,illustration3 ,,ain ,,estakherab1 ,,gennah ,,an ,,egyptian ,,oasis ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,oasis ,,of ,,kharga ,,in ,,the ,,libyan ,,desert1 ,,with ,,special ,,reference ,,to ,,its ,,history1 ,,physical ,,geography1 ,,and ,,water-,,supply ,,by ,h4 ,j4 ,,llewellyn ,,beadnell ,f4,g4,s41 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 ,assoc4,inst4,m4,m4 ,,formerly ,,of ,,the ,,geological ,,survey ,,of ,,egypt ,,with ,,maps ,,and ,,illustrations ,,london ,,john ,,murray1 ,,albemarle ,,street1 ,w4 #aiji ,,to ,,the ,,memory ,,of ,a ,,friend ,,and ,,fellow-,,geologist1 ,,thomas ,,barron1 ,,who ,,lost ,,his ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,sudan ,,in ,,february1 #aijf ,,preface ,the inhabited depressions of the ,libyan ,desert1 called by ,herodotus the #8,islands of the ,blest1' are interesting alike to the archologist1 to the geographer and geologist1 and to the tourist who wishes to wander from the well-beaten tracks1 and perhaps none more so than the ,oasis of ,kharga1 lying #acj miles west of ,luxor--the site of ancient ,thebes--and recently connected by railway with the ,nile ,valley4 ,descended from the ancient ,libyans1 the inhabitants of the ,egyptian oases 7numbering over #cj1jjj souls7 are quite distinct from the ,fellahin and ,bedawin of the ,nile ,valley4 ,isolated by arid and desolate wastes1 these communities occupy quaint walled-in towns and villages1 tucked away among groves of palms1 interspersed with smiling gardens and fields of corn4 ,rain is almost unknown1 and rivers are non-existent1 the trees and crops being irrigated by bubbling wells1 deriving their waters from deep-seated sources4 ,kharga--the subject of the present memoir--formed part of the ,great ,oasis of ancient days1 and was governed in turn by the ,pharaohs1 the ,persian ,monarchs1 and the ,roman ,emperors4 ,through it the ill-fated army of ,cambyses is recorded to have marched1 and in it is to be seen the most important ,persian monument in ,egypt1 the temple of ,hibis4 ,but most interesting of all is the wonderfully preserved ,early ,christian necropolis1 dating from the time of ,bishop ,nestorius1 who was banished to ,kharga in ,a4,d4 #dcd4 ,juvenal1 ,athanasius1 and other celebrities likewise appear to have made unwilling acquaintance with this portion of the ,roman ,empire4 ,the character of the people at the present day--a curious mixture of stupidity1 apathy1 and shrewdness--seems to reflect in great measure their past history1 as well as the peculiar conditions under which they still live4 ,a history of the inhabitants since the withdrawal of the ,roman garrisons would resolve itself into an account of an endless combat with ,nature1 which1 with sand and wind as its chief agents1 has never abated its efforts to recover those tracts which the ,ancients1 by the exercise of much skill and industry1 wrested from the desert4 ,as a member of the ,geological ,survey of ,egypt from #ahif to #aije1 ,i spent nearly nine years in survey and exploration work in the ,egyptian deserts1 and for the past three years ,i have been in charge of extensive boring and land-reclamation operations in the particular oasis with which this book deals1 so that ,i have had exceptional opportunities of studying at first hand a region of peculiar interest4 ,among other questions dealt with are the vast systems of subterranean aqueducts constructed by the ,romans2 the extensive lakes which occupied the floor of the oasis-depression well into historic times2 the rate and mode of movement of desert sand-dunes2 the formation and gradual elevation of the cultivated terraces by the constant accumulation of wind-borne material2 and the deep-seated water-supplies1 a subject which1 in view of recent discussions as to the origin of the artesian waters of arid regions1 is of more than local interest4 ,some portions of the book1 more especially those dealing with geology and water-supply1 have already been published in somewhat different form in the ,geological ,magazine1 and ,i am indebted to ,dr4 ,henry ,woodward1 ,f4,r4,s41 for permission to reproduce them1 as well as the plate showing ,bore ,no4 #ci and the geological section across the oasis4 ,the illustrations are reproduced from photographs taken by me at different times during the last few years4 ,the maps1 showing the relative positions of the oasis and the ,nile ,valley1 the caravan roads1 and the geology1 have been compiled from all available published material1 chiefly the work of ,dr4 ,john ,ball and myself4 ,some portions of these1 as well as the plan showing the subterranean aqueducts of ,um ,el ,dabdib1 are now published for the first time4 ,the caravan routes1 while shown with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes1 have not been surveyed with the same degree of exactness as the other details shown on the maps4 ,h4 ,j4 ,,llewellyn ,,beadnell4 ,,london1 ,march1 #aiji4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,the ,,libyan ,,desert ,,and ,,its ,,oases #a ,,ii4 ,,early ,,records #ab ,,iii4 ,,the ,,roads ,,leading ,,to ,,the ,,oasis #be ,,iv4 ,,topography ,,and ,,geology #de ,v4 ,,the ,,northern ,,villages #fa ,,vi4 ,,the ,,southern ,,villages #ge ,,vii4 ,,the ,,oasis ,,under ,,persian ,,and ,,roman ,,rule #hf ,,viii4 ,,the ,,extinct ,,lakes ,,of ,,the ,,oasis #aaj ,,ix4 ,,the ,,underground ,,water-,,supply #abc ,x4 ,,flowing ,,wells3 ,,some ,,experiments ,,and ,,observations #aci ,,xi4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,artesian ,,waters #aed ,,xii4 ,,the ,,ancient ,,subterranean ,,aqueducts #afg ,,xiii4 ,,boring ,,methods3 ,,ancient ,,and ,,modern #ahf ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,contest ,,between ,,man ,,and ,,wind- ,,borne ,,sand #aih ,,xv4 ,,some ,,economical ,,aspects ,,of ,,the ,,oasis #bab ,,xvi4 ,,some ,,notes ,,on ,,sport ,,and ,,natural ,,history #bbd ,,appendix3 ,,literature ,,on ,,the ,,oasis ,,of ,,kharga #bcd ,,index #bcg ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations #a4 ,,ain ,,estakherab1 ,,gennah ,frontispiece ,,facing ,,page #b4 ,a ,,pass ,,into ,,the ,,oasis #af #c4 ,,the ,,railway ,,descending ,,into ,,the ,,oasis ,,through ,,the #ch ,,chalk ,,formation #d4 ,,the ,,christian ,,necropolis ,,and ,,jebel ,,ter #df ,a ,,street ,,in ,,kharga #e4 #ff ,,kharga ,,village #f4 ,,encroachment ,,of ,,sand-,,dunes ,,at ,,meheriq #gj ,a ,,ptolemaic ,,temple 7,,qasr ,,el ,,ghuata7 #g4 #gc ,,doum-,,palms ,,near ,,qasr ,,el ,,ghuata #h4 ,,ain ,,dakhakhin #gh #i4 ,,dush ,,village #hd #aj4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,hibis1 ,,from ,,the ,,south-,,east #ib #aa4 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,hibis 7,,interior7 #if #ab4 ,,the ,,christian ,,necropolis #ajc #ac4 ,,biblical ,,scenes ,,in ,a ,,tomb ,,of ,,the ,,necropolis #ajd #ad4 ,,lacustrine ,,deposits ,,at ,,el ,,gala1 ,,near ,,bulaq #aaj ,,coffin ,,masks ,,from ,,bellaida #ae4 #aaf ,,ancient ,,pottery ,,from ,,the ,,lacustrine ,,deposits #af4 ,,flint ,,implements #abj #ag4 ,,an ,,artesian ,,well 7,,bore ,,no4 #ci7 #abd ,,bore ,,no4 #e #ah4 #adb ,,bore ,,no4 #ad #ai4 ,,lands ,,under ,,reclamation ,,at ,,bore ,,no4 #ci #aef #bj4 ,,ain ,,amur1 ,,on ,,the ,,upper ,,dakhla ,,road #afe #ba4 ,,qasr ,,lebekha ,,and ,,the ,,northern ,,escarpment ,,of ,,the ,,oasis #afi #bb4 ,,ruins ,,at ,,um ,,el ,,dabadib #agb ,a ,,steam ,,boring ,,rig #bc4 #aif ,a ,,hand ,,boring ,,rig #bd4 ,a ,,belt ,,of ,,dunes ,,near ,,qasr ,,lebekha #bjj #be4 ,,sand ,,erosion ,,on ,,summit ,,of ,,jebel ,,tarif #bjf #bf4 ,,the ,,corporation',s ,,homestead 7,,headquarters7 #bjh #bg4 ,,doum-,,palms ,,at ,,ain ,,girm ,,meshim #bah ,a ,,wadi ,,in ,,jebel ,,tarif #bh4 #bbb ,a ,,river ,,of ,,sand ,,near ,,um ,,el ,,dabadib ,,maps ,,and ,,sections ,i4 ,,the ,,caravan ,,routes ,,to ,,the ,,oasis ,,of ,,kharga #bf ,,ii4 ,,sketch-,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,geology ,,and ,,the ,,ancient ,,lakes #ej ,,of ,,the ,,oasis ,,of ,,kharga ,,iii4 ,,geological ,,section ,,across ,,the ,,oasis1 ,,from ,,jebel #ef ,,tarif ,,to ,,the ,,eastern ,,escarpment ,,iv4 ,,the ,,subterranean ,,aqueducts ,,of ,,um ,,el ,,dabadib #agf ,,an ,,egyptian ,,oasis ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,libyan ,,desert ,,and ,,its ,,oases ,contrast of ,libyan ,desert and ,nile ,valley -- ,area and ,geographical ,position -- ,barrenness -- ,dunes and ,sand-submerged ,areas -- ,underlying ,water-charged ,sandstones -- ,early ,history of ,oases -- ,condition in ,prehistoric ,times -- ,cultivated ,lands and ,wells4 ,no more striking contrast can be imagined than that between the intensely cultivated ,valley of the ,nile and the barren deserts on either side4 ,there are arid wastes in many parts of the world--in ,australia1 in the ,western ,states of ,america1 in ,asia--but in point of desolateness1 in the absence of animal and vegetable life1 there is probably nothing to rival the greater portion of the ,libyan ,desert1 on the west side of the ,nile4 ,its barrenness is aggressive2 it is not necessary to travel far to make its acquaintance2 so sharp is the junction that1 in a single step1 one may pass from the richly cultivated alluvial soil of the ,nile to the bare sandy plains which skirt the more rocky interior of the desert4 ,along the borders of the ,egyptian wastes one generally looks in vain for the ,persian poet's 8,strip of herbage strown1 ,that just divides the desert from the sown40 ,geographically the ,libyan ,desert is the eastern and most inhospitable portion of the ,sahara1 or ,great ,desert of ,africa4 ,on the north and east its boundaries are clearly defined by the ,mediterranean ,sea and the ,valley of the ,nile2 on the south it is bounded by the ,darfur and ,kordofan regions of the ,egyptian ,sudan2 to the south-west its limits may be regarded as coterminous with the elevated districts of ,tibesti2 while on the west it stretches to the outlying oases of ,fezzan and ,tripoli4 ,its area is about #hej1jjj square miles1 or approximately seven times that of the ,british ,isles4 ,with the exception of a narrow belt fringing the ,mediterranean1 the region is1 to all intents and purposes1 rainless1 the occasional thunderstorms being extremely local1 and seldom breaking over the same district in two consecutive years4 ,in the more elevated deserts on the eastern side of the ,nile rains appear to be of sufficiently frequent occurrence to maintain a water-supply in the isolated water-holes and valley-springs1 and to allow of the growth of a fairly permanent though scanty herbage in the more favoured areas4 ,the ,eastern desert does1 therefore1 to some extent1 support a migratory ,arab population4 ,on the other hand1 the greater portion of the ,libyan ,desert is quite devoid of vegetation and water-holes1 and is1 in consequence1 uninhabited even by nomad tribes4 ,at the same time1 the extreme barrenness of the region as a whole is in great measure counterbalanced by a number of isolated fertile oases1 in which there is a permanent resident population1 deriving its water-supplies entirely from underground sources4 ,the term #8oasis1' an ancient ,egyptian word signifying a resting-place1 in its strict sense means a fertile spot in a desert1 but in ,egypt has usually been applied to a depression as a whole1 each individual cultivated area being known by the name of the well from which its water is derived4 ,the chief groups of oases in the ,libyan ,desert are the ,siwan on the north1 that of ,kufra on the west1 and the ,egyptian1 including the four large oases of ,baharia1 ,farafra1 ,dakhla1 and ,kharga1 on the east4 ,the present volume deals more especially with the last of these4 ,the ,libyan ,desert is primarily divisible into two entirely different parts1 distinguished by the presence or absence of surface accumulations of blown sand4 ,extensive dunes are confined to the western portion1 where areas of hundreds of square miles are literally buried under deep seas of sand1 blown into more or less parallel dunes of great height1 lying ,n4,n4,w4 and ,s4,s4,e41 in the direction of the prevailing winds4 ,in this country it is almost impossible to travel in a latitudinal direction1 so that the sand-covered area forms an effective barrier between the ,egyptian oases and ,kufra1 one of the strongholds and1 at any rate until recently1 the headquarters of the powerful ,senussi sect4 ,it is probable that1 within the last century1 the area of this sand has extended considerably to the south1 as an old caravan road trending westwards1 and believed to have originally connected the oases of ,dakhla and ,kufra1 is now lost in the dunes4 ,as long ago as #ahgd some of the members of the ,rohlfs expedition made an attempt to penetrate westwards from ,dakhla1 but on reaching the edge of the great sand-region1 about #agj kilometres ,w4,s4,w4 of ,qasr ,dakhl1 were compelled to turn northwards and travel in a direction parallel to the lines of dunes1 from which they emerged1 after a long and wearisome journey of #djj kilometres1 in the neighbourhood of the oasis of ,siwa4 ,outlying portions of this sand invade the ,egyptian oases2 for instance1 the depression of ,el ,daila1 lying to the west of ,farafra1 is to a great extent filled with blown sand1 while an extensive area in the south of ,farafra itself is buried under dunes4 ,on the eastern portion the sand is for the most part confined to isolated lines of dunes1 the most remarkable being that known as the ,abu ,mohariq4 ,this commences in latitude #bi #de north1 at ,ars el ,buqar1 some #ej kilometres south-west of the ,mogara swamp1 in the low country to the south of the great east and west ,miocene escarpment4 ,from ,ars el ,buqar the ,abu ,mohariq sand-belt runs in an almost straight and unbroken line across the ,libyan plateau to the oasis of ,kharga1 through which it continues into the desert to the south4 ,the average breadth of this line of dunes is only some #f or #g kilometres1 whereas its length cannot be less than #fej4 ,less extensive accumulations of blown sand are found in the oases themselves1 in the depressions of ,gharaq and ,muailla to the south of the ,faym1 and encroaching on the cultivated lands of the ,nile ,valley between ,bahnessa and ,mellawi4 ,the eastern part of the ,libyan ,desert1 in which are situated the ,egyptian oases1 is itself divisible into three areas having essentially different characters1 the northern being an undulating rolling country of sandstones1 grits1 and gravels2 the central consisting of bare elevated limestone plateaux2 the southern a lower-lying expanse of rugged sandstone1 broken only occasionally by ridges and bosses of granite and other crystalline rocks4 ,the ,egyptian oases are deep and broad hollows or depressions in the ,libyan ,desert plateau4 ,in position they appear to coincide with areas where rocks of comparative softness became exposed at the surface during the gradual lowering of the country by denudation4 ,at such points the general rate of weathering must have become greatly accelerated1 with the result that those vast depressions1 which form such conspicuous features in the configuration of the country at the present day1 were eventually cut out4 ,underlying the greater part of the ,libyan ,desert are porous sandstones1 and these1 when pierced by deep borings put down from the lower-lying parts of the floors of the depressions1 yield abundant supplies of water of remarkable purity4 ,as these sandstones1 as well as the shales with which they are associated1 have a general dip or inclination from south to north1 we are led to infer that they outcrop or come to the surface to the south1 so that in all probability the water with which they are so highly charged has its origin in that direction4 ,whether the water obtains access to the sandstones by direct infiltration of the rains of ,abyssinia or the ,sudan1 from the swamps of the sudd region of the ,upper ,nile1 or from the ,nile itself in the ,nubian reaches1 has not yet been decided with certainty4 ,recent observations1 however1 show that far more water is lost in some reaches of the ,nile than can be accounted for by irrigation and evaporation1 and it seems probable1 therefore1 that the excess disappears by infiltration into these sandstones4 ,little is known of the early history of the oases1 though the remains of ancient towns and cemeteries are abundant1 and only await systematic excavation by ,egyptologists to bring our knowledge of this part of ,egypt into line with that of the ,nile ,valley4 ,that the oases were inhabited in prehistoric times is evident from the occurrence of flint implements of ,palolithic types1 both on the margins of the surrounding plateaux and within the depressions1 though there is not at present sufficient evidence to enable us to affirm that the makers and users of these flints were contemporaneous with ,palolithic man in ,europe4 ,implements of ,neolithic type1 often of finished workmanship1 are1 moreover1 common in places on the floors of the depressions1 but it is probable that these were in use well into the historic period4 ,in historic times the oases1 according to ,sayce1 were governed by ,egyptian ,kings in the eighteenth dynasty 7#aede-acej ,b4,c471 and the oldest monuments as yet found in the oases-depressions date from this period4 ,the most important of the earlier remains belong1 however1 to the ,persian epoch1 notably the temple of ,hibis near the modern village of ,kharga1 which was built by ,darius4 ,ptolemaic remains are also known in ,kharga1 but the greater number of the historical monuments date from the time of ,roman occupation1 when the oases appear to have attained a considerable degree of prosperity1 which continued to ,coptic times4 ,since the ,mohammedan conquest of ,egypt they have fallen into a state of neglect1 and with the consequent diminution of the water-supply the population has decreased1 and large areas of formerly fertile country have been absorbed by the surrounding desert4 ,it is interesting to speculate on the conditions which obtained in ,kharga before the first borings were made1 as at the present day we cannot point1 so far as ,i am aware1 to a single natural efflux of water on the floor of the depression4 ,surface-water1 of quite a different character from the deep-seated water1 is met with at comparatively shallow depths in various localities1 and may either represent drainage water from the flowing wells and cultivated tracts1 or be water which has escaped from the underground sandstones and found its way to the surface through fissures4 ,probably it is derived from both sources4 ,in prehistoric times natural springs fed through fissures may have existed here and there within the depressions2 and in any case it is probable that prehistoric man obtained sufficient supplies by sinking wells into the upper sandstones1 which in some parts of the oasis occur at or near the surface1 and contain large quantities of sub-surface or sub-artesian water4 ,nothing is known as to when flowing wells were first obtained1 or by whom the original deep borings were made1 and no traces of the implements used have been discovered4 ,many of these ancient wells1 frequently over #abj metres in depth1 continue to flow at the present day1 although in most cases with a greatly diminished output2 a few1 however1 are still running day and night at the rate of several hundred gallons a minute4 ,in some parts of the oases water-bearing sandstones occur at or near the surface1 and from these beds the ,romans obtained additional supplies by the excavation of underground collecting tunnels4 ,subterranean works of this description are found in all the oases1 the most remarkable being in ,baharia and at ,um el ,dabdib and ,jebel ,lebekha in ,kharga4 ,they are frequently of great length1 cut throughout in solid rock1 and connected with the surface above by numerous vertical air-shafts4 ,many of the latter measure from #cj to #ej metres in depth1 so that the construction of these and the horizontal carrying channels must have involved an immense amount of labour4 ,in ,roman times water-stations appear to have been maintained at frequent intervals on the desert roads between the oases and the ,nile ,valley1 and a great development of the water-supply took place4 ,after the ,arab invasion1 however1 no attention seems to have been given to irrigation works1 the wells1 owing to silting1 becoming gradually choked up4 ,as the result of this neglect the water-supply diminished to such an extent that a large portion of the population was compelled to emigrate to the ,nile ,valley1 and even the remaining inhabitants were scarce able to raise sufficient supplies for their maintenance4 ,within the last fifty years a considerable number of new wells have been made by means of simple hand-boring appliances sent out by the ,egyptian ,government2 most of the new bores have been very successful1 but latterly1 through want of effective supervision1 a great deal of harm has been done by promiscuous boring4 ,moreover1 a very large amount of water is wasted owing to the wells not being fitted with regulating and closing appliances2 the water1 when not required for irrigation1 continues to run1 finding its way to the low-lying lands1 and forming swamps which furnish ideal breeding-grounds for fever-carrying mosquitoes4 ,within the last year or two this part of ,egypt has received renewed attention2 extensive boring operations and land reclamation works have been commenced1 and the oasis of ,kharga has been brought into railway communication with the rest of ,egypt4 ,the floor-level of the oases varies considerably1 but in general the cultivated lands lie between #cj and #abj metres above sea-level4 ,the exact area under cultivation is only known very approximately1 but it is certain that with an increased water-supply it could be very much augmented4 ,the existing water-supply is totally insufficient to irrigate the available lands1 and such portions of the latter as are tilled are generally left fallow in alternate years1 and in many cases are only under crops once every four or five years4 ,now that an attempt is being made to restore the oases to their former prosperity1 the question of ownership of land has become of the greatest importance1 and it is one bristling with difficulties4 ,as a general rule the wells are owned collectively1 the different proprietors having the right to utilize the flow for periods corresponding to the extent of their holdings in the well4 ,individual shares may amount to as much as one-third or one-half of the well1 or be only the merest fraction2 in the latter case the small holders combine so as to obtain control of the flow for an appreciable period4 ,frequently the whole of the land irrigated by a well is cultivated collectively1 the crop on reaping being divided among the owners in portions corresponding to their shares of the water4 ,the question of ownerships is further complicated by there being persons who own water but no land1 and by others who claim land but own no water4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,early ,,records ,travellers' ,names inscribed on the ,monuments -- ,poncet passes through ,kharga en route for ,ethiopia -- ,browne -- ,cailliaud's ,extensive ,researches -- ,drovetti -- ,sir ,archibald ,edmonstone1 ,bart41 discovers ,dakhla ,oasis -- ,hoskins -- ,exaggerated ,opinions of ,ancients regarding the ,oases -- ,names of ,explorers on the ,walls of ,hibis -- ,rohlfs' ,expedition -- ,zittel's ,geological ,work -- ,the words #8,oasis1' #8,wah1' #8,otu1' and #8,set-ament' -- ,a ,theban ,myth -- ,dr4 ,schweinfurth -- ,brugsch ,bey -- ,captain ,h4 ,g4 ,lyons -- ,government ,survey of the ,oases -- ,dr4 ,john ,ball4 ,inscribed on the walls of the ancient monuments in the oasis one frequently comes across the names of travellers who visited the same scenes fifty1 a hundred1 or even two hundred years ago4 ,many of these explorers wrote descriptions of their travels and experiences1 and such early records are naturally of the greatest interest and importance2 unfortunately they are now out of print and somewhat difficult to procure1 so that ,i make no apology for briefly referring to those which ,i have been able to examine4 ,most of these early records are extremely quaint1 and although they are chiefly descriptive of the personal experiences and impressions of the writers1 in some cases numerous observations are recorded in a sufficiently exact manner to be of permanent scientific value4 ,a ,french physician1 ,monsieur ,poncet1 who passed through ,kharga in #afih1 en route for ,abyssinia1 appears to have been the only traveller who left any written records of the ,great ,oasis between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries4 ,a translation of the account of his travels was published in ,english in #agji 7#8,a ,voyage to thiopia'74 ,accompanied by one ,hagi ,ali1 an officer of the ,abyssinian ,emperor1 and by a ,jesuit missionary1 ,father ,charles ,francis ,xaverius de ,brevedent1 ,poncet set out from the town of ,manfalut in the ,nile ,valley1 and travelled along the ,derb el ,arban1 the well-known caravan route to the south4 ,his description of this portion of the journey is as follows3 8,we set forward on the #b;d of ,october early in the ,morning1 and from that very ,day we enter'd a frightful ,desart4 ,these ,desarts are extremely dangerous1 because the ,sands being moving are rais'd by the least ,wind which darken the ,air1 and falling afterwards in ,clouds1 ,passingers are often buried in them1 or at least lose the ,route1 which they ought to keep40 ,poncet refers to the oasis as #8,helaoue1' but although his caravan rested there four days1 before proceeding to ,dongola1 via ,shebb and ,selma1 he makes no reference to the antiquities2 in fact1 his remarks on this region are extremely meagre4 ,to quote his own words3 8,we ,arriv'd on the #fth of ,october at ,helaoue2 ',tis a pretty large ,borough1 and the last that is under the ,grand ,signior' ,jurisdiction4 ,there is a ,garrison in it of #ejj ,janisaries and #cjj ,spahi's under the ,command of an ,officer whom in that ,country they call ,kachif4 ,helaoue is very pleasant1 and answers fully its ,name1 which signifies a ,country of ,sweetness4 ,here are to be seen a great ,number of ,gardens water'd with ,brooks1 and a ,world of ,palm-trees1 which preserve a continual ,verdure1 ,coloquintida is to be found there1 and all the ,fields are fill'd with ,senna1 which grows upon a ,shrub1 about three ,foot ,high4 ,this ,drug which is so esteem'd in ,europe1 is of no use in the ,country hereabouts4 ,the ,inhabitants of ,helaoue in their ,illnesses1 make only ,use of the ,root of ,ezula1 which for a whole ,night they infuse in ,milk1 and take the day after1 having first ,strain'd it thro' a ,sieve4 ,this ,medicine is very ,violent1 but 'tis what they like and commend very much4 ,the ,ezula is a thick ,tree1 the ,blossom of which is blue2 it grows into a sort of ,ball1 of an ,oval ,figure1 full of ,cotton1 of which the ,people of that ,country make pretty fine ,cloth40 ,referring to the deserts which surround the oases1 ,poncet remarks3 8,those vast ,wildernesses1 where there is neither to be found ,bird1 nor wild ,beast1 nor ,herbs1 no nor so much as a little ,fly1 and where nothing is to be seen but ,mountains of ,sand1 and the ,carcasses1 and ,bones of ,camels1 ,imprint a certain horrour in the ,mind1 which makes this ,voyage very tedious and disagreeable4 ,it wou'd be a hard matter1 to ,cross those frightful ,desarts without the ,assistance of ,camels4 ,these ,animals will continue six or seven ,days1 without either eating or drinking1 which ,i cou'd never have believ'd1 if ,i had not observ'd it very particularly40 ,poncet further relates that he was assured by a venerable old gentleman of his caravan that camels had been known to cover a desert journey of forty days and nights without either food or water4 ,although it is to be feared that the #8ship of the desert' at the present day is scarcely so abstemious as formerly1 we must admit that ,poncet's description of the sterility of the ,libyan ,desert is little1 if at all1 exaggerated4 ,one may1 indeed1 travel for hours without seeing bird1 beast1 or herb2 and even #8the little fly1' which seldom fails to make known its presence for some time after leaving the inhabited districts1 generally forsakes one before the caravan has proceeded far into the depths of the desert4 ,w4 ,g4 ,browne traversed the same route nearly a hundred years later1 passing through the oasis in ,june1 #agic4 ,he relates how he entered the depression at the northern extremity1 at the pass known as ,el ,ramlia1 and camped at ,ain ,diz 7probably in the neighbourhood of the modern ,ain el ,qasr71 eight hours' march from ,kharga4 ,browne passed through the depression from north to south1 visiting ,kharga1 ,bulaq1 ,beris1 and ,maks1 whence he followed the usual route to ,shebb and ,selma4 ,like his predecessor1 he makes no mention of the antiquities4 ,cailliaud1 a young ,french mineralogist1 explored ,kharga in #ahah1 and to him we owe the earliest published detailed descriptions and illustrations of the chief antiquities of the oasis4 ,as the existence of important monuments in the oasis was at that time quite unsuspected1 ,cailliaud's work attracted considerable attention1 and his drawings and descriptions were purchased and published by the ,french ,government and dedicated to the ,king4 ,cailliaud set out from ,esna in the ,nile ,valley and crossed the ,libyan plateau to the village of ,jaja4 ,after visiting the most southerly villages of ,dush and ,beris1 he journeyed northwards to ,kharga1 then1 as now1 the chief village1 whence1 on the completion of his researches1 he returned to ,farshut on the ,nile1 via ,dr el ,ghennma and the ,wadi ,samhd4 ,cailliaud's observations are almost entirely confined to the archology of the oasis1 and his writings yield little information regarding the villages1 wells1 and cultivated lands4 ,the ,chevalier ,drovetti1 ,french ,consul-,general in ,egypt1 visited ,kharga the same year as ,monsieur ,cailliaud4 ,he started from ,benidi1 following the ,derb el ,arban caravan route southwards1 and entered the depression at the northern extremity4 ,drovetti traversed the oasis from north to south1 and proceeded thence to ,dongola4 ,later1 on his return journey1 he crossed the depression in the opposite direction1 eventually returning to the ,nile ,valley by way of the oasis of ,dakhla and the ,derb el ,tawl4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,pass ,,into ,,the ,,oasis4 ,in #ahbj ,cailliaud again passed through ,kharga4 ,he had explored the oasis of ,siwa the previous year1 whence he travelled1 via ,baharia and ,farafra1 to ,dakhla1 and thence past ,ain ,amr to ,kharga village4 ,on this occasion no further researches were undertaken in the depression4 ,sir ,archibald ,edmonstone1 ,bart41 accompanied by two friends1 visited ,dakhla and ,kharga in #ahai1 and constructed a rough but fairly accurate map1 showing the relative position of the two oases1 with their bounding escarpments and principal villages4 ,their situation in the ,libyan ,desert1 with regard to the ,nile ,valley1 is1 however1 greatly in error1 being shown fully a degree too far west and nearly half a degree too far north4 ,edmonstone followed the ,derb el ,tawl route from ,benidi in the ,nile ,valley to the village of ,belat in ,dakhla1 returning by the ,ain ,amr road to ,kharga1 and thence to ,farshut4 ,the major portion of the account of his travels refers to ,dakhla1 of which oasis he must1 indeed1 be regarded as the modern discoverer4 ,hoskins explored ,kharga in #ahce1 and published a most valuable and engaging account of his travels a couple of years later4 ,this work1 entitled #8,visit to the ,great ,oasis of the ,libyan ,desert1' contains a number of illustrations depicting the scenery1 the chief monuments and their hieroglyphics1 etc41 made from original drawings and paper casts4 ,many of the inscriptions are given in full1 both in the original and translated into ,english1 and the work of all previous writers and explorers is carefully summarized4 ,in some cases ,i have verified the accuracy of ,hoskins' drawings by comparing them with photographs taken from the same points1 and have been much struck with the insignificant amount of decay which some of the buildings have undergone during the course of over seventy years4 ,rizagat1 near ,thebes1 was ,hoskins' starting-point1 and he entered the depression by the ,bulaq pass1 crossing the oasis-floor to the eminence known as ,el ,gorn el ,gennh4 ,surveying the oasis from this point of vantage1 ,hoskins remarks that the attractions of the cultivated portions of the depression1 those 8,tufted isles that verdant rise amid the ,libyan waste10 are apt to be exaggerated1 owing to their great contrast to the surrounding deserts4 8,the fair appearance then of this oasis is in a great measure fictitious2 and has chiefly its origin in the relief afforded to the mind1 wearied by the monotony and dreariness of the surrounding wastes4 ,it seems to me therefore1 that the only rational way of accounting for the exaggerated epithets which the ancient writers and some modern travellers have applied to this district1 is to attribute them to their surprise1 at finding in such a fearful region any verdure1 any habitable spot1 and to the exhilarating effect on the spirits of this agreeable contrast to the dreary deserts which they have just crossed4 ,but comfortless as was my journey through the wilderness1 and beautiful as the woods of palm-trees1 doums1 and acacias in the ,oasis certainly are1 still the vivid recollection of the superior loveliness of the banks of the ,nile1 prevents my consenting to call these regions #8the ,gardens of the ,hesperides'2 and sadly must the oasis have diminished in beauty1 if it ever merited the praise which ,herodotus bestowed upon the place1 in calling it #8the ,island of the ,blessed4'0 ,hoskins1 who was accompanied by two other ,englishmen1 made splendid use of the fortnight spent in the oasis1 although unfortunately1 just before the termination of his visit1 he sustained a violent attack of fever4 ,their departure is thus described3 8,after ascending the mountain which bounds the ,oasis1 we lingered some time at the summit1 to take1 ,i may certainly say1 our last view of the place2 for having1 as the ,arabs say1 got all its antiquities on paper1 and having providentially once escaped its pestilential atmosphere1 we shall never1 ,i think1 by any possibility1 have the slightest inclination to revisit such a baneful region40 ,most of these early explorers found time to cut their names on the walls of the temple of ,hibis1 and ,cailliaud must have spent hours in this occupation1 as he has left a long and neatly executed inscription recording himself as the original and genuine discoverer of that noble edifice4 ,the names of these explorers1 who in some cases suffered considerable hardships in visiting the oases1 are1 however1 quite overshadowed by the numberless scrawls made in recent years by a host of otherwise unknown petty officials of the ,government1 who have had to take their turn of duty and banishment in the greatly dreaded desert4 ,the dated names cut in the walls of the temple are of some value1 as an examination of them frequently yields reliable evidence of the rate of weathering of the stone since the time at which they were inscribed4 ,it was not until after the winter of #ahgc-gd1 when the great ,german expedition1 under the leadership of ,rohlfs1 with ,zittel1 ,jordan1 and ,ascherson as geologist1 topographer1 and botanist respectively1 visited all the chief oases of the eastern portion of the ,libyan ,desert1 that any connected scientific observations of importance1 other than those dealing with archology1 were published4 ,the ,rohlfs expedition astronomically determined the positions of selected points in each oasis1 and produced a map on which the principal villages and the approximate limits of the depressions were correctly shown4 ,zittel at the same time worked out the general relations of the different geological formations found in the country1 described their main divisions1 and indicated approximately the areas occupied by them4 ,so thoroughly1 indeed1 did this expedition accomplish its mission that its results have formed a sound basis for all later scientific work in this part of ,egypt4 ,as the voluminous memoirs recording the observations of the members of the ,rohlfs expedition are easily obtainable at the present day1 it is unnecessary here to do more than briefly refer to a few of their more general remarks on the oasis of ,kharga4 ,in his #8,three ,months in the ,libyan ,desert1' ,gerhard ,rohlfs states that he and his companions travelled from ,dakhla ,oasis by the ,ain ,amr road1 and were greeted at ,kharga village by ,schweinfurth1 who was for the time being residing in a disused alum factory4 ,rohlfs spent only two or three days in the neighbourhood of ,kharga1 and remarks that the expedition did not undertake detailed work on the antiquities1 as the latter had already been so competently described by ,hoskins and other previous explorers2 a few corrections and amendments of published accounts of the temple were1 however1 made4 ,the splendid preservation of the ,christian necropolis1 with its mausolea of unburnt brick1 is remarked upon1 and ,rohlfs adds that1 in beauty and ingenious arrangement1 this burial-ground can only be excelled by the necropolis of ,cyrene4 ,rohlfs describes ,kharga village as being pretty from a distance1 but remarks that the narrow dirty alleys are the pictures of laziness and poverty2 the streets are covered in for protection against the rays of the sun1 a common practice throughout the ,sahara4 ,the word #8oasis' is old ,egyptian1 as also is the ,arabic #8wah1' the latter word being also found in ,coptic1 and signifying an inhabited place2 nevertheless1 the word #8wah' was never used by the ancient ,egyptians to designate the oases4 ,these they called #8otu1' which means a place where bodies are embalmed4 #8,otu' has its origin in the ,theban myth1 according to which ,seth1 the murderer of ,osiris1 was pursued by ,horus to ,koptos1 where he was captured and thrown into a dungeon4 ,his corpse was afterwards found by his friends1 and taken to the oases for burial4#a ,the inscriptions on the temple of ,hibis in ,kharga refer to the oases under the comprehensive name #8,set-ament1' the #8,western ,lands4' ,about the same time ,dr4 ,schweinfurth1 whose services to ,egypt in so many branches of science stand pre-eminent1 published important contributions on some of the archological remains4 ,two or three years later ,brugsch ,bey brought out an account of the antiquities of the oasis1 with translations of a number of the inscriptions on the temples of ,nadra and ,hibis4 ,the antiquities will be briefly referred to in my account of the history of the oasis under the ,persians and the ,romans1 and for fuller details the reader is referred to the publications of ,cailliaud1 ,hoskins1 ,schweinfurth1 ,brugsch1 and some still later writers4 ,in #ahic-id ,captain ,h4 ,g4 ,lyons1 ,r4,e41 in the course of a military patrol1 undertaken in order to ascertain the measures necessary to protect the inhabitants of the oasis from possible ,dervish raids1 made valuable geological observations on the ,eocene and ,cretaceous systems1 especially in relation to the connection of folding and water-supply4 ,these he discussed in a paper read before the ,geological ,society of ,london in #ahid1 and it was mainly due to the interest it aroused1 and to his initiative in pointing out to the ,egyptian authorities the importance of having a comprehensive examination of the country carried out1 that the ,geological ,survey of ,egypt was established in #ahif4 ,the detailed survey of the ,libyan ,desert was taken up in ,october1 #ahig1 and completed in ,june of the following year1 the four oases being mapped on the scale of #a to #ej1jjj by plane-table triangulation1 checked and adjusted by numerous astronomical observations4 ,direct measurements by measuring-wheel were also employed to a considerable extent4 ,baharia ,oasis was the first to be taken in hand1 ,mr4 ,leonard ,gorringe and ,i taking the western side1 and my colleagues1 ,messrs4 ,ball and ,vuta1 the eastern4 ,this plan of splitting up an oasis-depression between two surveying parties was not1 however1 found satisfactory1 and on the completion of ,baharia it was decided that ,ball should take up the oasis of ,kharga1 while ,farafra and ,dakhla fell to my lot4 ,the results of this survey are published in the ,memoirs of the ,geological ,survey of ,egypt4 ,during the last three years ,i have been fortunate in having had opportunities of studying in some detail the topography1 geology1 and water-supply of the oasis of ,kharga4 ,this detailed examination has enabled me to revise and amplify pioneer work1 and has1 in certain instances1 forced me to differ from the opinions expressed by my predecessors in the same field1 views which1 in the light of the evidence available at the time1 were doubtless well justified4 ,in the same way may future research necessitate the modification or alteration of the conclusions herein expressed1 and for many years to come the region of the oases will offer a vast field for further scientific work4 ,before concluding this brief account of the literature on the oasis of ,kharga1 ,i should like to take the opportunity of expressing my high appreciation of the energy and purpose of my former colleague1 ,dr4 ,john ,ball1 who1 in spite of the many hardships and difficulties inseparable from scientific work in the ,libyan ,desert1 in such a short time accomplished so much4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,roads ,,leading ,,to ,,the ,,oasis ,lines of ,communication between the ,nile ,valley1 ,kharga1 and ,dakhla ,oasis -- ,principal ,passes out of the ,oasis -- ,ascent to ,plateau with ,caravans -- ,main ,roads to ,assiut1 ,sohag1 ,karnak1 ,esna1 and ,edfu -- ,nature of intervening ,plateau -- ,ghubbri ,road to ,dakhla -- ,the ,upper or ,ain ,amr ,road -- ,the ,railway between the ,nile ,valley and the ,oasis -- ,nature of ,desert ,roads -- ,the ,bedawin ,arabs -- ,cross-,country ,traverses as the ,crow flies -- ,traverse from ,farafra to ,assiut -- ,rate of ,travelling with ,camels4 ,the oasis of ,kharga is in communication with ,dakhla to the west1 and with the ,nile ,valley to the east1 by a number of caravan routes1 the most frequented of which connect directly with the two villages ,kharga and ,beris1 in the north and south of the depression respectively4 ,formerly1 everyone bound for the oasis was compelled to undertake a four or five days' journey along one or other of these routes1 and although nowadays most persons will elect to cross the plateau by train1 a description of the oasis would be incomplete without some reference to the desert roads4#b ,the depression is for the most part bounded by steep and lofty escarpments1 quite inaccessible to camels1 except at a few points where the gradients are less severe1 and the loose blocks of rock and other cliff dbris have been removed4 ,the principal passes up the eastern scarp of the oasis are seven in number1 the most northerly1 known as ,el ,ramlia1 being in the extreme north-east corner of the depression4 ,thirteen kilometres south of this is ,el ,yabsa pass4 ,the next is the ,reff1 at the head of the gully #de kilometres north-east of ,kharga village4 ,a little farther south1 east of the old ,roman fort near the foot of ,jebel ,ghennma1 one of the two prominent outliers of the eastern plateau1 is the pass of ,abu ,sighawl1 and #ce kilometres to the south is the ,nagab ,bulaq1 ,n4,n4,e4 of the village of ,bulaq4 ,in the south end of the oasis there are passes to the north-east of ,jaja1 and ,n4,n4,e4 of ,dush4 ,these seven passes are the main exits from the depression on the east side1 though there are several other little-used routes1 up which lightly laden camels can be taken1 for instance1 near ,jebel ,um el ,ghennaim4 ,the illustration showing the descent to the depression was1 in fact1 taken at one of the latter4 ,although the roads ascend the escarpments at the best available points1 in some cases taking advantage of the easier gradients of the extensive cake-like masses of calcareous tufa1 which in places have been deposited over the face of the original cliffs1 their ascent with heavily laden camels may at times become somewhat of an undertaking4 ,the paths are frequently rough1 and the difference in height between the foot of the scarp and the plateau is usually between #bjj and #cjj metres4 ,the pack-saddles should always be carefully adjusted and secured by ropes passing round the base of the neck or below the butt of the tail1 according to whether the caravan is making the ascent or descent2 otherwise the loads are likely to slip off1 and the restricted limits of a steep path1 in the middle of a train of camels1 is not an ideal place for their readjustment4 ,in hot weather the ascent to the plateau1 though perhaps occupying only one or one and a half hours1 will take as much out of the pack-animals as a whole day's march4 ,i experienced no little trouble on one occasion when returning to the valley after some months' survey work in ,dakhla ,oasis4 ,after halting one day at ,kharga village1 we proceeded on our way to ,esna by the ,bulaq pass4 ,it was hot weather1 towards the end of ,may1 and the ascent of the pass tired our camels1 naturally not in the pink of condition1 to such an extent that ,gorringe and ,i had some difficulty in getting them across the plateau to the valley4 ,in summer-time it is always advisable to negotiate this part of the journey in the early morning or late in the evening1 unless the heavier portion of the baggage can be sent in advance to the top of the scarp1 and the animals taken back and watered at the nearest well4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,caravan ,,routes ,,to ,,the ,,oasis ,,of ,,kharga ,the main roads from the oasis run to ,assiut1 ,kawmil near ,sohag1 ,waled ,hallaf near ,girga1 ,karnak near ,farshut1 and to ,rizagat1 ,esna1 and ,edfu1 and their disposition may be seen on the accompanying plan4 ,the ,assiut road1 after leaving ,kharga village1 passes the hamlet of ,meheriq and follows the line of wells to ,ain el ,ghazl1 which is the last place at which water-skins and tanks can be filled4 ,from ,ain el ,ghazl the most