,,primitive ,,culture ,,first ,,edition ,april1 #ahga4 ,,second ,,edition ,november1 #ahgc4 ,,third ,,edition ,december1 #ahia4 ,,fourth ,,edition ,october1 #aijc4 ,,fifth ,,edition ,january1 #aiac4 ,,sixth ,,edition ,june1 #aibj4 ,,primitive ,,culture ,,researches ,,into ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,mythology1 ,,philosophy1 ,,religion ,,language1 ,,art1 ,,and ,,custom ,,by ,,edward ,b4 ,,tylor1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,professor ,,of ,,anthropology ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,oxford ,,author ,,of 8,,researches ,,into ,,the ,,early ,,history ,,of ,,mankind10 ,,etc4 8,ce n'est pas dans les possibilits1 c'est dans l'homme mme qu'il faut tudier l'homme3 il ne s'agit pas d'imaginer ce qu'il auroit p ou d faire1 mais de regarder ce qu'il fait40--,,de ,,brosses4 ,,in ,,two ,,volumes ,,vol4 ,i ,,london ,,john ,,murray1 ,,albemarle ,,street1 ,w4 #aibj ,,printed ,,in ,u4,s4,a4 ,rights of ,translation and ,reproduction reserved ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,edition4 ,the present volumes1 uniform with the previous volume of #8,researches into the ,early ,history of ,mankind' 7#ast ,ed4 #ahfe2 #bnd ,ed4 #ahgj71 carry on the investigation of ,culture into other branches of thought and belief1 art and custom4 ,during the past six years ,i have taken occasion to bring tentatively before the public some of the principal points of new evidence and argument here advanced4 ,the doctrine of survival in culture1 the bearing of directly-expressive language and the invention of numerals on the problem of early civilization1 the place of myth in the primitive history of the human mind1 the development of the animistic philosophy of religion1 and the origin of rites and ceremonies1 have been discussed in various papers and lectures1#a before being treated at large and with a fuller array of facts in this work4 ,the authorities for the facts stated in the text are fully specified in the foot-notes1 which must also serve as my general acknowledgment of obligations to writers on ethnography and kindred sciences1 as well as to historians1 travellers1 and missionaries4 ,i will only mention apart two treatises of which ,i have made especial use3 the #8,mensch in der ,geschichte1' by ,professor ,bastian1 of ,berlin1 and the #8,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1' by the late ,professor ,waitz1 of ,marburg4 ,in discussing problems so complex as those of the development of civilization1 it is not enough to put forward theories accompanied by a few illustrative examples4 ,the statement of the facts must form the staple of the argument1 and the limit of needful detail is only reached when each group so displays its general law1 that fresh cases come to range themselves in their proper niches as new instances of an already established rule4 ,should it seem to any readers that my attempt to reach this limit sometimes leads to the heaping up of too cumbrous detail1 ,i would point out that the theoretical novelty as well as the practical importance of many of the issues raised1 make it most unadvisable to stint them of their full evidence4 ,in the course of ten years chiefly spent in these researches1 it has been my constant task to select the most instructive ethnological facts from the vast mass on record1 and by lopping away unnecessary matter to reduce the data on each problem to what is indispensable for reasonable proof4 ,e4 ,b4 ,t4 ,march1 #ahga4 ,footnote #a3 ,fortnightly ,review3 #8,origin of ,language1' ,april #ae1 #ahff2 #8,religion of ,savages1' ,august #ae1 #ahff4 ,lectures at ,royal ,institution3 #8,traces of the ,early ,mental ,condition of ,man1' ,march #ae1 #ahfg2 #8,survival of ,savage ,thought in ,modern ,civilization1' ,april #bc1 #ahfi4 ,lecture at ,university ,college1 ,london3 #8,spiritualistic ,philosophy of the ,lower ,races of ,mankind1' ,may #h1 #ahfi4 ,paper read at ,british ,association1 ,nottingham1 #ahff3 #8,phenomena of ,civilization ,traceable to a ,rudimental ,origin among ,savage ,tribes4' ,paper read at ,ethnological ,society of ,london1 ,april #bf1 #ahgj3 #8,philosophy of ,religion among the ,lower ,races of ,mankind1' c41 c4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition4 ,since the publication of this work in #ahga1 translations have appeared in ,german and ,russian4 ,in the present edition the form of page has been slightly altered1 for convenience of re-issue at once in ,england and ,america4 ,the matter1 however1 remains substantially the same4 ,a few passages have been amplified or altered for greater clearness1 and on some points additional or improved evidence has been put in4 ,among the anthropologists whose published reviews or private communications have enabled me to correct or strengthen various points1 ,i will only mention by name ,professor ,felix ,liebrecht1 of ,lige1 ,mr4 ,clements ,r4 ,markham1 ,professor ,calderwood1 ,mr4 ,ralston1 and ,mr4 ,sebastian ,evans4 ,it may have struck some readers as an omission1 that in a work on civilization insisting so strenuously on a theory of development or evolution1 mention should scarcely have been made of ,mr4 ,darwin and ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 whose influence on the whole course of modern thought on such subjects should not be left without formal recognition4 ,this absence of particular reference is accounted for by the present work1 arranged on its own lines1 coming scarcely into contact of detail with the previous works of these eminent philosophers4 ,an objection made by several critics as to the accumulation of evidence in these volumes leads me to remark1 with sincere gratification1 that this objection has in fact been balanced by solid advantage4 ,the plan of collecting wide and minute evidence1 so that readers may have actually before them the means of judging the theory put forward1 has been justified by the reception of the book1 even in circles to whose views many of its arguments are strongly adverse1 and that in matters of the first importance4 ,writers of most various philosophical and theological schools now admit that the ethnological facts are real1 and vital1 and have to be accounted for4 ,it is not too much to say that a perceptible movement of public opinion has here justified the belief that the ,english mind1 not readily swayed by rhetoric1 moves freely under the pressure of facts4 ,e4 ,b4 ,t4 ,september1 #ahgc4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,third ,,edition4 ,in this edition1 while ,i have not found it needful to alter the general argument1 the new information which has become available during the last twenty years has made it necessary to insert further details of evidence1 and to correct some few statements4 ,for convenience of reference1 the paging of the last edition is kept to4 ,e4 ,b4 ,t4 ,september1 #ahia4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,fourth ,,edition4 ,for ordinary purposes the present edition may be taken as substantially unchanged4 ,in only a few passages noticeable alterations have been made1 7see vol4 i4 p4 #afg1 vocal tone2 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bcd-g1 totemism74 ,e4 ,b4 ,t4 ,october1 #aijc4 ,,contents ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,volume4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,culture4 ,culture or ,civilization--,its phenomena related according to definite ,laws--,method of classification and discussion of the evidence--,connexion of successive stages of culture by ,permanence1 ,modification1 and ,survival--,principal topics examined in the present work #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,culture4 ,state of culture1 industrial1 intellectual1 political1 moral--,development of culture in great measure corresponds with transition from savage through barbaric to civilized life--,progression-theory--,degeneration -theory--,development-theory includes both1 the one as primary1 the other as secondary--,historical and traditional evidence not available as to low stages of culture--,historical evidence as to principles of ,degeneration--,ethnological evidence as to rise and fall in culture1 from comparison of different levels of culture in branches of the same race--,extent of historically recorded antiquity of civilization--,prehistoric ,archology extends the antiquity of man in low stages of civilization--,traces of ,stone ,age1 corroborated by megalithic structures1 lake-dwellings1 shell-heaps1 burial-places1 c41 prove original low culture throughout the world--,stages of ,progressive ,development in industrial arts #bf ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,survival ,,in ,,culture4 ,survival and ,superstition--,children's games--,games of chance--,traditional sayings--,nursery poems--,proverbs--,riddles--,significanc e and survival in ,customs3 sneezing-formula1 rite of foundation-sacrifice1 prejudice against saving a drowning man #gj ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,occult ,sciences--,magical powers attributed by higher to lower races--,magical processes based on ,association of ,ideas--,omens--,augury1 c4--,oneiromancy--,haruspication1 ,scapulimancy1 ,chiromancy1 c4--,cartomancy1 c4--,rhabdomancy1 ,dactyliomancy1 ,coscinomancy1 c4--,astrology--,intellectual conditions accounting for the persistence of ,magic--,survival passes into ,revival--,witchcraft1 originating in savage culture1 continues in barbaric civilization2 its decline in early medival ,europe followed by revival2 its practices and counter-practices belong to earlier culture--,spiritualism has its source in early stages of culture1 in close connexion with witchcraft--,spirit-rapping and ,spirit-writing--,rising in the air--,performances of tied mediums--,practical bearing of the study of ,survival #aab ,,chapter ,v4 ,,emotional ,,and ,,imitative ,,language4 ,element of directly expressive ,sound in ,language--,test by independent correspondence in distinct languages--,constituent processes of ,language--,gesture--,expression of feature1 c4--,emotional ,tone--,articulate sounds1 vowels determined by musical quality and pitch1 consonants--,emphasis and ,accent--,phrase-melody1 ,recitative--,sound-words--,interjection s--,calls to ,animals--,emotional ,cries--,sense-words formed from ,interjections--,affirmative and ,negative particles1 c4 #afj ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,emotional ,,and ,,imitative ,,language 7continued74 ,imitative ,words--,human actions named from sound--,animals' names from cries1 c4--,musical ,instruments--,sounds reproduced--,words modified to adapt sound to sense--,reduplication--,graduation of vowels to express distance and difference--,children's ,language--,sound-words as related to ,sense-words--,language an original product of the lower ,culture #bjj ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,counting4 ,ideas of ,number derived from experience--,state of ,arithmetic among uncivilized races--,small extent of ,numeral-words among low tribes--,counting by fingers and toes--,hand-numerals show derivation of ,verbal reckoning from ,gesture-counting--,etymology of ,numerals--,quinary1 ,decimal1 and ,vigesimal notations of the world derived from counting on fingers and toes--,adoption of foreign ,numeral-words--,evidence of development of ,arithmetic from a low original level of ,culture #bdj ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,mythology4 ,mythic fancy based1 like other thought1 on ,experience--,mythology affords evidence for studying laws of ,imagination--,change in public opinion as to credibility of ,myths--,myths rationalized into ,allegory and ,history--,ethnological import and treatment of ,myth--,myth to be studied in actual existence and growth among modern savages and barbarians--,original sources of ,myth--,early doctrines of general animation of ,nature--,personification of ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,stars2 ,water-spout1 ,sand-pillar1 ,rainbow1 ,waterfall1 ,pestilence--,analogy worked into ,myth and ,metaphor--,myths of ,rain1 ,thunder1 c4--,effect of ,language in formation of ,myth--,material ,personification primary1 ,verbal ,personification secondary--,grammatical ,gender1 male and female1 animate and inanimate1 in relation to ,myth--,proper names of objects in relation to ,myth--,mental ,state proper to promote mythic imagination--,doctrine of ,werewolves--,phantasy and ,fancy #bgc ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,mythology 7continued74 ,nature-myths1 their origin1 canon of interpretation1 preservation of original sense and significant names--,nature-myths of upper savage races compared with related forms among barbaric and civilized nations--,heaven and ,earth as ,universal ,parents--,sun and ,moon3 ,eclipse and ,sunset1 as ,hero or ,maiden swallowed by ,monster2 ,rising of ,sun from ,sea and ,descent to ,under-,world2 ,jaws of ,night and ,death1 ,symplegades2 ,eye of ,heaven1 ,eye of ,odin and the ,grai--,sun and ,moon as mythic civilizers--,moon1 her inconstancy1 periodical death and revival--,stars1 their generation--,constellations1 their place in ,mythology and ,astronomy--,wind and ,tempest--,thunder--,earthquake #caf ,,chapter ,x4 ,,mythology 7continued74 ,philosophical ,myths3 inferences become pseudo-history--,geological ,myths--,effect of doctrine of ,miracles on ,mythology--,magnetic ,mountain--,myths of relation of ,apes to ,men by development or degeneration--,ethnological import of myths of ,ape-men1 ,men with tails1 ,men of the woods--,myths of ,error1 ,perversion1 and ,exaggeration3 stories of ,giants1 ,dwarfs1 and ,monstrous ,tribes of men--,fanciful explanatory ,myths--,myths attached to legendary or historical ,personages--,etymological ,myths on names of places and persons--,eponymic ,myths on names of tribes1 nations1 countries1 c42 their ethnological import--,pragmatic ,myths by realization of metaphors and ideas--,allegory--,beast-,fable--,conclu sion #cfh ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,animism4 ,religious ideas generally appear among low races of ,mankind--,negative statements on this subject frequently misleading and mistaken3 many cases uncertain--,minimum definition of ,religion--,doctrine of ,spiritual ,beings1 here termed ,animism--,animism treated as belonging to ,natural ,religion--,animism divided into two sections1 the philosophy of ,souls1 and of other ,spirits--,doctrine of ,souls1 its prevalence and definition among the lower races--,definition of ,apparitional ,soul or ,ghost-,soul--,it is a theoretical conception of primitive ,philosophy1 designed to account for phenomena now classed under ,biology1 especially ,life and ,death1 ,health and ,disease1 ,sleep and ,dreams1 ,trance and ,visions--,relation of ,soul in name and nature to ,shadow1 ,blood1 ,breath--,division or ,plurality of ,souls--,soul cause of ,life2 its restoration to body when supposed absent--,exit of ,soul in ,trances--,dreams and ,visions3 theory of exit of dreamer's or seer's own soul2 theory of visits received by them from other souls--,ghost-,soul seen in ,apparitions--,wraiths and ,doubles--,soul has form of ,body2 suffers mutilation with it--,voice of ,ghost--,soul treated and defined as of ,material ,substance2 this appears to be the original doctrine--,transmission of ,souls to service in future life by ,funeral ,sacrifice of wives1 attendants1 c4--,souls of ,animals--,their transmission by ,funeral ,sacrifice--,souls of ,plants--,souls of ,objects--,their transmission by ,funeral ,sacrifice--,relation of ,doctrine of ,object-,souls to ,epicurean theory of ,ideas--,historical development of ,doctrine of ,souls1 from the ,ethereal ,soul of primitive ,biology to the ,immaterial ,soul of modern ,theology #dag ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,culture4 ,culture or ,civilization--,its phenomena related according to definite ,laws--,method of classification and discussion of the evidence--,connexion of successive stages of culture by ,permanence1 ,modification1 and ,survival--,principal topics examined in the present work4 ,culture or ,civilization1 taken in its wide ethnographic sense1 is that complex whole which includes knowledge1 belief1 art1 morals1 law1 custom1 and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society4 ,the condition of culture among the various societies of mankind1 in so far as it is capable of being investigated on general principles1 is a subject apt for the study of laws of human thought and action4 ,on the one hand1 the uniformity which so largely pervades civilization may be ascribed1 in great measure1 to the uniform action of uniform causes3 while on the other hand its various grades may be regarded as stages of development or evolution1 each the outcome of previous history1 and about to do its proper part in shaping the history of the future4 ,to the investigation of these two great principles in several departments of ethnography1 with especial consideration of the civilization of the lower tribes as related to the civilization of the higher nations1 the present volumes are devoted4 ,our modern investigators in the sciences of inorganic nature are foremost to recognize1 both within and without their special fields of work1 the unity of nature1 the fixity of its laws1 the definite sequence of cause and effect through which every fact depends on what has gone before it1 and acts upon what is to come after it4 ,they grasp firmly the ,pythagorean doctrine of pervading order in the universal ,kosmos4 ,they affirm1 with ,aristotle1 that nature is not full of incoherent episodes1 like a bad tragedy4 ,they agree with ,leibnitz in what he calls #8my axiom1 that nature never acts by leaps 7la nature n'agit jamais par saut71' as well as in his #8great principle1 commonly little employed1 that nothing happens without sufficient reason4' ,nor again1 in studying the structure and habits of plants and animals1 or in investigating the lower functions even of man1 are these leading ideas unacknowledged4 ,but when we come to talk of the higher processes of human feeling and action1 of thought and language1 knowledge and art1 a change appears in the prevalent tone of opinion4 ,the world at large is scarcely prepared to accept the general study of human life as a branch of natural science1 and to carry out1 in a large sense1 the poet's injunction1 to #8,account for moral as for natural things4' ,to many educated minds there seems something presumptuous and repulsive in the view that the history of mankind is part and parcel of the history of nature1 that our thoughts1 wills1 and actions accord with laws as definite as those which govern the motion of waves1 the combination of acids and bases1 and the growth of plants and animals4 ,the main reasons of this state of the popular judgment are not far to seek4 ,there are many who would willingly accept a science of history if placed before them with substantial definiteness of principle and evidence1 but who not unreasonably reject the systems offered to them1 as falling too far short of a scientific standard4 ,through resistance such as this1 real knowledge always sooner or later makes its way1 while the habit of opposition to novelty does such excellent service against the invasions of speculative dogmatism1 that we may sometimes even wish it were stronger than it is4 ,but other obstacles to the investigation of laws of human nature arise from considerations of metaphysics and theology4 ,the popular notion of free human will involves not only freedom to act in accordance with motive1 but also a power of breaking loose from continuity and acting without cause1--a combination which may be roughly illustrated by the simile of a balance sometimes acting in the usual way1 but also possessed of the faculty of turning by itself without or against its weights4 ,this view of an anomalous action of the will1 which it need hardly be said is incompatible with scientific argument1 subsists as an opinion patent or latent in men's minds1 and strongly affecting their theoretic views of history1 though it is not1 as a rule1 brought prominently forward in systematic reasoning4 ,indeed the definition of human will1 as strictly according with motive1 is the only possible scientific basis in such enquiries4 ,happily1 it is not needful to add here yet another to the list of dissertations on supernatural intervention and natural causation1 on liberty1 predestination1 and accountability4 ,we may hasten to escape from the regions of transcendental philosophy and theology1 to start on a more hopeful journey over more practicable ground4 ,none will deny that1 as each man knows by the evidence of his own consciousness1 definite and natural cause does1 to a great extent1 determine human action4 ,then1 keeping aside from considerations of extra-natural interference and causeless spontaneity1 let us take this admitted existence of natural cause and effect as our standing-ground1 and travel on it so far as it will bear us4 ,it is on this same basis that physical science pursues1 with ever-increasing success1 its quest of laws of nature4 ,nor need this restriction hamper the scientific study of human life1 in which the real difficulties are the practical ones of enormous complexity of evidence1 and imperfection of methods of observation4 ,now it appears that this view of human will and conduct as subject to definite law1 is indeed recognised and acted upon by the very people who oppose it when stated in the abstract as a general principle1 and who then complain that it annihilates man's free will1 destroys his sense of personal responsibility1 and degrades him to a soulless machine4 ,he who will say these things will nevertheless pass much of his own life in studying the motives which lead to human action1 seeking to attain his wishes through them1 framing in his mind theories of personal character1 reckoning what are likely to be the effects of new combinations1 and giving to his reasoning the crowning character of true scientific enquiry1 by taking it for granted that in so far as his calculation turns out wrong1 either his evidence must have been false or incomplete1 or his judgment upon it unsound4 ,such a one will sum up the experience of years spent in complex relations with society1 by declaring his persuasion that there is a reason for everything in life1 and that where events look unaccountable1 the rule is to wait and watch in hope that the key to the problem may some day be found4 ,this man's observation may have been as narrow as his inferences are crude and prejudiced1 but nevertheless he has been an inductive philosopher #8more than forty years without knowing it4' ,he has practically acknowledged definite laws of human thought and action1 and has simply thrown out of account in his own studies of life the whole fabric of motiveless will and uncaused spontaneity4 ,it is assumed here that they should be just so thrown out of account in wider studies1 and that the true philosophy of history lies in extending and improving the methods of the plain people who form their judgments upon facts1 and check them upon new facts4 ,whether the doctrine be wholly or but partly true1 it accepts the very condition under which we search for new knowledge in the lessons of experience1 and in a word the whole course of our rational life is based upon it4 #8,one event is always the son of another1 and we must never forget the parentage1' was a remark made by a ,bechuana chief to ,casalis the ,african missionary4 ,thus at all times historians1 so far as they have aimed at being more than mere chroniclers1 have done their best to show not merely succession1 but connexion1 among the events upon their record4 ,moreover1 they have striven to elicit general principles of human action1 and by these to explain particular events1 stating expressly or taking tacitly for granted the existence of a philosophy of history4 ,should any one deny the possibility of thus establishing historical laws1 the answer is ready with which ,boswell in such a case turned on ,johnson3 #8,then1 sir1 you would reduce all history to no better than an almanack4' ,that nevertheless the labours of so many eminent thinkers should have as yet brought history only to the threshold of science1 need cause no wonder to those who consider the bewildering complexity of the problems which come before the general historian4 ,the evidence from which he is to draw his conclusions is at once so multifarious and so doubtful1 that a full and distinct view of its bearing on a particular question is hardly to be attained1 and thus the temptation becomes all but irresistible to garble it in support of some rough and ready theory of the course of events4 ,the philosophy of history at large1 explaining the past and predicting the future phenomena of man's life in the world by reference to general laws1 is in fact a subject with which1 in the present state of knowledge1 even genius aided by wide research seems but hardly able to cope4 ,yet there are departments of it which1 though difficult enough1 seem comparatively accessible4 ,if the field of enquiry be narrowed from ,history as a whole to that branch of it which is here called ,culture1 the history1 not of tribes or nations1 but of the condition of knowledge1 religion1 art1 custom1 and the like among them1 the task of investigation proves to lie within far more moderate compass4 ,we suffer still from the same kind of difficulties which beset the wider argument1 but they are much diminished4 ,the evidence is no longer so wildly heterogeneous1 but may be more simply classified and compared1 while the power of getting rid of extraneous matter1 and treating each issue on its own proper set of facts1 makes close reasoning on the whole more available than in general history4 ,this may appear from a brief preliminary examination of the problem1 how the phenomena of ,culture may be classified and arranged1 stage by stage1 in a probable order of evolution4 ,surveyed in a broad view1 the character and habit of mankind at once display that similarity and consistency of phenomena which led the ,italian proverb-maker to declare that #8all the world is one country1' #8tutto il mondo paese4' ,to general likeness in human nature on the one hand1 and to general likeness in the circumstances of life on the other1 this similarity and consistency may no doubt be traced1 and they may be studied with especial fitness in comparing races near the same grade of civilization4 ,little respect need be had in such comparisons for date in history or for place on the map2 the ancient ,swiss lake-dweller may be set beside the medival ,aztec1 and the ,ojibwa of ,north ,america beside the ,zulu of ,south ,africa4 ,as ,dr4 ,johnson contemptuously said when he had read about ,patagonians and ,south ,sea ,islanders in ,hawkesworth's ,voyages1 #8one set of savages is like another4' ,how true a generalization this really is1 any ,ethnological ,museum may show4 ,examine for instance the edged and pointed instruments in such a collection2 the inventory includes hatchet1 adze1 chisel1 knife1 saw1 scraper1 awl1 needle1 spear and arrow-head1 and of these most or all belong with only differences of detail to races the most various4 ,so it is with savage occupations2 the wood-chopping1 fishing with net and line1 shooting and spearing game1 fire-making1 cooking1 twisting cord and plaiting baskets1 repeat themselves with wonderful uniformity in the museum shelves which illustrate the life of the lower races from ,kamchatka to ,tierra del ,fuego1 and from ,dahome to ,hawaii4 ,even when it comes to comparing barbarous hordes with civilized nations1 the consideration thrusts itself upon our minds1 how far item after item of the life of the lower races passes into analogous proceedings of the higher1 in forms not too far changed to be recognized1 and sometimes hardly changed at all4 ,look at the modern ,european peasant using his hatchet and his hoe1 see his food boiling or roasting over the log-fire1 observe the exact place which beer holds in his calculation of happiness1 hear his tale of the ghost in the nearest haunted house1 and of the farmer's niece who was bewitched with knots in her inside till she fell into fits and died4 ,if we choose out in this way things which have altered little in a long course of centuries1 we may draw a picture where there shall be scarce a hand's breadth difference between an ,english ploughman and a negro of ,central ,africa4 ,these pages will be so crowded with evidence of such correspondence among mankind1 that there is no need to dwell upon its details here1 but it may be used at once to override a problem which would complicate the argument1 namely1 the question of race4 ,for the present purpose it appears both possible and desirable to eliminate considerations of hereditary varieties or races of man1 and to treat mankind as homogeneous in nature1 though placed in different grades of civilization4 ,the details of the enquiry will1 ,i think1 prove that stages of culture may be compared without taking into account how far tribes who use the same implement1 follow the same custom1 or believe the same myth1 may differ in their bodily configuration and the colour of their skin and hair4 ,a first step in the study of civilization is to dissect it into details1 and to classify these in their proper groups4 ,thus1 in examining weapons1 they are to be classed under spear1 club1 sling1 bow and arrow1 and so forth2 among textile arts are to be ranged matting1 netting1 and several grades of making and weaving threads2 myths are divided under such headings as myths of sunrise and sunset1 eclipse-myths1 earthquake-myths1 local myths which account for the names of places by some fanciful tale1 eponymic myths which account for the parentage of a tribe by turning its name into the name of an imaginary ancestor2 under rites and ceremonies occur such practices as the various kinds of sacrifice to the ghosts of the dead and to other spiritual beings1 the turning to the east in worship1 the purification of ceremonial or moral uncleanness by means of water or fire4 ,such are a few miscellaneous examples from a list of hundreds1 and the ethnographer's business is to classify such details with a view to making out their distribution in geography and history1 and the relations which exist among them4 ,what this task is like1 may be almost perfectly illustrated by comparing these details of culture with the species of plants and animals as studied by the naturalist4 ,to the ethnographer the bow and arrow is a species1 the habit of flattening children's skulls is a species1 the practice of reckoning numbers by tens is a species4 ,the geographical distribution of these things1 and their transmission from region to region1 have to be studied as the naturalist studies the geography of his botanical and zoological1 species4 ,just as certain plants and animals are peculiar to certain districts1 so it is with such instruments as the ,australian boomerang1 the ,polynesian stick-and-groove for fire-making1 the tiny bow and arrow used as a lancet or phleme by tribes about the ,isthmus of ,panama1 and in like manner with many an art1 myth1 or custom1 found isolated in a particular field4 ,just as the catalogue of all the species of plants and animals of a district represents its ,flora and ,fauna1 so the list of all the items of the general life of a people represents that whole which we call its culture4 ,and just as distant regions so often produce vegetables and animals which are analogous1 though by no means identical1 so it is with the details of the civilization of their inhabitants4 ,how good a working analogy there really is between the diffusion of plants and animals and the diffusion of civilization1 comes well into view when we notice how far the same causes have produced both at once4 ,in district after district1 the same causes which have introduced the cultivated plants and domesticated animals of civilization1 have brought in with them a corresponding art and knowledge4 ,the course of events which carried horses and wheat to ,america carried with them the use of the gun and the iron hatchet1 while in return the whole world received not only maize1 potatoes1 and turkeys1 but the habit of tobacco-smoking and the sailor's hammock4 ,it is a matter worthy of consideration1 that the accounts of similar phenomena of culture1 recurring in different parts of the world1 actually supply incidental proof of their own authenticity4 ,some years since1 a question which brings out this point was put to me by a great historian--#8,how can a statement as to customs1 myths1 beliefs1 c41 of a savage tribe be treated as evidence where it depends on the testimony of some traveller or missionary1 who may be a superficial observer1 more or less ignorant of the native language1 a careless retailer of unsifted talk1 a man prejudiced or even wilfully deceitful8' ,this question is1 indeed1 one which every ethnographer ought to keep clearly and constantly before his mind4 ,of course he is bound to use his best judgment as to the trustworthiness of all authors he quotes1 and if possible to obtain several accounts to certify each point in each locality4 ,but it is over and above these measures of precaution that the test of recurrence comes in4 ,if two independent visitors to different countries1 say a medival ,mohammedan in ,tartary and a modern ,englishman in ,dahome1 or a ,jesuit missionary in ,brazil and a ,wesleyan in the ,fiji ,islands1 agree in describing some analogous art or rite or myth among the people they have visited1 it becomes difficult or impossible to set down such correspondence to accident or wilful fraud4 ,a story by a bushranger in ,australia may1 perhaps1 be objected to as a mistake or an invention1 but did a ,methodist minister in ,guinea conspire with him to cheat the public by telling the same story there8 ,the possibility of intentional or unintentional mystification is often barred by such a state of things as that a similar statement is made in two remote lands1 by two witnesses1 of whom ,a lived a century before ,b1 and ,b appears never to have heard of ,a4 ,how distant are the countries1 how wide apart the dates1 how different the creeds and characters of the observers1 in the catalogue of facts of civilization1 needs no farther showing to any one who will even glance at the footnotes of the present work4 ,and the more odd the statement1 the less likely that several people in several places should have made it wrongly4 ,this being so1 it seems reasonable to judge that the statements are in the main truly given1 and that their close and regular coincidence is due to the cropping up of similar facts in various districts of culture4 ,now the most important facts of ethnography are vouched for in this way4 ,experience leads the student after a while to expect and find that the phenomena of culture1 as resulting from widely-acting similar causes1 should recur again and again in the world4 ,he even mistrusts isolated statements to which he knows of no parallel elsewhere1 and waits for their genuineness to be shown by corresponding accounts from the other side of the earth1 or the other end of history4 ,so strong1 indeed1 is this means of authentication1 that the ethnographer in his library may sometimes presume to decide1 not only whether a particular explorer is a shrewd1 honest observer1 but also whether what he reports is conformable to the general rules of civilization4 #8,non quis1 sed quid4' ,to turn from the distribution of culture in different countries1 to its diffusion within these countries4 ,the quality of mankind which tends most to make the systematic study of civilization possible1 is that remarkable tacit consensus or agreement which so far induces whole populations to unite in the use of the same language1 to follow the same religion and customary law1 to settle down to the same general level of art and knowledge4 ,it is this state of things which makes it so far possible to ignore exceptional facts and to describe nations by a sort of general average4 ,it is this state of things which makes it so far possible to represent immense masses of details by a few typical facts1 while1 these once settled1 new cases recorded by new observers simply fall into their places to prove the soundness of the classification4 ,there is found to be such regularity in the composition of societies of men1 that we can drop individual differences out of sight1 and thus can generalize on the arts and opinions of whole nations1 just as1 when looking down upon an army from a hill1 we forget the individual soldier1 whom1 in fact1 we can scarce distinguish in the mass1 while we see each regiment as an organized body1 spreading or concentrating1 moving in advance or in retreat4 ,in some branches of the study of social laws it is now possible to call in the aid of statistics1 and to set apart special actions of large mixed communities of men by means of taxgatherers' schedules1 or the tables of the insurance office4 ,among modern arguments on the laws of human action1 none have had a deeper effect than generalizations such as those of ,m4 ,quetelet1 on the regularity1 not only of such matters as average stature and the annual rates of birth and death1 but of the recurrence1 year after year1 of such obscure and seemingly incalculable products of national life as the numbers of murders and suicides1 and the proportion of the very weapons of crime4 ,other striking cases are the annual regularity of persons killed accidentally in the ,london streets1 and of undirected letters dropped into post-office letter-boxes4 ,but in examining the culture of the lower races1 far from having at command the measured arithmetical facts of modern statistics1 we may have to judge of the condition of tribes from the imperfect accounts supplied by travellers or missionaries1 or even to reason upon relics of prehistoric races of whose very names and languages we are hopelessly ignorant4 ,now these may seem at the first glance sadly indefinite and unpromising materials for scientific enquiry4 ,but in fact they are neither indefinite nor unpromising1 but give evidence that is good and definite so far as it goes4 ,they are data which1 for the distinct way in which they severally denote the condition of the tribe they belong to1 will actually bear comparison with the statistician's returns4 ,the fact is that a stone arrow-head1 a carved club1 an idol1 a grave-mound where slaves and property have been buried for the use of the dead1 an account of a sorcerer's rites in making rain1 a table of numerals1 the conjugation of a verb1 are things which each express the state of a people as to one particular point of culture1 as truly as the tabulated numbers of deaths by poison1 and of chests of tea imported1 express in a different way other partial results of the general life of a whole community4 ,that a whole nation should have a special dress1 special tools and weapons1 special laws of marriage and property1 special moral and religious doctrines1 is a remarkable fact1 which we notice so little because we have lived all our lives in the midst of it4 ,it is with such general qualities of organized bodies of men that ethnography has especially to deal4 ,yet1 while generalizing on the culture of a tribe or nation1 and setting aside the peculiarities of the individuals composing it as unimportant to the main result1 we must be careful not to forget what makes up this main result4 ,there are people so intent on the separate life of individuals that they cannot grasp a notion of the action of a community as a whole--such an observer1 incapable of a wide view of society1 is aptly described in the saying that he #8cannot see the forest for the trees4' ,but1 on the other hand1 the philosopher may be so intent upon his general laws of society as to neglect the individual actors of whom that society is made up1 and of him it may be said that he cannot see the trees for the forest4 ,we know how arts1 customs1 and ideas are shaped among ourselves by the combined actions of many individuals1 of which actions both motive and effect often come quite distinctly within our view4 ,the history of an invention1 an opinion1 a ceremony1 is a history of suggestion and modification1 encouragement and opposition1 personal gain and party prejudice1 and the individuals concerned act each according to his own motives1 as determined by his character and circumstances4 ,thus sometimes we watch individuals acting for their own ends with little thought of their effect on society at large1 and sometimes we have to study movements of national life as a whole1 where the individuals co-operating in them are utterly beyond our observation4 ,but seeing that collective social action is the mere resultant of many individual actions1 it is clear that these two methods of enquiry1 if rightly followed1 must be absolutely consistent4 ,in studying both the recurrence of special habits or ideas in several districts1 and their prevalence within each district1 there come before us ever-reiterated proofs of regular causation producing the phenomena of human life1 and of laws of maintenance and diffusion according to which these phenomena settle into permanent standard conditions of society1 at definite stages of culture4 ,but1 while giving full importance to the evidence bearing on these standard conditions of society1 let us be careful to avoid a pitfall which may entrap the unwary student4 ,of course the opinions and habits belonging in common to masses of mankind are to a great extent the results of sound judgment and practical wisdom4 ,but to a great extent it is not so4 ,that many numerous societies of men should have believed in the influence of the evil eye and the existence of a firmament1 should have sacrificed slaves and goods to the ghosts of the departed1 should have handed down traditions of giants slaying monsters and men turning into beasts--all this is ground for holding that such ideas were indeed produced in men's minds by efficient causes1 but it is not ground for holding that the rites in question are profitable1 the beliefs sound1 and the history authentic4 ,this may seem at the first glance a truism1 but1 in fact1 it is the denial of a fallacy which deeply affects the minds of all but a small critical minority of mankind4 ,popularly1 what everybody says must be true1 what everybody does must be right--#8,quod ubique1 quod semper1 quod ab omnibus creditum est1 hoc est vere proprieque ,catholicum'--and so forth4 ,there are various topics1 especially in history1 law1 philosophy1 and theology1 where even the educated people we live among can hardly be brought to see that the cause why men do hold an opinion1 or practise a custom1 is by no means necessarily a reason why they ought to do so4 ,now collections of ethnographic evidence bringing so prominently into view the agreement of immense multitudes of men as to certain traditions1 beliefs1 and usages1 are peculiarly liable to be thus improperly used in direct defence of these institutions themselves1 even old barbaric nations being polled to maintain their opinions against what are called modern ideas4 ,as it has more than once happened to myself to find my collections of traditions and beliefs thus set up to prove their own objective truth1 without proper examination of the grounds on which they were actually received1 ,i take this occasion of remarking that the same line of argument will serve equally well to demonstrate1 by the strong and wide consent of nations1 that the earth is flat1 and nightmare the visit of a demon4 ,it being shown that the details of ,culture are capable of being classified in a great number of ethnographic groups of arts1 beliefs1 customs1 and the rest1 the consideration comes next how far the facts arranged in these groups are produced by evolution from one another4 ,it need hardly be pointed out that the groups in question1 though held together each by a common character1 are by no means accurately defined4 ,to take up again the natural history illustration1 it may be said that they are species which tend to run widely into varieties4 ,and when it comes to the question what relations some of these groups bear to others1 it is plain that the student of the habits of mankind has a great advantage over the student of the species of plants and animals4 ,among naturalists it is an open question whether a theory of development from species to species is a record of transitions which actually took place1 or a mere ideal scheme serviceable in the classification of species whose origin was really independent4 ,but among ethnographers there is no such question as to the possibility of species of implements or habits or beliefs being developed one out of another1 for development in ,culture is recognized by our most familiar knowledge4 ,mechanical invention supplies apt examples of the kind of development which affects civilization at large4 ,in the history of fire-arms1 the clumsy wheel-lock1 in which a notched steel wheel revolved by means of a spring against a piece of pyrites till a spark caught the priming1 led to the invention of the more serviceable flint-lock1 of which a few still hang in the kitchens of our farm-houses for the boys to shoot small birds with at ,christmas2 the flint-lock in time passed by modification into the percussion-lock1 which is just now changing its old-fashioned arrangement to be adapted from muzzle-loading to breech-loading4 ,the medival astrolabe passed into the quadrant1 now discarded in its turn by the seaman1 who uses the more delicate sextant1 and so it is through the history of one art and instrument after another4 ,such examples of progression are known to us as direct history1 but so thoroughly is this notion of development at home in our minds1 that by means of it we reconstruct lost history without scruple1 trusting to general knowledge of the principles of human thought and action as a guide in putting the facts in their proper order4 ,whether chronicle speaks or is silent on the point1 no one comparing a long-bow and a cross-bow would doubt that the cross-bow was a development arising from the simpler instrument4 ,so among the fire-drills for igniting by friction1 it seems clear on the face of the matter that the drill worked by a cord or bow is a later improvement on the clumsier primitive instrument twirled between the hands4 ,that instructive class of specimens which antiquaries sometimes discover1 bronze celts modelled on the heavy type of the stone hatchet1 are scarcely explicable except as first steps in the transition from the ,stone ,age to the ,bronze ,age1 to be followed soon by the next stage of progress1 in which it is discovered that the new material is suited to a handier and less wasteful pattern4 ,and thus1 in the other branches of our history1 there will come again and again into view series of facts which may be consistently arranged as having followed one another in a particular order of development1 but which will hardly bear being turned round and made to follow in reversed order4 ,such for instance are the facts ,i have here brought forward in a chapter on the ,art of ,counting1 which tend to prove that as to this point of culture at least1 savage tribes reached their position by learning and not by unlearning1 by elevation from a lower rather than by degradation from a higher state4 ,among evidence aiding us to trace the course which the civilization of the world has actually followed1 is that great class of facts to denote which ,i have found it convenient to introduce the term #8survivals4' ,these are processes1 customs1 opinions1 and so forth1 which have been carried on by force of habit into a new state of society different from that in which they had their original home1 and they thus remain as proofs and examples of an older condition of culture out of which a newer has been evolved4 ,thus1 ,i know an old ,somersetshire woman whose hand-loom dates from the time before the introduction of the #8flying shuttle1' which new-fangled appliance she has never even learnt to use1 and ,i have seen her throw her shuttle from hand to hand in true classic fashion2 this old woman is not a century behind her times1 but she is a case of survival4 ,such examples often lead us back to the habits of hundreds and even thousands of years ago4 ,the ordeal of the ,key and ,bible1 still in use1 is a survival2 the ,midsummer bonfire is a survival2 the ,breton peasants' ,all ,souls' supper for the spirits of the dead is a survival4 ,the simple keeping up of ancient habits is only one part of the transition from old into new and changing times4 ,the serious business of ancient society may be seen to sink into the sport of later generations1 and its serious belief to linger on in nursery folk-lore1 while superseded habits of old-world life may be modified into new-world forms still powerful for good and evil4 ,sometimes old thoughts and practices will burst out afresh1 to the amazement of a world that thought them long since dead or dying2 here survival passes into revival1 as has lately happened in so remarkable a way in the history of modern spiritualism1 a subject full of instruction from the ethnographer's point of view4 ,the study of the principles of survival has1 indeed1 no small practical importance1 for most of what we call superstition is included within survival1 and in this way lies open to the attack of its deadliest enemy1 a reasonable explanation4 ,insignificant1 moreover1 as multitudes of the facts of survival are in themselves1 their study is so effective for tracing the course of the historical development through which alone it is possible to understand their meaning1 that it becomes a vital point of ethnographic research to gain the clearest possible insight into their nature4 ,this importance must justify the detail here devoted to an examination of survival1 on the evidence of such games1 popular sayings1 customs1 superstitions1 and the like1 as may serve well to bring into view the manner of its operation4 ,progress1 degradation1 survival1 revival1 modification1 are all modes of the connexion that binds together the complex network of civilization4 ,it needs but a glance into the trivial details of our own daily life to set us thinking how far we are really its originators1 and how far but the transmitters and modifiers of the results of long past ages4 ,looking round the rooms we live in1 we may try here how far he who only knows his own time can be capable of rightly comprehending even that4 ,here is the #8honeysuckle' of ,assyria1 there the fleur-de-lis of ,anjou1 a cornice with a ,greek border runs round the ceiling1 the style of ,louis ,,xiv1 and its parent the ,renaissance share the looking-glass between them4 ,transformed1 shifted1 or mutilated1 such elements of art still carry their history plainly stamped upon them2 and if the history yet farther behind is less easy to read1 we are not to say that because we cannot clearly discern it there is therefore no history there4 ,it is thus even with the fashion of the clothes men wear4 ,the ridiculous little tails of the ,german postilion's coat show of themselves how they came to dwindle to such absurd rudiments2 but the ,english clergyman's bands no longer so convey their history to the eye1 and look unaccountable enough till one has seen the intermediate stages through which they came down from the more serviceable wide collars1 such as ,milton wears in his portrait1 and which gave their name to the #8band-box' they used to be kept in4 ,in fact1 the books of costume1 showing how one garment grew or shrank by gradual stages and passed into another1 illustrate with much force and clearness the nature of the change and growth1 revival and decay1 which go on from year to year in more important matters of life4 ,in books1 again1 we see each writer not for and by himself1 but occupying his proper place in history2 we look through each philosopher1 mathematician1 chemist1 poet1 into the background of his education1--through ,leibnitz into ,descartes1 through ,dalton into ,priestley1 through ,milton into ,homer4 ,the study of language has1 perhaps1 done more than any other in removing from our view of human thought and action the ideas of chance and arbitrary invention1 and in substituting for them a theory of development by the co-operation of individual men1 through processes ever reasonable and intelligible where the facts are fully known4 ,rudimentary as the science of culture still is1 the symptoms are becoming very strong that even what seem its most spontaneous and motiveless phenomena will1 nevertheless1 be shown to come within the range of distinct cause and effect as certainly as the facts of mechanics4 ,what would be popularly thought more indefinite and uncontrolled than the products of the imagination in myths and fables8 ,yet any systematic investigation of mythology1 on the basis of a wide collection of evidence1 will show plainly enough in such efforts of fancy at once a development from stage to stage1 and a production of uniformity of result from uniformity of cause4 ,here1 as elsewhere1 causeless spontaneity is seen to recede farther and farther into shelter within the dark precincts of ignorance2 like chance1 that still holds its place among the vulgar as a real cause of events otherwise unaccountable1 while to educated men it has long consciously meant nothing but this ignorance itself4 ,it is only when men fail to see the line of connexion in events1 that they are prone to fall upon the notions of arbitrary impulses1 causeless freaks1 chance and nonsense and indefinite unaccountability4 ,if childish games1 purposeless customs1 absurd superstitions1 are set down as spontaneous because no one can say exactly how they came to be1 the assertion may remind us of the like effect that the eccentric habits of the wild rice-plant had on the philosophy of a ,red ,indian tribe1 otherwise disposed to see in the harmony of nature the effects of one controlling personal will4 ,the ,great ,spirit1 said these ,sioux theologians1 made all things except the wild rice2 but the wild rice came by chance4 #8,man1' said ,wilhelm von ,humboldt1 #8ever connects on from what lies at hand 7der ,mensch knpft immer an ,vorhandenes an74' ,the notion of the continuity of civilization contained in this maxim is no barren philosophic principle1 but is at once made practical by the consideration that they who wish to understand their own lives ought to know the stages through which their opinions and habits have become what they are4 ,auguste ,comte scarcely overstated the necessity of this study of development when he declared at the beginning of his #8,positive ,philosophy' that #8no conception can be understood except through its history1' and his phrase will bear extension to culture at large4 ,to expect to look modern life in the face and comprehend it by mere inspection1 is a philosophy whose weakness can easily be tested4 ,imagine any one explaining the trivial saying1 #8a little bird told me1' without knowing of the old belief in the language of birds and beasts1 to which ,dr4 ,dasent1 in the introduction to the ,norse ,tales1 so reasonably traces its origin4 ,attempts to explain by the light of reason things which want the light of history to show their meaning1 may be instanced from ,blackstone's ,commentaries4 ,to ,blackstone's mind1 the very right of the commoner to turn his beast out to graze on the common1 finds its origin and explanation in the feudal system4 #8,for1 when lords of manors granted out parcels of land to tenants1 for services either done or to be done1 these tenants could not plough or manure the land without beasts2 these beasts could not be sustained without pasture2 and pasture could not be had but in the lord's wastes1 and on the uninclosed fallow grounds of themselves and the other tenants4 ,the law therefore annexed this right of common1 as inseparably incident1 to the grant of the lands2 and this was the original of common appendant1' c4#b ,now though there is nothing irrational in this explanation1 it does not agree at all with the ,teutonic land-law which prevailed in ,england long before the ,norman ,conquest1 and of which the remains have never wholly disappeared4 ,in the old village-community even the arable land1 lying in the great common fields which may still be traced in our country1 had not yet passed into separate property1 while the pasturage in the fallows and stubbles and on the waste belonged to the householders in common4 ,since those days1 the change from communal to individual ownership has mostly transformed this old-world system1 but the right which the peasant enjoys of pasturing his cattle on the common still remains1 not as a concession to feudal tenants1 but as possessed by the commoners before the lord ever claimed the ownership of the waste4 ,it is always unsafe to detach a custom from its hold on past events1 treating it as an isolated fact to be simply disposed of by some plausible explanation4 ,in carrying on the great task of rational ethnography1 the investigation of the causes which have produced the phenomena of culture1 and of the laws to which they are subordinate1 it is desirable to work out as systematically as possible a scheme of evolution of this culture along its many lines4 ,in the following chapter1 on the ,development of ,culture1 an attempt is made to sketch a theoretical course of civilization among mankind1 such as appears on the whole most accordant with the evidence4 ,by comparing the various stages of civilization among races known to history1 with the aid of archological inference from the remains of prehistoric tribes1 it seems possible to judge in a rough way of an early general condition of man1 which from our point of view is to be regarded as a primitive condition1 whatever yet earlier state may in reality have lain behind it4 ,this hypothetical primitive condition corresponds in a considerable degree to that of modern savage tribes1 who1 in spite of their difference and distance1 have in common certain elements of civilization1 which seem remains of an early state of the human race at large4 ,if this hypothesis be true1 then1 notwithstanding the continual interference of degeneration1 the main tendency of culture from primval up to modern times has been from savagery towards civilization4 ,on the problem of this relation of savage to civilized life1 almost every one of the thousands of facts discussed in the succeeding chapters has its direct bearing4 ,survival in ,culture1 placing all along the course of advancing civilization way-marks full of meaning to those who can decipher their signs1 even now sets up in our midst primval monuments of barbaric thought and life4 ,its investigation tells strongly in favour of the view that the ,european may find among the ,greenlanders or ,maoris many a trait for reconstructing the picture of his own primitive ancestors4 ,next comes the problem of the ,origin of ,language4 ,obscure as many parts of this problem still remain1 its clearer positions lie open to the investigation whether speech took its origin among mankind in the savage state1 and the result of the enquiry is that consistently with all known evidence1 this may have been the case4 ,from the examination of the ,art of ,counting a far more definite consequence is shown4 ,it may be confidently asserted1 that not only is this important art found in a rudimentary state among savage tribes1 but that satisfactory evidence proves numeration to have been developed by rational invention from this low stage up to that in which we ourselves possess it4 ,the examination of ,mythology contained in the first volume1 is for the most part made from a special point of view1 on evidence collected for a special purpose1 that of tracing the relation between the myths of savage tribes and their analogues among more civilized nations4 ,the issue of such enquiry goes far to prove that the earliest myth-maker arose and flourished among savage hordes1 setting on foot an art which his more cultured successors would carry on1 till its results came to be fossilized in superstition1 mistaken for history1 shaped and draped in poetry1 or cast aside as lying folly4 ,nowhere1 perhaps1 are broad views of historical development more needed than in the study of religion4 ,notwithstanding all that has been written to make the world acquainted with the lower theologies1 the popular ideas of their place in history and their relation to the faiths of higher nations are still of the medival type4 ,it is wonderful to contrast some missionary journals with ,max ,mller's ,essays1 and to set the unappreciating hatred and ridicule that is lavished by narrow hostile zeal on ,brahmanism1 ,buddhism1 ,zoroastrism1 besides the catholic sympathy with which deep and wide knowledge can survey those ancient and noble phases of man's religious consciousness2 nor1 because the religions of savage tribes may be rude and primitive compared with the great ,asiatic systems1 do they lie too low for interest and even for respect4 ,the question really lies between understanding and misunderstanding them4 ,few who will give their minds to master the general principles of savage religion will ever again think it ridiculous1 or the knowledge of it superfluous to the rest of mankind4 ,far from its beliefs and practices being a rubbish-heap of miscellaneous folly1 they are consistent and logical in so high a degree as to begin1 as soon as even roughly classified1 to display the principles of their formation and development2 and these principles prove to be essentially rational1 though working in a mental condition of intense and inveterate ignorance4 ,it is with a sense of attempting an investigation which bears very closely on the current theology of our own day1 that ,i have set myself to examine systematically1 among the lower races1 the development of ,animism2 that is to say1 the doctrine of souls and other spiritual beings in general4 ,more than half of the present work is occupied with a mass of evidence from all regions of the world1 displaying the nature and meaning of this great element of the ,philosophy of ,religion1 and tracing its transmission1 expansion1 restriction1 modification1 along the course of history into the midst of our own modern thought4 ,nor are the questions of small practical moment which have to be raised in a similar attempt to trace the development of certain prominent ,rites and ,ceremonies--customs so full of instruction as to the inmost powers of religion1 whose outward expression and practical result they are4 ,in these investigations1 however1 made rather from an ethnographic than a theological point of view1 there has seemed little need of entering into direct controversial argument1 which indeed ,i have taken pains to avoid as far as possible4 ,the connexion which runs through religion1 from its rudest forms up to the status of an enlightened ,christianity1 may be conveniently treated of with little recourse to dogmatic theology4 ,the rites of sacrifice and purification may be studied in their stages of development without entering into questions of their authority and value1 nor does an examination of the successive phases of the world's belief in a future life demand a discussion of the arguments adduced for or against the doctrine itself4 ,the ethnographic results may then be left as materials for professed theologians1 and it will not perhaps be long before evidence so fraught with meaning shall take its legitimate place4 ,to fall back once again on the analogy of natural history1 the time may soon come when it will be thought as unreasonable for a scientific student of theology not to have a competent acquaintance with the principles of the religions of the lower races1 as for a physiologist to look with the contempt of past centuries on evidence derived from the lower forms of life1 deeming the structure of mere invertebrate creatures matter unworthy of his philosophic study4 ,not merely as a matter of curious research1 but as an important practical guide to the understanding of the present and the shaping of the future1 the investigation into the origin and early development of civilization must be pushed on zealously4 ,every possible avenue of knowledge must be explored1 every door tried to see if it is open4 ,no kind of evidence need be left untouched on the score of remoteness or complexity1 of minuteness or triviality4 ,the tendency of modern enquiry is more and more towards the conclusion that if law is anywhere1 it is everywhere4 ,to despair of what a conscientious collection and study of facts may lead to1 and to declare any problem insoluble because difficult and far off1 is distinctly to be on the wrong side in science2 and he who will choose a hopeless task may set himself to discover the limits of discovery4 ,one remembers ,comte starting in his account of astronomy with a remark on the necessary limitation of our knowledge of the stars3 we conceive1 he tells us1 the possibility of determining their form1 distance1 size1 and movement1 whilst we should never by any method be able to study their chemical composition1 their mineralogical structure1 c4 ,had the philosopher lived to see the application of spectrum analysis to this very problem1 his proclamation of the dispiriting doctrine of necessary ignorance would perhaps have been recanted in favour of a more hopeful view4 ,and it seems to be with the philosophy of remote human life somewhat as with the study of the nature of the celestial bodies4 ,the processes to be made out in the early stages of our mental evolution lie distant from us in time as the stars lie distant from us in space1 but the laws of the universe are not limited with the direct observation of our senses4 ,there is vast material to be used in our enquiry2 many workers are now busied in bringing this material into shape1 though little may have yet been done in proportion to what remains to do2 and already it seems not too much to say that the vague outlines of a philosophy of primval history are beginning to come within our view4 ,footnote #b3 ,blackstone1 #8,commentaries on the ,laws of ,england1' bk4 ,,ii41 ch4 #c4 ,the above example replaces that given in former editions4 ,another example may be found in his explanation of the origin of deodand1 bk4 ,i41 ch4 #h1 as designed1 in the blind days of popery1 as an expiation for the souls of such as were snatched away by sudden death2 see below1 p4 #bhg4 ,note to #crd ed4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,culture4 ,stages of culture1 industrial1 intellectual1 political1 moral--,development of culture in great measure corresponds with transition from savage through barbaric to civilized life--,progression-theory--,degeneration -theory--,development-theory includes both1 the one as primary1 the other as secondary--,historical and traditional evidence not available as to low stages of culture--,historical evidence as to principles of ,degeneration--,ethnological evidence as to rise and fall in culture from comparison of different levels of culture in branches of the same race--,extent of historically recorded antiquity of civilization--,prehistoric ,archology extends the antiquity of man in low stages of civilization--,traces of ,stone ,age1 corroborated by megalithic structures1 lake dwellings1 shell-heaps1 burial-places1 c41 prove original low culture throughout the world--,stages of ,progressive ,development in industrial arts4 ,in taking up the problem of the development of culture as a branch of ethnological research1 a first proceeding is to obtain a means of measurement4 ,seeking something like a definite line along which to reckon progression and retrogression in civilization1 we may apparently find it best in the classification of real tribes and nations1 past and present4 ,civilization actually existing among mankind in different grades1 we are enabled to estimate and compare it by positive examples4 ,the educated world of ,europe and ,america practically settles a standard by simply placing its own nations at one end of the social series and savage tribes at the other1 arranging the rest of mankind between these limits according as they correspond more closely to savage or to cultured life4 ,the principal criteria of classification are the absence or presence1 high or low development1 of the industrial arts1 especially metal-working1 manufacture of implements and vessels1 agriculture1 architecture1 c41 the extent of scientific knowledge1 the definiteness of moral principles1 the condition of religious belief and ceremony1 the degree of social and political organization1 and so forth4 ,thus1 on the definite basis of compared facts1 ethnographers are able to set up at least a rough scale of civilization4 ,few would dispute that the following races are arranged rightly in order of culture3--,australian1 ,tahitian1 ,aztec1 ,chinese1 ,italian4 ,by treating the development of civilization on this plain ethnographic basis1 many difficulties may be avoided which have embarrassed its discussion4 ,this may be seen by a glance at the relation which theoretical principles of civilization bear to the transitions to be observed as matter of fact between the extremes of savage and cultured life4 ,from an ideal point of view1 civilization may be looked upon as the general improvement of mankind by higher organization of the individual and of society1 to the end of promoting at once man's goodness1 power1 and happiness4 ,this theoretical civilization does in no small measure correspond with actual civilization1 as traced by comparing savagery with barbarism1 and barbarism with modern educated life4 ,so far as we take into account only material and intellectual culture1 this is especially true4 ,acquaintance with the physical laws of the world1 and the accompanying power of adapting nature to man's own ends1 are1 on the whole1 lowest among savages1 mean among barbarians1 and highest among modern educated nations4 ,thus a transition from the savage state to our own would be1 practically1 that very progress of art and knowledge which is one main element in the development of culture4 ,but even those students who hold most strongly that the general course of civilization1 as measured along the scale of races from savages to ourselves1 is progress towards the benefit of mankind1 must admit many and manifold exceptions4 ,industrial and intellectual culture by no means advances uniformly in all its branches1 and in fact excellence in various of its details is often obtained under conditions which keep back culture as a whole4 ,it is true that these exceptions seldom swamp the general rule2 and the ,englishman1 admitting that he does not climb trees like the wild ,australian1 nor track game like the savage of the ,brazilian forest1 nor compete with the ancient ,etruscan and the modern ,chinese in delicacy of goldsmith's work and ivory carving1 nor reach the classic ,greek level of oratory and sculpture1 may yet claim for himself a general condition above any of these races4 ,but there actually have to be taken into account developments of science and art which tend directly against culture4 ,to have learnt to give poison secretly and effectually1 to have raised a corrupt literature to pestilent perfection1 to have organized a successful scheme to arrest free enquiry and proscribe free expression1 are works of knowledge and skill whose progress toward their goal has hardly conduced to the general good4 ,thus1 even in comparing mental and artistic culture among several peoples1 the balance of good and ill is not quite easy to strike4 ,if not only knowledge and art1 but at the same time moral and political excellence1 be taken into consideration1 it becomes yet harder to reckon on an ideal scale the advance or decline from stage to stage of culture4 ,in fact1 a combined intellectual and moral measure of human condition is an instrument which no student has as yet learnt properly to handle4 ,even granting that intellectual1 moral1 and political life may1 on a broad view1 be seen to progress together1 it is obvious that they are far from advancing with equal steps4 ,it may be taken as man's rule of duty in the world1 that he shall strive to know as well as he can find out1 and to do as well as he knows how4 ,but the parting asunder of these two great principles1 that separation of intelligence from virtue which accounts for so much of the wrong-doing of mankind1 is continually seen to happen in the great movements of civilization4 ,as one conspicuous instance of what all history stands to prove1 if we study the early ages of ,christianity1 we may see men with minds pervaded by the new religion of duty1 holiness1 and love1 yet at the same time actually falling away in intellectual life1 thus at once vigorously grasping one half of civilization1 and contemptuously casting off the other4 ,whether in high ranges or in low of human life1 it may be seen that advance of culture seldom results at once in unmixed good4 ,courage1 honesty1 generosity1 are virtues which may suffer1 at least for a time1 by the development of a sense of value of life and property4 ,the savage who adopts something of foreign civilization too often loses his ruder virtues without gaining an equivalent4 ,the white invader or colonist1 though representing on the whole a higher moral standard than the savage he improves or destroys1 often represents his standard very ill1 and at best can hardly claim to substitute a life stronger1 nobler1 and purer at every point than that which he supersedes4 ,the onward movement from barbarism has dropped behind it more than one quality of barbaric character which cultured modern men look back on with regret1 and will even strive to regain by futile attempts to stop the course of history1 and to restore the past in the midst of the present4 ,so it is with social institutions4 ,the slavery recognised by savage and barbarous races is preferable in kind to that which existed for centuries in late ,european colonies4 ,the relation of the sexes among many savage tribes is more healthy than among the richer classes of the ,mohammedan world4 ,as a supreme authority of government1 the savage councils of chiefs and elders compare favourably with the unbridled despotism under which so many cultured races have groaned4 ,the ,creek ,indians1 asked concerning their religion1 replied that where agreement was not to be had1 it was best to #8let every man paddle his canoe his own way3' and after long ages of theological strife and persecution1 the modern world seems coming to think these savages not far wrong4 ,among accounts of savage life1 it is not1 indeed1 uncommon to find details of admirable moral and social excellence4 ,to take one prominent instance1 ,lieut4 ,bruijn ,kops and ,mr4 ,wallace have described1 among the rude ,papuans of the ,eastern ,archipelago1 a habitual truthfulness1 rightfulness1 and kindliness which it would be hard to match in the general moral life of ,persia or ,india1 to say nothing of many a civilized ,european district4#c ,such tribes may count as the #8blameless ,ethiopians' of the modern world1 and from them an important lesson may be learnt4 ,ethnographers who seek in modern savages types of the remotely ancient human race at large1 are bound by such examples to consider the rude life of primval man under favourable conditions to have been1 in its measure1 a good and happy life4 ,on the other hand1 the pictures drawn by some travellers of savagery as a kind of paradisiacal state may be taken too exclusively from the bright side4 ,it is remarked as to these very ,papuans1 that ,europeans whose intercourse with them has been hostile become so impressed with the wild-beast-like cunning of their attacks1 as hardly to believe in their having feelings in common with civilized men4 ,our ,polar explorers may well speak in kindly terms of the industry1 the honesty1 the cheerful considerate politeness of the ,esquimaux2 but it must be remembered that these rude people are on their best behaviour with foreigners1 and that their character is apt to be foul and brutal where they have nothing to expect or fear4 ,the ,caribs are described as a cheerful1 modest1 courteous race1 and so honest among themselves that if they missed anything out of a house they said quite naturally3 #8,there has been a ,christian here4' ,yet the malignant ferocity with which these estimable people tortured their prisoners of war with knife and fire-brand and red pepper1 and then cooked and ate them in solemn debauch1 gave fair reason for the name of ,carib 7,cannibal7 to become the generic name of man-eaters in ,european languages4#d ,so when we read descriptions of the hospitality1 the gentleness1 the bravery1 the deep religious feeling of the ,north ,american ,indians1 we admit their claims to our sincere admiration2 but we must not forget that they were hospitable literally to a fault1 that their gentleness would pass with a flash of anger into frenzy1 that their bravery was stained with cruel and treacherous malignity1 that their religion expressed itself in absurd belief and useless ceremony4 ,the ideal savage of the #ahth century may be held up as a living reproof to vicious and frivolous ,london2 but in sober fact1 a ,londoner who should attempt to lead the atrocious life which the real savage may lead with impunity and even respect1 would be a criminal only allowed to follow his savage models during his short intervals out of gaol4 ,savage moral standards are real enough1 but they are far looser and weaker than ours4 ,we may1 ,i think1 apply the often-repeated comparison of savages to children as fairly to their moral as to their intellectual condition4 ,the better savage social life seems in but unstable equilibrium1 liable to be easily upset by a touch of distress1 temptation1 or violence1 and then it becomes the worse savage life1 which we know by so many dismal and hideous examples4 ,altogether1 it may be admitted that some rude tribes lead a life to be envied by some barbarous races1 and even by the outcasts of higher nations4 ,but that any known savage tribe would not be improved by judicious civilization1 is a proposition which no moralist would dare to make2 while the general tenour of the evidence goes far to justify the view that on the whole the civilized man is not only wiser and more capable than the savage1 but also better and happier1 and that the barbarian stands between4 ,it might1 perhaps1 seem practicable to compare the whole average of the civilization of two peoples1 or of the same people in different ages1 by reckoning each1 item by item1 to a sort of sum-total1 and striking a balance between them1 much as an appraiser compares the value of two stocks of merchandise1 differ as they may both in quantity and quality4 ,but the few remarks here made will have shown how loose must be the working-out of these rough-and-ready estimates of culture4 ,in fact1 much of the labour spent in investigating the progress and decline of civilization has been mis-spent1 in premature attempts to treat that as a whole which is as yet only susceptible of divided study4 ,the present comparatively narrow argument on the development of culture at any rate avoids this greatest perplexity4 ,it takes cognizance principally of knowledge1 art1 and custom1 and indeed only very partial cognizance within this field1 the vast range of physical1 political1 social1 and ethical considerations being left all but untouched4 ,its standard of reckoning progress and decline is not that of ideal good and evil1 but of movement along a measured line from grade to grade of actual savagery1 barbarism1 and civilization4 ,the thesis which ,i venture to sustain1 within limits1 is simply this1 that the savage state in some measure represents an early condition of mankind1 out of which the higher culture has gradually been developed or evolved1 by processes still in regular operation as of old1 the result showing that1 on the whole1 progress has far prevailed over relapse4 ,on this proposition1 the main tendency of human society during its long term of existence has been to pass from a savage to a civilized state4 ,now all must admit a great part of this assertion to be not only truth1 but truism4 ,referred to direct history1 a great section of it proves to belong not to the domain of speculation1 but to that of positive knowledge4 ,it is mere matter of chronicle that modern civilization is a development of medival civilization1 which again is a development from civilization of the order represented in ,greece1 ,assyria1 or ,egypt4 ,thus the higher culture being clearly traced back to what may be called the middle culture1 the question which remains is whether this middle culture may be traced back to the lower culture1 that is1 to savagery4 ,to affirm this1 is merely to assert that the same kind of development in culture which has gone on inside our range of knowledge has also gone on outside it1 its course of proceeding being unaffected by our having or not having reporters present4 ,if any one holds that human thought and action were worked out in primval times according to laws essentially other than those of the modern world1 it is for him to prove by valid evidence this anomalous state of things1 otherwise the doctrine of permanent principle will hold good1 as in astronomy or geology4 ,that the tendency of culture has been similar throughout the existence of human society1 and that we may fairly judge from its known historic course what its prehistoric course may have been1 is a theory clearly entitled to precedence as a fundamental principle of ethnographic research4 ,gibbon in his #8,roman ,empire' expresses in a few vigorous sentences his theory of the course of culture1 as from savagery upward4 ,judged by the knowledge of nearly a century later1 his remarks cannot1 indeed1 pass unquestioned4 ,especially he seems to rely with misplaced confidence on traditions of archaic rudeness1 to exaggerate the lowness of savage life1 to underestimate the liability to decay of the ruder arts1 and in his view of the effect of high on low civilization1 to dwell too exclusively on the brighter side4 ,but1 on the whole1 the great historian's judgment seems so substantially that of the unprejudiced modern student of the progressionist school1 that ,i gladly quote the passage here at length1 and take it as a text to represent the development theory of culture3--#8,the discoveries of ancient and modern navigators1 and the domestic history1 or tradition1 of the most enlightened nations1 represent the human savage naked both in mind and body1 and destitute of laws1 of arts1 of ideas1 and almost of language4 ,from this abject condition1 perhaps the primitive and universal state of man1 he has gradually arisen to command the animals1 to fertilise the earth1 to traverse the ocean1 and to measure the heavens4 ,his progress in the improvement and exercise of his mental and corporeal faculties has been irregular and various2 infinitely slow in the beginning1 and increasing by degrees with redoubled velocity3 ages of laborious ascent have been followed by a moment of rapid downfall2 and the several climates of the globe have felt the vicissitudes of light and darkness4 ,yet the experience of four thousand years should enlarge our hopes1 and diminish our apprehensions3 we cannot determine to what height the human species may aspire in their advances towards perfection2 but it may safely be presumed1 that no people1 unless the face of nature is changed1 will relapse into their original barbarism4 ,the improvements of society may be viewed under a threefold aspect4 #a4 ,the poet or philosopher illustrates his age and country by the efforts of a single mind2 but these superior powers of reason or fancy are rare and spontaneous productions2 and the genius of ,homer1 or ,cicero1 or ,newton1 would excite less admiration1 if they could be created by the will of a prince1 or the lessons of a preceptor4 #b4 ,the benefits of law and policy1 of trade and manufactures1 of arts and sciences1 are more solid and permanent2 and many individuals may be qualified1 by education and discipline1 to promote1 in their respective stations1 the interest of the community4 ,but this general order is the effect of skill and labour2 and the complex machinery may be decayed by time1 or injured by violence4 #c4 ,fortunately for mankind1 the more useful1 or1 at least1 more necessary arts1 can be performed without superior talents1 or national subordination2 without the powers of one1 or the union of many4 ,each village1 each family1 each individual1 must always possess both ability and inclination1 to perpetuate the use of fire and of metals2 the propagation and service of domestic animals2 the methods of hunting and fishing2 the rudiments of navigation2 the imperfect cultivation of corn1 or other nutritive grain2 and the simple practice of the mechanic trades4 ,private genius and public industry may be extirpated2 but these hardy plants survive the tempest1 and strike an everlasting root into the most unfavourable soil4 ,the splendid days of ,augustus and ,trajan were eclipsed by a cloud of ignorance2 and the barbarians subverted the laws and palaces of ,rome4 ,but the scythe1 the invention1 or emblem of ,saturn1 still continued annually to mow the harvests of ,italy2 and the human feasts of ,lstrigons have never been renewed on the coast of ,campania4 ,since the first discovery of the arts1 war1 commerce1 and religious zeal1 have diffused1 among the savages of the ,old and ,new ,world1 these inestimable gifts3 they have been successively propagated2 they can never be lost4 ,we may therefore acquiesce in the pleasing conclusion1 that every age of the world has increased1 and still increases1 the real wealth1 the happiness1 the knowledge1 and perhaps the virtue1 of the human race4'#e ,this progression-theory of civilization may be contrasted with its rival1 the degeneration-theory1 in the dashing invective of ,count ,joseph de ,maistre1 written toward the beginning of the #aith century4 #8,nous partons toujours1' he says1 #8de l'hypothse banale que l'homme s'est lev graduellement de la barbarie la science et la civilisation4 ,c'est le rve favori1 c'est l'erreur-mre1 et comme dit l'cole le proto-pseudes de notre sicle4 ,mais si les philosophes de ce malheureux sicle1 avec l'horrible perversit que nous leur avons connue1 et qui s'obstinent encore malgr les avertissements qu'ils ont reus1 avaient possd de plus quelques-unes de ces connaissances qui ont d ncessairement appartenir aux premiers hommes1 c4'#f ,the degeneration-theory1 which this eloquent antagonist of #8modern ideas' indeed states in an extreme shape1 has received the sanction of men of great learning and ability4 ,it has practically resolved itself into two assumptions1 first1 that the history of culture began with the appearance on earth of a semi-civilized race of men1 and second1 that from this stage culture has proceeded in two ways1 backward to produce savages1 and forward to produce civilized men4 ,the idea of the original condition of man being one of more or less high culture1 must have a certain prominence given to it on account of its considerable hold on public opinion4 ,as to definite evidence1 however1 it does not seem to have any ethnological basis whatever4 ,indeed1 ,i scarcely think that a stronger counter-persuasion could be used on an intelligent student inclined to the ordinary degeneration-theory than to induce him to examine critically and impartially the arguments of the advocates on his own side4 ,it must be borne in mind1 however1 that the grounds on which this theory has been held have generally been rather theological than ethnological4 ,the strength of the position it has thus occupied may be well