most interesting person of this period is ,saruwaka ,kansaburo1 ,yedo's first actor-manager4 ,many details of his career have been handed down1 while the facts relating to the theatre proprietors of ,osaka and ,kyoto are both meagre and vague4 ,kansaburo1 like most of the theatre men of his time1 came from ,kyoto to ,yedo4 ,he was of good stock1 one account stating that he had sprung from the lord of the castle at ,numadzu in ,suruga ,province1 called ,nakamura4 ,however1 a more reliable record appears to be that handed down by his posterity1 that the family was descended from a daimyo called ,nakamura1 a follower of ,hideyoshi1 and that a member of this family1 ,nakamura ,jiyemon1 came to ,yedo1 became a ronin1 and married his daughter to ,saruwaka ,kansaburo1 who took the name of his father-in-law4 ,the name 8,saruwaka0 was given to the comic actors who acted with ,o-,kuni1 and as ,kansaburo excelled as a comedian1 he took this as his stage name4 ,kyoto was the home of refinement and culture1 but the political centre had shifted to ,yedo1 and was swarming with ronin1 or independent samurai who were not attached to any particular feudal lord4 ,they all drifted to ,yedo to seek their fortunes1 and ,kansaburo saw a chance of utilising these wandering spirits4 ,the reasons which led to his establishment of a theatre are given in a book he wrote called ,temaye ,miso1 which being interpreted means3 8,my own bean soup0--in other words1 8talking shop0 about his profession4 ,in this he says that as the ronin from different parts of ,japan assembled in ,yedo after the fall of ,osaka ,castle1 when ,hideyori1 the son of ,hideyoshi1 perished in the flames1 and ,iyeyasu became the ruler of feudal ,japan1 there were many soldiers of fortune who had been deprived of their living and were so reduced that they were obliged to beg for food from door to door1 reciting utai1 or choruses of the ,n1 to the accompaniment of the tsuzumi1 or small drum of the ,n stage4 ,he planned to employ these strollers by starting a theatre and giving them an opportunity to make use of their ,n training4 ,in consequence the ,saruwaka-za was established in #afbd at ,nakabashi1 near ,kyobashi1 in ,yedo1 and while ,kansaburo waited for his application to erect a theatre to be granted1 he dreamed that a white crane with a branch of icho1 the tree with fan-shaped leaves1 in its mouth1 entered his house from the summit of ,mount ,fuji4 ,this was a lucky dream indeed2 and proceeding forthwith to a diviner for explanation1 he was told it was a good omen1 and that his request would be granted4 ,accordingly1 after the theatre was constructed1 he had placed on the curtain hung around the drum tower over the entrance a design of a crane1 which came to be associated with ,yedo theatres for many years afterwards4 ,also1 on the curtains hung at the entrance and within the theatre1 he used the design of an icho leaf4 ,an incident in ,kansaburo's career shows the importance in which he was held1 and proves the position of the actor1 who had not yet come to be regarded as a despised class as in after years4 ,in #afcc1 when the ,shogun's pleasure boat ,atakamaru entered ,yedo ,bay from ,shimoda in ,izu ,province1 ,kansaburo was summoned and ordered to stand at the bow of the vessel and to sing a sailor's song4 ,by way of reward he was presented with a sum of money1 a coat used in battle1 and other military gifts4 ,while it was common at the time to refer to actors as 8riverside beggars01 the treatment accorded ,kansaburo was a special honour to his profession1 and was remembered long after when the playfolks were regarded as social pariah4 ,in the following year ,kansaburo and six actors of his theatre were invited to the palace of the ,shogun1 where they performed ,kansaburo's own play1 called ,saruwaka1 and several other pieces1 and were given fine clothing and money4 ,these articles have been preserved and handed down from one head of the family to another1 and were on exhibition at the ,imperial ,theatre during ,january #aiai1 when ,nakamura ,akashi1 the fifteenth1 performed ,saruwaka1 the hereditary piece of his family1 in memory of the founding of the ,yedo ,kabuki by his ancestor ,kansaburo4 ,this play ,saruwaka concerns the adventures of a retainer who goes on a journey to ,ise without his master's permission1 and returning1 to avoid punishment1 assumes a disguise1 and so cleverly entertains him with stories of his travels that the daimyo forgets to take him to task4 ,it smacks of the ,n ,kyogen1 and reveals the inspiration the early ,kabuki received from the ,n theatre4 ,illustration3 ,,theatre ,,treasures ,,exhibited4 ,at the ,nakamura-za1 founded by ,saruwaka ,kanzaburo1 the gifts given to him by the ,shogun were considered as treasures of the theatre and exhibited on certain anniversaries with much respect1 the actor holding the gold sai1 or battle signal1 and covering his mouth with a piece of paper lest he should breathe upon it4 7,colour print by ,hasegawa ,kanpei1 the fourteenth1 and ,torii ,kiyosada1 father of ,kiyotada47 ,kansaburo was to attain to even higher honour in his old age4 ,in #afeg there took place what is referred to as the ,great ,fire of ,meireki1 when the business portion of ,yedo was burned down1 including the four chief theatres and many minor ones4 ,as there was little hope that they would be rebuilt quickly1 ,kansaburo decided to visit his old home in ,kyoto1 and journeyed thither with his second son1 ,shimbochi4 ,while there he was invited through a ,court noble to perform his piece ,saruwaka before the ,imperial ,court4 ,just as he was about to begin he found that he had forgotten to bring an obi required for his costume1 and the ,court noble who had introduced him took a red cord and tassel attached to a thin bamboo curtain near the ,mikado1 and gave it to the performer who wore it during the play4 ,as it was far too long and dragged upon the floor1 ,kansaburo was obliged to put one end around his neck4 ,ever after he wore the cord and tassel rather than an obi when he performed in this piece1 and passed it on to his successors so that it became part of the conventional ,saruwaka costume4 ,on this occasion ,kansaburo was given a black velvet haori1 or over-garment1 adorned with a crest that had as a design three leaves1 and he also received a rich kimono embroidered in gold and silver4 ,his son ,shimbochi was only nine years at this time1 and he danced in a piece called ,shimbochi's ,drum4 ,the ,emperor was so much pleased with the child's performance that he exclaimed3 8,akashi6 ,akashi60--,never tired of seeing6 ,this cognomen was bestowed upon the boy by the ,emperor4 ,like the costume and the cord and tassel1 this name became hereditary in the family4 ,the present ,nakamura ,akashi1 now living in ,tokyo1 is over seventy years of age1 and the fifteenth of this actor line4 ,kansaburo died soon after his return to ,yedo4 ,his second son inherited his name1 but died young1 and a cousin became the third ,kansaburo1 while the fourth was ,nakamura ,denkuro1 a famous actor of the ,genroku period4 ,kansaburo had two brothers1 one of whom was a ,n ,kyogen actor1 ,kanjuro1 while the other was ,kineya ,kangoro4 ,the grandson of ,kineya ,kangoro1 called ,kineya ,kisaburo1 first introduced the samisen into the orchestra of ,kabuki1 and is the founder of the ,kineya line of musicians1 who have been connected with the theatre ever since1 and are to-day the chief house of ,kabuki musicians4 ,in ,ayame ,gusa1 or the ,sayings of ,ayame1 concerning the ideas of ,yoshizawa ,ayame on the theatre in general1 and the onnagata specialty1 of which he was a genius1 in particular1 he writes about the treasures of the ,nakamura-za1 ,kansaburo's theatre4 ,when he founded the first theatre in ,yedo he called it the ,saruwaka-za1 but his descendants later changed the name to ,nakamura4 ,here for #aej years1 says the ,ayame ,gusa1 the treasure of the theatre was a gold sai1 a duster-like equipment of war used for signalling in battle by the warriors of ,old ,japan1 consisting of a short handle with stripes of thick gold paper attached4 ,this had been presented to ,kansaburo when he sang a sailor's song on the ,shogun's pleasure craft as it entered ,yedo ,bay4 ,still another article treasured by the ,nakamura-za was a costume of gold brocade worn in the piece ,saruwaka1 also a fine bamboo screen presented to ,kansaburo by a daimyo1 and a drum from some equally exalted personage4 ,with regard to the other theatre proprietors of ,yedo1 ,miyako ,dennai obtained permission to build a theatre in #afcc1 and the following year ,murayama ,matasaburo erected the ,murayama-za4 ,he was the younger brother of ,murayama ,matabei1 the actor-manager of ,kyoto4 ,both had come from ,sakai1 the old seaport near ,osaka1 which flourished greatly when it was opened to ,western trade1 and declined when the ,tokugawa policy closed the country to foreign intercourse4 ,their father had been a retainer of the ,ashikaga ,shogunate1 and was a follower of ,nagoya ,sansaburo4 ,yamamura ,kobei was given permission to build the ,yamamura-za4 ,kawarasaki ,gonnosuke established the ,kawarasaki-za in #afdh4 ,he was a ,n actor1 but later went to ,yedo from the provinces and started a theatre4 ,not only did the theatres increase in numbers in the three towns1 but they spread to the provinces as well4 ,the audiences received better accommodation1 curtains and stage furniture began to be used4 ,theatres had been somewhat like side-shows1 and the audience changed at the end of each performance1 which continued indefinitely1 but with improvements in all directions plays of several scenes began in all three theatre centres4 ,it was in #afdd1 when the ,wakashu ,kabuki was in full swing1 that another prohibition by the ,government laid it low for the very same causes that had put ,onna ,kabuki out of existence4 ,the charming young actors were responsible for moral abuses that undermined the ,spartan code of the samurai4 ,there was a scandal because of the relations between a daimyo's wife and a young actor1 and the ,government1 always on the alert to punish the sins and omissions of the theatre1 ordered that the front hair of the ,wakashu actors be shaved off4 ,shorn of their locks they no longer presented an attractive appearance1 and as they had existed only to please through their persons their usefulness was gone4 ,the prohibition of the ,wakashu ,kabuki was a blow at the luxurious and effeminate habits that were then indulged in by the samurai and aristocracy4 ,wakashu ,kabuki had much to do with the spread of these habits1 and to suppress them was then considered the only remedy against the social evil of the time4 ,the prohibition of ,wakashu ,kabuki in ,osaka and ,kyoto differed from that of ,yedo4 ,a quarrel of two samurai over a young actor playing a female rle took place in ,yedo4 ,the theatre was closed1 and on this account the doors of all the other theatres were shut4 ,as they did not reopen for long years1 the actors were in dire distress4 ,in ,osaka the theatres were closed in #afef because of a disturbance in the audience1 but permission was given to continue the following year4 ,the ,kyoto theatres1 however1 went out of existence for twelve years1 and it was only in #affh that ,murayama ,matabei1 ,kyoto's actor-manager1 was allowed to restart4 ,not much is known about ,matabei1 quite contrary to the case of ,saruwaka ,kansaburo of ,yedo1 but an interesting side-light is thrown upon him by ,kabuki ,koto ,hajime1 or ,beginnings of ,kabuki1 which says that ,murayama ,matabei asked the governor when he was going to pay his respects at ,gion2 meaning by this1 at what time the theatres of the ,gion district in ,kyoto were to begin again1 but the governor withheld his consent4 ,thereupon ,matabei followed him to his residence1 and slept under the eaves1 where he was exposed to rain and his clothes were spoiled so that he became ill and thin as a ghost4 ,his followers brought him food1 and afterwards his patience was rewarded1 for his petition for the reopening of the ,kyoto theatres was granted4 ,while ,kansaburo is remembered as the founder of ,yedo ,kabuki1 as well as for all his honours and triumphs1 ,matabei1 the ,kyoto actor-manager1 in his long fight for his profession will endear himself to all lovers of the theatre4 ,although the authorities of the day may have thought it expedient to do away with the theatre1 not caring to admit that such an institution is a necessary part of life and cannot be destroyed1 yet something must be said for their attitude4 ,they felt obliged to keep order1 as the theatres had become unruly places where the new turbulent spirit of the people was finding expression1 and might have gone beyond the bounds if left unchecked4 ,mr4 ,ihara1 in his comments on the abolition of the ,wakashu ,kabuki1 expresses the belief that this strict measure had unexpected benefits4 ,onna and ,wakashu ,kabuki had made an appeal merely to the eyes and ears1 and personal attractiveness was the main object4 ,in consequence1 inexperienced youths held the centre of the stage1 while mature actors were obliged to serve as foils4 ,with the abolition of ,wakashu ,kabuki1 ,yaro ,kabuki1 or the ,men's ,stage1 came about1 but this term was used only for a short time to distinguish the performances from the ,wakashu4 ,yaro ,kabuki was the second epoch in the male theatre that with great strides was to develop conventions1 ceremonies1 customs1 actors1 plays1 and playwrights1 such as have made ,kabuki a thoroughly characteristic institution of ,japan4 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,ichimura ,uzaemon 7,orange and leaves74 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,kataoka ,ichixo 7,leaf of ,icho tree74 ,,chapter ,x ,,theatres ,,of ,,the ,,three ,,towns ,the intense theatre activity of ,yedo1 ,kyoto1 and ,osaka that followed in the wake of the edict against ,wakashu ,kabuki was but the outcome of the growing consciousness of the people and an expression of their natural art craving4 ,the competition between the stages of the three towns brought about rapid developments in every direction1 and many of the conventions that distinguish the modern stage were inaugurated at this time4 ,yedo was the seat of the ,tokugawa ,government1 the ,shoguns ruling the country with an iron hand4 ,the feudal lords and their vassals paid allegiance to this ,government1 and ,yedo swarmed with two-sworded samurai4 ,it was the liveliest centre of the country for the ronin1 or samurai unattached to a master1 and in consequence all the adventurous spirits of the time were attracted here as moths to a candle4 ,yedo ,kabuki thus developed marked characteristics of its own4 ,the atmosphere of ,kyoto was entirely different4 ,here lived in seclusion the ,emperor1 surrounded by the ,imperial families and the nobles4 ,the usurping ,shoguns had reduced the ,emperor to impotence4 ,kyoto was the home of artists1 poets1 writers1 and the people were calm1 elegant1 and given to refined pursuits4 ,the actors of ,kyoto contributed not a little to the taste and style of ,kabuki4 ,osaka1 also1 had a great influence upon ,kabuki4 ,here1 people were well-to-do and full of energy4 ,this town had for centuries been one of the foremost centres of trade1 and the inhabitants counted theatre-going among their chief pleasures4 ,osaka ,kabuki contributed some of the most important material that went to the building up of the theatre of the people4 ,when the handsome young players of ,wakashu ,kabuki no longer held the centre of the stage1 acting made rapid progress4 ,theatre construction greatly improved2 the introduction of the samisen caused a special music of the theatre to come into being1 which was soon to differentiate ,kabuki from the farces of the ,n theatre it had imitated so slavishly4 ,there also arose a new school of music1 ,yedo ,nagauta 7long poem or song71 the basis of ,kabuki's interesting music-dramas4 ,at this period the onnagata1 or specialty of acting women's rles1 began1 a convention that makes the ,japanese stage so unlike anything to be found in the ,occident4 ,it had been customary on ,o-,kuni's stage1 and later on the women's stage1 for men to assume women's rles and women to appear as men1 but when the ,government forbade women appearing on the stage it was necessary1 not only from an art point of view1 but also from a business one1 to find substitutes4 ,therefore1 in the natural course of events1 men came to monopolise female rles4 ,this was no new thing after all1 for the ,n1 that flourished for two hundred years before ,kabuki had sprung into being1 was also a male theatre1 and not only did men wear women's masks when impersonating the tragic heroines of the ,n drama1 but the impersonators of females in the farces of ,n1 or ,kyogen1 were likewise males1 wearing cotton coverings over their heads1 as may be seen to-day in the performances of the ,n4 ,besides1 the male impersonator of women had long been a convention of the ,chinese theatre1 and as ,japan had absorbed within herself so much of the civilisation from the continent1 it was not surprising that her theatre conventions1 as well as those of her other arts1 should be akin to those of ,china4 ,yet there was in ,japan a tendency towards a theatre development similar to ,europe1 had not the ,government so resolutely set itself against all freedom of action on the part of the theatre folk4 ,in this early period of expansion there were many good actors whose traditions were carried on and who made a firm foundation for the brilliant ,genroku age1 ,kabuki's greatest period of growth and out-flowering4 ,among the tateyaku1 or leading actors1 before ,genroku1 there were three men of influence--,arashi ,sanyemon1 of ,yedo2 ,fujita ,koheiji1 of ,kyoto2 and ,araki ,yojibei1 of ,osaka4 ,arashi ,sanyemon was born in #afce and died in #afij4 ,he came to ,yedo from ,settsu ,province1 where his father was a prosperous fish dealer4 ,in one of his popular plays there was a line about the moon having its clouds and the flowers their storms1 and people quoting this called out 8,arashi60 when he appeared on the street4 ,this was a poetical term meaning mountain-wind1 or storm4 ,sanyemon thought this a good stage name1 and thereafter adopted it1 a cognomen that has been used by actors ever since4 ,sanyemon was not content to play to ,yedo audiences1 but went to ,osaka1 where he became the proprietor of a theatre4 ,he greatly improved plays1 wore magnificent garments1 and acted to the accompaniment of flute1 drum1 and samisen4 ,his plays served ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon as originals when that dramatist wrote two of his best-known doll-dramas4 ,arashi ,sanyemon was succeeded by his son1 who became one of the noted actors of ,genroku4 ,contemporary with ,arashi ,sanyemon was ,fujita ,koheiji1 of ,kyoto4 ,he had come from the adjacent province of ,ise1 after acting in small country theatres1 and was a close rival to ,arashi ,sanyemon4 ,it is said that he never lost his popularity on the stage during his career1 although he did not attempt to hide the ravages of time by using face powder in making up4 ,his gestures were those of real life1 and were considered as models that were handed down to his successors4 ,fukui ,yagozaemon1 of ,osaka1 the first playwright to compose long pieces of several acts1 had much to do with increasing ,koheiji's reputation1 writing plays for him that pleased the public4 ,likewise1 ,yagozaemon was largely responsible for the fame of another influential actor1 ,araki ,yojibei1 of ,osaka1 who ended his earthly career in #agjj4 ,this early playwright1 ,yagozaemon1 was not only a stage writer1 but a good actor as well1 and was successful as a kawashagata1 or middle-aged woman character4 ,he was one of the stage authorities of his day1 and wrote a play for ,yojibei that was the great success of the time4 ,it was ,hinin ,adauchi1 or ,the ,beggar's ,revenge1 the first long play to be composed in ,osaka1 free from all association with the ,n drama1 a piece that has long survived1 with modifications1 and is still a favourite with modern actors4 ,yojibei was versatile2 he was praised as clever in stage fighting and excellent when impersonating a wounded man1 so that he was an early advocate of realism in acting4 ,among the dokegata1 or comedians1 there was an actor who could boast of blue blood when it came to theatre lineage4 ,he was ,sadoshima ,dempachi4 ,his father before him was ,sadoshima ,denbei1 who had headed one of the ,onna ,kabuki companies in ,kyoto4 ,dempachi had been brought up in the theatre atmosphere4 ,from the theatre chronicles it is found that he was ugly and did not have a pleasing voice1 two disqualifications for a tateyaku1 or chief actor1 but he was a dancer par excellence1 and this covered a multitude of sins1 since dancing is the basis of the ,japanese actor's art4 ,sadoshima ,dempachi was fortunate in the possession of a son who inherited his genius1 ,sadoshima ,chogoro1 who1 although less of an actor than a dancer1 had much to do with the movements and postures of the newly arisen music-drama1 and left behind him a journal concerned largely with the secrets of dancing1 the ,sadoshima ,nikki1 or ,journal of ,sadoshima4 ,when the ,wakashu ,kabuki went out of existence and plays were produced that required complicated characters1 a strict division of labour among the actors was carried out1 and they were obliged to play only their own specialties4 ,in the ,onna ,kabuki the rles had been fixed as in the ,n theatre4 ,there was a shite1 or chief actor2 a waki1 or secondary player2 and tsure1 or assistants4 ,in ,wakashu ,kabuki1 the handsome youth who was selected as star of the company was called taiyu1 or chief1 while older actors acted as secondary and supporting players4 ,as in the ,n there were kyogen shi1 or comedians1 so there were dokegata1 or funny men1 in the ,wakashu ,kabuki4 ,the specialties of the newly established male stage were simple at first1 then became more and more complex4 ,they were the tateyaku1 or chief actor1 who played the hero1 always a good1 courageous1 and loyal personage4 ,the katakiyaku was the name of the specialty in villains1--the bold1 bad characters who caused all the trouble4 ,there were the onnagata1 or actors playing women's rles2 the dokegata1 or comedians2 oyajigata1 or elderly men1 and the kawashagata1 or females of middle age4 ,youthful heroes were played by wakashugata1 while koyakugata was the name given those who took children's rles4 ,with the increase in the importance of acting1 and the overwhelming interest the public took in the competition of the actors1 the most complicated system of rank came to be bestowed upon the players4 ,during the ,wakashu ,kabuki regime1 the audiences were simply charmed by the dancing of attractive young men1 but as soon as complicated plays brought diversified characters1 the people became most critical of acting1 a characteristic that has remained as regards the ,japanese playgoer4 ,this holds true equally of modern audiences1 that are ever alert to see the differences between good and indifferent acting1 and which they appear to find much more worthy of consideration than the merits or demerits of the play4 ,playgoers took keen interest in the rank earned by their favourites1 and were elated if an actor became more prominent1 and equally disturbed if he did not live up to the promise of his early career4 ,the most important rank was termed jojo-kichi1 or best-best-good4 ,intermediate rank was marked by the ,chinese characters denoting jojo or best-best1 chu-no-jojo or middle-best-best1 and chu-no-jo1 middle-best4 ,later on1 the system determining the talents of the actors became elaborate4 ,there was first the superlative standard1 called head-of-all-acting1 and this was like ,miranda1 created of every creature's best1 top of admiration4 ,murui followed1 a most coveted title1 signifying without rival1 applied to the best in each specialty1 whether it was an onnagata or a tateyaku4 ,the third rank was jojo-kichi1 best-best-good1 used for the second in each specialty1 and the fourth was shingoku-jojo-kichi1 or truest-best-best-good2 the fifth1 dai-jojo-kichi1 or great-best-best-good2 while the sixth was called ko-jojo-kichi1 or little-best-best-good4 ,the seventh rank was jojo-kichi1 best-best-good4 ,this was the standard rank1 the others were given only to the great stars4 ,below jojo-kichi were the eighth and ninth ranks1 and still lower a number of different terms diminishing in value4 ,these were written in ,chinese characters beside the actor's name on the programme and on the bill-boards outside the theatre1 of which he must have been inordinately proud4 ,in ,kokon ,yakusha ,taizen1 or ,ancient and ,modern ,actors1 published by ,hachimojiya in the third year of ,kwanyei 7#agia71 there is a statement as to the origin of these ranks4 ,in ,china the rank was given to loyal persons who were considered worthy of reward for merit4 ,the titles jojo and jo-chu-no-jo were conferred upon them4 ,murasaki ,shikibu1 the famous court lady1 who wrote the ,genji ,monogatari1 or stories concerning the adventures1 largely romantic1 of ,prince ,genji1 used the rank of jojo-kichi when she wished to give one of her heroes a meritorious title1 taking the jojo1 or best-best1 from the custom prevailing in ,china1 and adding kichi1 or good1 on her own account4 ,as the art of the actors developed their genius was recognised1 and this system of reward devised4 ,at first the classification fell into the categories of good1 middle1 and poor1 but gradually the most extravagant terms were used to denote the pinnacle of art achieved4 ,along with this minuti in connection with acting the dramatic critic was called into being1 the actor and his critic being complements of each other the world over4 ,persons of literary pretensions began to criticise the actors1 and published their opinions4 ,it is not clear when the first of these criticisms appeared1 but ,ihara ,seiseiin mentions #afef as the probable date4 ,at first the criticisms dealt largely with the personal appearances of the onnagata1 who were the most fascinating players on the stage1 their borrowed feminine charms and graces being attractive to men and women alike4 ,then followed publications relating to anecdotes of the actors4 ,criticism improved as the critics were given more food for thought1 and were able to judge the value and quality of the acting1 rather than mere descriptions of an actor's dress1 face1 or manners4 ,there were two famous dramatic critics during the fruitful ,genroku period1 when the theatre rose to the summit of its achievements4 ,one of these was ,ihara ,saikaku1 the author of a popular novel1 ,ukiyo ,zoshi1 that was not distinguished for its moral tone1 and other writings1 and ,hojo ,danshin1 a composer of haiku1 or short poems4 ,their criticisms were written in their leisure hours and were a matter of their own pleasure4 ,they were blessed in that they were not obliged to think of newspaper proprietors1 sensitive theatre managers1 or the vagaries of the reading public1 but could spin out of their heads the fancies that came to them after attending the theatre4 ,they were not obliged to rush to some smoky1 noisy newspaper office1 there to grind out their copy at a late hour on the typewriter with printers' devils ready to snatch in desperate hurry4 ,no doubt they sat all day long on the tatami1 or straw mats1 of their dwelling1 looking out upon some quiet landscape scene1 and thinking at leisure4 ,much of their writings is trivial in the light of the present1 but1 on the other hand1 they reveal intimate glimpses of the theatre and actors that would be delightful to a lover of modern ,kabuki1 if the task of separating the wheat from the chaff in this formidable array of scribblings was not so difficult4 ,following the example of ,ihara ,saikaku and ,hojo ,danshin1 other literary men devoted themselves to chronicling the events of the theatre1 and they wrote copiously1 giving minute descriptions of the gestures and elocution of the actors4 ,books of criticism were called hyobanki 7lit41 account of reputation71 and these became the monopoly of the ,yedo publisher1 ,hachimonjiya4 ,the first of these books appeared in #afef2 the series continued until just before the ,restoration1 the publishing house lasting for #baa years4 ,hachimonjiya ,yisho1 the head of the firm1 was a writer about theatre matters as well as a publisher1 and his partner in the business1 ,ejimaya ,kiseki1 also wrote books relating to the theatre4 ,the partners quarrelled and separated for some years1 each issuing his own publications1 but afterwards they forgot their differences and once more collaborated4 ,their successors carried on the work of issuing the hyobanki1 which were the only books descriptive of the theatre4 ,they reached hundreds of volumes1 and are an encyclopaedia of ,kabuki4 ,while the theatres of ,kyoto and ,osaka changed hands frequently and went by various names1 four historic ,yedo playhouses were started in this formative period with which generations of actors were to be long associated4 ,they were the ,nakamura-za1 ,ichimura-za1 ,morita-za1 and the ,kawarasaki-za4 ,the descendants of the owners of these theatres had the exclusive right to give performances and to be theatre proprietors4 ,the actors were their retainers4 ,as a result there came into existence in ,yedo different theatre clans1 with the establishment of an hereditary caste in theatre circles4 ,saruwaka ,kansaburo had founded the first ,yedo theatre in #afbd1 calling it the ,saruwaka-za1 but his cousin1 the third ,kansaburo1 changed the name to ,nakamura-za1 a playhouse in which appeared many of the most talented actors that adorned the ,yedo stage4 ,the ,ichimura-za was originally the ,murayama-za1 founded by a brother of the ,kyoto manager1 ,murayama ,matabei1 who endured so many privations while waiting patiently for the governor to give permission for the long-closed theatre to reopen in ,kyoto4 ,the ,yedo ,murayama adopted several sons to succeed him as head of the theatre1 but they had no business ability1 and the theatre was finally purchased by ,ichimura ,uzaemon in #afff1 a name long recorded in the annals of the theatre and borne at present by the popular actor of the ,kabuki-za in ,tokyo1 ,ichimura ,uzaemon1 the thirteenth4 ,uzaemon's ancestors were said to have been samurai in the service of a daimyo4 ,on coming to ,yedo from the provinces he entered the employment of ,murayama ,matasaburo and afterwards became the sole proprietor1 giving the theatre his own name4 ,he was not an actor1 but successful in business management1 and few of his successors distinguished themselves on the stage4 ,the ,ichimura-za crests1 one an orange with leaves at the top and the other a stork in a circle1 have continued to be theatre symbols from the time of the first ,ichimura-za to the present4 ,this playhouse passed through many vicissitudes1 and was removed from its original site and finally destroyed by fire4 ,the last theatre bearing this name has come down to modern times1 and was destroyed in the great disaster of #aibc1 a temporary ,ichimura-za serving at the present4 ,still another theatre1 the ,morita-za1 was to have considerable influence upon stage history4 ,it was established in #affj by ,morita ,tarobei1 who came to ,yedo from ,settsu ,province4 ,among his advisers was a comic actor1 ,bando ,matakuro1 and he adopted this actor's son1 transferring his property to him and calling him ,morita ,kanya1 the second1 a name that has been inherited for #bej years by actors and managers4 ,the thirteenth ,morita ,kanya is now a member of the ,imperial ,theatre company1 and his father was one of the most aggressive theatre managers during the modern period of ,meiji4 ,illustration3 ,ichimura ,uzaemon1 the thirteenth1 as ,yasuna in a posture dance descriptive of a man who has become demented because of the loss of his wife4 ,the ,yamamura-za was another of the first ,yedo theatres1 and would in all probability have continued together with the ,nakamura-za1 ,ichimura-za1 and ,morita-za1 but one of its leading actors became involved in a scandal with a lady-in-waiting at the ,shogun's ,court1 and it was demolished by the authorities4 ,kawarasaki ,gonnosuke established the ,kawarasaki-za in #afdh4 ,he was at first a ,n actor1 but came to ,yedo from the provinces and started a ,kabuki theatre4 ,among several plays he composed1 that concerning the revenge of the ,soga ,brothers was most popular4 ,in #affc this theatre was incorporated with the ,morita-za1 but later they separated and continued until modern times1 the ,kawarasaki-za having been closely associated with the ,ichikawa actor-line4 ,za--as applied to a theatre--had not been especially invented to meet the new theatrical situation4 ,long before the ,n had become firmly established in the fourteenth century1 companies of players attached to the great ,shinto ,shrines had called themselves za1 which previous to this time had been in use to denote a commercial guild4 ,it was a case of history repeating itself that the resurrected term should have been used in connection with the new playhouses that were springing up in all directions4 ,such was the rise of the theatres in the three towns1 a rapid development that came about in the half-century between the abolition of the ,women's ,stage and the beginning of ,genroku1 ,japan's golden age4 ,enthusiastic audiences filled the large theatres of ,yedo1 ,kyoto1 and ,osaka1 flocked to the doll-theatres where the marionettes triumphed and threatened to outrival the actors in popularity1 while innumerable minor playhouses of a temporary character were set up in the compounds of shrines or by the cross-roads1 and spread in the provinces4 ,it was a time of actor-worship4 ,two great stars appeared4 ,they were ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 of ,yedo1 and ,sakata ,tojuro1 of ,kyoto1 diverse in their principles1 leaders of the two schools that laid the foundations of modern ,kabuki4 ,from this time onward the yakusha1 or actor1 dominated the theatre4 ,,yakusha ,,chapter ,,xi ,,danjuro ,,and ,,tojuro ,the first two ,kabuki actors endowed with creativeness of a high order were ,sakata ,tojuro1 of ,kyoto1 and ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 of ,yedo1 exponents of contrasting theatre principles--the real and unreal4 ,they were epoch-making actors1 and the manner in which they moulded the plastic theatre material of their generation is visible at the present day in the two schools they founded1 that still flourish side by side in ,kabuki4 ,sakata ,tojuro reflected the taste and elegance of his ,kyoto environment4 ,he was romantic and natural in his acting4 ,he left no successor1 but there have always been actors faithful to his styles ,the present ,nakamura ,ganjiro1 of ,osaka1 in taking ,tojuro for model and in inheriting his mantle1 has appeared to be the very incarnation of this old actor4 ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 of ,yedo1 established the school of aragoto1 or rough acting--made out of the cloth of exaggeration1 the grotesque1 picturesque1 unnatural1 unreal4 ,he was followed by eight members of his family1 who carried on his traditions4 ,many of the ,ichikawa actors were men of genius1 who not only handed on their theatre inheritance but added new features4 ,no other actor line has had such a powerful influence upon ,kabuki as the nine members of this family4 ,these players appeared in what is called the ,genroku age--the sixteen years from #afhh to #agjc4 ,but it also includes the years preceding and following1 altogether a space of thirty years--a period of growth and expansion4 ,it has been named the ,japanese renaissance1 and sometimes called the golden age of ,japanese civilisation1 and was a period of high achievement in literature and in art4 ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon1 ,japan's first dramatist1 flourished in this period1 and ,ihara ,saikaku wrote his criticisms of the actors4 ,tojuro's ancestors lived in the northern province of ,echigo1 and his father owned a ,kyoto theatre4 ,he is said to have been born in #afde1 and died in #agji1 and was the most representative actor of ,osaka and ,kyoto for the whole of the ,genroku period4 ,tojuro was the star of the ,miyako-,mandayu-za1 of ,kyoto1 for many years4 ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon wrote plays for him1 before he turned his entire attention to composing pieces for the marionettes4 ,kaneko ,kichizaemon1 another playwright of the time1 was closely associated with ,tojuro1 and has left many impressions of him in his book ,jijinshu--or ,collection of the ,year's ,dust--little stories about actors1 chiefly ,tojuro4 8,all these stories came to my insignificant ears10 he writes1 8therefore ,i call this book a collection of the year's dust40 ,tojuro was a power in the transformation of ,kabuki out of the chaotic state that followed the abolition of the ,wakashu4 ,he believed that art was long and time fleeting2 he displayed broadmindedness toward his contemporaries1 and did not criticise them4 ,he was noble and refined in appearance1 we are told1 and had received a far better education than was the lot of most actors of his day4 ,he had literary ability1 and collaborated with his playwright friends in the composition of his plays1 and wrote several dramas himself4 ,kaneko ,kichizaburo writes that ,tojuro learned to play the ,n drum from a ,n musician1 so that he must have been familiar with the aristocratic stage1 and the dignity and ceremonials of the ,n actors4 ,his personal character was high1 and he frowned upon the immorality of the actors1 which was something that could hardly be avoided in such a loose and luxurious age4 ,no record is left to tell of his wife and children4 ,he had a sister whose son he adopted1 but the son went to ,yedo to live1 and did not become an actor4 ,his younger brother inherited his great name1 yet only succeeded in imitating ,tojuro1 so that his talents stopped with himself and were not transmitted1 as in the case of the ,ichikawas of ,yedo4 ,many anecdotes have been handed down relating to ,tojuro's extravagance4 ,he received a large salary1 but was not at all frugal1 and was accustomed to say to those who remonstrated with him about his wastefulness that in order to be a great actor it was necessary to be generous-minded and reckless4 ,he never wore a dress that had been washed2 his room was lighted by candles1 not by the oil wick which was general in those days4 ,moreover1 he did not subsist on rice and vegetables1 the diet of most families1 then as now1 but lived like a daimyo1 partaking of fish and fowl4 ,every day he drank a cup of the rarest tea1 while he warmed his sake with costly charcoal1 all in the lordly manner of a feudal magnate4 ,when actors repaired to his house for rehearsal1 he received them seated on a beautiful silk cushion1 with a gorgeous lacquered tobacco-box in front of him1 and served his guests a sumptuous repast4 ,once1 when he played in ,osaka1 he ordered drinking water from ,kyoto to be brought to him in casks1 and his rice was selected grain by grain4 ,when he was asked the reason for this extravagance1 he replied that if his rice were not properly selected the grains might be mixed with grit and his teeth be ruined2 and that if he drank ,osaka water he might become ill1 and in consequence be obliged to absent himself from the stage1 to the great loss of his manager4 ,it is suspected that ,tojuro loved advertisement more than ,kyoto water1 and knew how to make himself talked about by the people of his day4 ,he was at his best when portraying tradespeople1 and was more at ease in plebeian than in aristocratic rles4 ,his successful plays were those dealing with everyday life rather than historical pieces1 which were the delight of ,ichikawa ,danjuro4 ,tojuro's specialty was acting in plays dealing with the gay quarters1 which pleased the people of the ,genroku age immensely4 ,how he regarded the art of the actor may be judged from an extract taken from ,kaneko ,kichizaburo's ,sidelights on ,tojuro3 8,when a poor man desires money he may be able to obtain it by stealing1 or he may find it in the road1 but with regard to acting nothing can be stolen4 ,an actor who is ignorant of the fundamental principles is one who is destined never to excel40 ,kaneko tells another story to illustrate ,tojuro's attitude towards the art of acting4 ,a certain actor who had a son #ab years of age wanted him to learn the art1 but did not think it necessary for him to bother how to write or to know anything about figures4 ,tojuro hearing of this said3 8,the art of an actor is like a beggar's bag and must contain everything1 whether it is important or not4 ,if there is anything not wanted for immediate use keep it for a future occasion4 ,an actor should even learn how to pick pockets40 ,at one time1 returning with ,kaneko from the theatre1 he stopped suddenly on the bridge they were crossing and stood motionless1 looking down into the water1 deep in meditation over some problem of acting4 ,the playwright asked him if he had dropped something1 but he did not answer4 ,after a pause he said3 8,well ,i have learned a great lesson60 ,on another occasion he stopped at a tofu-ya1 or white-bean-curd shop1 went straight in and watched how it was manufactured1 and after thoroughly acquainting himself with the process1 thanked the proprietor of the place and went away4 ,such information might be worth while to know1 since he could use it on the stage some day1 and therefore he put it into his beggar's bag4 ,that ,tojuro valued the art of the real upon the stage may be judged from the many stories that have been handed down about him1 but that he was aware that the real might be carried too far is shown from the ,jijinshu3 8,tojuro had to play the part of a beggar1 but did not wish to wear tattered and soiled garments4 ,he thought the audience came in order to be amused1 and that if things were too realistic it would make a bad impression upon them40 ,on the other hand1 the care he exercised with regard to naturalness on the stage is shown from another of ,kaneko's little stories4 ,a gatekeeper suddenly aroused from sleep was to yawn and ask3 8,who is it80 ,tojuro objected to the manner of the actor playing the gatekeeper1 and made him repeat it many times before he considered it satisfactory in giving the audience the correct impression of one suddenly awakened in the dead of night4 ,tojuro's claim to fame began with his acting of ,izaemon1 the lover of ,yugiri4 ,yugiri was a courtesan of the gay quarter of ,shimbara1 in ,kyoto1 and afterwards lived in a famous house called the ,ogiya in ,shimmachi1 ,osaka4 ,it was first written in one act4 ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon took the love story of ,izaemon and ,yugiri1 and wrote a masterpiece1 ,keisei ,awa no ,naruto4 ,it is the favourite play of ,nakamura ,ganjiro1 of ,osaka1 to-day4 ,tojuro acted ,izaemon in this piece on the eighteen occasions it was performed during ,genroku1 and it never failed to attract a large audience4 ,thus ,tojuro was the founder of the natural school1 which1 if there had been no other influences to hinder its supremacy1 would have developed in a similar way to the realistic stage of the ,west4 ,there were1 however2 other theatre materials for the asking1 and the members of the ,ichikawa family made use of these with lavish hand1 causing the talents of the actors to flow in channels quite removed from ,tojuro's realistic art4 ,the first of the nine ,ichikawas was born in #affj1 and died in #agjd4 ,his father was a samurai in the province of ,kii1 named ,horikoshi4 ,when the daimyo he served was defeated in battle1 ,danjuro's father became a ronin and lived in retirement in the district4 ,afterwards he removed to a village in the province of ,shimosa1 where he became a farmer4 ,he went to ,yedo in #afdd1 and called himself after the village he had left4 ,he was a man of strong character1 skilled in writing1 an adept at figures4 ,it was very natural1 possessed of such accomplishments1 that he should become popular among his neighbours in ,yedo1 and he was chosen to represent the landlords of his locality4 ,he was good at business and made a fortune for himself4 ,there were in ,yedo in those rough-and-ready times men called otokodate1 or chivalrous men of the people1 who did not fear the blustering two-sworded samurai1 who too often attempted to intimidate the peaceful citizens4 ,danjuro's father associated himself with these brave spirits1 who were always ready to defend the helpless and to protect the interests of the middle and lower classes4 ,such was the father of the first ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the representative ,yedo yakusha of the ,genroku period4 ,the exact date of the first ,danjuro's advent into the world is in question1 some accounts say #affj1 others #afdh1 but as the inaccuracy of dates in ,japanese records is so frequent1 it is not a matter to be greatly concerned about4 ,his father's friend acted as godfather and called the child ,ebiso1--a name which has persisted in the family1 and is given to the members when they are very young4 ,the boy's dwelling was in the vicinity of the ,nakamura-za and ,ichimura-za1 that drew him irresistibly1 just as the ,tokyo urchin of to-day steals off to see the moving pictures whenever he has sufficient to pay the entrance fee4 ,he must have made up his mind at an early age that he wanted to become an actor1 for he appeared for the first time at the ,nakamura-za1 when he was #ad years of age4 ,he took the stage name of ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 and acted the rle of ,kintoki1 the fabulously strong baby-hero of a ,japanese fairy tale1--a red-faced1 muscular baby1 generally depicted with an axe over his shoulder4 ,the new actor was an immediate success4 ,danjuro was responsible for a new mode of acting that astonished and delighted ,yedo people1--the aragoto1 or rough style4 ,the ,doll-theatre was the source of his inspiration4 ,there were minstrels who recited the military exploits of ,kimpira1 a ,hercules who slew demons and beasts4 ,the minstrel1 desiring to appeal to the fighting spirit of the ,yedo people1 beat his rhythms with a long iron rod1 and sometimes wielded this weapon so wonderfully that he broke off the heads of the performing dolls or smashed the scenery in his exploitation of valour4 ,the people had begun to grow tired of plays dealing with the effeminate and luxurious life of the gay quarters2 they wearied of sentimentality1 and welcomed performances that were more manly and possessed a militaristic appeal4 ,danjuro1 the first1 seized the opportunity to please the citizens of ,yedo1 originated the exaggerated artificial style now inseparably linked with the ,danjuro line1 their famous eighteen plays1 or ,juhachiban1 being treasures of ,kabuki that are woven out of the pure fabric of fancy1 and so unreal that those steeped in realism can find but little to admire in them4 ,yet they represent the talent of this long actor line2 they have been altered1 improved1 added to in the way of treatment1 costume1 and acting by successive members of the family1 unadulterated theatre material1 full of taste and style1 but as yet unknown to the unseeing eyes of the ,west4 ,like ,tojuro1 the first ,danjuro was not only an actor1 but also of a literary turn of mind1 and took an active part in the composition of his plays4 ,as he wished for a son to succeed him he repaired to ,narita1 not far from modern ,tokyo1 where stood then1 as to-day1 the famous ,buddhist temple sacred to ,fudo1 the ,god of ,fire4 ,here he worshipped1 praying to ,fudo for a son4 ,the petition was granted1 for a son was born who inherited his father's characteristics to a remarkable degree4 ,danjuro had a play written concerning ,fudo1 by way of returning thanks1 and selected a business name by which his successors are always known--,naritaya1 after the temple in the village of ,narita4 ,horikoshi remained the family name1 that of his samurai ancestors2 ,naritaya was the name given off the stage by his fellow-actors and familiar friends and tradespeople2 while ,ichikawa ,danjuro was his stage name4 ,he also possessed a nom de plume with which he signed his short verse1 for he was a poet in addition to his other qualifications4 ,descriptions of ,danjuro say that he was strong1 his arms brawny1 his shoulders broad1 and that he stood erect4 ,warrior rles were his specialty1 and when imitating heroic deeds of the ,doll-theatre he played with such a display of force1 and his gestures were so remarkable1 that when he trod the stage the reverberations were so violent that the stock-in-trade of such porcelain shops as happened to be in close proximity to the theatre were threatened with destruction6 ,however1 ,danjuro could1 when occasion demanded1 use naturalistic methods1 for the critics of his day praise him when he acted the rle of a blind shampooer1 and mention his gestures as being 8so natural06 ,in an old book there is a description of his stage methods4 ,he was asked to attend a social function in the mansion of a certain nobleman1 and requested to give some aragoto piece4 ,he took down the upper part of his kimono and performed as ,kagekiyo--the hero of several ,n dramas--and his actions were so spirited that he broke all the shoji1 or white paper screens4 ,the guests were anxious to know what the host would think of the entertainer's destructive methods1 but1 contrary to their expectations1 the daimyo was pleased and presented him with a costly gift4 ,danjuro is said to have made the comment after his strenuous acting that if an actor was afraid in the presence of a daimyo he could not play aragoto4 ,the contrast between the styles of ,tojuro and ,danjuro was very great1 but both truly reflected the tastes of their audiences4 ,the three theatre towns had then1 as they have at present1 special characteristics4 ,kyoto was quiet and easygoing2 ,yedo military and intense1 the centre for the samurai from the provinces who continually came and went4 ,the inhabitants of ,osaka and ,kyoto1 who were mild and gentle in disposition1 went wild over ,tojuro's artistic acting1 taking pleasure in the effeminate1 sentimental heroes and heroines of the gay quarters1 and they rather looked with disdain upon the exaggerated1 artificial1 and altogether extraordinary acting of ,danjuro4 ,danjuro was bold1 eccentric1 rough1 and heroic2 ,tojuro elegant1 sensuous1 and luxurious1 reflecting the spirit of the ,kyoto and ,osaka people1 who were pleased to see his plays of everyday life1 and faithful depiction of human nature4 ,tojuro was eloquent1 and sometimes his speeches were so long as to tire his audience2 ,danjuro was so quick-spoken that sometimes he could not be understood4 ,the theatre materials out of which ,danjuro and ,tojuro cut their patterns--the real and unreal--continued to coexist after the ,genroku period4 ,the one did not swallow up the other2 but both maintained their place and use1--sometimes mixed1 with strange results1 sometimes found without adulteration4 ,perhaps the most famous of ,danjuro's plays is ,kanjincho1 a popularised version of ,ataka1 a ,n drama4 8,kanjincho0 means a ,buddhist scroll upon which are written the names of subscribers to a fund to restore or rebuild a temple4 ,without asking leave1 ,danjuro appropriated this ,n play4 ,a member of the house of ,kineya1 the musicians of ,kabuki1 suiting the music to the plot1 there was evolved the most perfect music-posture play of the ,japanese theatre4 ,danjuro1 the first1 played it in #agjb4 ,the theatre was crowded1 and the piece continued for #aej days4 ,it was called ,oshiai ,junidan1 meaning to crowd or push together4 ,and after the lapse of more than #bjj years this ,kabuki masterpiece still holds audiences in a spell1 and never fails to arouse the greatest enthusiasm4 ,it was performed before the ,prince of ,wales on his visit to ,japan in ,april #aibb4 ,danjuro played another piece1 ,soga no ,goro1 at the ,ichimura-za1 which became the inspiration of every actor in later times4 ,when he acted ,goro1 the hero of the ,soga play dealing with the revenge of the ,soga brothers upon the slayer of their father1 he wore a kimono embroidered in a design of lightning1 and three rice measures1 or three boxes of graduated size fitting into each other4 ,after this he took three rice measures as his crest1 and this was to become one of the most famous actor-symbols on the ,japanese stage4 ,danjuro journeyed to ,kyoto and ,osaka1 and astonished the audiences in these cities by his originality and activity1 the country people flocking in from the outlying districts4 ,in ,osaka he was so well received that a popular song sang his praises4 ,he studied short poems while in ,kyoto1 and his teacher gave him a nom de plume1 the custom of an actor taking a poetry-name originating with him4 ,an account is given in ,kabuki ,koto ,hajime1 or ,beginnings of ,kabuki1 of ,danjuro's meeting with ,tojuro4 ,danjuro went to the theatre to see ,tojuro act1 but found that he was absent on account of illness4 ,danjuro greatly regretted that he was unable to see ,tojuro on the stage4 ,but on the following day a messenger came from ,tojuro inviting him to dinner at a restaurant4 ,when ,danjuro reached the place1 ,tojuro failed to make an appearance1 and after he had waited for a long time and was beginning to grow impatient he saw his host in ordinary dress arranging flowers in another room without as much as casting a glance in the direction of his guest1 as unconcerned as though quite unaware of his presence4 ,this made ,danjuro angry1 and he was just on the point of retiring when a messenger from ,tojuro apologised for the delay and said he would join him immediately4 ,he had changed his clothing1 wearing his very best1 and received his guest in the most dignified manner4 ,danjuro was so much impressed by his appearance that he said there was no necessity to see him act1 and left for ,yedo the next day4 ,the gossip of the time said that ,tojuro planned to overawe his ,yedo rival1 and had determined that no ,yedo actor should carry away laurels from ,kyoto during his lifetime1 so that if this report be true the long-established rivalry between the theatres of ,yedo and those of ,osaka and ,kyoto had already begun at this time4 ,danjuro's stage career ended suddenly at the age of #de4 ,his death is one of the most tragic events in the history of the ,japanese theatre4 ,he was murdered in his dressing-room by a fellow-actor in #agjd4 ,some accounts say that the murderer's name was ,sugiyama ,hanroku4 ,ihara ,seiseiin1 who has closely inspected the suspected actor's record for the year in which ,danjuro was murdered1 says he was unable to find the name of ,sugiyama ,hanroku1 but discovered one ,ikushima ,hanroku1 who was recorded as an actor of considerable ability1 being ranked as first of the middle class4 ,accounts with regard to the motive prompting the deed are conflicting4 ,some say jealousy2 others that this actor had a son who was a deshi1 or follower1 of ,danjuro1 and had changed his name to ,ichikawa2 again that ,hanroku was a man of evil character1 and ,danjuro gave him some sound advice which he did not heed1 and that this made ,danjuro indifferent to the son4 ,yet most accounts agree that the cause of the tragedy was ,danjuro's changed attitude towards the son4 ,the result of this crime was that the proprietors of the theatres were summoned to the magistrate's office1 and an order was issued that continuous plays could not be given1 and only those of one act were allowed1 the audience to be changed at the end of each act4 ,hanroku made good his escape from ,danjuro's dressing-room1 but was taken to prison on that day1 and died there before his sentence could be carried out4 ,danjuro's widow cut her hair short1 and lived a life of retirement in ,meguro1 now a suburb of ,tokyo4 ,danjuro1 the first1 was fortunate in leaving behind him the successor who had been given to him in answer to the prayer made to ,fudo1 the ,god of ,fire1 at the ,narita ,temple1 for this son was to become one of the most famous actors of the ,danjuro line4 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,ichikawa ,danjuro 7,three rice measures74 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,ichikawa ,ennosuke 7,derived from toy resembling three monkeys74 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,ichikawa ,chusha 7,peony74 ,illustration3 ,onoe ,matsusuke as ,komori ,yasu1 or ,bat ,yasu1 so called because of the birthmark on his cheek which resembles a bat4 ,a bold1 bad man of ,yedo4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,yakusha ,,of ,,genroku ,during the ,genroku period that produced so many men of distinction in art1 literature1 and the drama1 the audiences of the three towns had a brilliant array of actor talent from which to choose1 and the achievements of the contemporaries of ,sakata ,tojuro and ,ichikawa ,danjuro resulted in a keen appreciation of the actor's creativeness4 ,the common people were to become familiar with a high order of acting1 since the emphasis1 whether rightly or wrongly1 as judged by ,occidental standards1 was always on the actor1 the playwright being of secondary importance4 ,three stars were to be seen during ,genroku on the stages of ,kyoto1 ,osaka1 and ,yedo4 ,they were ,yamashita ,kyoyemon2 ,takeshima ,kyozaemon1 the son of that ,takeshima who had been the head of a company of women players in ,kyoto2 and the second ,arashi ,sanyemon1 son of the actor of the same name1 who previous to this had gained great success in ,yedo1 and then removed to ,osaka1 where he owned a theatre4 ,yamashita ,kyoyemon1 who died in #agag1 was the son of a ,kyoto artist4 ,he was at first a ,n actor1 but gave up this profession to follow the fortunes of ,kabuki4 ,sakata ,tojuro regarded him as a rival1 and ,kyoyemon often acted with ,tojuro at the ,miyako-,mandayu-za in ,kyoto4 ,once a rumour was circulated that he was dead1 which proving untrue the people flocked to his banner1 and he was more popular than ever before4 ,the historians of ,kabuki agree that he was a man of fine bearing and gentle disposition1 and that while he did not quite equal ,tojuro's grand manner he was in no way an actor of little talent4 ,it was ,kyoyemon who appeared in the first stage version of ,chushingura1 the tragedy of the ,forty-seven ,ronin1 who avenged the death of their lord and then committed harakiri in ,yedo4 ,afterwards the tale inspired ,takeda ,izumo1 who wrote a drama for the marionettes that is undoubtedly one of the masterpieces of the ,japanese theatre to-day4 ,it is said of ,kyoyemon that even a rustic from the provinces1 who had never seen him before1 and knew nothing concerning him1 could not fail to be impressed by his presence1 and to understand without being informed that he was the leading actor4 ,he had his little frailties1 however1 for he was too fond of applause1 and so eager for the praise of the audience that he pandered to the tastes of the lower classes1 and was given to making vulgar asides4 ,this was entirely unlike ,tojuro1 who had a high moral character4 ,like ,tojuro1 however1 he held the mirror up to nature1 and the side-lights upon his stage methods that have been handed down reveal the fact that he excelled as a samurai1 particularly as a ronin1 or free-lance1 who roamed the country in quest of adventure1 and wearing the costume of a traveller4 ,one of ,kyoyemon's brothers became a celebrated priest1 and his daughter married ,sawamura ,chojuro1 a leading actor of a later period4 ,his wife's sister married an onnagata1 the first ,yoshisawa ,ayame1 and their son ,matataro inherited ,kyoyemon's name1 becoming ,yamashita ,kyoyemon1 the second--hence his family occupied a prominent position in the actor fraternity4 ,the second actor of importance at this time was ,takeshima ,kyozaemon1 son of ,yamato ,dansuke1 of ,o-,kuni ,kabuki fame4 ,although he played often in ,kyoto1 he made ,osaka his headquarters1 and at last went to ,yedo1 where he played with ,ikushima ,shingoro1 the unfortunate actor exiled because of a love affair with a lady-in-waiting of the ,shogun's ,court4 ,for three years he played at the ,ichimura-za and ,morita-za1 and then took up his residence in ,kyoto1 where his son was the proprietor of a theatre4 ,he was particularly partial to samurai rles and knew how to handle a sword4 ,his son was also a good actor1 and succeeded to his name4 ,the third famous actor of ,tojuro's time was ,arashi ,sanyemon1 the second4 ,he was younger than ,tojuro and ,kyoyemon1 and died early4 ,the first ,arashi was his father1 but the boy was evidently regarded as an ugly duckling1 for his father did not consider that he possessed sufficient talent for a stage career1 and he was apprenticed to a candle dealer1 the business requiring him to travel from one place to another4 ,when the elder ,arashi was taken ill1 the son was called to ,osaka to take up the parental profession1 and so had the difficult task of trying to live up to his father's reputation4 ,at first the audience laughed at him1 but as he had the same face and voice as his father1 he soon attracted attention and came to be regarded as one of the leading actors4 ,indeed1 he was considered in some respects superior to his father1 especially in the art of love-making2 he was genuine and unaffected1 and possessed a well-shaped nose and fine eyes4 ,the foregoing actors were tateyaku4 ,the most noted actor to take katakiyaku1 or the villain rle1 of this period was ,kataoka ,nizaemon1 who died in #agae4 ,at first he was a samisen player of ,osaka1 and during his early years was associated with the management of ,osaka theatres1 beginning a stage career in middle life1 yet reached high rank and was regarded as a genius4 ,he was tall and well-proportioned1 and had a fierce look in his eyes which gave him a decided advantage in the villain rle4 ,he could also play the hero well1 but received great praise for his old men characters1 a specialty that seems to have remained in the possession of this actor line1 for the modern representative1 ,kataoka ,nizaemon1 of the ,kabuki-za1 ,tokyo1 never pleases his audiences better than when playing as oyajigata1 or old men4 ,nizaemon was samurai-like in his bearing4 ,he is on record as saying that actors should be familiar with popular poems1 know ,buddhism and ,shintoism1 and be well informed on a variety of subjects so as to draw upon such knowledge in their work on the stage4 ,no doubt ,nizaemon practised what he preached1 for he played many rles in his time4 ,his real son1 who was a theatre owner1 succeeded as ,nizaemon1 the second1 but died soon after1 and the ,kataoka generations were continued by a younger sister of the first ,nizaemon1 who had married an actor4 ,it was her son who succeeded to the hereditary name of ,kataoka ,nizaemon1 the third1--a stage name that has continued down to the present4 ,kataoka ,nizaemon and ,ichikawa ,danjuro are the only two actor families that have come down from ,genroku in unbroken succession to modern times4 ,the first ,danjuro's greatest contemporary in ,yedo was ,nakamura ,hichisaburo1 who died in #agjh4 ,he was ,danjuro's equal in many respects1 and shared the honours of ,yedo ,kabuki with him4 ,but ,hichisaburo left no family to carry on his traditions1 and in consequence obtains a less important position in the history of ,kabuki than ,danjuro1 the first1 who founded a line of actors that have been uppermost on the stage for more than two hundred years1 and were regarded as the feudal lords of the theatre before whom all others of the fraternity bowed in respect and admiration4 ,nakamura ,hichisaburo was exactly the opposite to ,ichikawa ,danjuro in his stage methods4 ,he belonged to ,sakata ,tojuro's real school1 and was quiet and restrained on the boards4 ,danjuro was bold and exaggerated1 ,hichisaburo effeminate and mild4 ,they represented the two currents of the popular mind during ,genroku4 ,danjuro was not altogether welcome in ,kyoto and ,osaka1 ,tojuro's stronghold1 where his style was not wholly appreciated1 although he was acknowledged to be a great actor4 ,hichisaburo1 on the contrary1 met with great success on the stages of these towns4 ,he was a handsome man1 and the criticism of the time acknowledged his dignity of manner4 ,unlike ,danjuro1 he did not startle with the strength of his militaristic actions1 which caused him in some quarters to be regarded as slow4 ,but this was according to ,yedo critics1 who had grown accustomed to ,danjuro's striking efforts4 ,in ,kyoto1 it was contended that ,hichisaburo was not good as a fighter1 but one critic declared that he was like patent medicine1 good for everything4 ,hichisaburo's manner on the stage was similar to ,tojuro's1 yet the stars of ,kyoto appeared to tower above him4 ,as a lover he was very popular1 and delighted in mixing ,yedo slang with his stage lines1 and knew how to reach his audiences4 ,it is said of him that he was good in pathetic rles and 8could bring tears to the eyes of a demon04 ,moreover1 he was a good dancer1 which was probably due to the fact that he was entirely familiar with the ,n stage4 ,some years younger than ,danjuro1 he married the daughter of the second ,nakamura ,kansaburo1 and probably took the name of ,nakamura from this family4 ,like most of the actors of this early period he wrote his own plays1 the most successful of which was ,asamagatake1 or ,mount ,asama4 ,although ,hichisaburo was a ,yedo actor1 he spent much of his time in ,kyoto and ,osaka4 ,the most prominent actor who imitated ,hichisaburo was ,ikushima ,shingoro4 ,hichisaburo was taken ill on the stage while playing ,juro1 one of the brothers in the ,soga revenge1 his favourite rle4 ,after ,danjuro and ,hichisaburo1 the most distinguished actor of this time was ,nakamura ,denkuro1 who died in #agaf4 ,he was of more aristocratic theatre lineage than the two prominent ,yedo actors above1 for he was no less a personage than the grandson of ,saruwaka ,kansaburo4 ,the first ,kansaburo had three sons3 the first was the child of a concubine and did not inherit2 the second son1 who accompanied ,kansaburo to ,kyoto and danced before the ,emperor1 succeeded as second of the line1 taking the name ,akashi1 which he was given at the time of this performance in ,kyoto4 ,he left his name to his younger brother1 who became the third head of the family4 ,the son by the concubine was blessed with two sons1 and one of them was no other than ,nakamura ,denkuro1 who exercised considerable influence upon ,yedo ,kabuki1 establishing traditions that have been handed down to modern times4 ,denkuro's father1 perhaps because of his illegitimacy1 never appeared as an actor1 but was engaged as an accountant of the ,nakamura-za all his life4 ,nevertheless1 it was his son who inherited the theatre genius that might have been expected to appear in the first ,kansaburo's legitimate offspring4 ,the rle of ,asahina1 an historical character1 at the ,nakamura-za made ,nakamura ,denkuro famous1 and the manner in which he painted his face with broad red lines and the style1 colour1 and design of his costume have served as a model for all succeeding actors who have essayed this popular rle4 ,asahina was a bold warrior of the time when ,yoritomo ruled by the sword in ,kamakura4 ,denkuro used ,asahina's crest to decorate his stage costume1 a crane in a circle1 and it has always been preserved1 ,asahina not being considered by audiences or actors as the real thing unless faithful to all the details of ,denkuro's grotesque creation4 ,and it is by these traditions that the modern ,tokyo actors link this old past with the bustling1 strenuous modern days1 for a veteran of the ,kabuki-za in ,tokyo succeeded to this illustrious stage name a few years ago1 and to celebrate the auspicious occasion appeared in all the startling array of colours1 unearthly red make-up1 and exaggerated gestures and postures of his ,yedo predecessor4 ,on account of chronic illness ,denkuro was obliged to withdraw from the stage at the height of his career1 and could only return to say a few words on the introduction ceremony of the second ,hichisaburo1 who was a child-actor when he took the name ,nakamura ,hichisaburo had made so famous4 ,denkuro had been closely associated with the first ,hichisaburo1 hence his interest in his youthful successor4 ,another tateyaku who acted with ,danjuro1 and was regarded as equal to ,nakamura ,denkuro1 was ,miyasaki ,denkichi4 ,he was put in prison with other actors in connection with a scandal in a nunnery4 ,the abbess of the institution was a favourite at the ,shogun's ,court1 and in consequence of her high position1 and because the entrance of the despised playfolks within her female fold was regarded as a laxity of moral practice that deserved high punishment1 she was sentenced to death and the actors were imprisoned4 ,miyasaki ,denkichi played on the stages of the three towns1 but died in obscurity1 very likely as a result of his irregular life4 ,among the deshi1 or followers1 of ,danjuro1 the first and most noted was ,ichikawa ,danshiro4 ,an actor bearing the name died in #aibb1 a veteran member of the ,kabuki-za company in ,tokyo4 ,in the middle of his career this first ,danshiro shaved his head and became a ,buddhist priest1 retiring to a provincial temple4 ,as ,yedo ,kabuki of those days was lacking in good actors1 messengers were frequently sent to his distant temple asking him to return to the stage1 but he repeatedly refused4 ,at last he consented upon the condition that at the end of the performances he was to return to his holy profession4 ,he acted the rle of ,mongaku ,shonin1 the samurai who made love to the heroic ,kesa ,gozen1 or the ,lady ,kesa4 ,wishing to get rid of her husband1 the samurai planned to kill him in his sleep4 ,kesa ,gozen gave ,mongaku a sign by which he would know the right head to cut off--the hair was to be freshly washed4 ,but to his horror the assassin found that he had killed the ,lady ,kesa herself1 who had thus sacrificed her life to preserve her honour and by her act had saved the life of her husband4 ,in penitence for this deed1 ,kesa ,gozen's lover became a priest1 and the interest of the ,yedo playgoers in ,danshiro's return to the stage in this priestly rle may well be imagined4 ,true to his word1 this follower of ,danjuro returned to his temple and died there in #agag4 ,as to the celebrated villains who played with the above actors1 the two stars were ,yamanaka ,heikuro and ,nakajima ,hiroyemon4 ,senior to ,tojuro and ,danjuro1 ,yamanaka ,heikuro died at the age of #hc1 and played with both the first and second ,danjuro4 ,he adopted a son1 who did not live to succeed him4 ,many stories are told of the impressiveness of this stage villain1 and how even the actors playing with him sometimes became frightened at his appearance4 ,he was of large physique and a man of forceful character1 so that he was eminently fitted to play the diabolical katakiyaku whose fierceness and violence caused the ,yedo audience of those days to feel thrills of horror4 ,great stage changes took place during the second part of the ,genroku period1 and the rapidly developing ,doll-theatre began to influence ,kabuki and its actors4 ,the public tired of the sentimentality introduced by ,tojuro1 and expressed a taste for the loyalty and sacrifice plays such as were in vogue in the ,doll-theatre1 that had begun to capture the public imagination4 ,the actor genius of the latter part of the ,genroku period was undoubtedly ,sawamura ,chojuro1 who was born in #afhj and died in #agcd4 ,he was the son of an ,osaka merchant4 ,his elder brother was also an actor of repute1 and a younger brother an expert drum performer4 ,although he played with ,tojuro1 he did not confine himself to this school exclusively1 but was influenced by the different styles of the ,genroku stage4 ,he assimilated and harmonised the characteristics of the celebrities who had preceded him1 and so did much towards the establishment of the rules of acting that pertain to modern ,kabuki4 ,he made himself popular in samurai plays1 in those of everyday life that reflected the manners and customs of his time1 and he was equally at home in historical pieces that required the exploitation of the unreal1 while he excelled also in dancing4 ,his son1 called ,chosaburo1 became the second ,chojuro4 ,a follower who took the name of ,sawamura ,chojuro1 the third1 was destined to found a strong actor family that is flourishing in ,tokyo to-day1 half a dozen members of this name now being prominent4 ,he was known on the stage as ,sawamura ,sojuro1 a name to reckon with in ,japanese stage history4 ,the present ,sawamura ,sojuro of the ,imperial ,theatre1 ,tokyo1 with his four actor sons1 and a nephew1 ,sawamura ,chojuro1 make a formidable family array of players1 there being no fear for some time to come that this line will suffer extinction4 ,when ,yedo ,kabuki lost its two ,genroku stars1 ,danjuro and ,hichisaburo1 there was a vacancy that no one else could fill1 and the ,yedo people must have felt a lack of interest when witnessing the performances of those who tried to take their places4 ,there were in reality only two actors in ,yedo at this time who upheld the past glory of the stage4 ,one was ,ikushima ,shingoro1 and the other ,nakajima ,kanzaemon4 ,ikushima ,shingoro1 one of the most tragic