direct route ascends to the plateau by the ,ramlia pass in the extreme corner of the depression1 but the ,yabsa exit is recommended as easier and very little longer4 ,after crossing a tract of country with an abominably rough surface1 the two tracks unite a few kilometres north of the depression1 and about a day's march farther on the ,zarbi road takes off on the right4 ,the main road proceeds direct to ,assiut1 descending the scarp about #h kilometres before the town is reached1 a by-path to the little village of ,dronka having branched off beforehand4 ,from the summit of ,el ,yabsa a separate road proceeds direct to ,el ,ghennaim1 a village on the edge of the desert to the north-west of ,tahta4 ,by these roads the distances from ,kharga village to ,assiut1 ,zarbi1 and ,el ,ghennaim1 are #baj1 #bjj1 and #ahj kilometres respectively4 ,el ,reff1 the pass by which the ,sohag 7,kawmil7 road leaves the depression1 is situated at the head of a gully1 and offers an easy ascent to the plateau4 ,a few kilometres beyond1 the road passes to the north of ,el ,shugera1 a prominent detached block perched on end at the foot of the southern slope of a small limestone range4 ,the road runs in a fairly steady direction #dj degrees north of east1 striking the ,nile ,valley scarp #ae kilometres before ,kawmil1 on the edge of the cultivated lands1 is reached4 ,about #cc kilometres before reaching the scarp a branch takes off and runs nearly due north to ,guhna1 south of ,tahta2 this branch is1 in fact1 usually referred to as the ,tahta road4 ,if the traveller1 after leaving the ,reff pass1 keeps to the south of ,el ,shugera1 he will find a branch road leading to ,el ,tundaba1 a deep shaft in the centre of the plateau1 at kilometre ,no4 #ib on the railway2 a little farther east this track strikes the main road from the ,abu ,sighawl pass4 ,the shaft is sunk through a thick deposit of silt1 which has filled a local depression in the plateau to some depth4 ,the silt must be regarded as rain-wash from the surrounding country1 possibly deposited in the time of prehistoric man4 ,flint implements are to be found scattered about1 and from the presence of pottery and graves it would seem that the place had been inhabited in comparatively modern times4 ,the pit was evidently sunk for water1 although at the present time it is quite dry2 given1 however1 a heavy thunderstorm within the catchment-basin1 drainage-water would in all probability find its way to the bottom of the deposit1 where it would be held up by the limestone1 and might form a supply lasting possibly for many years4 ,the road leaving the depression by the ,abu ,sighawl pass1 and leading to villages in the neighbourhood of ,girga and ,farshut1 is reckoned the best and shortest route between ,kharga and the ,nile ,valley1 and1 by making a very short dtour1 caravans have the advantage of being able to water at the old ,roman fort at the base of ,jebel ,ghennma1 #bg kilometres after leaving the village4 ,the ascent of the pass was formerly very rough going1 but a good road with an easy gradient has recently been cut for the transport of heavy boring machinery into the oasis4 ,from the top of the ,abu ,sighawl pass a well-marked track crosses to ,el ,reff and connects with the ,sohag road1 and care has to be taken by travellers for ,waled ,hallaf1 ,el ,elwania and ,karnak not to make the initial mistake of getting on to this track4 ,for the first few kilometres the main road from ,abu ,sighawl runs very straight over a level plain1 on which fossil sea-urchins are so abundant as to attract the attention of the most casual observer2 it then ascends a low escarpment1 the ,nagab el ,jellab4 ,the somewhat rough limestone country beyond is known as the ,mishbit1 and then ,el ,botkh1 with its countless millions of spherical chert concretions1 is crossed4 ,beyond ,el ,botkh the road passes an isolated limestone hill called ,el ,mograbi1 where tradition has it that a ,mograbi ,arab from the west and his stolen oasis bride were overtaken and decapitated by the ,kharga people4 ,a little farther to the east there is a bifurcation1 but the branches soon rejoin1 and after passing ,el ,masad the plain is fairly level1 though covered with very angular blocks of crystalline limestone and cherty concretions4 ,farther on are the rocks of ,el ,buraig1 where large quantities of broken pottery indicate the site of one of the many water-stations maintained by the ,romans along this road4 ,garat el ,melh is so called from the occurrence of salt in the limestones of this locality4 ,a few kilometres to the east of ,garat el ,melh the road passes ,el ,suga1 an artificial heap of stones to which every self-respecting ,bedawi is careful to contribute2 and a couple of hours beyond1 a fairly conspicuous limestone hill1 called ,garat ,radwan1 is reached4 ,shortly after passing ,garat ,radwan the most prominent landmarks met with on this road1 in the form of two solitary crescent-shape sand-dunes1 loom into sight2 these are called ,el ,ghart by the ,arabs and are distant #ee kilometres from ,abu ,sighawl4 ,they form part of a belt of single isolated dunes which crosses this part of the desert in a ,n4,n4,w4 and ,s4,s4,e4 direction4 ,the same line of dunes is passed by the railway at kilometre ,no4 #ajj1 and ,i have observed its continuation still farther north on the ,sohag road1 at a point #de kilometres from the ,reff pass4 ,these dunes mark the entrance to an area of very rough hummocky crystalline limestone known as ,el ,zizagat1 through which the track is not easily followed4 ,on emerging from ,el ,zizagat the road bears slightly to the north1 and is here only a few kilometres south of ,el ,tundaba4 ,at this point it bifurcates1 the northern branch proceeding direct to ,waled ,hallaf near ,girga1 the southern continuing over the easy level plains of ,el ,ishab to the rocks of ,el ,baglli1 and thence past those of ,dilail el ,kelb to the twin hillocks of ,dubya4 ,beyond ,el ,dubya the road crosses the shallow drainage-line of ,rod el ,ghanam1 near the head of the ,wadi ,samhd1 down which it passes1 and thence over the ,nile ,valley plains past ,el ,hamera and ,hagar ,hawara to ,karnak and ,farshut4 ,it should be mentioned that at ,rod el ,ghanam1 shortly before reaching the head of the ,wadi ,samhd1 a branch road takes off on the left-hand side and descends by a separate pass to ,el ,elwania2 and here again care has to be exercised to avoid taking the wrong branch1 as the tracks cover a broad area1 and the actual junction may be easily missed4 ,the ,kharga-,waled ,hallaf road1 via the ,abu ,sighawl pass1 is the shortest route from the oasis to the ,nile ,valley1 the distance being only #afj kilometres2 that to ,karnak1 by the ,wadi ,samhd1 is somewhat longer1 being approximately #agd kilometres4 ,the next pass of importance to the south lies east of the village of ,bulaq1 whence it takes its name4 ,from the summit a road runs nearly due east1 meeting a second1 starting from ,beris and gaining the plateau by the ,jaja pass1 after one and a half days' march4 ,from the cross-roads1 #8,el ,mafriq1' routes run direct to ,farshut and ,rizagat4 ,from ,beris to ,farshut1 by the ,jaja pass1 the distance is approximately #bbd kilometres2 from ,kharga1 by the ,bulaq pass1 the roads to ,farshut and ,rizagat measure about #bjc and #aih kilometres respectively4 ,another road from ,beris leaves the depression by a pass to the east of the village of ,dush2 this bifurcates about two days' march from the latter1 the left-hand track leading to ,esna1 the right to ,edfu4 ,other roads lead from the south end of the oasis1 via ,nakhail1 to ,kurkur and ,dungun1 while the ,derb el ,arban runs southwards to ,selma and thence on to the ,sudan4 ,the road between the oasis and ,assiut is best known as being the last and worst portion of the ,derb el ,arban1 or forty days' road1 which1 starting from ,darfur1 was originally one of the main lines of communication between ,egypt and the ,sudan4 ,it was along this desert route that great numbers of slaves and large quantities of merchandise1 such as ivory1 gum1 and other products of the ,sudan1 were imported into ,egypt from the south4 ,after passing the last spring in the oasis1 caravans had still a little over #bjj kilometres to cover before reaching the ,nile ,valley1 with a steep ascent to the plateau at the outset1 and thence for a considerable distance over the very worst surface imaginable--loose sand full of sharp angular blocks and fragments of flint and cherty limestone4 ,little wonder that1 overladen and fatigued by the long distance already covered1 the camels died in great numbers on this last stretch of road4 ,along most desert routes the dried bones of camels are of fairly frequent occurrence1 but on the ,derb el ,arban1 between ,kharga and ,assiut1 the skeletons of these poor beasts are met with in groups of tens and twenties1 and must number hundreds and thousands4 ,in many instances the skeleton still lies undisturbed1 in the position assumed by the luckless animal in its death agony1 the long neck curved back by muscular contraction so that the skull lies in contact with the spine4 ,when one sees these remains1 half buried in the sand1 the bones bleached snow-white by a pitiless sun1 with still adhering fragments of skin and muscle dried hard as adamant1 one cannot but feel pity for those patient #8ships of the desert1' wrecked almost within sight of port4 ,cailliaud1 in #ahag1 observed the arrival at ,assiut of a large caravan from ,darfur1 consisting of #af1jjj individuals4 ,it included #f1jjj slaves--men1 women1 and children4 ,he remarks3 8,they had been two months travelling in the deserts1 in the most intense heat of the year2 meagre1 exhausted1 and the aspect of death on their countenances1 the spectacle strongly excited compassion40 ,the actual width of the plateau varies from #abj kilometres between ,abu ,sighawl and the scarp above ,waled ,hallaf1 to #bjj kilometres between ,beris and ,esna4 ,the maximum elevation above sea-level is about #eej metres on the latitude of ,esna1 and on the whole the plateau has a fairly general slope to the north4 ,as already mentioned1 several distinct types of country1 depending on the nature of the rocks constituting the surface strata1 are met with4 ,smooth1 hard1 level plains1 formed of a superficial layer of weathered limestone covered by a brown veneer of insoluble flint and cherty fragments1 alternate with bare rugged rock desert of hummocky limestone4 ,the sombre level or gently undulating flint-covered plains1 frequently spoken of as #8serir' by the ,arabs1 have ideal surfaces for travelling2 the light-coloured hummocky country1 often called #8kharafish1' is in its most developed form made up of innumerable elongated hillocks1 every portion of the exposed rock-surfaces being deeply scored2 the furrows are separated by upstanding edges1 often so sharp and knife-like as to be capable of injuring the feet of man and beast4 ,the hillocks are separated by deep troughs half buried in drift-sand1 all lying parallel1 in the direction of the prevailing winds1 so that progress in a latitudinal direction through this type of desert is a slow and tedious undertaking4 ,both types of country are equally desolate and barren1 scrub of any description being of the rarest occurrence1 except after local thunderstorms4 ,another type of country1 to which we have already briefly alluded1 is the curious desert-surface called ,el ,botkh 7the water-melons71 which results from the weathering of certain bands of the ,lower ,eocene formation containing numbers of large globular concretions2 these1 it may be mentioned1 often lie so thickly strewn on the surface as to actually obstruct the passing caravan4 ,kharga is connected with the oasis of ,dakhla to the west by two roads1 the lower and more southerly1 known as the ,derb el ,ghubbri1 being the one most frequently used4 ,this road1 by taking a wide sweep to the south1 avoids the intervening plateau altogether1 so that the fatiguing ascent and descent are avoided4 ,after leaving ,kharga village the route leads past a group of wells1 known as ,ain ,khenfish1 distant some #f kilometres2 thence it lies over wide-stretching plains of sandstone1 leading up to the more broken country formed by the foot-hills of the towering plateau1 which is always plainly visible on the north side of the road4 ,the distance to ,tenda1 the most easterly of the ,dakhla villages1 is #adc kilometres by the ,derb el ,ghubbri4 ,the alternative route by way of ,ain ,amr is appreciably shorter1 though1 owing to the extra time involved in negotiating the steep passes to and from the plateau1 there is little saving in time when travelling with a heavily-laden caravan4 ,compared with the lower road1 however1 this route is much more interesting and picturesque1 and the presence of water at ,ain ,amr1 about half-way between the two oases1 is a distinct advantage4 ,the road from ,kharga village lies over a broad plain1 whose only features are occasional conical hills of dark ferruginous sandstone4 ,it follows a ,w4,n4,w4 direction1 heading for the great indentation to the west of the ,jebel ,tarif range4 ,after getting well into the recess1 but when still some #ae kilometres from its head1 the road turns abruptly to the south1 and winds its way up an escarpment littered with huge blocks of tufaceous limestone4 ,perched near the summit of the cliffs stands the solitary palm which marks the site of the water-hole1 in the immediate neighbourhood of which grows a fair amount of prickly scrub4 ,the remains of mud-brick buildings and a stone temple show that this place was formerly inhabited1 and of some importance4 ,the ascent to the plateau from ,ain ,amr needs care with laden camels4 ,the road proceeds up a narrow defile1 the actual track being very rough1 and so confined that in places the packs are liable to be dragged off by the rocks on either side4 ,once on the plateau the going becomes first rate1 the freedom of the surface from blown sand being very noticeable4 ,this is due to the isolation of this portion of the plateau-massif1 which is cut off from the main mass to the north by the deep recess1 and is bounded by a low-lying plain to the south4 ,after a distance of #cc kilometres has been traversed the road descends into a narrow valley opening on to the low country to the south1 and proceeds in a westerly direction to ,tenda4 ,the distance from ,kharga to ,tenda by this route is #abh kilometres4 ,it is possible on leaving ,ain ,amr to cross to the top of the indentation1 and thence to proceed across the plateau almost due west1 striking the road from ,assiut1 known as the ,derb el ,tawl1 at the top of the pass #be kilometres from the village of ,belat4 ,there is1 however1 no track1 and the surface is covered with parallel north and south ridges of rock1 the crossing of which is extremely wearisome4 ,both near the head of the ,ain ,amr recess and in the extreme north-west corner of the oasis very old tracks trending in westerly and northwesterly directions are observable1 and although unused at the present day1 these may mark the positions of formerly frequented routes leading to the oasis of ,farafra4 ,at the present time that oasis is not in direct communication with ,kharga1 the routes used being from ,manfalut in the ,nile ,valley1 from ,qasr ,dakhl in the oasis of ,dakhla1 and from ,ain el ,hais in ,baharia4 ,before leaving the subject of roads we must briefly refer to the route taken by the railway4 ,the line1 which has a gauge of #ge centimetres1 was built by the ,corporation of ,western ,egypt1 ,limited1 to develop their concessions in the oasis4 ,it commences at ,mouaslet el ,kharga1 a new station on the ,egyptian ,state ,railway near ,farshut1 and crosses to the border of the desert1 a few kilometres distant1 by way of one of the embankments separating two of the great irrigation basins of ,upper ,egypt4 ,at the edge of the desert is the station of ,el ,qara1 the point of departure for the oasis4 ,after skirting the margin of the ,nile ,valley cultivation for a short distance it heads straight for the ,wadi ,samhd1 by means of which the plateau is gained without encountering any very heavy gradients4 ,from the top of the ,wadi ,samhd the line follows the ,abu ,sighawl road for about #dj kilometres1 after which it diverges a few degrees and proceeds to ,el ,tundaba1 the shaft already described1 #ib kilometres from ,mouaslet el ,kharga4 ,from ,el ,tundaba the railway follows more or less closely the cross-track1 sometimes called the ,derb el ,reff1 which joins the ,sohag road at ,el ,shugera1 and1 entering the depression by the ,reff pass1 follows down the gully1 and thence across the plain to the station of ,meheriq4 ,from ,meheriq it proceeds nearly due south to the ,corporation's headquarters1 and thence on to its present terminus a few kilometres from ,kharga village4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,railway ,,descending ,,into ,,the ,,oasis4 ,my friend ,ball lays great stress on the tortuous nature of the roads between the oasis and the valley1 and recommends the scientific traveller to steer an independent course4 ,but after traversing the majority of the main caravan roads1 and with a fairly intimate knowledge of the characters of the intervening areas1 ,i must say that1 in my opinion1 it would be difficult to better them4 ,these roads were not laid out yesterday1 but result from the accumulated experience of centuries4 ,the original tracks may have been tortuous enough1 but they have become straightened out by the cutting off of corners here and there1 until at the present day the roads fulfil the three most important objects in view--the ascent and descent to and from the plateau at the points offering the easiest gradients1 and the crossing of the plateau itself as directly as possible over the smoothest and most level ground available4 ,the roads give a wide berth to the outcrops of rough limestone1 and anyone who has done much cross-country travelling in the ,libyan ,desert will appreciate their doing so4 ,nor can ,i concur with the same author in his opinion that the ,bedawin of this side of the ,nile have a poor knowledge of their beloved desert4 ,it is certainly true that the ,arab does1 for very good reasons1 prefer to travel on the beaten tracks rather than undertake exploratory missions as the crow flies1 his main object being to get to his destination as rapidly and easily as possible4 ,if by chance1 however1 rain should fall on any portion of the desert1 the ,arab will very shortly be found there1 taking full advantage of what ,allah has provided in the way of free grazing for his herds4 ,my own experience has been that the ,arabs have among them a fair proportion of men with an extensive knowledge of the western desert1 and ,i have frequently been struck by their wonderful knowledge of the roads and the facility with which many of them can follow the tracks on the blackest of nights1 as even in broad daylight the landmarks which a ,european could recognize on second acquaintance are few and far between4 ,the average ,bedawi cannot be said to have exceptionally long sight1 but he is frequently possessed of a wonderful sense of direction4 ,travellers in the ,egyptian deserts are apt to underrate the intelligence of the ,bedawin1 owing to the fact that they unconsciously form their impressions from the miserable specimens of humanity so frequently sent out by the actual owners of the camels to act as drivers and attendants to a hired caravan4 ,in such caravans there is seldom more than one man who knows the particular roads to be followed2 the rest are wretched underfed creatures1 generally half-breeds1 who for a mere pittance tramp day after day1 uncomplainingly and shoeless1 alongside the caravan4 ,they are much to be pitied1 and it would be as unreasonable to expect them to have any special knowledge of the desert as it would be to look for information regarding1 say1 the mountains of ,wales among the poorer classes of a ,welsh town4 ,i do not wish to minimize the value of cross-country traverses carried out with special scientific objects2 they are1 indeed1 often necessary for topographical and geological purposes4 ,i would1 however1 warn the enthusiastic tyro that1 in the ,libyan ,desert1 travelling as the crow flies is not always so simple and glorious an affair as it may seem when planning expeditions from a comfortable arm-chair2 and if his object is to get a short cut he will probably have reason to bitterly regret the moment he left the beaten track4 ,i have in mind more than one instance where mistakes of this kind have been made1 mistakes which might easily have led to disastrous consequences4 ,in long cross-country traverses an error in steering of only two or three degrees will in a few marches throw a caravan many kilometres out of its course1 and guiding camels over rough country by compass is by no means an easy undertaking4 ,moreover1 easily distinguishable landmarks are rare1 and the desert plains over wide areas maintain remarkably persistent characteristics4 ,quite recently ,i recollect an ,englishman1 whose ,arab attendant had become suddenly incapacitated by an attack of fever or sunstroke1 getting hopelessly astray between the edge of the plateau overlooking the oasis and rail-head1 which was then only #bj or #cj kilometres distant1 in consequence of his missing the bifurcation of the road at ,el ,shugera1 and proceeding1 owing to this mistake1 along the route leading to ,sohag4 ,along the caravan roads the sharp fragments of rock have been stamped underground or kicked to one side1 but elsewhere they usually litter the surface1 and are very trying to camels1 whose pads1 though soft and yielding1 are easily worn by much travelling over rough country4 ,this has more than once been painfully impressed upon me by the antics of my own riding camel1 whose mode of progression at such times resembled more the dance of a fanatic on red-hot coals than the ordinary gait of a well-bred #8hegn4' ,over some areas1 however1 one can travel in a straight line without let or hindrance1 and in such cases it is only necessary to lay out the course correctly in the first instance1 and to have the courage of one's opinion to stick to that course until the destination is reached4 ,one must not heed the remonstrances of the less sporting members of the expedition1 who will lose no opportunity of predicting disaster1 and in this respect the new chum fresh out from home is generally the greatest offender4 ,one of the longest cross-country traverses ,i myself have undertaken in the ,libyan ,desert was from ,farafra ,oasis to ,assiut4 ,the only road between that oasis and the ,nile ,valley strikes the latter near ,el ,qusya1 midway between the towns ,manfalut and ,derut1 so that travellers who wish to make ,assiut have an additional day's march southwards alongside the margin of the cultivated lands4 ,on gaining the summit of the pass above ,bir ,murr1 on the east side of the ,farafra depression1 ,i abandoned the road and set a course direct for ,assiut1 steering and plotting my route by compass and plane-table1 the distance being reckoned by measuring-wheel4 ,the most satisfactory method of procedure on desert traverses is to lay out a line1 representing the correct bearing of the destination1 along the centre of the longer axis of the plane-table1 and then to steer to any well-marked object lying on either side1 but within reasonable distance1 of the proper course4 ,at every station the exact position reached is plotted1 and steps are taken1 when selecting the next point on which to march1 to converge towards the correct course marked down the centre of the table4 ,on this particular traverse ,i was unaccompanied by ,europeans or ,bedawin1 my camel drivers being fellahin from the ,nile ,valley4 ,the surface proved excellent going1 and the ,abu ,mohariq belt of dunes1 #aij kilometres from ,qasr ,farafra1 was crossed without trouble4 ,eight days after leaving ,farafra village we struck the escarpment of the ,nile ,valley1 having covered nearly #cjj kilometres1 and found we were marching on a point only very little to one side of the town of ,assiut4 ,from this traverse it was possible to calculate the longitude of ,farafra with fair accuracy4 ,the normal rate of travelling of camels carrying ordinary loads weighing from three to four hundred-weight is #d kilometres1 or about #b miles1 an hour1 ten hours being the usual day's march of caravans when accompanied by ,europeans4 ,the native caravans1 carrying dates and other heavy merchandise1 usually traverse the plateau in three days and nights1 doing stages of #fj to #gj kilometres at a stretch4 ,by travelling very light with trotting camels ,i have1 on more than one occasion1 crossed from the oasis to the valley in between thirty and thirty-five hours1 doing from #ahj to #aij kilometres in two stages of about twelve hours each1 with one stop only of nine or ten hours4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,topography ,,and ,,geology ,dimensions of the ,oasis-,depression -- ,jebel ,tr1 ,jebel ,tarif1 and other ,hills within the ,depression -- ,aspect of the ,oasis from the surrounding ,escarpments -- ,geological ,sequence -- ,nature and ,thickness of the ,strata -- ,geological ,history of the ,oasis -- ,formation of the ,depression -- ,difference of ,level of ,strata on either side of the ,depression -- ,the ,great ,longitudinal ,flexure -- ,height of the ,floor compared with ,sea-,level -- ,altitudes4 ,kharga1 the eastern of the two southern oases1 is a depression lying with its longer axis north and south1 mostly bounded by steep and lofty escarpments1 but open to the south and south-west1 on which sides the country rises gradually from the floor of the oasis4 ,the extreme length of the depression1 from the northern wall to ,jebel ,abu ,bayan1 which for convenience may be regarded as the southern limit of the oasis proper1 is #ahe kilometres1 or #aae miles4 ,the general trend of the eastern escarpment is nearly due north and south1 but that on the west is very irregular1 while to the south and south-west there is no definite boundary4 ,the breadth of the depression may therefore be said to vary from #bj to #hj kilometres4 ,the ranges of ,jebel ,tr and ,jebel ,tarif form isolated hill-massifs in the centre of the northern part of the depression1 while ,jebel ,ghennma and ,jebel ,um el ,ghennaim are conspicuous outliers of the plateau on the east side4 ,with the exception of these1 the floor is destitute of anything beyond comparatively insignificant eminences1 unless we include the small range of hills known as the ,gorn el ,gennh1 to the south-east of the village of ,gennh1 which is noticeable more on account of its sharply-defined peaks than of its general elevation above the surrounding country4 ,referring to the two conspicuous peaks1 ,ghennma and ,um el ,ghennaim--,jimmy and ,jemima1 as ,i have heard them dubbed--reminds me that on the ,survey and on some of the older maps the names are reversed4 ,i have questioned a number of natives regarding the names of these hills1 and have invariably been informed that ,ghennma is the more northerly of the two4 ,the villages1 wells1 and cultivated lands lie within a north and south band1 occupying the lowest portion of the floor1 and following the general trend of the depression4 ,they are1 however1 broken up by a broad area of barren desert into two distinct north and south groups1 of which ,kharga and ,beris villages are the chief centres respectively4 ,a description of these is reserved for a later chapter4 ,when a traveller1 after crossing the broad monotonous plateau1 at length reaches the scarp or wall of the oasis1 and sees spread out before him a vast depression1 stretching in some directions as far as the eye can reach1 in others to the opposite bounding walls dimly discernible on the far horizon1 he can hardly refrain from speculating as to the causes which have given rise to such huge hollows in the plateau4 ,when he descends to the cultivated portions of the floor of the depression1 and sees those numerous bubbling springs1 which alone make life possible in the midst of this otherwise deadly wilderness1 his second inquiry is as to whence comes such abundance of water in one of the most arid regions in the world4 ,these questions are worth asking1 and1 so far as the present state of our knowledge permits1 it will be my endeavour to answer them4 ,i propose1 therefore1 to briefly place on record such information and data as ,i have been able to gain1 but as both topography and water-supply are intimately connected with the geology of the district1 it will be necessary at the outset to devote a few pages to a consideration of the latter4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,christian ,,necropolis ,,and ,,jebel ,,ter4 ,the geological deposits found in the oasis of ,kharga are tabulated on the following page1 commencing with those most recently formed4 ,the succession1 as shown in the table1 is that which obtains in the northern part of the depression1 but as far as is known the same stages occur throughout the oasis1 and do not vary either in thickness or in lithological characters to any great extent4 ,over large areas the lower-lying parts of the oasis-floor are formed of those beds which we have designated the ,surface-water ,sandstone1 though in ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,thickness ,geological ,system4 ,stage4 in ,metres4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,sand-,dunes ,,recent ,,and ,spring ,deposits 7modern7 ,very ,,pleistocene ,lacustrine ,sands and ,clays variable ,calcareous ,tufa ,,lower ,lower ,libyan ,plateau ,limestone #aae ,,eocene ,passage ,beds ,esna ,shales and ,marls #ee ,white ,chalk #gj ,danian ,ash-grey ,shales ,exogyra ,beds #cj ,,upper ,,cretaceous ,phosphate ,beds #gj ,campanian ,purple ,shales #ej 7,nubian ,surface-water ,sandstone #de ,series7 ,impermeable ,grey ,shales #ge ,artesian-water ,sandstone #abj --------- ,total #fcj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- places the still older underlying grey shales are exposed4 ,the purple or red shales generally form the rising ground towards the escarpments1 at the base of which are usually found the phosphatic beds1 with hard1 pronounced bands made up of fish-remains and phosphatic nodules4 ,above come the ,exogyra ,beds1 with thick bands of limestone almost entirely composed of large oyster-shells4 ,rising up above these is the generally well-marked cliff of grey shales1 capped by a snow-white chalk of much the same age geologically as the well-known chalk of the ,south of ,england4 ,the summit of the chalk frequently forms a separate plateau1 subsidiary to the high desert tableland1 and separated from it by the cliffs formed of the massive ,eocene limestones4 ,the total thickness of the exposed strata is about #dce metres1 a figure obtained by actual measurement4 ,numerous borings show the thickness of the unexposed underlying ,impermeable ,grey ,shales to be #ge metres1 and the deepest borings yet made have pierced the still lower ,artesian-water ,sandstone to a depth of #abj metres1 making a grand total of known deposits of #fcj metres1 or #b1jfg feet4 ,the depth to which the water-bearing sandstone extends is at present a matter of speculation2 the point is of great importance in connection with the water-supply1 though up to the present no borings of sufficient depth have been made to determine its thickness1 nature1 and relation to the underlying igneous rocks4 ,with the exception of a few isolated bosses of eruptive rock in the desert to the south of the oasis--indications of the granitic foundation which probably underlies the entire area--the geological deposits of the oasis-depression1 and of the surrounding escarpments and plateaux1 are entirely of sedimentary origin1 that is to say1 they were laid down on the shores and beds of pre-existing seas and inland lakes4 ,the sand-dunes are1 of course1 an exception1 having been deposited by the wind on the surface of the land4 ,although1 geologically speaking1 the oldest group of sediments with which we have to deal belongs to the later chapters of the earth's history1 many hundreds of thousands of years have elapsed since the sandstones and shales1 now forming and underlying the floor of the oasis1 were accumulated on the bed of a vast inland lake4 ,this sheet of comparatively fresh water was then invaded by the sea1 which held sway in the region while the whole of the series of sediments1 now exposed in the cliffs of the oasis and some #cej metres in thickness1 were being laid down4 ,in ,middle ,eocene times the sea commenced to retreat to the north1 and the area under description became dry land with a continually receding shore-line4 ,since that time the forces of denudation have constantly been at work lowering the general surface of the plateau and excavating those depressions in which alone at the present day man is able to exist4 ,the ,egyptian oases are deep and extensive depressions or hollows cut down nearly to sea-level through the generally horizontal rocks forming the ,libyan ,desert plateaux1 and appear to owe their origin in great measure to the differential effects of subarial denudation acting on rock-masses of varying hardness and composition4 ,the surface-features or configuration of almost any land which has long been exposed to the powerful forces of erosion are more or less intimately dependent on the structure and lithological characters of the underlying rocks4 ,on relative hardness1 more than on anything else perhaps1 depend the ultimate positions of mountains1 hills1 and plateaux on the one hand1 of valleys1 plains1 and depressions on the other4 ,variation in the original conditions of deposition1 at the time when the rocks now forming the ,libyan ,desert were laid down on the floor of the sea1 has resulted in a preponderant development in some areas of soft clayey or sandy rocks 7as compared with the hard limestones71 and subsequent earth-movements have raised these beds more in some districts than in others4 ,the result has been that wherever1 during the gradual denudation to which the country since its elevation has been subjected1 these soft deposits have become exposed on the surface1 weathering has proceeded at a greatly increased rate1 and eventually produced deep and broad depressions separated by high limestone tablelands4 ,illustration3 ,,sketch ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,geology ,,and ,,the ,,ancient ,,lakes ,,of ,,the ,,oasis ,,of ,,kharga ,but for the presence of comparatively soft formations such as the ,esna ,shales1 the ,exogyra ,beds1 and the ,nubian ,sandstone1 coupled with the facts that they have an unequal development in different areas1 and occur at a greater elevation in some localities than in others1 the great depressions of the ,libyan ,desert would not have come into existence1 or at any rate would have been of comparatively little importance in the configuration of the country4 ,the oases are true depressions1 completely or partially surrounded by high escarpments4 ,the oasis of ,baharia1 for instance1 is on all sides hemmed in by cliffs2 on the other hand1 ,dakhla and ,kharga are open to the south1 but as the ground in that direction rises considerably1 they1 too1 cannot be regarded as other than true depressions4 ,we have no definite grounds for considering that the erosion of these depressions can have been the work of previously existing rivers1 and there is no evidence to warrant us in assuming them to have been formed by local subsidence of portions of the earth's crust4 ,what1 then1 were the agents of denudation and transportation which operated in the formation of these great depressions8 ,under the existing arid conditions the surface rocks1 unprotected by vegetation1 are rapidly disintegrated or weathered as the result of the great diurnal variations of temperature to which they are subjected 7insolation74 ,the weathered material1 however1 does not accumulate and form a protective soil-cap1 but is carried away by the wind 7deflation71 the heavier siliceous grains effecting an immense amount of abrasion of the exposed rock-surfaces over which they are swept4 ,changes of temperature1 sand1 and wind are1 indeed1 the chief agents of erosion and transportation at the present day1 and1 given a sufficiency of time and a continuance of favourable conditions1 we can confidently admit the combination to be capable of effecting a vast amount of earth-sculpture4 ,but the formation1 in this way1 of huge hollows #cjj to #djj metres deep1 and the removal of material amounting to hundreds of cubic kilometres1 would necessitate the assumption that the present rigorous desert conditions have obtained for a very considerable period4 ,taking all the available evidence of which we are cognizant into consideration1 we do not feel justified in assuming this to have been the case1 especially when we recollect the frequent presence on the escarpments of thick deposits of calcareous tufa1 which it is evident must have been laid down after the depression had been carved out to a considerable depth4 ,these tufas are almost certainly of ,pleistocene age1 though whether they date from the early or late part of that period has not been determined4 ,in some localities they occur as thick1 horizontally-stratified beds1 and were evidently deposited on the bottoms of lakes2 in other places they appear as fan-like cakes spread over the face of the cliff1 and may have been formed by springs situated near the summits of the escarpments4 ,the tufas frequently contain large numbers of fresh-water shells and an abundance of fossil vegetation1 and1 from the presence of casts of the leaves of such trees as the oak1 one is led to refer the deposit to the more humid period which preceded the incoming of the modern desert conditions4 ,although the evidence met with in the field is altogether against the idea that portions of the plateau have been bodily let down by subsidence1 there are good reasons for believing that tectonic movements have played an important part in deciding the general shape of the oases-depressions4 ,for instance1 there is considerable parallelism between the general trend of the ,baharia depression and the folds which pass through that region4 ,as a result of those folds1 it is not improbable that the hard limestone beds were to some extent broken up1 and the soft underlying clays and sandstones raised as compared with their position on either side of the folded belt4 ,in ,kharga1 similarly1 the main axis of the depression is1 as we shall show1 distinctly parallel to the great north and south line of flexure1 and there is little doubt that a close connection exists between the two4 ,on the other hand1 ,i know of no folding in the case of ,farafra1 which appears to owe its existence solely to the fact that there was in that region an unusual development of shales at the base of the ,eocene nummulitic limestones4 ,of the four ,egyptian oases1 perhaps ,dakhla is the one most easily accounted for1 as this depression may be regarded as simply due to the general northerly dip of the sedimentary formations1 and the gradual weathering back 7northwards7 of the great argillaceous series 7,exogyra ,beds7 capped by the ,white ,chalk4 ,the original limits of the latter may1 indeed1 never have been very far to the south4#c ,while all sedimentary strata--such as the limestones1 sandstones1 clays1 and shales with which we are now dealing--were originally deposited either quite horizontally or inclined at only a very low angle1 it by no means follows that this horizontality is maintained when the strata are elevated into dry land4 ,over the ,libyan ,desert as a whole the successive sedimentary formations dip steadily northwards1 but at a very small inclination4 ,this results in every stage having a wide outcrop1 so much so that1 if it were not for the cliff-sections of the ,nile ,valley and the oases-depressions1 we should have to travel immense distances to obtain any idea of the true succession of rocks4 ,this general horizontality of strata appears at first sight to be well maintained in the oasis of ,kharga1 as whether we stand on the summit of the eastern escarpment1 on top of the great central hill-massif of ,jebel ,tarif1 or on the plateau above ,ain ,amr1 we see everywhere horizontally-disposed beds of limestone forming the plateaux and upper portions of the cliffs1 with parallel bands of sandstone1 shale1 and chalk outcropping on the slopes below4 ,a closer examination1 however1 will show that there is in reality a difference in level of more than #bjj metres between the same beds on either side of the oasis2 for the beds capping ,jebel ,tarif belong to the ,white ,chalk of the ,cretaceous system1 and are therefore very much older than those of ,eocene age forming the eastern plateau 7see map and section74 ,this great difference in vertical position is due partly to a steady dip from west to east1 partly to a remarkable longitudinal flexure running north and south through the centre of the depression1 and partly to a gentle fold near the base of the eastern escarpment4 ,along the actual line of flexure1 which passes through ,jebel ,tr1 ,jebel ,tarwan1 ,nadra1 ,gorn el ,gennh1 and ,gertuma 7,s4,s4,e4 of ,bulaq71 the different rock-stages are folded and fractured to a remarkable degree4 ,throughout the greater part of its course the flexure approximates to the type of disturbance known as a simple monocline1 but in places1 as in ,jebel ,tr1 it passes into a syncline bounded by nearly vertical faults2 while in others the beds are bent into almost symmetrical basins or centroclinal folds1 typical examples of these structures being met with at points #f kilometres south of ,kharga village and #b kilometres south-west of ,qasr ,zaiyan4 ,the importance of this line of folding and faulting must not be lost sight of1 as although the dislocations produced are only actually visible in the case of the exposed upper beds of the oasis sequence1 the earth-movements to which it owes its origin have had similar disturbing effects on the underlying and hidden water-bearing strata4 ,ball reported that the most striking evidence of faulting was between ,jebel ,tr and ,jebel ,tarif1 and showed the fault as running for a short distance in a ,n4,n4,e4 and ,s4,s4,w4 direction1 but1 as already mentioned1 the line of disturbance is coincident with the longer axis of the former range1 so that the majority of the wells are on the west or upthrow side of the fault4 ,the effects of this faulting and folding on the underground water-supply will be further alluded to in a later chapter4 ,in the early summer of this year 7#aijh7 ,i followed the line of flexure southwards in order to determine whether it continued throughout the oasis4 ,as far as the small eminence of ,gala1 about #aj kilometres south of ,bulaq1 it ran in an almost straight line1 but south of that point its course took a distinct bend to the west1 so that the fold was very soon lost in the great belt of sand-dunes4 ,beyond this point its continuation could1 however1 be inferred by occasional exposures of steeply inclined sandstones1 the most southerly point to which it was actually traced being in latitude #bd #ee ,n41 about #ae kilometres ,s4,s4,w4 of ,ain ,girm ,meshm4 ,illustration3 ,,geological ,,section ,,across ,,the ,,oasis ,,from ,,jebel ,,tarif ,,to ,,the ,,eastern ,,escarpment4 ,before concluding our remarks on the geology of the oasis we must not omit to call attention to the beautiful and varied fossil remains which are almost everywhere to be met with in the calcareous beds of the hills and escarpments4 ,it is1 of course1 by the study and comparison of these organic remains that geologists are enabled to determine the relative ages of the beds in which they occur1 and thus to correlate them with the rocks of other countries4 ,the lower argillaceous and arenaceous deposits of the oasis are comparatively unfossiliferous4 ,from any of the points of vantage1 such as are afforded by the higher hills within the depression1 the general level of the floor of the oasis does not appear to vary to any great extent1 but actual levelling shows that this is not in reality the case2 and it is this variation of absolute level which is the primary cause of the very varying volumes of water yielded by the artesian wells in the different districts4 ,the average height of the centre of the depression in the neighbourhood of the village of ,kharga is approximately the same as that of the ,nile ,valley plain in the latitude of ,farshut4 ,ball1 by comparison of a series of aneroid barometer readings with the barometric records for the same period at the ,cairo observatory1 deduced the value of a point near ,kharga village as #hf metres above sea-level1 and used this as his datum in calculating the levels of other parts of the oasis4 ,previous aneroid determinations of the same point had been made by ,cailliaud 7#ajd and #aah metres7 and by ,jordan 7#fh metres74 ,but even when the greatest possible precautions are exercised1 aneroid determinations1 especially when made with a single instrument1 are necessarily unreliable1 and still more so when used for calculating the levels of different points on a plain having only comparatively slight irregularities of surface4 ,utilizing the figure obtained by the railway surveyors for a point near the termination of the line1 we get values of #eh and #fj metres above sea-level for ,kharga village and ,bore ,no4 #a at headquarters respectively1 and a bench-mark at the latter place1 having a value of #fja1 is used as the datum from which all the heights given in this book are calculated4 ,unfortunately it is not possible1 owing to the lack of sufficient check-levels1 to state the limit of probable error1 and it must therefore be understood that the value of our datum1 which in the meantime may be accepted as the best obtainable1 is subject to future revision4 ,from this central point 7,bore ,no4 #a7 lines of levels have recently been carried in every direction by ,mr4 ,f4 ,e4 ,apted and myself1 with the result that it has been shown that the general level of the floor of the oasis rises steadily to the north and falls to the south4 ,these levels have in all cases been checked1 and may1 using the datum mentioned1 be accepted as fairly reliable1 the closing errors on the different loops being generally within a very few centimetres4 ,the altitudes of a few reference points in each district are given here4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,district4 ,point4 ,altitude4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,headquarters ,bore ,no4 #a #fja 0 ,bore ,no4 #dd #eca ,kharga ,bir ,ain el ,gs #gjb 0 ,ain el ,sabbagh #efi 0 ,ain ,zaaf #hgg 0 ,temple of ,hibis 7floor7 #gej ,meheriq ,bir ,qattara #eff 0 ,ain ,mahmud #fdh 0 ,ain el ,burg #fif 0 ,ain el ,qasr #gfj 0 ,ain el ,ghazl #hdf ,south of headquarters ,ain ,harrn #dce 0 0 0 ,ain ,ali ,morad #ccj 0 0 0 ,ain ,bellal #bhd 0 0 0 ,ain el ,tawl #aig ,gennh ,ain ,estakherab #gac 0 ,ain ,magarin #gdf 0 ,ain el ,ghuta 7north7 #dhb 0 ,ain ,zaiyan #daf 0 ,qasr ,zaiyan #bjg ,el ,dr ,bore ,no4 #bb #ibc ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,the ,government ,survey maps show a portion of the oasis floor as lying below sea-level1 the difference of height between the ,kharga village datum and a point just south of ,qasr ,zaiyan being given as #ajd metres4 ,detailed surveying shows that this estimate is excessive1 the true difference being about #cg metres only4 ,although no actual reading has yet been obtained below sea-level--the lowest being #bf metres at a point #c kilometres north-east of the northern end of the ,gorn el ,gennh1 or nearly midway between that hill and ,ain el ,tawl--it is evident that in this district the floor is only very slightly higher than the sea1 and it may be that at one or two points its level is actually lower4 ,south of ,qasr ,zaiyan no revision of previous levels has as yet been made4 ,according to ,ball's figures1 the village of ,beris is approximately #aj metres lower than ,kharga4 ,while discussing the subject of levels it may be useful to note the relative heights of the escarpments and hills within the oasis4 ,the edge of the eastern plateau varies from #cej to #djj metres above sea-level1 while the plateau to the north of ,um el ,dabdib has a general level of about #djj metres4 ,jebel ,tarif appears to be very slightly higher1 while the highest peak on ,jebel ,tr is not much more than #cjj metres4 ,the altitudes of these points with reference to the village were mostly determined by ,ball by trigonometric observations with an eight-inch theodolite1 and can therefore be relied on as being accurate4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,northern ,,villages ,population -- ,relation of ,population to ,water-,supply -- ,trade in ,dates -- ,imports -- ,taxation on ,date-,palms and ,wells -- ,measurement of ,wells -- ,revenue derived from the ,oasis -- ,origin of ,inhabitants -- ,kharga ,village -- ,industries -- ,ancient and ,modern ,wells -- ,meheriq ,village -- ,troubles with ,sand -- ,migration of ,villagers -- ,ain el ,tawl and other ,hamlets -- ,gennh ,village -- ,famous ,wells -- ,ain ,estakherab -- ,ochreous ,waters of certain ,wells -- ,ain el ,ghuta -- ,bulaq ,village -- ,doum-,palms -- ,tomb of ,sheikh ,khalid ,ibn el ,wald4 ,in point of population ,kharga ranks second of the four great oases of the ,libyan ,desert4 ,in #ahig the inhabitants numbered #g1hef1 and ten years later had increased to #h1cdh4 ,the #aijg census showed the male to be slightly in excess of the female population1 a result entirely owing to the preponderance of men in the northern part of the oasis4 ,the present distribution of the inhabitants1 according to the last census1 is shown in the table on the following page4 ,in the oases of the ,libyan ,desert there is a very close connection between population and water-supply4 ,no water is intentionally allowed to run to waste1 every drop being utilized to raise ---------------------------------------- - ,male4 ,female4 ,total4 ---------------------------------------- - ,kharga ,district #b1hai #b1ejc #e1cbb ,gennh ,district #bjg #bcg #ddd ,bulaq ,district #dhg #ebi #a1jaf ,beris ,district #gfg #gii #a1eff ------------------------ ,total #d1bhj #d1jfh #h1cdh ---------------------------------------- - the crops of rice1 dates1 barley1 and wheat1 which form the staple food-supplies of the inhabitants4 ,cut off by a waterless desert1 these people have little intercourse with the outside world1 except for a few weeks in the early winter months1 when they dispose of their surplus date-crop to the ,bedawin traders who cross the desert with droves of camels from the ,nile ,valley4 ,the dates are usually paid for in cash1 ready-money being required in order to meet the annual taxes levied by the ,egyptian ,government4 ,practically the only food-stuffs imported consist of such commodities as tea1 coffee1 and sugar1 which are used sparingly1 and regarded as luxuries even by the better classes4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that the inhabitants rely almost entirely for subsistence on the products they are able to raise by their own toil and industry4 ,owing to there being no rainfall1 the acreage of land which can be put under crops depends absolutely on the amount of water available for irrigation by wells4 ,the total yield of the latter has1 we know1 fluctuated to a considerable extent at different times1 and one may surmise that1 could figures be obtained giving the number of inhabitants and the volume of the water-supply for different periods during the last #e1jjj years1 a remarkably constant ratio would be observable between the two4 ,taxes are levied by the ,egyptian ,government on both date-trees and wells4 ,over #fj1jjj adult palms exist in the oasis1 each one being subject to a yearly tax of #a piastres 7about #c;d474 ,the output or yield of a well is1 for purposes of taxation1 determined in a somewhat rough-and-ready manner by a method which appears to have been in use for a number of generations4 ,whenever a new bore is completed1 or an old well requires remeasurement1 all the most influential personages in the oasis1 headed by the ,omda or chief of ,kharga village1 armed with a number of primitive appliances1 solemnly proceed to the spot4 ,after first ascertaining that the well has not been temporarily blocked by interested persons--even here in the remote interior of the desert there is an inherent objection to the paying of taxes--the bed and sides of the water-channel are made as smooth as possible for a distance of five or ten paces below the mouth of the well1 so that the water flows away with an even ripple4 ,a small pointed stick is now inserted in the centre of the bed of the stream1 in such a way that the top of the peg is exactly flush with the surface of the water4 ,then the ,omda1 hitching up his flowing robes1 steps into the stream1 and1 selecting a gauge of suitable dimensions1 fixes it firmly in the bed of the channel1 in such a position that the whole of the flow passes freely through1 without raising or lowering the surface of the stream above1 as indicated by the peg4 ,the interior of the gauge1 a roughly-made wooden frame1 is intended to be a definite number of centimetres in length1 but in many of those used there is a small error4 ,as soon as the stream flows evenly over the gauge or weir1 without its surface-level being altered1 the depth of water is measured on a scale4 ,the latter is wetted and plunged into a heap of dry sand before being used1 the depth of water being indicated by that portion of the scale from which the sand has been removed by the immersion4 ,observations are made at both ends of the weir to insure any error due to want of horizontality of the frame being detected4 ,the actual discharge is reckoned in #8qirats' and eighths of a qirat 7tumns71 a qirat being a water-section of #fd square centimetres4 ,for example1 if the depth of water passing over a gauge having an internal length of #dj centimetres was found to be #h centimetres1 the water-section would amount to #dj #h #cbj square centimetres1 which would be reckoned as a discharge of #e qirats4 ,the ,omda and his attendants carry out the operations with the utmost care and solemnity1 and have the most touching faith in the accuracy of their results4 ,apart1 however1 from errors in the gauges and scales used1 and from the want of provision of a free fall on the downstream side of the weir1 the fact that the velocity of the stream is entirely left out of account is sufficient to give the qirat a very variable value1 low for small and high for large streams1 the result being that the small wells are being taxed at about #ej per cent4 higher rates than the large ones4 ,in order to ascertain the average value of the qirat for streams of different size1 ,i arranged with ,mr4 ,patterson1 who at the time was the ,government ,representative in ,kharga1 to send the ,omda to headquarters and instruct him to measure a number of new bores belonging to the ,corporation of ,western ,egypt1 as these bores1 being cased and provided with proper outlet valves1 lend themselves to exact measurement better than the majority of the native-owned wells4 ,the ,omda employed the ordinary local native method just described1 while ,i1 using a tank of known capacity and a reliable stop-watch1 made direct measurements immediately afterwards4 ,the results obtained show that below #b the qirat has a value of #bb gallons a minute2 from #b to #d of #bf gallons a minute2 and from #e to #f of #ch gallons a minute4 ,the annual tax levied on the water amounts to #ej piastres 7about #ajs4 #c;d47 per qirat4 ,if the average value of the qirat be taken at #be gallons per minute1 the tax works out at approximately #as4 for every #f1jjj cubic metres of water4 ,looked at from another point of view1 it may be considered that the tax amounts to about #as4 #f;d4 an acre1 as with every qirat of water the native cultivator in the oasis will annually raise about two acres of rice and five of wheat or barley4 ,the total revenue derived by the ,government from the oasis1 by taxes on date-palms and water1 amounts to a little over #a1jjj per annum4 ,my old friend ,sheikh ,mustapha1 who for more than twelve years has been ,omda of ,kharga village1 was very anxious to know the results of the comparative measurements made on the bores4 ,he professed himself as surprised at the difference in the results1 but emphatically refused to entertain the possibility of there being any error in his measurements1 made by so old-established a method4 ,although he was far too polite to so express himself in words1 ,i felt that the old gentleman had the utmost contempt for my method of well measurement4 ,with the exception of the ,dakhla peasants1 the inhabitants of the oases differ entirely from the fellahin of the ,nile ,valley4 ,according to ,brugsch1 the original inhabitants were ,libyan 7,berber7 tribes1 but after annexation to ,egypt1 there was considerable immigration from ,nubia and other parts of the ,nile ,valley4 ,nevertheless1 in the oasis of ,kharga the physiognomic type of the ,berber race is still predominant4 ,el ,kharga1 the chief village of the oasis1 containing about #d1ejj inhabitants1 is situated in a broad belt of cultivated lands and palm-groves running centrally down the depression from the southern extremity of ,jebel ,tr4 ,the village consists of a picturesque compact conglomeration of houses1 built of sun-dried bricks1 and of every shape and size4 ,the streets meander in a very remarkable manner1 and are to a large extent in partial or total darkness1 owing to their being for the most part roofed over and covered by upper storeys4 ,without the aid of a guide it is almost impossible to find one's way through the intricacies of the underground passages1 though no fears need be entertained on the score of being in any way molested1 the inhabitants being most peaceably inclined4 ,in some parts of the village the streets are actually cut through the solid rock4 ,they are generally clean and cool even on the hottest and dustiest of days1 and as a rule the few wayfarers one meets scuttle like startled rabbits into the dark recesses on either side1 from the depths of which1 and through chinks in the wooden doors and windows1 they can gape in safety at the unwonted spectacle of ,european visitors4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,street ,,in ,,kharga4 ,illustration3 ,,kharga ,,village4 ,viewed from the outside1 say from the ridge of sand which hems in the village on the east side1 one sees a vast array of walls1 surmounted by screens of dried palm-branches1 bound together to form compact hedges affording protection and privacy to those portions of the houses open to the sky4 ,two minarets rise above the general level1 while all around are palm-groves and gardens1 with the open desert rising to the western horizon4 ,almost the whole of the population is engaged in agriculture1 and as in some cases the wells are situated far from the village1 many of the peasants daily ride considerable distances to and fro on their sturdy but diminutive donkeys4 ,there are two or three small shops in the village1 but nothing in the nature of bazaars1 the chief business transacted being the retailing of ,nile ,valley goods1 such as drapery and groceries4 ,the native women are adepts at basket- and mat-making1 and mention must not be omitted of the very attractive spherical baskets made of palm-leaves and fibre1 ornamented with coloured wools1 and manufactured in every conceivable size and design4 ,pretty circular trays are made from the same substances2 in fact1 the number of uses to which the waste materials from the date- and doum-palms can be put is little short of marvellous4 ,everything connected with the village is of the most primitive description1 and until a very short time ago few of the inhabitants had been beyond the limits of their own fields4 ,the advent of the railway caused no little commotion and stir in the oasis1 and awakened trading instincts which had lain dormant since ,roman times4 ,many of the villagers now travel to and fro between ,kharga and the ,nile ,valley1 and the ,omda took an early opportunity of obtaining leave of absence from his onerous duties1 and proceeded to ,alexandria for a course of sea-baths6 ,outside the village1 with the exception of the antiquities1 to which we shall call attention in a separate chapter1 there is little of general interest beyond the wells and gardens1 among which there are many picturesque spots4 ,at ,bir ,ain el ,gs1 a few kilometres to the north1 a primitive form of corn-mill may be seen working1 the grinding-stones being driven by the water of the well by means of an undershot wheel4 ,it may be mentioned here that with very few1 if any1 exceptions the different streams which collectively make up the water-supply of the oasis find their way to the surface through artificially constructed passages4 ,the great majority of these are bores of ancient construction1 though a few have been sunk with modern plant during the last fifty years4 ,the ancient wells are known as ,aiyn 7sing4 ,ain71 the modern as ,abiyr 7sing4 ,bir72 for example1 ,ain el ,ghazl1 ,bir ,mansra4 ,in cases where a modern bore has been specially sunk to replace an ancient well1 the two words are used in conjunction2 for instance1 ,bir ,ain el ,gs4 ,the position of each well is nearly always conspicuously marked by a thick clump of acacias1 from which 7more especially in the isolated settlements in the northern part of the depression7 the main irrigating channel generally runs in a southerly direction1 the cultivated lands being of triangular form1 with the apex at or near the source of the water1 and raised little1 if at all1 above the general level of the surrounding plain4 ,by this disposition the fields present the least possible front to the north1 from which side comes the bulk of the sand which is such a curse to these outlying settlements4 ,kharga village1 being snugly situated among palm-groves1 and directly to the south of ,jebel ,tr1 is well protected from the fierce1 sand-laden winds which so frequently scour the depression from north to south4 ,the poor little hamlet of ,meheriq1 on the other hand1 set on the open plain some #bj kilometres to the north1 is exposed to every wind that blows1 with the result that the sand has accumulated to such an extent that most of the palms have been buried1 and many of the houses have been overwhelmed4 ,the advancing dunes are1 in fact1 steadily pushing the hamlet southwards4 ,at frequent intervals the occupants of the most northerly houses move their goods and chattels1 and betake themselves to new quarters erected at the southern extremity4 ,this periodical migration has1 indeed1 become so ingrained a habit that it is now regarded as of little moment2 it is only when their wells and trees are threatened and destroyed that the wretched people call on ,allah to stay ,his hand1 and protect them from destruction4 ,still farther to the north lie a number of isolated wells with small areas of cultivation1 and at some of these there are settlements consisting of one or two families4 ,ain el ,tawl1 #h kilometres south-east of ,kharga1 is another little hamlet1 rendered more conspicuous than most of these outlying settlements by the presence of a ,sheikh's tomb surmounted by a rather pointed dome4 ,a third important dependency of ,kharga is known as ,um el ,dabdib1 and is situated a day's journey to the north4 ,this place is of exceptional interest1 in that its water-supply is not derived from wells1 but from extensive tunnels driven into the hills4 ,some most interesting ruins exist in the neighbourhood1 but a description of these and of the subterranean aqueducts must be postponed to a later chapter4 ,illustrations3 ,,encroachment ,,of ,,sand-,,dunes ,,at ,,meheriq4 ,twelve kilometres to the south of ,kharga lies the village of ,gennh4 ,the intermediate country is largely covered by sand1 which in the neighbourhood of the village has accumulated into large dunes1 threatening it and its magnificent wells1 ,ain ,estakherab and ,ain ,magarin1 with ultimate destruction4 ,ain ,estakherab is undoubtedly the finest well in the ,libyan ,desert1 and has been running for hundreds1 if not for thousands1 of years2 but unless special measures are taken to cope with the advance of the dunes immediately to the north and north-west1 this splendid flow of water is doomed to destruction within the next ten or twenty years4 ,owing to the encroachment of the sand there is very little land available for cultivation near the village1 the bulk of the water from the two wells being conducted in an open channel to the low-lying plain south-east of the hill-range known as the ,gorn el ,gennh4 ,this channel traverses #g or #h kilometres of porous desert before it reaches the first of the cultivated fields in the neighbourhood of the ,gorn1 and there is in consequence very great loss of water through seepage and evaporation4 ,the famous wells of ,gennh differ from most of those in the northern part of the oasis in that their mouths are large and deep pools of limpid water1 from the depths of which great bubbles of gas constantly ascend to the surface4 ,little or nothing is known as to the age and depth of either of these wells2 they have never been cleaned out in modern times1 and are closed in at a depth of a few metres from the surface in such a way as to prevent soundings being made4 ,with the object of determining if the large discharges are due to the wells being situated on exceptionally low ground1 ,i recently had a line of levels run from headquarters to ,gennh4 ,contrary to expectation1 it was found that ,ain ,estakherab and ,ain ,magarin discharged at levels considerably above the average elevation of the wells of the ,kharga district2 possibly1 therefore1 the exceptional flows in this district are due to its comparative isolation1 and to the immunity thus obtained from the interference of other wells4 ,between the villages of ,kharga and ,gennh1 along a north and south belt lying somewhat to the east and on the downthrow side of the fault1 are a number of wells whose waters are almost invariably more or less charged with ochre and alkaline salts4 ,in some cases the proportion of dissolved salts is sufficiently great to render the water unfit for either drinking or irrigation1 and even where it can be used for the latter purpose1 ochre is deposited to such an extent as to bind the soil into a hard cake4 ,the occurrence appears to be due to the geological position of the wells in this tract1 where1 owing to the beds being let down by the fault1 the purple shales form the floor of the depression2 it is perhaps from these beds that the waters derive their abnormally high contents of ferric oxide and other salts4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,ptolemaic ,,temple1 ,,qasr ,,el ,,ghuata4 ,illustration3 ,,doum-,,palms ,,near ,,qasr ,,el ,,ghuata4 ,the wells near ,qasr el ,ghuta are of similar nature1 and thick banks of ochre have been deposited along their channels4 ,i recollect on one occasion using the water of ,ain el ,ghuta for making tea1 and being considerably surprised at the inky blackness of the resulting liquid1 although1 in spite of the colour and a markedly ferruginous taste1 the brew was not undrinkable4 ,near the ruins of ,qasr ,zaiyan1 and southward as far as the village of ,bulaq1 the country takes on quite a different aspect1 owing to the numerous scrub-covered areas1 dotted everywhere with semi-wild doum-palms4 ,doums thrive in very poor soil1 and appear to be self-sown2 they are to my mind far more graceful and picturesque than the ordinary date-palms1 from which they differ in many important respects4 ,the trunk of a well-grown doum-palm is forked1 not once1 but many times1 the different stems preserving a considerable amount of symmetry2 the branches1 which are covered with the most atrocious hooks1 terminate in sharp-pointed1 serrated fan-shaped leaves4 ,the fruit consists of bunches of hard nuts1 and can be eaten either in its raw condition or after being ground into meal and cooked2 most persons1 however1 except perhaps confirmed nut-eating vegetarians1 would decline it in either state4 ,although the country throughout which the doum-palms abound appears to be more or less deserted1 every tree has its owner among the inhabitants of the nearest village4 ,bulaq1 distant #be kilometres from ,kharga1 has a population of #a1jaf1 and is the centre of the mat and #8zambile' trade4 ,the zambile is an open wide-mouthed basket which is used in every part of ,egypt1 and practically replaces the wheelbarrow of western lands4 ,formerly only small quantities were made for export1 but the natives have not been slow to take advantage of the railway1 and truck-loads of these baskets may now be frequently seen on the trains4 ,the ,bulaq varieties of mats and baskets are mostly made from the leaf of the doum-palm4 ,the village1 bounded on three sides by sand and open desert1 with the palm-groves and cultivated lands to the east1 cannot be said to be particularly attractive4 ,a few kilometres to the south is the tomb of ,sheikh ,khalid ,ibn el ,wald1 a large1 square1 whitewashed building surmounted by a dome4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,southern ,,villages ,ain ,girm ,meshm -- ,agl el ,douma -- ,the ,southern ,villages -- ,jaja and ,dakhakhin -- ,intermittent ,flow and ,geyser-like ,action of ,wells -- ,ain ,dakhakhin -- ,fruit ,gardens -- ,raised ,cultivated ,terraces formed of ,wind-blown ,materials -- ,gradual ,elevation of ,wells -- ,ancient ,village of ,dakhakhin -- ,ain ,bergis -- ,beris ,village -- ,ain el ,hushi -- ,block-,houses and ,dervishes -- ,maks ,bahari -- ,method ,employed in ,cleaning out ,wells -- ,ain ,bella -- ,encroachment of ,dunes -- ,dush -- ,the most ,southern ,wells of the ,oasis -- ,nakhail4 ,after leaving the wells belonging to ,bulaq the traveller has to cross a stretch of desert about #dj kilometres in width before reaching the first well and cultivated land of the southern group of villages4 ,on this expanse water is only found in one locality--at ,ain ,girm ,meshm1 a pool with a very small flow4 ,there is little doubt that this was at one time a very good well1 as traces of irrigating channels extend outwards to a considerable distance2 moreover1 a large salt-pan is still visible to the west1 and this could only have been formed at a time when there was far more water running to waste than at present4 ,the immediate neighbourhood is picturesquely dotted with doum-palms1 some of those near the well being magnificent trees4 ,agl el ,douma1 lying #ag kilometres south-west of ,ain ,girm ,meshm1 on the opposite 7west7 side of the belt of dunes1 is a place which1 previous to my inspection1 had probably never been visited by ,europeans1 although known to a few of the ,bedawin4 ,surface-water can be obtained by digging to a depth of a few feet near one of the doums4 ,the place1 marked by a small area of scrub and a doum-palm or two1 was formerly used to some extent by ,arabs carrying contraband from the south1 as by watering here they were able to pass through the oasis unobserved4 ,the most northerly of the southern villages are ,jaja and ,dakhakhin1 but #f kilometres to the north lies an isolated group of doum-palms1 known as ,ain el ,douma4 ,at the present time the place is uninhabited1 the old well being completely sanded-up1 though water may be obtained by digging out the centre4 ,both north and south of ,ain el ,douma occur smooth plains of alluvial clay1 in the latter direction extending to the villages of ,dakhakhin and ,jaja4 ,jaja is visible from a distance of many kilometres on account of a thick clump of dark green acacias1 growing on the summit of an eminence4 ,dakhakhin1 on the other hand1 is hidden1 being on the south side of a sandy hill covered with short scrub only4 ,a low-lying portion of the alluvial-covered plain separates the two villages1 which are situated close together on an east and west line4 ,at ,jaja there are scattered doums and a number of acacias1 as well as a small dense grove of date-palms1 altogether a goodly number of trees4 ,the well is a broad and deep pool surrounded by vertical walls of brown clay1 representing the material from time to time thrown out during the process of cleaning4 ,large bubbles of gas are generally to be seen rising intermittently to the surface1 while at times the pool becomes perfectly still1 except for the occasional small bubbles which continue to rise at different points4 ,then follows a strong flow from the actual bore 7situated near the south side of the pool71 the water boiling up and breaking the surface with considerable force and noise1 which may continue for several minutes before everything becomes quiet again4 ,in all probability the markedly intermittent flow is due to the temporary blocking of the bore-hole by the sediment forming the bottom of the pool1 the mud being from time to time forced back by the accumulating pressure of the water and gas below4 ,the temperature of the water was found to be #hf ,f41 and the yield was stated to amount to #a qirats1 or about #ce to #dj gallons a minute4 ,dakhakhin is charmingly situated on the southern slope of an eminence1 alongside a dingle1 prettily wooded with tamarisk and doum-palms4 ,the well is on the north side1 and higher up than the village4 ,one of the irrigating channels1 cut out near the bottom of the western slope1 follows the winding of the dingle to a thick clump of date-palms near the mouth4 ,higher up1 alongside the village1 the water in another channel races down the hill in a series of little runs and falls1 the stream threading its way through fruit-gardens containing date-palms and vines1 fig1 mulberry1 and apricot trees1 as well as pomegranates and bananas4 ,ain ,dakhakhin is a huge pool when full1 though at times1 when the retaining bank on the south side is cut1 a large part of its sandy bed is exposed4 ,the flow1 taxed1 ,i believe1 as #c qirats 7#aaj to #abj gallons per minute71 varies at different times of the year1 and depends to a considerable extent on the amount of sediment in the pool4 ,cleaning is periodically undertaken1 in order to remove the sand which drifts in from the north side in large quantities4 ,neither in ,ain ,jaja nor ,ain ,dakhakhin is there any trace of wooden casing similar to that with which the ancient wells of ,northern ,kharga are so commonly lined4 ,this bears out the conclusion to which ,i was led on other grounds--that the original outlets were many metres lower than at present1 on the level of the surrounding plain1 in fact4 ,the eminences of ,jaja and ,dakhakhin appear to have been formed almost entirely by the gradual accumulation of blown sand and clay-dust1 compacted and held together by vegetation4 ,the material is swept by the prevalent winds from the clay plains and sandy deserts lying to the north1 and deposited on the cultivated lands1 owing to the presence thereon of water and vegetation4 ,its deposition is encouraged by the peasants1 as the admixture of sand and clay forms a loam of suitable texture for agricultural purposes1 and is regarded as having considerable fertilizing value4 ,illustration3 ,,ain ,,dakhakhin4 ,there is little doubt that originally nearly all the wells in ,southern ,kharga had their outlets on the same level as the plain4 ,owing to the periodical deposition of wind-borne materials1 the cultivated lands have gradually risen1 until at the present day they form1 in the majority of cases1 terraces standing well above the general level4 ,this continual raising of the land has necessitated a corresponding elevation of the wells1 with the result that the wooden linings originally put into the bores have been completely lost sight of4 ,instead of issuing from a clean1 unobstructed hole1 the water has now to force its way upwards through a great mass of sandy mud1 and before it can be utilized it has to rise to a much higher level than formerly4 ,little wonder1 then1 that the flows of the majority of these wells have very much decreased1 with the consequence that the cultivated tracts are much smaller than of old4 ,in more than one case the outlet of a well had1 in modern times1 risen to such a height that the discharge had become reduced to a mere trickle4 ,twenty or twenty-five years ago1 for instance1 ,ain ,dakhakhin was on the summit of an eminence which1 by the slow accumulation of sand and clay1 had reached a height of #cj metres above the surrounding plain4 ,remedial measures were then taken by the inhabitants1 and its level reduced by between #h and #i metres1 the present level of the well and highest fields being #bc metres above the plain4 ,the height of a cultivated terrace above the general level of the plain on which the well was originally sunk affords some measure of its antiquity4 ,it is difficult1 however1 in the absence of observations extending over a number of years1 to estimate what the general rate of accumulation may have been4 ,it would1 moreover1 vary greatly with local conditions1 but if an average rate of a centimetre a year be assumed1 the age of ,ain ,dakhakhin is indicated as being something over #c1jjj years4 ,the ancient ,dakhakhin lies a kilometre to the ,s4,s4,e41 and1 when inhabited1 must have been as ugly as the modern village is pleasing4 ,when the diminution of the flow of ,ain ,dakhakhin became serious1 the people migrated to their present location1 so as to be near the well and under the shelter of the hill4 ,the ruins are only slightly above the level of the plain1 but cover an area many times greater than that occupied by the modern village4 ,this circumstance alone shows how insignificant is the present flow compared with what it must once have been4 ,the most northerly of the group of wells in the neighbourhood of ,beris is ,ain ,bergis1 situated on the south side of a broad platform of sandy lacustrine beds4 ,in this case there is a containing bank across the valley below the well1 but at the time of my visit it was cut1 so that the bottom of the pool was exposed4 ,the latter consisted of a circular basin of soft sediment1 through which muddy water was oozing and bursting in small shoots1 suggesting an action in many respects analogous to that of geysers and mud-volcanoes4 ,the natives informed me that the basin takes two days and nights to fill after the bank has been closed4 ,between ,ain ,bergis and ,dakhakhin stretches a continuous plain of alluvial clay1 amounting to several thousands of acres4 ,in its present state this heavy clay land is not regarded as of much value for cultivation1 but in the event of new wells being sunk it could be lightened and improved by allowing and encouraging the deposition of blown sand and dust--by following1 in fact1 the practice which from time immemorial has been in vogue in this district4 ,the best wells in the neighbourhood of ,beris are ,johar1 ,foq el ,doum1 and ,el ,hushi1 the last named yielding #f qirats1 the others #i each4 ,the remaining wells in the district give from #b to #d qirats4 ,in situation and appearance the ,beris wells do not differ essentially from those already described1 so that we may pass on to a brief notice of the village4 ,nothing of particular interest is to be met with in ,beris1 the chief village of the southern part of the oasis4 ,it is rather exposed1 and many of the streets are consequently dusty2 in fact some of those on the north side are deep in blown sand4 ,thick groves of date-palms enclose the village on the east and south sides1 but not on the north4 ,the cultivated lands lie partly to the north and partly to the south-east1 but are ineffectual in protecting the village from the dust-laden northerly winds1 except to a small extent when the fields are under full crops4 ,the village well is ,ain el ,hushi1 a large bubbling pool some #ae metres in diameter1 situated in the palm-groves immediately south of the village4 ,solidly-built rectangular mud-brick buildings are found alongside most of the larger wells in the ,beris district1 and a modern visitor would have some difficulty in guessing to what use they could ever have been put4 ,they were1 as a matter of fact1 erected by the ,egyptian ,government during the time of the ,dervish raids1 to serve as block-houses for the garrisons maintained in the oasis for the purpose of protecting the wells and villages4 ,during this period several notables and petty officials in this and the oasis of ,dakhla were carried off by the ,dervishes into captivity in the ,sudan4 ,maks ,bahari1 the next place to the south1 is a tiny little hamlet on the southern slope of a sandy eminence1 with extensive clay lands studded with numerous doum-palms1 but without water to irrigate more than a small portion of these4 ,the village well is on the south side1 and yields about #hj gallons per minute4 ,as usual1 it forms a pool contained by a bank1 the latter being cut periodically to allow of the well being cleared of sediment4 ,after the winter crops are harvested in the spring1 it appears to be the general practice for the cultivators to pay special attention to their water-supply4 ,the retaining banks are cut and the water allowed to drain off at the lowest level possible1 the wells being sometimes left in this condition for several months1 so that they gradually clean themselves with a minimum of trouble to their owners4 ,the mud1 exposed on the sides of the basin1 continually slides downwards into the central pool1 and is carried away in suspension by the outflowing water4 ,drift sand has been very destructive in the neighbourhood of ,maks ,bahari4 ,at ,ain ,bella1 #b kilometres to the ,n4,n4,w41 there are at present only a few acres under cultivation1 but the tract anciently tilled is seen in the eroded remnants of an alluvial platform to the north and north-east2 this is now a deeply-grooved and ridged hummocky area of loam1 full of dead palm-stubs1 with rootlets ramifying in every direction4 ,the original terrace appears to have extended far to the north1 the portion now remaining being composed of alternating layers of sand and clay1 dipping steeply to the south4 ,at the present day many of the cultivated terraces are not only being gradually raised by the continual deposition of wind-borne materials1 but are being extended horizontally1 owing to the constant additions of layers of sand and clay-dust to the steeply-inclined southern or lee faces4 ,in many respects the growth of these terraces is analogous to that of sand-dunes1 though1 unlike the latter1 the northern portions of the terraces are practically stationary4 ,at one time or another many wells existed to the west1 but are now buried in the dunes1 their former presence being testified by isolated exposures of arable land and by occasional trees and bushes4 ,the dunes1 following their natural ,s4,s4,e4 course in the direction of the prevailing winds1 seem to be still encroaching on the belt of country occupied by the existing wells and cultivated lands1 and it is probably only a matter of time1 perhaps a few hundred years1 before they blot out the whole of the south part of the oasis4 ,the sand speedily envelops any settlements which are abandoned1 as nothing encourages the formation of dunes to such an extent as vegetation1 and this nearly always abounds in the neighbourhood of the wells4 ,there is little to commend itself to notice at ,maks ,qibli1 the southern of the two hamlets of the same name2 there are scattered doums1 several groves of date-palms1 and small patches of cultivation irrigated by isolated wells1 all on high ground4 ,here1 as elsewhere in this part of the country1 much land has gone out of cultivation1 though it must be mentioned that the villagers are rather progressive in planting trees and maintaining small vegetable gardens4 ,dush lies out of the main line of villages1 being #aj kilometres east of ,maks ,qibli1 not far from the eastern wall of the oasis4 ,it is a pretty little place1 with small clumps of palms1 and two white ,sheikhs' tombs on the north side4 ,ain el ,burrda1 the big well immediately alongside the village1 ceased flowing about three years ago1 to the great grief of the inhabitants1 who now have to carry their water from ,ain el ,karm1 itself barely running4 ,fortunately1 the great ,ain ,johar1 situated to the south but irrigating land to the north1 continues to discharge with unabated vigour4 ,more conspicuous than the village is the ancient ,qasr ,dush1 occupying the summit of a small hill to the east4 ,this will be noticed later4 ,illustration3 ,,dush ,,village4 ,the wells attached to the hamlets of ,dush and ,maks mark the limits of the oasis to the south4 ,the most southerly running well of any importance is ,ain el ,qasr1 though ,ain ,zaha el ,din1 still farther to the south1 just trickles1 and irrigates a tiny area of not more than a few square metres4 ,ain ,mabrka1 a kilometre south of the last-mentioned well1 is overgrown with green weed1 and surrounded by a patch of tamarisk1 short prickly scrub1 and two or three wild palms4 ,this is the most southerly point at which exposed water is to be seen1 though in the midst of a large area of scrub still farther to the south a sanded-up well of the name of ,ain el ,terfai is reported to exist4 ,the scrub-covered area of ,ain el ,terfai is about #be kilometres south of ,beris4 ,to the south the surface gradually rises1 and is absolutely devoid of vegetation1 the oasis-depression having given way to the true desert4 ,the next available water is at a place called ,nakhail1 #fj kilometres to the ,s4,s4,e42 the water there is good1 but only exists in small quantities1 obtainable in one or two spots by digging to a depth of a couple of metres4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,oasis ,,under ,,persian ,,and ,,roman ,,rule ,previous ,descriptions of ,archological ,remains -- ,mr4 ,lythgoe's ,excavations -- ,dr4 ,ball's ,report -- ,article by ,professor ,sayce -- ,prehistoric ,period -- ,earliest ,historical ,records -- ,persian ,domination -- ,the ,army of ,cambyses -- ,temple of ,hibis -- ,grco-,roman ,period -- ,qasr el ,ghuta -- ,the ,roman ,emperors -- ,proclamations on the ,temple of ,hibis -- ,qasr ,dush -- ,nadra -- ,ruins at ,ain ,amr -- ,qasr ,zaiyan and the ,town of ,tchonemyris -- ,roman ,fortresses -- ,dr el ,ghennma -- ,qasr ,lebekha and ,um el ,dabdib -- ,monasteries -- ,watch-,tower in ,bellaida -- ,introduction of ,christianity -- ,the ,christian ,necropolis -- ,representations of ,biblical ,scenes and ,personages -- ,embalming -- ,celebrities banished to the ,oasis -- ,the ,columbaria -- ,olympiodorus describes the ,fertility of the ,oases under the ,romans4 ,the archological remains of the oases have been referred to1 and in some cases described in more or less detail1 by most of the travellers who have left any records of their journeys in the ,libyan ,desert4 ,among the latter may be mentioned ,cailliaud1 ,hoskins1 ,schweinfurth1 and ,brugsch4 ,at the same time1 compared with the antiquities of the ,nile ,valley1 those of the oases have received scant attention2 indeed1 it is only within the last year or two that any systematic excavations have been undertaken4 ,at the present time ,mr4 ,lythgoe1 assisted by ,mr4 ,winlock1 is excavating in the neighbourhood of the ,christian ,necropolis1 for ,mr4 ,pierpont ,morgan1 on behalf of one of the ,american museums1 and the results promise to be of the greatest interest and importance4 ,it is to be hoped1 therefore1 that1 in a few years1 we shall be in possession of a detailed and authoritative account of the history of the oasis during the last few thousand years1 as it must be admitted that the only information available at the present day is woefully scrappy and in many respects unreliable4 ,ball1 in his report on ,kharga published in #aijj1 gave an excellent summary of all that was at that time known concerning the antiquities1 together with a number of useful plans of the chief buildings4 ,since that date1 with the exception of a press article by ,professor ,sayce1 little1 if anything1 has been published4 ,without making any pretensions to special archological knowledge1 ,i shall attempt to give a brief sketch of the past history of the oasis1 at the same time drawing the reader's attention to the distribution and general characters of the more important remains4 ,although the oasis of ,kharga was doubtless inhabited in prehistoric times1 as1 indeed1 is shown by the existence of flint implements of ,palolithic type on the surrounding plateaux1 and also to a lesser extent within the depression1 no graves referable to the prehistoric period of ,egyptologists--i4e41 the period immediately preceding that known as the first dynasty1 when ,menes united ,egypt about #c1cjj ,b4,c4#d--;have as yet been discovered4 ,but while it is known that the ,egyptian kings claimed the allegiance of the inhabitants of the oases as far back as the eighteenth dynasty 7#aede-acej ,b4,c471 the earliest known monumental records in ,kharga date from a much later period--i4e41 the twenty-seventh dynasty--when ,egypt was under ,persian domination4 ,it was at this time that ,cambyses1 in an endeavour to subdue the inhabitants of the outlying oases1 lost a large portion of his army in the ,western ,desert1 probably somewhere to the west or north-west of ,kharga4 ,the ,persian monarch had recently defeated the ,egyptian king1 ,psammetikh ,,iii41 at ,pelusium1 and made ,egypt a ,persian province4 ,on his arrival at ,thebes some #ej1jjj men were detached from the main army proceeding to ,ethiopia1 and ordered to march against the ,ammonians and burn the oracular temple of ,jupiter ,ammon4 ,this abortive expedition into the ,libyan ,desert is described by ,herodotus 7#8,thalia1' #bf7 as follows3#e 8,the men sent to attack the ,ammonians started from ,thebes1 having guides with them1 and may be clearly traced as far as the city ,oasis1 which is inhabited by ,samians1 said to be of the tribe schrionia4 ,the place is distant from ,thebes seven days' journey across the sand1 and is called in our tongue #8the ,island of the ,blessed4' ,thus far the army is known to have made its way2 but thenceforth nothing is to be heard of them1 except what the ,ammonians1 and those who get their knowledge from them1 report4 ,it is certain they neither reached the ,ammonians1 nor ever came back to ,egypt4 ,further than this1 the ,ammonians relate as follows3 that the ,persians set forth from the ,oasis across the sand1 and had reached about half-way between that place and themselves1 when1 as they were at their midday meal1 a wind arose from the south1 strong and deadly1 bringing with it vast columns of whirling sand1 which entirely covered up the troops1 and caused them wholly to disappear4 ,thus1 according to the ,ammonians1 did it fare with this army40 ,in modern times considerable doubts have arisen as to which oasis was the objective of this army1 and certainly the description of ,herodotus is such as to admit of various conclusions being drawn4 ,rohlfs considers that ,dakhla1 not ,siwa1 was its goal1 and remarks that1 however light-headed ,cambyses might have been1 he could hardly have been so foolish as to have chosen ,thebes as the starting-point of an army destined for ,siwa4 ,the same writer points out that a temple dedicated to ,ammon does exist in ,dakhla1 and that the distance of the latter oasis from ,thebes corresponds with the ten days mentioned by ,herodotus4 ,vivien de ,st4 ,martin 78,le ,nord de l',afrique dans l'antiquit10 #ahfc1 pp4 #dj-da7 had1 some twelve years previously1 come to somewhat similar conclusions4 ,ascherson1 on the other hand1 regards it as highly improbable that ,dakhla1 which was hardly known and certainly of little importance in the time of ,cambyses1 could have been the objective of so dangerous and difficult an undertaking1 and points out1 moreover1 that the temple of ,ammon in that oasis dates from much later 7i4e41 ,roman7 times4 ,he further remarks that ,parthey 7#8,das ,orakel und die ,oase des ,ammon1' ,abhandl4 der ,akademie der ,wissenschaften in ,berlin1 #ahfb1 ,s4 #aca-aid71 in a contemporaneous work1 had already met the objections raised by ,vivien de ,st4 ,martin4 ,according to the ancient maps the distance from ,memphis to ,siwa was much the same as that from ,thebes to ,siwa4 ,no reliance1 moreover1 can be placed on the distances given by ,herodotus4 ,judged with reference to ,thebes1 the country of the ,ammonians certainly agrees more or less with the position of the oasis of ,dakhla2 but considered in relation to ,augila 7a place which has retained its name unchanged up to modern times71 it corresponds with the modern ,siwa1 where the well-known oracular temple of ,jupiter ,ammon actually existed4 ,it seems to