instanced from the theories adopted by two eminent ,french writers of the #ahth century1 which in a remarkable way piece together a belief in degeneration and an argument for progression4 ,de ,brosses1 whose whole intellectual nature turned to the progression-theory1 argued that by studying what actually now happens #8we may trace men upward from the savage state to which the flood and dispersion had reduced them4'#g ,and ,goguet1 holding that the pre-existing arts perished at the deluge1 was thus left free to work out on the most thorough-going progressionist principles his theories of the invention of fire1 cooking1 agriculture1 law1 and so forth1 among tribes thus reduced to a condition of low savagery4#h ,at the present time it is not unusual for the origin of civilization to be treated as matter of dogmatic theology4 ,it has happened to me more than once to be assured from the pulpit that the theories of ethnologists who consider man to have risen from a low original condition are delusive fancies1 it being revealed truth that man was originally in a high condition4 ,now as a matter of ,biblical criticism it must be remembered that a large proportion of modern theologians are far from accepting such a dogma4 ,but in investigating the problem of early civilization1 the claim to ground scientific opinion upon a basis of revelation is in itself objectionable4 ,it would be1 ,i think1 inexcusable if students who have seen in ,astronomy and ,geology the unhappy results of attempting to base science on religion1 should countenance a similar attempt in ,ethnology4 ,by long experience of the course of human society1 the principle of development in culture has become so ingrained in our philosophy that ethnologists1 of whatever school1 hardly doubt but that1 whether by progress or degradation1 savagery and civilization are connected as lower and higher stages of one formation4 ,as such1 then1 two principal theories claim to account for their relation4 ,as to the first hypothesis1 which takes savage life as in some sort representing an early human state whence higher states were1 in time1 developed1 it has to be noticed that advocates of this progression-theory are apt to look back toward yet lower original conditions of mankind4 ,it has been truly remarked that the modern naturalist's doctrine of progressive development has encouraged a train of thought singularly accordant with the ,epicurean theory of man's early existence on earth1 in a condition not far removed from that of the lower animals4 ,on such a view1 savage life itself would be a far advanced condition4 ,if the advance of culture be regarded as taking place along one general line1 then existing savagery stands directly intermediate between animal and civilized life2 if along different lines1 then savagery and civilization may be considered as at least indirectly connected through their common origin4 ,the method and evidence here employed are not1 however1 suitable for the discussion of this remoter part of the problem of civilization4 ,nor is it necessary to enquire how1 under this or any other theory1 the savage state first came to be on earth4 ,it is enough that1 by some means or other1 it has actually come into existence2 and so far as it may serve as a guide in inferring an early condition of the human race at large1 so far the argument takes the very practicable shape of a discussion turning rather on actual than imaginary states of society4 ,the second hypothesis1 which regards higher culture as original1 and the savage condition as produced from it by a course of degeneration1 at once cuts the hard knot of the origin of culture4 ,it takes for granted a supernatural interference1 as where ,archbishop ,whately simply refers to miraculous revelation that condition above the level of barbarism which he considers to have been man's original state4#i ,it may be incidentally remarked1 however1 that the doctrine of original civilization bestowed on man by divine intervention1 by no means necessarily involves the view that this original civilization was at a high level4 ,its advocates are free to choose their starting-point of culture above1 at1 or below the savage condition1 as may on the evidence seem to them most reasonable4 ,the two theories which thus account for the relation of savage to cultured life may be contrasted according to their main character1 as the progression-theory and the degradation-theory4 ,yet of course the progression-theory recognizes degradation1 and the degradation-theory recognizes progression1 as powerful influences in the course of culture4 ,under proper limitations the principles of both theories are conformable to historical knowledge1 which shows us1 on the one hand1 that the state of the higher nations was reached by progression from a lower state1 and1 on the other hand1 that culture gained by progression may be lost by degradation4 ,if in this enquiry we should be obliged to end in the dark1 at any rate we need not begin there4 ,history1 taken as our guide in explaining the different stages of civilization1 offers a theory based on actual experience4 ,this is a development-theory1 in which both advance and relapse have their acknowledged places4 ,but so far as history is to be our criterion1 progression is primary and degradation secondary2 culture must be gained before it can be lost4 ,moreover1 in striking a balance between the effects of forward and backward movement in civilization1 it must be borne in mind how powerfully the diffusion of culture acts in preserving the results of progress from the attacks of degeneration4 ,a progressive movement in culture spreads1 and becomes independent of the fate of its originators4 ,what is produced in some limited district is diffused over a wider and wider area1 where the process of effectual #8stamping out' becomes more and more difficult4 ,thus it is even possible for the habits and inventions of races long extinct to remain as the common property of surviving nations2 and the destructive actions which make such havoc with the civilizations of particular districts fail to destroy the civilization of the world4 ,the enquiry as to the relation of savagery to barbarism and semi-civilization lies almost entirely in pr-historic or extra-historic regions4 ,this is of course an unfavourable condition1 and must be frankly accepted4 ,direct history hardly tells anything of the changes of savage culture1 except where in contact with and under the dominant influence of foreign civilization1 a state of things which is little to our present purpose4 ,periodical examinations of low races otherwise left isolated to work out their own destinies1 would be interesting evidence to the student of civilization if they could be made2 but unfortunately they cannot4 ,the lower races1 wanting documentary memorials1 loose in preserving tradition1 and ever ready to clothe myth in its shape1 can seldom be trusted in their stories of long-past ages4 ,history is oral or written record which can be satisfactorily traced into contact with the events it describes2 and perhaps no account of the course of culture in its lower stages can satisfy this stringent criterion4 ,traditions may be urged in support either of the progression-theory or of the degradation-theory4 ,these traditions may be partly true1 and must be partly untrue2 but whatever truth or untruth they may contain1 there is such difficulty in separating man's recollection of what was from his speculation as to what might have been1 that ethnology seems not likely to gain much by attempts to judge of early stages of civilization on a traditional basis4 ,the problem is one which has occupied the philosophic mind even in savage and barbaric life1 and has been solved by speculations asserted as facts1 and by traditions which are1 in great measure1 mere realized theories4 ,the ,chinese can show1 with all due gravity1 the records of their ancient dynasties and tell us how in old times their ancestors dwelt in caves1 clothed themselves with leaves1 and ate raw flesh1 till1 under such and such rulers1 they were taught to build huts1 prepare skins for garments1 and make fire4#aj ,lucretius can describe to us1 in his famous lines1 the large-boned1 hardy1 lawless1 primval race of man1 living the roving life of the wild beasts which they overcame with stones and heavy clubs1 devouring berries and acorns1 ignorant as yet of fire1 and agriculture1 and the use of skins for clothing4 ,from this state the ,epicurean poet traces up the development of culture1 beginning outside but ending inside the range of human memory4#aa ,to the same class belong those legends which1 starting from an ancient savage state1 describe its elevation by divine civilizers3 this1 which may be called the supernatural progression-theory1 is exemplified in the familiar culture-traditions of ,peru and ,italy4 ,but other minds1 following a different ideal track from the present to the past1 have seen in a far different shape the early stages of human life4 ,those men whose eyes are always turned to look back on the wisdom of the ancients1 those who by a common confusion of thought ascribe to men of old the wisdom of old men1 those who hold fast to some once-honoured scheme of life which new schemes are superseding before their eyes1 are apt to carry back their thought of present degeneration into far-gone ages1 till they reach a period of primval glory4 ,the ,parsi looks back to the happy rule of ,king ,yima1 when men and cattle were immortal1 when water and trees never dried up and food was inexhaustible1 when there was no cold nor heat1 no envy nor old age4#ab ,the ,buddhist looks back to the age of glorious soaring beings who had no sin1 no sex1 no want of food1 till the unhappy hour when1 tasting a delicious scum that formed upon the surface of the earth1 they fell into evil1 and in time became degraded to eat rice1 to bear children1 to build houses1 to divide property1 and to establish caste4 ,in after ages1 record preserves details of the continuing course of degeneration4 ,it was ,king ,chetiya who told the first lie1 and the citizens who heard of it1 not knowing what a lie was1 asked if it were white1 black or blue4 ,men's lives grew shorter and shorter1 and it was ,king ,maha ,sgara who1 after a brief reign of #beb1jjj years1 made the dismal discovery of the first grey hair4#ac ,admitting the imperfection of the historical record as regards the lowest stages of culture1 we must bear in mind that it tells both ways4 ,niebuhr1 attacking the progressionists of the #ahth century1 remarks that they have overlooked the fact #8that no single example can be brought forward of an actually savage people having independently become civilized4'#ad ,whately appropriated this remark1 which indeed forms the kernel of his well-known ,lecture on the ,origin of ,civilisation3 #8,facts are stubborn things1' he says1 #8and that no authenticated instance can be produced of savages that ever did emerge1 unaided1 from that state is no theory1 but a statement1 hitherto never disproved1 of a matter of fact4' ,he uses this as an argument in support of his general conclusion1 that man could not have risen independently from a savage to a civilized state1 and that savages are degenerate descendants of civilized men4#ae ,but he omits to ask the counter-question1 whether we find one recorded instance of a civilized people falling independently into a savage state8 ,any such record1 direct and well vouched1 would be of high interest to ethnologists1 though1 of course1 it would not contradict the development-theory1 for proving loss is not disproving previous gain4 ,but where is such a record to be found8 ,the defect of historical evidence as to the transition between savagery and higher culture is a two-sided fact1 only half taken into ,archbishop ,whately's one-sided argument4 ,fortunately the defect is by no means fatal4 ,though history may not account directly for the existence and explain the position of savages1 it at least gives evidence which bears closely on the matter4 ,moreover1 we are in various ways enabled to study the lower course of culture on evidence which cannot have been tampered with to support a theory4 ,old traditional lore1 however untrustworthy as direct record of events1 contains most faithful incidental descriptions of manners and customs2 archology displays old structures and buried relics of the remote past2 philology brings out the undesigned history in language1 which generation after generation have handed down without a thought of its having such significance2 the ethnological survey of the races of the world tells much2 the ethnographical comparison of their condition tells more4 ,arrest and decline in civilization are to be recognised as among the more frequent and powerful operations of national life4 ,that knowledge1 arts1 and institutions should decay in certain districts1 that peoples once progressive should lag behind and be passed by advancing neighbours1 that sometimes even societies of men should recede into rudeness and misery--all these are phenomena with which modern history is familiar4 ,in judging of the relation of the lower to the higher stages of civilization1 it is essential to gain some idea how far it may have been affected by such degeneration4 ,what kind of evidence can direct observation and history give as to the degradation of men from a civilized condition towards that of savagery8 ,in our great cities1 the so-called #8dangerous classes' are sunk in hideous misery and depravity4 ,if we have to strike a balance between the ,papuans of ,new ,caledonia and the communities of ,european beggars and thieves1 we may sadly acknowledge that we have in our midst something worse than savagery4 ,but it is not savagery2 it is broken-down civilization4 ,negatively1 the inmates of a ,whitechapel casual ward and of a ,hottentot kraal agree in their want of the knowledge and virtue of the higher culture4 ,but positively1 their mental and moral characteristics are utterly different4 ,thus1 the savage life is essentially devoted to gaining subsistence from nature1 which is just what the proletarian life is not4 ,their relations to civilized life--the one of independence1 the other of dependence--are absolutely opposite4 ,to my mind the popular phrases about #8city savages' and #8street ,arabs' seem like comparing a ruined house to a builder's yard4 ,it is more to the purpose to notice how war and misrule1 famine and pestilence1 have again and again devastated countries1 reduced their population to miserable remnants1 and lowered their level of civilization1 and how the isolated life of wild country districts seems sometimes tending towards savagery4 ,so far as we know1 however1 none of these causes have ever really reproduced a savage community4 ,for an ancient account of degeneration under adverse circumstances1 ,ovid's mention of the unhappy colony of ,tomi on the ,black ,sea is a case in point1 though perhaps not to be taken too literally4 ,among its mixed ,greek and barbaric population1 harassed and carried off into slavery by the ,sarmatian horsemen1 much as the ,persians till lately were by the ,turkomans1 the poet describes the neglect of the gardener's craft1 the decay of textile arts1 the barbaric clothing of hides4 #8,nec tamen hc loca sunt ullo pretiosa metallo3 ,hostis ab agricola vix sinit illa fodi4 ,purpura spe tuos fulgens prtexit amictus3 ,sed non ,sarmatico tingitur illa mari4 ,vellera dura ferunt pecudes1 et ,palladis uti ,arte ,tomitan non didicere nurus4 ,femina pro lana ,cerialia munera frangit1 ,suppositoque gravem vertice portat aquam4 ,non hic pampineis amicitur vitibus ulmus3 ,nulla premunt ramos pondere poma suo4 ,tristia deformes pariunt absinthia campi1 ,terraque de fructu quam sit amara docet4'#af ,cases of exceptionally low civilization in ,europe may perhaps be sometimes accounted for by degeneration of this kind4 ,but they seem more often the relics of ancient unchanged barbarism4 ,the evidence from wild parts of ,ireland two or three centuries ago is interesting from this point of view4 ,acts of ,parliament were passed against the inveterate habits of fastening ploughs to the horses' tails1 and of burning oats from the straw to save the trouble of threshing4 ,in the #ahth century ,ireland could still be thus described in satire3-- #8,the ,western isle renowned for bogs1 ,for tories and for great wolf-dogs1 ,for drawing hobbies by the tails1 ,and threshing corn with fiery flails4'#ag ,fynes ,moryson's description of the wild or #8meere' ,irish about #afjj1 is amazing4 ,the very lords of them1 he says1 dwelt in poor clay houses1 or cabins of boughs covered with turf4 ,in many parts men as well as women had in very winter time but a linen rag about the loins and a woollen mantle on their bodies1 so that it would turn a man's stomach to see an old woman in the morning before breakfast4 ,he notices their habit of burning oats from the straw1 and making cakes thereof4 ,they had no tables1 but set their meat on a bundle of grass4 ,they feasted on fallen horses1 and seethed pieces of beef and pork with the unwashed entrails of beasts in a hollow tree1 lapped in a raw cow's hide1 and so set over the fire1 and they drank milk warmed with a stone first cast into the fire4#ah ,another district remarkable for a barbaric simplicity of life is the ,hebrides4 ,till of late years1 there were to be found there in actual use earthen vessels1 unglazed and made by hand without the potter's wheel1 which might pass in a museum as indifferent specimens of savage manufacture4 ,these #8craggans' are still made by an old woman at ,barvas for sale as curiosities4 ,such a modern state of the potter's art in the ,hebrides fits well with ,george ,buchanan's statement in the #afth century that the islanders used to boil meat in the beast's own paunch or hide4#ai ,early in the #ahth century ,martin mentions as prevalent there the ancient way of dressing corn by burning it dexterously from the ear1 which he notices to be a very quick process1 thence called #8graddan' 7,gaelic1 gradquick74#bj ,thus we see that the habit of burning out the grain1 for which the #8meere ,irish' were reproached1 was really the keeping up of an old ,keltic art1 not without its practical use4 ,so the appearance in modern ,keltic districts of other widespread arts of the lower culture--hide-boiling1 like that of the ,scythians in ,herodotus1 and stone-boiling1 like that of the ,assinaboins of ,north ,america--seems to fit not so well with degradation from a high as with survival from a low civilization4 ,the ,irish and the ,hebrideans had been for ages under the influence of comparatively high civilization1 which nevertheless may have left unaltered much of the older and ruder habit of the people4 ,instances of civilized men taking to a wild life in outlying districts of the world1 and ceasing to obtain or want the appliances of civilization1 give more distinct evidence of degradation4 ,in connexion with this state of things takes place the nearest known approach to an independent degeneration from a civilized to a savage state4 ,this happens in mixed races1 whose standard of civilization may be more or less below that of the higher race4 ,the mutineers of the ,bounty1 with their ,polynesian wives1 founded a small but not savage community on ,pitcairn's ,island4#ba ,the mixed ,portuguese and native races of the ,east ,indies and ,africa lead a life below the ,european standard1 but not a savage life4#bb ,the ,gauchos of the ,south ,american ,pampas1 a mixed ,european and ,indian race of equestrian herdsmen1 are described as sitting about on ox-skulls1 making broth in horns with hot cinders heaped round1 living on meat without vegetables1 and altogether leading a foul1 brutal1 comfortless1 degenerate1 but not savage life4#bc ,one step beyond this brings us to the cases of individual civilized men being absorbed in savage tribes and adopting the savage life1 on which they exercise little influence for improvement2 the children of these men may come distinctly under the category of savages4 ,these cases of mixed breeds1 however1 do not show a low culture actually produced as the result of degeneration from a high one4 ,their theory is that1 given a higher and a lower civilization existing among two races1 a mixed race between the two may take to the lower or an intermediate condition4 ,degeneration probably operates even more actively in the lower than in the higher culture4 ,barbarous nations and savage hordes1 with their less knowledge and scantier appliances1 would seem peculiarly exposed to degrading influences4 ,in ,africa1 for instance1 there seems to have been in modern centuries a falling off in culture1 probably due in a considerable degree to foreign influence4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 contrasting the #afth and #agth century accounts of powerful negro kingdoms in ,west ,africa with the present small communities1 with little or no tradition of their forefathers' more extended political organization1 looks especially to the slave-trade as the deteriorating cause4#bd ,in ,south-,east ,africa1 also1 a comparatively high barbaric culture1 which we especially associate with the old descriptions of the kingdom of ,monomotapa1 seems to have fallen away1 not counting the remarkable ruins of buildings of hewn stone fitted without mortar which indicate the intrusion of more civilized foreigners into the gold region6#be ,in ,north ,america1 ,father ,charlevoix remarks of the ,iroquois of the last century1 that in old times they used to build their cabins better than other nations1 and better than they do themselves now2 they carved rude figures in relief on them2 but since in various expeditions almost all their villages have been burnt1 they have not taken the trouble to restore them in their old condition4#bf ,the degradation of the ,cheyenne ,indians is matter of history4 ,persecuted by their enemies the ,sioux1 and dislodged at last even from their fortified village1 the heart of the tribe was broken4 ,their numbers were thinned1 they no longer dared to establish themselves in a permanent abode1 they gave up the cultivation of the soil1 and became a tribe of wandering hunters1 with horses for their only valuable possession1 which every year they bartered for a supply of corn1 beans1 pumpkins1 and ,european merchandise1 and then returned into the heart of the prairies4#bg ,when in the ,rocky ,mountains1 ,lord ,milton and ,dr4 ,cheadle came upon an outlying fragment of the ,shushwap race1 without horses or dogs1 sheltering themselves under rude temporary slants of bark or matting1 falling year by year into lower misery1 and rapidly dying out2 this is another example of the degeneration which no doubt has lowered or destroyed many a savage people4#bh ,there are tribes who are the very outcasts of savage life4 ,there is reason to look upon the miserable ,digger ,indians of ,north ,america and the ,bushmen of ,south ,africa as the persecuted remnants of tribes who have seen happier days4#bi ,the traditions of the lower races of their ancestors' better life may sometimes be real recollections of a not far distant past4 ,the ,algonquin ,indians look back to old days as to a golden age when life was better than now1 when they had better laws and leaders1 and manners less rude4#cj ,and indeed1 knowing what we do of their history1 we may admit that they have cause to remember in misery happiness gone by4 ,well1 too1 might the rude ,kamchadal declare that the world is growing worse and worse1 that men are becoming fewer and viler1 and food scarcer1 for the hunter1 and the bear1 and the reindeer are hurrying away from here to the happier life in the regions below4#ca ,it would be a valuable contribution to the study of civilization to have the action of decline and fall investigated on a wider and more exact basis of evidence than has yet been attempted4 ,the cases here stated are probably but part of a long series which might be brought forward to prove degeneration in culture to have been1 by no means indeed the primary cause of the existence of barbarism and savagery in the world1 but a secondary action largely and deeply affecting the general development of civilization4 ,it may perhaps give no unfair idea to compare degeneration of culture1 both in its kind of operation and in its immense extent1 to denudation in the geological history of the earth4 ,in judging of the relations between savage and civilized life1 something may be learnt by glancing over the divisions of the human race4 ,for this end the classification by families of languages may be conveniently used1 if checked by the evidence of bodily characteristics4 ,no doubt speech by itself is an insufficient guide in tracing national descent1 as witness the extreme cases of ,jews in ,england1 and three-parts negro races in the ,west ,indies1 nevertheless speaking ,english as their mother-tongue4 ,still1 under ordinary circumstances1 connexion of speech does indicate more or less connexion of ancestral race4 ,as a guide in tracing the history of civilization1 language gives still better evidence1 for common language to a great extent involves common culture4 ,the race dominant enough to maintain or impose its language1 usually more or less maintains or imposes its civilization also4 ,thus the common descent of the languages of ,hindus1 ,greeks1 and ,teutons is no doubt due in great measure to common ancestry1 but is still more closely bound up with a common social and intellectual history1 with what ,professor ,max ,mller well calls their #8spiritual relationship4' ,the wonderful permanence of language often enables us to detect among remotely ancient and distant tribes the traces of connected civilization4 ,how1 on such grounds1 do savage and civilized tribes appear to stand related1 within the various groups of mankind connected historically by the possession of kindred languages8 ,the ,semitic family1 which represents one of the oldest known civilizations of the world1 includes ,arabs1 ,jews1 ,phnicians1 ,syrians1 c41 and has an earlier as well as a later connexion in ,north ,africa4 ,this family takes in some rude tribes1 but none which would be classed as savages4 ,the ,aryan family has existed in ,asia and ,europe certainly for many thousand years1 and there are well-known and well-marked traces of its early barbaric condition1 which has perhaps survived with least change among secluded tribes in the valleys of the ,hindu ,kush and ,himalaya4 ,there seems1 again1 no known case of any full ,aryan tribe having become savage4 ,the ,gypsies and other outcasts are1 no doubt1 partly ,aryan in blood1 but their degraded condition is not savagery4 ,in ,india there are tribes ,aryan by language1 but whose physique is rather of indigenous type1 and whose ancestry is mainly from indigenous stocks with more or less mixture of the dominant ,hindu4 ,some tribes coming under this category1 as among the ,bhils and ,kulis of the ,bombay ,presidency1 speak dialects which are ,hindi in vocabulary at least1 whether or not in grammatical structure1 and yet the people themselves are lower in culture than some ,hinduized nations who have retained their original ,dravidian speech1 the ,tamils for instance4 ,but these all appear to stand at higher stages of civilization than any wild forest tribes of the peninsula who can be reckoned as nearly savages2 all such are non-,aryan both in blood and speech4#cb ,in ,ceylon1 however1 we have the remarkable phenomenon of men leading a savage life while speaking an ,aryan dialect4 ,this is the wild part of the race of ,veddas or #8hunters1' of whom a remnant still inhabit the forest land4 ,these people are dark-skinned and flat-nosed1 slight of frame1 and very small of skull1 and five feet is an average man's height4 ,they are a shy1 harmless1 simple people1 living principally by hunting2 they lime birds1 take fish by poisoning the water1 and are skilful in getting wild honey2 they have bows with iron-pointed arrows1 which1 with their hunting-dogs1 are their most valuable possessions4 ,they dwell in caves or bark huts1 and their very word for a house is ,singhalese for a hollow tree 7rukula72 a patch of bark was formerly their dress1 but now a bit of linen hangs to their waist-cords2 their planting of patches of ground is said to be recent4 ,they count on their fingers1 and produce fire with the simplest kind of fire-drill twirled by hand4 ,they are most truthful and honest4 ,their monogamy and conjugal fidelity contrast strongly with the opposite habits of the more civilized ,singhalese4 ,a remarkable ,vedda marriage custom sanctioned a man's taking his younger 7not elder7 sister as his wife2 sister-marriage existing among the ,singhalese1 but being confined to the royal family4 ,mistaken statements have been made as to the ,veddas having no religion1 no personal names1 no language4 ,their religion1 in fact1 corresponds with the animism of the ruder tribes of ,india2 some of their names are remarkable as being ,hindu1 but not in use among the modern ,singhalese2 their language is a ,singhalese dialect4 ,there is no doubt attaching to the usual opinion that the ,veddas are in the main descended from the #8yakkos' or demons2 i4e4 from the indigenous tribes of the island4 ,legend and language concur to make probable an admixture of ,aryan blood accompanying the adoption of ,aryan speech1 but the evidence of bodily characteristics shows the ,vedda race to be principally of indigenous pre-,aryan type4#cc ,the ,tatar family of ,northern ,asia and ,europe 7,turanian1 if the word be used in a restricted sense7 displays evidence of quite a different kind4 ,this wide-lying group of tribes and nations has members nearly or quite touching the savage level in ancient and even modern times1 such as ,ostyaks1 ,tunguz1 ,samoyeds1 ,lapps1 while more or less high ranges of culture are represented by ,mongols1 ,turks1 and ,hungarians4 ,here1 however1 it is unquestionable that the rude tribes represent the earlier condition of the ,tatar race at large1 from which its more mixed and civilized peoples1 mostly by adopting the foreign culture of ,buddhist1 ,moslem1 and ,christian nations1 and partly by internal development1 are well known to have risen4 ,the ethnology of ,south-,eastern ,asia is somewhat obscure2 but if we may classify under one heading the native races of ,siam1 ,burma1 c41 the wilder tribes may be considered as representing earlier conditions1 for the higher culture of this region is obviously foreign1 especially of ,buddhist origin4 ,the ,malay race is also remarkable for the range of civilization represented by tribes classed as belonging to it4 ,if the wild tribes of the ,malayan peninsula and ,borneo be compared with the semi-civilized nations of ,java and ,sumatra1 it appears that part of the race survives to represent an early savage state1 while part is found in possession of a civilization which the first glance shows to have been mostly borrowed from ,hindu and ,moslem sources4 ,some forest tribes of the peninsula seem to be representatives of the ,malay race at its lowest level of culture1 how far original and how far degraded it is not easy to say4 ,among them the very rude ,orang ,sabimba1 who have no agriculture and no boats1 give a remarkable account of themselves1 that they are descendants of shipwrecked ,malays from the ,bugis country1 but were so harassed by pirates that they gave up civilization and cultivation1 and vowed not to eat fowls1 which betrayed them by their crowing4 ,so they plant nothing1 but eat wild fruit and vegetables1 and all animals but the fowl4 ,this1 if at all founded on fact1 is an interesting case of degeneration4 ,but savages usually invent myths to account for peculiar habits1 as where1 in the same district1 the ,biduanda ,kallang account for their not cultivating the ground by the story that their ancestors vowed not to make plantations4 ,another rude people of the ,malay peninsula are the ,jakuns1 a simple1 kindly race1 among whom some trace their pedigree to a pair of white monkeys1 while others declare that they are descendants of white men2 and indeed there is some ground for supposing these latter to be really of mixed race1 for they use a few ,portuguese words1 and a report exists of some refugees having settled up the country4#cd ,the ,melanesians1 ,papuans1 and ,australians represent grades of savagery spread each over its own vast area in a comparatively homogeneous way4 ,lastly1 the relations of savagery to higher conditions are remarkable1 but obscure1 on the ,american continents4 ,there are several great linguistic families whose members were discovered in a savage state throughout2 such are the ,esquimaux1 ,algonquin1 and ,guarani groups4 ,on the other hand there were three apparently unconnected districts of semi-civilization reaching a high barbaric level1 viz41 in ,mexico and ,central ,america1 ,bogota1 and ,peru4 ,between these higher and lower conditions were races at the level of the ,natchez of ,louisiana and the ,apalaches of ,florida4 ,linguistic connexion is not unknown between the more advanced peoples and the lower races around them4#ce ,but definite evidence showing the higher culture to have arisen from the lower1 or the lower to have fallen from the higher1 is scarcely forthcoming4 ,both operations may in degree have happened4 ,it is apparent1 from such general inspection of this ethnological problem1 that it would repay a far closer study than it has as yet received4 ,as the evidence stands at present1 it appears that when in any race some branches much excel the rest in culture1 this more often happens by elevation than by subsidence4 ,but this elevation is much more apt to be produced by foreign than by native action4 ,civilization is a plant much oftener propagated than developed4 ,as regards the lower races1 this accords with the results of ,european intercourse with savage tribes during the last three or four centuries2 so far as these tribes have survived the process1 they have assimilated more or less of ,european ,culture and risen towards the ,european level1 as in ,polynesia1 ,south ,africa1 ,south ,america4 ,another important point becomes manifest from this ethnological survey4 ,the fact1 that during so many thousand years of known existence1 neither the ,aryan nor the ,semitic race appears to have thrown off any direct savage offshoot1 tells1 with some force1 against the probability of degradation to the savage level ever happening from high-level civilization4 ,with regard to the opinions of older writers on early civilization1 whether progressionists or degenerationists1 it must be borne in mind that the evidence at their disposal fell far short of even the miserably imperfect data now accessible4 ,criticizing an #ahth century ethnologist is like criticizing an #ahth century geologist4 ,the older writer may have been far abler than his modern critic1 but he had not the same materials4 ,especially he wanted the guidance of ,prehistoric ,archology1 a department of research only established on a scientific footing within the last few years4 ,it is essential to gain a clear view of the bearing of this newer knowledge on the old problem4 ,chronology1 though regarding as more or less fictitious the immense dynastic schemes of the ,egyptians1 ,hindus1 and ,chinese1 passing as they do into mere ciphering-book sums with years for units1 nevertheless admits that existing monuments carry back the traces of comparatively high civilization to a distance of above five thousand years4 ,by piecing together ,eastern and ,western documentary evidence it seems that the great religious divisions of the ,aryan race1 to which modern ,brahmanism1 ,zarathustrism1 and ,buddhism are due1 belong to a period of remotely ancient history4 ,even if we cannot hold1 with ,professor ,max ,mller1 in the preface to his translation of the #8,rig ,veda1' that this collection of ,aryan hymns #8will take and maintain for ever its position as the most ancient of books in the library of mankind1' and if we do not admit the stringency of his reckonings of its date in centuries ,b4,c41 yet we must grant that he shows cause to refer its composition to a very ancient period1 where it then proves that a comparatively high barbaric culture already existed4 ,the linguistic argument for the remotely ancient common origin of the ,indo-,european nations1 in a degree as to their bodily descent1 and in a greater degree as to their civilization1 tends toward the same result4 ,so it is again with ,egypt4 ,the calculations of ,egyptian dynasties in thousands of years1 however disputable in detail1 are based on facts which at any rate authorize the reception of a long chronology4 ,to go no further than the identification of two or three ,egyptian names mentioned in ,biblical and ,classical history1 we gain a strong impression of remote antiquity4 ,such are the names of ,shishank2 of the ,psammitichos line1 whose obelisks are to be seen in ,rome2 of ,tirhakah1 ,king of ,ethiopia1 whose nurse's coffin is in the ,florence ,museum2 of the city of ,rameses1 plainly connected with that great ,ramesside line which ,egyptologists call the #aith ,dynasty4 ,here1 before classic culture had arisen1 the culture of ,egypt culminated1 and behind this time lies the somewhat less advanced age of the ,pyramid kings1 and behind this again the indefinite lapse of ages which such a civilization required for its production4 ,again1 though no part of the ,old ,testament can satisfactorily prove for itself an antiquity of composition approaching that of the earliest ,egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions1 yet all critics must admit that the older of the historical books give on the one hand contemporary documents showing considerable culture in the ,semitic world at a date which in comparison with classic history is ancient2 while on the other hand they afford evidence by way of chronicle1 carrying back ages farther the record of a somewhat advanced barbaric civilization4 ,now if the development-theory is to account for phenomena such as these1 its chronological demand must be no small one1 and the more so when it is admitted that in the lower ranges of culture progress would be extremely slow in comparison with that which experience shows among nations already far advanced4 ,on these conditions of the first appearance of the middle civilization being thrown back to distant antiquity1 and of slow development being required to perform its heavy task in ages still more remote1 ,prehistoric ,archology cheerfully takes up the problem4 ,and1 indeed1 far from being dismayed by the vastness of the period required on the narrowest computation1 the prehistoric archologist shows even too much disposition to revel in calculations of thousands of years1 as a financier does in reckonings of thousands of pounds1 in a liberal and maybe somewhat reckless way4 ,prehistoric ,archology is fully alive to facts which may bear on degeneration in culture4 ,such are the colossal human figures of hewn stone in ,easter ,island1 which may possibly have been shaped by the ancestors of the existing islanders1 whose present resources1 however1 are quite unequal to the execution of such gigantic works4#cf ,a much more important case is that of the former inhabitants of the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,in districts where the native tribes known in modern times rank as savages1 there formerly dwelt a race whom ethnologists call the ,mound-,builders1 from the amazing extent of their mounds and enclosures1 of which there is a single group occupying an area of four square miles4 ,the regularity of the squares and circles and the repetition of enclosures similar in dimensions1 raise interesting questions as to the methods by which these were planned out4 ,to have constructed such works the ,mound-,builders must have been a numerous population1 mainly subsisting by agriculture1 and indeed vestiges of their ancient tillage are still to be found4 ,they did not however in industrial arts approach the level of ,mexico4 ,for instance1 their use of native copper1 hammered into shape for cutting instruments1 is similar to that of some of the savage tribes farther north4 ,on the whole1 judging by their earthworks1 fields1 pottery1 stone implements and other remains1 they seem to have belonged to those high savage or barbaric tribes of the ,southern ,states1 of whom the ,creeks and ,cherokees1 as described by ,bartram1 may be taken as typical4#cg ,if any of the wild roving hunting tribes now found living near the huge earthworks of the ,mound-,builders are the descendants of this somewhat advanced race1 then a very considerable degradation has taken place4 ,the question is an open one4 ,the explanation of the traces of tillage may perhaps in this case be like that of the remains of old cultivation-terraces in ,borneo1 the work of ,chinese colonists whose descendants have mostly been merged in the mass of the population and follow the native habits4#ch ,on the other hand1 the evidence of locality may be misleading as to race4 ,a traveller in ,greenland1 coming on the ruined stone buildings at ,kakortok1 would not argue justly that the ,esquimaux are degenerate descendants of ancestors capable of such architecture1 for in fact these are the remains of a church and baptistery built by the ancient ,scandinavian settlers4#ci ,on the whole it is remarkable how little of colourable evidence of degeneration has been disclosed by archology4 ,its negative evidence tells strongly the other way4 ,as an instance may be quoted ,sir ,john ,lubbock's argument against the idea that tribes now ignorant of metallurgy and pottery formerly possessed but have since lost these arts4 #8,we may also assert1 on a general proposition1 that no weapons or instruments of metal have ever been found in any country inhabited by savages wholly ignorant of metallurgy4 ,a still stronger case is afforded by pottery4 ,pottery is not easily destroyed2 when known at all it is always abundant1 and it possesses two qualities1 namely1 those of being easy to break and yet difficult to destroy1 which render it very valuable in an archological point of view4 ,moreover1 it is in most cases associated with burials4 ,it is1 therefore1 a very significant fact1 that no fragment of pottery has ever been found in ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 or in the ,polynesian ,islands4'#dj ,how different a state of things the popular degeneration-theory would lead us to expect is pointedly suggested by ,sir ,charles ,lyell's sarcastic sentences in his #8,antiquity of ,man4' ,had the original stock of mankind1 he argues1 been really endowed with superior intellectual powers and inspired knowledge1 while possessing the same improvable nature as their posterity1 how extreme a point of advancement would they have reached4 #8,instead of the rudest pottery or flint tools1 so irregular in form as to cause the unpractised eye to doubt whether they afford unmistakable evidence of design1 we should now be finding sculptured forms surpassing in beauty the masterpieces of ,phidias or ,praxiteles2 lines of buried railways or electric telegraphs from which the best engineers of our day might gain invaluable hints2 astronomical instruments and microscopes of more advanced construction than any known in ,europe1 and other indications of perfection in the arts and sciences1 such as the nineteenth century has not yet witnessed4 ,still farther would the triumphs of inventive genius be found to have been carried1 when the later deposits1 now assigned to the ages of bronze and iron1 were formed4 ,vainly should we be straining our imaginations to guess the possible uses and meaning of such relics--machines1 perhaps1 for navigating the air or exploring the depths of the ocean1 or for calculating arithmetical problems beyond the wants or even the conceptions of living mathematicians4'#da ,the master-key to the investigation of man's primval condition is held by ,prehistoric ,archology4 ,this key is the evidence of the ,stone ,age1 proving that men of remotely ancient ages were in the savage state4 ,ever since the long-delayed recognition of ,m4 ,boucher de ,perthes' discoveries 7#ahda and onward7 of the flint implements in the ,drift gravels of the ,somme ,valley1 evidence has been accumulating over a wide ,european area to show that the ruder ,stone ,age1 represented by implements of the ,palolithic or ,drift type1 prevailed among savage tribes of the ,quaternary period1 the contemporaries of the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros1 in ages for which ,geology asserts an antiquity far more remote than ,history can avail to substantiate for the human race4 ,mr4 ,john ,frere had already written in #agig respecting such flint instruments discovered at ,hoxne in ,suffolk4 #8,the situation in which these weapons were found may tempt us to refer them to a very remote period indeed1 even beyond that of the present world4'#db ,the vast lapse of time through which the history of ,london has represented the history of human civilization1 is to my mind one of the most suggestive facts disclosed by archology4 ,there the antiquary1 excavating but a few yards deep1 may descend from the dbris representing our modern life1 to relics of the art and science of the ,middle ,ages1 to signs of ,norman1 ,saxon1 ,romano-,british times1 to traces of the higher ,stone ,age4 ,and on his way from ,temple ,bar to the ,great ,northern ,station he passes near the spot 7#8opposite to black ,mary's near ,grayes inn lane'7 where a ,drift implement of black flint was found with the skeleton of an elephant by ,mr4 ,conyers1 about a century and a half ago1 the relics side by side of the ,london mammoth and the ,london savage4#dc ,in the gravel-beds of ,europe1 the laterite of ,india1 and other more superficial localities1 where relics of the ,palolithic ,age are found1 what principally testifies to man's condition is the extreme rudeness of his stone implements1 and the absence of even edge-grinding4 ,the natural inference that this indicates a low savage state is confirmed in the caves of ,central ,france4 ,there a race of men1 who have left indeed really artistic portraits of themselves and the reindeer and mammoths they lived among1 seem1 as may be judged from the remains of their weapons1 implements1 c41 to have led a life somewhat of ,esquimaux type1 but lower by the want of domesticated animals4 ,the districts where implements of the rude primitive ,drift type are found are limited in extent4 ,it is to ages later in time and more advanced in development1 that the ,neolithic or ,polished ,stone ,period belonged1 when the manufacture of stone instruments was much improved1 and grinding and polishing were generally introduced4 ,during the long period of prevalence of this state of things1 ,man appears to have spread almost over the whole habitable earth4 ,the examination of district after district of the world has now all but established a universal rule that the ,stone ,age 7bone or shell being the occasional substitutes for stone7 underlies the ,metal ,age everywhere4 ,even the districts famed in history as seats of ancient civilization show1 like other regions1 their traces of a yet more archaic ,stone ,age4 ,asia ,minor1 ,egypt1 ,palestine1 ,india1 ,china1 furnish evidence from actual specimens1 historical mentions1 and survivals1 which demonstrate the former prevalence of conditions of society which have their analogues among modern savage tribes4#dd ,the ,duke of ,argyll1 in his #8,primeval ,man1' while admitting the ,drift implements as having been the ice hatchets and rude knives of low tribes of men inhabiting ,europe toward the end of the ,glacial ,period1 concludes thence #8that it would be about as safe to argue from these implements as to the condition of ,man at that time in the countries of his ,primeval ,home1 as it would be in our own day to argue from the habits and arts of the ,eskimo as to the state of civilization in ,london or in ,paris4'#de ,the progress of ,archology for years past1 however1 has been continually cutting away the ground on which such an argument as this can stand1 till now it is all but utterly driven off the field4 ,where now is the district of the earth that can be pointed to as the #8,primeval ,home' of ,man1 and that does not show by rude stone implements buried in its soil the savage condition of its former inhabitants8 ,there is scarcely a known province of the world of which we cannot say certainly1 savages once dwelt here1 and if in such a case an ethnologist asserts that these savages were the descendants or successors of a civilized nation1 the burden of proof lies on him4 ,again1 the ,bronze ,age and the ,iron ,age belong in great measure to history1 but their relation to the ,stone ,age proves the soundness of the judgement of ,lucretius1 when1 attaching experience of the present to memory and inference from the past1 he propounded what is now a tenet of archology1 the succession of the ,stone1 ,bronze1 and ,iron ,ages3 #8,arma antiqua manus ungues dentesque fuerunt1 ,et lapides et item silvarum fragmina rami ,posterius ferri vis est risque reperta1 ,et prior ris erat quam ferri cognitus usus4'#df ,throughout the various topics of ,prehistoric ,archology1 the force and convergence of its testimony upon the development of culture are overpowering4 ,the relics discovered in gravel-beds1 caves1 shell-mounds1 terramares1 lake-dwellings1 earthworks1 the results of an exploration of the superficial soil in many countries1 the comparison of geological evidence1 of historical documents1 of modern savage life1 corroborate and explain one another4 ,the megalithic structures1 menhirs1 cromlechs1 dolmens1 and the like1 only known to ,england1 ,france1 ,algeria1 as the work of races of the mysterious past1 have been kept up as matters of modern construction and recognized purpose among the ruder indigenous tribes of ,india4 ,the series of ancient lake-settlements which must represent so many centuries of successive population fringing the shores of the ,swiss lakes1 have their surviving representatives among the rude tribes of the ,east ,indies1 ,africa1 and ,south ,america4 ,outlying savages are still heaping up shell-mounds like those of far-past ,scandinavian antiquity4 ,the burial mounds still to be seen in civilized countries have served at once as museums of early culture and as proofs of its savage or barbaric type4 ,it is enough1 without entering farther here into subjects fully discussed in modern special works1 to claim the general support given to the development-theory of culture by ,prehistoric ,archology4 ,it was with a true appreciation of the bearings of this science that one of its founders1 the venerable ,professor ,sven ,nilsson1 declared in #ahdc in the ,introduction to his #8,primitive ,inhabitants of ,scandinavia1' that we are #8unable properly to understand the significance of the antiquities of any individual country without at the same time clearly realizing the idea that they are the fragments of a progressive series of civilization1 and that the human race has always been1 and still is1 steadily advancing in civilization4'#dg ,enquiry into the origin and early development of the material arts1 as judged of by comparing the various stages at which they are found existing1 leads to a corresponding result4 ,not to take this argument up in its full range1 a few typical details may serve to show its general character4 ,amongst the various stages of the arts1 it is only a minority which show of themselves by mere inspection whether they are in the line of progress or of decline4 ,most such facts may be compared to an ,indian's canoe1 stem and stern alike1 so that one cannot tell by looking at it which way it is set to go4 ,but there are some which1 like our own boats1 distinctly point in the direction of their actual course4 ,such facts are pointers in the study of civilization1 and in every branch of the enquiry should be sought out4 ,a good example of these pointer-facts is recorded by ,mr4 ,wallace4 ,in ,celebes1 where the bamboo houses are apt to lean with the prevalent west wind1 the natives have found out that if they fix some crooked timbers in the sides of the house1 it will not fall4 ,they choose such accordingly1 the crookedest they can find1 but they do not know the rationale of the contrivance1 and have not hit on the idea that straight poles fixed slanting would have the same effect in making the structure rigid4#dh ,in fact1 they have gone half-way toward inventing what builders call a #8strut4' but have stopped short4 ,now the mere sight of such a house would show that the plan is not a remnant of higher architecture1 but a half-made invention4 ,this is a fact in the line of progress1 but not of decline4 ,i have mentioned elsewhere a number of similar cases2 thus the adaptation of a cord to the fire-drill is obviously an improvement on the simpler instrument twirled by hand1 and the use of the spindle for making thread is an improvement on the clumsier art of hand-twisting2#di but to reverse this position1 and suppose the hand-drill to have come into use by leaving off the use of the cord of the cord-drill1 or that people who knew the use of the spindle left it off and painfully twisted their thread by hand1 is absurd4 ,again1 the appearance of an art in a particular locality where it is hard to account for it as borrowed from elsewhere1 and especially if it concerns some special native product1 is evidence of its being a native invention4 ,thus1 what people can claim the invention of the hammock1 or the still more admirable discovery of the extraction of the wholesome cassava from the poisonous manioc1 but the natives of the ,south ,american and ,west ,indian districts to which these things belong8 ,as the isolated possession of an art goes to prove its invention where it is found1 so the absence of an art goes to prove that it was never present4 ,the onus probandi is on the other side2 if anyone thinks that the ,east ,african's ancestors had the lamp and the potter's wheel1 and that the ,north ,american ,indians once possessed the art of making beer from their maize like the ,mexicans1 but that these arts have been lost1 at any rate let him show cause for such an opinion4 ,i need not1 perhaps1 go so far as a facetious ethnological friend of mine1 who argues that the existence of savage tribes who do not kiss their women is a proof of primval barbarism1 for1 he says1 if they had ever known the practice they could not possibly have forgotten it4 ,lastly and principally1 as experience shows us that arts of civilized life are developed through successive stages of improvement1 we may assume that the early development of even savage arts came to pass in a similar way1 and thus1 finding various stages of an art among the lower races1 we may arrange these stages in a series probably representing their actual sequence in history4 ,if any art can be traced back among savage tribes to a rudimentary state in which its invention does not seem beyond their intellectual condition1 and especially if it may be produced by imitating nature or following nature's direct suggestion1 there is fair reason to suppose the very origin of the art to have been reached4 ,professor ,nilsson1 looking at the remarkable similarity of the hunting and fishing instruments of the lower races of mankind1 considers them to have been contrived instinctively by a sort of natural necessity4 ,as an example he takes the bow and arrow4#ej ,the instance seems an unfortunate one1 in the face of the fact that the supposed bow-and-arrow-making instinct fails among the natives of ,tasmania1 to whom it would have been very useful1 nor have the ,australians any bow of their own invention4 ,even within the ,papuan region1 the bow so prevalent in ,new ,guinea is absent1 or almost so1 from ,new ,caledonia4 ,it seems to me that ,dr4 ,klemm1 in his dissertations on ,implements and ,weapons1 and ,colonel ,lane ,fox1 in his lectures on ,primitive ,warfare1 take a more instructive line in tracing the early development of arts1 not to a blind instinct1 but to a selection1 imitation1 and gradual adaptation and improvement of objects and operations which ,nature1 the instructor of primval man1 sets before him4 ,thus ,klemm traces the stages by which progress appears to have been made from the rough stick to the finished spear or club1 from the natural sharp-edged or rounded stone to the artistically fashioned celt1 spear-head1 or hammer4#ea ,lane ,fox traces connexion through the various types of weapons1 pointing out how a form once arrived at is repeated in various sizes1 like the spear-head and arrow-point2 how in rude conditions of the arts the same instrument serves different purposes1 as where the ,fuegians use their arrow-heads also for knives1 and ,kafirs carve with their assagais1 till separate forms are adopted for special purposes2 and how in the history of the striking1 cutting1 and piercing instruments used by mankind1 a continuity may be traced1 which indicates a gradual progressive development from the rudest beginnings to the most advanced improvements of modern skill4 ,to show how far the early development of warlike arts may have been due to man's imitative faculty1 he points out the analogies in methods of warfare among animals and men1 classifying as defensive appliances hides1 solid plates1 jointed plates1 scales2 as offensive weapons1 the piercing1 striking1 serrated1 poisoned kinds1 c42 and under the head of stratagems1 flight1 concealment1 leaders1 outposts1 war-cries1 and so forth4#eb ,the manufacture of stone implements is now almost perfectly understood by archologists4 ,the processes used by modern savages have been observed and imitated4 ,sir ,john ,evans1 for instance1 by blows with a pebble1 pressure with a piece of stag's horn1 sawing with a flint-flake1 boring with a stick and sand1 and grinding on a stone surface1 succeeds in reproducing all but the finest kinds of stone implements4#ec ,on thorough knowledge we are now able to refer in great measure the remarkable similarities of the stone scrapers1 flake-knives1 hatchets1 spear- and arrow-heads1 c41 as found in distant times and regions1 to the similarity of natural models1 of materials1 and of requirements which belong to savage life4 ,the history of the ,stone ,age is clearly seen to be one of development4 ,beginning with the natural sharp stone1 the transition to the rudest artificially shaped stone implement is imperceptibly gradual1 and onward from this rude stage much independent progress in different directions is to be traced1 till the manufacture at last arrives at admirable artistic perfection1 by the time that the introduction of metal is superseding it4 ,so with other implements and fabrics1 of which the stages are known through their whole course of development from the merest nature to the fullest art4 ,the club is traced from the rudest natural bludgeon up to the weapon of finished shape and carving4 ,pebbles held in the hand to hammer with1 and cutting-instruments of stone shaped or left smooth at one end to be held in the hand1 may be seen in museums1 hinting that the important art of fixing instruments in handles was the result of invention1 not of instinct4 ,the stone hatchet1 used as a weapon1 passes into the battle-axe4 ,the spear1 a pointed stick or pole1 has its point hardened in the fire1 and a further improvement is to fix on a sharp point of horn1 bone1 or chipped stone4 ,stones are flung by hand1 and then by the sling1 a contrivance widely but not universally known among savage tribes4 ,from first to last in the history of war the spear or lance is grasped as a thrusting weapon4 ,its use as a missile no doubt began as early1 but it has hardly survived so far in civilization4 ,thus used1 it is most often thrown by the unaided arm1 but a sling for the purpose is known to various savage tribes4 ,the short cord with an eye used in the ,new ,hebrides1 and called a #8becket' by ,captain ,cook1 and a whip-like instrument noticed in ,new ,zealand1 are used for spear-throwing4 ,but the more usual instrument is a wooden handle1 a foot or two long4 ,this spear-thrower is known across the high northern districts of ,north ,america1 among some tribes of ,south ,america1 and among the ,australians4 ,these latter1 it has been asserted1 could not have invented it in their present state of barbarism4 ,but the remarkable feature of the matter is that the spear-thrower belongs especially to savagery1 and not to civilization4 ,among the higher nations the nearest approach to it seems to have been the classic amentum1 a thong attached to the middle of the shaft of the javelin to throw it with4 ,the highest people known to have used the spear-thrower proper were the nations of ,mexico and ,central ,america4 ,its existence among them is vouched for by representations in the mythological pictures1 by its ,mexican name #8atlatl1' and by a beautifully artistic specimen of the thing itself in the ,christy ,museum2 but we do not hear of it as in practical use after the ,spanish ,conquest4 ,in fact the history of the instrument seems in absolute opposition to the degradation-theory1 representing as it does an invention belonging to the lower civilization1 and scarcely able to survive beyond4 ,nearly the same may be said of the blow-tube1 which as a serious weapon scarcely ranges above rude tribes of the ,east ,indies and ,south ,america1 though kept up in sport at higher levels4 ,the ,australian boomerang has been claimed as derived from some hypothetical high culture1 whereas the transition-stages through which it is connected with the club are to be observed in its own country1 while no civilized race possesses the weapon4 ,the use of spring traps of boughs1 of switches to fillip small missiles with1 and of the remarkable darts of the ,pelew ,islands1 bent and made to fly by their own spring1 indicate inventions which may have led to that of the bow1 while the arrow is a miniature form of the javelin4 ,the practice of poisoning arrows1 after the manner of stings and serpents' fangs1 is no civilized device1 but a characteristic of lower life1 which is generally discarded even at the barbaric stage4 ,the art of narcotizing fish1 remembered but not approved by high civilization1 belongs to many savage tribes1 who might easily discover it in any forest pool where a suitable plant had fallen in4 ,the art of setting fences to catch fish at the ebb of the tide1 so common among the lower races1 is a simple device for assisting nature quite likely to occur to the savage1 in whom sharp hunger is no mean ally of dull wit4 ,thus it is with other arts4 ,fire-making1 cooking1 pottery1 the textile arts1 are to be traced along lines of gradual improvement4#ed ,music begins with the rattle and the drum1 which in one way or another hold their places from end to end of civilization1 while pipes and stringed instruments represent an advanced musical art which is still developing4 ,so with architecture and agriculture4 ,complex1 elaborate1 and highly-reasoned as are the upper stages of these arts1 it is to be remembered that their lower stages begin with mere direct imitation of nature1 copying the shelters which nature provides1 and the propagation of plants which nature performs4 ,without enumerating to the same purpose the remaining industries of savage life1 it may be said generally that their facts resist rather than require a theory of degradation from higher culture4 ,they agree with1 and often necessitate1 the same view of development which we know by experience to account for the origin and progress of the arts among ourselves4 ,in the various branches of the problem which will henceforward occupy our attention1 that of determining the relation of the mental condition of savages to that of civilized men1 it is an excellent guide and safeguard to keep before our minds the theory of development in the material arts4 ,throughout all the manifestations of the human intellect1 facts will be found to fall into their places on the same general lines of evolution4 ,the notion of the intellectual state of savages as resulting from decay of previous high knowledge1 seems to have as little evidence in its favour as that stone celts are the degenerate successors of ,sheffield axes1 or earthen grave-mounds degraded copies of ,egyptian pyramids4 ,the study of savage and civilized life alike avail us to trace in the early history of the human intellect1 not gifts of transcendental wisdom1 but rude shrewd sense taking up the facts of common life and shaping from them schemes of primitive philosophy4 ,it will be seen again and again1 by examining such topics as language1 mythology1 custom1 religion1 that savage opinion is in a more or less rudimentary state1 while the civilized mind still bears vestiges1 neither few nor slight1 of a past condition from which savages represent the least1 and civilized men the greatest advance4 ,throughout the whole vast range of the history of human thought and habit1 while civilization has to contend not only with survival from lower levels1 but also with degeneration within its own borders1 it yet proves capable of overcoming both and taking its own course4 ,history within its proper field1 and ethnography over a wider range1 combine to show that the institutions which can best hold their own in the world gradually supersede the less fit ones1 and that this incessant conflict determines the general resultant course of culture4 ,i will venture to set forth in mythic fashion how progress1 aberration1 and retrogression in the general course of culture contrast themselves in my own mind4 ,we may fancy ourselves looking on ,civilization1 as in personal figure she traverses the world2 we see her lingering or resting by the way1 and often deviating into paths that bring her toiling back to where she had passed by long ago2 but1 direct or devious1 her path lies forward1 and if now and then she tries a few backward steps1 her walk soon falls into a helpless stumbling4 ,it is not according to her nature1 her feet were not made to plant uncertain steps behind her1 for both in her forward view and in her onward gait she is of truly human type4 ,footnote #c3 ,g4 ,w4 ,earl1 #8,papuans1' p4 #gi2 ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace1 #8,eastern ,archipelago4' ,footnote #d3 ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' pp4 #djj-dhj4 ,footnote #e3 ,gibbon1 #8,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1' ch4 xxxviii4 ,footnote #f3 ,de ,maistre1 #8,soires de ,st4 ,ptersbourg1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aej4 ,footnote #g3 ,de ,brosses1 #8,dieux ,ftiches1' p4 #ae2 #8,formation des ,langues1' vol4 i4 p4 #di2 vol4 ii4 p4 #cb4 ,footnote #h3 ,goguet1 #8,origine des ,lois1 des ,arts1' c41 vol4 i4 p4 #hh4 ,footnote #i3 ,whately1 #8,essay on the ,origin of ,civilisation1' in ,miscellaneous ,lectures1 c4 ,his evidence is examined in detail in my #8,early ,history of ,mankind1' ch4 vii4 ,see also ,w4 ,cooke ,taylor1 #8,natural ,history of ,society4' ,footnote #aj3 ,goguet1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bgj4 ,footnote #aa3 ,lecret4 v4 #ibc1 c42 see ,hor4 ,sat4 i4 #c4 ,footnote #ab3 #8,avesta1' trans4 ,spiegel ,bleeck1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #ac3 ,hardy1 #8,manual of ,budhism1' pp4 #fd1 #abh4 ,footnote #ad3 ,niebuhr1 #8,rmische ,geschichte1' part i4 p4 #hh3 #8,nur das haben sie bersehen1 dasz kein einziges ,beyspiel von einem wirklich wilden ,volk aufzuweisen ist1 welches frey zur ,cultur bergegangen wre4' ,footnote #ae3 ,whately1 #8,essay on ,origin of ,civilisation4' ,footnote #af3 ,ovid4 ,ex ,ponto1 iii4 #h2 see ,grote1 #8,history of ,greece1' vol4 xii4 p4 #fda4 ,footnote #ag3 ,w4 ,c4 ,taylor1 #8,nat4 ,hist4 of ,society1' vol4 i4 p4 #bjb4 ,footnote #ah3 ,fynes ,moryson1 #8,itinerary2' ,london1 #afag1 part iii4 p4 #afb1 c42 ,j4 ,evans in #8,archologia1' vol4 xli4 ,see description of hide-boiling1 c41 among the wild ,irish1 about #aeej1 in ,andrew ,boorde1 #8,introduction of ,knowledge1' ed4 by ,f4 ,j4 ,furnivall1 ,early ,english ,text ,soc4 #ahgj4 ,footnote #ai3 ,buchanan1 #8,rerum ,scoticarum ,historia2' ,edinburgh1 #aebh1 p4 #g4 ,see #8,early ,history of ,mankind1' #bnd ed4 p4 #bgb4 ,footnote #bj3 ,martin1 #8,description of ,western ,islands1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 iii4 p4 #fci4 ,footnote #ba3 ,barrow1 #8,mutiny of the ,bounty'2 ,w4 ,brodie1 #8,pitcairn's ,island4' ,footnote #bb3 ,wallace1 #8,malay ,archipelago1' vol4 i4 pp4 #db1 #dga2 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aa1 #dc1 #dh2 ,latham1 #8,descr4 ,eth41' vol4 ii4 pp4 #dib-e2 ,d4 and ,c4 ,livingstone1 #8,exp4 to ,zambesi1' p4 #de4 ,footnote #bc3 ,southey1 #8,history of ,brazil1' vol4 iii4 p4 #dbb4 ,footnote #bd3 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr41' p4 #ahi4 ,footnote #be3 ,waitz1 #8,anthropologie1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cei1 see #ia2 ,du ,chaillu1 #8,ashangoland1' p4 #aaf2 ,t4 ,h4 ,bent1 #8,ruined ,cities of ,mashonaland4' ,footnote #bf3 ,charlevoix1 #8,nouvelle ,france1' vol4 vi4 p4 #ea4 ,footnote #bg3 ,irving1 #8,astoria1' vol4 ii4 ch4 v4 ,footnote #bh3 ,milton and ,cheadle1 #8,north ,west ,passage by ,land1' p4 #bda2 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #gd-f4 ,footnote #bi3 #8,early ,history of ,mankind1' p4 #ahg4 ,footnote #cj3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,algic ,res41' vol4 i4 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #ca3 ,steller1 #8,kamtschatka1' p4 #bgb4 ,footnote #cb3 ,see ,g4 ,campbell1 #8,ethnology of ,india1' in ,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1 #ahff part ii4 ,footnote #cc3 ,j4 ,bailey1 #8,veddahs1' in ,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bgh2 see vol4 iii4 p4 #gj2 ,knox1 #8,historical ,relation of ,ceylon1' ,london1 #afha1 part iii4 chap4 i4 ,see ,a4 ,thomson1 #8,osteology of the ,veddas1' in ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4 #ahhi1 vol4 xix4 p4 #abe2 ,l4 de ,zoysa1 #8,origin of ,veddas1' in ,journ4 ,ceylon ,branch ,royal ,asiatic ,soc41 vol4 vii42 ,b4 ,f4 ,hartshorne in ,fortnightly ,rev41 ,mar4 #ahgf4 ,note to #crd edition4 ,footnote #cd3 ,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip41 vol4 i4 pp4 #bie-i2 vol4 ii4 p4 #bcg4 ,footnote #ce3 ,for the connexion between the ,aztec language and the ,sonoran family extending ,n4 ,w4 toward the sources of the ,missouri1 see ,buschmann1 #8,spuren der ,aztekischen ,sprache im ,nrdlichen ,mexico1' c41 in ,abh4 der ,akad4 der ,wissensch1 #ahed2 ,berlin1 #ahei2 also ,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc41 vol4 ii4 p4 #acj4 ,for the connexion between the ,natchez and ,maya languages see ,daniel ,g4 ,brinton1 in #8,american ,historical ,magazine1' #ahfg1 vol4 i4 p4 #af2 and #8,myths of the ,new ,world1' p4 #bh4 ,footnote #cf3 ,j4 ,h4 ,lamprey1 in ,trans4 of ,prehistoric ,congress1 ,norwich1 #ahfh1 p4 #fj2 ,j4 ,linton ,palmer1 in ,journ4 ,eth4 ,soc41 vol4 i4 #ahfi4 ,footnote #cg3 ,squier and ,davis1 #8,mon4 of ,mississippi ,valley1' c41 in ,smithsonian ,contr41 vol4 i4 #ahdh2 ,lubbock1 #8,prehistoric ,times1' chap4 vii42 ,waitz1 #8,anthropologie1' vol4 iii4 p4 #gb2 ,bartram1 #8,creek and ,cherokee ,ind41' in ,tr4 ,amer4 ,ethnol4 ,soc41 vol4 iii4 part i4 ,see ,petrie1 #8,inductive ,metrology1' #ahgg1 p4 #abb4 ,note to #crd ed4 ,footnote #ch3 ,st4 ,john1 #8,life in ,forests of ,far ,east1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cbg4 ,footnote #ci3 ,rafn1 #8,americas ,arctiske ,landes ,gamle ,geographic1' pl4 vii41 viii4 ,footnote #dj3 ,lubbock 7,lord ,avebury71 in #8,report of ,british ,association1 #ahfg1' p4 #aba4 ,footnote #da3 ,lyell1 #8,antiquity of ,man1' chap4 xix4 ,footnote #db3 ,frere1 in #8,archologia1' #ahjj4 ,footnote #dc3 ,j4 ,evans1 in #8,archologia1' #ahfa2 ,lubbock1',prehistoric ,times1' #bnd ed41 p4 #cce4 ,footnote #dd3 ,see #8,early ,history of ,mankind1' #bnd ed4 chap4 viii4 ,footnote #de3 ,argyll1 #8,primeval ,man1' p4 #abi4 ,footnote #df3 ,lecret4 ,de ,rerum ,natura1 v4 #abha4 ,footnote #dg3 ,see ,lyell1 #8,antiquity of ,man1' #crd ed4 #ahfc2 ,lubbock1 #8,prehistoric ,times1 #bnd ed4 #ahgj2 #8,trans4 of ,congress of ,prehistoric ,archology' 7,norwich1 #ahfh72 ,stevens1 #8,flint ,chips1 c41' #ahgj2 ,nilsson1 #8,primitive ,inhabitants of ,scandinavia' 7ed4 by ,lubbock1 #ahfh72 ,falconer1 #8,palontological ,memoirs1 c4'2 ,lartet and ,christy1 #8,reliqui ,aquitanic' 7ed4 by ,t4 ,r4 ,jones72 ,keller1 #8,lake ,dwellings' 7,tr4 and ,ed4 by ,j4 ,e4 ,lee71 c41 c4 ,footnote #dh3 ,wallace1 #8,indian ,archipelago1' vol4 i4 p4 #ceg4 ,footnote #di3 #8,early ,history of ,mankind1' pp4 #aib1 #bdc1 c41 c4 ,footnote #ej3 ,nilsson1 #8,primitive ,inhabitants of ,scandinavia1' p4 #ajd4 ,footnote #ea3 ,klemm1 #8,allg4 ,culturwissenschaft1' part ii41 ,werkzeuge und ,waffen4 ,footnote #eb3 ,lane ,fox 7,pitt-,rivers71 #8,lectures on ,primitive ,warfare1' ,journ4 ,united ,service ,inst41 #ahfg-i4 ,footnote #ec3 ,evans in #8,trans4 of ,congress of ,prehistoric ,archology' 7,norwich1 #ahfh71 p4 #aia2 ,rau in #8,smithsonian ,reports1' #ahfh2 ,sir ,e4 ,belcher in ,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc41 vol4 i4 p4 #abi4 ,footnote #ed3 ,see details in #8,early ,history of ,mankind1' chap4 vii4-ix4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,survival ,,in ,,culture4 ,survival and ,superstition--,children's games--,games of chance--,traditional sayings--,nursery poems--,proverbs--,riddles--,significanc e and survival in ,customs3 sneezing-formula1 rite of foundation-sacrifice1 prejudice against saving a drowning man4 ,when a custom1 an art1 or an opinion is fairly started in the world1 disturbing influences may long affect it so slightly that it may keep its course from generation to generation1 as a stream once settled in its bed will flow on for ages4 ,this is mere permanence of culture2 and the special wonder about it is that the change and revolution of human affairs should have left so many of its feeblest rivulets to run so long4 ,on the ,tatar steppes1 six hundred years ago1 it was an offence to tread on the threshold or touch the ropes in entering a tent1 and so it appears to be still4#ee ,eighteen centuries ago ,ovid mentions the vulgar ,roman objection to marriages in ,may1 which he not unreasonably explains by the occurrence in that month of the funeral rites of the ,lemuralia3-- #8,nec vidu tdis eadem nec virginis apta ,tempora4 ,qu nupsit1 non diuturna fuit4 ,hac quoque de causa1 si te proverbia tangunt1 ,mense malas ,maio nubere volgus ait4'#ef ,the saying that marriages in ,may are unlucky survives to this day in ,england1 a striking example how an idea1 the meaning of which has perished for ages1 may continue to exist simply because it has existed4 ,now there are thousands of cases of this kind which have become1 so to speak1 landmarks in the course of culture4 ,when in the process of time there has come general change in the condition of a people1 it is usual1 notwithstanding1 to find much that manifestly had not its origin in the new state of things1 but has simply lasted on into it4 ,on the strength of these survivals1 it becomes possible to declare that the civilization of the people they are observed among must have been derived from an earlier state1 in which the proper home and meaning of these things are to be found2 and thus collections of such facts are to be worked as mines of historic knowledge4 ,in dealing with such materials1 experience of what actually happens is the main guide1 and direct history has to teach us1 first and foremost1 how old habits hold their ground in the midst of a new culture which certainly would never have brought them in1 but on the contrary presses hard to thrust them out4 ,what this direct information is like1 a single example may show4 ,the ,dayaks of ,borneo were not accustomed to chop wood1 as we do1 by notching out ,v-shaped cuts4 ,accordingly1 when the white man intruded among them with this among other novelties1 they marked their disgust at the innovation by levying a fine on any of their own people who should be caught chopping in the ,european fashion2 yet so well aware were the native wood-cutters that the white man's plan was an improvement on their own1 that they would use it surreptitiously when they could trust one another not to tell4#eg ,the account is twenty years old1 and very likely the foreign chop may have ceased to be an offence against ,dayak conservatism1 but its prohibition was a striking instance of survival by ancestral authority in the very teeth of common sense4 ,such a proceeding as this would be usually1 and not improperly1 described as a superstition2 and1 indeed1 this name would be given to a large proportion of survivals1 such for instance as may be collected by the hundred from books of folk-lore and occult science4 ,but the term superstition now implies a reproach1 and though this reproach may be often cast deservedly on fragments of a dead lower culture embedded in a living higher one1 yet in many cases it would be harsh1 and even untrue4 ,for the ethnographer's purpose1 at any rate1 it is desirable to introduce such a term as #8survival1' simply to denote the historical fact which the word #8superstition' is now spoiled for expressing4 ,moreover1 there have to be included as partial survivals the mass of cases where enough of the old habit is kept up for its origin to be recognizable1 though in taking a new form it has been so adapted to new circumstances as still to hold its place on its own merits4 ,thus it would be seldom reasonable to call the children's games of modern ,europe superstitions1 though many of them are survivals1 and indeed remarkable ones4 ,if the games of children and of grown-up people be examined with an eye to ethnological lessons to be gained from them1 one of the first things that strikes us is how many of them are only sportive imitations of the serious business of life4 ,as children in modern civilized times play at dining and driving horses and going to church1 so a main amusement of savage children is to imitate the occupations which they will carry on in earnest a few years later1 and thus their games are in fact their lessons4 ,the ,esquimaux children's sports are shooting with a tiny bow and arrow at a mark1 and building little snow-huts1 which they light up with scraps of lamp-wick begged from their mothers4#eh ,miniature boomerangs and spears are among the toys of ,australian children2 and even as the fathers keep up as a recognized means of getting themselves wives the practice of carrying them off by violence1 so playing at such ,sabine marriage has been noticed as one of the regular games of the little native boys and girls4#ei ,now it is quite a usual thing in the world for a game to outlive the serious practice of which it is an imitation4 ,the bow and arrow is a conspicuous instance4 ,ancient and widespread in savage culture1 we trace this instrument through barbaric and classic life and onward to a high medival level4 ,but now1 when we look on at an archery meeting1 or go by country lanes at the season when toy bows and arrows are #8in' among the children1 we see1 reduced to a mere sportive survival1 the ancient weapon which among a few savage tribes still keeps its deadly place in the hunt and the battle4 ,the cross-bow1 a comparatively late and local improvement on the longbow1 has disappeared yet more utterly from practical use2 but as a toy it is in full ,european service1 and likely to remain so4 ,for antiquity and wide diffusion in the world1 through savage up to classic and medival times1 the sling ranks with the bow and arrow4 ,but in the middle ages it fell out of use as a practical weapon1 and it was all in vain that the #aeth century poet commended the art of slinging among the exercises of a good soldier3-- #8,use eek the cast of stone1 with slynge or honde3 ,it falleth ofte1 yf other shot there none is1 ,men harneysed in steel may not withstonde1 ,the multitude and mighty cast of stonys2 ,and stonys in effecte1 are every where1 ,and slynges are not noyous for to beare4'#fj ,perhaps as serious a use of the sling as can now be pointed out without the limits of civilization is among the herdsmen of ,spanish ,america1 who sling so cleverly that the saying is they can hit a beast on either horn and turn him which way they will4 ,but the use of the rude old weapon is especially kept up by boys at play1 who are here again the representatives of remotely ancient culture4 ,as games thus keep up the record of primitive warlike arts1 so they reproduce1 in what are at once sports and little children's lessons1 early stages in the history of childlike tribes of mankind4 ,english children delighting in the imitations of cries of animals and so forth1 and ,new ,zealanders playing their favourite game of imitating in chorus the saw hissing1 the adze chipping1 the musket roaring1 and the other instruments making their proper noises1 are alike showing at its source the imitative element so important in the formation of language4#fa ,when we look into the early development of the art of counting1 and see the evidence of tribe after tribe having obtained numerals through the primitive stage of counting on their fingers1 we find a certain ethnographic interest in the games which teach this earliest numeration4 ,the ,new ,zealand game of #8ti' is described as played by counting on the fingers1 a number being called by one player1 and he having instantly to touch the proper finger2 while in the ,samoan game one player holds out so many fingers1 and his opponent must do the same instantly or lose a point4#fb ,these may be native ,polynesian games1 or they may be our own children's games borrowed4 ,in the ,english nursery the child learns to say how many fingers the nurse shows1 and the appointed formula of the game is #8,buck1 ,buck1 how many horns do ,i hold up8' ,the game of one holding up fingers and the others holding up fingers to match is mentioned in ,strutt4 ,we may see small schoolboys in the lanes playing at the guessing-game1 where one gets on another's back and holds up fingers1 the other must guess how many4 ,it is interesting to notice the wide distribution and long permanence of these trifles in history when we read the following passage from ,petronius ,arbiter1 written in the time of ,nero3--#8,trimalchio1 not to seem moved by the loss1 kissed the boy and bade him get up on his back4 ,without delay the boy climbed on horseback on him1 and slapped him on the shoulders with his hand1 laughing and calling out #8bucca1 bucca1 quot sunt hic8'#fc ,the simple counting-games played with the fingers must not be confounded with the addition-game1 where each player throws out a hand1 and the sum of all the fingers shown has to be called1 the successful caller scoring a point2 each should call the total before he sees his adversary's hand1 so that the skill lies especially in shrewd guessing4 ,this game affords endless amusement to ,southern ,europe1 where it is known in ,italian as #8morra1' and in ,french as #8mourre1' and it is popular in ,china under the name of ts'ai mei1 or #8guess how many6' ,so peculiar a game would hardly have been invented twice over in ,europe and ,asia1 and as the ,chinese term does not appear to be ancient1 we may take it as likely that the ,portuguese merchants introduced the game into ,china1 as they certainly did into ,japan4 ,the ancient ,egyptians1 as their sculptures show1 used to play at some kind of finger-game1 and the ,romans had their finger-flashing1 #8micare digitis1' at which butchers used to gamble with their customers for bits of meat4 ,it is not clear whether these were morra or some other games4#fd ,when ,scotch lads1 playing at the game of #8tappie-tousie1' take one another by the forelock and say1 #8,will ye be my man8'#fe they know nothing of the old symbolic manner of receiving a bondman which they are keeping up in survival4 ,the wooden drill for making fire by friction1 which so many rude or ancient races are known to have used as their common household instrument1 and which lasts on among the modern ,hindus as the time-honoured sacred means of lighting the pure sacrificial flame1 has been found surviving in ,switzerland as a toy among the children1 who made fire with it in sport1 much as ,equimaux would have done in earnest4#ff ,in ,gothland it is on record that the ancient sacrifice of the wild boar has actually been carried on into modern time in sportive imitation1 by lads in masquerading clothes with their faces blackened and painted1 while the victim was personated by a boy rolled up in furs and placed upon a seat1 with a tuft of pointed straws in his mouth to imitate the bristles of the boar4#fg ,one innocent little child's sport of our own time is strangely mixed up with an ugly story of about a thousand years ago4 ,the game in question is thus played in ,france3--,the children stand in a ring1 one lights a spill of paper and passes it on to the next1 saying1 #8petit bonhomme vit encore1' and so on round the ring1 each saying the words and passing on the flame as quickly as may be1 for the one in whose hands the spill goes out has to pay a forfeit1 and it is then proclaimed that #8petit bonhomme est mort4' ,grimm mentions a similar game in ,germany1 played with a burning stick1 and ,halliwell gives the nursery rhyme which is said with it when it is played in ,england3-- #8,jack's alive and in very good health1 ,if he dies in your hand you must look to yourself4' ,now1 as all readers of ,church history know1 it used to be a favourite engine of controversy for the adherents of an established faith to accuse heretical sects of celebrating hideous orgies as the mysteries of their religion4 ,the ,pagans told these stories of the ,jews1 the ,jews told them of the ,christians1 and ,christians themselves reached a bad eminence in the art of slandering religious opponents whose moral life often seems in fact to have been exceptionally pure4 ,the ,manichans were an especial mark for such aspersions1 which were passed on to a sect considered as their successors--the ,paulicians1 whose name reappears in the middle ages1 in connexion with the ,cathari4 ,to these latter1 apparently from an expression in one of their religious formulas1 was given the name of ,boni ,homines1 which became a recognized term for the ,albigenses4 ,it is clear that the early ,paulicians excited the anger of the orthodox by objecting to sacred images1 and calling those who venerated them idolaters2 and about ,a4,d4 #gjj1 ,john of ,osun1 ,patriarch of ,armenia1 wrote a diatribe against the sect1 urging accusations of the regular anti-,manichan type1 but with a peculiar feature which brings his statement into the present singular connexion4 ,he declares that they blasphemously call the orthodox #8image-worshippers2' that they themselves worship the sun2 that1 moreover1 they mix wheaten flour with the blood of infants and therewith celebrate their communion1 and #8when they have slain by the worst of deaths a boy1 the first-born of his mother1 thrown from hand to hand among them by turns1 they venerate him in whose hand the child expires1 as having attained to the first dignity of the sect4' ,to explain the correspondence of these atrocious details with the nursery sport1 it is perhaps the most likely supposition1 not that the game of #8,petit ,bonhomme' keeps up a recollection of a legend of the ,boni ,homines1 but that the game was known to the children of the eighth century much as it is now1 and that the ,armenian ,patriarch simply accused the ,paulicians of playing at it with live babes4#fh ,it may be possible to trace another interesting group of sports as survivals from a branch of savage philosophy1 once of high rank though now fallen