figures among these old actors1 was born in ,osaka1 and came to ,yedo during his years of stage apprenticeship4 ,he acted almost exclusively at the ,yamamura-za4 ,he was #dd years of age when his love affair with a lady of the ,shogun's ,court caused him to be banished from ,yedo1 and for twenty years he lived in his place of exile1 never returning to the scene of his stage triumphs4 ,a modern play has been made concerning this unfortunate actor1 who1 according to the gossip of the time1 was more sought after by the venturesome ,court lady than disposed to seek her himself4 ,and just as ,saruwaka ,kansaburo's performances before the ,emperor and ,shogun had been an honour to the whole actor profession1 so this ,ikushima scandal was to remain a blot on the actor's escutcheon for many years to come4 ,the whole trouble was caused not so much by ,ikushima1 or the owner of his theatre1 ,yamamura ,chodayu1 as by the romantic ,lady ,yenoshima herself4 ,although the secret of the friendship of the actor and lady was kept for many years1 the audacious ,yenoshima put the fat in the fire4 ,as representative of the ,shogun's mother she was sent with other ,court ladies to pray at ,zojo-ji1 a ,buddhist temple of ,yedo that remains one of the striking features of modern ,tokyo4 ,the party reached the temple early in the morning1 and there presented but a few of the many gifts they had brought with them1 reserving the best to be distributed at the theatre as favours4 ,hastening over their devotions1 the party made haste to the ,yamamura-za4 ,all was excitement within the theatre1 where seats had been reserved for a hundred persons4 ,the proprietor1 ,yamamura ,chodayu1 and the leading actors headed by ,shingoro1 clad in ceremonial kimono1 came out to meet the distinguished party1 and a feast was given4 ,it is said that ,yenoshima and her friends grew slightly hilarious1 and a sake bottle was pushed over1 with the result that the contents fell upon the head of a samurai in the audience below1 who became angry1 and in spite of apologies left the theatre4 ,yenoshima's behaviour that day at the ,yamamura-za soon became known1 and it was not long after that the whole disgraceful affair came to the ears of the officials of the ,shogun's ,government1 with the result that ,yenoshima was exiled to a small island off the coast in a distant part of the country4 ,she was then #cc years of age4 ,her sentence was lightened afterwards owing to the clemency of the ,shogun's mother1 and she was transferred to the province of ,shinano1 where she was put in charge of the local daimyo4 ,in those days1 however1 as it was the custom to punish not only the guilty1 but to inflict it likewise upon the immediate members of the family1 ,yenoshima's brother was condemned to death1 and a younger brother exiled4 ,after this the iron hand of the shogunate rested heavier than ever upon the theatre folks1 for the ,yamamura-za was not only deprived of its licence1 but the building was demolished1 all property confiscated1 and this theatre ceased to exist4 ,the proprietor as well as the actors1 ,ikushima ,shingoro and ,nakamura ,seigoro1 and even the onnagata1 ,iwai ,hanshiro1 were all exiled4 ,the first ,matsumoto ,koshiro appeared at this time1 and as the seventh ,matsumoto ,koshiro1 of the ,imperial ,theatre1 is one of the leading actors of present-day ,japan1 it is interesting to know something of the founder of this line4 ,he came to ,yedo from ,shimosa province1 and was at first an onnagata1 but later changed to tateyaku4 ,he belonged to ,danjuro's aragoto1 or rough-acting school1 inherited from the brave balladry of early ,yedo ,joruri1 and is even said to have rivalled ,danjuro in the art of the unreal4 ,in middle age he shaved his head as a sign of retirement from active life4 ,his adopted son succeeded to his name and stage inheritance1 but later on he became by adoption ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the fourth1 the ,matsumoto ,koshiros afterwards being closely associated with the ,ichikawa family1 the present ,matsumoto ,koshiro having been the deshi1 or pupil1 of ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the ninth4 ,in ,kyoto1 an actor who showed much originality and played in both ,osaka and ,kyoto at the time the above actors were active in ,yedo1 was ,shibazaki ,rinzaemon1 who was quick to recognise the art of the doll-actors4 ,his specialty consisted in imitating them4 ,he was well fitted in personal appearance1 character1 and voice to be a leading actor4 ,he began his stage study in ,osaka1 where the dolls were beginning to rival the real actors1 and it is easy to see how the movements of the puppets1 their airs and graces1 postures and gestures1 as created by the nyngyo-tsukai1 or doll-handlers1 who were artists in every respect1 introduced the ,kabuki actors to a whole new world of expression1 of style and taste1 which they were eager to command4 ,a star common to the stages of ,kyoto and ,osaka when ,shibazaki ,rinzaemon flourished was ,kosogawa ,juyemon4 ,he had been a samurai in daimyo service1 and became an actor from choice4 ,as revealing the sentiment of the time1 it is recorded that one of his relatives came to the theatre to kill him because the ex-samurai had the insolence to act under his own name4 ,this the relative considered a piece of great effrontery1 and but for the pacification of the theatre people would have carried out his intention4 ,shibazaki ,rinzaemon was good1 as might have been expected1 in samurai rles4 ,he lived to a ripe old age1 and when he became too infirm to appear as a fighting man1 contented himself with old men's rles4 ,before his death he lost his sight1 but still his usefulness upon the stage did not cease1 for he was accommodating enough to act blind characters4 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,ichikawa ,sadanji and ,ichikawa ,udanji 7,ivy leaf74 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,bando ,hikosaburo 7,stork74 ,illustration3 ,matsumoto ,koshiro1 of the ,imperial ,theatre1 in the character of ,townsend ,harris1 the first ,american ,minister to ,japan4 ,a photograph of the intrepid ,kentucky ,colonel is on the actor's dressing table4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,yakusha ,,of ,,horeki ,after ,genroku1 the most flourishing period for ,kabuki and its yakusha was ,horeki1 an era covering seventy years1 during which three shoguns held sway4 ,historically1 ,horeki endured from #agea to #agfd1 the name being given to the reign of an emperor4 ,it came to be applied to the years preceding and following it1 a period in which the dominating influence was that of ,yoshimune1 the third ,shogun of the ,tokugawa regime4 ,owing to the extravagance of the shogunate1 the country was on the verge of bankruptcy4 ,immorality was on the increase1 and efforts were made to keep the restless people under control4 ,luxury in all shapes and forms was frowned upon by the authorities4 ,the literary centre of the country was transferred from ,kyoto to ,yedo1 and the greatest activity was to be found in the theatres4 ,if ,yedo ,kabuki had lost its lustre when the first ,ichikawa ,danjuro and ,nakamura ,hichisaburo passed away1 its prestige was fully restored by the second ,ichikawa ,danjuro and the first ,sawamura ,sojuro4 ,in the latter part of this period the fourth ,danjuro was a great theatre power4 ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the second1 was born in #afhh and died in #ageh4 ,when a child of #aj years of age he appeared on the stage1 but owing to his father's tragic death1 was left without a stage sponsor4 ,if his father had lived1 he would have been trained and advanced in all possible ways4 ,the actors of the time evidently neglected him4 ,he was given insignificant rles1 and was otherwise badly treated4 ,his mother1 who had retired to live in a quiet spot outside ,yedo1 declared that she would never go to the theatre to see him act until he was earning a salary of #ajjj ryo1 which meant that he must become a successful actor4 ,the sudden taking off of his father1 and the cold attitude of the theatre folk1 stimulated the young actor to hard work4 ,accordingly1 he went to the ,narita temple1 and there prayed that he should become a more successful actor than his father4 ,the ,god of ,fire that had answered his father's prayer must have listened1 it would almost seem1 to his foster-child's petition1 for while the first ,danjuro's salary per year was #hjj ryo1 the second received #abgj4 ,after this it became customary to refer to a highly salaried actor as a 8thousand-ryo yakusha04 ,it was ,ikushima ,shingoro1 of ,court-scandal fame1 who shielded and protected the second ,danjuro1 when he was struggling to advance4 ,he proved a worthy successor to his father1 and his place in the annals of ,kabuki is that of an original1 creative actor1 who not only re-established his father's traditions1 but carried them on most successfully4 ,his visit to ,osaka is memorable4 ,he had received an invitation from ,sadoshima ,chogoro to play at his theatre1 but ,danjuro demanded an enormous salary for those days1 something quite out of the ordinary in the way of remuneration4 ,and ,sadoshima ,chogoro1 thinking that ,danjuro would never ask such a sum unless he had something startling to offer1 did not hesitate to comply with the extraordinary request4 ,when ,danjuro made his first appearance in ,osaka he was not well received1 as the rivalry between the ,osaka and ,yedo actors was keen even in those far-off days4 ,it has survived until the present1 a continual state of tension1 or feeling1 always existing between the two prominent stages of the country4 ,something of this adverse undercurrent was displayed soon after he had begun to act1 for a man in the audience threw a mat at him to put him to confusion1 repeating his words1 expecting that this would cause the ,yedo actor to become tangled up in his lines4 ,with the utmost composure and dignity ,danjuro bowed low1 apologising for the interruption1 and then1 to the great surprise of the audience1 repeated a long speech backward4 ,this greatly pleased the people1 and ,danjuro eventually captivated ,osaka playgoers4 ,even the disturbing factor1 the man who threw the mat1 thought better of his behaviour1 for he afterwards called at ,danjuro's inn and apologised1 and the generous actor entertained him with sake4 ,while playing in ,osaka1 a courier all the way from ,yedo brought him sad news--the death of his adopted son4 ,he had bestowed the name of ,danjuro1 the third1 upon this young actor4 ,as he had no son of his own1 it was necessary to adopt another stage heir1 and his choice fell on the second ,matsumoto ,koshiro1 who thus became ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the fourth4 ,the second ,danjuro lived a long stage life1 and died in his seventies4 ,like his father1 he was small of stature1 and his specialty was aragoto1 or rough1 imaginative acting4 ,he was also good in plays demanding the real in acting1 for he loved to represent an otokodate1 or chivalrous commoner1 and was popular as a lover and a fighter4 ,quick to feel the appeal of the marionettes in the ,doll-theatre1 he was one of the first actors to play in a doll-drama4 ,his chief success in this direction was in ,chikamatsu's ,kokusenya ,kassen1 or ,the ,battle of ,kokusenya4 ,his art1 however1 was too unreal to suit the times4 ,his whole tendency in acting was anti-real4 ,to mimic the natural or represent the real did not enter his mind4 ,tojuro's principle1 the use of the real and natural1 took hold and flourished in ,yedo1 and the audiences were quite carried away4 ,danjuro remained untouched by the popular acclaim of the real4 ,the taste of the new generation was changed2 they were tired of his father's methods2 they wanted the real1 yet ,danjuro1 true to the artistic instinct within him1 held steadfast to his own principles4 ,he not only improved his father's plays greatly1 but collaborated in the composition of many new pieces to which he did not sign his name4 ,like his father1 he was given to poetry1 and was the best pupil of his poetry teacher4 ,his diary1 ,oyino ,tanoshimi1 or ,pleasures of ,old ,age1 is a model of the diary composition of the ,tokugawa age4 ,he displayed much originality in the designing of costumes1 and was an artist when it came to making up4 ,filial towards his mother1 he was full of love and respect for his wife1 and was so moral in those immoral days that he was regarded as a sage4 ,his attitude towards the lower classes of society was generous and magnanimous4 ,when receiving visitors1 even to the humblest menials of the theatre1 he treated them as honoured guests1 wearing hakama1 or the silk skirt1 rather than customary attire1 as he wished to improve the manners of the theatre folk4 ,when invited to the residences of the great or wealthy he was never fawning4 ,he was1 however1 very extravagant1 and thought an actor should be as magnificent as possible4 ,sawamura ,sojuro acted on the ,yedo stage with ,danjuro1 the second1 and is credited with greater versatility than the second ,ichikawa4 ,born the son of a samurai of rank in ,kyoto1 he was dismissed from his father's roof on account of dissipation4 ,at first he served in a subordinate capacity in the house of ,sawamura ,chojuro4 ,afterwards he undertook the duties of a clerk in the theatre1 but at last requested to be made a follower of the ,sawamura family4 ,for some reason or other ,sawamura refused to bestow his name upon this theatre upstart1 there was a quarrel1 and the would-be actor went off to seek another stage patron4 ,but as he could find no actor with sufficient faith in him to lend support1 he was obliged to play in the unimportant theatres of the provinces4 ,he was1 therefore1 unable to obtain the rank that would distinguish him as an actor of ability1 and had to be content with the stage leavings1 serving in the orchestra or playing small rles4 ,a reconciliation with his former master was at last effected2 he began to play big rles and was immediately successful4 ,bad luck1 however1 pursued him1 for recognition of his ability was delayed4 ,the ,osaka stage authorities1 doubtless for reasons of their own1 were not willing to grant him the rank to which he was entitled4 ,sawamura ,chogoro at last advised him to try his fortune in ,yedo4 ,on his first stage experience in the ,shogun's capital he acted a minor rle at the ,morita-za1 and was not long in making a quick advance4 ,within five years he ranked second to ,danjuro1 and after an absence of twenty-six years returned to ,osaka with all his ,yedo ,kabuki prestige behind him1 and received a warmer welcome than when1 as a greenhorn1 he had attempted to obtain stage rank in vain4 ,one of ,sojuro's most famous rles was as ,yuranosuke1 the leader of the ,forty-seven ,ronin4 ,sojuro liked to act ronin1 for he was a free-lance himself1 and he was seen in several pieces that had ronin as heroes4 ,these plays were suppressed by the authorities in order to prevent the loyal retainers of the feudal lords from becoming dissatisfied4 ,one of ,sojuro's ronin plays was based on the real story of the famous ,forty-seven1 whose master was forced to commit harakiri4 ,they waited a good opportunity1 and revenged themselves upon the enemy who had caused their lord's death1 and then all took their own lives4 ,the samurai's loyalty to his lord was not merely a popular stage theme1 but in real life this laying down of life for a cause was characteristic of the people4 ,the ,doll-theatre dramatist1 ,takeda ,izumo1 wrote a masterpiece based on this story1 and the ningyo-tsukai1 or doll-handler1 managed the ,yuranosuke doll in imitation of the gestures and style of ,sojuro4 ,as he had been brought up the son of a samurai1 he knew the ,n stage1 and in all pieces influenced by the classic drama he was at home4 ,in contrast to ,danjuro he spoke in the language of everyday life4 ,danjuro delivered his lines as much as possible removed from the speech of ordinary mortals and their affairs4 ,sojuro did not care for the elaborate make-up that was so thoroughly characteristic of the first two ,ichikawas and the members of their family who were to come after4 ,sojuro greatly depreciated ,danjuro's impossibilities4 ,for instance1 ,danjuro lifted up a house with both hands as a symbol of strength1 which brought forth criticism from ,sojuro1 whose faith in the real was so great that he never ventured to stray on the unknown highways and byways of the unreal4 ,there is a description of a stage costume he wore1 one that has served as a model which is still faithfully preserved2 it was of white satin and bore large designs of crows and storks4 ,with this he wore a purple head-covering4 ,such was the taste and elegance of this ,horeki age4 ,although much of it has vanished1 yet traces still cling to modern ,kabuki--something to marvel at1 especially when it is considered that all this accumulation of theatre treasure-trove is as unknown to ,london1 ,paris1 and ,new ,york to-day as it was during ,sojuro's triumphant career upon the ,yedo stage4 ,so nearly equal were the second ,ichikawa ,danjuro and the first ,sawamura ,sojuro that there was great difficulty in deciding which was foremost4 ,danjuro was pure ,yedo2 therefore1 no matter how nearly mated they were1 he always held a slightly higher position than ,sojuro4 ,in rank they were equal1 and close competitors in winning the favour of playgoers1 and yet off the stage it is good to know they were warm friends4 ,sojuro was most accomplished4 ,he composed short poems1 was an adept in the tea ceremony1 was familiar with the ,n stage1 and wrote plays4 ,with these two stage celebrities1 there were at this time ,otani ,hirotsugi1 a genius in shosagoto1 or the music-posture pieces of ,kabuki1 and there was ,bando ,hikosaburo1 a fine actor1 whose name has been inherited by an actor of the modern ,tokyo stage4 ,in addition1 there was a capable actor of the ,ichikawa school called ,ichikawa ,danzo1 some years senior to the second ,danjuro1 who occupied a special position4 ,and there was the eighth ,ichimura ,uzaemon1 an actor as well as the proprietor of the ,ichimura-za4 ,the fifth1 sixth1 and seventh ,uzaemons died young1 one after another1 and were more concerned with the management of their theatre than with stage appearances4 ,but the eighth ,ichimura ,uzaemon distinguished himself in both capacities4 ,the fourth ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 who held the centre of the ,yedo stage in the latter part of ,horeki1 was by no means one of the outstanding figures of his family1 and yet he could hardly be called a failure4 ,he carried on the traditions without adding to them1 leaving his son1 the fifth1 to add fresh lustre to the ,ichikawa fame4 ,the fourth was regarded as the illegitimate son of the second ,danjuro1 and his mother was the daughter of a theatre tea-house keeper1 but she had been adopted into the family of a relative of the ,ichikawa house4 ,danjuro the fourth's career was full of vicissitudes1 and towards the end of his life he cut off his hair to signify retirement from the world1 and kept religiously aloof from the theatre4 ,when ,danjuro1 the second1 died1 the fourth was but twenty years of age1 and it took a long time for the public to appreciate him4 ,he was thought unworthy of the great stage name1 and it was considered that he had not inherited the family genius4 ,his talent matured slowly1 however1 and he finally came to be looked upon as the head actor of ,yedo ,kabuki4 ,he was entirely different from his supposed father1 the second ,danjuro1 for he had a fine1 large physique1 while the second ,danjuro was small2 the fourth had an oval1 long face1 the countenance of the second being round2 the temperament of the second ,danjuro was placid1 that of the fourth was nervous4 ,his wife was the daughter of the second ,danjuro1 by adoption4 ,for second wife1 he took the daughter of the famous onnagata1 ,iwai ,hanshiro4 ,rising on the stage1 said the fourth ,danjuro1 was like ascending a ladder4 ,it must be accomplished by degrees4 ,it was very dangerous to ascend three steps at a time4 ,the most interesting period in an actor's career was when he was one or two steps from the top of the ladder1 when he would have the greatest number of admirers4 ,but in his own case he said that after he had reached the top there was nothing to do but descend4 ,for seventy years--during the whole of ,horeki--there were three representative actors on the stages of ,kyoto and ,osaka4 ,they were ,anekawa ,shinshiro1 ,nakamura ,juzo1 and ,nakayama ,shinkuro4 ,the first of these stars1 ,anekawa ,shinshiro1 was born in ,osaka1 appearing when a child at the ,arashi-za4 ,his favourite rles were otokodate4 ,he knew the taste of his public4 ,the otokodate spirit was rife among the populace1 and a new feeling for their rights and privileges was uppermost among the people4 ,shinshiro lived long enough1 however1 to outgrow his popularity1 for in his later years he was criticised as monotonous1 his acting considered antiquated1 and he failed to thrill his audience with novelties--the same cry for the new that is common to all the stages of the world at all times4 ,there was another reason why ,shinshiro's popularity began to wane1 for the lack of originality within ,kabuki was beginning to be felt1 and the reason interest in him declined was due largely to the poverty of plays and the general condition of the country4 ,nakamura ,juzo began to rise as ,shinshiro declined4 ,juzo had the advantage of being ten years younger than ,shinshiro1 and was well-born1 since he was the son of a samurai who had turned ronin4 ,he lived in ,osaka1 and as his younger brother became an onnagata1 he was also influenced to enter the profession1 performing during his earlier career in provincial theatres1 especially in ,ise1 and later in ,yedo4 ,his specialty was to represent samurai1 and he was excellent as a stage fighter4 ,no doubt his samurai antecedents had given him his taste in this direction4 ,as samurai of noble mien and aristocratic bearing he was at his best4 ,yet the criticism of the time records that he was a dry and uninteresting actor1 and failed to choose the bright-hued kimono bearing striking designs1 that expressed the player's taste1 delighted the people1 and inspired the print artists4 ,many other good actors there were when the above three stars were shining4 ,there was ,sakiyama ,koshiro1 of the ,osaka stage1 who was active for fifty-five years1 dying at #gj4 ,he was a fine dancer1 especially in pieces adapted from the ,n4 ,he adopted the son of a ronin to succeed him1 and his line stopped1 and was then renewed again1 but eventually died away4 ,and there was ,arashi ,sanyemon1 the third1 the real son of the second ,arashi1 who had been a ,genroku star4 ,he was not only an actor but a theatre manager as well1 and excelled in wagoto1 or love-making4 ,he was also noted for his dancing1 and played in pieces that had been handed down by his two predecessors4 ,sadoshima ,chogoro1 who had invited the second ,danjuro to play in his theatre in ,osaka1 and gave him the high salary that he demanded1 was something of an exception in the theatre world of the three stages1 for he never secured fame as an actor4 ,he had1 however1 much to do with the establishment of shosagoto1 or the music-drama of ,kabuki1 on a higher level4 ,this ,sadoshima ,chogoro was the son of ,dempachi1 a dokegata1 or comedian1 and a dancer of great skill who was prominent just before ,genroku4 ,chogoro was fortunate in having such an experienced stage father1 and he was soon apprenticed to dancing4 ,the chroniclers of ,kabuki tell how the father taught the boy to dance on the goban1 or small table used for playing go1 the national chess game4 ,the child was often summoned by persons of high degree to take part in entertainments1 and once a prince ordered an artist to make a model of him dancing on the goban4 ,he never seriously competed for a place among the actors1 but long remained ,kabuki's most famous dancing teacher4 ,when he reached old age he shaved his head and retired from the world1 taking up his abode in front of ,kennin-ji1 a ,buddhist temple of ,kyoto4 ,sadoshima ,chogoro left one of ,kabuki's literary treasures1 the ,sadoshima ,nikki1 or ,journal of ,sadoshima1 in which he disclosed the secrets of shosagoto4 ,he criticised the actors of his time as having gone astray from the true path of dramatic art1 and reflected in his writing the change that had already set in--the beginning of the decline of ,kabuki1 for the brilliancy of the ,genroku period and the progress of ,horeki were not repeated in the years that followed4 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,morita ,kanya 7,three-petalled blossom74 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,nakamura ,utayemon 7,kyoto shrine charm74 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,bando ,mitsuguro 7,three ,chinese characters1 meaning dai1 or great74 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,yakusha ,,of ,,pre-,,restoration ,,period ,the one hundred years previous to #ahfh--the year ,emperor ,mutsuhito began his epoch-making reign--is regarded as the period of ,kabuki's modern history4 ,by #ahfh the ,tokugawa ,shogunate had come to an end1 the ,emperor had been restored to power1 and his capital removed from ,kyoto to ,yedo1 and ,japan1 which had been closed to the outside world1 was thrown open to trade with other countries4 ,the ,tokugawa ,shogunate's steadily diminishing power1 and the general stagnation of society due to the lack of stimulus from without1 were faithfully reflected in ,kabuki4 ,from #agfd to #aghh the people continued to idolise the favourite actors1 the productiveness of the critics continued as before4 ,but in the ,kwansei era1 #aghi-ahjj1 the theatre began to decline1 and during the years of ,bunsei1 #ahah-ahbi1 the climax of ,kabuki's downward plunge was reached4 ,these were lean years for the people1 and unless they saved their money they could not afford to attend the theatre1 for the price of admission was high4 ,it was the custom for ,yedo people after they had seen a performance to go through the streets imitating the actors' delivery of their lines1 much as the popular airs of the latest musical comedy are heard in the thoroughfares of ,london1 ,paris1 or ,new ,york4 ,in these slack years the theatre audiences fell off steadily1 and no echo of ,kabuki was heard4 ,at this time1 too1 the actors demanded an increase in their salaries1 as it was impossible for them to carry on their former easy and extravagant existence during the hard times4 ,the theatres were involved in greater and greater financial difficulties4 ,many of the good old theatre customs began to be neglected4 ,there was1 however1 no decrease in theatre genius1 and very many actors rose high above their fellows1 although they lived through an unprofitable period4 ,the most representative actor during ,kwansei 7#aghi-ahjj7 on the stages of ,osaka and ,kyoto was ,nakamura ,utayemon1 an actor of the same name and line being at present the senior of the ,tokyo stage4 ,this first ,utayemon was the son of a physician1 who had led a life of dissipation and finally took to the stage4 ,he kept steadfastly to one specialty1 that of katakiyaku1 or villain rles4 ,when he played in ,yedo he was well received1 but on a visit to ,osaka1 he said something on the stage which offended his audience1 and they returned the compliment by giving him the cold shoulder for some time4 ,the famous bad characters of the doll-dramas he made his own1 particularly the heavy villain ,iruka1 the formidable tyrant in ,imoseyama1 and the evil-doing but loyal ,gonta of ,sembonzakura1 two characters that modern audiences are never tired of seeing portrayed4 ,when he was #fh he gave his name to a follower2 at #ge he played his best villains1 and died three years later4 ,although a pupil succeeded as second1 his own son became ,utayemon1 the third1 and was an actor of great prominence4 ,some years junior to the first ,utayemon was ,asao ,tamejuro1 who was a famous onnagata of the ,kyoto and ,osaka stages4 ,he was a small man1 possessed a light1 bright style1 and appeared best in plays depicting everyday life rather than those dealing with the unreal4 ,in ,yedo also there were two bright and particular stars at this time4 ,they were ,nakamura ,nakazo and ,matsumoto ,koshiro4 ,the career of ,nakamura ,nakazo is one of the most varied of all the actors4 ,he was possessed of many theatre gifts1 but he had inherited a samurai temperament and exercised his genius just when social conditions had begun to dampen the enthusiasm of the people for the theatre4 ,nakamura ,nakazo was the son of a ronin called ,saito1 and was born in ,fukugawa ward of ,yedo4 ,left an orphan when young1 he must have had no relatives to care for him1 but by chance ,o-,shun1 a dancing mistress1 saw the boy1 and adopted him at the age of five4 ,she went to pay her respects at a temple1 and a ferryman plying across the ,sumida ,river gave the boy to her4 ,his only sponsor was the keeper of a sake shop1 so far had fallen the child from his rightful position in society as the son of a samurai4 ,the dancing mistress not only belonged to a well-known school of dancing1 but her family were costumers to the ,nakamura-za4 ,her husband was a teacher of ,nagauta1 the special ,yedo ,kabuki music1 so the boy was brought up in the theatre atmosphere4 ,at #g he began to be instructed in dancing1 in which he did not take much interest at that early age1 and he was often chastised4 ,his adopted father tried to make him a ,nagauta singer1 but he proved a failure4 ,from childhood he substituted on the stage when the regular actors were unable to attend4 ,nakazo has left a journal in which he wrote of his boyhood and how pleased he was when he was allowed to wear a good kimono1 had a little room upstairs all to himself1 and was not scolded so much for his many lapses from grace4 ,o-,shun1 his adopted mother1 saw to it that he grew up proficient in dancing1 and he repaid her1 for he was very graceful1 and was often asked to perform at the residences of the nobility when they entertained4 ,his accomplishments included familiarity with the ,n1 writing and fencing1 and he learned how to perform on the drum of the ,n orchestra1 that instrument of complicated rhythms4 ,he married ,o-,kichi1 the daughter of the third ,kineya ,kisaburo1 a member of the leading family of theatre musicians that flourishes to-day4 ,when his adopted mother died1 his wife1 ,o-,kichi1 took her place1 and taught the samisen1 while he taught dancing4 ,on the stage he took part in dangerous feats--in which1 had the arrangements failed1 he would have been killed4 ,his wife became ill and luck went against him4 ,he attempted to commit suicide2 he drank and gambled and led a dissipated life1 which led to endless money troubles1 and now and then he was forced to make geta1 or wooden clogs1 for a living4 ,his difficulties lasted for twenty-four years1 but gradually he reformed1 began to study1 and became a pupil of the fourth ,danjuro4 ,his face was his fortune1 and perhaps because of his handsome appearance his fellow-actors were often jealous of him4 ,he was proud and sensitive and easily given to quarrelling4 ,the change for the better in his career was a decided contrast to his previous melancholy existence1 for he became the chief actor of ,yedo1 and received a salary of #ajjj ryo4 ,then1 when it might have been expected that he would throw his gains away1 he began to save4 ,the wife of his youth died1 and he soon possessed himself of another4 ,he started a new theatre1 and fire burned it down2 rebuilt it in summer1 and that autumn his house was inundated4 ,gave his name to a pupil and took it back1 and at last was so unsuccessful in every venture1 he determined to change his luck by acting in ,osaka and ,kyoto4 ,in ,osaka he was successful1 but in ,kyoto he quarrelled over a money matter1 and died soon after at the age of #ec--;a samurai to the end1 hot-tempered1 and ready to fight at a moment's notice4 ,his style of acting was similar to that of the second ,danjuro1 but it was in ,kabuki's music-posture pieces1 or shosagoto1 that he was at his best4 ,the fourth ,matsumoto ,koshiro1 who acted on the ,yedo stage at the same time as ,nakazo1 was born in ,kyoto1 and also led a troubled life4 ,he acted at the ,ichimura-za1 but was not a success1 and his elder sister1 who owned a theatre tea-house1 advised him to give up his attempts on the stage1 and take over the management of her business4 ,later on he must have proved his worth1 for the fourth ,danjuro took him under his patronage4 ,he was not on friendly terms with the fifth ,danjuro1 which caused a good deal of ,yedo gossip4 ,the ,ichimura-za could scarcely maintain itself1 and the salaries of the actors were not paid4 ,koshiro went to ,osaka by ship1 taking with him the ,yedo onnagata1 ,iwai ,hanshiro1 and some one thirsting for revenge because ,koshiro had insulted another actor1 threw stones at him as he was departing4 ,in ,kyoto1 where he acted1 feeling was stirred up against him and he was not popular4 ,to increase his troubles the ,ichimura-za went bankrupt4 ,towards the end of his career1 he and the fifth ,danjuro1 who had so long been estranged1 became good friends4 ,one of his sons became a famous actor1 and succeeded him as ,matsumoto ,koshiro1 the fifth4 ,in the period that followed1 the most popular actor was ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the fifth4 ,he was the son of the fourth1 and his mother was the adopted daughter of the second4 ,he acted with ,nakamura ,nakazo4 ,his wife was the daughter of ,iwai ,hanshiro1 but they did not get along well together2 she wished for a divorce1 and they lived separately4 ,finally he married the widow of ,ichikawa ,yaozo4 ,at #ea he retired to ,mukojima across the ,sumida ,river from ,yedo1 where he drank sake1 wrote poems1 and wore a patched kimono of many colours1 refusing to meet theatre folks4 ,one of his sons1 to whom he gave the illustrious stage name of ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the sixth1 died young1 and another of his sons became ,danjuro1 the seventh4 ,the most famous actor of the ,bunka-,bunsei period 7#ahjd--ahbi7 in ,kyoto and ,osaka was ,kataoka ,nizaemon1 the seventh1 directly descended from the ,genroku actor who founded the line4 ,born in ,kyoto1 he became a follower of ,nakamura ,nakazo1 but for some reason master and pupil parted company4 ,he was very large and stout and well adapted to play villains1 which was his specialty4 ,everywhere he acted he was popular4 ,he was active on the stage until the age of #ge1 when he played in a rle that required that he should appear scantily clothed4 ,some one in the audience called out to him3 8,be careful not to take cold60 to which the veteran replied3 8,when ,i am on the stage1 ,i don't feel cold1 ,i perspire40 ,death claimed him but a short time after his retirement4 ,his own son died1 and he adopted the actor who later became ,kataoka ,nizaemon1 the eighth4 ,when ,nizaemon1 the seventh1 was acting in ,osaka and ,kyoto1 the star of ,yedo during the corresponding period of ,bunka and ,bunsei was the third ,bando ,hikosaburo1 youngest son of the eighth ,ichimura ,uzaemon4 ,in later years he shaved his head1 retired from the world1 and lived in ,honjo1 a ,yedo ward1 where he posted up a notice on the gate to the effect that waste-paper dealers and actors were not allowed in4 ,he was handsome and gifted1 and died at the age of #ge4 ,acting with him was the fifth ,matsumoto ,koshiro1 son of the fourth4 ,the fifth ,koshiro had a very large nose and his eyes were close together1 two facial defects the print artists were fond of depicting1 so that this ,yedo actor is easily picked out in the pictures illustrating the theatre of this time4 ,his daughter married the seventh ,danjuro1 but was divorced and became a nun1 and lived at ,ikegami near the ,nichiren temple1 not far from modern ,tokyo4 ,also1 about this time there was ,onoe ,kikugoro1 the third4 ,he was a specialist in sewamono1 or plays of everyday life1 and established traditions that are being carried on by his descendants to-day4 ,his wife ,o-,kiku was the daughter of an actor1 and he had three sons and two daughters1 but the sons died in youth4 ,koshiro's daughters both married actors1 one to ,ichimura ,uzaemon the twelfth1 and the other to the fourth ,kikugoro4 ,his grandson by ,uzaemon was the fifth ,onoe ,kikugoro1 the rival of ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the ninth--the two great stars of the ,meiji era4 ,his great-grandson is ,kikugoro1 the sixth1 one of the most energetic actors of the contemporary ,tokyo stage4 ,at one time the third ,kikugoro thought he would try what it felt like to be a plain citizen of ,yedo4 ,he opened a mochiya1 or cake shop dealing in a favourite refreshment of his day1 as it still remains of ,tokyo people--steamed and pounded rice moulded into mound shapes1 and prepared in various ways4 ,he hung out a shop sign1 in shape sexagonal1 lacquered in red1 and adorned with a gold design of grasses and written characters signifying ,mochiya ,kikuju1 or the ,chrysanthemum-,long-,life-,mochi shop4 ,it was not true to its name4 ,inside the place there were costly art objects1 and rare dwarf plants1 while a mechanical toy1 a ,chinese boy1 moved by a special device1 came to meet the guests as they entered1 and brought them tea and cake4 ,of course1 ,kikugoro was the object of the visitor's interest1 and the matter of cakes was of much less importance4 ,the actor would sweep the garden and talk with the visitors1 but one day he suddenly tired of the whole scheme1 after some customers had purchased a particularly small amount of his cakes4 ,kikugoro is said to have exclaimed3 8,they have seen my beautiful garden and listened to my compliments1 and paid only #fd mon for cakes1 so ,i'll go back to the stage40 ,perhaps he was hankering after it anyway1 and made this an excuse4 ,from the latter part of ,bunka and ,bunsei to ,kaei1 or from #ahjd to #ahdh1 the great actor of ,yedo was the seventh ,danjuro1 grandson of the fifth1 the sixth having died young4 ,he went on the stage at the age of four1 and when he started to cry1 a convenient substitute was hurried up4 ,at the age of #ag he succeeded to the ancestral name4 ,at the age of #db1 he was exiled by the ,governor of ,yedo because of extravagance on the stage1 since he had used real armour1 and the stage setting for one of his plays had been an exact reproduction of the interior of a mansion of the aristocracy4 ,forbidden to come within a ten ri radius of the town1 it meant that the ,yedo stage was not to know him for many a year4 ,he was small1 and had large eyes1 and was very similar to his son1 the ninth ,danjuro1 whose memory is cherished by many ,tokyo playgoers to-day4 ,like all the members of his family1 he showed a special leaning towards aragoto1 and added to the family plays by adapting the ,n drama to ,kabuki4 ,he is said to have combined the strong points of the third1 fourth1 and fifth in this actor line1 and had literary talent1 composed poems1 and wrote a diary called ,tokumiyemasu1 ,i ,can ,see ,afar4 ,he took unto himself three wives and three concubines4 ,his first wife was the daughter of the fifth ,matsumoto ,koshiro4 ,she had been the wife of ,sawamura ,sojuro1 had married again1 and her third venture was to marry the seventh ,danjuro1 but this union did not last long1 and they were divorced4 ,danjuro1 who was very courageous1 married another daughter of ,koshiro1 divorce separating them again1 due this time to disputes between ,danjuro and ,koshiro4 ,for his third wife he picked out the daughter of a theatre tea-house proprietor4 ,he had seven sons and five daughters4 ,there was1 therefore1 every reason to believe that the ,ichikawa clan would survive for years to come4 ,the fate of the family was otherwise1 for not only is there no ,ichikawa ,danjuro at present1 but the sole blood link as representative to carry on this family is the little granddaughter of ,danjuro1 the ninth4 ,the seventh ,danjuro was famous for his extravagance4 ,his residence was more beautiful than that of a daimyo1 and no doubt the ,yedo authorities1 ever alert to suppress luxury among the people1 were ready to pounce upon him1 using some pretext or other in order to hold him up as an example to be avoided4 ,when he was obliged to go into exile his eldest son had the responsibility of carrying on the affairs of the ,ichikawa family in ,yedo1 and succeeded as ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the eighth4 ,he gave every sign of great promise1 but because of family and professional troubles committed suicide in ,osaka4 ,the fifth son of the seventh ,danjuro inherited the headship of the family after the tragic death of the young actor who had been called ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the eighth1 for such a short time4 ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the ninth1 became the most famous actor of this line1 and he brings us down to modern times4 ,danjuro1 the seventh1 had a number of followers who distinguished themselves4 ,among them were3 ,ichikawa ,kodanji1 the third2 ,ichikawa ,monosuke1 the fifth2 and ,ichikawa ,danzo1 the fifth4 ,as the leading yakusha passed away one after another1 the only one considered capable of filling the place they had left vacant was the fourth ,nakamura ,utayemon4 ,his father kept a theatre tea-house in ,yedo1 and his mother was related to ,fujima ,kanjiro1 the costumer and dancing teacher4 ,it was natural that this ,utayemon should take to dancing1 and he was trained to become a teacher of dancing4 ,at the age of #aj he was adopted by ,fujima4 ,when the famous third ,utayemon was about to produce a certain play in ,osaka1 he did not have the correct costumes and sent for his ,yedo costumer4 ,it was a month's journey from ,yedo to ,osaka in those days1 and it was ,fujima's adopted son who travelled along the ,tokaido on the mission4 ,while very youthful he knew all the needful information regarding the costumes1 and was helpful in many ways4 ,he remained in ,osaka1 where he became a student of the stage and made rapid progress4 ,the famous onnagata1 the fourth ,iwai ,hanshiro1 had asked him to fashion a costume1 but did not like the manner in which it had been finished1 and not only scolded the lad1 but boxed his ears into the bargain4 ,the desire to get even for this insult made the fourth ,utayemon ambitious to succeed on the stage4 ,after an absence of sixteen years1 he returned to ,yedo a finished actor4 ,at the age of #ci1 the third ,utayemon did him a great honour by conferring his name upon him4 ,a deshi1 or follower1 of the third ,utayemon was righteously indignant1 since he considered the third ,utayemon's adopted son should have succeeded4 ,there were hot disputes among ,utayemon's followers1 and at last he invited them all to his house1 and said3 8,i will not give my name to ,hichitaro1 but ,i will give it to his art40 ,the fourth ,utayemon was large of stature1 had fine eyes and good features1 and excelled his master1 the third1 in many respects4 ,his rivals were the fourth ,bando ,mitsugoro and the fifth ,sawamura ,sojuro1 but he won for himself a higher place on the stage than either of these ,yedo actors4 ,his adopted son was a star of the ,meiji era1 who was succeeded by the present ,nakamura ,utayemon1 the veteran onnagata1 who has the position1 both from service on the stage and for his art1 as head of the ,tokyo stage4 ,utayemon the fourth's two rivals were the fourth ,bando ,mitsugoro and the fifth ,sawamura ,sojuro4 ,mitsugoro1 the fourth1 was the adopted son of the third4 ,he suffered from paralysis and was frequently away from the stage1 and yet in spite of his physical disability continued to act supported by a kurombo1 or black-robed property man4 ,he was known for his literary talents1 wrote poetry1 and the chroniclers say he was always poor4 ,the fifth ,sawamura ,sojuro was the son of a servant in a chaya of the ,ichimura-za1 and his mother was the daughter of a farmer living at ,kameido1 the district of modern ,tokyo famous for its wistaria garden4 ,he seems to have been a pet of all the actors1 and became a pupil of the fourth ,sojuro1 who died at the age of #ba4 ,the third ,onoe ,kikugoro said he would make an actor of him4 ,matsumoto ,koshiro also lent him his patronage1 and took him to ,osaka where he remained to study4 ,sojuro1 the fifth1 had four daughters1 and two sons1 one of whom1 the second ,tannosuke1 became a star of the ,meiji period4 ,these actors did not enjoy the prosperity of their predecessors4 ,the theatres had a hard struggle for existence1 the players were always involved in financial difficulties4 ,the stage grew dull1 the playwright stale4 ,the ,tokugawa ,shogunate was toppling to its fall1 and the whole country waited for the restoration of the ,imperial power1 the breaking down of the barriers that had prevented relations with other countries1 and the birth of modern ,japan with its remarkable changes and developments4 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,matsumoto ,koshiro 7,blossom of ,icho tree74 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,nakamura ,kichiyemon 7,wings of butterfly74 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,nakamura ,ganjiro 7,combination of four characters7 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,onnagata ,the story of the yakusha from the beginning of the male theatre to the dawn of the ,meiji era would not be complete without mention of the onnagata1 or players who specialised in women's rles4 ,although the popularity of the most attractive and gifted onnagata was very great1 yet as a class they never tried to outrival the tateyaku1 or chief actors4 ,like the women of real life whom they sought to impersonate1 they rarely attempted leadership in stage matters1 and were content with modest rles among the famous actors who played upon the stages of the three towns4 ,the onnagata held a place all their own1 and one of the most interesting developments of ,kabuki has been the training and cultivation to fit men to play female characters4 ,the accidental cause that led to the creation of the male theatre1 and in consequence to the existence of the onnagata1 was the prohibition of mixed players and finally the banishment of women from the theatre4 ,yet it was but a reversion to an older order of things theatrical1 for the practice of excluding women and employing men in their stead was centuries old in ,japan and ,china4 ,long before ,o-,kuni began her performances on the river-bed at ,kyoto1 no female had dared to tread the sacred boards of the ,n stage lest its sanctity be impaired4 ,the disappearance of women from the theatre may have been due to the status of ,japanese women1 for in the general scheme of things at that time in ,japan her social position prevented her from asserting a claim to the recognition of her talent1 and she had no right to the free development of her instincts in the sphere of the theatre4 ,whether the strict adherence to the onnagata convention was due to the fear that moral corruption would follow the custom of men and women playing together1 or that it was desired to keep women within their own sphere and to restrain their appearance in public where they did not belong1 it is certain that all female talent in the direction of the theatre was religiously suppressed4 ,illustration3 ,nakamura ,utayemon1 leading actor of the ,tokyo ,stage1 in the rle of ,yayegaki-hime1 the young princess in the play ,nijushiko1 or ,twenty-four ,filial ,persons4 ,there is1 however1 a deeper reason to account for the onnagata4 ,this specialty gave an actor an opportunity to apply a principle of all good art1--creativeness4 ,the woman's coiffure1 make-up1 and costume acted as an effective mask4 ,the onnagata was able to hide himself behind his character1 and not allow his own masculine personality to struggle through the disguise4 ,the actor within the raiment of a woman was just as free from personal considerations as the doll-handler who pulls the strings and causes his doll to move4 ,it was no mere lark to masquerade as a woman1 but a serious study that required a lifetime to bring to perfection4 ,in a period of ,japan when the samurai was uppermost and the artist counted for nothing1 it is all the more surprising to find these actors devoting their lives to the art of female character-acting1 and it was natural that they should be looked down upon by the militarists1 who held in scorn everything effeminate4 ,but the actors served the stage because the instinct within them was too strong to go unheeded4 ,moreover1 they were as unconscious of their art as is a bird of its trill1 and equally unaware of their service to their fellow-actors1 to their day and generation4 ,the first onnagata of ,kabuki are shadowy2 they have left their names1 but very little has been recorded of them4 ,kyoto produced the early onnagata1 later ,osaka became a headquarters1 but ,yedo was not the soil in which they could flourish4 ,the people of ,kyoto had not parted with their taste for things elegant1 artistic1 and literary1--the inheritance of centuries4 ,yedo was a political centre1 and did not breed onnagata4 ,but one characteristic of the onnagata was that they were common to the stages of the three towns4 ,they received their early training in ,kyoto or ,osaka1 then spent the best part of their careers in ,yedo1 or else wandered from one town to another4 ,still another peculiarity of the onnagata was that so many of them took to ,buddhism1 retiring from ,kabuki to spend the remainder of their lives in some peaceful temple4 ,in ,kyoto1 ,itoyori ,gensaburo first acted female parts1 and in ,yedo1 in #afdb1 ,murayama ,sakon came from ,kyoto to play at the ,murayama-za4 ,he has been described on his first appearance in ,yedo as wearing a flowing robe of light silk1 his head covered with a cloth dyed in many colours1 and he carried in his hand a branch of a tree to which was attached a long piece of paper inscribed with verse4 ,his performance was nothing more than a simple dance4 ,his popularity1 however1 brought disaster1 for the authorities1 ever watchful lest the theatre corrupt good manners1 issued an order prohibiting onnagata4 ,the existence of ,kabuki trembled in the balance4 ,it was some time before the matter was settled1 for the proprietors of theatres1 with the worthy ,saruwaka ,kansaburo1 founder of ,yedo ,kabuki1 at their head1 made an application that male players be allowed to play as females1 and permission was granted1 provided the specialty should remain distinct from men's rles4 ,this was the real origin of the onnagata4 ,murayama ,sakon's rival and contemporary was ,ukon ,genzaemon4 ,he was playing on the ,yedo stage in #afee1 when the city was swept by a conflagration1 and his theatre was destroyed4 ,as the actors of that time were forbidden to appear on the stage wearing long hair1 but were obliged to shave the crown above the forehead1 they covered their heads with a piece of silk to prevent the disfigurement from being seen4 ,ukon is described in the theatre gossip of the day as wearing an orange silk head-covering1 and as he was a handsome youth and very womanly1 it is easy to imagine that the ,yedo audiences were highly pleased with him4 ,from the criticism of the time1 he was considered beautiful1 a fine dancer1 but had no animation1 and so became monotonous4 ,murayama ,sakon and ,ukon ,genzaemon played together in the same play1 and were closely associated in the theatre of ,osaka1 ,kyoto1 and ,yedo4 ,another of these shadowy onnagata was ,ebisuya ,kichirobei1 who was very likely kin to a theatre proprietor of that name4 ,and there was ,tamagawa ,sennojo1 who first went to ,yedo in #affa4 ,he played for two years at the ,saruwaka-za1 and afterwards1 when performing in ,nagoya1 received what must have been a huge salary for his time1 one ryo a day4 ,he is mentioned in the theatre chronicles as an unrivalled onnagata2 that he first went on the stage at the age of #ad1 and both while acting and in private life always wore the flowing robe of a woman1 not giving up this practice until he reached that age which is considered so unlucky for a man in ,japan1 #db4 ,he broke a bone1 and afterwards his dancing was less graceful2 he died at #ej1 his audiences never failing in their appreciation of him4 ,two adopted sons of ,murayama ,matasaburo1 the proprietor of the ,murayama-za1 became onnagata1 but neither inherited their father's theatre4 ,there were also ,taki ,sansaburo1 who came from ,kyoto to play at the ,murayama-za1 and whose death at the age of #ai has been described in a romantic manner by the theatre historians4 ,tamagawa ,shujen1 also from ,kyoto1 was an onnagata who1 early in his career1 gave up the stage and became a priest4 ,still another onnagata of this early period of ,kabuki was ,tamamura ,kichiya1 who rose to prominence1 but afterwards declined4 ,ihara ,saikaku1 the dramatic critic of ,genroku1 has written of him as follows3 8,it is beyond doubt that he is brilliant on the stage2 it is as though he were not of this world4 ,he is skilled in his art1 but with it is an air of pride and arrogance that is not satisfactory40 ,kichiya was responsible for setting the fashion in women's apparel1 for he tied his obi in a certain manner at the back and this style became the vogue4 ,the character in which he excelled was as ,yokihi1 the beautiful mistress of a ,chinese ,emperor4 ,a ,n play of this name deals with the beauty after she had passed on to another world1 one of the many ghostly personages of the ,n1 but when ,mei ,ran-fan1 the ,peking actor1 appeared for the first time in ,tokyo at the ,imperial ,theatre a few years ago1 one of his successes was as ,yokihi1 a very human1 badly behaving young person who became slightly intoxicated1 but who was clad in all the colours of the rainbow1 a most fascinating female4 ,tamagawa ,kichiya1 as the charming ,yokihi1 must have been an object of the greatest interest to ,yedo people4 ,ito ,kodayu is mentioned in the old books as a noted onnagata4 ,saikaku commenting upon him wrote3 8,he is an onnagata by nature1 his character being quiet and gentle04 ,among many onnagata whose names alone remain there is ,nakamura ,kazuma1 who was a fine dancer4 ,he retired from the theatre and opened a shop selling toilet articles that existed in ,yedo for several generations4 ,during the ,genroku period1 which produced so many actors of note1 the most representative of whom were ,sakata ,tojuro1 of ,kyoto1 and ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the first1 of ,yedo1 the art of the onnagata underwent a great change4 ,emphasis had been laid on the ability to dance and on good looks1 but as greater stress was put on the ability to act1 the art of the onnagata made rapid advancement4 ,the senior among the ,genroku onnagata was ,ogino ,sawanojo1 who died in #agjd4 ,he played heroines to ,danjuro's heroes1 and was long associated with the first ,ichikawa4 ,he wore an obi of unusual width1 and it became the fashion among the ladies of the capital4 ,tiring of the stage1 he gave it up and opened an incense shop1 but the attraction of the theatre was too great1 and he returned4 ,always closely associated with ,danjuro1 he died the same year in which the founder of ,japan's most famous line of actors was murdered in his dressing-room4 ,amayo ,sanbai ,kigen1 or ,three ,cups of ,sake on a ,rainy ,night1 a book of criticism1 praises ,ogino highly3 8,even the gods and ,buddha would be struck with the actions of this man4 ,he is most realistic in pathetic scenes4 ,as a lady of high rank1 or a wife of the lower classes1 he leaves nothing to be desired40 ,illustration3 ,three onnagata of ,asia3 ,in the centre ,mei ,ran-fan of the ,peking ,stage1 to the left ,nakamura ,utayemon1 the leading onnagata of ,japan1 and on the right ,nakamura ,fukusuke1 the son of ,utayemon and one of the most fascinating impersonators of women in ,tokyo4 ,the first onnagata in ,kyoto during ,genroku was ,yoshizawa ,ayame1 who died in #agbi4 ,he was brought up by a widowed mother leading a precarious existence on ,dotombori1 the theatre street of ,osaka4 ,at first he was a page in the household of a daimyo1 and later went on the stage4 ,in the characters he played1 he was not restricted to certain types of fair women as had been the case with his predecessors1 but was most versatile1 acting equally well heroines of the gay quarters1 women of bad character1 and ladies of high degree4 ,the playwright1 ,fukuoka ,yagoshiro1 collected ,ayame's ideas about the art of the onnagata1 and made them into a book called ,ayame ,gusa1 or the ,sayings of ,ayame4 ,in this ,ayame declared that an onnagata should have the heart of an onnagata even in the gakuya1 or green-room4 ,when partaking of bento 7eatables served in a box7 and sushi 7cooked rice rolled into dainty morsels and stuffed with vegetables or fish after the manner of a sandwich71 he should take care not to be seen eating4 ,if his manners were masculine1 and he ate and drank in the same manner as a tateyaku1 his acting would not be successful4 ,an onnagata1 ,ayame declared1 should hide the fact of his being married1 and if he were asked about his wife he should blush4 ,even if he had many children he must be like a child himself4 ,ayame also believed that the chief thing for an onnagata to do was to play the part of a good woman4 ,this ought to be the duty of an onnagata1 and rles that were not proper1 even though the play was popular1 should be declined4 ,he advocated that an onnagata should not lose the gentleness and mildness of a woman1 but he recognised the unnaturalness of a male acting female rles1 and gave the advice that it was wise to develop the natural feelings of a woman in daily life1 and not to use too much affectation on the stage4 ,a really good onnagata was an actor who passed his daily life with the heart of a woman4 ,when an onnagata on the stage thought that he had an important rle as a woman1 his actions would become unwomanlike4 ,contemporary with ,ayame was ,midzuki ,tatsunosuke1 a precocious actor who played with ,sakata ,tojuro when he was #af4 ,he died at the age of #gc1 and the onnagata school he established endured long after his death1 several of his pupils distinguishing themselves4 ,yoshizawa ,ayame had a deshi called ,sodesaki ,karyu1 who became a popular onnagata4 ,he was born in the country near ,osaka1 yet spent most of his life in ,yedo4 ,his talent was versatile1 and he could act the greatest variety of women1 from a princess to the wife of a coolie4 ,following the fashion of many retired onnagata1 when he left the theatre he started an incense shop1 but his interest in the business1 which could not have been highly lucrative1 soon waned1 and he returned to the stage1 playing in the rle of chief actor instead of onnagata4 ,his audiences took kindly to the change1 and he did not lose his stage reputation in consequence4 ,towards the end of the ,genroku period there were a surprising number of onnagata playing on the ,yedo stage1 nearly all of whom had come from ,osaka4 ,this was due to the fact that ,kabuki was rapidly absorbing the ballad dramas of the ,doll-theatre1 and many an actor who desired to become an onnagata received stimulus to his ambition when watching the doll-handlers as they moved the female characters4 ,the art of these doll-handlers was so remarkable that it was only natural that the future onnagata of ,kabuki should learn how to act the doll-drama heroines1 and eventually imitate the doll's every gesture and movement4 ,there was a ningyo-tsukai1 or doll-handler1 called ,oyama1 who was a genius in moving female dolls1 and his name became so closely associated with his art that the onnagata were often called oyama1 a term that is synonymous with onnagata and used quite as frequently by theatre folk to-day4 ,among these numerous onnagata was ,sawamura ,kodenji1 brother of ,sawamura ,chojuro1 who occupies a prominent place as a leading onnagata in the history of ,kabuki4 ,there is a story told of ,kodenji that he visited a temple1 ,fujidera1 in the ,province of ,kawachi4 ,he travelled thither in a kago1 or palanquin1 and was so fatigued after his long journey that when he got out he uttered an exclamation that would have come naturally from a woman under like circumstances4 ,kodenji acted with the first ,danjuro4 ,nakamura ,senya at first was an insignificant onnagata in ,yedo1 but he went to ,osaka1 where he scored a great success in a courtesan play and remained there many years1 returning to ,yedo after an absence of eighteen years4 ,the criticisms of the day complained that he had grown fat1 but was still a true onnagata in spirit and gesture4 ,when ,nakamura ,senya returned from ,osaka1 he started the custom for a ,kyoto or ,osaka actor performing in ,yedo to give gifts to minor actors and theatre employees4 ,he presented a good many kimono dyed in a certain colour which became all the rage1 and was called ,senya dye4 ,next to ,senya was ,ogino ,yayigiri1 whose favourite rles were those of heroines who have died with their lovers--double suicide1 or shinju1 a popular theme of the ,doll-theatre plays4 ,just as ,sawamura ,chojuro was the representative actor of this later period of ,genroku1 so ,ogino ,yayigiri was the leading onnagata4 ,his successor was drowned in the ,sumida ,river1 and a ,kabuki playwright used the accident for the plot of a play4 ,during ,horeki1 there was much confusion as to the division of labour among the actors1 and they exchanged their specialties whenever they saw fit4 ,there was not the same concentration upon the onnagata1 and the art suffered in consequence4 ,in the modern history of ,kabuki during the hundred years previous to the ,restoration1 a line of onnagata1 who went by the name of ,iwai ,hanshiro1 dominated ,yedo ,kabuki4 ,the first of the name was manager of a theatre in ,osaka during ,genroku1 and had four children4 ,his two sons succeeded him as the second and third ,hanshiro respectively1 but they were tateyaku4 ,it was the fourth ,hanshiro who established the famous onnagata line4 ,he was the son of a doll-handler in ,osaka4 ,the fifth ,hanshiro1 son of the fourth1 was a noted onnagata1 and there was seen on the ,yedo stage an unprecedented actor family alliance--the fifth ,hanshiro with his two sons playing together1 all three onnagata4 ,hanshiro1 the fifth1 played the rle of a beautiful princess1 even when he had reached old age1 and at #fc shaved his head as a sign of retirement from the world and lived at ,asakusa in ,yedo1 not far from the ,goddess-of-,mercy ,temple that dominated this quarter then even as it does at the present day4 ,he died at #gb1 but old age was not able to dim his charm or good looks1 and it was the current expression among the playgoers of his time that ,hanshiro's eyes were worth #ajjj ryo4 ,the fifth ,hanshiro played with the fifth ,matsumoto ,koshiro and ,bando ,mitsugoro1 and ,yedo audiences were enthusiastic about them4 ,this ,hanshiro also travelled a good deal1 and was popular wherever he went4 ,once he took ship to ,nagasaki1 and while boarding the vessel missed his footing and fell into the sea4 ,he was rescued by a sailor4 ,he took his sudden plunge quite calmly1 and did not struggle in the waves4 ,this was his customary attitude toward life4 ,on the way back from ,nagasaki he travelled by land as he was to act in ,nagoya1 and his baggage returned by boat to ,yedo4 ,when he arrived at ,nagoya1 he received word that a fire had destroyed the house in which his belongings had been stored4 ,two days after this his son1 the sixth ,hanshiro1 died4 ,but ,hanshiro did not want the members of his company to become depressed at his bad news1 and ordered many summer kimono adorned with iris patterns1 and distributed these among the actors so that their eyes would be pleased and there would be no sign of mourning4 ,illustration3 ,nakamura ,jakuyemon of ,osaka1 an onnagata who imitates the acting of the marionettes4 ,hanshiro1 the fifth1 married a daughter of the third ,sawamura ,sojuro1 named ,o-,chiyo1 who was of gentle disposition and very accomplished4 ,she possessed considerable literary talent1 and was well versed in poetry4 ,she never went to the theatre1 because she considered it highly ridiculous to see her husband in a woman's rle4 ,after his son the sixth ,hanshiro died1 a second son succeeded as ,hanshiro1 the seventh1 but he died in middle life4 ,the eighth ,hanshiro brings us down to recent times1 for he was one of the stars of the ,meiji period4 ,the fourth ,yoshizawa ,ayame1 son of the third1 and descended from the first ,ayame of ,genroku fame1 was a popular onnagata4 ,he managed an ,osaka theatre and travelled back and forth between ,osaka and ,kyoto1 succeeding to the name of ,ayame at the age of #ec and dying at #ef4 ,not less popular in their day than the ,iwai ,hanshiro line was the onnagata family of ,segawa4 ,there was the third ,segawa ,kikugoro1 who was born in ,osaka1 the son of a theatre costumer4 ,his son became ,segawa ,kikunojo1 who1 unlike most actors1 was economical1 saved his earnings1 and invested in houses and land4 ,the adopted son of this ,kikunojo became ,segawa ,kikunojo1 the fourth1 and he was a famous onnagata4 ,he enjoyed but a brief career1 dying at the age of #ca4 ,at the time the sixth and seventh ,hanshiro were acting1 the fifth ,segawa ,kikunojo was acknowledged to be the leading onnagata in ,yedo4 ,he was a large man1 but possessed rather rough manners1 being short and abrupt with his fellow-actors1 and much disliked by his neighbours4 ,yet upon the stage there was no one to compare with him4 ,he died at #ca1 at the height of his career4 ,in the ,bunka and ,bunsei period the representative onnagata in ,osaka and ,kyoto was ,nakamura ,tomijuro4 ,he was exiled by the authorities from ,osaka for extravagance4 ,he tried to have his sentence revoked1 and travelled up to ,yedo to appeal to the authorities1 but in vain4 ,although he had been at the top of his profession1 with no other onnagata to rival him1 yet he was unable to return home1 and spent his life in ,sakai1 the port near ,osaka1 where he was obliged to play in country theatres with inferior players4 ,this must have been severe punishment for an actor of genius1 who lived to be #gj years of age4 ,nakamura ,karoku1 another onnagata of distinction1 was the son of a clerk connected with the ,mitsui ,company in ,osaka4 ,he came to ,yedo at the age of #dj and played there until he had reached #gd1 dying at #hj4 ,he was a large1 handsome man1 and had blood relations with many actor families4 ,his first wife died2 he married a second half his age1 and had altogether twelve children4 ,one daughter married the third ,arashi ,kichisaburo1 another became the wife of ,ichikawa ,kodanji1 while a third was the wife of ,kataoka ,nizaemon1 the eighth4 ,nakamura ,karoku was succeeded by his son4 ,he had a habit of coughing when crossing a bridge near his home to let his household know of his approach1 and was considered very extravagant because there were always two candles burning at the entrance to his house that a bright welcome should be waiting him when he returned from the theatre4 ,famous for his good looks was the second ,sawamura ,tannosuke1 son of the third ,sawamura ,sojuro4 ,he was born in ,kyoto1 and his father died when he was #ad4 ,there was a rumour once that he had committed suicide1 but this was not true2 he had hurt himself on the stage and did not appear for some time4 ,ichikawa ,dannosuke1 an onnagata1 son of the fourth ,ichikawa ,danzo1 failed in the management of the ,kiri-za in ,yedo1 and committed suicide at #cb4 ,there was ,nakayama ,nishi1 an onnagata common to the theatre of ,osaka and ,kyoto1 who specialised in innocent young girl rles1 dressed in gaudy kimono1 and loved to be conspicuous4 ,he retired and opened an oil shop4 ,and there was the fourth ,yamashita ,kinsaku1 who was trained in small theatres1 was stout1 had a clear voice1 and played chiefly in middle-aged women's characters4 ,nakamura ,daikichi1 who became ill on the stage1 fainted in the gakuya1 and died before his heavy wig could be removed1 was another popular onnagata4 ,such were some of the onnagata who distinguished themselves in the ,japanese theatre during two centuries1 the period from #afdb1 when the first ,kyoto onnagata played in ,yedo for the first time1 to #ahfh1 the year of the ,restoration4 ,the actors of ,meiji1 and the developments that took place upon the opening of ,japan to commercial relations with other countries1 belong to the story of ,meiji ,kabuki1 which forms a later chapter4 ,yet it must be mentioned that because of the present array of onnagata that adorn the stages of ,osaka and ,tokyo1 there is very little danger that the specialty is near extinction4 ,on the contrary1 the two leading theatres of ,tokyo are headed by onnagata1 ,nakamura ,utayemon1 of the ,kabuki-za1 and ,onoe ,baiko1 of the ,imperial4 ,it is also very significant that this unique art is still unknown in that other half of the world1 where1 since the boy actors of ,shakespeare's time1 who played the famous heroines of the eternal dramatist1 the playing of female rles by males has become a lost art4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,yakusha ,,and ,,marionette ,how the doll-actors took their rise1 how for them the best theatre talent of the land was concentrated1 and how these gorgeously costumed puppets of wood1 animated by pulleys and strings1 influenced the actors of flesh and blood1 forms a unique chapter in the history of the ,japanese theatre4 ,kabuki and ,ningyo-shibai1 or the ,doll-theatre1 were the two chief amusements of the people during the long period of national seclusion when the ,shoguns ruled in ,yedo4 ,and many of the conventions of the modern stage are unintelligible to the ,occidental unless the debt ,kabuki owes the art of the ,doll-theatre is clearly understood4 ,the relationship of the marionette and the yakusha can only be briefly touched upon here1 since the complex history of ,ningyo-shibai belongs to a separate volume4 ,the ,doll-theatre began as a popular entertainment of the people at the very same time that ,o-,kuni's dance on a temporary platform on the bed of the ,kamo ,river in ,kyoto marked the beginning of the popular theatre that was to become the exclusive possession of male players4 ,the exact date when minstrel1 or tayu1--the accompanist on the samisen1 or samisen hiki1--the ningyo-tsukai1 or doll-handler1 and the ningyo1 or doll-actors1 began their remarkable collaboration is not known1 but when ,o-,kuni was practising her art the ,doll-theatre had already begun to exercise an influence upon the public4 ,this combination of ballad sung and recited by the minstrel1 while the performer on the samisen marked the rhythms to which the dolls moved1 and the doll-handlers created the gestures that expressed the emotion of the ballad-drama1 was called ,joruri1 because the first ballad to be sung to the samisen concerned the love affairs of the legendary lover ,yoshitsune and the beautiful ,princess ,joruri4 ,illustration3 ,yoshida ,bungoro1 a doll-handler of the ,bunraku-za of ,osaka1 who has devoted his life to the management of female marionettes4 ,a woman is credited with inaugurating this new form of entertainment4 ,she was ,ono-no-,otsu1 a lady-in-waiting in the household of ,oda ,nobunaga1 the famous general1 whose death gave ,hideyoshi his opportunity to become the chief military dictator4 ,the love affairs of ,princess ,joruri seem to have been the impetus that started a great flood of ballad-dramas about the time of ,o-,kuni1 for there existed in this early period a thousand red or blue covered books in which was written the story acted out by the dolls and illustrated by wonderful drawings of strange heroes and heroines4 ,to ,menukiya ,chosaburo is attributed the distinction of founding the first doll-theatre4 ,he obtained the services of a man in ,nishinomiya1 a village near ,osaka1 who knew how to make puppets1 and started to move them to express the emotions of the different ballad plays4 ,he first performed in ,kyoto1 and had the honour of being summoned before the ,emperor4 ,such was the dignity of the early puppets4 ,with ,kabuki1 the ,doll-theatre came in after years to be despised1 being considered as something low and vulgar4 ,female minstrels1 or ,joruri ,katari 7lit41 to speak ,joruri71 made their appearance about the same time as ,o-,kuni in ,kyoto1 and two of them were famous1 ,rokuji ,namuyemon and ,samon ,yoshitaka4 ,in an old book there are pictures of these river-bed entertainments in ,kyoto1 and on a screen belonging to the ,keicho period1 when ,o-,kuni was active1 there is depicted one of the first ,joruri theatres conducted entirely by women4 ,the tayu1 or minstrel1 sat on a platform higher than the stage on which the dolls were handled4 ,the puppets had no hands or legs1 and the hands of the women manipulators were not seen4 ,those who strummed the samisen were also women4 ,but when the women's stage1 or ,onna ,kabuki1 was found to be the source of moral corruption and was prohibited1 the women of the ,doll-theatre likewise came under the ban and were obliged to go out of existence4 ,kyoto continued to be the centre of the doll performances1 which spread to the surrounding