me quite reasonable to suppose that ,cambyses only decided on the despatch of this expedition after reaching ,thebes1 and from there the route1 via ,kharga1 ,dakhla1 and ,farafra1 would be fairly direct1 and have the advantage of passing through oases1 well provided with water and food-supplies1 separated by marches not exceeding four days4 ,possibly1 moreover1 the #8oasis' through which the army is recorded to have safely marched may not have been ,kharga at all1 but ,baharia1 or even ,farafra1 either of which would have been reached by striking into the desert along one of the roads leaving the ,nile ,valley in the neighbourhood of ,assiut or ,mellawi2 this would have been quite a likely route for an army starting for ,siwa from ,thebes1 as over a third of the distance would have been along the fertile plains bordering the ,nile4 ,the evidence1 however1 seems to favour the view that the army proceeded westwards from ,thebes1 and passed safely through ,kharga1 possibly also through ,dakhla2 in those days the latter may have been coupled with ,kharga1 as it was later1 when the two together were called the ,great ,oasis4 ,as it is impossible to imagine a body comprising #ej1jjj men being destroyed by a sandstorm1 ,i am inclined to agree with ,hoskins that the army was purposely misled and sacrificed by the guides1 with the object of preventing the capture of ,siwa and the destruction of the far-famed temple of ,jupiter ,ammon4 ,in the deserts to the north and west of ,dakhla immense accumulations of sand cover1 without a break1 thousands of square miles of country2 only one or two possible tracks cross this lonesome wilderness1 and these1 following narrow troughs hemmed in by hills of sand1 are invisible even from the distance of a few hundred yards4 ,only a party thoroughly acquainted with desert travelling could hope to penetrate this region1 and nothing would be easier than to encompass the loss of a large and unwieldy army among these terrible dunes4 ,it seems probable1 moreover1 that this body of troops was as ill-equipped and badly led as the main army which at the same time was marching southwards to ,ethiopia4 ,led by circuitous routes till they reached a point many marches distant from the nearest well1 worn out by the incessant clambering over endless ridges of soft sand1 their stores of water and food exhausted1 their tracks obliterated by the ever-moving sand1 the fate of the unfortunate soldiers1 deserted at the last by the treacherous guides1 could not long have remained in doubt4 ,the ,persians left a magnificent record of their rule in the temple of ,hibis1 situated #d kilometres north of ,kharga village4 ,founded 7or possibly only rebuilt7 by ,darius ,i4 between #eba and #dhf ,b4,c41 in honour of the god ,ammon-,ra1 it was enlarged by ,nektanebos about #aej years later4 ,in the hieroglyphics the ,king is mentioned as having built the temple of good white stone1 and as having covered its portals1 made of ,libyan acacia-wood1 with bronze from ,asia4 ,there are long lists and representations of the offerings made to ,ammon-,ra the sun-god1 commencing with the wine of the oasis4 ,the building is situated in the midst of fields and palm-groves1 and the accompanying illustrations give a good idea of its general aspect and architecture4 ,the main portion has its long axis east and west1 and measures #dd by #ai metres1 the walls being about #f metres high4 ,to the east of the chief entrance there are three isolated pylons1 one of them being at the present day almost hidden by palms4 ,the entire building is constructed of ,nubian ,sandstone1 believed to have been obtained locally1 though the quarry has never been located4 ,hibis means #8the town of the plough1' and is referred to in the ,ptolemaic inscriptions at ,edfu as the capital of ,kenem 7,kharga74 ,it is not certain whether the town1 which probably existed into the ,middle ,ages1 was in the immediate vicinity of the temple1 or1 as suggested by ,rohlfs1 near ,nadra1 a smaller edifice on a marked eminence a little to the south-east4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,hibis4 ,apart from the temple of ,hibis most of the antiquities in the oasis belong to the ,grco-,roman period1 and probably the most interesting and important of these is the temple now known as ,qasr el ,ghuta1 situate #f kilometres south-east of ,gennh1 on a conspicuous eminence composed of sandstones and shales4 ,qasr el ,ghuta dates from the time of the ,ptolemies1 and1 as the cartouche of ,ptolemy ,,iii4 7,euergetes ,i47 appears on the entrance walls1 it may be presumed that it was erected during his reign1 between #bdg and #bbb ,b4,c4 ,the actual temple is of sandstone1 and measures approximately #aj by #bj metres1 the main entrance being richly inscribed and having ornamental columns with beautifully designed capitals4 ,the interior consists of three courts or rooms1 the first plain1 the second with four ornamental columns and walls decorated with exceptionally well-cut hieroglyphics1 while the third is much smaller1 and contains enclosed passages and cells4 ,the building is hemmed in by numerous crude enclosures1 with partitions of sun-dried brick1 the whole of which1 forming a large rectangular block1 was originally surrounded by a high brick wall of considerable thickness4 ,according to ,schweinfurth1 the outer crude erections formed the quarters of a garrison at a later date4 ,it was during the sway of the ,roman ,emperors that the ,egyptian oases attained their maximum importance4 ,during this period1 from #cj ,b4,c4 to about the beginning of the seventh century1 extensive towns existed in ,kharga1 and the oasis was strongly garrisoned and protected by forts4 ,temples and other edifices were erected1 while a great development of the water-supply took place4 ,during the same period the oases were used as places of banishment1 just as they were in earlier days under the ,pharaohs1 and have been1 in a way1 in quite modern times4 ,juvenal1 the ,latin satirist1 was banished to ,syene at the beginning of the second century1 as a punishment for his attacks on the ,court1 and he appears also to have been for a time confined in ,kharga2 ,athanasius1 ,nestorius1 and other celebrities likewise made unwilling acquaintance with this portion of the ,empire4 ,sayce remarks that the oases under the ,romans were thoroughly cultivated1 a brisk trade in wine being carried on1 and mentions that on one of the temple walls there are several inscriptions which lead one to infer that ,kharga yielded a considerable revenue4 ,one of the best known1 dated in the first year of the reign of the ,emperor ,galba 7,a4,d4 #fh71 is a long ,greek inscription on one of the pylons of the temple of ,hibis2 this has been carefully copied by more than one traveller1 and translations have been published by ,young1 ,letronne1 and ,hoskins4 ,in it the ,prefect of the oasis1 ,julius ,demetrius1 communicated the answer of the ,governor of the province1 ,tiberius ,julius ,alexander1 to various complaints made by the inhabitants1 not only of the oasis1 but of other districts under the same jurisdiction4 ,the proclamation admits the justice of the complaints1 and lays down at great length the steps to be taken in regard to the appointment of tax-gatherers1 the payment of debts1 and imprisonment for various offences2 it deals with deeds of sale1 the marriage portions of women1 rents1 military service1 legal appeals1 the punishment of libellous informers1 etc42 forbids extortion and exorbitant taxes2 orders the restitution of illegally exacted moneys2 and ordains that taxes are to be based on the extent of the ,nile inundation4 ,a still earlier inscription1 on the southern portion of the same pylon1 refers especially to the inhabitants of the oasis1 and is translated by ,hoskins as follows3 8,cnus ,virgilius ,capito says3 ,i have both heard long ago some unjust expenses and false charges to be made by certain persons avariciously and shamefully abusing their powers3 and ,i have just now been informed1 that in the territory of the ,libyans certain things are consumed by those seizing them under pretence1 as it were1 because of their necessities1 as being set apart for their expenses and entertainments2 which charges are neither true nor admissible3 and in like manner under the name of the service of couriers4 ,wherefore ,i command those travelling through the nomes1 soldiers1 and horsemen1 and serjeants1 and centurions1 and tribunes1 and all others1 to take nothing nor to exact the privileges of couriers1 except certain have my warrants2 and these passing along only indeed to be accommodated with lodging3 and that it be laid down1 that no man do any thing1 beyond what were established by ,maximus4 ,but if any individual may give1 or consider any thing as given1 and exact as for the public service1 ,i will exact ten times the amount of what he has exacted from the nome1 and give a fourfold portion to the informer out of the property of the condemned4 ,the royal scribes1 and the village clerks1 and the clerks of the districts in each nome1 shall keep a register of all1 that is expended by the nome upon any one3 that1 if this or any thing else has been irregularly committed1 they may be recorded1 and may repay sixty-fold4 ,but the inhabitants of the ,thebaid may for four months come up to the tribunals of accounts3 and let them address themselves to ,basilides1 the freedman of ,csar1 an officer of the tribunal of accounts1 and to the comptrollers2 that1 if any thing may be adjudged or done contrary to what is just1 ,i may in like manner put this in order40 ,these are interesting side-lights on life in the oasis in those days1 and show that the people were well treated by their highly gifted foreign rulers1 who1 as is well known1 respected the customs and religion of the ,egyptians and1 other nations over whom they ruled4 ,although there exists in the neighbouring oasis of ,dakhla a temple erected during the reign of ,vespasian1 the earliest ,roman temple in ,kharga is probably ,qasr ,dush1 the ancient ,kysis1 erected by ,trajan in ,a4,d4 #aag1 and dedicated to ,isis and ,serapis4 ,the temple1 standing in the midst of the ruins of a town1 occupies the summit of a hill a couple of kilometres north-east of ,dush4 ,the main building1 constructed of stone1 has its long axis north and south1 and measures #ae by #g metres4 ,it is preceded by a forecourt1 in front of which are two pylons1 the first bearing a ,greek inscription relating the date of its erection4 ,hoskins gives the following translation of this inscription3 8,for the fortune of the ,lord ,emperor ,csar ,nero4 4 4 4 ,trajan ,optimus ,augustus ,germanicus ,dacicus1 under ,marcus ,ruffinus ,lupus1 ,governor of ,egypt1 to ,serapis and the supreme gods1 those of ,cyrene8 having written1 erected from a principle of piety this building4 ,the nineteenth year of the ,emperor ,csar ,nero ,adrian ,optimus ,augustus ,germanicus ,dacicus40 ,there appears originally to have been a colonnade between the first and second pylons1 but only fragments of the columns exist at the present day4 ,the front of the forecourt is covered with hieroglyphics1 while the interior is unsculptured except at the portal leading to the main hall1 the latter measuring #f by #e metres1 and having four columns4 ,on the west side there is an entrance leading to an inclined passage4 ,the northern part of the building consists of a central semi-divided portion flanked by two elongated chambers1 all of which have arched roofs4 ,a parapet is formed by the external walls of the temple1 while the roof over the three southern chambers is at a lower level than that of the main hall4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,hibis 7,,interior74 ,the temple proper is in the western portion of an immense rectangular enclosure bounded by very thick walls of sun-dried brick2 these walls at the present day are in a very bad state of preservation1 but appear to have been of the type common in some similar buildings in the north of the oasis-- i4e41 hollow at the top1 so as to enclose a passage by means of which the custodians could make the circuit of the building without descending1 and from which1 unobserved from the exterior1 they had the advantage of a splendid view of the surrounding country4 ,the measurements and details which ,i have given above are largely taken from ,dr4 ,ball's report1 to which the reader is referred for plans and sections of this and other temples4 ,one of the most conspicuous ruins in the oasis is the little temple of ,nadra1 situated on a hill #a kilometre south-east of the temple of ,hibis4 ,the inner building is of sandstone1 and roughly measures #h by #aa metres1 while the outer portion1 bounded by walls of unburnt brick1 is very much larger4 ,according to ,sayce1 the temple was built by ,hadrian between ,a4,d4 #aag and ,a4,d4 #ach4 ,brugsch1 however1 refers it to a somewhat later date1 considering it to have been erected by ,antoninus ,pius4 ,several smaller ruins in the neighbourhood are probably referable to the same period as the temple itself4 ,the ruins of ,qasr ,zaiyan1 #e kilometres north-east of ,bulaq1 enclose a small sandstone temple of somewhat doubtful age1 though a ,greek inscription over the entrance records that the building was restored by ,antoninus ,pius and dedicated to ,amenebis 7,ammon of ,hibis71 god of ,tchonemyris1 the ruins of which town exist in the vicinity4 ,the inscription is translated by ,hoskins as follows3 8,to ,amenebis1 the supreme god of ,tchonemyris1 and to the associated gods of the temple1 for the eternal preservation of ,antoninus ,csar our ,lord1 and his whole house4 ,the cell of the temple and the vestibule were repaired and renewed under ,avidius ,heliodorus1 governor of ,egypt2 ,septimius ,macro being commander-in-chief1 ,plinius ,capito being general of the forces1 in the third year of the ,emperor ,csar ,titus lius ,adrianus ,antoninus ,augustus1 the ,pious4 ,mesore the eighteenth40 ,the ,emperor ,antoninus ,pius reigned from ,a4,d4 #ach to ,a4,d4 #afa1 but antiquities unearthed from the ruins show that the town dates from the time of the ,ptolemies and flourished into the ,byzantine period4 ,in addition to the above the dilapidated ruins of what were doubtless once imposing buildings exist at various points within the depression4 ,one worthy of attention will be noted at ,ain ,amr by travellers to ,dakhla along the upper road4 ,the exact age of the building is uncertain1 though ,wilkinson discovered thereon a portion of the name of one of the ,csars4 ,the small stone temple stood1 like so many others in the oasis1 in a courtyard enclosed by thick walls of unburnt brick1 the fragmentary remains of which are visible in the illustration4 ,the names of the principal deities inscribed on the temple walls are ,kneph1 ,ammon1 and ,mut4 ,both ,edmonstone and ,wilkinson came to the conclusion that the temple is of greater antiquity than the majority of the monuments of the oasis2 but ,i am inclined to believe1 with ,hoskins and ,rohlfs1 that its somewhat crude design is explicable on other grounds than that of age4 ,perhaps the most remarkable and imposing buildings in the oasis are the great ,roman fortresses1 among which may be mentioned ,um el ,dabdib1 ,qasr ,lebekha1 and ,dr el ,ghennma4 ,possibly some of these were fortified monasteries1 though until the ruins1 as well as those of the extensive towns and cemeteries which existed in the neighbourhood1 have been subjected to critical examination1 their exact nature must remain in doubt4 ,the so-called ,dr1 near the foot of ,jebel ,ghennma1 was certainly a fort guarding one of the chief passes up the escarpment of the oasis4 ,it is built of immensely thick walls1 strengthened intermediately and at the four corners by enormous buttresses4 ,the walls taper slightly upwards1 and at the top are double1 concealing a passage which ran round the entire building4 ,in the centre of the court was a deep bore from which the inmates obtained their water1 the surplus supply flowing through an underground conduit to the cultivated lands outside4 ,qasr ,lebekha1 situated in a lonely part of the depression under the northern escarpment1 #ab kilometres north-west of ,meheriq1 has many points in common with the fortress just described4 ,it is1 however1 much smaller1 and its interior is completely filled with domed chambers1 now falling into shapeless fragments4 ,the impressive ruin at ,um el ,dabdib1 #cf kilometres ,n4,n4,w4 of ,kharga1 seems to me to have been a fortified monastery1 the interior being filled with vaulted cells4 ,its appearance is quite distinctive1 lacking as it does the round buttresses of ,qasr ,lebekha and ,dr el ,ghennma1 though the walls are still of great thickness1 and loopholed for defence4 ,outside are the remains of a town of considerable size1 and here doubtless several hundred workmen were quartered when the extensive subterranean waterworks1 which exist in the locality1 were in course of construction4 ,a fourth large ruin1 of somewhat similar architecture1 occupies a conspicuous position on the edge of the escarpment overlooking the ,bellaida district1 about #b kilometres north of the temple of ,hibis4 ,ball describes this under the name of ,qasr ,ain ,mustapha ,kashef1 a name which1 of course1 merely refers to its position near a well of that name4 ,the interior consists of tiers of arched chambers1 and according to ,schweinfurth there is little doubt that the building was a monastery4 ,all the above-mentioned forts and monasteries are built of large sun-dried bricks measuring1 as a rule1 #ce #ag #i centimetres1 and it is noteworthy that the walls1 where of exceptional thickness1 were built in sections1 perhaps to allow of their drying more readily4 ,besides those described1 a great many other mud-brick buildings are to be found scattered through the oasis1 the majority of which possess no very distinctive features4 ,one1 however1 being sure to attract the attention of visitors may be specially referred to2 this is a high rectangular tower occupying a very conspicuous position on the open plain to the west of ,jebel ,tr1 measuring #e by #f metres at the base1 the walls tapering slightly upwards to a height of about #ae metres4 ,it was originally divided into storeys and provided with a staircase1 and may very probably have been used as a watchtower4 ,the remains of a circular brick or pottery kiln are to be seen twenty paces to the south4 ,the exact age of these numerous brick buildings cannot be stated with certainty1 and we can only hope that when the pottery1 coins1 and other objects which exist in the ruins of the adjoining towns have been systematically collected and examined1 it may be possible to date them with more accuracy4 ,at present we can only conjecture that while the greater number were erected during the ,roman occupation1 between #cj ,b4,c4 and ,a4,d4 #cie1 some of them may date from the succeeding ,byzantine period4 ,many of the cemeteries contain mummy-cases on which the likeness of the deceased is carved in wood on the outside1 or fashioned in stucco and painted in colours4 ,three of these from an ancient burial-place in the ,bellaida district1 between ,jebel ,tr and ,jebel ,tarif 7one of a number of cemeteries of ,roman age which await the attention of archologists71 are shown in one of our illustrations4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,christian ,,necropolis4 ,christianity was introduced into ,egypt in the early part of the ,roman domination1 and spread rapidly through the country1 although the national ,egyptian or ,coptic ,church was not established until ,a4,d4 #dea4 ,judging by the size and importance of the cemetery at the south end of ,jebel ,tr1 and by the numerous monasteries1 ,christianity must have had a great following in the oasis of ,kharga4 ,during this period many of the temples in ,upper ,egypt were converted into churches1 and it was not until ,a4,d4 #fdj1 when the ,caliphs conquered the country1 that ,christianity began to wane4 ,the ,christian ,necropolis lies #a kilometre north of the temple of ,hibis1 on the southern extremity of the foot-hills of ,jebel ,tr4 ,the cemetery1 known at the present day as #8,el ,baguat1' consists of a great number of tombs built of unburnt brick1 the majority showing a considerable amount of architectural decoration4 ,the buildings cover a large area1 and are to a certain extent laid out in streets1 which1 as ,ball remarks1 give the place the appearance more of a strange deserted town than of a graveyard4 ,some are small tombs1 noticeable for their simple beauty2 others are large mausolea and sanctuaries1 richly ornamented with columns1 pilasters1 and arches4 ,almost without exception the tombs are surmounted by domes1 though1 owing to the walls being carried up beyond the base of the dome1 the latter is not always conspicuous from the outside4#f ,the interior walls are invariably plastered and whitewashed1 and covered with numerous ,greek and ,arabic inscriptions1 the old ,egyptian #8,tau1' the sign of eternal life1 being frequently displayed4 ,in addition1 the walls and domes are in some cases ornamented with crude coloured designs4 ,the pictures have1 unfortunately1 been mostly hacked to pieces or covered by ,arabic writings1 so that there are now only two tombs in which the original paintings are anything like intact4 ,on the dome of one of these1 near the south end of the cemetery1 a number of familiar ,biblical personages are represented in colours1 their names being inscribed in ,greek characters immediately above4 ,adam and ,eve1 ,noah1 ,abraham1 ,sara and ,isaac1 ,christ1 ,paul1 and others are clearly distinguishable4 ,the actual grave is below the centre of the floor of each tomb4 ,the bodies1 which mostly appear to have been embalmed and wrapped in cloth1 have in many cases been plundered of ornaments and thrown out4 ,even at the time of ,hoskins' visit in #ahcg the majority of the tombs had been ransacked1 and at the present day there are probably few left intact4 ,with regard to the practice of embalming1 ,hoskins writes3 8,it is highly satisfactory that we have such indubitable evidence to enable us to establish the fact1 that the custom of embalming the dead was continued by the first professors of the ,gospel in ,eastern ,africa4 ,the introduction of ,christianity produced great and sudden changes in the minds1 habits1 and customs of believers2 but a length of time was no doubt often necessary to root out many of the prejudices of the people2 and it is very possible1 that the practice of embalming may have been continued as a necessary mark of respect to the dead1 long after the doctrine had been entirely exploded1 in accordance with which the custom had been originally established4 ,this practice1 however1 even in the most ancient times1 was not confined to the worshippers of ,amun4 ,the physicians of ,egypt were forty days in embalming ,jacob2 and ,joseph also was embalmed in ,egypt40 ,illustration3 ,,biblical ,,scenes ,,in ,a ,,tomb ,,of ,,the ,,necropolis4 ,we cannot speak with certainty as to the exact period during which this cemetery was in use4 ,in the course of the reign of ,constantius 7#ccg-cfa71 ,athanasius1 the champion of the doctrine of the ,trinity1 was several times expelled from ,alexandria and compelled to take refuge in the ,libyan ,desert1 where there were numerous monasteries1 which afforded safe asylums from the followers of ,arianism and ,paganism4 ,hoskins states that the name of ,athanasius occurs in one of the ,theban sepulchres1 and he believes that 8the ruined monasteries in the ,oasis ,magna were1 probably1 the abode of the great champion of the ,christian religion40 ,during the reign of the ,emperors ,arcadius and ,honorius numerous personages1 including the general ,timasius1 were exiled to the ,great ,oasis1 described by a writer 7,zosimus7 as 8a barren place whence no one could escape when once carried thither2 for the way being sandy1 desert1 and uninhabited1 no one can find it1 the wind covering the traces of people's feet1 nor is there any tree or house to guide them40 ,nestorius1 ,bishop of ,constantinople1 was excommunicated and banished to the oasis in ,a4,d4 #dcd by the ,patriarch ,cyril of ,alexandria1 and probably the necropolis contains the tombs of a large number of his followers4 ,the ,bishop1 however1 did not die in ,kharga1 as he was carried thence into captivity by the ,blemmyes1 the ancestors of the ,bisharin and ,ababdeh ,arabs1 and died1 after suffering great persecutions1 at ,panopolis 7,akhmm7 about the year #ddj4 ,it is interesting to note that certain ,christian customs and festival days are still observed in the oasis at the present time4 ,ruins of columbaria are of frequent occurrence in many parts of ,kharga1 and judging from the size and shape of the bricks used1 belong to the same period as the forts and monasteries4 ,they are generally of considerable size1 the inner walls being built so as to provide tiers of cubical niches to serve as nesting-places for the pigeons4 ,examples may be seen at ,ain el ,burg and ,ain ,tabashr in the ,meheriq district2 in the ,bellaida country1 and near ,ain ,khenfish2 on the slopes of the ,gorn el ,gennh2 and near the village of ,dush at the south end of the oasis4 ,these ancient pigeon-houses are called #8,burg' by the natives1 the ,arabic name for dovecot being #8,burg ,hamm4' ,that the oases were very flourishing under the ,roman ,empire is shown by ,olympiodorus1 who lived in the reign of ,theodosius ,,ii4 7,a4,d4 #djh-dej71 and was born in ,upper ,egypt4 ,writing of the ,great ,oasis1 he calls attention to its salubriousness1 to the abundance of sand everywhere1 and to the numerous wells1 which1 sunk to a depth of #bjj1 #cjj1 or even #ejj cubits1#g pour forth streams of fresh water at the surface1 which is used in rotation by the owners for the irrigation of their fields4 ,barley1 he avers1 is sometimes sown twice a year1 and millet almost always three times4 ,writing of the irrigation1 ,olympiodorus remarks that in this region the sky is always cloudless1 and that the great fertility of the land is attributable to the fact that the peasants water their little enclosures every third day in summer1 and every sixth in winter4 ,the same writer states that dials were made in the oasis4 ,the presence of marine shells in the rocks of the surrounding deserts led ,olympiodorus to conjecture that the oasis was formerly an island1 separated by the sea from the rest of ,egypt1 and he recalls the fact that the place was called by ,herodotus #8the ,island of the ,blessed4' ,strabo writes of the ,libyan ,desert thus3 8,this continent resembles a panther's skin1 as being spotted with inhabited districts1 insulated in the midst of a sandy soil and arid deserts2 the ,egyptians call these cantons #8,auasis4'0 ,he refers to the ,great ,oasis as follows3 8,in a parallel line with ,abydus1 and distant about three days' journey across the desert1 we find the first of the three ,oases of ,lybia2 it is a spot well inhabited1 well supplied with water1 and producing wines and other commodities in sufficient abundance40 ,with the withdrawal of the ,roman garrisons and the ,mohammedan conquest decay set in1 and1 as ,sayce remarks1 the aqueducts became choked1 the fields were neglected1 and malarial fever invaded a district which had at one time been regarded as a health resort4 ,of the history of the oases during the succeeding seven or eight centuries no records are available1 but1 judging from the writings of ,arabian geographers1 between the eleventh and the fifteenth centuries1 it is evident that they gradually became depopulated1 and were regarded as of little importance4 ,el ,sherf el ,edrissi1 writing about the middle of the sixth century of the ,hegra1 refers to the oases 7,al ,vahat7 as places formerly containing streams of water1 with lands on which trees were still found growing1 and with ruined1 uninhabited towns4 ,he adds that the goats and sheep had become quite wild1 and were trapped by hunters like other wild animals4 ,it is not improbable1 however1 that this author was referring to some of the smaller oases-depressions1 such as ,kurkur1 or perhaps to some of the more outlying parts of ,kharga or ,dakhla4 ,it seems extremely unlikely1 as ,hoskins remarks1 that the ,great ,oasis as a whole had become entirely uninhabited4 ,still later the emir and historian ,ismail ,abulfida1 about the beginning of the fourteenth century1 speaks of the oases as abounding with palms and running water1 and describes them as situated like islands1 in the middle of the desert1 three days' journey from the ,said 7,upper ,egypt74 ,jacutus describes the positions of three oases1 and refers to the first of them as being well cultivated1 containing streams and hot springs1 palms and cultivated lands4 ,the inhabitants1 he adds1 are in a wretched state4 ,several other writers allude to the ,egyptian oases1 but their information is seldom1 if ever1 first hand1 and the descriptions are in general so vague that we are left in doubt as to which particular oasis their remarks refer4 ,the more modern records1 commencing with those of ,poncet at the end of the seventeenth century1 have already been referred to in a previous chapter4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,extinct ,,lakes ,,of ,,the ,,oasis ,character and ,extension of ,lacustrine ,deposits -- ,modern ,erosion by ,wind-borne ,sand -- ,the ,lakes geologically of ,recent ,age -- ,discovery of ,pottery and ,bones of ,domesticated ,animals -- ,area occupied by the ,lakes -- ,maximum ,level of their ,waters -- ,lacustrine ,strata at ,gorn el ,gennh -- ,relation to the ,ancient ,monuments -- ,altitudes of ,archological ,sites -- ,age of the ,lakes and their ,persistence into ,historic ,times -- ,flint ,implements -- ,origin of the ,lakes -- ,their possible connection with the ,artesian ,waters -- ,lacustrine ,deposits form the ,cultivated ,lands of ,modern ,times4 ,when in #aijf ,i commenced to make a special study of the geology of the oasis1 with a view to elucidating certain questions which had arisen in connection with the water-supply1 it came to me as a very great surprise to find indubitable evidence that the greater part of the floor of the depression had at one time or another been the site of an immense lake4 ,no mention had been made by previous observers of the extensive accumulations of lacustrine sediments which cover so large a proportion of the floor1 and are found from near ,ain el ,ghazl in the north to beyond ,beris in the south4 ,illustration3 ,,lacustrine ,,deposits ,,at ,,el ,,gala1 ,,near ,,bulaq4 ,these deposits consist of horizontal finely-bedded alternations of sand and clay1 or more frequently of an intimate mixture of the two2 local false-bedding is not uncommon1 and included fragments of limestone or sandstone are occasionally met with4 ,the beds have a prevailing brown tint1 and frequently exhibit well-marked hexagonally disposed shrinkage cracks4 ,although originally they must have formed an immense compact and continuous sheet1 the deposits have since been subjected to considerable denudation1 so that at the present day they exist as large isolated patches4 ,perhaps the most striking of these is that occupying the centre of the depression between ,kharga village and ,jebel el ,ghennma1 covering an area of between #dj and #ej square kilometres1 and over the greater part cut by the sand-blast into thousands of isolated hummocks1 disposed with their longer axes parallel and in the direction of the prevailing north winds4 ,individual hummocks have perhaps an average height of #d or #e metres1 though many exceed this considerably2 in length they may measure anything up to #dj or #ej metres4 ,the northern end of a hummock is in nearly all cases the larger1 the gradual tapering towards the south being a most distinctive feature4 ,their present shape and appearance are1 of course1 entirely due to the eroding and sculpturing action of sand-laden wind4 ,the finding of these extensive lacustrine deposits naturally opened up a number of questions of the greatest interest and importance4 ,to what level had the waters of the lake attained2 what were its limits horizontally2 and1 most important of all1 at what period had it existed1 and what were its relations to the ancient monuments of the oasis8 ,with the object of solving these problems it has been my endeavour to collect all possible information concerning the deposits1 and1 although it is perhaps too soon to draw inferences with any great certainty1 ,i propose to put on record such data as ,i have been able to obtain1 and to indicate the conclusions to which they appear to lead4 ,it is1 of course1 obvious that the lake was1 geologically speaking1 of comparatively recent date2 the lacustrine deposits have nothing in common with those of the ,cretaceous and ,eocene formations which build up the plateau-massif out of which the oasis-depression is hewn4 ,the sands and clays are much softer and less consolidated beds1 laid down superficially and unconformably on the uneven surfaces of the older formations2 the depression had1 in fact1 almost attained to its modern dimensions before the beds in question were formed4 ,my first impression was that the lake dated from prehistoric1 if not prehuman1 times2 that it existed before the prevailing desert conditions set in1 when the ,nile ,valley was the site of extensive lakes and the country was partially wooded4 ,the existence of thick deposits of calcareous tufa on the upper portions of the cliffs of the depression suggested a considerable outpouring of water from springs1 and it seemed not improbable that the surplus water collected on the floor of the depression below4 ,for some time ,i was unable to discover any clue to the age of the deposits1 in the shape of organic remains or human relics4 ,then1 in a pit sunk for surface-water in the neighbourhood of ,headquarters1#h some fragments of pottery were found at the base of the deposit4 ,this discovery was followed by the finding of other pieces of pottery firmly embedded in some of the clay hummocks to the south-west of ,headquarters4 ,these were without question in situ1 and proved that the lake was contemporaneous with man4 ,further search1 in which ,i was greatly assisted by my friend ,h4 ,h4 ,baker1 ,m4,b41 led to the discovery of human settlements1 apparently on the margins of the lake4 ,in these localities large quantities of broken pottery were found associated with the bones of domesticated animals1 while the fresh-water gastropod shell1 ,melania tuberculata1 was found to be abundant in some of the beds4 ,careful exploitation of one or two of these sites1 about #f kilometres south-west of ,headquarters1 enabled us to procure a number of complete earthenware vessels1 the chief types of which are shown in one of our illustrations4 ,a comparison of these with pottery of known age must be left until we have referred to the horizontal and vertical extension of the lake4 ,judging from the still existing deposits1 and utilizing 7in the northern part of the oasis7 a considerable number of levels1 ,i believe the limits of the lake to have been as shown on the accompanying plan4 ,from its most northerly point in lat4 #be #de ,n41 in the neighbourhood of the modern ,ain el ,ghazl1 its western boundary trended ,s4,s4,w41 passing about #a kilometres west of ,meheriq village to the south-west end of ,jebel ,tr2 thence its shore-line lay at the foot of ,jebel ,tarwan1 rounding which it projected somewhat into the ,bellaida district between ,jebel ,tr and ,jebel ,tarif4 ,south of this it bore slightly west of south1 passing about #b and #c kilometres west of ,kharga and ,gennh villages respectively4 ,from the latter point the shore-line proceeded almost due south to lat4 #be #b ,n41 in the vicinity of ,ain ,girm ,meshm4 ,its eastern limit appears to have been about a kilometre east of ,ain el ,qasr1 and some three times that distance east of ,meheriq1 so that on this latitude the lake had a breadth of #d kilometres4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,headquarters its margin lay #b kilometres to the east1 whence it ran almost due south for about #ab kilometres4 ,here1 just to the south-west of ,ain ,harrn1 the lake attained its greatest width--i4e41 #ae or #af kilometres1 gradually diminishing southwards to ,ain ,girm ,meshm4 ,the total length of this portion of the lake was just over #hj kilometres4 ,both at ,ain ,girm ,meshm and ,ain el ,doum the lacustrine deposits are well seen2 over the intermediate country they were not observed1 and as this area lies at a somewhat high elevation1 it seems probable that there was a break in the continuity of the lake of about #ae kilometres in extent4 ,the southern portion appears to have measured approximately #de by #ae kilometres1 its long axis lying along a line passing through ,ain el ,doum1 ,beris1 and ,maks ,qibli4 ,to the south-east the lake had a local extension in the neighbourhood of ,dush4 ,it is thus seen to have extended1 with a possible break of a few kilometres in the district near ,ain ,girm ,meshm1 almost throughout the length of the depression1 over a distance of #acf kilometres1 or #he miles4 ,it proved a matter of some difficulty to determine the maximum height to which the lake had reached1 as in most localities the deposits have suffered considerable denudation1 and their margins are usually obscured by blown sand and superficial detrital material4 ,the pottery to the south-west of ,headquarters was ascertained to occur at #dg metres above sea-level1 the uppermost limit of the deposits in that area being #fb metres4 ,at ,headquarters the lake clays occur up to between #fe and #ff metres2 at ,ain ,terfai and ,ain ,mahmud1 north of ,meheriq1 to #fe and #fg metres respectively4 ,still farther north ,i found there were stretches of similar clays at #gf metres near ,ain el ,qasr1 and at #hd to #he metres in the neighbourhood of ,ain el ,ghazl4 ,on the west side a very well-defined plain formed of the lake beds occurs immediately to the east of the ,necropolis1 and was found to lie at #gj metres above sea-level4 ,but the most valuable data of all were those obtained at the ,gorn el ,gennh4 ,there1 as anticipated1 the lacustrine deposits1 containing ,melania and ,limna in abundance1 were found to be well developed and exposed1 being piled up on the flanks of the hill on its north1 east1 and south sides1 the exact limits of the beds being best seen on the south-east side near the ruins of a columbarium4 ,immediately behind the latter the top of the stratified clays was determined as #ff metres1 a figure agreeing remarkably closely with the majority of the maximum heights farther north4 ,still higher up1 however1 are other clays1 which1 while similar in general appearance1 are either very irregularly bedded or altogether unstratified4 ,the upper limit of these clays was found to be #hbgf1 or1 say1 #hc metres4 ,while these highest beds may possibly have been deposited by the waters of springs issuing from faults and fissures 7the line of disturbance mentioned in a previous chapter passes through the ,gorn at this point71 one must1 in the absence of any definite evidence to the contrary1 regard them as probably representing the extreme marginal deposits of the lake4 ,we may1 indeed1 conclude that1 while the lake presumably at one time reached to a maximum level of #he metres1 it stood for a considerable period at about #gj metres above sea-level4 ,illustration3 ,,coffin-,,masks ,,from ,,bellaida4 ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,pottery ,,from ,,the ,,lacustrine ,,deposits4 ,the next step was to ascertain the altitudes of the archological sites and the relation of the latter to the lacustrine deposits4 ,up to the present time levels have not been carried through to the south end of the oasis1 and aneroid determinations are not of sufficient accuracy for our purpose1 so that we must confine our attention in this connection to the northern portion of the depression4 ,the ground-level of the temple of ,hibis was found to be at #ge metres and the lowest of the tombs of the ,necropolis at #hjf metres above sea-level4 ,the columbarium already alluded to1 on the south-east side of the ,gorn el ,gennh1 is built on the denuded slopes of the lacustrine series at a level of #egb metres1 while the base of a number of brick ruins a little to the north was found to be just over #ec metres4 ,finally1 the ground-level at the base of the slope on which stands ,qasr ,zaiyan was determined as #ba metres1 a bench-mark being made on the southern door of the temple at #bdeb metres above sea-level4 ,there are several points in connection with the disposition of the archological remains which cannot but strike one4 ,in the first place1 they are mostly on or near the extreme margin of the lacustrine deposits2 secondly1 they are absent altogether from the central portion of the lake site2 and thirdly1 the older monuments occupy the highest levels1 while there are no representatives at all of the earlier ,egyptian periods4 ,while the disposition of the monuments may1 of course1 be entirely fortuitous1 we are justified1 ,i think1 in assuming that the lake existed well into the historic period1 and may have still stood at the #fe or #gj metre level when the temple of ,hibis was erected by ,darius1 about #ejj years before the commencement of the ,christian era4 ,in the time of the ,ptolemies it was certainly considerably lower1 while in still later days1 when the country became a ,roman province1 the lake had very much contracted1 and probably only existed as a marshy swamp occupying the lower portions of the depression4 ,what age1 it may be asked1 is indicated by the pottery1 bones1 and fresh-water shells which1 as already mentioned1 have been found in the lacustrine deposits8 ,unfortunately the shells belong to species which have a wide distribution1 and have persisted from early ,pleistocene times right up to the present day4 ,they do not1 therefore1 help us to fix the age of the deposits1 except within wide limits4 ,the bones were submitted to ,dr4 ,andrews1 ,f4,r4,s41 of the ,british ,museum ,staff1 and his conclusion is that they belong to two domesticated animals--one a small1 lightly-built ox1 the other a small horse1 donkey1 or zebra2 unfortunately they are not sufficiently complete to be determined with certainty4 ,finally1 as to the pottery3 the types do not differ in any important respect from those associated with the towns and cemeteries of ,grco-,roman age in many parts of the oasis4 ,the barrel-shaped pot has1 indeed1 persisted to modern times1 being1 in a slightly different design1 the standard water-jar at the present day in the oasis of ,dakhla4 ,the pottery1 therefore1 bears out our conclusions that the lake continued to exist well into the historic period4 ,although flint implements have never yet been detected in situ in the lacustrine deposits1 ,i have collected a considerable number from the area originally occupied by the lake4 ,some of these were found lying on the denuded surfaces of the lake beds1 in positions which lead me to suppose that they have weathered out from the deposits4 ,they are decidedly ,neolithic in workmanship and character1 and were1 in my opinion1 used by people inhabiting the depression at the time of1 and probably prior to1 the existence of the lake4 ,a number of examples are shown in one of the accompanying plates2 the figure in the bottom left-hand corner is1 however1 that of a palolith1 a typical example of those which occur on the borders of the plateau1 and on or near the eastern escarpments4 ,in the right-hand bottom corner is figured an object of very common occurrence in the oasis--a sandstone hand-grinder1 probably of ,roman age4 ,with the exception of these two the specimens illustrated are all implements from the site of the lake4 ,flint implements were evidently in use in ,kharga at a very late period1 as large numbers of worked flints1 mostly in the form of flakes or tools of very poor finish1 occur near many of the old sanded-up wells4 ,a considerable amount of detailed work will have to be undertaken before the different flints of the oasis can be satisfactorily arranged in chronological order4 ,from what period did the lake date1 and to what cause did it owe its origin1 are questions which cannot1 ,i fear1 be definitely answered as yet4 ,while it is quite reasonable to consider1 in the absence of any decisive evidence to the contrary1 that the lake originated in early prehistoric or ,pleistocene times--that it dates possibly from the time of the formation of the tufas of the ,nile ,valley and oasis-escarpment1 when the climate was certainly much moister than at the present day--we must not forget the possibility that it was formed by artificial means during one or other of the ,egyptian dynasties between #cjjj and #ajjj ,b4,c4 ,there is good reason to believe that the depression was inhabited previous to the formation of the lake1 and although we have no information as to when the first deep borings were made1 there is some evidence which leads me to suspect that wells existed prior to the time when the surface of the lake began to fall1 if not very much earlier4 ,the evidence to which ,i refer is the discovery of a portion of an earthenware pipe embedded in situ in the lake clays at a height of #dbhe metres1 of the type used by the ancients for lining their water-channels4 ,is it possible1 therefore1 that1 as the result of the industry of the ancient well-borers-- following their initial discovery of these deep-seated sources--the long-confined waters welled up with irresistible force1 and gradually flooded the country4 ,at the present day1 when the pressure throughout the artesian basin must be very much less than formerly1 it is not uncommon for new bores to get out of control and flood considerable areas of country4 ,the same thing may possibly have happened on a very much larger scale thousands of years ago1 when the first bores were sunk into a previously untapped artesian basin1 fully charged with water under great pressure4 ,illustration3 ,,flint ,,implements4 ,there is another explanation which it is advisable to keep in mind1 though it has never hitherto1 as far as ,i am aware1 been advanced as a possible cause of the formation of lakes4 ,the very existence of artesian water depends on the presence of porous strata overlain by impermeable beds4 ,if one or other of the porous beds1 charged with water under pressure1 should1 