into merited decay4 ,games of chance correspond so closely with arts of divination belonging already to savage culture1 that there is force in applying to several such games the rule that the serious practice comes first1 and in time may dwindle to the sportive survival4 ,to a modern educated man1 drawing lots or tossing up a coin is an appeal to chance1 that is1 to ignorance2 it is committing the decision of a question to a mechanical process1 itself in no way unnatural or even extraordinary1 but merely so difficult to follow that no one can say beforehand what will come of it4 ,but we also know that this scientific doctrine of chance is not that of early civilization1 which has little in common with the mathematician's theory of probabilities1 but much in common with such sacred divination as the choice of ,matthias by lot as a twelfth apostle1 or1 in a later age1 the ,moravian ,brethren's rite of choosing wives for their young men by casting lots with prayer4 ,it was to no blind chance that the ,maoris looked when they divined by throwing up lots to find a thief among a suspected company2#fi or the ,guinea negroes when they went to the fetish-priest1 who shuffled his bundle of little strips of leather and gave his sacred omen4#gj ,the crowd with uplifted hands pray to the gods1 when the heroes cast lots in the cap of ,atreides ,agamemnon1 to know who shall go forth to do battle with ,hektor and help the well-greaved ,greeks4#ga ,with prayer to the gods1 and looking up to heaven1 the ,german priest or father1 as ,tacitus relates1 drew three lots from among the marked fruit-tree twigs scattered on a pure white garment1 and interpreted the answer from their signs4#gb ,as in ancient ,italy oracles gave responses by graven lots1#gc so the modern ,hindus decide disputes by casting lots in front of a temple1 appealing to the gods with cries of #8,let justice be shown6 ,show the innocent6'#gd ,the uncivilized man thinks that lots or dice are adjusted in their fall with reference to the meaning he may choose to attach to it1 and especially he is apt to suppose spiritual beings standing over the diviner or the gambler1 shuffling the lots or turning up the dice to make them give their answers4 ,this view held its place firmly in the middle ages1 and later in history we still find games of chance looked on as results of supernatural operation4 ,the general change from medival to modern notions in this respect is well shown in a remarkable work published in #afai1 which seems to have done much toward bringing the change about4 ,thomas ,gataker1 a ,puritan minister1 in his treatise #8,of the ,nature and ,use of ,lots1' states1 in order to combat them1 the following among the current objections made against games of chance3--#8,lots may not be used but with great reverence1 because the disposition of them commeth immediately from ,god' 444 #8the nature of a ,lot1 which is affirmed to bee a worke of ,gods speciall and immediate providence1 a sacred oracle1 a divine judgement or sentence3 the light use of it therefore to be an abuse of ,gods name2 and so a sinne against the third ,commandement4' ,gataker1 in opposition to this1 argues that #8to expect the issue and event of it1 as by ordinarie meanes from ,god1 is common to all actions3 to expect it by an immediate and extraordinarie worke is no more lawfull here than elsewhere1 yea is indeed mere superstition4'#ge ,it took time1 however1 for this opinion to become prevalent in the educated world4 ,after a lapse of forty years1 ,jeremy ,taylor could still bring out a remnant of the older notion1 in the course of a generally reasonable argument in favour of games of chance when played for refreshment and not for money4 #8,i have heard1' he says1 #8from them that have skill in such things1 there are such strange chances1 such promoting of a hand by fancy and little arts of geomancy1 such constant winning on one side1 such unreasonable losses on the other1 and these strange contingencies produce such horrible effects1 that it is not improbable that ,god hath permitted the conduct of such games of chance to the devil1 who will order them so where he can do most mischief2 but1 without the instrumentality of money1 he could do nothing at all4'#gf ,with what vitality the notion of supernatural interference in games of chance even now survives in ,europe1 is well shown by the still flourishing arts of gambler's magic4 ,the folk-lore of our own day continues to teach that a ,good ,friday's egg is to be carried for luck in gaming1 and that a turn of one's chair will turn one's fortune2 the ,tyrolese knows the charm for getting from the devil the gift of winning at cards and dice2 there is still a great sale on the continent for books which show how to discover1 from dreams1 good numbers for the lottery2 and the ,lusatian peasant will even hide his lottery-tickets under the altar-cloth that they may receive the blessing with the sacrament1 and so stand a better chance of winning4#gg ,arts of divination and games of chance are so similar in principle1 that the very same instrument passes from one use to the other4 ,this appears in the accounts1 very suggestive from this point of view1 of the ,polynesian art of divination by spinning the #8niu' or coco-nut4 ,in the ,tongan ,islands1 in ,mariner's time1 the principal purpose for which this was solemnly performed was to enquire if a sick person would recover2 prayer was made aloud to the patron god of the family to direct the nut1 which was then spun1 and its direction at rest indicated the intention of the god4 ,on other occasions1 when the coco-nut was merely spun for amusement1 no prayer was made1 and no credit given to the result4 ,here the serious and the sportive use of this rudimentary teetotum are found together4 ,in the ,samoan ,islands1 however1 at a later date1 the ,rev4 ,g4 ,turner finds the practice passed into a different stage4 ,a party sit in a circle1 the coco-nut is spun in the middle1 and the oracular answer is according to the person towards whom the monkey-face of the fruit is turned when it stops2 but whereas formerly the ,samoans used this as an art of divination to discover thieves1 now they only keep it up as a way of casting lots1 and as a game of forfeits4#gh ,it is in favour of the view of serious divination being the earlier use1 to notice that the ,new ,zealanders1 though they have no coco-nuts1 keep up a trace of the time when their ancestors in the tropical islands had them and divined with them2 for it is the well-known ,polynesian word #8niu1' i4e4 coco-nut1 which is still retained in use among the ,maoris for other kinds of divination1 especially that performed with sticks4 ,mr4 ,taylor1 who points out this curiously neat piece of ethnological evidence1 records another case to the present purpose4 ,a method of divination was to clap the hands together while a proper charm was repeated2 if the fingers went clear in1 it was favourable1 but a check was an ill omen2 on the question of a party crossing the country in war-time1 the locking of all the fingers1 or the stoppage of some or all1 were naturally interpreted to mean clear passage1 meeting a travelling party1 or being stopped altogether4 ,this quaint little symbolic art of divination seems now only to survive as a game2 it is called #8puni-puni4'#gi ,a similar connexion between divination and gambling is shown by more familiar instruments4 ,the hucklebones or astragali were used in divination in ancient ,rome1 being converted into rude dice by numbering the four sides1 and even when the ,roman gambler used the tali for gambling1 he would invoke a god or his mistress before he made his throw4#hj ,such implements are now mostly used for play1 but1 nevertheless1 their use for divination was by no means confined to the ancient world1 for hucklebones are mentioned in the #agth century among the fortune-telling instruments which young girls divined for husbands with1#ha and ,negro sorcerers still throw dice as a means of detecting thieves4#hb ,lots serve the two purposes equally well4 ,the ,chinese gamble by lots for cash and sweetmeats1 whilst they also seriously take omens by solemn appeals to the lots kept ready for the purpose in the temples1 and professional diviners sit in the market-places1 thus to open the future to their customers4#hc ,playing-cards are still in ,european use for divination4 ,that early sort known as #8tarots' which the ,french dealer's license to sell #8cartes et tarots' still keeps in mind1 is said to be preferred by fortune-tellers to the common kind2 for the tarot-pack1 with its more numerous and complex figures1 lends itself to a greater variety of omens4 ,in these cases1 direct history fails to tell us whether the use of the instrument for omen or play came first4 ,in this respect1 the history of the ,greek #8kottabos' is instructive4 ,this art of divination consisted in flinging wine out of a cup into a metal basin some distance off without spilling any1 the thrower saying or thinking his mistress's name1 and judging from the clear or dull splash of the wine on the metal what his fortune in love would be2 but in time the magic passed out of the process1 and it became a mere game of dexterity played for a prize4#hd ,if this be a typical case1 and the rule be relied on that the serious use precedes the playful1 then games of chance may be considered survivals in principle or detail from corresponding processes of magic--as divination in sport made gambling in earnest4 ,seeking more examples of the lasting on of fixed habits among mankind1 let us glance at a group of time-honoured traditional sayings1 old saws which have a special interest as cases of survival4 ,even when the real signification of these phrases has faded out of men's minds1 and they have sunk into sheer nonsense1 or have been overlaid with some modern superficial meaning1 still the old formulas are handed on1 often gaining more in mystery than they lose in sense4 ,we may hear people talk of #8buying a pig in a poke1' whose acquaintance with ,english does not extend to knowing what a poke is4 ,and certainly those who wish to say that they have a great mind to something1 and who express themselves by declaring that they have #8a month's mind' to it1 can have no conception of the hopeless nonsense they are making of the old term of the #8month's mind1' which was really the monthly service for a dead man's soul1 whereby he was kept in mind or remembrance4 ,the proper sense of the phrase #8sowing his wild oats' seems generally lost in our modern use of it4 ,no doubt it once implied that these ill weeds would spring up in later years1 and how hard it would then be to root them out4 ,like the enemy in the parable1 the ,scandinavian ,loki1 the mischief-maker1 is proverbially said in ,jutland to sow his oats 7#8nu saaer ,lokken sin havre'71 and the name of #8,loki's oats' 7,lokeshavre7 is given in ,danish to the wild oats 7avena fatua74#he ,sayings which have their source in some obsolete custom or tale1 of course lie especially open to such ill-usage4 ,it has become mere ,english to talk of an #8unlicked cub' who #8wants licking into shape1' while few remember the explanation of these phrases from ,pliny's story that bears are born as eyeless1 hairless1 shapeless lumps of white flesh1 and have afterwards to be licked into form4#hf ,again1 in relics of old magic and religion1 we have sometimes to look for a deeper sense in conventional phrases than they now carry on their face1 or for a real meaning in what now seems nonsense4 ,how an ethnographical record may become embodied in a popular saying1 a ,tamil proverb now current in ,south ,india will show perfectly4 ,on occasions when ,a hits ,b1 and ,c cries out at the blow1 the bystanders will say1 #8',tis like a ,koravan eating asaftida when his wife lies in6' ,now a ,koravan belongs to a low race in ,madras1 and is defined as #8gipsy1 wanderer1 ass-driver1 thief1 eater of rats1 dweller in mat tents1 fortune-teller1 and suspected character2' and the explanation of the proverb is1 that whereas native women generally eat asaftida as strengthening medicine after childbirth1 among the ,koravans it is the husband who eats it to fortify himself on the occasion4 ,this1 in fact1 is a variety of the world-wide custom of the #8couvade1' where at childbirth the husband undergoes medical treatment1 in many cases being put to bed for days4 ,it appears that the ,koravans are among the races practising this quaint custom1 and that their more civilized ,tamil neighbours1 struck by its oddity1 but unconscious of its now-forgotten meaning1 have taken it up into a proverb4#hg ,let us now apply the same sort of ethnographical key to dark sayings in our own modern language4 ,the maxim1 a #8hair of the dog that bit you' was originally neither a metaphor nor a joke1 but a matter-of-fact recipe for curing the bite of a dog2 one of the many instances of the ancient homopathic doctrine1 that what hurts will also cure3 it is mentioned in the ,scandinavian ,edda1 #8,dog's hair heals dog's bite4'#hh ,the phrase #8raising the wind' now passes as humorous slang1 but it once1 in all seriousness1 described one of the most dreaded of the sorcerer's arts1 practised especially by the ,finland wizards1 of whose uncanny power over the weather our sailors have not to this day forgotten their old terror4 ,the ancient ceremony or ordeal of passing through a fire or leaping over burning brands has been kept up so vigorously in the ,british ,isles1 that ,jamieson's derivation of the phrase #8to haul over the coals' from this rite appears in no way far-fetched4 ,it is not long since an ,irishwoman in ,new ,york was tried for killing her child2 she had made it stand on burning coals to find out whether it was really her own or a changeling4#hi ,the ,english nurse who says to a fretful child1 #8,you got out of bed wrong foot foremost this morning1' seldom or never knows the meaning of her saying2 but this is still plain in the ,german folk-lore rule1 that to get out of bed left foot first will bring a bad day1#ij one of the many examples of that simple association of ideas which connects right and left with good and bad respectively4 ,to conclude1 the phrase #8cheating the devil' seems to belong to that familiar series of legends where a man makes a compact with the fiend1 but at the last moment gets off scot-free by the interposition of a saint1 or by some absurd evasion--such as whistling the gospel he has bound himself not to say1 or refusing to complete his bargain at the fall of the leaf1 on the plea that the sculptured leaves in the church are still on their boughs4 ,one form of the medival compact was for the demon1 when he had taught his black art to a class of scholars1 to seize one of them for his professional fee1 by letting them all run for their lives and catching the last--a story obviously connected with another popular saying3 #8devil take the hindmost4' ,but even at this game the stupid fiend may be cheated1 as is told in the folk-lore of ,spain and ,scotland1 in the legends of the ,marqus de ,villano and the ,earl of ,southesk1 who attended the ,devil's magic schools at ,salamanca and ,padua4 ,the apt scholar only leaves the master his shadow to clutch as following hindmost in the race1 and with this unsubstantial payment the demon must needs be satisfied1 while the new-made magician goes forth free1 but ever after shadowless4#ia ,it seems a fair inference to think folk-lore nearest to its source is where it has its highest place and meaning4 ,thus1 if some old rhyme or saying has in one place a solemn import in philosophy or religion1 while elsewhere it lies at the level of the nursery1 there is some ground for treating the serious version as the more original1 and the playful one as its mere lingering survival4 ,the argument is not safe1 but yet is not to be quite overlooked4 ,for instance1 there are two poems kept in remembrance among the modern ,jews1 and printed at the end of their book of ,passover services in ,hebrew and ,english4 ,one is that known as 7,chad gady73 it begins1 #8,a kid1 a kid1 my father bought for two pieces of money2' and it goes on to tell how a cat came and ate the kid1 and a dog came and bit the cat1 and so on to the end4--#8,then came the ,holy ,one1 blessed be ,he6 and slew the angel of death1 who slew the butcher1 who killed the ox1 that drank the water1 that quenched the fire1 that burnt the stick1 that beat the dog1 that bit the cat1 that ate the kid1 that my father bought for two pieces of money1 a kid1 a kid4' ,this composition is in the #8,sepher ,haggadah1' and is looked on by some ,jews as a parable concerning the past and future of the ,holy ,land4 ,according to one interpretation1 ,palestine1 the kid1 is devoured by ,babylon the cat2 ,babylon is overthrown by ,persia1 ,persia by ,greece1 ,greece by ,rome1 till at last the ,turks prevail in the land2 but the ,edomites 7i4e4 the nations of ,europe7 shall drive out the ,turks1 the angel of death shall destroy the enemies of ,israel1 and his children shall be restored under the rule of ,messiah4 ,irrespectively of any such particular interpretation1 the solemnity of the ending may incline us to think that we really have the composition here in something like its first form1 and that it was written to convey a mystic meaning4 ,if so1 then it follows that our familiar nursery tale of the old woman who couldn't get her kid 7or pig7 over the stile1 and wouldn't get home till midnight1 must be considered a broken-down adaptation of this old ,jewish poem4 ,the other composition is a counting-poem1 and begins thus3 #8,who knoweth one8 ,i 7saith ,israel7 know ,one3 ,one is ,god1 who is over heaven and earth4 ,who knoweth two8 ,i 7saith ,israel7 know two3 ,two tables of the covenant2 but ,one is our ,god who is over the heavens and the earth4' 7,and so forth1 accumulating up to the last verse1 which is--7 #8,who knoweth thirteen8 ,i 7saith ,israel7 know thirteen3 ,thirteen divine attributes1 twelve tribes1 eleven stars1 ten commandments1 nine months preceding childbirth1 eight days preceding circumcision1 seven days of the week1 six books of the ,mishnah1 five books of the ,law1 four matrons1 three patriarchs1 two tables of the covenant2 but ,one is our ,god who is over the heavens and the earth4' ,this is one of a family of counting-poems1 apparently held in much favour in medival ,christian times1 for they are not yet quite forgotten in country places4 ,an old ,latin version runs3 #8,unus est ,deus1' c41 and one of the still-surviving ,english forms begins1 #8,one's ,one all alone1 and evermore shall be so1' thence reckoning on as far as #8,twelve the twelve apostles4' ,here both the ,jewish and ,christian forms are or have been serious1 so it is possible that the ,jew may have imitated the ,christian1 but the nobler form of the ,hebrew poem here again gives it a claim to be thought the earlier4#ib ,the old proverbs brought down by long inheritance into our modern talk are far from being insignificant in themselves1 for their wit is often as fresh1 and their wisdom as pertinent1 as it ever was4 ,beyond these practical qualities1 proverbs are instructive for the place in ethnography which they occupy4 ,their range in civilization is limited2 they seem scarcely to belong to the lowest tribes1 but appear first in a settled form among some of the higher savages4 ,the ,fijians1 who were found a few years since living in what archologists might call the upper ,stone ,age1 have some well-marked proverbs4 ,they laugh at want of forethought by the saying that #8,the ,nakondo people cut the mast first' 7i4e4 before they had built the canoe72 and when a poor man looks wistfully at what he cannot buy1 they say1 #8,becalmed1 and looking at the fish4'#ic ,among the list of the ,new ,zealanders' #8whakatauki1' or proverbs1 one describes a lazy glutton3 #8,deep throat1 but shallow sinews2' another says that the lazy often profit by the work of the industrious3 #8,the large chips made by ,hardwood fall to the share of ,sit-still2' a third moralizes that #8,a crooked part of a stem of toetoe can be seen2 but a crooked part in the heart cannot be seen4'#id ,among the ,basutos of ,south ,africa1 #8,water never gets tired of running' is a reproach to chatterers2 #8,lions growl while they are eating1' means that there are people who never will enjoy anything2 #8,the sowing-month is the headache-month1' describes those lazy folks who make excuses when work is to be done2 #8,the thief eats thunderbolts1' means that he will bring down vengeance from heaven on himself4#ie ,west ,african nations are especially strong in proverbial philosophy2 so much so that ,captain ,burton amused himself through the rainy season at ,fernando ,po in compiling a volume of native proverbs1#if among which there are hundreds at about as high an intellectual level as those of ,europe4 #8,he fled from the sword and hid in the scabbard1' is as good as our #8,out of the frying-pan into the fire2' and #8,he who has only his eyebrow for a cross-bow can never kill an animal1' is more picturesque1 if less terse than our #8,hard words break no bones4' ,the old ,buddhist aphorism1 that #8,he who indulges in enmity is like one who throws ashes to windward1 which come back to the same place and cover him all over1' is put with less prose and as much point in the negro saying1 #8,ashes fly back in the face of him who throws them4' ,when someone tries to settle an affair in the absence of the people concerned1 the negroes will object that #8,you can't shave a man's head when he is not there1' while1 to explain that the master is not to be judged by the folly of his servant1 they say1 #8,the rider is not a fool because the horse is4' ,ingratitude is alluded to in #8,the sword knows not the head of the smith' 7who made it71 and yet more forcibly elsewhere1 #8,when the calabash had saved them 7in the famine71 they said1 let us cut it for a drinking-cup4' ,the popular contempt for poor men's wisdom is put very neatly in the maxim1 #8,when a poor man makes a proverb it does not spread1' while the very mention of making a proverb as something likely to happen1 shows a land where proverb-making is still a living art4 ,transplanted to the ,west ,indies1 the ,african keeps up this art1 as witness these sayings3 #8,behind dog it is dog1 but before dog it is ,mr4 ,dog2' and #8,toute cabinette tini maringouin'--#8,every cabin has its mosquito4' ,the proverb has not changed its character in the course of history2 but has retained from first to last a precisely definite type4 ,the proverbial sayings recorded among the higher nations of the world are to be reckoned by tens of thousands1 and have a large and well-known literature of their own4 ,but though the range of existence of proverbs extends into the highest levels of civilization1 this is scarcely true of their development4 ,at the level of ,european culture in the middle ages1 they have indeed a vast importance in popular education1 but their period of actual growth seems already at an end4 ,cervantes raised the proverb-monger's craft to a pitch it never surpassed2 but it must not be forgotten that the incomparable ,sancho's wares were mostly heirlooms2 for proverbs were even then sinking to remnants of an earlier condition of society4 ,as such1 they survive among ourselves1 who go on using much the same relics of ancestral wisdom as came out of the squire's inexhaustible budget1 old saws not to be lightly altered or made anew in our changed modern times4 ,we can collect and use the old proverbs1 but making new ones has become a feeble1 spiritless imitation1 like our attempts to invent new myths or new nursery rhymes4 ,riddles start near proverbs in the history of civilization1 and they travel on long together1 though at last towards different ends4 ,by riddles are here meant the old-fashioned problems with a real answer intended to be discovered1 such as the typical enigma of the ,sphinx1 but not the modern verbal conundrums set in the traditional form of question and answer1 as a way of bringing in a jest propos of nothing4 ,the original kind1 which may be defined as #8sense-riddles1' are found at home among the upper savages1 and range on into the lower and middle civilization2 and while their growth stops at this level1 many ancient specimens have lasted on in the modern nursery and by the cottage fireside4 ,there is a plain reason why riddles should belong only to the higher grades of savagery2 their making requires a fair power of ideal comparison1 and knowledge must have made considerable advance before this process could become so familiar as to fall from earnest into sport4 ,at last1 in a far higher state of culture1 riddles begin to be looked on as trifling1 their growth ceases1 and they only survive in remnants for children's play4 ,some examples chosen among various races1 from savagery upwards1 will show more exactly the place in mental history which the riddle occupies4 ,the following are specimens from a collection of ,zulu riddles1 recorded with quaintly simple native comments on the philosophy of the matter3--,q4 #8,guess ye some men who are many and form a row2 they dance the wedding-dance1 adorned in white hip-dresses8' ,a4 #8,the teeth2 we call them men who form a row1 for the teeth stand like men who are made ready for a wedding-dance1 that they may dance well4 ,when we say1 they are 8adorned with white hip-dresses10 we put that in1 that people may not at once think of teeth1 but be drawn away from them by thinking1 8,it is men who put on white hip-dresses10 and continually have their thoughts fixed on men1' c4 ,q4 #8,guess ye a man who does not lie down at night3 he lies down in the morning until the sun sets2 he then awakes1 and works all night2 he does not work by day2 he is not seen when he works8' ,a4 #8,the closing-poles of the cattle-pen4' ,q4 #8,guess ye a man whom men do not like to laugh1 for it is known that his laughter is a very great evil1 and is followed by lamentation1 and an end of rejoicing4 ,men weep1 and trees1 and grass2 and everything is heard weeping in the tribe where he laughs2 and they say the man has laughed who does not usually laugh8' ,a4 #8,fire4 ,it is called a man that what is said may not be at once evident1 it being concealed by the word 8man40 ,men say many things1 searching out the meaning in rivalry1 and missing the mark4 ,a riddle is good when it is not discernible at once1' c4#ig ,among the ,basutos1 riddles are a recognized part of education1 and are set like exercises to a whole company of puzzled children4 ,q4 #8,do you know what throws itself from the mountain top without being broken8' ,a4 #8,a waterfall4' ,q4 #8,there is a thing that travels fast without legs or wings1 and no cliff1 nor river1 nor wall can stop it8' ,a4 #8,the voice4' ,q4 #8,name the ten trees with ten flat stones on the top of them4' ,a4 #8,the fingers4' ,q4 #8,who is the little immovable dumb boy who is dressed up warm in the day and left naked at night8' ,a4 #8,the bed-clothes' peg4'#ih ,from ,east ,africa1 this ,swahili riddle is an example3 ,q4 #8,my hen has laid among thorns8' ,a4 #8,a pineapple4'#ii ,from ,west ,africa1 this ,yoruba one3 #8,a long slender trading woman who never gets to market8' ,a4 #8,a canoe 7it stops at the landing-place74'#ajj ,in ,polynesia1 the ,samoan ,islanders are given to riddles4 ,q4 #8,there are four brothers1 who are always bearing about their father8' ,a4 #8,the ,samoan pillow1' which is a yard of three-inch bamboo resting on four legs4 ,q4 #8,a white-headed man stands above the fence1 and reaches to the heavens8' ,a4 #8,the smoke of the oven4' ,q4 #8,a man who stands between two ravenous fish8' ,a4 #8,the tongue4'#aja 7,there is a ,zulu riddle like this1 which compares the tongue to a man living in the midst of enemies fighting47 ,the following are old ,mexican enigmas3 ,q4 #8,what are the ten stones one has at his sides8' ,a4 #8,the finger-nails4' ,q4 #8,what is it we get into by three parts and out of by one8' ,a4 #8,a shirt4' ,q4 #8,what goes through a valley and drags its entrails after it8' ,a4 #8,a needle4'#ajb ,these riddles found among the lower races do not differ at all in nature from those that have come down1 sometimes modernized in the setting1 into the nursery lore of ,europe4 ,thus ,spanish children still ask1 #8,what is the dish of nuts that is gathered by day1 and scattered by night8' 7the stars47 ,our ,english riddle of the pair of tongs3 #8,long legs1 crooked thighs1 little head1 and no eyes1' is primitive enough to have been made by a ,south ,sea ,islander4 ,the following is on the same theme as one of the ,zulu riddles3 #8,a flock of white sheep1 ,on a red hill2 ,here they go1 there they go2 ,now they stand still8' ,another is the very analogue of one of the ,aztec specimens3 #8,old ,mother ,twitchett had but one eye1 ,and a long tail which she let fly2 ,and every time she went over a gap1 ,she left a bit of her tail in a trap8' ,so thoroughly does riddle-making belong to the mythologic stage of thought1 that any poet's simile1 if not too far-fetched1 needs only inversion to be made at once into an enigma4 ,the ,hindu calls the ,sun ,saptsva1 i4e4 #8seven-horsed1' while1 with the same thought1 the old ,german riddle asks1 #8,what is the chariot drawn by the seven white and seven black horses8' 7the year1 drawn by the seven days and nights of the week4#ajc7 ,such1 too1 is the ,greek riddle of the two sisters1 ,day and ,night1 who gave birth each to the other to be born of her again3 1 1 2 and the enigma of ,kleoboulos1 with its other like fragments of rudimentary mythology3 1 ' ' 1 ' ' 4 #8,one is the father1 and twelve the children1 and1 born unto each one1 ,maidens thirty1 whose form in twain is parted asunder1 ,white to behold on the one side1 black to behold on the other1 ,all immortal in being1 yet doomed to dwindle and perish4'#ajd ,such questions as these may be fairly guessed now as in old times1 and must be distinguished from that scarcer class which require the divination of some unlikely event to solve them4 ,of such the typical example is ,samson's riddle1 and there is an old ,scandinavian one like it4 ,the story is that ,gestr found a duck sitting on her nest in an ox's horned skull1 and thereupon propounded a riddle1 describing with characteristic ,northman's metaphor the ox with its horns fancied as already made into drinking-horns4 ,the following translation does not exaggerate the quaintness of the original3--#8,joying in children the bill-goose grew1 ,and her building-timbers together drew2 ,the biting grass-shearer screened her bed1 ,with the maddening drink-stream overhead4'#aje ,many of the old oracular responses are puzzles of precisely this kind4 ,such is the story of the ,delphic oracle1 which ordered ,temenos to find a man with three eyes to guide the army1 which injunction he fulfilled by meeting a one-eyed man on horseback4#ajf ,it is curious to find this idea again in ,scandinavia1 where ,odin sets ,king ,heidrek a riddle1 #8,who are they two that fare to the ,thing with three eyes1 ten feet1 and one tail8' the answer being1 the one-eyed ,odin himself on his eight-footed horse ,sleipnir4#ajg ,the close bearing of the doctrine of survival on the study of manners and customs is constantly coming into view in ethnographic research4 ,it seems scarcely too much to assert1 once for all1 that meaningless customs must be survivals1 that they had a practical1 or at least ceremonial1 intention when and where they first arose1 but are now fallen into absurdity from having been carried on into a new state of society1 where their original sense has been discarded4 ,of course1 new customs introduced in particular ages may be ridiculous or wicked1 but as a rule they have discernible motives4 ,explanations of this kind1 by recourse to some forgotten meaning1 seem on the whole to account best for obscure customs which some have set down to mere outbreaks of spontaneous folly4 ,a certain ,zimmermann1 who published a heavy #8,geographical ,history of ,mankind' in the #ahth century1 remarks as follows on the prevalence of similar nonsensical and stupid customs in distant countries3--#8,for if two clever heads may1 each for himself1 hit upon a clever invention or discovery1 then it is far likelier1 considering the much larger total of fools and blockheads1 that like fooleries should be given to two far-distant lands4 ,if1 then1 the inventive fool be likewise a man of importance and influence1 as is1 indeed1 an extremely frequent case1 then both nations adopt a similar folly1 and then1 centuries after1 some historian goes through it to extract his evidence for the derivation of these two nations one from the other4'#ajh ,strong views as to the folly of mankind seem to have been in the air about the time of the ,french ,revolution1 ,lord ,chesterfield was no doubt an extremely different person from our ,german philosopher1 but they were quite at one as to the absurdity of customs4 ,advising his son as to the etiquette of courts1 the ,earl writes thus to him3--#8,for example1 it is respectful to bow to the ,king of ,england1 it is disrespectful to bow to the ,king of ,france2 it is the rule to courtesy to the ,emperor2 and the prostration of the whole body is required by ,eastern ,monarchs4 ,these are established ceremonies1 and must be complied with2 but why they were established1 ,i defy sense and reason to tell us4 ,it is the same among all ranks1 where certain customs are received1 and must necessarily be complied with1 though by no means the result of sense and reason4 ,as for instance1 the very absurd1 though almost universal custom of drinking people's healths4 ,can there be anything in the world less relative to any other man's health1 than my drinking a glass of wine8 ,common sense1 certainly1 never pointed it out1 but yet common sense tells me ,i must conform to it4'#aji ,now1 though it might be difficult enough to make sense of the minor details of court etiquette1 ,lord ,chesterfield's example from it of the irrationality of mankind is a singularly unlucky one4 ,indeed1 if any one were told to set forth in few words the relations of the people to their rulers in different states of society1 he might answer that men grovel on their faces before the ,king of ,siam1 kneel on one knee or uncover before a ,european monarch1 and shake the hand of the ,president of the ,united ,states as though it were a pump-handle4 ,these are ceremonies at once intelligible and significant4 ,lord ,chesterfield is more fortunate in his second instance1 for the custom of drinking healths is really of obscure origin4 ,yet it is closely connected with an ancient rite1 practically absurd indeed1 but done with a conscious and serious intention which lands it quite outside the region of nonsense4 ,this is the custom of pouring out libations and drinking at ceremonial banquets to gods and the dead4 ,thus the old ,northmen drank the #8minni' of ,thor1 ,odin1 and ,freya1 and of kings likewise at their funerals4 ,the custom did not die out with the conversion of the ,scandinavian and ,teutonic nations4 ,such formulas as #8,god's minne6' #8a bowl to ,god in heaven6' are on record1 while in like manner ,christ1 ,mary1 and the ,saints were drunk to in place of heathen gods and heroes1 and the habit of drinking to the dead and the living at the same feast and in similar terms goes far to prove here a common origin for both ceremonies4 ,the #8minne' was at once love1 memory1 and the thought of the absent1 and it long survived in ,england in the #8minnying' or #8mynde' days1 on which the memory of the dead was celebrated by services or banquets4 ,such evidence as this fairly justifies the writers1 older and newer1 who have treated these ceremonial drinking usages as in their nature sacrificial4#aaj ,as for the practice of simply drinking the health of living men1 its ancient history reaches us from several districts inhabited by ,aryan nations4 ,the ,greeks in symposium drank to one another1 and the ,romans adopted the habit 71 propinare1 ,grco more bibere74 ,the ,goths cried #8hails6' as they pledged each other1 as we have it in the curious first line of the verses #8,de conviviis barbaris' in the ,latin ,anthology1 which sets down the shouts of a ,gothic drinking-bout of the fifth century or so1 in words which still partly keep their sense to an ,english ear4 #8,inter eils ,goticum scapiamatziaia drincan ,non audet quisquam dignos educere versus4' ,as for ourselves1 though the old drinking salutation of #8ws hl8' is no longer vulgar ,english1 the formula remains with us1 stiffened into a noun4 ,on the whole1 there is presumptive though not conclusive evidence that the custom of drinking healths to the living is historically related to the religious rite of drinking to the gods and the dead4 ,let us now put the theory of survival to a somewhat severe test1 by seeking from it some explanation of the existence1 in practice or memory1 within the limits of modern civilized society1 of three remarkable groups of customs which civilized ideas totally fail to account for4 ,though we may not succeed in giving clear and absolute explanations of their motives1 at any rate it is a step in advance to be able to refer their origins to savage or barbaric antiquity4 ,looking at these customs from the modern practical point of view1 one is ridiculous1 the others are atrocious1 and all are senseless4 ,the first is the practice of salutation on sneezing1 the second the rite of laying the foundations of a building on a human victim1 the third the prejudice against saving a drowning man4 ,in interpreting the customs connected with sneezing1 it is needful to recognize a prevalent doctrine of the lower races1 of which a full account will be given in another chapter4 ,as a man's soul is considered to go in and out of his body1 so it is with other spirits1 particularly such as enter into patients and possess them or afflict them with disease4 ,among the less cultured races1 the connexion of this idea with sneezing is best shown among the ,zulus1 a people firmly persuaded that kindly or angry spirits of the dead hover about them1 do them good or harm1 stand visibly before them in dreams1 enter into them1 and cause diseases in them4 ,the following particulars are abridged from the native statements taken down by ,dr4 ,callaway3--,when a ,zulu sneezes1 he will say1 #8,i am now blessed4 ,the ,idhlozi 7ancestral spirit7 is with me2 it has come to me4 ,let me hasten and praise it1 for it is it which causes me to sneeze6' ,so he praises the manes of his family1 asking for cattle1 and wives1 and blessings4 ,sneezing is a sign that a sick person will be restored to health2 he returns thanks after sneezing1 saying1 #8,ye people of ours1 ,i have gained that prosperity which ,i wanted4 ,continue to look on me with favour6' ,sneezing reminds a man that he should name the ,itongo 7ancestral spirit7 of his people without delay1 because it is the ,itongo which causes him to sneeze1 that he may perceive by sneezing that the ,itongo is with him4 ,if a man is ill and does not sneeze1 those who come to him ask whether he has sneezed or not2 if he has not sneezed1 they murmur1 saying1 #8,the disease is great6' ,if a child sneezes1 they say to it1 #8,grow6' it is a sign of health4 ,so then1 it is said1 sneezing among black men gives a man strength to remember that the ,itongo has entered into him and abides with him4 ,the ,zulu diviners or sorcerers are very apt to sneeze1 which they regard as an indication of the presence of the spirits1 whom they adore by saying1 #8,makosi6' 7i4e4 lords or masters74 ,it is a suggestive example of the transition of such customs as these from one religion to another1 that the ,amakosa1 who used to call on their divine ancestor ,utixo when they sneezed1 since their conversion to ,christianity say1 #8,preserver1 look upon me6' or1 #8,creator of heaven and earth6'#aaa ,elsewhere in ,africa1 similar ideas are mentioned4 ,sir ,thomas ,browne1 in his #8,vulgar ,errors1' made well known the story that when the ,king of ,monomotapa sneezed1 acclamations of blessing passed from mouth to mouth through the city2 but he should have mentioned that ,godigno1 from whom the original account is taken1 said that this took place when the king drank1 or coughed1 or sneezed4#aab ,a later account from the other side of the continent is more to the purpose4 ,in ,guinea1 in the last century1 when a principal personage sneezed1 all present fell on their knees1 kissed the earth1 clapped their hands1 and wished him all happiness and prosperity4#aac ,with a different idea1 the negroes of ,old ,calabar1 when a child sneezes1 will sometimes exclaim1 #8,far from you6' with an appropriate gesture as if throwing off some evil4#aad ,polynesia is another region where the sneezing salutation is well marked4 ,in ,new ,zealand1 a charm was said to prevent evil when a child sneezed2#aae if a ,samoan sneezed1 the bystanders said1 #8,life to you6'#aaf while in the ,tongan group a sneeze on the starting of an expedition was a most evil presage4#aag ,a curious ,american instance dates from ,hernando de ,soto's famous expedition into ,florida1 when ,guachoya1 a native chief1 came to pay him a visit4 #8,while this was going on1 the cacique ,guachoya gave a great sneeze2 the gentlemen who had come with him and were lining the walls of the hall among the ,spaniards there all at once bowing their heads1 opening their arms1 and closing them again1 and making other gestures of great veneration and respect1 saluted him with different words1 all directed to one end1 saying1 8,the ,sun guard thee1 be with thee1 enlighten thee1 magnify thee1 protect thee1 favour thee1 defend thee1 prosper thee1 save thee10 and other like phrases1 as the words came1 and for a good space there lingered the murmur of these words among them1 whereat the governor wondering said to the gentlemen and captains with him1 8,do you not see that all the world is one80 ,this matter was well noted among the ,spaniards1 that among so barbarous a people should be used the same ceremonies1 or greater1 than among those who hold themselves to be very civilized4 ,whence it may be believed that this manner of salutation is natural among all nations1 and not caused by a pestilence1 as is vulgarly said1' c4#aah ,in ,asia and ,europe the sneezing superstition extends through a wide range of race1 age1 and country4#aai ,among the passages relating to it in the classic ages of ,greece and ,rome1 the following are some of the most characteristic1--the lucky sneeze of ,telemachos in the ,odyssey2#abj the soldier's sneeze and the shout of adoration to the god which rose along the ranks1 and which ,xenophon appealed to as a favourable omen2#aba ,aristotle's remark that people consider a sneeze as divine 7 71 but not a cough1#abb c42 the ,greek epigram on the man with the long nose1 who did not say when he sneezed1 for the noise was too far off for him to hear2#abc ,petronius ,arbiter's mention of the custom of saying #8,salve6' to one who sneezed2#abd and ,pliny's question1 #8,cur sternutamentis salutamus8' apropos of which he remarks that even ,tiberius ,csar1 that saddest of men1 exacted this observance4#abe ,similar rites of sneezing have long been observed in ,eastern ,asia4#abf ,when a ,hindu sneezes1 bystanders say1 #8,live6' and the sneezer replies1 #8,with you6' ,it is an ill omen1 to which among others the ,thugs paid great regard on starting on an expedition1 and which even compelled them to let the travellers with them escape4#abg ,the ,jewish sneezing formula is1 #8,tobim chayim6' i4e4 #8,good life6'#abh ,the ,moslem says1 #8,praise to ,allah6' when he sneezes1 and his friends compliment him with proper formulas1 a custom which seems to be conveyed from race to race wherever ,islam extends4#abi ,lastly1 the custom ranges through medival into modern ,europe4 ,to cite old ,german examples1 #8,die ,heiden nicht endorften niesen1 d man doch sprichet 8,nu helfiu ,got80' #8,wir sprechen1 swer niuset1 ,got helfe dir4'#acj ,for a ,norman ,french instance in ,england1 the following lines 7,a4,d4 #aajj7 may serve1 which show our old formula #8waes hl6' 7#8may you be well6'--#8wassail6'7 used also to avert being taken ill after a sneeze3-- #8,e pur une feyze esternuer ,tantot quident mal trouer1 ,si uesbeil ne diez aprez4'#aca ,in the #8,rules of ,civility' 7,a4,d4 #afhe1 translated from the ,french7 we read3--#8,if his lordship chances to sneeze1 you are not to bawl out1 8,god bless you1 sir10 but1 pulling off your hat1 bow to him handsomely1 and make that obsecration to yourself4'#acb ,it is noticed that ,anabaptists and ,quakers rejected these with other salutations1 but they remained in the code of ,english good manners among high and low till half a century or so ago1 and are so little forgotten now1 that most people still see the point of the story of the fiddler and his wife1 where his sneeze and her hearty #8,god bless you6' brought about the removal of the fiddle case4 #8,got hilf6' may still be heard in ,germany1 and #8,felicit6' in ,italy4 ,it is not strange that the existence of these absurd customs should have been for ages a puzzle to curious enquirers4 ,especially the legend-mongers took the matter in hand1 and their attempts to devise historical explanations are on record in a group of philosophic myths1--,greek1 ,jewish1 ,christian4 ,prometheus prays for the preservation of his artificial man1 when it gives the first sign of life by a sneeze2 ,jacob prays that man's soul may not1 as heretofore1 depart from his body when he sneezes2 ,pope ,gregory prays to avert the pestilence1 in those days when the air was so deadly that he who sneezed died of it2 and from these imaginary events legend declares that the use of the sneezing formulas was handed down4 ,it is more to our purpose to notice the existence of a corresponding set of ideas and customs connected with gaping4 ,among the ,zulus1 repeated yawning and sneezing are classed together as signs of approaching spiritual possession4#acc ,the ,hindu1 when he gapes1 must snap his thumb and finger1 and repeat the name of some ,god1 as ,rama3 to neglect this is a sin as great as the murder of a ,brahman4#acd ,the ,persians ascribe yawning1 sneezing1 c41 to demoniacal possession4 ,among the modern ,moslems generally1 when a man yawns1 he puts the back of his left hand to his mouth1 saying1 #8,i seek refuge with ,allah from ,satan the accursed6' but the act of yawning is to be avoided1 for the ,devil is in the habit of leaping into a gaping mouth4#ace ,this may very likely be the meaning of the ,jewish proverb1 #8,open not thy mouth to ,satan6' ,the other half of this idea shows itself clearly in ,josephus' story of his having seen a certain ,jew1 named ,eleazar1 cure demoniacs in ,vespasian's time1 by drawing the demons out through their nostrils1 by means of a ring containing a root of mystic virtue mentioned by ,solomon4#acf ,the account of the sect of the ,messalians1 who used to spit and blow their noses to expel the demons they might have drawn in with their breath1#acg the records of the medival exorcists driving out devils through the patients' nostrils1#ach and the custom1 still kept up in the ,tyrol1 of crossing oneself when one yawns1 lest something evil should come into one's mouth1#aci involve similar ideas4 ,in comparing the modern ,kafir ideas with those of other districts of the world1 we find a distinct notion of a sneeze being due to a spiritual presence4 ,this1 which seems indeed the key to the whole matter1 has been well brought into view by ,mr4 ,haliburton1 as displayed in ,keltic folk-lore1 in a group of stories turning on the superstition that any one who sneezes is liable to be carried off by the fairies1 unless their power be counteracted by an invocation1 as #8,god bless you6'#adj ,the corresponding idea as to yawning is to be found in an ,iceland folk-lore legend1 where the troll1 who has transformed herself into the shape of the beautiful queen1 says1 #8,when ,i yawn a little yawn1 ,i am a neat and tiny maiden2 when ,i yawn a half-yawn1 then ,i am as a half-troll2 when ,i yawn a whole yawn1 then am ,i as a whole troll4'#ada ,on the whole1 though the sneezing superstition makes no approach to universality among mankind1 its wide distribution is highly remarkable1 and it would be an interesting problem to decide how far this wide distribution is due to independent growth in several regions1 how far to conveyance from race to race1 and how far to ancestral inheritance4 ,here it has only to be maintained that it was not originally an arbitrary and meaningless custom1 but the working out of a principle4#adb ,the plain statement by the modern ,zulus fits with the hints to be gained from the superstition and folk-lore of other races1 to connect the notions and practices as to sneezing with the ancient and savage doctrine of pervading and invading spirits1 considered as good or evil1 and treated accordingly4 ,the lingering survivals of the quaint old formulas in modern ,europe seem an unconscious record of the time when the explanation of sneezing had not yet been given over to physiology1 but was still in the #8theological stage4' ,there is current in ,scotland the belief that the ,picts1 to whom local legend attributes buildings of prehistoric antiquity1 bathed their foundation-stones with human blood2 and legend even tells that ,st4 ,columba found it necessary to bury ,st4 ,oran alive beneath the foundation of his monastery1 in order to propitiate the spirits of the soil who demolished by night what was built during the day4 ,so late as #ahdc1 in ,germany1 when a new bridge was built at ,halle1 a notion was abroad among the people that a child was wanted to be built into the foundation4 ,these ideas of church or wall or bridge wanting human blood or an immured victim to make the foundation steadfast1 are not only widespread in ,european folk-lore1 but local chronicle or tradition asserts them as matter of historical fact in district after district4 ,thus1 when the broken dam of the ,nogat had to be repaired in #adfc1 the peasants1 on the advice to throw in a living man1 are said to have made a beggar drunk and buried him there4 ,thuringian legend declares that to make the castle of ,liebenstein fast and impregnable1 a child was bought for hard money of its mother and walled in4 ,it was eating a cake while the masons were at work1 the story goes1 and it cried out1 #8,mother1 ,i see thee still2' then later1 #8,mother1 ,i see thee a little still2' and1 as they put in the last stone1 #8,mother1 now ,i see thee no more4' ,the wall of ,copenhagen1 legend says1 sank as fast as it was built2 so they took an innocent little girl1 set her on a chair at a table of toys and eatables1 and1 as she played and ate1 twelve master-masons closed a vault over her2 then1 with clanging music1 the wall was raised1 and stood firm ever after4 ,thus ,italian legend tells of the bridge of ,arta1 that fell in and fell in till they walled in the master-builder's wife1 and she spoke her dying curse that the bridge should tremble like a flower-stalk henceforth4 ,the ,slavonic chiefs founding ,detinez1 according to old heathen custom1 sent out men to take the first boy they met and bury him in the foundation4 ,servian legend tells how three brothers combined to build the fortress of ,skadra 7,scutari72 but1 year after year1 the demon 7vila7 razed by night what the three hundred masons built by day4 ,the fiend must be appeased by a human sacrifice1 the first of the three wives who should come bringing food to the workmen4 ,all three brothers swore to keep the dreadful secret from their wives2 but the two eldest gave traitorous warning to theirs1 and it was the youngest brother's wife who came unsuspecting1 and they built her in4 ,but she entreated that an opening should be left for her to suckle her baby through1 and for a twelve-month it was brought4 ,to this day1 ,servian wives visit the tomb of the good mother1 still marked by a stream of water which trickles1 milky with lime1 down the fortress wall4 ,lastly1 there is our own legend of ,vortigern1 who could not finish his tower till the foundation-stone was wetted with the blood of a child born of a mother without a father4 ,as is usual in the history of sacrifice1 we hear of substitutes for such victims2 empty coffins walled up in ,germany1 a lamb walled in under the altar in ,denmark to make the church stand fast1 and the churchyard in like manner handselled by burying a live horse first4 ,in modern ,greece an evident relic of the idea survives in the superstition that the first passer-by after a foundation-stone is laid will die within the year1 wherefore the masons will compromise the debt by killing a lamb or a black cock on the stone4 ,with much the same idea ,german legend tells of the bridge-building fiend cheated of his promised fee1 a soul1 by the device of making a cock run first across2 and thus ,german folk-lore says it is well1 before entering a new house1 to let a cat or dog run in4#adc ,from all this it seems that1 with due allowance for the idea having passed into an often-repeated and varied mythic theme1 yet written and unwritten tradition do preserve the memory of a bloodthirsty barbaric rite1 which not only really existed in ancient times1 but lingered long in ,european history4 ,if now we look to less cultured countries1 we shall find the rite carried on in our own day with a distinctly religious purpose1 either to propitiate the earth-spirits with a victim1 or to convert the soul of the victim himself into a protecting demon4 ,in ,africa1 in ,galam1 a boy and girl used to be buried alive before the great gate of the city to make it impregnable1 a practice once executed on a large scale by a ,bambarra tyrant2 while in ,great ,bassam and ,yarriba such sacrifices were usual at the foundation of a house or village4#add ,in ,polynesia1 ,ellis heard of the custom1 instanced by the fact that the central pillar of one of the temples at ,maeva was planted upon the body of a human victim4#ade ,in ,borneo1 among the ,milanau ,dayaks1 at the erection of the largest house a deep hole was dug to receive the first post1 which was then suspended over it2 a slave girl was placed in the excavation2 at a signal the lashings were cut1 and the enormous timber descended1 crushing the girl to death1 a sacrifice to the spirits4 ,st4 ,john saw a milder form of the rite performed1 when the chief of the ,quop ,dayaks set up a flagstaff near his house1 a chicken being thrown in to be crushed by the descending pole4#adf ,more cultured nations of ,southern ,asia have carried on into modern ages the rite of the foundation-sacrifice4 ,a #agth century account of ,japan mentions the belief there that a wall laid on the body of a willing human victim would be secure from accident2 accordingly1 when a great wall was to be built1 some wretched slave would offer himself as foundation1 lying down in the trench to be crushed by the heavy stones lowered upon him4#adg ,when the gates of the new city of ,tavoy1 in ,tenasserim1 were built about #aghj1 as ,mason relates on the evidence of an eye-witness1 a criminal was put in each post-hole to become a protecting demon4 ,thus it appears that such stories as that of the human victims buried for spirit watchers under the gates of ,mandalay1 of the queen who was drowned in a ,burmese reservoir to make the dyke safe1 of the hero whose divided body was buried under the fortress of ,thatung to make it impregnable1 are the records1 whether in historical or mythical form1 of the actual customs of the land4#adh ,within our own dominion1 when ,rajah ,sala ,byne was building the fort of ,sialkot in the ,punjab1 the foundation of the south-east bastion gave way so repeatedly that he had recourse to a soothsayer1 who assured him that it would never stand until the blood of an only son was shed there1 wherefore the only son of a widow was sacrificed4#adi ,it is thus plain that hideous rites1 of which ,europe has scarcely kept up more than the dim memory1 have held fast their ancient practice and meaning in ,africa1 ,polynesia1 and ,asia1 among races who represent in grade1 if not in chronology1 earlier stages of civilization4 ,when ,sir ,walter ,scott1 in the #8,pirate1' tells of ,bryce the pedlar refusing to help ,mordaunt to save the shipwrecked sailor from drowning1 and even remonstrating with him on the rashness of such a deed1 he states an old superstition of the ,shetlanders4 #8,are you mad8' says the pedlar2 #8you that have lived sae lang in ,zetland1 to risk the saving of a drowning man8 ,wot ye not1 if you bring him to life again1 he will be sure to do you some capital injury8' ,were this inhuman thought noticed in this one district alone1 it might be fancied to have had its rise in some local idea now no longer to be explained4 ,but when mentions of similar superstitions are collected among the ,st4 ,kilda islanders and the boatmen of the ,danube1 among ,french and ,english sailors1 and even out of ,europe and among less civilized races1 we cease to think of local fancies1 but look for some widely accepted belief of the lower culture to account for such a state of things4 ,the ,hindu does not save a man from drowning in the sacred ,ganges1 and the islanders of the ,malay archipelago share the cruel notion4#aej ,of all people the rude ,kamchadals have the prohibition in the most remarkable form4 ,they hold it a great fault1 says ,kracheninnikow1 to save a drowning man2 he who delivers him will be drowned himself4#aea ,steller's account is more extraordinary1 and probably applies only to cases where the victim is actually drowning3 he says that if a man fell by chance into the water1 it was a great sin for him to get out1 for as he had been destined to drown he did wrong in not drowning1 wherefore no one would let him into his dwelling1 nor speak to him1 nor give him food or a wife1 but he was reckoned for dead2 and even when a man fell into the water while others were standing by1 far from helping him out1 they would drown him by force4 ,now these barbarians1 it appears1 avoided volcanoes because of the spirits who live there and cook their food2 for a like reason1 they held it a sin to bathe in hot springs2 and they believed with fear in a fish-like spirit of the sea1 whom they called ,mitgk4#aeb ,this spiritualistic belief among the ,kamchadals is1 no doubt1 the key to their superstition as to rescuing drowning men4 ,there is even to be found in modern ,european superstition1 not only the practice1 but with it a lingering survival of its ancient spiritualistic significance4 ,in ,bohemia1 a recent account 7#ahfd7 says that the fishermen do not venture to snatch a drowning man from the waters4 ,they fear that the #8,waterman' 7i4e4 water-demon7 would take away their luck in fishing1 and drown themselves at the first opportunity4#aec ,this explanation of the prejudice against saving the water-spirit's victim may be confirmed by a mass of evidence from various districts of the world4 ,thus1 in discussing the doctrine of sacrifice1 it will appear that the usual manner of making an offering to a well1 river1 lake1 or sea1 is simply to cast property1 cattle1 or men into the water1 which personally or by its indwelling spirit takes possession of them4#aed ,that the accidental drowning of a man is held to be such a seizure1 savage and civilized folk-lore show by many examples4 ,among the ,sioux ,indians1 it is ,unk-tahe the water-monster that drowns his victims in flood or rapid2#aee in ,new ,zealand huge supernatural reptile-monsters1 called ,taniwha1 live in river-bends1 and those who are drowned are said to be pulled under by them2#aef the ,siamese fears the ,pnk or water-spirit that seizes bathers and drags them under to his dwelling2#aeg in ,slavonic lands it is ,topielec 7the ducker7 by whom men are always drowned2#aeh when some one is drowned in ,germany1 people recollect the religion of their ancestors1 and say1 #8,the river-spirit claims his yearly sacrifice1' or1 more simply1 #8,the nix has taken him3'#aei-- #8,ich glaube1 die ,wellen verschlingen1 ,am ,ende ,fischer und ,kahn2 ,und das hat mit ihrem ,singen ,die ,lorelei gethan4' ,from this point of view it is obvious that to save a sinking man is to snatch a victim from the very clutches of the water-spirit1 a rash defiance of deity which would hardly pass unavenged4 ,in the civilized world the rude old theological conception of drowning has long been superseded by physical explanation2 and the prejudice against rescue from such a death may have now almost or altogether disappeared4 ,but archaic ideas1 drifted on into modern folk-lore and poetry1 still bring to our view an apparent connexion between the primitive doctrine and the surviving custom4 ,as the social development of the world goes on1 the weightiest thoughts and actions may dwindle to mere survival4 ,original meaning dies out gradually1 each generation leaves fewer and fewer to bear it in mind1 till it falls out of popular memory1 and in after-days ethnography has to attempt1 more or less successfully1 to restore it by piecing together lines of isolated or forgotten facts4 ,children's sports1 popular sayings1 absurd customs1 may be practically unimportant1 but are not philosophically insignificant1 bearing as they do on some of the most instructive phases of early culture4 ,ugly and cruel superstitions may prove to be relics of primitive barbarism1 for in keeping up such ,man is like ,shakespeare's fox1 #8,who1 ne'er so tame1 so cherish'd1 and lock'd up1 ,will have a wild trick of his ancestors4' ,footnote #ee3 ,will4 de ,rubruquis in ,pinkerton1 vol4 vii4 pp4 #df1 #fg1 #acb2 ,michie1 #8,siberian ,overland ,route1' p4 #if4 ,footnote #ef3 ,ovid4 ,fast4 v4 #dhg4 ,for modern ,italy and ,france1 see ,edlestane du ,mril1 #8tudes d',archol4' p4 #aba4 ,footnote #eg3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' 7ed4 by ,j4 ,r4 ,logan71 vol4 ii4 p4 liv4 ,footnote #eh3 ,klemm1 #8,cultur-,geschichte1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bji4 ,footnote #ei3 ,oldfield in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #bff2 ,dumont d',urville1 #8,voy4 de l',astrolabe1' vol4 i4 p4 #daa4 ,footnote #fj3 ,strutt1 #8,sports and ,pastimes1' book ii4 chap4 ii4 ,footnote #fa3 ,polack1 #8,new ,zealanders1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aga4 ,footnote #fb3 ,polack1 ibid42 ,wilkes1 #8,u4 ,s4 ,exp4' vol4 i4 p4 #aid4 ,see the account of the game of liagi in ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cci2 and ,yate1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #aac4 ,footnote #fc3 ,petron4 ,arbitri ,satir rec4 ,bchler1 p4 #fd 7other readings are bucc or bucco74 ,footnote #fd3 ,compare ,davis1 #8,chinese1' vol4 i4 p4 #cag2 ,wilkinson1 ,ancient ,egyptians1 vol4 i4 p4 #ahh2 ,facciolati1 ,lexicon1 s4v4 #8micare'2 c4 ,footnote #fe3 ,jamieson1 #8,dict4 of ,scottish ,lang4' s4v4 ,footnote #ff3 #8,early ,history of ,mankind1' p4 #bdd1 c42 ,grimm1 #8,deutsche ,myth41' p4 #egc4 ,footnote #fg3 ,grimm1 ibid41 p4 #abjj4 ,footnote #fh3 ,halliwell1 #8,popular ,rhymes1' p4 #aab2 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #hab4 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 iii4 p4 #ajf4 ,johannis ,philosophi ,ozniensis ,opera 7,aucher71 ,venice1 #ahcd1 pp4 #gh-hi4 #8,infantium sanguini similam commiscentes illegitimam communionem deglutiunt2 quo pacto porcorum suos ftus immaniter vescentium exsuperant edacitatem4 ,quique illorum cadavera super tecti culmen celantes1 ac sursum oculis in clum defixis respicientes1 jurant alieno verbo ac sensu3 ,altissimus novit4 ,solem vero deprecari volentes1 ajunt3 ,solicule1 ,lucicule2 atque areos1 vagosque dmones clam invocant1 juxta ,manichorum ,simonisque incantatoris errores4 ,similiter et primum parientis fmin puerum de manu in manum inter eos invicem projectum1 quum pessim morte occiderint1 illum1 in cujus manu exspiraverit puer1 ad primam sect dignitatem provectum venerantur2 atque per utriusque nomen audent insane jurare2 ,juro1 dicunt1 per unigenitum filium3 et iterum3 ,testem babeo tibi gloriam ejus1 in cujus manum unigenitus filius spiritum suum tradidit4444 ,contra hos the orthodox audacter evomere prsumunt impietatis su bilem1 atque insanientes1 ex mali spiritus blasphemi1 ,sculpticolas vocant4' ,footnote #fi3 ,polack1 vol4 i4 p4 #bgj4 ,footnote #gj3 ,bosman1 #8,guinese ,kust1' letter x42 ,eng4 ,trans4 in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #cii4 ,footnote #ga3 ,homer1 ,iliad1 vii4 #aga2 ,pindar1 ,pyth4 iv4 #cch4 ,footnote #gb3 ,tacit4 ,germania4 #aj4 ,footnote #gc3 ,smith's #8,dic4 of ,gr4 and ,rom4 ,ant41' arts4 #8oraculum1' #8sortes4' ,footnote #gd3 ,roberts1 #8,oriental ,illustrations1' p4 #afc4 ,footnote #ge3 ,gataker1 pp4 #ia1 #ada2 see ,lecky1 #8,history of ,rationalism1' vol4 i4 p4 #cjg4 ,footnote #gf3 ,jeremy ,taylor1 #8,ductor ,dubitantium1' in ,works1 vol4 xiv4 p4 #ccg4 ,footnote #gg3 ,see ,wuttke1 #8,deutsche ,volksaberglaube1' pp4 #ie1 #aae1 #agh4 ,footnote #gh3 ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,islands1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bci2 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #bad2 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #bbh4 ,compare ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #bca4 ,footnote #gi3 ,r4 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' pp4 #bjf1 #cdh1 #chg4 ,footnote #hj3 ,smith's ,dic41 art4 #8talus4' ,footnote #ha3 ,brand1 #8,popular ,antiquities1' vol4 ii4 p4 #dab4 ,footnote #hb3 ,d4 ,c4 ,livingstone1 #8,exp4 to ,zambesi1' p4 #ea4 ,footnote #hc3 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #ajh1 #bhe-g2 see #chd2 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 iii4 pp4 #gf1 #abe4 ,footnote #hd3 ,smith's ,dic41 art4 #8cottabos4' ,footnote #he3 ,grimm1 #8,deutsche ,myth4' p4 #bbb4 ,footnote #hf3 ,plin4 viii4 #ed4 ,footnote #hg3 ,from a letter of ,mr4 ,h4 ,j4 ,stokes1 ,negapatam1 to ,mr4 ,f4 ,m4 ,jennings4 ,general details of the ,couvade in #8,early ,history of ,mankind4' p4 #bic4 ,footnote #hh3 ,hvaml1 #ach4 ,footnote #hi3 ,jamieson1 #8,scottish ,dictionary1' s4v4 #8coals'2 ,r4 ,hunt1 #8,popular ,romances1' #ast ser4 p4 #hc4 ,footnote #ij3 ,wuttke1 #8,volksaberglaube1' p4 #aca4 ,footnote #ia3 ,rochholz1 #8,deutscher ,glaube und ,brauch1' vol4 i4 p4 #abj2 ,r4 ,chambers1 #8,popular ,rhymes of ,scotland1' ,miscellaneous2 ,grimm1 pp4 #ifi1 #igf2 ,wuttke1 p4 #aae4 ,footnote #ib3 ,mendes1 #8,service for the ,first ,nights of ,passover1' ,london1 #ahfb 7in the ,jewish interpretation the word sbunra1--#8cat1' is compared with sbinr74 ,halliwell1 #8,nursery ,rhymes1' p4 #bhh2 #8,popular ,rhymes1' p4 #f4 ,footnote #ic3 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #aaj4 ,footnote #id3 ,shortland1 #8,traditions of ,n4 ,z4' p4 #aif4 ,footnote #ie3 ,casalis1 #8tudes sur la langue ,schuana4' ,footnote #if3 ,r4 ,f4 ,burton1 #8,wit and ,wisdom from ,west ,africa4' ,see also ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bde4 ,footnote #ig3 ,callaway1 #8,nursery ,tales1 c4 of ,zulus1' vol4 i4 p4 #cfd1 c4 ,footnote #ih3 ,casalis1 #8,etudes sur la langue ,schuana1' p4 #ia2 #8,basutos1' p4 #ccg4 ,footnote #ii3 ,steere1 #8,swahili ,tales1' p4 #dah4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,burton1 #8,wit and ,wisdom from ,west ,africa1' p4 #bab4 ,footnote #aja3 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #baf4 ,see ,polack1 #8,new ,zealanders1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aga4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,sahagun1 #8,historia de ,nueva ,espaa1' in ,kingsborough's #8,antiquities1 of ,mexico1' vol4 vii4 p4 #agh4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,grimm1 p4 #fii4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,diog4 ,laert4 i4 #ia2 ,athenagoras4 x1 #dea4 ,footnote #aje3 ,mannhardt's #8,zeitschr4 fr ,deutsche ,mythologie1' vol4 iii4 p4 #b1 c43 #8,ng er forthun nsgs vaxin1 ,barngiorn su er bar btimbr saman2 ,hlifthu henni halms bitsklmir1 ,th l drykkjar drynhrnn yfir4' ,footnote #ajf3 ,see ,grote1 #8,hist4 of ,greece1' vol4 ii4 p4 #e4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,mannhardt's #8,zeitschr4' l4c4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,e4 ,a4 ,w4 ,zimmermann1 #8,geographische ,geschichte des ,menschen1' c41 #aggh-hc1 vol4 iii4 ,see ,professor ,rolleston's ,inaugural ,address1 ,british ,association1 #ahgj4 ,footnote #aji3 ,earl of ,chesterfield1 #8,letters to his ,son1' vol4 ii4 ,no4 lxviii4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,see ,hylten-,cavallius1 #8,wrend och ,wirdarne1' vol4 i4 pp4 #afa-gj ,grimm1 pp4 #eb-e1 #abja2 ,brand1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cad1 #cbe1 c4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,callaway1 #8,religion of ,amazulu1' pp4 #fd1 #bbb-e1 #bfc4 ,footnote #aab3 ,godignus1 #8,vita ,patris ,gonzali ,sylveri4' ,col4 ,agripp4 #afaf2 lib4 ii4 c4 x4 ,footnote #aac3 ,bosman1 #8,guinea1' letter xviii4 in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #dgh4 ,footnote #aad3 ,burton1 #8,wit and ,wisdom from ,west ,africa1' p4 #cgc4 ,footnote #aae3 ,shortland1 #8,trads4 of ,new ,zealand1' p4 #aca4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #cdh2 see also ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #bej4 ,footnote #aag3 ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 i4 p4 #def4 ,footnote #aah3 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 #8,hist4 de la ,florida1' vol4 iii4 ch4 xli4 ,footnote #aai3 ,among dissertations on the subject1 see especially ,sir ,thos4 ,browne #8,pseudodoxia ,epidemica' 7,vulgar ,errors71 book iv4 chap4 ix42 ,brand #8,popular ,antiquities1' vol4 iii4 p4 #aai1 c42 ,r4 ,g4 ,haliburton1 #8,new ,materials for the ,history of ,man4' ,halifax1 ,n4 ,s4 #ahfc2 #8,encyclopdia ,britannica1' 7#eth ed47 art4 #8sneezing1' ,wernsdorf1 #8,de ,ritu ,sternutantibus bene precandi4' ,leipzig1 #agda2 see also ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4 p4 #ajgj1 note4 ,footnote #abj3 ,homer1 ,odyss4 xvii4 #eda4 ,footnote #aba3 ,xenophon1 ,anabasis1 iii4 #b1 #i4 ,footnote #abb3 ,aristot4 ,problem4 xxxiii4 #g4 ,footnote #abc3 ,anthologia ,grca1 ,brunck1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ie4 ,footnote #abd3 ,petron4 ,arb4 ,sat4 #ih4 ,footnote #abe3 ,plin4 xxviii4 #e4 ,footnote #abf3 ,noel1 #8,dic4 des ,origines2' ,migne1 #8,dic4 des ,superstitions1' c42 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 ii4 p4 #abi4 ,footnote #abg3 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 i4 p4 #adb2 ,dubois1 #8,peuples de l',inde1' vol4 i4 p4 #dfe2 ,sleeman1 #8,ramaseeana1' p4 #abj4 ,footnote #abh3 ,buxtorf1 #8,lexicon ,chaldaicum2' ,tendlau1 #8,sprichwrter1 c4 ,deutsch-,jdischer ,vorzeit4' ,frankf4 a4 ,m41 #ahfj1 p4 #adb4 ,footnote #abi3 ,lane1 #8,modern ,egyptians1' vol4 i4 p4 #bhb4 ,see ,grant1 in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #ij4 ,footnote #acj3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' pp4 #ajgj1 #aaaj4 ,footnote #aca3 #8,manuel des ,pecchs1' in ,wedgwood1 #8,dic4 ,english ,etymology1' s4v41 #8wassail4' ,footnote #acb3 ,brand1 vol4 iii4 p4 #abf4 ,footnote #acc3 ,callaway1 p4 #bfc4 ,footnote #acd3 ,ward1 l4c4 ,footnote #ace3 #8,pend-,nameh1' tr4 de ,sacy1 ch4 lxiii42 ,maury1 #8,magie1' c41 p4 #cjb2 ,lane1 l4c4 ,footnote #acf3 ,g4 ,brecher1 #8,das ,transcendentale im ,talmud1' p4 #afh2 ,joseph4 ,ant4 ,jud4 viii4 #b1 #e4 ,footnote #acg3 ,migne1 #8,dic4 des ,hrsies1' s4v4 ,footnote #ach3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #aae1 #cbb4 ,footnote #aci3 ,wuttke1 #8,deutsche ,volksaberglaube1' p4 #acg4 ,footnote #adj3 ,haliburton1 op4 cit4 ,footnote #ada3 ,powell and ,magnussen1 #8,legends of ,iceland1' #bnd ser4 p4 #ddh4 ,footnote #adb3 ,the cases in which a sneeze is interpreted under special conditions1 as with reference to right and left1 early morning1 c4 7see ,plutarch1 ,de ,genio ,socratis1 c471 are not considered here1 as they belong to ordinary omen-divination4 ,footnote #adc3 ,w4 ,scott1 #8,minstrelsy of ,scottish ,border2' ,forbes ,leslie1 #8,early ,races of ,scotland1' vol4 i4 pp4 #aid1 #dhg2 ,grimm1 #8,deutsche ,mythologie1' pp4 #igb1 #ajie2 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #ib1 #djg1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #aje1 #aab2 ,bowring1 #8,servian ,popular ,poetry1' p4 #fd4 ,a review of the ,first ,edition of the present work in #8,nature1' ,june #ae1 #ahga1 contains the following3--#8,it is not1 for example1 many years since the present ,lord ,leigh was accused of having built an obnoxious person--one account1 if we remember right1 said eight obnoxious persons--into the foundation of a bridge at ,stoneleigh4 ,of course so preposterous a charge carried on its face its own sufficient refutation2 but the fact that it was brought at all is a singular instance of the almost incredible vitality of old traditions4' ,footnote #add3 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aig4 ,footnote #ade3 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #cdf2 ,tyerman and ,bennet1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ci4 ,footnote #adf3 ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 p4 #df2 see ,bastian1 vol4 ii4 p4 #djg4 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,r4 ,k4 ,douglas for a perfect example of one meaning of the foundation-sacrifice1 from the ,chinese book1 #8,yh hea ke' 7#8,jewelled ,casket of ,divination'73 #8,before beginning to build1 the workmen should sacrifice to the gods of the neighbourhood1 of the earth and wood4 ,should the carpenters be very apprehensive of the building falling1 they1 when fixing a post1 should take something living and put it beneath1 and lower the post on it1 and to liberate the evil influences they should strike the post with an axe and repeat-- 8,it is well1 it is well1 ,may those who live within ,be ever warm and well fed40' ,footnote #adg3 ,caron1 #8,japan1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 vii4 p4 #fbc4 ,footnote #adh3 ,f4 ,mason1 #8,burmah1' p4 #ajj2 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 i4 pp4 #aic1 #bad2 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ia1 #bgj2 vol4 iii4 p4 #af2 ,roberts1 #8,oriental ,illustrations1' p4 #bhc4 ,footnote #adi3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 iii4 p4 #ajg4 ,a modern ,arnaut story is given by ,prof4 ,liebrecht in #8,philologus1' vol4 xxiii4 7#ahfe71 p4 #fhb4 ,footnote #aej3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 iii4 p4 #baj2 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cah4 ,footnote #aea3 ,kracheninnikow1 #8,descr4 du ,kamchatka1 ,voy4 en ,sibrie1' vol4 iii4 p4 #gb4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,steller1 #8,kamtschatka1' pp4 #bfe1 #bgd4 ,footnote #aec3 ,j4 ,v4 ,grohmann1 #8,aberglauben und ,gebruche aus ,bhmen1' p4 #ab4 ,footnote #aed3 ,chap4 ,,xviii4 ,footnote #aee3 ,eastman1 #8,dacotah1' pp4 #aah1 #abe4 ,footnote #aef3 ,r4 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #dh4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 iii4 p4 #cd4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,hanusch1 #8,wissenschaft des ,slawischen ,mythus1' p4 #bii4 ,footnote #aei3 ,grimm1 #8,deutsche ,myth1' p4 #dfb4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,survival ,,in ,,culture 7continued74 ,occult ,sciences--,magical powers attributed by higher to lower races--,magical processes based on ,association of ,ideas--,omens--,augury1 c4--,oneiromancy--,haruspication1 ,scapulimancy1 ,chiromancy1 c4--,cartomancy1 c4--,rhabdomancy1 ,dactyliomancy1 ,coscinomancy1 c4--,astrology--,intellectual conditions accounting for the persistence of ,magic--,survival passes into ,revival--,witchcraft1 originating in savage culture1 continues in barbaric civilization2 its decline in early medival ,europe followed by revival2 its practices and counter-practices belong to earlier culture--,spiritualism has its source in early stages of culture1 in close connexion with witchcraft--,spirit-rapping and ,spirit-writing--,rising in the air--,performances of tied mediums--,practical bearing of the study of ,survival4 ,in examining the survival of opinions in the midst of conditions of society becoming gradually estranged from them1 and tending at last to suppress them altogether1 much may be learnt from the history of one of the most pernicious delusions that ever vexed mankind1 the belief in ,magic4 ,looking at ,occult ,science from this ethnographic point of view1 ,i shall instance some of its branches as illustrating the course of intellectual culture4 ,its place in history is briefly this4 ,it belongs in its main principle to the lowest known stages of civilization1 and the lower races1 who have not partaken largely of the education of the world1 still maintain it in vigour4 ,from this level it may be traced upward1 much of the savage art holding its place substantially unchanged1 and many new practices being in course of time developed1 while both the older and newer developments have lasted on more or less among modern cultured nations4 ,but during the ages in which progressive races have been learning to submit their opinions to closer and closer experimental tests1 occult science has been breaking down into the condition of a survival1 in which state we mostly find it among ourselves4 ,the modern educated world1 rejecting occult science as a contemptible superstition1 has practically committed itself to the opinion that magic belongs to a lower level of civilization4 ,it is very instructive to find the soundness of this judgment undesignedly confirmed by nations whose education has not advanced far enough to destroy their belief in magic itself4 ,in any country an isolated or outlying race1 the lingering survivor of an older nationality1 is liable to the reputation of sorcery4 ,it is thus with the ,lavas of ,burma1 supposed to be the broken-down remains of an ancient cultured race1 and dreaded as man-tigers2#afj and with the ,budas of ,abyssinia1 who are at once the smiths and potters1 sorcerers and were-wolves1 of their district4#afa ,but the usual and suggestive state of things is that nations who believe with the sincerest terror in the reality of the magic art1 at the same time cannot shut their eyes to the fact that it more essentially belongs to1 and is more thoroughly at home among1 races less civilized than themselves4 ,the ,malays of the ,peninsula1 who have adopted ,mohammedan religion and civilization1 have this idea of the lower tribes of the land1 tribes more or less of their own race1 but who have remained in their early savage condition4 ,the ,malays have enchanters of their own1 but consider them inferior to the sorcerers or poyangs belonging to the rude ,mintira2 to these they will resort for the cure of diseases and the working of misfortune and death to their enemies4 ,it is1 in fact1 the best protection the ,mintira have against their stronger ,malay neighbours1 that these are careful not to offend them for fear of their powers of magical revenge4 ,the ,jakuns1 again1 are a rude and wild race1 whom the ,malays despise as infidels and little higher than animals1 but whom at the same time they fear extremely4 ,to the ,malay the ,jakun seems a supernatural being1 skilled in divination1 sorcery1 and fascination1 able to do evil or good according to his pleasure1 whose blessing will be followed by the most fortunate success1 and his curse by the most dreadful consequences2 he can turn towards the house of an enemy1 at whatever distance1 and beat two sticks together till that enemy will fall sick and die2 he is skilled in herbal physic2 he has the power of charming the fiercest wild beasts4 ,thus it is that the ,malays1 though they despise the ,jakuns1 refrain1 in many circumstances1 from ill-treating them4#afb ,in ,india1 in long-past ages1 the dominant ,aryans described the rude indigenes of the land by the epithets of #8possessed of magical powers1' #8changing their shape at will4'#afc ,to this day1 ,hindus settled in ,chota-,nagpur and ,singbhum firmly believe that the ,mundas have powers of witchcraft1 whereby they can transform themselves into tigers and other beasts of prey to devour their enemies1 and can witch away the lives of man and beast2 it is to the wildest and most savage of the tribe that such powers are generally ascribed4#afd ,in ,southern ,india1 again1 we hear in past times of ,hinduized ,dravidians1 the ,sudras of ,canara1 living in fear of the demoniacal powers of the slave-caste below them4#afe ,in our own day1 among ,dravidian tribes of the ,nilagiri district1 the ,todas and ,badagas are in mortal dread of the ,kurumbas1 despised and wretched forest outcasts1 but gifted1 it is believed1 with powers of destroying men and animals and property by witchcraft4#aff ,northern ,europe brings the like contrast sharply into view4 ,the ,finns and ,lapps1 whose low ,tatar barbarism was characterized by sorcery such as flourishes still among their ,siberian kinsfolk1 were accordingly objects of superstitious fear to their ,scandinavian neighbours and oppressors4 ,in the middle ages the name of ,finn was1 as it still remains among sea-faring men1 equivalent to that of sorcerer1 while ,lapland witches had a ,european celebrity as practitioners of the black art4 ,ages after the ,finns had risen in the social scale1 the ,lapps retained much of their old half-savage habit of life1 and with it naturally their witchcraft1 so that even the magic-gifted ,finns revered the occult powers of a people more barbarous than themselves4 ,rhs writes thus early in the last century3 #8,there are still sorcerers in ,finland1 but the skilfullest of them believe that the ,lapps far excel them2 of a well-experienced magician they say1 8,that is quite a ,lapp10 and they journey to ,lapland for such knowledge4'#afg ,all this is of a piece with the survival of such ideas among the ignorant elsewhere in the civilized world4 ,many a white man in the ,west ,indies and ,africa dreads the incantations of the ,obi-man1 and ,europe ascribes powers of sorcery to despised outcast #8races maudites1' ,gypsies and ,cagots4 ,to turn from nations to sects1 the attitude of ,protestants to ,catholics in this matter is instructive4 ,it was remarked in ,scotland3 #8,there is one opinion which many of them entertain1 444 that a popish priest can cast out devils and cure madness1 and that the ,presbyterian clergy have no such power4' ,so ,bourne says of the ,church of ,england clergy1 that the vulgar think them no conjurers1 and say none can lay spirits but popish priests4#afh ,these accounts are not recent1 but in ,germany the same state of things appears to exist still4 ,protestants get the aid of ,catholic priests and monks to help them against witchcraft1 to lay ghosts1 consecrate herbs1 and discover thieves2#afi thus with unconscious irony judging the relation of ,rome toward modern civilization4 ,the principal key to the understanding of ,occult ,science is to consider it as based on the ,association of ,ideas1 a faculty which lies at the very foundation of human reason1 but in no small degree of human unreason also4 ,man1 as yet in a low intellectual condition1 having come to associate in thought those things which he found by experience to be connected in fact1 proceeded erroneously to invert this action1 and to conclude that association in thought must involve similar connexion in reality4 ,he thus attempted to discover1 to foretell1 and to cause events by means of processes which we can now see to have only an ideal significance4 ,by a vast mass of evidence from savage1 barbaric1 and civilized life1 magic arts which have resulted from thus mistaking an ideal for a real connexion1 may be clearly traced from the lower culture which they are of1 to the higher culture which they are in4#agj ,such are the practices whereby a distant person is to be affected by acting on something closely associated with him--his property1 clothes he has worn1 and above all cuttings of his hair and nails4 ,not only do savages high and low like the ,australians and ,polynesians1 and barbarians like the nations of ,guinea1 live in deadly terror of this spiteful craft--not only have the ,parsis their sacred ritual prescribed for burying their cut hair and nails1 lest demons and sorcerers should do mischief with them1 but the fear of leaving such clippings and parings about lest their former owner should be harmed through them1 has by no means died out of ,european folk-lore1 and the ,german peasant1 during the days between his child's birth and baptism1 objects to lend anything out of the house1 lest witchcraft should be worked through it on the yet unconsecrated baby4#aga ,as the negro fetish-man1 when his patient does not come in person1 can divine by means of his dirty cloth or cap instead1#agb so the modern clairvoyant professes to feel sympathetically the sensations of a distant person1 if communication be made through a lock of his hair or any object that has been in contact with him4#agc ,the simple idea of joining two objects with a cord1 taking for granted that this communication will establish connexion or carry influence1 has been worked out in various ways in the world4 ,in ,australia1 the native doctor fastens one end of a string to the ailing part of the patient's body1 and by sucking at the other end pretends to draw out blood for his relief4#agd ,in ,orissa1 the ,jeypore witch lets down a ball of thread through her enemy's roof to reach his body1 that by putting the other end in her own mouth she may suck his blood4#age ,when a reindeer is sacrificed at a sick ,ostyak's tent door1 the patient holds in his hand a cord attached to the victim offered for his benefit4#agf ,greek history shows a similar idea1 when the citizens of ,ephesus carried a rope seven furlongs from their walls to the temple of ,artemis1 thus to place themselves under her safeguard against the attack of ,crsus2 and in the yet more striking story of the ,kylonians1 who tied a cord to the statue of the goddess when they quitted the asylum1 and clung to it for protection as they crossed unhallowed ground2 but by ill-fate the cord of safety broke and they were mercilessly put to death4#agg ,and in our own day1 ,buddhist priests in solemn ceremony put themselves in communication with a sacred relic1 by each taking hold of a long thread fastened near it and around the temple4#agh ,magical arts in which the connexion is that of mere analogy or symbolism are endlessly numerous throughout the course of civilization4 ,their common theory may be readily made out from a few typical cases1 and thence applied confidently to the general mass4 ,the ,australian will observe the track of an insect near a grave1 to ascertain the direction where the sorcerer is to be found1 by whose craft the man died4#agi ,the ,zulu may be seen chewing a bit of wood1 in order1 by this symbolic act1 to soften the heart of the man he wants to buy oxen from1 or of the woman he wants for a wife4#ahj ,the ,obi-man of ,west ,africa makes his packet of grave-dust1 blood1 and bones1 that this suggestive representation of death may bring his enemy to the grave4#aha ,the ,khond sets up the iron arrow of the ,war-god in a basket of rice1 and judges from its standing upright that war must be kept up also1 or from its falling that the quarrel may be let fall too2 and when he tortures human victims sacrificed to the ,earth-goddess1 he rejoices to see them shed plentiful tears1 which betoken copious showers to fall upon his land4#ahb ,these are fair examples of the symbolic magic of the lower races1 and they are fully rivalled in superstitions which still hold their ground in ,europe4 ,with quaint simplicity1 the ,german cottager declares that if a dog howls looking downward1 it portends a death2 but if upward1 then a recovery from sickness4#ahc ,locks must be opened and bolts drawn in a dying