towns and were well received in ,osaka4 ,every class of the people patronised this new form of entertainment4 ,the rise of the ,doll-theatre to public favour was the result of the relation of the dolls and minstrelsy4 ,they had existed separately for many years4 ,before ,joruri was born1 there were blind minstrels who sang their ballads1 accompanying themselves by scratching the ribs of their fans to mark the rhythms4 ,these blind men were called zato1 and frequented the compounds of shrines and temples1 or stationed themselves on street corners1 putting up an awning for protection1 and reciting their ballads to all who would stop to listen4 ,sometimes they were asked to help to entertain at feasts1 but generally they wandered about from place to place1 staying at mean inns1 giving entertainments for the guests1 thereby earning a lodging1 and at other times singing short pieces to make their livelihood4 ,they came to be regarded as beggars1 and were looked down upon accordingly4 ,strolling puppet players there were also1 with boxes suspended by cords around their necks4 ,they displayed their dolls on the top of the box which formed a miniature stage for the movements of the little figures4 ,in the fullness of time the dolls and minstrels approached each other1 instead of leading separate existences4 ,but it was music that brought them together4 ,the introduction of the samisen from the ,loo ,choo ,islands1 by way of the port of ,sakai1 near ,osaka1 shortly before ,o-,kuni's appearance1 was the medium that united these workers in the sphere of puppetry4 ,by the end of the sixteenth century1 this combination had produced the popular music-ballad drama called ,joruri1 which at one time threatened to completely overwhelm ,kabuki in the estimation of the people4 ,the initial stages of the ,doll-theatre development are very interesting1 for the conventions evolved at this time were appropriated by the real actors and may be seen upon the modern stage of ,japan4 ,the first ballad plays in which the dolls performed harped on one motive1 the efficacy of ,i prayer to gods and ,buddhas4 ,the stage technique in use at this time was especially adapted to display before a wondering audience appearances of gods1 phantoms1 apparitions1 and ghosts1 and many ingenious contrivances were invented to suit these supernatural visitors1 while the plots of the plays were moulded so that the various stage tricks in connection with the godly and ghostly personages could be carried out4 ,during the vogue of the doll-ballads1 with the answering of prayer for plots1 elaborate machinery came into use for the manipulation of grotesque characters which were neither man nor beast1 god nor demon1 strange creatures created that machinery might give them life4 ,conjuring also played its part in astonishing the audiences of those days1 and there was a period when the most ingenious devices were planned1 in which water was used1 the characters of the stories disappearing into waterfalls1 floating on lakes1 and even moved by water power4 ,then followed an outburst of the military spirit in ,joruri1 and the answered-prayer balladry took a secondary place4 ,it was the adventures of the great warrior ,kimpira1 the incarnation of courage1 slayer of devils and demons1 that captured the popular fancy4 ,the exploits of brave men were of more interest than the ghostly and godly pieces1 and ,kimpira overshadowed all the rest4 ,the ,kimpira bushi1 or ,kimpira tune1 was started in ,yedo by ,sakurai ,tamba1 and he was followed by his son ,izumi ,dayu1 who was even more sanguinary than his father4 ,he handled an iron rod so dexterously when he marked the rhythm to his ballad about the extraordinary adventures of ,kimpira that he knocked off heads and lopped off limbs of the dolls every day4 ,this realistic display suited the ,yedo audiences4 ,izumi is said to have disliked everything weak and unmanly1 to such an extent that his door-keeper was always a strong man1 physical robustness being his ideal4 ,perhaps the muscular guardian of the entrance was a necessity rather than an ideal1 for the spirit of combat sometimes seized the audience1 after witnessing a martial doll performance1 and two men would begin to fight in the midst of the crowd1 within or without1 proving too much for the stout gate-keeper4 ,izumi ,dayu began to quarrel himself1 and at last killed a man and was executed4 ,this bloodthirsty ,joruri did not last long1 and when the mania cooled down the efficacy-of-prayer ballads came into vogue again for a short time4 ,it was ,takemoto ,gidayu who gathered up all that was useful in the ,joruri that had gone before him1 and established the school that has been called after him1 and continues to the present day1--,gidayu ,joruri1 more often spoken of simply as ,gidayu4 ,he was originally a farmer in ,settsu province1 and had a voice of large range4 ,in ,kyoto he learned how to sing ,joruri from a follower of the minstrel ,inouye ,harima4 ,gidayu first appeared in ,dotombori1 the theatre street of ,osaka4 ,tatsumatsu ,hachirobei1 a ningyo-tsukai1 or doll-handler1 was a genius in moving the dolls1 while ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon1 ,japan's greatest dramatist1 wrote the plays4 ,the name of ,gidayu's theatre in ,osaka was the ,takemoto-za4 ,it had flourished for some time when one of ,gidayu's followers wrote a play called the ,jewel-,well-,double-,suicide1 which was produced at ,sakai1 the port city near ,osaka4 ,it proved so successful that this man opened a rival ,doll-theatre calling it the ,toyotaki-za4 ,illustration3 ,a scene from ,chushingura1 as played by the marionettes in the ,bunraku-za of ,osaka4 ,for long years these two theatres were close rivals1 the competition between them bringing about great improvements in stage management1 and each tried to outdo the other in new plays1 good minstrels and doll-handlers1 elaborate settings1 stage devices1 and gorgeous costumes4 ,for nearly eighty years1 during the ,doll-theatre's golden age1 the collaboration of the workers was so complete and ,successful that ,kabuki was quite cast into the shade4 ,the movements of the dolls were so spirited1 the doll-handlers so creative in the variety of gestures that they invented to express a whole world1 gay and grave1 that the actors came at last to acknowledge the puppets as a source of inspiration4 ,at first they imitated1 but as the vogue for the ,joruri ,gidayu grew intense1 the yakusha were converted into enthusiastic devotees4 ,they went to the ,doll-theatre to learn1 and returned to their own acting with a keener zest4 ,the marionettes demonstrated before their eyes the heights and depths of acting1 of which they had been unaware1 and they were competitors in their own profession1 saving them from the inertia of self-satisfaction4 ,the playwrights of ,joruri ,gidayu were responsible for the best dramas that have been produced in ,japan4 ,especially were they highly successful in a new kind of play1 the jidaimono1 having historical personages for characters1 fashioned out of the most fascinating imaginative material that brought the dolls into full play as creatures of a world of fantasy4 ,in time ,yedo actors who were removed from the doll atmosphere of ,kyoto and ,osaka were obliged to journey down to these towns that they might know how to play the characters of the ,doll-theatre plays4 ,the jidaimono became all the rage in ,yedo1 and the actors could no longer remain indifferent to the activity of the doll performers4 ,but the movements of the dolls were not the only attraction1 for stage costumes were purloined as well1 and ,kabuki appropriated unto itself all the novelties and ideas of the ,doll-theatre one after the other4 ,something of an influence was exerted upon the ,doll-theatre by the legitimate plays and players1 but it was small in comparison with the highway robbery of everything of interest from the ,doll-theatre carried on for years by the actors and stage managers of ,kabuki4 ,chikamatsu1 who never hesitated to take his ideas1 plots1 and materials from any source that suited his purpose1 borrowed to some extent from ,kabuki4 ,one of his plays1 ,tamba ,yosaku1 was originally played twenty years before his own composition by the first ,arashi ,sanyemon4 ,yuki-,onna-,gomai-,hagoita 7lit41 the ,snow-,woman-,five-,battle-dores71 a ,chikamatsu masterpiece1 was in reality one of ,arashi ,sanyemon's favourite plays4 ,the dolls also took for model the gestures and style of living actors1 closely following their specialties1 young women1 heroes1 and villains4 ,sakata ,tojuro's most popular rle1 that of ,izaemon1 in the play concerning ,yugiri1 a heroine of the gay quarters1 influenced ,chikamatsu1 for he took ,tojuro's one-act play and made it over into one of his masterpieces1 ,yugiri of ,awa in ,naruto4 ,moreover1 the doll-handlers imitated ,tojuro's manner and gestures as ,izaemon4 ,chikamatsu also modelled his characters on such actors as ,yoshizawa ,ayame1 ,midzuki ,tatsunosuke1 and ,kataoka ,nizaemon4 ,sawamura ,sojuro played as ,yuranosuke1 the leader of the ,forty-seven ,ronin1 and this ,kabuki piece was the basis of ,chushingura1 the masterpiece of the ,doll-theatre playwright1 ,takeda ,izumo1 in which the ,yuranosuke doll portrayed the manners and gestures of ,sojuro4 ,lovers of ,kabuki do not like to acknowledge the extent to which the actors borrowed from the stage of the inanimate players1 but it was very great4 ,sometimes famous actors were sons of the ningyo-tsukai1 or puppet performers1 and young actors who went to the dolls to study soon discovered that they were able to see themselves as others saw them4 ,illustration3 ,o-,sato1 heroine of a ballad-drama of the ,doll-theatre4 ,reproduced from an oil painting by an ,osaka artist and shown in a ,tokyo art exhibition4 ,the doll-handlers are grouped behind like shadows4 ,one of the most famous ningyo-tsukai1 ,bunsaburo1 designed many costumes for his puppets4 ,one he embroidered in plum blossoms and young bamboo for the doll representing ,michizane1 the patron saint of ,japanese literature--in history the prime minister who was exiled from ,japan by his enemies2 and he also dressed the triplets1 faithful servants of ,michizane1 in kimono bearing large yellow horizontal stripes lined with scarlet to emphasise the fact that they were brothers4 ,thereafter1 when these characters were represented by ,kabuki actors the exact costumes were worn4 ,once during a performance ,bunsaburo saw a doll on the point of falling and went to the rescue4 ,the doll moved in an awkward manner1 not according to the rules and regulations1 and the audience laughed4 ,it afterwards became the custom to make this doll do the same thing1 and the ,kabuki actors imitated even this4 ,the ,battle of ,kokusenya1 by ,chikamatsu1 was one of the first doll-plays to be acted in the theatres of ,osaka1 ,kyoto1 and ,yedo4 ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the second1 took the chief rle1 that of ,watonai1 a picturesque character who had a ,japanese mother and ,chinese father and went to ,china in search of adventure4 ,later the second ,danjuro acted in other pieces by ,chikamatsu that were first played by the dolls4 ,takeda ,izumo's plays1 as well as those of ,kino ,kaion1 both play-writers for the dolls1 were used by ,kabuki actors4 ,the relationship between the two theatres became far more complicated during the ,horeki period4 ,not only the plays1 but the acting1 stage furniture1 and costumes of the ,doll-theatre influenced ,kabuki4 ,the music of the ,doll-theatre was also incorporated into ,kabuki4 ,previous to the first year of ,horeki 7#ageg71 the ,doll-theatre was at its height4 ,after this it declined4 ,as fast as the ,doll-theatre artists evolved new plays1 they were quickly seized upon by ,kabuki4 ,the public came at last to be more interested in the real actors than in the dolls4 ,the vogue of the puppets slowly and surely began to wane4 ,no progress was made1 the theatres burned down1 the minstrels and doll-handlers changed from one theatre to another4 ,after #ahjd the dolls almost went out of existence1 but rallied in later years1 and to-day this unique art is crystallised in the ,bunraku-za1 of ,osaka4 ,a small ,doll-theatre held its own in the theatre quarter of ,kyoto until recently1 but the ever-increasing prosperity of the surrounding moving-picture theatres has driven it to the wall4 ,there are touring companies that pay visits to the different towns at regular periods4 ,once a year a ,bunraku-za company plays in ,tokyo1 and the leading actors may always be seen in the audience watching closely the puppets acting in their own familiar rles4 ,the art of the ,doll-theatre is by no means dead1 the spark of art is smouldering1 but it would take some big wind to fan it into flame once again1--perhaps the wind of self-confidence among the theatre-folk of ,japan in their own institutions4 ,the decline of the ,doll-theatre was due to the fact that ,kabuki took everything the dolls had to offer1 and made such a poor return that the doll-stage began to starve4 ,when ,kabuki and the ,doll-theatre had approached so nearly together1 one had to go under1 for there was not sufficient novelty to attract in the sphere of the marionettes1 the source from which ,kabuki had so slavishly drawn inspiration4 ,there was another very good reason1 too1 why the ,doll-theatre almost ceased to be4 ,the collaboration that had made it the centre of talent came to an end4 ,had the dolls continued to succeed1 it would have been necessary to maintain the source of their originality1 and it was the misfortune of these mute actors that the workers ceased to serve in their behalf1 harmony died1 and talent gradually fell away4 ,kabuki1 which benefited so largely from the creativeness of the dolls1 faithfully preserves these traditions1 and still lives on the past1 that golden age when the doll was at its height1 and for whom so many workers offered in their behalf the theatre gifts that in them lay4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,lives ,,of ,,the ,,yakusha ,the yakusha 7lit41 rle man71 of ,kabuki1 belongs to the actors' fraternity1 the brethren of the buskin1 who form a peculiar company of their own1 irrespective of the lands from which they have sprung or the creeds they hold4 ,of ,kabuki and its long line of brilliant actors1 the world knows nothing4 ,their art was good1 although it received but scant appreciation or recognition from those who occupied the seats of the mighty4 ,they were faithful to their ideals1 and what they have accomplished is a contribution to the actor's art of the world4 ,in their day and generation the yakusha were members of a degraded class1 looked down upon1 derided1 but nevertheless they were true to the theatre instinct within them4 ,similar to their fellows in the ,west1 these actors of ,japan met with success and were the idols of the people4 ,they died in harness1 or passed their remaining years in obscurity4 ,there were players whose names for some reason or other suddenly disappeared from the lists of the theatre chroniclers--others about to lose their popularity were fortunate enough to take a new lease of life1 and continued to act until old age claimed them4 ,it was not infrequent that the yakusha took it into his head to retire1 but1 thinking better of it1 returned again to the glamour of the stage4 ,among the yakusha there were always some who grew monotonous and old-fashioned1 and failed to keep abreast of the times in which they lived4 ,above this innumerable tribe of play-folks tower the men of genius who carried all before them1 delighting the audiences of the three theatre towns1 the most-talked-of and most beloved personalities of the time1 taking ill while playing a favourite rle1 or breathing their last in their dressing-rooms1 in which they spent such a large portion of their lives4 ,many of the yakusha were similar to the ,western actors in one respect--they were great spendthrifts1 and the larger the earnings the greater the extravagance displayed4 ,when the authorities in ,yedo who presided over the affairs of the theatre found a yakusha who was too fond of display1 his goods were confiscated1 or else he was obliged to pay a penalty4 ,considerable literary ability was found among these despised theatre-folk4 ,they were especially fond of poetry2 and studied under the masters of the different forms of short poems1 and often excelled4 ,the part the yakusha played in the composition of the ,kabuki plays has not been fully acknowledged4 ,that they often wrote plays or aided materially in the collaboration is well known4 ,it was a common stage custom for the actors to improvise in the plays to suit themselves1 and while the greater portion of this ephemeral material has perished1 much remains to be seen1 particularly in the eighteen traditional pieces of the ,ichikawa family4 ,that the yakusha had the heart to study literature and compose poems is very much in their favour1 when it is considered that they were regarded as a low class of persons--the dregs of society4 ,it would have been quite natural if they had neglected the difficult art of calligraphy1 owing to their strenuous lives in the theatre1 but many yakusha were as versed in writing the complicated characters as they were in all the other accomplishments that distinguished the genteel person of ,japan at this time4 ,one actor was so proud1 of his ability in this direction that he wrote long epistles the better to show off his accomplishment4 ,illustration3 ,,yakusha ,,making ,a ,,round ,,of ,,new ,,year ,,calls4 ,in the foreground a member of the ,ichikawa family1 with two pupils and his servants1 following behind an onnagata similarly attended4 ,the kites in the picture show the favourite pastime of children during the ,new ,year holidays4 7,colour print by ,hasegawa ,kanpei1 the fourteenth1 and ,torii ,kiyosada1 father of ,kiyotada47 ,they intermarried to a remarkable extent4 ,since they were segregated to certain quarters near the theatre1 they chose their wives for the most part from among their own fraternity4 ,the daughters of actor families married men of their father's profession1 and their daughters again became the wives of actors4 ,this brought about such complicated genealogies that it became impossible to unravel the tangled relationships4 ,now and then a yakusha strayed out of the fold and took unto himself a farmer's daughter1 or1 as was quite common1 selected a maiden who had passed her life in the theatre atmosphere1 daughter of the proprietor of a chaya1 or theatre tea-house1 that catered daily to the audience4 ,sometimes a yakusha had for father the keeper of a restaurant1 and the sons of wrestlers made good actors as they were of fine physique4 ,many of the leading actors were sons of ronin1 or samurai who had severed connection with their feudal lord and joined the ranks of the common people4 ,the first ,danjuro was of samurai stock1 his father a ronin4 ,again1 the dissipated sons of military families took up acting as a profession when turned out of doors by their stern samurai fathers for their sins and omissions4 ,a famous onnagata1 ,yoshisawa ,ayame1 was a page in a samurai house before he became an actor4 ,the first ,nakamura ,utayemon was the son of a physician4 ,others were sons of ningyo-tsukai or doll-handlers in the puppet theatre1 and the yakusha were related to stage musicians1 dancing teachers1 costumers1 and even the menials of the theatre4 ,arashi ,kanjuro became a colour-print artist under ,toyokuni1 and was called ,kunihara4 ,not infrequently the yakusha studied the ,n1 and introduced many features of the classic drama into his own productions4 ,there were actors of refinement1 who stood apart from the vulgarity of their day1 but on the other hand a great many who1 influenced by the odium attached to their profession1 led loose and immoral lives4 ,but in this they only followed the lead of their times1 for vulgarity and sensuality was the order of the day1 as might have been expected1 since the monotony of peace and the stagnant regime of the ,tokugawa ,shogunate were largely responsible for the licentiousness that prevailed4 ,at this time there were actors who worked as understudies and were not regularly employed1 and when not on the stage earned money by their immoralities4 ,they did not accept compensation from the theatre1 but appeared for the sake of exhibiting their personal charms and provided their own costumes4 ,until #ahcj these good-looking young men were to be found in private tea-houses in connection with the theatre1 and from their ranks came some of the famous onnagata4 ,this is the other side of the theatre1 but accounts in large measure for the deep social prejudice that existed against the ,kabuki yakusha1 a prejudice that is by no means entirely removed at the present day1 although the standing of the actors has been elevated and their position in one of ,japan's most characteristic institutions is fully recognised4 ,sons born in a leading actor's family were given a thorough stage training1 making their first bow to the audience while still infants in arms1 but less fortunate children had great difficulty in winning a place on the stage4 ,yakusha who succeeded without family1 and who relied only upon their talents1 often received their early stage apprenticeship as members of travelling companies1 or were seen in kodomo shibai1 or children's theatre companies4 ,there were1 also1 temporary theatres set up in compounds of shrines1 called miya shibai1 or shrine theatres1 and those along the river1 called hama shibai1 or shore theatres4 ,the ability of many a popular actor was very often first discovered in such surroundings4 ,it was difficult for the outsider to break through the yakusha caste4 ,the family system of preserving the line was as strong among the yakusha as it was from the ,shogun and aristocracy down to artists1 artisans1 tea ceremony and flower arrangement teachers and musicians4 ,and if there was no direct descendant to inherit the family name an heir was adopted4 ,this forms one of the most interesting characteristics of the yakusha1 for the son not only succeeded to the family name1 but carried on the traditions of his father's stage art with an unswerving fidelity1 preserving the inheritance of the past1 but also attempting to enhance the reputation of the family1 and in turn passing on the capital and accumulated interest to the next successor4 ,the inclination of the yakusha towards ,buddhism was very strong4 ,kabuki ,koto ,hajime1 or ,beginnings of ,kabuki1 says with regard to this characteristic3 8,those who played tragic rles wanted to borrow the power of ,hokkekyo 7,buddhist ,scripture of the ,lotus of the ,good ,law71 and especially were faithful to the ,nichiren sect 7founded by ,nichiren1 the stormy petrel of ,japanese ,buddhism1 seven hundred years ago74 ,they had to have some religion to forget the terrible characters they played1 as they might be haunted by them when they went home40 ,ichimura ,takenojo1 a nephew of the first ,ichimura ,uzaemon1 the proprietor of the ,ichimura-za1 became an acolyte in a ,buddhist seminary in the district of ,honjo1 ,yedo4 ,he had his head shaved and put on priest's robes1 and giving up the applause of the stage for the calm of the cloister1 went straight off to the ,buddhist institution4 ,afterwards he studied at ,hiei-zan1 the mountain monastery overlooking ,kyoto1 and rose to a leading position in the priesthood1 becoming the head priest of a mountain temple1 and returning to a ,yedo temple1 where he died in his old age4 ,yamashita ,kyoyemon1 contemporary of ,sakata ,tojuro1 had a priest brother1 and ,yamatoya ,imbei of ,osaka had two ,buddhist priests for brothers4 ,ichikawa ,danshiro1 the most talented pupil of the first ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 left the stage in the middle of his career to become a priest4 ,many urgent messages were sent from his former theatre in ,yedo requesting him to rejoin the actors1 and at last he consented on condition that he return immediately the performances were over to his secluded temple life4 ,of quite a different character was ,miyasaki ,denkichi's connection with ,buddhism4 ,he was with other actors imprisoned on account of a scandal in a nunnery1 and since the head nun was a favourite of the ,shogun's ,court she was sentenced to death4 ,many of the yakusha shaved their heads as a sign of their retirement from active life4 ,the fourth ,ichikawa ,danjuro was one of those who voluntarily abandoned a flourishing career1 and ,sadoshima ,chogoro1 the author of ,sadoshima ,nikki1 or ,journal of ,sadoshima1 took a holy name1 and lived in front of the ,kennin-ji1 a ,buddhist temple1 in ,kyoto4 ,some of the star actors went on pilgrimages4 ,arashi ,sangoro visited the thirty-three temples sacred to ,kwannon1 the ,goddess of ,mercy1 in ,kyushu1 and afterwards became a priest4 ,the yakusha had his superstitions4 ,he went to shrines and prayed to obtain the fame of actors past and gone1 or made special supplications that he might be successful in a new rle4 ,he was like other men2 he mixed up in fights and had to go to prison1 he had his love affairs and rivalries2 sometimes became despondent and committed suicide early1 or retired to open a shop dealing in incense1 or white powder for the face4 ,there were not only skilled musicians1 amateur poets1 and painters among them1 but they were uppermost in the making and producing of plays4 ,they were able to sew their own stage costumes and to embroider them with elaborate designs4 ,their costumes had a considerable effect upon the fashions1 inducing men to dress in extravagant taste1 while women of good families followed the example set by the actors on the stage1 copying colours1 designs1 and styles1 even the width of the obi4 ,the yakusha travelled up and down the country from ,yedo to ,osaka and ,kyoto1 held their anniversaries and ceremonies1 and were careful of the type1 training their sons in the way they should go4 ,in spite of this1 misfortune often overtook a prosperous family1 and the line withered away4 ,it was renewed by some young relative1 only to disappear in after years4 ,no family flourished generation after generation as did the ,ichikawa ,danjuro line1 and yet there is no representative of this name upon the ,tokyo stage to-day4 ,nakamura ,nakazo is on record as having expressed the opinion that actors should not be seen in public1 but should be known only on the stage1 and secure fame by their art alone4 ,he thought it was a mistake for play-folk to attend picnics1 moon-gazing or snow-viewing parties1 or mix with the crowd4 ,the second ,ichikawa ,danjuro was also a believer in the actor's anonymity and seclusion from the public1 and considered that if an actor was not good-looking he would not appear to advantage on the street4 ,it is true that if the yakusha went out wearing fine apparel and attracted people by his dignified bearing1 the defects of his character or lack of talent would be hidden4 ,as the face of the yakusha was certain to be less attractive off the stage than on1 he should take care not to be seen by the people4 ,danjuro further declared that as an actor's life was full of anxiety1 it was necessary that he should enjoy all the comforts of home1 and receive every care to maintain his health4 ,it was best for the yakusha to stay at home1 so that he would have no occasion to become angry1 and as he was the object of public attention he should aim to be as refined and beautiful as possible4 ,when young1 ,danjuro the second thought1 the yakusha should wear his head covered1 and in middle age that he should ride in a kago1 the basket conveyance hung on two poles and carried on the shoulders of bearers4 ,and this must not be regarded as extravagance1 but to make a good impression upon theatre-goers and therefore a duty to the theatre proprietor1 for he considered it of the greatest importance for a yakusha to be magnificent in order to fill an eminent position4 ,contrary to ,danjuro's opinion1 ,sawamura ,sojuro1 the first1 believed in the simple life for an actor4 ,he said a chief actor should mingle with the people in the streets1 and aim to be unpretentious1 for a yakusha would thereby be able to learn of his defects upon the stage4 ,as for clothing1 it was quite sufficient to have one kimono for each season4 ,it was1 however1 natural to wish to dress well1 but it often proved ruinous4 ,it was best for the yakusha to leave his name to posterity as a stage celebrity rather than as a millionaire1 to be remembered for his art rather than for his money4 ,kataoka ,nizaemon1 the first1 of ,osaka1 declared that actors should be conversant with poetry and literature1 and know all subjects relating to ,buddhism and ,shintoism1 information that would be of use to them on the stage4 ,when ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the second1 built a fine new residence after his dwelling had been burned down1 he gave a house-warming party1 and a hundred short poems were written by the guests who attended4 ,in the tokonoma1 or recess of the reception-room1 was hung an autographed poem by ,kikaku1 a well-known versifier4 ,on the sliding doors were pictures by artists of the ,tosa ,school4 ,the small metal pieces inserted into the doors were of the best workmanship4 ,there was a painting of chrysanthemums done especially for ,danjuro by the master of flowers1 ,korin1 and a flower vase after a design by ,basho4 ,he counted among his friends many of the intellectuals of his day1 and upon one occasion he was seen out for a walk between ,hanabusa ,icho1 the painter1 and ,kikaku1 the poet1 the two outstanding geniuses of the age4 ,his name was known at the ,shogun's ,court1 for there is a mention in the diary of a daimyo1 ,matsura ,sezan1 that one day the ,shogun1 ,tokugawa ,yoshimune1 passed through the ward of ,honjo1 and the route took him near a shrine where he noticed a votive offering on which was written a poem1 signed ,hakuin1 ,danjuro's poetry name4 ,appreciating the literary talent the poem revealed1 the ,shogun turned to his retinue and asked who had composed it1 but as none of them knew1 he explained that it was the nom de plume of ,ichikawa ,danjuro4 ,illustration3 ,matsumoto ,koshiro in the rle of an otokodate1 or chivalrous commoner1 ready to defend the oppressed lower classes from the blustering two-sworded samurai4 ,nakamura ,nakazo has left mention in his journal concerning a visit he made to a member of the ,choshu clan1 to the effect that he had been invited by a retired personage to his residence1 made of hinoki wood1 meaning a mansion such as was erected for the aristocracy1 and that he was entertained with tea and asked to dance4 ,the appreciative host not only gave each one of the party a gift1 but after his return to his domain in ,choshu he sent ,nakazo a suzuri1 or box for holding the ,japanese writing brush and ink stone4 ,retired persons of the upper class were considered privileged to enjoy life as they pleased1 and they often went to the theatre incognito4 ,after the performance they invited the actors to the chaya1 and gave them gifts4 ,actor worship permeated the people2 the playgoers of the three towns enjoyed them1 criticised1 gossiped about them1 even as they do at the present day4 ,the theatre was the great recreation of the people1 and the actors1 how they looked1 how apparelled1 and the quality of their acting formed the endless topic of conversations and discussions4 ,and yet in spite of the fact that the actors held such a firm place in the affections of the people2 that they were the exponents of a theatre which reflected the national characteristics to a remarkable extent2 that they represented the taste1 style1 and ideas of their time in no small degree1 and that they were often men of cultivation and refinement off the stage1--their profession was scorned4 ,they were the object of long persecution4 ,it would be difficult to find in the history of the theatre throughout the world a deeper prejudice or more complete contempt for the actor than has been the portion of the ,kabuki yakusha4 ,this state of affairs was largely due to the attitude adopted towards the theatre by the ,tokugawa government4 ,from the official standpoint the theatre was a vulgar institution and had an immoral effect upon society4 ,through the production of socialistic plays1 the minds of the people were influenced1 and the authorities sought to control the overflowing life that found a vent in theatre-going4 ,the theatre also encouraged luxury1 causing the people to wander away from the paths of economy1 and to desire the elaborate houses1 furniture1 and clothing they saw upon the stage4 ,the strict control exercised over the actors was not all due to the desire of the governing classes to elevate and improve the governed4 ,it was part of their plan to keep back the natural democracy of the people1 which1 like a rising tide1 threatened to grow stronger than was good for the welfare of the shogunate4 ,murdoch in his ,history of ,japan1 in characterising the rule of the ,shoguns1 touches the core of the matter when he says3 8,the ,yedo machine of mediocrities had converted ,japan from a progressive into a stationary state1 chiefly because the ,tokugawa flunkeys of those days wished to preserve their own position44440 ,and it was the officials of government who were under the conviction that the theatre and actors were a source of moral corruption1 and in consequence saw to it that this particular sphere of influence was segregated to special sites in the three towns1 much in the same way that the 8gay quarters0 were separated from the ordinary channels of life4 ,but this was not sufficient restraint1 and social intercourse with the townsmen was forbidden4 ,to complete the social boycott the actors were obliged to reside together1 were prohibited from going far from their homes and ordered to keep well within their own preserves2 they could not mingle with the people unless they wore a deep basket-like straw hat that hid their faces from sight4 ,saruwaka ,kansaburo1 in #afbd1 in compliance with the ,shogun's order sang a sailor's song at the helm of the ,shogun's pleasure boat1 and in #afdh he and his followers were summoned to the ,shogun's palace to show their art4 ,but in #agai1 when the mother of the eighth ,shogun1 ,yoshimune1 and his children wished to see dancing and were about to send for the actors1 the officials opposed the plan1 reminding them of ,yenoshima1 the ,court lady1 and her scandal with the actor ,ikushima ,shingoro4 ,doll performers were ordered to attend instead4 ,as for the status of the yakusha1 it fell very low indeed after ,saruwaka ,sansaburo's time1 for they were ranked among the lowest classes1 but one degree removed from the eta1 the pariah class4 ,in the census lists they were not entered as other men1 but were noted by the numeral suffix1 then used in the enumeration of cattle4 ,although it was the deliberate aim of the ,government to lower the standing of the actors1 it is clear they were not placed on the same level as those outcasts of society1 the eta1 as is seen from a judgement given in a law court in #agjh4 ,satsuma ,kogenda held a ,kabuki performance in a village called ,masaki1 in the ,province of ,awa4 ,the eta were debarred from attendance1 and three hundred of them living in the neighbourhood were so enraged1 they attacked and destroyed the theatre4 ,a representative of the outcasts filed a suit in court against the theatre-owner and actors1 as well as the musicians1 but a decision was given in favour of the theatre1 and the leaders among the eta who had instigated the attack were sentenced to exile4 ,in ,okina ,gusa 7lit41 ,old ,man ,sayings7 there is an account which well illustrates the social attitude towards the actor4 ,kirinoya ,gonjuro1 who acted chiefly in ,osaka and ,kyoto1 was the son of a flower-arrangement teacher4 ,a certain official living in ,kyoto belonged to the same school of flower-arrangement as the actor's father1 and the two were on friendly terms4 ,when ,kirinoya was appearing in ,kyoto he had to go to the magistrate's office on some business connected with the theatre1 and the official discovered that his friend's son had joined the ranks of the vulgar ,kabuki players4 ,he ordered ,kirinoya to call at his residence1 and when he did so he would not allow him to enter1 but commanded him to prostrate himself on the ground before the entrance1 and is reported to have said to him3 8,although ,i have been a friend of your father1 your status in society is quite beyond the pale of intercourse4 ,if you cease to be an actor ,i will allow you to enter my house and will renew our friendship1 but not otherwise40 ,the actor1 quite overcome at this prejudiced attitude1 replied3 8,i thank you for your kindness1 but it is impossible for me to give up my profession4 ,although ,i have thus lowered myself in the social scale1 ,i am chief among the actors1 and there are many of my followers who are dependent upon me for a livelihood4 ,i cannot deprive them of this4 ,even among us who are despised there is loyalty and fidelity1 and ,i have no other course but to follow my profession4 ,in this case ,i cannot see you again40 ,another sidelight upon the social prejudice against actors is shown by a story that is told of ,kosagawa ,juyemon1 a samurai in the service of a certain feudal lord1 who had become an actor from choice4 ,a member of his family went to the theatre where he was employed1 and being informed that he was acting under his own name grew so infuriated that he threatened to kill the young man1 but was finally pacified by the people of the theatre4 ,in ,kabuki ,koto ,hajime1 or the ,beginnings of ,kabuki1 the author rises to the defence of the actor3 8,the ,kawara ,kojiki 7,riverside ,beggars7 all belonged to the common people4 ,but this was not so in reality4 ,they washed and cleaned their bodies before praying for the safety and prosperity of the country4 ,what is said of them is not true40 ,dr4 ,yuzo ,tsubouchi1 one of the leading modern dramatists1 in commenting on the prejudice against the actors1 writes3 8,many persons despised them and still harboured against them the prejudice which had originated in the tradition that they had been put under the control of the eta during the ,kamakura shogunate4 ,even at the close of the ,tokugawa rule they were not looked upon as respectable citizens1 and consequently the military class studiously avoided intercourse with them and refrained from visiting the theatre40 ,in a similar strain the late ,rev4 ,arthur ,lloyd says in his ,notes on ,japanese ,drama in the ,transactions of the ,asiatic ,society of ,japan3 8,the shibai had but a poor reputation4 ,no samurai or respectable person would have degraded himself by attendance at a performance4 ,they were compelled to live like eta1 in ,ghettos or districts of their own1 being shunned by all persons of position or repute4 ,it was folly to expect anything at all noble or inspiring from persons compelled to live in such surroundings1 and it speaks volumes for the despised play-actors and playwrights that they did not sink lower40 ,captain ,francis ,brinkley in the chapter dealing with ,refinements and ,pastimes in his ,japan3 its ,history1 ,arts and ,literature1 writes as follows regarding the attitude toward the actors of ,meiji3 8,ichikawa ,danjuro and ,onoe ,kikugoro1 the princes of the stage at present1 would long ago have earned a world-wide reputation had their lot been cast in any ,western country4 ,there cannot be any second opinion about their capacities1 or about their title to rank with the great tragedians of the world4 ,but in their own country1 though their names are household words1 taint of their profession clings to them still4 ,men speak of them as a ballet dancer of extraordinary agility or a banjo player of eminent skill would be spoken of in ,europe or ,america--renowned exponents of a renownless art40 ,undoubtedly this attitude of the upper classes had much to do with the triviality and vulgarity that existed in the theatre4 ,but on the other hand1 the isolated actors and playwrights belonged all the more to the theatre4 ,left without leadership1 they worked out their own salvation1 and made their own standards4 ,lacking the stimulus that the recognition and encouragement of the highest in the land might have given them1 they were able through their own innate sense of art and unerring desire for beauty to bring about the present rich accumulation of artistic forces within ,kabuki which may yet be an impetus to the ,western theatre1 hungry as it is for just such fare as ,kabuki is able to provide so bountifully4 ,when all is considered the yakusha was more sinned against than sinning4 ,in fact1 he was often more cultivated than the ordinary citizen1 even the samurai who1 especially in the lower ranks1 were merely rough1 unlearned soldiery1 and often knew nothing of courtesy or manners4 8,too often01 says ,fenollosa1 8we have read that the whole brilliancy and value of ,japan lay in her samurai40 ,the yakusha excelled in military arts1 they used judo and fencing with good effect on the stage1 and were expert in swordsmanship4 ,they were obliged to be skilled counterfeiters of the samurai1 since the most popular plays were those dealing with the exploits of the two-sworded hero1 and nothing pleased playgoers better than to see the stately daimyo and his loyal retainers represented on the stage1 for they were personages so far removed from the everyday life of the plain citizen4 ,after all1 it was the outcast yakusha who upheld the flower of chivalry and idealised the faithfulness of man for master1 loyalty and self-sacrifice1 the favourite themes of the plays4 ,again1 it was the yakusha1 held in such low esteem1 who was to keep alive the feudal age1 long after it had passed away4 ,and it is the yakusha to-day who maintains the dignity of bearing and represents the heroic deeds of the samurai1 when many of their descendants have wellnigh forgotten the principles that actuated their ancestors4 ,illustration3 ,nakamura ,kichiyemon as ,kumagae1 a warrior of ,old ,japan4 ,,shibai ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,customs ,,of ,,shibai ,one of the most remarkable customs connected with theatre going was the unearthly hour in the morning the shibai opened4 ,just before dawn1 or between four and five o'clock1 the big drum in the drum-tower was beaten as a signal that the performances were about to begin4 ,those who lived near the theatres were obliged to hurry over an early breakfast that they might reach the playhouse by sunrise1 but to the playgoers who were obliged to walk miles on foot1 or countryfolk bent on seeing the famous actors1 it was a matter of lengthy preparations the day before1 and their journey shibaiwards was begun in the darkness of night4 ,to a woman especially it was a serious undertaking to attend shibai1 because hours were spent in oiling and arranging the hair1 bathing1 dressing1 and making the face as attractive as possible with paint and powder4 ,only the most enthusiastic playgoers planned on reaching the shibai in time for the first piece1 and it was customary for people to stay overnight at the shibai chaya1 or at an inn to be in readiness for the great event4 ,to children allowed to accompany their elders the excitement preparatory to setting forth in the dead of night must have made these unforgettable occasions thrilling adventures4 ,if by chance the grandparents formed part of the party1 the child would listen to reminiscences of the fathers and grandfathers of the actors then playing1 and the youthful playgoers when grown up would in turn recall their early visits to shibai1 the long day spent in the theatre1 the dinner at sunset in the tea-house1 after which came the return homeward4 ,by the time the first golden rays of the sun were gilding the grey-tiled roofs of the town1 people might have been seen coming from all directions to theatre street1 where the scenes were so lively that1 according to an old book1 ,kokon ,yakusha ,taizen1 or ,ancient and ,modern ,actors1 8the prosperity seen outside the shibai every day cannot be expressed by a writing brush04 ,and1 indeed1 the excitement of arrival must have compensated for the loss of sleep and long travel1 for there was noise and confusion outside the theatre where the bill-boards1 gorgeous posters depicting the characters in the play in brilliant colours on powdered gold backgrounds1 glistened in the sunlight1 the many coloured flags1 presented to the actors on which their names were to be seen1 floated bravely in the breeze1 and rows of lanterns bearing the actor's crest decorated the theatre inside and out4 ,in a translation made by the late ,lord ,redesdale and published in ,the ,far ,east ,magazine in #ahga1 there is a description of the shibai taken from an old book about the sights of ,yedo1 which gives an intimate picture of the interior as it looked to a playgoer of that day4 8,the gallery 444 is hung with curtains as bright as the rainbow in the departing clouds4 ,the place soon becomes so crowded that the heads of the spectators are like the scales on a dragon's back4 ,when the play begins1 if the subject be tragic1 the spectators are so affected that they weep till they have to wring their sleeves dry4 ,if the piece be comic they laugh till their chins are out of joint4 ,the tricks and stratagems of the drama baffle description1 and the actors are as graceful as the flight of the swallows4 ,the triumph of persecuted virtue and the punishment of wickedness invariably crown the story4 ,when a favourite actor makes his appearance his entry is hailed with cheers4 ,fun and diversion are the order of the day1 and rich and poor alike forget the cares which they have left behind them at home2 and yet it is not all idle amusement1 for there is a moral included and a practical sermon in every play40 ,as a testimonial to the respect the actors felt for their high calling1 and a link with the ceremonial traditions of theatricals in ,japan1 it was the custom for a comic dance1 or ,sambasso1 to precede the regular performances1 and this was given before the sun had risen4 ,originally ,sambasso was a mirth-provoking dance performed in the courtyards of ,shinto shrines to give pleasure to the gods4 ,sambasso is the masked figure of a jovial old man clad in ample robes bearing designs of large white storks1 pine branches1 tortoises and other emblems of good luck4 ,he moves to the slow measures of flute and drum1 postures with a fan1 or shakes a bunch of bells used in the kagura1 or ,shinto dances4 ,this ancient performance long ago passed into the possession of the ,n stage1 became one of its most treasured ceremonies1 is given on auspicious occasions1 the secrets jealously guarded and handed down from father to son1 the actors fasting and cleansing themselves before taking part in it4 ,both the ,doll-theatre and ,kabuki appropriated ,sambasso1 modifying it to suit their own requirements4 ,as to its outer appearance1 the figure was a venerable old personage1 but in fact it was believed to be the personification of one of the great deities worshipped at a chief ,shinto shrine4 ,this top-heavy1 humoresque dancer1 one of the most ancient theatrical figures extant in the world1 that is faithfully preserved to-day and has a thousand years behind it1 was looked upon by the theatre-folk with the deepest reverence and awe1 since the performance of this dance meant the purification of the stage4 ,it is well to recall this1 when the yakusha of ,old ,japan are stigmatised as vicious1 plebeian1 loose1 and immoral4 ,a picture of the stage in the early hours of the day1 before the sun had made its appearance1 is found in the old record of shibai1 ,kokon ,yakusha ,taizen1 or ,ancient and ,modern ,actors4 ,it tells how above the heads of the audience there were lanterns on which were to be seen the actors' crests1 and suspended from the gallery hung others bearing the symbols of the tea-houses4 ,in front of the stage many candles were seen burning4 ,first1 there was the ,sambasso dance1 and after this all the play actors with the principal actor in advance made their entrance upon the stage1 each carrying a lighted candle in his hand and clad in ceremonial skirts1 long and voluminous1 that encased their feet and flowed yards behind them like a lady's train--the same costume worn by the great daimyo when attending social and state functions at the ,shogun's ,court4 ,the spokesman for the actors asked the patronage of the audience for ten thousand years1 meaning to the end of time1 a characteristic salutation of ,asia1 and in response the audience signified their appreciation by clapping their hands4 ,when the actors had retired1 music was heard and an auspicious song was sung1 the ,shikainami1 or ,waves of the ,four ,seas1 a passage from ,takasago1 a ,n play in which a prayer is made for the peace of the world and the smoothness of the waves in the four seas4 ,following this1 an announcement of the programme was read by a dignitary of the theatre4 ,he began by crying out in a ringing voice3 8,tozai6 ,tozai60 or 8,east-,west6 ,east-,west60 ,this was to call the attention of people to the east and the west1 and1 indeed1 in all parts of the theatre1 who were thus admonished to listen to the important details of the plays to be acted4 ,these men knelt down on the stage in front of the curtain1 and read the programme in a peculiar style and with a flourish that belonged to the theatre4 ,gradually they became few in number1 their salaries were decreased1 and their place in the theatre was less and less recognised4 ,the custom is now and then seen to-day1 particularly at the beginning of ,takeda ,izumo's ,chushingura4 ,a puppet announcer is placed outside the curtain and manipulated from behind1 the doll going through the motions of an animated delivery of details connected with the play while an actor behind is responsible for the words4 ,special performances were given four times a year1 when the shibai ceremonial had a distinct place of its own2 these were the celebration of the ,new ,year1 ,spring1 the ,bon1 or ,festival of the ,dead1 in midsummer1 and the opening of the shibai season in ,november4 ,one of the most interesting of these was the ,kaomise1 or ,face-,showing ceremony1 on which occasion the actors were displayed before the admiring gaze of the audience1 not as characters in a play1 but in their own persons1 to ask for the patronage of the people4 ,it was a gracious acknowledgement of their close relationship to the audience1 and at the same time gave expression to a subtle flattery of the playgoers1 whom they thus took into full confidence as an essential part of the theatre4 ,the ,kaomise was generally held in ,november with the inauguration of new theatrical season4 ,at this time the actors prayed for the peace of the country and a bountiful harvest4 ,elaborate preparations were made4 ,the night before many gay lanterns were seen on the theatre streets1 even before the smallest and most insignificant of buildings4 ,the actors' residences as well as the shibai tea-houses were bright with crested lanterns1 and large ones were placed at the entrance to the theatre and on each side of the actors' dressing-rooms4 ,it was a veritable feast of lanterns4 ,at this time the actors who had been engaged for the season were announced4 ,it meant a new combination of players1 for ,kyoto and ,osaka yakusha would come to ,yedo1 and vice versa4 ,the playwrights and musicians who were to serve the theatre for the ensuing year were also secured1 and proper announcements made during the ,kaomise1 as well as the forthcoming plays1 whether newly written or old favourites in a new guise4 ,in the ,kaomise ceremony the actors came to the stage by turns1 and addressing the audience in an intimate way told what characters they would play1 that they were glad to see the audience1 and asked for their favour4 ,this took up a great deal of time1 but the occasion was gay and pleasant1 and formed a fitting beginning to the theatre season4 ,on the first day there was no charge for admission1 and after the actors had introduced themselves special plays were performed4 ,details of the ,kaomise differed in the three towns1 and varied according to the taste of the actors1 who improvised to suit their own fancy4 ,in ,osaka1 according to the ,kokon ,yakusha ,taizen1 the ,kaomise was given seven times in succession1 beginning in the evening and terminating in the small hours of the next day4 ,lanterns festooned the ,dotombori1 ,osaka's chief theatre street1 bearing the crests of the leading actors4 ,gifts to the actors consisting of tubs of sake1 bales of rice1 dried fish1 etc41 were piled up so high as to reach the drum-tower4 ,playgoers came in boats by way of the ,dotombori canal1 the town being transected1 then as now1 by innumerable waterways4 ,the author declares that the ,osaka ,kaomise was superior in attractions to similar ceremonies in ,yedo or ,kyoto1 and that the scene was so fine that words could not be found to give it adequate description4 ,the dignity of the theatre was again shown in the ,kojo1 another announcement ceremony1 when a promotion in rank1 succession to a new stage name1 or accession to the headship of an illustrious actor-family was made known to the audience4 ,at such times the actors prostrated themselves on the stage1 their heads touching their outspread hands4 ,then the chief actor would raise his face and speak on behalf of the actor whose change in rank or name was thus announced4 ,he would in his turn1 with the utmost modesty and humility1 ask the audience to be lenient with his many mistakes1 but that he hoped to improve and to please them in the future4 ,among the many actor customs there was the ,ashigoroye1 or ,arranging-the-,feet-in-,good-,order4 ,previous to the opening day of a new performance1 the young actors would assemble outside the theatre and then proceed to the residence of the head of the company1 their chief1 who would receive them in state1 sitting in a place of ceremony4 ,the guests were clad in their best garments1 and each one would receive a cup of sake from the host and return it to him4 ,after partaking of a feast1 all were requested to contribute to the evening's entertainment by a song or dance4 ,this custom gradually disappeared4 ,in connection with the ,november ,kaomise there was a social gathering of the theatre people called the ,yosehajime1 or ,getting-,together-for-the-,first-,time4 ,the men employed in the business management of the theatre attired in their best1 carrying large lanterns in their hands adorned with the crest of the theatre1 proceeded to the homes of the actors1 where they were received and a fine repast spread before them4 ,then the chief actors repaired to the residence of the theatre manager where they were warmly welcomed1 while the onnagata gathered at the home of the leading onnagata1 as might have been expected of such lady-like players4 ,at length actors1 playwrights1 managers1 and musicians1 all those engaged for the year to fill their respective niches in the theatre world1 assembled outside the shibai just beneath the drum-tower1 a goodly company of theatre-folk on the best of terms with one another4 ,under the leadership of the manager1 they entered the theatre where a banquet was held in a room behind the stage4 ,illustration3 ,to mark the opening of the theatre season when actors1 playwrights1 and musicians were engaged1 there was a gathering called ,seeing-,for-,the-,first-,time4 7,colour print by ,torii ,kiyonaga47 ,there is a colour print by ,torii ,kiyonaga1 painted and printed in #aghd1 depicting this custom so faithfully that it brings the scene vividly before our eyes4 ,it shows the low two-storied houses on each side of theatre street in ,yedo1 with a glimpse of the drum-tower of the ,nakamura-za to the right4 ,on the big lanterns elevated on poles on each side of the theatre entrances1 are seen the crests that recall the dream of ,saruwaka ,kansaburo1 the founder of ,yedo ,kabuki1 while waiting for a licence to open his theatre4 ,he dreamed that a stork with a branch of an icho tree in its beak flew from the summit of ,mount ,fuji and entered his house4 ,he took this as a good omen for his new enterprise1 and the theatre crests were chosen in accordance with his dream4 ,in ,kiyonaga's print a flying stork is seen on one lantern1 a fan-shaped icho leaf on the other1 while these two emblems of the ,nakamura-za are represented on the paper spheres adorning the tea-houses and actors' residences that line each side of the narrow thoroughfare4 ,in this picture the representatives of the theatre world are clad in the silk shirts and the stiff upper garments1 or kamishimo1 worn over the shoulders and tucked into their belts1 that distinguished the gentleman of that day4 ,if the yakusha were spoken of as riverside beggars1 they still clung to the conventional garb of the middle and upper classes at that time worn in ,japan4 ,they also carried a sword in their belts1 which was the privilege of the samurai4 ,but this concession had been allowed since the ,shogun had issued an order that the actors should be taught morality1 and as a step towards their 8uplift0 it was commanded that they should be neatly dressed and wear a sword on leaving the theatre4 ,when the play was over1 the chief actor was escorted home by two young actors1 a servant bearing a chest of clothing4 ,the onnagata was accompanied to his house by attendants1 one holding a big protecting umbrella over the head of the creator of feminine rles4 ,with a similar display of dignity1 the actor made his round of calls during the ,new ,year season1 the sleeves of his kimono bearing the crest of his family1 a retinue following in his wake1 the cynosure of all eyes as he passed through the admiring throngs of holiday-makers4 ,there were interesting customs in connection with the door-keepers4 ,they were strangely costumed in long trailing women's kimono1 of vivid hues and bearing loud designs1 thrown on carelessly over their ordinary wearing apparel1 ostensibly to keep themselves warm1 as they sat for long hours on raised platforms just outside the entrance doors1 but in reality this striking attire was assumed to attract the attention of the public4 ,over their heads and drawn down over their ears were towels that were dyed with the crest of the chief actor of the theatre4 ,one of these men was busy dealing out the tickets1 long oblong pieces of wood1 on which were written the big black ,chinese characters denoting the place in the theatre it entitled the purchaser to take4 ,the second door-keeper was more of a persuader than a distributor of wooden tickets1 for with fan in hand he gesticulated while he loudly advertised the plays and players1 sometimes imitating the delivery of the actor's lines4 ,his task was to keep up a flow of small talk1 interspersed with wit and humour1 and so induce people to enter4 ,illustration3 ,,advertising ,,the ,,play4 ,during the performances two men garbed in long trailing feminine attire1 their heads covered with cotton towels1 attracted the passers-by by their verbal advertisement4 ,one imitated the lines of the actors1 and the other handed out wooden tickets4 7,colour print by ,hasegawa ,kanpei1 the fourteenth1 and ,torii ,kiyosada1 father of ,kiyotada47 ,previous to the opening day1 the door-keepers read the names of the plays1 the actors1 and their parts4 ,dressed in their womanish kimono they presented an extraordinary sight1 as1 holding between them a long paper scroll on which the programme was written1 they delivered their voluble announcement to the crowds anxious to hear news of what was going forward in the shibai4 ,with a change of programme1 the actors and their rles were advertised to the public by an actor's crest board1 narrow pieces of wood with the crest at the top4 ,these were arranged side by side outside the shibai4 ,one of the most interesting customs was the kamban1 or bill-board on which paintings of a high order were frequently to be seen4 ,these posters illustrating the plays1 done in bright colours1 were hung on kamban that were bordered by wide lacquered frames often richly ornamented with brass1 and placed along the front of the shibai4 ,a special school of painters was called into being to look after these pictorial advertisements1 and they became the specialty of the ,torii family4 ,they were first started in ,genroku by an actor-founder of this line of theatre artists4 ,less beautiful street posters were pasted up on fences and houses where several roads met4 ,with the beginning of ,kabuki1 the shibai advertisements consisted of boards on which ,chinese characters were written4 ,later on1 in ,kyoto these simple announcements were framed and decorated with artificial flowers4 ,to make them even more attractive an actor pasted a picture on the board4 ,these posters were placed in the street to proclaim to the passer-by the nature of the coming performances4 ,this custom originated with ,nagoya ,sansaburo1 when he sought to make ,o-,kuni's river-bed show widely known4 ,he was the first person to write announcements on wood in ,chinese characters and to set them up at the cross-roads4 ,the founder of the ,torii family was an ,osaka actor1 who followed the onnagata specialty1 but painting was his hobby1 and he began to make pictures for the kamban of ,dotombori4 ,later he removed to ,yedo4 ,his son1 ,kiyonobu1 inherited his father's talent1 and as his style of painting greatly pleased the ,yedo people1 he soon became very popular and was called ,torii1 the first4 ,it is recorded that an artist of another school was requested to make the ,yedo ,kamban4 ,in #ahah there was a disagreement between the then reigning theatre artist ,torii ,kiyomitsu and the management of the ,kawarazaki-za1 with the result that ,utagawa ,kuniyoshi was asked to undertake the work4 ,he chose for his subject ,o-,kuni ,kabuki1 and treated it so well that all ,yedo made a pilgrimage to gaze upon the picture1 and the plays in progress within the shibai proved to be of lesser attraction4 ,this not only resulted in a falling-off in attendance1 but shortly after the theatre was burned down1 and the superstitious playfolk traced this ill luck to the absence of the ,torii posters4 ,they hurried back to him1 and he continued to monopolise this feature of shibai4 ,to-day the traditions are being carried on with much success by ,torii ,kiyotada1 the seventh ,torii to be associated with the work of painting shibai posters4 ,the different members of the ,torii school have also been responsible for the banzuke1 or illustrated theatre programmes1 that are sent out by an actor to his patrons or by the theatre to its supporters4 ,the banzuke consists of a large piece of paper on which are seen brush sketches of the plays and characters4 ,these are neatly folded1 and give the playgoers the whole story of the new programme4 ,this old custom is still in force4 ,shibai chaya1 or the tea-houses that served playgoers1 are not to-day what they were in former times1 since their usefulness has practically departed4 ,in the brave days of old1 the chaya were influential institutions1 for no respectable persons would dream of entering the shibai by any other way than through the tea-house4 ,owing to the long theatre hours1 which continued from sunrise to sunset1 the chaya became a positive necessity4 ,the intervals between the curtains were often very long1 for the actors and their dependents performed their work in a leisurely manner1 considerations of time scarcely entering into their calculations1 as the plays went on from twelve to fourteen hours4 ,moreover1 there were no conveniences in connection with the shibai of those days1 and it was necessary for every one to seek out the chaya for recreation1 gossip1 food1 or rest4 ,although the samurai were not supposed to be seen at such a vulgar entertainment as the shibai1 he managed to be a frequent visitor1 often attending incognito4 ,if he went in his proper attire1 he carried two swords thrust through his waistband1 and when such a dignitary condescended to witness the plays1 his precious weapon1 often a family treasure1 had to be deposited in the chaya before he could kneel down to enjoy himself in his box in the gallery4 ,there were many kinds of chaya attached to shibai1--the great chaya1 or first-class tea-houses1 in close proximity to the theatre1 and the front chaya1 or those somewhat detached1 generally opposite4 ,many little chaya or small places of business1 were also to be found4 ,a first-class theatre had as many as nineteen chief tea-houses1 twenty-eight of a slightly different grade1 and a great variety of minor places4 ,the maids of the tea-houses waited on their guests with tea and cakes1 cushions1 tobacco1 and the chaya vied with each other in the cooking of tempting dishes4 ,the old customs with regard to the tea-house in ,tokyo were to be seen at the ,ichimura-za until the earthquake disaster1 where much that characterised the ,yedo playhouses was preserved4 ,kyoto audiences were unaccustomed to applaud in the early period of ,kabuki4 ,they discussed the plays and players and gossiped among themselves4 ,if a playgoer wished to tell an actor how well he had done1 he would write a note to this effect and have it sent into his dressing-room4 ,osaka audiences were not so restrained1 and early in ,genroku it was the custom for the ,dotombori playgoers to shout and clap their hands4 ,the actors were much gratified1 for1 like members of their fraternity in other parts of the world1 they were not above playing to the gallery4 ,the first time a person in an audience in ,osaka dared to express the pleasure the actors had given him1 he shouted out loudly1 8,you did very well60 ,there were occasions1 however1 when the enthusiasts in the audience used complicated sentences when bestowing praise1 and so interfered with the plays4 ,the audience was also quick to show disappointment at the failure of the players and did not hesitate to shower them with adverse criticism1 some quick-tempered persons throwing cushions and other objects at the stage if the play did not suit them4 ,yedo was not far behind ,osaka in noisy demonstrations1 and the audiences of present-day ,tokyo1 ,osaka1 and ,kyoto still maintain the characteristics that distinguished their ancestors two hundred years ago4 ,quite necessary to the management of an audience that remained under the roof of the theatre for twelve hours were the dekata1 or servitors of shibai4 ,the rank and file of the dekata were ushers1 and wore dark kimono tucked into baggy ,turkish trousers4 ,they showed the people to their seats1 brought them cushions on which to kneel1 supplied them with programmes1 tea1 cakes1 and tobacco1 and were as busy as the denizens of an ant-hill the entire day4 ,there were two divisions of dekata1 headed by leaders1 or managers whose higher rank permitted them to wear haori1 or overcoats1 which sometimes bore the crest of the theatre4 ,the duty of some of these servants was to wait upon the actors in their comings and goings4 ,others had charge of the seats in the gallery reserved for special playgoers4 ,two of these men were selected to sit on either side of the stage1 to see that the play was not disturbed1 for the presence of a fighting man who had partaken not wisely but too well of sake would sometimes cause great confusion4 ,another was stationed at the end of the hanamichi1 where some of the best acting was done4 ,his special duties1 as keeper of the way1 were to see that it was kept clear for the entrances and exits of the actors4 ,others were given the task to guard the actors' dressing-rooms1 to prevent the intrusion of unwelcome outsiders1 who sometimes strayed unbidden into the calm atmosphere of the world over which the actors held sway4 ,while the dekata wore dun-coloured garments1 the personal servants of the actors were truly theatrical in appearance1 for they donned bright blue or red kimono that had for pattern a design showing the crest of the actor to whom they were attached4 ,it was their custom to pay special courtesies to a patron of their chief when he visited the theatre1 and the more consequential or wealthy this individual happened to be1 the greater the number of actor attendants who waited upon him1 which marked him out as a playgoer of first importance4 ,illustration3 ,,face ,,lights ,,for ,,the ,,actors4 ,when the theatre became dark it was necessary to illumine the actor's face with candle light4 ,here property men are holding out candles on the ends of pliant rods that the face of the dancer may be seen1 and candles form the foot lights4 ,the performer is the serpent princess in the disguise of a beautiful dancer in the piece ,dojo-ji4 7,colour print by ,hasegawa ,kanpei1 the fourteenth1 and ,torii ,kiyosada1 father of ,kiyotada47 ,for footlights1 there were candles set in tall wooden candlesticks along the front of the stage4 ,these were not sufficient on a stormy or gloomy day1 and tsura akari1 or face-lights1 were introduced the better to illuminate the actor's countenance and costume4 ,stage assistants to right and left held these candles up1 adapting themselves with great dexterity to the movements of the actors4 ,now and then this custom is still to be seen in the theatres of ,tokyo and ,osaka1 when the effect is so pleasing that the electric light with its harsh glare appears to be anything but a happy invention for stage illumination4 ,perhaps one of the most picturesque shibai customs in ,yedo was the ceremony of ,norikomi1--literally1 to-come-riding4 ,when an ,osaka or ,kyoto actor travelled along the ,tokaido1 the main highway between ,kyoto and ,yedo1 he was accorded a special reception at the end of his long journey1 and was generally met some distance out of ,yedo4 ,his means of conveyance was a kago1 or palanquin1 something after the fashion of a sedan chair1 which was firmly fastened to a stout pole borne on the shoulders of many bearers in front and behind4 ,often an actor of importance accompanied by his pupils and servants made quite a retinue1 and caused a small sensation among the townspeople as the procession wound through the streets4 ,when the visiting actor drew near the theatre that had engaged him1 the entire fraternity of shibai people1 dressed in kimono of the same colour1 waving fans1 came out to meet the newcomer and shouted a noisy welcome1 clapped their hands in regular rhythms1 to which the actor would respond by clapping his own4 ,afterwards a feast was spread and sake cups exchanged4 ,this began in ,yedo1 and was also observed in ,osaka1 but the ,yedo ,norikomi was always much more gay and festive4 ,these are a few of the many interesting shibai customs that were in vogue in ,yedo1 ,osaka1 and ,kyoto1 before such world events as the ,declaration of ,american ,independence or the ,french ,revolution4 ,illustration3 ,ceremony of welcoming an actor4 ,it represents the onnagata1 ,segawa ,kikunojo1 returning to the ,nakamura-za in ,yedo after an absence of two years in ,osaka4 7,from a colour print by ,utagawa ,toyokuni47 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,shibai ,,and ,,outside ,,influence ,the rills of outside influence that trickled into shibai during the #bbe years of ,tokugawa peace were very small1 but the real hunger of the people for knowledge from overseas is shown in the eagerness with which ,kabuki appropriated such information as could be smuggled into the country4 ,from the time that ,o-,kuni and her successors wore rosaries with the cross attached as a decoration for their stage costumes1 ,kabuki exhibited receptiveness to imported ideas from ,europe and ,china4 ,when ,o-,kuni was attracting the populace of ,kyoto everything ,european became suddenly the vogue4 ,murdoch in his ,history of ,japan refers to this period of ,western influence as follows3 8,western dress became so common that on casually meeting a crowd of courtiers it was difficult to say at once whether they were ,portuguese or ,japanese4 ,to imitate the ,portuguese some of the most ardent votaries of fashion even went so far as to commit the paternoster and the ,ave ,maria to memory4 ,reliquaries and rosaries were eagerly bought2 all the lords1 ,hideyoshi and his nephew1 went about with crucifixes and reliquaries hanging from their necks1 a tribute not to piety1 but to fashion40 ,murdoch also mentions a feudal lord who marched to ,yedo at the head of two thousand picked men1 whose banners all bore beautiful crosses1 while on his own helmet was a great 8,jesus0 in gold4 ,it was in the middle of the sixteenth century that the relations between ,japan and the ,west first began1 with the coming of the ,portuguese ships to the coast of ,kyushu in #aedc4 ,they were followed by the ,spanish1 ,english1 and ,dutch4 ,xavier reached ,japan in #aedi and left in #aeea4 ,as the result of the ,jesuit missionaries' activities1 ,christianity spread in the neighbourhood of ,kyoto1 where churches were built4 ,an ,english factory was established in ,japan in #afac1 but withdrew ten years later4 ,the ,jesuits came to be looked upon as political intriguers1 and ,hideyoshi issued orders to suppress ,christianity4 ,the expulsion of the ,spaniards took place in #afbd1 followed by edicts against the ,portuguese and ,dutch4 ,by #afcj ,western books were interdicted1 and in #afce all travelling abroad was prohibited under penalty of