through the action of denudation on the overlying beds1 become exposed at the surface1 the waters would escape through natural springs in very large quantities4 ,this might1 indeed1 continue for a long period of time1 until the bed was nearly depleted and the pressure reduced to nil4 ,there is little doubt that the beds which we have named the #8,surface-water ,sandstone1' and which are now exposed in places on the floor of the oasis1 were originally entirely covered by impervious clays1 and contained artesian water under pressure2 they may1 in fact1 have been in the same condition as is the ,artesian-water ,sandstone at the present day4 ,it is conceivable1 therefore1 that when those beds became exposed at the surface1 owing to the removal of the overlying confining strata1 their contained waters escaped in such quantities as to have given rise to a lake of considerable dimensions1 if not to one equal in size to that which we have been considering4 ,no one can be more conscious than myself of how much there is still to be learnt regarding the topographical aspects of the oasis in early historic times1 and although the theory that the lake may have been formed by waters which escaped from the underlying water-charged beds 7either artificially through bore-holes or naturally as springs7 may at first sight appear fanciful1 it is one which1 in the present imperfect state of our knowledge1 is at least worth bearing in mind4 ,a more detailed examination of the lacustrine deposits would probably throw further light on the matter2 and a minute analysis of the nature1 composition1 and arrangement of the individual grains would almost certainly show whether the beds have in the main been formed of sediment carried into the lake by streams from the neighbouring cliffs and plateaux1 or whether they represent wind-borne accumulations of sand and clay-dust from the surrounding plains4 ,at whatever period and in whatever manner the lake may have been formed1 it is quite clear that it existed well into historic times1 and that on its bed were laid down thick deposits of clay and sand1 which at the present day form the bulk of the cultivated lands of the oasis4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,underground ,,water-,,supply ,the ,water-bearing ,strata underlying the ,libyan ,desert -- ,essential ,conditions required to produce an ,artesian ,basin -- ,the ,surface-,water ,sandstone -- ,collecting ,pits -- ,fissures -- ,yield of ,water -- ,flowing ,wells from this ,sandstone -- ,bores at ,el ,dr el ,ghennma -- ,variable ,quality of ,water -- ,ancient ,subterranean ,aqueducts -- ,the ,artesian-,water ,sandstone -- ,general ,characters -- ,the ,headquarters ,area avoided by the ,ancients -- ,drilling ,difficulties -- ,results of ,new ,bores -- ,factors determining ,discharges of ,wells -- ,temperature and ,chemical ,composition of ,artesian ,waters4 ,when laboriously traversing the hot and arid plateaux of the ,libyan ,desert1 our thoughts divided between the fertile plains of the ,nile we have left behind and the still far distant oasis1 it is difficult to realize the presence1 within a distance of a few hundred yards1 of an abundant supply of the purest water4 ,yet there is little doubt that the water-bearing beds underlie practically the whole of the ,libyan ,desert1 though it is only on the floors of the depressions that they lie within accessible distance of the surface4 ,on the high tablelands the cost of sinking bores to reach the sandstones would be prohibitive1 and without the aid of powerful and costly pumps the water would not rise to the level of the ground4 ,but although the subterranean waters of the great desert plateaux cannot economically be made available at the surface1 it must not be forgotten that the deeply buried sandstones of these regions must act to a great extent as storage reservoirs capable of replenishing the beds underlying the oases-depressions1 from which large volumes of water are continuously drawn by the numerous artesian wells4 ,the essential conditions required to produce an artesian basin1 which1 when tapped by borings1 will produce self-flowing wells1 are the presence of strata of sufficient porosity to carry water1 enclosed above and below by beds of sufficient impermeability to prevent the escape of that water2 the outcrop of the porous beds in some higher and distant region1 with an adequate exposure to an abundant source of water1 whether rain1 river1 or lake2 and1 finally1 the absence of an easy escape at a lower level1 unless at a considerable distance from the sites of the wells4 ,these requirements are well fulfilled in the ,libyan ,desert1 where the ,nubian ,series at the base of the ,cretaceous consists of highly porous sandstones1 subdivided by impervious beds of shale1 overlain by a great thickness of absolutely water-tight beds1 and underlain by probably almost equally impermeable crystalline rocks4 ,these porous sandstones rise gradually to the south1 and presumably outcrop in ,nubia and the ,sudan1 though whether1 as we shall see later1 they derive their water-supplies from the ,nubian reaches of the ,nile1 from the great swamp regions of the ,sudan1 or from the rains of ,abyssinia or ,darfur1 is still1 to some extent1 an open question4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,artesian ,,well 7,,bore ,,no4 #ci74 ,in ,northern ,kharga we find two similar but distinct sandstones1 separated by a #ge-metre band of ,impermeable ,grey ,shale4 ,the upper bed1 which we have for convenience designated the #8,surface-water ,sandstone1' is exposed at the surface1 and contains standing or sub-artesian water2 while the lower1 from which the flowing wells derive their supplies1 never approaches within #hj metres of the surface1 and forms the true #8,artesian-water ,sandstone4' ,it will be convenient to give these sandstones separate consideration4 ,,the ,,surface-,,water ,,sandstone4 ,the stratigraphical position of the ,surface-water ,sandstone will be seen by reference to the geological sequence given in a preceding chapter1 and to the section drawn across the oasis4 ,the beds forming this division have an average thickness of #de metres1 and consist almost entirely of fine sandstones or coarser grits1 often containing an abundance of oxide of iron1 and occasionally beds of alum and ,epsom salts1 or1 to be chemically exact1 hydrous sulphates of alumina and magnesia4 ,thin bands of shale are frequently met with1 intercalated in the sandstones1 generally near the top or base of the series4 ,on the level or gently undulating floor of the oasis1 to the east of the line of disturbance passing through ,jebel ,tr1 the ,surface-water ,sandstone has a wide outcrop1 while to the west1 where the general level of all the formations is higher1 the same stage forms the foot-hills of ,jebel ,tarif1 of ,jebel ,tr1 and of the high cliffs which rise to the north of ,um el ,dabdib and ,ain ,lebekha4 ,it is probable1 moreover1 that the sandstones which form the surface of the desert between ,kharga and ,dakhla1 and which cover immense areas to the south of the oases1 also belong to this group4 ,over a portion of the floor in the north of the depression these sandstones have been entirely removed by denudation1 so that in this area the underlying grey shales form the desert surface4 ,at one time the sandstone was continuous across the depression1 and entirely covered by an impervious mantle consisting of the ,purple ,shales4 ,it was then1 in all probability1 fully charged with water under pressure1 as is the true ,artesian-water ,sandstone at the present day2 and it is possible1 as we have already suggested1 that when the sandstones in question were first laid bare by the active agents of erosion1 innumerable springs broke forth1 and gave rise to a lake of considerable magnitude1 which may1 indeed1 have been that which persisted into the historic period4 ,in the district round ,headquarters several pits have been sunk in this sandstone1 from which the water is lifted by power for purposes of irrigation4 ,in six pits the maximum level of the water varies from #eech to #efeb1 the average being #eegd metres4 ,from ,headquarters the general surface of the country falls to the north1 south1 and east1 and curiously the water-level in the sandstone falls in the same directions4 ,in a pit near ,bore ,no4 #dc1 about #c kilometres to the south-west1 the water-level is #ebd metres2 at points #fdj metres and #b kilometres to the west it was found to be #ebaf and #ejba metres respectively2 while near ,bore ,no4 #cc1 #d kilometres to the north1 the surface-water stands at #ebga metres above sea-level4 ,the ground-levels at these points are #eded1 #egij1 #ecfa1 and #egfa respectively1 while that at ,headquarters averages #eieg metres above sea-level4 ,for irrigation purposes an ordinary bore-hole or small pit is quite useless1 the inflow of water through the pores of this sandstone being too slow to yield a pumping supply4 ,when a large pit is excavated1 fissures1 through which water is seen to be freely circulating1 are nearly always exposed4 ,experiments show that--provided a sufficiently large collecting-tank is made1 measuring1 for instance1 #e by #d metres1 and sunk from #a to #b metres below the standing water-level--a supply sufficient to yield a continuous discharge of #h gallons a minute 7equivalent to #aa1ejj gallons per day of twenty-four hours7 can frequently be obtained4 ,moreover1 by sinking a bore to a depth of #g or #h metres from the bottom of the pit1 preferably on one of the fissures1 the supply can be increased threefold1 the water emerging from the bore in considerable volume1 though with insufficient pressure to carry it 7in a length of well-casing fixed on the top of the bore-hole7 above the level of #eegd4 ,the latter figure may1 indeed1 be regarded as the static head in this neighbourhood of the water in the ,surface-water ,sandstone4 ,the fact that from this sandstone we are unable to obtain an artesian well at the surface1 but can get flowing water at a depth of a few metres1 is an important illustration of the very slight difference in some cases between flowing and non-flowing wells1 and of their close connection with1 and dependence on1 the absolute ground-level4 ,the extent to which this sub-surface source can be drawn on without lowering its level has not yet been determined1 though1 in a pit alongside ,bore ,no4 #b1 a #8saqia' or ,persian waterwheel 7a native contrivance adapted for lifting water1 worked by oxen or camels71 has been working for about eighteen months without appreciably affecting the supply4 ,we have seen that a flowing well can be obtained 7in a pit7 a few metres below ground-level1 and under certain conditions it may be possible to obtain flowing wells at the surface from the sandstone under consideration2 the occurrence of artesian water at ,el ,dr el ,ghennma1 on the east side of the depression1 may1 indeed1 be a case in point4 ,to the east of ,headquarters1 as may be gathered from the section1 the ,surface-water ,sandstone dips gently under the ,purple ,shales1 the thickness of the latter increasing as the eastern escarpment is approached4 ,running north and south through ,el ,dr is an anticlinal fold1 and flowing water is obtainable from wells sunk on its crest through the shales to the underlying sandstone4 ,the original depths of the ancient wells in this district cannot be determined with certainty1 but when one of those to the north of the ruined fort was cleaned out and cased1 flowing water was obtained when the drill reached a depth of #da metres4 ,below this the ground appeared to be untouched1 the bore being carried a few metres deeper into fresh sandstone1 which yielded an increased supply4 ,this well has given a steady discharge of about #dj gallons a minute for over eighteen months4 ,quite recently the flow has been augmented to just over #ej gallons per minute by its outlet being lowered about #a metres1 to #ib metres above sea-level4 ,the water here seems to be derived from the ,surface-water ,sandstone1 though1 considering that the well is situated on a line of folding1 it would not be advisable to entirely disregard the possibility of the presence of fissures1 through which the water might rise directly from the ,artesian-water ,sandstone below4 ,if1 as appears to be the case from the depth and position of the bore1 the water does have its origin in the ,surface-water ,sandstone1 the explanation may be that the necessary working head or pressure is furnished by the difference of level of the sandstone here and in adjacent districts4 ,in the extreme north of the oasis the same sandstone lies at a considerably higher level1 and1 at the same time1 holds large volumes of water1 and it may be that the pressure of this water1 acting on that contained in the beds at lower levels1 gives rise to flowing wells when bores are sunk in favourable localities4 ,a very great drawback to the water of these upper sandstones is its variable quality4 ,in the ,headquarters district it is usually more or less ferruginous1 and in some pits may contain as much as #fc grains of dissolved solids per gallon1 the salts consisting of iron1 potash1 and soda1 with traces of lime and magnesia1 mostly in the form of sulphates and chlorides4 ,mr4 ,william ,garsed#i has calculated that this water would1 if used for irrigation at the rate of #c gallons a minute per acre1 effect an annual deposition of over #c tons of sulphate of potash and common salt on each acre of land4 ,salts of this nature in such quantities would1 of course1 have a very deleterious effect on the crops1 not to mention the mechanical binding action of the iron on the soil4 ,it appears that the want of uniformity in the quality of the water is due to local causes1 chief of which may be the relative abundance of fissures1 the purity of the sandstone1 and the presence or absence of mineralized shales4 ,in those areas where the water is moving only slowly--where1 in fact1 it tends towards stagnation in the strata--it is probably liable to become more or less highly charged with mineral salts2 certainly the best qualities seem to coincide with relative abundance1 and the largest supplies are undoubtedly found where the beds are traversed by fissures4 ,in many parts of the oasis perfectly sweet water is obtainable from the sandstones of this series1 and this source1 as an auxiliary to the artesian supplies obtained from deep borings1 was taken full advantage of in olden times4 ,the ancients constructed the most marvellous systems of subterranean aqueducts to tap these sources1 more especially in the neighbourhood of ,um el ,dabdib1 ,qasr ,lebekha1 and ,qasr ,gyb1 where such works were especially applicable1 owing to the fact that the sandstones in those districts form extensive hills above the general level of the surrounding cultivable ground4 ,these underground works are1 in many respects1 of far greater interest than the ancient monuments1 and they will therefore be fully described in a later chapter4 ,,the ,,artesian-,,water ,,sandstone4 ,the source of the great majority of the flowing wells of the oasis is the group of sandstones underlying the ,impermeable ,grey ,shales4 ,although the beds of the series are nowhere visible to the eye1 their general characters can be judged by an examination of the material brought to the surface during drilling operations4 ,the samples prove that1 in general lithological characters1 the ,artesian-water ,sandstones do not essentially differ from those just described4 ,throughout the area over which boring operations have recently been carried out no well-defined1 continuous1 argillaceous bands have been met with1 though lenticular intercalations of clayey strata are not uncommon4 ,up to the present time the base of the ,artesian-water ,sandstone has not been reached1 although the deepest borings have been carried down to a depth of #abb metres below its junction with the confining shales above4 ,the different bands vary considerably in coarseness and porosity1 in hardness1 and in the amount of cementing material between the individual grains of the rock1 all of which characters have a marked influence on their capacity as water-carriers4 ,judging from their unfossiliferous nature1 from the presence of thin seams of lignite associated with bands and nodules of iron pyrites1 and from certain other considerations1 we are led to infer that these sandstones were originally laid down on the bed of an immense inland fresh-water lake4 ,during the past half-century the natives have put down a considerable number of deep bores in this and the neighbouring oasis4 ,no written records concerning these are1 however1 available1 so that in seeking information one has to rely on the memory of the men who sunk the wells4 ,by careful cross-questioning ,i have collected a large amount of interesting and valuable information1 but still1 in describing the artesian wells themselves1 it will be more satisfactory to confine our attention to those which have been drilled on the ,headquarters area during the last two or three years1 and of which accurate and reliable records have been preserved4 ,the ,headquarters area1 occupying the central part of the depression between ,kharga village and ,jebel el ,ghennma1 is one of the few large districts entirely devoid of old wells and traces of former cultivation4 ,a combination of unfavourable circumstances appears to have led the ancient well-borers to avoid this district4 ,firstly1 the general elevation is comparatively high1 meaning small flows from wells of ordinary depth2 secondly1 the superficial alluvial deposit is clayey and heavy1 necessitating a considerable expenditure of time and labour to bring it into satisfactory condition for cultivation2 and1 thirdly1 and probably most important of all1 the presence of a copious supply of sub-surface water1 which would have greatly hampered1 if not made impossible1 the sinking of wells by the ancient system4 ,it may therefore be assumed that1 owing to the entire absence of both ancient and modern wells1 the sandstones of this district were practically fully charged with water at the time the first bore was sunk4 ,the junction of the ,artesian-water ,sandstone with the grey shales above is usually fairly abrupt1 the first flowing water being obtained as soon as the drill strikes the top of the sandstone4 ,where alternating sandstones and shales occur at or near the junction1 the former are generally charged with water under feeble pressure1 yielding flows at the surface of from #a to #e gallons a minute4 ,sometimes1 indeed1 the piercing of these thin bands1 prior to the main body of sandstone being entered1 merely results in a rise of water in the bore-hole1 without actual flow4 ,on drilling into the sandstone proper1 increments of the flow are obtained at fairly frequent1 though irregular1 intervals of depth4 ,at times the discharge is seen to increase slowly but steadily1 while a particularly porous bed is being passed through2 at others the rate of increase is so rapid as to suggest that a fissure charged with freely flowing water has been struck4 ,as a rule1 hard beds of sandstone1 7the #8shells' of ,american drillers7 overlie the best water-carrying layers1 and though these act locally as confining beds1 there almost certainly is1 nevertheless1 an intimate connection between different parts of the sandstone1 as no persistent argillaceous bands have been met with4 ,loose uncemented sands may be encountered at any time1 but do not seem to coincide with marked increases of flow4 ,these #8quicksands' form one of the greatest difficulties with which drillers have to contend1 and many bores have perforce to be discontinued owing to the impossibility of drilling through them4 ,the loose sands #8cave'--that is1 run in from all sides--the whole wall of the bore at times falling in1 throughout a length of #e or #aj metres4 ,the only remedy against caving is the insertion of casing1 but this is generally undesirable1 as it may effect the shutting off of water already obtained from the upper bands of the sandstone2 in some cases1 however1 perforated lining may be satisfactorily employed4 ,of thirty-one bores finished in this district1 none has failed to strike water1 though three have yielded such small flows that they may be regarded as comparative failures4 ,the average flow of the thirty-one wells1 the measurements being made in each case a week or two after completion1 was approximately #ajj gallons a minute1 the maximum being #cae and the minimum #ah gallons per minute4 ,all bores have shown a marked decline in discharge for some time after completion1 when1 if isolated1 they have settled down to a fairly steady flow1 or at least to a flow which decreases at a constantly diminishing rate4 ,owing to the very adverse effect of some of the larger bores 7situated on the lower parts of the area7 their flows have been purposely reduced2 and as a further precaution against over-exploitation1 and as a remedy to the waste consequent on irrigation at night1 all wells are1 as far as possible1 shut down between sunset and sunrise4 ,the average discharge1 therefore1 at the present day is considerably less than the figure mentioned above1 amounting1 in fact1 to approximately #gj gallons a minute per bore4 ,by far the most important factor determining the volume of flow is the absolute ground-level at the mouth of the well4 ,the floor of the oasis in the district in question lies between #ec and #fa metres above sea-level1 the general slope being to the west1 in the opposite direction to the dip of the water-bearing sandstones4 ,although the actual difference of level is so little1 amounting only to #g or #h metres1 the difference of flows from wells of equal depth on either side of the area averages fully #ajj per cent4 ,this indicates that the surface of this area is very near the static head or limit to which water will rise from bores of this depth2 in fact1 if the ground were raised by a very few metres1 not one of the wells would discharge at the surface4 ,this ,i have proved by actual experiment1 and it is1 moreover1 borne out by the observed pressure1 which even in the best wells seldom amounts to more than #ac or #ad pounds to the square inch4 ,before going further into this important matter of pressure1 let us briefly notice the temperature and chemical composition of the artesian water4 ,in ,dakhla ,oasis the temperature of the wells often rises as high as #ij or #ie ,f41 the highest recorded being #aje ,f4 in ,bir el ,dinaria1 a bore sunk fifteen or sixteen years ago1 and the deepest and most northerly in that oasis4 ,in ,kharga it is seldom that we meet with temperatures over #ij ,f41 the well-waters at ,headquarters varying from #hf to #hh ,f4 ,identical figures were obtained in the southern part of the oasis4 ,one of the most noticeable features of the artesian water is its highly effervescent character when it reaches the surface4 ,in most of the newer bores the water is so strongly charged with minute bubbles of gas that it closely resembles the contents of a newly-opened bottle of highly aerated water1 while in many of the older wells the gas rises to the surface in a slow procession of large bubbles4 ,analysis shows the gas to consist almost entirely of nitrogen1 only small quantities of oxygen and carbon dioxide being present2 and it has been estimated by rough experiment that the volume of gas issuing from ,bore ,no4 #a 7internal diameter1 #d inches7 amounts to half a pint per minute4 ,my own opinion is that this nitrogen represents ordinary air deprived of its oxygen during the underground passage of the water1 and this explanation seems confirmed by ,mr4 ,lucas1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,chemist to the ,egyptian ,survey ,department1 who refers me to several cases in which air is believed to have been depleted of its oxygen by pyrites1 etc41 during its passage underground4 ,the quality of the artesian water is in all respects excellent1 and when taken direct from a cased well forms1 after cooling1 a palatable water free from all danger of contamination4 ,analyses by ,mr4 ,garsed of water samples from four bores show the total dissolved solids to range from #dc to #dg parts per #ajj1jjj1 equivalent to from #cj to #cc grains per gallon4 ,in new bores the water is usually only slightly ferruginous1 though1 as already mentioned1 in some of the ancient wells of certain districts it is so highly charged with ferric oxide that thick deposits of ochre have been formed along the irrigation channels4 ,the chemical composition of the dissolved salts1 so far as determined1 is shown in the following table3 ,,analyses ,,of ,,typical ,,artesian ,,water ,,of ,,kharga ,,oasis 7,,headquarters ,,district74 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,bore ,bore ,bore ,bore ,no4 #a4,no4 #b4,no4 #e4,no4 #f4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,total solids 7grains per #cc #cj #cc #cb gallon7 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,composition of dissolved salts1 per cent4 ,silica #db #de #df #cd ,ferric oxide #ag #jh #ab #ac ,lime #fe #gj #ed #ef ,magnesia #bi #ca #bg #ch ,sulphuric anhydride #de #di #dd #dd ---------------------------------------- --------- ,,chapter ,x ,,flowing ,,wells3 ,,some ,,experiments ,,and ,,observations ,total ,water ,discharge of ,oasis -- ,water-,pressures -- ,static ,head -- ,importance of ,systematic ,observations and ,records of ,bores -- ,sensitiveness of ,wells -- ,experiments showing ,mutual ,interference of ,wells -- ,bores ,nos4 #e and #f -- ,bores ,nos4 #d and #db -- ,the ,wells at ,el ,dr el ,ghennma -- ,decline in ,discharge of ,new ,wells -- ,effect of ,closing ,bores -- ,rate of ,flow of ,water in ,sandstones -- ,danger of ,over-,exploitation -- ,holding ,capacity and ,porosity -- ,experiments on ,porosity of ,nubian ,sandstone -- ,large ,quantities of ,water held in ,storage ,beds -- ,economically only partially available at ,surface4 ,at the present day there are about #bcj native-owned wells in the oasis1 yielding a total discharge of some #bie qirats4 ,we have seen that the qirat has not a fixed value1 but represents a discharge varying from #bb to #ch or more gallons a minute4 ,applying these values as far as possible to the old wells1 and adding the known discharge of the new1 we shall not be very far from the truth if we estimate the total discharge of the oasis wells at #h1jjj gallons a minute1 or #aa1ejj1jjj gallons 7#ec1jjj cubic metres7 a day4 ,the largest well in ,kharga ,oasis is ,ain ,estakherab at ,gennh1 with a discharge of between #gjj and #hjj gallons per minute4 ,the average yield of those which might be described as the best wells probably does not exceed #aej to #bjj gallons1 while there are a great many which only discharge #bj or #cj gallons per minute4 ,in some parts of the world the discharges of artesian wells are measured by thousands1 not hundreds1 of gallons4 ,in ,queensland and other parts of ,australia1 for instance1 there are numerous bores throwing over #a1jjj gallons a minute2 in these regions the depth of individual bores in many cases amounts to thousands of feet1 the pressure frequently rising as high as #ajj pounds to the square inch4 ,it must1 moreover1 be borne in mind that the artesian basins of ,australia have only been exploited during a comparatively short period1 and that from the nature of the country the wells are1 as a rule1 at considerable distances apart4 ,the exploitation of the artesian basin of the ,libyan ,desert has been in progress for hundreds and thousands of years1 and it is probable1 therefore1 that in the oases-depressions the general average pressure has been very much reduced4 ,at the present time the water-pressures seldom exceed a very few pounds per square inch1 so that the static head1 or absolute height to which the water will rise1 is seldom more than a few metres above the actual surface of the ground4 ,the outlets of the native wells are1 unfortunately1 of such a nature that it is not possible to make even approximate determinations of pressure2 but after taking into account the influence of ground-level on the volume of flow1 we still find differences which point to there being considerable variation in the absolute static head in different parts of the oasis--that is to say1 the water will rise higher in some places than in others4 ,this is probably partly to be accounted for by variations in the level of the underlying strata and by the presence of faults--for instance1 the static head to the west of the central line of disturbance is certainly considerably higher than to the east4 ,in the absence of accurate data1 the static head in a district can be approximately gauged from the ground-level and flow of any one of the higher and more isolated wells4 ,the maximum static head judged in this way appears to be #hh metres above sea-level in the ,kharga district on the west side of the fault2 but in the ,headquarters area1 to the east of the fault1 it can be definitely proved to be very much less4 ,in order to determine the extent of the local variations throughout the district where the recent boring operations have extended1 ,i carried out a number of experiments4 ,for this purpose four bores in different parts of the area were selected1 of similar diameters1 and of approximately equal depths into the water-sandstone4 ,by means of a flange the casing of each bore was carried vertically upwards1 the ordinary outlet being kept shut until the pressure ceased to rise1 as indicated by a pressure-gauge4 ,it was then found that in ,bore ,no4 #cf the water had risen to #faf metres1 in ,bore ,no4 #ch to #eiee1 in ,bore ,no4 #db to #fdbf1 and in ,bore ,no4 #dd to #fbj metres above sea-level4 ,the average static head in this district may therefore be taken as #fahe metres4 ,the positions of the four bores in question1 with regard to ,headquarters1 are as follows3 ,no4 #cf1 #gg kilometres ,n42 ,no4 #ch1 #bf kilometres ,n4,w42 ,no4 #db1 #af kilometres ,s4,e42 and ,no4 #dd1 #ci kilometres ,w4,n4,w4 ,to the north of ,meheriq the static head appears to rise1 as flowing wells are found up to #gf metres above sea-level 7,ain ,mohammed ,delaib74 ,the water-level at ,ain el ,ghazl is even higher 7#hdef71 but this well does not actually run4 ,in the development of an artesian basin this question is of the utmost importance2 only by a knowledge of the static head and the ground-level can we1 with any likelihood of success1 estimate beforehand the discharge to be looked for in any particular district4 ,if1 for instance1 we sink a bore in a locality whose surface is above the static head1 the result1 so far as a flowing well is concerned1 can only be failure1 however great the amount of water existing in the underlying strata4 ,if a sufficient number of observations are available1 it is possible to construct charts showing the isopotential lines1 or lines of equal pressure1 and these may be of great value when boring is contemplated in intermediate districts4 ,it is seldom that accurate records of bores are preserved in the initial stages of the development of new artesian basins1 and to this neglect is due much of the doubt which frequently arises at a later period as to the extent and permanence of the underground water-supplies4 ,illustration3 ,,bore ,,no4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,,bore ,,no4 #ad4 ,in some countries1 however1 the water-resources have long been the subject of exhaustive examination1 notably in the ,united ,states1 where a most valuable and instructive series of water-supply reports has been issued by the ,geological ,survey4 ,the chief difficulties arise from the fact that bores are generally the property of private individuals1 who are seldom both able and willing to supply accurate information4 ,discharges1 for instance1 are usually given in the roundest of figures1 and without regard to the conditions under which they were taken4 ,in ,australia more than one geologist has called attention to the matter1 and quite recently ,mr4 ,g4 ,h4 ,knibbs1 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 of the ,university of ,sydney1 in a valuable and suggestive paper on the hydraulic aspect of the artesian problem1 refers to the want of comprehensive and deliberate investigation in the past1 and admits the inadequacy of the available data for the determination even of the one question only--i4e41 the extent to which exploitation can be pushed without fear of exhausting the supply4 ,when drilling was first commenced in the ,headquarters area1 the bores were placed at an average distance apart of #ejj metres2 circumstances1 however1 led to there being a considerable variation in the depths of the wells1 with the result that those of shallow depth and those situated on comparatively high ground were adversely affected by the deeper and more favourably placed bores4 ,the sensitiveness of any one well to the influence of its neighbours is1 ,i believe1 far greater than is generally supposed1 and appears to be especially dependent on the amount of difference between the depths1 discharges1 and surface-levels of the bores4 ,in investigating this subject ,i made a number of experiments with the object of determining the mutual influence of wells1 and perhaps some reference to these may not be without interest and value4 ,the first experiment to which ,i shall refer was made on wells situated comparatively close together4 ,bore ,no4 #e is #egj metres ,w4,s4,w4 of ,bore ,no4 #f1 the outlet of the former being at #egch1 that of the latter at #eiah1 a difference of #ah metres4 ,no4 #e has an internal diameter of #e inches1 is #aig metres deep and #ie metres into the water-sandstone2 ,no4 #f has a diameter of #h inches1 is #adf metres deep1 and #fa metres into the sandstone4 ,the two wells had been flowing continuously for a considerable period1 and during the experiment neighbouring wells were kept shut down1 so that there is no reason to suppose that the observations were affected by other bores4 ,bore ,no4 #e1 discharging #aad gallons a minute1 was shut down at #g p4m4 on ,june #ab1 #aijg1 and reopened at #g a4m4 on ,june #ac4 ,the hourly observations1 as given in the following table1 show the effects produced on ,bore ,no4 #f4 ,,experiment ,,to ,,show ,,mutual ,,interference ,,of ,,bores4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,bore ,no4 #e closed at #g p4m41 ,bore ,no4 #e opened at #g a4m41 ,june #ab1 #aijg4 ,june #ac1 #aijg4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,time4,discharge,time4,discharge,time4,d ischarge,time4,discharge of ,bore of ,bore of ,bore of ,bore ,no4 #f4 ,no4 #f4 ,no4 #f4 ,no4 #f4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,p4,m4 ,gallons ,a4,m4 ,gallons ,a4,m4 ,gallons ,p4,m4 ,gallons per per per per ,minute4 ,minute4 ,minute4 ,minute4 #g4j #fab #a4j #gff #g4j #hcg #a4j #fij #h4ae #fef #b4cj #ggd #h4j #ghd #b4j #fgg #i4j #fhd #c4j #gib #i4j #gej #c4j #ffh #aj4j #fif #d4j #gig #aj4j #gcj #d4j #ffb #aa4j #gcb #e4j #hba #aa4j #gjh #e4j #fff #ab4j #gdg #f4j #hca #ab4j #fif #f4j #fec #g4j #fdj ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,from these figures it will be seen that the shutting down of a flowing or the opening of a closed well may produce a most marked effect on a neighbouring well within the short space of sixty minutes1 even when the intervening distance is over #ejj metres4 ,in the above instance the rate of increase was most rapid at first1 there being a gain of #g gallons per minute1 equivalent to about #ab per cent41 in the first two hours4 ,the total increase in the twelve hours amounted to #bb gallons1 or about #cg per cent4 ,on reopening ,no4 #e it is seen that the discharge of ,no4 #f at once commenced to fall1 the loss being nearly #i gallons in the first two hours2 afterwards the rate of decrease gradually diminished1 until at #g p4m41 when the observations were discontinued1 the flow had fallen to within #c gallons of its normal4 ,a second series of observations was made between two bores considerably farther apart1 ,no4 #d being #hce metres ,n4,n4,w4 of ,no4 #db4 ,the difference of level in this case was found to be #aah metres1 the outlet of ,no4 #d being #fjgd1 and that of ,no4 #db1 #eief metres4 ,bore ,no4 #d has an internal diameter of #d inches1 is #ada metres deep1 and draws from #ai metres of sandstone2 ,bore ,no4 #db is #f inches in diameter1 #bah metres deep1 and #fi metres into the water-sandstone4 ,previous to the experiment1 ,no4 #d was flowing #cfge1 and ,no4 #db about #fhe gallons per minute4 ,precautions were taken against other wells influencing the results1 the nearest bores having been opened twenty-four hours previously and being kept in the same condition throughout the experiment4 ,bore ,no4 #db was closed down at #i a4m4 on ,march #d1 #aijh1 periodical observations being then made of the discharge of ,no4 #d during the next thirty-six hours4 ,briefly stated1 the result of this experiment was as follows3 ,the discharge of ,no4 #d had not perceptibly increased at the end of the first half-hour1 but had done so after one hour4 ,it continued to increase at a very slow rate1 the net gain after thirty-six hours being only #c gallons1 or between #h and #i per cent4 ,in this case the mutual interference is very much less than that between ,nos4 #e and #f1 doubtless largely owing to the greater distance apart1 and to the lesser difference between the outlet-levels of the wells4 ,in all probability there are many other conditions which combine with the above in determining the amount of interference1 such as the positions of the wells with regard to the main lines of underground flow1 the relative depths of the bores1 and the thicknesses of sandstone from which they draw their supplies4 ,the most marked example of interference with which ,i have met was in the case of two ancient wells at ,el ,dr el ,ghennma1 situated only #hh metres apart1 on the crest of an anticlinal fold running north and south4 ,these wells had been sanded-up for centuries1 but were recently taken in hand and cleaned out4 ,the difference of level in the outlets is #bjg metres1 the higher well being #cd metres in depth1 the lower #da metres4 ,the opening or closing of the lower well produces an almost instantaneous effect on the higher1 the difference in flow of the latter within thirty seconds amounting to as much as #aa per cent4 ,a great many observations were made1 but the following are sufficient to show the rates of decrease and increase3 ,gallons per ,minute4 ,upper well flowed #acb when lower well was open 7flow #ejc g4p4m474 #bje had been closed #aj minutes4 #bcg #bj #bfc #cj #cid #bd hours4 #cef had been open #cj seconds4 #cbe #b minutes4 #bfg #g #bdi #i #bcd #af #aig #de ,the closing down of the lower well is thus seen to have influenced the discharge of the upper to the extent of #ajj per cent1 in the short space of thirty minutes1 while the flow was trebled in twenty-four hours4 ,on opening the lower well the discharge of the upper fell to within #ej per cent4 of its normal within forty-five minutes4 ,as already mentioned1 most bores show a marked decline in discharge for some time after completion1 and except in special cases it seems doubtful if large bores can be expected to maintain their original flows for long periods of years4 ,during the early part of its existence a well draws its supplies from fully saturated beds1 the water being forced into it from every side1 not only through the pores of the sandstone1 but through any fissures the bore may have struck4 ,the flow of water through a compact sandstone is1 however1 extremely slow1 and it is probable that as time goes on every bore becomes more and more dependent on fissures for the maintenance of its supply4 ,this supersaturation of the water-bearing beds1 if we may be permitted to use the term1 is well illustrated by the closing of a bore for a few days4 ,the water at once commences to accumulate around it1 and when the bore is reopened the discharge will generally be found to have increased to a very great extent4 ,as an example of this ,i may mention ,bore ,no4 #ad1 which1 on ,april #ai1 #aijg1 was flowing at the rate of #bbe gallons per minute4 ,the well was then closed down for five days2 on reopening the discharge was found to be #cgj gallons per minute1 an increase of #ade gallons1 or about #fe per cent41 the pressure during the same time having risen from below #i to nearly #af pounds per square inch4 ,the discharge took about twelve hours1 or one-tenth of the time1 to fall to its normal4 ,on another occasion the same well had its output increased from #bag to #cci gallons by being closed for twenty-four hours1 a gain amounting to #ee per cent4 ,the rate of flow of water through an underground sandstone depends upon a number of conditions1 the most important being the size of the pores or spaces between the component grains1 the porosity or water-holding capacity of the sandstone1 the temperature of the water1 and the pressure acting on it4 ,the yield of a well will depend1 of course1 not only on all these factors1 but also on the diameter of the bore1 its depth into the water-stratum1 the size and number of fissures passed through1 and1 last and most important of all1 on the absolute height of its outlet4 ,large pores1 high average porosity1 and high temperatures make for strong flows1 though in the absence of pressure greater than that due to a column of water equal in height to the distance between the water-stratum and the outlet of the well1 they are in themselves of no avail in the production of an artesian flow4 ,moreover1 although some of the above conditions may be known beforehand1 the resistance to flow of the strata immediately surrounding a bore can never be more than approximately conjectured1 as the size and mode of arrangement of the individual grains of any sedimentary rock must always vary1 both horizontally and vertically1 to a very great extent1 and on these factors depends in very large measure the capacity of the strata to transmit water4 ,data are as yet far too insufficient to warrant an attempt to calculate the supply which can safely be drawn from a given area without unduly reducing the pressure1 lowering the average static head1 and endangering the continuance of the artesian supply4 ,in some parts of the oasis there are bores many hundreds of years old still pouring forth their hundreds of gallons a minute2 such wells are probably situated in exceptionally favourable localities1 and are very possibly fed to a great extent by fissures4 ,at the same time it must not be forgotten that there are throughout the oasis scores of wells which have ceased to run1 either through local exhaustion of the water-bearing strata1 or through failure to keep the bore-channels open2 possibly through a combination of both circumstances4 ,in some cases time seems to have remedied matters1 as it is not uncommon to meet with instances where new bores1 sunk in the immediate neighbourhood of long extinct wells1 have produced strong discharges of considerable volume4 ,as ,i have already stated1 the rate of flow of water is largely influenced by both the size of the pores and the porosity of the rock1 the capacity to transmit water being very much greater for large than for small pores1 and for high than for low porosity4 ,it must1 however1 be pointed out that large pores and high porosity do not necessarily go together1 and that small pores in a rock frequently accompany high holding capacity4 ,for instance1 a fine-grained sample of ,nubian ,sandstone will absorb from #be to #bh per cent4 of water1 a medium-grained sample #bj per cent41 while a very coarse sample may take up as little as #ae per cent4 ,the pores and transmitting capacity of the coarse-grained variety will1 however1 be very much greater than in the case of either of the others4 ,in order to arrive at some sort of idea as to the holding capacity of the artesian-water strata of the oasis ,i made an examination of between sixty and seventy samples of sand brought up from varying depths from a few selected bores in the oasis4 ,as1 however1 owing to the methods of drilling employed1 only powdered samples were available1 it was necessary in the first instance to ascertain the relative porosity of sandstone in its ordinary state and broken up into the form of sand4 ,for this purpose ,i collected eight specimens of the ,surface-water ,sandstone from various points in ,northern ,kharga1 and subjected them to absorption tests1 both in the whole and in the powdered states4 ,in six out of the eight examples the absorption was more when powdered than when whole1 the average for the eight rock samples being #bbdd per cent42 for the same when powdered1 #bcee per cent4 ,there is1 moreover1 no reason to suspect that in ordinary lithological characters the ,surface-water ,sandstone differs in any important respect from the ,artesian-water ,sandstone1 so that if we estimate the porosity of the latter from powdered samples1 we shall obtain a figure only about #e per cent4 too high4 ,the average porosity of sixty-four samples1 collected from ,bores #ad1 #af1 #ah1 #ca1 #ci1 and #dd1 at various depths in the water-bearing strata1 was found to be #aide per cent4 ,if we confine our attention to a single bore1 and examine a representative sample from every stratum of the water-bearing sandstone1 and1 in deducing the porosity1 take into account the thickness of each individual bed1 we shall obtain a still more reliable figure4 ,this was done in the case of ,bore ,no4 #ah1 which passed through #abb metres of water-bearing strata1 thirty-one samples being collected and subjected to examination4 ,the absorptions obtained varied from #aec to #bee per cent41 the average porosity of the whole column being calculated as #aif per cent4 ,i believe this figure may be accepted without misgiving as a satisfactory working value for the porosity of powdered ,nubian ,sandstone1 that of the solid rock being taken as #e per cent4 lower1 or1 say1 #ahe per cent4 ,the ,artesian-water ,sandstone has been proved to reach a thickness of #abb metres1 and probably its total thickness is considerably more4 ,assuming1 however1 a vertical extent of only #abb metres1 the water-bearing beds under #a square kilometre would1 if fully saturated1 hold #d1ife1jjj1jjj gallons1 which is the equivalent of the water which would be discharged in ninety-four years by a well flowing at the rate of #ajj gallons a minute4 ,when we consider that the