man's house1 that his soul may not be held fast4#ahd ,the ,hessian lad thinks that he may escape the conscription by carrying a baby-girl's cap in his pocket--a symbolic way of repudiating manhood4#ahe ,modern ,servians1 dancing and singing1 lead about a little girl dressed in leaves and flowers1 and pour bowls of water over her to make the rain come4#ahf ,sailors becalmed will sometimes whistle for a wind2 but in other weather they hate whistling at sea1 which raises a whistling gale4#ahg ,fish1 says the ,cornishman1 should be eaten from the tail towards the head1 to bring the other fishes' heads towards the shore1 for eating them the wrong way turns them from the coast4#ahh ,he who has cut himself should rub the knife with fat1 and as it dries1 the wound will heal2 this is a lingering survival from days when recipes for sympathetic ointment were to be found in the ,pharmacopia4#ahi ,fanciful as these notions are1 it should be borne in mind that they come fairly under definite mental law1 depending as they do on a principle of ideal association1 of which we can quite understand the mental action1 though we deny its practical results4 ,the clever ,lord ,chesterfield1 too clever to understand folly1 may again be cited to prove this4 ,he relates in one of his letters that the king had been ill1 and that people generally expected the illness to be fatal1 because the oldest lion in the ,tower1 about the king's age1 had just died4 #8,so wild and capricious is the human mind1' he exclaims1 by way of comment4 ,but indeed the thought was neither wild nor capricious1 it was simply such an argument from analogy as the educated world has at length painfully learnt to be worthless2 but which1 it is not too much to declare1 would to this day carry considerable weight to the minds of four-fifths of the human race4 ,a glance at those magical arts which have been systematized into pseudo-sciences1 shows the same underlying principle4 ,the art of taking omens from seeing and meeting animals1 which includes augury1 is familiar to such savages as the ,tupis of ,brazil#aij and the ,dayaks of ,borneo1#aia and extends upward through classic civilization4 ,the ,maoris may give a sample of the character of its rules3 they hold it unlucky if an owl hoots during a consultation1 but a council of war is encouraged by prospect of victory when a hawk flies overhead2 a flight of birds to the right of the war-sacrifice is propitious if the villages of the tribe are in that quarter1 but if the omen is in the enemy's direction the war will be given up4#aib ,compare these with the ,tatar rules1 and it is obvious that similar thoughts lie at the source of both4 ,here a certain little owl's cry is a sound of terror1 although there is a white owl which is lucky2 but of all birds the white falcon is most prophetic1 and the ,kalmuk bows his thanks for the good omen when one flies by on the right1 but seeing one on the left turns away his face and expects calamity4#aic ,so to the negro of ,old ,calabar1 the cry of the great kingfisher bodes good or evil1 according as it is heard on the right or left4#aid ,here we have the obvious symbolism of the right and left hand1 the foreboding of ill from the owl's doleful note1 and the suggestion of victory from the fierce swooping hawk1 a thought which in old ,europe made the bird of prey the warrior's omen of conquest4 ,meaning of the same kind appears in the #8,angang1' the omens taken from meeting animals and people1 especially on first going out in the morning1 as when the ancient ,slaves held meeting a sick man or an old woman to bode ill-luck4 ,any one who takes the trouble to go into this subject in detail1 and to study the classic1 medival1 and oriental codes of rules1 will find that the principle of direct symbolism still accounts for a fair proportion of them1 though the rest may have lost their early significance1 or may have been originally due to some other reason1 or may have been arbitrarily invented 7as a considerable proportion of such devices must necessarily be7 to fill up the gaps in the system4 ,it is still plain to us why the omen of the crow should be different on the right or left hand1 why a vulture should mean rapacity1 a stork concord1 a pelican piety1 an ass labour1 why the fierce conquering wolf should be a good omen1 and the timid hare a bad one1 why bees1 types of an obedient nation1 should be lucky to a king1 while flies1 returning however often they are driven off1 should be signs of importunity and impudence4#aie ,and as to the general principle that animals are ominous to those who meet them1 the ,german peasant who says a flock of sheep is lucky but a herd of swine unlucky to meet1 and the ,cornish miner who turns away in horror when he meets an old woman or a rabbit on his way to the pit's mouth1 are to this day keeping up relics of early savagery as genuine as any flint implement dug out of a tumulus4 ,the doctrine of dreams1 attributed as they are by the lower and middle races to spiritual intercourse1 belongs in so far rather to religion than to magic4 ,but oneiromancy1 the art of taking omens from dreams by analogical interpretation1 has its place here4 ,of the leading principle of such mystical explanation1 no better types could be chosen than the details and interpretations of ,joseph's dreams 7,genesis xxxvii41 xl41 xli471 of the sheaves and the sun and moon and eleven stars1 of the vine and the basket of meats1 of the lean and fat kine1 and the thin and full corn-ears4 ,oneiromancy1 thus symbolically interpreting the things seen in dreams1 is not unknown to the lower races4 ,a whole ,australian tribe has been known to decamp because one of them dreamt of a certain kind of owl1 which dream the wise men declared to forebode an attack from a certain other tribe4#aif ,the ,kamchadals1 whose minds ran much on dreams1 had special interpretations of some2 thus to dream of lice or dogs betokened a visit of ,russian travellers1 c4#aig ,the ,zulus1 experience having taught them the fallacy of expecting direct fulfilment of dreams1 have in some cases tried to mend matters by rushing to the other extreme4 ,if they dream of a sick man that he is dead1 and they see the earth poured into the grave1 and hear the funeral lamentation1 and see all his things destroyed1 then they say1 #8,because we have dreamt of his death he will not die4' ,but if they dream of a wedding-dance1 it is a sign of a funeral4 ,so the ,maoris hold that a kinsman dreamt of as dying will recover1 but to see him well is a sign of death4#aih ,both races thus work out1 by the same crooked logic that guided our own ancestors1 the axiom that #8dreams go by contraries4' ,it could not be expected1 in looking over the long lists of precepts of classic1 oriental1 and modern popular dream-interpretation1 to detect the original sense of all their readings4 ,many must turn on allusions intelligible at the time1 but now obscure4 ,the ,moslem dream-interpretation of eggs as concerning women1 because of a saying of ,mohammed about women being like an egg hidden in a nest1 is an example which will serve as well as a score to show how dream-rules may turn on far-fetched ideas1 not to be recognized unless the key happens to have been preserved4 ,many rules must have been taken at random to fill up lists of omens1 and of contingencies to match them4 ,why should a dream of roasting meat show the dreamer to be a back-biter1 or laughter in sleep presage difficult circumstances1 or a dream of playing on the clavicord the death of relatives8 ,but the other side of the matter1 the still apparent nonsensical rationality of so many dream omens1 is much more remarkable4 ,it can only be considered that the same symbolism that lay at the root of the whole delusion1 favoured the keeping up and new making of such rules as carried obvious meaning4 ,take the ,moslem ideas that it is a good omen to dream of something white or green1 or of water1 but bad to dream of black or red1 or of fire2 that a palm-tree indicates an ,arab1 and a peacock a king2 that he who dreams of devouring the stars will live free at some great man's table4 ,take the classic rules as in the #8,oneirocritica' of ,artemidorus1 and pass on through the medival treatises down to such a dream-dictionary as servant-maids still buy in penny chap-books at the fair1 and it will be seen that the ancient rules still hold their places to a remarkable extent1 while half the mass of precepts still show their original mystic significance1 mostly direct1 but occasionally according to the rule of contraries4 ,an offensive odour signifies annoyance2 to wash the hands denotes release from anxieties2 to embrace one's best beloved is very fortunate2 to have one's feet cut off prevents a journey2 to weep in sleep is a sign of joy2 he who dreams he hath lost a tooth shall lose a friend2 and he that dreams that a rib is taken out of his side shall ere long see the death of his wife2 to follow bees1 betokens gain2 to be married signifies that some of your kinsfolk are dead2 if one sees many fowls together1 that shall be jealousy and chiding2 if a snake pursue him1 let him be on his guard against evil women2 to dream of death1 denotes happiness and long life2 to dream of swimming and wading in the water is good1 so that the head be kept above water2 to dream of crossing a bridge1 denotes you will leave a good situation to seek a better2 to dream you see a dragon is a sign that you shall see some great lord your master1 or a magistrate4#aii ,haruspication belongs1 among the lower races1 especially to the ,malays and ,polynesians1#bjj and to various ,asiatic tribes4#bja ,it is mentioned as practised in ,peru under the ,incas4#bjb ,captain ,burton's account from ,central ,africa perhaps fairly displays its symbolic principle4 ,he describes the mganga or sorcerer taking an ordeal by killing and splitting a fowl and inspecting its inside3 if blackness or blemish appears about the wings1 it denotes the treachery of children and kinsmen2 the backbone convicts the mother and grandmother2 the tail shows that the criminal is the wife1 c4#bjc ,in ancient ,rome1 where the art held so great a place in public affairs1 the same sort of interpretation was usual1 as witness the omen of ,augustus1 where the livers of the victims were found folded1 and the diviners prophesied him accordingly a doubled empire4#bjd ,since then1 haruspication has died out more completely than almost any magical rite1 yet even now a characteristic relic of it may be noticed in ,brandenburg2 when a pig is killed and the spleen is found turned over1 there will be another overthrow1 namely a death in the family that year4#bje ,with haruspication may be classed the art of divining by bones1 as where ,north ,american ,indians would put in the fire a certain flat bone of a porcupine1 and judge from its colour if the porcupine hunt would be successful4#bjf ,the principal art of this kind is divination by a shoulder-blade1 technically called scapulimancy or omoplatoscopy4 ,this art1 related to the old ,chinese divination by the cracks of a tortoise-shell on the fire1 is especially found in vogue in ,tartary4 ,its simple symbolism is well shown in the elaborate account with diagrams given by ,pallas4 ,the shoulder-blade is put on the fire till it cracks in various directions1 and then a long split lengthwise is reckoned as the #8way of life1' while cross-cracks on the right and left stand for different kinds and degrees of good and evil fortune2 or if the omen is only taken as to some special event1 then lengthwise splits mean going on well1 but crosswise ones stand for hindrance1 white marks portend much snow1 black ones a mild winter1 c4#bjg ,to find this quaint art lasting on into modern times in ,europe1 we can hardly go to a better place than our own country2 a proper ,english term for it is #8reading the speal-bone' 7speal espaule74 ,in ,ireland1 ,camden describes the looking through the blade-bone of a sheep1 to find a dark spot which foretells a death1 and ,drayton thus commemorates the art in his ,polyolbion3-- #8,by th' shoulder of a ram from off the right side par'd1 ,which usually they boile1 the spade-bone being bar'd1 ,which when the wizard takes1 and gazing therupon ,things long to come foreshowes1 as things done long agone4'#bjh ,chiromancy1 or palmistry1 seems much like this1 though it is also mixed up with astrology4 ,it flourished in ancient ,greece and ,italy as it still does in ,india1 where to say1 #8,it is written on the palms of my hands1' is a usual way of expressing a sense of inevitable fate4 ,chiromancy traces in the markings of the palm a line of fortune and a line of life1 finds proof of melancholy in the intersections on the saturnine mount1 presages sorrow and death from black spots in the finger-nails1 and at last1 having exhausted the powers of this childish symbolism1 it completes its system by details of which the absurdity is no longer relieved by even an ideal sense4 ,the art has its modern votaries not merely among ,gypsy fortune-tellers1 but in what is called #8good society4'#bji ,it may again and again thus be noticed in magic arts1 that the association of ideas is obvious up to a certain point4 ,thus when the ,new ,zealand sorcerer took omens by the way his divining sticks 7guided by spirits7 fell1 he quite naturally said it was a good omen if the stick representing his own tribe fell on top of that representing the enemy1 and vice vers4 ,zulu diviners still work a similar process with their magical pieces of stick1 which rise to say yes and fall to say no1 jump upon the head or stomach or other affected part of the patient's body to show where his complaint is1 and lie pointing towards the house of the doctor who can cure him4 ,so likewise1 where a similar device was practised ages ago in the ,old ,world1 the responses were taken from staves which 7by the operation of demons7 fell backward or forward1 to the right or left4#baj ,but when processes of this kind are developed to complexity1 the system has1 of course1 to be completed by more arbitrary arrangements4 ,this is well shown in one of the divinatory arts mentioned in the last chapter for their connexion with games of chance4 ,in cartomancy1 the art of fortune-telling with packs of cards1 there is a sort of nonsensical sense in such rules as that two queens mean friendship and four mean chattering1 or that the knave of hearts prophesies a brave young man who will come into the family to be useful1 unless his purpose be reversed by his card being upside down4 ,but of course the pack can only furnish a limited number of such comparatively rational interpretations1 and the rest must be left to such arbitrary fancy as that the seven of diamonds means a prize in the lottery1 and the ten of the same suit an unexpected journey4#baa ,a remarkable group of divining instruments illustrates another principle4 ,in ,south-,east ,asia1 the ,sgau ,karens1 at funeral feasts1 hang a bangle or metal ring by a thread over a brass basin1 which the relatives of the dead approach in succession and strike on the edge with a bit of bamboo2 when the one who was most beloved touches the basin1 the dead man's spirit responds by twisting and stretching the string till it breaks and the ring falls into the cup1 or at least till it rings against it4#bab ,nearer ,central ,asia1 in the north-east corner of ,india1 among the ,bodo and ,dhimal1 the professional exorcist has to find out what deity has entered into a patient's body to punish him for some impiety by an attack of illness2 this he discovers by setting thirteen leaves round him on the ground to represent the gods1 and then holding a pendulum attached to his thumb by a string1 till the god in question is persuaded by invocation to declare himself1 making the pendulum swing towards his representative leaf4#bac ,these mystic arts 7not to go into the question how these tribes came to use them7 are rude forms of the classical dactyliomancy1 of which so curious an account is given in the trial of the conspirators ,patricius and ,hilarius1 who worked it to find out who was to supplant the emperor ,valens4 ,a round table was marked at the edge with the letters of the alphabet1 and with prayers and mystic ceremonies a ring was held suspended over it by a thread1 and by swinging or stopping towards certain letters gave the responsive words of the oracle4#bad ,dactyliomancy has dwindled in ,europe to the art of finding out what o'clock it is by holding a ring hanging inside a tumbler by a thread1 till1 without conscious aid by the operator1 it begins to swing and strikes the hour4 ,father ,schott1 in his #8,physica ,curiosa' 7#affb71 refrains with commendable caution from ascribing this phenomenon universally to demoniac influence4 ,it survives among ourselves in child's play1 and though we are #8no conjurers1' we may learn something from the little instrument1 which remarkably displays the effects of insensible movement4 ,the operator really gives slight impulses till they accumulate to a considerable vibration1 as in ringing a church-bell by very gentle pulls exactly timed4 ,that he does1 though unconsciously1 cause and direct the swings1 may be shown by an attempt to work the instrument with the operator's eyes shut1 which will be found to fail1 the directing power being lost4 ,the action of the famous divining-rod with its curiously versatile sensibility to water1 ore1 treasure1 and thieves1 seems to belong partly to trickery by professional ,dousterswivels1 and partly to more or less conscious direction by honester operators4 ,it is still known in ,england1 and in ,germany they are apt to hide it in a baby's clothes1 and so get it baptized for greater efficiency4#bae ,to conclude this group of divinatory instruments1 chance or the operator's direction may determine the action of one of the most familiar of classic and medival ordeals1 the so-called coscinomancy1 or1 as it is described in ,hudibras1 #8th' oracle of sieve and shears1 that turns as certain as the spheres4' ,the sieve was held hanging by a thread1 or by the points of a pair of shears stuck into its rim1 and it would turn1 or swing1 or fall1 at the mention of a thief's name1 and give similar signs for other purposes4 ,of this ancient rite1 the ,christian ordeal of the ,bible and key1 still in frequent use1 is a variation3 the proper way to detect a thief by this is to read the #ejth ,psalm to the apparatus1 and when it hears the verse1 #8,when thou sawest a thief1 then thou consentedst with him1' it will turn to the culprit4#baf ,count de ,maistre1 with his usual faculty of taking an argument up at the wrong end1 tells us that judicial astrology no doubt hangs to truths of the first order1 which have been taken from us as useless or dangerous1 or which we cannot recognize under their new forms4#bag ,a sober examination of the subject may rather justify the contrary opinion1 that it is on an error of the first order that astrology depends1 the error of mistaking ideal analogy for real connexion4 ,astrology1 in the immensity of its delusive influence on mankind1 and by the comparatively modern period to which it remained an honoured branch of philosophy1 may claim the highest rank among the occult sciences4 ,it scarcely belongs to very low levels of civilization1 although one of its fundamental conceptions1 namely1 that of the souls or animating intelligences of the celestial bodies1 is rooted in the depths of savage life4 ,yet the following ,maori specimen of astrological reasoning is as real an argument as could be found in ,paracelsus or ,agrippa1 nor is there reason to doubt its being home-made4 ,when the siege of a ,new ,zealand #8pa' is going on1 if ,venus is near the moon1 the natives naturally imagine the two as enemy and fortress2 if the planet is above1 the foe will have the upper hand2 but if below1 then the men of the soil will be able to defend themselves4#bah ,though the early history of astrology is obscure1 its great development and elaborate systematization were undoubtedly the work of civilized nations of the ancient and medival world4 ,as might be well supposed1 a great part of its precepts have lost their intelligible sense1 or never had any1 but the origin of many others is still evident4 ,to a considerable extent they rest on direct symbolism4 ,such are the rules which connect the sun with gold1 with the heliotrope and pony1 with the cock which heralds day1 with magnanimous animals1 such as the lion and bull2 and the moon with silver1 and the changing chamleon1 and the palm-tree1 which was considered to send out a monthly shoot4 ,direct symbolism is plain in that main principle of the calculation of nativities1 the notion of the #8ascendant' in the horoscope1 which reckons the part of the heavens rising in the east at the moment of a child's birth as being connected with the child itself1 and prophetic of its future life4#bai ,it is an old story1 that when two brothers were once taken ill together1 ,hippokrates the physician concluded from the coincidence that they were twins1 but ,poseidonios the astrologer considered rather that they were born under the same constellation3 we may add1 that either argument would be thought reasonable by a savage4 ,one of the most instructive astrological doctrines which has kept its place in modern popular philosophy1 is that of the sympathy of growing and declining nature with the waxing and waning moon4 ,among classical precepts are these3 to set eggs under the hen at new moon1 but to root up trees when the moon is on the wane1 and after midday4 ,the ,lithuanian precept to wean boys on a waxing1 but girls on a waning moon1 no doubt to make the boys sturdy and the girls slim and delicate1 is a fair match for the ,orkney islanders' objection to marrying except with a growing moon1 while some even wish for a flowing tide4 ,the following lines1 from ,tusser's #8,five ,hundred ,points of ,husbandry1' show neatly in a single case the two contrary lunar influences3-- #8,sowe peason and beans in the wane of the moone ,who soweth them sooner1 he soweth too soone3 ,that they1 with the planet1 may rest and rise1 ,and flourish with bearing1 most plentiful wise4'#bbj ,the notion that the weather changes with the moon's quarterings is still held with great vigour in ,england4 ,yet the meteorologists1 with all their eagerness to catch at any rule which at all answers to facts1 quite repudiate this one1 which indeed appears to be simply a maxim belonging to popular astrology4 ,just as the growth and dwindling of plants became associated with the moon's wax and wane1 so changes of weather became associated with changes of the moon1 while1 by astrologer's logic1 it did not matter whether the moon's change were real1 at new and full1 or imaginary1 at the intermediate quarters4 ,that educated people to whom exact weather records are accessible should still find satisfaction in the fanciful lunar rule1 is an interesting case of intellectual survival4 ,in such cases as these1 the astrologer has at any rate a real analogy1 deceptive though it be1 to base his rule upon4 ,but most of his pseudo-science seems to rest on even weaker and more arbitrary analogies1 not of things1 but of names4 ,names of stars and constellations1 of signs denoting regions of the sky and periods of days and years1 no matter how arbitrarily given1 are materials which the astrologer can work upon1 and bring into ideal connexion with mundane events4 ,that astronomers should have divided the sun's course into imaginary signs of the zodiac1 was enough to originate astrological rules that these celestial signs have an actual effect on real earthly rams1 bulls1 crabs1 lions1 virgins4 ,a child born under the sign of the ,lion will be courageous2 but one born under the ,crab will not go forward well in life2 one born under the ,waterman is likely to be drowned1 and so forth4 ,towards #aebd1 ,europe was awaiting in an agony of prayerful terror a second deluge1 prophesied for ,february in that year4 ,as the fatal month drew nigh1 dwellers by the waterside moved in crowds to the hills1 some provided boats to save them1 and the ,president ,aurial1 at ,toulouse1 built himself a ,noah's ,ark4 ,it was the great astrologer ,stoefler 7the originator1 it is said1 of the weather-prophecies in our almanacks7 who foretold this cataclysm1 and his argument has the advantage of being still perfectly intelligible--at the date in question1 three planets would be together in the aqueous sign of ,pisces4 ,again1 simply because astronomers chose to distribute among the planets the names of certain deities1 the planets thereby acquired the characters of their divine namesakes4 ,thus it was that the planet ,mercury became connected with travel1 trade1 and theft1 ,venus with love and mirth1 ,mars with war1 ,jupiter with power and #8joviality4' ,throughout the ,east1 astrology even now remains a science in full esteem4 ,the condition of medival ,europe may still be perfectly realized by the traveller in ,persia1 where the ,shah waits for days outside the walls of his capital till the constellations allow him to enter1 and where on the days appointed by the stars for letting blood1 it literally flows in streams from the barbers' shops into the street4 ,professor ,wuttke declares that there are many districts in ,germany where the child's horoscope is still regularly kept with the baptismal certificate in the family chest4 ,we scarcely reach this pitch of conservatism in ,england1 but ,i happen to myself live within a mile of an astrologer1 and ,i lately saw a grave paper on nativities1 offered in all good faith to the ,british ,association4 ,the piles of #8,zadkiel's ,almanack' in the bookseller's windows in country towns about ,christmas are a symptom how much yet remains to be done in popular education4 ,as a specimen at once of the survival and of the meaning of astrologic reasoning1 ,i cannot do better than quote a passage from a book published in ,london in #ahfa1 and entitled #8,the ,hand-,book of ,astrology1 by ,zadkiel ,tao-,sze4' ,at page #gb of his first volume1 the astrologer relates as follows3 #8,the ,map of the heavens given at page #de was drawn on the occasion of a young lady having been arrested on a charge of the murder of her infant brother4 ,having read in a newspaper1 at twenty-four minutes past noon on the #bcrd ,july1 #ahfj1 that ,miss ,c4 ,k4 had been arrested on a charge of the murder of her young brother1 the author felt desirous to ascertain whether she were guilty or not1 and drew the map accordingly4 ,finding the moon in the twelfth house1 she clearly signifies the prisoner4 ,the moon is in a moveable sign1 and moves in the twenty-four hours1 #ad #ag4 ,she is1 therefore1 swift in motion4 ,these things indicated that the prisoner would be very speedily released4 ,then we find a moveable sign in the cusp of the twelfth1 and its ruler1 1 in a moveable sign1 a further indication of speedy release4 ,hence it was judged and declared to many friends that the prisoner would be immediately released1 which was the fact4 ,we looked to see whether the prisoner were guilty of the deed or not1 and finding the ,moon in ,libra1 a humane sign1 and having just past the aspect of the ,sun and 1 both being on the ,m4 ,c4 we felt assured that she was a humane1 feeling1 and honourable girl1 and that it was quite impossible she could be guilty of any such atrocity4 ,we declared her to be perfectly innocent1 and as the ,moon was so well aspected from the tenth house1 we declared that her honour would be very soon perfectly established4' ,had the astrologer waited a few months longer1 to have read the confession of the miserable ,constance ,kent1 he would perhaps have put a different sense on his moveable signs1 just balances1 and sunny and jovial aspects4 ,nor would this be a difficult task1 for these fancies lend themselves to endless variety of new interpretation4 ,and on such fancies and such interpretations1 the great science of the stars has from first to last been based4 ,looking at the details here selected as fair samples of symbolic magic1 we may well ask the question1 is there in the whole monstrous farrago no truth or value whatever8 ,it appears that there is practically none1 and that the world has been enthralled for ages by a blind belief in processes wholly irrelevant to their supposed results1 and which might as well have been taken just the opposite way4 ,pliny justly saw in magic a study worthy of his especial attention1 #8for the very reason that1 being the most fraudulent of arts1 it had prevailed throughout the world and through so many ages' 7eo ipso quod fraudulentissima artium plurimum in toto terrarum orbe plurimisque seculis valuit74 ,if it be asked how such a system could have held its ground1 not merely in independence but in defiance of its own facts1 a fair answer does not seem hard to give4 ,in the first place1 it must be borne in mind that occult science has not existed entirely in its own strength4 ,futile as its arts may be1 they are associated in practice with other proceedings by no means futile4 ,what are passed off as sacred omens1 are often really the cunning man's shrewd guesses at the past and future4 ,divination serves to the sorcerer as a mask for real inquest1 as when the ordeal gives him invaluable opportunity of examining the guilty1 whose trembling hands and equivocating speech betray at once their secret and their utter belief in his power of discerning it4 ,prophecy tends to fulfil itself1 as where the magician1 by putting into a victim's mind the belief that fatal arts have been practised against him1 can slay him with this idea as with a material weapon4 ,often priest as well as magician1 he has the whole power of religion at his back2 often a man in power1 always an unscrupulous intriguer1 he can work witchcraft and statecraft together1 and make his left hand help his right4 ,often a doctor1 he can aid his omens of life or death with remedy or poison1 while what we still call #8conjurers' tricks' of sleight of hand have done much to keep up his supernatural prestige4 ,from the earliest known stages of civilization1 professional magicians have existed1 who live by their craft1 and keep it alive4 ,it has been said1 that if somebody had endowed lecturers to teach that two sides of a triangle are together equal to the third1 the doctrine would have a respectable following among ourselves4 ,at any rate1 magic1 with an influential profession interested in keeping it in credit and power1 did not depend for its existence on mere evidence4 ,and in the second place1 as to this evidence4 ,magic has not its origin in fraud1 and seems seldom practised as an utter imposture4 ,the sorcerer generally learns his time-honoured profession in good faith1 and retains his belief in it more or less from first to last2 at once dupe and cheat1 he combines the energy of a believer with the cunning of a hypocrite4 ,had occult science been simply framed for purposes of deception1 mere nonsense would have answered the purpose1 whereas1 what we find is an elaborate and systematic pseudo-science4 ,it is1 in fact1 a sincere but fallacious system of philosophy1 evolved by the human intellect by processes still in great measure intelligible to our own minds1 and it had thus an original standing-ground in the world4 ,and though the evidence of fact was dead against it1 it was but lately and gradually that this evidence was brought fatally to bear4 ,a general survey of the practical working of the system may be made somewhat thus4 ,a large proportion of successful cases belong to natural means disguised as magic4 ,also1 a certain proportion of cases must succeed by mere chance4 ,by far the larger proportion1 however1 are what we should call failures2 but it is a part of the magician's profession to keep these from counting1 and this he does with extraordinary resource of rhetorical shift and brazen impudence4 ,he deals in ambiguous phrases1 which give him three or four chances for one4 ,he knows perfectly how to impose difficult conditions1 and to lay the blame of failure on their neglect4 ,if you wish to make gold1 the alchemist in ,central ,asia has a recipe at your service1 only1 to use it1 you must abstain three days from thinking of apes2 just as our ,english folk-lore says1 that if one of your eyelashes comes out1 and you put it on your thumb1 you will get anything you wish for1 if you can only avoid thinking of foxes' tails at the fatal moment4 ,again1 if the wrong thing happens1 the wizard has at least a reason why4 ,has a daughter been born when he promised a son1 then it is some hostile practitioner who has turned the boy into a girl2 does a tempest come just when he is making fine weather1 then he calmly demands a larger fee for stronger ceremonies1 assuring his clients that they may thank him as it is1 for how much worse it would have been had he not done what he did4 ,and even setting aside all this accessory trickery1 if we look at honest but unscientific people practising occult science in good faith1 and face to face with facts1 we shall see that the failures which condemn it in our eyes carry comparatively little weight in theirs4 ,part escape under the elastic pretext of a #8little more or less1' as the loser in the lottery consoles himself that his lucky number came within two of a prize1 or the moon-observer points out triumphantly that a change of weather has come within two or three days before or after a quarter1 so that his convenient definition of near a moon's quarter applies to four or six days out of every seven4 ,part escape through incapacity to appreciate negative evidence1 which allows one success to outweigh half-a-dozen failures4 ,how few there are even among the educated classes now1 who have taken in the drift of that memorable passage in the beginning of the #8,novum ,organum3'--#8,the human understanding1 when any proposition has been once laid down 7either from general admission and belief1 or from the pleasure it affords71 forces everything else to add fresh support and confirmation2 and although most cogent and abundant instances may exist to the contrary1 yet either does not observe or despises them1 or gets rid of and rejects them by some distinction1 with violent and injurious prejudice1 rather than sacrifice the authority of its first conclusions4 ,it was well answered by him who was shown in a temple the votive tablets suspended by such as had escaped the peril of shipwreck1 and was pressed as to whether he would then recognize the power of the gods1 by an inquiry1 8,but where are the portraits of those who have perished in spite of their vows80'#bba ,on the whole1 the survival of symbolic magic through the middle ages and into our own times is an unsatisfactory1 but not a mysterious fact4 ,a once-established opinion1 however delusive1 can hold its own from age to age1 for belief can propagate itself without reference to its reasonable origin1 as plants are propagated from slips without fresh raising from the seed4 ,the history of survival in cases like those of the folk-lore and occult arts which we have been considering1 has for the most part been a history of dwindling and decay4 ,as men's minds change in progressing culture1 old customs and opinions fade gradually in a new and uncongenial atmosphere1 or pass into states more congruous with the new life around them4 ,but this is so far from being a law without exception1 that a narrow view of history may often make it seem to be no law at all4 ,for the stream of civilization winds and turns upon itself1 and what seems the bright onward current of one age may in the next spin round in a whirling eddy1 or spread into a dull and pestilential swamp4 ,studying with a wide view the course of human opinion1 we may now and then trace on from the very turning-point the change from passive survival into active revival4 ,some well-known belief or custom has for centuries shown symptoms of decay1 when we begin to see that the state of society1 instead of stunting it1 is favouring its new growth1 and it bursts forth again with a vigour often as marvellous as it is unhealthy4 ,and though the revival be not destined to hold on indefinitely1 and though when opinion turns again its ruin may be more merciless than before1 yet it may last for ages1 make its way into the inmost constitution of society1 and even become a very mark and characteristic of its time4 ,writers who desire to show that1 with all our faults1 we are wiser and better than our ancestors1 dwell willingly on the history of witchcraft between the middle and modern ages4 ,they can quote ,martin ,luther1 apropos of the witches who spoil the farmers' butter and eggs1 #8,i would have no pity on these witches2 ,i would burn them all4' ,they can show the good ,sir ,matthew ,hale hanging witches in ,suffolk1 on the authority of scripture and the consenting wisdom of all nations2 and ,king ,james presiding at the torture of ,dr4 ,fian for bringing a storm against the king's ship on its course from ,denmark1 by the aid of a fleet of witches in sieves1 who carried out a christened cat to sea4 ,in those dreadful days1 to be a blear-eyed wizened cripple was to be worth twenty shillings to a witch-finder2 for a woman to have what this witch-finder was pleased to call the devil's mark on her body was presumption for judicial sentence of death2 and not to bleed or shed tears or sink in a pond was torture first and then the stake4 ,reform of religion was no cure for the disease of men's minds1 for in such things the ,puritan was no worse than the ,inquisitor1 and no better4 ,papist and ,protestant fought with one another1 but both turned against that enemy of the human race1 the hag who had sold herself to ,satan to ride upon a broomstick1 and to suck children's blood1 and to be for life and death of all creatures the most wretched4 ,but with new enlightenment there came in the very teeth of law and authority a change in ,european opinion4 ,toward the end of the seventeenth century the hideous superstition was breaking down among ourselves2 ,richard ,baxter1 of the #8,saint's ,rest1' strove with fanatic zeal to light again at home the witch-fires of ,new ,england1 but he strove in vain4 ,year by year the persecution of witches became more hateful to the educated classes1 and though it died hard1 it died at last down to a vestige4 ,in our days1 when we read of a witch being burnt at ,camargo in #ahfj1 we point to ,mexico as a country miserably in the rear of civilization4 ,and if in ,england it still happens that village boors have to be tried at quarter-sessions for ill-using some poor old woman1 who they fancy has dried a cow or spoiled a turnip crop1 we comment on the tenacity with which the rustic mind clings to exploded follies1 and cry out for more schoolmasters4 ,true as all this is1 the ethnographer must go wider and deeper in his enquiry1 to do his subject justly4 ,the prevailing belief in witchcraft that sat like a nightmare on public opinion from the #acth to the #agth centuries1 far from being itself a product of medivalism1 was a revival from the remote days of primval history4 ,the disease that broke out afresh in ,europe had been chronic among the lower races for how many ages we cannot tell4 ,witchcraft is part and parcel of savage life4 ,there are rude races of ,australia and ,south ,america whose intense belief in it has led them to declare that if men were never bewitched1 and never killed by violence1 they would not die at all4 ,like the ,australians1 the ,africans will inquire of their dead what sorcerer slew them by his wicked arts1 and when they have satisfied themselves of this1 blood must atone for blood4 ,in ,west ,africa1 it has been boldly asserted that the belief in witchcraft costs more lives than the slave trade ever did4 ,in ,east ,africa1 ,captain ,burton1 a traveller apt to draw his social sketches in a few sharp lines1 remarks that what with slavery and what with black-magic1 life is precarious among the ,wakhutu1 and #8no one1 especially in old age1 is safe from being burnt at a day's notice2' and1 travelling in the country of the ,wazaramo1 he tells us of meeting every few miles with heaps of ashes and charcoal1 now and then such as seemed to have been a father and mother1 with a little heap hard by that was a child4#bbb ,even in districts of ,british ,india a state of mind ready to produce horrors like these is well known to exist1 and to be kept down less by persuasion than by main force4 ,from the level of savage life1 we trace witchcraft surviving throughout the barbarian and early civilized world4 ,it was existing in ,europe in the centuries preceding the #ajth1 but with no especial prominence1 while laws of ,rothar and ,charlemagne are actually directed against such as should put men or women to death on the charge of witchcraft4 ,in the #aath century1 ecclesiastical influence was discouraging the superstitious belief in sorcery4 ,but now a period of reaction set in4 ,the works of the monastic legend and miracle-mongers more and more encouraged a baneful credulity as to the supernatural4 ,in the #acth century1 when the spirit of religious persecution had begun to possess all ,europe with a dark and cruel madness1 the doctrine of witchcraft revived with all its barbaric vigour4#bbc ,that the guilt of thus bringing down ,europe intellectually and morally to the level of negro ,africa lies in the main upon the ,roman ,church1 the records of ,popes ,gregory ,,ix4 and ,innocent ,,viii41 and the history of the ,holy ,inquisition1 are conclusive evidence to prove4 ,to us here the main interest of medival witchcraft lies in the extent and accuracy with which the theory of survival explains it4 ,in the very details of the bald conventional accusations that were sworn against the witches1 there may be traced tradition often hardly modified from barbarous and savage times4 ,they raised storms by magic rites1 they had charms against the hurt of weapons1 they had their assemblies on wild heath and mountain-top1 they could ride through the air on beasts and even turn into witch-cats and were-wolves themselves1 they had familiar spirits1 they had intercourse with incubi and succubi1 they conveyed thorns1 pins1 feathers and such things into their victims' bodies1 they caused disease by demoniacal possession1 they could bewitch by spells and the evil eye1 by practising on images and symbols1 on food and property4 ,now all this is sheer survival from pr-,christian ages1 #8in errore paganorum revolvitur1' as ,burchard of ,worms said of the superstition of his time4#bbd ,two of the most familiar devices used against the medival witches may serve to show the place in civilization of the whole craft4 ,the ,oriental jinn are in such deadly terror of iron1 that its very name is a charm against them2 and so in ,european folk-lore iron drives away fairies and elves1 and destroys their power4 ,they are essentially1 it seems1 creatures belonging to the ancient ,stone ,age1 and the new metal is hateful and hurtful to them4 ,now as to iron1 witches are brought under the same category as elves and nightmares4 ,iron instruments keep them at bay1 and especially iron horseshoes have been chosen for this purpose1 as half the stable doors in ,england still show4#bbe ,again1 one of the best known of ,english witch ordeals is the trial by #8fleeting' or swimming4 ,bound hand and foot1 the accused was flung into deep water1 to sink if innocent and swim if guilty1 and in the latter case1 as ,hudibras has it1 to be hanged only for not being drowned4 ,king ,james1 who seems to have had a notion of the real primitive meaning of this rite1 says in his ,dmonology1 #8,it appears that ,god hath appointed for a supernatural signe of the monstrous impietie of witches1 that the water shall refuse to receive them in her bosom that have shaken off them the sacred water of baptism1' c4 ,now1 in early ,german history this same trial by water was well known1 and its meaning recognized to be that the conscious element rejects the guilty 7si aqua illum velut innoxium receperit--innoxii submerguntur aqua1 culpabiles supernatant74 ,already in the #ith century the laws were prohibiting this practice as a relic of superstition4 ,lastly1 the same trial by water is recognized as one of the regular judicial ordeals in the ,hindu code of ,manu2 if the water does not cause the accused to float when plunged into it1 his oath is true4 ,as this ancient ,indian body of laws was itself no doubt compiled from materials of still earlier date1 we may venture to take the correspondence of the water-ordeal among the ,european and ,asiatic branches of the ,aryan race as carrying back its origin to a period of remote antiquity4#bbf ,let us hope that if the belief in present witchcraft1 and the persecution necessarily ensuing upon such belief1 once more come into prominence in the civilized world1 they may appear in a milder shape than heretofore1 and be kept down by stronger humanity and tolerance4 ,but any one who fancies from their present disappearance that they have necessarily disappeared for ever1 must have read history to little purpose1 and has yet to learn that #8revival in culture' is something more than an empty pedantic phrase4 ,our own time has revived a group of beliefs and practices which have their roots deep in the very stratum of early philosophy where witchcraft makes its first appearance4 ,this group of beliefs and practices constitutes what is now commonly known as ,spiritualism4 ,witchcraft and ,spiritualism have existed for thousands of years in a closeness of union not unfairly typified in this verse from ,john ,bale's #afth-century ,interlude concerning ,nature1 which brings under one head the art of bewitching vegetables and poultry1 and causing supernatural movement of stools and crockery4 #8,theyr wells ,i can up drye1 ,cause trees and herbes to dye1 ,and slee all pulterye1 ,whereas men doth me move3 ,i can make stoles to daunce ,and earthen pottes to praunce1 ,that none shall them enhaunce1 ,and do but cast my glove4' ,the same intellectual movement led to the decline of both witchcraft and spiritualism1 till1 early in the last century1 men thought that both were dying or all but dead together4 ,now1 however1 not only are spiritualists to be counted by tens of thousands in ,america and ,england1 but there are among them several men of distinguished mental power4 ,i am well aware that the problem of the so-called #8spirit-manifestations' is one to be discussed on its merits1 in order to arrive at a distinct opinion how far it may be concerned with facts insufficiently appreciated and explained by science1 and how far with superstition1 delusion1 and sheer knavery4 ,such investigation1 pursued by careful observation in a scientific spirit1 would seem apt to throw light on some most interesting psychological questions4 ,but though it lies beyond my scope to examine the spiritualistic evidence for itself1 the ethnographic view of the matter has1 nevertheless1 its value4 ,this shows modern spiritualism to be in great measure a direct revival from the regions of savage philosophy and peasant folk-lore4 ,it is not a simple question of the existence of certain phenomena of mind and matter4 ,it is that1 in connexion with these phenomena1 a great philosophic-religious doctrine1 flourishing in the lower culture but dwindling in the higher1 has re-established itself in full vigour4 ,the world is again swarming with intelligent and powerful disembodied spiritual beings1 whose direct action on thought and matter is again confidently asserted1 as in those times and countries where physical science had not as yet so far succeeded in extruding these spirits and their influences from the system of nature4 ,apparitions have regained the place and meaning which they held from the level of the lower races to that of medival ,europe4 ,the regular ghost-stories1 in which spirits of the dead walk visibly and have intercourse with corporeal men1 are now restored and cited with new examples as #8glimpses of the night-side of nature1' nor have these stories changed either their strength to those who are disposed to believe them1 or their weakness to those who are not4 ,as of old1 men live now in habitual intercourse with the spirits of the dead4 ,necromancy is a religion1 and the ,chinese manes-worshipper may see the outer barbarians come back1 after a heretical interval of a few centuries1 into sympathy with his time-honoured creed4 ,as the sorcerers of barbarous tribes lie in bodily lethargy or sleep while their souls depart on distant journeys1 so it is not uncommon in modern spiritualistic narratives for persons to be in an insensible state when their apparitions visit distant places1 whence they bring back information1 and where they communicate with the living4 ,the spirits of the living as well as of the dead1 the souls of ,strauss and ,carl ,vogt as well as of ,augustine and ,jerome1 are summoned by mediums to distant spirit-circles4 ,as ,dr4 ,bastian remarks1 if any celebrated man in ,europe feels himself at some moment in a melancholy mood1 he may console himself with the idea that his soul has been sent for to ,america1 to assist at the #8rough fixings' of some backwoodsman4 ,fifty years ago1 ,dr4 ,macculloch1 in his #8,description of the ,western ,islands of ,scotland1' wrote thus of the famous ,highland second-sight3 #8,in fact it has undergone the fate of witchcraft2 ceasing to be believed1 it has ceased to exist4' ,yet a generation later he would have found it reinstated in a far larger range of society1 and under far better circumstances of learning and material prosperity4 ,among the influences which have combined to bring about the spiritualistic renaissance1 a prominent place may1 ,i think1 be given to the effect produced on the religious mind of ,europe and ,america by the intensely animistic teachings of ,emanuel ,swedenborg1 in the #ahth century4 ,the position of this remarkable visionary as to some of the particular spiritualistic doctrines may be judged of by the following statements from #8,the ,true ,christian ,religion4' ,a man's spirit is his mind1 which lives after death in complete human form1 and this spirit may be conveyed from place to place while the body remains at rest1 as on some occasions happened to ,swedenborg himself4 #8,i have conversed1' he says1 #8with all my relations and friends1 likewise with kings and princes1 and men of learning1 after their departure out of this life1 and this now for twenty-seven years without interruption4' ,and foreseeing that many who read his #8,memorable ,relations' will believe them to be fictions of imagination1 he protests in truth they are not fictions1 but were really seen and heard2 not seen and heard in any state of mind in sleep1 but in a state of complete wakefulness4#bbg ,i shall have to speak elsewhere of some of the doctrines of modern spiritualism1 where they seem to fall into their places in the study of ,animism4 ,here1 as a means of illustrating the relation of the newer to the older spiritualistic ideas1 ,i propose to glance over the ethnography of two of the most popular means of communicating with the spirit-world by rapping and writing1 and two of the prominent spirit-manifestations1 the feat of rising in the air1 and the trick of the ,davenport ,brothers4 ,the elf who goes knocking and routing about the house at night1 and whose special ,german name is the #8,poltergeist1' is an old and familiar personage in ,european folk-lore4#bbh ,from of old1 such unexplained noises have been ascribed to the agency of personal spirits1 who more often than not are considered human souls4 ,the modern ,dayaks1 ,siamese1 and ,singhalese agree with the ,esths as to such routing and rapping being caused by spirits4#bbi ,knockings may be considered mysterious but harmless1 like those which in ,swabia and ,franconia are expected during ,advent on the ,anklpferleins-,nchte1 or #8,little ,knockers' ,nights4'#bcj ,or they may be useful1 as when the ,welsh miners think that the #8knockers' they hear underground are indicating the rich veins of lead and silver4#bca ,or they may be simply annoying1 as when1 in the ninth century1 a malignant spirit infested a parish by knocking at the walls as if with a hammer1 but being overcome with litanies and holy water1 confessed itself to be the familiar of a certain wicked priest1 and to have been in hiding under his cloak4 ,thus1 in the seventeenth century1 the famous demon-drummer of ,tedworth1 commemorated by ,glanvil in the #8,saducismus ,triumphatus1' thumped about the doors and the outside of the house1 and #8for an hour together it would beat ,roundheads and ,cuckolds1 the ,tat-too1 and several other ,points of ,war1 as well as any ,drummer4'#bcb ,but popular philosophy has mostly attached to such mysterious noises a foreboding of death1 the knock being held as a signal or summons among spirits as among men4 ,the ,romans considered that the genius of death thus announced his coming4 ,modern folk-lore holds either that a knocking or rumbling in the floor is an omen of a death about to happen1 or that dying persons themselves announce their dissolution to their friends in such strange sounds4 ,the ,english rule takes in both cases3 #8,three loud and distinct knocks at the bed's head of a sick person1 or at the bed's head or door of any of his relations1 is an omen of his death4' ,we happen to have a good means of testing the amount of actual correspondence between omen and event necessary to establish these rules3 the illogical people who were 7and still are7 able to discover a connexion between the ticking of the #8death-watch' beetle and an ensuing death in the house1 no doubt found it equally easy to give a prophetic interpretation to any other mysterious knocks4#bcc ,there is a story1 dated #aecd1 of a ghost that answered questions by knocking in the ,catholic church of ,orleans1 and demanded the removal of the provost's ,lutheran wife1 who had been buried there2 but the affair proved to be a trick of a ,franciscan friar4#bcd ,the system of working an alphabet by counted raps is a device familiar to prison-cells1 where it has long been at once the despair of gaolers and an evidence of the diffusion of education even among the criminal classes4 ,thus when1 in #ahdg1 the celebrated rappings began to trouble the township of ,arcadia in the ,state of ,new ,york1 the ,fox family of ,rochester1 founders of the modern spiritual movement1 had on the one hand only to revive the ancient prevalent belief in spirit-rappings1 which had almost fallen into the limbo of discredited superstitions1 while1 on the other hand1 the system of communication with the spirits was ready made to their hand4 ,the system of a rapping-alphabet remains in full use1 and numberless specimens of messages thus received are in print1 possibly the longest being a novel1 of which ,i can only give the title1 #8,juanita1 ,nouvelle par une ,chaise4 l',imprimerie du ,gouvernement1 ,basse ,terre 7,guadeloupe71 #ahec4' ,in the recorded communications1 names1 dates1 c41 are often alleged to have been stated under remarkable circumstances1 while the style of thought1 language1 and spelling fits with the intellectual quality of the medium4 ,a large proportion of the communications being obviously false and silly1 even when the #8spirit' has announced itself in the name of some great statesman1 moralist1 or philosopher of the past1 the theory has been adopted by spiritualists that foolish or lying spirits are apt to personate those of higher degree1 and give messages in their names4 ,spirit-writing is of two kinds1 according as it is done with or without a material instrument4 ,the first kind is in full practice in ,china1 where1 like other rites of divination1 it is probably ancient4 ,it is called #8descending of the pencil1' and is especially used by the literary classes4 ,when a ,chinese wishes to consult a god in this way1 he sends for a professional medium4 ,before the image of the god are set candles and incense1 and an offering of tea or mock money4 ,in front of this1 on another table1 is placed an oblong tray of dry sand4 ,the writing instrument is a ,v-shaped wooden handle1 two or three feet long1 with a wooden tooth fixed at its point4 ,two persons hold this instrument1 each grasping one leg of it1 and the point resting in the sand4 ,proper prayers and charms induce the god to manifest his presence by a movement of the point in the sand1 and thus the response is written1 and there only remains the somewhat difficult and doubtful task of deciphering it4 ,to what state of opinion the rite belongs may be judged from this3 when the sacred apricot-tree is to be robbed of a branch to make the spirit-pen an apologetic inscription is scratched upon the trunk4#bce ,notwithstanding theological differences between ,china and ,england1 the art of spirit-writing is much the same in the two countries4 ,a kind of #8planchette' seems to have been known in ,europe in the seventeenth century4#bcf ,the instrument1 which may now be bought at the toy-shops1 is a heart-shaped board some seven inches long1 resting on three supports1 of which the two at the wide end are castors1 and the third at the pointed end is a pencil thrust through a hole in the board4 ,the instrument is placed on a sheet of paper1 and worked by two persons laying their fingers lightly on it1 waiting till1 without conscious effort of the operators1 it moves and writes answers to questions4 ,it is not everybody who has the faculty of spirit-writing1 but a powerful medium will write alone4 ,such mediums sometimes consider themselves acted on by some power separate from themselves1 in fact1 possessed4 ,ecclesiastical history commemorates a miracle at the close of the ,nicene ,council4 ,two bishops1 ,chrysanthus and ,mysonius1 had died during its sitting1 and the remaining crowd of ,fathers brought the acts1 signed by themselves1 to the tomb1 addressed the deceased bishops as if still alive1 and left the document4 ,next day1 returning1 they found the two signatures added1 to this effect3--#8,we1 ,chrysanthus and ,mysonius1 consenting with all the ,fathers in the holy first and cumenical ,nicene ,synod1 although translated from the body1 have also signed the volume with our own hands4'#bcg ,such spirit-writing without material instrument has lately been renewed by the ,baron de ,guldenstubb4 ,this writer confirms by new evidence the truth of the tradition of all peoples as to souls of the dead keeping up their connexion with their mortal remains1 and haunting the places where they dwelt #8during their terrestrial incarnation4' ,thus ,francis ,i4 manifests himself principally at ,fontainebleau1 while ,louis ,,xv4 and ,marie-,antoinette roam about the ,trianons4 ,moreover1 if pieces of blank paper be set out in suitable places1 the spirits1 enveloped in their ethereal bodies1 will concentrate by their force of will electric currents on the paper1 and so form written characters4 ,the ,baron publishes1 in his #8,pneumatologie ,positive1' a mass of facsimiles of spirit-writings thus obtained4 ,julius and ,augustus ,csar give their names near their statues in the ,louvre2 ,juvenal produces a ludicrous attempt at a copy of verses2 ,hloise at ,pre-la-,chaise informs the world1 in modern ,french1 that ,abelard and she are united and happy2 ,st4 ,paul writes himself 7meaning1 we may suppose1 72 and ,hippokrates the physician 7who spells himself ,hippkrats7 attended ,m4 de ,guldenstubb at his lodgings in ,paris1 and gave him a signature which of itself cured a sharp attack of rheumatism in a few minutes4#bch ,the miracle of rising and floating in the air is one fully recognized in the literature of ancient ,india4 ,the ,buddhist saint of high ascetic rank attains the power called #8perfection' 7irdhi71 whereby he is able to rise in the air1 as also to overturn the earth and stop the sun4 ,having this power1 the saint exercises it by the mere determination of his will1 his body becoming imponderous1 as when a man in the common human state determines to leap1 and leaps4 ,buddhist annals relate the performance of the miraculous suspension by ,gautama himself1 as well as by other saints1 as1 for example1 his ancestor ,maha ,sammata1 who could thus seat himself in the air without visible support4 ,even without this exalted faculty1 it is considered possible to rise and move in the air by an effort of ecstatic joy 7udwega prti74 ,a remarkable mention of this feat1 as said to be performed by the ,indian ,brahmans1 occurs in the third-century biography of ,apollonius of ,tyana2 these ,brahmans are described as going about in the air some two cubits from the ground1 not for the sake of miracle 7such ambition they despised71 but for its being more suitable to solar rites4#bci ,foreign conjurers were professing to exhibit this miracle among the ,greeks in the second century1 as witness ,lucian's jocular account of the ,hyperborean conjurer3--#8,thou art joking1 said ,kleodemos1 but ,i was once more incredulous than thou about such things1 for ,i thought nothing could have persuaded me to believe them2 but when ,i first saw that foreign barbarian flying--he was of the ,hyperboreans1 he said--,i believed1 and was overcome in spite of my resistance4 ,for what was ,i to do1 when ,i saw him carried through the air in daylight1 and walking on the water1 and passing leisurely and slowly through the fire8 ,what8 7said his interlocutor71 you saw the ,hyperborean man flying1 and walking on the water8 ,to be sure1 said he1 and he had on undressed leather brogues as they generally wear them2 but what's the use of talking of such trifles1 considering what other manifestations he showed us1--sending loves1 calling up demons1 raising the dead1 and bringing in ,hekate herself visibly1 and drawing down the moon8' ,kleodemos then goes on to relate how the conjurer first had his four min down for sacrificial expenses1 and then made a clay ,cupid1 and sent it flying through the air to fetch the girl whom ,glaukias had fallen in love with1 and presently1 lo and behold1 there she was knocking at the door6 ,the interlocutor1 however1 comments in a sceptical vein on the narrative4 ,it was scarce needful1 he says1 to have taken the trouble to send for the girl with clay1 and a magician from the ,hyperboreans1 and even the moon1 considering that for twenty drachmas she would have let herself be taken to the ,hyperboreans themselves2 and she seems1 moreover1 to have been affected in quite an opposite way to spirits1 for whereas these beings take flight if they hear the noise of brass or iron1 ,chrysis no sooner hears the chink of silver anywhere1 but she comes toward the sound4#bdj ,another early instance of the belief in miraculous suspension is in the life of ,iamblichus1 the great ,neo-,platonist mystic4 ,his disciples says ,eunapius1 told him they had heard a report from his servants1 that while in prayer to the gods he had been lifted more than ten cubits from the ground1 his body and clothes changing to a beautiful golden colour1 but after he ceased from prayer his body became as before1 and then he came down to the ground and returned to the society of his followers4 ,they entreated him therefore1 #8,why1 ,o most divine teacher1 why dost thou do such things by thyself1 and not let us partake of the more perfect wisdom8' ,then ,iamblichus1 though not given to laughter1 laughed at this story1 and said to them1 #8,it was no fool who tricked you thus1 but the thing is not true4'#bda ,after a while1 the prodigy which the ,platonist disclaimed1 became a usual attribute of ,christian saints4 ,thus ,st4 ,richard1 then chancellor to ,st4 ,edmund1 ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 one day softly opening the chapel door1 to see why the archbishop did not come to dinner1 saw him raised high in the air1 with his knees bent and his arms stretched out2 falling gently to the ground1 and seeing the chancellor1 he complained that he had hindered him of great spiritual delight and comfort4 ,so ,st4 ,philip ,neri used to be sometimes seen raised several yards from the ground during his rapturous devotions1 with a bright light shining from his countenance4 ,st4 ,ignatius ,loyola is declared to have been raised about two feet under the same circumstances1 and similar legends of devout ascetics being not only metaphorically but materially #8raised above the earth' are told in the lives of ,st4 ,dominic1 ,st4 ,dunstan1 ,st4 ,theresa1 and other less-known saints4 ,in the last century1 ,dom ,calmet speaks of knowing a good monk who rises sometimes from the ground and remains involuntarily suspended1 especially on seeing some devotional image or hearing some devout prayer1 and also a nun who has often seen herself raised in spite of herself to a certain distance from the earth4 ,unfortunately the great commentator does not specify any witnesses as having seen the monk and nun rise in the air4 ,if they only thought themselves thus elevated1 their stories can only rank with that of the young man mentioned by ,de ,maistre1 who so often seemed to himself to float in the air1 that he came to suspect that gravitation might not be natural to man4#bdb ,the hallucination of rising and floating in the air is extremely common1 and ascetics of all religions are especially liable to it4 ,among modern accounts of diabolic possession1 also1 the rising in the air is described as taking place not subjectively but objectively4 ,in #afeg1 ,richard ,jones1 a sprightly lad of twelve years old1 living at ,shepton ,mallet1 was bewitched by one ,jane ,brooks2 he was seen to rise in the air and pass over a garden wall some thirty yards1 and at other times was found in a room with his hands flat against a beam at the top of the room1 and his body two or three feet from the ground1 nine people at a time seeing him in this latter position4 ,jane ,brooks was accordingly condemned and executed at ,chard ,assizes in ,march1 #afeh4 ,richard1 the ,surrey demoniac of #afhi1 was hoisted up in the air and let down by ,satan2 at the beginning of his fits he was1 as it were1 blown or snatched or borne up suddenly from his chair1 as if he would have flown away1 but that those who held him hung to his arms and legs and clung about him4 ,one account 7not the official medical one7 of the demoniacal possessions at ,morzine in ,savoy1 in #ahfd1 relates that a patient was held suspended in the air by an invisible force during some seconds or minutes above the cemetery1 in the presence of the archbishop4#bdc ,modern spiritualists claim this power as possessed by certain distinguished living mediums1 who1 indeed1 profess to rival in sober fact the aerostatic miracles of ,buddhist and ,catholic legend4 ,the force employed is of course considered to be that of the spirits4 ,the performances of tied mediums have been specially represented in ,england by the ,davenport ,brothers1 who #8are generally recognized by ,spiritualists as genuine media1 and attribute the reverse opinion so deeply rooted in the public mind1 to the untruthfulness of the ,london and many other newspapers4' ,the performers were bound fast and shut by themselves in a dark cabinet1 with musical instruments1 whence not only musical sounds proceeded1 but the coats of the mediums were taken off and replaced2 yet on inspection their bodies were discovered still bound4 ,the spirits would also release the bound mediums from their cords1 however carefully tied about them4#bdd ,now the idea of supernatural unbinding is very ancient1 vouched for as it is by no less a personage than the crafty ,odysseus himself1 in his adventure on board the ship of the ,thesprotians3 #8,me on the well-benched vessel1 strongly bound1 ,they leave1 and snatch their meal upon the beach4 ,but to my help the gods themselves unwound ,my cords with ease1 though firmly twisted round4' ,in early ,english chronicle1 we find it in a story told by the ,venerable ,bede4 ,a certain ,imma was found all but dead on the field of battle1 and taken prisoner1 but when he began to recover and was put in bonds to prevent his escaping1 no sooner did his binders leave him but he was loose again4 ,the earl who owned him enquired whether he had about him such #8loosening letters' 7literas solutorias7 as tales were told of2 the man replied that he knew naught of such arts2 yet when his owner sold him to another master1 there was still no binding him4 ,the received explanation of this strange power was emphatically a spiritual one4 ,his brother had sought for his dead body1 and finding another like him1 buried it and proceeded to say masses for his brother's soul1 by the celebration whereof it came to pass that no one could fasten him1 for he was out of bonds again directly4 ,so they sent him home to ,kent1 whence he duly returned his ransom1 and his story1 it is related1 stimulated many to devotion1 who understood by it how salutary are masses to the redemption both of soul and body4 ,again1 there prevailed in ,scotland up to the #ahth century this notion3 when the lunatics who had been brought to ,st4 ,fillan's ,pool to be bathed1 were laid bound in the neighbouring church next night1 if they were found loose in the morning their recovery was expected1 but if at dawn they were still bound1 their cure was doubtful4 ,the untying trick performed among savages is so similar to that of our mountebanks1 that when we find the ,north ,american ,indian jugglers doing both this and the familiar trick of breathing fire1 we are at a loss to judge whether they inherited these two feats from their savage ancestors1 or borrowed them from the white men4 ,the point is not1 however1 the mere performance of the untying trick1 but its being attributed to the help of spiritual beings4 ,this notion is thoroughly at home in savage culture4 ,it comes out well in the ,esquimaux' accounts which date from early in the #ahth century4 ,cranz thus describes the ,greenland angekok setting out on his mystic journey to heaven and hell4 ,when he has drummed awhile and made all sorts of wondrous contortions1 he is himself bound with a thong by one of his pupils1 his head between his legs1 and his hands behind his back4 ,all the lamps in the house are put out1 and the windows darkened1 for no one must see him hold intercourse with his spirit1 no one must move or even scratch his head1 that the spirit may not be interfered with--or rather1 says the missionary1 that no one may catch him at his trickery1 for there is no going up to heaven in broad daylight4 ,at last1 after strange noises have been heard1 and a visit has been received or paid to the torngak or spirit1 the magician reappears unbound1 but pale and excited1 and gives an account of his adventures4 ,castrn's account of the similar proceedings of the ,siberian shamans is as follows3 #8,they are practised' he says1 #8in all sorts of conjuring-tricks1 by which they know how to dazzle the simple crowd1 and inspire greater trust in themselves4 ,one of the most usual juggleries of the shamans in the ,government of ,tomsk consists of the following hocus-pocus1 a wonder to the ,russians as well as to the ,samoieds4 ,the shaman sits down on the wrong side of a dry reindeer-hide spread in the middle of the floor4 ,there he lets himself be bound hand and foot by the assistants4 ,the shutters are closed1 and the shaman begins to invoke his ministering spirits4 ,all at once there arises a mysterious ghostliness in the dark space4 ,voices are heard from different parts1 both within and without the yurt1 while on the dry reindeer skin there is a rattling and drumming in regular time4 ,bears growl1 snakes hiss1 and squirrels leap about in the room4 ,at last this uncanny work ceases1 and the audience impatiently await the result of the game4 ,a few moments pass in this expectation1 and behold1 the shaman walks in free and unbound from outside4 ,no one doubts that it was the spirits who were drumming1 growling1 and hissing1 who released the shaman from his bonds1 and who carried him by secret ways out of the yurt4'#bde ,on the whole1 the ethnography of spiritualism bears on practical opinion somewhat in this manner4 ,beside the question of the absolute truth or falsity of the alleged possessions1 names-oracles1 doubles1 brain-waves1 furniture movings1 and floatings in the air1 there remains the history of spiritualistic belief as a matter of opinion4 ,hereby it appears that the received spiritualistic theory of the alleged phenomena belongs to the philosophy of savages4 ,as to such matters as apparitions or possessions this is obvious1 and it holds in more extreme cases4 ,suppose a wild ,north ,american ,indian looking on at a spirit-sance in ,london4 ,as to the presence of disembodied spirits1 manifesting themselves by raps1 noises1 voices1 and other physical actions1 the savage would be perfectly at home in the proceedings1 for such things are part and parcel of his recognized system of nature4 ,the part of the affair really strange to him would be the introduction of such arts as spelling and writing1 which do belong to a different state of civilization from his4 ,the issue raised by the comparison of savage1 barbaric1 and civilized spiritualism1 is this3 ,do the ,red ,indian medicine-man1 the ,tatar necromancer1 the ,highland ghost-seer1 and the ,boston medium1 share the possession of belief and knowledge of the highest truth and import1 which1 nevertheless1 the great intellectual movement of the last two centuries has simply thrown aside as worthless8 ,is what we are habitually boasting of and calling new enlightenment1 then1 in fact a decay of knowledge8 ,if so1 this is a truly remarkable case of degeneration1 and the savages whom some ethnographers look on as degenerate from a higher civilization1 may turn on their accusers and charge them with having fallen from the high level of savage knowledge4 ,throughout the whole of this varied investigation1 whether of the dwindling survival of old culture1 or of its bursting forth afresh in active revival1 it may perhaps be complained that its illustrations should be chosen so much among things worn out1 worthless1 frivolous1 or even bad with downright harmful folly4 ,it is in fact so1 and ,i have taken up this course of argument with full knowledge and intent4 ,for1 indeed1 we have in such enquiries continual reason to be thankful for fools4 ,it is quite wonderful1 even if we hardly go below the surface of the subject1 to see how large a share stupidity and unpractical conservatism and dogged superstition have had in preserving for us traces of the history of our race1 which practical utilitarianism would have remorselessly swept away4 ,the savage is firmly1 obstinately conservative4 ,no man appeals with more unhesitating confidence to the great precedent-makers of the past2 the wisdom of his ancestors can control against the most obvious evidence his own opinions and actions4 ,we listen with pity to the rude ,indian as he maintains against civilized science and experience the authority of his rude forefathers4 ,we smile at the ,chinese appealing against modern innovation to the golden precepts of ,confucius1 who in his time looked back with the same prostrate reverence to sages still more ancient1 counselling his disciples to follow the seasons of ,hea1 to ride in the carriage of ,yin1 to wear the ceremonial cap of ,chow4 ,the nobler tendency of advancing culture1 and above all of scientific culture1 is to honour the dead without grovelling before them1 to profit by the past without sacrificing the present to it4 ,yet even the modern civilized world has but half learnt this lesson1 and an unprejudiced survey may lead us to judge how many of our ideas and customs exist rather by being old than by being good4 ,now in dealing with hurtful superstitions1 the proof that they are things which it is the tendency of savagery to produce1 and of higher culture to destroy1 is accepted as a fair controversial argument4 ,the mere historical position of a belief or custom may raise a presumption as to its origin which becomes a presumption as to its authenticity4 ,dr4 ,middleton's celebrated ,letter from ,rome shows cases in point4 ,he mentions the image of ,diana at ,ephesus which fell from the sky1 thereby damaging the pretensions of the ,calabrian image of ,st4 ,dominic1 which1 according to pious tradition1 was likewise brought down from heaven4 ,he notices that as the blood of ,st4 ,januarius now melts miraculously without heat1 so ages ago the priests of ,gnatia tried to persuade ,horace1 on his road to ,brundusium1 that the frankincense in their temple had the habit of melting in like manner3 #8444 dehinc ,gnatia lymphis ,iratis exstructa dedit risusque jocosque2 ,dum flamma sine thura liquescere limine sacro1 ,persuadere cupit3 credat ,judus ,apella2 ,non ego4'#bdf ,thus ethnographers1 not without a certain grim satisfaction1 may at times find means to make stupid and evil superstitions bear witness against themselves4 ,moreover1 in working to gain an insight into the general laws of intellectual movement1 there is practical gain in being able to study them rather among antiquarian relics of no intense modern interest1 than among those seething problems of the day on which action has to be taken amid ferment and sharp strife4 ,should some moralist or politician speak contemptuously of the vanity of studying matters without practical moment1 it will generally be found that his own mode of treatment will consist in partizan diatribes on the questions of the day1 a proceeding practical enough1 especially in confirming those who agree with him already1 but the extreme opposite to the scientific way of eliciting truth4 ,the ethnographer's course1 again1 should be like that of the anatomist who carries on his studies if possible rather on dead than on living subjects2 vivisection is nervous work1 and the humane investigator hates inflicting needless pain4 ,thus when the student of culture occupies himself in viewing the bearings of exploded controversies1 or in unravelling the history of long-superseded inventions1 he is gladly seeking his evidence rather in such dead old history1 than in the discussions where he and those he lives among are alive with intense party feeling1 and where his judgment is biassed by the pressure of personal sympathy1 and even it may be of personal gain or loss4 ,so1 from things which perhaps never were of high importance1 things which have fallen out of popular significance1 or even out of popular memory1 he tries to elicit general laws of culture1 often to be thus more easily and fully gained than in the arena of modern philosophy and politics4 ,but the opinions drawn from old or worn-out culture are not to be left lying where they were shaped4 ,it is no more reasonable to suppose the laws of mind differently constituted in ,australia and in ,england1 in the time of the cave-dwellers and in the time of the builders of sheet-iron houses1 than to suppose that the laws of chemical combination were of one sort in the time of the coal-measures1 and are of another now4 ,the thing that has been will be2 and we are to study savages and old nations to learn the laws that under new circumstances are working for good or ill in our own development4 ,if it is needful to give an instance of the directness with which antiquity and savagery bear upon our modern life1 let it be taken in the facts just brought forward on the relation of ancient sorcery to the belief in witchcraft which was not long since one of the gravest facts of ,european history1 and of savage spiritualism to beliefs which so deeply affect our civilization now4 ,no one who can see in these cases1 and in many others to be brought before him in these volumes1 how direct and close the connexion may be between modern culture and the condition of the rudest savage1 will be prone to accuse students who spend their labour on even the lowest and most trifling facts of ethnography1 of wasting their hours in the satisfaction of a frivolous curiosity4 ,footnote #afj3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 i4 p4 #aai4 ,footnote #afa3 #8,life of ,nath4 ,pearce1' ed4 by ,j4 ,j4 ,halls1 vol4 i4 p4 #bhf4 ,footnote #afb3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 i4 p4 #cbh2 vol4 ii4 p4 #bgc2 see vol4 iv4 p4 #dbe4 ,footnote #afc3 ,muir1 #8,sanskrit ,texts1' part ii4 p4 #dce4 ,footnote #afd3 ,dalton1 #8,kols1' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vi4 p4 #f2 see p4 #af4 ,footnote #afe3 ,jas4 ,gardner1 #8,faiths of the ,world1' s4v4 #8,exorcism4' ,footnote #aff3 ,shortt1 #8,tribes of ,neilgherries1' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vii4 pp4 #bdg1 #bgg2 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot in #8,trans4 ,congress of ,prehistoric ,archology1' #ahfh1 p4 #bec4 ,footnote #afg3 ,f4 ,rhs1 #8,finland1' p4 #bif2 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 iii4 p4 #bjb4 ,footnote #afh3 ,brand1 #8,pop4 ,ant4' vol4 iii4 pp4 #ha-c2 see p4 #cac4 ,footnote #afi3 ,wuttke1 #8,deutsche ,volksaberglaube1' p4 #abh2 see p4 #bci4 ,footnote #agj3 ,for an examination of numerous magical arts1 mostly coming under this category1 see #8,early ,history of ,mankind1' chaps4 vi4 and x4 ,footnote #aga3 ,stanbridge1 #8,abor4 of ,victoria1' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 p4 #bii2 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #cfd2 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,africa1' p4 #bae2 ,spiegel1 #8,avesta1' vol4 i4 p4 #abd2 ,wuttke1 #8,deutsche ,volksaberglaube1' p4 #aie2 general references in #8,early ,history of ,mankind1' p4 #abi4 ,footnote #agb3 ,burton1 #8,w4 and ,w4 from ,west ,africa1' p4 #daa4 ,footnote #agc3 ,w4 ,gregory1 #8,letters on ,animal ,magnetism1' p4 #abh4 ,footnote #agd3 ,eyre1 #8,australia1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cfa2 ,collins1 #8,new ,south ,wales1' vol4 i4 pp4 #efa1 #eid4 ,footnote #age3 ,shortt1 in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vi4 p4 #bgh4 ,footnote #agf3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 iii4 p4 #aag4 ,footnote #agg3 ,see ,grote1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #aac1 #cea4 ,footnote #agh3 ,hardy1 #8,eastern ,monachism1' p4 #bda4 ,footnote #agi3 ,oldfield1 in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #bdf4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,grout1 #8,zulu-land1' p4 #acd4 ,footnote #aha3 ,see specimen and description in the ,christy ,museum4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' pp4 #acj1 #cfc4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,wuttke1 #8,volksaberglaube1' p4 #ca4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,r4 ,hunt1 #8,pop4 ,rom4 of ,w4 of ,england1' #bnd ser4 p4 #afe2 ,brand1 #8,pop4 ,ant4' vol4 ii4 p4 #bca4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,wuttke1 p4 #ajj4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #efj4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,brand1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bdj4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,hunt1 ibid4 p4 #adh4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,wuttke1 p4 #afe2 ,brand1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cje4 ,footnote #aij3 ,magalhanes de ,gandavo1 p4 #abe2 ,d',orbigny1 vol4 ii4 p4 #afh4 ,footnote #aia3 ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 p4 #bjb2 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 ii4 p4 #ceg4 ,footnote #aib3 ,yate1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #ij2 ,polack1 vol4 i4 p4 #bdh4 ,footnote #aic3 ,klemm1 #8,cultur-,gesch4' vol4 iii4 p4 #bjb4 ,footnote #aid3 ,burton1 #8,wit and ,wisdom from ,west ,africa1' p4 #cha4 ,footnote #aie3 ,see ,cornelius ,agrippa1 #8,de ,occulta ,philosophia1' i4 #ec2 #8,de ,vanitate ,scient4' #cg2 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #ajgc2 ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth4' p4 #bhe2 ,brand1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #ahd-bbg4 ,footnote #aif3 ,oldfield in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #bda4 ,footnote #aig3 ,steller1 #8,kamtschatka1' p4 #bgi4 ,footnote #aih3 ,callaway1 #8,rel4 of ,amazulu1' pp4 #bcf1 #bda2 ,r4 ,taylor1 #8,n4 ,z4' p4 #ccd4 ,footnote #aii3 ,artemidorus1 #8,oneirocritica2' ,cockayne1 #8,leechdoms1 c41 of ,early ,england1' vol4 iii42 ,seafield1 #8,literature1 c41 of ,dreams2' ,brand1 vol4 iii42 ,halliwell1 #8,pop4 ,rhymes1 c41' p4 #bag1 c41 c4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 pp4 #gd1 #aae2 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 iv4 p4 #aej2 ,polack1 #8,new ,zealanders1' vol4 i4 p4 #bee4 ,footnote #bja3 ,georgi1 #8,reise im ,russ4 ,reich1' vol4 i4 p4 #bha2 ,hooker1 #8,himalayan ,journals1' vol4 i4 p4 #ace2 #8,as4 ,res4' vol4 iii4 p4 #bg2 ,latham1 #8,descr4 ,eth4' vol4 i4 p4 #fa4 ,footnote #bjb3 ,cieza de ,leon1 p4 #bhi2 ,rivero and ,tschudi1 #8,peru1' p4 #ahc4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,burton1 #8,central ,afr4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cb2 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #dag1 #eah4 ,footnote #bjd3 ,plin4 xi4 #gc4 ,see ,cic4 de ,divinatione1 ii4 #ab4 ,footnote #bje3 ,wuttke1 #8,volksaberglaube1' p4 #cb4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,le ,jeune1 #8,nouvelle ,france1' vol4 i4 p4 #ij4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,j4 ,h4 ,plath1 #8,rel4 d4 alten ,chinesen1' part i4 p4 #hi2 ,klemm1 #8,cultur4 ,gesch4' vol4 iii4 pp4 #aji1 #aii2 vol4 iv4 p4 #bba2 ,rubruquis1 in ,pinkerton1 vol4 vii4 p4 #fe2 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #ajfg2 ,r4 ,f4 ,burton1 #8,sindh1' p4 #ahi2 ,m4 ,a4 ,walker1 #8,macedonia1' p4 #afi4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,brand1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cci2 ,forbes ,leslie1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dia4 ,footnote #bji3 ,maury1 #8,magie1 c4'1 p4 #gd2 ,brand1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cdh1 c4 ,see figure in ,cornelius ,agrippa1 #8,de ,occult4 ,philosoph41' ii4 #bg4 ,footnote #baj3 ,r4 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #bje2 ,shortland1 p4 #aci2 ,callaway1 #8,religion of ,amazulu1' p4 #ccj1 c42 ,theophylact4 in ,brand1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ccb4 ,compare mentions of similar devices2 ,herodot4 iv4 #fg 7,scythia72 ,burton1 #8,central ,africa1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cej4 ,footnote #baa3 ,migne's #8,dic4 des ,sciences ,occultes4' ,footnote #bab3 ,mason1 #8,karens1' in #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1' #ahfe1 part ii4 p4 #bjj2 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 i4 p4 #adf4 ,footnote #bac3 ,hodgson1 #8,abor4 of ,india1' p4 #agj4 ,see ,macpherson1 p4 #ajf 7,khonds74 ,footnote #bad3 ,ammian4 ,marcellin4 xxix4 #a4 ,footnote #bae3 ,chevreul1 #8,de la ,baguette ,divinatoire1 du ,pendule dit ,explorateur et des ,tables ,tournantes1' ,paris1 #ahed2 ,brand1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ccb2 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #ibf2 ,h4 ,b4 ,woodward1 in #8,geological ,mag41' ,nov4 #ahgb2 ,wuttke1 p4 #id4 ,footnote #baf3 ,cornelius ,agrippa1 #8,de ,speciebus ,magi1' xxi42 ,brand1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cea2 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #ajfb4 ,footnote #bag3 ,de ,maistre1 #8,soires de ,st4 ,petersbourg1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bab4 ,footnote #bah3 ,shortland1 #8,trads41 c4 of ,new ,zealand1' p4 #ach4 ,footnote #bai3 ,see ,cicero1 #8,de ,div4' i42 ,lucian1 #8,de ,astrolog4'2 ,cornelius ,agrippa1 #8,de ,occulta ,philosophia2' ,sibly1 #8,occult ,sciences2' ,brand1 vol4 iii4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,plin4 xvi4 #ge2 xviii4 #ge2 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #fgf2 ,brand1 vol4 ii4 p4 #afi2 vol4 iii4 p4 #add4 ,footnote #bba3 ,bacon1 #8,novum ,organum4' ,the