death4 ,ninety years after the first arrival of the ,portuguese ships1 foreign intercourse was forbidden1 except with the ,dutch and ,chinese under severe restrictions4 ,so rigorous were the measures taken against ,christianity that by #afch it had been practically extirpated4 ,this did not prevent the people from evincing great curiosity with regard to the unknown lands beyond the seas1 and references to the forbidden subject were frequent in the plays1 particularly those written for the marionettes4 ,in these old pieces the playwrights equipped their characters with the firearms introduced by the ,portuguese1 who had given instruction how to make guns and cast cannon4 ,in one of these plays a telescope is seen1 which two comedians use with such telling effect that they can see the approach of the heroine from afar4 ,other characters take out spectacles the better to see to read by the light of the oil wick in the andon1 or portable paper lantern carried about to illuminate a room4 ,this early period of intercourse with other lands produced an unmistakable effect upon stage costumes4 ,many of them have been carefully preserved1 and may be seen to-day4 ,they are generally fastened in the front by many buttons1 and are made of materials never in common use in ,japan4 ,in a play written long ago a line occurs with the words3 8,love is a magnet04 ,and in one of the eighteen hereditary pieces of the ,ichikawa family the theme of magnetism is dramatised4 ,records are left to tell how various actors travelled to ,nagasaki4 ,this was not a theatre centre1 and it may be surmised that the quest was made to obtain information from the ,dutch1 who were allowed to live at ,deshima1 a small island outside ,nagasaki harbour4 ,here they were confined and allowed to trade1 but were refused permission to put foot on the mainland4 ,a gay dance known in shibai by the un-,japanese name of ,kappore1 is thought to have had a ,western origin4 ,some actor or musician must have witnessed the sailors of a trading ship performing in a treaty port4 ,the treatment of the ,chinese during the ,tokugawa regime was much better than that meted out to the ,dutch4 ,the ,ming dynasty in ,china was overthrown in #afdd1 and this brought many refugees to ,japan4 ,the ,chinese were free to move about the country1 to have their own quarters1 and to build temples4 ,among them were traders1 scholars1 artists1 and doctors4 ,it is not unlikely that actors1 or those familiar with the ,chinese theatre1 were also among the representatives of ,china in ,japan at that time4 ,fenollosa mentions that complex ,chinese movements of every variety were surging about ,kyoto in ,horeki 7#agea-agfc71 and that ,japanese scholars obtaining painted scrolls and books in ,nagasaki returned to ,kyoto or ,yedo laden down with them4 ,some indirect influence may have been brought to bear upon ,kabuki and ,ningyo-shibai from these sources4 ,aragoto1 or the rough acting of ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the first1 was closely akin to the principles uppermost on the ,chinese stage4 ,his strange make-up1 broad lines of black or red1 or combinations of black1 blue1 and red1 are acknowledged to have come from ,china1 and other methods of making-up used on the doll-stage1 later copied by the yakusha1 are undoubtedly of ,chinese origin1 as may easily be seen by comparison with the present-day conventions on the ,peking stage4 ,it was in the matter of stage costumes that ,chinese influence was greatest4 ,weavers had been brought over from ,china in ,hideyoshi's time and were gradually assimilated with native workers4 ,the making of textiles reached the height of development in the ,genroku age4 ,this importation of materials1 rich in design and colour1 had a remarkable effect upon the costumes of the ,n stage1 and to a considerable extent also upon ,kabuki and ,ningyo-shibai4 ,rare stuffs1 woollen and velvet from ,holland1 were worn on the stage2 gold brocades and embroideries from ,china4 ,wigs were also greatly improved at this time1 and beards1 probably from the ,chinese theatre1 began to be used4 ,in the ,kabuki chronicles it is stated that a painting of ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the second1 was taken to ,china by traders plying between ,nagasaki and the ,chinese ports1 and it seems likely that the yakusha became familiar with some of the favourite ,chinese actors4 ,in his ,notes on ,japanese ,drama in the ,transactions of the ,asiatic ,society1 the late ,rev4 ,arthur ,lloyd suggests the possible influence of the ,west on shibai4 ,he says3 8,in #afjc the ,spaniards had been fifty years in ,japan1 and they were not all priests and missionaries4 ,sailors and merchants came1 too1 many of whom would associate with ,japanese1 and some probably with ,japanese of the class to which ,o-,kuni and her husband1 the ex-samurai1 belonged4 ,such men would naturally possess copies of some of ,lope de ,vega's comedies1 and thus may have come to ,japan the seed from which grew the ,kabuki theatre40 ,this is pure conjecture on ,mr4 ,lloyd's part1 but he used it to throw light on the proscription of ,kabuki plays1 and explained that there were other licentious practices in ,japan in the seventeenth century which were not interfered with1 and that the proscription would become intelligible and consistent if there was but a shadow of ground for suspicion that the shibai and the ,spaniard were even remotely connected4 ,illustration3 ,nakamura ,ganjiro of ,osaka as a melancholy lover in a play of the people4 ,this view may be to some extent true1 for the ever-suspicious authorities were aware that the best avenue for the forbidden knowledge to reach the people was the shibai1 and hence their anxiety to prevent the spread of radical ideas4 ,many incidents attest to this watchfulness on the part of the officials4 ,it is recorded that the father of the third ,nakamura ,utayemon received magic power from a foreigner in a rle that required him to make a sudden transformation into a ghost4 ,again1 ,tsuruya ,namboku1 a playwright who specialised in the ghostly1 wrote a piece with a sea rover1 ,tenjiku ,tokubei1 as hero1 and as it was necessary to effect a quick change in the stage management1 the alert censor suspected that ,namboku had secured his information from ,christians1 who were supposed to be devoted to magic methods4 ,namboku was arrested1 but was released1 as there was not sufficient evidence to prove that he had been in league with ,occidentals4 ,tsuruya ,namboku created a character in ,tenjiku ,tokubei that has outlived generations of actors and remains popular with modern audiences4 ,tokubei sailed away on unknown seas to ,india and returned with wealth greater than that of a daimyo1 many strange tales to relate1 and curious articles to exhibit4 ,such a play must have been of lively interest to the shut-in people of ,japan1 who were gradually awakening to the attractions of the world without4 ,the costume of this sea adventurer is a most remarkable one1 and no doubt reflects the knowledge of ,western clothing as it existed in ,japan a century ago1 in ,namboku's time4 ,it is a long coat of strange brown material1 belted in at the waist with a brass buckle for ornament2 the hat a circular affair banded with fur and crowned with a quaint top-knot4 ,he finds that the girl he loves has become the concubine of the feudal lord whose territory is adjacent to his village4 ,tokubei gains audience of the lord and with great pride exhibits his fire-sticks 7matches71 crocodile skins1 sneezing powders 7snuff71 and perfumes4 ,he discusses with his host how the conquest of ,india may be effected4 ,but the conservative aristocrat turns a deaf ear to ,tokubei's tales1 and accuses him of harbouring ,christian heresies4 ,kicking aside his offerings the host leaves the room in disgust4 ,at home with his parents ,tokubei is warned that the police are coming to arrest him for practising ,christian witchcraft4 ,in the last scene he appears on his scarlet sailing ship decorated with many brilliant colours4 ,there is a fight on board1 a pardon arrives from the lord1 but at the same time he learns that his love1 ,o-,tae1 in despair1 has taken her life4 ,his native land holds nothing for him--better far that he follow the fortunes of the sea4 ,he gives the order to sail1 and the big vessel begins to turn1 creaking and straining until the prow projects well over the footlights1 as though it would sail straight through the audience4 ,tokubei stands at the prow reading ,o-,tae's farewell letter1 which is so long it reaches down over the side of the craft4 ,the great white square sail is hoisted1 and the vessel points out to the imaginary ocean1 the gorgeous scarlet junk1 with its sail full of the mystery of sea-going1 recalling dim memories of pirate tales which charmed in childhood4 ,in an article contributed to a theatre magazine1 ,ihara ,seiseiin tells how he discovered the plot of ,romeo and ,juliet in a comedy by ,tsuruya ,namboku1 that indefatigable seeker after weird material for his plays4 ,the coincidence is attributed to the fact that at the time the play was written1 during ,bunka 7#ahjd-ahag71 the ,dutch were in ,nagasaki and may have produced the play1 a report of which eventually reached ,namboku's ears4 ,this work1 says ,ihara1 was a comedy rather than a tragedy1 and it was called by the fanciful title1 ,kokoro no ,nazo ,tokete ,iro ,ito 7lit41 ,the-,solution-of-the-,heart-,riddle-,co loured-,thread74 ,the last two words of the title were suggestive of the thread shop kept by a widow named ,o-,ritsu1 who had a beautiful young daughter1 ,o-,chiyo1 and also refers to the tangled strands of the plot4 ,it was in five acts1 the second and third showing ,occidental influence4 ,the head clerk1 or banto1 of the shop was a villain called ,sagohei4 ,but ,o-,chiyo had already bestowed her affections on a ronin1 ,honjo ,tsunagoro4 ,the mother1 not in the secret of her daughter's love affair1 settled upon one ,kambara ,sagoro1 and in spite of ,o-,chiyo's unwillingness to accept this man as husband the mother went forward with the preparations for the marriage4 ,the scheming banto1 who saw the pretty daughter as well as the prosperous thread business slipping out of his grasp1 resorted to desperate measures1 and consulted his confidential friend1 a doctor called ,torin4 ,from him a quantity of poison was secured1 but it possessed peculiar qualities1 for like ,juliet's potion it produced sham death1 and an antidote was to be administered that would bring ,o-,chiyo back to life4 ,the conversation concerning the poison was as follows3 ,sagohei 7turning to the doctor73 ,i say1 ,torin-san1 is this the poison ,i asked you to prepare8 ,torin3 ,yes1 it is4 ,it is called ,hammyo4 ,i mixed it with suitetsu1 hokyu1 and sake1 and it will kill a person in one minute4 ,should it succeed1 the bridegroom will be turned out of doors1 and you will take his place1 also the thread shop will be yours4 ,but ,i have an antidote that will revive the bride1 and she will become your wife4 ,the dead brought back to life6 ,what a fine medicine ,i possess6 ,the banto received the deadly poison1 and the doctor was just about to hand over the antidote when ,sagohei was called away4 ,at the same time the doctor received an urgent call to see a patient4 ,there was nothing left for him to do but to trust the antidote to the little apprentice-boy of the shop4 ,this worthy went out to buy some pepper to be used in the soup at the marriage feast4 ,when he returned1 the boy gave the wicked ,sagohei the pepper instead of the antidote1 and as the condiment was opened in the dark both ,sagohei and the boy sneezed a good deal4 ,then came that moment in a ,japanese wedding when the bride and bridegroom drink sake from the same cup4 ,one sip of the poisoned sake and ,o-,chiyo fell dead4 ,the stage then revolved1 showing the kitchen and the sorrowful mother holding an argument with ,sagohei as to the disposition of the one hundred ryo that was part of ,o-,chiyo's dowry4 ,the mother wished to present it to a temple1 but the clerk insisted it should be buried with her4 ,o-,chiyo's lover next appeared--discharged from service under his feudal lord because he had been implicated in the loss of a highly treasured poem in the handwriting of the poet4 ,this had been pawned1 and in order to redeem it he was obliged to find #bej ryo4 ,the apprentice-boy threw away the antidote1 thinking it was pepper and therefore of no further use now that a calamity had overtaken the house4 ,tsunagoro picked it up1 and the boy told him that #ajj ryo was to be buried with the body4 ,a night watchman happened to overhear the boy's words1 and planned to rob the grave1 ,tsunagoro in desperate need of money decided on the same course4 ,both the doctor and the clerk had a similar end in view4 ,a graveyard is the next scene1 ,o-,chiyo's coffin in sight1 while a dead patient has been interred1 with ,o-,chiyo's name placed over it4 ,tsunagoro watches1 and when the doctor comes prowling about1 knocks him out with a blow4 ,at this moment ,o-,chiyo begins to groan4 ,tsunagoro wishes to give her the antidote but hesitates4 ,is it to be the money or the woman8 ,after a struggle1 he decides he cannot leave ,o-,chiyo to die1 and so brings her back to life4 ,she gladly parts with the money1 but asks him to run away with her1 as she does not wish to return home4 ,this the ronin is in no mood to do1 but finally they steal away arm in arm as the night watchman and the clerk attempt to rob the grave1 and administer the pepper to restore the corpse to life which makes the two rascals sneeze prodigiously4 ,unlike the majority of ,japanese plays that end in tragedy1 ,tsunagoro and ,o-,chiyo were married and lived happily ever after4 ,with such a play ,tsuruya ,namboku entertained ,yedo audiences a hundred years ago4 99 99 99 99 99 ,had shibai been wide open to the world1 and relations with other theatres established1 its character must have been entirely different4 ,very little evidence can be produced to show that either ,china or ,europe exerted any considerable influence upon it4 ,owing to its enforced seclusion of more than two hundred years1 it was free to develop in its own way1 and for this reason shibai may be regarded as one of the purest and most characteristic of ,japan's national institutions4 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,otani ,tomoemon 7,cross74 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,kataoka ,nizaemon 7,two circles and lines74 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,music ,,of ,,shibai ,just as the impulse back of shibai had been the need of the people to possess their own theatre1 so the rise and development of ,joruri during the ,tokugawa period was but the spirit of the common people seeking expression in music4 ,dignity1 tranquillity1 and refinement characterised the ancient ,court music and the complicated measures of the flute and drum of the ,n stage4 ,something more cheerful1 more stirring and gay1 was necessary as refreshment for the people4 ,the instrument that caused a revolution in the musical world of ,japan was the samisen 7lit41 three strings71 which opened the floodgates for the inundation of the three towns by the greatest variety of fushi1 or tunes4 ,the samisen was not indigenous1 and most accounts agree that it came to ,japan from the ,loo ,choo ,islands4 ,some authors seek a ,western origin for the samisen1 and think it was brought in by the ,portuguese4 ,one old writer believed it to be an instrument used by the savages of ,loo ,choo ,islands1 made from the skin of sea snakes4 ,the ancestor of the samisen is to-day carried by strolling minstrels in all the odd corners of ,china1 and must have been introduced into ,japan by way of the southern islands where the inhabitants were largely ,chinese4 ,the difference that exists at present between the two guitar-like instruments of the ,asiatic continent and the ,island ,empire lies in the bodies1--that of ,china covered with snake-skin in the natural colours1 while white tanned cat-skin serves the same purpose in ,japan4 ,the performer in both cases uses a plectrum to strike the three strings and thereby produces a whole world of rhythms unfamiliar to the ears of the ,occidental4 ,the ,chinese instrument came to ,japan by an indirect route1 and was not accompanied by musicians skilled in its mysteries4 ,when it reached the hands of the blind biwa players they were unacquainted with the deep experience behind it1 and were obliged to grope for a way themselves4 ,the samisen led to a period of the greatest musical creativeness the country had ever witnessed1 and the wonder grows that this innocent little instrument produced in some remote time as a necessity of the ,chinese soul should have been discovered by the people of the three towns and adapted to suit their musical requirements with such astonishing results4 ,perhaps the magic measures of the samisen may yet meet some need of the people in ,western lands1 and so in the fullness of time please the ear of the whole world4 ,the samisen was not in use when ,o-,kuni and ,nagoya ,sansaburo began their collaboration1 for their musicians borrowed the flute and drum of the ,n4 ,towards the end of the ,o-,kuni ,kabuki1 the samisen player had taken up his position behind the dancers1 and a new and livelier element had become apparent in the performances4 ,up to the advent of the samisen which brought about a complete change in the music in vogue among the people1 the musical forms of the country had come to be the monopoly of the higher classes4 ,the gagaku1 or music of the ,imperial ,court1 could not be heard on ordinary occasions1 but was reserved for the highest functions4 ,transplanted from ,china in the early days of intercourse between the two countries1 it was so far removed from affairs of everyday life as to belong to some celestial land4 ,after a thousand years this ancient music is still heard at entertainments at ,court1 or in connection with ,buddhist or ,shinto ceremonies1 and its slow and stately cadences produce a serenity in the minds of moderns that carries them back into an age when hurry was unknown4 ,this music was too lofty1 and beyond the grasp or enjoyment of the people1 even if it had been accessible to them4 ,entertainment was afforded by the blind minstrels who played the biwa--an instrument not unlike a lute in shape4 ,they sang and recited the melancholy adventures of the ,heike1 who were exterminated in their struggle with the ,genji clan1 in sad and tragic tones--sounding the very depths of negation4 ,there was but little inspiration in this minstrelsy for the good people of the three towns hungering for romance4 ,likewise the ,n was reserved for the intellectuals1 whose inner life had been sufficiently cultivated to appreciate its rarefied atmosphere of the unreal4 ,inseparable from the words and movements of the ,n were the rhythms of drum and flute1 full of mystery1 ,buddhism1 asceticism1 its warriors and ghosts far removed from the world and its ways4 ,before the samisen's supremacy1 the minstrels who went about relating their stories scratched the ribs of their fans to form the beats necessary to their recitals1 and priests who sang songs to popularise their scriptures beat their rhythms on the same metal gong as that employed by ,o-,kuni4 ,so necessary was rhythm as an accompaniment to these ballads that the early minstrels shook a bundle of sticks1 or waved a metal rod like a baton4 ,with the greatly improved rhythms of the samisen at their command1 minstrels sprang up in all directions1 the new style of music being called ,joruri1 since the first ballad to be composed to the strains of the samisen concerned the love adventures of ,joruri-hime1 or ,princess ,joruri4 ,abundant materials were at hand1 and the minstrels competed with each other in depicting the life of the time4 ,the songs sung at festivals1 by sailors1 horsemen1 farmers1 vendors1 were eagerly seized1--stories of battles and love1 even religious propaganda formed the theme set to the ripple of the samisen4 ,this great activity culminated in the ,joruri of ,takemoto ,gidayu who1 gathering up all the existing materials1 concentrated them in his little doll-theatre1 the ,takemoto-za of ,osaka4 ,here ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon collaborated with him1 by writing the plays for the marionettes that moved to the voice of minstrel and samisen accompaniment4 ,gidayu ,joruri1 or the balladry of ,takemoto ,gidayu1 in turn had an overwhelming influence upon ,kabuki4 ,it was ,kineya ,kisaburo who first introduced the samisen into the orchestra of ,yedo ,kabuki4 ,kisaburo was the grandson of ,kineya ,kangoro1 a younger brother of ,saruwaka ,kansaburo1 the founder of ,yedo ,kabuki4 ,kangoro was an expert in the ,o-,kuni ,kabuki1 and when young was attached to the ,saruwaka-za as an actor4 ,he had two actor sons1 ,kisaburo and ,rokuzaemon4 ,later on ,kisaburo gave up acting1 and took up the samisen as his specialty4 ,the name ,kineya1 or rice pounder1 came from the crest chosen by ,nakamura ,kangoro4 ,thus it came about that this family of ,kabuki musicians and singers were firmly established and have continued until the present day4 ,the ,kineya genealogy is extremely complicated1 but the headship of the house has been handed down from father to son4 ,when there was a failure in blood relation1 the best pupil succeeded4 ,the present ,kineya ,rokuzaemon is the fourteenth in descent1 a young man in the twenties4 ,he is at the head of the ,kineya musicians attached to the ,imperial ,theatre of ,tokyo1 possesses a good voice1 and has appeared since he was a lad1 growing up1 as it were1 in the service of the stage4 ,at the time of the fifth ,kineya1 the theatre music in which the family specialised became known as ,nagauta 7long poem or song74 ,before this1 the ,kineya singers had entertained with short pieces1 but their art developed into something more important1 for they furnished the accompaniment of drum1 flute1 and samisen1 also the singing to which the actors danced in the music-posture dramas1 or shosagoto1 the most characteristic productions of ,kabuki4 ,this style of theatre music originating in ,yedo1 it has always been distinguished as ,yedo ,nagauta4 ,the music is reminiscent of the ,n1 from which it has taken much of its technique4 ,the large number of ,n dramas that have been popularised in order to suit ,kabuki requirements have received special treatment at the hands of different members of the ,kineya family1 who possess some two hundred compositions4 ,there are several branches to ,kineya--offshoots of the main line a hundred or more years ago--such as ,yoshizumi1 ,fujita1 and ,yoshimura4 ,the last two companies of musicians are chiefly attached to the ,kabuki-za of ,tokyo1 although they occasionally appear at other theatres4 ,tokyo critics consider ,yoshizumi ,kosaburo to possess the best voice1 but it is not strong1 and his activities are confined to entertainments given in small halls or private residences4 ,he is a ronin among the musicians1 and is not a regular member of a theatre company4 ,the two most popular ,kineya singers at present are ,yoshimura ,ejuro1 of the ,imperial ,theatre1 and ,fujita ,utazo1 of the ,kabuki-za4 ,kineya ,rokuzaemon1 although young1 has proved himself worthy to assume the responsibilities as head of this old family4 ,after ,nagauta1 the most popular theatre music is ,tokiwazu4 ,it belongs to ,joruri1 or balladry set to the samisen1 one of the innumerable streams of this music of the people4 ,the minstrel who founded this line was ,miyakoji ,bungojo1 and his tune was styled ,bungo-bushi4 ,this became all the rage in ,yedo1 for the words that went with the new airs were highly sentimental1 treating of love adventures1 elopements1 and kindred subjects4 ,it had an unwholesome effect upon society1 however1 the ,bungo-bushi inducing men and women to step out of the prescribed paths of virtue4 ,the authorities did everything in their power to suppress it1 but without success4 ,it was but a reaction against the ,puritanic rule in force1 and the themes of ,bungo-bushi--adultery1 elopement1 suicide1 and gambling--were but an expression of dissatisfaction on account of the rigid feudal laws which continually interfered with the people1 and caused them to break loose by way of protest4 ,miyakoji ,bungojo lived the life of which he sang1 for he was the victim of an unhappy love affair and committed shinju1 or double suicide1 with a young woman4 ,his adopted son1 ,mojidayu1 succeeded to and completed his father's work4 ,when ,bungo-bushi was forbidden1 ,mojidayu founded his own school4 ,he was afraid that his new style of music might suffer the same fate as ,bungo-bushi and made great changes4 ,in order that it might survive he took all the life and sensation out of it1 so that it now gives an impression of stiffness and repression4 ,when ,mojidayu looked about for a name for his music1 he hit upon one that offended the authorities4 ,it was considered much too assuming and high-sounding1 and was taken away from him in consequence4 ,as ,mojidayu lived near one of ,yedo's bridges1 the ,tokiwa-bashi1 or ,evergreen-,bridge1 not far from the modern ,bank of ,japan1 he selected ,tokiwazu1 and by this name his music has been known ever since4 ,the present ,mojidayu is the seventh in succession4 ,kiyomoto1 another branch of ,gidayu1 is closely allied to ,tokiwazu1 and a great variety of these tunes may be heard among the people4 ,shibai has faithfully preserved the most characteristic musical elements1 and it is within the theatre that ,japanese music is best represented4 ,gidayu ,joruri1 ,yedo ,nagauta1 ,tokiwazu1 and ,kiyomoto1 with a variety of minor styles1 form the musical settings for ,kabuki productions4 ,the ,gidayu ,joruri in vogue in shibai is taken bodily from the ,doll-theatre1 and is used whenever a drama written originally for the marionettes is produced4 ,in these masterpieces the actors are responsible for the dialogue1 while the minstrel sings the descriptions to the accompanying rhythms of the samisen1 giving the players an opportunity to posture and gesture to their hearts' content4 ,the ,gidayu minstrel and samisen player kneel on cushions on a raised rostrum to the right of the stage1 a silver or gold screen behind them4 ,in front of the minstrel is a lacquered book-rest1 where lies the ballad book 7joruri-bon7 in which the passages of the play are written by hand in large1 bold characters4 ,sometimes the minstrel enters into the conversation1 when he scolds or weeps1 laughs or pleads1 according to the emotion of the moment4 ,the difference between ,gidayu and ,nagauta is that the first is balladry and requires both recitation and song1 conversation and description1 while ,nagauta is but a series of songs1 solo or chorus1 interspersed with sustained orchestral effects of samisen1 drum1 and flute in complicated rhythms4 ,a full ,nagauta corps1 composed of many singers and samisen players1 all in ceremonial stage costume1 kneeling in a row on a red-covered dais across the stage1 with the drummers grouped below1 forming a background for the gorgeous characters of the music-drama1 is an unforgettable and truly representative ,kabuki picture4 ,in ,nagauta the singers commit the words to memory1 or have a small book close beside them4 ,like the chorus of the ,n stage1 they carry a closed fan which is taken up in one hand as they sing1 and placed in front of them at the end of their song4 ,tokiwazu and ,kiyomoto partaking of the nature of ,gidayu1 the singers kneel behind the lacquered stands supporting their books1 and are generally stationed on a high platform to left or back of the stage1 the only instrument being the samisen4 ,the movable platforms on which the musicians and singers sit are pushed on and pulled off as the exigencies of the descriptive dance require4 ,sometimes a curtain is held up in order that they may make good their escape from the stage4 ,as ,nagauta had an affinity with the ,n1 and treated of poetic and mystical subjects1 the upper classes patronised the ,kineya family1 and it has therefore always enjoyed a superior position4 ,these singers and musicians were regarded in the theatre as guests of honour1 who had condescended to accept the hospitality of shibai4 ,they were never classed so low in the social strata as the yakusha1 but had a recognised rank and place4 ,with the members of the ,gidayu1 ,tokiwazu1 and ,kiyomoto companies it was different4 ,their patrons were the wealthy merchants and tradespeople4 ,and because ,tokiwazu and ,kiyomoto were so closely related to shibai1 they came to be considered as something low class and vulgar4 ,in addition1 as the whole world of popular songs and short dances that formed the accomplishment of the geisha were associated with the samisen1 this instrument was never heard in the homes of persons of taste and breeding1 or those who valued their position of respectability4 ,one of the greatest defects of the samisen music is that it is divided into so many schools1 each guarding jealously its traditions4 ,when some new expression of the people's will is necessary these separate elements may be concentrated to form a new musical force1 just as ,takemoto ,gidayu recognised the value of the ,joruri of his day and1 combining them1 established the balladry of the ,doll-theatre on a firm foundation4 ,moreover1 however much criticism may be levelled at the samisen for the trivial and superficial matter with which it is often related1 it remains none the less the national music4 ,the samisen differs so largely from ,western instruments that comparisons are useless4 ,this is because samisen music depends almost completely on rhythm1 rather than melody1 to interpret emotion4 ,sound is inexhaustible1 and by groupings of sounds in changing rhythms the samisen musicians gain the effects they desire4 ,western ears are so accustomed to harmony1 that a departure from its stereotyped combinations causes bewilderment and irritation4 ,any other use of sound and rhythm than that to which their ears have grown familiar fails to affect them4 ,the music of shibai presents a whole world of uncharted music material4 ,ripple-clang-bang2 smoothness1 roughness1 villainy1 tranquillity2 falling snow1 a flight of birds1 wind in the tree-tops2 skirmish and fray1 the peace of moonlight1 the sorrow of parting1 the rapture of spring2 the infirmity of age1 the gladness of lovers1--all these and much more the samisen expresses to those who are able to look beyond the curtain that shuts this musical world away from ,western ears because of its baffling conventions of sound rather than melody4 ,symbol of the despised yakusha1 and in use in the none-too-irreproachable geisha world1 the samisen has been held in disfavour by the upper classes4 ,left to their own devices1 the people created their own theatre1 music1 and art4 ,there was no impetus from the aristocracy1 who held themselves aloof from the mass of the people4 ,the samurai had little to do with the creative spirit1 the scholars steeped in ,chinese philosophy and literature looked backward to the glorious past of ,japan's great continental neighbour1--it was the people of the three towns1 unaided1 without guide or inspiration from their betters1 who produced the music of shibai1 the plebeian legacy of the ,tokugawa age4 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,nakamura ,jakuemon 7,two sparrows1 face to face74 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,shibai ,,and ,,interference ,when the history of shibai is considered1 the wonder grows that it did not die of discouragement4 ,the effects of the ceaseless persecution that prohibited and hampered the creativeness of the theatre1 and brought it into evil repute can hardly be measured4 ,although the chilly formalism of the ,tokugawa ,shogunate seriously interfered with the development of the theatre1 the latent genius of the people asserted itself repeatedly with new vigour after each fresh attack on the part of the authorities4 ,rules and regulations with regard to stage settings1 costumes1 architecture1 furniture1 and plays almost prohibited shibai out of existence4 ,and the interference went so far as to concern itself with petty persecutions in the matter of the yakushas' private lives4 ,suppressed for centuries1 the taste of the people began to express itself in luxury and extravagance1 and nowhere was this state of society so perfectly mirrored as on the stage4 ,hence the constant conflict between the officials and the theatre4 ,the enforcement of simple living ideals had gone too far1 and the restless people1 tired of repression1 like a pendulum that swings back1 began to long after the flesh-pots of ,egypt4 ,how far frugality was carried out in ,old ,japan may be imagined from a statement made by the late ,marquis ,okuma when1 on one occasion1 he addressed new recruits to the ,army4 8,in my province01 he said1 8the cultivation of the sweet potato was forbidden at one time4 ,similar to this was the prohibition of sericulture by the ,shogun's ,government4 ,the reason was that the fields were necessary for the cultivation of rice1 and should not be used for materials of luxury1 for by so doing the good old habits of the people would be entirely destroyed4 ,in this age of enlightenment10 ,marquis ,okuma continued1 8even a schoolboy could at once detect the fallacy of such a view1 but it enables us to see what great stress our fathers and grandfathers put upon the importance of simple living40 ,another view concerning this side of ,japanese life under the shogunate is expressed by ,murdoch in his ,history of ,japan3 8,even at the present day the lower classes in ,japan are remarkable for the fewness of their wants1 rather than for the abundance of their possessions2 but in the brave days of the sixteenth century few of them could indulge in the luxury of having any wants at all1 beyond those of the birds or rabbits4 ,the poverty of the country people at this time was clearly grinding40 ,quite contrary in every respect were the resplendent yakusha1 with their extravagant tastes and striking styles that made such a strong appeal to the senses1 and the guiding principles of the nation which placed little value on the possession of worldly goods and emphasised simplicity and economy4 ,permeating the people was the ,buddhist doctrine of impermanency with its emphasis on the non-worship of things1 and opposed to this stood the yakusha who delighted in stage costumes of the richest materials1 the most dazzling embroideries in gold or silver4 ,the actors' love of display and extravagance required drastic measures in order that they should be held in check4 ,the very gorgeousness of the stage showing the purest instinct for all the colours of the rainbow gathered up from the odd corners of ,asia produced tendencies in the people that it was considered necessary to uproot4 ,it is curious to reflect that at identical periods the ,puritans in ,england and the ,tokugawa ,shogunate were interfering with the theatre1 for in #afdb an order of the ,english ,parliament forbade all public entertainments1 and the shogunate prohibited the ,wakashu ,kabuki1 or ,young ,men's ,stage1 in #afdd4 ,there was thus a similar attitude towards the theatre in the two island nations of ,east and ,west1 separated so widely and as yet scarcely aware of each other's existence4 ,after the ,women's ,stage1 or ,onna ,kabuki1 had been stopped1 ,government interference was frequent4 ,the direct cause of the banishment of the youthful actors of ,wakashu ,kabuki in #afdd is attributed to the chief magistrate of ,yedo4 ,he was invited to a friend's residence1 and saw among the attendants a young lad who was not only above the average in good looks but graceful in his movements and showed superior intelligence4 ,the magistrate inquired his name and parentage1 hoping to engage him as a page in his household4 ,to his astonishment he was told that the attendant was an actor4 ,straightway he ordered the officials under him to go to the theatre and see that the front locks of the young players were shorn1 for fear their attractiveness might be the means of corrupting society4 ,the shaving of the actors' heads1 directly responsible for the downfall of ,wakashu ,kabuki1 continued long in force4 ,and a further indignity was heaped upon the yakusha1 for they were obliged to proceed regularly to the police station that their heads might be examined1 as they were prone to elude the authorities in this regard if not watched4 ,soon after the edict that caused the abolition of ,wakashu ,kabuki the four leading playhouses of ,yedo1 together with the doll-theatres and minor places of amusement1 were ordered to be suspended because of the scandal between an actor and the wife of a daimyo4 ,the authorities were evidently bent on the extermination of the theatre1 but after repeated petitions on the part of the proprietors permission to reopen was granted the following year4 ,that the actors were regarded with open admiration by the ladies of the aristocracy is evident4 ,many stories are told with regard to the measures they took to see the players1 often inviting them to their homes4 ,this led to social breaches the officials were not slow to hold up as fearful examples of depravity4 ,in #afdh the third ,shogun's ,cabinet issued an order against members of the aristocracy attending the theatre1 and in #afee there was a regulation to the effect that as already proclaimed the yakusha were not allowed to attend the mansions of the aristocracy even if they were invited4 ,with regard to their stage costumes they must not be luxurious1 and plays in which extravagance was displayed were not allowed to be performed4 ,a conflagration that swept ,yedo in #afeg1 in the third year of ,meireki1 called the ,great ,fire of ,meireki1 gave the authorities a good opportunity to confine the theatres to one quarter4 ,the fire had started from a ,buddhist temple1 and lasted until the following day1 destroying the business centre of the town4 ,when after considerable delay the theatres were allowed to be rebuilt1 fewer licences were granted1 and but four large shibai were permitted to be erected in ,sakai-machi4 ,here for a period all the places of amusement1 large or small1 were segregated4 ,a description of ,sakai-machi is given in ,joruri ,shi1 or the ,history of ,joruri1 by ,takano4 ,he writes that it was a long street running east and west4 ,to the south were several doll-theatres clustering on each side of the ,nakamura-za4 ,but a short distance away were the ,ichimura-za and ,miyako-za1 set in the midst of marionette shows4 8,imagine how flourishing these places were in olden times01 observes the author4 ,side by side were the shibai1 wherein the inanimate marionettes competed with the actors of flesh and blood1 all the buildings crowded together on one thoroughfare1--each theatre displaying its banners1 flags1 lanterns1 and crests1 while the sound of the drums beaten in the yagura1 or drum-towers1 must have made quite a stir in the peaceful ,yedo of those days4 ,by #affa the yakusha's footsteps were dogged by regulations4 ,he was not allowed to mingle freely with the people4 ,in #affb it was forbidden for actors to use sticks ornamented with gold or silver1 and he was ordered to wear a kimono of the plainest description4 ,if he consulted his own taste and wore patterned material that showed a gay design1 he was promptly pounced upon4 ,under pains and penalties the yakusha was not to ride in a kago1 or palanquin1 or on horse1 and expressly prohibited from walking about freely4 ,these regulations relating to the daily lives of the play-actors became a species of tyranny1 and it was not surprising that they were broken heedless of the consequences4 ,for it was found impossible to suppress a human being's most natural desires and instincts4 ,in consequence the same rules and regulations were made over and over again1 the strictness of the observance depending on the firmness or laxity of the officials in power4 ,although the inclination of the actors and playwrights was always towards a larger and freer expression of their taste in colour and design1 yet they were obliged to keep to things less ornate1 for in #affh there were declarations that the theatres of ,sakai-machi must not be gorgeous1 but as modest as possible4 ,cotton and silk materials of an inferior quality were to be used for stage costumes1 the best workmanship in embroidery was to be avoided1 and the use of red or purple dye was entirely forbidden4 ,curtains of cotton crepe were granted1 but those of silk could not be used4 ,yakusha were ordered not to meet members of the samurai class after acting1 and they must not speak with traders or artisans except for a brief meeting4 ,the actors were also forbidden to enter the shibai chaya1 or mix with the audience1 and as these regulations were frequently ignored1 punishments were continually inflicted for infringements4 ,again in #afgh there was an official announcement to the effect that it was rumoured the actors were called to the residences of samurai and merchants4 ,if discovered1 the delinquents were to be severely punished4 ,the actors' residences were restricted to the theatre district2 furthermore1 they were not to lodge in the houses of other people1 or to have as inmates of their homes those who pursued other walks of life4 ,regulations issued in this same year concerned finery on the stage1 which was to be carefully avoided4 ,the costumes1 both of the yakusha and the marionette1 were required to be fashioned of cheap silk or cotton1 and greater strictness was to be observed in the shaving of the actors' heads4 ,should an actor and his patrons feel inclined to take a pleasant outing together on the ,sumida river1 it was regarded as a serious lapse from grace1 and as for straying outside the prescribed limits the authorities found themselves busy enforcing their rules1 since the irrepressible yakusha could not be kept within bounds very long at a time4 ,there was a regulation demanding that metal should not be used for stage swords2 they were to be of wood or bamboo covered with silver powder4 ,another forbade actors from being smuggled into the mansions of samurai or merchants clad in female costumes1 nor were they to enter the homes of private citizens under the assumption that they did not belong to the degraded fraternity4 ,during these long years of interference1 one outstanding event came to be largely responsible for the strict supervision of the theatres1 and this was the scandal involving the actor ,ikushima ,shingoro and ,yenoshima1 a lady-in-waiting at the ,shogun's ,court4 ,their amours proved to be a social upheaval the officials could neither forget nor forgive4 ,long after the affair had blown over it remained a dark cloud that cast its shadow on succeeding generations of actors4 ,an account of this1 taken from ,chiyoda no ,oku1 or the ,harem of ,yedo ,castle1 is quoted by ,ihara ,seiseiin1 in his ,history of the ,japanese ,stage4 ,it tells how the unfortunate theatre-folk became victims because of ,lady ,yenoshima's passion for ,ikushima ,shingoro4 ,some time in #agad the ,yamamura-za1 one of ,yedo's original shibai1 was opened1 and ,ikushima ,shingoro was playing there with much success4 ,at the same time1 one of the most prominent among the ladies-in-waiting in the castle was to be sent to pray at the temple of ,zojo-ji1 as a representative of the mother of ,shogun ,iyetsugu4 ,owing to the fact that several daimyo1 or feudal lords1 and hatamoto1 or direct vassals of the ,shogun1 had selected this day to repair to the temple to take part in ,buddhist services1 the ,court lady's visit was postponed1 and ,yenoshima chosen to fulfil the duty4 ,accordingly she sent a messenger to acquaint the priests that she intended to arrive very early in the morning1 and that no preparations would be necessary for her reception4 ,she would1 however1 find it highly gratifying if arrangements could be made whereby she and her party could pay a visit to a theatre in ,sakai-machi4 ,as might have been expected1 the reply of the priests to this missive was that the theatre part of the lady's programme was impossible1 since it was outside their jurisdiction4 ,this made ,yenoshima very angry1 and she arranged matters to suit herself4 ,there was a young clerk1 or banto1 in the employ of a ,yedo dry-goods establishment1 and he was accustomed to go to the castle regularly for orders4 ,here was a likely person to carry out her commands1 and he was accordingly commissioned to prepare the gallery of the ,yamamura-za for a party of one hundred persons4 ,as planned ,yenoshima proceeded to ,zojo-ji1 but hurrying over her spiritual duties1 and presenting but a portion of the money1 materials1 and other gifts that were designed for the priests1 she kept the remainder to be distributed as personal favours at the theatre4 ,she was accompanied by several other ladies-in-waiting of first rank1 as well as those who occupied lesser positions in the secluded world of the ,shogun's household2 also by male attendants4 ,the arrival of this company at the ,yamamura-za must have presented a most unusual spectacle in theatre street4 ,yamamura ,chodayu1 the proprietor of the theatre1 with the leading actors1 ,ikushima ,shingoro and ,nakamura ,seigoro1 clad in ceremonial costumes1 welcomed the distinguished visitors at the entrance to the theatre4 ,during an interval between the plays a feast was held1 and ,yenoshima1 who became slightly intoxicated1 spilled a bottle of sake1 the contents of which fell down on the heads of a party below4 ,it happened to be a samurai of the ,satsuma clan accompanied by his wife4 ,although one of ,yenoshima's party apologised1 the irate samurai left the theatre4 ,yenoshima was advised to return to the castle without delay1 but she would not listen1 determined to enjoy the adventure to the utmost4 ,yamamura ,chodayu invited the ladies to his private residence1 where ,nakamura ,seigoro and his wife assisted in the entertainment4 ,this young woman was very beautiful1 a graceful dancer as well as accomplished samisen player1 and had often been called to the castle to amuse the ,shogun's mother4 ,it was not until late at night that ,yenoshima retired1 returning to the castle1 and entering by an inconspicuous gate4 ,yenoshima1 who was a bold and independent character1 #cc years of age1 with an income of #fjj koku of rice to her credit1 patched up a story of the day's proceedings for the benefit of the ,shogun's mother1 omitting all reference to her wild escapade at the theatre4 ,in due time the whole matter came to the knowledge of the officials1 when it was discovered that ,yenoshima had been carrying on relations with ,ikushima ,shingoro for seven years1 and that she had taken one of this actor's daughters into the service of the ,court under the false pretence that the girl was from a samurai family4 ,the ,government dealt severely with all those who had participated in the carousal4 ,yenoshima was sentenced to exile on a lonely island1 her fate being softened at a later date through the clemency of the ,shogun's mother1 who pleaded for her1 when she was taken into the custody of the daimyo of the ,province of ,shinano4 ,it was the custom of these days for the entire family to suffer when one member had committed an offence1 and consequently the death penalty was meted out to ,yenoshima's elder brother1 while a young brother was exiled4 ,other relatives shared in the punishment4 ,as for ,yamamura ,chodayu1 ,ikushima ,shingoro1 and ,nakamura ,seigoro1 they1 too1 were exiled--even ,iwai ,hanshiro1 the most popular onnagata of the period1 sharing in the banishment4 ,the ,yamamura-za was first deprived of its licence1 then the building was demolished and the property confiscated by the ,government4 ,such was the end of the ,yamamura-za1 for it never dared to raise its head again among the ,yedo shibai4 ,at the same time the theatre censors drew their net of regulations closer and closer4 ,yedo shibai1 unlike those of ,osaka and ,kyoto1 had previous to the ,yenoshima affair two galleries1 making three stories1 but the authorities reduced them to one4 ,thin bamboo blinds had been suspended from the galleries as a protection for high-class playgoers that they might be removed from the vulgar gaze1 but these were ordered to be taken down4 ,this meant that persons of good family could no longer attend the theatre4 ,passage-ways from the theatre to the homes of the proprietors were taken away1 special rooms for banqueting at the tea-houses were given up4 ,even the roofs of the theatres1 that had been constructed in a more substantial way to protect playgoers against the elements1 were ordered to be made in a lighter fashion4 ,when alterations were desired in the construction of theatres or tea-houses1 report had to be made first to the officials before permission to proceed could be obtained4 ,the theatre was closed early1 and no plays allowed to run after sunset4 ,such were some of the shibai regulations that came about as the result of the ,lady ,yenoshima's indiscretions4 ,stage costumes especially came under the merciless scrutiny of the authorities4 ,special restrictions were made in #aghi4 ,all costumes were examined on the day preceding the performance4 ,officials were appointed whose duty it became to examine stage affairs to the minutest detail1 and after they had peered into all the nooks and corners behind the stage1 they gave permission for the play to be performed1 or interfered sadly with the arrangements1 by demanding alterations at the last moment1 according to their whim1 or from some idea of the proper respect due to their dignity4 ,if there were any changes in the plays after the inspection1 the offenders were summoned to appear at the censor's office and were fined or reprimanded4 ,many devices were resorted to by the yakusha to protect their beautiful kimono that they often designed themselves and as frequently embroidered with their own hands4 ,sometimes the better to pass the officials' inspection they sewed pieces of plain material over the decorated portions of their costumes1 but if a report of fine raiment reached the ears of the ever-watchful ones1 reprimands were in order4 ,as a means to put down extravagance1 it was ordered that the actors' salaries should be reduced by half4 ,but the yakusha generally found ways and means to evade this attempt against his income4 ,requests were made to the officials by the management that an actor wished more salary1 and if this was refused he remained away from the theatre under pretence of illness4 ,the plays could not go on without the drawing attraction of the popular actors1 and there came a time when the troubled managers asked the officials how the shibai could be maintained under such circumstances4 ,the fourth ,nakamura ,utayemon was fined for receiving too much salary4 ,nakamura ,nakazo records in his journal how his theatre could not make the customary advance on his salary and he received a short sword by way of compensation4 ,when an onnagata1 ,segawa ,kikunojo1 was returning home from the theatre one day in the year #aghi1 he wore an attractive kimono made of good silk crepe1 and his clothing was confiscated4 ,onoe ,matsusuke1 when taking the rle of a ,court lady1 wore a beautiful over-garment tied with silver cords1 and was reprimanded for extravagance4 ,the third ,nakamura ,utayemon was responsible for a costly curtain used during one of his performances1 and he was taken to task by the officials1 with the result that he became disgusted and decided to return to the ,osaka stage4 ,as he had made an agreement with the ,yedo theatre for a term of two years and he had remained but one1 the authorities brought him back to serve out his contract4 ,a gay performance was given at the ,nakamura-za in #agia1 and the stage properties were confiscated4 ,ichikawa ,yaozo made a gift of one hundred and ten kimono to the people of the theatre1 and when this raised the ire of the economy-loving officials ,yaozo is reported to have said3 8,my father ,yaozo left #ajj ryo to be used in accordance with his will4 ,i gave the kimono as he wished40 ,at the ,ichimura-za a robber was depicted selling the treasures of a daimyo1 and the authorities stopped it because it related to a feudal lord4 ,when a festival was held at the ,ichimura-za in memory of the ,soga ,brothers1 the heroes of many a ,kabuki piece1 the theatre people wore conspicuous kimono1 and displayed a great many lanterns for decorations4 ,since it was something out of the ordinary1 they were all fined4 ,once1 when the play required the interior of an ,imperial ,palace1 very beautiful stage furniture was used1 but this came under the ban1 and inferior articles were ordered to replace the originals4 ,interference even went so far as to plays4 ,the sakusha1 or playwrights1 were strictly forbidden by the ,government to write real history into their dramas4 ,in consequence1 they were obliged to camouflage fact with fiction4 ,reports that were circulated far and wide1 matters that had been discussed in every household1 were represented as belonging to a distant period4 ,the playgoers1 however1 were quick to understand the reference4 ,this is the reason why the opening scene of ,chushingura is placed a hundred years or more previous to the date of the sacrifice of the ,forty-seven ,ronin4 ,a quarrel broke out in the audience at the ,yamamura-za at one time because the name of a contemporary personage had been used in a play1 and thereafter no reference was allowed to living persons4 ,great care had to be taken in the choice of names given to the characters in a play1 for if a cognomen selected was already in the possession of some high family complaints were lodged with the authorities4 ,when fire again destroyed the ,nakamura-za and ,ichimura-za1 they were ordered to be rebuilt away from the centre of the town4 ,the ,kawarazaki-za1 which stood somewhat apart from the other theatres1 and had been untouched by the fire1 was left undisturbed4 ,the removal of the theatre site was explained as due to the laxity of the actors1 who were forgetting themselves and mingling with the people2 because they played such common1 vulgar things that had a bad influence upon society1 and because shibai was the source of changes in the fashions that incited the citizens to extravagance4 ,the severest period of interference the theatre had to undergo was during the administration of ,mizuno1 ,lord of ,echizen1 the prime minister of the shogunate1 who began his sweeping reforms in #ahdb1 hoping thereby to prop up the falling ,tokugawa ,government4 ,and when the ,ichimura-za and ,nakamura-za were burned down1 this dignitary decided that the time had arrived to put an end to the fortunes of shibai4 ,it was his intention to crush this institution of the people at a blow1 in order that the widespread immorality alleged should be suppressed4 ,mizuno stopped the work of theatre reconstruction1 and would have carried out his reforms with a high hand if it had not been for the head man of the theatre district1 called ,toyama4 ,this official was brought in for consultation4 ,the fate of ,yedo ,kabuki hung in the balance1 and the whole question depended on ,toyama's views as to the right of the people's theatre to exist4 ,whatever his defence it proved an effective checkmate to ,mizuno's plan to abolish shibai1 and a compromise was made by means of which the theatres were to be removed as far as possible from ,yedo castle1 and at a safe distance from the homes of the citizens to preserve them from contamination4 ,the new quarter selected was ,saruwaka-cho in ,asakusa1 the most thickly populated district of modern ,tokyo1 where the lurid pictures outlined by electric light of kinema houses1 second-rate theatres1 and many other places of entertainment are now to be found4 ,this district is still called theatre street1 although ,tokyo's leading playhouses are scattered throughout the capital4 ,mizuno's attempt to check the evils of society were all in vain4 ,soon after his time1 ,meiji era dawned with the restoration of the ,emperor to power1 and the lives of the people began to flow in new and unexpected channels4 ,the thoughts of those in power were too much engrossed with the opening of their country to trade and outside influences to trouble about the shaving of the actors' heads1 and the innumerable and wellnigh insupportable restrictions that had so long been endured gradually became null and void4 ,for #bdd years1 from the prohibition of the ,women's ,stage to the ,restoration1 or from #afbd to #ahfh1 interference with the theatre had continued without relaxation in the three towns--the regulations in ,yedo1 which form the subject of ,ihara ,seiseiin's painstaking researches in his ,history of the ,japanese ,stage1 applying in a greater or lesser degree to the shibai conditions of ,osaka and ,kyoto4 ,one of the most deplorable results was the relegation of the actor and playwright to the lower strata of society4 ,the repetition of the rules and regulations against the theatre as a nest of iniquity that had no right to existence caused the people to grow indifferent towards the actors and playwrights4 ,they undervalued them personally1 although they enjoyed their art4 ,yet had their genius attained a much higher level than it did1 there would have been no recognition for them in the scheme of things made possible by the shogunate1 since the spiritual products of the people counted for nothing4 ,the venerable and eloquent ,marquis ,okuma1 addressing a gathering of literary men and women at his residence1 admitted literature's place in ,japan4 ,his past career1 he said1 had been taken up with politics1 diplomacy1 religion1 and economics2 but he had given no consideration to literature4 ,he confessed that he now realised for the first time1 after a long life of eighty years1 that literature was necessary in the building up of a new civilisation and the reconstruction of a new society for human beings1 just as the different branches of science were necessary4 ,as he had been born into the serious ,saga clan1 which had no idea of pleasure1 he had never once in his earlier career witnessed a theatrical performance4 ,he had no taste for music1 and was taught to look down upon literature4 ,this was the common attitude towards the drama1 acting1 and everything else that pertained to the ,japanese theatre4 ,badgered and beset by unsympathetic outsiders1--who were the mere minions of officialdom1--isolated and degraded1 the players and playwrights1 pariahs of society as they were1 builded better than they knew4 ,illustration3 ,nakamura ,fukusuke of ,tokyo in an onnagata rle4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,externals ,,of ,,shibai ,for a faithful preservation of the stage of the ,murayama-za1 one of ,yedo's first shibai1 modern playgoers are indebted to a play within a play4 ,it concerns ,banzuiin ,chobei1 a plain citizen of ,yedo who was treacherously done to death by an evil samurai1 and brings to mind the turbulent ,yedo days when the samurai tested their new swords on such loiterers as happened to pass their way1 while the otokodate1 or chivalrous commoners1 were ever ready to take the part of the oppressed1 and risk their lives in crossing swords with the blustering soldiery4 ,chobei and ,mizuno happen to meet in the ,murayama-za4 ,the play is progressing on the old-fashioned stage1 patterned so closely after that of the ,n theatre4 ,four pillars support a heavy sloping roof that is constructed like the entrance to a temple4 ,the stage is square1 the musicians kneeling at the back4 ,a long bridge passage joins the stage at right angles--the hashigakari of the ,n theatre4 ,the characters in the play are a youthful hero in gorgeous attire and a timid onnagata listening to an argument between a peaceful priest clad in scarlet and ,kimpira1 the grotesque1 bloodthirsty hero of the old ballads4 ,guards are stationed on either side of the theatre near the stage proper to preserve the peace4 ,looking down on the stage to right and left are upper boxes hung with fine bamboo curtains for such members of the privileged classes as may attend4 ,for audience there are the playgoers of ,tokyo4 ,and when all eyes are focussed on the stage of the ,murayama-za1 a character in the play1 a drunkard looking for a quarrel1 swaggers in along the hanamichi and causes a disturbance4 ,chobei suddenly appears1 springing out of his seat in the pit1 and as if by magic the twentieth century is wiped out1 and the playgoer travels back into the past1 and for the moment is immersed in the very atmosphere of the old ,yedo shibai4 ,this early ,yedo stage showed scarcely any difference from the type in vogue during the ,onna ,kabuki and ,wakashu ,kabuki periods1 and was in all essentials like that of ,o-,kuni ,kabuki with the exception that it was of a more permanent construction4 ,there was1 however1 no roof as a protection against the weather4 ,the pit was of beaten earth1 and the groundlings had a straw mat apiece and were provided with a small hibachi1 or brazier1 ,tickets were purchased for the whole or half day1 or for one act4 ,but evidently the theatres knew how to charge1--a matter that is not overlooked even at the present1--for in an old book it is mentioned that it was necessary to pay even to light one's tobacco4 ,these lights were called fire-ropes1 a twisted cord of rice straw set on fire and left to smoulder1 a convenient manner of starting a pipe in the days before matches1 when the only means of producing fire was by striking the flint4 ,during the first years of ,genroku1 a roof to cover the audience was built1 and galleries added for the accommodation of the increasing attendance4 ,the construction of the theatre made great progress when ,government regulations demanded that playhouses be of one story and straw mats used to keep out rain and sunshine4 ,after the segregation of the ,yedo shibai to ,sakai-machi1 many improvements came about4 ,the ,ichimura-za used drop as well as drawn curtains1 and large stage furniture was seen for the first time4 ,illustration3 ,a ,kaomise1 or ,face ,showing ceremony at the ,nakamura-za in #aggb4 ,by this time the roof of the stage had disappeared and only its symbol remained over the front of the stage1 which now approached the long narrow style in vogue in the ,doll-theatre4 7,colour print by ,utagawa ,toyoharu47 ,but by #agej the main externals of the shibai were fixed and showed a striking change4 ,the bridge passage of the ,n used by shibai for entrances and exits had given place to the hanamichi1 or flower-way--the continuation of the stage through the audience4 ,there were galleries behind which were sliding doors and movable screens of fine bamboo1 ensuring privacy for those occupying these elevated seats4 ,in ,yedo three galleries were a feature of the shibai1 but these were not seen in ,kyoto and ,osaka4 ,this was because the ,yedo playhouses enjoyed greater prosperity and were more crowded than those of the other towns4 ,drawn curtains were used1 the stage was decorated with artificial flowers1 and elaborate stage furniture came into use4 ,owing to the scandal of ,lady ,yenoshima and ,ikushima ,shingoro in #agad1 the architecture and developments of shibai externals received a severe check4 ,substantial roofing was forbidden and straw mats were ordered instead4 ,the building was limited to one story1 and galleries were abolished4 ,as the result of a petition filed by the three chief theatres in #agah1 permission was granted to cover the theatres with boarding1 and afterwards1 when frequent fires threatened to destroy these flimsy erections1 more substantial structures were allowed with tiled roofs1 and thick mud walls1 like those of warehouses1 or godowns1 in which valuables are still stored4 ,until recent years this type of playhouse persisted in the three towns4 ,one of the most interesting facts concerning the development of the externals of shibai was the rapidity with which the stage outgrew its original form4 ,the place for performances in the ,n1 later in ,o-,kuni ,kabuki1 and likewise in the first ,yedo theatres1 had all been square4 ,greater space was needed for the representation of complex plays1 and the back pillars were eliminated4 ,when ,chushingura was to be presented in ,yedo in #ageg the two large front pillars to right and left of the stage were found to be in the way1 and were sacrificed4 ,with the four supports gone1 the temple-like roof of the stage also went out of commission4 ,this roof1 associated with the ,n stage for hundreds of years1 and about which clung something religious and sacred1 had so long been a familiar external of shibai1 that the theatre people1 while realising that it had served its purpose1 did not wish to part with it altogether4 ,it was therefore represented in relief1 projecting over the proscenium4 ,nowhere is this adaptation of the stage to the new requirements of a developing drama more clearly to be seen than in the illustrations of shibai left by the print artists4 ,a picture attributed to ,masanobu shows the interior of the ,nakamura-za in #agdj4 ,the thatched roof of the stage is still in existence1 as well as the two front-pillars1 but those at the back have disappeared in order to give greater room4 ,slightly elevated to the left is a platform for the musicians1 and although the square platform had not been dispensed with1 it was becoming too cramped4 ,in this picture the second ,danjuro appears in one of the family pieces1 ,yanone1 or ,arrow-,point1 acting on a small apron-like projection of the stage4 ,his big three-rice-measure crest is clear upon one shoulder1 and in front of him there is an exaggerated whetstone on which he is about to sharpen a huge arrow4 ,the small enclosure in which he sits represents the temporary dwelling-place of this highly imaginary character4 ,there are two galleries1 and a narrow passage-way through the pit1 while lanterns bearing the actor's crest are suspended from the ceiling4 ,practically the same scene is represented in another colour print by ,masanobu of the ,nakamura-za interior four years later1 in #agdd4 ,a near view of the stage is obtained1 but it shows no change4 ,actors of the ,ichikawa and ,otani families hold the centre of the stage4 ,in the background is the bell which shows the piece to be ,dojo-ji1 the music-drama ,kabuki appropriated from the ,n relating to a female demon that comes to wreak vengeance on the new bell of the temple1 ,dojo-ji1 which has just been hung4 ,segawa ,kikunojo1 the onnagata1 stands on the hanamichi representing the fascinating maiden who is the evil creature in disguise4 ,illustration3 ,interior of the ,nakamura-za in #agih when ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the sixth1 was promoted to the head of the theatre4 ,by this time the roof of the stage had become a decoration overhead4 7,colour print by ,utagawa ,toyokuni47 ,still another colour print by ,nishimura ,shigenaga1 of the ,nakamura-za in #agdi1 shows a sudden transformation of the stage4 ,the two front pillars and the heavy roof that had come to be an encumbrance have disappeared4 ,in this picture the piece represented is ,takeda ,izumo's ,chushingura1 enacted with so much success by the marionettes that the real actors sought to emulate them4 ,sawamura ,sojuro1 popular as ,yuranosuke1 the leader of the loyal ,forty-seven ,ronin1 and ,ichikawa ,ebizo are the central figures4 ,the musicians have been relegated to a position in the wings2 there are screens for background1 and a curtain to the left bears the icho-leaf emblem adopted by ,nakamura ,kansaburo1 the founder of ,yedo ,kabuki1 after his lucky dream4 ,practically the same theatre interior is reproduced in a print of the ,ichimura-za made in #ageb1 with the exception that the curtains on either side of the stage show the crest of this theatre1 a conventional orange with its leaves4 ,in a colour print by ,utagawa ,toyohara in #agga1 the stage of the ,nakamura-za has lost all connection with its square origin4 ,in this picture there are seen the two hanamichi1 large and small1 that are still a feature of the modern shibai4 ,another picture by the same artist done in the following year shows a ,kaomise1 or ,face-,showing ceremony1 at the ,nakamura-za1 and perspective is used to suggest the spaciousness of the interior4 ,this is evidence of the complete transformation from a square to a long stage parallel to the audience4 ,the picture is one of the series depicting eight famous places of ,yedo4 ,the ,kaomise1 or ,face-,showing ceremony1 with ,danjuro1 the sixth1 as leading actor at the ,nakamura-za in #agih1 also forms the subject of a print by ,toyokuni1 which shows that the externals had by this time become permanent4 ,this transformation of the stage within a short period1 approaching in its essentials the ,western theatre1 would lead to the supposition that outside influence was at work4 ,but the cause lay nearer at home4 ,it was the stage of the ,doll-theatre that eventually prevailed4 ,this was long1 low1 and deep1 to afford ample room for the complicated movements of the marionettes1 the combined efforts of groups of doll-handlers1 and for the comings and goings of the property-men and scene-shifters4 ,in order to cope with the plays introduced from the realm of puppetry1 the externals of the doll-stage were adopted1 and the only link with the origin of shibai on the banks of the ,kamo ,river in ,kyoto was the roof-symbol placed in a position of honour as decoration above the new stage4 ,the two most striking features of the interior of the theatre brought into use with the changed form of the stage were the hanamichi and the revolving stage4 ,the hanamichi1 or flower-way1 was a continuation of the stage through the audience1 a place for entrance and exit1 where the intimacy of actor and audience was firmly established4 ,as to its origin1 there is an opinion that it was a path leading to the stage through the pit1 bordered on either side by a low bamboo fence decorated with flowers4 ,there is also the idea that it came about to accommodate admirers of particular actors who started the custom of bestowing gifts upon their favourites4 ,according to the ceremony of the ,east1 their presentations were elaborately wrapped up1 the string that tied the parcel was decorated with an artificial flower1 and for the bearer of these gifts a regular path was made connecting with the stage4 ,these are fanciful ideas that can hardly be justified4 ,for the presence of the two hanamichi in shibai shows conclusively how consistently the ,kabuki actors and playwrights conformed to that inherent desire of the audience to be on intimate terms with the gorgeous personages of the theatre4 ,illustration3 ,the largest ,n theatre in ,japan1 that of ,onishi ,ryotaro in ,osaka1 a modern construction combining architectural features representing the different periods of the ,n theatre development4 ,when the bridge-stage connecting with the square platform1 purloined from the ,n theatre1 was abandoned1 the hanamichi1 raised just above the heads of the playgoers1 was substituted1 an audience stage designed for striking entrances and sensational exits1 a place to display to the fullest extent beautiful garments1 fascinating actors1 to intensify emotion1 and heighten a dramatic situation4 ,in the same manner1 the revolving stage became of great assistance in staging the long plays with many acts1 for while the actors were playing out in front1 the carpenters were busy with their creations behind1 and the change of scene could be quickly effected4 ,with long use it developed a special technique1 and was turned to suit a variety of landscape and architectural requirements4 ,it has been very largely responsible for the undeniable beauty of ,kabuki settings4 ,this was acquired in the same manner as so many other good things of shibai that had not emanated from within2 it was borrowed from the ,doll-theatre4 ,among the complex apparatus of the ,doll-theatre was found the revolving stage long before it came into the possession of ,kabuki4 ,outside the shibai1 the most characteristic feature was the yagura1 or drum-tower4 ,this was a small square platform built out from the roof and above the main theatre entrance1 where was placed the big drum used to announce the opening of the shibai4 ,around it on three sides a curtain was stretched1 bearing the crest of the theatre4 ,this had been used by ,o-,kuni and ,nagoya ,sansaburo when they established their new entertainment1 and it was supposed to resemble a castle tower with a battle drum4 ,it was the custom to erect five spears in this tower1 which ,kabuki ,koto ,hajime1 or ,beginnings of ,kabuki1 mentions as representing five retainers who held the lances for their feudal lord4 ,but the origin of the yagura is vague4 ,since the time of ,o-,kuni1 however1 until the present1 it has continued to adorn the outside of the theatre1 and although it is seen no more in ,tokyo1 in the shibai of ,kyoto and ,osaka it is still preserved4 ,the drummer no longer beats his signal from the big-drum tower1 but he now performs this duty within the theatre just previous to the drawing of the curtain1 making a stirring sound that causes playgoers to hurry to their seats with pleasurable anticipations4 ,by the middle of ,meiji a flood of ,western stage ideas had begun to inundate ,japan4 ,imported styles of theatre architecture1 together