area of the floor of the depression is some thousands of square kilometres1 and that the water-sandstones1 except in the immediate neighbourhood of the existing wells1 are probably fully saturated1 we realize the vast amount of water which is stored under the depression alone1 irrespective of the still greater quantities which underlie the surrounding plateaux4 ,the movement of the water through the sandstones1 except along fissures and through particularly porous beds1 is1 however1 very slow1 so that the amount of water which can economically be made available at the surface is more or less limited1 self-flowing wells being only obtainable over that portion of the area lying below the general static head4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,artesian ,,waters ,flow of ,water through ,porous ,rocks -- ,importance of ,pressure1 ,porosity1 and ,temperature -- ,intermittent ,flows -- ,abundance of ,extinct ,wells -- ,former ,prosperity -- ,possibility of increasing ,present ,total ,discharge -- ,local ,traditions regarding ,origin of ,artesian ,waters -- ,possible ,sources of ,origin -- ,seepage from ,nile into ,nubian ,sandstone -- ,sandstones as ,storage ,reservoirs -- ,the ,oasis ,waters of ,meteoric ,origin -- ,fissures -- ,rate of ,flow -- ,strongly-flowing ,wells not necessarily dependent on ,fissures -- ,local ,pressure from ,variation in ,level of ,water-,table -- ,rise of ,water due to ,hydraulic ,pressure -- ,points requiring ,investigation -- ,high-,level ,springs3 ,ain ,amr2 on ,escarpment near ,beris2 at ,nakhail4 ,the rate of flow of water through porous rocks has been investigated by a number of engineers and geologists1 among whom may be mentioned ,darcy1 ,hazen1 ,king1 ,slichter1 ,knibbs1 and ,baldwin-,wiseman4 ,the subject is an extremely complicated one1 and its study requires a combined knowledge of mathematics1 physics1 and geology4 ,various formul for determining the rate of flow under varying conditions have been devised1 but it will be sufficient for our present purpose to remark that the average velocity of water in sands does not appear to be more than #c or #d kilometres a year4 ,the importance of porosity1 pressure1 and temperature on the rate of flow can be illustrated by utilizing tubes containing equal columns of sand of different degrees of coarseness1 and noting the volumes of water passed under different conditions of pressure and temperature4 ,the coarse sands will be observed to permit the passage of water at a far greater rate than the finer varieties1 while any sand can be made to markedly quicken its rate of discharge by increasing the head of water in the tube above4 ,moreover1 the rate of flow will be found to increase with the temperature of the water4 ,in the case of the ordinary water of the oasis1 a difference of only a few degrees was found to cause a very great difference in the rate of flow2 it seems1 indeed1 as if the water1 when below a certain temperature1 deposits its mineral contents in the pores of the sandstone1 so as to block the passages to a large extent4 ,i have not yet had an opportunity of making the necessary experiments to ascertain if this explanation is correct1 but if it should prove to be so1 the importance of temperature on the rate of underground flow can hardly be over-estimated4 ,we have already described the intermittent character of the flow in the case of some of the larger wells in the southern part of the oasis4 ,the circumstance is apparently due to the temporary blocking of the bore-hole by sediment1 and the consequent increase of water and gas pressure below1 which at intervals forces the sediment from the channels and restores the normal flow4 ,something of the same nature was also noticed in ,bore ,no4 #db1 in the course of experiments carried out to determine the height to which the water would rise in an open pipe fixed to the end of the casing4 ,at intervals a distinct gurgling and bubbling took place in the pipe1 the water at the same time rising to as much as #h centimetres above its normal level1 with distinct oscillations of a pressure-gauge attached to the well4 ,the ebb and flow did not1 however1 take place at regular intervals1 but at periods varying from four to nine minutes4 ,i think a sufficient explanation of these phenomena is the probable variation in the amount of gas finding its way into the bore2 and certainly1 after several years' observation of the flows of a large number of bores1 ,i cannot admit that there is the slightest evidence in favour of the view that the flows of the wells have a periodicity dependent on the rise and fall of the ,nile4 ,one frequently hears it stated that the oases were far more thickly populated and better watered in olden times than at the present day4 ,this belief is based on the existence in many parts of the depression of extensive remains of temples1 forts1 and villages1 on the widespread traces of formerly cultivated lands1 and on the abundance of sanded-up wells4 ,it must not1 however1 be forgotten that the remains in question belong to successive generations1 and that there is as yet no evidence to enable us to determine how much of the land1 or how many of the wells1 were in use at one and the same time4 ,the evidence is1 however1 sufficiently pronounced to justify the conclusion that under the ,romans the oasis of ,kharga was far more flourishing than in modern times1 a large part of the population being engaged1 not in agriculture1 but in mining1 boring1 and in the excavation of subterranean aqueducts4 ,illustration3 ,,lands ,,under ,,reclamation ,,at ,,bore ,,no4 #ci4 ,we have heard the most diverse and dogmatic opinions as to the feasibility of restoring the oases to their supposed former prosperity4 ,for my part1 ,i do not think that there is the slightest doubt that the total discharge of water could be very much increased1 though to what extent it is impossible to say with the information at present available4 ,one must consider the vast areas under which the water-bearing sandstones are known to extend1 and the comparatively small extent of country over which the existing wells occur2 that as yet the deepest bores have only penetrated the water-bearing beds to a depth of #abb metres2 that the existing total discharge is mostly made up of insignificant flows from a great number of ancient and comparatively shallow wells1 which for centuries have been subject to gradual decay2 that so far as observed the flows increase in volume as deeper beds are struck2 and that it might be possible to use artificial means of lifting the water to the surface1 especially in districts lying above the level to which the artesian water will rise unaided4 ,the extent to which the water-supply could be profitably augmented is1 however1 quite another question1 and one depending on a great number of at present indeterminable factors4 ,according to local tradition1 the waters of the ,kharga wells come directly from the ,nile through subterranean passages under the intervening plateaux1 and the experience of an ,arab trader is frequently related in support of this idea4 ,the ,bedawi in question1 while engaged in filling his water-skins on the banks of the ,nile1 preparatory to setting out across the desert to the oasis1 let fall his #8tarbush1' which was speedily engulfed in an eddy of the river4 ,although much annoyed at the time1 our friend soon forgot the incident1 until a few days later1 when he was refreshing himself after his journey at a well in the neighbourhood of ,beris1 the identical piece of head-gear was borne up from its depths6 ,mr4 ,patterson1 whose knowledge of the folklore of the inhabitants is unique1 recently related to me the following characteristic story3 ,the natives of ,beris1 as the result of opening a long sanded-up well1 obtained a very large flow of water4 ,so terrified were they at the magnitude of the discharge--imagining1 indeed1 that they had tapped the ,nile--that a deputation was hastily despatched to the ,governor of ,assiut1 with profuse apologies for the damage done to the river4 ,needless to say1 the ,governor was somewhat taken aback1 but realizing the solemnity of the mission1 magnanimously informed its members that the waters of the ,nile were so abundant that they might without fear take all they required4 ,at present any attempt to explain the origin of the artesian waters of the oases must be regarded as little better than speculation4 ,more information is required concerning the geology of the country to the south of the oases1 and as to the relative levels of the oases-depressions and the different parts of the ,nile ,valley and ,libyan ,desert1 as far south as the more elevated regions of ,kordofan1 ,darfur1 and ,tibesti4 ,little has been written on this subject1 but the source generally assigned appears to have been ,darfur4 ,possible sources of origin lie in the rainy districts of the ,sudan1 in the mountainous region of ,abyssinia1 in the great swamps of the ,upper ,nile1 in the ,nile ,river itself1 and in past accumulations of water absorbed from the extensive lakes which covered parts of the country in the pluvial period which preceded the existing desert conditions4 ,in the present state of our knowledge ,i am personally inclined to agree with those who regard the ,nile ,river as a present source of supply4 ,it is known to flow for a considerable part of its course through a valley cut out in the ,nubian ,sandstone1 and it is believed to lose an appreciable volume of water into that sandstone1 though the exact amount has not been determined4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,i4 ,craig1 of the ,egyptian ,survey1 has estimated that at low ,nile as much as #f1jjj cubic metres of water 7#a1cbj1jjj gallons7 per minute drains back into the river from the sandstones on either side of the reach between ,khartum and ,wadi ,halfa1 and1 as ,captain ,lyons remarks1 this indicates that there is considerable percolation into the sandstones from the river when in flood4#aj ,there is one point of the greatest importance to which we should like to draw attention1 as it is generally entirely overlooked4 ,the stores of water in the sandstones may represent the accumulations of hundreds and thousands of years1 and the conditions to which the beds formerly owed their sources of supply may at the present time have become materially altered4 ,it is quite conceivable that it may have required centuries or thousands of years to saturate the huge block of sandstone underlying the ,libyan ,desert1 and even were the original sources of supply entirely cut off at any particular time1 the effect on a few hundred bores1 discharging only #ej1jjj cubic metres a day1 would not necessarily be appreciable in one1 or even five1 centuries4 ,the total annual discharge of the whole of the wells of ,kharga ,oasis is barely equal in volume to the water which can be held by saturated beds underlying #a square kilometre of surface1 assuming the sandstone to be only #abb metres thick2 that is to say1 it would take between #c1jjj and #d1jjj years for the existing wells to discharge the water held by the beds underlying the depression alone1 without considering the vast surrounding desert areas1 where there is no reason to doubt that the water-tables are equally well developed4 ,it must not1 however1 for a moment be supposed that bores would continue to discharge until the sandstones immediately surrounding them were completely depleted of water2 they would1 in all probability1 pass into a sub-artesian condition in a very short time were the sandstones not replenished from more outlying districts4 ,in my opinion the subterranean water of the oasis is certainly of meteoric origin--that is to say1 it is water which originally fell as rain1 and has percolated underground from one of the possible sources above mentioned4 ,it will1 however1 readily be admitted that the ordinary explanation of the flow and origin of artesian wells in regions of moderate or abundant rainfall1 situated in well-defined basins1 where the exact position1 extent1 and absorbing capacity of the water-table outcrop can be carefully determined1 may be in some respects inadequate to account for the flowing wells of vast arid regions like the deserts of ,africa and ,australia2 yet1 after due consideration of the arguments for and against1 ,i am unable to subscribe to ,professor ,j4 ,w4 ,gregory's view#aa that a considerable portion of the waters in such regions is derived from magmatic or plutonic sources--that is to say1 has its origin in the deep-seated crystalline rocks4 ,it may seem at first sight almost incredible that in those regions1 where the outcrop of the water-bearing strata is so remote from the wells themselves and the dip over the intervening country so slight1 the rise of the water in the wells could be due to direct pressure of water in the higher portions of the beds1 unless on the supposition of large and continuous open fissures4 ,that such fissures exist1 and exist abundantly1 is1 ,i think1 almost a matter of certainty2 but it does not follow that their presence is essential to the production of flowing wells4 ,fissures are visible to the eye in the ,surface-water ,sandstone 7which1 as has been remarked1 does not appear to differ in any important respect from the ,artesian-water ,sandstone71 and it is through them that the bulk of the sub-surface water is obtained4 ,the presence of fissures in the ,artesian-water ,sandstone is1 moreover1 in my opinion1 almost demonstrated by the experiments on the mutual interference of wells4 ,it seems hardly conceivable that the closing or opening of a bore could in the space of a minute or two affect the discharge of another well over kilometre distant1 if there did not exist a more or less open and direct connection between the two4 ,rapid flow through a compact sandstone is impossible owing to friction1 which increases as the size of the channels decreases2 but1 as pointed out by ,knibbs and others1 the hydrostatic pressure can never entirely disappear through friction1 the rate of loss of head being dependent on the rate of flow4 ,it therefore by no means follows that a strongly-flowing well cannot be obtained from an unfissured sandstone1 for a rapid flow from the bore itself does not in any way depend on an equally rapid flow of the water through the sandstone surrounding the bore4 ,for instance1 ,mr4 ,knibbs has calculated#ab that although in a #aj-;inch bore1 discharging #gjj gallons a minute from a #aj-;foot stratum1 the water would have a velocity of #e feet a second at the bore itself1 at the distance of one mile it would only be moving through the stratum at the rate of about inch per second1 or #ah inches an hour4 ,in other words1 water flowing through a #aj-;foot bed of sandstone from all sides towards a #aj-;inch bore1 need1 at the distance of one mile1 only have a velocity of #ah inches an hour to produce a discharge from the well of #gjj gallons a minute4 ,the importance of local pressure arising from variations in level of a fully saturated water-table in adjacent areas may be of itself quite adequate to cause flowing wells1 especially if assisted by the presence of large volumes of gas under compression1 such as occur in the ,kharga waters4 ,another theory which has at times been brought forward as an adequate cause of flowing wells is rock-pressure-- i4e41 pressure due to the weight of the overlying strata4 ,the objections to this theory seem to me1 however1 so cogent that we may at once dismiss it from our minds4 ,there is indeed little doubt that the waters of the oasis are of meteoric origin1 have travelled immense distances underground1 and rise through bores placed in favourable localities by means of hydrostatic or hydraulic pressure1 acting both through the pores of the rock and through open fissures4 ,although the rate and direction of flow through the sandstones as a whole may remain more or less matters of conjecture1 it seems probable that the water of any one bore is derived from all sides1 rising as the result of the pressure exerted by the water held in the same bed situated at higher levels1 whether in the immediate neighbourhood or at a considerable distance4 ,i am conscious of having done little more than indicate the possible origin of the oasis waters and suggest the causes to which the flowing wells are due2 more than this it is at present impossible to state with any confidence4 ,the points to which attention should be directed as likely to throw further light on the subject are as follows3 ,the area and position of the outcrops of the ,impermeable ,grey ,shales and the underlying sandstone1 and their relations to possible sources of water1 whether rain1 river1 or lake2 the nature of the bed of the swamp region of the ,upper ,nile2 the amount and distribution of the rainfall of all surrounding regions2 the volume of water lost in the different reaches of the ,nile over and above that which can be directly accounted for by evaporation and by water abstracted for purposes of irrigation2 and the total thickness of the water-bearing beds1 the presence within them of impervious strata1 and their relation to the underlying crystalline rocks4 ,illustration3 ,,ain ,,amur1 ,,on ,,the ,,upper ,,dakhla ,,road4 ,,high-,,level ,,springs4 ,before leaving the subject of water-supply we must briefly refer to two or three remarkable instances where water is found at very high elevations4 ,the most important of these is on the upper road between ,kharga and ,dakhla1 where a spring1 known as ,ain ,amr1 occurs near the summit of the plateau at about #dfj metres above sea-level4 ,the water1 which is quite potable1 occupies the bottom of a hole about #c or #d metres in depth1 at the base of a clump of palm-stubs1 a few paces to the south of a solitary tree2 it does not run1 and the water-level is said to fall considerably in the summer4 ,a small patch of green rushes lies a few paces to the west1 and there is a good deal of scrub in the neighbourhood1 from the position of which one is led to infer that there are several small springs thrown out along one of the bedding-planes1 at the summit of the marly and clayey beds which underlie the limestones forming the uppermost portion of the cliff4 ,the high-level spring on the eastern wall of the oasis1 in the neighbourhood of ,beris1 consists of a pool of clear sweet water at the base of a large fallen block of limestone1 in a desolate rocky dingle4 ,ball determined its height as being #ahj metres above ,beris1 or #bfj metres above sea-level4 ,the pool itself is overgrown with weeds1 and1 scattered about on the sides and bottom of the valley1 there is a good deal of vegetation1 mostly in the form of coarse grasses1 prickly scrub1 and tamarisk bushes4 ,geologically1 the spring appears to be similarly situated to ,ain ,amr--that is to say1 it emerges near1 or at the summit of1 the argillaceous ,exogyra ,series1 and below the overlying ,danian limestones4 ,the water obtainable at ,nakhail1 #fj kilometres ,s4,s4,e4 of the oasis1 also appears near the summit of the ,exogyra ,series1 and may therefore be considered to have a similar origin to the springs just described4 ,these elevated occurrences1 thrown out along more or less definite geological horizons1 must be regarded as natural springs1 quite distinct from the artificially-made wells of the oasis-floor4 ,as the springs lie several hundred feet above the static head of the artesian water1 and are separated from the water-bearing sandstones by a great thickness of argillaceous impermeable strata1 it is perhaps permissible to assume that their waters are derived from an entirely different source4 ,the occurrences known are of very limited number1 and the water only appears in small quantities1 so that it is not unlikely that it is derived from the very occasional rains which fall on the plateaux4 ,a portion of these rains would doubtless find its way downwards through fissures in the limestone1 and1 in areas where the dip of the beds was towards the oasis1 might travel underground and occasionally be thrown out as springs on the walls of the depression1 at the junction of the limestones and underlying clays4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,ancient ,,subterranean ,,aqueducts ,works of ,public ,utility -- ,the ,system probably introduced from ,persia -- ,the ,bulk of the ,works carried out by the ,romans -- ,trenches connecting ,wells with ,cultivable ,lands -- ,fortress ,bores and their ,underground ,connections -- ,dr el ,ghennma -- ,subterranean ,aqueducts of ,qasr ,gyb -- ,qasr ,lebekha and ,um el ,dabdib -- ,reopening of ,tunnel by ,sheikh ,hassan ,hanadi -- ,sala ,abdulla -- ,nature of ,tunnels and ,shafts -- ,the ,magnitude of the ,underground ,works -- ,exploration of the ,tunnels -- ,origin of the ,water4 ,although the ,persians and ,romans left abundant traces of their occupation of the country in the shape of temples1 forts1 and monasteries1 the determination and energy with which they prosecuted the colonization and general development of the oases is best shown by their attention to works of public utility4 ,at no period in the history of the oases has so much attention been paid to the water-supply4 ,not content with tapping the deep-seated sources by means of bores1 they carried out underground works of considerable magnitude and involving engineering difficulties of no mean order1 so as to obtain additional supplies from the sandstones lying at or near the surface4 ,the methods employed were probably introduced from ,persia1 where underground aqueducts1 or #8kareez1' for the transference of water from one locality to another1 have from an early date been employed4 ,at the same time1 judging by the character of the ancient buildings in the immediate neighbourhood of the most important of these works1 it seems probable that the latter were for the most part constructed by the ,romans4 ,underground aqueducts are found to some extent in all the chief oases of the ,libyan ,desert1 but in ,northern ,kharga they far exceed in magnitude anything known elsewhere4 ,in their simplest form they consist of deep trenches connecting the wells with low-lying areas of cultivable land1 the object being to tap the bores at the lowest possible levels1 in order to obtain the greatest discharges4 ,thus1 although a bore1 originally sunk on comparatively high ground for the purpose of irrigating a particular area of land1 might through one cause or another have ceased to flow1 it could still be made available for any low-lying area farther afield by the simple expedient of tapping it below the surface by means of a trench or tunnel4 ,this practice was frequently resorted to4 ,in selecting sites for their forts1 monasteries1 and other buildings1 the ,romans were naturally drawn to eminences commanding views of the surrounding country4 ,it was1 of course1 desirable1 and in the case of forts absolutely necessary1 to have a supply of water within the building1 and it was the custom1 therefore1 to sink a deep bore within the precincts1 generally in the centre of the courtyard4 ,in many cases1 however1 owing to the elevation1 the water would not rise to the surface1 the supplies being drawn up by hand4 ,in order to make the water of such a well available for irrigating the lands situated outside the fort1 one or more gently inclined tunnels were excavated so as to tap the bore below the fort2 the well was thus made to serve a double purpose4 ,excellent examples of such conduits are to be seen at ,dr el ,ghennma4 ,here the well is in the middle of the courtyard1 and three underground tunnels converge on it from the low-lying and anciently cultivated lands to the north and north-west4 ,along those portions where the bottom of the channel was in soft ground1 and not more than a metre or two below the surface1 the conduit was made in the form of an open trench1 the sides being carefully built in with stone4 ,illustration3 ,,qasr ,,lebekha ,,and ,,the ,,northern ,,escarpment ,,of ,,the ,,oasis4 ,when the excavation of the trenches was completed1 the open portions were covered over with large flat slabs of rock1 so that the channels were not only well protected from blowing sand1 but quite invisible on the surface4 ,the underground conduits at ,dr el ,ghennma were indeed quite unsuspected before they were accidentally discovered a year or two ago4 ,the tapping of the bore within the fort had1 of course1 the effect of still further lowering the water-level as regards the courtyard2 it is quite likely1 therefore1 that the inhabitants had a means of blocking the underground channel when they desired the water to rise to its maximum level in the well4 ,but in any case the few extra metres of distance from the surface to the water could not have been a matter of importance1 as the comparatively small supplies needed for domestic purposes within the fort were doubtless raised by means of a bucket and rope attached to a windlass4 ,these short tunnels1 tapping the water of artesian wells bored on high ground1 are quite insignificant compared with the extensive systems of subterranean aqueducts driven into the solid rock in various localities in the north of the oasis4 ,the most remarkable of these are found at ,um el ,dabdib1 at ,qasr ,lebekha1 and in the neighbourhood of ,qasr ,gyb4 ,they were made with the object of obtaining auxiliary supplies of water from the ,surface-water ,sandstone1 and were especially applicable to localities where this sandstone has an extensive development and forms hills or plateaux above the general level of the floor of the oasis4 ,although it is difficult to believe that the supplies of water obtained were commensurate with the time and labour involved in the construction of the collecting tunnels1 we may safely assume that the engineers who so carefully planned and carried out the works had fully considered the results to be looked for4 ,the ruins of villages and the traces of formerly cultivated tracts show that sufficient water was obtained to enable fairly large colonies to exist1 though after the withdrawal of the ,romans these outlying districts were abandoned1 the aqueducts silted up1 and the cultivated lands reverted to the desert4 ,the ruins of ,um el ,dabdib are situated under the northern wall of the depression1 and distant about #cf kilometres ,n4,n4,w4 of ,kharga village1 the route usually followed lying between the hill-massifs of ,jebel ,tr and ,jebel ,tarif4 ,a better route is afforded by the caravan road running from ,meheriq to ,ain ,amr1 ,um el ,dabdib lying somewhat to the north of the track at a distance of #be kilometres from the village4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,ball1 in the course of his survey of the oasis1 visited ,um el ,dabdib in #ahih1 and thought it possible that one of the tunnels1 which he observed ran northwards from the neighbourhood of the ruins1 had originally formed a means of communication with some unknown and formerly inhabited depression to the north of the escarpment4 ,its real nature was1 however1 well known to the ,kharga people1 and a year or two later ,sheikh ,hassan ,hanadi1 a brother of the present ,omda of ,kharga village1 got together a number of men and cleaned out one of the tunnels from top to bottom1 with the result that1 after a lapse of perhaps #a1jjj years1 water again flowed from the mouth of the aqueduct1 and enabled a small agricultural colony to establish itself on the ruined site of the original founders4 ,sheikh ,hassan informed me that the bulk of the work had been done under his personal supervision1 by a gang of from seventy to eighty men employed throughout the hot season2 he had found from experience that the natives worked better in summer than in winter4 ,the main tunnel was entirely cleared of clay and sand1 the silted material being lifted out through the numerous man-holes or vertical shafts which connect the aqueduct with the surface above4 ,a great deal of rough masonry work had also to be undertaken where the sandstone roof or walls had fallen in4 ,the place was put in thoroughly good order1 and all the shafts again closed1 with the exception of two or three left open to permit of the descent of the men sent down periodically to examine the channel and keep it free from silted material4 ,when ,i first visited the place in ,january1 #aije1 ,i found the discharge from the mouth of the aqueduct was between #cj and #ce gallons per minute4 ,a dozen acres or so of land had been reclaimed1 and were tended by seven or eight men1 who informed me that the crops raised there were equal to those in any part of the oasis4 ,this ,i can quite believe1 as1 in spite of the fact that several dune-belts exist in the neighbourhood1 the place is comparatively sheltered from the northerly winds by the great escarpment to the north4 ,the little settlement of ,um el ,dabdib1 with its adjoining fertile fields and fruit-garden1 threaded by the life-giving stream emerging from the foot-hills of the stupendous cliffs to the north1 and backed by the grim fort of bygone ages to the south1 has in the midst of this desert an indescribable charm4 ,illustration3 ,,ruins ,,at ,,um ,,el ,,dabadib4 ,sala ,abdulla1 old ,sheikh ,hassan's head-man here1 proved to be a most delightful fellow1 and far superior to the average native in general intelligence4 ,he spun the most fantastic yarns about the desert tableland to the north1 and--a peculiarity ,i appreciated most of all--without expecting me to believe him4 ,according to ,sala1 traces exist of a formerly much-frequented road1 said to lead to a place called ,ain ,hamr1 lying somewhere to the north-west of ,ain ,amr4 ,but although he himself had on one occasion set out and travelled for many hours beyond the summit of the cliffs1 he had been forced to return without finding the place1 the exact position of which is at the present day unknown4 ,this out-of-the-way corner of the desert is1 according to my informant1 so undisturbed by man that the gazelle there live for untold periods1 and only eventually succumb to old age and the increasing weight of their horns1 which grow to such a size that the poor beasts are unable to move about in search of food6 ,on my expressing a desire to examine the underground aqueduct1 ,sala led the way to one of the man-holes situated a couple of kilometres to the north1 near the upper end of the tunnel4 ,producing a palm-fibre rope from under a ledge in a cliff hard by1 he attached it to a log placed across the mouth of the shaft4 ,there was a hot1 steamy current of air ascending from the man-hole1 the interior of which was as black as night4 ,sala had1 however1 provided candles and matches1 and when he reached the bottom and shook the rope as a signal to me to follow1 ,i could see a tiny speck of light in what seemed to be the bowels of the earth4 ,fortunately ,i had had a good training in the ,cornish and ,welsh mines at home1 so that the prospect of a descent by the rope did not worry me in the least1 and after scrambling into the shaft ,i went carefully down hand over hand4 ,the shaft1 rectangular in cross-section1 and beautifully cut through the solid sandstone rock1 measured roughly #a metres by of a metre1 tapering gradually downwards4 ,the first few metres1 sunk through the down-wash forming the bed of a valley1 were carefully built in with blocks of limestone1 the bottom layer resting on the solid rock below4 ,rough footholds on opposite sides of the shaft facilitate the descent1 and when nearing the bottom1 as the rope stretched and contracted like elastic in a most unpleasant manner1 ,i was glad to avail myself of their assistance4 ,the shaft1 which ,i afterwards found to have a depth of #djc metres 7#acb feet71 goes down perpendicularly1 and when the bottom was reached1 ,i found myself standing in a gently flowing stream of water1 which ,i knew continued its underground course for at least #b kilometres to the south4 ,the tunnel itself is distinctly coffin-shaped in cross-section1 being widest near the roof1 and tapering downwards4 ,its average height is about #a metres1 the mean width near the top being about #fj centimetres--i4e41 it measures roughly #e feet by #b feet4 ,in some places it is even narrower1 so that a man of average stature not only has to keep his head very much bent1 but is also forced to progress sideways if he wishes to make his way along the channel4 ,the place was so sultry1 and the cramped position ,i had to assume so tiring1 that ,i had soon had enough1 and groped my way back to the base of the shaft4 ,as ,i had anticipated1 the ascent proved considerably more difficult than the descent1 and ,i was not sorry when ,i regained the surface4 ,after the heat of the shaft and the exertion of climbing1 the outside air1 despite the fact that it was an exceptionally hot day1 felt bitterly cold1 and the rapid evaporation from our perspiring bodies chilled us to the marrow4 ,although ,i had vowed at the time that nothing would induce me to again enter the place1 ,i afterwards reflected that1 not having followed the tunnel to its extreme limits1 there might still be further information to be gained1 and at the termination there might exist an inscription1 the deciphering of which would yield the much-desired information as to when and by whom the work had been carried out4 ,moreover1 ,i particularly wished to ascertain whether the bulk of the water came from one particular point or whether it represented the accumulated flow from the numerous small fissures which a tunnel of such length must necessarily traverse4 ,i therefore took the first opportunity of revisiting the place1 this time providing myself with proper gear to facilitate the descent1 and with instruments to make a thorough survey of the whole network of underground waterways4 ,the accompanying sketch-map1 reduced from the detailed plan made during my last visit1 shows that there are four main aqueducts1 running nearly parallel1 in a north and south direction1 along the sides of three separate valleys4 ,it is1 of course1 quite evident that the tunnels were run under the valleys rather than beneath the intervening ridges with the express object of keeping as near the surface as possible1 so as to avoid unnecessary excavation in the sinking of the vertical shafts1 and to reduce the labour involved in hoisting the excavated material to the surface4 ,the engineers were at the same time careful to avoid the actual beds of the valleys1 as there the soft nature of the ground would have necessitated a considerable amount of stone pitching1 without which there would have been constant falls of the loose detritus1 consisting of sand and pebbles with large blocks of limestone1 forming the actual floors of the valleys4 ,alignments were chosen along the extreme margins1 the mouths of the man-holes being commenced on the sloping sides of the valleys1 a metre or two above their pebbly floors4 ,the great majority were thus excavated throughout in solid rock1 the latter being1 as a rule1 sufficiently firm to stand without timbering or masonry supports4 ,although only one of the four main aqueducts is open at the present time1 the exact course which each follows can be seen from the dump-heaps marking the positions of the shafts4 ,the longest of the tunnels is the most westerly1 measuring #df kilometres from the point of origin to its exit on the west side of the ruined fort1 the four together having a total length of #adc kilometres4 ,the actual length of horizontal excavation is1 however1 considerably in excess of this figure1 as there are very numerous subsidiary collecting branches ramifying from the main tunnels4 ,moreover1 the total length given is the figure obtained by measuring along the surface from shaft to shaft2 whereas1 one of the most striking things underground is the markedly irregular trend of the tunnel1 which frequently takes a wide bend between two adjacent shafts4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,subterranean ,,aqueducts ,,of ,,um ,,el ,,dabadib ,the man-holes1 or vertical shafts connecting the underground waterway with the surface1 served a double purpose4 ,through them the excavated material was hoisted to the surface1 and in addition they afforded a means of ventilation1 without which it is doubtful whether the work could have been carried out4 ,the excavation of the man-holes alone must have been a gigantic task1 equal to1 if not greater than1 that of cutting out the horizontal tunnels4 ,the cross-section of an average-sized shaft is1 if anything1 greater than that of the tunnel2 and although in vertical dimension the man-holes near the mouth of the aqueduct are insignificant1 the depth rapidly increases in the opposite direction1 owing to the upward slope of the ground-surface towards the escarpment4 ,as already mentioned1 the particular shaft ,i descended had a depth of over #dj metres1 and subsequent levelling1 from the exit of the aqueduct to a point above its origin1 showed the most northerly one to have a depth of not less than #ec metres 7#age feet74 ,along this tunnel1 which has a total length of #bi kilometres1 ,i counted exactly #aej shafts1 so that their average distance apart is between #ai and #bj metres4 ,that the tunnel was most carefully planned and excavated is evident from its very low and gradual slope1 as is indicated by the depth of water flowing through and by the generally unrippled character of the stream4 ,judging by the height of the mouth of one of the man-holes near the point of origin of the tunnel1 and by its depth to the stream in the tunnel below1 there only appears to be a fall of #a metre in about #b kilometres1 or a slope of #a in #b1fgj4 ,it is possible that1 owing to the elasticity of the line used1 there may be a slight error in the measurement of the shaft1 but the above figure may be taken as approximately correct4 ,we have now enough data to calculate the amount of material excavated from these underground works1 and this gives us a good idea of the magnitude of the task4 ,the average depth of the man-holes 7from the ground-surface to the roof of the horizontal tunnel7 works out at #bb metres-- that is to say1 they represent a total length of vertical excavation amounting to #cc kilometres4 ,adding #aj per cent4 to the length of the aqueduct1 to allow for the numerous bends and the side branches1 we get #cb kilometres of horizontal excavation1 or a grand total of #fe kilometres4 ,from a number of measurements the cross-section of both shafts and tunnels works out at an almost identical figure--i4e41 three-quarters of a square metre4 ,thus the amount of rock excavated in this system alone is about #d1hge cubic metres1 and we may safely say that the construction of the four subterranean aqueducts and the #fjj or #gjj vertical shafts meant the excavation and removal of over #bj1jjj cubic metres of solid rock4 ,in contemplating the time and labour involved in the excavation and removal of this great mass of material1 it must not be forgotten that the latter represents the construction of underground passages over twenty miles in length1 and of such restricted size that only one man could have found room to work on the face of the tunnel or shaft at a time4 ,and although the sinking of more than one vertical shaft may have been carried on simultaneously1 the cutting of the long aqueducts had almost certainly to be conducted from one side only--i4e41 from their exits4 ,the accumulation of water would probably have prevented the cutting out of different sections at one and the same time by separate gangs of men4 ,one day1 in the summer of #aijh1 ,i was foolhardy enough to follow the aqueduct to its termination1 from the bottom of the ninth shaft--the one ,i had previously descended--and in case some future visitor to ,um el ,dabdib should feel inclined to examine for himself these wonderful subterranean works1 it may not be out of place to give a brief account of my examination of the upper portion and termination of the aqueduct in question 7the second1 counting from the most westerly71 so that he may benefit by my experience4 ,my particular objects were to ascertain if the bulk of the water came from one or more large fissures1 to determine whether any special characteristics marked the termination of the tunnel1 and to discover whether there were inscriptions which would yield valuable information regarding the making of the aqueduct4 ,my intention was to descend one of the uppermost shafts by means of the windlass with which1 remembering my previous experience with nothing better than a very elastic native-made rope1 ,i had been careful to provide myself4 ,i reckoned that the distance thence to the point of origin of the aqueduct could not be so far as to entail any great difficulty or danger from insufficiency of ventilation4 ,unfortunately descent by any of these shafts proved out of the question in the time available1 owing to their mouths having been carefully closed by great slabs of rock1 which ,i had no facilities for moving4 ,this discovery upset my calculations in two ways3 unless ,i abandoned the undertaking altogether1 which ,i was extremely loath to do after coming so far1 it would be necessary to follow the tunnel from the bottom of the ninth man-hole for at least #bcj metres1 and ,i had already experienced the difficulty of progressing even a short distance in so confined a space4 ,secondly1 there was the question of ventilation4 ,with an open shaft near the top there would at least have been good circulation through the greater part of the aqueduct2 however1 ,i still hoped that the upper man-holes were not so tightly closed as to render the air below entirely stagnant4 ,one of the natives who had taken part in the cleaning out of the aqueduct many years before asserted that the air was not altogether bad1 and though ,i could not definitely ascertain whether or no he had been to the end of the tunnel since the closing of so many of the ventilating shafts1 ,i determined to accept his word for it1 and we descended safely to the bottom4 ,the water felt cool by comparison with the air of the tunnel1 though my thermometer showed the temperature of both air and water to be identical1 registering #hg ,f4 in both cases4 ,it was quite sweet1 though a good deal of sediment appeared when the stream was stirred up4 ,after making a number of measurements of the shaft and tunnel1 we proceeded on our way upstream4 ,the sides of the tunnel were everywhere beautifully cut in a light brown sandstone1 the direction of the pick-marks showing that it had been excavated in the same direction as that we were following--i4e41 from south to north4 ,small notches for the lights used by the workmen were plainly observable on the walls1 about half-way between the floor and the roof4 ,as a rule the tunnel maintains an elongated oval form1 wider near the top than elsewhere2 along one length1 however1 where it evidently follows a fissure1 both top and bottom taper sharply1 so much so that our feet constantly got jammed in the narrow1 wedge-shaped channel through which the water flows4 ,we passed many side branches1 blind alleys1 in fact1 and the main tunnel itself zigzagged considerably1 frequently turning at sharp angles1 and more than once almost doubling back on itself4 ,the air was bad enough at the start1 but seemed to get worse as we proceeded4 ,i trusted1 however1 to finding a distinct improvement in the neighbourhood of the shafts1 but to my dismay each one in turn proved to be hermetically sealed with masses of rock just above its junction with the tunnel1 and there was not the slightest suspicion of any circulation of air1 so that the only relief they afforded was the possibility of resting in an upright position4 ,three hundred metres1 as ,i afterwards calculated the total distance to be1 may seem little enough in the open1 but to grope one's way this distance by the light of a feeble candle along a passage so restricted that one has to proceed not only with bent head and shoulders1 but half sideways1 in a hot1 steamy1 stagnant atmosphere1 is quite a different matter4 ,my companion1 being of small build and stature1 was able to walk upright in comparative comfort1 without continually bumping his head and bruising his shoulders1 so that the want of air did not tell on him to the same extent2 while ,i became more and more fatigued1 owing to the difficulty experienced of getting sufficient oxygen from such an atmosphere in the cramped position ,i had of necessity to assume4 ,on more than one occasion ,i sank exhausted into the water1 the huge gasps of breath which ,i took seeming powerless to relieve the horrible sensation of stifling1 and with the unpleasant prospect of getting drowned if ,i escaped suffocation4 ,yet there seemed to be ten thousand devils tempting me onwards1 and although ,i did not know how long life could be supported under such conditions1 a mad desire possessed me to see the thing through2 so that whenever ,i was able to progress a few yards it was towards the head of the tunnel4 ,when eventually we reached our destination1 some #ae to #bj metres beyond the last man-hole1 it was only to find that the tunnel just stopped4 ,there was no more water emerging from the rock at the end than ,i had seen entering at a dozen small fissures along the course we had traversed2 there was no vertical excavation downwards2 there were no traces of inscriptions2 nothing1 in fact4 ,after all our trouble1 we had drawn a blank4 ,although ,i positively dreaded the long crawl back1 the very fact that every step took us towards the fresh air made me feel comparatively cheerful4 ,after making my examination of the end of the tunnel1 however1 ,i found the space was insufficient to allow of my turning round1 so that ,i was compelled to proceed backwards for some distance before ,i found room in which to turn4 ,i must confess to never having experienced such a feeling of relief as when we eventually arrived at the bottom of the open shaft1 and were able to fill our lungs with copious draughts of the air descending from above4 ,we could see the tiny pin-hole of light far above us1 and when sufficiently rested we swung the rope as a signal to be wound up4 ,although ,i got back to the surface none the worse for my adventure1 with the exception of skin bruises1 ,i would not recommend anyone to attempt the exploration of other similar tunnels unless there were open shafts on either side to insure some circulation of air4 ,it is now quite certain that the aqueducts derived their water from the numerous