original story is that of ,diagoras2 see ,cicero1 #8,de ,natura ,deorum1' iii4 #cg2 ,diog4 ,lart4 lib4 vi41 ,diogenes1 #f4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,du ,chaillu1 #8,ashango-land1' pp4 #dbh1 #dce2 ,burton1 #8,central ,afr4' vol4 i4 pp4 #eg1 #aac1 #aba4 ,footnote #bbc3 ,see ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' ch4 xxxiv42 ,lecky1 #8,hist4 of ,rationalism1' vol4 i4 chap4 i42 ,horst1 #8,zauber-,bibliothek2' ,raynald1 #8,annales ,ecclesiastici1' vol4 ii41 ,greg4 ,,ix4 7#abcc71 xli4-ii42 ,innoc4 ,,viii4 7#adhd71 lxxiv4 ,footnote #bbd3 ,see also ,dasent1 #8,introd4 to ,norse ,tales2' ,maury1 #8,magie1 c41' ch4 vii4 ,footnote #bbe3 ,lane1 #8,thousand and ,one ,nights1' vol4 i4 p4 #cj2 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' pp4 #dce1 #dfe1 #ajef2 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #bfe1 #bhg2 vol4 iii4 p4 #bjd2 ,d4 ,wilson1 #8,prehistoric ,annals of ,scotland1' vol4 ii4 p4 #abf2 ,wuttke1 #8,volksaberglaube1' pp4 #ae1 #bj1 #abb1 #bbj4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,brand1 #8,pop4 ,ant4' vol4 iii4 pp4 #a-dc2 ,wuttke1 #8,volksaberglaube1' p4 #ej2 ,grimm1 #8,deutsche ,rechtsalterthmer1' p4 #ibc2 ,pictet1 #8,origines ,indo-,europ4' part ii4 p4 #dei2 ,manu1 viii41 #aad-e2 see ,plin4 vii4 #b4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,swedenborg1 #8,the ,true ,christian ,religion1' ,london1 #ahee1 ,nos4 #aef1 #aeg1 #bha1 #hea4 ,footnote #bbh3 ,grimm1 #8,deutsche ,myth1' pp4 #dgc1 #dha4 ,footnote #bbi3 ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 p4 #hb2 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #aaa2 #8,oestl4 ,asien4' vol4 iii4 pp4 #bcb1 #bei1 #bhh2 ,boecler1 #8,ehsten ,aberglaube1' p4 #adg4 ,footnote #bcj3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #gd4 ,footnote #bca3 ,brand1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dhf4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,glanvil1 #8,saducismus ,triumphatus1' part ii4 ,the invisible drummer appears to have been one ,william ,drury2 see #8,pepys' ,diary1' vol4 i4 p4 #bbg4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,brand1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #bbe1 #bcc2 ,grimm1 pp4 #hja1 #ajhi1 #aada2 ,wuttke1 pp4 #ch-i1 #bjh2 ,shortland1 #8,trads4 of ,new ,zealand1' p4 #acg 7ominous ticking of insect1 doubtful whether idea native1 or introduced by foreigners74 ,footnote #bcd3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cic4 ,footnote #bce3 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aab2 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 iii4 p4 #beb2 #8,psychologie1' p4 #aei4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,toehla1 #8,aurifontina ,chymica1' cited by ,k4 ,r4 ,h4 ,mackenzie1 in #8,spiritualist1' ,mar4 #ae1 #ahgj4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,nicephor4 ,callist4 ,ecclesiast4 ,hist4 viii4 #bc2 ,stanley1 #8,eastern ,church1' p4 #agb4 ,footnote #bch3 #8,pneumatologie ,positive et ,exprimentale2 ,la ,ralit des ,esprits et le ,phnomne ,merveilleux de leur criture ,directe dmontrs1' par le ,baron ,l4 de ,guldenstubb4 ,paris1 #aheg4 ,footnote #bci3 ,hardy1 #8,manual of ,budhism1' pp4 #ch1 #abf1 #aej2 #8,eastern ,monachism1' pp4 #bgb1 #bhe1 #chb2 ,kppen1 #8,religion des ,buddha1' vol4 i4 p4 #dab2 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 iii4 p4 #cij2 ,philostrati ,vita ,apollon4 ,tyan4 iii4 #ae4 ,see the mention among the ,saadhs of ,india 7#agth century71 by ,trant1 in #8,missionary ,register1' ,july1 #ahbj1 pp4 #bid-f4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,lucian1 ,philopseudes1 #ac4 ,footnote #bda3 ,eunapius in ,iambl4 ,footnote #bdb3 ,alban ,butler1 #8,lives of the ,saints1' vol4 i4 p4 #fgd2 ,calmet1 #8,diss4 sur les ,apparitions1 c41' chap4 xxi42 ,de ,maistre1 #8,soires de ,st4 ,ptersbourg1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #aeh1 #age4 ,see also ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #egh2 #8,psychologie1' p4 #aei4 ,footnote #bdc3 ,glanvil1 #8,saducismus ,triumphatus1' part ii42 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #afa4 ,footnote #bdd3 #8,spiritualist1' ,feb4 #ae1 #ahgj4 ,orrin ,abbott1 #8,the ,davenport ,brothers1' ,new ,york1 #ahfd4 ,footnote #bde3 ,homer1 ,odyss4 xiv4 #cde 7,worsley's ,trans472 ,beda1 #8,historia ,ecclesiastica1' iv4 #bb2 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m41' p4 #aahj 7an old ,german loosing-charm is given from the ,merseburg ,,ms472 ,j4 ,y4 ,simpson1 in #8,proc4 ,ant4 ,soc4 ,scotland1' vol4 iv42 ,keating1 #8,long's ,exp4 to ,st4 ,peter's ,river1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aei2 ,egede1 #8,greenland1' p4 #ahi2 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #bfi2 ,castrn1 #8,reiseberichte1' #ahde-i1 p4 #agc4 ,footnote #bdf3 ,conyers ,middleton1 #8,a ,letter from ,rome1' #agbi2 ,hor4 ,sat4 ,i4 v4 #ih4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,emotional ,,and ,,imitative ,,language4 ,element of directly expressive ,sound in ,language--,test by independent correspondence in distinct languages--,constituent processes of ,language--,gesture--,expression of feature1 c4--,emotional ,tone--,articulate sounds1 vowels determined by musical quality and pitch1 consonants--,emphasis and ,accent--,phrase-melody1 ,recitative--,sound-,words--,interjectio ns--,calls to ,animals--,emotional ,cries--,sense-,words formed from ,interjections--,affirmative and ,negative particles1 c4 ,in carrying on the enquiry into the development of culture1 evidence of some weight is to be gained from an examination of ,language4 ,comparing the grammars and dictionaries of races at various grades of civilization1 it appears that1 in the great art of speech1 the educated man at this day substantially uses the method of the savage1 only expanded and improved in the working out of details4 ,it is true that the languages of the ,tasmanian and the ,chinese1 of the ,greenlander and the ,greek1 differ variously in structure2 but this is a secondary difference1 underlaid by a primary similarity in method1 namely1 the expression of ideas by articulate sounds habitually allotted to them4 ,now all languages are found on inspection to contain some articulate sounds of a directly natural and directly intelligible kind4 ,these are sounds of interjectional or imitative character1 which have their meaning not by inheritance from parents or adoption from foreigners1 but by being taken up directly from the world of sound into the world of sense4 ,like pantomimic gestures1 they are capable of conveying their meaning of themselves1 without reference to the particular language they are used in connexion with4 ,from the observation of these1 there have arisen speculations as to the origin of language1 treating such expressive sounds as the fundamental constituents of language in general1 and considering those of them which are still plainly recognizable as having remained more or less in their original state1 long courses of adaptation and variation having produced from such the great mass of words in all languages1 in which no connexion between idea and sound can any longer be certainly made out4 ,thus grew up doctrines of a #8natural' origin of language1 which1 dating from classic times1 were developed in the eighteenth century into a system by that powerful thinker1 the ,president ,charles de ,brosses1 and in our own time have been expanded and solidified by a school of philologers1 among whom ,mr4 ,hensleigh ,wedgwood is the most prominent4#bdg ,these theories have no doubt been incautiously and fancifully worked4 ,no wonder that students who found in nature real and direct sources of articulate speech1 in interjectional sounds like ah6 ugh6 h'm6 sh6 and in imitative sounds like purr1 whiz1 tomtom1 cuckoo1 should have thought that the whole secret of language lay within their grasp1 and that they had only to fit the keys thus found into one hole after another to open every lock4 ,when a philosopher has a truth in his hands1 he is apt to stretch it farther than it will bear4 ,the magic umbrella must spread and spread till it becomes a tent wide enough to shelter the king's army4 ,but it must be borne in mind that what criticism touches in these opinions is their exaggeration1 not their reality4 ,that interjections and imitative words are really taken up to some extent1 be it small or large1 into the very body and structure of language1 no one denies4 ,such a denial1 if anyone offered it1 the advocates of the disputed theories might dispose of in the single phrase1 that they would neither be pooh-poohed nor hooted down4 ,it may be shown within the limits of the most strict and sober argument1 that the theory of the origin of language in natural and directly expressive sounds does account for a considerable fraction of the existing copia verborum1 while it raises a presumption that1 could we trace the history of words more fully1 it would account for far more4 ,in here examining interjectional and imitative sounds with their derivative words1 as well as certain other parts of language of a more or less cognate character1 ,i purpose to bring forward as far as possible new evidence derived from the languages of savage and barbarous races4 ,by so doing it becomes practicable to use a check which in great measure stops the main source of uncertainty and error in such enquiries1 the habit of etymologizing words off-hand from expressive sounds1 by the unaided and often flighty fancy of a philologer4 ,by simply enlarging the survey of language1 the province of the imagination is brought within narrower limits4 ,if several languages1 which cannot be classed as distinctly of the same family1 unite in expressing some notion by a particular sound which may fairly claim to be interjectional or imitative1 their combined authority will go far to prove the claim a just one4 ,for if it be objected that such words may have passed into the different languages from a common source1 of which the trace is for the most part lost1 this may be answered by the question1 ,why is there not a proportionate agreement between the languages in question throughout the far larger mass of words which cannot pretend to be direct sound-words8 ,if several languages have independently chosen like words to express like meanings1 then we may reasonably suppose that we are not deluding ourselves in thinking such words highly appropriate to their purpose4 ,they are words which answered the conditions of original language1 conforming as they do to the saying of ,thomas ,aquinas1 that the names of things ought to agree with their natures1 #8nomina debent naturis rerum congruere4' ,applied in such comparison1 the languages of the lower races contribute evidence of excellent quality to the problem4 ,it will at the same time and by the same proofs appear1 that savages possess in a high degree the faculty of uttering their minds directly in emotional tones and interjections1 of going straight to nature to furnish themselves with imitative sounds1 including reproductions of their own direct emotional utterances1 as means of expression of ideas1 and of introducing into their formal language words so produced4 ,they have clearly thus far the means and power of producing language4 ,in so far as the theories under consideration account for the original formation of language1 they countenance the view that this formation took place among mankind in a savage state1 and even1 for anything appearing to the contrary1 in a still lower stage of culture than has survived to our day4#bdh ,the first step in such investigation is to gain a clear idea of the various elements of which spoken language is made up4 ,these may be enumerated as gesture1 expression of feature1 emotional tone1 emphasis1 force1 speed1 c4 of utterance1 musical rhythm and intonation1 and the formation of the vowels and consonants which are the skeleton of articulate speech4 ,in the common intercourse of men1 speech is habitually accompanied by gesture1 the hands1 head1 and body aiding and illustrating the spoken phrase4 ,so far as we can judge1 the visible gesture and the audible word have been thus used in combination since times of most remote antiquity in the history of our race4 ,it seems1 however1 that in the daily intercourse of the lower races1 gesture holds a much more important place than we are accustomed to see it fill1 a position even encroaching on that which articulate speech holds among ourselves4 ,mr4 ,bonwick confirms by his experience ,dr4 ,milligan's account of the ,tasmanians as using #8signs to eke out the meaning of monosyllabic expressions1 and to give force1 precision1 and character to vocal sounds4' ,captain ,wilson remarks on the use of gesticulation in modifying words in the ,chinook ,jargon4 ,there is confirmation to ,spix and ,martius' description of low ,brazilian tribes completing by signs the meaning of their scanty sentences1 thus making the words #8wood-go' serve to say #8,i will go into the wood1' by pointing the mouth like a snout in the direction meant4 ,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 describing the ,grebo language of ,west ,africa1 remarks that they have personal pronouns1 but seldom use them in conversation1 leaving it to gesture to determine whether a verb is to be taken in the first or second person2 thus the words #8ni ne' will mean #8,i do it1' or #8you do it1' according to the significant gestures of the speaker4#bdi ,beside such instances1 it will hereafter be noticed that the lower races1 in counting1 habitually use gesture-language for a purpose to which higher races apply word-language4 ,to this prominent condition of gesture as a means of expression among rude tribes1 and to the development of pantomime in public show and private intercourse among such peoples as the ,neapolitans of our own day1 the most extreme contrast may be found in ,england1 where1 whether for good or ill1 suggestive pantomime is now reduced to so small a compass in social talk1 and even in public oratory4 ,changes of the bodily attitude1 corresponding in their fine gradations with changes of the feelings1 comprise conditions of the surface of the body1 postures of the limbs1 and also especially those expressive attitudes of the face to which our attention is particularly directed when we notice one another4 ,the visible expression of the features is a symptom which displays the speaker's state of mind1 his feelings of pleasure or disgust1 of pride or humility1 of faith or doubt1 and so forth4 ,not that there is between the emotion and its bodily expression any originally intentional connexion4 ,it is merely that a certain action of our physical machinery shows symptoms which we have learnt by experience to refer to a mental cause1 as we judge by seeing a man sweat or limp that he is hot or footsore4 ,blushing is caused by certain emotions1 and among ,europeans it is a visible expression or symptom of them2 not so among ,south ,american ,indians1 whose blushes1 as ,mr4 ,david ,forbes points out1 may be detected by the hand or a thermometer1 but being concealed by the dark skin cannot serve as a visible sign of feeling4#bej ,by turning these natural processes to account1 men contrive to a certain extent to put on particular physical expressions1 frowning or smiling for instance1 in order to simulate the emotions which would naturally produce such expressions1 or merely to convey the thought of such emotions to others4 ,now it is well known to every one that physical expression by feature1 c41 forming a part of the universal gesture-language1 thus serves as an important adjunct to spoken language4 ,it is not so obvious1 but on examination will prove to be true1 that such expression by feature itself acts as a formative power in vocal language4 ,expression of countenance has an action beyond that of mere visible gesture4 ,the bodily attitude brought on by a particular state of mind affects the position of the organs of speech1 both the internal larynx1 c41 and the external features whose change can be watched by the mere looker-on4 ,even though the expression of the speaker's face may not be seen by the hearer1 the effect of the whole bodily attitude of which it forms part is not thereby done away with4 ,for on the position thus taken by the various organs concerned in speech1 depends what ,i have here called #8emotional tone1' whereby the voice carries direct expression of the speaker's feeling4 ,the ascertaining of the precise physical mode in which certain attitudes of the internal and external face come to correspond to certain moods of mind1 is a physiological problem as yet little understood2 but the fact that particular expressions of face are accompanied by corresponding and dependent expressions of emotional tone1 only requires an observer or a looking-glass to prove it4 ,the laugh made with a solemn1 contemptuous1 or sarcastic face1 is quite different from that which comes from a joyous one2 the ah6 oh6 ho6 hey6 and so on1 change their modulations to match the expression of countenance4 ,the effect of the emotional tone does not even require fitness in the meaning of the spoken words1 for nonsense or an unknown tongue may be made to convey1 when spoken with expressive intonation1 the feelings which are displayed upon the speaker's face4 ,this expression may even be recognized in the dark by noticing the tone it gives forth1 while the forced character given by the attempt to bring out a sound not matching even the outward play of the features can hardly be hidden by the most expert ventriloquist1 and in such forcing1 the sound perceptibly drags the face into the attitude that fits with it4 ,the nature of communication by emotional tone seems to me to be somewhat on this wise4 ,it does not appear that particular tones at all belong directly and of themselves to particular emotions1 but that their action depends on the vocal organs of the speaker and hearer4 ,other animals1 having vocal organs different from man's1 have accordingly1 as we know1 a different code of emotional tones4 ,an alteration in man's vocal organs would bring a corresponding alteration in the effect of tone in expressing feeling2 the tone which to us expresses surprise or anger might come to express pleasure1 and so forth4 ,as it is1 children learn by early experience that such and such a tone indicates such and such an emotion1 and this they make out partly by finding themselves uttering such tones when their feelings have brought their faces to the appropriate attitudes1 and partly by observing the expression of voice in others4 ,at three or four years old they are to be seen in the act of acquiring this knowledge1 turning round to look at the speaker's face and gesture to make sure of the meaning of the tone4 ,but in later years this knowledge becomes so familiar that it is supposed to have been intuitive4 ,then1 when men talk together1 the hearer receives from each emotional tone an indication1 a signal1 of the speaker's attitude of body1 and through this of his state of mind4 ,these he can recognize1 and even reproduce in himself1 as the operator at one end of a telegraphic wire can follow1 by noticing his needles1 the action of his colleague at the other4 ,in watching the process which thus enables one man to take a copy of another's emotions through their physical effects on his vocal tone1 we may admire the perfection with which a means so simple answers an end so complex1 and apparently so remote4 ,by eliminating from speech all effects of gesture1 of expression of face1 and of emotional tone1 we go far toward reducing it to that system of conventional articulate sounds which the grammarian and the comparative philologist habitually consider as language4 ,these articulate sounds are capable of being roughly set down in signs standing for vowels and consonants1 with the aid of accents and other significant marks2 and they may then again be read aloud from these written signs1 by any one who has learnt to give its proper sound to each letter4 ,what vowels are1 is a matter which has been for some years well understood4#bea ,they are compound musical tones such as1 in the vox humana stop of the organ1 are sounded by reeds 7vibrating tongues7 fitted to organ-pipes of particular construction4 ,the manner of formation of vowels by the voice is shortly this4 ,there are situated in the larynx a pair of vibrating membranes called the vocal chords1 which may be rudely imitated by stretching a piece of sheet india-rubber over the open end of a tube1 so as to form two half-covers to it1 #8like the parchment of a drum split across the middle2' when the tube is blown through1 the india-rubber flaps will vibrate as the vocal chords do in the larynx1 and give out a sound4 ,in the human voice1 the musical effect of the vibrating chords is increased by the cavity of the mouth1 which acts as a resonator or sounding-box1 and which also1 by its shape at any moment1 modifies the musical #8quality' or #8timbre' of the sound produced4 ,this1 not the less felt because its effects are not registered in musical notation1 depends on the harmonic overtones accompanying the fundamental tone which alone musical notation takes account of4 ,it makes the difference between the same note on two instruments1 flute and piano for instance1 while some instruments1 as the violin1 can give to one note a wide variation of quality4 ,to such quality the formation of vowels is due4 ,this is perfectly shown by the common ,jew's harp1 which when struck can be made to utter the vowels a1 e1 i1 o1 u1 c41 by simply putting the mouth in the proper position for speaking these vowels4 ,in this experiment the player's voice emits no sound1 but the vibrating tongue of the ,jew's harp placed in front of the mouth acts as a substitute for the vocal chords1 and the vowel-sounds are produced by the various positions of the cavity of the mouth1 modifying the quality of the note1 by bringing out with different degrees of strength the series of harmonic tones of which it is composed4 ,as to musical theory1 emotional tone and vowel-tone are connected4 ,in fact1 an emotional tone may be defined as a vowel1 whose particular musical quality is that produced by the human vocal organs1 when adjusted to a particular state of feeling4 ,europeans1 while using modulation of musical pitch as affecting the force of words in a sentence1 know nothing of making it alter the dictionary-meaning of a word4 ,but this device is known elsewhere1 especially in ,south-,east ,asia1 where rises and falls of tone1 to some extent like those which serve us in conveying emphasis1 question and answer1 c41 actually give different signification4 ,thus in ,siamese1 hto seek1 hpestilence1 hfive4 ,the consequence of this elaborate system of tone-accentuation is the necessity of an accumulation of expletive particles1 to supply the place of the oratorical or emphatic intonation1 which being thus given over to the dictionary is lost for the grammar4 ,another consequence is1 that the system of setting poetry to music becomes radically different from ours2 to sing a ,siamese song to a ,european tune makes the meaning of the syllables alter according to their rise and fall in pitch1 and turns their sense into the wildest nonsense4#beb ,in ,west ,africa1 again1 the same device appears3 thus in ,dahoman sostick1 shorse1 sthunder2 ,yoruba1 bwith1 bbend4#bec ,for practical purposes1 this linguistic music is hardly to be commended1 but theoretically it is interesting1 as showing that man does not servilely follow an intuitive or inherited scheme of language1 but works out in various ways the resources of sound as a means of expression4 ,the theory of consonants is much more obscure than that of vowels4 ,they are not musical vibrations as vowels are1 but noises accompanying them4 ,to the musician such noises as the rushing of the wind from the organ-pipe1 the scraping of the violin1 the sputtering of the flute1 are simply troublesome as interfering with his musical tones1 and he takes pains to diminish them as much as may be4 ,but in the art of language noises of this kind1 far from being avoided1 are turned to immense account by being used as consonants1 in combination with the musical vowels4 ,as to the positions and movements of the vocal organs in producing consonants1 an excellent account with anatomical diagrams is given in ,professor ,max ,mller's second series of ,lectures4 ,for the present purpose of passing in review the various devices by which the language-maker has contrived to make sound a means of expressing thought1 perhaps no better illustration of their nature can be mentioned than ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone's account of his speaking machine2#bed for one of the best ways of studying difficult phenomena is to see them artificially imitated4 ,the instrument in question pronounced ,latin1 ,french1 and ,italian words well3 it could say1 #8,je vous aime de tout mon cur1' #8,leopoldus ,secundus ,romanorum ,imperator1' and so forth1 but it was not so successful with ,german4 ,as to the vowels1 they were of course simply sounded by suitable reeds and pipes4 ,to affect them with consonants1 contrivances were arranged to act like the human organs4 ,thus p was made by suddenly removing the operator's hand from the mouth of the figure1 and b in the same way1 except that the mouth was not quite covered1 while an outlet like the nostrils was used in forming m2 f and v were rendered by modifying the shape of the mouth by a hand2 air was made to rush through small tubes to produce the sibilants s and sh2 and the liquids r and l were sounded by the action of tremulous reeds4 ,as ,wheatstone remarks1 the most important use of such ingenious mechanical imitations of speech may be to fix and preserve an accurate register of the pronunciation of different languages4 ,a perfectly arranged speaking machine would in fact represent for us that framework of language which consists of mere vowels and consonants1 though without most of those expressive adjuncts which go to make up the conversation of speaking men4 ,of vowels and consonants capable of being employed in language1 man is able to pronounce and distinguish an enormous variety4 ,but this great stock of possible sounds is nowhere brought into use altogether4 ,each language or dialect of the world is found in practice to select a limited series of definite vowels and consonants1 keeping with tolerable exactness to each1 and thus choosing what we may call its phonetic alphabet4 ,neglecting such minor differences as occur in the speech of individuals or small communities1 each dialect of the world may be said to have its own phonetic system1 and these phonetic systems vary widely4 ,our vowels1 for instance1 differ much from those of ,french and ,dutch4 ,french knows nothing of either of the sounds which we write as th in thin and that1 while the ,castilian lisped c1 the so-called ceceo1 is a third consonant which we must again make shift to write as th1 though it is quite distinct in sound from both our own4 ,it is quite a usual thing for us to find foreign languages wanting letters even near in sound to some of ours1 while possessing others unfamiliar to ourselves4 ,among such cases are the ,chinese difficulty in pronouncing r1 and the want of s and f in ,australian dialects4 ,when foreigners tried to teach the ,mohawks1 who have no labials in their language1 to pronounce words with p and b in them1 they protested that it was too ridiculous to expect people to shut their mouths to speak2 and the ,portuguese discoverers of ,brazil1 remarking that the natives had neither f1 l1 nor r in their language1 neatly described them as a people with neither f1 ley1 nor rey1 neither faith1 law1 nor king4 ,it may happen1 too1 that sounds only used by some nations as interjectional noises1 unwritten and unwriteable1 shall be turned to account by others in their articulate language4 ,something of this kind occurs with the noises called #8clicks4' ,such sounds are familiar to us as interjections2 thus the lateral click made in the cheek 7and usually in the left cheek7 is continually used in driving horses1 while varieties of the dental and palatal click made with the tongue against the teeth and the roof of the mouth1 are common in the nursery as expressions of surprise1 reproof1 or satisfaction4 ,thus1 too1 the natives of ,tierra del ,fuego express #8no' by a peculiar cluck1 as do also the ,turks1 who accompany it with the gesture of throwing back the head2 and it appears from the accounts of travellers that the clicks of surprise and admiration among the natives of ,australia are much like those we hear at home4 ,but though here these clicking noises are only used interjectionally1 it is well known that ,south ,african races have taken such sounds up into their articulate speech and have made1 as we may say1 letters of them4 ,the very name of ,hottentots1 applied to the ,namaquas and other kindred tribes1 appears to be not a native name 7as ,peter ,kolb thought7 but a rude imitative word coined by the ,dutch to express the clicking #8hot en tot1' and the term ,hottentotism has been thence adopted as a medical description of one of the varieties of stammering4 ,north-,west ,america is another district of the world distinguished for the production of strange clucking1 gurgling1 and grunting letters1 difficult or impossible to ,european voices4 ,moreover1 there are many sounds capable of being used in articulate speech1 varieties of chirping1 whistling1 blowing1 and sucking noises1 of which some are familiar to our own use as calls to animals1 or interjectional noises of contempt or surprise1 but which no tribe is known to have brought into their alphabet4 ,with all the vast phonetic variety of known languages1 the limits of possible utterance are far from being reached4 ,up to a certain point we can understand the reasons which have guided the various tribes of mankind in the selection of their various alphabets2 ease of utterance to the speaker1 combined with distinctness of effect to the hearer1 have been undoubtedly among the principal of the selecting causes4 ,we may fairly connect with the close uniformity of men's organs of speech all over the world1 the general similarity which prevails in the phonetic systems of the most different languages1 and which gives us the power of roughly writing down so large a proportion of any one language by means of an alphabet intended for any other4 ,but while we thus account by physical similarity for the existence of a kind of natural alphabet common to mankind1 we must look to other causes to determine the selection of sounds used in different languages1 and to account for those remarkable courses of change which go on in languages of a common stock1 producing in ,europe such variations of one original word as pater1 father1 vater1 or in the islands of ,polynesia offering us the numeral #e under the strangely-varied forms of lima1 rima1 dima1 nima1 and hima4 ,changes of this sort have acted so widely and regularly1 that since the enunciation of ,grimm's law their study has become a main part of philology4 ,though their causes are as yet so obscure1 we may at least argue that such wide and definite operations cannot be due to chance or arbitrary fancy1 but must be the result of laws as wide and definite as themselves4 ,let us now suppose a book to be written with a tolerably correct alphabet1 for instance an ordinary ,italian book1 or an ,english one in some good system of phonetic letters4 ,to suppose ,english written in the makeshift alphabet which we still keep in use1 would be of course to complicate the matter in hand with a new and needless difficulty4 ,if1 then1 the book be written in a sufficient alphabet1 and handed to a reader1 his office will by no means stop short at rendering back into articulate sounds the vowels and consonants before him1 as though he were reading over proofs for the press4 ,for the emotional tone just spoken of has dropped out in writing down the words in letters1 and it will be the reader's duty to guess from the meaning of the words what this tone should be1 and to put it in again accordingly4 ,he has moreover to introduce emphasis1 whether by accent or stress1 on certain syllables or words1 thereby altering their effect in the sentence2 if he says1 for example1 #8,i never sold you that horse1' an emphasis on any one of these six words will alter the import of the whole phrase4 ,now1 in emphatic pronunciation two distinct processes are to be remarked4 ,the effect produced by changes in loudness and duration of words is directly imitative2 it is a mere gesture made with the voice1 as we may notice by the way in which any one will speak of #8a short sharp answer1' #8a long weary year1' #8a loud burst of music1' #8a gentle gliding motion1' as compared with the like manner in which the gesture-language would adapt its force and speed to the kind of action to be represented4 ,written language can hardly convey but by the context the striking effects which our imitative faculty adds to spoken language1 in our continual endeavour to make the sound of each word we speak a sort of echo to its sense4 ,we see this in the difference between writing and telling the little story of the man who was worried by being talked to about #8good books4' #8,do you mean1' he asked1 speaking shortly with a face of strong firm approval1 #8good books8' #8or1' with a drawl and a fatuous-benevolent simper1 #8goo-d books8' ,musical accent 7accentus1#bee musical tone7 is turned to account as a means of emphasis1 as when we give prominence to a particular syllable or word in a sentence by raising or depressing it a semi-tone or more4 ,the reader has to divide his sentences with pauses1 being guided in this to some extent by stops2 the rhythmic measure in which he will utter prose as well as poetry is not without its effect2 and he has again to introduce music by speaking each sentence to a kind of imperfect melody4 ,professor ,helmholtz endeavours to write down in musical notes how a ,german with a bass voice1 speaking on ,b flat1 might say1 #8,ich bin spatzieren gegangen4--,bist du spatzieren gegangen8' falling a fourth 7to ,f7 at the end of the affirmative sentence1 and rising a fifth 7to f7 in asking the question1 thus ranging through an octave4#bef ,when an ,english speaker tries to illustrate in his own language the rising and falling tones of ,siamese vowels1 he compares them with the ,english ones of question and answer1 as in #8,will you go8 ,yes4'#beg ,the rules of this imperfect musical intonation in ordinary conversation have been as yet but little studied4 ,but as a means of giving solemnity and pathos to language1 it has been more fully developed and even systematized under exact rules of melody1 and we thus have on the one hand ecclesiastical intoning and the less conventional half-singing so often to be heard in religious meetings1 and on the other the ancient and modern theatrical recitative4 ,by such intermediate stages we may cross the wide interval from spoken prose1 with the musical pitch of its vowels so carelessly kept1 and so obscured by consonants as to be difficult even to determine1 to full song1 in which the consonants are as much as possible suppressed1 that they may not interfere with the precise and expressive music of the vowels4 ,proceeding now to survey such parts of the vocabulary of mankind as appear to have an intelligible origin in the direct expression of sense by sound1 let us first examine ,interjections4 ,when ,horne ,tooke spoke1 in words often repeated since1 of #8the brutish inarticulate ,interjection1' he certainly meant to express his contempt for a mode of expression which lay outside his own too narrow view of language4 ,but the epithets are in themselves justifiable enough4 ,interjections are undoubtedly to a certain extent #8brutish' in their analogy to the cries of animals2 and the fact gives them an especial interest to modern observers1 who are thus enabled to trace phenomena belonging to the mental state of the lower animals up into the midst of the most highly cultivated human language4 ,it is also true that they are #8inarticulate1' so far at least that the systems of consonants and vowels recognized by grammarians break down more hopelessly than elsewhere in the attempt to write down interjections4 ,alphabetic writing is far too incomplete and clumsy an instrument to render their peculiar and variously-modulated sounds1 for which a few conventionally-written words do duty poorly enough4 ,in reading aloud1 and sometimes even in the talk of those who have learnt rather from books than from the living world1 we may hear these awkward imitations1 ahem6 hein6 tush6 tut6 pshaw6 now carrying the unquestioned authority of words printed in a book1 and reproduced letter for letter with a most amusing accuracy4 ,but when ,horne ,tooke fastens upon an unfortunate ,italian grammarian and describes him as #8,the industrious and exact ,cinonio1 who does not appear ever to have had a single glimpse of reason1' it is not easy to see what the pioneer of ,english philology could find to object to in ,cinonio's obviously true assertion1 that a single interjection1 ah6 or ahi6 is capable of expressing more than twenty different emotions or intentions1 such as pain1 entreaty1 threatening1 sighing1 disdain1 according to the tone in which it is uttered4#beh ,the fact that interjections do thus utter feelings is quite beyond dispute1 and the philologist's concern with them is on the one hand to study their action in expressing emotion1 and on the other to trace their passage into more fully-formed words1 such as have their place in connected syntax and form part of logical propositions4 ,in the first place1 however1 it is necessary to separate from proper interjections the many sense-words which1 often kept up in a mutilated or old-fashioned guise1 come so close to them both in appearance and in use4 ,among classic examples are 6 6 age6 macte6 ,such a word is hail6 which as the ,gothic ,bible shows1 was originally an adjective1 #8whole1 hale1 prosperous1' used vocatively1 just as the ,italians cry bravo6 brava6 bravi6 brave6 ,when the ,african negro cries out in fear or wonder mm6 mm6#bei he might be thought to be uttering a real interjection1 #8a word used to express some passion or emotion of the mind1' as ,lindley ,murray has it1 but in fact he is simply calling1 grown-up baby as he is1 for his mother2 and the very same thing has been noticed among ,indians of ,upper ,california1 who as an expression of pain cry1 an6 that is #8mother4'#bfj ,other exclamations consist of a pure interjection combined with a pronoun1 as 6 oim6 ah me6 or with an adjective1 as alas6 hlas6 7ah weary67 ,with what care interjections should be sifted1 to avoid the risk of treating as original elementary sounds of language what are really nothing but sense-words1 we may judge from the way in which the common ,english exclamation well6 well6 approaches the genuine interjectional sound in the ,coptic expression #8to make ouelouele1' which signifies to wail1 ,latin ululare4 ,still better1 we may find a learned traveller in the #ahth century quite seriously remarking1 apropos of the old ,greek battle-shout1 6 6 that the ,turks to this day call out ,allah6 ,allah6 ,allah6 upon the like occasion4#bfa ,the calls to animals customary in different countries#bfb are to a great extent interjectional in their use1 but to attempt to explain them as a whole is to step upon as slippery ground as lies within the range of philology4 ,sometimes they may be in fact pure interjections1 like the sch sch6 mentioned as an old ,german cry to scare birds1 as we should say sh sh61 or the a6 with which the ,indians of ,brazil call their dogs4 ,or they may be set down as simple imitations of the animal's own cries1 as the clucking to call fowls in our own farm-yards1 or the ,austrian calls of pi pi6 or tiet tiet6 to chickens1 or the ,swabian kauter kaut6 to turkeys1 or the shepherd's baaing to call sheep in ,india4 ,in other cases1 however1 they may be sense-words more or less broken down1 as when the creature is spoken to by a sound which seems merely taken from its own common name4 ,if an ,english countryman meets a stray sheep-dog1 he will simply call to him ship6 ship6 ,so schp schp6 is an ,austrian call to sheep1 and kss kuhel kss6 to cows4 ,in ,german districts gus gus6 gusch gusch6 gs gs6 are set down as calls to geese2 and when we notice that the ,bohemian peasant calls husy6 to them1 we remember that the name for goose in his language is husa1 a word familiar to ,english ears in the name of ,john ,huss4 ,the ,bohemian1 again1 will call to his dog ps ps6 but then pes means #8dog4' ,other sense-words addressed to animals break down by long repetition into mutilated forms4 ,when we are told that the to to6 with which a ,portuguese calls a dog is short for toma toma6 7i4e41 #8take take6'7 which tells him to come and take his food1 we admit the explanation as plausible2 and the coop coop6 which a cockney might so easily mistake for a pure interjection1 is only #8,come up6 come up6' #8,come uppe1 ,whitefoot1 come uppe1 ,lightfoot1 ,come uppe1 ,jetty1 rise and follow1 ,jetty1 to the milking shed4' ,but ,i cannot offer a plausible guess at the origin of such calls as hf hf6 to horses1 hhl hhl6 to geese1 deckel deckel6 to sheep4 ,it is fortunate for etymologists that such trivial little words have not an importance proportioned to the difficulty of clearing up their origin4 ,the word puss6 raises an interesting philological problem4 ,an ,english child calling puss puss6 is very likely keeping up the trace of the old ,keltic name for the cat1 ,irish pus1 ,erse pusag1 ,gaelic puis4 ,similar calls are known elsewhere in ,europe 7as in ,saxony1 ps ps671 and there is some reason to think that the cat1 which came to us from the ,east1 brought with it one of its names1 which is still current there1 ,tamil psei6 ,afghan pusha1 ,persian pushak1 c4 ,mr4 ,wedgwood finds an origin for the call in an imitation of the cat's spitting1 and remarks that the ,servians cry pis6 to drive a cat away1 while the ,albanians use a similar sound to call it4 ,the way in which the cry of puss6 has furnished a name for the cat itself1 comes out curiously in countries where the animal has been lately introduced by ,englishmen4 ,thus boosi is the recognized word for cat in the ,tonga ,islands1 no doubt from ,captain ,cook's time4 ,among ,indian tribes of ,north-,west ,america1 pwsh1 pish-pish1 appear in native languages with the meaning of cat2 and not only is the ,european cat called a puss puss in the ,chinook ,jargon1 but in the same curious dialect the word is applied to a native beast1 the cougar1 now called #8hyas puss-puss1' i4e41 #8great cat4'#bfc ,the derivation of names of animals in this manner from calls to them1 may perhaps not have been unfrequent4 ,it appears that huss6 is a cry used in ,switzerland to set dogs on to fight1 as s--s6 might be in ,england1 and that the ,swiss call a dog huss or hauss1 possibly from this4 ,we know the cry of dill6 dilly6 as a recognized call to ducks in ,england1 and it is difficult to think it a corruption of any ,english word or phrase1 for the ,bohemians also call dlidli6 to their ducks4 ,now1 though dill or dilly may not be found in our dictionaries as the name for a duck1 yet the way in which ,hood can use it as such in one of his best-known comic poems1 shows perfectly the easy and natural step by which such transitions can be made3-- #8,for ,death among the water-lilies1 ,cried 8,duc ad me0 to all her dillies4' ,in just the same way1 because gee6 is a usual call of the ,english waggoner to his horses1 the word gee-gee has become a familiar nursery noun meaning a horse4 ,and neither in such nursery words1 nor in words coined in jest1 is the evidence bearing on the origin of language to be set aside as worthless2 for it may be taken as a maxim of ethnology1 that what is done among civilized men in jest1 or among civilized children in the nursery1 is apt to find its analogue in the serious mental effort of savage1 and therefore of primval tribes4 ,drivers' calls to their beasts1 such as this gee6 gee-ho6 to urge on horses1 and weh6 woh6 to stop them1 form part of the vernacular of particular districts4 ,the geho6 perhaps came to ,england in the ,norman-,french1 for it is known in ,france1 and appears in the ,italian dictionary as gio6 ,the traveller who has been hearing the drivers in the ,grisons stop their horses with a long br-r-r6 may cross a pass and hear on the other side a h--6 instead4 ,the ploughman's calls to turn the leaders of the team to right and left have passed into proverb4 ,in ,france they say of a stupid clown #8,il n'entend ni dia6 ni hurhaut6' and the corresponding ,platt-,deutsch phrase is #8,he weet nich hutt6 noch hoh6' ,so there is a regular language to camels1 as ,captain ,burton remarks on his journey to ,mekka3 ikh ikh6 makes them kneel1 yhh yhh6 urges them on1 hai hai6 induces caution1 and so forth4 ,in the formation of these quaint expressions1 two causes have been at work4 ,the sounds seem sometimes thoroughly interjectional1 as the ,arab hai6 of caution1 or the ,french hue6 ,north ,german j6 ,whatever their origin1 they may be made to carry their sense by imitative tones expressive to the ear of both horse and man1 as any one will say who hears the contrast between the short and sharp high-pitched hp6 which tells the ,swiss horse to go faster1 and the long-drawn h---6 which brings him to a stand4 ,also1 the way in which common sense-words are taken up into calls like gee-up6 woh-back6 shows that we may expect to find various old broken fragments of formal language in the list1 and such on inspection we find accordingly4 ,the following lines are quoted by ,halliwell from the ,micro-,cynicon 7#aeii73-- #8,a base borne issue of a baser syer1 ,bred in a cottage1 wandering in the myer1 ,with nailed shooes and whipstaffe in his hand1 ,who with a hey and ree the beasts command4' ,this ree6 is equivalent to #8right' 7riddle-me-ree riddle me right71 and tells the leader of the team to bear to the right hand4 ,the hey6 may correspond with heit6 or camether6 which call him to bear #8hither1' i4e41 to the left4 ,in ,germany har6 hr6 har-h6 are likewise the same as #8her1' #8hither1 to the left4' ,so swude6 schwude6 zwuder6 #8to the left1' are of course simply #8zuwider1' #8on the contrary way4' ,pairs of calls for #8right' and #8left' in ,german-speaking countries are hot6--har6 and hott6--wist6 ,this wist6 is an interesting example of the keeping up of ancient words in such popular tradition4 ,it is evidently a mutilated form of an old ,german word for the left hand1 winistr1 ,anglo-,saxon winstre1 a name long since forgotten by modern ,high ,german1 as by our own modern ,english4#bfd ,as quaint a mixture of words and interjectional cries as ,i have met with1 is in the great ,french ,encyclopdia1#bfe which gives a minute description of the hunter's craft1 and prescribes exactly what is to be cried to the hounds under all possible contingencies of the chase4 ,if the creatures understood grammar and syntax1 the language could not be more accurately arranged for their ears4 ,sometimes we have what seem pure interjectional cries4 ,thus1 to encourage the hounds to work1 the huntsman is to call to them h halle halle halle6 while to bring them up before they are uncoupled it is prescribed that he shall call hau hau6 or hau tahaut6 and when they are uncoupled he is to change his cry to hau la y la la y la tayau6 a call which suggests the ,norman original of the ,english tally-ho6 ,with cries of this kind plain ,french words are intermixed1 h bellement l ila1 l ila1 hau valet6--hau l'ami1 tau tau aprs aprs1 route route6 and so on4 ,and sometimes words have broken down into calls whose sense is not quite gone1 like the #8vois le ci' and the #8vois le ce l'est' which are still to be distinguished in the shout which is to tell the hunters that the stag they have been chasing has made a return1 vauleci revari vaulecelez6 ,but the drollest thing in the treatise is the grave set of ,english words 7in very ,gallic shape7 with which ,english dogs are to be spoken to1 because1 as the author says1 #8there are many ,english hounds in ,france1 and it is difficult to get them to work when you speak to them in an unknown tongue1 that is1 in other terms than they have been trained to4' ,therefore1 to call them1 the huntsman is to cry here do-do ho ho6 to get them back to the right track he is to say houpe boy1 houpe boy6 when there are several on ahead of the rest of the pack1 he is to ride up to them and cry saf me boy6 saf me boy6 and lastly1 if they are obstinate and will not stop1 he is to make them go back with a shout of cobat1 cobat6 ,how far the lower animals may attach any inherent meaning to interjectional sounds is a question not easy to answer4 ,but it is plain that in most of the cases mentioned here they only understand them as recognized signals which have a meaning by regular association1 as when they remember that they are fed with one noise and driven away with another1 and they also pay attention to the gestures which accompany the cries4 ,thus the well-known ,spanish way of calling the cat is miz miz6 while zape zape6 is used to drive it away2 and the writer of an old dictionary maintains that there can be no real difference between these words except by custom1 for1 he declares1 he has heard that in a certain monastery where they kept very handsome cats1 the brother in charge of the refectory hit upon the device of calling zape zape6 to them when he gave them their food1 and then he drove them away with a stick1 crying angrily miz miz2 and this of course prevented any stranger from calling and stealing them1 for only he and the cats knew the secret6#bff ,to philologists1 the manner in which such calls to animals become customary in particular districts illustrates the consensus by which the use of words is settled4 ,each case of the kind indicates that a word has prevailed by selection among a certain society of men1 and the main reasons of words holding their ground within particular limits1 though it is so difficult to assign them exactly in each case1 are probably inherent fitness in the first place1 and traditional inheritance in the second4 ,when the ground has been cleared of obscure or mutilated sense-words1 there remains behind a residue of real sound-words1 or pure interjections4 ,it has long and reasonably been considered that the place in history of these expressions is a very primitive one4 ,thus ,de ,brosses describes them as necessary and natural words1 common to all mankind1 and produced by the combination of man's conformation with the interior affections of his mind4 ,one of the best means of judging the relation between interjectional utterances and the feelings they express1 is to compare the voices of the lower animals with our own4 ,to a considerable extent there is a similarity4 ,as their bodily and mental structure has an analogy with our own1 so they express their minds by sounds which have to our ears a certain fitness for what they appear to mean4 ,it is so with the bark1 the howl1 and the whine of the dog1 the hissing of geese1 the purring of cats1 the crowing and clucking of cocks and hens4 ,but in other cases1 as with the hooting of owls and the shrieks of parrots and many other birds1 we cannot suppose that these sounds are intended to utter anything like the melancholy or pain which such cries from a human being would be taken to convey4 ,there are many animals that never utter any cry but what1 according to our notions of the meaning of sounds1 would express rage or discomfort2 how far are the roars and howls of wild beasts to be thus interpreted8 ,we might as well imagine the tuning violin to be in pain1 or the moaning wind to express sorrow4 ,the connexion between interjection and emotion depending on the physical structure of the animal which utters or hears the sound1 it follows that the general similarity of interjectional utterance among all the varieties of the human race is an important manifestation of their close physical and intellectual unity4 ,interjectional sounds uttered by man for the expression of his own feelings serve also as signs indicating these feelings to another4 ,a long list of such interjections1 common to races speaking the most widely various languages1 might be set down in a rough way as representing the sighs1 groans1 moans1 cries1 shrieks1 and growls by which man gives utterance to various of his feelings4 ,such for instance1 are some of the many sounds for which ah6 oh6 ahi6 aie6 are the inexpressive written representatives2 such is the sigh which is written down in the ,wolof language of ,africa as hhihhe6 in ,english as heigho6 in ,greek and ,latin as 6 6 heu6 eheu6 ,thus the open-mouthed wah wah6 of astonishment1 so common in the ,east1 reappears in ,america in the hwah6 hwah-wa6 of the ,chinook ,jargon2 and the kind of groan which is represented in ,european languages by weh6 ouais6 6 vae6 is given in ,coptic by ouae6 in ,galla by wayo6 in the ,ossetic of the ,caucasus by voy6 among the ,indians of ,british ,columbia by wo6 ,where the interjections taken down in the vocabularies of other languages differ from those recognized in our own1 we at any rate appreciate them and see how they carry their meaning4 ,thus with the ,malagasy u-u6 of pleasure1 the ,north-,american ,indian's often-described guttural ugh6 the kwish6 of contempt in the ,chinook ,jargon1 the ,tunguz yo yo6 of pain1 the ,irish wb wb6 of distress1 the native ,brazilian's teh teh6 of wonder and reverence1 the hai-yah6 so well known in the ,pigeon-,english of the ,chinese ports1 and even1 to take an extreme case1 the interjections of surprise among the ,algonquin ,indians1 where men say tiau6 and women nyau6 ,it is much the same with expressions which are not uttered for the speaker's satisfaction1 but are calls addressed to another4 ,thus the ,siamese call of h6 the ,hebrew he6 ha6 for #8lo6 behold6' the hi6 of the ,clallam ,indians for #8stop6' the ,lummi hi6 for #8hold1 enough6'--these and others like them belong just as much to ,english4 ,another class of interjections are such as any one conversant with the gesture-signs of savages and deaf-mutes would recognize as being themselves gesture signs1 made with vocal sound1 in short1 voice-gestures4 ,the sound m'm1 m'n1 made with the lips closed1 is the obvious expression of the man who tries to speak1 but cannot4 ,even the deaf-and-dumb child1 though he cannot hear the sound of his own voice1 makes this noise to show that he is dumb1 that he is mu mu1 as the ,vei negroes of ,west ,africa would say4 ,to the speaking man1 the sound which we write as mum6 says plainly enough #8hold your tongue6' #8mum's the word6' and in accordance with this meaning has served to form various imitative words1 of which a type is ,tahitian mamu1 to be silent4 ,often made with a slight effort which aspirates it1 and with more or less continuance1 this sound becomes what may be indicated as #8m1 #8n1 h'm1 h'n1 c41 interjections which are conventionally written down as words1 hem6 ahem6 hein6 ,their primary sense seems in any case that of hesitation to speak1 of #8humming and hawing1' but this serves with a varied intonation to express such hesitation or refraining from articulate words as belongs either to surprise1 doubt or enquiry1 approbation or contempt4 ,in the vocabulary of the ,yorubas of ,west ,africa1 the nasal interjection hu is rendered1 just as it might be in ,english1 as #8fudge6' ,rochefort describes the ,caribs listening in reverent silence to their chief's discourse1 and testifying their approval with a hun-hun6 just as in his time 7#agth century7 an ,english congregation would have saluted a popular preacher4#bfg ,the gesture of blowing1 again1 is a familiar expression of contempt and disgust1 and when vocalized gives the labial interjections which are written pah6 bah6 pugh6 pooh6 in ,welsh pw6 in ,low ,latin puppup6 and set down by travellers among the savages in ,australia as pooh6 ,these interjections correspond with the mass of imitative words which express blowing1 such as ,malay puput1 to blow4 ,the labial gestures of blowing pass into those of spitting1 of which one kind gives the dental interjection t' t' t'6 which is written in ,english or ,dutch tut tut6 and that this is no mere fancy1 a number of imitative verbs of various countries will serve to show1 ,tahitian tutua1 to spit1 being a typical instance4 ,the place of interjectional utterance in savage intercourse is well shown in ,cranz's description4 ,the ,greenlanders1 he says1 especially the women1 accompany many words with mien and glances1 and he who does not well apprehend this may easily miss the sense4 ,thus when they affirm anything with pleasure they suck down air by the throat with a certain sound1 and when they deny anything with contempt or horror1 they turn up the nose and give a slight sound through it4 ,and when they are out of humour1 one must understand more from their gestures than their words4#bfh ,interjection and gesture combine to form a tolerable practical means of intercourse1 as where the communication between ,french and ,english troops in the ,crimea is described as #8consisting largely of such interjectional utterances1 reiterated with expressive emphasis and considerable gesticulation4'#bfi ,this description well brings before us in actual life a system of effective human intercourse1 in which there has not yet arisen the use of those articulate sounds carrying their meaning by tradition1 which are the inherited words of the dictionary4 ,when1 however1 we look closely into these inherited sense-words themselves1 we find that interjectional sounds have actually had more or less share in their formation4 ,not stopping short at the function ascribed to them by grammarians1 of standing here and there outside a logical sentence1 the interjections have also served as radical sounds out of which verbs1 substantives1 and other parts of speech have been shaped4 ,in tracing the progress of interjections upward into fully developed language1 we begin with sounds merely expressing the speaker's actual feelings4 ,when1 however1 expressive sounds like ah6 ugh6 pooh6 are uttered not to exhibit the speaker's actual feelings at the moment1 but only in order to suggest to another the thought of admiration or disgust1 then such interjections have little or nothing to distinguish them from fully formed words4 ,the next step is to trace the taking up of such sounds into the regular forms of ordinary grammar4 ,familiar instances of such formations may be found among ourselves in nursery language1 where to woh is found in use with the meaning of to stop1 or in that real though hardly acknowledged part of the ,english language to which belong such verbs as to boo-hoo4 ,among the most obvious of such words are those which denote the actual utterance of an interjection1 or pass thence into some closely allied meaning4 ,thus the ,fijian women's cry of lamentation oile6 becomes the verb oile #8to bewail1' oile-taka #8to lament for' 7the men cry ule672 now this is in perfect analogy with such words as ululare1 to wail4 ,with different grammatical terminations1 another sound produces the ,zulu verb gigiteka and its ,english equivalent to giggle4 ,the ,galla iya1 #8to cry1 scream1 give the battle-cry' has its analogues in ,greek 1 1 #8a cry1' #8wailing1 mournful1' c4 ,good cases may be taken from a curious modern dialect with a strong propensity to the use of obvious sound-words1 the ,chinook ,jargon of ,north-,west ,america4 ,here we find adopted from an ,indian dialect the verb to kish-kish1 that is1 #8to drive cattle or horses'2 humm stands for the word #8stink1' verb or noun2 and the laugh1 heehee1 becomes a recognized term meaning fun or amusement1 as in mamook heehee1 #8to amuse' 7i4e41 #8to make heehee'7 and heehee house1 #8a tavern4' ,in ,hawaii1 aa is #8to insult2' in the ,tonga ,islands1 i6 is at once the exclamation #8fie6' and the verb #8to cry out against4' ,in ,new ,zealand1 h6 is an interjection denoting surprise at a mistake1 h as a noun or verb meaning #8error1 mistake1 to err1 to go astray4' ,in the ,quich language of ,guatemala1 the verbs ay1 oy1 boy1 express the idea of #8to call' in different ways4 ,in the ,carajas language of ,brazil1 we may guess an interjectional origin in the adjective ei1 #8sorrowful1' and can scarcely fail to see a derivation from expressive sound in the verb hai-hai #8to run away' 7the word aie-aie1 used to mean #8an omnibus' in modern ,french slang1 is said to be a comic allusion to the cries of the passengers whose toes are trodden on74 ,the ,camacan ,indians1 when they wish to express the notion of #8much' or #8many1' hold out their fingers and say hi4 ,as this is an ordinary savage gesture expressing multitude1 it seems likely that the hi is a mere interjection1 requiring the visible sign to convey the full meaning4#bgj ,in the ,quichua language of ,peru1 alalau6 is an interjection of complaint at cold1 whence the verb alalauini1 #8to complain of the cold4' ,at the end of each strophe of the ,peruvian hymns to the ,sun was sung the triumphant exclamation haylli6 and with this sound are connected the verbs hayllini #8to sing1' hayllicuni1 #8to celebrate a victory4' ,the ,zulu halala6 of exultation1 which becomes also a verb #8to shout for joy1' has its analogues in the ,tibetan alala6 of joy1 and the ,greek 1 which is used as a noun meaning the battle-cry and even the onset itself1 1 #8to raise the war-cry1' as well as ,hebrew hillel1 #8to sing praise1' whence hallelujah6 a word which the believers in the theory that the ,red ,indians were the ,lost ,tribes naturally recognized in the native medicine-man's chant of hi-le-li-lah6 ,the ,zulu makes his panting ha6 do duty as an expression of heat1 when he says that the hot weather #8says ha ha'2 his way of pitching a song by a ha6 ha6 is apparently represented in the verb haya1 #8to lead a song1' hayo #8a starting song1 a fee given to the singing-leader for the haya'2 and his interjectional expression b b6 #8as when one smacks his lips from a bitter taste1' becomes a verb-root meaning #8to be bitter or sharp to the taste1 to prick1 to smart4' ,the ,galla language gives some good examples of interjections passing into words1 as where the verbs birr-djeda 7to say brr67 and birfada 7to make brr67 have the meaning #8to be afraid4' ,thus o6 being the usual answer to a call1 and also a cry to drive cattle1 there are formed from it by the addition of verbal terminations1 the verbs oada1 #8to answer1' and ofa1 #8to drive4' ,if the magnific and honorific o of ,japanese grammar can be assigned to an interjectional origin1 its capabilities in modifying signification become instructive4#bga ,it is used before substantives as a prefix of honour2 couni1 #8country1' thus becoming ocouni4 ,when a man is talking to his superiors1 he puts o before the names of all objects belonging to them1 while these superiors drop the o in speaking of anything of their own1 or an inferior's2 among the higher classes1 persons of equal rank put o before the names of each other's things1 but not before their own2 it is polite to say o before the names of all women1 and well-bred children are distinguished from little peasants by the way in which they are careful to put it even before the nursery names of father and mother1 o toto1 o caca1 which correspond to the papa and mama of ,europe4 ,a distinction is made in written language between o1 which is put to anything royal1 and oo which means great1 as may be instanced in the use of the word mets'k or #8spy' 7literally #8eye-fixer'72 o mets'k is a princely or imperial spy1 while oo mets'k is the spy in chief4 ,this interjectional adjective oo1 great1 is usually prefixed to the name of the capital city1 which it is customary to call oo ,yedo in speaking to one of its inhabitants1 or when officials talk of it among themselves4 ,and lastly1 the o of honour is prefixed to verbs in all their forms of conjugation1 and it is polite to say ominahai matse1 #8please to see1' instead of the mere plebeian minahai matse4 ,now an ,english child of six years old would at once understand these formations if taken as interjectional2 and if we do not incorporate in our grammar the o6 of admiration and reverential embarrassment1 it is because we have not chosen to take advantage of this rudimentary means of expression4 ,another exclamation1 the cry of io6 has taken a place in etymology4 ,when added by the ,german to his cry of #8,fire6' #8,murder6' ,feuerio6 ,mordio6 it remains indeed as mere an interjection as the o6 in our street cries of #8,pease-o6' #8,dust-o6' or the 6 in old ,german wafen6 #8to arms6' #8hilf6 #8help6' ,but the ,iroquois of ,north ,america makes a fuller use of his materials1 and carries his io6 of admiration into the very formation of compound words1 adding it to a noun to say that it is beautiful or good2 thus1 in ,mohawk1 garonta means a tree1 garontio a beautiful tree2 in like manner1 ,ohio means #8river-beautiful2' and ,ontario1 #8hill-rock-beautiful1' is derived in the same way4 ,when1 in the old times of the ,french occupation of ,canada1 there was sent over a ,governor-,general of ,new ,france1 ,monsieur de ,montmagny1 the ,iroquois rendered his name from their word ononte1 #8mountain1' translating him into ,onontio1 or #8,great ,mountain1' and thus it came to pass that the name of ,onontio was handed down long after1 like that of ,csar1 as the title of each succeeding governor1 while for the ,king of ,france was reserved the yet higher style of #8the great ,onontio4'#bgb ,the quest of interjectional derivations for sense-words is apt to lead the etymologist into very rash speculations4 ,one of his best safeguards is to test forms supposed to be interjectional1 by ascertaining whether anything similar has come into use in decidedly distinct languages4 ,for instance1 among the familiar sounds which fall on the traveller's ear in ,spain is the muleteer's cry to his beasts1 arre6 arre6 ,from this interjection1 a family of ,spanish words are reasonably supposed to be derived2 the verb arrear1 #8to drive mules1' arriero1 the name for the #8muleteer' himself1 and so forth4#bgc ,now is this arre6 itself a genuine interjectional sound8 ,it seems likely to be so1 for ,captain ,wilson found it in use in the ,pelew ,islands1 where the paddlers in the canoes were kept up to their work by crying to them arree6 arree6 ,similar interjections are noticed elsewhere with a sense of mere affirmation1 as in an ,australian dialect where a-ree6 is set down as meaning #8indeed1' and in the ,quichua language where ari6 means #8yes6' whence the verb arii1 #8to affirm4' ,two other cautions are desirable in such enquiries4 ,these are1 not to travel too far from the absolute meaning expressed by the interjection1 unless there is strong corroborative evidence1 and not to override ordinary etymology by treating derivative words as though they were radical4 ,without these checks1 even sound principle breaks down in application1 as the following two examples may show4 ,it is quite true that h'm6 is a common interjectional call1 and that the ,dutch have made a verb of it1 hemmen1 #8to hem after a person4' ,we may notice a similar call in ,west ,africa1 in the mma6 which is translated #8hallo6 stop6' in the language of ,fernando ,po4 ,but to apply this as a derivation for ,german hemmen1 #8to stop1 check1 restrain1' to hem in1 and even to the hem of a garment1 as ,mr4 ,wedgwood does without even a perhaps1#bgd is travelling too far beyond the record4 ,again1 it is quite true that sounds of clicking and smacking of the lips are common expressions of satisfaction all over the world1 and words may be derived from these sounds1 as where a vocabulary of the ,chinook language of ,north-,west ,america expresses #8good' as t'k-tok-te1 or e-tok-te1 sounds which we cannot doubt to be derived from such clicking noises1 if the words are not in fact attempts to write down the very clicks themselves4 ,but it does not follow that we may take such words as delici1 delicatus1 out of a highly organized language like ,latin1 and refer them1 as the same etymologist does1 to an interjectional utterance of satisfaction1 dlick6#bge ,to do this1 is to ignore altogether the composition of words2 we might as well explain ,latin dilectus or ,english delight as direct formations from expressive sound4 ,in concluding these remarks on interjections1 two or three groups of words may be brought forward as examples of the application of collected evidence from a number of languages1 mostly of the lower races4 ,the affirmative and negative particles1 which bear in language such meanings as #8yes6' #8indeed6' and #8no6' #8not1' may have their derivations from many different sources4 ,it is thought that the ,australian dialects all belong to a single stock1 but so unlike are the sounds they use for #8no6' and #8yes6' that tribes are actually named from these words as a convenient means of distinction4 ,thus the tribes known as ,gureang1 ,kamilaroi1 ,kogai1 ,wolaroi1 ,wailwun1 ,wiratheroi1 have their names from the words they use for #8no1' these being gure1 kamil1 ko1 wol1 wail1 wira1 respectively2 and on the other hand the ,pikambul are said to be so called from their word pika1 #8yes4' ,the device of naming tribes1 thus invented by the savages of ,australia1 and which perhaps recurs in ,brazil in the name of the ,cocatapuya tribe 7coca #8no1' tapuya #8man'7 is very curious in its similarity to the medival division of ,langue d'oc and ,langue d'ol1 according to the words for #8yes6' which prevailed in ,southern and ,northern ,france3 oc6 is ,latin hoc1 as we might say #8that's it6' while the longer form hoc illud was reduced to ol6 and thence to oui6 ,many other of the words for #8yes6' and #8no6' may be sense-words1 as1 again1 the ,french and ,italian si6 is ,latin sic4 ,but on the other hand there is reason to think that many of these particles in use in various languages are not sense-words1 but sound-words of a purely interjectional kind2 or1 what comes nearly to the same thing1 a feeling of fitness of the sound to the meaning may have affected the choice and shaping of sense-words--a remark of large application in such enquiries as the present4 ,it is an old suggestion that the primitive sound of such words as non is a nasal interjection of doubt or dissent4#bgf ,it corresponds in sound with the visible gesture of closing the lips1 while a vowel-interjection1 with or without aspiration1 belongs rather to open-mouthed utterance4 ,whether from this or some other cause1 there is a remarkable tendency among most distant and various languages of the world1 on the one hand to use vowel-sounds1 with soft or hard breathing1 to express #8yes6' and on the other hand to use nasal consonants to express #8no6' ,the affirmative form is much the commoner4 ,the guttural i-i6 of the ,west ,australian1 the 6 of the ,darien1 the a-ah6 of the ,clallam1 the 6 of the ,yakama ,indians1 the e6 of the ,basuto1 and the ai6 of the ,kanuri1 are some examples of a wide group of forms1 of which the following are only part of those noted down in ,polynesian and ,south ,american districts--ii6 6 ia6 aio6 io6 ya6 ey6 c41 h'6 heh6 he-e6 h6 hoehah6 ah-ha6 c4 ,the idea has most weight where pairs of words for #8yes6' and #8no6' are found both conforming4 ,thus in the very suggestive description by ,dobrizhoffer among the ,abipones of ,south ,america1 for #8yes6' the men and youths say h6 the women say h6 and the old men give a grunt2 while for #8no' they all say yna6 and make the loudness of the sound indicate the strength of the negation4 ,dr4 ,martius's collection of vocabularies of ,brazilian tribes1 philologically very distinct1 contains several such pairs of affirmatives and negatives1 the equivalents of #8yes6'--#8no6' being in ,tupi ay--aan6 aani62 in ,guato ii6--mau62 in ,jumana1 aeae6--miu62 in ,miranha ha 6--nani6 ,the ,quichua of ,peru affirms by y6 hu6 and expresses #8no1' #8not1' #8not at all1' by ama6 manan6 c41 making from the latter the verb manami1 #8to deny4' ,the ,quich of ,guatemala has e or ve for the affirmative1 ma1 man1 mana1 for the negative4 ,in ,africa1 again1 the ,galla language has ee6 for #8yes6' and hn1 hin1 hm1 for #8not6'2 the ,fernandian ee6 for #8yes6' and #8nt for #8not2' while the ,coptic dictionary gives the affirmative 7,latin #8sane'7 as eie1 ie1 and the negative by a long list of nasal sounds such as an1 emmen1 en1 mmn1 c4 ,the ,sanskrit particles hi6 #8indeed1 certainly1' na1 #8not1' exemplify similar forms in ,indo-,european languages1 down to our own aye6 and no6#bgg ,there must be some meaning in all this1 for otherwise ,i could hardly have noted down incidentally1 without making any attempt at a general search1 so many cases from such different languages1 only finding a comparatively small number of contradictory cases4#bgh ,de ,brosses maintained that the ,latin stare1 to stand1 might be traced to an origin in expressive sound4 ,he fancied he could hear in it an organic radical sign designating fixity1 and could thus explain why st6 should be used as a call to make a man stand still4 ,its connexion with these sounds is often spoken of in more modern books1 and one imaginative ,german philologer describes their origin among primval men as vividly as though he had been there to see4 ,a man stands beckoning in vain to a companion who does not see him1 till at last his effort relieves itself by the help of the vocal nerves1 and involuntarily there breaks from him the sound st6 ,now the other hears the sound1 turns toward it1 sees the beckoning gesture1 knows that he is called to stop2 and when this has happened again and again1 the action comes to be described in common talk by uttering the now familiar st6 and thus sta becomes a root1 the symbol of the abstract idea to stand6#bgi ,this is a most ingenious conjecture1 but unfortunately nothing more4 ,it would be at any rate strengthened1 though not established1 if its supporters could prove that the st6 used to call people in ,germany1 pst6 in ,spain1 is itself a pure interjectional sound4 ,even this1 however1 has never been made out4 ,the call has not yet been shown to be in use outside our own ,indo-,european family of languages2 and so long as it is only found in use within these limits1 an opponent might even plausibly claim it as an abbreviation of the very sta6 7#8stay6 stop6'7 for which the theory proposes it as an origin4#bhj ,that it is not unfair to ask for fuller evidence of a sound being purely interjectional than its appearance in a single family of languages1 may be shown by examining another group of interjections1 which are found among the remotest tribes1 and thus have really considerable claims to rank among the primary sounds of language4 ,these are the simple sibilants1 s6 sh6 h'sh6 used especially to scare birds1 and among men to express aversion or call for silence4 ,catlin describes a party of ,sioux ,indians1 when they came to the portrait of a dead chief1 each putting his hand over his mouth with a hush-sh2 and when he himself wished to approach the sacred #8medicine' in a ,mandan lodge1 he was called to refrain by the same hush-sh6 ,among ourselves the sibilant interjection passes into two exactly opposite senses1 according as it is meant to put the speaker himself to silence1 or to command silence for him to be heard2 and thus we find the sibilant used elsewhere1 sometimes in the one way and sometimes in the other4 ,among the wild ,veddas of ,ceylon1 iss6 is an exclamation of disapproval1 as in ancient or modern ,europe2 and the verb shrak1 to hiss1 is used in ,hebrew with a like sense1 #8they shall hiss him out of his place4' ,but in ,japan reverence is expressed by a hiss1 commanding silence4 ,captain ,cook remarked that the natives of the ,new ,hebrides expressed their admiration by hissing like geese4 ,casalis says of the ,basutos1 #8,hisses are the most unequivocal marks of applause1 and are as much courted in the ,african parliaments as they are dreaded by our candidates for popular favour4'#bha ,among other sibilant interjections1 are ,turkish ss6 ,ossetic ss6 sos6 #8silence6' ,fernandian sia6 #8listen6' #8tush6' ,yoruba si6 #8pshaw6' ,thus it appears that these sounds1 far from being special to one linguistic family1 are very widespread elements of human speech4 ,nor is there any question as to their passage into fully-formed words1 as in our verb to hush1 which has passed into the sense of #8to quiet1 put to sleep' 7adjectively1 #8as hush as death'71 metaphorically to hush up a matter1 or ,greek #8to hush1 say hush6 command silence4' ,even ,latin silere and ,gothic silan1 #8to be silent1' may with some plausibility be explained as derived from the interjectional s6 of silence4 ,sanskrit dictionaries recognize several words which explicitly state their own interjectional derivation2 such are hkra 7hm-making71 #8the utterance of the mystic religious exclamation hm6' and iabda 7i-sound71 #8a hiss4' ,besides these obvious formations1 the interjectional element is present to some greater or less degree in the list of ,sanskrit radicals1 which represent probably better than those of any other language the verb-roots of the ancient ,aryan stock4 ,in ru1 #8to roar1 cry1 wail' and in kakh1 #8to laugh1' we have the simpler kind of interjectional derivation1 that which merely describes a sound4 ,as to the more difficult kind1 which carry the sense into a new stage1 ,mr4 ,wedgwood makes out a strong case for the connexion of interjections of loathing and aversion1 such as pooh6 fie6 c41 with that large group of words which are represented in ,english by foul and fiend1 in ,sanskrit by the verbs py1 #8to become foul1 to stink' and piy1 py1 #8to revile1 to hate4'#bhb ,further evidence may be here adduced in support of this theory4 ,the languages of the lower races use the sound pu to express an evil smell2 the ,zulu remarks that #8the meat says pu' 7inyama iti pu71 meaning that it stinks2 the ,timorese has pop #8putrid2' the ,quich language has puh1 poh #8corruption1 pus1' pohir #8to turn bad1 rot1' puz #8rottenness1 what stinks2' the ,tupi word for nasty1 puxi1 may be compared with the ,latin putidus1 and the ,columbia ,river name for the #8skunk1' o-pun-pun1 with similar names of stinking animals1 ,sanskrit ptik #8civet-cat1' and ,french putois #8pole-cat4' ,from the ,french interjection fi6 words have long been formed belonging to the language1 if not authenticated by the ,academy2 in medival ,french #8maistre fi-fi' was a recognized term for a scavenger1 and fi-fi books are not yet extinct4 ,there has been as yet1 unfortunately1 too much separation between what may be called generative philology1 which examines into the ultimate origins of words1 and historical philology1 which traces their transmission and change4 ,it will be a great gain to the science of language to bring these two branches of enquiry into closer union1 even as the processes they relate to have been going on together since the earliest days of speech4 ,at present the historical philologists of the school of ,grimm and ,bopp1 whose great work has been the tracing of our ,indo-,european dialects to an early ,aryan form of language1 have had much the advantage in fulness of evidence and strictness of treatment4 ,at the same time it is evident that the views of the generative philologists1 from ,de ,brosses onward1 embody a sound principle1 and that much of the evidence collected as to emotional and other directly expressive words1 is of the highest value in the argument4 ,but in working out the details of such word-formation1 it must be remembered that no department of philology lies more open to ,augustine's caustic remark on the etymologists of his time1 that like the interpretation of dreams1 the derivation of words is set down by each man according to his own fancy4 7,ut somniorum interpretatio ita verborum origo pro cujusque ingenio prdicatur47 ,footnote #bdg3 ,c4 de ,brosses1 #8,trait de la ,formation ,mcanique des ,langues1' c4 7#ast ed4 #agfe72 ,wedgwood1 #8,origin of ,language' 7#ahff72 #8,dic4 of ,english ,etymology' 7#ahei1 #bnd ed4 #ahgb72 ,farrar1 #8,chapters on ,language' 7#ahfe74 ,footnote #bdh3 ,among the principal savage and barbaric languages here used for evidence1 are as follows3--,africa3 ,galla 7,tutschek1 ,gr4 and ,dic471 ,yoruba 7,bowen1 ,gr4 and ,dic471 ,zulu 7,dhne1 ,dic474 ,polynesia1 c43 ,maori 7,kendall1 ,vocab41 ,williams1 ,dic471 ,tonga 7,mariner1 ,vocab471 ,fiji 7,hazlewood1 ,dic471 ,melanesia 7,gabelentz1 ,melan4 ,spr474 ,australia 7,grey1 ,moore1 ,schrmann1 ,oldfield1 ,vocabs474 ,n4 ,america3 ,pima1 ,yakama1 ,clallam1 ,lummi1 ,chinuk1 ,mohawk1 ,micmac 7,smithson4 ,contr4 vol4 iii471 ,chinook ,jargon 7,gibbs1 ,dic471 ,quich 7,brasseur1 ,gr4 and ,dic474 ,s4 ,america3 ,tupi 7,diaz1 ,dic471 ,carib 7,rochefort1 ,vocab471 ,quichua 7,markham1 ,gr4 and ,dic471 ,chilian 7,febres1 ,dic471 ,brazilian tribes 7,martius1 #8,glossaria linguarum ,brasiliensium'74 ,many details in ,pott1 #8,doppelung1' c4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,bonwick1 #8,daily ,life of ,tasmanians1' p4 #adj2 ,capt4 ,wilson1 in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc41' vol4 iv4 p4 #cbb1 c42 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 in #8,journ4 ,amer4 ,oriental ,soc41' vol4 i4 #ahdi1 ,no4 #d2 also ,cranz41 #8,grnland1' p4 #bgi 7cited below1 p4 #ahf74 ,for other accounts1 see #8,early ,hist4 of ,mankind1' p4 #gg4 ,footnote #bej3 ,forbes1 #8,aymara ,indians1' in ,journ4 ,eth4 ,soc4 #ahgj1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bjh4 ,footnote #bea3 ,see ,helmholtz1 #8,tonempfindungen1' #bnd ed4 p4 #afc2 ,mc,kendrick1 ,text ,book of ,physiology1 p4 #fha1 c41 #gbj1 c42 ,max ,mller1 #8,lectures1' #bnd series1 p4 #ie1 c4 ,footnote #beb3 ,see ,pallegoix1 #8,gramm4 ,ling4 ,thai4'2 ,bastian1 in #8,monatsb4 ,berlin4 ,akad4' ,june #f1 #ahfg1 and #8,roy4 ,asiatic ,soc41' ,june1 #ahfg4 ,footnote #bec3 ,burton1 in #8,mem4 ,anthrop4 ,soc41' vol4 i4 p4 #cac2 ,bowen1 #8,yoruba ,gr4 and ,dic4' p4 #e2 see ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr41' p4 #dfa4 ,footnote #bed3 ,c4 ,w41 in #8,london and ,westminster ,review1' ,oct4 #ahcg4 ,footnote #bee3 #8,accentus est etiam in dicendo cantus obscurior4'--,cic4 de ,orat4 ,footnote #bef3 ,helmholtz1 p4 #cfd4 ,footnote #beg3 ,caswell1 in ,bastian1 #8,berlin4 ,akad4' l4c4 ,footnote #beh3 ,horne ,tooke1 #8,diversions of ,purley1' #bnd ed4 ,london1 #agih1 pt4 i4 pp4 #fj-c4 ,footnote #bei3 ,r4 ,f4 ,burton1 #8,lake ,regions of ,central ,africa1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ccc2 ,livingstone1 #8,missionary ,tr4 in ,s4 ,africa1' p4 #bih2 #8,gr4 of ,mpongwe lang1' ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,f4 ,missions1 ,rev4 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 p4 #bg4 ,see ,callaway1 #8,zulu ,tales1' vol4 i4 p4 #ei4 ,footnote #bfj3 ,arroyo de la ,cuesta1 #8,gr4 of ,mutsun ,lang4' p4 #ci1 in ,smithsonian ,contr41 vol4 iii42 ,neapolitan mamma mia6 exclamation of wonder1 c41 ,liebrecht in ,gtting4 ,gel4 ,anz4 #ahgb1 p4 #abhg4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,shaw1 #8,travels in ,barbary1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xv4 p4 #ffi4 ,footnote #bfb3 ,some of the examples here cited1 will be found in ,grimm1 #8,deutsche ,gr4' vol4 iii4 p4 #cjh2 ,pott1 #8,doppelung4' p4 #bg2 ,wedgwood1 #8,origin of ,language4' ,footnote #bfc3 ,see ,pictet1 #8,origines ,indo-,europ4' part i4 p4 #chb2 ,caldwell1 #8,gr4 of ,dravidian ,langs4' p4 #dfe2 ,wedgwood1 ,dic4 s4v4 #8puss1' c42 ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4 7,vocab47'2 ,gibbs1 #8,dic4 of ,chinook ,jargon1' ,smithsonian ,coll4 ,no4 #afa2 ,pandosy1 #8,gr4 and ,dic4 of ,yakama1' ,smithson4 ,contr4 vol4 iii42 compare ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,mpongwe ,gr4' p4 #eg4 ,the ,hindu child's call to the cat mun mun6 may be from ,hindust4 mno cat4 ,it4 micio1 ,fr4 mite1 minon1 ,ger4 mieze1 c4 #8cat1' and ,sp4 miz6 ,ger4 minz6 c4 #8puss6' are from imitations of a mew4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,for lists of drivers' words1 see ,grimm1 l4c42 ,pott1 #8,zhlmethode1' p4 #bfa2 ,halliwell1 #8,dic4 of ,archaic and ,provincial ,english1' s4v4 #8ree2' ,brand1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ae2 ,pictet1 part ii4 p4 #dhi4 ,footnote #bfe3 #8,encyclopdie1 ou ,dictionnaire ,raisonn des ,sciences1 c4' ,recueil de ,planches1 ,paris1 #agfc1 art4 #8,chasses4' ,the traditional cries are still more or less in use4 ,see #8,a ,week in a ,french ,country-house4' ,footnote #bff3 ,aldrete1 #8,lengua ,castellana1' ,madrid1 #afgc1 s4vv4 harre1 exe4 ,footnote #bfg3 #8,there prevailed in those days an indecent custom2 when the preacher touched any favourite topick in a manner that delighted his audience1 their approbation was expressed by a loud hum1 continued in proportion to their zeal or pleasure4 ,when ,burnet preached1 part of his congregation hummed so loudly and so long1 that he sat down to enjoy it1 and rubbed his face with his handkerchief4 ,when ,sprat preached1 he likewise was honoured with the like animating hum1 but he stretched out his hand to the congregation1 and cried1 8,peace1 peace2 ,i pray you1 peace40' ,johnson1 #8,life of ,sprat4' ,footnote #bfh3 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #bgi4 ,footnote #bfi3 ,d4 ,wilson1 #8,prehistoric ,man1' p4 #fe4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,compare1 in the same district1 ,cam ii1 ,cotox biebie1 eubihi1 multus1 -a1 -um4 ,footnote #bga3 ,j4 ,h4 ,donker ,curtius1 #8,essai de ,grammaire ,japonaise1' p4 #cd1 c4 #aii4 ,in former editions of the present work1 the directly interjectional character of the o is held in an unqualified manner4 ,reference to the grammars of ,prof4 ,b4 ,h4 ,chamberlain and others1 where this particle 7on1 o7 is connected with other forms implying a common root1 leaves the argument to depend wholly or partly on the supposition of an interjectional source for this root4 ,note to #crd ed4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,bruyas1 #8,mohawk ,lang41' p4 #af1 in ,smithson4 ,contr4 vol4 iii4 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' ,part iii4 p4 #cbh1 #ejb1 #ejg4 ,charlevoix1 #8,nouv4 ,france1' vol4 i4 p4 #cej4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,the arre6 may have been introduced into ,europe by the ,moors1 as it is used in ,arabic1 and its use in ,europe corresponds nearly with the limits of the ,moorish conquest1 in ,spain arre6 in ,provence arri6 ,footnote #bgd3 ,wedgwood1 #8,origin of ,language1' p4 #ib4 ,footnote #bge3 ,ibid41 p4 #gb4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,de ,brosses1 vol4 i4 p4 #bjc4 ,see ,wedgwood4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,also ,oraon hae--ambo2 ,micmac --mw4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,a double contradiction in ,carib anhan6 #8yes6' oua6 #8no6' ,single contradictions in ,catoquina hang6 ,tupi em6 ,botocudo hemhem6 ,yoruba e6 for #8yes6' ,culino aiy6 ,australian yo6 for #8no6' c4 ,how much these sounds depend on peculiar intonation1 we1 who habitually use h'm6 either for #8yes6' or #8no6' can well understand4 ,footnote #bgi3 7,charles de ,brosses7 #8,trait de la ,formation ,mcanique des ,langues1 c4' ,paris1 ,an4 ix41 vol4 i4 p4 #bch2 vol4 ii4 p4 #cac4 ,lazarus and ,steinthal1 #8,zeitschrift fr ,vlkerpsychologie1' c41 vol4 i4 p4 #dba4 ,heyse1 #8,system der ,sprachwissenschaft1' p4 #gc4 ,farrar1 #8,chapters on ,language1' p4 #bjb4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,similar sounds are used to command silence1 to stop speaking as well as to stop going4 ,english husht6 whist6 hist6 ,welsh ust6 ,french chut6 ,italian zitto6 ,swedish tyst6 ,russian st'6 and the ,latin st6 so well described in the curious old line quoted by ,mr4 ,farrar1 which compares it with the gesture of the finger on the lips3-- #8,isis1 et ,harpocrates digito qui significat st6' ,this group of interjections1 again1 has not been proved to be in use outside ,aryan limits4 ,footnote #bha3 ,catlin1 #8,north ,american ,indians1' vol4 i4 pp4 #bba1 #ci1 #aea1 #afb4 ,bailey in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc41' vol4 ii4 p4 #cah4 ,job xxvii4 #bc4 7,the verb shrak also signifies to call by a hiss1 #8and he will hiss unto them from the end of the earth1 and behold1 they shall come with speed1' ,is4 v4 #bf2 ,jer4 xix4 #h47 ,alcock1 #8,the ,capital of the ,tycoon1' vol4 i4 p4 #cid4 ,cook1 #8#bnd ,voy4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cf4 ,casalis1 #8,basutos1' p4 #bcd4 ,footnote #bhb3 ,wedgwood1 #8,origin of ,language1' p4 #hc1 #8,dictionary1' ,introd4 p4 xlix4 and s4v4 #8foul4' ,prof4 ,max ,mller1 #8,lectures1' #bnd series1 p4 #ib1 protests against the indiscriminate derivation of words directly from such cries and interjections1 without the intervention of determinate roots4 ,as to the present topic1 he points out that ,latin pus1 putridus1 ,gothic fuls1 ,english foul1 follow ,grimm's law as if words derived from a single root4 ,admitting this1 however1 the question has to be raised1 how far pure interjections and their direct derivatives1 being self-expressive and so to speak living sounds1 are affected by phonetic changes such as that of ,grimm's law1 which act on articulate sounds no longer fully expressive in themselves1 but handed down by mere tradition4 ,thus p and f occur in one and the same dialect in interjections of disgust and aversion1 puh6 fi6 being used in ,venice or ,paris1 just as similar sounds would be in ,london4 ,in tracing this group of words from early ,aryan forms1 it must also be noticed that ,sanskrit is a very imperfect guide1 for its alphabet has no f1 and it can hardly give the rule in this matter to languages possessing both p and f1 and thus capable of nicer appreciation of this class of interjections4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,emotional ,,and ,,imitative ,,language 7continued74 ,imitative ,words--,human actions named from sound--,animals' names from cries1 c4--,musical ,instruments--,sounds reproduced--,words modified to adapt sound to sense--,reduplication--,graduation of vowels to express distance and difference--,children's ,language--,sound-words as related to ,sense-words--,language an original product of the lower ,culture4 ,from the earliest times of language to our own day1 it is unlikely that men ever quite ceased to be conscious that some of their words were derived from imitation of the common sounds heard about them4 ,in our own modern ,english1 for instance1 results of such imitation are evident2 flies buzz1 bees hum1 snakes hiss1 a cracker or a bottle of ginger-beer pops1 a cannon or a bittern booms4 ,in the words for animals and for musical instruments in the various languages of the world1 the imitation of their cries and tones is often to be plainly heard1 as in the names of the hoopoe1 the ai-ai sloth1 the kaka parrot1 the ,eastern tomtom1 which is a drum1 the ,african ulule1 which is a flute1 the ,siamese khong-bong1 which is a wooden harmonicon1 and in like manner through a host of other words4 ,but these evident cases are far from representing the whole effects of imitation on the growth of language4 ,they form1 indeed1 the easy entrance to a philological region1 which becomes less penetrable the farther it is explored4 ,the operations of which we see the results before us in the actual languages of the world seem to have been somewhat as follows4 ,men have imitated their own emotional utterances or interjections1 the cries of animals1 the tones of musical instruments1 the sounds of shouting1 howling1 stamping1 breaking1 tearing1 scraping1 with others which are all day coming to their ears1 and out of these imitations many current words indisputably have their source4 ,but these words1 as we find them in use1 differ often widely1 often beyond all recognition1 from the original sounds they sprang from4 ,in the first place1 man's voice can only make a very rude copy of most sounds his ear receives2 his possible vowels are very limited in their range compared with natural tones1 and his possible consonants still more helpless as a means of imitating natural noises4 ,moreover1 his voice is only allowed to use a part even of this imperfect imitative power1 seeing that each language for its own convenience restricts it to a small number of set vowels and consonants1 to which the imitative sounds have to conform1 thus becoming conventionalized into articulate words with further loss of imitative accuracy4 ,no class of words have a more perfect imitative origin than those which simply profess to be vocal imitations of sound4 ,how ordinary alphabets to some extent succeed and to some extent fail in writing down these sounds may be judged from a few examples4 ,thus1 the ,australian imitation of a spear or bullet striking is given as toop2 to the ,zulu1 when a calabash is beaten1 it says boo2 the ,karens hear the flitting ghosts of the dead call in the wailing voice of the wind1 re1 re1 ro1 ro2 the old traveller1 ,pietro della ,valle1 tells how the ,shah of ,persia sneered at ,timur and his ,tartars1 with their arrows that went ter ter2 certain ,buddhist heretics maintained that water is alive1 because when it boils it says chichit1 chitichita1 a symptom of vitality which occasioned much theological controversy as to drinking cold and warm water4 ,lastly1 sound-words taken up into the general inventory of a language have to follow its organic changes1 and in the course of phonetic transition1 combination1 decay1 and mutilation1 to lose ever more and more their original shape4 ,to take a single example1 the ,french huer #8to shout' 7,welsh hwa7 may be a perfect imitative verb2 yet when it passes into modern ,english hue and cry1 our changed pronunciation of the vowel destroys all imitation of the call4 ,now to the language-makers all this was of little account4 ,they merely wanted recognized words to express recognized thought1 and no doubt arrived by repeated trials at systems which were found practically to answer this purpose4 ,but to the modern philologist1 who is attempting to work out the converse of the problem1 and to follow backward the course of words to original imitative sound1 the difficulty is most embarrassing4 ,it is not only that thousands of words really derived from such imitation may now by successive change have lost all safe traces of their history2 such mere deficiency of knowledge is only a minor evil4 ,what is far worse is that the way is thrown open to an unlimited number of false solutions1 which yet look on the face of them fully as like truth as others which we know historically to be true4 ,one thing is clear1 that it is of no use to resort to violent means1 to rush in among the words of language1 explaining them away right and left as derived each from some remote application of an imitative noise4 ,the advocate of the ,imitative ,theory who attempts this1 trusting in his own powers of discernment1 has indeed taken in hand a perilous task1 for1 in fact1 of all judges of the question at issue1 he has nourished and trained himself up to become the very worst4 ,his imagination is ever suggesting to him what his judgment would like to find true2 like a witness answering the questions of the counsel on his own side1 he answers in good faith1 but with what bias we all know4 ,it was thus with ,de ,brosses1 to whom this department of philology owes so much4 ,it is nothing to say that he had a keen ear for the voice of ,nature2 she must have positively talked to him in alphabetic language1 for he could hear the sound of hollowness in the sk of #8to dig1' of hardness in the cal of callosity1 the noise of insertion of a body between two others in the tr of trans1 intra4 ,in enquiries so liable to misleading fancy1 no pains should be spared in securing impartial testimony1 and it fortunately happens that there are available sources of such evidence1 which1 when thoroughly worked1 will give to the theory of imitative words as near an approach to accuracy as has been attained to in any other wide philological problem4 ,by comparing a number of languages1 widely apart in their general system and materials1 and whose agreement as to the words in question can only be accounted for by similar formation of words from similar suggestion of sound1 we obtain groups of words whose imitative character is indisputable4 ,the groups here considered consist in general of imitative words of the simpler kind1 those directly connected with the special sound they are taken from1 but their examination to some extent admits of words being brought in1 where the connexion of the idea expressed with the sound imitated is more remote4 ,this1 lastly1 opens the far wider and more difficult problem1 how far imitation of sounds is the primary cause of the great mass of words in the vocabularies of the world1 between whose sound and sense no direct connexion appears4 ,words which express human actions accompanied with sound form a very large and intelligible class4 ,in remote and most different languages1 we find such forms as pu1 puf1 bu1 buf1 fu1 fuf1 in use with the meaning of puffing1 fuffing2 or blowing2 ,malay puput2 ,tongan buhi2 ,maori pupui2 ,australian bobun1 bwa-bun2 ,galla bufa1 afufa2 ,zulu futa1 punga1 pupuza 7fu1 pu1 used as expressive particles72 ,quich puba2 ,quichua puhuni2 ,tupi ype2 ,finnish puhkia2 ,hebrew puach2 ,danish puste2 ,lithuanian pciu2 and in numbers of other languages2#bhc here1 grammatical adjuncts apart1 the significant force lies in the imitative syllable4 ,savages have named the ,european musket when they saw it1 by the sound pu1 describing not the report1 but the puff of smoke issuing from the muzzle4 ,the ,society ,islanders supposed at first that the white men blew through the barrel of the gun1 and they called it accordingly pupuhi1 from the verb puhi to blow1 while the ,new ,zealanders more simply called it a pu4 ,so the ,amaxosa of ,south ,africa call it umpu1 from the imitative sound pu6 ,the ,chinook ,jargon of ,north-,west ,america uses the phrase mamook poo 7make poo7 for a verb #8to shoot1' and a six-chambered revolver is called tohum poo1 i4e41 a #8six-poo4' ,when a ,european uses the word puff to denote the discharge of a gun1 he is merely referring to the smoke blown out1 as he would speak of a puff of wind1 or even a powder-puff or a puff-ball2 and when a pistol is called in colloquial ,german a puffer1 the meaning of the word matches that used for it in ,french ,argot1 a #8soufflant4' ,it has often been supposed that the puff imitates the actual sound1 the bang of the gun1 and this has been brought forward to show by what extremely different words one and the same sound may be imitated1 but this is a mistake4#bhd ,these derivations of the name of the gun from the notion of blowing correspond with those which give names to the comparatively noiseless blow-tube of the bird-hunter1 called by the ,indians of ,yucatan a pub1 in ,south ,america by the ,chiquitos a pucuna1 by the ,cocamas a puna4 ,looking into vocabularies of languages which have such verbs #8to blow1' it is usual to find with them other words apparently related to them1 and expressing more or less distant ideas4 ,thus ,australian poo-yu1 puyu #8smoke2' ,quichua puhucuni #8to light a fire1' punquini #8to swell1' puyu1 puhuyu #8a cloud2' ,maori puku #8to pant1' puka #8to swell2' ,tupi pp1 pupre #8to boil2' ,galla bube #8wind1' bubiza #8to cool by blowing2' ,kanuri 7root fu7 fungin #8to blow1 swell1' furdu #8a stuffed pad or bolster1' c41 bubute #8bellows' 7bubute fungin #8,i blow the bellows'72 ,zulu 7dropping the prefixes7 puku1 pukupu #8frothing1 foam1' whence pukupuku #8an empty frothy fellow1' pupuma #8to bubble1 boil1' fu #8a cloud1' fumfu #8blown about like high grass in the wind1' whence fumfuta #8to be confused1 thrown into disorder1' futo #8bellows1' fuba #8the breast1 chest1' then figuratively #8bosom1 conscience4' ,the group of words belonging to the closed lips1 of which mum1 mumming1 mumble are among the many forms belonging to ,european languages1#bhe are worked out in like manner among the lower races--,vei mu mu #8dumb'2 ,mpongwe imamu #8dumb'2 ,zulu momata 7from moma1 #8a motion with the mouth as in mumbling'7 #8to move the mouth or lips1' mumata #8to close the lips as with a mouthful of water1' mumuta1 mumuza #8to eat mouthfuls of corn1 c41 with the lips shut2' ,tahitian mamu #8to be silent1' omumu #8to murmur2' ,fijian1 nomo1 nomo-nomo #8to be silent2' ,chilian1 omn #8to be silent2' ,quich1 mem #8mute1' whence memer #8to become mute2' ,quichua1 amu #8dumb1 silent1' amullini #8to have something in the mouth1' amul-layacuni simicta #8to mutter1 to grumble4' ,the group represented by ,sanskrit t'ht'h #8the sound of spitting1' ,persian thu kerdan 7make thu7 #8to spit1' ,greek 1 may be compared with ,chinook mamook toh1 tooh1 7make toh1 tooh72 ,chilian tuvctun 7make tuv72 ,tahitian tutua2 ,galla twu2 ,yoruba tu4 ,among the ,sanskrit verb-roots1 none carries its imitative nature more plainly than kshu #8to sneeze2' the following analogous forms are from ,south ,america3--,chilian1 echiun2 ,quichua1 achhini2 and from various languages of ,brazilian tribes1 techa-ai1 haitschu1 atchian1 natschun1 aritischune1 c4 ,another imitative verb is well shown in the ,negro-,english dialect of ,surinam1 njam #8to eat' 7pron4 nyam71 njam-njam #8food' 7#8en hem njanjam ben de sprinkhan nanga boesi-honi'--#8and his meat was locusts and wild honey'74 ,in ,australia the imitative verb #8to eat' reappears as g'nam-ang4 ,in ,africa the ,susu language has nimnim1 #8to taste1' and a similar formation is observed in the ,zulu nambita #8to smack the lips after eating or tasting1 and thence to be tasteful1 to be pleasant to the mind4' ,this is an excellent instance of the transition of mere imitative sound to the expression of mental emotion1 and it corresponds with the imitative way in which the ,yakama language1 in speaking of little children or pet animals1 expresses the verb #8to love' as nem-no-sha 7to make n'm-n'74 ,in more civilized countries these forms are mostly confined to baby-language4 ,the ,chinese child's word for eating is nam1 in ,english nurseries nim is noticed as answering the same purpose1 and the ,swedish dictionary even recognizes namnam #8a tid-bit4' ,as for imitative names of animals derived from their cries or noises1 they are to be met with in every language from the ,australian twonk #8frog1' the ,yakama rol-rol #8lark1' to the ,coptic eei #8ass1' the ,chinese maou #8cat1' and the ,english cuckoo and peewit4 ,their general principle of formation being acknowledged1 their further philological interest turns mostly on cases where corresponding words have thus been formed independently in distant regions1 and those where the imitative name of the creature1 or its habitual sound1 passes to express some new idea suggested by its character4 ,the ,sanskrit name of the kka crow reappears in the name of a similar bird in ,british ,columbia1 the kh-kh2 a fly is called by the natives of ,australia a bumberoo1 like ,sanskrit bambharli #8fly1' ,greek -1 and our bumble-bee4 ,analogous to the name of the tse-tse fly1 the terror of ,african travellers1 is ntsintsi1 the word for #8fly' among the ,basutos1 which also1 by a simple metaphor1 serves to express the idea of #8a parasite4' ,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,bates's description seems to settle the dispute among naturalists1 whether the toucan had its name from its cry or not4 ,he speaks of its loud1 shrill1 yelping cries having #8a vague resemblance to the syllables tocno1 tocno1 and hence the ,indian name of this genus of birds4' ,granting this1 we can trace this sound-word into a very new meaning2 for it appears that the bird's monstrous bill has suggested a name for a certain large-nosed tribe of ,indians1 who are accordingly called ,tucanos4#bhf ,the cock1 gallo quiquiriqui1 as the ,spanish nursery-language calls him1 has a long list of names from various languages which in various ways imitate his crowing2 in ,yoruba he is called koklo1 in ,ibo okoko1 akoka1 in ,zulu kuku1 in ,finnish kukko1 in ,sanskrit kukkuta1 and so on4 ,he is mentioned in the ,zend-,avesta in a very curious way1 by a name which elaborately imitates his cry1 but which the ancient ,persians seem to have held disrespectful to their holy bird1 who rouses men from sleep to good thought1 word1 and work3-- #8,the bird who bears the name of ,pardars1 ,o holy ,zarathustra2 ,upon whom evil-speaking men impose the name ,kabrkata4'#bhg ,the crowing of the cock 7,malay kluruk1 kukuk7 serves to mark a point of time1 cockcrow4 ,other words originally derived from such imitation of crowing have passed into other curiously transformed meanings3 ,old ,french cocart #8vain2' modern ,french coquet #8strutting like a cock1 coquetting1 a coxcomb2' cocarde #8a cockade' 7from its likeness to a cock's comb72 one of the best instances is coquelicot1 a name given for the same reason to the wild poppy1 and even more distinctly in ,languedoc1 where cacarac means both the crowing and the flower4 ,the hen in some languages has a name corresponding to that of the cock1 as in ,kussa kukuduna #8cock1' kukukasi #8hen2' ,ewe koklo-tsu #8cock1' koklo-no #8hen2' and her cackle 7whence she has in ,switzerland the name of gugel1 gggel7 has passed into language as a term for idle gossip and chatter of women1 caquet1 caqueter1 gackern1 much as the noise of a very different creature seems to have given rise not only to its name1 ,italian cicala1 but to a group of words represented by cicalar #8to chirp1 chatter1 talk sillily4' ,the pigeon is a good example of this kind1 both for sound and sense4 ,it is ,latin pipio1 ,italian pippione1 piccione1 pigione1 modern ,greek 1 ,french pipion 7old71 pigeon2 its derivation is from the young bird's peep1 ,latin pipire1 ,italian pipiare1 pigiolare1 modern ,greek 1 to chirp2 by an easy metaphor1 a pigeon comes to mean #8a silly young fellow easily caught1' to pigeon #8to cheat1' ,italian pipione #8a silly gull1 one that is soon caught and trepanned1' pippionare #8to pigeon1 to gull one4' ,in an entirely different family of languages1 ,mr4 ,wedgwood points out a curiously similar process of derivation2 ,magyar pipegni1 pipelni #8to peep or cheep2' pipe1 pipk #8a chicken1 gosling2' pipe-ember 7chicken-man71 #8a silly young fellow1 booby4'#bhh ,the derivation of ,greek 1 ,latin bos1 ,welsh bu1 from the ox's lowing1 or booing as it is called in the north country1 has been much debated4 ,with an excessive desire to make ,sanskrit answer as a general ,indo-,european type1 ,bopp connected ,sanskrit go1 old ,german chuo1 ,english cow1 with these words1 on the unusual and forced assumption of a change from guttural to labial4#bhi ,the direct derivation from sound1 however1 is favoured by other languages1 ,cochin-,chinese bo1 ,hottentot bou4 ,the beast may almost answer for himself in the words of that ,spanish proverb which remarks that people talk according to their nature3 #8,habl el buey1 y dij bu6' #8,the ox spoke1 and he said boo6' ,among musical instruments with imitative names are the following3--the shee-shee-quoi1 the mystic rattle of the ,red ,indian medicine-man1 an imitative word which reappears in the ,darien ,indian shak-shak1 the shook-shook of the ,arawaks1 the ,chinook shugh 7whence shugh-opoots1 rattletail1 i4e41 #8rattlesnake2'7--the drum1 called ganga in ,haussa1 gaga in the ,yoruba country1 gunguma by the ,gallas1 and having its analogue in the ,eastern gong2--the bell1 called in ,yakama 7,n4 ,amer47 kwa-lal-kwa-lal1 in ,yalof 7,w4 ,afr47 walwal1 in ,russian kolokol4 ,the sound of the horn is imitated in ,english nurseries as toot-toot1 and this is transferred to express the #8omnibus' of which the bugle is the signal3 with this nursery word is to be classed the ,peruvian name for the #8shell-trumpet1' pututu1 and the ,gothic thuthaurn 7thut-horn71 which is even used in the ,gothic ,bible for the last trumpet of the day of judgement1--#8,in spdistin thutharna1 thutharneith auk jah dathans ustandand' 7,i ,cor4 xv4 #eb74 ,how such imitative words1 when thoroughly taken up into language1 suffer change of pronunciation in which the original sound-meaning is lost1 may be seen in the ,english word tabor1 which we might not recognize as a sound-word at all1 did we not notice that it is ,french tabour1 a word which in the form tambour obviously belongs to a group of words for drums1 extending from the small rattling ,arabic tubl to the ,indian dundhubi and the tombe1 the ,moqui drum made of a hollowed log4 ,the same group shows the transfer of such imitative words to objects which are like the instrument1 but have nothing to do with its sound2 few people who talk of tambour-work1 and fewer still who speak of a footstool as a tabouret1 associate these words with the sound of a drum1 yet the connexion is clear enough4 ,when these two processes go on together1 and a sound-word changes its original sound on the one hand1 and transfers its meaning to something else on the other1 the result may soon leave philological analysis quite helpless1 unless by accident historical evidence is forthcoming4 ,thus with the ,english word pipe4 ,putting aside the particular pronunciation which we give the word1 and referring it back to its medival ,latin or ,french sound in pipa1 pipe1 we have before us an evident imitative name of a musical instrument1 derived from a familiar sound used also to represent the chirping of chickens1 ,latin pipire1 ,english to peep1 as in the translation of ,isaiah viii4 #ai3 #8,seek 444 unto wizards that peep1 and that mutter4' ,the ,algonquin ,indians appear to have formed from this sound pib 7with a grammatical suffix7 their name for the pib-e-gwun or native flute4 ,now just as tuba1 tubus1 #8a trumpet' 7itself very likely an imitative word7 has given a name for any kind of tube1 so the word pipe has been transferred from the musical instrument to which it first belonged1 and is used to describe tubes of various sorts1 gas-pipes1 water-pipes1 and pipes in general4 ,there is nothing unusual in these transitions of meaning1 which are in fact rather the rule than the exception4 ,the chibouk was originally a herdsman's pipe or flute in ,central ,asia4 ,the calumet1 popularly ranked with the tomahawk and the mocassin among characteristic ,red ,indian words1 is only the name for a shepherd's pipe 7,latin calamus7 in the dialect of ,normandy1 corresponding with the chalumeau of literary ,french2 for when the early colonists in ,canada saw the ,indians performing the strange operation of smoking1 #8with a hollow piece of stone or wood like a pipe1' as ,jacques ,cartier has it1 they merely gave to the native tobacco-pipe the name of the ,french musical instrument it resembled4 ,now changes of sound and of sense like this of the ,english word pipe must have been in continual operation in hundreds of languages where we have no evidence to follow them by1 and where we probably may never obtain such evidence4 ,but what little we do know must compel us to do justice to the imitation of sound as a really existing process1 capable of furnishing an indefinitely large supply of words for things and actions which have no necessary connexion at all with that sound4 ,where the traces of the transfer are lost1 the result is a stock of words which are the despair of philologists1 but are perhaps none the less fitted for the practical use of men who simply want recognized symbols for recognized ideas4 ,the claim of the ,eastern tomtom to have its name from a mere imitation of its sound seems an indisputable one2 but when it is noticed in what various languages the beating of a resounding object is expressed by something like tum1 tumb1 tump1 tup1 as in ,javan tumbuk1 ,coptic tmno1 #8to pound in a mortar1' it becomes evident that the admission involves more than at first sight appears4 ,in ,malay1 timpa1 tampa1 is #8to beat out1 hammer1 forge2' in the ,chinook ,jargon tum-tum is #8the heart1' and by combining the same sound with the ,english word #8water1' a name is made for #8waterfall1' tum-wta4 ,the ,gallas of ,east ,africa declare that a box on the ear seems to them to make a noise like tub1 for they call its sound tubdjeda1 that is1 #8to say tub4' ,in the same language1 tuma is #8to beat1' whence tumtu1 #8a workman1 especially one who beats1 a smith4' ,with the aid of another imitative word1 bufa #8to blow1' the ,gallas can construct this wholly imitative sentence1 tumtun bufa bufti1 #8the smith blows with bellows1' as an ,english child might say1 #8the tumtum puffs the puffer4' ,this imitative sound seems to have obtained a footing among the ,aryan verb-roots1 as in ,sanskrit tup1 tubh #8to smite1' while in ,greek1 tup1 tump1 has the meaning of #8to beat1 to thump1' producing for instance 1 tympanum1 #8a drum or tomtom4' ,again1 the verb to crack has become in modern ,english as thorough a root-word as the language possesses4 ,the mere imitation of the sound of breaking has passed into a verb to break2 we speak of a cracked cup or a cracked reputation without a thought of imitation of sound2 but we cannot yet use the ,german krachen or ,french craquer in this way1 for they have not developed in meaning as our word has1 but remain in their purely imitative stage4 ,there are two corresponding ,sanskrit words for the saw1 kra-kara1 kra-kacha1 that is to say1 the #8kra-maker1 kra-crier2' and it is to be observed that all such terms1 which expressly state that they are imitations of sound1 are particularly valuable evidence in these enquiries1 for whatever doubt there may be as to other words being really derived from imitative sound1 there can1 of course1 be none here4 ,moreover1 there is evidence of the same sound having given rise to imitative words in other families of language1 ,dahoman kra-kra1 #8a watchman's rattle2' ,grebo grik #8a saw2' ,aino chacha #8to saw2' ,malay graji #8a saw1' karat #8to gnash the teeth1' karot #8to make a grating noise2' ,coptic khrij #8to gnash the teeth1' khrajrej #8to grate4' ,another form of the imitation is given in the descriptive ,galla expression cacakdjeda1 i4e41 #8to say cacak1' #8to crack1 krachen4' ,with this sound corresponds a whole family of ,peruvian words1 of which the root seems to be the guttural cca1 coming from far back in the throat2 ccallani1 #8to break1' ccatatani1 #8to gnash the teeth1' ccaciy1 #8thunder1' and the expressive words for #8a thunder-storm1' ccaccaccahay1 which carries the imitative process so much farther than such ,european words as thunder-clap1 donner-klapf4 ,in ,maori1 pata is #8to patter as water dropping1 drops of rain4' ,the ,manchu language describes the noise of fruits falling from the trees as pata pata 7so ,hindustani bhadbhad72 this is like our word pat1 and we should say in the same manner that the fruit comes pattering down1 while ,french patatra is a recognized imitation of something falling4 ,coptic potpt is #8to fall1' and the ,australian badbadin 7or patpatin7 is translated into almost literal ,english as pitpatting4 ,on the strength of such non-,aryan languages1 are we to assign an imitative origin to the ,sanskrit verb-root pat1 #8to fall1' and to ,greek 8 ,wishing rather to gain a clear survey of the principles of language-making than to plunge into obscure problems1 it is not necessary for me to discuss here questions of intricate detail4 ,the point which continually arises is this1--granted that a particular kind of transition from sound to sense is possible in the abstract1 may it be safely claimed in a particular case8 ,in looking through the vocabularies of the world1 it appears that most languages offer words which1 by obvious likeliness or by their correspondence with similar forms elsewhere1 may put forward a tolerable claim to be considered imitative4 ,some languages1 as ,aztec or ,mohawk1 offer singularly few examples1 while in others they are much more numerous4 ,take ,australian cases3 walle1 #8to wail2' bung-bung-ween1 #8thunder2' wirriti1 #8to blow1 as wind2' wirrirriti1 #8to storm1 rage1 as in fight2' wirri1 bwirri1 #8the native throwing club1' seemingly so called from its whir through the air2 kurarriti1 #8to hum1 buzz2' kurrirrurriri1 #8round about1 unintelligible1' c42 pitata1 #8to knock1 pelt1 as rain1' pitapitata1 #8to knock2' wiiti1 #8to laugh1 rejoice'--as in our own #8,turnament of ,tottenham'3-- #88,we te he60 quoth ,tyb1 and lugh1 8,ye er a dughty man60' ,the so-called ,chinook ,jargon of ,british ,columbia is a language crowded with imitative words1 sometimes adopted from the native ,indian languages1 sometimes made on the spot by the combined efforts of the white man and the ,indian to make one another understand4 ,samples of its quality are hh-hoh1 #8to cough1' k-ko1 #8to knock1' kwa-lal-kwa-lal1 #8to gallop1' muck-a-muck1 #8to eat1' chak-chak1 #8the bald eagle' 7from its scream71 mamook tsish 7make tsish71 #8to sharpen on the grindstone4' ,it has been remarked by ,prof4 ,max ,mller that the peculiar sound made in blowing out a candle is not a favourite in civilized languages1 but it seems to be recognized here1 for no doubt it is what the compiler of the vocabulary is doing his best to write down when he gives mamook poh 7make poh7 as the ,chinook expression for #8to blow out or extinguish as a candle4' ,this jargon is in great measure of new growth within the last seventy or eighty years1 but its imitative words do not differ in nature from those of the more ordinary and old-established languages of the world4 ,thus among ,brazilian tribes there appear ,tupi cororng1 cururuc1 #8to snore' 7compare ,coptic kherkher1 ,quichua ccorcuni 7ccor771 whence it appears that an imitation of a snore may perhaps serve the ,carajs ,indians to express #8to sleep' as arourou-cr1 as well as the related idea of #8night1' roou4 ,again ,pimenteira ebaung1 #8to bruise1 beat1' compares with ,yoruba gba1 #8to slap1' gb 7gbang7 #8to sound loudly1 to bang1' and so forth4 ,among ,african languages1 the ,zulu seems particularly rich in imitative words4 ,thus bibiza1 #8to dribble like children1 drivel in speaking' 7compare ,english bib72 babala1 #8the larger bush-antelope' 7from the baa of the female72 boba1 #8to babble1 chatter1 be noisy1' bobi1 #8a babbler2' boboni1 #8a throstle' 7cries bo6 bo6 compare ,american bobolink72 bomboloza1 #8to rumble in the bowels1 to have a bowel-complaint2' bubula1 #8to buzz like bees1' bubulela1 #8a swarm of bees1 a buzzing crowd of people2' bubuluza1 #8to make a blustering noise1 like frothing beer or boiling fat4' ,these examples1 from among those given under one initial letter in one dictionary of one barbaric language1 may give an idea of the amount of the evidence from the languages of the lower races bearing on the present problem4 ,for the present purpose of giving a brief series of examples of the sort of words in which imitative sound seems fairly traceable1 the strongest and most manageable evidence is of course found among such words as directly describe sounds or what produces them1 such as cries of and names for animals1 the terms for action accompanied by sound1 and the materials and objects so acted upon4 ,in further investigation it becomes more and more requisite to isolate the sound-type or root from the modifications and additions to which it has been subjected for grammatical and phonetical adaptation4 ,it will serve to give an idea of the extent and intricacy of this problem1 to glance at a group of words in one ,european language1 and notice the etymological network which spreads round the ,german word klapf1 in ,grimm's dictionary1 klappen1 klippen1 klopfen1 klffen1 klimpern1 klampern1 klateren1 kloteren1 klitteren1 klatzen1 klacken1 and more1 to be matched with allied forms in other languages4 ,setting aside the consideration of grammatical inflexion1 it belongs to the present subject to notice that man's imitative faculty in language is by no means limited to making direct copies of sound and shaping them into words4 ,it seizes upon ready-made terms of whatever origin1 alters and adapts them to make their sound fitting to their sense1 and pours into the dictionaries a flood of adapted words of which the most difficult to analyse are those which are neither altogether etymological nor altogether imitative1 but partly both4 ,how words1 while preserving1 so to speak1 the same skeleton1 may be made to follow the variation of sound1 of force1 of duration1 of size1 an imitative group more or less connected with the last will show--crick1 creak1 crack1 crash1 crush1 crunch1 craunch1 scrunch1 scraunch4 ,it does not at all follow that because a word suffers such imitative and symbolic changes it must be1 like this1 directly imitative in its origin4 ,what1 for instance1 could sound more imitative than the name of that old-fashioned cannon for throwing grape-shot1 the patterero8 ,yet the etymology of the word appears in the ,spanish form pedrero1 ,french perrier2 it means simply an instrument for throwing stones 7piedra1 pierre71 and it was only when the ,spanish word was adopted in ,england that the imitative faculty caught and transformed it into an apparent sound-word1 resembling the verb to patter4 ,the propensity of language1 especially in slang1 to make sense of strange words by altering them into something with an appropriate meaning has been often dwelt upon by philologists1 but the propensity to alter words into something with an appropriate sound has produced results immensely more important4 ,the effects of symbolic change of sound acting upon verb-roots seem almost boundless4 ,the verb to waddle has a strong imitative appearance1 and so in ,german we can hardly resist the suggestion that imitative sound has to do with the difference between wandern and wandeln2 but all these verbs belong to a family represented by ,sanskrit vad1 to go1 ,latin vado1 and to this root there seems no sufficient ground for assigning an imitative origin1 the traces of which it has at any rate lost if it ever had them4 ,thus1 again1 to stamp with the foot1 which has been claimed as an imitation of sound1 seems only a #8coloured' word4 ,the root sta1 #8to stand1' ,sanskrit sth1 forms a causative stap1 ,sanskrit sthpay1 #8to make to stand1' ,english to stop1 and a foot-step is when the foot comes to a stand1 a foot-stop4 ,but we have ,anglo-,saxon stapan1 stpan1 steppan1 ,english to step1 varying to express its meaning by sound in to staup1 to stamp1 to stump1 and to stomp1 contrasting in their violence or clumsy weight with the foot on the ,dorset cottage-sill in ,barnes's poem3-- #8,where love do seek the maden's evenn vloor1 ,wi' stip-step light1 an tip-tap slight ,agen the door4' ,by expanding1 modifying1 or1 so to speak1 colouring1 sound is able to produce effects closely like those of gesture-language1 expressing length or shortness of time1 strength or weakness of action1 and then passing into a further stage to describe greatness or smallness of size or of distance1 and thence making its way into the widest fields of metaphor4 ,and it does all this with a force which is surprising when we consider how childishly simple are the means employed4 ,thus the ,bachapin of ,africa call a man with the cry hla6 but according as he is far or farther off the sound of the hela6 h--la6 is lengthened out4 ,mr4 ,macgregor in his #8,rob ,roy on the ,jordan1' graphically describes this method of expression1 #88,but where is ,zalmouda80444 ,then with rough eagerness the strongest of the ,dowana faction pushes his long forefinger forward1 pointing straight enough--but whither8 and with a volley of words ends1 ,ah-ah-a-a-a----a-a4 ,this strange expression had long before puzzled me when first heard from a shepherd in ,bashan4444 ,but the simple meaning of this long string of 8ah's0 shortened1 and quickened1 and lowered in tone to the end1 is merely that the place pointed to is a 8very great way off40' ,the ,chinook ,jargon1 as usual representing primitive developments of language1 uses a similar device in lengthening the sound of words to indicate distance4 ,the ,siamese can1 by varying the tone-accent1 make the syllable non1 #8there1' express a near1 indefinite1 or far distance1 and in like manner can modify the meaning of such a word as ny1 #8little4' ,in the ,gaboon1 the strength with which such a word as mpolu1 #8great1' is uttered serves to show whether it is great1 very great1 or very very great1 and in this way1 as ,mr4 ,wilson remarks in his ,mpongwe ,grammar1 #8the comparative degrees of greatness1 smallness1 hardness1 rapidity1 and strength1 c41 may be conveyed with more accuracy and precision than could readily be conceived4' ,in ,madagascar ratchi means #8bad1' but rtchi is #8very bad4' ,the natives of ,australia1 according to ,oldfield1 show the use of this process in combination with that of symbolic reduplication3 among the ,watchandie tribe jir-rie signifies #8already or past1' jir-rie jir-rie indicates #8a long time ago1' while jie-r-rie jirrie 7the first syllable being dwelt on for some time7 signifies #8an immense time ago4' ,again1 boo-rie is #8small1' boo-rie-boo-rie #8very small1' and b-o-rie boorie #8exceedingly small4' ,wilhelm von ,humboldt notices the habit of the southern ,guarani dialect of ,south ,america of dwelling more or less time on the suffix of the perfect tense1 yma1 y--ma1 to indicate the length or shortness of the distance of time at which the action took place2 and it is curious to observe that a similar contrivance is made use of among the aboriginal tribes of ,india1 where the ,ho language forms a future tense by adding to the root1 and prolonging its sound1 kajee #8to speak1' ,amg kaj #8,i will speak4' ,as might be expected1 the languages of very rude tribes show extremely well how the results of such primitive processes pass into the recognized stock of language4 ,nothing could be better for this than the words by which one of the rudest of living races1 the ,botocudos of ,brazil1 express the sea4 ,they have a word for a stream1 ouatou1 and an adjective which means great1 ijipakijiou2 thence the two words #8stream-great1' a little strengthened in the vowels1 will give the term for a river1 ouatou-ijiipakiiijou1 as it were1 #8stream-grea-at1' and this1 to express the immensity of the ocean1 is amplified into ouatou-iijipakiijou-ou-ou-ou-ou-ou4 ,another tribe of the same family works out the same result more simply2 the word ouatou1 #8stream1' becomes ouatou-ou-ou-ou1 #8the sea4' ,the ,chavantes very naturally stretch the expression rom-o-wodi1 #8,i go a long way1' into rom-o-o-o-o-wodi1 #8,i go a very long way indeed1' and when they are called upon to count beyond five they say it is ka-o-o-oki1 by which they evidently mean it is a very great many4 ,the ,cauixanas in one vocabulary are described as saying lawauugabi for four1 and drawling out the same word for five1 as if to say #8a long four1' in somewhat the same way as the ,aponegicrans1 whose word for six is itawuna1 can expand this into a word for seven1 itawuna1 obviously thus meaning a #8long six4' ,in their earlier and simpler stages nothing can be more easy to comprehend than these1 so to speak1 pictorial modifications of words4 ,it is true that writing1 even with the aid of italics and capitals1 ignores much of this symbolism in spoken language1 but every child can see its use and meaning1 in spite of the efforts of book-learning and school-teaching to set aside whatever cannot be expressed by their imperfect symbols1 nor controlled by their narrow rules4 ,but when we try to follow out to their full results these methods1 at first so easy to trace and appreciate1 we soon find them passing out of our grasp4 ,the language of the ,sahaptin ,indians shows us a process of modifying words which is far from clear1 and yet not utterly obscure4 ,these ,indians have a way of making a kind of disrespectful diminutive by changing the n in a word to l2 thus twinwt means #8tailless1' but to indicate particular smallness1 or to express contempt1 they make this into twilwt1 pronounced with an appropriate change of tone2 and again1 wana means #8river1' but this is made into a diminutive wala by #8changing n into l1 giving the voice a different tone1 putting the lips out in speaking1 and keeping them suspended around the jaw4' ,here we are told enough about the change of pronunciation to guess at least how it could convey the notions of smallness and contempt4 ,but it is less easy to follow the process by which the ,mpongwe language turns an affirmative into a negative verb by #8an intonation upon1 or prolongation of the radical vowel1' tnda1 to love1 tnda1 not to love2 tndo1 to be loved1 tndo1 not to be loved4 ,so ,yoruba1 bba1 #8a great thing1' bba1 #8a small thing1' contrasted in a proverb1 #8,baba bo1 baba molle'--#8,a great matter puts a smaller out of sight4' ,language is1 in fact1 full of phonetic modifications which justify a suspicion that symbolic sound had to do with their production1 though it may be hard to say exactly how4 ,again1 there is the familiar process of reduplication1 simple or modified1 which produces such forms as murmur1 pitpat1 helterskelter4 ,this action1 though much restricted in literary dialects1 has such immense scope in the talk of children and savages that ,professor ,pott's treatise on it#bij has become incidentally one of the most valuable collections of facts ever made with relation to early stages of language4 ,now up to a certain point any child can see how and why such doubling is done1 and how it always adds something to the original idea4 ,it may make superlatives or otherwise intensify words1 as in ,polynesia loa #8long1' lololoa #8very long'2 ,mandingo ding #8a child1' dingding #8a very little child4' ,it makes plurals1 as ,malay raja-raja #8princes1' orang-orang #8people4' ,it adds numerals1 as ,mosquito walwal #8four' 7two-two71 or distributes them1 as ,coptic ouai ouai #8singly' 7one-one74 ,these are cases where the motive of doubling is comparatively easy to make out4 ,as an example of cases much more difficult to comprehend may be taken the familiar reduplication of the perfect tense1 ,greek from 1 ,latin momordi from mordeo1 ,gothic haihald from haldan1 #8to hold4' ,reduplication is habitually used in imitative words to intensify them1 and still more1 to show that the sound is repeated or continuous4 ,from the immense mass of such words we may take as instances the ,botocudo hou-hou-hou-gitcha #8to suck' 7compare ,tongan hh #8breast'71 kiaku-kck-kck1 #8a butterfly'2 ,quichua chiuiuiuiichi #8wind whistling in the trees'2 ,maori haruru #8noise of wind'2 hohoro #8hurry'2 ,dayak kakakkaka #8to go on laughing loud'2 ,aino shiriushiriukanni #8a rasp'2 ,tamil murumuru #8to murmur'2 ,akra ewiewiewiewie #8he spoke repeatedly and continually'2 and so on1 throughout the whole range of the languages of the world4 ,the device of conveying different ideas of distance by the use of a graduated scale of vowels seems to me one of great philological interest1 from the suggestive hint it gives of the proceedings of the language-makers in most distant regions of the world1 working out in various ways a similar ingenious contrivance of expression by sound4 ,a typical series is the ,javan3 iki #8this' 7close by7 ika #8that' 7at some distance72 iku #8that' 7farther off74 ,it is not likely that the following list nearly exhausts the whole number of cases in the languages of the world1 for about half the number have been incidentally noted down by myself without any especial search1 but merely in the course of looking over vocabularies of the lower races4#bia ,javan 444 iki1 this2 ika1 that 7intermediate72 iku1 that4 ,malagasy 444 ao1 there 7at a short distance72 eo1 there 7at a shorter distance72 io1 there 7close at hand74 atsy1 there 7not far off72 etsy1 there 7nearer72 itsy1 this or these4 ,japanese 444 ko1 here2 ka1 there4 korera1 these2 karera1 they 7those74 ,canarese 444 ivanu1 this2 uvanu1 that 7intermediate72 avanu1 that4 ,tamul 444 1 this2 1 that4 ,rajmahali 444 h1 this2 h1 that4 ,dhimal 444 isho1 ita1 here2 usho1 uta1 there4 iti1 idong1 this2 uti1 udong1 that 7of things and persons respectively74 ,abchasian 444 abri1 this2 ubri1 that4 ,ossetic 444 am1 here2 um1 there4 ,magyar 444 ez1 this2 az1 that4 ,zulu 444 apa1 here2 apo1 there4 lesi1 leso1 lesiya2 abu1 abo1 abuya2 c4 this1 that1 that 7in the distance74 ,yoruba 444 na1 this2 ni1 that4 ,fernandian 444 olo1 this2 ole1 that4 ,tumale 444 re1 this2 ri1 that4 ngi1 ,i2 ngo1 thou2 ngu1 he4 ,greenlandish 444 uv1 here1 there 7where one points to72 iv1 there1 up there4 ,sujelpa 7,coleville ,ind47 444 aa1 this2 ii1 that4 ,sahaptin 444 kina1 here2 kuna1 there4 ,mutsun 444 ne1 here2 nu1 there4 ,tarahumara 444 ibe1 here2 abe1 there4 ,guarani 444 nde1 ne1 thou2 ndi1 ni1 he4 ,botocudo 444 ati1 ,i2 oti1 thou1 you1 7prep47 to4 ,carib 444 ne1 thou2 ni1 he4 ,chilian 444 tva1 vachi1 this2 tvey1 veychi1 that4 ,it is obvious on inspection of this list of pronouns and adverbs that they have in some way come to have their vowels contrasted to match the contrast of here and there1 this and that4 ,accident may sometimes account for such cases4 ,for instance it is well known to philologists that our own this and that are pronouns partly distinct in their formation1 thi-s being probably two pronouns run together1 but yet the ,dutch neuters dit #8this1' and dat #8that1' have taken the appearance of a single form with contrasted vowels4#bib ,but accident cannot account for the frequency of such words in pairs1 and even in sets of three1 in so many different languages4 ,there must have been some common intention at work1 and there is evidence that some of these languages do resort to a change of sound as a means of expressing change of distance4 ,thus the language of ,fernando ,po can not only express #8this' and #8that' by olo1 ole1 but it can even make a change of the pronunciation of the vowel distinguish between o boehe #8this month1' and oh boehe1 #8that month4' ,in the same way the ,grebo can make the difference between #8,i' and #8thou1' #8we1' and #8you1' #8solely by the intonation of the voice1 which the final h of the second persons mh and h is intended to express4' m di1 ,i eat2 mh di1 thou eatest2 di1 we eat2 h di1 ye eat4 ,the set of ,zulu demonstratives which express the three distances of near1 farther1 farthest1 are very complex1 but a remark as to their use shows how thoroughly symbolic sound enters into their nature4 ,the ,zulus not only say nansi1 #8here is1' nanso1 #8there is1' nansiya1 #8there is in the distance1' but they even express the greatness of this distance by the emphasis and prolongation of the ya4 ,if we could discern a similar gradation of the vowels to express a corresponding gradation of distance throughout our list1 the whole matter would be easier to explain2 but it is not so1 the i-words for instance1 are sometimes nearer and sometimes farther off than the a-words4 ,we can only judge that1 as even children can see that a scale of vowels makes a most expressive scale of distances1 many pronouns and adverbs in use in the world have probably taken their shape under the influence of this simple device1 and thus there have arisen sets of what we may call contrasted or #8differential' words4 ,how the differencing of words by change of vowels may be used to distinguish between the sexes1 is well put in a remark of ,professor ,max ,mller's3 #8,the distinction of gender 444 is sometimes expressed in such a manner that we can only explain it by ascribing an expressive power to the more or less obscure sound of vowels4 ,ukko1 in ,finnic1 is an old man2 akka1 an old woman4444 ,in ,mandshu chacha is mas4 444 cheche1 femina4 ,again1 ama1 in ,mandshu1 is father2 eme1 mother2 amcha1 father-in-law1 emche1 mother-in-law4'#bic ,the ,coret language of ,brazil has another curiously contrasted pair of words tsack1 #8father1' tsaacko #8mother1' while the ,carib has baba for father1 and bibi for mother1 and the ,ibu of ,africa has nna for father and nne for mother4 ,this contrivance of distinguishing the male from the female by a difference of vowels is however but a small part of the process of formation which can be traced among such words as those for father and mother4 ,their consideration leads into a very interesting philological region1 that of #8,children's language4' ,if we set down a few of the pairs of words which stand for #8father' and #8mother' in very different and distant languages--papa and mama2 ,welsh1 tad 7dad7 and mam2 ,hungarian1 atya and anya2 ,mandingo1 fa and ba2 ,lummi 7,n4 ,america71 man and tan2 ,catoquina 7,s4 ,america71 pay and nay2 ,watchandie 7,australia71 amo and ago--their contrast seems to lie in their consonants1 while many other pairs differ totally1 like ,hebrew ab and im2 ,kuki1 p'ha and noo2 ,kayan1 amay and inei2 ,tarahumara1 nono and jeje4 ,words of the class of papa and mama1 occurring in remote parts of the world1 were once freely used as evidence of a common origin of the languages in which they were found alike4 ,but ,professor ,buschmann's paper on #8,nature-,sound1' published in #ahec1bid effectually overthrew this argument1 and settled the view that such coincidence might arise again and again by independent production4 ,it was clearly of no use to argue that ,carib and ,english were allied because the word papa1 #8father1' belongs to both1 or ,hottentot and ,english because both use mama for #8mother1' seeing that these childish articulations may be used in just the opposite way1 for the ,chilian word for mother is papa1 and the ,tlatskanai for father is mama4 ,yet the choice of easy little words for #8father' and #8mother' does not seem to have been quite indiscriminate4 ,the immense list of such words collected by ,buschmann shows that the types pa and ta1 with the similar forms ap and at1 preponderate in the world as names for #8father1' while ma and na1 am and an1 preponderate as names for #8mother4' ,his explanation of this state of things as affected by direct symbolism choosing the hard sound for the father1 and the gentler for the mother1 has very likely truth in it1 but it must not be pushed too far4 ,it cannot be1 for instance1 the same principle of symbolism which leads the ,welshmen to say tad for #8father' and mam for #8mother1' and the ,indian of ,british ,columbia to say maan1 #8father' and taan1 #8mother1' or the ,georgian to say mama #8father' and deda #8mother4' ,yet ,i have not succeeded in finding anywhere our familiar papa and mama exactly reversed in one and the same language2 the nearest approach to it that ,i can give is from the island of ,meang1 where mama meant #8father1 man1' and babi1 #8mother1 woman4'#bie ,between the nursery words papa and mama and the more formal father and mother there is an obvious resemblance in sound4 ,what1 then1 is the origin of these words father and mother8 ,up to a certain point their history is clear4 ,they belong to the same group of organized words with vater and mutter1 pater and mater1 and 1 pitar and mtar1 and other similar forms through the ,indo-,european family of languages4 ,there is no doubt that all these pairs of names are derived from an ancient and common ,aryan source1 and when they are traced back as far as possible towards that source1 they appear to have sprung from a pair of words which may be roughly called patar and matar1 and which were formed by adding tar1 the suffix of the actor1 to the verb-roots pa and ma4 ,there being two appropriate ,sanskrit verbs p and m1 it is possible to etymologize the two words as patar1 #8protector1' and matar1 #8producer4' ,now this pair of ,aryan words must have been very ancient1 lying back at the remote common source from which forms parallel to our ,english father and mother passed into ,greek and ,persian1 ,norse and ,armenian1 thus holding fixed type through the eventful course of ,indo-,european history4 ,yet1 ancient as these words are1 they were no doubt preceded by simpler rudimentary words of the children's language1 for it is not likely that the primitive ,aryans did without baby-words for father and mother until they had an organized system of adding suffixes to verb-roots to express such notions as #8protector' or #8producer4' ,nor can it be supposed that it was by mere accident that the root-words thus chosen happened to be the very sounds pa and ma1 whose types so often occur in the remotest parts of the world as names for #8father' and #8mother4' ,prof4 ,adolphe ,pictet makes shift to account for the coincidence thus3 he postulates first the pair of forms p and m as ,aryan verb-roots of unknown origin1 meaning #8to protect' and #8to create1' next another pair of forms pa and ma1 children's words commonly used to denote father and mother1 and lastly he combines the two by supposing that the root-verbs p and m were chosen to form the ,indo-,european words for parents1 because of their resemblance to the familiar baby-words already in use4 ,this circuitous process at any rate saves those sacred monosyllables1 the ,sanskrit verb-roots1 from the disgrace of an assignable origin4 ,yet those who remember that these verb-roots are only a set of crude forms in use in one particular language of the world at one particular period of its development1 may account for the facts more simply and more thoroughly4 ,it is a fair guess that the ubiquitous pa and ma of the children's language were the original forms2 that they were used in an early period of ,aryan speech as indiscriminately substantive and verb1 just as our modern ,english1 which so often reproduces the most rudimentary linguistic processes1 can form from the noun #8father' a verb #8to father2' and that lastly they became verb-roots1 whence the words patar and matar were formed by the addition of the suffix4#bif ,the baby-names for parents must not be studied as though they stood alone in language4 ,they are only important members of a great class of words1 belonging to all times and countries within our experience1 and forming a children's language1 whose common character is due to its concerning itself with the limited set of ideas in which little children are interested1 and expressing these ideas by the limited set of articulations suited to the child's first attempts to talk4 ,this peculiar language is marked quite characteristically among the low savage tribes of ,australia2 mamman #8father1' ngangan #8mother1' and by metaphor #8thumb1' #8great toe' 7as is more fully explained in jinnamamman #8great toe1' i4e4 foot's father71 tammin #8grandfather or grandmother1' bab-ba #8bad1 foolish1 childish1' bee-bee1 beep #8breast1' pappi #8father1' pappa #8young one1 pup1 whelp1' 7whence is grammatically formed the verb papparniti #8to become a young one1 to be born4'7 ,or if we look for examples from ,india1 it does not matter whether we take them from non-,hindu or ,hindu languages1 for in baby-language all races are on one footing4 ,thus ,tamil app #8father1' amm #8mother1' ,bodo aph #8father1' y #8mother2' the ,kocch group nn and nni #8paternal grandfather and grandmother1' mm #8uncle1' dd #8cousin1' may be set beside ,sanskrit tata #8father1' nan #8mother1' and the ,hindustani words of the same class1 of which some are familiar to the ,english ear by being naturalized in ,anglo-,indian talk1 bb #8father1' bb #8child1 prince1 ,mr41' bb #8lady1' dad #8nurse' 7y #8nurse' seems borrowed from ,portuguese74 ,such words are continually coming fresh into existence everywhere1 and the law of natural selection determines their fate4 ,the great mass of the nana's and dada's of the nursery die out almost as soon as made4 ,some few take more root and spread over large districts as accepted nursery words1 and now and then a curious philologist makes a collection of them4 ,of such1 many are obvious mutilations of longer words1 as ,french faire dodo #8to sleep' 7dormir71 ,brandenburg wiwi1 a common cradle lullaby 7wiegen74 ,others1 whatever their origin1 fall1 in consequence of the small variety of articulations out of which they must be chosen1 into a curiously indiscriminate and unmeaning mass1 as ,swiss bobo #8a scratch2' bambam #8all gone2' ,italian bob #8something to drink1' gogo #8little boy1' for dede #8to play4' ,these are words quoted by ,pott1 and for ,english examples nana #8nurse1' tata6 #8good-bye6' may serve4 ,but all baby-words1 as this very name proves1 do not stop short even at this stage of publicity4 ,a small proportion of them establish themselves in the ordinary talk of grown-up men and women1 and when they have once made good their place as constituents of general language1 they may pass on by inheritance from age to age4 ,such examples as have been here quoted of nursery words give a clue to the origin of a mass of names in the most diverse languages1 for father1 mother1 grandmother1 aunt1 child1 breast1 toy1 doll1 c4 ,the negro of ,fernando ,po who uses the word bubboh for #8a little boy1' is on equal terms with the ,german who uses bube2 the ,congo-man who uses tata for #8father' would understand how the same word could be used in classic ,latin for #8father1' and in medival ,latin for #8pedagogue2' the ,carib and the ,caroline ,islander agree with the ,englishman that papa is a suitable word to express #8father1' and then it only remains to carry on the word1 and make the baby-language name the priests of the ,eastern ,church and the great ,papa of the ,western4 ,at the same time the evidence explains the indifference with which1 out of the small stock of available materials1 the same sound does duty for the most different ideas2 why mama means here #8mother1' there #8father1' there #8uncle1' maman here #8mother1' there #8father-in-law1' dada here #8father1' there #8nurse1' there #8breast1' tata here #8father1' there #8son4' ,a single group of words may serve to show the character of this peculiar region of language3 ,blackfoot ,indian ninnah #8father2' ,greek #8uncle1' #8aunt2' ,zulu nina1 ,sangir nina1 ,malagasy nini #8mother2' ,javan nini #8grandfather or grandmother2' ,vayu nini #8paternal aunt2' ,darien ,indian ninah #8daughter2' ,spanish nio1 nia #8child2' ,italian ninna #8little girl2' ,milanese ninin #8bed2' ,italian ninnare #8to rock the cradle4' ,in this way a dozen easy child's articulations1 ba's and na's1 ti's and de's1 pa's and ma's1 serve almost as indiscriminately to express a dozen child's ideas as though they had been shaken in a bag and pulled out at random to express the notion that came first1 doll or uncle1 nurse or grandfather4 ,it is obvious that among words cramped to such scanty choice of articulate sounds1 speculations as to derivation must be more than usually unsafe4 ,looked at from this point of view1 children's language may give a valuable lesson to the philologist4 ,he has before him a kind of language1 formed1 under peculiar conditions1 and showing the weak points of his method of philological research1 only exaggerated into extraordinary distinctness4 ,in ordinary language1 the difficulty of connecting sound with sense lies in great measure in the inability of a small and rigid set of articulations to express an interminable variety of tones and noises4 ,in children's language1 a still more scanty set of articulations fails yet more to render these distinctly4 ,the difficulty of finding the derivation of words lies in great measure in the use of more or less similar root-sounds for most heterogeneous purposes4 ,to assume that two words of different meanings1 just because they sound somewhat alike1 must therefore have a common origin1 is even in ordinary language the great source of bad etymology4 ,but in children's language the theory of root-sounds fairly breaks down4 ,few would venture to assert1 for instance1 that papa and pap have a common derivation or a common root4 ,all that we can safely say of connexion between them is that they are words related by common acceptance in the nursery language4 ,as such1 they are well marked in ancient ,rome as in modern ,england3 papas #8nutricius1 nutritor1' pappus #8senex2' #8cum cibum et potum buas ac papas dicunt1 et matrem mammam1 patrem tatam 7or papam74'#big ,from children's language1 moreover1 we have striking proof of the power of consensus of society1 in establishing words in settled use without their carrying traces of inherent expressiveness4 ,it is true that children are intimately acquainted with the use of emotional and imitative sound1 and their vocal intercourse largely consists of such expression4 ,the effects of this are in some degree discernible in the class of words we are considering4 ,but it is obvious that the leading principle of their formation is not to adopt words distinguished by the expressive character of their sound1 but to choose somehow a fixed word to answer a given purpose4 ,to do this1 different languages have chosen similar articulations to express the most diverse and opposite ideas4 ,now in the language of grown-up people1 it is clear that social consensus has worked in the same way4 ,even if the extreme supposition be granted1 that the ultimate origin of every word of language lies in inherently expressive sound1 this only partly affects the case1 for it would have to be admitted that1 in actual languages1 most words have so far departed in sound or sense from this originally expressive stage1 that to all intents and purposes they might at first have been arbitrarily chosen4 ,the main principle of language has been1 not to preserve traces of original sound-signification for the benefit of future etymologists1 but to fix elements of language to serve as counters for practical reckoning of ideas4 ,in this process much original expressiveness has no doubt disappeared beyond all hope of recovery4 ,such are some of the ways in which vocal sounds seem to have commended themselves to the mind of the word-maker as fit to express his meaning1 and to have been used accordingly4 ,i do not think that the evidence here adduced justifies the setting-up of what is called the ,interjectional and ,imitative ,theory as a complete solution of the problem of original language4 ,valid as this theory proves itself within limits1 it would be incautious to accept a hypothesis which can perhaps satisfactorily account for a twentieth of the crude forms in any language1 as a certain and absolute explanation of the nineteen-twentieths whose origin remains doubtful4 ,a key must unlock more doors than this1 to be taken as the master-key4 ,moreover1 some special points which have come under consideration in these chapters tend to show the positive necessity of such caution in theorizing4 ,too narrow a theory of the application of sound to sense may fail to include the varied devices which the languages of different regions turn to account4 ,it is thus with the distinction in meaning of a word by its musical accent1 and the distinction of distance by graduated vowels4 ,these are ingenious and intelligible contrivances1 but they hardly seem directly emotional or imitative in origin4 ,a safer way of putting the theory of a natural origin of language is to postulate the original utterance of ideas in what may be called self-expressive sounds1 without defining closely whether their expression lay in emotional tone1 imitative noise1 contrast of accent or vowel or consonant1 or other phonetic quality4 ,even here1 exception of unknown and perhaps enormous extent must be made for sounds chosen by individuals to express some notion1 from motives which even their own minds failed to discern1 but which sounds nevertheless made good their footing in the language of the family1 the tribe1 and the nation4 ,there may be many modes even of recognizable phonetic expression1 unknown to us as yet4 ,so far1 however1 as ,i have been able to trace them here1 such modes have in common a claim to belong not exclusively to the scheme of this or that particular dialect1 but to wide-ranging principles of formation of language4 ,their examples are to be drawn with equal cogency from ,sanskrit or ,hebrew1 from the nursery-language of ,lombardy1 or the half-,indian1 half-,european jargon of ,vancouver's ,island2 and wherever they are found1 they help to furnish groups of sound-words--words which have not lost the traces of their first expressive origin1 but still carry their direct significance plainly stamped upon them4 ,in fact1 the time has now come for a substantial basis to be laid for ,generative ,philology4 ,a classified collection of words with any strong claim to be self-expressive should be brought together out of the thousand or so of recognized languages and dialects of the world4 ,in such a ,dictionary of ,sound-,words1 half the cases cited might very likely be worthless1 but the collection would afford the practical means of expurgating itself2 for it would show on a large scale what particular sounds have manifested their fitness to convey particular ideas1 by having been repeatedly chosen among different races to convey them4 ,attempts to explain as far as may be the primary formation of speech1 by tracing out in detail such processes as have been here described1 are likely to increase our knowledge by sure and steady steps wherever imagination does not get the better of sober comparison of facts4 ,but there is one side of this problem of the ,origin of ,language on which such studies have by no means an encouraging effect4 ,much of the popular interest in such matters is centred in the question1 whether the known languages of the world have their source in one or many primval tongues4 ,on this subject the opinions of the philologists who have compared the greatest number of languages are utterly at variance1 nor has any one brought forward a body of philological evidence strong and direct enough to make anything beyond mere vague opinion justifiable4 ,now such processes as the growth of imitative or symbolic words form a part1 be it small or large1 of the ,origin of ,language1 but they are by no means restricted to any particular place or period1 and are indeed more or less in activity now4 ,their operation on any two dialects of one language will be to introduce in each a number of new and independent words1 and words even suspected of having been formed in this direct way become valueless as proof of genealogical connexion between the languages in which they are found4 ,the test of such genealogical connexion must1 in fact1 be generally narrowed to such words or grammatical forms as have become so far conventional in sound and sense1 that we cannot suppose two tribes to have arrived at them independently1 and therefore consider that both must have inherited them from a common source4 ,thus the introduction of new sound-words tends to make it practically of less and less consequence to a language what its original stock of words at starting may have been2 and the philologist's extension of his knowledge of such direct formations must compel him to strip off more and more of any language1 as being possibly of later growth1 before he can set himself to argue upon such a residuum as may have come by direct inheritance from times of primval speech4 ,in concluding this survey1 some general considerations suggest themselves as to the nature and first beginnings of language4 ,in studying the means of expression among men in stages of mental culture far below our own1 one of our first needs is to clear our minds of the kind of superstitious veneration with which articulate speech has so commonly been treated1 as though it were not merely the principal but the sole means of uttering thought4 ,we must cease to measure the historical importance of emotional exclamations1 of gesture-signs1 and of picture-writing1 by their comparative insignificance in modern civilized life1 but must bring ourselves to associate the articulate words of the dictionary in one group with cries and gestures and pictures1 as being all of them means of manifesting outwardly the inward workings of the mind4 ,such an admission1 it must be observed1 is far from being a mere detail of scientific classification4 ,it has really a most important bearing on the problem of the ,origin of ,language4 ,for as the reasons are mostly dark to us1 why particular words are currently used to express particular ideas1 language has come to be looked upon as a mystery1 and either occult philosophical causes have been called in to explain its phenomena1 or else the endowment of man with the faculties of thought and utterance has been deemed insufficient1 and a special revelation has been demanded to put into his mouth the vocabulary of a particular language4 ,in the debate which has been carried on for ages over this much-vexed problem1 the saying in the #8,kratylos' comes back to our minds again and again1 where ,sokrates describes the etymologists who release themselves from their difficulties as to the origin of words by saying that the first words were divinely made1 and therefore right1 just as the tragedians1 when they are in perplexity1 fly to their machinery and bring in the gods4#bih ,now ,i think that those who soberly contemplate the operation of cries1 groans1 laughs1 and other emotional utterances1 as to which some considerations have been here brought forward1 will admit that1 at least1 our present crude understanding of this kind of expression would lead us to class it among the natural actions of man's body and mind4 ,certainly1 no one who understands anything of the gesture-language or of picture-writing would be justified in regarding either as due to occult causes1 or to any supernatural interference with the course of man's intellectual development4 ,their cause evidently lies in natural operations of the human mind1 not such as were effective in some long-past condition of humanity and have since disappeared1 but in processes existing amongst us1 which we can understand and even practise for ourselves4 ,when we study the pictures and gestures with which savages and the deaf-and-dumb express their minds1 we can mostly see at a glance the direct relation between the outward sign and the inward thought which it makes manifest4 ,we may see the idea of #8sleep' shown in gesture by the head with shut eyes1 leant heavily against the open hand2 or the idea of #8running' by the attitude of the runner1 with chest forward1 mouth half open1 elbows and shoulders well back2 or #8candle' by the straight forefinger held up1 and as it were blown out2 or #8salt' by the imitated act of sprinkling it with thumb and finger4 ,the figures of the child's picture-book1 the sleeper and the runner1 the candle and the salt-cellar1 show their purport by the same sort of evident relation between thought and sign4 ,we so far understand the nature of these modes of utterance1 that we are ready ourselves to express thought after thought by such means1 so that those who see our signs shall perceive our meaning4 ,when1 however1 encouraged by our ready success in making out the nature and action of these ruder methods1 we turn to the higher art of speech1 and ask how such and such words have come to express such and such thoughts1 we find ourselves face to face with an immense problem1 as yet but in small part solved4 ,the success of investigation has indeed been enough to encourage us to push vigorously forward in the research1 but the present explorations have not extended beyond corners and patches of an elsewhere unknown field4 ,still the results go far to warrant us in associating expression by gestures and pictures with articulate language as to principles of original formation1 much as men associate them in actual life by using gesture and word at once4 ,of course1 articulate speech1 in its far more complex and elaborate development1 has taken up devices to which the more simple and rude means of communication offer nothing comparable4 ,still1 language1 so far as its constitution is understood1 seems to have been developed like writing or music1 like hunting or fire-making1 by the exercise of purely human faculties in purely human ways4 ,this state of things by no means belongs exclusively to rudimentary philological operations1 such as the choosing expressive sounds to name corresponding ideas by4 ,in the higher departments of speech1 where words already existing are turned to account to express new meanings and shade off new distinctions1 we find these ends attained by contrivances ranging from extreme dexterity down to utter clumsiness4 ,for a single instance1 one great means of giving new meaning to old sound is metaphor1 which transfers ideas from hearing to seeing1 from touching to thinking1 from the concrete of one kind to the abstract of another1 and can thus make almost anything in the world help to describe or suggest anything else4 ,what the ,german philosopher described as the relation of a cow to a comet1 that both have tails1 is enough and more than enough for the language-maker4 ,it struck the ,australians1 when they saw a ,european book1 that it opened and shut like a mussel-shell1 and they began accordingly to call books #8mussels' 7mym74 ,the sight of a steam engine may suggest a whole group of such transitions in our own language2 the steam passes along #8fifes' or #8trumpets1' that is1 pipes or tubes1 and enters by #8folding-doors' or valves1 to push a #8pestle' or piston up and down in a #8roller' or cylinder1 while the light pours from the furnace in #8staves' or #8poles1' that is1 in rays or beams4 ,the dictionaries are full of cases compared with which such as these are plain and straightforward4 ,indeed1 the processes by which words have really come into existence may often enough remind us of the game of #8,what is my thought like8' ,when one knows the answer1 it is easy enough to see what junketting and cathedral canons have to do with reeds2 ,latin juncus #8a reed1' ,low ,latin juncata1 #8cheese made in a reed-basket1' ,italian giuncata #8cream cheese in a rush frail1' ,french joncade and ,english junket1 which are preparations of cream1 and lastly junketting parties where such delicacies are eaten2 ,greek 1 #8reed1 cane1' 1 #8measure1 rule1' thence canonicus1 #8a clerk under the ecclesiastical rule or canon4' ,but who could guess the history of these words1 who did not happen to know these intermediate links8 ,yet there is about this process of derivation a thoroughly human artificial character4 ,when we know the whole facts of any case1 we can generally understand it at once1 and see that we might have done the same ourselves had it come in our way4 ,and the same thing is true of the processes of making sound-words detailed in these chapters4 ,such a view is1 however1 in no way inconsistent with the attempt to generalize upon these processes1 and to state them as phases of the development of language among mankind4 ,if certain men under certain circumstances produce certain results1 then we may at least expect that other men much resembling these and placed under roughly similar circumstances will produce more or less like results2 and this has been shown over and over again in these pages to be what really happens4 ,now ,wilhelm von ,humboldt's view that language is an #8organism' has been considered a great step in philological speculation2 and so far as it has led students to turn their minds to the search after general laws1 no doubt it has been so4 ,but it has also caused an increase of vague thinking and talking1 and thereby no small darkening of counsel4 ,had it been meant to say that human thought1 language1 and action generally1 are organic in their nature1 and work under fixed laws1 this would be a very different matter2 but this is distinctly not what is meant1 and the very object of calling language an organism is to keep it apart from mere human arts and contrivances4 ,it was a hateful thing to ,humboldt's mind to #8bring down speech to a mere operation of the understanding4' #8,man1' he says1 #8does not so much form language1 as discern with a kind of joyous wonder its developments1 coming forth as of themselves4' ,yet1 if the practical shifts by which words are shaped or applied to fit new meanings are not devised by an operation of the understanding1 we ought consistently to carry the stratagems of the soldier in the field1 or the contrivances of the workman at his bench1 back into the dark regions of instinct and involuntary action4 ,that the actions of individual men combine to produce results which may be set down in those general statements of fact which we call laws1 may be stated once again as one of the main propositions of the ,science of ,culture4 ,but the nature of a fact is not altered by its being classed in common with others of the same kind1 and a man is not less the intelligent inventor of a new word or a new metaphor1 because twenty other intelligent inventors elsewhere may have fallen on a similar expedient4 ,the theory that the original forms of language are to be referred to a low or savage condition of culture among the remotely ancient human race1 stands in general consistency with the known facts of philology4 ,the causes which have produced language1 so far as they are understood1 are notable for that childlike simplicity of operation which befits the infancy of human civilization4 ,the ways in which sounds are in the first instance chosen and arranged to express ideas1 are practical expedients at the level of nursery philosophy4 ,a child of five years old could catch the meaning of imitative sounds1 interjectional words1 symbolism of sex or distance by contrast of vowels4 ,just as no one is likely to enter into the real nature of mythology who has not the keenest appreciation of nursery tales1 so the spirit in which we guess riddles and play at children's games is needed to appreciate the lower phases of language4 ,such a state of things agrees with the opinion that such rudimentary speech had its origin among men while in a childlike intellectual condition1 and thus the self-expressive branch of savage language affords valuable materials for the problem of primitive speech4 ,if we look back in imagination to an early period of human intercourse1 where gesture and self-expressive utterance may have had a far greater comparative importance than among ourselves1 such a conception introduces no new element into the problem1 for a state of things more or less answering to this is described among certain low savage tribes4 ,if we turn from such self-expressive utterance1 to that part of articulate language which carries its sense only by traditional and seemingly arbitrary custom1 we shall find no contradiction to the hypothesis4 ,sound carrying direct meaning may be taken up as an element of language1 keeping its first significance recognizable to nations yet unborn4 ,but it may far more probably become by wear of sound and shift of sense an expressionless symbol1 such as might have been chosen in pure arbitrariness--a philological process to which the vocabularies of savage dialects bear full witness4 ,in the course of the development of language1 such traditional words with merely an inherited meaning have in no small measure driven into the background the self-expressive words1 just as the ,eastern figures #b1 #c1 #d1 which are not self-expressive1 have driven into the background the ,roman numerals ,,ii1 ,,iii1 ,,iiii1 which are--this1 again1 is an operation which has its place in savage as in cultivated speech4 ,moreover1 to look closely at language as a practical means of expressing thought1 is to face evidence of no slight bearing on the history of civilization4 ,we come back to the fact1 so full of suggestion1 that the languages of the world represent substantially the same intellectual art1 the higher nations indeed gaining more expressive power than the lowest tribes1 yet doing this not by introducing new and more effective central principles1 but by mere addition and improvement in detail4 ,the two great methods of naming thoughts and stating their relation to one another1 viz41 metaphor and syntax1 belong to the infancy of human expression1 and are as thoroughly at home in the language of savages as of philosophers4 ,if it be argued that this similarity in principles of language is due to savage tribes having descended from higher culture1 carrying down with them in their speech the relics of their former excellence1 the answer is that linguistic expedients are actually worked out with as much originality1 and more extensively if not more profitably1 among savages than among cultured men4 ,take for example the ,algonquin system of compounding words1 and the vast ,esquimaux scheme of grammatical inflexion4 ,language belongs in essential principle both to low grades and high of civilization2 to which should its origin be attributed8 ,an answer may be had by comparing the methods of language with the work it has to do4 ,take language all in all over the world1 it is obvious that the processes by which words are made and adapted have far less to do with systematic arrangement and scientific classification1 than with mere rough and ready ingenuity and the great rule of thumb4 ,let any one whose vocation it is to realize philosophical or scientific conceptions and to express them in words1 ask himself whether ordinary language is an instrument planned for such purposes4 ,of course it is not4 ,it is hard to say which is the more striking1 the want of scientific system in the expression of thought by words1 or the infinite cleverness of detail by which this imperfection is got over1 so that he who has an idea does somehow make shift to get it clearly in words before his own and other minds4 ,the language by which a nation with highly developed art and knowledge and sentiment must express its thoughts on these subjects1 is no apt machine devised for such special work1 but an old barbaric engine added to and altered1 patched and tinkered into some sort of capability4 ,ethnography reasonably accounts at once for the immense power and the manifest weakness of language as a means of expressing modern educated thought1 by treating it as an original product of low culture1 gradually adapted by ages of evolution and selection1 to answer more or less sufficiently the requirements of modern civilization4 ,footnote #bhc3 ,mpongwe punjina2 ,basuto foka2 ,carib phoube2 ,arawac appdn 7ignem sufflare74 ,other cases are given by ,wedgwood1 #8,or4 of ,lang4' p4 #hc4 ,footnote #bhd3 ,see ,wedgwood1 #8,dic4' ,introd4 p4 viii4 ,footnote #bhe3 ,see ,wedgwood1 ,dic41 s4v4 #8mum1' c4 ,footnote #bhf3 ,bates1 #8,naturalist on the ,amazons1' #bnd ed41 p4 #djd2 ,markham in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc41' vol4 iii4 p4 #adc4 ,footnote #bhg3 #8,avesta1' ,farg4 xviii4 #cd-e4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,wedgwood1 ,dic41 s4v4 #8pigeon2' ,diez1 #8,etym4 ,wrterb41' s4v4 #8piccione4' ,footnote #bhi3 ,bopp1 #8,gloss4 ,sanscr41' s4v4 #8go4' ,see ,pott1 #8,wurzel-,wrterb4 der ,indo-,germ4 ,spr41' s4v4 #8gu1' #8,zhlmethode1' p4 #bbg4 ,footnote #bij3 ,pott1 #8,doppelung 7,reduplication1 ,gemination7 als eines der wichtigsten ,bildungsmittel der ,sprache1' #ahfb4 ,frequent use has been here made of this work4 ,footnote #bia3 ,for authorities see especially ,pott1 #8,doppelung1' p4 #cj1 #dg-di2 ,w4 v4 ,humboldt1 #8,kawi-,spr4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cf2 ,max ,mller in ,bunsen1 #8,philos4 of ,univ4 ,hist4' vol4 i4 p4 #cbi2 ,latham1 #8,comp4 ,phil4' p4 #bjj2 and the grammars and dictionaries of the particular languages4 ,the ,guarani and ,carib on authority of ,d',orbigny1 #8,l',homme ,amricain1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bfh2 ,dhimal of ,hodgson1 #8,abor4 of ,india1' p4 #fi1 #gi1 #aae2 ,colville ,ind4 of ,wilson in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iv4 p4 #cca2 ,botocudo of ,martius1 #8,gloss4 ,brasil4' ,footnote #bib3 ,also ,old ,high ,german diz and daz4 ,footnote #bic3 ,max ,mller1 l4c4 ,footnote #bid3 ,j4 ,c4 ,e4 ,buschmann1 #8,ueber den ,naturlaut1' ,berlin1 #ahec2 and in #8,abh4 der ,k4 ,akad4 d4 ,wissensch1' #aheb4 ,an ,english trans4 in #8,proc4 ,philological ,society1' vol4 vi4 ,see ,de ,brosses1 #8,form4 des ,l41' vol4 i4 p4 #baa4 ,footnote #bie3 ,one family of languages1 the ,athapascan1 contains both app and mama as terms for #8father1' in the ,tahkali and ,tlatskanai4 ,footnote #bif3 ,see ,pott1 #8,indo-,ger4 ,wurzelwrterb4' s4v4 #8p'2 ,bhtlingk and ,roth1 #8,sanskrit-,wrterb4' s4v4 mtar2 ,pictet1 #8,origines ,indo-,europ41' part ii4 p4 #cdi2 ,max ,mller1 #8,lectures1' #bnd series1 p4 #bab4 ,footnote #big3 ,facciolati1 #8,lexicon2' ,varro1 ap4 ,nonn41 ii4 #ig4 ,footnote #bih3 ,plato1 #8,cratylus'1 #ij4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,counting4 ,ideas of ,number derived from experience--,state of ,arithmetic among uncivilized races--,small extent of ,numeral-words among low tribes--,counting by fingers and toes--,hand-numerals show derivation of ,verbal reckoning from ,gesture-counting--,etymology of ,numerals--,quinary1 ,decimal1 and ,vigesimal notations of the world derived from counting on fingers and toes--,adoption of foreign ,numeral-words--,evidence of development of ,arithmetic from a low original level of ,culture4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 in his #8,system of ,logic1' takes occasion to examine the foundations of the art of arithmetic4 ,against ,dr4 ,whewell1 who had maintained that such propositions as that two and three make five are #8necessary truths1' containing in them an element of certainty beyond that which mere experience can give1 ,mr4 ,mill asserts that #8two and one are equal to three' expresses merely #8a truth known to us by early and constant experience3 an inductive truth2 and such truths are the foundation of the science of ,number4 ,the fundamental truths of that science all rest on the evidence of sense2 they are proved by showing to our eyes and our fingers that any given number of objects1 ten balls for example1 may by separation and re-arrangement exhibit to our senses all the different sets of numbers the sum of which is equal to ten4 ,all the improved methods of teaching arithmetic to children proceed on a knowledge of this fact4 ,all who wish to carry the child's mind along with them in learning arithmetic2 all who wish to teach numbers1 and not mere ciphers--now teach it through the evidence of the senses1 in the manner we have described4' ,mr4 ,mill's argument is taken from the mental conditions of people among whom there exists a highly advanced arithmetic4 ,the subject is also one to be advantageously studied from the ethnographer's point of view4 ,the examination of the methods of numeration in use among the lower races not only fully bears out ,mr4 ,mill's view1 that our knowledge of the relations of numbers is based on actual experiment1 but it enables us to trace the art of counting to its source1 and to ascertain by what steps it arose in the world among particular races1 and probably among all mankind4 ,in our advanced system of numeration1 no limit is known either to largeness or smallness4 ,the philosopher cannot conceive the formation of any quantity so large or of any atom so small but the arithmetician can keep pace with him1 and can define it in a simple combination of written signs4 ,but as we go downwards in the scale of culture1 we find that even where the current language has terms for hundreds and thousands1 there is less and less power of forming a distinct notion of large numbers1 the reckoner is sooner driven to his fingers1 and there increases among the most intelligent that numerical indefiniteness that we notice among children--if there were not a thousand people in the street there were