with externals1 now threaten to supersede those that are so thoroughly characteristic of shibai and have been in existence for so long4 ,old shibai is passing4 ,it seems but a matter of time before the picturesque externals developed in the three towns in the brave days of old shall have vanished from the land4 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,jitsukawa ,enjaku 7,double well-head74 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,nakamura ,fukusuke of ,tokyo 7,back of plum blossom74 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,onoe ,baiko 7,chrysanthemum and leaves74 ,,sakusha ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,customs ,,of ,,the ,,sakusha ,the ,kabuki playwright1 or sakusha 7lit41 to-make-man71 was part and parcel of the theatre4 ,he served the theatre because it was in him to do so1 but the smallness of his remuneration and the inferior position assigned to him greatly restricted the scope of his activities and retarded his development4 ,he degenerated finally into a mere drudge of the actors1 a menial to carry out their commands4 ,the actors enjoyed the right of way1 and while the ideas of the playwright were eagerly seized upon1 the sakusha continued to be crushed to the wall4 ,there were no literary men aloof from the theatre to form a higher court of appeal and dictate in the matter of plays4 ,a glimpse of the dignity of the old sakusha and the theatre gatherings in which he figured1 as well as some of his customs1 is afforded in ,engeki ,taizen1 or ,complete-,account-of-,drama1 by ,sekine ,mokuan1 one of the leading modern writers upon the theatre4 ,the sakusha were divided into different classes1 and assigned to various duties in the theatre4 ,the tate sakusha1 or leading playwrights1 were also called the tate tsukuri1 while the second ranked as nimaime1 and the third were called the sanmaime4 ,under these were the kyogen sakusha1 or kyogen kata1 and there were still a lower class whose duty it was to act as secretaries and to write out the plays by hand4 ,another function of these supernumeraries was to write the announcement of the plays in big characters on the boards in front of the theatre1 and they were responsible for the synopsis of the play1 provided for the enlightenment of the audience4 ,they also attended to the correspondence of the theatre folk4 ,the different rles in a new play were given to the clerical sakusha to be transcribed for the actors4 ,since the performances began early in the morning and continued all day1 it was a task to provide a long programme with many acts and scenes4 ,in the writing of these lengthy plays an inferior sakusha was always allotted the opening scenes1 which merely prepared the minds of the audience for what was about to happen1 fixing a few landmarks by way of introduction4 ,the secondary sakusha was held responsible for the act that followed1 but the most important act of a piece was always reserved for the best writer4 ,this is the reason why so many of the strongest scenes in a play have survived when the work done by the less gifted writers is now sunk in oblivion4 ,the composition of the poor writers merely served to make known the characters of a play to the audience and generally had very little merits4 ,in the old days the first and second playwrights were obliged to attend the theatre every day before the second act1 and to stay until the performances were over4 ,it is therefore not surprising to find that they practically spent their lives in the theatre4 ,when the good old customs began to relax1 the chief writers took turns in visiting the theatre1 and if there was no special place for their use1 they sat themselves down in the space reserved for the superintendent1 or disciplinarian of the busy world back of the stage4 ,later on a room was assigned to them4 ,the wages given to these men were very small4 ,the head sakusha received a lump sum1 and this he had to divide among the others4 ,if a sakusha displayed some particular talent and the play went well1 then he received a gift in money direct from the management4 ,tsuruya ,namboku was considered to have received quite an unusually high payment1 for he was given #ej to #fj ryo for the run of one of his plays1 and a certain small sum for every day of the performances4 ,the ordinary sakusha was paid a sum very much less than this1 and when he divided among the smaller fry there was precious little left for himself4 ,mokuami and ,fukuchi1 the two star playwrights of ,meiji era1 received as remuneration from #aej to #bjj yen for their new plays in which ,danjuro1 the ninth1 appeared4 ,this was handsome treatment compared to the meagre compensation considered sufficient for the old sakusha4 ,on the other hand1 ,danjuro reaped thousands of yen--a fortune compared to the pittance doled out to the men who had provided him with a vehicle for his talents and the means of stage success4 ,the recognition of the talent of the yakusha was out of all proportion to that accorded the sakusha1 and this still holds true of modern ,kabuki4 ,in the early days of the ,kabuki playwriters1 it was the custom for a theatre to employ a first-class sakusha1 and after he had written his piece1 he would decide what actors were to take the different characters1 and the play was planned according to the qualifications of the actors4 ,but as time went on the actors came to decide themselves what should be performed1 and the playwrights were invited to assist in the carrying out of the actors' ideas4 ,there were also the suggestions of the theatre proprietors to be considered1 for they had an eye to the main chance1 and the freedom of the writer of plays was continually curtailed1 his dignity impaired1 and his originality hampered4 ,one ,kabuki ceremonial1 however1 allowed the leading sakusha to take a prominent part1 and this was the announcement of a new play4 ,it was called sekai-sadame1 or world-decision1 meaning the selection by the sakusha of certain material from the interesting world at large4 ,after the playwriter had received the approval of the chief actors1 consulted with the theatre proprietor1 and arranged the minor rles with the players of lesser rank1 he then began to write his play4 ,he received a sum of money in advance1 settled on a lucky day1 and started to work4 ,paper and ink were supplied4 ,generally when the sakusha knelt before his small low table to begin he was provided with five bundles of the very best paper1 and five bundles of a lesser quality1 five pairs of fude1 or writing brushes1 and five tablets of concentrated ink1 called sumi1 which after being moistened and rubbed against the stone in the ink-box produces the jet-black fluid into which the brush is dipped before making the beautiful characters of the ,japanese written language4 ,those privileged to attend the 8world-decision0 were the leading playwright1 chief actors1 the proprietor and manager4 ,after the time of the second ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 second-class playwrights were allowed to be present and two or three onnagata4 ,originally it was a most dignified meeting1 but the good old customs degenerated and it became less significant4 ,on the day of the announcement of a new play1 towards sunset1 long1 narrow1 gaily-coloured lanterns were hung above the entrance to the theatre1 and the innumerable tea-houses also displayed their lanterns in honour of the occasion4 ,the theatre streets were ablaze with paper spheres1 and the whole district felt the importance of the ceremony4 ,those especially invited attended clad in their best1 a silk skirt or hakama1 and a black silk overcoat1 or haori1 on the sleeves of which was to be seen the family crest1 in white1 of the wearer4 ,behind the stage in a room reserved for the purpose was the place of meeting4 ,a series of folding screens were arranged about the chief participants1 outside of which were grouped the various theatre folk and attendants4 ,the number of persons within the screened space was limited1 as the details of the new play were to be kept secret1 and news concerning it was not allowed to leak out too quickly to rival theatres4 ,there is one instance on record when the privilege of being invited to the ceremonial of the play announcement was granted to an outsider4 ,it was when ,danjuro1 the seventh1 was actor-manager of the ,kawarasaki-za in ,yedo1 and ,sawamura ,toshi1 who was very popular1 was taken to the meeting1 but there was much discussion and a great fuss made over this innovation4 ,illustration3 ,kataoka ,nizaemon1 the eleventh1 as ,yuranosuke1 the leader of the ,forty-seven ,ronin1 in the play ,chushingura4 ,when the dignitaries of the theatre had taken their places the stage manager would formally address the leading playwright as follows3 8,i hope that you will give us your support this year as before4 ,it would be a very auspicious thing if we could learn what choice you have made of a play40 ,then the chief sakusha stood up1 holding a folded paper in his hand1 and read forth the name of the play and its characters1 also the names of four or five of the leading actors who were to take the chief rles4 ,at this juncture there might be some disagreement between the stage manager and the sakusha1 and if so the point was decided by lottery1 but afterwards when all details of the play were decided beforehand this part of the ceremony became a mere formality4 ,the sakusha holding the paper1 symbol of the play1 tied with red and white cords1 handed it first to the stage manager and afterwards to the actors1 and when this was over all present clapped their hands with regular beats1 as is the custom at gatherings in ,japan1 as a sign of congratulation4 ,then the much-handled paper was given to the chief actor1 and the stage manager said to him3 8,may it please the spirit of the god in your house to keep this paper01 to which the actor would make answer3 8,i will take it home and keep it until to-morrow1 and congratulate myself on having this play40 ,then all present again clapped their hands1 and the meeting came to an end4 ,the matter of the refreshments served at such times differed in each theatre4 ,at the ,morita-za1 manju1 a bean-paste cake1 was given to the people within the screen1 while at the ,ichimura-za a dinner with sake was served generously4 ,this old custom gradually lost its significance1 and in later years it was not observed in the same dignified manner4 ,sometimes the new play meeting was held at the house of a sakusha1 and later the manager of the theatre invited those concerned to his house4 ,the play had to be endorsed by the manager first1 and the position of the sakusha gradually changed for the worse4 ,when the play-deciding meeting was over1 the sakusha wrote out the actors' rles1 and when everything was settled a draft of the piece was sent to the police authorities1 a practice that exists even at present4 ,the police censors examined the new play before permission to stage it was granted4 ,another event of importance to the sakusha in ,yedo's theatrical world was the first rehearsal held every year on ,october #agth1 when the general plan of new plays was announced and the actors assembled for rehearsal4 ,this was called yorizome1 or first gathering1 and was held on this particular date because it happened to be the annual festival of the ,goddess-of-,mercy temple in ,asakusa4 ,this particular day was selected by ,nakamura ,kansaburo1 since he had such a strong faith in ,kwannon1 the ,goddess of ,mercy4 ,the temple sacred to this ,buddhist divinity was the centre of worshippers from all parts of ,yedo1 as it still remains to-day in teeming ,tokyo4 ,it was a gathering attended by the playwrights1 the actors1 with the exception of the lowest ranks1 and officials of the theatre4 ,the head of the musicians1 or hayashikata1 was also present4 ,this was a festive occasion in the theatre quarter1 and the streets were bright with lanterns4 ,after a general exchange of dinner parties1 these people of the theatre gathered together in front of the shibai right under the yagura1 or drum-tower1 and entered by the small door called the nezumi-kido1 or rat door1 so called because it was so low that people had to bend their bodies almost double to go through4 ,when they came to the stage they clapped their hands in unison1 and passed on4 ,upon arrival at the place of meeting1 which was generally held in a room on the third floor behind the stage1 the company again clapped their hands4 ,the meeting was conducted with such a rigid regard for details1 that even the sitting position assigned to the respective persons was minutely arranged beforehand4 ,the theatre manager addressed the proprietor1 saying that he deemed it a great favour to be able to hold the meeting this year1 to which the proprietor answered3 8,may all the years to come be as auspicious as this04 ,short songs were then sung1 after which the chief sakusha turned his body towards the theatre shrine1 where a symbol of the animal of the year was placed--the years being called after the tiger1 rat1 horse1 cow1 monkey1 dragon1 etc41 according to the twelve signs of the ,chinese zodiac4 ,since the sakusha was obliged to read the play before the actors delivering the lines1 according to the distinction between old and young1 hero and villain1 men and women1 it is easy to imagine that when he faced the shrine and declared the title of the new play it must have been given with a sonorousness and a flavour of the theatre that impressed itself upon those who were to take part in it1 and shows a reverence for the ideas that emanated from the sakusha's brain1 even if these worthies of the theatre were never placed on an equality with the actors4 ,after the title of the play had been announced with all due ceremony1 a repast followed4 ,at the ,nakamura-za1 the front of the theatre was adorned with an arrangement of artificial pink and white plum blossoms1 and various refreshments were served1 while at the ,ichimura-za ,japan's diminutive oranges were thrown about from one person to another to increase the merriment4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,representative ,,sakusha ,the actors were their own playwrights in the early period of ,kabuki1 for the pieces they produced were the result of collaboration4 ,they planned1 altered1 or improvised as they felt inclined4 ,previous to the ,genroku age which produced ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon1 who stands head and shoulders above the dramatists of ,japan1 both for the quality of his work and for the number of pieces he produced1 there were two pioneer writers of plays--,fukui ,yagozaemon1 in ,osaka1 and ,miyako ,dennai1 in ,yedo4 ,yagozaemon was the first ,kabuki playwright of importance4 ,he wrote ,hinin no ,adauchi1 or ,the ,beggar's ,revenge1 in three acts1 in the year #affd4 ,plays up to this time had been limited to one act4 ,the convention of the ,n stage to give but one-act pieces had been established long before ,kabuki was born4 ,yagozaemon's departure from all precedent was something of an innovation1 and the piece met with great success4 ,it had for plot the adventures of a samurai who disguised himself as a beggar in order to take revenge upon an enemy1 but was himself attacked by the man whom he sought4 ,the piece had qualities of longevity1 for it has remained a favourite with actors for the past #bej years1 and is at present one of the best plays in the repertoire of ,nakamura ,ganjiro of ,osaka4 ,when he acts the beggar1 ,ganjiro resurrects the ,kabuki of ,yagozaemon in a vivid manner4 ,middle-aged female characters were ,yagozaemon's specialty1 and he was considered an encyclopaedia on theatre matters1 for no young actor was supposed to know his art unless he had studied under him4 ,by means of his plays he was largely instrumental in adding lustre to the careers of the actors ,fujita ,koheiji and ,araki ,yojibei1 as well as ,kaneko ,rokuyemon1 for whom the ,beggar's ,revenge was especially written4 ,in the same year that ,yagozaemon produced his continuous play1 ,miyako ,dennai wrote ,imagawa ,shinobi ,guruma in two acts1 that was produced at the ,ichimura-za1 in ,yedo4 ,it concerned a loyal vassal by the name of ,imagawa ,toshihide who1 while making an effort to save the life of his lord1 was injured and carried home by his wife1 the title meaning1 ,imagawa in ,disguise in a ,cart4 ,and it was in this piece that ,ichimura ,takenojo played4 ,he was the nephew of the first ,uzaemon1 the proprietor of the ,ichimura-za1 but shaved his head and became a ,buddhist priest4 ,rapid development in settings1 costumes1 and plays had already begun when ,miyako ,dennai wrote this play1 for at the end of each act a black curtain was let down1 and during the interval when the next scene was being prepared a dance was performed4 ,stage furniture was used and many improvements carried out in stage settings4 ,an actor who studied under ,yagozaemon1 called ,kaneko ,rokuyemon1 had two followers1 ,tominaga ,heibei and ,kaneko ,kichizaemon1 and both of the latter became well-known playwrights4 ,heibei has left no record as an actor1 but he was the first to separate the two professions1 making them distinct from each other4 ,in #afhj1 ,heibei signed his name as a playwright on the banzuke1 or illustrated announcement of the plays4 ,the theatre folk considered it a very presumptuous proceeding1 and ,heibei was cordially disliked for putting himself forward4 ,yet by so doing he definitely disconnected the two professions4 ,he lived until the middle of the ,genroku age1 when playbooks began to have wood-cut illustrations4 ,some of his works have been preserved1 in which there are complicated plots of fair ladies1 gentlemen ready in the use of swords1 revenge1 women disguising themselves as men1 and males masquerading as women1 the appearances of ghosts1 all of which appear to have been popular ,kabuki themes in ,heibei's time4 ,towards the end of his career1 ,heibei's plays were not successful1 and he was advised to write better ones4 ,according to the ,kokon ,yakusha ,taizen1 or ,account of ,ancient and ,modern ,actors1 ,heibei is said to have replied to the criticism levelled at him by saying that it was not right to compose uninteresting plays1 at the same time it would be the greatest good fortune for the theatre proprietor if there were always good plays4 ,but before the audience grew tired of good plays1 the grass would grow in the ,dotombori canal 7which waterway the ,osaka theatres all faced in these old days as they do at present74 ,heibei must have been confronted by the same problems that beset the modern playwriter all over the world4 ,more is known of ,kaneko ,kichizaemon than of ,tominaga ,heibei1 although they were both pupils of ,kaneko ,rokuyemon4 ,perhaps it is because ,kichizaemon wrote later than ,heibei1 beginning in the middle of ,genroku1 in ,kyoto4 ,he was an actor1 and ranked as a dokegata1 or comic specialty1 and was criticised adversely because he made his own part prominent in the plays he wrote4 ,the most significant fact in relation to ,kichizaemon is that he collaborated with ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon in writing for the most outstanding actor of ,kyoto during ,genroku1 ,sakata ,tojuro4 ,they first began this collaboration in #afii1 at the ,miyako-,mandayu-za in ,kyoto1 and it lasted for ten years1 when ,kichizaemon continued to write for ,tojuro's successor1 ,yamashita ,kyozaemon1 and ,chikamatsu threw in his lot with the marionettes1 leaving for ,osaka1 where he produced pieces in rapid succession for the ,doll-theatre4 ,his plays written for the doll-actors were the first real contribution to ,japanese literature that a playwright had made4 ,kaneko ,kichizaemon wrote two volumes called ,jijinshu1 or ,collection of the ,year's ,dust1 little stories about actors in which he played ,boswell to ,tojuro's ,johnson1 recording this famous actor's words and advice and handing down a vivid impression of the man4 ,it is to be regretted that he has not treated us to similar glimpses of his co-worker1 ,chikamatsu1 but the latter had not then distinguished himself1 and it can easily be understood how ,kichizaemon worshipped the great actor for whom he wrote1 and put down his sayings about the theatre and his art as though they were oracles4 ,there is one passage in ,jijinshu which shows ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon and ,kaneko ,kichizaemon at work4 ,we read3 8,one day ,chikamatsu and the author collected the actors in the gakuya1 or dressing-room1 and told them about the play4 ,those who had received good parts praised it1 but those who had rles not to their liking did not say anything4 ,those who could not decide whether the play was good or bad looked at the faces of the other actors and sided with the majority4 ,and those who were ignorant and did not understand good plays1 became cross and scolded the servants1 and left the gakuya or dressing-room without saying good-bye4 8,at this time ,tojuro was zamoto1 or stage manager1 and if he did not give an opinion no one would say anything4 ,he would address the actors3 #8,now1 you actors1 practise your parts well1' and so would take his departure4 ,the actors would begin to rehearse from the next day2 they learned their rles in four or five days1 and as soon as they had learned one play they would begin another4 ,and when this new play was given to the actors1 ,tojuro said he wished to have it explained once more1 after which he did not say anything with regard to his rle4 8,the character he was to play required him to wear high rain clogs and a wide straw hat1 so he ordered these properties to be made1 and when they were handed to him put them on and said3 #8,now give me my lines1' and ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon gave them to him4 #8,this is a good play1' he said4 #8,when ,i first heard it ,i thought so4 ,some plays are greatly admired by the audience1 while others are not popular4 ,now ,i am over fifty years1 and yet ,i am unable to criticise the play1 or tell whether it is good or bad1 for had ,i known how to criticise plays ,i might have become an extraordinary person by this time4 ,before ,i began to learn the words ,i wore the geta and took the stick4 ,it is better not to criticise at first1 but to try and understand4'0 ,kichizaemon concludes by saying3 8,whenever a rle was given to ,tojuro1 whether short or long1 good or bad1 he always studied it carefully04 ,the giant among the playwrights of his time was ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon1 but as his best plays were written for the ,doll-theatre1 he does not rightly belong to an account of ,kabuki playwrights4 ,it is true1 however1 that the great influence his compositions had upon ,kabuki1 even to the present day1 can hardly be over-estimated4 ,his real name was ,sugimori ,nobunori1 and the little town of ,hagi1 in the ,province of ,hizen1 that has produced so many men famous in ,japanese history1 regards him as an illustrious son4 ,this is disputed1 since several other villages in different parts of the country also put forward claims as to ,chikamatsu's birthplace4 ,even his last resting-place is not known1 for his grave is found in two places1 the cemetery of ,hyomyo-ji1 a ,buddhist temple in ,osaka1 and in a village near this city4 ,and so the greatest playwright of ,japan1 who wrote more than one hundred plays1 was born and died in obscurity4 ,it is thought that he was an illegitimate son1 since there seemed to have been some cloud upon his life4 ,the ,sugimori family were of good repute1 and served the lord of ,hagi4 ,in his youth ,chikamatsu entered the temple named ,chikamatsu1 at ,karatsu1 in the province of ,hizen1 and it was from this temple that he took his professional name later in life4 ,while dwelling there he must have laid the foundation for that large knowledge of ,buddhism1 history1 and literature he displays so abundantly and convincingly in his plays4 ,the calm of the ,buddhist retreat soon became monotonous to his vigorous spirit1 which sought for new worlds to conquer4 ,he went to ,kyoto1 where he remained for some time with a brother1 then entered the service of the noble house of ,ichijo1 where he became familiar with the customs and ceremonies of the aristocracy1 and more particularly with the traditions of the ,n1 which influenced his earlier writings greatly4 ,when he severed his relation with this princely establishment1 he had conferred upon him a certain rank in acknowledgement of his service4 ,so little is known concerning ,chikamatsu's life that it is impossible to conjecture the reasons that led him to write for ,kabuki1 and associate with the 8riverside beggars04 ,his first success was at the ,miyako-,mandayu-za1 ,sakata ,tojuro's theatre4 ,kokon ,yakusha ,taizen1 or ,account of ,ancient and ,modern ,actors1 a chronicle of the theatre1 published in #agej1 records that ,chikamatsu surprised the audience by a novelty1 in the form of the ghost of a ,court lady called ,fujitsubo that came out of wistaria flowers and was transformed into a snake4 ,people in the audience were so pleased they shouted3 8,monzaemon6 ,monzaemon60 ,in spite of his apparent popularity1 ,chikamatsu had a sudden change of heart1 and at the age of #ch he left for ,osaka there to collaborate with ,takemoto ,gidayu1 the ,doll-theatre minstrel4 ,what was ,kabuki's loss at this time proved to be a gain later on1 for his masterpieces were absorbed by ,kabuki and generations of actors since ,genroku have performed the varied characters of his plays4 ,a brother1 with whom ,chikamatsu had stayed when he first went to ,kyoto1 was a medical authority in his day1 who had published books on medical subjects1 and also works on history4 ,this younger brother once suggested to ,chikamatsu that he could utilise his talent to better advantage than in writing for the ,doll-theatre1 as we are told by ,dr4 ,fujii in his ,life of ,chikamatsu4 ,but the latter retorted that the profession of writing plays might be less harmful than the writing of treatises on medicine1 because in the latter case misprints or errors might prove very harmful to the lives of men4 ,chikamatsu took his materials from all sources4 ,he helped himself liberally to the plots of the ,n drama and of ,n ,kyogen1 ,buddhist sermons that were recited to popular tunes1 songs of the people1 children's airs and even vulgar ditties1 while the songs of folk-dances he used to advantage4 ,he was a scholar1 familiar with the ,chinese and ,japanese classics1 and learned in ,buddhism4 ,but he always aimed to make the common people understand1 and considered that the lower classes were his regular audience and chief patrons4 ,he died at #fd1 in #agbd1 having written steadily for thirty years1 composing one hundred and thirty pieces4 ,when ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon was engaged in producing his plays for the ,takemoto-za of ,osaka1 a playwright who attempted to rival him was ,kino ,kaion4 ,he had been a priest1 and was a man of culture1 but his knowledge was not so deep as that of ,chikamatsu4 ,ten years younger than ,chikamatsu1 he wrote for twenty-five years1 producing forty plays4 ,but there are few masterpieces among them4 ,after ,chikamatsu's death ,takeda ,izumo1 his most brilliant pupil1 became the head of the ,takemoto-za4 ,although ,takeda was not so prolific a writer as was his master1 several of his plays may be said to surpass the best pieces of ,chikamatsu1 particularly his ,chushingura1 also ,terakoya1 or the ,village ,school1 that fine scene in the long play concerning the exiled ,michizane1 a high official of the ,imperial ,court1 victim of an intriguing enemy a thousand years ago4 ,most of ,takeda ,izumo's plays were appropriated by ,kabuki1 and are still played by the real actors as well as the puppets4 ,the rival ,doll-theatres1 the ,takemoto-za and the ,toyotaki-za1 brought about two camps of playwrights1 and their keen competition supplied a large number of plays4 ,at the ,takemoto-za1 which always attracted to itself the greatest number of talented workers1 there were after ,chikamatsu and ,takeda ,izumo--,hasegawa ,senshi1 ,miyoshi ,shoraku1 and ,matsuda ,wakichi4 ,chief among those who wrote for the ,toyotaki-za were ,kino ,kaion1 ,nishizawa ,ippu1 ,tanaka ,senryu1 ,namiki ,sosuke1 and ,yasuda ,abun4 ,very few details have been handed down regarding these writers1 but their plays are eloquent testimony to their genius4 ,when the ,ningyo-shibai was on the decline ,chikamatsu ,hanji wrote a number of plays that helped to stem the tide of misfortune4 ,such an array of first-class writers cannot be found in the annals of ,kabuki4 ,indeed the dolls and their plays were the real foundation of the ,japanese stage1 and even to-day it is these plays1 repeated over and over again1 that please both actors and audience4 ,the men who wrote that the dolls should become radiant figures in a world created by their imaginations1 left behind them a richer legacy of plays than did the sakusha of ,kabuki4 ,succeeding generations of actors have acted in them1 for they are plays that never lose their power to please2 their vitality remains undimmed by the passage of time4 ,among the many talented as well as minor writers who were inspired to compose for the marionettes1 ,chikamatsu ranks first1 ,takeda ,izumo second1 and ,chikamatsu ,hanji third1 judging by the number of their plays that became the property of ,kabuki and have withstood the shocks of time4 ,the ,genroku age1 which produced ,chikamatsu1 ,sakata ,tojuro1 and ,ichikawa ,danjuro the first2 which saw the rising tide of talent in all directions and a deepening of the consciousness of the people1 also witnessed an increased activity in the production of plays4 ,and one characteristic of these pieces was that theatre managers were often responsible for plays1 while many of the actors composed for themselves4 ,saruwaka ,kansaburo1 the founder of ,yedo ,kabuki1 had been a playwright as well as the proprietor of his theatre1 the ,saruwaka-za1 afterwards the ,nakamura-za4 ,sadoshima ,saburozaemon owned a theatre in ,osaka1 and also wrote his own plays4 ,after ,miyako ,dennai in ,yedo1 there was ,kawarasaki ,gonnosuke1 who wrote a play about the revenge of the ,soga brothers that was a great success4 ,the name ,kawarasaki ,gonnosuke has been intimately connected with the history of ,yedo ,kabuki1 and was inherited by a modern actor4 ,there was ,nakamura ,hichisaburo1 the rival of the first ,ichikawa ,danjuro in ,yedo1 whose play1 ,keisei ,asamagatake1 or ,the-,lady-of-the-,gay-,quarters-,mount- ,asama1 brought him a wonderful success4 ,fukuoka ,yagoshiro was an actor specialising in old men's rles in ,kyoto4 ,he recorded the opinions of the noted onnagata ,yoshisawa ,ayame1 in his ,ayame ,gusa1 or the ,sayings of ,ayame1 concerning the secrets of onnagata acting1 for which he is better known than for the plays he left to posterity4 ,and there was ,midzushima ,shirobei1 who was a tatayaku1 or chief actor1 as well as a sakusha4 ,he was a patron of ,yoshizawa ,ayame4 ,miyasaki ,denkichi1 who played with ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the first1 and who was implicated in a ,yedo nunnery scandal with another leading actor1 ,yamashita ,kozaemon1 also wrote his own plays and was often assisted by his son1 ,sakakuyama ,kanpachi1 who was a sakusha4 ,but of all these actor-playwrights1 by far the most interesting and significant was ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the first4 ,the eighteen hereditary pieces of the ,ichikawa family to-day are the treasures of ,kabuki1 reflecting much of the vanished taste and style of these old days4 ,more than half of these eighteen pieces were originated by the first ,danjuro1 and among them is ,kanjincho1 adapted from the ,n1 and unquestionably the most perfect music-drama of ,kabuki4 ,kanjincho 7the name for a ,buddhist scroll1 in which the donors to a temple building fund were recorded7 was first played by ,danjuro in #agjb1 and the popularity of the piece was so great that the theatre was crowded daily4 ,the first performances continued for #aej days--an unusually long run for those times1 and gained the nickname1 ,oshiai ,yunidan1 or the ,to-,crowd-,together-,play4 ,danjuro had a nom de plume1 ,mimasuya ,hyogo1 and this he used when signing his plays4 ,in the composition of the ,ichikawa plays1 ,hayakawa ,dengoro is said to have had a hand4 ,he was the son of an ,osaka theatre proprietor1 and played upon the ,yedo stage1 appearing in the specialty of a katakiyaku1 or villain4 ,he collaborated with ,danjuro in the play in four acts about the revenge of the ,soga brothers1 a piece which attracted great attention4 ,other of the ,ichikawa plays owed much to this sakusha1 and even ,nakamura ,hichisaburo was indebted to him for assistance in the composition of his piece1 ,keisei ,asamagatake4 ,adzuma ,sampachi was a dokegata1 or comedian1 and wrote plays1 and towards the end of his theatre career devoted himself exclusively to writing for the stage4 ,at one time he presented a piece to the actors1 and it was refused4 ,nothing daunted1 he re-wrote again and again1 presenting it six times4 ,on the seventh trial it was appreciated1 and the actors apologised and thanked him for his work4 ,it was his custom to go out in a kago1 or palanquin1 slung on poles carried on the shoulders of bearers4 ,he would pay the kago men to take him out into the country1 or to some place of interest4 ,on excursions of this kind he gained his ideas1 and when his plan for a play was complete he gathered the actors together and began rehearsals4 ,the piece by which he is best known is ,yaoya ,o-,hichi1 or ,o-,hichi1 the ,daughter of the ,vegetable ,dealer1 based on a ,yedo story of a girl who1 in order to see her lover1 committed a capital offence1 setting fire to her father's house1 for which she suffered the death penalty4 ,this play still remains a favourite on the ,tokyo and ,osaka stages4 ,the critics of ,sampachi's time described him as utterly ignorant1 that he pandered to the popular taste1 and did not rank high among the sakusha4 ,contemporary with these men1 there was ,nakamura ,denkichi1 who was the first professional playwright in ,yedo4 ,before him the actors had combined in themselves the two professions1 but ,denkichi confined himself exclusively to writing4 ,he was a cousin of ,nakamura ,kansaburo1 and studied for the stage under ,nakamura ,denkuro1 but abandoned it4 ,he considered that plays should above all please the eyes1 and be written so as to be understood by women and children4 ,although his pieces were not distinguished for literary qualities1 they made up for this lack in the spectacle provided for the eye4 ,denkichi must have been a better stage manager than a writer of plays1 for under him the settings made great improvement4 ,at this time1 there was ,arashi ,seisaburo1 an illegitimate son of the second ,nakamura ,kansaburo1 half-brother of the leading actor1 ,nakamura ,hichisaburo4 ,he collaborated with ,danjuro1 and one of his best plays is ,ryujo ,sanjuniso1 or the ,thirty-two-,faces-of-a-,dragon4 ,there were also ,nakamura ,seigoro1 a follower of ,nakamura ,denkichi1 and ,tsuuchi ,jihei4 ,kabuki's wholesale borrowing of plays from the ,ningyo-shibai began in #agag4 ,the play that started this movement was ,kokusenya ,kassen1 or ,the ,battle of ,kokusenya1 by ,chikamatsu4 ,it had as hero a warrior whose mother was ,japanese and father ,chinese4 ,the warrior went over to ,china to restore an emperor to the throne1 performing the most amazing feats4 ,the piece was full of ,chinese ideas1 and as a breath of the outside world1 must have been appreciated at this time4 ,whatever the attraction of this ,chikamatsu piece1 it ran for seventeen months at the ,takemoto-za1 the ,osaka ,doll-theatre4 ,the second ,ichikawa ,danjuro gave this play in ,yedo1 and it was produced in ,osaka and ,kyoto4 ,after this all the plays that proved successful in the ,doll-theatre were quickly adapted to the needs of ,kabuki4 ,namiki ,shozo 7#agcj-aggc7 was one of the most prominent sakusha in ,kyoto1 during the middle decades of the eighteenth century4 ,he studied under one of the best ,ningyo-shibai playwrights1 ,namiki ,sosuke1 and wrote for the dolls as well as for the actors4 ,in his time the vogue for the ,doll-theatre had already begun to wane1 and allured by the superior attractions of ,kabuki he wrote more for the latter than for the dolls4 ,his plays were full of complicated situations that tested the actor's ability1 a technique he had acquired as a result of his apprenticeship to the ningyo school1 which demanded many situations to keep the movements of the marionettes full of significance1 for otherwise their dollships would have become all too apparent4 ,in ,osaka during the ,horeki period the leading sakusha was ,nagawa ,kamesuke1 and he was followed by ,tatsuoka ,mansaku and ,namiki ,gohei4 ,mansaku was the son of an onnagata1 and lived in ,kyoto until he was #ea years of age1 when he went to ,osaka4 ,he died at #fh1 in #ahji4 ,his talent was best expressed in historical plays1 but as the authorities prohibited the use of real facts upon the stage1 he contented himself with making over historical events1 which he did in a way very satisfactory to the playgoer4 ,namiki ,gohei1 born in ,osaka in #agdg1 was the chief playwright of his time4 ,his plays were so much in demand in the theatres of the three towns that he travelled back and forth a great deal4 ,he was patronised by ,sawamura ,sojuro1 the third1 and also wrote for the third ,onoe ,kikugoro4 ,banzuiin ,chobei1 written for the fourth ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 remains exceedingly popular at the present day1 showing the democratic leaven that was working in ,japan in ,gohei's day4 ,this is among his best pieces4 ,chobei was an otokodate1 or brave commoner1 ever ready to champion the cause of the weak and down-trodden citizens1 often the victims of the tyrannical two-sworded gentry4 ,he incurred the enmity of an evil samurai1 who put him to death4 ,this was a theme to stir the audiences of ,osaka and ,yedo4 ,after the death of the third ,sojuro1 ,namiki wrote for his son1 the fourth ,sojuro1 and for the fifth ,matsumoto ,koshiro4 ,as he had been an actor in his early days1 he knew something of the stages of ,osaka and ,yedo1 that had many different characteristics1 and he combined the two4 ,his play1 written around the ever-verdant story of the ,soga brothers' revenge1 one of the most fruitful sources for the ,kabuki's sakusha's inspiration1 was so popular that it was given for many years at every ,yedo theatre on the ,new ,year programme1 and the custom was only discontinued at the beginning of ,meiji4 ,in using historical material1 ,gohei felt the cramping influence of the authorities1 and he skilfully combined the true with the false facts of history4 ,popular rumours of the day1 gossip that went on round the hibachi in the dwellings of ,yedo1 were prohibited from finding representation on the stage1 and consequently ,gohei utilised the talk of the town as false reports1 and the audience knowing the true inwardness of things that had been circulated far and wide1 could easily understand his references4 ,that the business of playwriting was not very lucrative seems to be suggested from the fact that ,gohei once kept a tobacco shop in ,osaka1 later becoming a seller of sake4 ,in ,yedo he also opened a little medicine shop and sold pills1 an old-fashioned ,chinese remedy for colds4 ,his excursions into business could not have been to his liking1 but due rather to forced circumstances1 since he is on record as having said when he sat down before his desk3 8,all the world is my own4 ,no enemy is near me4 ,all the actors are my own1 and ,i can use them as ,i like40 ,a ,yedo playwright some years younger than ,namiki ,gohei was ,horikoshi ,nisanji1 but his plays have not been handed down as have been those of his more popular ,osaka contemporary4 ,nisanji was followed by ,sakurada ,jisuke1 who became the first playwright of ,yedo1 and wrote during a period of forty years4 ,he was associated with such distinguished actors as the fifth ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the fourth ,matsumoto ,koshiro1 the first ,nakamura ,nakazo1 and the fifth ,iwai ,hanshiro4 ,he excelled in plays depicting real life1 or sewamono1 and took his characters from the varied life about him1--handsome young samurai1 heroines of the gay quarters1 and brave men of the people4 ,the play of his that has lived longest is ,sukeroku1 one of ,kabuki's most characteristic pieces1 with scenes laid in the gay quarters1 and ,sukeroku1 the very personification of bravery and loyalty1 as the hero4 ,the periods of ,bunka and ,bunsei1 or from #ahjd to #ahag1 saw the beginning of ,kabuki's decline1 and for fifty years before the ,restoration in #ahfh there was little development4 ,it was a time of stagnation1 and the people shut up within their own country were beginning to suffer from lack of outside stimulus4 ,a distinct loss of originality began to show itself in the theatre1 and there was a dearth of good playwrights1 while the ,doll-theatre had taken a plunge downward1 and there was little activity among the writers for the marionettes4 ,kabuki had depended largely upon the ,doll-theatre playwrights1 and failing these fell back upon dramatisations of popular fiction4 ,the novels of ,bakin1 ,tenehiko1 and ,kyoden were dramatised for the stage4 ,although the theatre had become more complex1 and material for plays was abundant1 the period did not produce the playwright4 ,the position of the sakusha1 which in the beginning had been of great dignity1 changed for the worse4 ,they became mere slaves of the actors4 ,there was a stage writer called ,nagawa ,shimesuke1 son of the keeper of a theatre tea-house1 who did not create1 but patched and altered at the bidding of the actors1 so that he was nicknamed ,sentaku-ya ,shimesuke1 or ,laundry-,man ,shimesuke1 which gives a good idea of the playwriters' low estate at this time4 ,nagawa ,tokusuke gave up the priesthood to become a playwright4 ,he had been connected with a country temple1 and went to ,osaka to learn how to write4 ,there were so few sakusha at this time1 that the third ,nakamura ,utayemon invited him up to ,yedo1 and was so anxious to encourage him1 hoping that he would prove to be a goose to lay golden eggs in the way of popular plays for the actors1 that he bestowed upon ,tokusuke the precious family pen-name of ,issen1 used by the first ,utayemon when he signed his poetry4 ,one of his plays was a failure1 which disconcerted the actors to a considerable degree4 ,he returned the literary nom de plume with which his patron ,utayemon had honoured him1 and departed whence he had come4 ,thereafter he wrote pieces for side-shows1 set up along the banks of rivers1 on temporary sites in the compounds of shrines1 or at cross-roads4 ,at last he shaved his head and retired as the keeper of a tea-house in ,kyoto1 dying at #gi4 ,so the sakusha1 like the yakusha1 had their falls from favour1 and their lives often ended in disappointment4 ,the third ,utayemon wrote his own plays1 but did not have good luck in the sakusha whom he engaged to help him1--,nagawa ,seisuke4 ,he did his best with ,nagawa's poor compositions1 but the latter possessed inferior ability4 ,on one occasion the playwright became angry because his ideas had not been carried out properly1 and he drew his sword to kill ,utayemon1 when he was stopped4 ,tsuruya ,namboku stands out from among these unsatisfactory writers1 and several of his plays are regular features of the modern stage4 ,he was the son of a dyer in ,yedo1 wrote especially for the third ,bando ,hikosaburo1 and was particularly successful in ghost plays4 ,onoe ,matsusuke and ,onoe ,kikugoro1 who were in their element when playing ghostly rles1 shone in ,namboku's compositions4 ,the most familiar of his plays to modern audiences is ,yotsuya ,kaidan1 or ,the ,ghost of ,yotsuya1 the latter a certain quarter of ,yedo that remains to-day one of the thriving centres of ,tokyo4 ,namboku was a genius in the invention of stage apparatus to make his supernatural characters more gruesome1 and ,yotsuya ,kaidan is an example of his skill in overcoming mechanical difficulties4 ,he caused ,o-,iwa1 the weird heroine of this play1 to make her entrance upon the scene through a large lighted lantern1 and disappear through the solid wall1 etc4 ,once he pasted black paper all over the stage to fashion the body of a whale1 and a ,jonah-like actor stepped out of it carrying a crown4 ,the audiences of his time were quite carried away by the boldness of his ideas1 and his works have a lasting quality1 for their power to make the flesh creep is undiminished4 ,it was the lot of the sakusha to be poor1 and ,namboku was no exception4 ,an incident is told of him that during a period of poverty he was kneeling in front of his little writing-desk1 when his wife entered and asked for the wherewithal to buy some rice4 ,he had no money1 so she took the mosquito net1 an indispensable article in a ,japanese house in warm weather1 and went to the pawnbroker1 where she exchanged it for sufficient coin of the realm to keep the house supplied with rice for a short period4 ,namboku made good use of this domestic episode1 and has immortalised it in ,yotsuya ,kaidan4 ,the long-suffering ,o-,iwa is cruelly treated by her husband that she may leave the house1 as he wishes to marry another woman1 younger1 prettier1 and richer in this world's goods4 ,in his attempt to get rid of her he sells everything in the house piece by piece1 the mosquito net among them1 hoping by his callous cruelty to drive her away4 ,namboku died at the age of #ge1 in the compound of the well-known ,fox ,shrine in ,fukugawa1 a ward of present-day ,tokyo4 ,he had a son who succeeded him1 and who became adviser to the seventh ,danjuro4 ,the latter was a quick writer1 and specialised in plays that had the gay quarters for settings4 ,a quaint character among these pre-,restoration playwrights was ,hanakasa ,rosuke4 ,this was not his real name1 but rather a theatre nickname1 ,flowery-,straw-,hat-,rosuke1 given him because of his habit of going about in extraordinary clothing4 ,he generally wore a gaudy kimono1 yellow velvet tabi1 or socks1 and on his head a wide straw hat adorned on top with artificial flowers1 in imitation of a festival reveller in the cherry-blossom season4 ,he was the eldest son of the chief doctor of the ,takeda ,clan1 and had been bred in a samurai atmosphere4 ,he was also something of a scholar1 but never became a first-class sakusha4 ,rosuke went to ,osaka and wrote for the theatres there4 ,he returned with the seventh ,danjuro1 when this great actor was allowed to return to ,yedo1 after the long exile imposed upon him for extravagance4 ,later1 ,rosuke wrote for the third ,kikugoro1 but he spoke against ,kikugoro's son1 and was requested to cease composing plays for the ,onoe family4 ,again he left ,yedo1 and went to ,osaka1 where he died in poverty at the age of #gf4 ,for many years after ,namboku ,tsuruya1 there were no playwrights capable of filling his place except ,mimasuya ,nisoji1 who gained a position in ,yedo because of his long service to ,yedo ,kabuki4 ,for twenty years ,nisoji wrote for the third ,kikugoro1 the fourth ,nakamura ,utayemon1 and the seventh ,danjuro1 but his work consisted largely in revision4 ,he belonged to a wealthy family and began to write for his own amusement4 ,on account of extravagance and dissipation1 he was sent away from his home1 and died in his seventies4 ,nisoji and ,namboku were great friends1 and they played practical jokes upon each other4 ,namboku was once slightly ill and ,nisoji asked a ,court doctor to go and examine him4 ,a kago1 or palanquin1 carried on the shoulders of six stout bearers proceeded to ,namboku's humble dwelling4 ,the ,kabuki sakusha had received no warning of the ,court physician's visit1 and was greatly surprised4 ,taken unawares1 he got out of his bed and bowed low on the mats4 ,when the great medical man took his departure1 the kago bearers asked for money1 but the maker of plays was incurably poor1 and could only pay a small portion of the kago men's demands4 ,in order to get even with ,nisoji1 ,namboku planned a counter joke4 ,there was a certain shrine in ,shinagawa1 a suburb of ,yedo1 where the spirit of the famous general1 ,kato ,kiyomasa1 was enshrined1 and it was ,nisoji's habit after visiting the shrine to repair to a tea-house in the vicinity4 ,there was some gossip that ,nisoji had carried on a flirtation with the daughter of the tea-house keeper1 and ,namboku ordered a lantern to be made bearing his friend's crest together with that of the tea-house maiden1 and hung it up in front of the shrine4 ,nisoji was much perplexed1 and acknowledged that ,namboku had evened up the score4 ,the second ,namiki ,gohei was the second son of a vassal of the ,shogun4 ,he was expelled from his house because of dissipation and association with actors4 ,the third ,gohei was a follower of the first ,namiki1 and it was he who collaborated with the seventh ,danjuro in giving the finishing touches to ,kanjincho1 ,kabuki's music-drama masterpiece4 ,nishizawa ,ippo was the grandson of a novelist and kept a bookshop4 ,he had many literary friends1 and wrote plays1 but there are few genuine pieces of his left1 as they have been patched and altered1 there being no protection for plays1 and no conscience about changing them to suit the requirements of the actors4 ,segawa ,joko kept a gofuku-ya1 or drapery shop1 in ,yedo1 and wrote plays because he felt an inclination to do so4 ,finally he was persuaded to give up his business1 and he became a tate sakusha1 or chief playwriter4 ,he sinned in verbosity1 and the actors tired of his long speeches4 ,it might have been better for ,joko's peace of mind had he continued to deal in kimono and obi4 ,his specialty consisted in dramatising the stories related in the yose1 or places of amusement where the professional story-teller held forth4 ,the eighth ,danjuro was successful in some of these pieces1 and they are still favourites with playgoers4 ,the last sakusha to shine before the dawn of the ,meiji era was ,sakurada ,jisuke1 who was born in #ahjb and died in the tenth year of ,meiji1 #ahgg4 ,he was associated with actors and literary men for forty years1 and during most of his career he was head of the ,yedo playwrights4 ,he wrote many plays1 and among them are a number frequently given by the actors of modern ,tokyo and ,osaka4 ,the little eccentricities of the sakusha were long remembered after they had passed away4 ,sakurada ,jisuke had a habit of frequently moving his residence4 ,he would make a hole in his cupboard through which his rice was poured by the delivery boy from the rice shop1 as he did not like people to see how much he had ordered at a time4 ,but while he was parsimonious in some matters1 in others he was prodigal4 ,he lived in ,mukojima1 across the ,sumida ,river from ,tokyo1 and at times bought a whole bag of charcoal1 for use in the hibachi1 to warm himself in the boat that took him across the river--just to make a show4 ,the trip across the river was brief1 and he was well aware he required but a small portion4 ,when an old farmer came selling squash1 ,jisuke purchased his entire stock-in-trade and then presented him with one of the vegetables as a reward1 after which the countryman spread the tale of the sakusha's generosity4 ,it was a time when the fortunes of the sakusha were at the lowest ebb1 when writers for the theatre were entirely subordinate to the actors1 and yet the dignity of his profession must have been felt by ,jisuke1 for it is reported that he resented being placed under young actors4 ,after ,jisuke1 the most prolific stage-writer was the second ,kawatake ,shinkichi1 better known in his later career as ,mokuami1 who belongs more appropriately to the story of ,meiji ,kabuki4 ,when dying1 ,sakurada ,jisuke expressed a last wish3 8,do not have ,buddhist ceremonies or anniversaries for me1 but be careful not to neglect ,yedo plays40 ,,plays ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,kabuki ,,play ,,forms ,i ,the four characteristic play forms of ,kabuki may be classified as follows3 sewamono1 plays of everyday life2 jidaimono1 historical drama2 shosagoto1 music-posture drama2 and aragoto1 highly imaginary improvisations4 ,closely allied with these forms is odori1 the descriptive dance1 which forms the very foundation of the actor's art1 as it is known and practised in ,japan4 ,sewamono are plays in which human nature holds sway1 the playwright selecting for his material the joys and sorrows of the people around him4 ,those composed for the ,doll-theatre partake of the nature of balladry1 the marionettes moving to music1 song1 and recitative1 while those written for ,kabuki are more akin to the drama of the ,west4 ,jidaimono1 historical drama1 are pieces that have heroes and heroines taken from the pages of history for central characters4 ,but since the playwright was forbidden by the authorities to represent the real events of history1 his only recourse was to take famous personages and set them in the midst of a wholly imaginary and irrelevant plot4 ,as he was unable to confine himself to truth1 he allowed his imagination to run riot in the painting of characters and scenes as far removed from the realities of life as possible4 ,shosagoto1 also called furigoto1 the music-posture drama1 provide the most characteristic ,kabuki pieces4 ,largely influenced by the ,n1 the shosagoto combine all the ,kabuki arts--plot1 music1 scenery1 acting1 movement1 and colour1 and represent the most sincere collaboration of the ,kabuki specialists4 ,even more detached from life than the jidaimono is the fourth variety of ,kabuki play1 the aragoto 7lit41 rough acting74 ,originated by the first ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 these pieces cannot be classified as drama1 for they scarcely possess any form1 and are the result of improvisation on the part of the different members of the ,ichikawa family1 who added or altered1 improved or patched up1 producing the traditional eighteen pieces of this house4 ,the essence of aragoto is exaggeration1 and this applies to every detail1 gesture1 posture1 movement1 costume1 and acting4 ,the flimsy material that serves to unite all these strange ingredients is generally an abstraction1 and the expressions and words used are largely symbolic4 ,the entire emphasis is placed on the art of acting1 and the playwright is left a long distance behind4 ,modern stage-writers have made signal departures from these time-honoured forms1 and melodrama1 as well as translations and adaptations of ,western plays1 are now frequent4 ,in the weaving of their patterns1 however1 the modern playwrights appear to wish to throw overboard as much lumber of the past as possible1 but without great success4 ,out of the fusion of ,east and ,west that is going on upon the ,japanese stage at present1 much of interest is to be expected in the future4 ,on account of the long hours through which the performances extended1 it was necessary to spread a veritable theatrical feast to sustain the interest of the audience and keep its attention from wandering4 ,the programmes were so planned as to include all types of ,kabuki pieces1 and this holds equally true of the entertainments afforded by the modern stage4 ,in the old days the arrangement of the programme was fixed and unchangeable1 and although at present changes are made now and then1 the sequence of the pieces remains practically the same4 ,ichibamme1 or the first piece1 is a selection of three acts from a jidaimono1 or historical drama4 ,then comes the naka-maku1 or middle curtain4 ,this is a short shosagoto1 but occasionally a one-act aragoto offering is presented4 ,sometimes two short pieces are given1 and nowadays this is the position assigned to any attempt by a new writer4 ,next comes the nibamme1 or second piece4 ,this is a sewamono1 or play depicting the life of the people4 ,for conclusion there is a gay dance in which the young actors are generally to be seen4 ,this is called the hane-maku1 or end curtain4 ,although the ,kabuki play forms fall into these four categories1 actors1 playwriters1 dancing masters1 musicians1 and others responsible for the productions never allowed themselves to follow rigidly the special forms that had been evolved4 ,these stage workers were like a painter who dips his brush into the colours on his palette as they are needed4 ,similarly the ,kabuki experts combined the real with the unreal2 introduced dance1 pantomime1 and1 music1 even feats of acrobats as they saw fit1 and worked freely1 unconscious of limitation4 ,,ii ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon was one of the first dramatists to discover the value of human nature as material for his plays1 and his contemporaries and successors also sought inspiration in the domestic life about them1 producing the type of drama called sewamono1 or plays of the people4 ,that 8,all the world loves a lover0 is as true of ,chikamatsu's ,izaemon as of ,shakespeare's ,romeo4 ,originally acted by ,sakata ,tojuro of ,kyoto in the ,genroku age1 ,izaemon is one of the oldest rles on the ,japanese stage1 and never loses its freshness4 ,animated1 sentimental1 full of the eternal dreams and joys of youth1 ,izaemon makes his appearance on the hanamichi eager to see his love ,yugiri1 an inmate of a house called ,ogiya in ,shimmachi1 the gay quarter of ,osaka4 ,here at a tea-house where he is well known he buys a wide straw hat that hides his face1 it being the custom at the time for frequenters of the quarters to go about with their faces hidden4 ,izaemon selects one that has a red cord on the top1 so that ,yugiri shall know him4 ,yugiri1 the centre of a courtesan train1 makes a brilliant show upon the hanamichi1 and within her domain ,izaemon is seen as a petted1 gilded youth1 accustomed to the luxury of the day1 as became the son of a prosperous business-house in ,kyoto1 the ,fujiya4 ,then is seen the abode of ,izaemon's business-like mother1 who1 left a widow1 has carried on the house in a capable manner4 ,she sorrowfully disinherits ,izaemon because of his prodigality as ,yugiri's lover4 ,izaemon alone1 on a snowy day1 in a room of his home looking out on the garden1 dreams of ,yugiri2 asking himself what she is doing at that moment1 regretting he cannot go to ,osaka since his mother has declared he must find a livelihood for himself4 ,anxious1 yet happy in his dreams1 his mother appears1 and presents him with a poor kimono made of paper1 that his father was obliged to wear when working hard to lay the foundation of the family fortune4 ,this is given the youth as a symbol that he must leave the house on account of his extravagance and likewise must build up his own career4 ,poor and unsuccessful1 tired with wandering about1 ,izaemon returns to see ,yugiri as he has heard that she is ill4 ,a deep straw basket-shaped hat covers his face1 his kimono is weather-stained and patched1 a forlorn figure1 as he stands at the door of the ,ogiya4 ,servants of the place take him for a beggar1 and attempt to drive him away1 but the proprietor recognises his former wealthy patron1 and warmly invites him within4 ,illustration3 ,nakamura ,ganjiro of ,osaka in his favourite rle1 that of ,izaemon1 the lover of ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon's drama1 and played for two centuries by the ,kabuki actors4 ,izaemon next learns that although ,yugiri has been ill she has recovered1 that a samurai1 ,hiraoka of ,awa1 is interested in her1 and that the son born to ,yugiri and himself has been adopted by ,hiraoka4 ,believing ,yugiri faithless to him1 and overcome by jealousy1 he enters her room and awaits her coming1 pretending to be asleep4 ,when she succeeds in arousing him he feigns coldness and indifference1 but finally he can no longer suppress his true feelings1 and they give expression to the sufferings they have both undergone during the separation4 ,it is one of the best love idylls of the ,japanese stage4 ,the conversation between the youthful lovers is interrupted by the abrupt entrance of a stranger dressed as a samurai1 wearing a sword4 ,taking off the cloth wrapped about the head1 the newcomer reveals the coiffure of a woman1 adorned with beautiful combs and hair-pins4 ,it is ,o-,yuki1 the wife of ,hiraoka1 who1 disguised as a man1 has sought an interview with her rival4 ,she has come to ask ,yugiri to relinquish all claim to the child1 wishing to adopt him as heir of the ,hiraoka family4 ,there is a pathetic scene when ,yugiri journeys to the home of the samurai that she may see her son for the last time1 and ,izaemon1 in order to obtain one glimpse of the boy1 goes disguised as a kago1 or palanquin bearer4 ,the path of true love never did run smooth4 ,yugiri becomes ill4 ,the plight of ,yugiri and ,izaemon appears hopeless4 ,o-,yuki1 overcome with pity1 sends money to ransom ,yugiri from the ,ogiya1 and at the same time ,izaemon's mother1 softened by her son's sufferings1 sends a still larger amount to buy ,yugiri's freedom4 ,her child is also restored to her1 and with her loved ones she goes forth to freedom1 all to be happily united with ,izaemon's mother in ,kyoto4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in one of the best sewamono1 ,nozaki-mura1 or ,the ,village of ,nozaki1 by ,chikamatsu ,hanji1 is seen the eternal triangle composed of ,hisamatsu1 ,o-,some1 and ,o-,mitsu4 ,hisamatsu1 employed in the establishment of a well-to-do pawnbroker of ,osaka1 fell in love with the daughter of the house1 ,o-,some4 ,they were apparently made for each other1 and the parents of ,o-,some would have gladly given their consent to the marriage1 had not the villain of the play1 an elderly1 dissipated clerk of the pawnshop1 cast covetous eyes on his master's daughter1 and1 jealous of the growing friendliness between ,hisamatsu and ,o-,some1 spread scandal about them4 ,there is another obstacle1 however1 for ,hisamatsu has already been betrothed to ,o-,mitsu4 ,he has been selected by ,o-,mitsu's father1 according to the prerogative of parents in ,japan to choose life companions for their children4 ,o-,mitsu lives with the old man in the country1 anxiously awaiting the day when she will become the bride of ,hisamatsu1 they having been brought up like sister and brother4 ,one of the best scenes in this long domestic tragedy is the meeting of the three youthful characters4 ,there is something so genuinely homely and human about ,o-,mitsu1 as she is seen busying herself in preparation for her marriage to ,hisamatsu1 all unaware that her future husband has already given his heart elsewhere4 ,the drab interior of a humble farmhouse seems to have been transformed1 and to reflect something of the girl's radiance as she poses to the rhythm of the samisen1 the minstrel on his rostrum to the right of the stage explaining her movements4 ,those long acquainted with the play know that ,o-,mitsu will cut slices from daikon1 the long1 white1 radish-like vegetable1 in readiness for the wedding feast1 but how she does it is watched with fascination4 ,every one1 too1 knows that she will make her toilet before the round metal mirror1 full of bashful happiness at the thought of her approaching marriage4 ,even while ,o-,mitsu is deep in thoughts of herself as a bride1 her rival1 ,o-,some1 of whom she has never even dreamed1 appears on the hanamichi in the midst of the audience4 ,she is the very acme of good taste and style1 the daughter of an ,osaka family that does not lack in this world's goods4 ,she is clad in a resplendent purple kimono4 ,o-,mitsu can never hope to compete with this beautiful creature1 who comes knocking at the cottage entrance4 ,looking within her mirror ,o-,mitsu sees the reflection of the visitor1 a vision of beauty1 in contrast to her own rustic simplicity1 and the flame of jealousy begins to bum4 ,in her confusion she pays no attention to ,o-,some1 overturns her mirror1 and chops up the daikon recklessly into small pieces4 ,still hostile to the visitor1 who remains waiting for admittance1 ,o-,mitsu is joined by ,hisamatsu and the father1 who are not yet aware of a stranger's presence1 although ,o-,mitsu puts her head out of the door in anything but a hospitable manner1 making exclamations of scorn and anger expressive of her hostile state of mind as she pushes her rival away1 closes the latticed door1 and to make sure that it is secured against ,o-,some's invasion1 places against it a bundle of dried twigs gathered for fuel4 ,very human1 too1 is the application of moxa1 a burning medicine1 to the legs of the old farmer1 who writhes with pain at each fresh ministration by his daughter4 ,hisamatsu1 taking part in this operation by massaging the old man's shoulders1 is surprised to find ,o-,some at the entrance and motions her to go away4 ,he has not yet had time to break the news of his relations to the ,osaka maiden1 and is at a loss what to do4 ,o-,mitsu also continues to show her displeasure1 but the unwelcome visitor cannot be driven away4 ,the farmer1 at last viewing the newcomer1 realises the situation1 and drags the unwilling ,o-,mitsu out of the room1 leaving the lovers together4 ,after a sorrowful love scene between ,hisamatsu and ,o-,some1 ,o-,mitsu returns1 but they are astonished to find that she has cut off her hair and wears the garb of a nun4 ,she has decided that ,hisamatsu and ,o-,some belong to each other1 and so sacrifices herself that they may have no regrets on her account4 ,o-,some is full of gratitude1 and ,hisamatsu is overcome by her sacrifice4 ,o-,some's mother next appears to take her daughter home4 ,the stage then revolves showing the side of the cottage1 a stream of water1 a boat landing1 and a boatman waiting for his passengers to the left1 while on the right two palanquin men are ready to take ,hisamatsu away4 ,quickly the hanamichi is spread with a blue and white cotton cloth to represent water4 ,mother and daughter prepare to embark in the boat4 ,the shoji1 or white paper windows of the cottage1 are pushed aside1 and ,o-,mitsu gazes out sadly4 ,to the rippling1 merry rhythms of the samisen1 and a spring song in praise of the plum blossom sung in a rollicking way by the palanquin bearers1 they take their departure2 ,hisamatsu carried in a palanquin on one hanamichi looking across the heads of the audience at ,o-,some1 and again with regret at ,o-,mitsu2 ,o-,some and her mother borne over the cotton waves spread out along the main hanamichi1 the boatman working so hard at the task of plying the oar that he has to take off his coat to cool himself1 the blue and white robed property men really doing all the pushing and pulling of the craft so that it moves smoothly through the audience4 ,o-,mitsu and the old father stand together outside the cottage1 lonely figures1 bearing the brunt of the sorrow of farewell2 the whole theatre becomes a stage1 and each and every person in the audience feels his or her connection with the play and with the actors4 ,hisamatsu and ,o-,some were not destined to enjoy life4 ,believing that they could never clear themselves of the aspersions cast upon their characters by the slanders of the evil clerk1 they seek a happier world where their spirits may be united4 ,in the gloomy storehouse1 erected as a mark of congratulation when ,o-,some was born1 the bodies of the lovers are found together4 ,,iii ,for the exploitation of the unreal we must turn to the jidaimono4 ,the audiences of ,old ,japan did not bother their heads if the plot of a play was so complex that they really could not remember where it began and how it ended1 to judge from ,kokusenya ,kassen1 or the ,battle of ,kokusenya1 a jidaimono by ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon that enjoyed unbounded popularity when first produced in #agaj1 and continues to hold its own1 proving its lasting qualities4 ,like ,tennyson's ,brook1 the complicated characters in this piece come and go1 and the play goes on for ever2 in consequence1 modern audiences must witness it piecemeal1 since it is only the doll-actors that are able to give the play in its entirety1 and even they must be active from morning until late afternoon if they are to act all the scenes in this queer old ,chikamatsu drama4 ,fashioned out of the cloth of exaggeration1 ,chikamatsu's hero1 ,watonai1 has no kinship with human beings2 his fierce countenance showing broad red and black markings1 the bushy hair1 the outer costume of purple covered over with a design of twisted rope in white1 the inner garment of scarlet studded with brass buttons1 the huge curved sword--,watonai might as well belong to the theatre of the moon1 since he has nothing in common with ordinary mortals4 ,watonai's father was a faithful minister of a deposed ,ming ,emperor1 who took refuge in ,japan1 and married a woman of ,kyushu4 ,their son1 fired with enthusiasm to go to his father's country in an attempt to restore the ,ming dynasty1 reaches the castle of ,kanki1 a ,chinese general married to ,watonai's half-sister1 who had been left behind when her father was obliged to flee to ,japan4 ,arrived at the ,lion ,castle1 ,watonai allows his ,japanese mother to enter as a hostage1 and his ,chinese sister1 ,kinsho1 whom he has never seen1 declares she will try to win her husband to ,watonai's cause4 ,if he is favourable1 she will pour white face powder into the stream beneath her window1 and should the answer be in the negative1 a quantity of rouge will dye the water4 ,but the general does not favour his unknown brother-in-law from ,japan1 and ,kinsho stabs herself in the breast1 her blood dyeing the rivulet that flows into the ,hoang-ho4 ,watonai1 standing on a stone bridge1 watches for a sign from his sister1 understands the answer is unfavourable 7a property man dexterously turning over a flap in the blue stage river to show the necessary red colour74 ,amid much stage agony ,watonai's mother and sister die1 and ,kanki consents to aid the hero4 ,when the bridge on which ,watonai stands1 gazing anxiously into the river searching for a sign from his sister1 is slowly forced up from below the stage1 the hero is seen shading his face with a wide straw hat1 and holding a flaming torch1--the audience little realises the amount of preparation that has been necessary for this impressive entrance4 ,nor can the trouble the actor takes to make up according to the ,ichikawa traditions be fully realised1 unless a close inspection of this remarkable personage is made behind the stage4 ,the actor who takes the rle of ,watonai must transform his everyday countenance into a theatrical mask1 that might be an apparition from the planet ,saturn4 ,the face is first painted dead white1 and on this ground he draws red lines with a writing brush4 ,beginning with the bridge of his nose1 two lines curve out over his forehead suggesting a lobster's claws1 the sweeping lines on cheeks and about the mouth forming spaces of white that are shaped like peony petals4 ,touches of black about the eyes and mouth are made to make them large and aggressive4 ,then the terrifying wig is put in place--large1 bristling1 the hair standing on end1 signifying the daring courage of a character half ,chinese and half ,japanese with intent to conquer ,china4 ,after seeing ,chikamatsu's ,watonai1 it is realised that ,japanese actors take even more pains to be unreal than ,occidental actors endeavour to be lifelike4 ,illustration3 ,matsumoto ,koshiro1 the seventh1 as ,watonai1 the grotesque hero of ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon's drama1 ,kokusenya ,kassen1 or the ,battle of ,kokusenya4 ,the inner garment is bright red studded with brass1 the lower purple with a design of twisted white rope4 ,kinkaku-ji1 or the ,golden ,pavilion1 built by the ,shogun ,yoshimitsu in the fourteenth century1 still stands for the public admiration in ,kyoto1 an historical sight in the old capital4 ,this forms the setting for a popular scene in a fantastic doll-theatre play that is one of the best examples of jidaimono4 ,in this long complicated drama by ,nakamura ,ake and ,asada ,icho1 the chief character is the villain1 ,matsunaga ,daizen1 who has usurped the ,shogun's power1 and taken up his residence at the ,golden ,pavilion1 where he leads a dissolute life4 ,a beautiful young woman1 ,yuki-hime1 daughter of a famous painter1 is confined in ,kinkaku-ji1 this mansion of romance being reproduced in a realistic manner by the scenic craftsmen of ,kabuki4 ,tokichi1 a loyal retainer of the ,shogun1 enters upon the scene1 and his battle of wits with ,daizen over a game of go1 the ,japanese chess1 is a familiar and favourite scene with playgoers4 ,outplayed by ,tokichi1 ,daizen in his anger overturns the go table and throws a lacquered counter-box into a well in the garden1 ordering ,tokichi to pick it out without wetting his hand4 ,not to be outdone1 ,tokichi immediately overcomes the difficulty by placing a hollow bamboo pole to the waterfall that forms part of the painted scenery of the background1 and the water in the well rising he lifts out the counter-box with his fan1 and places it on the upturned table which he holds outstretched in one hand1 his postures signifying triumph over the tyrant4 ,yuki-hime1 left alone with ,daizen1 is commanded to paint a picture of a dragon1 which she declares she cannot do without