small fissures traversed1 so that the yield of any single tunnel must have depended to a great extent on its total length4 ,the general formation of the country determined the general direction of the tunnels1 which1 in order to keep within reasonable distance of the surface1 had to follow the valleys4 ,the latter1 without exception in this district1 run in a north and south direction1 having formed at one time drainage-lines from the high plateau to the north4 ,many of the short branch tunnels are1 however1 driven along east and west fissures1 though these could not be followed to any great distance1 owing to the high ridges separating the valleys4 ,it is also quite certain that the work of excavation was eventually stopped by the ever-increasing labour involved in the construction of the vertical shafts1 the depth of which necessarily increased at a rapid rate as the surface of the ground rose when nearing the actual escarpment4 ,for instance1 in the space of only #bcj metres1 between the ninth and the first shafts1 the depth of the man-holes increases from #dj to #ed metres1 and to the north of this the increase would have been still more rapid1 until the amount of vertical excavation would have become altogether disproportionate to the horizontal distance gained by the aqueduct4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,boring ,,methods3 ,,ancient ,,and ,,modern ,the ,skill of the ,ancients in ,well-,boring -- ,present ,state of the ,ancient ,wells -- ,ancient ,methods of ,boring -- ,wooden ,casing -- ,introduction of ,machinery by ,egyptian ,government -- ,native ,methods of ,boring at the ,present ,day -- ,cleaning of ,wells -- ,divers and their ,work -- ,recent ,boring ,operations -- ,american ,steam-driven ,boring ,rigs4 ,olympiodorus1 writing more than #a1ejj years ago1 remarked that the inhabitants of the oases were celebrated for their skill in sinking wells4 ,although at the present day a large proportion of the very ancient wells are completely sanded up1 or have suffered great deterioration in respect of their flows1 there are still many examples to be met with where bores1 certainly between #b1jjj and #c1jjj years old1 are still producing strong discharges of water at the rate of hundreds of gallons a minute by day and by night4 ,although scores of the old wells have been cleaned out and repaired in modern times1 not a single instance has come under my notice of the finding of implements used by the well-borers of ancient times4 ,we know1 however1 that the bores were in practically all cases lined to a considerable depth with wooden casing1 manufactured from the wood of the doum-palm1 date-palm1 or acacia1 which doubtless were then1 as now1 cultivated in large numbers in the oasis4 ,the timber was carefully fashioned into the required lengths and fitted together by water-tight joints4 ,during the cleaning operations to which many of the old wells have been subjected in modern times1 portions of the ancient casing have frequently been extracted1 and some of the examples which ,i have examined1 especially those made of acacia1 proved to be in an excellent state of preservation4 ,the wood of this particular tree--#8sunt1' as it is locally called--has remarkably enduring qualities both in and out of water1 though not when subjected to alternations of wet and dry4 ,still1 that it should in some cases have retained its original qualities since ,roman times is noteworthy4 ,it is quite evident1 from a comparison of the ancient timbering and casing with those manufactured and used by the inhabitants of the oases at the present day1 that the methods of well-sinking in modern times are in many respects identical with those anciently employed4 ,this is especially the case in sinking through the superficial strata--i4e41 those overlying the actual beds in which the artesian water is held--though of the methods formerly practised for carrying the bore through the ,artesian-water ,sandstones nothing is known4 ,we have little1 if any1 information as to how the inhabitants kept up their water-supply after the withdrawal of the ,romans4 ,probably there was a gradual diminution of the total output1 as it is not at all certain that any new wells were subsequently sunk--at any rate1 until after the introduction of modern hand-boring machinery some fifty or sixty years ago4 ,on that occasion one ,hassan ,effendi1 a servant of a ,french engineer of the name of ,lefvre1 was sent out by the ,egyptian ,government to instruct the inhabitants in the use of the new machinery4 ,judging from their present proficiency in sinking wells through difficult strata with the most hopelessly worn and antiquated tackle1 the natives did not take long to learn the new system4 ,unfortunately1 when left to themselves without adequate supervision1 they promiscuously sunk a great number of new bores1 without regard to the probable effects on the older wells irrigating the existing palm-groves and cultivated lands1 with the result that1 more especially in the oasis of ,dakhla1 a great deal of harm was done4 ,whole districts suffered a general lowering of water-level1 many of the wells ceasing to flow altogether4 ,this was the direct outcome of the excessive number of new bores put down in certain districts where the inhabitants were sufficiently rich and influential to get and retain possession of the majority of the newly-imported boring-rigs4 ,about ten years ago ,i studied the method of well-sinking used in the oases1 and found it to consist of a combination of ancient and modern boring practices4 ,owing to the difficulty and prohibitive cost of transporting heavy steel tubes across the desert1 the use of locally-made wooden casing could not be dispensed with1 and as casing of this description could not possibly be made of sufficient strength to stand #8driving1' the upper portion of the well had of necessity to take the form of an open shaft carried down as near as possible to the water-bearing beds1 the actual boring by means of the drilling-plant being confined to the later stages4 ,the first operation consists in sinking a rectangular shaft1 usually #b metres square2 this work is carried out by hand1 the ordinary native #8fass' being almost the only implement used4 ,as the shaft is cut out it is timbered with lengths of palm-wood strung one below the other1 to prevent the walls from falling in4 ,the excavation is carried as deep as possible1 the limit generally depending on the amount of sub-surface water met with4 ,in the oasis of ,dakhla1 where the superficial strata consist almost entirely of clays1 it can usually be continued to a depth of about #cj metres2 but in ,kharga the depth varies considerably1 owing to the more frequent intercalations of water-logged sandstones4 ,the success of the prospective bore depends to a very great extent on the depth to which this preliminary work is carried1 as the succeeding strata1 lying between the base of the shaft and the true artesian beds1 have to be pierced by a hole unprotected by casing1 and if of any very considerable thickness1 caving beds are likely to greatly interfere with1 if not prevent1 the progress of the work4 ,on completion of the timbered shaft the wooden casing is placed centrally in position1 so as to form a vertical pipe from the base of the shaft to the surface of the ground4 ,the pipe may be either square or round in section1 and is usually made of acacia1 though hollowed trunks of doum-palm are sometimes used4 ,it consists of a number of different sections1 joined together in such a way as to leave no projecting portions either within or without1 the whole length of casing thus preserving a constant diameter from top to bottom4 ,as a rule1 the joints are so well formed that the pipe is1 to all intents and purposes1 water-tight after a short soaking4 ,the square variety of casing usually has an inside width of #cf centimetres1 the thickness of the wood being #d or #e centimetres2 the circular1 and perhaps more common1 variety is made with an inside diameter of #ce centimetres1 except when required for insertion within a previously fixed string of casing1 when smaller sizes have to be used4 ,the casing1 of course1 eventually forms the actual channel through which the artesian water flows to the surface4 ,the space intervening between the sides of the timbered shaft and the central pipe is then filled in with a mixture of sand and clay1 firmly packed down1 so as to hold the pipe securely in position1 and prevent the escape of water should any of the joints become leaky4 ,up to this point there is good reason to believe that the modern practice is similar to1 if not identical with1 that anciently used2 but in the complete absence of evidence1 documentary or otherwise1 we cannot conjecture how the old well-sinkers proceeded in subsequent stages4 ,we surmise1 however1 that1 given sufficiency of time1 they were possessed of the requisite patience and skill to overcome all ordinary obstacles--as has been the case for generations in ,china--and it is probable that the percentage of wells abandoned was not greater than it is at the present day in countries where well-boring has become an art1 carried out by means of scientifically designed machinery4 ,the second part of the modern operations is conducted with an ordinary percussion hand-boring outfit of ,european manufacture4 ,as the method of boring with this type of rig is essentially the same all over the world1 we only propose to describe it in brief4 ,the proceedings commence with the erection of a timber framework1 or derrick1 immediately over the mouth of the pipe2 at the summit of the derrick is a pulley1 over which passes the rope or chain which connects on one side with the drum of the winch1 and from the end of which1 on the other side1 are suspended the actual tools with which drilling is continued4 ,the boring-rod is made up to the required length by screwing together a number of #aj-;foot sections1 the terminal length being a shorter rod fitted with a chisel1 auger1 or sand-pump1 according to the work in hand4 ,the rate of progress depends to a great extent on the rapidity with which the blows of the chisel are delivered4 ,this1 of course1 varies considerably1 depending on the depth of the well and consequent weight of the rods in use4 ,where the weight is great and the formation sticky1 the rods have to be lifted by means of the winch1 and not more than two or three blows a minute can be struck4 ,when the rods are light or working freely1 as1 for instance1 when drilling in sandstones1 the winch can be dispensed with1 and the necessary motion conveyed by means of a lever actuated by a number of men4 ,in this way progress can be very much accelerated1 as many as twenty or twenty-five blows being delivered per minute4 ,at the best1 however1 the method of drilling by percussion with a solid rod is necessarily slow1 owing mainly to the fact that the terminal tool cannot be changed or withdrawn without the entire length of rod being taken to pieces4 ,it is seldom1 therefore1 that a well of #abj to #aej metres is completed in less than five months1 and the average time taken is more like nine months or a year4 ,it will readily be admitted that this method of sinking wells is in many respects well adapted to the local conditions obtaining in such isolated localities as the oases1 where time is of little consequence to the inhabitants4 ,the completed wells are frequently equal in almost every respect to those put down by means of the most up-to-date appliances2 in fact1 the only objections to the method are its slowness1 the limited depth to which it is applicable1 and the difficulty of fixing to the wooden casing satisfactory appliances for regulating the discharge4 ,the patience and industry of the inhabitants of the oases are well exemplified by their unceasing attempts to maintain undiminished the water-supply on which their very existence depends4 ,the population must always have borne a direct ratio to the total discharge of the wells1 as on the latter depends the amount of food-supplies which can be raised4 ,at no period1 as far as we can judge1 has the output of the wells been greater than the requirements1 and it is probable that there has always been a population somewhat in excess of that which could be supported by local products1 the surplus portion being disposed of by emigration to the ,nile ,valley4 ,the methods of dealing with wells in which the flows have diminished or altogether ceased are of considerable interest1 as they have given rise to a class of men called #8ghattasin' 7divers71 which one would never have expected to find in such remote and arid localities as the oases of the ,libyan ,desert4 ,it is seldom that the poorer inhabitants can command the use of a hand-rig for the cleaning of their wells1 so that they usually have recourse to appliances of the most primitive description4 ,perhaps the simplest form consists of a short iron rod1 a sort of crowbar or jumper1 suspended from a palm-fibre rope1 and with a tiny basket attached to the lower end4 ,in some cases the end of the jumper is itself fashioned into the form of a cup1 so that the basket of plaited grass or palm-leaf can be dispensed with4 ,the rod is worked up and down in the bore1 so as to stir up the sand and clay at the bottom1 which settles in the basket or cup1 and is periodically hoisted to the surface4 ,the rope is worked over a wooden roller fixed alongside the mouth of the well1 a contrivance which enables the up-and-down motion to be given with a minimum of energy and friction4 ,the process is often continued for years1 the material which can be removed in a day only amounting to a few handfuls4 ,the above method is only applicable to bores in which the wooden casing is more or less intact4 ,where the latter has rotted and allowed the sides of the well to collapse1 a much more difficult and complicated procedure is necessary before the discharge can be re-established4 ,in a case of this sort the original rectangular shaft has to be entirely cleared of material1 and a new string of casing placed in the exact position occupied by the original pipe of the well4 ,moreover1 the timber of the shaft itself has generally to be repaired or entirely renewed1 as otherwise there would be very great danger of the sides collapsing when the material from within was removed4 ,the process is rendered extremely difficult and laborious by reason of the entire work having to be carried on under water4 ,although a well may have stopped flowing1 the passages are never so completely blocked as to altogether prevent the water from rising to within a few feet of the surface1 and any excavation made will always be found to become speedily filled with water4 ,the work can1 therefore1 only be carried out by men who have trained themselves to remain and work under water1 and a limited number of these divers are found in most of the ,egyptian oases4 ,i have frequently watched and chatted with the divers at work on old wells1 both in ,dakhla and ,kharga4 ,unlike the usual custom of remunerating men employed on well-cleaning by shares of the resulting water1 divers are generally paid in cash at the rate of about a shilling a day1 each man receiving his food as well4 ,the descent is always made feet first1 hand over hand down a rope stretched from the top to the bottom4 ,when the diver wishes to return to the surface he signals by a motion of the rope to those at the top1 who promptly haul him up4 ,the rate of progress depends1 of course1 on the depth at which the work is proceeding4 ,in a well ,i once visited near ,hindaw1 in the oasis of ,dakhla1 divers were working at a depth of #bi metres4 ,each man descended six or seven times a day1 remaining on each occasion from two to two and a half minutes under water4 ,work had been in progress here for four years1 and the excavation was still #af or #ag metres from the bottom of the shaft4 ,the excavated material is placed in baskets1 which1 when full1 are drawn up by hand4 ,as soon as the shaft has been cleared to the bottom the new casing is inserted1 the intervening space filled in1 and the work carried on as in a new bore4 ,many extinct wells have thus been put into good working order1 though in some cases the divers have been unable to overcome the difficulties encountered1 and the wells have been finally abandoned after months1 or even years1 of labour4 ,in the reclamation operations conducted in the oasis of ,kharga during the last two or three years1 both hand and steam boring rigs have been employed1 steel casing being used for all wells4 ,the cost per foot drilled is somewhat in favour of the hand-rigs1 but the rate of progress is far more rapid in the case of the steam-driven machines4 ,the method used with the hand-machines is the same in principle as that employed by the natives and already described1 with the exception that the preliminary excavation is dispensed with1 the bore being drilled from the surface and lined with metal casing down to the ,water-bearing ,sandstones4 ,the casing is driven by means of a heavy weight1 or #8monkey1' attached to the boring-rod4 ,the steam-rigs used are of ,american manufacture1 and of the design usually employed in the oil-fields of the ,united ,states4 ,the method is a modern adaptation of a practice employed from very early times in ,china1 free-falling tools attached to a flexible rope being used in place of a solid iron rod4 ,the actual drilling tool1 which is of great weight1 is suspended from a cable1 and worked by steam-power in such a way as to give a rapid succession of blows of such force as to cut out a circular hole through the hardest of rocks4 ,the outfit consists essentially of a very high derrick1 a large drum on which the cable is wound1 and a specially-designed engine worked by steam1 the boiler in which the latter is generated being usually placed on a separate carriage4 ,a second and smaller drum is provided for a fine wire rope1 which is used with various forms of sand-pump for cleaning out the loose sand or sludge formed by the drilling tool4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,steam ,,boring ,,rig4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,hand ,,boring ,,rig4 ,these steam-rigs necessitate the employment of skilled drillers1 and are1 moreover1 with difficulty kept in proper repair in out-of-the-way localities4 ,their initial cost is high2 they are extremely cumbersome to drag from one site to another over the soft surface of the desert1 and they consume a large quantity of fuel4 ,these drawbacks are1 however1 partly1 if not entirely1 counterbalanced by the rapidity with which the work can be carried out1 the average rate of progress under the conditions met with in the oasis being #e to #g metres per #8shift' of eight or ten hours4 ,in the water-sandstones ,i have known ,mr4 ,b4 ,f4 ,whiting1 who was recently my drilling superintendent in the oasis1 carry a bore down as much as #bj or #be metres in a single shift4 ,breakdowns are1 of course1 not infrequent with this system of boring1 but the ,american drillers are remarkably proficient in the recovery of lost tools4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,contest ,,between ,,man ,,and ,,wind-,,borne ,,sand ,the ,winds -- ,wind and ,sand as ,agents of ,denudation -- ,the ,combat of the ,inhabitants with ,sand-laden ,winds -- ,the ,dune-,belts -- ,origin of the ,sand -- ,composition of ,dune-,sand -- ,the ,forms of ,dunes -- ,dimensions and ,rate of ,movement -- ,irresistibility of ,blown ,sand -- ,protection afforded by ,topographical ,features -- ,effect of ,artificial ,obstructions on the ,formation of ,dunes -- ,fixing of ,dunes by ,vegetation and ,moisture -- ,storm-,walls and ,fences -- ,the ,dunes of ,gennh -- ,wind-borne ,sand beneficial in the ,south of the ,oasis -- ,formation of ,terraces of ,wind-borne ,materials -- ,encroachment of ,dunes in the ,south of the ,oasis4 ,no one who has sojourned in ,kharga long enough to compare it with other parts of ,egypt will feel inclined to dispute the statement that the depression is one of the most windy places in the country4 ,only one day in ten or eleven is calm1 though if the wind has been blowing fairly steadily during the day it generally drops at night4 ,five times out of six its direction is from the north1 and when unaccompanied by sand the wind acts as a welcome moderator of the temperature4 ,in a desert region1 owing to the surface being unprotected by vegetation1 there is nearly always an abundance of weathered material loosely exposed on the surface1 the lighter portions of which are quickly swept up and carried along as soon as the wind attains even a moderate velocity4 ,on the actual dunes even a light breeze is sufficient to set the surface-layers in motion1 while on the open plain the wind becomes visibly charged with sand directly it attains the velocity of a moderate breeze4 ,the frequency with which the wind blows has already been mentioned1 and when we add that on one day in three it attains a velocity sufficient to enable it to easily carry sand in suspension1 its power as a transporting agent can readily be conceived4 ,not only does the wind carry the sand along from one place to another1 dumping it behind or in front of every obstacle it may meet1 but the combination of sand and wind forms a denuding force of no mean power1 capable of planing and grooving the exposed surfaces of the hardest of rocks4 ,now1 although opinions may differ as to the part played in the past by wind and sand in the shaping and formation of the oases-depressions of the ,libyan ,desert1 there can be no question of the effects they are producing at the present day4 ,wind-borne sand is indeed the curse of the oasis1 and although its evil effects may be mitigated or altogether staved off for a time1 the longer this force of ,nature is opposed by man the greater and more overwhelming is its final victory4 ,if a full account of the human occupation of the oases could be written1 it would be very largely the history of an incessant combat between man and ,nature2 and although man may for a time gain the upper hand1 and even make the sand-laden winds to some extent serve his purposes1 he is in the end generally forced to abandon those places in which he has been at such pains to establish himself4 ,in the ,libyan ,desert1 both on the plateaux and in the depressions1 blown sand has a marked tendency to collect into dunes occupying definite north and south belts of country1 lying parallel to the direction of the prevailing winds4 ,this peculiar and fortunate disposition depends on a number of circumstances1 such as the mean direction of the wind1 the points of greatest supply of the material1 and on other causes which are not perhaps as yet thoroughly understood4 ,in ,kharga ,oasis the best marked and most important belt lies somewhat to the west of the central axis of the depression4 ,at the north end1 in the neighbourhood of ,um el ,dabdib1 it consists of a number of isolated but parallel lines of dunes1 which southwards pass over and round the hill-massif of ,jebel ,tarif1 eventually uniting and forming a more compact belt of sand1 with an average width of #h or #aj kilometres1 which continues right through the depression into the desert to the south4 ,this line of sand sets a limit to the extension of cultivation to the west4 ,a second belt comes from the plateau to the north of ,qasr ,lebekha1 passes immediately to the east of ,jebel ,tr and the village of ,kharga1 and continues southwards until it spreads out and is arrested1 more or less by artificial means1 in the vicinity of ,gennh4 ,other smaller and less defined belts exist to the south of ,ain el ,tawl1 to the east of ,headquarters1 and near the foot of1 and parallel to1 the eastern wall of the depression4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,belt ,,of ,,dunes ,,near ,,qasr ,,lebekha4 ,although it has been stated by more than one writer that the great sand accumulations of the ,libyan ,desert originate in the denudation of the ,nubian ,sandstone which occupies large areas to the south of the oases1 ,i have never myself met with any evidence in support of such a view4 ,in my opinion the bulk of the sand must be regarded as originating in the arenaceous deposits of post-,middle ,eocene age1 which largely occupy and are exposed on the surface of the country between the ,mediterranean ,sea and latitude #bi ,n4 ,we know from personal observation that some of the great sand-belts1 which cross the intervening limestone plateau to the southern oases1 commence in this region1 and the supply of sand made available by the denudation of the beds in question is inexhaustible4 ,during the passage of this sand across the great desert tableland the individual grains of silica doubtless become much rounded and reduced by attrition1 though the total loss is probably more than counterbalanced by the very considerable additions received in the form of calcareous grains1 derived from the limestones forming the surface of the high desert4 ,an examination of the dunes of ,kharga ,oasis at once shows that the sand is not by any means composed solely of siliceous grains1 but that there is a considerable proportion of white granules of limestone4 ,a number of samples collected at random from the dunes in the central part of the depression were all found to contain a visible proportion of calcareous grains1 and one of these1 collected from the big dune to the south-east of ,headquarters1 was qualitatively examined for me by ,mr4 ,garsed1 and shown to contain #gg per cent4 of calcium carbonate4 ,it would be difficult to account for the presence of these calcareous grains on the assumption that the sand is derived from the ,nubian ,sandstone1 though the denudation of the latter in and to the south of the oases must give rise to a very large amount of siliceous sand1 which goes to swell the bulk of the dunes which have invaded this country from beyond the limestone plateau to the north4 ,the dominant form of dune in the oasis is of crescentic or horse-shoe shape1 a form specially typical of desert regions where there are prevailing winds in any one direction4 ,these #8barchans1' as they are called1 which are always disposed with the concave1 steeply-inclined sides facing southwards1 are found of every size1 and exhibit many variations of the simple crescentic pattern4 ,in many parts of the oasis the sand-belts are made up of a number of isolated and promiscuously disposed barchans2 in others the dunes have joined together into a compact mass1 in which the typical shape of the individual barchan is more or less obliterated4 ,solitary barchans1 being well-defined isolated masses1 lend themselves to observation better than the large and continuous belts of sand4 ,they occur of all sizes1 from little baby crescents1 a metre or two across1 to enormous masses #cj or #dj metres high and #bjj to #cjj metres in breadth4 ,in all cases1 except when their steady march southwards has been temporarily interrupted by southerly winds1 the southern face1 flanked by the horns of the crescent1 is a straight slope of from #cj to #cc degrees1 its inclination is1 in fact1 the angle of rest of loose dry sand1 and it is formed of the sand which is continually blown up the opposite slope and dropped over the crest4 ,in a moderate breeze the whole barchan progresses steadily in a southerly direction without loss or gain of sand2 in stronger winds1 while still continuing its course1 the dune may at the same time be either losing or gaining in actual bulk4 ,the rate at which the barchans travel varies with their size4 ,the larger the dune the greater the amount of material to be moved1 so that1 as a general rule1 small barchans progress much more rapidly than large ones4 ,the actual rate may vary from #aj to #bj metres per annum1 the average being about #ag4 ,for instance1 the big isolated dune on the road between ,headquarters and ,kharga village moved #aa metres southwards between ,december #h1 #aijg1 and ,december #h1 #aijh1 while during the same period a small dune in the ,bellaida district travelled #ba metres in the same direction4 ,the dimensions of these two dunes is as follows3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,kharga ,road ,bellaida ,dune4 ,dune4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,metres4 ,metres4 ,vertical height of centre of crest #ag #aje ,maximum breadth 7east and west7 #bei #afj ,maximum length 7north and south7 #bcj #gj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,these are merely instances from dunes which ,i have had under observation for a number of months1 full details of which ,i hope shortly to publish4 ,approached on a bright sunny day from the south side1 the angle of slope within the crescent of a barchan is most deceptive4 ,nine out of ten persons will confidently state that the face of the dune cannot be less than #fj or #gj degrees from the horizontal1 though1 as a matter of fact1 it never exceeds by more than two or three degrees a third of a right angle4 ,unless held together by vegetation or compacted by moisture1 it cannot exceed the angle of rest of dry blown sand1 which is about #cb degrees4 ,in normal weather this face of a barchan is a straight1 unrippled1 even slope of loose sand from top to bottom2 when a light or gentle breeze is blowing from the north1 the dune can be seen #8smoking' at the top of the crest1 the sand being blown up the much more gentle and markedly rippled northerly slope1 and dropped over the crest on to the steep1 smooth1 southerly face4 ,the bulk of this sand in a light breeze falls on the upper part of the slope1 equilibrium being adjusted from time to time by a downward sliding of the superficial layers4 ,a cross-section of the dune1 from north to south1 would indeed show it to be composed of well-stratified layers of sand1 dipping steadily southwards at a little over #cj degrees4 ,in this district ,i have never observed southerly winds hold for a sufficient length of time to do more than slightly modify the general form of a barchan1 though during their continuance the progress of the dune is arrested1 the outline of the crest becomes considerably altered1 ripple-marks appear on the steep southerly face1 and an apron of sand of greater or lesser dimensions forms at its foot4 ,the irresistibility of drift sand is well seen where isolated hills lie in the path of the dunes4 ,when such hills are narrow1 and elongated in a north and south direction1 they generally act as a wedge1 divide the wind1 and force any sand it may be carrying to pass on either side4 ,when1 however1 a hill has northerly flanks of any considerable width1 it will only form a temporary check to the southward passage of the sand4 ,the progress of the latter may be arrested for a while1 until hollows have been filled in and the general slopes reduced2 but eventually the sand will pass up along the lines of least resistance to the summit4 ,this is beautifully illustrated at ,jebel ,tarif1 the great isolated1 flat-topped1 hill-massif lying between ,um el ,dabdib and ,kharga village1 standing over #cjj metres1 or #a1jjj feet1 above the surrounding plain4 ,instead of being diverted by this obstacle1 the sand1 coming from the plateau to the north and north-west of ,um el ,dabdib1 surmounts the slopes1 and continues in its normal direction across the flat-topped summit4 ,the latter has been cut up into numberless parallel north- and south-disposed ridges1 separated by deep troughs1 which are now to a considerable extent filled with sand4 ,active erosion must1 therefore1 at the present day be confined to the upper portions of the slopes of the valleys and to the intervening ridges4 ,naturally in such a region the inhabitants have been quick to take advantage of any protection afforded by topographical features1 and it is not surprising to find that the most important of the ancient monuments1 as well as the greatest area of modernly cultivated land1 lie in a comparatively sheltered position to the south of ,jebel ,tr4 ,even there1 however1 trouble is constantly experienced on the east side1 owing to the tendency of the belt of sand-dunes1 which comes from the vicinity of ,qasr ,lebekha1 to spread laterally4 ,along the east side of the village the dunes are close up against the outlying houses1 and the sand continually surmounts and pours over the walls which from time to time are erected by the natives to act as barricades4 ,sheltered places of the above description are rare1 the majority of the smaller settlements being situated on the open plain1 where the only precaution which can be taken is to select the sites for wells as far away as possible from the well-defined sand-belts4 ,but in windy weather the sand-blast is not confined to the neighbourhood of the dunes2 the wind rages across the open plains1 carrying dense clouds of sand in suspension1 and devastating the works of man wherever the latter offer the slightest obstacle to its progress4 ,illustration3 ,,sand ,,erosion ,,on ,,summit ,,of ,,jebel ,,tarif4 ,in order to protect his crops from the fierce onslaught of wind-borne sand the native is compelled to erect fences and barricades along the northern boundaries of his fields4 ,these serve his purpose for the time being1 the sand which would otherwise have cut and beaten down the growing crops being deposited on either side of the fence1 where the velocity of the wind is checked4 ,the arrested sand accumulates with increasing rapidity as the size of the obstruction becomes greater1 a veritable dune1 constituting a really efficient protection to the cultivated lands1 being formed over the site of the original small and insignificant hedge4 ,unfortunately1 this sand continues to collect1 and although the cultivator may have satisfactorily insured himself against the frequent damage caused to his crops by their exposure to wind-driven sand1 he is now confronted with the still more serious prospect of having his lands overwhelmed by the ever-increasing dunes1 which have grown to considerable proportions as the result of his efforts to protect himself4 ,fortunately for the occupiers of these outlying settlements1 the progress of such dunes1 formed more or less artificially on the northerly sides of the cultivated tracts1 is not at the same rate as that of isolated dunes moving across the open desert plain4 ,owing to the presence of a certain amount of moisture in the superficial layers of the ground in the neighbourhood of the wells and the cultivated lands1 plants of various kinds are enabled to thrive1 with the result that the dunes become to some extent #8fixed' by wild vegetation4 ,the most valuable plant in this connection is the tamarisk1 which by means of immensely long roots continues to thrive and keep its head above growing dunes with remarkable facility4 ,to a certain extent1 moreover1 the moisture from the soil itself rises by capillarity into the base of the sand1 and assists the vegetation in binding it into a compact mass1 which is not liable to movement in the same degree as dry sand4 ,the rate of progress of such dunes may therefore be reduced to a considerable extent1 but the movement can never be altogether stopped4 ,as we have seen in the case of the hamlet of ,meheriq1 the sand eventually gets the upper hand1 blotting out the arable lands1 burying the palm-groves1 and forcing man to abandon his habitations4 ,in the neighbourhood of the ,corporation's ,headquarters a considerable area of the floor of the depression has been brought under cultivation during the last three years4 ,this tract is exposed on every side1 there being no protection whatever in the shape of natural features4 ,although occasional sandstorms are experienced from the south1 and even from the east and west sides1 practically the whole of the trouble encountered comes from northerly sandstorms and sand-laden winds4 ,it was found quite impossible to raise crops unless the fields were protected by storm-walls or fences1 the young plants being cut down as if by a scythe4 ,so long as the reclamation of land proceeded from south to north at a fairly rapid rate1 the accumulation of sand against these fences was of little moment1 being1 indeed1 rather welcome than otherwise1 as the sand was found to be of considerable value when spread out and ploughed into the heavy clay soil with which this area is superficially covered4 ,when1 however1 a storm-wall remains for several consecutive months exposed to the open desert to the north1 the accumulation of sand becomes a more serious matter1 and care has to be taken to avoid the formation of dunes1 which it might be afterwards difficult to get rid of4 ,a fairly satisfactory mode of procedure is the planting of narrow belts of #8sesban1' or other quickly-growing shrub1 along the northern limits of the newly reclaimed lands2 a hedge of this description forms an efficient shelter to the fields1 while at the same time it allows a good deal of the sand to filter through and become absorbed by the soil4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,corporation',s ,,homestead 7,,headquarters74 ,most of the dunes in the ,gennh district are more or less covered with tamarisk and other wild vegetation1 but that their progression southwards has only been retarded1 and not prevented1 is evident from an examination of the country4 ,large areas of land have been abandoned owing to the invasion of the dunes1 and the magnificent wells of ,gennh are threatened with destruction within a very short term of years1 unless special measures are adopted to cope with the advance of the sand4 ,the available land in the vicinity of the village has long been insufficient to utilize the water discharged by these wells1 which has in consequence to be led by a channel of several kilometres in length to lower ground south-east of the ,gorn el ,gennh4 ,this channel is being constantly pushed to the south1 and as the ground rises in that direction1 it may eventually become impossible to maintain the conduit at a sufficiently low level to carry the water of the wells to this outlying district4 ,the southern portion of the oasis is the only area where sand and wind can be said to be of any actual benefit to the inhabitants1 but in this area1 owing to the broad plains of alluvial clay1 the suspended material consists to a very great extent of fine argillaceous particles4 ,at many of the wells in the ,dakhakhin and ,beris districts the cultivators encourage the gradual deposition on their fields of the sand and clay-dust borne by the northerly winds4 ,the mixture forms an excellent loam1 and an annual dressing of the material is regarded as desirable1 and even necessary1 on account of its value as a fertilizer4 ,the result of this gradual deposition of wind-borne material has been that the cultivated terraces have in many cases attained to such elevations that the discharges of the wells have suffered very considerable diminution1 owing to the increased height of the outlets4 ,to the west of the villages of ,maks and ,beris the great belt of sand has already enveloped a number of wells1 and appears to be still encroaching--as the individual dunes follow their normal course in a direction slightly east of south--on the area occupied by the existing cultivated lands4 ,fortunately there are still extensive tracts of cultivable land comparatively free from accumulations of drift sand1 and doubtless the inhabitants1 when driven by the irresistible forces of ,nature from the localities they now occupy1 will again1 as they have so frequently been compelled to do in the past1 migrate to pastures new4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,some ,,economical ,,aspects ,,of ,,the ,,oasis ,the ,staple ,crops of the ,oasis -- ,rice the ,summer ,crop in ,northern ,kharga -- ,the ,value of ,rice in the ,reclamation of ,land -- ,the ,date ,harvest -- ,conditions under which the ,date-,palm flourishes -- ,varieties -- ,propagation -- ,the ,doum-,palm -- ,lucerne -- ,its ,value in ,land-,reclamation -- ,the ,vine -- ,oranges and ,other ,fruits -- ,the ,wadi ,molk -- ,earthy ,minerals -- ,the ,ancient ,alum ,mines -- ,the ,phosphatic ,deposits4 ,the staple crops of the oasis are dates1 rice1 wheat1 and barley1 while for fodder large quantities of lucerne are grown4 ,it seems at first sight a curious anomaly that in an arid region1 where water is so scarce and precious a commodity1 rice should be grown as the summer crop4 ,few1 if any1 plants require such an abundance of water as rice1 which from the time of sowing to that of reaping has to be continually irrigated by fresh water1 the fields being1 indeed1 during the whole period that the crop is on the ground1 in a constant state of saturation4 ,rice does not thrive in stagnant water1 and it is noticeable that the best crops in the oasis are raised on lands which have a decided slope1 and over which fresh water can be kept constantly running4 ,the proper irrigation of a rice-field is a matter of no small difficulty1 and the ingenious manner in which the oasis cultivator lays out his irrigating channels and subdivides them by means of notched weirs1 so as to insure every portion of the crop getting a continuous supply of fresh water1 is well worthy of close examination4 ,in the ,nile ,delta1 according to ,sir ,william ,willcocks1#ac rice requires about twice as much water as the other commonly-grown crops1 but in the oases ,i do not think ,i am mistaken in saying that it needs three times as much as any other grain4 ,rice appears to have been grown from time immemorial1 and certainly at the present day the inhabitants would as soon think of giving up their date-trees as of replacing it by any other crop4 ,now1 however1 that facilities exist for the export of farm-produce to the ,nile ,valley markets1 it will be interesting to observe whether rice will to any extent be replaced by more valuable crops4 ,in ,upper ,egypt the summer crop is largely durra millet 7sorghum71 but this plant does not thrive in the oasis1 though whether on account of an uncongenial soil or owing to unsuitable climatic conditions ,i am unable to say4 ,it has frequently been tried--in fact1 small areas are annually planted1 but never produce crops--at any rate1 in the northern part of ,kharga--in any sense comparable with those of the ,nile ,valley4 ,the very fact that durra cannot be satisfactorily grown suggests a probable reason why rice1 the least valuable of the ,egyptian cereals1 and the one requiring most water1 is so universally grown in ,northern ,kharga4 ,rice1 as is well known1 will grow on land containing a proportion of salts which would be injurious1 or even fatal1 to the majority of crops1 and will at the same time exercise a beneficial and cleansing effect on such land4 ,the growing of rice may therefore have come about through the actual necessity for a periodical cleansing of land1 which would otherwise have become salted to a sufficient extent to adversely affect other crops grown on the same ground4 ,at the present day1 barley and wheat alternate with rice4 ,the thorough and prolonged soaking to which land is subject when under rice is in itself of considerable value to succeeding crops1 and in the reclamation of heavy clay-lands in the ,headquarters district my experience has been that as a first crop there is nothing to equal this cereal4 ,in many cases1 indeed1 it was found to be the only crop which could be at all satisfactorily raised on new lands with only a moderate application of manure4 ,a good tilth1 moreover1 is far more rapidly obtained than when other crops are grown1 the difference in the second and third years between lands which have and have not had rice on them being most marked4 ,i was much surprised to find that rice is not grown in the southern districts of the oasis1 with the exception of a couple of small areas near ,dakhakhin4 ,extended inquiries failed to elicit satisfactory reasons for this remarkable difference from the practice followed in the north1 the universal reply to my questions being that they1 the inhabitants1 in not growing rice1 were merely following the custom of their ancestors6 ,i noticed1 however1 that durra was grown on a much larger scale than in the north of the oasis1 and that the crops in some cases reached a fairly good standard4 ,it seems probable1 therefore1 that in this part of the depression the soil is of higher average quality1 so that the land1 renovated by the annual deposition of a fresh layer of wind-borne sand and clay-dust in the manner already described1 does not need a periodical cleansing by rice4 ,this1 at least1 is the only satisfactory explanation which has occurred to me4 ,the harvesting of the date-crop in ,september and ,october is the most important event of the year in ,kharga ,oasis4 ,a large portion of the crop is exported to the ,nile ,valley1 the ,bedawin becoming traders for the time being1 and transporting the produce across the desert by means of camels4 ,there are over #fj1jjj adult date-palms1 the chief palm-groves being at ,kharga1 ,gennh1 and ,bulaq in the north1 and at ,beris in the south4 ,the selling-price in the oasis fluctuates to some extent1 but averages twenty piastres a #8weba' of between #fj and #gj pounds1 the weight of a weba varying considerably according to the moistness of the fruit and the astuteness of the man entrusted with the measuring4 ,the price works out roughly at #d pounds for threepence4 ,in a book#ad entitled 8,the ,great ,sahara10 published nearly fifty years ago1 ,canon ,tristram gives a very full account of the cultivation of the date-palm in ,north ,africa4 ,the date-palm 7,phnix dactilifera7 is a tree specially characteristic of the ,sahara1 where the climate is marked by deficiency of rainfall and by considerable variations of temperature4 ,although it flourishes best in rainless regions1 the date-palm will not fruit unless its roots are well watered2 it must1 indeed1 as the native proverb puts it1 #8have its head in the fire and its roots in water4' ,in ,egypt there are about fifty varieties of date-palm the chief kinds in ,kharga ,oasis being the ,sadi1 ,tamar1 ,flig1 and ,hamrwi4 ,the ,sadi dates of the oases are generally considered to be superior in flavour to almost any other ,egyptian variety1 and have in consequence a ready sale in the ,nile ,valley4 ,the other varieties are not exported to any great extent1 except1 perhaps1 the ,flig2 the ,tamar1 while producing a heavier crop than the other kinds1 yields fruit of comparatively poor quality1 