certainly a hundred1 at any rate there were twenty4 ,strength in arithmetic does not1 it is true1 vary regularly with the level of general culture4 ,some savage or barbaric peoples are exceptionally skilled in numeration4 ,the ,tonga ,islanders really have native numerals up to #ajj1jjj4 ,not content even with this1 the ,french explorer ,labillardire pressed them farther and obtained numerals up to #ajjj billions1 which were duly printed1 but proved on later examination to be partly nonsense-words and partly indelicate expressions1#bii so that the supposed series of high numerals forms at once a little vocabulary of ,tongan indecency1 and a warning as to the probable results of taking down unchecked answers from question-worried savages4 ,in ,west ,africa1 a lively and continual habit of bargaining has developed a great power of arithmetic1 and little children already do feats of computation with their heaps of cowries4 ,among the ,yorubas of ,abeokuta1 to say #8you don't know nine times nine' is actually an insulting way of saying #8you are a dunce4'#cjj ,this is an extraordinary proverb1 when we compare it with the standard which our corresponding ,european sayings set for the limits of stupidity3 the ,german says1 #8he can scarce count five'2 the ,spaniard1 #8,i will tell you how many make five' 7cuantos son cinco72 and we have the same saw in ,england3-- #8444 as sure as ,i'm alive1 ,and knows how many beans make five4' ,a ,siamese law-court will not take the evidence of a witness who cannot count or reckon figures up to ten2 a rule which reminds us of the ancient custom of ,shrewsbury1 where a person was deemed of age when he knew how to count up to twelve pence4#cja ,among the lowest living men1 the savages of the ,south ,american forests and the deserts of ,australia1 #e is actually found to be a number which the languages of some tribes do not know by a special word4 ,not only have travellers failed to get from them names for numbers above #b1 #c1 or #d1 but the opinion that these are the real limits of their numeral series is strengthened by the use of their highest known number as an indefinite term for a great many4 ,spix and ,martius say of the low tribes of ,brazil1 #8,they count commonly by their finger joints1 so up to three only4 ,any larger number they express by the word 8many40'#cjb ,in a ,puri vocabulary the numerals are given as #a4 omi2 #b4 curiri2 #c4 prica1 #8many'3 in a ,botocudo vocabulary1 #a4 mokenam2 #b4 uruh1 #8many4' ,the numeration of the ,tasmanians is1 according to ,jorgensen1 #a4 parmery2 #b4 calabawa2 more than #b1 cardia2 as ,backhouse puts it1 they count #8one1 two1 plenty2' but an observer who had specially good opportunities1 ,dr4 ,milligan1 gives their numerals up to #e1 puggana1 which we shall recur to4#cjc ,mr4 ,oldfield 7writing especially of ,western tribes7 says1 #8,the ,new ,hollanders have no names for numbers beyond two4 ,the ,watchandie scale of notation is co-ote-on 7one71 u-tau-ra 7two71 bool-tha 7many71 and bool-tha-bat 7very many74 ,if absolutely required to express the numbers three or four1 they say u-tar-ra coo-te-oo to indicate the former number1 and u-tar-ra u-tar-ra to denote the latter4' ,that is to say1 their names for one1 two1 three1 and four1 are equivalent to #8one1' #8two1' #8two-one1' #8two-two4' ,dr4 ,lang's numerals from ,queensland are just the same in principle1 though the words are different3 #a4 ganar2 #b4 burla2 #c4 burla-ganar1 #8two-one'2 #d4 burla-burla1 #8two-two'2 korumba1 #8more than four1 much1 great4' ,the ,kamilaroi dialect1 though with the same #b as the last1 improves upon it by having an independent #c1 and with the aid of this it reckons as far as #f3 #a4 mal2 #b4 bularr2 #c4 guliba2 #d4 bularr-bularr1 #8two-two'2 #e4 bulaguliba1 #8two-three'2 #f4 guliba-guliba #8three-three4' ,these ,australian examples are at least evidence of a very scanty as well as clumsy numeral system among certain tribes4#cjd ,yet here again higher forms will have to be noticed1 which in one district at least carry the native numerals up to #ae or #bj4 ,it is not to be supposed1 because a savage tribe has no current words for numbers above #c or #e or so1 that therefore they cannot count beyond this4 ,it appears that they can and do count considerably farther1 but it is by falling back on a lower and ruder method of expression than speech--the gesture-language4 ,the place in intellectual development held by the art of counting on one's fingers1 is well marked in the description which ,massieu1 the ,abb ,sicard's deaf-and-dumb pupil1 gives of his notion of numbers in his comparatively untaught childhood3 #8,i knew the numbers before my instruction1 my fingers had taught me them4 ,i did not know the ciphers2 ,i counted on my fingers1 and when the number passed #aj ,i made notches on a bit of wood4'#cje ,it is thus that all savage tribes have been taught arithmetic by their fingers4 ,mr4 ,oldfield1 after giving the account just quoted of the capability of the ,watchandie language to reach #d by numerals1 goes on to describe the means by which the tribe contrive to deal with a harder problem in numeration4 #8,i once wished to ascertain the exact number of natives who had been slain on a certain occasion4 ,the individual of whom ,i made the enquiry1 began to think over the names 444 assigning one of his fingers to each1 and it was not until after many failures1 and consequent fresh starts1 that he was able to express so high a number1 which he at length did by holding up his hand three times1 thus giving me to understand that fifteen was the answer to this most difficult arithmetical question4' ,of the aborigines of ,victoria1 ,mr4 ,stanbridge says3 #8,they have no name for numerals above two1 but by repetition they count to five2 they also record the days of the moon by means of the fingers1 the bones and joints of the arms and the head4'#cjf ,the ,bororos of ,brazil reckon3 #a4 couai2 #b4 macouai2 #c4 ouai2 and then go on counting on their fingers1 repeating this ouai4#cjg ,of course it no more follows among savages than among ourselves that1 because a man counts on his fingers1 his language must be wanting in words to express the number he wishes to reckon4 ,for example it was noticed that when natives of ,kamchatka were set to count1 they would reckon all their fingers1 and then all their toes1 so getting up to #bj1 and then would ask1 #8,what are we to do next8' ,yet it was found on examination that numbers up to #ajj existed in their language4#cjh ,travellers notice the use of finger-counting among tribes who can1 if they choose1 speak the number1 and who either silently count it upon their fingers1 or very usually accompany the word with the action2 nor indeed are either of these modes at all unfamiliar in modern ,europe4 ,let ,father ,gumilla1 one of the early ,jesuit missionaries in ,south ,america1 describe for us the relation of gesture to speech in counting1 and at the same time bring to our minds very remarkable examples 7to be paralleled elsewhere7 of the action of consensus1 whereby conventional rules become fixed among societies of men1 even in so simple an art as that of counting on one's fingers4 #8,nobody among ourselves1' he remarks1 #8except incidentally1 would say for instance 8one10 8two10 c41 and give the number on his fingers as well1 by touching them with the other hand4 ,exactly the contrary happens among ,indians4 ,they say1 for instance1 8give me one pair of scissors10 and forthwith they raise one finger2 8give me two10 and at once they raise two1 and so on4 ,they would never say 8five0 without showing a hand1 never 8ten0 without holding out both1 never 8twenty0 without adding up the fingers1 placed opposite to the toes4 ,moreover1 the mode of showing the numbers with the fingers differs in each nation4 ,to avoid prolixity1 ,i give as an example the number 8three40 ,the ,otomacs to say 8three0 unite the thumb1 forefinger1 and middle finger1 keeping the others down4 ,the ,tamanacs show the little finger1 the ring finger1 and the middle finger1 and close the other two4 ,the ,maipures1 lastly1 raise the fore1 middle1 and ring fingers1 keeping the other two hidden4'#cji ,throughout the world1 the general relation between finger-counting and word-counting may be stated as follows4 ,for readiness and for ease and apprehension of numbers1 a palpable arithmetic1 such as is worked on finger-joints or fingers1#caj or heaps of pebbles or beans1 or the more artificial contrivances of the rosary or the abacus1 has so great an advantage over reckoning in words as almost necessarily to precede it4 ,thus not only do we find finger-counting among savages and uneducated men1 carrying on a part of their mental operations where language is only partly able to follow it1 but it also retains a place and an undoubted use among the most cultured nations1 as a preparation for and means of acquiring higher arithmetical methods4 ,now there exists valid evidence to prove that a child learning to count upon its fingers does in a way reproduce a process of the mental history of the human race2 that in fact men counted upon their fingers before they found words for the numbers they thus expressed2 that in this department of culture1 ,word-language not only followed ,gesture-language1 but actually grew out of it4 ,the evidence in question is principally that of language itself1 which shows that1 among many and distant tribes1 men wanting to express #e in words called it simply by their name for the hand which they held up to denote it1 that in like manner they said two hands or half a man to denote #aj1 that the word foot carried on the reckoning up to #ae1 and to #bj1 which they described in words as in gesture by the hands and feet together1 or as one man1 and that lastly1 by various expressions referring directly to the gestures of counting on the fingers and toes1 they gave names to these and intermediate numerals4 ,as a definite term is wanted to describe significant numerals of this class1 it may be convenient to call them #8hand-numerals' or #8digit-numerals4' ,a selection of typical instances will serve to make it probable that this ingenious device was not1 at any rate generally1 copied from one tribe by another or inherited from a common source1 but that its working out with original character and curiously varying detail displays the recurrence of a similar but independent process of mental development among various races of man4 ,father ,gilij1 describing the arithmetic of the ,tamanacs on the ,orinoco1 gives their numerals up to #d3 when they come to #e1 they express it by the word amgnaitne1 which being translated means #8a whole hand2' #f is expressed by a term which translates the proper gesture into words1 itacon amgnapon tevinitpe #8one of the other hand1' and so on up to #i4 ,coming to #aj1 they give it in words as amgna aceponre #8both hands4' ,to denote #aa they stretch out both the hands1 and adding the foot they say puittapon tevinitpe #8one to the foot1' and thus up to #ae1 which is iptaitne #8a whole foot4' ,next follows #af1 #8one to the other foot1' and so on to #bj1 tevin itto1 #8one ,indian2' #ba1 itacon itto jamgnr bon tevinitpe #8one to the hands of the other ,indian2' #dj1 acciach itto1 #8two ,indians2' thence on to #fj1 #hj1 #ajj1 #8three1 four1 five ,indians1' and beyond if needful4 ,south ,america is remarkably rich in such evidence of an early condition of finger-counting recorded in spoken language4 ,among its many other languages which have recognizable digit-numerals1 the ,cayriri1 ,tupi1 ,abipone1 and ,carib rival the ,tamanac in their systematic way of working out #8hand1' #8hands1' #8foot1' #8feet1' c4 ,others show slighter traces of the same process1 where1 for instance1 the numerals #e or #aj are found to be connected with words for #8hand1' c41 as when the ,omagua uses pua1 #8hand1' for #e1 and reduplicates this into upapua for #aj4 ,in some ,south ,american languages a man is reckoned by fingers and toes up to #bj1 while in contrast to this1 there are two languages which display a miserably low mental state1 the man counting only one hand1 thus stopping short at #e2 the ,juri ghomen apa #8one man1' stands for #e2 the ,cayriri ibich is used to mean both #8person' and #e4 ,digit-numerals are not confined to tribes standing1 like these1 low or high within the limits of savagery4 ,the ,muyscas of ,bogota were among the more civilized native races of ,america1 ranking with the ,peruvians in their culture1 yet the same method of formation which appears in the language of the rude ,tamanacs is to be traced in that of the ,muyscas1 who1 when they came to #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 counted quihicha ata1 bosa1 mica1 i4e41 #8foot one1 two1 three4'#caa ,to turn to ,north ,america1 ,cranz1 the ,moravian missionary1 thus describes about a century ago the numeration of the ,greenlanders4 #8,their numerals1' he says1 #8go not far1 and with them the proverb holds that they can scarce count five1 for they reckon by the five fingers and then get the help of the toes on their feet1 and so with labour bring out twenty1' ,the modern ,greenland grammar gives the numerals much as ,cranz does1 but more fully4 ,the word for #e is tatdlimat1 which there is some ground for supposing to have once meant #8hand2' #f is arfinek-attausek1 #8on the other hand one1' or more shortly arfinigdlit1 #8those which have on the other hand2' #g is arfinek-mardluk1 #8on the other hand two2' #ac is arkanck-pingasut1 #8on the first foot three2' #ah is arfersanek-pingasut1 #8on the other foot three2' when they reach #bj1 they can say inuk nvdlugo1 #8a man ended1' or inp avatai nvdlugit1' the man's outer members ended2' in this way by counting several men they reach higher numbers1 thus expressing1 for example1 #ec as inp pinga-jugsne arkanek-pingasut1 #8on the third man on the first foot three4'#cab ,if we pass from the rude ,greenlanders to the comparatively civilized ,aztecs1 we shall find on the ,northern as on the ,southern continent traces of early finger-numeration surviving among higher races4 ,the ,mexican names for the first four numerals are as obscure in etymology as our own4 ,but when we come to #e we find this expressed by macuilli2 and as ma 7ma-itl7 means #8hand1' and cuiloa #8to paint or depict1' it is likely that the word for #e may have meant something like #8hand-depicting4' ,in #aj1 matlactli1 the word ma1 #8hand1' appears again1 while tlactli means half1 and is represented in the ,mexico picture-writings by the figure of half a man from the waist upward2 thus it appears that the ,aztec #aj means the #8hand-half' of a man1 just as among the ,towka ,indians of ,south ,america #aj is expressed as #8half a man1' a whole man being #bj4 ,when the ,aztecs reach #bj they call it cempoalli1 #8one counting1' with evidently the same meaning as elsewhere1 one whole man1 fingers and toes4 ,among races of the lower culture elsewhere1 similar facts are to be observed4 ,the ,tasmanian language again shows the man stopping short at the reckoning of himself when he has held up one hand and counted its fingers2 this appears by ,milligan's list before mentioned1 which ends with puggana1 #8man1' standing for #e4 ,some of the ,west ,australian tribes have done much better than this1 using their word for #8hand1' marh-ra2 marh-jin-bang-ga1 #8half the hands1' is #e2 marh-jin-bang-ga-gudjir-gyn1 #8half the hands and one1' is #f1 and so on2 marh-jin-belli-belli-gudjir-jina-bang-ga 1 #8the hand on either side and half the feet1' is #ae4cac ,as an example from the ,melanesian languages the ,mar will serve2 it reckons #aj as ome re rue tubenine1 apparently #8the two sides' 7i4e4 both hands71 #bj as sa re ngome1'one man1' c42 thus in ,john v4 #e #8which had an infirmity thirty and eight years1' the numeral #ch is expressed by the phrase1 #8one man and both sides five and three4'#cad ,in the ,malayo-,polynesian languages1 the typical word for #e is lima or rima1 #8hand1' and the connexion is not lost by the phonetic variations among different branches of this family of languages1 as in ,malagasy dimy1 ,marquesan fima1 ,tongan nima1 but while lima and its varieties mean #e in almost all ,malayo-,polynesian dialects1 its meaning of #8hand' is confined to a much narrower district1 showing that the word became more permanent by passing into the condition of a traditional numeral4 ,in languages of the ,malayo-,polynesian family1 it is usually found that #f1 c41 are carried on with words whose etymology is no longer obvious1 but the forms lima-sa1 lima-zua #8hand-one1' #8hand-two1' have been found doing duty for #f and #g4cae ,in ,west ,africa1 ,klle's account of the ,vei language gives a case in point4 ,these negroes are so dependent on their fingers that some can hardly count without1 and their toes are convenient as the calculator squats on the ground4 ,the ,vei people and many other ,african tribes1 when counting1 first count the fingers of their left hand1 beginning1 be it remembered1 from the little one1 then in the same manner those of the right hand1 and afterwards the toes4 ,the ,vei numeral for #bj1 m bnde1 means obviously #8a person 7mo7 is finished 7bande71' and similarly #dj1 #fj1 #hj1 c4 #8two men1 three men1 four men1 c41 are finished1' ,it is an interesting point that the negroes who used these phrases had lost their original descriptive sense--the words have become mere numerals to them4#caf ,lastly1 for bringing before our minds a picture of a man counting upon his fingers1 and being struck by the idea that if he describes his gestures in words1 these words may become an actual name for the number1 perhaps no language in the world surpasses the ,zulu4 ,the ,zulu counting on his fingers begins in general with the little finger of his left hand4 ,when he comes to #e1 this he may call edesanta #8finish hand2' then he goes on to the thumb of the right hand1 and so the word tatisitupa #8taking the thumb' becomes a numeral for #f4 ,then the verb komba #8to point1' indicating the forefinger1 or #8pointer1' makes the next numeral1 #g4 ,thus1 answering the question #8,how much did your master give you8' a ,zulu would say #8,u kombile' #8,he pointed with his forefinger1' i4e41 #8,he gave me seven1' and this curious way of using the numeral verb is shown in such an example as #8amahasi akombile' #8the horses have pointed1' i4e41 #8there were seven of them4' ,in like manner1 ,kijangalobili #8keep back two fingers1' i4e4 #h1 and ,kijangalolunje #8keep back one finger1' i4e4 #i1 lead on to kumi1 #aj2 at the completion of each ten the two hands with open fingers are clapped together4#cag ,the theory that man's primitive mode of counting was palpable reckoning on his hands1 and the proof that many numerals in present use are actually derived from such a state of things1 is a great step towards discovering the origin of numerals in general4 ,can we go farther1 and state broadly the mental process by which savage men1 having no numerals as yet in their language1 came to invent them8 ,what was the origin of numerals not named with reference to hands and feet1 and especially of the numerals below five1 to which such a derivation is hardly appropriate8 ,the subject is a peculiarly difficult one4 ,yet as to principle it is not altogether obscure1 for some evidence is forthcoming as to the actual formation of new numeral words1 these being made by simply pressing into the service names of objects or actions in some way appropriate to the purpose4 ,people possessing full sets of inherited numerals in their own languages have nevertheless sometimes found it convenient to invent new ones4 ,thus the scholars of ,india1 ages ago1 selected a set of words from a memoria technica in order to record dates and numbers4 ,these words they chose for reasons which are still in great measure evident2 thus #8moon' or #8earth' expressed #a1 there being but one of each2 #b might be called #8eye1' #8wing1' #8arm1' #8jaw1' as going in pairs2 for #c they said #8,rama1' #8fire1' or #8quality1' there being considered to be three ,ramas1 three kinds of fire1 three qualities 7guna72 for #d were used #8veda'1 #8age1' or #8ocean1' there being four of each recognized2 #8season' for #f1 because they reckoned six seasons2 #8sage' or #8vowel' for #g1 from the seven sages and the seven vowels2 and so on with higher numbers1 #8sun' for #ab1 because of his twelve annual denominations1 or #8zodiac' from its twelve signs1 and #8nail' for #bj1 a word incidentally bringing in a finger notation4 ,as ,sanskrit is very rich in synonyms1 and as even the numerals themselves might be used1 it becomes very easy to draw up phrases or nonsense-verses to record series of numbers by this system of artificial memory4 ,the following is a ,hindu astronomical formula1 a list of numbers referring to the stars of the lunar constellations4 ,each word stands as the mnemonic equivalent of the number placed over it in the ,english translation4 ,the general principle on which the words are chosen to denote the numbers is evident without further explanation3-- #8,vahni tri rtvishu gunendu kritgnibhta ,bnsvinetra ara bhku yugabdhi rmh ,rudrbdhirmagunavedaat dviyugma ,dant budhairabhihith kramao bhatrh4' #c #c #f #e #c #a #8,fire1 three1 season1 arrow1 quality1 moon1 #d #c #e four-side of die1 fire1 element1 #e #b #b #e #a #a #d #d #c ,arrow1 ,asvin1 eye1 arrow1 earth1 earth1 age1 ocean1 ,rama1 #aa #d #c #c #d #ajj #b #b ,rudra1 ocean1 ,rama1 quality1 ,veda1 hundred1 two1 couple1 #cb ,teeth3 by the wise have been set forth in order the mighty lords4'#cah ,it occurred to ,wilhelm von ,humboldt1 in studying this curious system of numeration1 that he had before his eyes the evidence of a process very like that which actually produced the regular numeral words denoting one1 two1 three1 c41 in the various languages of the world4 ,the following passage in which1 more than sixty years ago1 he set forth this view1 seems to me to contain a nearly perfect key to the theory of numeral words4 #8,if we take into consideration the origin of actual numerals1 the process of their formation appears evidently to have been the same as that here described4 ,the latter is nothing else than a wider extension of the former4 ,for when #e is expressed1 as in several languages of the ,malay family1 by 8hand0 7lima71 this is precisely the same thing as when in the description of numbers by words1 #b is denoted by 8wing40 ,indisputably there lie at the root of all numerals such metaphors as these1 though they cannot always be now traced4 ,but people seem early to have felt that the multiplicity of such signs for the same number was superfluous1 too clumsy1 and leading to misunderstandings4' ,therefore1 he goes on to argue1 synonyms of numerals are very rare4 ,and to nations with a deep sense of language1 the feeling must soon have been present1 though perhaps without rising to distinct consciousness1 that recollections of the original etymology and descriptive meaning of numerals had best be allowed to disappear1 so as to leave the numerals themselves to become mere conventional terms4 ,the most instructive evidence ,i have found bearing on the formation of numerals1 other than digit-numerals1 among the lower races1 appears in the use on both sides of the globe of what may be called numeral-names for children4 ,in ,australia a well-marked case occurs4 ,with all the poverty of the aboriginal languages in numerals1 #c being commonly used as meaning #8several or many1' the natives in the ,adelaide district have for a particular purpose gone far beyond this narrow limit1 and possess what is to all intents a special numeral system1 extending perhaps to #i4 ,they give fixed names to their children in order of age1 which are set down as follows by ,mr4 ,eyre3 #a4 ,kertameru2 #b4 ,warritya2 #c4 ,kudnutya2 #d4 ,monaitya2 #e4 ,milaitya2 #f4 ,marrutya2 #g4 ,wangutya2 #h4 ,ngarlaitya2 #i4 ,pouarna4 ,these are the male names1 from which the female differ in termination4 ,they are given at birth1 more distinctive appellations being soon afterwards chosen4#cai ,a similar habit makes its appearance among the ,malays1 who in some districts are reported to use a series of seven names in order of age1 beginning with #a4 ,sulung 7#8eldest'72 #b4 ,awang 7#8friend1 companion'71 and ending with ,kechil 7#8little one'71 or ,bongsu 7#8youngest'74 ,these are for sons2 daughters have ,meh prefixed1 and nicknames have to be used for practical distinction4#cbj ,in ,madagascar1 the ,malay connexion manifests itself in the appearance of a similar set of appellations given to children in lieu of proper names1 which are1 however1 often substituted in after years4 ,males2 ,lahimatoa 7#8first male'71 ,lah-ivo 7#8intermediate male'72 ,ra-fara-lahy 7#8last born male'74 ,females2 ,ramatoa 7#8eldest female'71 ,ra-ivo 7#8intermediate'71 ,ra-fara-vavy 7#8last born female'74#cba ,the system exists in ,north ,america4 ,there have been found in use among the ,dacotas the following two series of names for sons and daughters in order of birth4 ,eldest son1 ,chask2 second1 ,haparm2 third1 ,ha-pe-dah2 fourth1 ,chatun2 fifth ,harka4 ,eldest daughter1 ,wenonah2 second1 ,harpen2 third1 ,harpstenah2 fourth1 ,waska2 fifth1 ,we-harka4 ,these mere numeral appellations they retain through childhood1 till their relations or friends find occasion to replace them by bestowing some more distinctive personal name4#cbb ,africa affords further examples4#cbc ,as to numerals in the ordinary sense1 ,polynesia shows remarkable cases of new formation4 ,besides the well-known system of numeral words prevalent in ,polynesia1 exceptional terms have from time to time grown up4 ,thus the habit of altering words which sounded too nearly like a king's name1 has led the ,tahitians on the accession of new chiefs to make several new words for numbers4 ,thus1 wanting a new term for #b instead of the ordinary rua1 they for obvious reasons took up the word piti1 #8together1' and made it a numeral1 while to get a new word for #e instead of rima1 #8hand1' which had to be discontinued1 they substituted pae1 #8part1 division1' meaning probably division of the two hands4 ,such words as these1 introduced in ,polynesia for ceremonial reasons1 are expected to be dropped again and the old ones replaced1 when the reason for their temporary exclusion ceases1 yet the new #b and #e1 piti and pae1 became so positively the proper numerals of the language1 that they stand instead of rua and rima in the ,tahitian translation of the ,gospel of ,st4 ,john made at the time4 ,again1 various special habits of counting in the ,south ,sea ,islands have had their effect on language4 ,the ,marquesans1 counting fish or fruit by one in each hand1 have come to use a system of counting by pairs instead of by units4 ,they start with tauna1 #8a pair1' which thus becomes a numeral equivalent to #b2 then they count onward by pairs1 so that when they talk of takau or #aj1 they really mean #aj pair or #bj4 ,for bread-fruit1 as they are accustomed to tie them up in knots of four1 they begin with the word pona1 #8knot1' which thus becomes a real numeral for #d1 and here again they go on counting by knots1 so that when they say takau or #aj1 they mean #aj knots or #dj4 ,the philological mystification thus caused in ,polynesian vocabularies is extraordinary2 in ,tahitian1 c41 rau and mano1 properly meaning #ajj and #a1jjj1 have come to signify #bjj and #b1jjj1 while in ,hawaii a second doubling in their sense makes them equivalent to #djj and #d1jjj4 ,moreover1 it seems possible to trace the transfer of suitable names of objects still farther in ,polynesia in the ,tongan and ,maori word tekau1 #aj1 which seems to have been a word for #8parcel' or #8bunch1' used in counting yams and fish1 as also in tefuhi1 #ajj1 derived from fuhi1 #8sheaf or bundle4'#cbd ,in ,africa1 also1 special numeral formations are to be noticed4 ,in the ,yoruba language1 #dj is called ogodzi1 #8a string1' because cowries are strung by forties1 and #bjj is igba1 #8a heap1' meaning again a heap of cowries4 ,among the ,dahomans in like manner1 #dj cowries make a kade or #8string1' #ej strings make one afo or #8head2' these words becoming numerals for #dj and #b1jjj4 ,when the king of ,dahome attacked ,abeokuta1 it is on record that he was repulsed with the heavy loss of #8two heads1 twenty strings1 and twenty cowries' of men1 that is to say1 #d1hbj4cbe ,among cultured nations1 whose languages are most tightly bound to the conventional and unintelligible numerals of their ancestors1 it is likewise usual to find other terms existing which are practically numerals already1 and might drop at once into the recognized places of such1 if by any chance a gap were made for them in the traditional series4 ,had we room1 for instance1 for a new word instead of two1 then either pair 7,latin par1 #8equal'7 or couple 7,latin copula1 #8bond or tie1'7 is ready to fill its place4 ,instead of twenty1 the good ,english word score1 #8notch1' will serve our turn1 while1 for the same purpose1 ,german can use stiege1 possibly with the original sense of #8a stall full of cattle1 a sty2' ,old ,norse drtt1 #8a company1' ,danish1 snees4 ,a list of such words used1 but not grammatically classed as numerals in ,european languages1 shows great variety3 examples are1 ,old ,norse1 flockr 7flock71 #e2 sveit1 #f2 drtt 7party71 #bj2 thiodh 7people71 #cj2 flk 7people71 #dj2 ld 7people71 #hj2 her 7army71 #ajj2 ,sleswig1 schilk1 #ab 7as though we were to make a numeral out of #8shilling'72 ,middle ,high-,german1 rotte1 #d2 ,new ,high-,german1 mandel1 #ae2 schock 7sheaf71 #fj4 ,the ,letts give a curious parallel to ,polynesian cases just cited4 ,they throw crabs and little fish three at a time in counting them1 and therefore the word mettens1 #8a throw1' has come to mean #c2 while flounders being fastened in lots of thirty1 the word kahlis1 #8a cord1' becomes a term to express this number4#cbf ,in two other ways1 the production of numerals from merely descriptive words may be observed both among lower and higher races4 ,the ,gallas have no numerical fractional terms1 but they make an equivalent set of terms from the division of the cakes of salt which they use as money4 ,thus tchabnana1 #8a broken piece' 7from tchaba1 #8to break1' as we say #8a fraction'71 receives the meaning of one-half2 a term which we may compare with ,latin dimidium1 ,french demi4 ,ordinal numbers are generally derived from cardinal numbers1 as third1 fourth1 fifth1 from three1 four1 five4 ,but among the very low ones there is to be seen evidence of independent formation quite unconnected with a conventional system of numerals already existing4 ,thus the ,greenlander did not use his #8one' to make #8first1' but calls it sujugdlek1 #8foremost1' nor #8two' to make #8second1' which he calls aip1 #8his companion2' it is only at #8third' that he takes to his cardinals1 and forms pingajuat in connexion with pingasut1 #c4 ,so1 in ,indo-,european languages1 the ordinal prathamas1 1 primus1 first1 has nothing to do with a numerical #8one1' but with the preposition pra1 #8before1' as meaning simply #8foremost2' and although ,greeks and ,germans call the next ordinal 1 zweite1 from 1 zwei1 we call it second1 ,latin secundus1 #8the following' 7sequi71 which is again a descriptive sense-word4 ,if we allow ourselves to mix for a moment what is with what might be1 we can see how unlimited is the field of possible growth of numerals by mere adoption of the names of familiar things4 ,following the example of the ,sleswigers we might make shilling a numeral for #ab1 and go on to express #d by groat2 week would provide us with a name for #g1 and clover for #c4 ,but this simple method of description is not the only available one for the purpose of making numerals4 ,the moment any series of names is arranged in regular order in our minds1 it becomes a counting-machine4 ,i have read of a little girl who was set to count cards1 and she counted them accordingly1 ,january1 ,february1 ,march1 ,april4 ,she might1 of course1 have reckoned them as ,monday1 ,tuesday1 ,wednesday4 ,it is interesting to find a case coming under the same class in the language of grown people4 ,we know that the numerical value of the ,hebrew letters is given with reference to their place in the alphabet1 which was arranged for reasons that can hardly have had anything to do with arithmetic4 ,the ,greek alphabet is modified from a ,semitic one1 but instead of letting the numeral value of their letters follow throughout their newly-arranged alphabet1 they reckon 1 1 1 1 1 properly1 as #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 then put in for #f1 and so manage to let stand for #aj1 as does in ,hebrew1 where it is really the #ajth letter4 ,now1 having this conventional arrangement of letters made1 it is evident that a ,greek who had to give up the regular #a1 #b1 #c1--1 1 1 could supply their places at once by adopting the names of the letters which had been settled to stand for them1 thus calling #a alpha1 #b bta1 #c gamma1 and so onward4 ,the thing has actually happened2 a remarkable slang dialect of ,albania1 which is ,greek in structure1 though full of borrowed and mystified words and metaphors and epithets understood only by the initiated1 has1 as its equivalent for #8four' and #8ten1' the words and 4#cbg ,while insisting on the value of such evidence as this in making out the general principles of the formation of numerals1 ,i have not found it profitable to undertake the task of etymologizing the actual numerals of the languages of the world1 outside the safe limits of the systems of digit-numerals among the lower races1 already discussed4 ,there may be in the languages of the lower races other relics of the etymology of numerals1 giving the clue to the ideas according to which they were selected for an arithmetical purpose1 but such relics seem scanty and indistinct4#cbh ,there may even exist vestiges of a growth of numerals from descriptive words in our ,indo-,european languages1 in ,hebrew and ,arabic1 in ,chinese4 ,such etymologies have been brought forward1#cbi and they are consistent with what is known of the principles on which numerals or quasi-numerals are really formed4 ,but so far as ,i have been able to examine the evidence1 the cases all seem so philologically doubtful1 that ,i cannot bring them forward in aid of the theory before us1 and1 indeed1 think that if they succeed in establishing themselves1 it will be by the theory supporting them1 rather than by their supporting the theory4 ,this state of things1 indeed1 fits perfectly with the view here adopted1 that when a word has once been taken up to serve as a numeral1 and is thenceforth wanted as a mere symbol1 it becomes the interest of language to allow it to break down into an apparent nonsense-word1 from which all traces of original etymology have disappeared4 ,etymological research into the derivation of numeral words thus hardly goes with safety beyond showing in the languages of the lower culture frequent instances of digit-numerals1 words taken from direct description of the gestures of counting on fingers and toes4 ,beyond this1 another strong argument is available1 which indeed covers almost the whole range of the problem4 ,the numerical systems of the world1 by the actual schemes of their arrangement1 extend and confirm the opinion that counting on fingers and toes was man's original method of reckoning1 taken up and represented in language4 ,to count the fingers on one hand up to #e1 and then go on with a second five1 is a notation by fives1 or as it is called1 a quinary notation4 ,to count by the use of both hands to #aj1 and thence to reckon by tens1 is a decimal notation4 ,to go on by hands and feet to #bj1 and thence to reckon by twenties1 is a vigesimal notation4 ,now though in the larger proportion of known languages1 no distinct mention of fingers and toes1 hands and feet1 is observable in the numerals themselves1 yet the very schemes of quinary1 decimal1 and vigesimal notation remain to vouch for such hand-and-foot-counting having been the original method on which they were founded4 ,there seems no doubt that the number of the fingers led to the adoption of the not especially suitable number #aj as a period in reckoning1 so that decimal arithmetic is based on human anatomy4 ,this is so obvious1 that it is curious to see ,ovid in his well-known lines putting the two facts close together1 without seeing that the second was the consequence of the first4 #8,annus erat1 decimum cum luna receperat orbem4 ,hic numerus magno tune in honore fuit4 ,seu quia tot digiti1 per quos numerare solemus3 ,seu quia bis quino femina mense parit3 ,seu quod adusque decem numero crescente venitur1 ,principium spatiis sumitur inde novis4'#ccj ,in surveying the languages of the world at large1 it is found that among tribes or nations far enough advanced in arithmetic to count up to five in words1 there prevails1 with scarcely an exception1 a method founded on hand-counting1 quinary1 decimal1 vigesimal1 or combined of these4 ,for perfect examples of the quinary method1 we may take a ,polynesian series which runs #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #ea1 #eb1 c42 or a ,melanesian series which may be rendered as #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #bnd #a1 #bnd #b1 c4 ,quinary leading into decimal is well shown in the ,fellata series #a 444 #e1 #ea 444 #aj1 #aja 444#aje1 #ajea 444 #bj1 444 #cj1 444 #dj1 c4 ,pure decimal may be instanced from ,hebrew #a1 #b 444 #aj1 #aja 444 #bj1 #bja 444 c4 ,pure vigesimal is not usual1 for the obvious reason that a set of independent numerals to #bj would be inconvenient2 but it takes on from quinary1 as in ,aztec1 which may be analyzed as #a1 #b 444 #e1 #ea 444 #aj1 #aja 444 #aje1 #ajea 444 #bj1 #bja 444 #bjaj1 #bjaja 444 #dj1 c42 or from decimal1 as in ,basque1 #a 444 #aj1 #aja 444 #bj1 #bja 444 #bjaj1 #bjaja 444 #dj c4#cca ,it seems unnecessary to bring forward here the mass of linguistic details required for any general demonstration of these principles of numeration among the races of the world4 ,prof4 ,pott1 of ,halle1 has treated the subject on elaborate philological evidence1 in a special monograph1#ccb which is incidentally the most extensive collection of details relating to numerals1 indispensable to students occupied with such enquiries4 ,for the present purpose the following rough generalization may suffice1 that the quinary system is frequent among the lower races1 among whom also the vigesimal system is considerably developed1 but the tendency of the higher nations has been to avoid the one as too scanty1 and the other as too cumbrous1 and to use the intermediate decimal system4 ,these differences in the usage of various tribes and nations do not interfere with1 but rather confirm1 the general principle which is their common cause1 that man originally learnt to reckon from his fingers and toes1 and in various ways stereotyped in language the result of this primitive method4 ,some curious points as to the relation of these systems may be noticed in ,europe4 ,it was observed of a certain deaf-and-dumb boy1 ,oliver ,caswell1 that he learnt to count as high as #ej on his fingers1 but always #8fived1' reckoning1 for instance1 #ah objects as #8both hands1 one hand1 three fingers4'#ccc ,the suggestion has been made that the ,greek use of 1 #8to five1' as an expression for counting1 is a trace of rude old quinary numeration 7compare ,finnish lokket #8to count1' from lokke #8ten'74 ,certainly1 the ,roman numerals ,i1 ,,ii1 444 ,v1 ,,vi 444 ,x1 ,,xi 444 ,,xv1 ,,xvi1 c41 form a remarkably well-defined written quinary system4 ,remains of vigesimal counting are still more instructive4 ,counting by twenties is a strongly marked ,keltic characteristic4 ,the cumbrous vigesimal notation could hardly be brought more strongly into view in any savage race than in such examples as ,gaelic aon deug is da fhichead #8one1 ten1 and two twenties1' i4e41 #ea2 or ,welsh unarbymtheg ar ugain #8one and fifteen over twenty1' i4e41 #cf2 or ,breton unnek ha triugent #8eleven and three twenties1' i4e41 #ga4 ,now ,french1 being a ,romance language1 has a regular system of ,latin tens up to #ajj2 cinquante1 soixante1 septante1 huitante1 nonante1 which are to be found still in use in districts within the limits of the ,french language1 as in ,belgium4 ,nevertheless1 the clumsy system of reckoning by twenties has broken out through the decimal system in ,france4 ,the septante is to a great extent suppressed1 soixante-quatorze1 for instance1 standing for #gd2 quatre-vingts has fairly established itself for #hj1 and its use continues into the nineties1 quatre-vingt-treize for #ic2 in numbers above #ajj we find six-vingts1 sept-vingts1 huit-vingts1 for #abj1 #adj1 #afj1 and a certain hospital has its name of ,les ,quinze-vingts from its #cjj inmates4 ,it is1 perhaps1 the most reasonable explanation of this curious phenomenon1 to suppose the earlier ,keltic system of ,france to have held its ground1 modelling the later ,french into its own ruder shape4 ,in ,england1 the ,anglo-,saxon numeration is decimal1 hund-seofontig1 #gj2 hund-eahtatig1 #hj2 hund-nigontig1 #ij2 hund-teontig1 #ajj2 hund-enlufontig1 #aaj2 hund-twelftig1 #abj4 ,it may be here also by ,keltic survival that the vigesimal reckoning by the #8score1' threescore and ten1 fourscore and thirteen1 c41 gained a position in ,english which it has not yet totally lost4#ccd ,from some minor details in numeration1 ethnological hints may be gained4 ,among rude tribes with scanty series of numerals1 combination to make out new numbers is very soon resorted to4 ,among ,australian tribes addition makes #8two-one1' #8two-two1' express #c and #d2 in ,guachi #8two-two' is #d2 in ,san ,antonio #8four and two-one' is #g4 ,the plan of making numerals by subtraction is known in ,north ,america1 and is well shown in the ,aino language of ,yesso1 where the words for #h and #i obviously mean #8two from ten1' #8one from ten4' ,multiplication appears1 as in ,san ,antonio1 #8two-and-one-two1' and in a ,tupi dialect #8two-three1' to express #f4 ,division seems not known for such purposes among the lower races1 and quite exceptional among the higher4 ,facts of this class show variety in the inventive devices of mankind1 and independence in their formation of language4 ,they are consistent at the same time with the general principles of hand-counting4 ,the traces of what might be called binary1 ternary1 quaternary1 senary reckoning1 which turn on #b1 #c1 #d1 #f1 are mere varieties1 leading up to1 or lapsing into1 quinary and decimal methods4 ,the contrast is a striking one between the educated ,european1 with his easy use of his boundless numeral series1 and the ,tasmanian1 who reckons #c1 or anything beyond #b1 as #8many1' and makes shift by his whole hand to reach the limit of #8man1' that is to say1 #e4 ,this contrast is due to arrest of development in the savage1 whose mind remains in the childish state which the beginning of one of our nursery number-rhymes illustrates curiously4 ,it runs-- #8,one's none1 ,two's some1 ,three's a many1 ,four's a penny1 ,five's a little hundred4' ,to notice this state of things among savages and children raises interesting points as to the early history of grammar4 ,w4 von ,humboldt suggested the analogy between the savage notion of #c as #8many' and the grammatical use of #c to form a kind of superlative1 in forms of which #8trismegistus1' #8ter felix1' #8thrice blest1' are familiar instances4 ,the relation of single1 dual1 and plural is well shown pictorially in the ,egyptian hieroglyphics1 where the picture of an object1 a horse for instance1 is marked by a single line if but one is meant1 by two lines if two are meant1 by three lines if three or an indefinite plural number are meant4 ,the scheme of grammatical number in some of the most ancient and important languages of the world is laid down on the same savage principle4 ,egyptian1 ,arabic1 ,hebrew1 ,sanskrit1 ,greek1 ,gothic1 are examples of languages using singular1 dual1 and plural number2 but the tendency of higher intellectual culture has been to discard the plan as inconvenient and unprofitable1 and only to distinguish singular and plural4 ,no doubt the dual held its place by inheritance from an early period of culture1 and ,dr4 ,d4 ,wilson seems justified in his opinion that it #8preserves to us the memorial of that stage of thought when all beyond two was an idea of indefinite number4'#cce ,when two races at different levels of culture come into contact1 the ruder people adopt new art and knowledge1 but at the same time their own special culture usually comes to a standstill1 and even falls off4 ,it is thus with the art of counting4 ,we may be able to prove that the lower race had actually been making great and independent progress in it1 but when the higher race comes with a convenient and unlimited means of not only naming all imaginable numbers1 but of writing them down and reckoning with them by means of a few simple figures1 what likelihood is there that the barbarian's clumsy methods should be farther worked out8 ,as to the ways in which the numerals of the superior race are grafted on the language of the inferior1 ,captain ,grant describes the native slaves of ,equatorial ,africa occupying their lounging hours in learning the numerals of their ,arab masters4#ccf ,father ,dobrizhoffer's account of the arithmetical relations between the native ,brazilians and the ,jesuits is a good description of the intellectual contact between savages and missionaries4 ,the ,guaranis1 it appears1 counted up to #d with their native numerals1 and when they got beyond1 they would say #8innumerable4' #8,but as counting is both of manifold use in common life1 and in the confessional absolutely indispensable in making a complete confession1 the ,indians were daily taught at the public catechising in the church to count in ,spanish4 ,on ,sundays the whole people used to count with a loud voice in ,spanish1 from #a to #a1jjj4' ,the missionary1 it is true1 did not find the natives use the numbers thus learnt very accurately--#8,we were washing at a blackamoor1' he says4#ccg ,if1 however1 we examine the modern vocabularies of savage or low barbarian tribes1 they will be found to afford interesting evidence how really effective the influence of higher on lower civilization has been in this matter4 ,so far as the ruder system is complete and moderately convenient1 it may stand1 but where it ceases or grows cumbrous1 and sometimes at a lower limit than this1 we can see the cleverer foreigner taking it into his own hands1 supplementing or supplanting the scanty numerals of the lower race by his own4 ,the higher race1 though advanced enough to act thus on the lower1 need not be itself at an extremely high level4 ,markham observes that the ,jivaras of the ,maraon1 with native numerals up to #e1 adopt for higher numbers those of the ,quichua1 the language of the ,peruvian ,incas4#cch ,the cases of the indigenes of ,india are instructive4 ,the ,khonds reckon #a and #b in native words1 and then take to borrowed ,hindi numerals4 ,the ,oraon tribes1 while belonging to a race of the ,dravidian stock1 and having had a series of native numerals accordingly1 appear to have given up their use beyond #d1 or sometimes even #b1 and adopted ,hindi numerals in their place4#cci ,the ,south ,american ,conibos were observed to count #a and #b with their own words1 and then to borrow ,spanish numerals1 much as a ,brazilian dialect of the ,tupi family is noticed in the last century as having lost the native #e1 and settled down into using the old native numerals up to #c1 and then continuing in ,portuguese4#cdj ,in ,melanesia1 the ,annatom language can only count in its own numerals to #e1 and then borrows ,english siks1 seven1 eet1 nain1 c4 ,in some ,polynesian islands1 though the native numerals are extensive enough1 the confusion arising from reckoning by pairs and fours as well as units1 has induced the natives to escape from perplexity by adopting huneri and tausani4#cda ,and though the ,esquimaux counting by hands1 feet1 and whole men1 is capable of expressing high numbers1 it becomes practically clumsy even when it gets among the scores1 and the ,greenlander has done well to adopt untrte and tusinte from his ,danish teachers4 ,similarity of numerals in two languages is a point to which philologists attach great and deserved importance in the question whether they are to be considered as sprung from a common stock4 ,but it is clear that so far as one race may have borrowed numerals from another1 this evidence breaks down4 ,the fact that this borrowing extends as low as #c1 and may even go still lower for all we know1 is a reason for using the argument from connected numerals cautiously1 as tending rather to prove intercourse than kinship4 ,at the other end of the scale of civilization1 the adoption of numerals from nation to nation still presents interesting philological points4 ,our own language gives curious instances1 as second and million4 ,the manner in which ,english1 in common with ,german1 ,dutch1 ,danish1 and even ,russian1 has adopted ,medival ,latin dozena 7from duodecim7 shows how convenient an arrangement it was found to buy and sell by the dozen1 and how necessary it was to have a special word for it4 ,but the borrowing process has gone farther than this4 ,if it were asked how many sets of numerals are now in use among ,english-speaking people in ,england1 the probable reply would be one set1 the regular one1 two1 three1 c4 ,there exist1 however1 two borrowed sets as well4 ,one is the well-known dicing-set1 ace1 deuce1 tray1 cater1 cinque1 size2 thus size-ace is #8#f and one1' cinques or sinks1 #8double five4' ,these came to us from ,france1 and correspond with the common ,french numerals1 except ace1 which is ,latin as1 a word of great philological interest1 meaning #8one4' ,the other borrowed set is to be found in the ,slang ,dictionary4 ,it appears that the ,english street-folk have adopted as a means of secret communication a set of ,italian numerals from the organ-grinders and image-sellers1 or by other ways through which ,italian or ,lingua ,franca is brought into the low neighbourhoods of ,london4 ,in so doing1 they have performed a philological operation not only curious1 but instructive4 ,by copying such expressions as1 ,italian due soldi1 tre soldi1 as equivalent to #8twopence1' #8threepence1' the word saltee became a recognized slang term for #8penny1' and pence are reckoned as follows3-- ,oney saltee 444 #a;d4 uno soldo4 ,dooe saltee 444 #b;d4 due soldi4 ,tray saltee 444 #c;d4 tre soldi4 ,quarterer saltee 444 #d;d4 quattro soldi4 ,chinker saltee 444 #e;d4 cinque soldi4 ,say saltee 444 #f;d4 sei soldi4 ,say oney saltee or setter saltee 444 #g;d4 sette soldi4 ,say dooe saltee or otter saltee 444 #h;d4 otto soldi4 ,say tray saltee or nobba saltee 444 #i;d4 nove soldi4 ,say quarterer saltee or dacha saltee 444 #aj;d4 dieci soldi4 ,say chinker saltee or dacha oney saltee 444 #aa;d4 undici soldi4 ,oney beong 444 #as4 ,a beong say saltee 444 #as4 #f;d4 ,dooe beong say saltee or madza caroon 444 #bs4 #f;d4 7half crown1 mezza corona47#cdb ,one of these series simply adopts ,italian numerals decimally4 ,but the other1 when it has reached #f1 having had enough of novelty1 makes #g by #8six-one1' and so continues4 ,it is for no abstract reason that #f is thus made the turning-point1 but simply because the costermonger is adding pence up to the silver sixpence1 and then adding pence again up to the shilling4 ,thus our duodecimal coinage has led to the practice of counting by sixes1 and produced a philological curiosity1 a real senary notation4 ,on evidence such as has been brought forward in this essay1 the apparent relations of savage to civilized culture1 as regards the ,art of ,counting1 may now be briefly stated in conclusion4 ,the principal methods to which the development of the higher arithmetic are due1 lie outside the problem4 ,they are mostly ingenious plans of expressing numerical relation by written symbols4 ,among them are the ,semitic scheme1 and the ,greek derived from it1 of using the alphabet as a series of numerical symbols1 a plan not quite discarded by ourselves1 at least for ordinals1 as in schedules ,a1 ,b1 c42 the use of initials of numeral words as figures for the numbers themselves1 as in ,greek and for #e and #aj1 ,roman ,c and ,m for #ajj and #a1jjj2 the device of expressing fractions1 shown in a rudimentary stage in ,greek '1 '1 for #a_/c1 #a_/d1 for #c_/d2 the introduction of the cipher or zero1 by means of which the ,arabic or ,indian numerals have their value according to their position in a decimal order corresponding to the succession of the rows of the abacus2 and lastly1 the modern notation of decimal fractions by carrying down below the unit the proportional order which for ages had been in use above it4 ,the ancient ,egyptian and the still-used ,roman and ,chinese numeration are indeed founded on savage picture-writing1#cdc while the abacus and the swan-pan1 the one still a valuable school-instrument1 and the other in full practical use1 have their germ in the savage counting by groups of objects1 as when ,south ,sea ,islanders count with coco-nut stalks1 putting a little one aside every time they come to #aj1 and a large one when they come to #ajj1 or when ,african negroes reckon with pebbles or nuts1 and every time they come to #e put them aside in a little heap4#cdd ,we are here especially concerned with gesture-counting on the fingers1 as an absolutely savage art still in use among children and peasants1 and with the system of numeral words1 as known to all mankind1 appearing scantily among the lowest tribes1 and reaching within savage limits to developments which the highest civilization has only improved in detail4 ,these two methods of computation by gesture and word tell the story of primitive arithmetic in a way that can be hardly perverted or misunderstood4 ,we see the savage who can only count to #b or #c or #d in words1 but can go farther in dumb show4 ,he has words for hands and fingers1 feet and toes1 and the idea strikes him that the words which describe the gesture will serve also to express its meaning1 and they become his numerals accordingly4 ,this did not happen only once1 it happened among different races in distant regions1 for such terms as #8hand' for #e1 #8hand-one' for #f1 #8hands' for #aj1 #8two on the foot' for #ab1 #8hands and feet' or #8man' for #bj1 #8two men' for #dj1 c41 show such uniformity as is due to common principle1 but also such variety as is due to independent working-out4 ,these are #8pointer-facts' which have their place and explanation in a development-theory of culture1 while a degeneration-theory totally fails to take them in4 ,they are distinct records of development1 and of independent development1 among savage tribes to whom some writers on civilization have rashly denied the very faculty of self-improvement4 ,the original meaning of a great part of the stock of numerals of the lower races1 especially of those from #a to #d1 not suited to be named as hand-numerals1 is obscure4 ,they may have been named from comparison with objects1 in a way which is shown actually to happen in such forms as #8together' for #b1 #8throw' for #c1 #8knot' for #d2 but any concrete meaning we may guess them to have once had seems now by modification and mutilation to have passed out of knowledge4 ,remembering how ordinary words change and lose their traces of original meaning in the course of ages1 and that in numerals such breaking down of meaning is actually desirable1 to make them fit for pure arithmetical symbols1 we cannot wonder that so large a proportion of existing numerals should have no discernible etymology4 ,this is especially true of the #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 among low and high races alike1 the earliest to be made1 and therefore the earliest to lose their primary significance4 ,beyond these low numbers the languages of the higher and lower races show a remarkable difference4 ,the hand-and-foot numerals1 so prevalent and unmistakable in savage tongues like ,esquimaux and ,zulu1 are scarcely if at all traceable in the great languages of civilization1 such as ,sanskrit and ,greek1 ,hebrew and ,arabic4 ,this state of things is quite conformable to the development-theory of language4 ,we may argue that it was in comparatively recent times that savages arrived at the invention of hand-numerals1 and that therefore the etymology of such numerals remains obvious4 ,but it by no means follows from the non-appearance of such primitive forms in cultured ,asia and ,europe1 that they did not exist there in remote ages2 they may since have been rolled and battered like pebbles by the stream of time1 till their original shapes can no longer be made out4 ,lastly1 among savage and civilized races alike1 the general framework of numeration stands throughout the world as an abiding monument of primval culture4 ,this framework1 the all but universal scheme of reckoning by fives1 tens1 and twenties1 shows that the childish and savage practice of counting on fingers and toes lies at the foundation of our arithmetical science4 ,ten seems the most convenient arithmetical basis offered by systems founded on hand-counting1 but twelve would have been better1 and duodecimal arithmetic is in fact a protest against the less convenient decimal arithmetic in ordinary use4 ,the case is the not uncommon one of high civilization bearing evident traces of the rudeness of its origin in ancient barbaric life4 ,footnote #bii3 ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,islands1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cij4 ,footnote #cjj3 ,crowther1 #8,yoruba ,vocab4'2 ,burton1 #8,w4 ,w4 from ,w4 ,africa1' p4 #bec4 #8,o daju danu1 o ko mo essan messan4--,you 7may seem7 very clever1 7but7 you can't tell #i #i4' ,footnote #cja3 ,low in #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 i4 p4 #djh2 #8,year-,books ,edw4 ,i4' 7xx4-i47 ed4 ,horwood1 p4 #bbj4 ,footnote #cjb3 ,spix and ,martius1 #8,reise in ,brazilien1' p4 #chg4 ,footnote #cjc3 #8,tasmanian ,journal1' vol4 i42 ,backhouse1 #8,narr4' p4 #ajd2 ,milligan in #8,papers1 c41 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,tasmania1' vol4 iii4 part ii4 #ahei4 ,footnote #cjd3 ,oldfield in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4'2 vol4 iii4 p4 #bia2 ,lang1 #8,queensland1' p4 #dcc2 #8,latham1 ,comp4 ,phil4' p4 #ceb4 ,other terms in ,bonwick1 l4 c4 ,footnote #cje3 ,sicard1 #8,thorie des ,signes pour l',instruction des ,sourds-,muets1' vol4 ii4 p4 #fcd4 ,footnote #cjf3 ,stanbridge in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 p4 #cjd4 ,footnote #cjg3 ,martius1 #8,gloss4 ,brasil1' p4 #ae4 ,footnote #cjh3 ,kracheninnikow1 #8,kamtchatka1' p4 #ag4 ,footnote #cji3 ,gumilla1 #8,historia del ,orenoco1' vol4 iii4 ch4 xlv42 ,pott1 #8,zhlmethode1' p4 #af4 ,footnote #caj3 ,the ,eastern brokers have used for ages1 and still use1 the method of secretly indicating numbers to one another in bargaining1 #8by snipping fingers under a cloth4' #8,every joynt and every finger hath his signification1' as an old traveller says1 and the system seems a more or less artificial development of ordinary finger-counting1 the thumb and little finger stretched out1 and the other fingers closed1 standing for #f or #fj1 the addition of the fourth finger making #g or #gj1 and so on4 ,it is said that between two brokers settling a price by thus snipping with the fingers1 cleverness in bargaining1 offering a little more1 hesitating1 expressing an obstinate refusal to go farther1 c41 comes out just as in chaffering in words4 ,footnote #caa3 ,gilij2 #8,saggio di ,storia ,americana1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ccb 7,tamanac1 ,maypure74 ,martius1 #8,gloss4 ,brasil1' 7,cayriri1 ,tupi1 ,carib1 ,omagua1 ,juri1 ,guachi1 ,coretu1 ,cherentes1 ,maxuruna1 ,caripuna1 ,cauixana1 ,carajs1 ,coroado1 c472 ,dobrizhoffer1 #8,abipones1' vol4 ii4 p4 #afh2 ,humboldt1 #8,monumens1' pl4 xliv4 7,muysca74 ,footnote #cab3 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #bhf2 ,kleinschmidt1 #8,gr4 der ,grnl4 ,spr42' ,rae in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iv4 p4 #ade4 ,footnote #cac3 ,milligan1 l4 c42 ,g4 ,f4 ,moore1 #8,vocab4 ,w4 ,australia4' ,compare a series of quinary numerals to #i1 from ,sydney1 in ,pott1 #8,zhlmethode1' p4 #df4 ,footnote #cad3 ,gabelentz1 #8,melanesiche ,sprachen1' p4 #ahc4 ,footnote #cae3 ,w4 v4 ,humboldt1 #8,kawi-,spr4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cjh2 corroborated by #8,as4 ,res4' vol4 vi4 p4 #ij2 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 iii4 p4 #ahb1 c4 ,footnote #caf3 ,klle1 #8,gr4 of ,vei ,lang4' p4 #bg4 ,footnote #cag3 ,schreuder1 #8,gr4 for ,zulu ,sproget1' p4 #cj2 ,dhne1 #8,zulu ,dic4'2 ,grout1 #8,zulu ,gr4' ,see ,hahn1 #8,gr4 des ,herero4' ,footnote #cah3 ,sir ,w4 ,jones in #8,as4 ,res4' vol4 ii4 #agij1 p4 #bif2 ,e4 ,jacquet in #8,nouv4 ,journ4 ,asiat4' #ahce2 ,w4 v4 ,humboldt1 #8,kawi-,spr4' vol4 i4 p4 #ai4 ,this system of recording dates1 c41 extended as far as ,tibet and the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,many important points of ,oriental chronology depend on such formulas4 ,unfortunately their evidence is more or less vitiated by inconsistencies in the use of words for numbers4 ,footnote #cai3 ,eyre1 #8,australia1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cbd2 ,schrmann1 #8,vocab4 of ,parnkalla ,lang1' gives forms partially corresponding4 ,footnote #cbj3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' ,new ,ser4 vol4 ii4 #aheh1 p4 #aah 7,sulong1 ,awang1 ,itam 7#8black'71 ,puteh 7#8white'71 ,allang1 ,pendeh1 ,kechil or ,bongsu72 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 ii4 p4 #did4 ,the details are imperfectly given1 and seem not all correct4 ,footnote #cba3 ,ellis1 #8,madagascar1' vol4 i4 p4 #aed4 ,also ,andriampaivo1 or ,lahi-,zandrina1 for last male2 ,andrianivo for intermediate male4 ,malagasy lahy1 #8male' ,malay laki2 ,malagasy vavy1 #8female' ,tongan fafine1 ,maori wahine1 #8woman2' comp4 ,malay btina1 #8female4' ,footnote #cbb3 ,m4 ,eastman1 #8,dahcotah2 or1 ,life and ,legends of the ,sioux1' p4 xxv4 ,footnote #cbc3 #8,journ4 ,ethnol4 ,soc4' vol4 iv4 7,akra72 ,ploss1 #8,das ,kind1' vol4 i4 p4 #aci 7,elmina74 ,footnote #cbd3 ,h4 ,hale1 #8,ethnography and ,philology1' vol4 vi4 of ,wilkes1 ,u4,s4 ,exploring ,exp41 ,philadelphia1 #ahdf1 pp4 #agb1 #bhi4 7,n4,b4--,the ordinary editions do not contain this important volume47 ,footnote #cbe3 ,bowen1 #8,gr4 and ,dic4 of ,yoruba4' ,burton in #8,mem4 ,anthrop4 ,soc41' vol4 i4 p4 #cad4 ,footnote #cbf3 ,see ,pott1 #8,zhlmethode1' pp4 #gh1 #ii1 #abd1 #afa2 ,grimm1 #8,deutsche ,rechtsalterthmer1' ch4 v4 ,footnote #cbg3 ,francisque-,michel1 #8,argot1' p4 #dhc4 ,footnote #cbh3 ,of evidence of this class1 the following deserves attention3--,dobrizhoffer1 #8,abipones1' vol4 ii4 p4 #afi1 gives geyenkat1 #8ostrich-toes1' as the numeral for #d1 their ostrich having three toes before and one behind1 and nenhalek1 #8a five-coloured spotted hide1' as the numeral #e4 ,d',orbigny1 #8,l',homme ,amricain1' vol4 ii4 p4 #afc1 remarks3--#8,les ,chiquitos ne savent compter que jusqu' un 7tama71 n'ayant plus ensuite que des termes de comparaison4' ,klle1 #8,gr4 of ,vei ,lang41' notices that fra means both #8with' and #b1 and thinks the former meaning original 7compare the ,tah4 piti1 #8together1' thence #b74 ,quichua chuncu1 #8heap1' chunca1 #aj1 may be connected4 ,aztec1 ce1 #a1 cen-tli1 #8grain1' may be connected4 ,on possible derivations of #b from hand1 c41 especially ,hottentot1 t'koam1 #8hand1 #b1' see ,pott1 #8,zhlmethode1' p4 #bi4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,see ,farrar1 #8,chapters on ,language1' p4 #bbc4 ,benloew1 #8,recherches sur l',origine des ,noms de ,nombre2' ,pictet1 #8,origines ,indo-,europ4' part ii4 ch4 ii42 ,pott1 #8,zhlmethode1' p4 #abh1 c42 ,a4 v4 ,humboldt's plausible comparison between ,skr4 pancha1 #e1 and ,pers4 penjeh1 #8the palm of the hand with the fingers spread out2 the outspread foot of a bird1' as though #e were called pancha from being like a hand1 is erroneous4 ,the ,persian penjeh is itself derived from the numeral #e1 as in ,skr4 the hand is called panchakha1 #8the five-branched4' ,the same formation is found in ,english2 slang describes a man's hand as his #8fives1' or #8bunch of fives1' thence the name of the game of fives1 played by striking the ball with the open hand1 a term which has made its way out of slang into accepted language4 ,burton describes the polite ,arab at a meal1 calling his companion's attention to a grain of rice fallen into his beard4 #8,the gazelle is in the garden1' he says1 with a smile4 #8,we will hunt her with the five1' is the reply4 ,footnote #ccj3 ,ovid1 ,fast4 iii4 #aba4 ,footnote #cca3 ,the actual word-numerals of the two quinary series are given as examples4 ,triton's ,bay1 #a1 samosi2 #b1 roeti2 #c1 touwroe2 #d1 faat2 #e1 rimi2 #f1 rim-samos2 #g1 rim-roeti2 #h1 rim-touwroe2 #i1 rim-faat2 #aj1 woetsja4 ,lifu1 #a1 pacha2 #b1 lo2 #c1 kun2 #d1 thack2 #e1 thabumb2 #f1 lo-acha2 #g1 lo-a-lo2 #h1 lo-kunn2 #i1 lo-thack2 #aj1 te-bennete4 ,footnote #ccb3 ,a4 ,f4 ,pott1 #8,die ,quinre und ,vigesimale ,zhlmethode bei ,vlkern aller ,welttheile1' ,halle1 #ahdg2 supplemented in #8,festgabe zur xxv4 ,versammlung ,deutscher ,philologen1 c41 in ,halle' 7#ahfg74 ,footnote #ccc3 #8,account of ,laura ,bridgman1' ,london1 #ahde1 p4 #aei4 ,footnote #ccd3 ,compare the ,rajmahali tribes adopting ,hindi numerals1 yet reckoning by twenties4 ,shaw1 l4c4 ,the use of a #8score' as an indefinite number in ,england1 and similarly of #bj in ,france1 of #dj in the ,hebrew of the ,old ,testament and the ,arabic of the ,thousand and ,one ,nights1 may be among other traces of vigesimal reckoning4 ,footnote #cce3 ,d4 ,wilson1 #8,prehistoric ,man1' p4 #faf4 ,footnote #ccf3 ,grant in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #ij4 ,footnote #ccg3 ,dobrizhoffer1 #8,gesch4 der ,abiponer1' p4 #bje2 ,eng4 ,trans4 vol4 ii4 p4 #aga4 ,footnote #cch3 ,markham in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #aff4 ,footnote #cci3 ,latham1 #8,comp4 ,phil4' p4 #ahf2 ,shaw in #8,as4 ,res4' vol4 iv4 p4 #if2 #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1' #ahff1 part ii4 pp4 #bg1 #bjd1 #bea4 ,footnote #cdj3 ,st4 ,cricq in #8,bulletin de la ,soc4 de ,gog4' #ahec1 p4 #bhf2 ,pott1 #8,zhlmethode1' p4 #g4 ,footnote #cda3 ,gabelentz1 p4 #hi2 ,hale1 l4c4 ,footnote #cdb3 ,j4 ,c4 ,hotten1 #8,slang ,dictionary1' p4 #bah4 ,footnote #cdc3 #8,early ,history of ,mankind1' p4 #ajf4 ,footnote #cdd3 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #ia2 ,klemm1 ,c4 ,g4 vol4 iii4 p4 #chc4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,mythology4 ,mythic ,fancy based1 like other thought1 on ,experience--,mythology affords evidence for studying laws of ,imagination--,change in public opinion as to credibility of ,myths--,myths rationalized into ,allegory and ,history--,ethnological import and treatment of ,myth--,myth to be studied in actual existence and growth among modern savages and barbarians--,original sources of ,myth--,early doctrine of general animation of ,nature--,personification of ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,stars2 ,water-spout1 ,sand pillar1 ,rainbow1 ,waterfall1 ,pestilence--,analogy worked into ,myth and ,metaphor--,myths of ,rain1 ,thunder1 c4--,effect of ,language in formation of ,myth--,material ,personification primary1 ,verbal ,personification secondary--,grammatical ,gender1 male and female1 animate and inanimate1 in relation to ,myth--,proper ,names of objects in relation to ,myth--,mental ,state proper to promote mythic imagination--,doctrine of ,werewolves--,phantasy and ,fancy4 ,among those opinions which are produced by a little knowledge1 to be dispelled by a little more1 is the belief in an almost boundless creative power of the human imagination4 ,the superficial student1 mazed in a crowd of seemingly wild and lawless fancies1 which he thinks to have no reason in nature nor pattern in this material world1 at first concludes them to be new births from the imagination of the poet1 the tale-teller1 and the seer4 ,but little by little1 in what seemed the most spontaneous fiction1 a more comprehensive study of the sources of poetry and romance begins to disclose a cause for each fancy1 an education that has led up to each train of thought1 a store of inherited materials from out of which each province of the poet's land has been shaped1 and built over1 and peopled4 ,backward from our own times1 the course of mental history may be traced through the changes wrought by modern schools of thought and fancy1 upon an intellectual inheritance handed down to them from earlier generations4 ,and through remoter periods1 as we recede more nearly towards primitive conditions of our race1 the threads which connect new thought with old do not always vanish from our sight4 ,it is in large measure possible to follow them as clues leading back to that actual experience of nature and life1 which is the ultimate source of human fancy4 ,what ,matthew ,arnold has written of ,man's thoughts as he floats along the ,river of ,time1 is most true of his mythic imagination3-- #8,as is the world on the banks ,so is the mind of the man4 ,only the tract where he sails ,he wots of3 only the thoughts1 ,raised by the objects he passes1 are his4' ,impressions thus received the mind will modify and work upon1 transmitting the products to other minds in shapes that often seem new1 strange1 and arbitrary1 but which yet result from processes familiar to our experience1 and to be found at work in our own individual consciousness4 ,the office of our thought is to develop1 to combine1 and to derive1 rather than to create2 and the consistent laws it works by are to be discerned even in the unsubstantial structures of the imagination4 ,here1 as elsewhere in the universe1 there is to be recognized a sequence from cause to effect1 a sequence intelligible1 definite1 and where knowledge reaches the needful exactness1 even calculable4 ,there is perhaps no better subject-matter through which to study the processes of the imagination1 than the well-marked incidents of mythical story1 ranging as they do through every known period of civilization1 and through all the physically varied tribes of mankind4 ,here the divine ,maui of ,new ,zealand1 fishing up the island with his enchanted hook from the bottom of the sea1 will take his place in company with the ,indian ,vishnu1 diving to the depth of the ocean in his avatar of the ,boar1 to bring up the submerged earth on his monstrous tusks2 and here ,baiame the creator1 whose voice the rude ,australians hear in the rolling thunder1 will sit throned by the side of ,olympian ,zeus himself4 ,starting with the bold rough nature-myths into which the savage moulds the lessons he has learnt from his childlike contemplation of the universe1 the ethnographer can follow these rude fictions up into times when they were shaped and incorporated into complex mythologic systems1 gracefully artistic in ,greece1 stiff and monstrous in ,mexico1 swelled into bombastic exaggeration in ,buddhist ,asia4 ,he can watch how the mythology of classic ,europe1 once so true to nature and so quick with her ceaseless life1 fell among the commentators to be plastered with allegory or euhemerized into dull sham history4 ,at last1 in the midst of modern civilization1 he finds the classic volumes studied rather for their manner than for their matter1 or mainly valued for their antiquarian evidence of the thoughts of former times2 while relics of structures reared with skill and strength by the myth-makers of the past must now be sought in scraps of nursery folk-lore1 in vulgar superstitions and old dying legends1 in thoughts and allusions carried on from ancient days by the perennial stream of poetry and romance1 in fragments of old opinion which still hold an inherited rank gained in past ages of intellectual history4 ,but this turning of mythology to account as a means of tracing the history of laws of mind1 is a branch of science scarcely discovered till the nineteenth century4 ,before entering here on some researches belonging to it1 there will be advantage in glancing at the views of older mythologists1 to show through what changes their study has at length reached a condition in which it has a scientific value4 ,it is a momentous phase of the education of mankind1 when the regularity of nature has so imprinted itself upon men's minds that they begin to wonder how it is that the ancient legends which they were brought up to hear with such reverent delight1 should describe a world so strangely different from their own4 ,why1 they ask1 are the gods and giants and monsters no longer seen to lead their prodigious lives on earth--is it perchance that the course of things is changed since the old days8 ,thus it seemed to ,pausanias the historian1 that the wide-grown wickedness of the world had brought it to pass that times were no longer as of old1 when ,lykaon was turned into a wolf1 and ,niobe into a stone1 when men still sat as guests at table with the gods1 or were raised like ,herakles to become gods themselves4 ,up to modern times1 the hypothesis of a changed world has more or less availed to remove the difficulty of belief in ancient wonder-tales4 ,yet though always holding firmly a partial ground1 its application was soon limited for these obvious reasons1 that it justified falsehood and truth alike with even-handed favour1 and utterly broke down that barrier of probability which in some measure has always separated fact from fancy4 ,the ,greek mind found other outlets to the problem4 ,in the words of ,mr4 ,grote1 the ancient legends were cast back into an undefined past1 to take rank among the hallowed traditions of divine or heroic antiquity1 gratifying to extol by rhetoric1 but repulsive to scrutinize in argument4 ,or they were transformed into shapes more familiar to experience1 as when ,plutarch1 telling the tale of ,theseus1 begs for indulgent hearers to accept mildly the archaic story1 and assures them that he has set himself to purify it by reason1 that it may receive the aspect of history4#cde ,this process of giving fable the aspect of history1 this profitless art of transforming untrue impossibilities into untrue possibilities1 has been carried on by the ancients1 and by the moderns after them1 especially according to the two following methods4 ,men have for ages been more or less conscious of that great mental district lying between disbelief and belief1 where room is found for all mythic interpretation1 good or bad4 ,it being admitted that some legend is not the real narrative which it purports to be1 they do not thereupon wipe it out from book and memory as simply signifying nothing1 but they ask what original sense may be in it1 out of what older story it may be a second growth1 or what actual event or current notion may have suggested its development into the state in which they find it8 ,such questions1 however1 prove almost as easy to answer plausibly as to set2 and then1 in the endeavour to obtain security that these off-hand answers are the true ones1 it becomes evident that the problem admits of an indefinite number of apparent solutions1 not only different but incompatible4 ,this radical uncertainty in the speculative interpretation of myths is forcibly stated by ,lord ,bacon1 in the preface to his #8,wisdom of the ,ancients4' #8,neither am ,i ignorant1' he says1 #8how fickle and inconsistent a thing fiction is1 as being subject to be drawn and wrested any way1 and how great the commodity of wit and discourse is1 that is able to apply things well1 yet so as never meant by the first authors4' ,the need of such a caution may be judged of from the very treatise to which ,bacon prefaced it1 for there he is to be seen plunging headlong into the very pitfall of which he had so discreetly warned his disciples4 ,he undertakes1 after the manner of not a few philosophers before and after him1 to interpret the classic myths of ,greece as moral allegories4 ,thus the story of ,memnon depicts the destinies of rash young men of promise2 while ,perseus symbolizes war1 and when of the three ,gorgons he attacks only the mortal one1 this means that only practicable wars are to be attempted4 ,it would not be easy to bring out into a stronger light the difference between a fanciful application of a myth1 and its analysis into its real elements4 ,for here1 where the interpreter believed himself to be reversing the process of myth-making1 he was in fact only carrying it a stage further in the old direction1 and out of the suggestion of one train of thought evolving another connected with it by some more or less remote analogy4 ,any of us may practise this simple art1 each according to his own fancy4 ,if1 for instance1 political economy happens for the moment to lie uppermost in our mind1 we may with due gravity expound the story of ,perseus as an allegory of trade3 ,perseus himself is ,labour1 and he finds ,andromeda1 who is ,profit1 chained and ready to be devoured by the monster ,capital2 he rescues her and carries her off in triumph4 ,to know anything of poetry or of mysticism is to know this reproductive growth of fancy as an admitted and admired intellectual process4 ,but when it comes to sober investigation of the processes of mythology1 the attempt to penetrate to the foundation of an old fancy will scarcely be helped by burying it yet deeper underneath a new one4 ,nevertheless1 allegory has had a share in the development of myths which no interpreter must overlook4 ,the fault of the rationalizer lay in taking allegory beyond its proper action1 and applying it as a universal solvent to reduce dark stories to transparent sense4 ,the same is true of the other great rationalizing process1 founded also1 to some extent1 on fact4 ,nothing is more certain than that real personages often have mythic incidents tacked on to their history1 and that they even figure in tales of which the very substance is mythic4 ,no one disbelieves in the existence of ,solomon because of his legendary adventure in the ,valley of ,apes1 nor of ,attila because he figures in the ,nibelungen ,lied4 ,sir ,francis ,drake is made not less but more real to us by the cottage tales which tell how he still leads the ,wild ,hunt over ,dartmoor1 and still rises to his revels when they beat at ,buckland ,abbey the drum that he carried round the world4 ,the mixture of fact and fable in traditions of great men shows that legends containing monstrous fancy may yet have a basis in historic fact4 ,but1 on the strength of this1 the mythologists arranged systematic methods of reducing legend to history1 and thereby contrived at once to stultify the mythology they professed to explain1 and to ruin the history they professed to develop4 ,so far as the plan consisted in mere suppression of the marvellous1 a notion of its trustworthiness may be obtained1 as ,sir ,g4 ,w4 ,cox well puts it1 in rationalizing ,jack the ,giant-,killer by leaving out the giants4 ,so far as it treated legendary wonders as being matter-of-fact disguised in metaphor1 the mere naked statement of the results of the method is to our minds its most cruel criticism4 ,thus already in classic times men were declaring that ,atlas was a great astronomer who taught the use of the sphere1 and was therefore represented with the world resting on his shoulders4 ,to such a pass had come the decay of myth into commonplace1 that the great ,heaven-god of the ,aryan race1 the living personal ,heaven himself1 ,zeus the ,almighty1 was held to have been a king of ,krete1 and the ,kretans could show to wondering strangers his sepulchre1 with the very name of the great departed inscribed upon it4 ,the modern #8euhemerists' 7so called from ,euhemeros of ,messenia1 a great professor of the art in the time of ,alexander7 in part adopted the old interpretations1 and sometimes fairly left their ,greek and ,roman teachers behind in the race after prosaic possibility4 ,they inform us that ,jove smiting the giants with his thunderbolts was a king repressing a sedition2 ,danae's golden shower was the money with which her guards were bribed2 ,prometheus made clay images1 whence it was hyperbolically said that he created man and woman out of clay2 and when ,daidalos was related to have made figures which walked1 this meant that he improved the shapeless old statues1 and separated their legs4 ,old men still remember as the guides of educated opinion in their youth the learned books in which these fancies are solemnly put forth2 some of our school manuals still go on quoting them with respect1 and a few straggling writers carry on a remnant of the once famous system of which the ,abb ,banier was so distinguished an exponent4#cdf ,but it has of late fallen on evil days1 and mythologists in authority have treated it in so high-handed a fashion as to bring it into general contempt4 ,so far has the feeling against the abuse of such argument gone1 that it is now really desirable to warn students that it has a reasonable as well as an unreasonable side1 and to remind them that some wild legends undoubtedly do1 and therefore that many others may1 contain a kernel of historic truth4 ,learned and ingenious as the old systems of rationalizing myth have been1 there is no doubt that they are in great measure destined to be thrown aside4 ,it is not that their interpretations are proved impossible1 but that mere possibility in mythological speculation is now seen to be such a worthless commodity1 that every investigator devoutly wishes there were not such plenty of it4 ,in assigning origins to myths1 as in every other scientific enquiry1 the fact is that increased information1 and the use of more stringent canons of evidence1 have raised far above the old level the standard of probability required to produce conviction4 ,there are many who describe our own time as an unbelieving time1 but it is by no means sure that posterity will accept the verdict4 ,no doubt it is a sceptical and a critical time1 but then scepticism and criticism are the very conditions for the attainment of reasonable belief4 ,thus1 where the positive credence of ancient history has been affected1 it is not that the power of receiving evidence has diminished1 but that the consciousness of ignorance has grown4 ,we are being trained to the facts of physical science1 which we can test and test again1 and we feel it a fall from this high level of proof when we turn our minds to the old records which elude such testing1 and are even admitted on all hands to contain statements not to be relied on4 ,historical criticism becomes hard and exacting1 even where the chronicle records events not improbable in themselves2 and the moment that the story falls out of our scheme of the world's habitual course1 the ever repeated question comes out to meet it--,which is the more likely1 that so unusual an event should have really happened1 or that the record should be misunderstood or false8 ,thus we gladly seek for sources of history in antiquarian relics1 in undesigned and collateral proofs1 in documents not written to be chronicles4 ,but can any reader of geology say we are too incredulous to believe wonders1 if the evidence carry any fair warrant of their truth8 ,was there ever a time when lost history was being reconstructed1 and existing history rectified1 more zealously than they are now by a whole army of travellers1 excavators1 searchers of old charters1 and explorers of forgotten dialects8 ,the very myths that were discarded as lying fables1 prove to be sources of history in ways that their makers and transmitters little dreamed of4 ,their meaning has been misunderstood1 but they have a meaning4 ,every tale that was ever told has a meaning for the times it belongs to2 even a lie1 as the ,spanish proverb says1 is a lady of birth 7#8la mentira es hija de algo'74 ,thus1 as evidence of the development of thought1 as records of long past belief and usage1 even in some measure as materials for the history of the nations owning them1 the old myths have fairly taken their place among historic facts2 and with such the modern historian1 so able and willing to pull down1 is also able and willing to rebuild4 ,of all things1 what mythologic work needs is breadth of knowledge and of handling4 ,interpretations made to suit a narrow view reveal their weakness when exposed to a wide one4 ,see ,herodotus rationalizing the story of the infant ,cyrus1 exposed and suckled by a bitch2 he simply relates that the child was brought up by a herdsman's wife named ,spak 7in ,greek ,kyn71 whence arose the fable that a real bitch rescued and fed him4 ,so far so good--for a single case4 ,but does the story of ,romulus and ,remus likewise record a real event1 mystified in the self-same manner by a pun on a nurse's name1 which happened to be a she-beast's8 ,did the ,roman twins also really happen to be exposed1 and brought up by a foster-mother who happened to be called ,lupa8 ,positively1 the #8,lempriere's ,dictionary' of our youth 7,i quote the #afth edition of #ahca7 gravely gives this as the origin of the famous legend4 ,yet1 if we look properly into the matter1 we find that these two stories are but specimens of a widespread mythic group1 itself only a section of that far larger body of traditions in which exposed infants are saved to become national heroes4 ,for other examples1 ,slavonic folk-lore tells of the she-wolf and she-bear that suckled those superhuman twins1 ,waligora the mountain-roller and ,wyrwidab the oak-uprooter2 ,germany has its legend of ,dieterich1 called ,wolfdieterich from his foster-mother the she-wolf2 in ,india1 the episode recurs in the tales of ,satavahana and the lioness1 and ,sing-,baba and the tigress2 legend tells of ,burta-,chino1 the boy who was cast into a lake1 and preserved by a she-wolf to become founder of the ,turkish kingdom2 and even the savage ,yuracars of ,brazil tell of their divine hero ,tiri1 who was suckled by a jaguar4#cdg ,scientific myth-interpretation1 on the contrary1 is actually strengthened by such comparison of similar cases4 ,where the effect of new knowledge has been to construct rather than to destroy1 it is found that there are groups of myth-interpretations for which wider and deeper evidence makes a wider and deeper foundation4 ,the principles which underlie a solid system of interpretation are really few and simple4 ,the treatment of similar myths from different regions1 by arranging them in large compared groups1 makes it possible to trace in mythology the operation of imaginative processes recurring with the evident regularity of mental law2 and thus stories of which a single instance would have been a mere isolated curiosity1 take their place among well-marked and consistent structures of the human mind4 ,evidence like this will again and again drive us to admit that even as #8truth is stranger than fiction1' so myth may be more uniform than history4 ,there lies within our reach1 moreover1 the evidence of races both ancient and modern1 who so faithfully represent the state of thought to which myth-development belongs1 as still to keep up both the consciousness of meaning in their old myths1 and the unstrained unaffected habit of creating new ones4 ,savages have been for untold ages1 and still are1 living in the myth-making stage of the human mind4 ,it was through sheer ignorance and neglect of this direct knowledge how and by what manner of men myths are really made1 that their simple philosophy has come to be buried under masses of commentators' rubbish4 ,though never wholly lost1 the secret of mythic interpretation was all but forgotten4 ,its recovery has been mainly due to modern students who have with