having seen one4 ,very conveniently a silver dragon jumps up the painted waterfall aided by the indefatigable property men1 and ,daizen holds out his flashing sword that she may catch the reflection of the dragon4 ,but she sees much more1 for the blade is that once owned by her father1 and she knows that ,daizen is her father's enemy4 ,without more ado ,yuki-hime's arms are bound about with rope and she is tied to a cherry tree4 ,she struggles to free herself1 but as this is all in vain1 she calls magic to her aid4 ,rats rush to the rescue and gnaw the rope1 setting ,yuki-hime free from ,daizen's clutches4 ,tokichi once more enters1 searching for the ,shogun's mother1 who has remained immured in the ,golden ,pavilion and invisible4 ,he climbs a tree to reach the upper story1 and1 rolling up a curtain1 the hostage is seen sitting calmly within4 ,it is an unusual and picturesque scene worthy of the jidaimono tenets4 ,after entering into the doings of all these queer stage-folk1 it is a pleasure to find that ,daizen1 like most theatrical villains1 is finally defeated by ,tokichi's superior strategy4 ,,iv ,in contrast to the realistic plays with their snow-storms and earthquakes1 fighting bouts and harakiri scenes1 there are the shosagoto1 or music-posture dramas4 ,dr4 ,yuzo ,tsubouchi once characterised these pieces as phantasmagoria4 ,to the stage workers in the ,occident1 groping their way to find a new method to unite the independent arts of the theatre1 this ,kabuki form would come as a delightful surprise4 ,the shosagoto consists of a slight plot1 simple dialogue1 descriptive dances1 symbolic movement1 descriptions sung by a chorus1--welded together by the rhythm of drum1 flute1 and samisen4 ,for the shosagoto the three different styles of stage music are used1 ,nagauta1 ,tokiwazu1 and ,kiyomoto1 that originated in ,yedo and are as typical of ,yedo ,kabuki as the ,joruri1 or balladry of the ,doll-theatre1 is of ,osaka4 ,both as to plot and music1 the shosagoto owe their inspiration to the older music-drama of the ,n1 and the best pieces are adaptations of ,n plays4 ,a partiality for the weird is pronounced in shosagoto4 ,no doubt the fantastic characters of the ,n had much to do with the cultivation of this taste in the people1 and the craftsmen of ,kabuki have become master-hands in the staging of such plays4 ,illustration3 ,matsumoto ,koshiro1 the seventh1 as ,benkei1 the warrior-priest in ,kanjincho ,he performed in this rle when the ,prince of ,wales visited the ,imperial ,theatre4 ,kanjincho1 a scroll on which are written the names of those contributing to a fund for the erection or repair of a temple1 is an acknowledged ,kabuki masterpiece4 ,the play had its origin1 far back in the past1 in the classical ,n drama1 but for #bjj years has been produced on the popular stage4 ,preserving much of the ,n tradition as well as ,buddhist atmosphere1 it gives an impression of dignity1 but even more of unity of plot and treatment1 of speech and chorus1 of posture and costume1 centring in the motive of loyalty of man to master4 ,the setting represents the ,n convention--a wide-spreading pine tree painted on the background1 bamboo decorated walls to right and left4 ,singers and samisen players of the ,nagauta orchestra are clad in the terra-cotta ceremonial kimono of the ,ichikawa actor family1 to whom the piece belongs by inheritance4 ,below the red dais of the ,nagauta1 the ,n drum beaters sit on stools1 the flute player and round-drum performer kneeling at the sides4 ,the movement1 straight forward to the climax and dnouement1 is built upon the ever-complex and conflicting rhythms of drum and flute4 ,the colour and design of the costumes lend a larger beauty to the harmony of their postures1 gestures1 and dances4 ,benkei1 a warrior priest1 is the principal personage in the play1 and he holds the centre of the stage for an hour4 ,as the drama opens1 the drums begin to beat1 and voice and flute are added4 ,togashi1 the keeper of the mountain barrier1 makes his appearance from the left1 where the black1 green1 and red curtain is held on high to let him enter1 according to the ,n tradition4 ,he makes an impressive entrance1 accompanied by a page bearing a sword1 and advances to the front of the stage1 where he announces that he has heard there is trouble between ,yoritomo1 the lord of ,kamakura1 and military dictator of the country1 and his brother ,yoshitsune1 and that the latter1 with his attendants1 has started from ,mutsu in the disguise of a yamabushi1 or mountain priest4 ,he has received orders to prevent them from passing the barrier4 ,yoshitsune presently appears on the hanamichi1 a wide hat and a staff in his hand1 with a ,buddhist box upon his back to carry the sacred sutras1 or other religious writings4 ,when the yamabushi with ,yoshitsune are standing in a line in the midst of the audience1 ,benkei comes last1 a striking figure in his brocaded skirt and black upper robe adorned with gold characters related to the doctrines of the yamabushi4 ,he carries a rosary with vermilion tassels4 ,he is the hero of many adventures1 and has sworn faithfulness to his young lord1 ,yoshitsune4 ,togashi1 on guard1 bars the way4 ,benkei declares that they are on a mission to collect funds to rebuild the temple of the great ,buddha at ,nara1 but the ever-watchful ,togashi announces that if the yamabushi are upon such a mission1 they must have a subscription list1 and he will listen while ,benkei reads it4 ,benkei must pass this test4 ,slowly he takes out of his box the ,kanjincho1 a scroll containing the names of donors to the temple fund1 and pretends to read the contents4 ,togashi doubts him as he unwinds the scroll1 and creeps up quietly to have a look4 ,benkei snatches it away and ,togashi starts back4 ,the dramatic value of the situation is greatly intensified by the exaggerated costumes of the two principal figures1 whose postures bring storms of applause from the audience4 ,then comes one of the most interesting moments of ,kanjincho1 the questions and answers4 ,togashi says that he does not doubt that they are genuine yamabushi1 but still he would like to ask ,benkei some questions1 and he puts the warrior-priest through a cross-examination2 why he dresses in such a warlike costume when his life is devoted to ,buddha1 why he wears a sword1 being a priest of ,buddha4 ,benkei has a quick answer for all the questions that ,togashi hurls at him1 and at length the party are permitted to proceed on their way1 the keeper of the pass admiring ,benkei's faithfulness to his master4 ,illustration3 ,sawamura ,sojuro1 the seventh1 of the ,imperial ,theatre1 as ,togashi1 the keeper of the barrier1 in ,kanjincho1 ,kabuki's music-drama masterpiece4 ,benkei leaves by the hanamichi1 the yamabushi follow1 and ,yoshitsune is left behind on the stage4 ,one of ,togashi's men whispers in his ear4 ,he thinks he has discovered ,yoshitsune among the yamabushi4 ,to throw him off the scent ,togashi calls them back4 ,the little company is proceeding quickly along the hanamichi when the abrupt order causes them to halt in dramatic attitude4 ,to allay all suspicion1 ,benkei takes an unpardonable liberty and strikes ,yoshitsune with his staff4 ,after ,togashi and his men have retired1 ,benkei seeks ,yoshitsune's forgiveness for his rash act1 and weeps because of his offence1 but ,yoshitsune signifies his approval of ,benkei's strategy1 which has saved their lives4 ,the delighted retainer jumps back1 bows his head to the stage1 and then expresses in a dance the emotions he has gone through4 ,yoshitsune and the yamabushi pass out by way of the audience path to the beating of drums and light ripples of the samisen4 ,left all alone1 the faithful ,benkei takes up once more the yamabushi box1 slips it on his back1 and starts by way of the hanamichi4 ,the curtain is drawn1 the attendant holding back one end as ,benkei pauses before making his wonderful exit4 ,he takes three jumps on one foot and then leaps forward1 whirling his staff in air1 and repeating this1 clears the hanamichi in three great bounds1 giving expression to his triumphant mood and the strength of his loyalty to his master1 amid the thunder of big drums1 the shrilling of the flute1 and the steady metallic clapping of the hyoshigi1 that announce the end of the piece4 ,v ,for the same reason that the music of shibai1 depending as it does on unfamiliar groupings of sound and intricate and ever-changing rhythms1 does not appeal immediately to ,occidental ears1 so the aragoto plays of ,kabuki are equally incomprehensible4 ,they are largely the improvisations of actors1 have little plot1 and sometimes are quite meaningless4 ,unliterary they are to a degree4 ,but their whole value lies in the remarkable stage treatment they display1 how it is done apparently being of much greater importance than what it is about4 ,these strange plays do not appeal to the intellect1 nor are they planned to stir the emotions4 ,they are not intended to be anything in particular1 simply the unconscious theatre instinct at work creating a feast of colour and movement to spread before the eyes4 ,the eighteen pieces of the ,danjuro family are for the most part aragoto1 in which acting and posture are the chief features4 ,sukeroku is among the best of these quaint ,ichikawa pieces4 ,the scene is the outside of a house in the gay quarters1 the entire front vermilion-coloured and barred1 the usual show place for the inmates according to the old custom4 ,several gorgeous processions pass over the hanamichi to the stage1 and then comes the villain1 a venerable white-haired old gentleman1 in bronze brocade1 the very person the hero1 ,sukeroku1 seeks4 ,sukeroku makes an unusual entrance1 running in through the audience1 his head bowed low and covered from sight by a half-shut oiled-paper umbrella4 ,he makes a striking theatrical figure1 for he wears a black kimono lined with pale blue and edged with scarlet1 while his belt1 or obi1 is of green brocade bearing for design in gold the familiar three-rice-measure crest of the first ,danjuro4 ,a red neckcloth sets off the white mask-like face with the broad red outlines about the eyes1 true to the make-up traditions of the ,ichikawa house4 ,a purple band is tied around his head and falls in folds at one side4 ,in his postures on the hanamichi with his black and white umbrella1 ,sukeroku every second assumes a new pose1 that causes him to appear like a piece of statuary in a bewildering number of aspects1 as he shadows forth the meaning of the character he represents1--the bravery and fighting spirit of an otokodate1 or man of the people1 always ready to defend the weak4 ,he also suggests that ,sukeroku is in reality ,goro1 one of the ,soga brothers1 and that he is disguised as ,sukeroku1 and is searching for a lost sword4 ,illustration3 ,morita ,kanya1 the thirteenth1 son of the aggressive theatre manager of ,meiji1 as ,yoshitsune1 the young hero of the music-drama ,kanjincho4 ,thus the actors who created the character in the time of the fifth ,danjuro knew what they were about1 for the ,soga brothers1 otokodate1 chivalrous commoners and searchers after swords1 were prime favourites with ,yedo audiences1 and they were combined for greater effect in the character of ,sukeroku4 ,seeking for a quarrel in the pleasure quarters1 brave ,sukeroku is no respecter of persons1 for his only aim is to make men draw their swords that he may find the one of his quest4 ,his taunting of the stately old villain in the attempt to arouse his ire1 and the intimidation of a samurai whom he causes to throw down his swords and then crawl on all fours between his outstretched legs1 are full of humour4 ,as a last attempt to make the venerable miscreant show his sword ,sukeroku1 championed by ,agimaki1 the gorgeous belle of the quarter1 suddenly jumps forth from his hiding-place behind ,agimaki's ample robes1 and assaults the brocade-clad dignitary1 who involuntarily draws his blade4 ,at sight of it ,sukeroku immediately recognises that it is the precious weapon of his search4 ,later he kills the villain and takes the sword1 when a new danger threatens him as the men of the enemy are about to surround him4 ,he looks about to find a place of concealment1 and as a last resort jumps into a big water tank used on the occasion of a fire4 ,throwing aside a pyramid of small tubs1 that are used as ornaments across the top of the same1 he knocks the bottom out of one and placing it over his head allows it to float on the surface of the water4 ,the searching party look everywhere to find him4 ,they even climb to the roof of the house1 but ,sukeroku and his stolen sword are safe under the water4 ,when he emerges real water splashes all over the stage and comes as a surprise in a play so entirely artificial and unreal4 ,perhaps on that very account it has the intended effect1 for the audience is quite startled by the audacity and bravery of this highly imaginary hero4 99 99 99 99 99 ,kagekiyo1 a legendary character1 the hero of several ,n dramas1 is the central figure in an aragoto piece in the possession of the ,ichikawa family4 ,it represents the actors' impress upon theatre material1 nebulous1 without the concentration that comes from a literary mind4 ,yet to lovers of the unreal it is full of attraction4 ,certainly very little of the world of reality clings about the material or movement of this one-act species of drama which has for motive the valour and strength of ,kagekiyo1 a general of the ,heike clan1 whose cause has been defeated and who is confined in a cavern4 ,his appearance is dramatic in the extreme1 when the guards allow him to gaze forth from a square opening in the bars of his prison-cave4 ,his face is heavily lined with broad red lines1 his fierce and threatening top-knot of hair that stands straight on end is accentuated by peculiar side wings of lacquered wood suggesting strands of hair that form a frame for the ferocious countenance4 ,his costume of glittering gold brocade1 with vivid touches of green and red1 is in keeping with the strange visage of the dauntless warrior4 ,that he may taste all the bitterness of defeat1 his wife and daughter are led in bound with rope1 and he is brought forth to speak with them1 his arms tied behind him in the most approved manner of the modern serial moving picture4 ,when everything seems against the outlandish hero1 he is freed from his fetters and allowed to sit on a huge boulder in the centre of the stage1 where he postures as he relates the misfortunes of his clan and declares his loyalty--an active figure whose every gesture is all the more conspicuous because of the groupings of the immovable personages on either side4 ,kagekiyo shows some traces of human emotion1 and is overcome at the treatment meted out to his wife and daughter1 yet still keeps a stout heart1 even when his son is placed within the gloomy cavern4 ,he scorns the ,genji generals who gaze on his captivity1 by refusing their offerings of food1 kicking it unceremoniously away1 and bellows in the extravagant style that is so typical of aragoto4 ,at length his outraged feeling getting the best of him he lifts up the great stone on which he has been sitting and uses it as a missile to throw at the ,genji followers1 who1 driven hither and thither1 are finally routed4 ,kagekiyo1 fighting to a finish1 reaches a climax of grotesqueness as he poses in triumphant attitude brandishing a large beam of wood which has been his weapon of defence4 ,,vi ,odori is closely allied to the ,kabuki arts1 and forms an essential part of a great variety of pieces4 ,since without it no theatre programme would be considered complete1 odori becomes one of the most important ,kabuki forms4 ,tamura ,nariyoshi1 a theatre manager with a long experience of ,kabuki behind him1 a genius of the ,meiji period1 who died a few years ago1 once said that the mere movement of the limbs was not dancing4 ,should a dancer wish to suggest that he was looking at ,mount ,fuji1 gazing at the sea1 or watching a shadow1 the three ideas must be expressed in different ways4 ,dancing1 like acting1 he said1 should have a meaning1 and the performer must keep steadfastly to the central idea1 otherwise interest would be lost4 ,this is the clue to the understanding of odori4 ,the least gesture made by the dancer has significance1 and nothing is left to chance4 ,the training in dancing the yakusha undergoes gives him control over all parts of his body4 ,he uses his head and shoulders equally with the eyes and face2 the arms1 hands1 and fingers are all expressive1 while the waist and feet play no small part in the presentation of the idea of the dance4 ,pantomime is first cousin to odori1 and rhythm and song next of kin4 ,of the many material objects the ,kabuki dancers have chosen as media of expression1 the chief is the fan4 ,for a thousand years this has been a symbol of the dance1 and its technique has come about through the desire of centuries of dancers to convey emotion through the movements of the dance4 ,what magic this fragile object is able to create is clearly visible when some dancer of long training who has acquired a mastery of movement1 opens and shuts his fan1 causing flowers to bloom1 and rain to fall2 or waving it outstretched1 butterflies flutter and a boat tosses on the waves4 ,he closes it and traces the outline of a mountain and points to the stars2 or opens it sweepingly in imitation of the frolic of the wind4 ,what a world of romance the fan discloses1 suggesting shyness1 affection1 disapproval1 consent6 ,how the widespread silver fan beckons to some enchanted moonlit garden2 upraised1 reveals a triumphant mood2 or the dancer1 with a stamp of feet and swift motion of the body and fan thrown about from hand to hand1 describes some merry festival under the falling petals of the cherry trees4 ,in connection with odori there is an important ,kabuki expert1 the furitsuke-shi 7lit41 movement-to-make master71 who is largely responsible for the charm of the descriptive dance1 but who has received scant recognition for his work4 ,the furitsuke-shi has trained the actors1 assisted in the production of the music-posture dramas and innumerable short dances1 and when given an opportunity to create has left behind him pieces that are still the stock-in-trade of the actors4 ,since the early ,kabuki performances largely consisted of dances1 the players were accustomed to manage according to their own ideas and tastes4 ,with the rapid development of ,kabuki a dance specialist was necessary4 ,illustration3 ,onoe ,baiko1 as the ,wistaria ,maiden1 in a descriptive dance4 ,pantomime as an element of dancing had long been old on the ,n stage1 but it came afresh to ,kabuki from the ,doll-theatre1 where the movements of the marionettes were so remarkable in the sphere of the dance that the actors were obliged to imitate them4 ,gradually there came into existence experts who devoted their time and talents to the teaching of this art to the actors4 ,the furitsuke-shi was an obscure profession1 but nevertheless very important for the stage4 ,the sakusha furnished the libretto for the odori1 or shosagoto1 while the furitsuke-shi planned the movements1 studied the relation of the dancers to each other1 calculated the picturesque groups1 and produced the ensemble so characteristic of these ,kabuki forms4 ,the furitsuke-shi were the repository of the complicated dancing technique of their day1 yet they were quite subordinate to the actors1 and when they wished to carry out an idea they were obliged to consult their superiors1 and in consequence worked under great difficulties4 ,apartments were assigned to the stage dignitaries as became their rank in the shibai world1 but such was the position of the humble dancing-master that he generally fraternised with the men who furnished the incidental music for the plays1 and who were considered far beneath the regular musicians performing out in front1 the ,nagauta1 ,tokiwazu1 and ,gidayu performers4 ,the furitsuke-shi were regarded as merely hangers-on behind the stage4 ,it often happened1 however1 that these men became actors4 ,the fourth ,nakamura ,utayemon was the son of a furitsuke-shi4 ,a modern instance of this is ,matsumoto ,koshiro1 the seventh1 the most versatile actor of the ,tokyo stage1 who was adopted when a child to become the head of the ,fujima school of dancing1 but later was taken under the patronage of the ninth ,danjuro ,ichikawa1 and is the master's most brilliant follower4 ,on the other hand1 actors who were good in dancing but failures on the stage1 often followed this profession4 ,bando ,mitsugoro1 one of the best dancers of the ,tokyo stage to-day1 has practically given up acting1 appearing only in dancing pieces4 ,he gives his time largely to the instruction of young actors4 ,at present the ,fujima house of dancing is the most flourishing in ,tokyo4 ,the founder of this family was a ,n ,kyogen actor called ,kambei1 who hailed from a village named ,fujima4 ,he migrated to ,yedo and taught dancing1 and was succeeded by his son4 ,the third ,kambei1 however1 was one of the most original exponents of this school1 and how he came to inherit the headship of the family forms an interesting story4 ,he was employed as a boy of all work in the fish market1 that stronghold of independent ,yedo citizens1 and was sent by his employer to escort his little daughter to and from her dancing lessons4 ,having to wait in the entrance of the house1 the boy soon came to take a vivid interest in the proceedings1 and by dint of peeping within he learned the dances much quicker than the legitimate pupils4 ,the second ,kambei recognised the lad's ability1 and not only took him under his wing1 but eventually married him to his daughter1 and made over to him the ,fujima school4 ,kambei1 the third1 died under strange circumstances4 ,it was found out that he had carried on a love affair with the mistress of a daimyo who was one of his patronesses4 ,the lord is supposed to have had him secretly dispatched1 and then sent his body home with the explanation that he had suddenly expired4 ,it was thought by his wife and pupils that he had been poisoned1 but the mystery was never solved4 ,his wife carried on the teaching but1 being a woman1 she had no relation with the theatre4 ,among the third ,kambei's pupils was ,nishikawa ,senzo1 who became a star of the ,nishikawa school4 ,illustration3 ,onoe ,kikugoro1 the sixth1 as the transformation of a maid into a white fox1 in a descriptive dance1 ,kagami ,shishi1 or the ,mirror-,lion4 ,after the third ,kambei's time the ,fujima house had two branches founded by his pupils2 one was called ,fujima ,kangoro1 and the other ,fujima ,kanyemon4 ,as the ,kangoro line has always had a woman at its head1 it has not been employed by the theatre4 ,that carried on by ,kanyemon is now the first school of ,tokyo1 with ,hanayanagi second4 ,nishikawa maintains its prestige in ,nagoya2 ,kyoto possesses the ,katayama school1 while the leading schools of ,osaka are the ,umemoto and ,yamamura4 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,nakamura ,denkuro 7,metal cross74 ,illustration3 ,crest of ,sawamura ,sojuro 7,alphabetical character repeated74 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,motives ,,of ,,kabuki ,,plays ,i ,one overwhelming motive is to be found in the plays of the ,doll-theatre and ,kabuki--loyalty and self-sacrifice4 ,these were the popular themes that stirred the people to the depths4 ,it is the conflict of giri 7sense of justice1 duty1 obligation7 and ninjo 7humanity1 sentiment1 feeling7 which forms the backbone of all the drama produced before the ,restoration of the ,emperor in #ahfh4 ,lord ,macaulay has said somewhere that we may safely conclude that the feelings and opinions which pervade the whole dramatic literature of a generation are feelings and opinions of which the men of that generation partook4 ,this is true in a particular sense of the loyalty tragedies enacted by the marionettes and played by the ,kabuki yakusha1 for not only did these representations inculcate in the masses a passion for service and self-abnegation1 but in them are faithfully mirrored the life of ,japan's feudal age4 ,if1 as ,mr4 ,st4 ,john ,ervine has said1 8the supreme test of a nation's health is its capacity to produce and to appreciate tragedy01 then these old tragedies1 full of the devotion of man for master1 the filial duty of children1 the faithfulness of wives1 and readiness to lay down life for a cause1 are revelations of the peculiar virtues and strength of soul that have characterised the humbler people of ,japan for the past two hundred years4 ,of the many loyalty pieces that come to mind1 few are more typical than the long1 complicated play concerning the exiled ,michizane1 the patron saint of ,japanese literature1 ,sugawara ,denju ,tenarai ,kagami 7lit41 ,sugawara-,family-instruction-hand-writi ng-mirror74 ,to ,takeda ,izumo1 the ,doll-theatre playwright1 ,kabuki owes a debt of gratitude for this loyalty masterpiece that is the test of the modern actor's ability4 ,it has even found its way in mutilated form to the ,london stage as ,the ,pine ,tree1 and has been performed on the ,new ,york stage as ,bushido4 ,terakoya1 or ,the ,village ,school1 is but one of many fine scenes in this long drama dealing with ,sugawara ,michizane1 an historical character who lived a thousand years ago1 suffered exile because of a court intrigue1 and is venerated to-day as the patron saint of literature4 ,the loyalty of ,michizane's servants1 the triplets1 called after the plum1 cherry1 and pine trees1 or ,umeomaru1 ,sakuramaru1 and ,matsuomaru1 forms the complicated strands of the drama4 ,genzo1 who has been in the service of the high dignitary and learned writing and letters under him1 attempts to hide the heir to the ,sugawara family1 whom the unrelenting enemy wishes to destroy4 ,hoping to evade the searching eyes of the villain1 ,genzo starts a school in a distant village4 ,there is the familiar opening1 the village children busy at their desks writing in their very much-used copy-books1 the little son of ,michizane1 although in disguise1 distinguished from the others by his aristocratic bearing4 ,the fat dunce is punished by ,genzo's wife1 and stands on his desk with a lighted incense stick in his hand1 admonished not to stir until it is burned down4 ,matsuomaru's wife comes to place her son ,kotaru in the school1 but in reality to give him as a willing sacrifice that he may become a substitute for the princely heir whom the enemy seeks to kill4 ,genzo's entrance by way of the hanamichi focusses all attention upon him4 ,he walks slowly and sadly1 with folded arms4 ,for he is faced with a situation which will test his loyalty to the fullest extent4 ,he must save his master's son4 ,entering the school the children bow respectfully4 ,he calls two of the boys by name and they answer1 raising their heads4 ,but they are country-bred1 and cannot be substituted for the prince4 ,the dejected schoolmaster sinks down deep in meditation1 when his wife introduces the new pupil1 the son of the faithful ,matsuomaru4 ,he does not look at the child at first1 but when he does he gives a start1 for the handsome boy is a veritable solution of his difficulties4 ,he gazes steadfastly into his face1 showing his determination4 ,if the worst should happen1 he will be obliged to kill the newcomer as the only means of saving the little prince4 ,a gorgeous red-faced official arrives to receive the head of the prince1 and ,matsuomaru accompanies him for purposes of identification1 while the fathers of the pupils prostrate themselves humbly on the hanamichi1 waiting to take their precious children home1 afraid of the peril that awaits one of the pupils in ,genzo's school4 ,the examination by the pompous official of the school children must always remain a classic of the ,japanese stage1 as one by one they are called1 the official placing his fan under their chins to look into their upturned faces1 ,matsuomaru shaking his head as the country bumpkins pass before him1--a comic relief from the tenseness created by the coming tragedy4 ,not finding the prince1 the official and his numerous attendants1 or country policemen1 file into the school and take possession4 ,matsuomaru says that not even an ant can escape1 as a warning to ,genzo1 and the impatient official demands that the head may be cut off without delay4 ,illustration3 ,nakamura ,ganjiro of ,osaka as ,genzo1 the village schoolmaster in ,terakoya1 or the ,village ,school1 by ,takeda ,izumo4 ,genzo hesitates2 the head-box the official has brought is under his arm4 ,then he goes to an inner room1 and the sound of the blow of a sword is heard4 ,genzo returns and the box with its gory trophy is placed before ,matsuomaru for final judgement4 ,the actor taking the rle of ,matsuomaru suggests without words ,matsuomaru's anxiety4 ,the face of ,michizane's heir may confront him1 or he may be obliged to look upon the face of his own child1 and this forms one of the most dramatic situations in the scene4 8,good60 he says at last4 8,there is no mistake6 ,it is the real head60--and he covers it up quickly1 since he cannot bear the sight of ,kotaru's face4 ,genzo1 who has been watching closely1 ready to strike ,matsuomaru down with his sword should he disclaim the head1 exchanges an amazed but relieved glance with his wife4 ,the tension is over4 ,then comes the explanation1 ,matsuomaru asking how ,kotaru behaved knowing that he had to die for the prince2 the regrets of ,genzo and his wife2 the meeting of the little prince with his mother4 ,of all the countless loyalty scenes of the ,japanese stage1 ,terakoya for construction1 pathos1 and swiftness of movement cannot be surpassed4 ,illustration3 ,ichikawa ,chusha as ,matsuomaru in ,terakoya 7,the ,village ,school71 who sacrifices the life of his son that the ,michizane heir may survive4 99 99 99 99 99 ,another scene that stands out vividly among the loyalty plays is also by ,takeda ,izumo1 and it would be difficult to judge which displays the better workmanship1 ,terakoya1 ,the ,village ,school1 or the ,sushi-ya scene from ,yoshitsune ,sembonzakura4 ,yoshitsune is the name of that legendary hero of ,japan whose adventures form the plots for many a ,kabuki play1 and ,sembonzakura signifies ten thousand cherry trees1 suggesting something of the lustre and fame of ,yoshitsune's name4 ,sushi-ya is a humble shop where rice sandwiches stuffed with vegetables or fish are sold4 ,it was in this sushi-ya that a ,heike prince lived in disguise4 ,the interior of the sushi-ya is shown1 wooden buckets arranged in neat rows4 ,the young man of the shop1 who is in reality the ,heike prince1 enters with a small tub slung over his shoulder1 as he has been about the business of the shop4 ,o-,sato1 daughter of the proprietor1 loves the effeminate youth1 and is seen making overtures to him1 which he does not particularly relish4 ,gonta1 the prodigal son of the family1 returns home4 ,this character has the bushy hair which ,kabuki has conventionalised to identify robbers and bold1 bad men4 ,his large black-and-white-checked kimono is in striking contrast to his bare skin and the inky blackness of his wig4 ,he has come after money1 and knows well how to play upon the feelings of his mother4 ,she is inclined to scold him at first1 but he relates a tale of woe with such telling force that she is instantly won over to his side4 ,when ,gonta turns his face towards his fond parent his countenance expresses all degrees of contrition and misery1 but when he takes the audience into his confidence he swiftly changes to the prodigal again1 crafty and watchful1 lest his good acting in the rle of a much-abused person may fail to secure him the advantage he desires4 ,the mother goes to open a chest of drawers to give him some money1 but she cannot unlock it4 ,gonta1 who really belongs to the light-fingered gentry1 easily picks the lock and helps himself generously4 ,some one is heard approaching1 and to hide his newly acquired riches he places the money in one of the sushi tubs standing on the verandah1 and disappears behind the blue and white curtain that separates the shop from the dwelling4 ,by way of the hanamichi1 the old keeper of the sushi-ya returns home in a state of agitation1 with some object concealed under his arm wrapped in a kimono1 and when the prince1 in the capacity of a servant of the place1 comes to welcome him1 the master sends him on an errand1 and when alone unwraps a human head and slips it for concealment into a tub standing next to that in which ,gonta has deposited his ill-gotten gains4 ,disclosing his secret to the prince1 the old man tells him how his enemies are searching for him1 but that he accidentally came upon the body of a samurai who had been killed in a fray and with whose head he intends to mislead the enemy4 ,shortly after1 ,gonta comes forth1 seizes the tub with the head and makes a hurried exit by the hanamichi4 ,then the wife and child of the prince appear4 ,o-,sato1 who has been sleeping behind a low screen1 awakens at the sound of their voices and realises the high degree of her supposed lover4 ,her love-dream over1 she is weepingly respectful to the fine lady4 ,for safety's sake1 the ,heike prince and his family leave the house1 and have barely escaped before a resplendent warrior walks with stately tread through the audience1 accompanied by a retinue of attendants4 ,he is dressed in black and white1 with a wonderful head-dress1 the decorations of which are like the golden antennae of an insect1 glittering in the mellow glow of the lights carried by the torch-bearers4 ,in terror the sushi-ya runs to meet the train and peers up into their faces1 but they pay little attention4 ,the old man1 at the command of the grandee1 places the sushi tub which he thinks contains the head in front of the examiner1 who orders that the ghastly object be brought forth4 ,the mother has seen her erring son1 ,gonta1 place the money in that very tub1 and she objects to the examination of the contents since she knows what a disappointment awaits her husband4 ,while they struggle over the tub1 ,gonta strides bravely along the hanamichi1 full of importance1 the sushi tub containing the head under his arm4 ,this he offers for the examiner's inspection1 and so saves the day6 ,but the parents think that he has proved disloyal and taken the head of the prince for the sake of the reward1 and their belief is strengthened when they see that he has with him the supposed wife and child of the prince1 gagged and bound1 whom he treats in the most insulting manner4 ,the pompous official then demands the head4 ,the torch-bearers draw near that he may view it the better4 ,he unfolds his gold fan and continues to gaze for a long time1 conveying to the audience without words that he is satisfied it is the head of ,prince ,koremori1 and prepares to depart4 ,gonta watches his every movement1 fearful that something may happen at the last moment to upset his carefully made plans4 ,before the official departs he presents ,gonta with a gift in the shape of a kimono4 ,no sooner has the examiner left1 than the sushi-ya1 overcome at the idea of his son's lack of loyalty in giving up the prince and his family to the enemy1 falls on ,gonta with his sword and pierces him to the heart4 ,with his remaining strength1 poor1 misjudged ,gonta places a whistle to his mouth1 and the true prince1 with his wife and child1 come at the call from their hiding-place4 ,it is ,gonta's own wife and child who have been sacrificed4 ,the parents realise too late what has happened1 and are overwhelmed with grief1 and the prince examining the garment given to ,gonta discovers that part of a priest's robe has been hidden within its folds4 ,he takes the suggestion and puts it on1 realising that the official was well aware that the head placed in front of him was not that of ,koremori1 and had sent this hint to the ,heike prince to retire to a monastery4 ,the dying ,gonta surrounded by the now priest-prince and his wife and child1 his own parents and sister1 breathes his last as the curtain is drawn amid the noise of the loud clapping of two pieces of wood1 which in ,kabuki always signifies the end of the play4 ,illustration3 ,jitsukawa ,enjaku of ,osaka as ,gonta in the sacrifice play1 ,sembonzakura1 by ,takeda ,izumo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,another scene from a loyalty play1 ,sendaihagi 7,sendai referring to former generations1 and hagi1 a flowering shrub71 written by ,matsu ,kanshi for the ,doll-theatre in #aghd1 has withstood the shocks of time so well that it may be seen many times a year on the modern stages of the three cities1 ,tokyo1 ,osaka1 and ,kyoto4 ,it concerns a young daimyo1 one of the wealthiest among the feudal lords1 who led a dissolute life4 ,the lord's excesses were encouraged by a relative1 who intrigued to have him removed from the headship of the family that he might manage the domain to his own benefit4 ,there was a small heir1 ,tsurukiyo1 in the way of the final completion of this dark design1 and ,masaoka1 his faithful nurse1 was ever watchful in her protection of him4 ,the finest scene in ,sendaihagi is that in which ,masaoka prepares the food for ,tsurukiyo1 for she knows that his enemies will attempt to poison him4 ,the splendid room of a great daimyo's ancestral mansion is a strong contrast to the meagre fare the faithful nurse prepares4 ,at all costs she must cook the meal herself1 for enemies lurk in all parts of the house1 and have been given orders to kill the boy who stands in the way of the coveted inheritance4 ,masaoka unfolds a low gold screen1 disclosing the utensils used in the tea ceremony1 and slowly begins to make the meal for the little prince and her son ,semmatsu1 who is his playmate4 ,the children ask when the rice will be cooked1 as they are very hungry1 and trying to forget the pangs of hunger they engage in play4 ,masaoka1 busy at her work1 is overcome with emotion1 as she alone realises the desperate situation1 and the peril which threatens ,tsurukiyo4 ,with this fear at her heart1 she does not go about her task happily or briskly1 but pauses now and then to weep4 ,when ,tsurukiyo comes to take a look at the boiling pot1 inquiring how long it will be before the meal is ready1 he surprises his nurse in a tearful mood4 ,but she regains her composure1 and announces that the rice will soon be boiled4 ,a flock of sparrows fly near the verandah1 and ,tsurukiyo throws them some uncooked grains of rice4 ,after the sparrows have disappeared1 the children realise their hunger again and make a fresh appeal4 ,semmatsu1 who is patience itself1 understands that he must amuse the prince and begins to sing a song and clap his hands1 in which pastime ,tsurukiyo joins4 ,this does not divert for long1 and ,tsurukiyo becomes angry at repeated delays and murmurs discontentedly1 his small companion shedding tears because he is unable to console him4 ,finally ,tsurukiyo says that even the sparrows are fed1 but that they have nothing to eat4 ,after the children have partaken of ,masaoka's frugal repast of plain boiled rice1 the action is rapid4 ,an aged relative of the family enters clad in gold brocade1 her white hair flowing down her back1 guided over the hanamichi by maids bearing lanterns1 and an accomplice carrying the box of poisoned cakes1 a gift for ,tsurukiyo4 ,as his fare has been of the scantiest1 ,tsurukiyo looks longingly at this box1 but a whispered word from ,masaoka warns him in time4 ,semmatsu is mistaken for ,tsurukiyo1 and the wicked woman who has been commissioned to kill him performs her task in a cruel fashion1 ,masaoka sacrificing the life of her son in order to save that of the little lord4 ,,ii ,the working out of the ends of justice1 the righting of wrongs1 the trailing of a murderer for years by the entire members of a family1 such were the plots that appealed to the audiences of ,old ,japan1 and the writers of plays knew well how to serve their desires4 ,as the secret map describing a lost gold mine1 or parchment hidden in the head of a bronze idol relating to a buried treasure starts the interminable1 harrowing incidents of a modern cinematograph serial1 the subject of revenge for wrong done held together the many scenes and acts of the ,doll-theatre and ,kabuki plays4 ,the greatest revenge play of ,japan is ,chushingura 7lit41 ,loyal ,retainers' ,storehouse71 or the story of the faithful ,forty-seven ,ronin1 who waited an opportunity to slay the miserable old villain who had caused their lord1 ,hangan1 to commit harakiri1 and when they had accomplished their end died as one man by their own hands4 ,produced in #agdh1 ,chushingura was written by ,takeda ,izumo in collaboration with ,namiki ,senryu and ,miyoshi ,shoraku4 ,illustration3 ,ichikawa ,sadanji as ,sadakura1 the highwayman1 in the play ,chushingura4 ,if the final test of drama be character1 then the claim of ,chushingura to a first place among the plays of ,japan is thoroughly justified4 ,first and foremost1 there is ,yuranosuke1 the leader of the loyal ,forty-seven4 ,both his entrance upon the harakiri scene to catch the dying request of his feudal lord1 ,enya ,hangan1 and his exit sternly resolved to avenge the death of his master1 are things to remember1 not only because they show the true dramatic situations born of a good dramatist1 but also because the actor suggests so powerfully ,yuranosuke's emotions4 ,hangan must carry out the severe decree in the presence of the officials who have announced the penalty for his offence committed within the ,shogun's palace4 ,he hesitates1 since he is anxious to see his chief retainer before he bids farewell to the world4 ,yuranosuke1 who has been sent for1 hastening on his way from ,hangan's fief in the provinces1 has not yet reached the ,yedo mansion of his lord4 ,the audience1 feeling the suspense1 watches the hanamichi4 ,at the very last moment he comes along the narrow way above the heads of the playgoers without noise or clatter1 dropping down on his knees humbly before he reaches the stage proper4 ,sorrow1 anxiety1 respect--all are mingled in his manner4 ,not a moment too soon1 he catches ,hangan's last words1 and gives him the consolation he needs so sorely4 ,yuranosuke takes the dirk from the lifeless hand1 pays the last marks of respect to the body1 and places it within the palanquin to be carried to the temple for the burial service4 ,and what a situation it is for a good actor1 as ,yuranosuke with composure1 yet regretfully1 performs his duties in a mansion that is to know his master no longer6 ,grouped about are the retainers who have served the lord since childhood1 and whose fathers and forefathers were employed in like capacity under the lord's ancestors1 suddenly made ronin1 unattached samurai1 set adrift1 to wander about the land6 ,castle and lands confiscated1 wives and children turned out-of-doors1 men ready to unsheathe their swords in their lord's defence1 depending on him for their living and well-being1 all to be scattered to the winds to lead poverty-stricken existences4 ,rough justice the men would have immediately1 but the superior-minded ,yuranosuke begs them to wait for a better opportunity4 ,illustration3 ,the ,harakiri ,scene from ,chushingura4 ,left alone outside the red gate of his master's yashiki1 ,yuranosuke suggests his future plan1 as drawing forth the bloodstained dirk he gazes upon it1 there being no doubt that he is prepared to sacrifice his life in the cause of righting the great wrong inflicted upon the house and all its dependents4 ,for contrast in character there is the self-controlled1 well-bred ,hangan1 trying his best to behave himself as becomes his rank and station1 and the unscrupulous old official ,moronao1 hardened in the school of intrigue4 ,if only ,hangan's men had taken the precaution to bribe the crafty ,moronao as had the representative of ,wakasanosuke1 ,hangan's friend6 ,but then there would have been no play4 ,unconscious that he is expected to stoop so low1 ,hangan keeps watch over himself1 as ,moronao by taunt and insult tries to make him take the offensive that is to cost him so dearly4 ,in the fourth act1 again comes the clash of good and evil4 ,the disloyal ,sadakuro in the midst of the faithful has turned highwayman1 seeking his livelihood by waylaying travellers4 ,a colour-print actor come to life1 he seems to be1--his whitened legs1 arms1 and chest vivid against the black kimono that is tucked into his belt2 the black1 bushy robber's wig against the white face1--a picture in black and white4 ,as though quite accustomed to put wayfarers out of commission1 ,sadakuro halts old ,yoichibei1 slays him with a sword and throws the body over the hillside1 then wrings out his wet clothes4 ,how much suggestion plays its part in ,kabuki acting may be seen throughout ,chushingura1 but nothing is more interesting than ,sadakuro's wordless play1 as he wrings the rain from his kimono and wipes the imaginary drops from his face1 bringing before our eyes his wild life in the lonely places1 showing the high courage of the samurai1 yet the hardened soul of the criminal4 ,no doubt the dramatist created him to make the deeds of the loyal retainers shine forth all the more brightly4 ,and so he stands1 counting with satisfaction his booty1 when a stray shot from ,kanpei's gun strikes him in the chest1 dyeing him red1 an evildoer gone to his just deserts4 ,there is1 again1 the erring ,kanpei1 ,hangan's servant1 loitering about with ,o-,karu1 a maidservant of his mistress1 when he should have been attending to his duties by waiting at the ,shogun's gate4 ,he returns to find the uproar caused by ,hangan's attack upon ,moronao4 ,fearing that he will be censured for his neglect1 he runs off with ,o-,karu to the home of her father1 ,yoichibei1 in the country1 hoping to return to the service of his lord when they are both pardoned4 ,yoichibei1 glad to aid ,kanpei in his endeavour to raise funds that he may contribute towards the cause1 sells ,o-,karu to a house in ,kyoto1 and is returning home with the money when struck down by ,sadakuro4 ,kanpei1 out hunting1 runs after a wild boar1 but finds he has killed a man instead1 and takes the purse he finds on ,sadakuro1 reaching home to discover that ,o-,karu is on the point of leaving for ,kyoto1 and that the purse he has secreted within the folds of his kimono must be that of ,yoichibei1 and in consequence that he has killed his father-in-law4 ,when ,yoichibei's body is brought into the cottage the old widow believes ,kanpei to have committed the crime4 ,he cannot save his wife1 ,o-,karu2 he believes himself guilty1 and when two of the ronin arrive1 sent by ,yuranosuke to return a sum of money already sent by ,kanpei1 as he has not yet been reinstated in the good favour of the band1 ,kanpei can stand it no longer and commits harakiri4 ,before he expires he is cleared1 for ,yoichibei's wound was not made by ,kanpei's gun but ,sadakuro's sword4 ,ghastly and realistic is ,kanpei's end1 but he is not forgotten1 and is regarded henceforth as one of the band4 ,there is1 also1 that gay scene in the ,kyoto tea-house where ,yuranosuke leads a dissipated life in order to put the spies of ,moronao off the scent1 and the sadness of farewell when the leader of the ,forty-seven takes leave of his wife and home1 and finally the gathering together on a snowy day1 and the storming of the great red gate that guards the entrance to the residence of the enemy4 ,swarming within they return in triumph with the head of the villain4 ,later they commit harakiri1 and are buried together with their lord in the compound of ,senkaku-ji1 the ,buddhist temple in ,tokyo1 where before their tombs the incense is still kept burning4 ,,iii ,those who believe that ,kabuki has no love scenes might be enlightened after witnessing some of the tender passages in plays that have pleased audiences for two centuries1 and are yet able to hold the attention1 as modern pieces scarcely ever do4 ,miuranosuke1 the brave young hero1 comes home wounded from the battle because he has heard his mother is ill4 ,he serves the great ,lord ,yoriye1 of ,sakamoto ,castle1 on ,lake ,biwa1 who has declared war upon ,hojo ,tokimasa of ,kamakura4 ,toki-hime1 his betrothed1 is the daughter of ,tokimasa1 and ,miuranosuke finds that his future wife is the daughter of the sworn enemy1 and that she is taking care of his mother in a poor country cottage1 where they have taken shelter4 ,toki-hime in her long scarlet robe1 into which is woven a pattern of golden winding water and flowers1 and wearing a silver head-dress that forms a frame to her face--dainty1 appealing1 the very spirit of youth and devotion1--shines forth in her splendour1 the shabby cottage interior as a setting4 ,miuranosuke makes a young warrior to suit the taste of the most carping of critics4 ,staggering through the audience1 clad in sky-blue brocade and scarlet armour1 the heads of the people in the boxes on a level with the hanamichi turn to see his entrance4 ,he reaches the gate of the cottage and then sinks down from exhaustion4 ,toki-hime quickly restores him1 and they express their devotion for each other in postures that instead of tearing the affections to tatters1 as is the way with realism1 suggest the depth of their feeling1 the minstrel singing and describing1 and the samisen player beating the rhythms4 ,the hero's aged mother1 lying ill in bed1 opens the shoji of her sick-room only to upbraid him for leaving the battle2 she threatens to sever their relationship as mother and son unless he returns4 ,then follows one of the best scenes in the province of onnagata acting4 ,toki-hime tries to aid ,miuranosuke to attire himself in his armour1 and her grace and delicacy are emphasised by the efforts she makes to carry the heavy helmet1 which at last she is obliged to drag across the floor of the cottage4 ,later ,toki-hime is seen standing alone in quiet meditation by a dim oil light4 ,here is the eternal conflict in the female breast in all ages and all countries1 the struggle between love and duty4 ,will she kill ,miuranosuke's mother as her father has commanded1 giving her a sword for this express purpose1 or will she be faithful to her love8 ,in the midst of her quandary a queer personage enters1 dressed in the unmistakable costume of the ,kabuki comedian3 a bright yellow kimono with broad black stripes running from shoulder to shoulder1 short baggy trousers made of horizontal stripes of brown and fawn1 and the sleeves bound with broad bands of scarlet4 ,to the overtures of the fool she turns a deaf ear4 ,when ,toki-hime is just about to kill herself as the only way out of the difficulties that beset her1 ,miuranosuke stops her and says his doubts regarding her loyalty to him are at an end4 ,he begs her to live a little longer in order to dispatch her father1 his enemy1 and as he intends to die in battle1 pleads with her to join him in death1 when they can be married in another world4 ,the playwright thus strains the love-loyalty and filial piety themes to the utmost4 ,rather poor consolation for ,toki-hime this1 but her love for him conquers and she consents4 ,then the spies come and say that they have overheard all1 and the arch-spy robed in black hastens on his way to inform her father1 when there issues out of the well in the garden a deadly spear-thrust1 and he is killed on the spot4 ,an imposing personage clambers out of the well4 ,he is ,sasaki1 staunch supporter of ,miuranosuke1 who has been masquerading as the comedian1 and in that capacity tested ,toki-hime's fidelity4 ,there is a sound of battle1 the clash of cymbals and the thunder of big drums1 ,miuranosuke and ,sasaki must away to the fray4 ,toki-hime1 winsome and wistful1 watches their departure4 ,word comes to ,toki-hime at ,kamakura that ,miuranosuke has died on the battlefield4 ,she is overwhelmed by sorrow4 ,one day she gives ,sasaki the opportunity to strike down her father1 but when he examines the head that he has taken as a trophy1 he finds to his bitter regret it is that of ,toki-hime4 99 99 99 99 99 ,usuyuki1 or ,thin-,snow1 and her lover1 ,sonobei ,sayemon1 are the youthful figures in a love idyll of the ,doll-theatre of which ,kabuki players never seem to tire4 ,they meet in cherry-blossom time at ,kiyomizu1 that fine old ,buddhist temple built up on the steep hillside commanding a view of ,kyoto nestling in its wide valley4 ,this is always an appropriate play for the cherry season1 and these flowers are used as a pendent curtain across the stage1 while trees in full bloom are placed on either side1 and in the centre there is an ornate red-lacquered temple structure4 ,in addition to its romance1 the play of ,usuyuki and ,sayemon is one of the most famous sword pieces of the ,japanese stage4 ,sayemon presents the gift of a sword to the temple1 but an evil swordsmith damages it in order that ,sayemon may be punished1 jealousy prompting the villain to come between the lovers4 ,usuyuki and ,sayemon have just been married1 when messengers arrive bearing accusations against ,sayemon on account of the tampered sword4 ,the affectionate1 innocent young couple are parted4 ,usuyuki is taken into the custody of her husband's father1 and ,sayemon entrusted to the keeping of his wife's father4 ,love laughs at barriers1 however1 and they secretly escape together4 ,the fathers commit suicide that their children may be cleared of all doubts and suspicions1 and ,usuyuki and her husband return to enjoy an uninterrupted life of peace and happiness4 99 99 99 99 99 ,miyuki and ,asojiro are household names in ,japan1 the chief figures in a romance that started one summer evening in ,kyoto1 when at a fire-fly festival on the river their boats came together1 and they fell in love at first sight1 exchanging fans on which they had written extemporaneous verse4 ,they plighted their troth1 but stern samurai business kept ,asojiro in another part of the country1 and ,miyuki1 neglected and forlorn1 wept so much that she became blind1 and started to wander about the country with her nurse trying to find her faithless lover4 ,the finest scene is that in which the blind girl plays the koto1 or long harp-like instrument1 at an inn where her lover is stopping4 ,asojiro and an elderly samurai are on a special mission1 and his companion thinks only of his duty1 and allows for no delinquency or soft-heartedness on the part of ,asojiro1 who is overcome when he finds the blind koto player1 brought in by the innkeeper to amuse them1 is no other than his own ,miyuki4 ,all he can do is to give her some remembrance and a sum of money which he leaves with the innkeeper4 ,by these tokens ,miyuki knows that she has been in the presence of ,asojiro1 and half distracted she runs to the river to overtake her fleeing lover1 who has been obliged by his taskmaster of a travelling companion to hasten on his way4 ,the river has risen1 and the ferrymen will not take any more passengers across4 ,there are many wet eyes in the audience1 for the parting of young lovers never fails to appeal to the tender-hearted in all countries the sun shines upon4 ,the playwright knew that his audience would be disappointed were the lovers never to meet again1 and the sympathetic innkeeper makes a gash in his body in order that he may provide the blind maid with a liberal portion of his blood1 whereby her eyesight is miraculously restored4 ,later she is united with ,asojiro1 and all ends well4 99 99 99 99 99 ,no mention of the lovers in ,japanese plays would be complete without the names of ,yayegaki-hime and ,katsuyori1 characters in a ,doll-theatre jidaimono by ,chikamatsu ,hanji1 called ,nijushiko 7lit41 ,twenty-four ,filial ,persons71 after a book of ,chinese tales regarding the filial deeds of this exact number of personages4 ,this long play relates the rivalry between the heads of two clans1 which is settled by the betrothal of the daughter of one great daimyo to the son of the other4 ,but ,yayegaki-hime's father has in his keeping a much-treasured helmet belonging to ,katsuyori's family1 and the young man dressed as a gardener secretly visits the house of his betrothed that he may secure the helmet4 ,yayegaki-hime soon penetrates his disguise and in spite of his cold demeanour she wears her heart on her sleeve4 ,they are in the midst of an exchange of affection when the eavesdropping father breaks in and spoils it all4 ,he hands ,katsuyori a letter enclosed in a lacquered box with the request that it be delivered at once4 ,then two villainous retainers are sent after1 with intent to waylay and kill ,katsuyori4 ,meanwhile the faithful heroine decides to steal the helmet and carry it to ,katsuyori4 ,fox fires are seen burning in the garden1 and aided by the magic of foxes she becomes possessed of supernatural strength1 and bearing the helmet aloft steals out of the house4 ,servants rushing in to prevent her escape are overcome by enchantment1 and she flees along the hanamichi1 the minstrel explaining that she traces her way across frozen ,lake ,suwa by the footmarks the accommodating and sympathetic foxes have left in the snow to guide her to her lover4 ,,iv ,kabuki ghosts are more artistic than matters for psychical research4 ,supernatural visitors are dearly loved by playgoers in ,japan1 and as material for stage treatment the ghostly is handled with great skill4 ,tall autumn grasses waving silvery plumes1 a lonely deserted cottage that gives one a creepy sensation1 a rising moon casting a melancholy effulgence1 the distant booming of a temple bell--and ghostly ,japan is well represented4 ,in such a play1 a travelling silk-dealer neglects his wife and wanders far afield1 experiencing many adventures4 ,at last his steps turn homeward4 ,his wife appears1 but he does not know that she is a visitant from another world1 although the audience is in the secret1 the delicate suggestions of ghosthood preparing them for the supernatural4 ,she tells him her sad story1 he falls asleep1 and she disappears in a truly ghost-like fashion1 sinking down slowly behind the stone which marks her burial-place4 ,the stage is darkened and with the light there is seen the reality--the dwelling in ruins and decay1 tall weeds growing through the broken floor1 and a pale moon throwing its white light over the deserted scene4 ,in a play by ,mokuami1 ,sogoro1 a fish-dealer1 of a low type but chivalrous1 comes to right the wrong done to his sister ,o-,tsuta1 a maid in the residence of a daimyo4 ,she has been tortured and put to death at the instigation of a man-servant in the lord's service whose overtures she had spurned4 ,sogoro appears brandishing a sake tub1 from which he has imbibed too freely4 ,he is finally calmed by a gift of money for the girl's funeral expenses1 and the news that the plotter against his innocent sister has gone the way of all stage villains4 ,o-,tsuta1 who has been sent to her untimely end under such wrongful circumstance1 returns as an apparition4 ,her body has been thrown into the garden well and issues forth in a puff of smoke1 a haggard1 grey1 emaciated spirit with uncanny movements appearing as a shadow on the shoji1 or white paper window4 99 99 99 99 99 ,kasane is another ghostly heroine popular with ,kabuki audiences4 ,she is disfigured and deformed1 and has been transformed from a pretty woman into one unpleasant to behold4 ,kasane has married ,kinugawa1 her dead sister's husband1 and1 all unknowing1 she is the victim of ghostly jealousy4 ,her husband keeps her blissfully unaware of her facial defects1 as he has forbidden her to look in a mirror4 ,she does so1 is overcome by horror1 fights with ,kinugawa and is killed4 ,her ghost rises out of the river1 long1 wan1 grey1 tapering1 like a shadow that moves upward through no power of its own1 to disappear in a similar strange fashion behind a bridge4 ,once more the wraith appears calling ,kinugawa to come1 and he is just about to sink under the enchantment of the ghostly ,kasane1 when he thinks of a spell to break the chains of death that seem binding him and is released just as morning dawns4 ,a black drop curtain falls revealing a sunny morning1 people passing over the bridge1 among them a charming young maiden1 the very actor who impersonated the unfortunate ,kasane but a moment before4 99 99 99 99 99 ,of all the ghostly heroines of ,kabuki1 ,o-,iwa is certainly the most tragic4 ,she is the creation of ,namboku ,tsuruya in his play ,yotsuya ,kaidan1 ,the ,ghost of ,yotsuya1 the latter a thriving quarter of modern ,tokyo4 ,illustration3 ,scene from ,yotsuya ,kaidan1 or ,the ,ghost of ,yotsuya1 by ,namboku ,tsuruya4 ,onoe ,baiko is seen as the disfigured ,o-,iwa1 and ,onoe ,matsusuke the kind old masseur who holds up the mirror that she may learn the truth4 ,iyemon1 oil-paper umbrella maker1 one-time samurai1 then ronin in hard luck1 has a pretty young wife1 ,o-,iwa1 who has just borne him a child4 ,his indifference to her is remarkable4 ,the daughter of a well-to-do neighbour is in love with ,iyemon1 and her family conspire to put the wife out of the way by sending her a gift of medicine which is a powerful poison that will disfigure her face4 ,the poor creature1 weak and ill1 unsuspecting the dark design1 thankfully drinks the fatal cup4 ,an old masseur takes pity on the unfortunate ,o-,iwa1 and is thoroughly solicitous1 a character that saves the play from becoming too sordid4 ,o-,iwa changed by the poison presents a hideous aspect1 and the actor taking this rle plays directly upon his audience4 ,the following scene shows ,iyemon feasting at the neighbour's house1 where he is asked to put away his wife and marry their daughter4 ,he consents1 but his hesitation is the one redeeming quality to his credit4 ,then he returns home with set purpose to treat ,o-,iwa so shamefully that she will leave the abode of her own accord4 ,he refuses to give her money1 even takes her clothing and the mosquito net1 which he pretends to pawn4 ,o-,iwa1 shocked by her altered looks1 overcome by her husband's inhumanity1 no longer desires to live1 and kills herself with a sword4 ,iyemon returns home once more to find her dead body1 and at the same time discovers ,kohei1 the servant1 whom ,iyemon had gagged and imprisoned in the cupboard in a previous scene4 ,kohei is a witness to ,o-,iwa's misery1 and so ,iyemon puts him out of the way4 ,the two corpses are no sooner bundled out of sight by ,iyemon's ruffians than the bride arrives in state and there is a scramble to prepare for her4 ,when ,iyemon approaches his new wife she is still in her wedding robe4 ,he takes off the white veil that covers her head and discovers the frightful visage of ,o-,iwa4 ,making a plunge with his sword he cuts off the head of his bride4 ,in haste he runs to tell her father1 when he encounters the ghost of ,kohei1 and using his weapon again he severs the head of his father-in-law4 ,the scene which follows1 however1 quite outdoes anything in the supernatural in which ,kabuki is wont to specialise4 ,iyemon fishing in the river discovers the door to which the bodies of the two victims were tied when they were thrown into the water4 ,o-,iwa raises her head and speaks in sepulchral tones1 and the door turning over1 ,kohei's ghost repeats its tragic phrase3 8,master1 medicine1 please60 ,for these were the words ,kohei used when interceding on ,o-,iwa's behalf4 ,the same actor takes the rles of both ghosts1 and the lightning change from wife to servant is left to the imagination of the spectators1 and only the stage mechanics beneath the blue and white cotton waves know how the transformation is effected4 99 99 99 99 99 ,without doubt ,botan ,doro1 ,the ,peony ,lantern1 takes first place among the ghost plays of ,kabuki4 ,a ,chinese tale retold by the professional story-teller1 ,encho1 and dramatised by ,mokuami and ,fukuchi1 the two outstanding playwrights of the ,meiji era1 it is always performed in midsummer4 ,ghosts are a cooling influence for theatre-goers surfeited with the sights and sounds of the hot thoroughfares1 and shades from another world clad in grey1 with wan1 indistinct faces1 seen vaguely behind weeping willow branches1 seem appropriate stage characters in summer weather4 ,the chief characters in ,botan ,doro are ,o-,tsuyu1 a beautiful maiden in love with ,hagiwara ,shinsaburo4 ,there is also the young lady's maid1 and a picturesque evildoer1 ,tomozo4 ,o-,tsuya meeting secretly with her lover is suddenly surprised1 and they are rudely parted4 ,in despair1 she commits suicide with her maid1 and the ghostly shapes visit ,shinsaburo nightly4 ,a priest gives him a small golden image of the ,goddess of ,mercy to ward off her nocturnal visits1 and puts up a charm to keep ,o-,tsuya away4 ,tomozo1 the hero's faithless servant1 steals the image and tells his wife that the ghost of ,o-,tsuya will appear and pay him a sum of money for hiding it1 the influence of which prevents her from entering her lover's house4 ,he is firmly convinced the ghost will appear1 and his look-out for the apparition is so full of surprise and contrast1 and the suspense so well sustained1 that the audience is thoroughly keyed up in anticipation4 ,tomozo and his wife talk so much of the ghost that every moment they think she has come1 and soon are trembling with fear1 the frightened wife taking refuge under the large green mosquito net suspended over her bed4 ,o-,tsuya and her maid are suddenly seen to float behind the drooping branches of a willow tree1 seemingly suspended in air1 the maid carrying the ghostly lantern1 shaped like a pink peony1 that gives out a dim and intermittent glow4 ,the transaction over between ,o-,tsuya and ,tomozo1 the ghosts make their way towards ,shinsaburo's house1 but they cannot enter unless the ,buddhist charm above the doorway is removed4 ,this ,tomozo accomplishes1 and immediately as the two weird shapes vanish1 a peony lantern is seen to rise mysteriously from mid-stage and without the aid of hands1 sail through the air and enter an open space over the door4 ,shinsaburo is now left to the mercy of the ghosts1 who claim him as their own and take him away from the land of the living4 ,there is a superstition concerning ,the ,peony ,lantern to the effect that actors who play the ghosts' rles soon pass away4 ,this was brought home when the play was presented at the ,imperial ,theatre in ,august #aiai4 ,during the performances two of the most promising young actors of ,tokyo1 taking the rles of mistress and maid1 took ill and died within a week of each other4 ,nightly they had been seen1 pale-faced1 the hair worn long and dishevelled1 the maid with the ghostly lantern in hand1 moving behind the willow tree4 ,soon they were to become like the shades they impersonated1 no longer of the earth1 earthy4 ,v ,the frequency with which heads--the variety that ,salome bore on a charger when she danced before ,king ,herod--enter into ,kabuki plays would seem to bear out the pronouncement made by the late ,william ,archer that the ,japanese drama was 8barbaric and insensate04 ,this was the impression made upon a ,western critic on first contact with ,kabuki during a brief visit to ,japan4 ,considering1 however1 the wide range of ,kabuki plays1 this sweeping statement revealed but half-knowledge4 ,even as the unnatural crimes in ,shakespeare's plays pleased the ,elizabethans1 so the playwrights of ,old ,japan provided strong fare for their feudal audiences4 ,unless the abstract motive of loyalty is recognised1 the significance of a head symbol as a stage accessory is lost4 ,one of the best of many such loyalty pieces is ,omi ,genji1 by ,chikamatsu ,hanji and ,miyoshi ,shoraku4 ,two brothers1 ,moritsuna and ,takatsuna1 descendants of the ,genji clan1 live near the lake of ,omi4 ,they are on different sides1 one for the ,shogun1 the other a rebel4 ,moritsuna holds his brother's son1 ,koshiro1 as a hostage and tells his venerable mother to instruct the lad to commit harakiri that ,takatsuna may be influenced to take an honourable course of action4 ,the boy is disinclined to listen to his grandmother1 the more so as he sees his mother approaching the gate4 ,his grandmother tries in vain to carry out the execution1 but her love for her grandchild renders her powerless to act4 ,messengers arrive and relate in descriptive posture dances how the battle went and that ,takatsuna has been killed4 ,a representative of the ,shogun comes with ,takatsuna's head in order that ,moritsuna may identify it4 ,he is ,tokimasa1 a dignified old warrior in gold armour1 his white hair bound with a silver band1 and comes through the audience followed by his retainers in armour1 one carrying the head-box1 another a chest of armour4 ,the head-box is placed in the centre of the stage and the ceremonial of examination proceeds4 ,moritsuna slowly seats himself in front of the box4 ,with eyes that do not see1 he carefully takes off the long upper portion and lifts up the shallow lower portion of the box on which rests the head1 placing it on top of the cover which makes a stand for it1 the face looking out toward the audience4 ,koshiro1 peering forth to see the head1 disturbs the august assembly by leaping down from an upper room and committing harakiri1 ,moritsuna taking no notice of the tragic deed further than to upbraid him for his impolite behaviour in the presence of the exalted guest4 ,he continues his silent examination of the head4 ,the audience is so hushed that the stray notes of the samisen sound like drops of water echoing through a vacant house4 ,it seems an endless time before he lowers his eyes1 and the longer he evades looking the more the actor hypnotises the audience4 ,at last ,moritsuna's brotherly affection overcomes his strong self-control1 and conflicting emotions are seen upon his face4 ,slowly his gaze travels down4 ,it is the moment the audience have been awaiting4 ,there is a slight start when his eyes rest full upon the face1 an imperceptible surprise1 and then a smile of relief4 ,it is not the head of ,takatsuna4 ,his brother is still alive4 ,but even while smiling he makes up his mind to resort to subterfuge to deceive ,tokimasa1 and to hide the truth from this worthy person4 ,moritsuna takes the head in his arms1 addresses a lament to it1 places it before the dignitary and declares it to be the true head of his brother4 ,here is revealed the psychology of the ,oriental audience1 for ,moritsuna's camouflage is mightily approved1 and shows itself as something essentially ,eastern4 ,tokimasa retires and ,moritsuna gives vent to sorrow that ,koshiro should have sacrificed himself4 ,the boy1 realising that the head was not that of his father1 and hoping to lead ,tokimasa into the belief that it was1 takes his own life--another species of ,eastern camouflage4 ,there is not a dry eye in the audience when the dying boy says farewell to all the members of the family1 and breathing his last as a spy1 hidden within the chest of armour1 is discovered and killed4 ,the ,occidental will say3 ,what an unpleasant and disagreeable play with a gory head for chief object of interest6 ,yes1 so it seems to ,westerners accustomed to regard things1 externals1 as of more importance than the inner but more potent expression4 ,to the ,kabuki audience the head is not repugnant1 nor suggestive of a corpse or bloodshed2 it is merely the medium for the expression of ,moritsuna's emotion1 and the whole interest centres not in the inanimate object1 but in the art of the actor4 ,,vi ,socialistic tendencies1 dissatisfaction with the oppression of the governing class1 often found expression in ,kabuki plays4 ,a favourite piece of this kind has the champion of the downtrodden1 ,banzuiin ,chobei1 for hero4 ,chobei is at the head of a business that supplies men to feudal lords1 kago bearers1 attendants to travel in the long trains that escorted the daimyo in their goings and comings to and from the capital4 ,his men are loyal to him and fearless1 and when they encounter the samurai of a hatamoto1 or direct retainer of the ,shogun1 called ,mizuno1 an evil character1 there is a skirmish and ,chobei's side is victorious4 ,mizuno and ,chobei happen to meet in the theatre1 the ,murayama-za1 one of ,yedo's first shibai4 ,the play is progressing on the old-fashioned stage1 when a drunkard bursts in through the audience and causes a disturbance4 ,chobei springs out of a box in the pit to help straighten things out4 ,at this juncture ,mizuno appears in an upper box reserved for the gentry to the left of the stage1 and they exchange words4 ,from this time onward ,chobei is a marked man4 ,illustration3 ,banzuiin ,chobei1 a man of the people1 rle by ,matsumoto ,koshiro4 ,mizuno's messenger comes to ,chobei's dwelling1 and delivers an invitation to dinner4 ,chobei's wife does not wish him to accept1 but he cannot refuse1 as he would be taken for a coward4 ,he says farewell to his wife and little son1 gives his men last instructions1 and sets forth4 ,within ,mizuno's residence1 ,chobei is received with every sign of hospitality4 ,he is unafraid1 and behaves with the courtesy of manner that belongs to a man accustomed to stand up for what is just and right4 ,an attendant purposely spills sake over his clothing1 and then recommends that he take a bath4 ,the maid leads him to the bath-room4 ,the steam is issuing forth from the big tub4 ,he is just about to enter when he is attacked4 ,chobei1 with only his fists to defend himself1 lays about him1 and five men are stretched on the floor1 the stage bath-room being considerably larger than that in real life4 ,the host then attacks1 and even he is no match for