which is on that account almost entirely used for home consumption4 ,the ,hamrwi trees are very limited in number1 but produce fruit of large size and excellent flavour2 ,hamrwi dates are1 however1 ,i believe1 regarded as having bad keeping properties4 ,dates are met with of almost every variety of colour except pure black or white4 ,all the different kinds ripen at or about the same time--in the early part of ,september4 ,a tree will bear from eight to ten bunches1 each carrying from #ab to #bj pounds of fruit1 so that in full bearing it will yield from #ajj to #bjj pounds of dates annually4 ,the fruit exported from the oases1 being entirely disposed of in the native markets of the ,nile ,valley1 is packed and sewn up without any special care in palm-leaf baskets4 ,for local use small quantities of selected fruit are frequently preserved in a moist state in earthenware jars4 ,date-stones cast on the ground and accidentally buried under an inch or two of soil will germinate freely1 but the resulting plants are of little use4 ,not one in a hundred will turn out of the same variety as its parent1 so that plants raised from seed must in the great majority of cases be regarded as bastards1 of no value as fruit-producers4 ,in ,kharga all new trees are raised from slipped plants--that is to say1 from the young shoots which spring up at the butts of the parent trees4 ,these are detached and planted out separately on new ground4 ,the greatest care has to be taken to protect them from hot winds and sandstorms1 and they must be watered daily for a number of weeks after being planted4 ,growth is very slow for the first two years1 and even under the most favourable conditions the trees will not commence to bear fruit for five or six years4 ,date-palms come into full bearing when from twenty to twenty-five years old1 and may live to a century or more4 ,every year the lowest ring of branches is cut off1 so that the age of a tree can be fairly accurately ascertained by counting the rings of notches on the stem4 ,the wild1 unkempt1 weather-beaten trees occasionally met with in outlying1 uninhabited portions of the oasis have a very different appearance from the trim1 erect palms of the cultivated areas4 ,in the oases and in other parts of ,egypt a fermented liquor called #8lagmi1' with a peculiar insipid taste1 is obtained by making a deep incision in the top of the date-palm1 the liquid oozing out and being collected in a vessel1 generally made of the rind of a gourd4 ,as much as #aj quarts can be obtained in a day1 and the tree may be bled once or twice a month without sustaining any harm2 the operation may1 in fact1 prove of considerable benefit to a sickly palm4 ,a very strong spirit--date-brandy--is also made from the fruit4 ,tristram records that the heart or cabbage of a date-palm1 which in taste is said to resemble the sweet potato1 is eaten by the natives when a tree falls or is blown down4 ,the uses to which the leaves1 fibre1 and wood of the date-palm are put are innumerable1 and include the manufacture of such diverse articles as baskets1 mats1 ropes1 and saddles4 ,the doum-palm1 or gingerbread-tree1 flourishes in a semi-wild state in many parts of the oasis1 more especially in the tract of country lying between ,gennh and ,bulaq4 ,the fruit is brown and mealy1 and1 in localities where the trees are properly tended1 is said to be very nutritious1 and to resemble gingerbread in taste and colour4 ,in some parts of the ,sahara the spongy internal portion of the nut forms an important article of food1 and when mixed with an infusion of dates constitutes a cooling drink much valued for use in cases of febrile disorders4 ,illustration3 ,,doum-,,palms ,,at ,,ain ,,girm ,,meshim4 ,although pasture or grazing lands can hardly be said to exist in the ,western sense of the term1 lucerne is very commonly grown in ,kharga to provide a supply of green fodder for cattle4 ,the plant seems to be peculiarly adapted to the local conditions1 and is often kept on the ground for long periods1 the crop providing very frequent cuttings and improving from year to year4 ,it is seldom or never grazed direct1 probably for the reason that cattle are apt to pull the plants out by the roots1 the ground on which it best thrives being very loose and sandy4 ,in the reclamation of new lands1 where the soil is deficient in organic matter and nitrogen1 this leguminous plant has been found to be of very great value4 ,excellent results were obtained at ,headquarters on desert surfaces which had never previously borne vegetation4 ,on the more sandy areas the plant quickly established itself1 becoming in the second year an even and strongly-growing crop from #ah inches to #b feet high1 yielding heavy cuttings every few weeks4 ,for benefiting a poor soil by the introduction of nitrogen from the atmosphere probably nothing could be found to excel lucerne1 which1 judging by the numerous and well-marked nodules formed on the roots1 acts as a most efficient host-plant for nitrogen-fixing bacteria4 ,my attention was first drawn to these nodules by ,mr4 ,d4 ,milne1 who was formerly in charge of the agricultural work at ,headquarters1 and both he and my present assistant1 ,mohammed ,said1 an ,egyptian agriculturist of wide practical experience1 have formed a very high opinion of the utility of lucerne in the reclamation and fertilization of raw and new desert soils4 ,in ancient days the vine was extensively cultivated in the oases1 and under the ,romans there appears to have been a considerable trade in wine4 ,at the present day excellent oranges1 as well as apricots1 mulberries1 and olives1 are grown in both ,kharga and ,dakhla1 but only in comparatively small quantities1 though the soil and climate appear to be eminently suited to the cultivation of fruit-trees4 ,cotton cannot be said to be cultivated in the oases1 as the very occasional plots one meets with are evidence that its culture is not understood by the natives1 who aim at the production of wood rather than fibre4 ,experiments made at ,headquarters1 however1 show that many ,nile ,valley crops not hitherto grown in ,kharga1 such as cotton1 sugar-cane1 and beans1 can be successfully raised without difficulty4 ,there exists in the possession of ,his ,excellency ,johnson ,pasha1 formerly of the ,egyptian ,ministry of ,justice1 a curious old ,arabic document1 purporting to describe the so-called ,wadi el ,molk1 or ,valley of the ,kings1 a depression or valley in which1 according to tradition1 large quantities of gold1 silver1 and other precious metals exist4 ,the place is described in true ,oriental fashion1 and the manuscript relates in detail how the route1 starting from an old monastery in the neighbourhood of ,esna1 proceeds4 ,according to the information given1 the ,wadi el ,molk would appear to lie somewhere within the desert triangle between the points ,esna1 ,aswn1 and ,beris1 but although a number of more or less serious attempts have been made to discover its whereabouts1 this ,el ,dorado has not yet been located4 ,judging by the geological conditions--so far as they are known in the area in question--one might1 with equally good chances of success1 search for metalliferous deposits of gold and silver in the ,weald of the ,south of ,england4 ,earthy minerals exist in the oasis of ,kharga1 and appear to have been extensively mined by the ancients in some localities4 ,deposits of ochre occur near several of the wells to the east and south-east of ,kharga village1 notably to the west of ,ain ,aid1 to the west of ,ain ,khall1 and to the north of ,ain ,girgwi4 ,the best occurrences are to the south of the ,gorn el ,gennh1 in which district the ferruginous waters of certain wells have deposited thick banks of ochre along their channels4 ,the sulphates of aluminium and magnesium are widely distributed in the oasis1 though the deposits are seldom of sufficient extent to repay extraction4 ,they occur as thin bands in the shales and sandstones of the surface-water series1 seldom exceeding a few centimetres in thickness1 and being generally of very limited horizontal extent4 ,the alum1 which is often found in beautiful fibrous or hair-like crystalline masses1 is frequently of a delicate rose tint1 and analysis shows the colour to be due to the presence of small quantities of cobalt4 ,epsomite 7,epsom salts or hydrous sulphate of magnesia7 is also found in fibrous crystalline seams1 a remarkably pure deposit1 containing several hundred tons1 having been quite recently located a few kilometres west of ,headquarters4 ,in the foot-hills to the north of ,bellaida1 at the base of the eastern slopes of ,jebel ,tarif1 and in the hills immediately to the west of ,qasr ,lebekha1 ancient mines of the most extensive description are to be seen4 ,the rocks in these localities consist of variegated sandstones and grits1 many of the beds being so dark and ferruginous that the hills1 as a whole1 have a blackened and almost volcanic appearance4 ,they are literally honeycombed with ancient workings1 many of which1 both in the form of large chambers and narrow tunnels1 penetrate for long distances underground4 ,huge dump-heaps mark the entrances of the workings1 and bear witness to the enormous quantities of #8country' rock removed in the winning of the useful mineral4 ,the rude shelters built by the miners are to be seen in the immediate vicinity1 and in many cases are still intact4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,wadi ,,in ,,jebel ,,tarif4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,river ,,of ,,sand ,,near ,,um ,,el ,,dabadib4 ,the extent and magnitude of the underground workings prove that whatever the mineral mined1 it was a substance of considerable value in those days2 and an examination of the blind terminations of the tunnels occasionally reveals the presence of very thin seams of aluminium sulphate1 which1 in the absence of indications of other useful minerals1 we must conclude was the substance sought4 ,the bands of alum were evidently followed until they thinned out to a fraction of an inch1 or disappeared altogether4 ,a reference to the geological sequence will show the stratigraphical position of the phosphatic series of the oasis1 consisting of hard bands composed of fish-remains1 coprolites1 and phosphatic nodules4 ,the beds have a wide extension in ,northern ,kharga1 and are especially well developed on the flanks of ,jebel ,tarwan and ,jebel ,tr1 in the centre of the depression4 ,as a rule1 they consist of an upper brown-coloured series1 individual beds of which in places have a thickness of #b or #c metres1 and a lower division consisting of three or four thin1 hard1 and lighter-coloured bands1 in which the phosphatic nodules are often cemented by iron pyrites4 ,the upper bands may contain anything up to #fj per cent4 of tricalcium phosphate1 so that the deposit may be regarded as of considerable potential value4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,some ,,notes ,,on ,,sport ,,and ,,natural ,,history ,the ,libyan ,desert as a ,sporting ,region -- ,the ,dorcas ,gazelle -- ,snipe -- ,wild-,fowl -- ,the ,local ,sportsmen -- ,an all-night ,sitting -- ,quail -- ,sand-,grouse -- ,rock-,pigeons -- ,turtle-,doves -- ,various -- ,striped ,hyna -- ,jackals -- ,three ,species of ,fox -- ,the ,desert ,fox -- ,the ,true ,fennec4 ,sportsmen who reckon the success and pleasures of a shooting expedition only by the contents of the resulting bag are advised to give a wide berth to the ,libyan ,desert1 as in that arid region--with the exception of one restricted area far removed from the oasis under description--no game is to be found which cannot be obtained far more easily1 and in much greater quantities1 in the cultivated plains of the ,nile ,valley and on the adjoining desert margins4 ,on the other hand1 the sportsman who does not regard too seriously the actual head of game brought to bag1 and who has no objection to hard work1 will find in the oases undoubted attractions in the way of rough sport4 ,provided with a few camels to carry the necessary impedimenta1 so as to be rendered independent and able to wander about at will1 a very enjoyable time can be spent exploring the various isolated portions of the depression where gazelles abound1 and visiting the numerous outlying wells where wild-fowl1 snipe1 quail1 sand-grouse1 and rock-pigeons are to be met with in fair quantities4 ,the little ,dorcas gazelle ranges over the whole of the ,libyan ,desert4 ,on the plateau1 owing to the extreme scarcity and scantiness of vegetation1 gazelles seldom remain in the same locality for any length of time1 and even when met with can rarely be approached1 owing to the open nature of the country4 ,in the more fertile oases-depressions they are to be seen in far greater numbers1 especially in the outlying portions where large tracts are covered with coarse grasses1 tamarisk1 and other kinds of scrub4 ,after nightfall they frequently descend to the cultivated lands to browse on the crops1 almost invariably retiring to the outlying desert areas at the first traces of dawn1 though ,i recollect on one occasion bringing a laggard to bag very early in the morning on the edge of a barley-field at ,um el ,dabdib4 ,gazelles are1 in fact1 seldom to be seen1 unless carefully sought for in their special haunts2 one might remain for months in the inhabited portions of the depression and only be aware of their existence from occasionally meeting with their spoor4 ,it is advisable when hunting gazelles to pitch camp at some distance from their grazing grounds1 as they are extremely wary1 and not to be approached once they have taken alarm4 ,extensive tracts of uninhabited1 scrub-covered desert1 like those to the north of ,ain el ,qasr1 affording ample supplies of food1 and undisturbed by man1 are the favourite haunts of these extremely shy animals4 ,for shooting this district an excellent camping-ground will be found on the edge of the scrub in the neighbourhood of ,qasr ,gyb1 an ancient ruin conspicuously perched on the summit of a conical hillock1 about #bj kilometres north of ,meheriq4 ,the dead parts of the scrub supply an abundance of fuel1 and good water is obtainable by clearing out a section of the ancient underground aqueduct lying a short distance to the south4 ,from the shelter of any of the higher clumps of vegetation one can1 with the aid of field-glasses1 keep a careful look-out over the surrounding scrub-covered country1 and1 once gazelles have been located1 getting within range is merely a matter of patience and careful stalking4 ,after sighting the quarry1 it is best to proceed alone1 as natives have an exasperating way of exposing themselves at the most critical moments4 ,on my last visit to the north of the oasis there were a good many gazelles about1 including a herd of some seven or eight2 it was1 however1 quite impossible to get within #ejj yards of these1 but ,i had better luck with a solitary couple a few kilometres to the north of the old ruin1 both of which ,i succeeded in bagging4 ,the ,dorcas gazelle is one of the smallest and fleetest of the antelopes4 ,when full grown1 the buck stands about #bb inches high at the shoulder1 the horns in my best head--not1 however1 shot in ,kharga--measuring exactly #ac inches4 ,properly cooked1 its flesh is excellent1 and certainly superior to the average ,egyptian mutton4 ,for snipe the best time is from ,december to ,february1 though ,i have shot odd birds as early as ,october and as late as ,april4 ,both the full and the jack snipe are to be met with1 their favourite feeding-grounds being the rice-stubbles immediately after the crops have been harvested1 and before the ground has had time to get hard and dry4 ,in the cold weather1 however1 almost any wet patch--and there are numerous small bogs at the lower ends of the paddy-fields and alongside leaky irrigation channels--will yield one or two couple4 ,formerly there was a very useful bit of ground at ,ain el ,tawl1 but the best place of all is close to the village of ,gennh1 where a reedy bog of considerable size at times positively swarms with snipe4 ,this place is rather difficult to shoot1 and ,i used to consider ,i had done well if four or five couple were gathered4 ,pools of various size1 formed by drainage waters from the cultivated lands1 are found scattered throughout the oasis1 and in the early morning or late evening hours quite a respectable bag of wild-fowl can sometimes1 with a little luck1 be secured4 ,i say sometimes advisedly1 as where duck are concerned one has to compete with the local sportsmen1 whose name is legion4 ,mallard1 teal1 and shoveller ducks are the most common1 though several of the other species commonly found in the ,nile ,valley are also to be met with in the oasis4 ,the keenness of the ,kharga sportsmen is well illustrated by the following incident3 ,encamped on one occasion for a week or two near the village1 ,i was in the habit of pottering about of an evening with my gun1 visiting the two or three pools within easy walking distance of the tents2 but although there were a good many wild-fowl about1 these had been worried to such an extent that they only remained on the ponds during the darkest hours of the night1 preferring1 indeed1 to pass the day in solitude in the open desert than to turn themselves into targets for the never-ending practice of the local ,nimrods4 ,thinking to get the better of both duck and natives1 ,i made arrangements to visit a pool about three miles distant from the village1 starting at an hour early enough to enable me to take up a good stand before daybreak4 ,fortified by biscuits and hot cocoa1 ,i and my faithful retainer1 ,mohammed ,abu ,salem1 left camp one chilly morning about three1 riding the best part of the way on camels1 over the roughest country imaginable4 ,half a mile from the pool we dismounted1 and ,i proceeded alone on foot across cultivated lands1 on which1 to my astonishment1 ploughing was already in progress1 though it was still dark1 wanting a full hour to dawn4 ,slowly and with some difficulty ,i made my way towards the thin streak of light that ,i knew marked the position of the pool1 which in my mind's eye ,i already pictured as covered with duck4 ,presently1 to my surprise and disgust1 a shot rang out2 but this was nothing to my astonishment a few moments later1 when1 just as ,i was getting up to the water1 a regular broadside was discharged4 ,there seemed to be gunners all over the place1 and my only concern now was to get out of their way as speedily as possible2 so1 ensconcing myself behind a small sand-hill1 ,i lighted a pipe and awaited further developments4 ,by careful manuvring ,i was able to watch in moderate safety the glassy surface of the pond1 and did not have to wait long before ,i heard a rattle of wings1 followed by the swoop on to the water4 ,no sooner had the birds alighted than they were greeted with a fusillade from all sides of the pool1 after which silence once more reigned supreme4 ,this performance was repeated every time duck or coot made their appearance1 and few escaped the effects of the deadly cross-fire to which they were subjected4 ,when daylight appeared ,i counted over a dozen gunners squatting round the pond1 although the latter measured no more than #abj to #acj yards across its widest part4 ,they were armed with every sort of weapon1 from the latest thing in cheap ,european breech-loaders to the most antiquated form of flint-lock1 the barrel of the latter type of gun being usually of great length1 and not unlike a piece of gas-pipe4 ,as soon as daylight was sufficiently advanced1 the natives proceeded to gather the slain1 the bulk of the bag being made up of coots1 which at night have a habit of deserting the depths of the rice-fields for a swim and change of food on the open pools4 ,each man seized the birds he considered had fallen to his gun1 and ,i was struck by the small amount of squabbling which took place over the division of the spoil1 most of the bickering having reference to complaints of being peppered1 though the wonder was that no one had been killed1 or even seriously hurt4 ,as soon as everything was satisfactorily adjusted the majority of the men1 having salaamed and expressed surprise at my presence1 made off towards the village1 only a few of the keener spirits remaining on the chance of further sport4 ,to my delight1 a flight of duck shortly afterwards put in an appearance1 and ,i was able to score by bagging a couple as they passed suspiciously over the pond4 ,the laugh was now on my side1 as ,i need hardly say that the native never risks wasting his powder and shot on birds on the wing1 and after some mutual banter they departed1 leaving me in possession of the field4 ,quantities of quail pass through the oasis on their annual migration from north to south and on their return journey in the opposite direction4 ,the best bags can be made in the spring1 when the corn is commencing to ripen1 but sport is usually rendered difficult owing to the number of natives at work in the fields4 ,the local sportsmen do not seem to consider quail worthy of their attention1 probably because the birds so seldom show themselves except when on the wing4 ,a good many are1 however1 secured by the peasants in traps4 ,sand-grouse are to be met with in many parts of the depression1 more especially near the outlying sparsely cultivated spots1 the commonest variety found being one of the pin-tailed species4 ,the sandy country round ,gennh is perhaps the best district4 ,rock-pigeons frequent the cultivated lands of ,bellaida1 to the north of the village of ,kharga1 and have their homes in the rocky fastnesses of ,jebel ,tr and ,jebel ,tarif1 breeding in perfect security in the fissures which traverse the limestone rocks of those hills4 ,turtle-doves are found in the more wooded portions of the oasis1 their favourite haunts being the old spreading acacias which line the water-channels and mark the sources of the ancient wells4 ,although not as a rule regarded as coming into the category of game-birds1 turtle-doves are by no means to be despised when one has failed to replenish the larder from ordinary sources4 ,when disturbed in their favourite haunts1 the birds fly rapidly from tree to tree1 and shooting has to be both straight and quick if anything of a bag is to be made4 ,in addition to these an occasional plover or water-hen may be met with and be considered as worthy of record in the #8various' column of the game diary4 ,in the ,nile ,valley the striped hyna has often afforded me a day's amusement if not actual sport1 but this animal is certainly not a resident in the oasis1 though on rare occasions an individual crosses the plateau and remains for a few days within the depression4 ,jackals are common1 though not nearly so numerous as in the neighbouring oasis of ,dakhla4 ,at night they prowl about the outskirts of the villages1 and the din that a single couple can make must be heard to be believed4 ,the cry is most weird1 consisting of a succession of long melancholy wails1 each one a little higher pitched than the preceding1 followed finally by a quick succession of sharp yelps or barks4 ,of foxes there appear to be three species in ,egypt1 the largest and best known being a variety of the common fox 7,canis vulpes1 subsp4 gyptiaca74 ,although this animal frequently makes its home on the margins of the bordering deserts1 it is never found at any great distance from the villages of the ,nile ,valley1 to which it invariably descends at dusk1 returning to its lair in the early morning after spending the night roaming the cultivated lands in search of food4 ,the smaller desert fox1 or fennec 7,canis famelicus71 is found not only on the desert margins1 but throughout the interior plateaux and depressions4 ,a true denizen of the desert1 this animal seldom approaches the abodes of man1 and probably never penetrates into the cultivated lands on either side of the ,nile4 ,thirdly1 there is the diminutive little fox1 the true fennec 7,canis zerda71 which1 although found throughout the interior of the ,libyan ,desert tableland1 is especially abundant in the oases-depressions4 ,of this beautiful species the late ,dr4 ,anderson1 in his #8,zoology of ,egypt1' wrote3 8,there is no authentic record of the ,fennec having been discovered in a wild state by any ,european traveller4 ,all the specimens which have been brought home have been obtained from ,arabs40 ,this fox is1 it is true1 a very shy animal1 so much so that during the course of many years' work in almost every part of the ,libyan ,desert ,i never had the good fortune to observe one in its natural haunts1 though its burrows were often met with1 and my men at night occasionally succeeded in securing specimens in traps4 ,during the last year or two1 however1 while resident in ,kharga ,oasis1 ,i have been more fortunate1 having frequently observed these interesting little animals sitting near the entrances to their burrows or sniffing about in search of food on areas sparsely dotted with desert vegetation4 ,several pairs had burrows within a few kilometres of my headquarters1 and were1 ,i believe1 responsible for fowls that disappeared from time to time from our farm-yard4 ,mr4 ,p4 von ,adametz kept one of these tiny foxes in the mess for some time1 but this particular animal1 which had been caught in the neighbourhood of ,meheriq1 was evidently too old to become tame4 ,fennecs probably subsist mainly on desert gerbils and jerboas1 which are always to be found in large numbers in those portions of the desert where vegetation is at all plentiful4 ,,literature ,,on ,,the ,,oasis ,,of ,,kharga ,,poncet1 ,m4 #agji4 8,a ,voyage to thiopia1 made in the ,years #afih1 #afii1 and #agjj40 7,translated from the ,french47 ,printed for ,w4 ,lewis at the ,dolphin1 next ,tom's ,coffee ,house1 in ,russel ,street1 ,covent ,garden1 ,london1 #agji4 ,,browne1 ,w4 ,g4 #ahjf4 8,travels in ,africa1 ,egypt1 and ,syria1 from the ,year #agib to #agih40 ,longman1 ,hurst1 ,rees1 and ,orme1 ,london1 #ahjf4 ,,cailliaud1 ,f4 #ahbb4 8,travels in the ,oasis of ,thebes1 and in the ,deserts situated ,east and ,west of the ,thebaid1 in the ,years #ahae1 #ahaf1 #ahag1 and #ahah40 7,translated from the ,french1 and published in ,new ,voyages and ,travels1 vol4 vii47 ,sir ,richard ,phillips and ,co41 ,london1 #ahbb4 ,,drovetti1 ,m4 ,,the ,,chevalier4 #ahbb4 8,itinerary of an ,excursion to the ,valley of ,dakel10 by ,m4 the ,chevalier ,drovetti1 ,french ,consul-,general in ,egypt1 about the latter end of #ahah1 with a previous ,itinerary from ,syout to ,dongolah and ,darfour4 ,in ,new ,voyages and ,travels1 vol4 vii4 ,sir ,richard ,phillips and ,co41 ,london1 #ahbb4 ,,edmonstone1 ,,sir ,,archibald1 ,,bart4 #ahbb4 8,a ,journey to ,two of the ,oases of ,upper ,egypt40 ,john ,murray1 ,london1 #ahbb4 ,,cailliaud1 ,f4 #ahbf4 8,voyage a ,mro1 au ,fleuve ,blanc1 au del de ,fzogl dans le ,midi du ,royaume de ,sennr1 a ,syouah et dans cinq autres ,oasis2 fait dans les annes #ahai1 #ahbj1 #ahba1 et #ahbb40 ,l'imprimerie ,royale1 ,paris1 #ahbf4 ,,wilkinson1 ,i4 ,g4 #ahce4 8,topography of ,thebes and ,general ,view of ,egypt40 ,john ,murray1 ,london1 #ahce4 ,,hoskins1 ,g4 ,a4 #ahcg4 8,visit to the ,great ,oasis of the ,libyan ,desert40 ,longman1 ,rees1 ,orme and ,co41 ,london1 #ahcg4 ,,schweinfurth1 ,,dr4 ,g4 #ahge4 8,notizen zur ,kenntniss der ,oase ,el-,chargeh0 7,i4 ,alterthmer74 ,petermann's ,mittheilungen1 #ba ,band1 #ahge4 ,justus ,perthes1 ,gotha1 #ahge4 ,,rohlfs1 ,,gerhard4 #ahge4 8,drei ,monate in der ,libyschen ,wste40 ,mit ,beitrgen von ,p4 ,ascherson1 ,w4 ,jordan1 und ,k4 ,zittel4 ,theodor ,fischer1 ,cassel1 #ahge4 ,,jordan1 ,,dr4 ,w4 #ahgf4 8,physische ,geographie und ,meteorologie der ,libyschen ,wste40 ,rohlfs'schen ,expedition4 ,theodor ,fischer1 ,cassel1 #ahgf4 ,,brugsch1 ,,dr4 ,,heinrich4 #ahgh4 8,reise nach dem grossen ,oase el ,khargeh in der ,libyschen ,wste40 8,a ,history of ,egypt under the ,pharaohs40 ,john ,murray1 ,london1 #ahha4 ,,zittel1 ,k4 ,,von4 #ahhc4 8,beitrge zur ,geologie und ,palontologie der ,libyschen ,wste40 ,rohlfs'schen ,expedition4 ,theodor ,fischer1 ,cassel1 #ahhc4 ,,lyons1 ,,captain ,h4 ,g4 #ahid4 8,notes sur le ,gographie ,physique des ,oasis de ,khargueh et de ,dakhel40 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,khd4 de ,gogr41 iv4 srie1 ,no4 #d1 #ahid4 8,on the ,stratigraphy and ,physiography of the ,libyan ,desert of ,egypt40 ,quarterly ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 vol4 #a41 ,london1 #ahid4 ,,barron1 ,,beadnell1 ,,lucas1 ,,and ,,hume1 ,,messrs4 #aijj4 8,the ,phosphate ,deposits of ,egypt40 ,survey ,department1 ,cairo1 #aijj and #aije4 ,,ball1 ,,dr4 ,,john4 #aijj4 8,kharga ,oasis3 its ,topography and ,geology40 ,survey ,department1 ,cairo1 #aijj4 ,,guest1 ,a ,r4 #aijj4 8,the ,oases of the ,mudirieh of ,assyut40 ,the ,geographical ,journal1 vol4 xvi41 ,london1 #aijj4 ,,beadnell1 ,h4 ,j4 ,,llewellyn4 #aijd4 8,the ,oases and the ,geology of ,egypt10 in 8,the ,nile in #aijd10 by ,sir ,william ,willcocks4 ,e4 and ,f4 ,n4 ,spon1 ,london1 #aijd4 ,,sayce1 ,,professor ,a4 ,h4 #aije4 8,history of the ,egyptian ,oases40 ,the ,egyptian ,gazette1 ,april #f1 #aije4 ,,beadnell1 ,h4 ,j4 ,,llewellyn4 #aijh4 8,flowing ,wells and ,sub-,surface ,water in ,kharga ,oasis40 ,geological ,magazine1 ,n4,s41 ,decade ,v41 vol4 v41 ,february--,march1 #aijh4 ,,lyons1 ,,captain ,h4 ,g4 #aijh4 8,some ,unsolved ,problems of the ,nile ,basin40 ,the ,cairo ,scientific ,journal1 vol4 ii41 ,no4 #ah1 ,march1 #aijh4 ,,hume1 ,,dr4 ,w4 ,f4 #aijh4 8,the ,south-,western ,desert of ,egypt40 ,the ,cairo ,scientific ,journal1 vol4 ii41 ,nos4 #bc and #bd1 ,august--,september1 #aijh4 ,,beadnell1 ,h4 ,j4 ,,llewellyn4 #aiji4 8,the ,mutual ,interference of ,artesian ,wells40 ,geological ,magazine1 ,n4,s41 ,decade ,v41 vol4 vi41 ,january1 #aiji4 8,the ,relations of the ,nubian ,sandstone and the ,crystalline ,rocks south of the ,oasis of ,kharga40 ,quarterly ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 vol4 lxv41 ,london1 #aiji4 ,,index ,ababdeh ,arabs1 #ajf ,abraham1 ,sara1 and ,isaac1 #ajd ,abrasion of ,rocks 7see ,denudation7 ,absorption ,tests1 #aea1 #aeb ,abstemiousness of ,camels1 #ae ,abu ,bayan1 ,jebel1 #de ,abulfida ,ismail1 #aji ,abu ,mohariq ,dunes1 #d1 #dc ,abu ,sighawl1 #bf1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #cb1 #cd1 #ci ,abydus1 #ajh ,abyssinia1 #f1 #ac1 #hh1 #ib1 #abe1 #aei ,acacia-,trees1 #fi1 #gf1 #gg1 #ib1 #ahg1 #aij1 #bca ,adam and ,eve1 #ajd ,adametz1 ,p4 von1 #bcc thiopia 7see ,abyssinia7 ,age of ,ancient ,lakes1 #abj ,age of ,wells1 #ga1 #gb1 #hj ,agriculture1 #fg1 #aeg1 #aga1 #bab-bbj ,agl el ,douma1 #gf ,ain 7,aiyn71 #fi ,ain ,aid1 #bba ,ali ,morad1 #ei ,amr1 #ag1 #ba1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 #ee1 #ii1 #afe1 #aff1 #aga1 #agc ,bella1 #hc ,bellal1 #ei ,bergis1 #hj1 #ha ,dakhakhin1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj ,diz1 #ae ,estakherab1 #ei1 #ga1 #gb1 #aci1 #baj ,foq el ,doum1 #ha ,girgwi1 #bba ,girm ,meshm1 #eg1 #ge1 #gf1 #aad1 #aae ,hamr1 #agc ,harrn1 #ei1 #aad ,jaja1 #gg ,johar1 #ha1 #he ,khall1 #bba ,khenfish1 #cf1 #ajf ,mabrka1 #he ,magarin1 #ei1 #ga1 #gb1 #baj ,mahmud1 #ei1 #aae ,mohammed ,delaib1 #adb ,mustapha ,kashef1 #aja ,tabashr1 #ajf ,zaaf1 #ei ,zaha el ,din1 #he ,zaiyan1 #ei el ,burg1 #ei1 #ajf ,burrda1 #hd ,douma1 #gf1 #aad ,ghazl1 #bh1 #ei1 #fi1 #aaj1 #aad1 #aae1 #adb ,ghuta1 #ei ,hais1 #ch ,hushi1 #ha ,karm1 #he ,qasr 7near ,maks71 #he ,qasr 7,n4 of ,meheriq71 #ae1 #ei1 #aad1 #aae1 #bbf ,sabbagh1 #ei ,tawl1 #ei1 #fj1 #gj1 #bbg ,terfai 7,n471 #aae ,terfai 7,s471 #he ,akhmm1 #ajf ,alexandria1 #fh1 #aje1 #ajf ,alluvial ,clays1 #gf1 #ha1 #hc ,altitudes1 #aj1 #bg1 #eg1 #eh1 #ei1 #fj1 #gb1 #aaf1 #aag1 #acf1 #adb1 #add ,alum1 #ba1 #abe1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbc ,al ,vahat1 #ajh ,amenebis1 #ii ,american ,methods of ,drilling1 #acd1 #aif1 #aig ,excavation in ,necropolis1 #hg ,ammonians1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij ,ammon of ,hibis1 #ii ,amun 7,ammon-,ra71 #ib1 #ajj1 #aje ,amr 7see ,ain ,amr7 ,ancient ,lakes1 #aaj1 #abb ,roads1 #ch1 ,anderson1 ,j41 #bcb ,andrews1 ,c4 ,w41 #aah ,aneroid ,determinations 7see ,barometric ,observations7 ,animals1 ,wild1 #ad1 #ajh1 #bbd1 #bcc ,annexation of ,oases1 #ff ,anticlinal ,folds1 #abi1 #adg ,antiquities1 #f1 #g1 #hf-aji ,antoninus ,pius1 #ih1 #ii ,apted1 ,f4 ,e41 #ei ,aqueducts1 #h1 #i1 #ga1 #ajj1 #aja1 #aag1 #aah1 #aca1 #afg-ahe ,arabian ,geographers1 #ajh ,arabic ,inscriptions1 #ajd ,arban 7,derb el71 #ac1 #af1 #cc1 #cd ,arcadius1 #aje ,area of ,libyan ,desert1 #b ,arianism1 #aje ,army of ,cambyses1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib ,artesian ,basins1 ,conditions required in1 #abd ,artesian-,water ,sandstone1 #di1 #aba1 #abe1 #abf1 #aca1 #ach1 #aea1 #aeb1 #afb ,ars el ,buqar1 #d ,ascent of ,passes1 #bg1 #cj1 #cf1 #cg ,ascherson1 ,p41 #bj1 #hi ,ash-,grey ,shales1 #dh ,assiut1 #bg1 #bh1 #cc1 #cd1 #cg1 #dc1 #dd1 #ia ,athanasius1 #id1 #aje ,auasis1 #ajh ,augila1 #ij ,australian ,wells1 #adj1 #adc1 #afa ,average ,discharge of ,wells1 #ace1 #adj ,avidius ,heliodorus1 #ii ,baglli1 ,el1 #cb ,baguat1 ,el1 #ajc ,baharia ,oasis1 #c1 #h1 #ag1 #bc1 #ch1 #ea1 #ec1 #if ,bahnessa1 #e ,baker1 ,h4 ,h41 #aac ,baldwin-,wiseman1 ,w4 ,r41 #aed ,ball1 ,j41 #bc1 #bd1 #ci1 #ef1 #eh1 #fj1 #hg1 #ih1 #aja1 #ajc1 #afe1 #aga1 #bcf ,banishment to ,oasis1 #id ,barchans1 #ca1 #bjb-bje ,barley1 #fb1 #ff1 #bab1 #bad1 #bbe ,barometric ,observations1 #eh ,barron1 ,t41 v1 #bcf ,basilides1 #if ,baskets1 #fh1 #gd1 #aic ,beadnell1 ,h4 ,j4 ,l41 #bcf ,beans1 #bbj ,bedawin1 #b1 #ca1 #dj1 #fb1 #gf1 #aeh1 #bae1 #bcc ,belat1 #ag1 #ch ,bellaida1 #aja1 #ajb1 #ajf1 #aad1 #bjc1 #bbb1 #bca ,benidi1 #af1 #ag ,berber ,race1 #ff ,beris1 #ae1 #af1 #be1 #cb1 #cd1 #df1 #fj1 #hj1 #ha1 #he1 #aaj1 #aae1 #aeh1 #afe1 #baj1 #baa1 #bae1 #bah ,bir 7,abiyr71 #fi ,bir ,ain el ,gs1 #ei1 #fi el ,dinaria1 #acf ,mansra1 #fi ,murr1 #dc ,qattara1 #ei ,birds1 #ad1 #bbg1 #bca ,bisharin ,arabs1 #ajf ,blemmyes1 #ajf ,blockhouses1 #hb ,bones1 ,subfossil1 #aah ,bore ,no4 #a--eh1 #ei1 #acg #d--adf #e--add1 #ade #f--add1 #ade #ad--adh1 #aeb #af--aeb #ah--aeb #bb--ei #ca--aeb #cc--abg #cf--adb #ch--adb #ci--aeb #db--adb1 #adf1 #aef #dc--abg #dd--ei1 #adb1 #aeb ,bores for ,forts1 etc41 #afh1 #afi ,boring ,machinery 7see ,machinery7 ,boring ,operations1 #fi1 #aca-acd1 #adc1 #aea1 #ahf-aig ,botkh1 ,el1 #cj1 #ce ,brevedent1 ,father ,c4 ,f4 ,x4 de1 #ac ,bricks1 ,size of ,sun-dried1 #aja ,bronze on ,temple ,doors1 #ib ,browne1 ,w4 ,g41 #ae1 #bcd ,brugsch1 ,h41 #bb1 #hf1 #ih1 #bce ,bubbling ,springs1 #dg ,bulaq1 #ae1 #cb1 #gc1 #gd1 #ge1 #bae ,buraig1 ,el1 #ca ,burg ,hamm 7see ,dovecots7 ,byzantine ,period1 #ii1 #ajb ,cailliaud1 ,f41 #af1 #ag1 #bb1 #cd1 #eh1 #hf1 #bcd1 #bce ,cairo ,observatory1 #eh ,calcareous ,tufa1 #bf1 #dh1 #eb1 #ec1 #aab ,caliphs1 #ajc ,cambyses1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij ,camels1 #ad1 #ae1 #bf1 #cc1 #cd1 #cg1 #db1 #dd1 #bae1 #bbd ,capacity of ,rocks as ,water-,carriers1 #acb ,caravan ,routes 7see ,roads7 ,caravans1 #bd1 #bf1 #bg1 #cc1 #cd1 #cg1 #da1 #dd ,carcasses of ,camels1 #ad ,casing of ,wells1 #gh1 #gi1 #abh1 #ace1 #acg1 #ada1 #ahf1 #ahg1 #ahi ,cause of ,rise of ,water in ,wells1 #afb1 #afc ,cause of ,salts in ,water1 #acj ,caving of ,strata1 #acd1 #ace1 #ahi ,cementing ,material in ,sandstone1 #acb1 #acd ,cemeteries1 #ajj1 #ajb ,centroclinal ,folds1 #ef ,channels 7see ,irrigating ,channels7 ,character of ,desert ,roads1 #ci ,character of ,inhabitants 7see ,inhabitants7 ,china1 ,well-,sinking in1 #ai1 #aif ,christ1 #ajd ,christian ,customs1 #ajf ,christian ,necropolis 7see ,necropolis7 ,christian ,period1 #ba1 #hg1 #ajc-ajf ,chronology1 ,ancient1 #hh ,clay ,hummocks1 #aaa1 #aac ,clay ,plains1 #gf1 #ha1 #acc ,cleaning out ,aqueducts1 #aga1 #agb ,cleaning out ,wells 7see ,repairing7 ,climate1 #eb1 #ec1 #fg1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #abj1 #aga1 #agb1 #bbj ,closing of ,wells1 #ace1 #adh ,cnoeus ,virgilius ,capito1 #ie ,cobalt1 #bbb ,coffin ,masks1 #ajb ,collecting ,pits1 #abf1 #abg ,colonization by ,romans1 #afg1 #agj ,coloquintida1 #ad ,coloured ,designs on ,tombs1 #ajd ,colours of ,dates1 #baf ,columbaria1 #ajf1 #aaf ,composition of ,waters1 #f1 #gb1 #acj1 #aca1 #acg ,concretions1 #cj1 #ce ,confining ,strata 7see ,impervious7 ,constantius1 #aje ,contest between ,man and ,sand1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baj1 #baa ,contraband ,trade1 #gf ,contrast of ,desert and ,cultivated ,lands1 #a1 #ah ,coots1 #bcj ,coptic ,church1 #ajc ,coptic ,period1 #g1 #ajc ,corn-,mill1 #fi1 #aai ,corporation of ,western ,egypt1 ,ltd41 #ch1 #ci1 #fe1 #aac1 #bjh ,cost of ,dates1 #bae ,cost of ,drilling ,wells1 #aif1 #aig ,cotton1 #ad1 #bbj ,craig1 ,j4 ,i41 #aei ,crescentic ,dunes 7see ,barchans7 ,cretaceous ,system1 #bb1 #dh1 #ee1 #aab1 #abd1 #aff ,crops1 #ad1 #fb1 #acj1 #bab-bbj ,cross-,country ,travelling1 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #db1 #dc1 #dd ,crystalline ,rocks1 #di1 #abd1 #afa1 #afd ,cubit 7,unit of length71 #ajg ,cultivated ,lands1 #aj1 #df1 #fa-he1 #bab-bbj ,cultivated ,lands1 ,formation of1 #gh-hc1 #abb1 #baj ,cultivation of ,date-,palm1 #baf-bah ,cultivation of ,rice1 #bab-bae ,cyrene1 #ba1 #ig ,cyril of ,alexandria1 #ajf ,daila1 ,el1 #d ,dakhakhin1 #gf1 #gg1 #hj1 #baj1 #bad ,dakhla ,oasis1 #c1 #d1 #af1 #ag1 #bc1 #be1 #bg1 #cf1 #ea1 #hi1 #ij1 #acf1 #ahi1 #aie1 #bbi1 #bcb ,danian ,formation1 #dh1 #aff ,darcy1 ,h41 #aed ,darfur1 #b1 #cc1 #cd1 #abe1 #aei ,darius1 #g1 #ib ,date-,brandy1 #bah ,date-,crop1 #fb1 #bae ,date-,palms1 #baf-bah ,decline of ,well-,flows1 #gi1 #ace1 #adj1 #adh1 #ahh ,deepest ,borings in ,oasis1 #acb1 #aeg ,deflation1 #eb ,denudation1 #ce1 #ej1 #ea1 #eb1 #ec1 #ed1 #hc1 #aaa1 #abf1 #aii1 #bjf ,deposits1 ,table of ,geological1 #dh ,depressions1 ,formation of1 #e1 #dg1 #ej1 #eb1 #ec1 #ed ,depth of ,wells1 #h1 #ajg1 #abi1 #acb ,dr el ,ghennma1 #af1 #ajj1 #aja1 #abh1 #abi1 #adg1 #afi ,derb el ,arban1 #ac1 #af1 #cc1 #cd ,derb el ,ghubbri1 #cf ,derb el ,reff1 #bf1 #bh1 #cj1 #ca1 #ci ,derb el ,tawl1 #af1 #ag1 #cg ,derut1 #dc ,dervish ,raids1 #hb ,descent of ,passes1 #bg1 #cf ,desert ,roads1 ,nature of1 #ci ,desert ,types1 #ca1 #ce1 #db ,development of ,artesian ,basins 7see ,exploitation7 ,development of 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,hanadi1 #aga1 #agc ,sheikh ,khalid ,ibn el ,wald1 #gd ,sheikh ,mustapha 7see ,omda of ,kharga7 ,sheikhs' ,tombs1 #gj1 #gd1 #hd ,shells 7see ,fossils7 ,sherf el ,edrissi1 ,el1 #ajh ,shugera1 ,el1 #bh1 #bi1 #ci1 #db ,sighawl 7see ,abu ,sighawl7 ,silt ,deposits1 #bi ,silting of ,wells1 #i1 #ge ,similarity of ,ancient and ,modern ,methods of ,boring1 #ahg1 #aij ,simultaneous ,elevation and ,denudation of ,strata1 #ed ,siwa ,oasis1 #c1 #d1 #ag1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia ,slaves1 #cc1 #cd ,slichter1 ,c4 ,s41 #aed ,slope of ,underground ,aqueducts1 #agh ,sohag1 #bg1 #bh1 #cj1 #ca1 #ci1 #db ,soils1 #eb1 #gb1 #bad1 #bae1 #bbj ,southernmost ,wells of ,oasis1 #he ,south-,west ,desert of ,egypt1 #ed ,springs1 #g1 #h1 #dg1 #eb1 #aab1 #aaf1 #aba1 #abb1 #abf1 #afe1 #aff ,spring ,deposits1 #dh ,st4 ,martin1 ,v4 de1 #ci1 #ij ,stagnation of ,water in ,strata1 #aca ,static ,head1 #abh1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb1 #aec1 #aff ,steam-boring ,rigs1 #aif1 #aig ,steel ,casing1 #ahi1 #aif ,steindorff1 ,g41 #hh ,storage ,reservoirs1 #abd1 #aeb1 #aec ,strabo1 #ajh ,streets of ,kharga ,village1 #fg ,suga1 ,el1 #ca ,sub-artesian ,water1 #h1 #abe1 #afa ,subsidence 7see ,folding7 ,subterranean ,water-,supply1 #abc-ahe ,subterranean ,works 7see ,aqueducts7 ,sudan1 #b1 #f1 #cc1 #hb1 #abd1 #aei ,sudd ,region1 #f1 #aei ,sugar-cane1 #bbj ,sunt 7see ,acacias7 ,surface ,water1 #h1 #dg1 #gf1 #he1 #aac1 #acc1 #ahi ,surface-,water ,sandstone1 #dg1 #aba1 #abe-aca1 #aea1 #afb ,surveying1 #ag1 #bj1 #bc1 #db1 #dc1 #eh-fj1 #gb1 #agf ,swamps1 #d1 #i1 #abe1 #aei1 #afd1 #bbg ,syene1 #id ,synclinal ,folds1 #ef ,tables3 ,altitudes1 #ei ,dunes1 #bjd ,geological ,deposits1 #dh ,interference of ,wells1 #ade ,population1 #fb ,water ,analyses1 #ach ,tamar ,dates1 #baf ,tamarisks1 #gg1 #he1 #bji1 #bbe ,tahta1 #bh1 #bi ,tapping the ,nile1 #aeh ,tarif 7see ,jebel ,tarif7 ,tarwan 7see ,jebel ,tarwan7 ,tau ,symbol1 #ajd ,tawl1 ,ain el1 #ei1 #fj1 #gj1 #bbg ,derb el1 #af1 #ag1 #cg ,taxes1 #fb1 #fc1 #fe ,tchonemyris1 #ii ,temperature1 ,changes of1 #eb ,effect on ,rate of ,flow of ,water1 #aee of ,artesian ,waters1 #gg1 #aji1 #acf1 #adi of ,sub-,surface ,waters1 #aha ,temples 7see ,hibis1 ,jupiter ,ammon1 ,qasr el ,ghuta1 ,qasr ,dush1 ,qasr ,zaiyan7 ,tenda1 #cf1 #cg ,tr 7see ,jebel ,tr7 ,termination of ,um el ,dabdib ,aqueduct1 #ahc ,terraces formed by ,wind-borne ,material1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj1 #ha1 #hc1 #baj ,thebes1 #ah1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #aje ,theodosius1 #ajg ,thickness of ,artesian-,water ,sand-stones1 #aeb ,tiberius ,julius ,alexander1 #ie ,tibesti1 #b1 #aei ,timasius1 #ajf ,timbering ,wells1 #ahi1 #aij ,topography1 #de-fj ,total ,thickness of ,strata1 #dh1 #di1 #afd ,total ,yield of ,wells1 #fb1 #fc1 #aci ,trading1 #fb1 #fh1 #gd1 #gf ,traditions1 ,local1 #aeh1 #agc ,trajan1 ,emperor1 #ig ,transportation1 ,agents of1 #eb ,travelling in the ,libyan ,desert1 #da1 #db ,trenches1 #afh1 #afi ,tripoli1 #b ,tristram1 ,h4 ,b41 #baf ,tufa 7see ,calcareous ,tufa7 ,tundaba1 ,el1 #bi1 #ca1 #ci ,types of ,desert1 #ca1 #ce1 #db ,um el ,dabdib1 #h1 #fj1 #gj1 #ajj1 #aja1 #abf1 #aca1 #agj-ahe1 #bjj1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bbe ,um el ,ghennaim1 #bf ,uncemented ,sandstones1 #acd ,underground ,exploration1 #agd1 #age ,underground ,water-,supply1 #abc-ahe ,united ,states1 #adc1 #aif ,value of ,dates1 #bae ,value of the ,qirat1 #fd1 #fe1 #ach ,variation in ,character of ,deposits of ,libyan ,desert1 #ej1 #ea1 #ee ,variation in ,discharges of ,wells1 #eg ,variation in ,level of ,water-bearing ,strata1 #abi1 #ada ,variation in ,porosity of ,sandstone1 #aea ,variation in ,static ,head1 #ada ,varieties of ,dates1 #baf ,vegetation1 ,wild1 #ae1 #cg1 #dj1 #gf1 #hd1 #he1 #afe1 #aff1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bbe1 #bcc ,velocity of ,desert ,winds1 #aii ,velocity of ,underground ,flow 7see ,flow7 ,ventilation of ,aqueducts1 #agg1 #aha ,vespasian1 ,emperor1 #if ,villages overwhelmed by ,sand1 #gj ,vuta1 ,g41 #bc ,wadi el ,molk1 #bbj1 #bba ,wadi ,halfa1 #aei ,wadi ,samhd1 #af1 #cb1 #ch ,wah1 #ba ,waled ,hallaf1 #bg1 #cj1 #cb1 #cd ,walls of ,kharga village1 #fg ,waste of ,water1 #i ,watch-,tower1 #ajb ,water-bearing ,beds below ,plateau1 #abc1 #abd1 #aec ,water-bearing ,beds disturbed by ,faults1 etc41 #ef ,sandstones1 #f1 #di1 #abc-ahe ,waterfalls at ,dakhakhin1 #gh ,watering ,camels1 #bg1 #bh ,water ,stations1 #i1 #ca ,water stored under ,oasis-,depression1 ,amount of1 #aeb1 #aec ,water used in raising ,rice1 ,amount of1 #bac ,weathering 7see ,denudation7 ,weba ,measure1 #bae ,wheat1 #fb1 #bab1 #bad ,white ,chalk1 #dh1 #ed1 #ee ,whiting1 ,b4 ,f41 #aig ,wild-,fowl1 #bbg-bcj ,wilkinson1 ,i4 ,g41 #ii1 #ajj1 #bce ,willcocks1 ,sir ,william1 #bac ,wind1 #ac1 #ce1 #di1 #eb1 #gh1 #gi1 #hd1 #ajf1 #aaa1 #agb1 #aih-baa1 #bag ,wind-formed ,deposits1 #gh1 #gi1 #abb ,wine1 #id1 #ajh1 #bbj ,winlock1 #hg ,wooden ,lining of ,wells 7see ,casing7 ,xaverius de ,brevedent1 #ac ,yabsa1 ,el1 #bf1 #bh ,yield of ,date-,trees1 #bag ,yield of ,wells 7see ,discharges7 ,young1 #ie ,zambiles 7see ,baskets7 ,zarbi1 #bh ,zittel1 ,k4 von1 #bj1 #bce ,zizagat1 ,el1 #ca ,zoology of ,egypt1 #bcc ,zosimus1 #ajf ,,the ,,end ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,this legend is stated by ,rohlfs1 on ,brugsch's authority1 to be recorded on the temple of ,horus at ,edfu4 ,footnote #b3 ,reference to the plan showing the different roads and passes out of the oasis-depression will facilitate the perusal of the following pages4 ,footnote #c3 ,since writing the above1 ,i have read with much interest a paper on the ,south-,west ,desert of ,egypt1 in which my friend and former colleague1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,hume1 in a discussion of the formation of the oases-depressions1 refers to the importance of soft and hard strata1 and to the action of folding in exposing the former to the agents of denudation4 ,this is striking confirmation of the views promulgated by me since my first acquaintance with the oases many years ago4 ,of great interest and value1 being new1 is the suggestion that the topography of the southern oases and surrounding desert may be1 to a considerable extent1 due to denudation acting on the country as it was in process of being elevated from the sea in which the deposits forming it had been laid down4 ,footnote #d3 ,the dates given in this chapter are those assigned by ,professor ,steindorff4 ,footnote #e3 ,canon ,rawlinson's translation4 ,footnote #f3 ,that even occasional rains can effect a considerable amount of erosion of soft materials is shown by the present state of these domes1 from which a skin of some thickness has been washed away1 leaving the surfaces bristling with the sharp fragments of rock which were included in the original mixture of sand and clay from which the bricks were manufactured4 ,footnote #g3 ,the royal cubit was the chief unit of length1 and measured #bjf inches2 #cjj and #ejj cubits would therefore be equivalent to #eae and #heh feet respectively4 ,footnote #h3 ,the ,headquarters of the ,corporation of ,western ,egypt1 ,limited 7see map74 ,footnote #i3 ,i should like to record my indebtedness to ,mr4 ,garsed1 who1 while in the oasis1 undertook1 at my request1 a considerable amount of special analytical work1 in addition to his regular duties4 ,footnote #aj3 #8,the ,nile ,flood and ,rains of the ,nile ,basin1 #aijf1' ,survey ,department1 ,cairo1 #aijg2 #8,some ,geographical ,aspects of the ,nile1' the ,geographical ,journal1 ,november1 #aijh1 vol4 xxxii41 ,no4 #e4 ,footnote #aa3 #8,the ,dead ,heart of ,australia'2 ,john ,murray1 ,london1 #aijf4 ,footnote #ab3 #8,the ,hydraulic ,aspect of the ,artesian ,problem1' ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,new ,south ,wales1 vol4 xxxvii41 p4 #cj4 ,footnote #ac3 #8,egyptian ,irrigation1' second edition1 ,e4 and ,f4 ,n4 ,spon1 ,limited1 ,london1 #ahii4 ,footnote #ad3 #8,the ,great ,sahara1' by ,h4 ,b4 ,tristram2 ,john ,murray1 ,london1 #ahfj4 ,see also #8,tropical ,agriculture1' by ,p4 ,l4 ,simmonds4 ,transcriber's note3 pg #c ,changed3 latitudina direction to3 latitudinal ,spelling and formatting inconsistencies have been left unchanged