the alert ,chobei4 ,left alone he might have fought off his enemies1 but one of the men strikes him from behind1 and so he dies1--a victim to the treachery of that day4 ,mizuno was afterwards ordered by the ,government to commit harakiri to atone for this and other crimes4 ,so says history1 but ,chobei's memory is kept fresh by generations of actors4 ,still another play of the people is that of ,sakura ,sogoro4 ,he was the headman of a village not far from ,tokyo4 ,the people were oppressed by the feudal lord1 and groaned under the taxes imposed until famine and destitution stared them in the face4 ,sogoro decides to go to ,yedo to present a petition to the ,shogun1 knowing that his life will be forfeit for this act of insubordination4 ,when he returns1 his wife and four sons are executed at the command of the daimyo4 ,he bids good-bye to his wife on a snowy evening1 and tries to induce her to accept a divorce1 and so escape the punishment that is bound to overtake the family4 ,but this she refuses to do1 preferring to share his fate4 ,sogoro trudging through the snow-drifts1 with his eldest son clinging to him1 and his wife and little ones looking forth from the open shoji1 is a typical ,kabuki farewell scene4 ,he knocks at the rude hut1 where an old watchman is trying to sleep beside a few embers of charcoal1 and guarding the boat that is chained to a stake just below on the marshy lagoon--or blue and white cotton cloth which represents the historical watercourse that bore ,sogoro away on his desperate mission4 ,sogoro is recognised with joy by the watchman1 who tries his best to dissuade him from going1 but at last agrees to row him on his way1 and breaks the chain1 thus defying the law of the daimyo4 ,the direct appeal is made when the ,shogun1 after a hawking expedition1 stops to rest at the shrine sacred to his ancestors in what is now known as ,uyeno ,park 7,tokyo74 ,the retinue is passing over a bridge connecting two red-lacquered buildings4 ,sogoro throws his petition1 which a sympathetic follower of the ,shogun secretes in his sleeve1 and the procession passes on1 leaving ,sogoro bound1 a martyr to the cause of the suffering country people4 ,whenever this play is produced in ,tokyo1 the actors taking part repair to the district of ,sakura where ,sogoro lived and pay their respects to his shrine1 likewise a little shrine is erected within the theatre where offerings of sake1 fruit1 and vegetables are made before the spirit of the man who died that the wrongs of the people might be righted4 ,illustration3 ,nakamura ,kichiyemon as ,sakura ,sogoro1 the ,village ,head who sacrificed his life for the good of the people4 ,,vii ,love tragedies were in high favour1 as may be seen by the number of plays produced that have for motive shinju1 or the double suicide of unfortunate lovers who hope by departing this life to obliterate their sins and omissions and to be united in the after-world4 ,invariably the settings of these romances were the immoral quarters4 ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon wrote several pieces of this character1 and they were so popular that they had a great deal to do with the encouragement of young people to become partners in the shuffling-off of this mortal coil4 ,if ,chikamatsu had written little else1 his characters ,jihei and ,koharu would save his name from oblivion4 ,this piece1 ,sayo ,shigure ,tenno ,amijima 7lit41 ,evening-shower-heaven-net-island71 was first staged in #agbj in the ,osaka ,doll-theatre1 when ,chikamatsu was in the sixties4 ,he had taken an excursion to the ancient ,shinto ,shrine of ,sumiyoshi1 near ,osaka1 when the news reached him of the double suicide of a couple called ,jihei and ,koharu4 ,he ordered his palanquin-bearers to carry him home as quickly as they could1 and within his dwelling seized paper and writing brush and elaborated the ideas that had come to his mind1 scarcely stopping to take breath until the play was finished4 ,koharu is a belle of the ,kinokuniya1 a house in the ,osaka pleasure quarters1 and ,jihei conducts a prosperous paper shop1 and has a wife1 ,o-,san1 and two children4 ,his wife has been bestowed upon him by his parents1 and as she is not his own choice1 his wandering fancy is captivated by ,koharu4 ,he forgets everything in his infatuation1 and is on the brink of ruin when ,o-,san writes to ,koharu asking her to give up ,jihei4 ,this ,koharu consents to do after a struggle between her apparent duty and her love for the young man4 ,jihei1 unacquainted with the facts1 believes her false and mercenary4 ,jihei cannot settle down to the domestic routine1 and his thoughts will turn to ,koharu4 ,his peace of mind is further disturbed1 for he learns that he has a rich rival who intends to purchase ,koharu's freedom and who has invented various belittling tales about his desertion of ,koharu4 ,when ,o-,san hears how things are1 she declares that ,koharu would die rather than submit to her new patron1 and that ,jihei must buy her out without delay4 ,her treasured kimono are given to ,jihei1 and1 sobbing1 the loyal wife says that although she and the children may have no clothing1 reputation is dear to a man1 and that the wealthy person who wishes to take possession of ,koharu must be defeated at all costs4 ,o-,san's father then arrives on the scene1 declaring that he has come to take her home1 and that they must consider themselves divorced4 ,beset on every side1 ,jihei and ,koharu decide to die together4 ,jihei leaves the ,kinokuniya after paying his account4 ,then he stands by the side of the house waiting for ,koharu4 ,his elder brother1 ,magoyemon1 who fears that ,jihei may do something rash1 comes to inquire about him1 and is told that ,jihei has returned home and ,koharu is sleeping4 ,it is late at night1 and ,magoyemon has ,jihei's little son on his back to whom he says3 8,i hope you won't take cold4 ,you are unfortunate to have such a father01 which remark ,jihei overhears as he hides in the shadow4 ,the night-watch strikes his two pieces of wood as a signal that all is well1 and the sound echoes in the deserted street4 ,then ,koharu keeps the tryst1 and they run as fast as they can to the river-bank1 where their bodies are found together in a clump of bamboo the next morning4 ,illustration3 ,nakamura ,fukusuke of ,osaka as a belle of the gay quarters4 ,letters are made as long as possible to produce the better effect4 ,equally familiar are ,wankyu and ,matsuyama in a drama of the gay quarters by ,kino ,kaion2 while ,hanshichi and ,sankatsu in a long play by ,takemoto ,saburobei are stage characters known the length and breadth of ,japan4 ,hanshichi1 a victim of the marriage system1 becomes enamoured of ,sankatsu1 which brings so many complications around them1 they are obliged to commit shinju1 ,hanshichi's long-suffering wife ,o-,sono adopting their daughter as her own4 ,almost all the playwrights of this period pandered to the popular taste1 and wrote long plays with the gay world as background1 but there is a marked difference in the compositions of the ,osaka and ,yedo writers1 since the tastes of the audiences of these two towns were so unlike4 ,the tragic heroines of the ,yedo ,yoshiwara did not resort to shinju to the same alarming extent as did the members of the frail sisterhood in ,osaka4 ,ihara ,seiseiin1 explaining the close connection between the gay world and shibai1 says3 8,foreigners sometimes ridicule the intimate relations between the plays and the ,yoshiwara4 ,this was not the fault of ,kabuki1 but rather must be attributed to the state of society at that time4 ,just as priests and temples had ruled the spirit of the people during the ,hojo and ,ashikaga periods1 so during the ,tokugawa age it was the courtesans' quarters which influenced the customs and spirit of the people4 ,the leading characters of the ,n plays were priests1 while the plays of the people related to heroines of the gay world40 ,the patronage of these quarters and interest in plays dealing with the inmates was largely a protest against the official desire to make of society one drab1 colourless pattern4 ,the immoral quarters were almost the only places where men could assemble for relaxation and amusement4 ,peace continued for more than two centuries1 and the samurai had nothing to do4 ,the country was shut off from intercourse with the outside world1 the atmosphere grew stagnant1 and men resorted to the pleasure-quarters as a relief from boredom4 ,in consequence1 gossip of prostitutes1 their love stories and tragedies1 formed the chief topics of the day1 and these were faithfully reflected in the works of the ,doll-theatre and ,kabuki playwrights4 ,,viii ,a partiality for the weird is one of the most pronounced tastes of ,kabuki4 ,modori ,bashi1 a shosagoto1 by ,mokuami1 has for hero ,watanabe ,tsuna1 who meets a beautiful woman and discovers she is a supernatural creature4 ,he pursues her into the air1 fights with her1 and at last as a climax cuts off her arm1 after which he drops down upon the roof of a temple4 ,the play is full of demon lore4 ,the time of ,modori ,bashi is a thousand years ago1 and the place the ,modori bridge of ,kyoto by moonlight4 ,watanabe wears one of those exaggerated costumes so characteristic of shosagoto1 and looks cautiously at the bridge which is supposed to be enchanted4 ,the long branches of a willow tree move as though a ghostly wind was blowing1 although the curious-minded wonder how many stage assistants are pulling the strings down below1 and the quick beating of a drum announces the approach of something uncanny4 ,the female demon is in the guise of a beautiful maiden brilliantly arrayed1 and she immediately makes advances to the warrior1 who does not seem to be very anxious to accept the amorous overtures4 ,the attitude of the two is exactly opposite to the conventional love scenes on the ,western stage1 where the maiden refuses and is hard-hearted1 while the lover tries to gain her favour4 ,the demon uses all her arts1 but the warrior cannot easily be won over4 ,watanabe's flirtation with the devil woman in disguise continues until he leads her upon the bridge1 and then looking down into the water he catches the reflection of her face and knows that she is not a human maid1 but that she is his enemy and would lure him to destruction4 ,the gradual change from a charming woman into a terrible devil is effected by changes in face1 voice1 and posture1 a transformation that gives an actor with the weird for specialty a good opportunity4 ,while the hero and the uncanny creature attack each other in a posture dance1 the bridge disappears1 drawn off by invisible hands behind the scenes1 and a red-lacquered shrine is pushed partly into view and completes the very striking stage picture4 ,the dance between the two becomes wilder and more intense1 reaching a climax as the maiden darts behind the scene4 ,almost immediately she returns in her true shape1 wearing a grotesque mask1 while her mane is light brown1 with a white stripe down the middle and so long it trails over the stage4 ,she dances wildly about in a fight with warriors1 whose swords glint in the semi-darkness of the stage2 storm clouds hurry across the sky as though scurrying before a cyclone4 ,a curtain of gauze representing clouds shuts off the view4 ,the warrior and the creature he pursues are in mid-air struggling together right over the roof of a temple4 ,he cuts off one of her arms1 and clutches it wildly in triumphant posture while the mutilated devil woman disappears into the aerial regions4 ,illustration3 ,onoe ,baiko as the demon woman in ,ibaraki1 escaping with her severed arm4 ,as companion piece to ,modori ,bashi there is ,ibaraki1 by the same playwright1 which shows the very highest and best development of the music-posture play4 ,watanabe ,tsuna1 after capturing the arm of the devil woman1 guards the box in which it is kept1 as he is certain she will return to claim her severed member4 ,disguised as a venerable old lady1 refined1 peaceful1 and altogether attractive1 the weird monster appears and desires to enter ,watanabe's abode1 but is refused admittance4 ,much disappointed1 she is leaving1 when ,watanabe calls her back under the impression that she is one of his relatives1 and she is taken within and a feast spread1 before her4 ,when ,watanabe's adventures are related1 she expresses a wish to see the arm4 ,at sight of it there is a sudden transformation of her face from that of a placid1 kindly old woman to something hateful and sinister4 ,unable to disguise her true nature1 she snatches up the arm and makes off1 followed by ,watanabe4 ,when she returns in full fiendish regalia1 with long flowing white mane1 wearing a terrifying horned mask with staring gold eyeballs1 there is a clever fight in the nature of a posture dance1 and the strange1 picturesque creature suddenly breaks away from the struggle and jumps into the air1 where she is poised for a moment--the triumphant posture of all the characters at the end satisfying the audience that the devil woman has been overcome4 99 99 99 99 99 ,among the many weird shosagoto1 few equal ,dojo-ji in beauty and interest4 ,taken from a ,n drama of the same name1 ,dojo-ji1 ,the ,temple of ,dojo1 it is concerned with that old tale of a beautiful princess who1 loving a priest1 pursues him1 and changing herself into a serpent and twining around the bell in which he is hiding1 melts it in her jealous rage4 ,a new bell is hung and she returns to vent her spite upon it4 ,the temple atmosphere is created when the action begins1 the hanamichi swarming with priests and overflowing upon the stage4 ,the ,nagauta singers and musicians sit motionless in the background1 while a great verdigris-hued temple-bell suspended by a red and white twisted rope swings high among pendent cherry flowers1 making a gay scene4 ,the priests in their quiet black and white costumes are a foil for the radiant princess who1 upon her entrance1 becomes the centre of the picture1 and by her changing movements absorbs all the attention4 ,as soon as the kimono of her serpent highness vanishes like magic under the deft touch of the black-robed stage attendant1 the lady with the hidden snake-like nature undergoes a series of rapid costume-transformations1 one exquisite creation following the other4 ,now she dances with a little gilt drum1 small rounds of silver1 or bewilders with a sudden display of scarlet and gold disks1 one on her head1 and one in each hand1 that give place to a succession of others1 or simply waves a wand of cherry blossoms4 ,as a relief to the movements of the snake in disguise1 a large number of theatrical priests dance1 motley fellows in yellow1 black1 grey1 and red1 adding to the rhythm which is felt as the compelling undercurrent of the whole piece4 ,when the serpent-princess feels her diabolical self getting the best of her1 she seeks safety in the big bell swinging high overhead4 ,it descends1 and she disappears within4 ,then the priests work hard trying to exorcise the evil spirit1 all to no purpose4 ,their movements about the big bell add to the picturesqueness of the scene4 ,soon the hanamichi is again filled with strong men1 clad in white and silver kimono1 who come to use their force against the princess-serpent1 for the priests cannot prevail4 ,with one accord and uttering a long cry in unison1 they take hold of the bell-rope and begin to haul4 ,by degrees the great bell swings upward1 and a weird figure is seen crouching under a blue-green silk scarf4 ,to the thunder of big drums1 the serpent begins a fighting-dance which makes a strong stage movement and prepares for the entrance of a hero resplendent in vivid green1 bright red1 shining gold and black1 armed with a huge piece of green bamboo4 ,he comes to subdue the creature of evil that1 entirely surrounded1 climbs upon the top of the bell1 and crouches there1 a frightful figure in silver brocade1 black flowing mane1 and face terrible to behold4 ,the priests in fear and trembling wrap themselves about the bell as in a human cord1 and the valiant man stands triumphant4 ,after it is all over and the curtain is drawn1 the inquisitive theatre-goer wonders how it was possible for the beautiful princess to completely change into the garments and make-up of the uncanny creature within the limited space underneath the bell4 ,but that is a stage secret1 and does not concern the audience4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,kabuki ,r,,les ,they make a strange passing show1 like personages from dreamland1 the people of ,kabuki3 a daimyo on a hawking expedition1 strolling puppet showmen1 monkey performers1 blind minstrels1 pilgrims and priests1 samurai and farmer1 swordsmith and robber4 ,creations of playwright and actor1 these warriors and lovers1 villains and ghosts form vivid and abiding memories in the minds of the ,japanese people4 ,in the consuming passion for loyalty and self-sacrifice1 character was often subordinate1 and the heroes and heroines of the plays went to absurd lengths to justify the overwhelming theme4 ,the ethics taught by these rles differ in many respects from the familiar figures of the ,western stage1 yet at the same time the depths of human nature are sounded1 the same tragedies and comedies that make the whole world kin2 the eternal clash of evil and good4 ,in addition1 there are the rles fashioned out of the pure fabric of fancy1 showing an unquenchable thirst for beauty1 and love for the striking and the strange1 grotesque and supernatural1 creatures called forth from enchanted gardens of the imagination4 ,a strict adherence to rles was brought about in the early stages of ,kabuki's development1 and this system persisted4 ,there were first the tateyaku1 or hero rles1 characters always championing the right2 the katakiyaku1 or villain specialty1 a necessary rle where the upright and ignoble were thrown into contrast2 oyajigata1 or old men's rles1 and kawashagata1 the characters of elderly females4 ,the comedian was called dokegata1 while onnagata was the name given to men who played women's rles1 and koyaku were children4 ,as the plays became more complex these rles underwent modifications4 ,of villains there was a rogues' gallery1--an interesting study in itself4 ,deep-dyed personages1 irredeemably wicked1 were created1 the worst of the worst2 bad men in gorgeous costumes were sometimes half good1 and there were villains with a hint of pathos in their natures1 while the smooth individual who could smile and smile and be a villain still was among this company4 ,the favourite character of this description was one outwardly bad1 a disguise to cloak the good within1 a person merely pretending to be among the evildoers but all the time assisting the righteous cause4 ,many different types of heroes were born1 from those of honest peasantry to the samurai and aristocrat4 ,venerable old men were as popular as callow youths4 ,a popular rle was a karo1 or chief retainer1 in the service of a feudal lord1 and a mediator who tried to bring peace and harmony between warring factions was a rle that pleased the people4 ,brave fighting men who could hold off an overwhelming number of attackers thrilled the audience2 young daimyo1 elegant1 effeminate1 robed in rich brocades2 otokodate or chivalrous commoners1 ready to unsheathe their swords in the protection of the brow-beaten lower classes2 lovers torn between the affections and stern duty1 and strong unrelenting characters forsaking wives and children to wander about the land in search of an enemy that the ends of justice might be attained1--such were the rles played to the delight of their audiences by the yakusha1 or rle men4 ,in the sphere of the onnagata there are an endless number of good women and true1 from the consort of a ,shogun to the fair ladies of the nobility and wives of ordinary citizens4 ,beautiful1 youthful princesses wearing flowing kimono of scarlet1 purple1 or pink adorned with gold1 and crowned with silver head-dresses1 are a fascinating creation of the onnagata4 ,the three favourite rles of this description are ,toki-hime1 who forsakes her father for her husband2 ,yayegaki-hime1 who takes a treasured helmet from her father and restores it to its rightful owner1 her lover2 and ,yuki-hime1 who1 bound by a tyrant to a cherry tree1 calls rats to her aid that gnaw the ropes and set her free1--all youthful maidens of high degree4 ,middle and old age are not despised in ,kabuki1 and the matron1 white-haired grandmother1 and middle-aged women have a recognised place4 ,they are sometimes the chief characters in a play1 for in ,asia it is just as natural to be old as young--a stage in the journey of life that all must reach4 ,admiration for the actors who create such contrasting types of women grows the greater the more we become familiar with these fascinating females2 bad1 slangy1 naughty girls2 voluble1 gossipy wives of the tradespeople2 brave1 heroic women of the samurai class2 not to overlook the faithful nurse1 innocent maidens1 the bad stepmothers1 and maidservants1 honest and faithful4 ,rles the actors enjoy playing1 characters that are household names1 such is the combination which has established ,kabuki on such a firm foundation that it has weathered the storm of the conflicting influences that have broken about its strong citadel4 ,tomomori1 of forlorn hope1 the last of his clan1 his white and silver armour bespattered with blood1 makes a final stand before plunging into the waves4 ,he climbs to the top of a rock1 and picking up a huge anchor lifts it high above his head2 then casts it into the sea1 the rope attached to his body drawing him relentlessly1 until he falls over backward to his fate1 as realistic a death-agony as could be found on any stage4 ,kezori ,kuyemon1 a sea rover1 in a drama by ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon1 talking ,nagasaki dialect1 a swaggering freebooter the actor loves to paint4 ,and ,kezori's junk that fills the entire stage1 the crew1 a rough-and-ready lot1 looking for trouble4 ,the vessel begins to turn as though a real pirate craft1 and not one resting upon a painted ocean with a painted sky for background4 ,kezori stands on the prow1 his hair1 brown and bushy1 bleached by exposure to sun and wind1 his beard shaggy and unkempt1 his seafaring costume having for design a diabolical devil-fish4 ,for contrast1 ,heiyemon1 a servant to one of the ,forty-seven ,ronin1 who undergoes a struggle between filial duty and faithfulness to the loyal retainers4 ,heavy-hearted he leaves home1 saying farewell to father1 wife1 and child1 knowing that he may never see them again4 ,he stops to rest in the shade of the big pine trees that line the great highway1 the ,tokaido1 and to eat the simple boiled rice his wife has prepared for him4 ,home-sickness overtakes him1 and he cannot touch the food4 ,doves fly down from the trees above1 and they make him think all the more of home4 ,he must see his father once more1 and apologise to him for his neglect2 he must show his heart1 and tell of his secret intention to join the band4 ,but when he starts1 remembrance of the cause he has espoused pulls him back4 ,wavering between the two desires1 he sees the mother dove has fallen to the ground dead1 and the young ones hover about her as though bereft4 ,casting all scruples to the winds1 he runs homeward1 only to find that his father was aware of his undisclosed plan1 and the better to aid him has committed suicide that he may be free to devote himself to the great cause4 ,kochiyama1 a crafty priest of low rank1 visits the mansion of a daimyo1 and passes himself off as a prince of royal blood at the head of a great temple4 ,he makes a striking figure in his white inner garment and thin scarlet outer robe1 and is treated with every mark of respect4 ,knowing of a scandal within the household1 he seeks to profit4 ,he tells the lord he will lose all his possessions should the affair be made known4 ,the maids spread a fine feast in front of him1 but he waves it aside1 saying that he would prefer a drink of the tea brewed from the golden globe flower4 ,acting on the hint1 the steward of the household brings him the required hush money4 ,on his departure he coolly confesses the game he has played1 and laughs insolently at the enraged servants of the daimyo4 ,on the hanamichi he meets with a confederate and counts the booty4 ,seven hundred years ago the ,soga brothers1 ,goro and ,juro1 revenged themselves upon ,kudo1 the slayer of their father1 and since that time1 like the story of how ,horatius kept the bridge in the brave days of old1 the tale has been sung and acted1 there being hundreds of ,kabuki plays with ,goro and ,juro as characters2 their story inspired the playwrights of the ,doll-theatre and formed the theme of several ,n dramas4 ,the mother desires the eldest son to do the fatal deed1 hoping to save the two younger4 ,they are all anxious to take part in the killing of the man who treacherously put their father to death when they were children4 ,goro pleads that ,juro be allowed to accompany him1 and the mother reluctantly consents4 ,the blind brother who has become a priest is denied1 and so takes his own life4 ,they wear straw raincoats and rough straw sandals and the wide hat of the farmer2 they start off to the foot of ,mount ,fuji1 where ,kudo has gone on a hunting expedition4 ,goro's costume is black with a gay design of butterflies1 white plovers on the wing adorning that of ,juro4 ,they creep into the hunting-lodge where ,kudo is sleeping1 and accomplish their end4 ,soon the youths are surrounded1 put up a brave fight1 but forfeit their lives4 ,few plays reflect the national characteristics more than the ,soga ,brothers' ,revenge1--the impersonal emotions of ,goro1 ,juro1 and the mother2 the deeply implanted desire for revenge in ,old ,japan for wrong done2 the allegiance to the dead rather than the living4 ,the ,soga brothers did not think at all of leaving their mother2 they were consumed with loyalty to the spirit of their departed father4 ,stammering ,matabei--how many fine actors have essayed this rle created by ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon6 ,in history he was the founder of colour prints in ,japan1 but in this play he is an artist who desires his master to recognise his ability by giving him the great name of ,tosa4 ,his teacher1 however1 is not willing to acknowledge his genius4 ,tongue-tied1 he cannot reveal his mind to the master1 and his voluble wife1 who makes up for his loss of speech1 only complicates matters4 ,suddenly1 a number of farmers run through the audience armed with hoes and other agricultural implements announcing that there is a tiger in the neighbourhood4 ,matabei stutters that there are no tigers in ,japan1 and that it must be the creation of some artist come to life4 ,scarcely are the words uttered than a tawny tiger emerges from a bamboo thicket and wags its head4 ,a younger and more favourite pupil takes a brush and draws an outline of a tiger in the air1 and in this is sufficient magic to drive the ferocious animal away4 ,then ,matabei and his wife out of disappointment plan to die together1 and the artist decides to paint a farewell picture4 ,he chooses a square stone water-basin1 and gazes into the water to catch the reflection of his face1 for he wishes to draw his own portrait4 ,he selects the side away from the audience and begins to work when1 on the opposite side1 facing the audience1 appears the picture he is drawing4 ,his art is so wonderful that the picture has penetrated the stone1 and when the teacher sees the miracle he relents and allows ,matabei to take the coveted name4 ,how a common robber may become so picturesque that all his faults are forgiven is to be seen in the rle of ,ishikawa ,goemon4 ,he had a ,chinese father and a ,japanese mother1 and in punishment for his highway robberies he was finally boiled in oil4 ,goemon took up his quarters in the second story of the great red gate of ,nanzen-ji1 a ,kyoto temple1 and made his depredations by night4 ,in a huge black velvet costume1 a loose outer garment of gold brocade1 and the conventional wig of a villain1 hair that stands on end like a chestnut bur1 ,goemon emerges from his place of concealment to the gallery above the entrance gate and surveys the scene1 smoking his pipe peacefully4 ,then the man searching for him appears out of the nether region of the stage1 catches the reflection of the robber's face on the surface of the water in a bronze temple-urn1 and exclaims that so long as there is sand on the seashore there will be robbers in the world4 ,bad characters transformed into heroes--these rles appealed to ,kabuki audiences4 ,such was ,gonta1 a vagabond1 a braggart1 and a bully1 and yet he proves to have a heart of gold4 ,he was ready to bluff a samurai out of his money1 swagger boldly1 yet shows tenderness for his child1 and does not hesitate to sacrifice both wife and offspring when he responds to the clarion call of loyalty4 ,an uncompromising villain is ,kosai1 the octogenarian keeper of a house of ill-repute1 a revelation of selfishness and indifference to the suffering and anguish caused by his slave traffic4 ,a red tam-o'-shanter worn by ancients in ,japan covers his head1 beneath which is the aged1 seared1 hardened face4 ,his kimono is of large brown and yellow checks1 over which is thrown an upper garment of dark green1 and he leans on a tall red-lacquered staff1--a harsh and fantastic figure4 ,his is a personality so deeply sunk in crime that even those actors who specialise in katakiyaku1 or villain's rles1 scarcely ever act such a despicable character4 ,it seems a thankless task to play such a monster1 and yet the very strength of his wickedness is sufficient to stir up lethargic citizens who allow such persons as ,kosai to flourish like green bay-trees4 ,he meets his just deserts1 but hanging seems too good for him4 ,fortitude in the face of suffering and death gives the ,kabuki actor the opportunity to perform some of his best rles4 ,such a ,spartan rle is that of ,sato ,masakiyo2 poisoned by his enemies and with but a short time to live1 he is seen with his beautiful young daughter-in-law seated in an ornate red pleasure-craft on ,lake ,biwa4 ,a small boat comes near with a messenger from the enemy to see if the poison has taken effect1 and he is surprised at the hero's complacency4 ,next a gift of armour is presented1 but ,sato strikes his sword against the chest1 and the would-be assassin concealed within turns a somersault over the side of the vessel4 ,a temple bell booms out1 a sailor's song is heard in the distance1 and the ship points out over the audience4 ,sato1 who has shown admirable control in the face of physical suffering1 reels to the prow1 and there calmly surveys the scene1 remarking that it is a fine day1 while the stage-blood which oozes from the corner of his mouth falls down upon his white neckcloth4 ,in the ,kabuki actor's large repertoire of weird rles there are few to equal the frightful monster1 ,tsuchigumo1 or ,the ,earth ,spider1 a popular version of a ,n drama4 ,this creature weaves its spell round a warrior who suffers from some mysterious illness4 ,the spider visits him in the disguise of a priest and throws the web that enmeshes him4 ,it is like day fireworks1 made of thousands of strands of compressed paper1 that when released fly forth like a fine-spun web1 spraying far out over the footlights and above the heads of the people4 ,again1 the spider is tracked to its den and comes forth to fight1 shooting the fragile strands of its web into the boxes of the pit4 ,old and young reach out eagerly for the filmy stuff that wanders gossamer-like from stageland1 and the intimate relation between the audience and the players is fully established4 ,illustration3 ,matsumoto ,koshiro and ,onoe ,baiko in ,seikinoto1 the music-drama piece1 in which ,baiko appeared as the spirit of the cherry tree4 ,out from the phantasmagoria of the shosagoto stands ,seikinoto4 ,in this1 ,seikibei1 a grotesque character1 is seen enjoying himself alone on the stage1 imbibing from a large red sake cup1 when there is let down from the realm of the stage hands above a piece of grey carved wood to represent clouds in which are prominences the audience is led to believe are stars4 ,shining down into his broad sake cup the stars foretell that should he cut down the ancient cherry tree in the centre of the stage1 he will be able to realise his ambition4 ,he seizes an axe almost as large as himself and proceeds to fell the tree4 ,but he is stopped by an apparition1 the spirit of the cherry tree4 ,she is seen at first1 faint and weird1 within the bole of the tree1 but comes forth and dances with ,seikibei1 property men causing sudden transformations in their costumes4 ,she is in a cherry-coloured kimono1 her hair long1 and face pale4 ,seikibei wears a queer black costume bordered with large black and white checks1 his hair all tumbled4 ,in a picturesque posture dance they attack each other1 he armed with his exaggerated axe1 she defending herself with a branch of the cherry1 the spirit coming out victorious in the strange encounter4 ,three female entertainers in the mansion of a great lord are an entertainment in themselves4 ,like creatures of some other world they make their appearance through the stage1 forced up from the depths of stagedom by a special contrivance to form a motionless group like a piece of statuary4 ,clad in similar costumes1 one carries a bamboo rake1 another is armed with a garden broom1 while a third has a basket4 ,they are in frolicsome mood as they attend to the garden and pick twigs of scarlet maple4 ,to add to their enjoyment they make a fire with the maple leaves and warm some sake1 which is supposed to have additional virtues if so prepared1 according to a ,chinese poem4 ,a mere sip of the beverage sends these fanciful females into different states of intoxication1 and there is such a fantastic scene that it could not by the wildest flight of imagination be made into an argument against the cup that cheers2 one laughs1 the other scolds1 and the third weeps4 ,the samisen and the minstrel support now one and then the other1 causing a din and clatter that is so well calculated as to be less confusing than it seems in the mere description4 ,one is in reality a spy1 and slips away thinking her companions are still under the magic of the sake warmed by the burning maple leaves4 ,the other two come quickly to themselves since they are also secret-service damsels on the look-out for spies1 and so it turns out that the intoxicated trio were only feigning drunkenness after all4 ,when three well-matched actors take these rles1 there is an interesting display of onnagata skill4 ,three onnagata rles in ,kagami-yama 7lit41 ,mirror ,mountain7 provide sharp contrasts in the types of women4 ,iwafuji is a wicked maid in the household of a feudal lord1 while ranking below her is ,o-,noe1 all that is gentle and good4 ,jealous of the virtues and accomplishments of ,o-,noe1 the evil ,iwafuji intrigues1 and her plot succeeds so well that the good maid is disgraced beyond all hope of redress4 ,there is no way in which ,o-,noe can clear herself1 and she takes her life4 ,o-,hatsu1 servant to ,o-,noe1 true-hearted and valorous1 heedless of the consequences1 meets ,iwafuji in the garden and fights to a finish1 the bad ,iwafuji dying to the satisfaction of the audience1 while the young lord of the mansion appears to approve ,o-,hatsu's action1 and promotes her to the position in the household her mistress enjoyed4 ,among the heroines of the common people there is ,o-,fune1 the daughter of a ferryman named ,tombei1 in the village of ,yaguchi4 ,a fugitive samurai takes shelter in their cottage with his lady-love1 whom he passes off as his sister4 ,as a price has been put on the guest's head1 ,tombei1 an old villain1 wishes to obtain the money4 ,o-,fune manages to spirit the hero away4 ,it is a rle of many emotions4 ,in love with the guest1 made love to by her father's assistant1 jealous of the fine lady1 she is wounded by her father who has attempted to kill the fugitive1--and summoning all her strength she beats the drum in the tower1 gathering the people together that the samurai may have the opportunity to escape to a place of safety4 ,should any one ask a ferryman on the ,sumida ,river in ,tokyo to tell an old story of that muddy commercial stream1 he would no doubt relate the tale of ,takao1 and how she was ransomed from the courtesan life by a daimyo who paid her weight in gold1 and how when she attempted to escape from his pleasure-boat on the river1 as she loved another1 the enraged lord cut off her head4 ,and that character taken from the pages of a fairy-tale1 ,o-,ryu1 the spirit of the willow tree6 ,she lives in a rustic cottage in the heart of the forest1 with her husband ,heitaro and little son4 ,when she hears the woodsmen chopping down the old willow near by1 she knows that her earthly life is over4 ,as the stroke of the axe resounds1 ,o-,ryu is transformed from a modest wife to a greenish ghost4 ,there is a great whirl of willow leaves about her1 and in the fitful glare of uncanny green light she says farewell to her child and disappears among the trees1 becoming fainter and fainter until she is lost in the distance4 ,some actors are better fitted to act rough ,yedo girls1 or women of the lower classes1 but it is the ambition of the best onnagata to portray noble women4 ,such a rle is ,kesa ,gozen1 or the ,lady ,kesa1 the unfortunate but heroic noblewoman4 ,held up as an example of chastity and devotion1 ,kesa ,gozen should take her place among the good women of the world's stage4 ,a samurai falls in love with her1 and to protect her honour and save her husband1 she becomes privy to a dreadful plot against him that she knows will never be carried out4 ,at night the samurai approaches the bedroom1 gropes about1 and finds the wet hair that he has been told is that of the husband4 ,tragic indeed is the youth's awakening when1 on the steps leading to a temple close by1 he uncovers the head he has taken1 and sees by the light of the moon that it is the face of the woman he loves4 ,,meiji ,,kabuki ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,meiji ,,kabuki ,i ,yakusha of ,meiji ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the ninth1 was the torch-bearer of ,kabuki during the long reign of the ,emperor ,mutsuhito1 known as the ,meiji era1 which endured for forty-five years 7#ahfh-aiab74 ,there were barren years for the theatre previous to the ,restoration1 and the stagnant condition of the people showed itself in the lack of ,kabuki creativeness4 ,when the long-shut gates of ,japan were suddenly thrown wide open to the dazzling wonders of the ,west1 men did not have time to spend in shibai1 and their thoughts were engrossed by the rapid changes that took place in politics1 industry1 education1 and religion4 ,the whole course of ,kabuki could not be changed overnight1 and in consequence remained stationary4 ,the theatres almost went out of existence1 and women and children formed the audiences4 ,it took some years for ,kabuki to pull itself together1 for ,western influences were inundating the country1 and neither the players1 the playgoers1 nor the playwriters were able to 8find themselves04 ,if it had not been for the greatest member of the ,ichikawa family1 the actors might have become like lost sheep and strayed from the fold1 separating themselves from their past1 and worshipping all the new and confusing tendencies of the day4 ,danjuro1 the ninth1 was the bridge that spanned the sudden gulf which yawned between the traditional past and the uncertain and changing modern world4 ,he may be regarded as the saviour of ,kabuki during a period when it might have suffered shipwreck1 had there not been a man of genius at the helm to guide the craft through the troubled waters4 ,in the last days of the shogunate and the early years of ,meiji1 there were a number of yakusha who shone even in these troubled times4 ,the theatres were still grouped together in ,saruwaka-cho1 ,asakusa1 when the ,emperor1 travelling in state from ,kyoto1 reached his new capital4 ,commodore ,perry1 who knocked at the door of ,japan at a most opportune moment1 could have witnessed a performance at the ,ichimura-za or ,nakamura-za in this quarter of ,yedo1 had he been so minded4 ,for thirty years three men had held the centre of ,kabuki in the days of the fast-decaying shogunate4 ,they were ,onoe ,kikugoro1 the third2 the seventh ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 and the fourth ,nakamura ,utayemon4 ,danjuro1 the seventh1 became the chief actor of the ,ichimura-za at the age of #bc4 ,his extravagances both on and off the stage came to the attention of the authorities1 and he was suddenly summoned to appear before the district officials1 and there sentenced to exile from ,yedo on the ground of unwarranted indulgence in luxury4 8,ebizo1 ,kabuki actor01 so the sentence read1 8we have long warned the above person that he is not allowed to build an extravagant residence and to use fine furniture01 and continued to enumerate his lapses from grace1 particularly mentioning the fact that he wore on the stage a suit of real armour which belonged to a military officer4 ,although a petition asking for a pardon was presented by his relatives and friends1 the hard-hearted officials were unrelenting1 and he was obliged to wander about the country for seven years1 playing for the most part in ,osaka1 where he was most popular4 ,in #ahdi was allowed to return to ,yedo1 and gave special performances to express his thankfulness that his years of exile were at an end4 ,on the way out of his dressing-room to the stage1 he complained of illness1 and was advised not to appear1 but persisted4 ,while acting his speech failed1 and he made a sign with his hand1 when the curtain was drawn4 ,he was carried off the stage1 and died soon after4 ,his eldest son succeeded as ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the eighth4 ,he became chief actor of the ,ichimura-za at the age of #af1 repairing to a temple every day to pray for success4 ,the ,government had no opportunity to reprove him1--on the contrary1 he was given a reward for filial piety4 ,to his exiled father he sent money1 repaid the debts of his family1 was kind to his numerous brothers1 left the theatre between acts to inquire about his mother1 and assisted the family pupils when old age overtook them4 ,reports of his high character were spread1 and he was worshipped by the ,yedo people4 ,in spite of his genius and probity1 his father's marital adventures 7for the seventh had three wives and many concubines7 must have weighed heavily upon his mind4 ,he went to play in ,osaka1 but the audiences were studiously cold1 there being the old jealousy of the ,yedo stage1 and the eighth ,danjuro was treated slightingly4 ,this was more than the sensitive young actor could endure1 and he committed suicide at an inn in ,osaka1 dying unmarried at the age of #cb4 ,during the first years of ,meiji there was one actor who attracted great attention1--,ichikawa ,kodanji1 a pupil of the seventh ,danjuro4 ,he was the son of a man who kept a stall selling fireworks at the ,ichimura-za4 ,on one occasion he was detained by illness1 and was late in taking his cue4 ,his superior1 ,arashi ,rikaku1 chastised him for the offence by striking him with a zori1 or straw sandal1 which caused him to fall down a stairway behind the scenes4 ,he never forgot this incident1 and later1 when he had become successful and was playing with ,rikaku1 he cleverly inserted a reference to the zori incident into his lines4 ,it is ,kodanji's association with ,kawataki ,mokuami1 the leading playwright of ,meiji1 that makes him of interest in the history of early ,meiji ,kabuki4 ,the two formed a close partnership1 ,mokuami writing the realistic plays of the plain citizens that showed ,kodanji's talents off to the best advantage4 ,his son became the fifth ,kodanji1 a veteran of the ,tokyo stage who continued to act until within the last year of his life1 dying in #aibb4 ,after the ,kodanji of early ,meiji had passed away there was no one to take his place1 and ,kabuki was almost derelict4 ,the actors upon whom the responsibility of ,kabuki rested were ,nakamura ,shikan1 ,bando ,hikosaburo1 ,onoe ,kikugoro1 the fifth1 the eighth ,iwai ,hanshiro1 last of this long onnagata family1 and the young actor who was to succeed as head of the ,ichikawa line4 ,by far the most capable actor of the time was ,bando ,hikosaburo1 the fifth4 ,his father was a carpenter attached to the ,goddess of ,mercy ,temple in ,asakusa1 but as soon as he was born he was adopted by the fourth ,hikosaburo as his stage heir4 ,after performing in ,osaka for some time1 he returned to ,tokyo1 bringing with him a geisha called ,ichiryu 7,one-,dragon71 a young person with whom he had become enamoured4 ,for the sake of his new love he caused his wife ,o-,yei to be divorced4 ,o-,yei was a sister of the fifth ,kikugoro1 and one of the latter's pupils stole into ,hikosaburo's house and attempted to injure the fascinating ,one-,dragon4 ,such a sudden lapse from grace on ,hikosaburo's part started all tongues wagging1 especially as he had been strict in his behaviour1 and most modest and decorous in his demeanour4 ,his popularity was lessened for a time1 but as his acting continued to improve1 people forgot all about his morals4 ,next to ,hikosaburo in ability1 and a close rival1 was ,nakamura ,shikan4 ,he was the son of a minor actor1 but adopted by ,nakamura ,utayemon4 ,with such a stage sponsor1 ,shikan was trained in dancing and greatly excelled in this ,kabuki art4 ,utayemon presided at the kojo1 or announcement ceremony1 when the young actor took one of the ,nakamura family names1 that of ,fukusuke4 ,but soon after this he was given a sum of money and returned to his own home4 ,the gossips of the day said that he had fainted several times on the stage and was physically unsound2 others contended that he had become involved in a love affair displeasing to his adopted father4 ,he had been playing in ,osaka with ,utayemon1 but suddenly returned to ,yedo alone4 ,two years later ,utayemon died in ,osaka and a wealthy patron provided the funeral expenses in the divorced son's name1 as though nothing had happened to sever their relations4 ,there were two funerals1 one in ,osaka and one in ,yedo1 and ,shikan gained a great deal of sympathy1 having posed as most filial to an unkind parent4 ,shikan was1 however1 a worthy successor to ,utayemon1 as was evidenced when he acted at the ,ichimura-za in company with ,nakamura ,tomijuro1 one of the first onnagata of ,osaka4 ,later on1 to announce his increased fame and reputation1 he took another name of the ,nakamura family1 ,shikan1 but the public regarded this as an unwarranted procedure1 for had he lived ,utayemon would certainly not have bestowed it upon him4 ,so nearly matched in ability were ,shikan and ,hikosaburo1 with but two years' difference in their ages1 that they were pitted against each other1 and their patrons often indulged in fights over them4 ,during a performance1 when these actors were playing together1 they came through the audience by way of the two hanamichi1 the one to the right of the stage a mere footpath1 that to the left a platform that was in reality a continuation of the stage proper4 ,they quarrelled as to who should take the main hanamichi1 and the dispute waxed so hot that they finally drew lots to settle the matter4 ,shikan's mother was a person of influence in shibai circles1 and she was so zealous on her son's behalf that she caused considerable trouble4 ,even in his old age ,shikan's light was not dimmed1 and he continued to act until death claimed him4 ,hikosaburo was also an actor of fine parts--handsome in appearance1 possessed of a rich voice1 and clever in making-up4 ,he was generous-minded1 proud of the position he had gained1 but always lacked in good taste and refinement4 ,an actor of the first ability was ,sawamura ,tannosuke1 the second son of ,sawamura ,sojuro1 the sixth4 ,in the first year of ,meiji1 he was playing at the three chief theatres in ,saruwaka-cho4 ,at the age of #af1 he began to act in leading onnagata rles1 and was a genius in the delineation of women's characters4 ,a tragic fate overtook him1 and his loss to the ,tokyo stage was very great4 ,suffering an injury to his feet1 gangrene set in4 ,everything was done to save him1 and he was taken to ,yokohama1 where an ,american medical missionary was consulted4 ,both feet1 however1 were amputated in the third year of ,meiji4 ,in spite of this great physical disability1 ,tannosuke continued to appear on the stage1 supported by several black-robed property-men1 and so great was his popularity that the people crowded to see him4 ,his wife was unfaithful to him1 and was on intimate terms with one of his pupils1 and this added to his hopeless condition1 filling the remaining days of this unfortunate onnagata star with unhappiness4 ,the young actors who followed afterwards in ,tannosuke's specialty were deprived of the stimulus and high standard he had set1 and a lack of good onnagata was characteristic of the greater part of the long ,meiji era4 ,the three stars of the ,meiji era were ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the ninth1 known in his early career as ,kawarazaki ,gonnosuke1 the fifth ,onoe ,kikugoro1 and ,ichikawa ,sadanji4 ,associated with them was ,iwai ,hanshiro1 the eighth1 the last of this talented onnagata line4 ,twenty years elapsed after the death of the eighth ,danjuro before the succession of the ninth4 ,onoe ,kikugoro1 the fifth1 was the second son of ,ichikawa ,uzaemon1 the twelfth1 and his mother was the daughter of the third ,kikugoro4 ,he succeeded to the headship of the ,kikugoro family1 ranked with the ninth ,danjuro1 and in some respects surpassed him4 ,it was in drama of everyday life that ,kikugoro most excelled1 the sentimental and realistic having the greatest appeal for him in contrast to the unreal proclivities of ,danjuro1 the ninth1 who was a faithful exponent of the traditional style of his family4 ,the fifth ,kikugoro left behind him three sons4 ,he adopted his nephew1 ,onoe ,baiko1 now the leading actor of the ,imperial ,theatre2 and two sons were born to him in middle age1 ,kikugoro1 the sixth1 and ,bando ,hikosaburo1 of the present ,tokyo stage4 ,ichikawa ,sadanji was born in ,osaka1 studied under several actors1 finally becoming a disciple of the ,ichikawa family4 ,at first he was a poor actor1 and gave no sign of a promising career4 ,mokuami1 the playwright1 assisted him greatly by providing him with new plays and furnishing him with advice1 and so great was his advancement that he was able to hold his own with ,danjuro and ,kikugoro1 the three stars playing together until death separated them4 ,the eighth ,hanshiro who appeared with these actors was the son of the seventh1 and was born in ,osaka4 ,he was extremely effeminate in manner1 a true onnagata of the old school1 and was known for his good deeds1 always assisting his pupils1 and kindly disposed to his servants and the menials of the theatre4 ,an award of merit was given him by the ,government1 as an example to others of a good citizen and loyal subject4 ,on his deathbed the characteristics of this actor were not subdued4 ,he exercised his talent for verse-making as a parting gift to life4 8,hakitate no waraji01 he wrote1 8tsumetaki ,haru no ,yuki01 the 8,waraji ,i am accustomed to wear are cold in the spring snow40 ,thus he made the suggestion that life was like a pair of waraji1 or coarse straw sandals worn on a long journey1 and that they suddenly felt cold as in a spring snow4 ,still another onnagata was ,ichikawa ,monnosuke1 the fifth4 ,born the son of a ,yedo restaurant proprietor1 he served his apprenticeship to the stage in ,osaka4 ,his son was one of the most popular onnagata in the latter part of ,meiji1 and a brilliant young grandson1 ,omezo1 is an adornment of the ,tokyo stage to-day4 ,one after another the three stars1 ,kikugoro1 ,danjuro1 and ,sadanji1 passed away1 and gloom settled down upon the ,tokyo stage4 ,it was years before the people took an active interest in shibai1 and an equally long time before the actors regained confidence in themselves4 ,the three stars had been the centre of attraction1 and a considerable period had to elapse for the new growth and development that was to culminate in the flourishing theatre condition of the present4 ,,ii ,the ,ninth ,ichikawa ,danjuro ,from the point of view both of character and of art ,danjuro1 the ninth1 is considered the greatest actor that ,japan has produced4 ,kaburagi ,kiyokata1 one of ,tokyo's leading artists1 describing ,danjuro1 said that he could only be painted with broad lines1 for upon the stage he presented such beautiful figures as could only be seen in old sculptures4 ,and such was his ability in portraying historical characters that the people thought of past heroes only in the light of ,danjuro's creations4 ,although he upheld the treasured anti-real style of the ,ichikawa line1 he threw himself with enthusiasm into the portrayal of rles in a new type of play called katsureki1 or living history1 in which he painted his characters with accuracy of detail1 showing the influence of ,western drama1 and also his revolt from the inconsistencies of the jidaimono1 or historical pieces of the ,doll-theatre4 ,an actor of such great parts was never seen before in ,japan1 and his like may not appear again for generations to come4 ,the ninth ,danjuro 7born #ahch1 died #aijc7 was the son of the seventh ,danjuro4 ,his mother was not the legal wife of his father1 and was the daughter of a restaurant proprietor4 ,she had in addition to ,danjuro1 the ninth1 three sons and a daughter4 ,the hereditary owner of the ,kawarazaki-za1 ,kawarazaki ,gonnosuke1 had made a promise to the seventh ,danjuro that he would adopt one of his numerous brood1 and the fifth son was selected to become the head of this family4 ,gonnosuke was an influential shibai proprietor1 and the boy was regarded as a young aristocrat of the theatre4 ,at the time of his adoption ,gonnosuke was not married1 and his mother undertook the task of bringing up the coming ,danjuro in the way he should go4 ,from his fifth year there were but few pleasures in store for the boy4 ,he was carried to the house of his dancing master on the back of his nurse4 ,once1 when the seventh ,danjuro visited ,gonnosuke1 the latter remonstrated1 and said the boy would certainly be killed by his severe training4 ,to this the grandmother sarcastically rejoined that ,danjuro's children were all dipped in tubs of sugar1 but that there was some pepper mixed with it4 ,evidently she had no faith in the manner the ,ichikawa children were managed1 and time has shown the correctness of her view-point1 for the boy in the care of ,gonnosuke's mother was the only one of the family to attain success4 ,certainly ,danjuro1 the ninth1 appreciated the interest shown in his welfare by this old woman1 for in his later years he never failed to express his appreciation of the training he received in his youth4 ,afterwards ,gonnosuke took a wife1 and she had a son and a daughter4 ,it was a severe disappointment when the daughter died young1 for it was planned that she should marry the adopted son4 ,thereafter ,danjuro did not get on well with his adopted mother4 ,a whole series of misfortunes overtook ,danjuro4 ,first1 his father was ordered out of ,tokyo1 and his own mother accompanied him into exile4 ,at the age of fifteen he took the name of ,kawarazaki ,gonnosuke4 ,danjuro1 the eighth1 committed suicide in ,osaka1 and this family tragedy was followed by the death of a younger and promising brother4 ,still another brother was unable to become an actor1 as his face was marred by smallpox1 and a brother adopted by ,matsumoto ,koshiro was not a success4 ,then came the destructive earthquake of #ahee1 and the ,kawarazaki-za was entirely demolished1 as was the city4 ,there was trouble in securing a license for the reconstruction of the ,kawarazaki-za2 it ceased to be1 and the young ,gonnosuke faced a barren inheritance4 ,in addition to all this1 his adopted father was attacked and killed by robbers4 ,the various vicissitudes through which he passed did not prevent him from becoming an actor1 and he made rapid progress in his profession4 ,at #cd he married ,masu1 whom his adopted mother had chosen for him4 ,hard times followed1 and he was obliged to travel in the provinces1 but even when acting in country shibai1 his ,tokyo creditors followed and attempted to take the receipts4 ,when they returned to ,tokyo he and his wife had no home to go to1 and took temporary shelter in the abode of one of ,danjuro's patrons4 ,the construction of a new playhouse1 the ,shintomi-za1 by the energetic theatre manager1 ,morita ,kanya1 started ,danjuro on a new and prosperous career4 ,kanya was more than willing to produce novelties that would startle ,tokyo1 and ,danjuro set to work to make improvements in ,kabuki4 ,in this he was greatly encouraged by the famous statesman ,prince ,ito1 and ,matsuda ,michiyuki1 a ,governor of ,tokyo prefecture1 who became an enthusiastic supporter of the ,shintomi-za4 ,morita ,kanya's innovations were often failures in that they went over the heads of the people1 and the finances of the ,shintomi-za were far from satisfactory4 ,danjuro played in a minor theatre1 but ill-luck followed him1 and during one of the performances fire broke out and destroyed this shibai4 ,he escaped wearing his stage wig and costume1 to the great astonishment of his family on his return home4 ,a signal honour was given ,danjuro in #ahhg4 ,he was commanded by ,count ,inouye to play before the ,emperor4 ,his ,majesty had consented to visit the ,inouye residence1 and would witness a ,kabuki entertainment for the first time4 ,not since the days of ,saruwaka ,kansaburo1 who had danced before the ,emperor in ,kyoto1 had there been such recognition of the officially despised play-folk4 ,in the beautiful ,inouye garden a temporary stage was set up1 and facing it a throne before which hung a thin bamboo curtain4 ,from this elevated position the late ,emperor watched the plays and expressed deep interest4 ,the first piece was ,kanjincho4 ,the same piece was selected for presentation when the ,mayor of ,tokyo entertained the ,prince of ,wales at the ,imperial ,theatre in ,april #aibb1 and on this occasion the ,prince ,regent entered the portals of a theatre of his own land for the first time4 ,the ,danjuro performances lasted for three days1 the ,emperor witnessing the plays on the first day1 the ,empress on the following day1 and the ,emperor's mother on the last day4 ,takeda ,izumo's ,terakoya1 or ,the ,village ,school1 was presented before the ,empress1 and her sympathy and feelings were so stirred that those near ,her ,majesty saw tears in her eyes1 and were perplexed1 thinking that the play had better be stopped4 ,the tears of an ,empress over the sacrifice of ,matsuomaru's son that the heir to ,michizane might live1 and the loyalty of ,genzo1 the village schoolmaster6 ,these were red-letter days1 indeed1 for the whole yakusha fraternity4 ,with the building of the ,kabuki-za1 ,danjuro enjoyed his greatest prosperity4 ,here one success followed the other2 and ,tokyo showered its approval upon the great actor4 ,later in life ,danjuro was persuaded to go to ,osaka4 ,he had refused repeatedly to accept an engagement since the eighth ,danjuro had committed suicide there2 the treatment meted out to his brother by the audience was an insult to the ,ichikawa name that had never been wiped out4 ,contrary to his expectations1 ,osaka received the distinguished ,ichikawa like a conquering hero1 and he reaped a golden harvest1 the largest sum of money ever given an actor in the history of ,japan1--something like #ej1jjj yen for forty days4 ,throngs of people came to see him upon his arrival1 but he carefully avoided the crowds as he did not care to ride through the streets to make a show of himself4 ,some delay was caused in the stage arrangements on the opening day1 and the audience became impatient1 causing a great uproar4 ,this so troubled ,danjuro that he told his wife that he was quite prepared to leave ,osaka should the audience make disagreeable remarks4 ,he had purposely excluded ,ichikawa plays from the programme1 for should the audience prove unfriendly the affront to his ancestors could not be endured4 ,with the noise out in front increasing1 the dutiful wife was told to make preparations for a hasty departure1 and left for the railway station1 where she awaited her husband's messenger4 ,it turned out to be good news that he brought1 however1 for ,osaka had behaved well1 and welcomed the ,tokyo star with every sign of respect and admiration4 ,towards the end of his life he took great pleasure in the building of a beautiful country home on the sea-coast not far from ,yokohama1 and here he retired when his health began to fail1 exhausted with his long stage service4 ,he planned to give a farewell performance1 and selected ,takeda ,izumo's ,chushingura in which all his pupils were to appear4 ,but this plan could not be carried out1 for he became steadily weaker4 ,like other yakusha he had his gods to whom he prayed1 and there were two god-shrines placed in his garden where he paid his respects every morning4 ,when he knew his end was near1 he requested that his hands and mouth be washed with water1 and turning in the direction of the garden shrines he clasped his hands together in worship1 and recited a sutra4 ,after that he never spoke again1 the members of his family each in turn taking part in the last ,buddhist rite for the dying1 wetting his lips with a piece of paper dipped in water1 during which he was conscious4 ,he passed away in the early morning4 ,his funeral was more imposing than that for a minister of state1 and it seemed that all ,tokyo mourned his passing4 ,danjuro left behind him no son to assume his mantle4 ,his elder daughter married the son of a banker1 and this young man became the head of the private family1 and has never been able to succeed to the illustrious name and become ,danjuro1 the tenth1 although he has spent years in the study of acting in ,osaka4 ,ichikawa ,sansho1 as he is known1 will never be able to follow in the footsteps of his father-in-law4 ,danjuro's younger daughter married a minor actor1 ,ichikawa ,shinsaburo1 and they have a daughter1 who is thus the last representative of the family4 ,danjuro left behind him a number of talented pupils4 ,the best among them is the present ,matsumoto ,koshiro1 the seventh1 of the ,imperial ,theatre4 ,because of a youthful escapade1 ,danjuro declared that ,koshiro should not succeed him1 which seems a severe penalty1 for ,koshiro is the one ,tokyo actor capable of carrying on the ,ichikawa traditions4 ,in consequence1 not until ,danjuro's grand daughter grows up and marries and her offspring show traces of the ,ichikawa genius1 will there be seen again a worthy successor to this illustrious actor line4 ,no greater proof of the strong affection of the people for ,danjuro could have been witnessed than the unveiling of a bronze statue to his memory in ,june #aiai1 in the compound of the great temple sacred to the ,goddess of ,mercy in ,asakusa1 that crowded district of modern ,tokyo where lived the ronin father of the first ,ichikawa ,danjuro4 ,the statue is of ,danjuro in the character of a warrior of the ,kamakura age1 ,gongoro1 in the play ,shibaraku1 or ,wait a ,moment1 one of the eighteen ,ichikawa pieces4 ,perpetuated in bronze are the grotesque costume1 the strange wig1 the two great curved swords thrust through the belt1 and a fan raised in one hand--a pose that delighted lovers of the aragoto style when ,danjuro was seen on the stage in this piece4 ,all those who had enjoyed any relation to ,danjuro during his life were invited to be present1 which meant the attendance of the entire theatre fraternity1--actors and managers1 playwrights1 critics1 journalists1 artists1 as well as representatives of official life4 ,a band of ,asakusa firemen in their old-time picturesque ,yedo costumes were prominent1 and all classes of theatre folk1 musicians1 property men1 ushers1 dancing teachers1 pupils and servants of the actors1 were assembled together4 ,it might have been a scene of a hundred years ago in ,yedo1 but for an occasional frock-coated dignitary1 and the presence of the monotonous straw hat of the ,west4 ,speeches were made by the ,mayor of ,tokyo1 and other men of weight and importance4 ,it was when ,danjuro's best followers stood up to view1 four of the most popular actors in ,tokyo1 that the applause broke forth4 ,they were ,matsumoto ,koshiro1 ,ichikawa ,chusha1 ,ichikawa ,danshiro1 who died in #aibb1 and ,ichikawa ,sadanji1 son of ,sadanji1 the star of ,meiji4 ,there was1 however1 one moving spirit in the proceedings1 an informal master of ceremony1 and this was ,ichikawa ,shinjuro1 long associated with ,danjuro and as loyal a retainer as ever served a feudal lord4 ,shinjuro was accustomed to assist ,danjuro in his preparations to go on the stage1 and no one was so eager as he to do honour to his late master on the occasion4 ,danjuro's widow and her two daughters1 and their husbands1 ,ichikawa ,sansho and ,ichikawa ,shinsaburo1 stood at the base of the stone pedestal4 ,danjuro's little grand daughter pulled the string1 and the late actor as ,kamakura ,gongoro1 symbol of bravery and courage1 was revealed4 ,the curtain that had hidden the statue had scarcely touched the ground when the faithful ,shinjuro scaled the stone base4 ,a black lacquer stand was handed up to him and next a large silver bowl filled with sake4 ,quickly they were placed at the base of the statue4 ,in the brief space of time in which ,shinjuro made the offering before the statue of the ninth ,danjuro1 it seemed that his spirit was present and animated the lifeless bronze4 ,the sudden sight of the characteristic aragoto posture of the statue also recalled the peculiar position the ,ichikawa family have maintained in the ,japanese theatre for the past two hundred and fifty years4 ,,iii ,a ,theatre ,manager of ,meiji ,the foremost and most progressive theatre manager of ,meiji was ,morita ,kanya4 ,he laboured hard to improve shibai and elevate the status of the actors4 ,unquestionably he was a benefactor1 and if he erred in following after false gods1 and was under the impression that the superior theatre of the ,occident should be his pattern1 he was no more astray than hundreds of others who allowed themselves to be swayed by the worship of the ,west4 ,at the age of #ah1 ,morita ,kanya1 the twelfth1 started to manage the hereditary theatre of his family1 the ,morita-za4 ,in the early days of ,kabuki the ,morita-za was one of the important shibai of ,yedo1 but later became amalgamated with the ,kawarazaki-za4 ,in time the ,kawarazaki-za gained the ascendancy1 and for a long time the ,morita-za was non-existent4 ,when the ,kawarazaki-za was destroyed by an earthquake1 a suit was brought against its owners for the re-establishment of the ,morita-za1 and a licence was granted the latter shibai4 ,no sooner was the victory won than the elder ,morita ,kanya died1 and the son was left with large responsibilities4 ,the first step of ,kanya was to obtain permission to move the ,morita-za to the centre of ,tokyo4 ,the theatres grouped together in ,saruwaka-cho were too far removed1 and so close together that competition was harmful4 ,if the theatres had been left in this condition1 they would have speedily deteriorated4 ,the people were no longer eager patrons of the theatres1 and the actors were lukewarm4 ,kanya did not sit down and wait for prosperity2 he made it4 ,he was quick to understand the trend of the times1 and that it was fatal to repine at the decline of ,kabuki1 and thought it should keep pace with the rapid development of the nation in this remarkable period of transition4 ,his new theatre was opened in #ahgb in ,shintomi-cho1 not far from the residential quarter of ,tokyo set apart for foreigners4 ,he made many changes1 doing away with some of the long-established customs1 which greatly astonished the good people of that day4 ,his efforts were crowned with success1 and he soon secured as supporters some of the most important men in the realm4 ,it was characteristic of ,kanya that he should have cast aside his old friends for new4 ,the fish-market was one of the strongest guilds in the town1 and its members were a power when it came to the theatre4 ,for years the fish dealers were among the staunchest supporters of the ,morita-za1 and ,kanya had been in the habit of consulting these independent spirits on important occasions4 ,but now he found they would be a clog on his actions4 ,he knew he would lose their sympathy and support1 but decided to sever relations with them4 ,to ,kanya's credit1 he had early recognised the genius of the ninth ,danjuro1 having known and observed him from his youth1 and with good judgement he invited ,danjuro to become the head actor of his new theatre4 ,danjuro owed much to the fish-market people1 since they had long been patrons of his family4 ,the actor stood between two fires1 and at last was obliged to leave the manager4 ,danjuro then acted in a minor theatre with but poor success1 for it soon had to close on account of financial losses1 and he became a strolling player in the country4 ,when he returned he was in a desperate plight1 and was glad to accept an offer from ,kanya to play in his theatre1 the name of which1 on account of debt1 he had changed from ,morita-za to ,shintomi-za1 after the name of the cho1 or street1 in which the theatre was built4 ,one of ,kanya's innovations was to light the theatre with gas4 ,this created a great sensation at the time1 although extraordinary ,western innovations of all sorts were now common4 ,he then gave special performances1 sending out invitations to ministers of state1 army and navy officers1 and members of the diplomatic corps4 ,the ushers on this occasion all wore frock coats1 and the event was a great success4 ,as might have been expected1 the plays ,kanya selected did not please the regular patrons of shibai4 ,men of letters and returned travellers offered advice1 and the ,governor of ,tokyo prefecture1 with well-known scholars of the day1 attended rehearsals4 ,the reformers objected to ,kabuki conventions4 ,they wished to do away with the onnagata1 the revolving stage1 the hanamichi1 and raise the moral tone of the plays4 ,kanya even entertained the idea that a theatre would one day be built under the patronage of the ,imperial ,household4 ,he also tried what he called a night shibai1 in imitation of the ,western theatre1 but this the playgoers did not like1 and considered they had been cheated1 having been so accustomed to the long1 peaceful1 all-day regime4 ,in consequence of ,kanya's strenuous efforts1 ,kabuki was elevated with a vengeance1 and the actors were no longer looked down upon1 and referred to as 8riverside beggars04 ,this was largely due to the discovery that the actors of other lands enjoyed a much higher place in society than those of ,japan1 and the sudden change of front with regard to the theatre was but a phase of westernisation4 ,mokuami1 the chief playwright of the ,meiji era1 wrote a play based on a novel by ,bulwer ,lytton4 ,thirty-three ,dutch residents of ,yokohama presented a green curtain to ,kanya1 who was very much pleased1 and later when he extended an invitation to the foreigners in ,yokohama to attend a performance1 the programmes were printed in ,english4 ,the first distinguished visitor from overseas to be invited to ,kanya's theatre was a ,german prince4 ,such dignitaries as princes of the blood1 ministers of state1 and the plenipotentiaries of foreign countries1 were among ,kanya's guests4 ,later on a ,british official from ,hong-,kong was entertained1 and the ,shintomi-za became1 truly1 a social centre4 ,general ,grant1 former ,president of the ,united ,states1 visited the ,shintomi-za during his stay in ,japan in #ahgi4 ,it was a proud moment for ,kanya when1 attired in the new ,japanese badge of respectability1 a frock coat1 and accompanied by ,danjuro similarly clad1 they stepped out before the curtain and thanked ,grant for honouring the theatre with his presence1 and for the gift of a red curtain that he had presented to the manager4 ,but the height of ,kanya's ,western intoxication was reached when he invited a ,frenchwoman to sing1 and ,english and ,american actors to play in the ,shintomi-za4 ,in this ,kanya showed little insight1 for the audience could not understand the ,western entertainers1 and the venture ended in a serious loss to the theatre4 ,hence ,kanya's enthusiasm for reform cooled1 and he turned to ,danjuro1 ,kikugoro1 and ,sadanji as his only hope4 ,kanya had been at the head of theatre affairs in ,tokyo for so long that he received a shock when he heard of a project to launch a new theatre1 the ,kabuki-za1 which was to be the largest and finest ever built in ,japan4 ,he started an opposition movement1 concluded an alliance of four ,tokyo theatres1 and bound the chief actors to stay with him4 ,the greatest theatre in ,japan was the plan of ,fukuchi1 who ranked with ,mokuami as a playwright4 ,when the theatre was completed1 ,fukuchi went to ,danjuro and ,kikugoro1 to invite them to play in the ,kabuki-za1 but they refused1 as they had pledged themselves to ,kanya4 ,fukuchi was surprised at the tactics of the ,shintomi-za manager1 but pretended not to be disappointed1 joked1 and said he would have to paint his face and dance in their stead4 ,but the best theatre and the best actors could not long remain apart4 ,the shrewd ,kanya1 seeing an advantage to himself1 at last consented to lend the three stars provided he was given a certain large sum4 ,this was agreed upon1 and his actors appeared at the opening performances of the ,kabuki-za1 which were a pronounced success from the start1 while ,kanya was enabled to pay off his pressing debts4 ,morita ,kanya1 the twelfth1 died in #ahig1 after a strenuous life spent in trying to improve the theatre1 leaving behind him nothing but a legacy of bankruptcy to his three young sons4 ,he has been described as a man of extremes1 proud one minute1 humble the next4 ,sometimes he treated the actors as though they were his own children1 and again regarded them as his enemies4 ,prosperity and failure were his portions4 ,a newspaper writer1 commenting upon ,kanya1 likened him to a long-tailed pheasant pleased with its plumes that stood beside a river looking at its reflection1 and at last fell in and was drowned4 ,his two actor sons1 however1 have made up for their father's delinquencies4 ,they suffered poverty while young1 ,danjuro1 ,kikugoro1 and other friends of ,kanya providing a sum for their living and education4 ,both received their stage discipline under ,tamura ,nariyoshi1 the beloved theatre manager and contemporary of ,kanya1 who1 until his death a few years ago1 was the acknowledged ,kabuki authority in ,tokyo4 ,bando ,mitsugoro1 the elder son of ,kanya1 is one of the best dancers of the ,tokyo stage1 excelling in the music-drama4 ,his face and voice do not fit him for the rle of a chief actor1 but his remarkable skill as a dancer makes up for this4 ,morita ,kanya1 the thirteenth1 the younger son of the ,meiji manager1 is one of the most brilliant young actors in ,tokyo1 handsome1 versatile1 eager1 as was his father1 for new things4 ,he has won a distinct place in the affections of theatre-goers1 and is but on the threshold of his career4 ,in the autumn of #aiba the ,kabuki-za was burned down2 the actors of this theatre were obliged to play at the ,shintomi-za1 and ,kanya was avenged4 ,later his two sons1 ,mitsugoro and ,kanya1 for the first time played together in special plays in the parental theatre in memory of their father1 the progressive manager of ,meiji4 ,,iv ,rise and ,fall of ,shimpa ,a by-product of ,kabuki in the form of ,shimpa1 or ,new ,school1 was one of the most striking developments of ,meiji4 ,a second ,o-,kuni and ,nagoya ,sansaburo1 in the persons of the beautiful geisha1 ,sada ,yakko1 and her political-agitator husband1 ,kawakami ,otojiro1 started this form of entertainment4 ,but unlike the founders of ,kabuki1 their efforts were resultless4 ,shimpa consisted chiefly of crude melodrama1 and while it reached a certain standard1 it has now outlived its usefulness1 and is practically extinct4 ,the idea of setting up an opposition to ,kabuki grew out of the activities of one ,sudo in ,osaka4 ,he had been a samurai1 but fled from home without his father's consent1 earned his living in ,tokyo while studying1 and went to ,osaka where he spent his time in arguments about popular freedom4 ,he began to lecture in public places1 airing his views about the rights of the people1 and at last wrote a political novel1 which he sought to dramatise the better to spread his doctrines4 ,in front of the theatre where the piece was given there was a large arch erected by the ,asahi ,shimbun1 a newspaper that had made its influence felt at this date1 #ahha4 ,a spectator of this performance was ,kawakami ,otojiro4 ,the idea of a students' theatre1 where all the burning questions of the day could be preached to the people1 seized hold of him1 and he never rested until he had formed a company for this purpose4 ,kawakami was one of a large family living in a village1 and they had a hard struggle for existence4 ,at the age of #ai he was a policeman1 but this did not satisfy the ambitious youth4 ,with his sword for protection1 his feet roughly shod with straw sandals1 he came to ,tokyo seeking his fortune4 ,he had dreams of becoming a minister of state in the future1 and when he arrived at the railway station in the capital1 we are told he was surprised to find it all so different from the village life he knew4 ,kawakami did not have sufficient money in his pocket to take a lodging at an inn1 and he slept under the stars4 ,at times he took refuge in the shade of a temple4 ,he found employment by serving a priest of ,zojo-ji1 the great ,shiba temple in ,tokyo1 and later became a servant to ,fukuzawa1 the founder of ,keio ,university and great liberal educator of ,meiji4 ,joining the ranks of the soshi1 or turbulent agitators1 ,kawakami began to make political speeches1 and was repeatedly put in prison because of the freedom of his remarks4 ,but the more he was arrested1 the more eloquent he became4 ,to earn a living1 and at the same time spread the ferment of new ideas1 he became a story-teller in a yose1 or entertainment hall4 ,this was a temporary expedient1 and he soon began to interest himself in the starting of a theatre of his own4 ,he was regarded as a dangerous character and followed about by detectives1 and therefore his theatrical debut was not striking4 ,both he and his wife were poorly clad1 and the members of the company were in a miserable condition4 ,in comparison with the performances of ,danjuro1 ,kikugoro1 and ,sadanji1 this new attempt was indeed very insignificant4 ,something had to be done to attract attention1 and a piece was produced about ,count ,itagaki1 the liberal statesman1 who was represented as a radical and attacked by political assailants4 ,just at the moment when the hero was about to be killed1 a number of policemen appeared on the hanamichi4 ,there was great confusion in the audience1 for the idea prevailed that the officers of the law had really visited the theatre4 ,kawakami explained they belonged to the play4 ,the scheme worked well1 and the theatre was crowded daily4 ,danjuro and ,kikugoro came to see what it was all about1 and the newly established actor felt greatly encouraged4 ,with ideas of political success still in his mind1 he tried to run for parliament1 but was unsuccessful1 gave up his ambition in this regard1 and settled down in earnest to acting4 ,then a plan to go to ,america took possession of him1 and he started off to conquer the new world in a small boat1 accompanied by ,sada ,yakko1 her little niece1 and a dog4 ,they set sail from ,omori1 a suburb of ,tokyo1 on the shore of ,tokyo ,bay4 ,they lost their bearings and drifted into ,yokosuka1 where the authorities were on the point of arresting the couple for thus entering a naval port4 ,this bad beginning did not deter them1 and having disposed of the supercargo1 the niece and the dog1 a new start was made1 but the wind was high1 the boat began to fill1 and they regretted their temerity and resigned their fate to providence4 ,their situation at one time became so dangerous that ,kawakami invoked the aid of ,buddha4 ,he rowed1 and ,sada ,yakko tried to stop the inrush of water that came into the boat quicker than she could bail it out4 ,shipwrecked near a fishing village1 they were rescued1 well treated1 and stayed in this place for some time4 ,the gossips of ,tokyo said that ,kawakami wished to gain notoriety1 the better to increase his popularity as an actor1 and that this was the reason the modern ,o-,kuni and ,sansaburo had undertaken such a hazardous trip4 ,nothing daunted1 ,kawakami and ,sada ,yakko again started off for ,america with a company of players4 ,this time they took passage on an ocean liner1 and upon reaching ,san ,francisco were so poor they had no money with which to buy food1 and were obliged to ask one of their countrymen to give them some rice which they boiled themselves4 ,however1 they appeared in a theatre and obtained the wherewithal to go on to ,new ,york1 where they had little to eat for days4 ,but ,kawakami was a man of resource1 and dressing his company in the variegated armour of ,old ,japan1 part of his theatrical equipment1 and ,sada ,yakko attired in a gay kimono1 they walked through the streets of ,new ,york4 ,all were so hungry that little walking was done1 but this unusual ,oriental procession attracted attention1 people flocked to see them1 and within a few days they had made a considerable sum4 ,two other trips abroad were taken by the intrepid ,kawakami and the attractive ,sada ,yakko4 ,they played before ,king ,edward and ,queen ,alexandra1 and the ,president of ,france4 ,the ,tsar of ,russia presented ,kawakami with a gold watch4 ,thus ,kawakami did much to delay a true recognition of ,kabuki and the fine actors of ,japan4 ,he was nothing more than an adventurer in the realm of the theatre2 his performances were in no sense characteristic2 in fact1 he was an outsider and an amateur who ignored all that had gone before1 building a structure on the sands that collapsed after his death4 ,his countrymen who saw his hybrid plays in ,england and ,france and ,america hung their heads1 ashamed at the bold effrontery of the man thus strutting upon the ,western stage as a representative actor of ,japan4 ,the poor impression he gave of ,japan's theatre art has not been erased1 since no leading ,kabuki actor has yet been seen in the ,west to show what is sincere and true on the ,japanese stage4 ,one of ,kawakami's announcements was as follows3 8,our national drama is very vulgar1 and only fitted to please ignorant and common people1 and is not for great men or sages4 ,some people wish to improve it1 but this is of no use4 ,therefore1 ,i am going to do away with the old style and have a shibai with men and women players1 and abolish ,joruri4 ,the chief idea of our improvement lies in the spirit of the actors4 ,we do not lay stress on the outward appearances of the actors40 ,when ,kawakami returned from ,europe he produced ,hamlet1 but the stage entrance of the ,dane was made on a bicycle4 ,othello and other ,western masterpieces were similarly misrepresented4 ,the ,sino-,japanese ,war was a good opportunity for ,kawakami1 and he made the best of it4 ,he gave the people plays dealing with current events1 filling the stage with soldiers4 ,long-winded speeches1 sensation1 lack of concentration were the features of the hastily written pieces of ,shimpa4 ,yet ,kawakami and his company soon became popular1 and his theatres were packed4 ,ii ,yoho and ,kawai ,takeo1 two members of the company1 were soon favourites1 ,ii had first studied medicine1 and later entered a bank1 before he joined ,kawakami4 ,kawai missed his calling when he did not become a ,kabuki onnagata1 for he is the one genius ,shimpa has produced1--a clever impersonator of women4 ,takada1 ,fujisawa1 and ,kawamura were also stars of the company4 ,the themes of the ,shimpa plays were politics1 the law courts1 war1 love1 and murder1--just the strong theatrical fare the people wanted4 ,when such material was not at hand1 serial stories in the newspapers were dramatised1 or ,european novels or plays were adapted4 ,kawakami was more of an opportunist than a creator1 and his school reached a certain standard and then stood still4 ,the taste of the people demanded something better than his poorly constructed1 blood-and-thunder pieces4 ,the ,shimpa could not reach the level the public demanded1 and interest in it began steadily to decline4 ,ii and ,kawai for a number of years carried on after ,kawakami's death1 but at present they have separated1 and the ,shimpa school is practically non-existent4 ,when ,shimpa was at its height1 ,kawakami's company was largely composed of men1 but ,sada ,yakko1 who had a prominent rle in most of the plays1 was a brilliant exception4 ,there is no doubt her beauty and attractiveness had much to do with ,kawakami's success4 ,training in dancing and other female accomplishments she had secured as a geisha1 but preparation for stage work she had none1 and was just pushed before the footlights at a moment's notice to do the best she could4 ,she appeared in a transient period1 and the proper circumstances for the development of her grace and talent were lacking4 ,she is but another example of the ruthlessness of ,japan towards women of talent1 there being scant recognition of their right to express themselves4 ,illustration3 ,ritsu-,ko ,mori3 ,the leading actress of the ,tokyo ,stage4 ,with a true understanding of her own handicap in the matter of stage education1 she founded a school for actresses1 and this was taken over by the ,imperial ,theatre1 when it established a department to train young women4 ,in #aiai1 seven years after the death of her husband1 having failed to secure financial support to carry on the theatre ,kawakami had founded in ,osaka1 she retired from active stage life1 playing a farewell in a piece founded on the opera ,aida as translated by ,matsui ,shoyo4 ,on the occasion of a banquet given to celebrate the ten years' activity of the ,imperial ,theatre actresses1 ,sada ,yakko sat beside the star of this woman's company1 ,ritsu-ko ,mori1 and it was felt that this second ,o-,kuni1 three hundred years after the founding of ,kabuki and the monopoly of the theatre by males1 had once more given the impetus for a woman's stage4 ,v ,reforms of ,meiji ,meiji ,kabuki is less a record of achievement than a reign of amateurs1--well-meaning outsiders acting under the illusion that ,kabuki was flat1 stale1 and unprofitable1 and that its only hope lay in abandoning its old-fashioned conventions for the realism of the ,western stage4 ,at the beginning of the forty-five years of the ,meiji period1 reform was the idea uppermost in men's minds1 and ,kabuki1 like some family heirloom that has been relegated to the garret1 was dragged out into the full glare of new criticism4 ,those who were loudest in their denunciation were officials and scholars who had returned from abroad and regarded their own stage as an inferior product4 ,everything was wrong2 the plays were termed immoral1 obscene1 barbarous4 ,the gentlemen of the aristocratic classes who suddenly turned their attention to ,kabuki wished to make the stage refined and elegant4 ,they objected to the artificial stage voice1 the imaginative costumes and make-up1 the symbolic gestures2 the onnagata was an absurdity1 and the revolving stage1 the inconsistencies of the plots1 the vulgarity of language1 all came in for censure4 ,for three centuries the upper classes had held themselves aloof from the people's theatre1 and officialdom had wellnigh regulated it out of existence2 now the leaders among intellectual circles wished to 8improve0 ,kabuki1 aiming to confine the ,oriental temperament within ,western stage conventions4 ,this fever to reform ,kabuki was based on the belief that ,kabuki's exploitation of the unrealities was wrong1 while the realism of the ,western theatre was right4 ,it was1 moreover1 a conflict between those who put their trust in the idea that the aim and end of the theatre is to be literary1 and those for whom the whole purpose of the theatre is to be theatrical4 ,a ,dramatic ,reform ,association was established by ,viscount ,suyematsu1 son-in-law of the great ,prince ,ito1 with ,marquis ,inouye1 ,baron ,kikuchi1 ,baron ,shibusawa1 and other men of importance as leaders4 ,this society encouraged ,danjuro to act in new historical plays based on accuracy of fact1 correct settings1 and appropriate costumes4 ,danjuro called this new form of play ,katsureki1 or ,living ,history4 ,but the people soon lost interest in such offerings4 ,weak in dramatic values1 the whole emphasis in these pieces was placed on the dialogue1 which1 however1 had little significance4 ,these imitations of the talking play of the ,west were quite opposed to the forms of ,kabuki1 whose whole worth lay in the unity of the theatre arts1--colour1 movement1 music1 and acting4 ,danjuro was criticised on all sides for his proud attitude and noble bearing1 and he was advised to come down to the people and perform something they could understand and appreciate4 ,in consequence ,danjuro returned to the masterpieces of his family1 pleasing the audience with aragoto and jidaimono1 the very theatrical play-forms the reformers had decried2 ,kikugoro was popular in sewamono1 depicting the life of ,yedo as written by ,mokuami4 ,all was well with ,kabuki again1 and the people forgot that the decadence of their stage had set in1 and that it had become inert and lifeless1 according to the higher criticism of the time4 ,literary men discussed the theatre in magazines and the press1 and societies were formed to produce imported plays4 ,scholars and professors were arrayed on one side1 the people who liked ,kabuki undiluted shouted on the other4 ,it was clear that the new ideas were in direct conflict with the popular taste4 ,the sudden interest in the actors was due largely to the realisation they had not been fairly treated in the past4 ,this awakened consciousness with regard to the actors had been caused in part by the attitude of ,occidentals towards shibai4 ,in #ahhg the ,italian ,minister to ,tokyo1 ,signor ,martino1 who was a great admirer of ,danjuro1 invited him to the ,legation to dine with some of the greatest dignitaries in the land1 the late ,prince ,ito1 ,prince ,mori1 and others1 who must have been not a little surprised to find one of the 8riverside beggars0 asked to share the same board4 ,on this occasion the ,minister1 in making a toast to ,danjuro1 said it was much easier to become a minister of state than the first actor of a land4 ,there was also ,general ,grant's visit to the ,shintomi-za1 and his warm appreciation of the entertainment1 and later the appearance of ,danjuro1 ,kikugoro1 and ,sadanji before the ,emperor in the garden of ,marquis ,inouye4 ,aid yet1 in spite of the fact that the yakusha was coming into his own1 he was regarded as far too vulgar1 uneducated1 and unliterary to understand the imported dramas that were being translated in such great numbers4 ,blindly the advocates of reform continued to pour new wine into old bottles4 ,the ,shimpa school1 yielding to the desire for novelties1 produced plays depicting ,western manners and customs4 ,but currents of life and thought so much opposed could not flow together1 and the attempt to blend them upon the stage produced something that was neither of ,occident nor of ,orient1 something strange and almost repulsive4 ,the vivid colours of carpets1 and wallpaper1 and the atrocious furniture which represented to the audience ,western interiors cannot be recalled without a shudder4 ,nor can be forgotten the costumes so nearly nightmares1--fashions that have never existed in any part of the world--and the hats worn by male actors of the ,shimpa school when impersonating foreign females1 headgear which might have adorned the inmates of an insane asylum1 and other crude details conveying totally erroneous impressions4 ,the reformers1 quick to see the absurdities of ,shimpa1 set themselves up as advocates of ,western masterpieces which were to be so produced as to elevate the drama in ,japan4 ,associations were formed in quick succession1 all with the same aim1 to see new actors in the newest ,european plays and to forget for a time the crying need of ,japanese drama4 ,imported plays were produced one after the other on the ,tokyo stage1 always with more perfection of detail1--clever imitations4 ,the most ambitious attempt to reform the drama by means of imported masterpieces was made by ,dr4 ,yuzo ,tsubouchi1 who formed the ,bungei ,kyokai1 or ,literary and ,art ,association1 in #aijf4 ,it was a ,waseda ,university movement1 with the late ,marquis ,okuma at the head4 ,dr4 ,tsubouchi1 one of the founders of ,waseda1 dean of the department of literature of this ,university1 and known for his translations of ,shakespeare1 was the guiding spirit4 ,dr4 ,tsubouchi believed that society in ,japan did not appreciate the importance of the drama as an art1 but regarded the theatre as mere pastime4 ,even among the educated classes there were many who could not understand a man of ,dr4 ,tsubouchi's standing wasting his time in such an attempt4 ,one gentleman is reported to have said that he did not see why well-known scholars should devote themselves to the work of improving the drama1 for the drama was not a bit superior to a geisha performance4 ,a military officer advised ,dr4 ,tsubouchi to devote his energies to the moral education of the people rather than the improvement of the drama1 which was not of urgent necessity4 ,notwithstanding these protests1 a small theatre was erected in the garden of ,dr4 ,tsubouchi's residence1 and a group of amateurs gathered together to study how to act in ,western masterpieces4 ,the leader considered that the ,kabuki yakusha were hampered by their conventions1 and he could not find among them the education and culture necessary to understand ,shakespeare4 ,he then began to train actors for the task he had before him4 ,the first play given was ,the ,merchant of ,venice2 the following year ,hamlet was presented1 but both were unsuccessful4 ,profiting by these failures the society worked patiently for several years without performing in public1 and finally a revival of ,hamlet was regarded as quite a triumph for the ,bungei ,kyokai4 ,matsui ,suma-ko1 a young woman quite new to the stage1 developed into a leading lady1 and ,mr4 ,togi and ,mr4 ,doi became the chief actors4 ,then followed the ,doll's ,house1 ,magda1 ,the ,man of ,destiny1 ,you ,never ,can ,tell1 ,the ,merchant of ,venice1 etc4 ,the last performance the society gave before dissolution was ,julius ,csar4 ,born under the happiest of circumstances1 the society came to an abrupt end4 ,one of the staunch supporters of the movement was ,shimamura ,hogetsu4 ,he had been a student under ,dr4 ,tsubouchi1 studied literature and the drama in ,england and ,france at the expense of ,waseda ,university1 and was ,dr4 ,tsubouchi's right-hand man in the management of the ,bungei ,kyokai4 ,but the serenity of the undertaking was greatly disturbed4 ,professor ,shimamura left his wife and children for the fascinating leading lady1 ,suma-ko1 broke off friendly relations with ,dr4 ,tsubouchi1 and was asked to resign from ,waseda4 ,soon afterwards he started a company of his own to star ,miss ,matsui4 ,their partnership did not continue long1 as death suddenly overtook ,professor ,shimamura1 and soon after ,suma-ko killed herself by hanging4 ,doi ,shunsho1 who had taken the chief rles1 suffered a nervous breakdown and died1 and the remaining members of the company drifted apart1 leaving the model theatre deserted4 ,the one member of this society who has remained faithful to its ideals is ,togi ,tatsuteki1 who has taken leading rles in ,dr4 ,tsubouchi's new drama4 ,a rival to the ,bungei ,kyokai was the ,jiyu ,gekijo1 or ,liberal ,theatre ,society1 whose leader was ,mr4 ,k4 ,osanai1 a graduate of the department of literature of the ,imperial ,university1 and a pupil of the late ,lafcadio ,hearn4 ,this society gave ,ibsen1 ,gorky1 ,maeterlinck1 and ,hauptmann4 ,likewise1 half-a-dozen such societies arose1 only to be doomed to early death4 ,tamura ,nariyoshi1 the influential theatre manager of ,meiji1 a contemporary of ,morita ,kanya1 once said that new actors could not grow up like mushrooms1 but they must be thoroughly imbued with the atmosphere of ,kabuki and understand all that had taken place in the past before trying to produce new things4 ,contrary to this view the reformers did not think it necessary to build on institutions already existing1 and their efforts were misguided and misdirected4 ,tamura ,nariyoshi for half a century fought for all that was best in ,kabuki1 carefully preserving the traditions amidst the welter of new movements1 managing and producing for ,kikugoro1 the fifth1 and his son1 the sixth1 at the ,ichimura-za4 ,towards the close of ,meiji1 in #aiaj1 the height of the reform was reached in the building of the ,imperial1 ,japan's premier theatre4 ,erected according to a ,french model1 it has a beautiful ,european interior with all modern equipment and comforts4 ,in connection with the ,imperial a school for actresses was established4 ,signor ,g4 ,v4 ,rossi1 an ,italian ballet-master from ,london theatres1 was engaged1 and opera was produced for some years1 but like all other ,western methods of improvement1 interest in it died away1 in spite of ,signor ,rossi's earnest endeavours4 ,the lack of singers was the chief obstacle4 ,it was during this opera vogue that ,madame ,miura1 who has been so well received on the ,western stage as ,madame ,butterfly1 made her debut4 ,the ,imperial ,theatre1 under its capable manager1 ,mr4 ,k4 ,yamamoto1 continues to be the centre of the conflict of old and new ideas4 ,here modern playwrights are encouraged1 the ,kabuki actors create new things1 or act in the old plays of which the audience never seems to grow tired1 while the actors1 musicians1 and dancers of ,england1 ,america1 and ,europe1 and even the stars of the ,peking and ,moscow stages1 are warmly welcomed4 ,,vi ,actresses of ,meiji ,one of the striking developments of the theatre in ,meiji was the appearance of various types of actresses for the first time since the prohibition of the women's stage in #afbi4 ,returned travellers told tales of the prominent place the actresses held in the ,occident4 ,the female player had not been seen with the actor for centuries in ,japan4 ,she was a feature of the ,western stage1 then why not of the stage in ,japan8 ,danjuro1 eager to try new experiments1 and believing that women should have an equal chance with men in the theatre1 decided to introduce his two daughters on the stage4 ,the uproar and confusion that ensued among the theatre folk because of this petticoat invasion of the male sphere of influence caused them to withdraw4 ,danjuro also acted with a ,french actress to show that he was not bound by the conventions of ,kabuki4 ,among ,danjuro's pupils was a remarkable woman1 ,ichikawa ,kumehachi4 ,she began life as a dancing-mistress1 studied under ,danjuro1 and formed a woman's company of her own4 ,so successful were these players that in the early days of ,meiji they were allowed entrance to the houses of the nobility1 when the actors could not be admitted on account of their low position in society4 ,on ,kumehachi's stage only women appeared1 and the manly rles were so well taken by women that it was difficult to penetrate the outward guise that concealed the feminine personality4 ,all the stage duties1 including those of carpenters1 were performed by women4 ,kumehachi had the hands of a dancing-mistress2 they were long1 narrow1 and flexible1 and her bright eyes were full of life and intelligence4 ,she passed away in #aiac at the age of #gj4 ,a few days before her death she was playing in her small theatre1 and so died in harness4 ,danjuro once said of her3 8,if she had been a man her acting would have surpassed mine40 ,at one time she was called the 8,woman ,danjuro01 her acting so closely resembled that of her master4 ,but such was the handicap of sex in ,meiji that ,kumehachi was not given the freedom to develop that would have proved her genius1 and although she was undeniably popular with the people1 the fact that she was a woman proved a stumbling-block to her advance4 ,in its craze for new things and desire to imitate the ,western theatre1 ,tokyo overlooked ,kumehachi1 and she died obscure and neglected1 the company she had formed disbanding for want of leadership4 ,nor did the attractive ,sada ,yakko ever succeed in reaping but a small measure of success from her barren ,shimpa environment4 ,she was a dimming star when towards the end of ,meiji she founded a school for actresses that was to form a new departure of the progressive ,imperial ,theatre4 ,at the beginning of the craze for imported plays men attempted to portray the rles of women4 ,their manner of walking--a sort of hop1 skip1 and jump--was as true to the habits and customs of ,occidentals as the mincing stage gait of ,orientals affected by ,western players4 ,men were seen to be an impossibility as the heroines of the intellectual drama of the ,west1 and a demand for young women for such rles increased the number of stage-struck damsels in all parts of the country4 ,many a would-be actress strutted her brief hour upon the stage as ,juliet or ,ophelia1 and then was heard of no more4 ,the career of ,matsui ,suma-ko clearly represents a certain undesirable phase of westernisation1 a sort of frenzy for imported drama that took hold of the theatre reformers4 ,at the time she entered ,dr4 ,tsubouchi's ,bungei ,kyokai1 or ,literary and ,art ,society1 that was to reform stagnant ,kabuki by producing ,western drama1 the novelty of the actresses was at its height1 in ,osaka as well as ,tokyo4 ,dr4 ,tsubouchi sought to create intellectual actresses removed from all immoral influences4 ,matsui ,suma-ko was the most promising aspirant for the newly created position1 and she became the star of the society4 ,at the age of #ah she had married an innkeeper in a fishing village4 ,later she was divorced1 and came to live with her brother1 who kept a cake shop in ,tokyo4 ,she waited on customers until she found another husband who was interested in the new drama1 and with him she joined ,tsubouchi's company4 ,it is an unpleasant story how she parted from her second husband1 fascinated ,shimamura ,hogetsu1 ,dr4 ,tsubouchi's chief supporter and stage manager1 causing him to resign as professor of ,waseda ,daigaku and to abandon his wife and children4 ,together they formed a company called the ,art-,theatre4 ,it was as ,tolstoy's heroine in ,resurrection that ,miss ,matsui made her greatest success1 and with this and other ,western plays she toured the country1 the novelty of her venture and the boldness of her character bringing her a fair measure of success4 ,when ,shimamura died in #aiai1 her position was greatly changed4 ,he had been almost wholly responsible for her success4 ,she did not possess the mental or spiritual capacity to go on alone1 without his assistance4 ,he had been conspicuous among ,japanese literary men for his study of ,western literature1 and was the recognised leader of the naturalistic school4 ,she had no reserve of education or experience to draw upon4 ,furthermore1 after his death voices in the audience called out tauntingly1 and some of the minor ,kabuki actors who had been asked to play with her in an effort to maintain her popularity refused to do so4 ,things had come to an end1 and she could go no further in plays that were not indigenous to ,japanese soil4 ,the only way out of the many difficulties she had created for herself was to make a grand exit1 and this she did some weeks after the burial of her leader1 ,shimamura1 by hanging herself in the building that had been erected as the headquarters for the new stage naturalism4 ,matsui ,suma-ko1 a daughter of the rice fields1 essayed to play the whole repertoire made famous by ,ellen ,terry1 ,mrs4 ,patrick ,campbell1 ,sarah ,bernhardt1 ,julia ,marlow1 and ,mrs4 ,leslie ,carter4 ,it was an impossibility4 ,there was no natural growth from within1 only unhealthy camouflage4 ,she attempted to produce1 but always failed1 because what she could impersonate never sprang spontaneously from her own soul4 ,all her efforts aimed not to construct1 but to dazzle for the moment1--time and strength wasted in a vain endeavour4 ,by way of contrast there is ,nakamura ,kasen1 a natural successor to ,kumehachi1 whose influence and popularity were very great4 ,she owned a little theatre in ,tokyo1 and it was always crowded4 ,she had the temerity to imitate the ,kabuki actors1 and was never so popular as when in a male rle4 ,she began her stage work at the age of #ac1 and was practically self-taught1 never having come under the instruction of an actor1 but studying ,kabuki plays and players from the vantage of the audience4 ,much of her success was due to the fact that she was true to herself and the traditions of ,kabuki4 ,she created her own sphere1 and was regarded as a woman-ronin of the ,tokyo stage1 but has now retired4 ,with the opening of the ,imperial ,theatre in #aiaa came the introduction of actresses into the sacred fold of ,kabuki1 following the custom of the mixed players of the ,western stage4 ,the new recruits1 having no art of their own1 were obliged to imitate that of the long-established male stage1 and as no copy is ever equal to the original1 it has gradually become recognised that they are unable to compete with the actors4 ,during the first years of the new experiment the actresses played freely and frequently with the actors1 but now there is a separation1 the female company performing at stated periods during the year1 supported by several of the young1 progressive actors1 and occasionally honoured by the assistance of one of the stars of first magnitude4 ,the audiences prefer to see the actors performing in their own masterpieces1 and the actresses in new pieces4 ,from this it appears that mixing men and women players is not the success in ,japan it was thought it would be4 ,ritsu-ko ,mori1 who stands as the head of the actresses1 was the first woman of good family to take up the stage as a career4 ,she was educated in one of the exclusive young ladies' schools of ,tokyo1 and her father was a member of the ,imperial ,diet4 ,it was an unheard-of thing for a woman so educated to go upon the stage1 and she was quite prepared to meet opposition in the domestic circle and from society4 ,after a course of three years' discipline she made her first appearance with the opening of the ,imperial4 ,miss ,mori excels in comedy1 but has been seen in many rles4 ,she has undoubtedly earned for herself a first place among this new class of professional women1 both for her hard work and her correct standard of life4 ,associated with ,miss ,mori during the past ten years have been her close rivals1 ,murata ,kaku-ko1 ,hatsuse ,nami-ko1 ,kawamura ,kikuye1 and ,fujima ,fusa-ko--a member of the ,fujima family1 the leading dancing school of the ,tokyo stage4 ,in addition1 a large number of actresses and skilled dancers1 graduates of the ,imperial ,theatre1 are now available1 and there is every reason to believe that the actress is a permanent institution4 ,but as she is such a new acquisition time alone can tell whether she will prove to be an important factor in the ,japanese theatre4 ,,vii ,playwrights of ,meiji and ,taisho ,kawataki ,mokuami was not only the representative playwright of ,meiji1 he was the last of the ,kabuki sakusha4 ,after him theatre conditions changed rapidly1 the good relations between sakusha and yakusha that had so long endured were destroyed1 and peace and harmony between them have not yet been restored4 ,to such an extent does the modern stage owe allegiance to ,mokuami that there is hardly a month that does not see a production of one of his plays in ,tokyo1 and as he wrote some three hundred plays1 there seems no danger that the supply will run out for some time to come4 ,he was essentially a ,yedoko1 for he came of five generations of a ,yedo family which lived in ,nihonbashi1 the centre of the metropolis1 and the headquarters of the national domestic trade4 ,his plays show wide familiarity with the lower and middle classes of ,yedo1 and are a mirror of his times4 ,he was a precocious youth1 and early started to indulge in dissipation4 ,as he seemed disinclined to stop his irregular life1 his father disinherited him--a younger brother succeeding as head of the family4 ,mokuami had little education1 and began to associate early with the people of shibai1 becoming an apprentice to drama at the age of #bj1 and dying in the middle of the ,meiji period at #gh4 ,when the seventh ,danjuro returned to ,yedo after his long exile1 ,mokuami wrote the piece played by this member of the ,ichikawa family as a sign of his thankfulness that he had been able to return to the ,yedo stage4 ,for ,danjuro1 the ninth1 ,mokuami also wrote some of his best plays4 ,he saw ,yedo change to ,tokyo2 composed realistic ,yedo plays for ,kodanji1 who was active in the early years of ,meiji2 and in his old age collaborated with ,fukuchi in the writing of ,botan ,doro1 or ,the ,peony ,lantern1 one of ,kabuki's best ghost plays4 ,so repeatedly did ,mokuami choose highwaymen and thieves for the characters of his plays that he was sometimes called the dorobo1 or robber1 playwright4 ,he was also fond of priests1 and the scenes of his plays pass from robbers' dens1 reminiscent of ,oliver ,twist1 to temples and lonely graveyards4 ,through the whole series runs the contrast between the richly clad priest and the sinister robber4 ,the night side of ,tokyo life was often his theme1 but frequently he portrayed the lower classes in their struggle against injustice and oppression4 ,his zampatsumono1 or cropped-hair plays1 are a study of the disordered times when the impact of the ,west upon ,japan caused the two swords as well as the queue to be discarded1 and show the comic as well as tragic side of life in this transitional period4 ,among his numerous works may be mentioned ,kochiyama1 a play dealing with an historical personage1 the daimyo of ,matsue1 who was noted in his day for his profligacy4 ,it is interesting to know that the loyal retainer of this feudal lord1 who committed harakiri because his master would not listen to his advice and mend his ways1 was the grandfather of the widow of ,lafcadio ,hearn4 ,some seventy years ago1 this dramatic happening was written for the stage1 but the daimyo of ,matsue stopped its production by paying a large sum of money4 ,danjuro1 ,kikugoro1 and ,sadanji acted together in this play1 and it has been revived many times4 ,fukuchi ,genichiro1 known better under his pen name1 ,ochi ,kochi1 8,here and ,there01 was a man of varied talents4 ,he was in the ,government service1 and might have risen high in official circles but for his predilection for drama4 ,he distinguished himself during the days of the ,restoration and travelled abroad in the suite of the late ,prince ,ito4 ,few men of his time were better versed in ,english literature4 ,for a time he entered journalism1 but it is as a playwright that he will best be remembered4 ,fukuchi was one of the promoters of the ,kabuki-za1 and wrote almost exclusively for ,danjuro4 ,one of his best pieces is the music-drama1 ,omori ,hikoshichi1 a favourite play of ,matsumoto ,koshiro1 the seventh1 in which a warrior1 ,omori ,hikoshichi1 meets a seductive-looking maiden on a country road and volunteers to help her across a river4 ,he is performing this kindly deed when she draws a short sword and attacks him4 ,he is in possession of her father's precious blade1 and she is determined to recover it4 ,instead of retaliation1 as she had expected1 he generously presents the much-desired weapon to her and behaves in so chivalrous a manner that she goes on her way rejoicing1 while he feigns to be overcome by enchantment in order to distract the attention of his companions1 and mounting his black velvet stage-steed rides off triumphantly4 ,fukuchi lived through an unprofitable period of the theatre1 tried to conform to the demand of the time by writing 8living-history0 pieces for ,danjuro1 and the interest of the public cooling1 he was pushed aside1 and passed away forgotten and neglected4 ,many of his plays are more appreciated to-day than they were in his lifetime1 especially ,kasuga no ,tsubone1 or ,the ,lady ,kasuga4 ,a pioneer among the literary playwrights of ,meiji1 ,dr4 ,tsubouchi wrote several elaborate dramas1 showing the influence of his ,shakespearean studies4 ,the most ambitious of his works are ,kirihitoha1 ,a ,leaf of the ,kiri-tree1 and ,maki-no-,kata1 ,the ,lady ,maki4 ,the first is a play in seven acts and many scenes1 and has for theme the overthrow of ,osaka ,castle by ,iyeyasu1 when ,hideyori1 the son of the great ,hideyoshi1 perished in the flames4 ,the climax of ,oriental stage splendour is reached in the production of this long play4 ,there is such an elaboration of detail1 extravagance of gold screen1 and prodigality of colour forming the stage pictures that is at once sumptuous and overpowering4 ,the play would become nothing more than a series of tableaux vivants were it not for the characters of ,yodogimi and ,katagiri4 ,yodogimi1 the mother of ,hideyori1 mistress of ,hideyoshi1 drawn from history1 goes insane as ,iyeyasu's forces gain entrance through the gates of the castle and the watch-towers are seen in flames4 ,katagiri1 a faithful old retainer of ,hideyoshi1 bowed with age and infirmity1 gives proof of his loyalty as he watches the burning castle4 ,among ,dr4 ,tsubouchi's music-posture pieces there is ,o-,natsu ,kyoran1 or ,mad ,o-,natsu1 a maiden all forlorn seeking her lost lover1 and mistaking a stupid country bumpkin of a horse-driver as the hero of her dreams4 ,in #aibj his ,honan1 or ,religious ,persecution1 was produced4 ,this centred about the founder of the ,hokke sect of ,buddhism1 and shows the martyrdom of ,nichiren and his followers4 ,it created a storm of discussion by press and public1 a play with a religious theme being somewhat of a novelty in ,tokyo4 ,the appointment of ,dr4 ,tsubouchi as an adviser to the ,imperial ,theatre comes after a lifetime spent in literary work1 translations1 playwriting1 and endeavours to reform the stage4 ,it is with his lectures and translations of ,shakespeare that his name is largely identified4 ,waseda ,university was founded in #ahhb1 and since that year ,shakespeare has continued the favourite study of the department of ,english ,literature1 of which for many years ,dr4 ,tsubouchi was the head4 ,collegiate interest in ,shakespeare1 however1 dates back to #ahgg1 with the creation of the literary department of ,tokyo ,university1 now the ,imperial ,university of ,tokyo4 ,during the middle part of ,meiji1 ,okamoto ,kido began to write for the ,tokyo stage1 and is regarded as the representative modern playwright1 both for the number and variety of his successes4 ,he is a most indefatigable worker1 and several of his new pieces are produced yearly4 ,one of his favourite themes is the persecution of the early ,christian converts in ,japan1--and he has written a number of plays concerning these martyrs4 ,an ,okamoto play that is often repeated1 and is certainly one of his best1 is ,the ,mask-,maker1 showing the high regard in which the artisans of ,old ,japan held their work4 ,it expresses ,kabuki's love of the ,spartan spirit1 when the daughter of the mask-maker returns home in a dying condition1 after attempting to protect the ,shogun from attack1 and her face inspires her father to execute a masterpiece4 ,attached to the ,kabuki-za during ,meiji was the late ,enomoto ,torahiko4 ,he started his career on the newspaper ,yamato ,shimbun1 then studied under ,fukuchi1 and after ,fukuchi's death succeeded as head sakusha of the ,kabuki-za4 ,he was a deep student of ,french drama1 and his plays were influenced strongly by the literature he so greatly admired4 ,one of his most popular plays is ,meiko ,sakaido ,kakiyemon1 or ,kakiyemon1 the ,potter4 ,this tells how ,kakiyemon devoted himself to making a rich red-glaze porcelain4 ,a wealthy neighbour wished to gain the secret that he might profit thereby1 and withheld aid from the old man until he was so reduced he could not buy wood to keep his kilns going4 ,a good scene in this piece is that of the kilns in the moonlight1 the red glow of the fires1 the smoke rising into the air1 while in the background is the glare of a conflagration--the city of ,nagasaki on fire4 ,an ,osaka playwright who has given ,kabuki several fine plays is ,takayasu ,gekko4 ,his father was known as one of the leading physicians of ,osaka1 and he was expected to take up the same profession1 but preferred to devote himself to literature and the stage4 ,sakura ,shigure1 or ,the ,cherry ,shower1 is regarded as his best play4 ,an old man angry with his son for an affair with a belle of the gay quarter expels him from home4 ,shifting for himself1 the son and the woman he loves begin life together in a cottage4 ,the father happens to pass that way one day1 and is caught in a shower4 ,he seeks shelter within the humble cottage1 but does not know that he is accepting the hospitality of his despised daughter-in-law4 ,she prepares ceremonial tea for him1 he is struck with her accomplishments and good manners1 and when he discovers that she is the wife of his son1 a reconciliation is effected4 ,dr4 ,ogai ,mori worked persistently during ,meiji in the translation of ,german literature and drama4 ,osanai ,kaoru translated from the ,french and ,german1 and has produced a number of his own plays4 ,matsui ,shoyu was tireless in his efforts in the translation of ,english drama1 and is known as an adapter rather than an original playwright4 ,the late ,miigita ,torahiko1 attached to the ,imperial ,theatre1 produced a number of excellent plays4 ,masuda ,taro1 a clever writer of light society pieces and farce1 has composed chiefly for ,miss ,mori and the actresses of the ,imperial4 ,one of his successes was ,noroi1 or ,the ,curse1 with an imaginary ,damascus of a thousand years ago as setting4 ,after a week's run it was noticed that the wicked princess who causes all the trouble1 and who must die in the end in order that the good shall triumph over evil1 according to the eternal convention of the fairy-tale1 did not tumble down at the fateful dagger thrust1 but remained erect1 standing in a very commanding pose upon the throne with the final curtain4 ,the police authorities who censor plays had objected to the death by such means of so exalted a personage4 ,it was not proper in their minds to kill the princess1 although she richly deserved it1 and the whole point of the play was lost4 ,among the playwrights of ,taisho1 some of the best known are ,oka ,onitaro1 ,yoshii ,isamu1 ,kume ,masao1 ,yamamoto ,arizo1 ,osada ,hideo1 ,yamamoto ,yuzo1 ,yamazaki ,shiko1 ,ikeda ,taigo1 ,nakamura ,kichizo1 ,nagai ,kafu1 ,dr4 ,rohan ,koda1 ,roppuku ,nukada1 ,mushakoji ,saneatsu 7brother of ,viscount ,mushakoji71 and ,juichiro ,tanizaki1 whose plays have been much discussed and criticised4 ,during #aiba the best play to be produced by an aspiring playwright was ,tojuro no ,koi1 or ,the ,love of ,tojuro1 and concerned an incident in the life of ,sakata ,tojuro1 the great actor of the ,genroku period4 ,it was by ,kikuchi ,kan1 of whom much is expected in the future4 ,he also wrote ,okujiyo no ,kyojin1 or ,the ,mad ,man on the ,roof1 which was a success at the ,imperial4 ,miss ,chiyo-ko ,hasegawa and ,mrs4 ,kayo-ko ,omura are among the women who have written plays for the ,tokyo stage4 ,not in their wildest dreams could the stage folk of fifty years ago have predicted the remarkable development of ,kabuki in the years #aiah-aibj4 ,ten years before this the chief playhouses of ,tokyo were almost deserted1 and at best they were never more than half full4 ,but the audiences increased to such an extent that standing room in the topmost gallery was at a premium4 ,this overflowing of the theatre was due to the general prosperity of the country as a result of the ,great ,war4 ,faith in the ,west was rudely shattered1 and the people swung back to their own institutions with a new zest and enthusiasm4 ,for lack of stimulus ,kabuki had been at a standstill for half-a-century before the ,restoration2 then came the flood-tide of ,western influence4 ,unconscious of the value of its art1 ,kabuki remained powerless to proceed1 and led the superficial observer to believe that it was unable to create and on the downward path to oblivion4 ,but the forces within were gaining strength1 and during the height of national prosperity brought about by the ,european ,war1 the existence of ,kabuki was justified as never before in its three hundred years of history4 ,,kabuki ,,to-,,day ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,contemporary ,,kabuki ,the present condition of ,kabuki is like that of an old temple within a walled garden1 around which flows the modern life of a great city1 where rages a conflict between two civilisations1 that of ,asia1 and the other1 largely commercial1 imported from the ,west4 ,reformers believe that the temple is all out of date1 and are seeking with conscious effort how best they can change the style of architecture4 ,some there are who go boldly within the sacred precincts with pots of paint in order that the fading hues of the pictures beneath the curving roofs may be covered by a new design4 ,it is not in their thoughts to restore the tarnished colours1 but to destroy and make anew4 ,still others climb upon the walls and look with scorn upon the priests1 calling them lazy1 indifferent1 and ignorant4 ,and now and then some learned gentleman from the ,west enters with the worshippers on a festival day1 and declares that he wonders what it is all about1 while others1 even more learned1 proclaim in solemn tones that the temple is in decay1 and in a few years it will fall with a crash1 and so give way for a ,western edifice to be built upon the ruins4 ,in spite of these dire pronouncements1--the rushing modern life outside1 the ill-advised observers on the walls1 the reformers who seek to destroy1--,kabuki still has its priests1 the actors1 and goes triumphantly on its way4 ,heedless of the critics they carry on1 performing the old ceremonies1 preserving the ancient traditions and conventions with all fidelity1 yet turning their faces resolutely toward the future4 ,three groups of actors now control the destiny of ,tokyo ,kabuki1--the companies attached to the ,imperial ,theatre1 ,kabuki-za1 and ,ichimura-za4 ,with the opening of the ,imperial ,theatre in #aiaa a new force began to work in this shibai world4 ,not only did the ,imperial draw audiences from the most representative citizens of the capital1 but it became a centre for the entertainment of distinguished guests from overseas4 ,here1 also1 have been welcomed the musicians1 actors1 and dancers of many lands4 ,american and ,british touring companies have appeared at the ,imperial4 ,prince ,arthur of ,connaught witnessed a play here1 and the ,prince of ,wales1 as the guest of the ,mayor of ,tokyo1 attended performances with the ,prince ,regent4 ,enthusiastic audiences have applauded a score of ,western musical celebrities at this theatre4 ,russian singers1 dancers1 and actors have been warmly received from time to time1 and ,madame ,pavlova and her company performed for two weeks with great success4 ,here1 also1 the people of ,tokyo have had the opportunity to listen to a repertoire of ,italian grand opera4 ,mei ,ran-fan1 the popular actor of the ,peking stage1 also filled two engagements at the ,imperial4 ,shakespeare's plays have been performed by ,japanese players1 while new plays influenced by ,england and ,europe are frequently presented4 ,onoe ,baiko1 the sixth1 is the head actor of the ,imperial4 ,his specialty is that of the onnagata1 as is that of ,nakamura ,utayemon1 the chief actor of the ,kabuki-za4 ,this is the first time in the history of ,kabuki for two actors devoting themselves to female rles to take such commanding places4 ,in the old days the onnagata with becoming modesty was content with a lesser position among the yakusha4 ,illustration3 ,the ,imperial ,theatre of ,tokyo1 completed in #aiaa4 ,the building withstood the earthquake shocks of the great disaster of #aibc1 but the interior was destroyed by fire4 ,it has now been entirely restored4 ,the ,imperial is becoming an international theatre centre1 and has welcomed actors1 musicians and dancers from ,england1 ,america1 ,russia1 ,italy and ,china4 ,mansfield once wrote3 8,but who shall say when this generation has passed away how ,yorick played80 ,in ,japan1 however1 how ,yorick played is known1 for every actor of genius leaves his mark upon the son or pupil who succeeds him1 and his style and type are handed down4 ,both ,onoe ,baiko and ,nakamura ,utayemon have sons who give evidence that they are worthy to preserve the type4 ,eisaburo1 who serves as an understudy to ,baiko1 already closely resembles his father1 while ,nakamura ,fukusuke seems to have inherited the elegance and grace of his parent and teacher1 ,utayemon4 ,these two young men are the leaders among the younger onnagata and will no doubt uphold the honour of this specialty at a not distant period4 ,baiko1 following the traditions of the ,onoe family1 for he is the grandson of the third ,kikugoro1 and was adopted by the fifth1 is clever in the weird1 and never pleases so much as when he plays an unearthly woman1 ghost1 or demon4 ,he is particularly successful as a woman of the people1 but it is as a dancer that he has endeared himself to all ,tokyo4 ,the grace of his movements1 the power of suggestion in his descriptive dances1 fill all who witness them with admiration4 ,next to ,baiko comes the versatile ,matsumoto ,koshiro1 the seventh4 ,without doubt ,koshiro is the best-equipped yakusha in ,japan4 ,he is both a good actor and an accomplished dancer4 ,born in a provincial town1 his father was a builder and contractor1 and he might have missed his calling had not ,fujima ,kanyemon1 the furitsuke1 or dancing master of the ,tokyo stage1 taken such an interest in the child that he adopted him as his heir and successor4 ,danjuro1 the ninth1 saw that the boy was better fitted to become an actor than to be an exponent of dancing1 and early took him under his protection4 ,of all ,danjuro's followers1 ,koshiro is the best qualified to carry on the ,ichikawa traditions4 ,unfortunately1 ,koshiro was indiscreet in his youthful escapades1 and so angered his master that he was expelled by ,danjuro from the theatre1 and for a time it seemed that he might never return4 ,when the ,imperial was opened1 ,koshiro became attached to this theatre1 and was quickly reinstated in the favour of the public4 ,danjuro's widow1 however1 never forgot the injunction of her husband that ,koshiro was not to succeed him1 and while this actor is in every respect an ,ichikawa1 the great name of the tenth is still going begging4 ,in the ,ichikawa aragoto rles ,koshiro is the best in ,japan4 ,thoroughly trained in the ,fujima school of dancing1 he is a creative dancer1 always producing new modes of expression4 ,as a realistic actor he has few equals1 and shows much cleverness in new plays4 ,it is in making up1 however1 that he greatly excels1 and can transform his countenance by means of strange1 imaginative designs1 or become a rogue1 policeman1 statesman1 doctor1 or lawyer in modern plays with surprising success4 ,the seventh ,sawamura ,sojuro is also one of the ,imperial ,theatre stars4 ,he acts so well with ,baiko and ,koshiro that they form a perfect trio1 and when there is a break in this stage comradeship1 ,tokyo will be conscious of a blank like that which was experienced when the three great actors of ,meiji passed away one after the other4 ,sojuro is at his best in samurai and aristocratic rles1 ,he also makes a fascinating woman1 and his ability in the dance1 while not so striking as that of ,baiko and ,koshiro1 is still very great4 ,acting with ,sojuro are his four sons1 and a nephew1 ,sawamura ,chojuro4 ,a few months after the earthquake disaster of #aibc1 ,sawamura ,sonosuke1 also a nephew of ,sojuro1 one of the best onnagata of the ,tokyo stage1 passed away4 ,during a performance in a small theatre that had escaped the general ruin of the city he fell from a height on the stage and died a few hours later4 ,illustration3 ,onoe ,baiko1 leading actor of the ,imperial ,theatre in an onnagata rle4 ,morita ,kanya1 the thirteenth1 among the most promising young actors of the ,imperial1 is a name to conjure with in ,tokyo4 ,the son of the theatre manager of the same name who became intoxicated with ,western ideas and experimented in the new only to return to the sanity of ,kabuki in the end1 ,kanya has a deep hold upon the affections of ,tokyo playgoers1 not only because of his long lineage and the association of his family with the city1 but for the reason of his handsome appearance and unquestioned ability4 ,he has become so popular in modern plays dealing with the problems of the young man of to-day that he is forgetful of tradition4 ,like his father1 however1 he is original and eager to seek out new paths4 ,his brother1 ,bando ,mitsugoro1 is one of the chief exponents of the shosagoto school in ,tokyo1 and a dancer of whom ,tokyo is proud4 ,associated with these players is ,onoe ,matsusuke1 the fourth1 the oldest actor on the ,tokyo stage4 ,he played with ,danjuro1 but old age has no terrors for him1 and he is never absent from the footlights4 ,although ,matsusuke is benevolent and fatherly in appearance1 he delights in acting villains1 and when he takes old men's rles he is such a complete success that it will be very difficult to fill his place after he is gone4 ,for twenty years the acknowledged leader of the ,tokyo actors has been ,nakamura ,utayemon1 the fifth4 ,the most finished onnagata in ,japan1 having played with the three stars of ,meiji--,danjuro1 ,kikugoro1 and ,sadanji--he is still active at the end of a long career1 playing maidens of sixteen1 though he is approaching the sober judgement of the sixties4 ,at the ,kabuki-za1 ,nakamura ,utayemon still holds his own4 ,his audiences notice the signs of advancing age1 yet their attitude is one of great loyalty4 ,the chief ,tokyo yakusha has a world of meaning for the patrons of shibai1 as it signifies the actor has obtained the highest rank possible4 ,he is proud and something of a martinet in the theatre1 but on the stage ,utayemon's fair women are a study in themselves4 ,his elegance will be remembered long after he is no more4 ,nephew to ,kikugoro1 the fifth1 ,ichimura ,uzaemon1 the thirteenth1 has inherited a name that adorns the history of ,kabuki1 the first ,uzaemon being the owner of the ,ichimura-za1 for long years one of ,yedo's chief shibai4 ,he is brilliant1 showy1 sentimental1 an actor of many accomplishments1 accustomed to play lover1 brother1 or father to ,utayemon's heroines4 ,follower of ,danjuro1 the ninth1 ,ichikawa ,chusha is an actor who enjoys much popularity4 ,his restrained manner and well-modulated voice1 and cleverness in the realm of the unreal have marked him as a true disciple of the ,ichikawa family4 ,he manages to make his villains more thoroughly wicked than those of any other player4 ,belonging to ,utayemon's generation is ,kataoka ,nizaemon1 the eleventh4 ,only two actor lines have come down from ,genroku unbroken1 those of ,ichikawa and ,kataoka1 the one uppermost in ,yedo1 the other the first family of ,osaka4 ,the present ,nizaemon1 discouraged1 perhaps1 because of the overwhelming popularity of ,nakamura ,ganjiro1 with no background of family1 but who has captured all before him1 has made ,tokyo his headquarters for the past fifteen years4 ,when ,ganjiro comes at long intervals to play in ,tokyo1 ,nizaemon leaves for ,osaka1 a deep rivalry existing between them4 ,something in ,nizaemon's temperament has made open competition with ,ganjiro impossible1 although in certain rles no one can approach him4 ,nakamura ,kichiyemon1 a member of the ,kabuki-za company1 is a meteor-like actor1 having risen rapidly and by sheer ability1 for he has little ancestral prestige to enhance his reputation4 ,he has no pretensions to boast of as a dancer1 but in the loyalty characters of the ,kabuki masterpieces1 in creating afresh the rles left by ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon1 ,takeda ,izumo1 and ,chikamatsu ,hanji1 he is unsurpassed4 ,his brother1 ,nakamura ,tokizo1 is one of the young onnagata of whom much is expected4 ,the youngest actor of the ,tokyo stage is ,nakamura ,matagoro1 aged #ab4 ,his actor father died a few years ago1 and ,kichiyemon took the lad under his protection4 ,it is no exaggeration to call ,matagoro's acting remarkable4 ,something of ,kabuki's ,montessori methods are clearly shown in this boy's performances1 but personality counts also4 ,he seems to the manner born1 and it is felt that he will develop into a future leader of ,kabuki4 ,bando ,shucho of the ,kabuki-za is like an old-fashioned onnagata in type1 and his son resembles him very closely4 ,there seems no danger that this specialty will become extinct1 although the ,tokyo stage has lost within recent years four of its most talented impersonators of women4 ,onoe ,kikugoro1 the sixth1 son of the popular ,kikugoro of the ,meiji period1 is at the head of the ,ichimura-za company of players4 ,he follows his father in acting men of the people1 yet has never been able to equal the parental standard4 ,in shosagoto and the descriptive dance1 however1 he is a genius1 original1 picturesque1 a master of movement4 ,possessed of energy1 creativeness1 and eager for new ideas1 ,kikugoro is one of the most interesting personalities on the ,tokyo stage4 ,ichikawa ,sadanji1 the fifth1 son of the ,meiji actor1 and one of ,tokyo's most popular players1 is at the head of his own company1 has travelled abroad1 and is more favourably inclined to new ventures than the revival of the old plays4 ,nakamura ,ganjiro bears the same relation to the ,osaka stage as ,utayemon does to ,tokyo4 ,he follows the natural school founded by ,sakata ,tojuro of ,kyoto1 and like this ,genroku actor1 one of his favourite rles is that of ,izaemon1 the lover of ,yugiri1 in the ,chikamatsu drama4 ,born the son of an actor1 but unfortunate in his family circumstances1 he is self-made1 and by many is considered the first actor of ,japan4 ,he is the last of the fine old yakusha2 in the ,meiji period he had already won a high place for himself1 appearing with the three ,tokyo stars1 ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 ,ichikawa ,sadanji1 and ,onoe ,kikugoro1 and to-day he dominates the ,dotombori1 the theatre quarter of ,osaka4 ,an onnagata who baffles description1 since he is so subtle1 is ,nakamura ,fukusuke1 of ,osaka1 there being two actors of the same name at present4 ,some years older than the ,tokyo ,fukusuke1 the ,osaka actor plays many types of women1 each creation appearing better than that which has gone before4 ,after ,ganjiro in ,osaka1 there is ,jitsukawa ,enjaku1 an actor of the first quality1 who for some reason known only to the profession is rarely seen in ,tokyo4 ,gado1 of ,osaka1 is a nephew of ,nizaemon1 and spends his time between the two cities4 ,nakamura ,jakuyemon1 the third1 an ,osaka onnagata1 frequently plays in ,tokyo4 ,he differs from all the other actors because he has persistently and consistently patterned after the marionettes1 and seems to have associated with the dolls in such a familiar way as to belong to the sphere of elfs and fairies rather than to the ordinary characters of drama4 ,the effect of the earthquake disaster of ,september i1 #aibc1 upon the ,tokyo stage can hardly be estimated4 ,by this catastrophe the leading theatres of the city were demolished1 with the exception of the ,imperial and the ,kabuki-za1 which remained damaged and gaunt reminders amid the general devastation4 ,the ,imperial withstood the earthquake shocks1 but fire destroyed the interior4 ,it has1 however1 been restored and reopened4 ,the ,kabuki-za1 burned down in #aiba1 was being rebuilt on an elaborate scale1 and its outer shell of concrete by some miracle was left intact in a region of the city that was levelled to the ground4 ,the work of construction1 however1 went forward as soon as conditions would allow1 and was completed in time for the opening performances in ,january #aibe4 ,the solid ,occidental structure has been combined with some of the most ornate ,japanese architectural features1 and the new ,kabuki-za is one of the most gorgeous buildings to be found throughout the ,east4 ,poverty1 suffering1 hardship1 followed in the wake of the unprecedented earthquake disaster1 and it will take many years before the scars are healed and the theatre once more reflects the restored prosperity of the people4 ,whether this chastening will be a benefit or lasting injury remains to be seen4 ,illustration3 7#a7 ,,the ,,new ,,kabuki-,,za4 7#b7 ,,entrance ,,hall ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,kabuki-,,za4 ,the new ,kabuki-za1 with a seating capacity of #djjj1 which was opened on ,january #f1 #aibe4 ,under construction at the time of the earthquake disaster1 ,september #a1 #aibc1 the concrete structure remained intact4 ,japanese architectural features have been used throughout the ,kabuki-za1 and1 rising out of the ruins of the city1 it is one of the most imposing buildings in ,tokyo4 ,kabuki1 always acquisitive1 standing between the idealism of the ,n and the realism of the ,doll-theatre1 is no longer self-centred1 but has become1 like ,kim1 the friend of all the world1 and is ever ready to learn from ,london1 ,new ,york1 ,paris1 or ,berlin4 ,on the other hand1 to cause the inner consciousness of the ,japanese people to speak to that of the ,west through the medium of what is genuine in ,kabuki--this is the large untried experiment of the future4 ,the ,western ,theatre1 possessing the traditions of the ,greeks and of ,shakespeare1 has yet to discover the ,eastern ,theatre1 a sphere of human endeavour that remains unexplored and unexploited4 ,out of the theatrical wisdom of the ,east may come a force to produce a new era of creativeness in the ,west4 ,by the recognition and appreciation of ,kabuki1 the ,western ,theatre would not only greatly enrich itself1 but stimulate the actors of ,asia to higher things4 ,,bibliography ,nippon ,engeiki ,shi1 ,history of the ,japanese ,stage4 ,ihara ,seiseiin4 ,two volumes 7published ,meiji74 ,nippon ,gikyoku ,shi ,kowa4 ,lectures on the ,history of ,japanese ,drama4 ,ihara ,seiseiin 7published ,meiji74 ,generations of the ,ichikawa ,family4 ,ihara ,seiseiin 7published ,meiji74 ,kabuki ,sosho4 ,collection of ,kabuki ,records4 ,including ,kokon ,yakusha ,taizen1 ,ancient and ,modern ,actors2 ,jijinshu1 ,collection of the ,year's ,dust2 ,kabuki ,koto ,hajime1 ,beginnings of ,kabuki2 ,shinroku ,yakusha ,komoku1 ,stories of ,actors2 ,yakusha ,zensho1 ,all ,about ,actors4 ,published by ,hachimonjiya4 ,collected and edited by ,seisetsu ,sasa 7published ,meiji74 ,kokon ,yakusha ,taizen1 ,ancient and ,modern ,actors4 ,published by ,hachimonjiya1 #afbf4 ,criticism of actors4 ,jijinshu1 ,collection of the ,year's ,dust4 ,kaneko ,kichizaemon4 ,anecdotes of the actors1 chiefly ,sakata ,tojuro4 ,kabuki ,koto ,hajime1 ,beginnings of ,kabuki4 ,tamenaga ,icho4 ,criticisms of the actors4 ,published by ,hachimonjiya1 #agfb4 ,kabuki ,shoshi ,sosan4 ,collection of old records4 ,hana ,yedo ,kabuki ,nendaiki1 ,flower ,yedo ,chronology of ,kabuki4 ,records of plays and players in ,yedo1 by ,emba ,danshuro1 and continued in many volumes by other writers4 ,published by ,hachimonjiya4 ,zoku ,zoku ,kabuki ,nendaiki1 ,continued-,continued ,kabuki ,chronicles1 from ,ansei to ,meiji #cf4 ,tamura ,nariyoshi4 ,two volumes 7published ,taisho #aa74 ,engeiki ,taizen1 ,complete ,account of ,drama4 ,sekine ,mokuan4 ,meiji ,engeiki ,gojunenshi1 ,fifty ,years' ,history of ,meiji ,stage4 ,sekine ,mokuan4 ,ayame ,gusa1 ,sayings of ,ayame4 ,yoshizawa ,ayame4 ,amayo ,sanbai ,kigen1 ,three ,cups of ,sake on a ,rainy ,night4 ,criticisms of ,kabuki4 ,ihara ,saikaku4 ,okina ,gusa1 ,old ,man ,sayings4 ,criticisms of ,kabuki4 ,sadoshima ,nikki1 ,journal of ,sadoshima4 ,oyino ,tanoshimi1 ,pleasures of ,old ,age4 ,journal of ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the second4 ,tokumiyemasu1 ,i ,can ,see ,afar4 ,journal of ,ichikawa ,danjuro1 the seventh4 ,temaye ,miso1 ,my ,own ,bean ,soup4 ,kawarasaki ,gonnosuke4 ,joruri ,shi1 ,history of ,joruri4 ,takano ,tatsuyuki 7published ,meiji #bc74 ,gidayu ,taikan1 ,great ,mirror of ,gidayu4 ,history of ,gidayu ,joruri4 ,akiyama ,kiyoshi4 ,two volumes 7published ,taisho #f74 ,life of ,chikamatsu ,monzaemon4 ,dr4 ,oto ,fujii 7published ,meiji #cg74 ,joruri-,hime ,monogatari4 ,ballad of ,princess ,joruri4 ,chiyoda no ,oku1 ,harem of ,yedo ,castle4 ,tokaido ,meishoki1 ,noted ,places of the ,tokaido4 ,izumo ,o-,kuni ,den1 ,biography of ,o-,kuni of ,izumo4 ,kawataki ,mokuami1 ,biography of ,mokuami4 ,kawataki ,shiyetoshi 7published ,taisho #c74 ,kokugeiki ,shoshi1 ,short ,history of ,japanese ,drama4 ,dr4 ,yuzo ,tsubouchi4 ,geki to ,bungaku1 ,drama and ,literature4 ,dr4 ,yuzo ,tsubouchi 7published ,meiji #dd74 ,ichikawa ,ko ,hiden ,kumadori ,zukan4 ,the making-up book of the ,ichikawa family4 ,butai no ,omokage1 ,stage ,face ,shadows4 ,abe ,utaka4 ,biographies of the modern actors 7published ,taisho #h74 ,notes on ,japanese ,drama1 in the ,transactions of the ,asiatic ,society of ,japan4 ,rev4 ,arthur ,lloyd4 ,far ,east ,magazine1 #ahga4 ,japan1 its ,history1 ,arts1 and ,literature4 ,captain ,f4 ,brinkley4 ,history of ,japan4 ,james ,murdock4 ,things ,japanese4 ,basil ,hall ,chamberlain4 ,epochs of ,chinese and ,japanese ,art4 ,ernest ,fenollosa4 ,,index ,actor customs1 #agd1 #age1 #agf1 #agg1 #bbg1 #bcj earnings1 #aab lines1 #ajb1 #ajg ranks1 #gh superstitions1 #ace1 #aeh1 #big ,adzuma ,sampachi1 #bda ,aida1 #cdg ,alexandra1 ,queen1 #cde ,anekawa ,shinshiro1 #aah ,araki ,yojibei1 #gf1 #bcc ,arashi ,kanjuro1 #aee ,kichisaburo1 #crd1 #adb ,rikaku1 #cbe ,sangoro1 #aeh ,sanyemon1 #gf1 #ii1 #aej #bnd1 #aja #crd1 #aai ,seisaburo1 #bdb ,archer1 ,william1 #bih ,art ,theatre1 #cee ,asada ,icho1 #bfc ,asahi ,shimbun1 #cdb ,asakusa firemen1 #ccf ,asamagatake1 #ajc ,asao ,tamejuro1 #abb ,ashigoroye1 #agd ,asiatic ,society of ,japan1 #afe ,ataka1 #ie ,baiko1 see ,onoe ,baiko ,bando ,hikosaburo1 #aaf #crd1 #bdf #dth1 #cbf #eth1 #cbf1 #cbi ,matakuro1 #hc ,mitsugoro1 #bgd #dth1 #acj1 #cda1 #cdb1 #cgj ,shucho1 #cgc ,banzuiin ,chobei1 #bdc1 #cjj ,banzuke1 #agh ,basho1 #afj ,battle of ,kokusenya1 see ,kokusenya ,kassen ,biwa1 #aid ,bon ,festival1 #agc ,botan ,doro1 #bif1 #cei ,brinkley1 ,captain ,f41 #ej1 #afe ,bungei ,kyokai1 #cej1 #cea1 #ceb1 #cee ,bungo-bushi1 #aif1 #aig ,bunraku-za1 #f1 #aeb ,bunsaburo1 #aej ,chamberlain1 ,b4 ,h41 #eg ,chikamatsu ,hanji1 #bci1 #beg1 #bib1 #bih1 #cgb ,monzaemon1 #gf1 #hh1 #ia1 #aac1 #adh1 #aej1 #aea1 #aie1 #bcb1 #bcd1 #bce1 #bcf1 #bcg1 #bch1 #bci1 #bdb1 #bee1 #bfa1 #cjb1 #cjc1 #cab1 #cad1 #cgb ,chinese influence1 #ahe1 #ahf zodiac1 #bca ,christian influence1 #ahd1 #ahg ,christianity proscribed1 #ahd ,chushingura1 #ad1 #df1 #ajj1 #aae1 #aej1 #agb1 #baa1 #bag1 #bai1 #bhd1 #bhe1 #cbd ,connaught1 ,prince ,arthur of1 #cfh ,dekata1 #ahj1 #aha ,doi ,shunsho1 #cea1 #ceb ,dojo-ji1 #cjg ,dokegata1 #bcd ,doll's ,house1 #cea ,dramatic ,reform ,association1 #cdh ,dramatisation of popular fiction1 #bde ,ebiso1 #ib1 #cbd ,ebisuya ,kichirobei1 #ace ,edicts against ,europeans1 #ahd ,edward1 ,king1 #cde ,eizaburo1 #gth1 #da1 #cfi ,ejimaya ,kiseki1 #ha ,encho1 #bif ,english factory1 #ahd ,enomoto ,torahiko1 #cfb ,epochs of ,chinese and ,japanese ,art1 #ej ,ervine1 ,st4 ,john1 #bgf ,european costume1 #ahg1 #cej influence1 #ahc ,fenollosa1 ,e41 #ej1 #aff1 #ahe ,foreign influence on ,kabuki1 #ahd1 #ahf ,forty-seven ,ronin1 see ,chushingura ,france1 ,president of1 #cdf ,fujii1 ,dr4 ,oto1 #bch ,fujima family1 #bgd ,fusa-ko1 #ceg ,kangoro1 #bge ,kanjiro1 #abi ,kanyemon1 #bge1 #cfi school1 #cgj ,fujisawa1 #cdf ,fujita ,koheiji1 #gf1 #bcc ,fukuchi ,genichiro1 #bc1 #bbg1 #bif1 #cdj1 #cei1 #cfb ,fukui ,yagozaemon1 #gf1 #bcb ,fukuoka ,yagoshiro1 #acg1 #bdj ,fukuzawa1 #cdb ,furigoto1 see ,shosagoto ,furitsuke-shi1 #bgc ,gado1 #cgd ,gagaku1 #aic ,ganjiro1 see ,nakamura ,ganjiro ,genji ,monogatari1 #gi ,gidayu 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,tell1 #cea ,yugiri of ,awa in ,naruto1 #aej ,yuki ,onna ,gomai ,hagoita1 #aej ,za1 #hc ,,the ,,end ,printed in ,great ,britain by ,r4 ,r4 ,clark1 ,limited1 ,edinburgh4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,word hyphenation has not been standardised4 ,words between underscores were originally italicised in the printed book4 ,illustrations are indicated with 8,illustration04 ,in most cases the caption text has been re-formatted to a nominal #gb character page width to match the rest of the text4 ,thought breaks 7an extra space between paragraphs7 is represented with 899 99 99 99 9904 ,other changes3 ,page #chd3 8,uyeno ,park1 #ccb0 changed to 8,uyeno ,park1 #cjb0 ,page #chd3 8,vega1 ,lope de1 #hf0 changed to 8,vega1 ,lope de1 #ahf0 ,in several cases the spelling of ,japanese names in the index differ from those in the text4 ,these differences have been retained4 ,a few are noted below3 ,sadoshima ,denpachi in index but ,sadoshima ,dempachi in text ,miigata ,torahiko in index but ,miigita ,torahiko in text ,ichikawa ,monosuke in index but sometimes ,ichikawa ,monnosuke in text ,namaki ,gohei in index but sometimes ,namiki ,gohei in text ,namaki ,shozo in index but ,namiki ,shozo in text ,nukada ,roppoku in index but ,roppuku ,nukada in text ,sakakiyama ,koshiro in index but ,sakiyama ,koshiro in text ,sekinoto in index but ,seikinoto in text ,matsui ,shoyo in index but sometimes ,matsui ,shoyu in text ,nagawa ,takusuke in index but ,nagawa ,tokusuke in text ,togi ,tetsuteki in index but ,togi ,tatsuteki in text ,utagawa ,toyohara in index but sometimes ,utagawa ,toyoharu in text ,sada ,yakko in index but sometimes ,sada ,yacco in text ,ichikawa ,yaoza in index but ,ichikawa ,yaozo in text ,midzuke ,yatsunosuke in index but ,midzuke ,tatsunosuke in text