vast labour and skill searched the ancient language1 poetry1 and folk-lore of our own race1 from the cottage tales collected by the brothers ,grimm to the ,rig-,veda edited by ,max ,mller4 ,aryan language and literature now open out with wonderful range and clearness a view of the early stages of mythology1 displaying those primitive germs of the poetry of nature1 which later ages swelled and distorted till childlike fancy sank into superstitious mystery4 ,it is not proposed here to enquire specially into this ,aryan mythology1 of which so many eminent students have treated1 but to compare some of the most important developments of mythology among the various races of mankind1 especially in order to determine the general relation of the myths of savage tribes to the myths of civilized nations4 ,the argument does not aim at a general discussion of the mythology of the world1 numbers of important topics being left untouched which would have to be considered in a general treatise4 ,the topics chosen are mostly such as are fitted1 by the strictness of evidence and argument applying to them1 to make a sound basis for the treatment of myth as bearing on the general ethnological problem of the development of civilization4 ,the general thesis maintained is that ,myth arose in the savage condition prevalent in remote ages among the whole human race1 that it remains comparatively unchanged among the modern rude tribes who have departed least from these primitive conditions1 while even higher and later grades of civilization1 partly by retaining its actual principles1 and partly by carrying on its inherited results in the form of ancestral tradition1 have continued it not merely in toleration but in honour4 ,to the human intellect in its early childlike state may be assigned the origin and first development of myth4 ,it is true that learned critics1 taking up the study of mythology at the wrong end1 have almost habitually failed to appreciate its childlike ideas1 conventionalized in poetry or disguised as chronicle4 ,yet the more we compare the mythic fancies of different nations1 in order to discern the common thoughts which underlie their resemblances1 the more ready we shall be to admit that in our childhood we dwelt at the very gates of the realm of myth4 ,in mythology1 the child is1 in a deeper sense than we are apt to use the phrase in1 father of the man4 ,thus1 when in surveying the quaint fancies and wild legends of the lower tribes1 we find the mythology of the world at once in its most distinct and most rudimentary form1 we may here again claim the savage as a representative of the childhood of the human race4 ,here ,ethnology and ,comparative ,mythology go hand in hand1 and the development of ,myth forms a consistent part of the development of ,culture4 ,if savage races1 as the nearest modern representatives of primval culture1 show in the most distinct and unchanged state the rudimentary mythic conceptions thence to be traced onward in the course of civilization1 then it is reasonable for students to begin1 so far as may be1 at the beginning4 ,savage mythology may be taken as a basis1 and then the myths of more civilized races may be displayed as compositions sprung from like origin1 though more advanced in art4 ,this mode of treatment proves satisfactory through almost all the branches of the enquiry1 and eminently so in investigating those most beautiful of poetic fictions1 to which may be given the title of ,nature-,myths4 ,first and foremost among the causes which transfigure into myths the facts of daily experience1 is the belief in the animation of all nature1 rising at its highest pitch to personification4 ,this1 no occasional or hypothetical action of the mind1 is inextricably bound in with that primitive mental state where man recognizes in every detail of his world the operation of personal life and will4 ,this doctrine of ,animism will be considered elsewhere as affecting philosophy and religion1 but here we have only to do with its bearing on mythology4 ,to the lower tribes of man1 sun and stars1 trees and rivers1 winds and clouds1 become personal animate creatures1 leading lives conformed to human or animal analogies1 and performing their special functions in the universe with the aid of limbs like beasts or of artificial instruments like men2 or what men's eyes behold is but the instrument to be used or the material to be shaped1 while behind it there stands some prodigious but yet half-human creature1 who grasps it with his hands or blows it with his breath4 ,the basis on which such ideas as these are built is not to be narrowed down to poetic fancy and transformed metaphor4 ,they rest upon a broad philosophy of nature1 early and crude indeed1 but thoughtful1 consistent1 and quite really and seriously meant4 ,let us put this doctrine of universal vitality to a test of direct evidence1 lest readers new to the subject should suppose it a modern philosophical fiction1 or think that if the lower races really express such a notion1 they may do so only as a poetical way of talking4 ,even in civilized countries1 it makes its appearance as the child's early theory of the outer world1 nor can we fail to see how this comes to pass4 ,the first beings that children learn to understand something of are human beings1 and especially their own selves2 and the first explanation of all events will be the human explanation1 as though chairs and sticks and wooden horses were actuated by the same sort of personal will as nurses and children and kittens4 ,thus infants take their first step in mythology by contriving1 like ,cosette with her doll1 #8se figurer que quelque chose est quelqu'un2' and the way in which this childlike theory has to be unlearnt in the course of education shows how primitive it is4 ,even among full-grown civilized ,europeans1 as ,mr4 ,grote appositely remarks1 #8,the force of momentary passion will often suffice to supersede the acquired habit1 and even an intelligent man may be impelled in a moment of agonizing pain to kick or beat the lifeless object from which he has suffered4' ,in such matters the savage mind well represents the childish stage4 ,the wild native of ,brazil would bite the stone he stumbled over1 or the arrow that had wounded him4 ,such a mental condition may be traced along the course of history1 not merely in impulsive habit1 but in formally enacted law4 ,the rude ,kukis of ,southern ,asia were very scrupulous in carrying out their simple law of vengeance1 life for life2 if a tiger killed a ,kuki1 his family were in disgrace till they had retaliated by killing and eating this tiger1 or another2 but further1 if a man was killed by a fall from a tree1 his relatives would take their revenge by cutting the tree down1 and scattering it in chips4#cdh ,a modern king of ,cochin-,china1 when one of his ships sailed badly1 used to put it in the pillory as he would any other criminal4#cdi ,in classical times1 the stories of ,xerxes flogging the ,hellespont and ,cyrus draining the ,gyndes occur as cases in point1 but one of the regular ,athenian legal proceedings is a yet more striking relic4 ,a court of justice was held at the ,prytaneum1 to try any inanimate object1 such as an axe or a piece of wood or stone1 which had caused the death of anyone without proved human agency1 and this wood or stone1 if condemned1 was in solemn form cast beyond the border4#cej ,the spirit of this remarkable procedure reappears in the old ,english law 7repealed within the last reign71 whereby not only a beast that kills a man1 but a cart-wheel that runs over him1 or a tree that falls on him and kills him1 is deodand1 or given to ,god1 i4e4 forfeited and sold for the poor3 as ,bracton says1 #8,omnia quae movent ad mortem sunt ,deodanda4' ,dr4 ,reid comments on this law1 declaring that its intention was not to punish the ox or the cart as criminal1 but #8to inspire the people with a sacred regard to the life of man4'#cea ,but his argument rather serves to show the worthlessness of off-hand speculations on the origin of law1 like his own in this matter1 unaided by the indispensable evidence of history and ethnography4 ,an example from modern folklore shows still at its utmost stretch this primitive fancy that inert things are alive and conscious4 ,the pathetic custom of #8telling the bees' when the master or mistress of a house dies1 is not unknown in our own country4 ,but in ,germany the idea is more fully worked out2 and not only is the sad message given to every bee-hive in the garden and every beast in the stall1 but every sack of corn must be touched and everything in the house shaken1 that they may know the master is gone4#ceb ,it will be seen presently how ,animism1 the doctrine of spiritual beings1 at once develops with and reacts upon mythic personification1 in that early state of the human mind which gives consistent individual life to phenomena that our utmost stretch of fancy only avails to personify in conscious metaphor4 ,an idea of pervading life and will in nature far outside modern limits1 a belief in personal souls animating even what we call inanimate bodies1 a theory of transmigration of souls as well in life as after death1 a sense of crowds of spiritual beings sometimes flitting through the air1 but sometimes also inhabiting trees and rocks and waterfalls1 and so lending their own personality to such material objects--all these thoughts work in mythology with such manifold coincidence1 as to make it hard indeed to unravel their separate action4#cec ,such animistic origin of nature-myths shows out very clearly in the great cosmic group of ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,stars4 ,in early philosophy throughout the world1 the ,sun and ,moon are alive and as it were human in their nature4 ,usually contrasted as male and female1 they nevertheless differ in the sex assigned to each1 as well as in their relations to one another4 ,among the ,mbocobis of ,south ,america1 the ,moon is a man and the ,sun his wife1 and the story is told how she once fell down and an ,indian put her up again1 but she fell a second time and set the forest blazing in a deluge of fire4#ced ,to display the opposite of this idea1 and at the same time to illustrate the vivid fancy with which savages can personify the heavenly bodies1 we may read the following discussion concerning eclipses1 between certain ,algonquin ,indians and one of the early ,jesuit missionaries to ,canada in the #agth century1 ,father ,le ,june3--#8,je leur ay demand d'o venoit l',eclipse de ,lune et de ,soleil2 ils m'ont respondu que la ,lune s'clipsoit ou paroissoit noire1 cause qu'elle tenoit son fils entre ses bras1 qui empeschoit que l'on ne vist sa clart4 ,si la ,lune a un fils1 elle est marie1 ou l'a t1 leur dis-je4 ,oy dea1 me dirent-ils1 le ,soleil est son mary1 qui marche tout le jour1 et elle toute la nuict2 et s'il s'clipse1 ou s'il s'obscurcit1 c'est qu'il prend aussi par fois le fils qu'il a eu de la ,lune entre ses bras4 ,oy1 mais ny la ,lune ny le ,soleil n'ont point de bras1 leur disois-je4 ,tu n'as point d'esprit2 ils tiennent tousiours leurs arcs bands deuant eux1 voil pourquoy leurs bras ne paroissent point4 ,et sur qui veulent-ils tirer8 ,h qu'en scauons nous8'#cee ,a mythologically important legend of the same race1 the ,ottawa story of ,iosco1 describes ,sun and ,moon as brother and sister4 ,two ,indians1 it is said1 sprang through a chasm in the sky1 and found themselves in a pleasant moonlit land2 there they saw the ,moon approaching as from behind a hill1 they knew her at the first sight1 she was an aged woman with white face and pleasing air2 speaking kindly to them1 she led them to her brother the ,sun1 and he carried them with him in his course and sent them home with promises of happy life4#cef ,as the ,egyptian ,osiris and ,isis were at once brother and sister1 and husband and wife1 so it was with the ,peruvian ,sun and ,moon1 ,ynti and ,quilla1 father and mother of the ,incas1 whose sister-marriage thus had in their religion at once a meaning and a justification4#ceg ,the myths of other countries1 where such relations of sex may not appear1 carry on the same lifelike personification in telling the ever-reiterated1 never tedious tale of day and night4 ,thus to the ,mexicans it was an ancient hero who1 when the old sun was burnt out1 and had left the world in darkness1 sprang into a huge fire1 descended into the shades below1 and arose deified and glorious in the east as ,tonatiuh the ,sun4 ,after him there leapt in another hero1 but now the fire had grown dim1 and he arose only in milder radiance as ,metztli the ,moon4#ceh ,if it be objected that all this may be mere expressive form of speech1 like a modern poet's fanciful metaphor1 there is evidence which no such objection can stand against4 ,when the ,aleutians thought that if anyone gave offence to the moon1 he would fling down stones on the offender and kill him1#cei or when the moon came down to an ,indian squaw1 appearing in the form of a beautiful woman with a child in her arms1 and demanding an offering of tobacco and fur robes1#cfj what conceptions of personal life could be more distinct than these8 ,when the ,apache ,indian pointed to the sky and asked the white man1 #8,do you not believe that ,god1 this ,sun 7que ,dios1 este ,sol71 sees what we do and punishes us when it is evil8' it is impossible to say that this savage was talking in rhetorical simile4#cfa ,there was something in the ,homeric contemplation of the living personal ,hlios1 that was more and deeper than metaphor4 ,even in far later ages1 we may read of the outcry that arose in ,greece against the astronomers1 those blasphemous materialists who denied1 not the divinity only1 but the very personality of the sun1 and declared him a huge hot ball4 ,later again1 how vividly ,tacitus brings to view the old personification dying into simile among the ,romans1 in contrast with its still enduring religious vigour among the ,german nations1 in the record of ,boiocalcus pleading before the ,roman legate that his tribe should not be driven from their lands4 ,looking toward the sun1 and calling on the other heavenly bodies as though1 says the historian1 they had been there present1 the ,german chief demanded of them if it were their will to look down upon a vacant soil8 7,solem deinde respiciens1 et caetera sidera vocans1 quasi coram interrogabat1 vellentne contueri inane solum87#cfb ,so it is with the stars4 ,savage mythology contains many a story of them1 agreeing through all other difference in attributing to them animate life4 ,they are not merely talked of in fancied personality1 but personal action is attributed to them1 or they are even declared once to have lived on earth4 ,the natives of ,australia not only say the stars in ,orion's belt and scabbard are young men dancing a corroboree2 they declare that ,jupiter1 whom they call #8,foot of ,day' 7,ginabong-,bearp71 was a chief among the ,old ,spirits1 that ancient race who were translated to heaven before man came on earth4#cfc ,the ,esquimaux did not stop short at calling the stars of ,orion's belt the ,lost ,ones1 and telling a tale of their being seal-hunters who missed their way home2 but they distinctly held that the stars were in old times men and animals1 before they went up into the sky4#cfd ,so the ,north ,american ,indians had more than superficial meaning in calling the ,pleiades the ,dancers1 and the morning-star the ,day-bringer2 for among them stories are told like that of the ,iowas1 of the star that an ,indian had long gazed upon in childhood1 and who came down and talked with him when he was once out hunting1 weary and luckless1 and led him to a place where there was much game4#cfe ,the ,kasia of ,bengal declare that the stars were once men3 they climbed to the top of a tree 7of course the great heaven-tree of the mythology of so many lands71 but others below cut the trunk and left them up there in the branches4#cff ,with such savage conceptions as guides1 the original meaning in the familiar classic personification of stars can scarcely be doubted4 ,the explicit doctrine of the animation of stars is to be traced through past centuries1 and down to our own4 ,origen declares that the stars are animate and rational1 moved with such order and reason as it would be absurd to say irrational creatures could fulfil4 ,pamphilius1 in his apology for this ,father1 lays it down that whereas some have held the luminaries of heaven to be animate and rational creatures1 while others have held them mere spiritless and senseless bodies1 no one may call another a heretic for holding either view1 for there is no open tradition on the subject1 and even ecclesiastics have thought diversely of it4#cfg ,it is enough to mention here the well-known medival doctrine of star-souls and star-angels1 so intimately mixed up with the delusions of astrology4 ,in our own time the theory of the animating souls of stars finds still here and there an advocate1 and ,de ,maistre1 prince and leader of reactionary philosophers1 maintains against modern astronomers the ancient doctrine of personal will in astronomic motion1 and even the theory of animated planets4#cfh ,poetry has so far kept alive in our minds the old animative theory of nature1 that it is no great effort to us to fancy the waterspout a huge giant or sea-monster1 and to depict in what we call appropriate metaphor its march across the fields of ocean4 ,but where such forms of speech are current among less educated races1 they are underlaid by a distinct prosaic meaning of fact4 ,thus the waterspouts which the ,japanese see so often off their coasts are to them long-tailed dragons1 #8flying up into the air with a swift and violent motion1' wherefore they call them #8tatsmaki1' #8spouting dragons4'#cfi ,waterspouts are believed by some ,chinese to be occasioned by the ascent and descent of the dragon2 although the monster is never seen head and tail at once for clouds1 fishermen and sea-side folk catch occasional glimpses of him ascending from the water and descending to it4#cgj ,in the medival ,chronicle of ,john of ,bromton there is mentioned a wonder which happens about once a month in the ,gulf of ,satalia1 on the ,pamphylian coast4 ,a great black dragon seems to come in the clouds1 letting down his head into the waves1 while his tail seems fixed to the sky1 and this dragon draws up the waves to him with such avidity that even a laden ship would be taken up on high1 so that to avoid this danger the crews ought to shout and beat boards to drive the dragon off4 ,however1 concludes the chronicler1 some indeed say that this is not a dragon1 but the sun drawing up the water1 which seems more true4#cga ,the ,moslems still account for waterspouts as caused by gigantic demons1 such as that one described in the #8,arabian ,nights3'--#8,the sea became troubled before them1 and there arose from it a black pillar1 ascending towards the sky1 and approaching the meadow 444 and behold it was a ,jinnee1 of gigantic stature4'#cgb ,the difficulty in interpreting language like this is to know how far it is seriously and how far fancifully meant4 ,but this doubt in no way goes against its original animistic meaning1 of which there can be no question in the following story of a #8great sea-serpent' current among a barbarous ,east ,african tribe4 ,a chief of the ,wanika told ,dr4 ,krapf of a great serpent which is sometimes seen out at sea1 reaching from the sea to the sky1 and appearing especially during heavy rain4 #8,i told them1' says the missionary1 #8that this was no serpent1 but a waterspout4'#cgc ,out of the similar phenomenon on land there has arisen a similar group of myths4 ,the ,moslem fancies the whirling sand-pillar of the desert to be caused by the flight of an evil jinn1 and the ,east ,african simply calls it a demon 7p'hepo74 ,to traveller after traveller who gazes on these monstrous shapes gliding majestically across the desert1 the thought occurs that the well-remembered #8,arabian ,nights'' descriptions rest upon personifications of the sand-pillars themselves1 as the gigantic demons into which fancy can even now so naturally shape them4#cgd ,rude and distant tribes agree in the conception of the ,rainbow as a living monster4 ,new ,zealand myth1 describing the battle of the ,tempest against the ,forest1 tells how the ,rainbow arose and placed his mouth close to ,tane-mahuta1 the ,father of ,trees1 and continued to assault him till his trunk was snapt in two1 and his broken branches strewed the ground4#cge ,it is not only in mere nature-myth like this1 but in actual awe-struck belief and terror1 that the idea of the live ,rainbow is worked out4 ,the ,karens of ,burma say it is a spirit or demon4 #8,the ,rainbow can devour men4444 ,when it devours a person1 he dies a sudden or violent death4 ,all persons that die badly1 by falls1 by drowning1 or by wild beasts1 die because the ,rainbow has devoured their ka-la1 or spirit4 ,on devouring persons it becomes thirsty and comes down to drink1 when it is seen in the sky drinking water4 ,therefore when people see the ,rainbow1 they say1 8,the ,rainbow has come to drink water4 ,look out1 some one or other will die violently by an evil death40 ,if children are playing1 their parents will say to them1 8,the ,rainbow has come down to drink4 ,play no more1 lest some accident should happen to you40 ,and after the ,rainbow has been seen1 if any fatal accident happens to anyone1 it is said the ,rainbow has devoured him4'#cgf ,the ,zulu ideas correspond in a curious way with these4 ,the ,rainbow lives with a snake1 that is1 where it is there is also a snake2 or it is like a sheep1 and dwells in a pool4 ,when it touches the earth1 it is drinking at a pool4 ,men are afraid to wash in a large pool2 they say there is a ,rainbow in it1 and if a man goes in1 it catches and eats him4 ,the ,rainbow1 coming out of a river or pool and resting on the ground1 poisons men whom it meets1 affecting them with eruptions4 ,men say1 #8,the ,rainbow is disease4 ,if it rests on a man1 something will happen to him4'#cgg ,lastly in ,dahome1 ,danh the ,heavenly ,snake1 which makes the ,popo beads and confers wealth on man1 is the ,rainbow4#cgh ,to the theory of ,animism belong those endless tales which all nations tell of the presiding genii of nature1 the spirits of cliffs1 wells1 waterfalls1 volcanoes1 the elves and wood nymphs seen at times by human eyes when wandering by moonlight or assembled at their fairy festivals4 ,such beings may personify the natural objects they belong to1 as when1 in a ,north ,american tale1 the guardian spirit of waterfalls rushes through the lodge as a raging current1 bearing rocks and trees along in its tremendous course1 and then the guardian spirit of the islands of ,lake ,superior enters in the guise of rolling waves covered with silver-sparkling foam4#cgi ,or they may be guiding and power-giving spirits of nature1 like the spirit ,fugamu1 whose work is the cataract of the ,nguyai1 and who still wanders night and day around it1 though the negroes who tell of him can no longer see his bodily form4#chj ,the belief prevailing through the lower culture that the diseases which vex mankind are brought by individual personal spirits1 is one which has produced striking examples of mythic development4 ,thus in ,burma the ,karen lives in terror of the mad #8la1' the epileptic #8la1' and the rest of the seven evil demons who go about seeking his life2 and it is with a fancy not many degrees removed from this early stage of thought that the ,persian sees in bodily shape the apparition of ,al1 the scarlet fever3-- #8,would you know ,al8 she seems a blushing maid1 ,with locks of flame and cheeks all rosy red4'#cha ,it is with this deep old spiritualistic belief clearly in view that the ghastly tales are to be read where pestilence and death come on their errand in weird human shape4 ,to the mind of the ,israelite1 death and pestilence took the personal form of the destroying angel who smote the doomed4#chb ,when the great plague raged in ,justinian's time1 men saw on the sea brazen barks whose crews were black and headless men1 and where they landed1 the pestilence broke out4#chc ,when the plague fell on ,rome in ,gregory's time1 the saint rising from prayer saw ,michael standing with his bloody sword on ,hadrian's castle--the archangel stands there yet in bronze1 giving the old fort its newer name of the ,castle of ,st4 ,angelo4 ,among a whole group of stories of the pestilence seen in personal shape travelling to and fro in the land1 perhaps there is none more vivid than this ,slavonic one4 #8,there sat a ,russian under a larch-tree1 and the sunshine glared like fire4 ,he saw something coming from afar2 he looked again--it was the ,pest-maiden1 huge of stature1 all shrouded in linen1 striding towards him4 ,he would have fled in terror1 but the form grasped him with her long outstretched hand4 8,knowest thou the ,pest80 she said2 8,i am she4 ,take me on thy shoulders and carry me through all ,russia2 miss no village1 no town1 for ,i must visit all4 ,but fear not for thyself1 thou shalt be safe amid the dying40 ,clinging with her long hands1 she clambered on the peasant's back2 he stepped onward1 saw the form above him as he went1 but felt no burden4 ,first he bore her to the towns2 they found there joyous dance and song2 but the form waved her linen shroud1 and joy and mirth were gone4 ,as the wretched man looked round1 he saw mourning1 he heard the tolling of the bells1 there came funeral processions1 the graves could not hold the dead4 ,he passed on1 and coming near each village heard the shriek of the dying1 saw all faces white in the desolate houses4 ,but high on the hill stands his own hamlet3 his wife1 his little children are there1 and the aged parents1 and his heart bleeds as he draws near4 ,with strong gripe he holds the maiden fast1 and plunges with her beneath the waves4 ,he sank3 she rose again1 but she quailed before a heart so fearless1 and fled far away to the forest and the mountain4'#chd ,yet1 if mythology be surveyed in a more comprehensive view1 it is seen that its animistic development falls within a broader generalization still4 ,the explanation of the course and change of nature1 as caused by life such as the life of the thinking man who gazes on it1 is but a part of a far wider mental process4 ,it belongs to that great doctrine of analogy1 from which we have gained so much of our apprehension of the world around us4 ,distrusted as it now is by severer science for its misleading results1 analogy is still to us a chief means of discovery and illustration1 while in earlier grades of education its influence was all but paramount4 ,analogies which are but fancy to us were to men of past ages reality4 ,they could see the flame licking its yet undevoured prey with tongues of fire1 or the serpent gliding along the waving sword from hilt to point2 they could feel a live creature gnawing within their bodies in the pangs of hunger2 they heard the voices of the hill-dwarfs answering in the echo1 and the chariot of the ,heaven-god rattling in thunder over the solid firmament4 ,men to whom these were living thoughts had no need of the schoolmaster and his rules of composition1 his injunctions to use metaphor cautiously1 and to take continual care to make all similes consistent4 ,the similes of the old bards and orators were consistent1 because they seemed to see and hear and feel them3 what we call poetry was to them real life1 not as to the modern versemaker a masquerade of gods and heroes1 shepherds and shepherdesses1 stage heroines and philosophic savages in paint and feathers4 ,it was with a far deeper consciousness that the circumstance of nature was worked out in endless imaginative detail in ancient days and among uncultured races4 ,upon the sky above the hill-country of ,orissa1 ,pidzu ,pennu1 the ,rain-god of the ,khonds1 rests as he pours down the showers through his sieve4#che ,over ,peru there stands a princess with a vase of rain1 and when her brother strikes the pitcher1 men hear the shock in thunder and see the flash in lightning4#chf ,to the old ,greeks the rainbow seemed stretched down by ,jove from heaven1 a purple sign of war and tempest1 or it was the personal ,iris1 messenger between gods and men4#chg ,to the ,south ,sea ,islander it was the heaven-ladder where heroes of old climbed up and down2#chh and so to the ,scandinavian it was ,bifrst1 the trembling bridge1 timbered of three hues and stretched from sky to earth2 while in ,german folk-lore it is the bridge where the souls of the just are led by their guardian angels across to paradise4#chi ,as the ,israelite called it the bow of ,jehovah in the clouds1 it is to the ,hindu the bow of ,rama1#cij and to the ,finn the bow of ,tiermes the ,thunderer1 who slays with it the sorcerers that hunt after men's lives2#cia it is imagined1 moreover1 as a gold-embroidered scarf1 a head-dress of feathers1 ,st4 ,bernard's crown1 or the sickle of an ,esthonian deity4#cib ,and yet through all such endless varieties of mythic conception1 there runs one main principle1 the evident suggestion and analogy of nature4 ,it has been said of the savages of ,north ,america1 that #8there is always something actual and physical to ground an ,indian fancy on4'#cic ,the saying goes too far1 but within limits it is emphatically true1 not of ,north ,american ,indians alone1 but of mankind4 ,such resemblances as have just been displayed thrust themselves directly on the mind1 without any necessary intervention of words4 ,deep as language lies in our mental life1 the direct comparison of object with object1 and action with action1 lies yet deeper4 ,the myth-maker's mind shows forth even among the deaf-and-dumb1 who work out just such analogies of nature in their wordless thought4 ,again and again they have been found to suppose themselves taught by their guardians to worship and pray to sun1 moon1 and stars1 as personal creatures4 ,others have described their early thoughts of the heavenly bodies as analogous to things within their reach1 one fancying the moon made like a dumpling and rolled over the tree-tops like a marble across a table1 and the stars cut out with great scissors and stuck against the sky1 while another supposed the moon a furnace and the stars fire-grates1 which the people above the firmament light up as we kindle fires4#cid ,now the mythology of mankind at large is full of conceptions of nature like these1 and to assume for them no deeper original source than metaphorical phrases1 would be to ignore one of the great transitions of our intellectual history4 ,language1 there is no doubt1 has had a great share in the formation of myth4 ,the mere fact of its individualizing in words such notions as winter and summer1 cold and heat1 war and peace1 vice and virtue1 gives the myth-maker the means of imagining these thoughts as personal beings4 ,language not only acts in thorough unison with the imagination whose product it expresses1 but it goes on producing of itself1 and thus1 by the side of the mythic conceptions in which language has followed imagination1 we have others in which language has led1 and imagination has followed in the track4 ,these two actions coincide too closely for their effects to be thoroughly separated1 but they should be distinguished as far as possible4 ,for myself1 ,i am disposed to think 7differing here in some measure from ,professor ,max ,mller's view of the subject7 that the mythology of the lower races rests especially on a basis of real and sensible analogy1 and that the great expansion of verbal metaphor into myth belongs to more advanced periods of civilization4 ,in a word1 ,i take material myth to be the primary1 and verbal myth to be the secondary formation4 ,but whether this opinion be historically sound or not1 the difference in nature between myth founded on fact and myth founded on word is sufficiently manifest4 ,the want of reality in verbal metaphor cannot be effectually hidden by the utmost stretch of imagination4 ,in spite of this essential weakness1 however1 the habit of realizing everything that words can describe is one which has grown and flourished in the world4 ,descriptive names become personal1 the notion of personality stretches to take in even the most abstract notions to which a name may be applied1 and realized name1 epithet1 and metaphor pass into interminable mythic growths by the process which ,max ,mller has so aptly characterized as #8a disease of language4' ,it would be difficult indeed to define the exact thought lying at the root of every mythic conception1 but in easy cases the course of formation can be quite well followed4 ,north ,american tribes have personified ,nipinkhe and ,pipnkhe1 the beings who bring the spring 7nipin7 and the winter 7pipn72 ,nipinkhe brings the heat and birds and verdure1 ,pipnkhe ravages with his cold winds1 his ice and snow2 one comes as the other goes1 and between them they divide the world4#cie ,just such personification as this furnishes the staple of endless nature-metaphor in our own ,european poetry4 ,in the springtime it comes to be said that ,may has conquered ,winter1 his gate is open1 he has sent letters before him to tell the fruit that he is coming1 his tent is pitched1 he brings the woods their summer clothing4 ,thus1 when ,night is personified1 we see how it comes to pass that ,day is her son1 and how each in a heavenly chariot drives round the world4 ,to minds in this mythologic stage1 the ,curse becomes a personal being1 hovering in space till it can light upon its victim2 ,time and ,nature arise as real entities2 ,fate and ,fortune become personal arbiters of our lives4 ,but at last1 as the change of meaning goes on1 thoughts that once had a more real sense fade into mere poetic forms of speech4 ,we have but to compare the effect of ancient and modern personification on our own minds1 to understand something of what has happened in the interval4 ,milton may be consistent1 classical1 majestic1 when he tells how ,sin and ,death sat within the gates of hell1 and how they built their bridge of length prodigious across the deep abyss to earth4 ,yet such descriptions leave but scant sense of meaning on modern minds1 and we are apt to say1 as we might of some counterfeit bronze from ,naples1 #8,for a sham antique how cleverly it is done4' ,entering into the mind of the old ,norseman1 we guess how much more of meaning than the cleverest modern imitation can carry1 lay in his pictures of ,hel1 the death-goddess1 stern and grim and livid1 dwelling in her high and strong-barred house1 and keeping in her nine worlds the souls of the departed2 ,hunger is her dish1 ,famine is her knife1 ,care is her bed1 and ,misery her curtain4 ,when such old material descriptions are transferred to modern times1 in spite of all the accuracy of reproduction their spirit is quite changed4 ,the story of the monk who displayed among his relics the garments of ,st4 ,faith is to us only a jest2 and we call it quaint humour when ,charles ,lamb1 falling old and infirm1 once wrote to a friend1 #8,my bed-fellows are ,cough and ,cramp2 we sleep three in a bed4' ,perhaps we need not appreciate the drollery any the less for seeing in it at once a consequence and a record of a past intellectual life4 ,the distinction of grammatical gender is a process intimately connected with the formation of myths4 ,grammatical gender is of two kinds4 ,what may be called sexual gender is familiar to all classically-educated ,englishmen1 though their mother tongue has mostly lost its traces4 ,thus in ,latin not only are such words as homo and femina classed naturally as masculine and feminine1 but such words as pes and gladius are made masculine1 and biga and navis feminine1 and the same distinction is actually drawn between such abstractions as honos and fides4 ,that sexless objects and ideas should thus be classed as male and female1 in spite of a new gender--the neuter or #8neither' gender--having been defined1 seems in part explained by considering this latter to have been of later formation1 and the original ,indo-,european genders to have been only masculine and feminine1 as is actually the case in ,hebrew4 ,though the practice of attributing sex to objects that have none is not easy to explain in detail1 yet there seems nothing mysterious in its principles1 to judge from one at least of its main ideas1 which is still quite intelligible4 ,language makes an admirably appropriate distinction between strong and weak1 stern and gentle1 rough and delicate1 when it contrasts them as male and female4 ,it is possible to understand even such fancies as those which ,pietro della ,valle describes among the medival ,persians1 distinguishing between male and female1 that is to say1 practically between robust and tender1 even in such things as food and cloth1 air and water1 and prescribing their proper use accordingly4#cif ,and no phrase could be more plain and forcible than that of the ,dayaks of ,borneo1 who say of a heavy downpour of rain1 #8ujatn arai1 #8sa6'--#8a he rain this6'#cig ,difficult as it may be to decide how far objects and thoughts were classed in language as male and female because they were personified1 and how far they were personified because they were classed as male and female1 it is evident at any rate that these two processes fit together and promote each other4#cih ,moreover1 in studying languages which lie beyond the range of common ,european scholarship1 it is found that the theory of grammatical gender must be extended into a wider field4 ,the ,dravidian languages of ,south ,india make the interesting distinction between a #8high-caste or major gender1' which includes rational beings1 i4e4 deities and men1 and a #8caste-less or minor gender1' which includes irrational objects1 whether living animals or lifeless things4#cii ,the distinction between an animate and an inanimate gender appears with especial import in a family of ,north ,american ,indian languages1 the ,algonquin4 ,here not only do all animals belong to the animate gender1 but also the sun1 moon1 and stars1 thunder and lightning1 as being personified creatures4 ,the animate gender1 moreover1 includes not only trees and fruits1 but certain exceptional lifeless objects which appear to owe this distinction to their special sanctity or power2 such are the stone which serves as the altar of sacrifice to the manitus1 the bow1 the eagle's feather1 the kettle1 tobacco-pipe1 drum1 and wampum4 ,where the whole animal is animate1 parts of its body considered separately may be inanimate--hand or foot1 beak or wing4 ,yet even here1 for special reasons1 special objects are treated as of animate gender2 such are the eagle's talons1 the bear's claws1 the beaver's castor1 the man's nails1 and other objects for which there is claimed a peculiar or mystic power4#djj ,if to anyone it seems surprising that savage thought should be steeped through and through in mythology1 let him consider the meaning that is involved in a grammar of nature like this4 ,such a language is the very reflexion of a mythic world4 ,there is yet another way in which language and mythology can act and re-act on one another4 ,even we1 with our blunted mythologic sense1 cannot give an individual name to a lifeless object1 such as a boat or a weapon1 without in the very act imagining for it something of a personal nature4 ,among nations whose mythic conceptions have remained in full vigour1 this action may be yet more vivid4 ,perhaps very low savages may not be apt to name their implements or their canoes as though they were live people1 but races a few stages above them show the habit in perfection4 ,among the ,zulus we hear of names for clubs1 ,igumgehle or ,glutton1 ,u-nothlola-mazibuko or ,he-who-watches-the-fords2 among names for assagais are ,imbubuzi or ,groan-causer1 ,u-silo-si-lambile or ,hungry ,leopard1 and the weapon being also used as an implement1 a certain assagai bears the peaceful name of ,u-simbela-banta-bami1 ,he-digs-up-for-my-children4#dja ,a similar custom prevailed among the ,new ,zealanders4 ,the traditions of their ancestral migrations tell how ,ngahue made from his jasper stone those two sharp axes whose names were ,tutauru and ,hauhau-te-rangi2 how with these axes were shaped the canoes ,arawa and ,tainui2 how the two stone anchors of ,te ,arawa were called ,toka-parore or ,wrystone1 and ,tu-te-rangi-haruru or ,like-to-the-roaring-sky4 ,these legends do not break off in a remote past1 but carry on a chronicle which reaches into modern times4 ,it is only lately1 the ,maoris say1 that the famous axe ,tutauru was lost1 and as for the ear-ornament named ,kaukau-matua1 which was made from a chip of the same stone1 they declare that it was not lost till #ahdf1 when its owner1 ,te ,heuheu1 perished in a landslip4#djb ,up from this savage level the same childlike habit of giving personal names to lifeless objects may be traced1 as we read of ,thor's hammer1 ,milnir1 whom the giants know as he comes flying through the air1 or of ,arthur's brand1 ,excalibur1 caught by the arm clothed in white samite when ,sir ,bedivere flung him back into the lake1 or of the ,cid's mighty sword ,tizona1 the ,firebrand1 whom he vowed to bury in his own breast were she overcome through cowardice of his4 ,the teachings of a childlike primval philosophy ascribing personal life to nature at large1 and the early tyranny of speech over the human mind1 have thus been two great and1 perhaps1 greatest agents in mythologic development4 ,other causes1 too1 have been at work1 which will be noticed in connexion with special legendary groups1 and a full list1 could it be drawn up1 might include as contributories many other intellectual actions4 ,it must be thoroughly understood1 however1 that such investigation of the processes of myth-formation demands a lively sense of the state of men's minds in the mythologic period4 ,when the ,russians in ,siberia listened to the talk of the rude ,kirgis1 they stood amazed at the barbarians' ceaseless flow of poetic improvisation1 and exclaimed1 #8,whatever these people see gives birth to fancies6' ,just so the civilized ,european may contrast his own stiff orderly prosaic thought with the wild shifting poetry and legend of the old myth-maker1 and may say of him that everything he saw gave birth to fancy4 ,wanting the power of transporting himself into this imaginative atmosphere1 the student occupied with the analysis of the mythic world may fail so pitiably in conceiving its depth and intensity of meaning1 as to convert it into stupid fiction4 ,those can see more justly who have the poet's gift of throwing their minds back into the world's older life1 like the actor who for a moment can forget himself and become what he pretends to be4 ,wordsworth1 that #8modern ancient1' as ,max ,mller has so well called him1 could write of ,storm and ,winter1 or of the naked ,sun climbing the sky1 as though he were some ,vedic poet at the head-spring of his race1 #8seeing' with his mind's eye a mythic hymn to ,agni or ,varuna4 ,fully to understand an old-world myth needs not evidence and argument alone1 but deep poetic feeling4 ,yet such of us as share but very little in this rare gift1 may make shift to let evidence in some measure stand in its stead4 ,in the poetic stage of thought we may see that ideal conceptions once shaped in the mind must have assumed some such reality to grown-up men and women as they still do to children4 ,i have never forgotten the vividness with which1 as a child1 ,i fancied ,i might look through a great telescope1 and see the constellations stand round the sky1 red1 green1 and yellow1 as ,i had just been shown them on the celestial globe4 ,the intensity of mythic fancy may be brought even more nearly home to our minds by comparing it with the morbid subjectivity of illness4 ,among the lower races1 and high above their level1 morbid ecstasy brought on by meditation1 fasting1 narcotics1 excitement1 or disease1 is a state common and held in honour among the very classes specially concerned with mythic idealism1 and under its influence the barriers between sensation and imagination break utterly away4 ,a ,north ,american ,indian prophetess once related the story of her first vision3 ,at her solitary fast at womanhood she fell into an ecstasy1 and at the call of the spirits she went up to heaven by the path that leads to the opening of the sky2 there she heard a voice1 and1 standing still1 saw the figure of a man standing near the path1 whose head was surrounded by a brilliant halo1 and his breast was covered with squares2 he said1 #8,look at me1 my name is ,oshauwauegeeghick1 the ,bright ,blue ,sky6' ,recording her experience afterwards in the rude picture-writing of her race1 she painted this glorious spirit with the hieroglyphic horns of power and the brilliant halo round his head4#djc ,we know enough of the ,indian pictographs to guess how a fancy with these familiar details of the picture-language came into the poor excited creature's mind2 but how far is our cold analysis from her utter belief that in vision she had really seen this bright being1 this ,red ,indian ,zeus4 ,far from being an isolated case1 this is scarcely more than a fair example of the rule that any idea shaped and made current by mythic fancy1 may at once acquire all the definiteness of fact4 ,even if to the first shaper it be no more than lively imagination1 yet when it comes to be embodied in words and to pass from house to house1 those who hear it become capable of the most intense belief that it may be seen in material shape1 that it has been seen1 that they themselves have seen it4 ,the ,south ,african who believes in a god with a crooked leg sees him with a crooked leg in dreams and visions4#djd ,in the time of ,tacitus it was said1 with a more poetic imagination1 that in the far north of ,scandinavia men might see the very forms of the gods and the rays streaming from their heads4#dje ,in the #fth century the famed ,nile-god might still be seen1 in gigantic human form1 rising waist-high from the waters of his river4#djf ,want of originality indeed seems one of the most remarkable features in the visions of mystics4 ,the stiff ,madonnas with their crowns and petticoats still transfer themselves from the pictures on cottage walls to appear in spiritual personality to peasant visionaries1 as the saints who stood in vision before ecstatic monks of old were to be known by their conventional pictorial attributes4 ,when the devil with horns1 hoofs1 and tail had once become a fixed image in the popular mind1 of course men saw him in this conventional shape4 ,so real had ,st4 ,anthony's satyr-demon become to men's opinion1 that there is a grave #acth century account of the mummy of such a devil being exhibited at ,alexandria2 and it is not fifteen years back from the present time that there was a story current at ,teignmouth of a devil walking up the walls of the houses1 and leaving his fiendish backward footprints in the snow4 ,nor is it vision alone that is concerned with the delusive realization of the ideal2 there is1 as it were1 a conspiracy of all the senses to give it proof4 ,to take a striking instance3 there is an irritating herpetic disease which gradually encircles the body as with a girdle1 whence its ,english name of the shingles 7,latin1 cingulum74 ,by an imagination not difficult to understand1 this disease is attributed to a sort of coiling snake2 and ,i remember a case in ,cornwall where a girl's family waited in great fear to see if the creature would stretch all round her1 the belief being that if the snake's head and tail met1 the patient would die4 ,but a yet fuller meaning of this fantastic notion is brought out in an account by ,dr4 ,bastian of a physician who suffered in a painful disease1 as though a snake were twined round him1 and in whose mind this idea reached such reality that in moments of excessive pain he could see the snake and touch its rough scales with his hand4 ,the relation of morbid imagination to myth is peculiarly well instanced in the history of a widespread belief1 extending through savage1 barbaric1 classic1 oriental1 and medival life1 and surviving to this day in ,european superstition4 ,this belief1 which may be conveniently called the ,doctrine of ,werewolves1 is that certain men1 by natural gift or magic art1 can turn for a time into ravening wild beasts4 ,the origin of this idea is by no means sufficiently explained4 ,what we are especially concerned with is the fact of its prevalence in the world4 ,it may be noticed that such a notion is quite consistent with the animistic theory that a man's soul may go out of his body and enter that of a beast or bird1 and also with the opinion that men may be transformed into animals2 both these ideas having an important place in the belief of mankind1 from savagery onward4 ,the doctrine of werewolves is substantially that of a temporary metempsychosis or metamorphosis4 ,now it really occurs that1 in various forms of mental disease1 patients prowl shyly1 long to bite and destroy mankind1 and even fancy themselves transformed into wild beasts4 ,belief in the possibility of such transformation may have been the very suggesting cause which led the patient to imagine it taking place in his own person4 ,but at any rate such insane delusions do occur1 and physicians apply to them the mythologic term of lycanthropy4 ,the belief in men being werewolves1 man-tigers1 and the like1 may thus have the strong support of the very witnesses who believe themselves to be such creatures4 ,moreover1 professional sorcerers have taken up the idea1 as they do any morbid delusion1 and pretend to turn themselves and others into beasts by magic art4 ,through the mass of ethnographic details relating to this subject1 there is manifest a remarkable uniformity of principle4 ,among the non-,aryan indigenes of ,india1 the tribes of the ,garo ,hills describe as #8transformation into a tiger' a kind of temporary madness1 apparently of the nature of delirium tremens1 in which the patient walks like a tiger1 shunning society4#djg ,the ,khonds of ,orissa say that some among them have the art of #8mleepa1' and by the aid of a god become #8mleepa' tigers for the purpose of killing enemies1 one of the man's four souls going out to animate the bestial form4 ,natural tigers1 say the ,khonds1 kill game to benefit men1 who find it half devoured and share it1 whereas man-killing tigers are either incarnations of the wrathful ,earth-goddess1 or they are transformed men4#djh ,thus the notion of man-tigers serves1 as similar notions do elsewhere1 to account for the fact that certain individual wild beasts show a peculiar hostility to man4 ,among the ,ho of ,singbhoom it is related1 as an example of similar belief1 that a man named ,mora saw his wife killed by a tiger1 and followed the beast till it led him to the house of a man named ,poosa4 ,telling ,poosa's relatives of what had occurred1 they replied that they were aware that he had the power of becoming a tiger1 and accordingly they brought him out bound1 and ,mora deliberately killed him4 ,inquisition being made by the authorities1 the family deposed1 in explanation of their belief1 that ,poosa had one night devoured an entire goat1 roaring like a tiger whilst eating it1 and that on another occasion he told his friends he had a longing to eat a particular bullock1 and that very night that very bullock was killed and devoured by a tiger4#dji ,south-eastern ,asia is not less familiar with the idea of sorcerers turning into man-tigers and wandering after prey2 thus the ,jakuns of the ,malay ,peninsula believe that when a man becomes a tiger to revenge himself on his enemies1 the transformation happens just before he springs1 and has been seen to take place4#daj ,how vividly the imagination of an excited tribe1 once inoculated with a belief like this1 can realize it into an event1 is graphically told by ,dobrizhoffer among the ,abipones of ,south ,america4 ,when a sorcerer1 to get the better of an enemy1 threatens to change himself into a tiger and tear his tribesmen to pieces1 no sooner does he begin to roar1 than all the neighbours fly to a distance2 but still they hear the feigned sounds4 #8,alas6' they cry1 #8his whole body is beginning to be covered with tiger-spots6' #8,look1 his nails are growing6' the fear-struck women exclaim1 although they cannot see the rogue1 who is concealed within his tent1 but distracted fear presents things to their eyes which have no real existence4 #8,you daily kill tigers in the plain without dread1' said the missionary2 #8why then should you weakly fear a false imaginary tiger in the town8' #8,you fathers don't understand these matters1' they reply with a smile4 #8,we never fear1 but kill tigers in the plain1 because we can see them4 ,artificial tigers we do fear1 because they can neither be seen nor killed by us4'#daa ,the sorcerers who induced assemblies of credulous savages to believe in this monstrous imposture1 were also the professional spiritualistic mediums of the tribes1 whose business it was to hold intercourse with the spirits of the dead1 causing them to appear visibly1 or carrying on audible dialogues with them behind a curtain4 ,africa is especially rich in myths of man-lions1 man-leopards1 man-hynas4 ,in the ,kanuri language of ,bornu1 there is grammatically formed from the word #8bultu1' a hyna1 the verb #8bultungin1' meaning #8,i transform myself into a hyna2' and the natives maintain that there is a town called ,kabutiloa1 where every man possesses this faculty4#dab ,the tribe of ,budas in ,abyssinia1 iron-workers and potters1 are believed to combine with these civilized avocations the gift of the evil eye and the power of turning into hynas1 wherefore they are excluded from society and the ,christian sacrament4 ,in the #8,life of ,nathaniel ,pearce1' the testimony of one ,mr4 ,coffin is printed4 ,a young ,buda1 his servant1 came for leave of absence1 which was granted2 but scarcely was ,mr4 ,coffin's head turned to his other servants1 when some of them called out1 pointing in the direction the ,buda had taken1 #8,look1 look1 he is turning himself into a hyna4' ,mr4 ,coffin instantly looked round1 the young man had vanished1 and a large hyna was running off at about a hundred paces' distance1 in full light on the open plain1 without tree or bush to intercept the view4 ,the ,buda came back next morning1 and as usual rather affected to countenance than deny the prodigy4 ,coffin says1 moreover1 that the ,budas wear a peculiar gold earring1 and this he has frequently seen in the ears of hynas shot in traps1 or speared by himself and others2 the ,budas are dreaded for their magical arts1 and the editor of the book suggests that they put ear-rings in hynas' ears to encourage a profitable superstition4#dac ,mr4 ,mansfield ,parkyns' more recent account shows how thoroughly this belief is part and parcel of ,abyssinian spiritualism4 ,hysterics1 lethargy1 morbid insensibility to pain1 and the #8demoniacal possession1' in which the patient speaks in the name and language of an intruding spirit1 are all ascribed to the spiritual agency of the ,budas4 ,among the cases described by ,mr4 ,parkyns was that of a servant-woman of his1 whose illness was set down to the influence of one of these blacksmith-hynas1 who wanted to get her out into the forest and devour her4 ,one night1 a hyna having been heard howling and laughing near the village1 the woman was bound hand and foot and closely guarded in the hut1 when suddenly1 the hyna calling close by1 her master1 to his astonishment1 saw her rise #8without her bonds' like a ,davenport ,brother1 and try to escape4#dad ,in ,ashango-land1 ,m4 ,du ,chaillu tells the following suggestive story4 ,he was informed that a leopard had killed two men1 and many palavers were held to settle the affair2 but this was no ordinary leopard1 but a transformed man4 ,two of ,akondogo's men had disappeared1 and only their blood was found1 so a great doctor was sent for1 who said it was ,akondogo's own nephew and heir ,akosho4 ,the lad was sent for1 and when asked by the chief1 answered that it was truly he who had committed the murders1 that he could not help it1 for he had turned into a leopard1 and his heart longed for blood1 and after each deed he had turned into a man again4 ,akondogo loved the boy so much that he would not believe his confession1 till ,akosho took him to a place in the forest1 where lay the mangled bodies of the two men1 whom he had really murdered under the influence of this morbid imagination4 ,he was slowly burnt to death1 all the people standing by4#dae ,brief mention is enough for the comparatively well-known ,european representatives of these beliefs4 ,what with the mere continuance of old tradition1 what with the tricks of magicians1 and what with cases of patients under delusion believing themselves to have suffered transformation1 of which a number are on record1 the ,european series of details from ancient to modern ages is very complete4 ,virgil in the ,bucolics shows the popular opinion of his time that the arts of the werewolf1 the necromancer or #8medium1' and the witch1 were different branches of one craft1 where he tells of ,mris as turning into a wolf by the use of poisonous herbs1 as calling up souls from the tombs1 and as bewitching away crops3-- #8,has herbas1 atque haec ,ponto mihi lecta venena ,ipse dedit ,moeris2 nascuntur plurima ,ponto4 ,his ego saepe lupum fieri1 et se condere sylvis ,moerin1 saepe animas imis excire sepulcris1 ,atque satas ali vidi traducere messes4'#daf ,of the classic accounts1 one of the most remarkable is ,petronius ,arbiter's story of the transformation of a #8versipellis' or #8turnskin2' this contains the episode of the wolf being wounded and the man who wore its shape found with a similar wound1 an idea not sufficiently proved to belong originally to the lower races1 but which becomes a familiar feature in ,european stories of werewolves and witches4 ,in ,augustine's time magicians were persuading their dupes that by means of herbs they could turn them to wolves1 and the use of salve for this purpose is mentioned at a comparatively modern date4 ,old ,scandinavian sagas have their werewolf warriors1 and shape-changers 7hamramr7 raging in fits of furious madness4 ,the ,danes still know a man who is a werewolf by his eyebrows meeting1 and thus resembling a butterfly1 the familiar type of the soul1 ready to fly off and enter some other body4 ,in the last year of the ,swedish war with ,russia1 the people of ,kalmar said the wolves which overran the land were transformed ,swedish prisoners4 ,from ,herodotus' legend of the ,neuri who turned every year for a few days to wolves1 we follow the idea on ,slavonic ground to where ,livonian sorcerers bathe yearly in a river and turn for twelve days to wolves2 and widespread ,slavonic superstition still declares that the wolves that sometimes in bitter winters dare to attack men1 are themselves #8wilkolak1' men bewitched into wolf's shape4 ,the modern ,greeks instead of the classic adopt the ,slavonic term 7,bulgarian #8vrkolak'72 it is a man who falls into a cataleptic state1 while his soul enters a wolf and goes ravening for blood4 ,modern ,germany1 especially in the north1 still keeps up the stories of wolf-girdles1 and in ,december you must not #8talk of the wolf' by name1 lest the werewolves hear you4 ,our ,english word #8werewolf1' that is #8man-wolf' 7the #8verevulf' of ,cnut's ,laws71 still reminds us of the old belief in our own country1 and if it has had for centuries but little place in ,english folklore1 this has been not so much for lack of superstition1 as of wolves4 ,to instance the survival of the idea1 transferred to another animal1 in the more modern witch-persecution1 the following ,scotch story may serve4 ,certain witches at ,thurso for a long time tormented an honest fellow under the usual form of cats1 till one night he put them to flight with his broad-sword1 and cut off the leg of one less nimble than the rest2 taking it up1 to his amazement he found it to be a woman's leg1 and next morning he discovered the old hag its owner with but one leg left4 ,in ,france the creature has what is historically the same name as our #8werewolf2' viz4 in early forms #8gerulphus1' #8garoul1' and now pleonastically #8loup-garou4' ,the parliament of ,franche-,comt made a law in #aegc to expel the werewolves2 in #aeih the werewolf of ,angers gave evidence of his hands and feet turning to wolf's claws2 in #afjc1 in the case of ,jean ,grenier1 the judge declared lycanthropy to be an insane delusion1 not a crime4 ,in #afeh1 a ,french satirical description of a magician could still give the following perfect account of the witch-werewolf3 #8,i teach the witches to take the form of wolves and eat children1 and when anyone has cut off one of their legs 7which proves to be a man's arm7 ,i forsake them when they are discovered1 and leave them in the power of justice4' ,even in our own day the idea has by no means died out of the ,french peasant's mind4 ,not ten years ago in ,france1 ,mr4 ,baring-,gould found it impossible to get a guide after dark across a wild place haunted by a loup-garou1 an incident which led him afterwards to write his #8,book of ,werewolves1' a monograph of this remarkable combination of myth and madness4#dag ,if we judged the myths of early ages by the unaided power of our modern fancy1 we might be left unable to account for their immense effect on the life and belief of mankind4 ,but by the study of such evidence as this1 it becomes possible to realize a usual state of the imagination among ancient and savage peoples1 intermediate between the conditions of a healthy prosaic modern citizen and of a raving fanatic or a patient in a fever-ward4 ,a poet of our own day has still much in common with the minds of uncultured tribes in the mythologic stage of thought4 ,the rude man's imaginations may be narrow1 crude1 and repulsive1 while the poet's more conscious fictions may be highly wrought into shapes of fresh artistic beauty1 but both share in that sense of the reality of ideas1 which fortunately or unfortunately modern education has proved so powerful to destroy4 ,the change of meaning of a single word will tell the history of this transition1 ranging from primval to modern thought4 ,from first to last1 the processes of phantasy have been at work2 but where the savage could see phantasms1 the civilized man has come to amuse himself with fancies4 ,footnote #cde3 ,grote1 #8,history of ,greece1' vol4 i4 chaps4 ix4 xi42 ,pausanias viii4 #b2 ,plutarch4 ,theseus #a4 ,footnote #cdf3 ,see ,banier1 #8,la ,mythologie et les ,fables expliques par l',histoire1' ,paris1 #agch2 ,lempriere1 #8,classical ,dictionary1' c4 ,footnote #cdg3 ,hanusch1 #8,slav4 ,myth4' p4 #cbc2 ,grimm1 ,d4 ,m4 p4 #cfc2 ,latham1 #8,descr4 ,eth4' vol4 ii4 p4 #ddh2 ,i4 ,j4 ,schmidt1 #8,forschungen1' p4 #ac2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrelig4' p4 #bfh4 ,see also ,plutarch4 ,parallela xxxvi42 ,campbell1 #8,highland ,tales1' vol4 i4 p4 #bgh2 ,max ,mller1 #8,chips1' vol4 ii4 p4 #afi2 ,tylor1 #8,wild ,men and ,beast-children1' in ,anthropological ,review1 ,may #ahfc4 ,footnote #cdh3 ,macrae in #8,as4 ,res4' vol4 vii4 p4 #ahi4 ,footnote #cdi3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 i4 p4 #ea4 ,footnote #cej3 ,grote1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ajd2 vol4 v4 p4 #bb2 ,herodot4 i4 #ahi2 vii4 #cd2 ,porphyr4 de ,abstinentia1 ii4 #cj2 ,pausan4 i4 #bh2 ,pollux1 #8,onomasticon4' ,footnote #cea3 ,reid1 #8,essays1' vol4 iii4 p4 #aac4 ,footnote #ceb3 ,wuttke1 #8,volksaberglaube1' p4 #baj4 ,footnote #cec3 ,see chap4 xi4 ,footnote #ced3 ,d',orbigny1 #8,l',homme ,amricain1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ajb4 ,see also ,de la ,borde1 #8,caraibes1' p4 #ebe4 ,footnote #cee3 ,le ,jeune in #8,relations des ,jsuites dans la ,nouvelle ,france1' #afcd1 p4 #bf4 ,see ,charlevoix1 #8,nouvelle ,france1' vol4 ii4 p4 #agj4 ,footnote #cef3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,algic ,researches1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ed2 compare #8,tanner's ,narrative1' p4 #cag2 see also #8,prose ,edda1' i4 #aa2 #8,early ,hist4 of ,mankind1' p4 #cbg4 ,footnote #ceg3 ,prescott1 #8,peru1' vol4 i4 p4 #hf2 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 #8,comm4 ,real4' i4 c4 #ae2 iii4 c4 #ba4 ,footnote #ceh3 ,torquemada1 #8,monarquia ,indiana1' vi4 #db2 ,clavigro1 vol4 ii4 p4 #i2 ,sahagun in ,kingsborough1 #8,antiquities of ,mexico4' ,footnote #cei3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ei4 ,footnote #cfj3 ,le ,jeune1 in #8,relations des ,jsuites dans la ,nouvelle ,france1' #afci1 p4 #hh4 ,footnote #cfa3 ,froebel1 #8,central ,america1' p4 #dij4 ,footnote #cfb3 ,tac4 ,ann4 xiii4 #ee4 ,footnote #cfc3 ,stanbridge1 in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 p4 #cja4 ,footnote #cfd3 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #bie2 ,hayes1 #8,arctic ,boat ,journey1' p4 #bed4 ,footnote #cfe3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part iii4 p4 #bgf2 see also ,de la ,borde1 #8,caraibes1' p4 #ebe4 ,footnote #cff3 ,h4 ,yule in #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1' vol4 xiii4 7#ahdd71 p4 #fbh4 ,footnote #cfg3 ,origen1 de ,principiis1 i4 #g1 #c2 ,pamphil4 ,apolog4 pro ,origine1 ix4 #hd4 ,footnote #cfh3 ,de ,maistre1 #8,soires de ,saint-,ptersbourg1' vol4 ii4 p4 #baj1 see #ahd4 ,footnote #cfi3 ,kaempfer1 #8,japan1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 vii4 p4 #fhd4 ,footnote #cgj3 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bfe2 see ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 i4 p4 #adj 7,indra's elephants drinking74 ,footnote #cga3 ,chron4 ,joh4 ,bromton1 in #8,hist4 ,angl4 ,scriptores1' x4 ,ric4 ,i4 p4 #abaf4 ,footnote #cgb3 ,lane1 #8,thousand and one ,n4' vol4 i4 p4 #cj1 #g4 ,footnote #cgc3 ,krapf1 #8,travels1' p4 #aih4 ,footnote #cgd3 ,lane1 ibid4 pp4 #cj1 #db2 ,burton1 #8,el ,medinah and ,meccah1' vol4 ii4 p4 #fi2 #8,lake ,regions1' vol4 i4 p4 #big2 ,j4 ,d4 ,hooker1 #8,himalayan ,journals1' vol4 i4 p4 #gi2 ,tylor1 #8,mexico1' p4 #cj2 ,tyerman and ,bennet1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cfb4 7,hindu picha demon1 whirlwind47 ,footnote #cge3 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #aba4 ,footnote #cgf3 ,mason1 #8,karens1' in #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1' #ahfe1 part ii4 p4 #bag4 ,footnote #cgg3 ,callaway1 #8,zulu ,tales1' vol4 i4 p4 #bid4 ,footnote #cgh3 ,burton1 #8,dahome1' vol4 ii4 p4 #adh2 see #bdb4 ,footnote #cgi3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,algic ,res4' vol4 ii4 p4 #adh4 ,footnote #chj3 ,du ,chaillu1 #8,ashango-land1' p4 #ajf4 ,footnote #cha3 ,jas4 ,atkinson1 #8,customs of the ,women of ,persia1' p4 #di4 ,footnote #chb3 #b ,sam4 xxiv4 #af2 #b ,kings xix4 #ce4 ,footnote #chc3 ,g4 ,s4 ,assemanni1 #8,bibliotheca ,orientalis1' ii4 #hf4 ,footnote #chd3 ,hanusch1 #8,slav4 ,mythus1' p4 #cbb4 ,compare ,torquemada1 #8,monarquia ,indiana1' i4 c4 #ad 7,mexico72 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #aig4 ,footnote #che3 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' p4 #ceg4 ,footnote #chf3 ,markham1 #8,quichua ,gr4 and ,dic4' p4 #i4 ,footnote #chg3 ,welcker1 #8,griech4 ,gtterl4' vol4 i4 p4 #fij4 ,footnote #chh3 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #bca2 ,polack1 #8,new ,z4' vol4 i4 p4 #bgc4 ,footnote #chi3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' pp4 #fid-f4 ,footnote #cij3 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 i4 p4 #adj4 ,footnote #cia3 ,castren1 #8,finnische ,mythologie1' pp4 #dh1 #di4 ,footnote #cib3 ,delbrck in ,lazarus and ,steinthal's ,zeitschrift1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bfi4 ,footnote #cic3 ,schoolcraft1 part iii4 p4 #ebj4 ,footnote #cid3 ,sicard1 #8,thorie des ,signes1 c4' ,paris #ahjh1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fcd2 #8,personal ,recollections' by ,charlotte ,elizabeth1 ,london1 #ahda1 p4 #ahb2 ,dr4 ,orpen1 #8,the ,contrast1' p4 #be4 ,compare ,meiners1 vol4 i4 p4 #db4 ,footnote #cie3 ,le ,jeune1 in #8,rel4 des ,js4 dans la ,nouvelle ,france1' #afcd1 p4 #ac4 ,footnote #cif3 ,pietro della ,valle1 #8,viaggi1' letter xvi4 ,footnote #cig3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 ii4 p4 xxvii4 ,footnote #cih3 ,see remarks on the tendency of sex-denoting language to produce myth in ,africa1 in ,w4 ,h4 ,bleek1 #8,reynard the ,fox in ,s4 ,afr4' p4 xx42 #8,origin of ,lang4' p4 xxiii4 ,footnote #cii3 ,caldwell1 #8,comp4 ,gr4 of ,dravidian ,langs4' p4 #agb4 ,footnote #djj3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part ii4 p4 #cff4 ,for other cases see especially ,pott in ,ersch and ,gruber's #8,allg4 ,encyclop4' art4 #8,geschlecht2' also ,d4 ,forbes1 #8,persian ,gr4' p4 #bf2 ,latham1 #8,descr4 ,eth4' vol4 ii4 p4 #fj4 ,footnote #dja3 ,callaway1 #8,relig4 of ,amazulu1' p4 #aff4 ,footnote #djb3 ,grey1 #8,polyn4 ,myth4' pp4 #acb1 c41 #baa2 ,shortland1 #8,traditions of ,n4 ,z4' p4 #ae4 ,footnote #djc3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part i4 p4 #cia and pl4 #ee4 ,footnote #djd3 ,livingstone1 #8,s4 ,afr4' p4 #abd4 ,footnote #dje3 ,tac4 ,germania1 #de4 ,footnote #djf3 ,maury1 #8,magie1 c4' p4 #age4 ,footnote #djg3 ,eliot in #8,as4 ,res4' vol4 iii4 p4 #cb4 ,footnote #djh3 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' pp4 #ib1 #ii1 #ajh4 ,footnote #dji3 ,dalton1 #8,kols of ,chota-,nagpore' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vi4 p4 #cb4 ,footnote #daj3 ,j4 ,cameron1 #8,malayan ,india1' p4 #cic2 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 i4 p4 #aai2 vol4 iii4 pp4 #bfa1 #bgc2 #8,as4 ,res4' vol4 vi4 p4 #agc4 ,footnote #daa3 ,dobrizhoffer1 #8,abipones1' vol4 ii4 p4 #gg4 ,see ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrelig4' p4 #fc2 ,martius1 #8,ethn4 ,amer4' vol4 i4 p4 #feb2 ,oviedo1 #8,nicaragua1' p4 #bbi2 ,piedrahita1 #8,nuevo ,reyno de ,granada1' part i4 lib4 c4 #c4 ,footnote #dab3 ,klle1 #8,afr4 ,lit4 and ,kanuri ,vocab4' p4 #bge4 ,footnote #dac3 #8,life and ,adventures of ,nathaniel ,pearce' 7#ahaj-i71 ed4 by ,j4 ,j4 ,halls1 ,london1 #ahca1 vol4 i4 p4 #bhf2 also #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 vi4 p4 #bhh2 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ejd4 ,footnote #dad3 ,parkyns1 #8,life in ,abyssinia' 7#ahec71 vol4 ii4 p4 #adf4 ,footnote #dae3 ,du ,chaillu1 #8,ashango-land1' p4 #eb4 ,for other ,african details1 see ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cdc2 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr4' pp4 #bbb1 #cfe1 #cih2 ,burton1 #8,e4 ,afr4' p4 #eg2 ,livingstone1 #8,s4 ,afr4' pp4 #fae1 #fdb2 ,magyar1 #8,s4 ,afr4' p4 #acf4 ,footnote #daf3 ,virg4 ,bucol4 ecl4 viii4 #ie4 ,footnote #dag3 ,for collections of ,european evidence1 see ,w4 ,hertz1 #8,der ,werwolf2' ,baring-,gould1 #8,book of ,werewolves2' ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #ajdg2 ,dasent1 #8,norse ,tales1' ,introd4 p4 cxix42 ,bastian1 #8,mensch4' vol4 ii4 pp4 #cb1 #eff2 ,brand1 #8,pop4 ,ant4' vol4 i4 p4 #cab1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cb2 ,lecky1 #8,hist4 of ,rationalism1' vol4 i4 p4 #hb4 ,particular details in ,petron4 ,arbiter1 ,satir4 lxii42 ,virgil4 ,eclog4 viii4 #ig2 ,plin4 viii4 #cd2 ,herodot4 iv4 #aje2 ,mela ii4 #a2 ,augustin4 ,de ,civ4 ,dei1 xviii4 #ag2 ,hanusch1 #8,slav4 ,myth4' pp4 #bhf1 #cbj2 ,wuttke1 #8,deutsche ,volksaberglaube1' p4 #aah4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,mythology 7continued74 ,nature-myths1 their origin1 canon of interpretation1 preservation of original sense and significant names--,nature-myths of upper savage races compared with related forms among barbaric and civilized nations--,heaven and ,earth as ,universal ,parents--,sun and ,moon3 ,eclipse and ,sunset1 as ,hero or ,maiden swallowed by ,monster2 ,rising of ,sun from ,sea and ,descent to ,under-,world2 ,jaws of ,night and ,death1 ,symplegades2 ,eye of ,heaven1 ,eye of ,odin and the ,grai--,sun and ,moon as mythic civilizers--,moon1 her inconstancy1 periodical death and revival--,stars1 their generation--,constellations1 their place in ,mythology and ,astronomy--,wind and ,tempest--,thunder--,earthquake4 ,from laying down general principles of myth-development1 we may now proceed to survey the class of ,nature-myths1 such especially as seem to have their earliest source and truest meaning among the lower races of mankind4 ,science1 investigating nature1 discusses its facts and announces its laws in technical language which is clear and accurate to trained students1 but which falls only as a mystic jargon on the ears of barbarians1 or peasants1 or children4 ,it is to the comprehension of just these simple unschooled minds that the language of poetic myth is spoken1 so far at least as it is true poetry1 and not its quaint affected imitation4 ,the poet contemplates the same natural world as the man of science1 but in his so different craft strives to render difficult thought easy by making it visible and tangible1 above all by referring the being and movement of the world to such personal life as his hearers feel within themselves1 and thus working out in far-stretched fancy the maxim that #8,man is the measure of all things4' ,let but the key be recovered to this mythic dialect1 and its complex and shifting terms will translate themselves into reality1 and show how far legend1 in its sympathetic fictions of war1 love1 crime1 adventure1 fate1 is only telling the perennial story of the world's daily life4 ,the myths shaped out of those endless analogies between man and nature which are the soul of all poetry1 into those half-human stories still so full to us of unfading life and beauty1 are the masterpieces of an art belonging rather to the past than to the present4 ,the growth of myth has been checked by science1 it is dying of weights and measures1 of proportions and specimens--it is not only dying1 but half dead1 and students are anatomising it4 ,in this world one must do what one can1 and if the moderns cannot feel myth as their forefathers did1 at least they can analyse it4 ,there is a kind of intellectual frontier within which he must be who will sympathise with myth1 while he must be without who will investigate it1 and it is our fortune that we live near this frontier-line1 and can go in and out4 ,european scholars can still in a measure understand the belief of ,greeks or ,aztecs or ,maoris in their native myths1 and at the same time can compare and interpret them without the scruples of men to whom such tales are history1 and even sacred history4 ,moreover1 were the whole human race at a uniform level of culture with ourselves1 it would be hard to bring our minds to conceive of tribes in the mental state to which the early growth of nature-myth belongs1 even as it is now hard to picture to ourselves a condition of mankind lower than any that has been actually found4 ,but the various grades of existing civilization preserve the landmarks of a long course of history1 and there survive by millions savages and barbarians whose minds still produce1 in rude archaic forms1 man's early mythic representations of nature4 ,those who read for the first time the dissertations of the modern school of mythologists1 and sometimes even those who have been familiar with them for years1 are prone to ask1 with half-incredulous appreciation of the beauty and simplicity of their interpretations1 can they be really true8 ,can so great a part of the legendary lore of classic1 barbarian1 and medival ,europe be taken up with the everlasting depiction of ,sun and ,sky1 ,dawn and ,gloaming1 ,day and ,night1 ,summer and ,winter1 ,cloud and ,tempest2 can so many of the personages of tradition1 for all their heroic human aspect1 have their real origin in anthropomorphic myths of nature8 ,without any attempt to discuss these opinions at large1 it will be seen that inspection of nature-mythology from the present point of view tells in their favour1 at least as to principle4 ,the general theory that such direct conceptions of nature as are so navely and even baldly uttered in the ,veda1 are among the primary sources of myth1 is enforced by evidence gained elsewhere in the world4 ,especially the traditions of savage races display mythic conceptions of the outer world1 primitive like those of the ancient ,indian hymns1 agreeing with them in their general character1 and often remarkably corresponding in their very episodes4 ,at the same time it must be clearly understood that the truth of such a general principle is no warrant for all the particular interpretations which mythologists claim to base upon it1 for of these in fact many are wildly speculative1 and many hopelessly unsound4 ,nature-myth demands indeed a recognition of its vast importance in the legendary lore of mankind1 but only so far as its claim is backed by strong and legitimate evidence4 ,the close and deep analogies between the life of nature and the life of man have been for ages dwelt upon by poets and philosophers1 who in simile or in argument have told of light and darkness1 of calm and tempest1 of birth1 growth1 change1 decay1 dissolution1 renewal4 ,but no one-sided interpretation can be permitted to absorb into a single theory such endless many-sided correspondences as these4 ,rash inferences which on the strength of mere resemblance derive episodes of myth from episodes of nature must be regarded with utter mistrust1 for the student who has no more stringent criterion than this for his myths of sun and sky and dawn1 will find them wherever it pleases him to seek them4 ,it may be judged by simple trial what such a method may lead to2 no legend1 no allegory1 no nursery rhyme1 is safe from the hermeneutics of a thorough-going mythologic theorist4 ,should he1 for instance1 demand as his property the nursery #8,song of ,sixpence1' his claim would be easily established3 obviously the four-and-twenty blackbirds are the four-and-twenty hours1 and the pie that holds them is the underlying earth covered with the overarching sky2 how true a touch of nature it is that when the pie is opened1 that is1 when day breaks1 the birds begin to sing2 the ,king is the ,sun1 and his counting out his money is pouring out the sunshine1 the golden shower of ,danae2 the ,queen is the ,moon1 and her transparent honey the moonlight2 the ,maid is the #8rosy-fingered' ,dawn who rises before the ,sun her master1 and hangs out the clouds1 his clothes1 across the sky2 the particular blackbird who so tragically ends the tale by snipping off her nose1 is the hour of sunrise4 ,the time-honoured rhyme really wants but one thing to prove it a ,sun-myth1 that one thing being a proof by some argument more valid than analogy4 ,or if historical characters be selected with any discretion1 it is easy to point out the solar episodes embodied in their lives4 ,see ,corts landing in ,mexico1 and seeming to the ,aztecs their very ,sun-priest ,quetzalcoatl1 come back from the ,east to renew his reign of light and glory2 mark him deserting the wife of his youth1 even as the ,sun leaves the ,dawn1 and again in later life abandoning ,marina for a new bride2 watch his sun-like career of brilliant conquest1 checkered with intervals of storm1 and declining to a death clouded with sorrow and disgrace4 ,the life of ,julius ,csar would fit as plausibly into a scheme of solar myth2 his splendid course as in each new land he came1 and saw1 and conquered2 his desertion of ,cleopatra2 his ordinance of the solar year for men2 his death at the hand of ,brutus1 like ,sfrit's death at the hand of ,hagen in the ,nibelungen ,lied2 his falling pierced with many bleeding wounds1 and shrouding himself in his cloak to die in darkness4 ,of ,csar1 better than of ,cassius his slayer1 it might have been said in the language of sun-myth3 #8444 ,o setting sun1 ,as in thy red rays thou dost sink to-night1 ,so in his red blood ,cassius' day is set2 ,the sun of ,rome is set6' ,thus1 in interpreting heroic legend as based on nature-myth1 circumstantial analogy must be very cautiously appealed to1 and at any rate there is need of evidence more cogent than vague likenesses between human and cosmic life4 ,now such evidence is forthcoming at its strongest in a crowd of myths1 whose open meaning it would be wanton incredulity to doubt1 so little do they disguise1 in name or sense1 the familiar aspects of nature which they figure as scenes of personal life4 ,even where the tellers of legend may have altered or forgotten its earlier mythic meaning1 there are often sufficient grounds for an attempt to restore it4 ,in spite of change and corruption1 myths are slow to lose all consciousness of their first origin2 as for instance1 classical literature retained enough of meaning in the great ,greek sun-myth1 to compel even ,lempriere of the ,classical ,dictionary to admit that ,apollo or ,phbus #8is often confounded with the sun4' ,for another instance1 the ,greeks had still present to their thoughts the meaning of ,argos ,panoptes1 ,io's hundred-eyed1 all-seeing guard who was slain by ,hermes and changed into the ,peacock1 for ,macrobius writes as recognizing in him the star-eyed heaven itself2#dah even as ,indra1 the ,sky1 is in ,sanskrit the #8thousand-eyed' 7sahasrksha1 sahasranayana74 ,in modern times the thought is found surviving or reviving in a strange region of language3 whoever it was that brought argo as a word for #8heaven' into the ,lingua ,furbesca or ,robbers' ,jargon of ,italy1#dai must have been thinking of the starry sky watching him like ,argus with his hundred eyes4 ,the etymology of names1 moreover1 is at once the guide and safeguard of the mythologist4 ,the obvious meaning of words did much to preserve vestiges of plain sense in classic legend1 in spite of all the efforts of the commentators4 ,there was no disputing the obvious facts that ,hlios was the ,sun1 and ,seln the ,moon2 and as for ,jove1 all the nonsense of pseudo-history could not quite do away the idea that he was really ,heaven1 for language continued to declare this in such expressions as #8sub ,jove frigido4' ,the explanation of the rape of ,persephone1 as a nature-myth of the seasons and the fruits of the earth1 does not depend alone on analogy of incident1 but has the very names to prove its reality1 ,zeus1 ,hlios1 ,dmtr--,heaven1 and ,sun1 and ,mother ,earth4 ,lastly1 in stories of mythic beings who are the presiding genii of star or mountain1 tree or river1 or heroes and heroines actually metamorphosed into such objects1 personification of nature is still plainly evident2 the poet may still as of old see ,atlas bear the heavens on his mighty shoulders1 and ,alpheus in impetuous course pursue the maiden ,arethusa4 ,in a study of the nature-myths of the world1 it is hardly practicable to start from the conceptions of the very lowest human tribes1 and to work upwards from thence to fictions of higher growth2 partly because our information is but meagre as to the beliefs of these shy and seldom quite intelligible folk1 and partly because the legends they possess have not reached that artistic and systematic shape which they attain to among races next higher in the scale4 ,it therefore answers better to take as a foundation the mythology of the ,north ,american ,indians1 the ,south ,sea ,islanders1 and other low-cultured tribes who best represent in modern times the early mythologic period of human history4 ,the survey may be fitly commenced by a singularly perfect and purposeful cosmic myth from ,new ,zealand4 ,it seems long ago and often to have come into men's minds1 that the overarching ,heaven and the all-producing ,earth are1 as it were1 a ,father and a ,mother of the world1 whose offspring are the living creatures1 men1 and beasts1 and plants4 ,nowhere1 in the telling of this oft-told tale1 is present nature veiled in more transparent personification1 nowhere is the world's familiar daily life repeated with more childlike simplicity as a story of long past ages1 than in the legend of #8,the ,children of ,heaven and ,earth' written down by ,sir ,george ,grey among the ,maoris about the year #ahej4 ,from ,rangi1 the ,heaven1 and ,papa1 the ,earth1 it is said1 sprang all men and things1 but sky and earth clave together1 and darkness rested upon them and the beings they had begotten1 till at last their children took counsel whether they should rend apart their parents1 or slay them4 ,then ,tane-mahuta1 father of forests1 said to his five great brethren1 #8,it is better to rend them apart1 and to let the heaven stand far above us1 and the earth lie under our feet4 ,let the sky become as a stranger to us1 but the earth remain close to us as our nursing mother4' ,so ,rongo-ma-tane1 god and father of the cultivated food of man1 arose and strove to separate the heaven and the earth2 he struggled1 but in vain1 and vain too were the efforts of ,tangaroa1 father of fish and reptiles1 and of ,haumia-tikitiki1 father of wild-growing food1 and of ,tu-matauenga1 god and father of fierce men4 ,then slow uprises ,tane-mahuta1 god and father of forests1 and wrestles with his parents1 striving to part them with his hands and arms4 #8,lo1 he pauses2 his head is now firmly planted on his mother the earth1 his feet he raises up and rests against his father the skies1 he strains his back and limbs with mighty effort4 ,now are rent apart ,rangi and ,papa1 and with cries and groans of woe they shriek aloud4444 ,but ,tane-mahuta pauses not2 far1 far beneath him he presses down the earth2 far1 far above him he thrusts up the sky4' ,but ,tawhiri-ma-tea1 father of winds and storms1 had never consented that his mother should be torn from her lord1 and now there arose in his breast a fierce desire to war against his brethren4 ,so the ,storm-god rose and followed his father to the realms above1 hurrying to the sheltered hollows of the boundless skies1 to hide and cling and nestle there4 ,then came forth his progeny1 the mighty winds1 the fierce squalls1 the clouds1 dense1 dark1 fiery1 wildly drifting1 wildly bursting2 and in their midst their father rushed upon his foe4 ,tane-mahuta and his giant forests stood unconscious and unsuspecting when the raging hurricane burst on them1 snapping the mighty trees across1 leaving trunks and branches rent and torn upon the ground for the insect and the grub to prey on4 ,then the father of storms swooped down to lash the waters into billows whose summits rose like cliffs1 till ,tangaroa1 god of ocean and father of all that dwell therein1 fled affrighted through his seas4 ,his children1 ,ika-tere1 the father of fish1 and ,tu-te-wehiwehi1 the father of reptiles1 sought where they might escape for safety2 the father of fish cried1 #8,ho1 ho1 let us all escape to the sea1' but the father of reptiles shouted in answer1 #8,nay1 nay1 let us rather fly inland1' and so these creatures separated1 for while the fish fled into the sea1 the reptiles sought safety in the forests and scrubs4 ,but the sea-god ,tangaroa1 furious that his children the reptiles should have deserted him1 has ever since waged war on his brother ,tane who gave them shelter in his woods1 ,tane attacks him in return1 supplying the offspring of his brother ,tu-matauenga1 father of fierce men1 with canoes and spears and fish-hooks made from his trees1 and with nets woven from his fibrous plants1 that they may destroy withal the fish1 the ,sea-god's children2 and the ,sea-god turns in wrath upon the ,forest-god1 overwhelms his canoes with the surges of the sea1 sweeps with floods his trees and houses into the boundless ocean4 ,next the god of storms pushed on to attack his brothers the gods and progenitors of the tilled food and the wild1 but ,papa1 the ,earth1 caught them up and hid them1 and so safely were these her children concealed by their mother1 that the ,storm-god sought for them in vain4 ,so he fell upon the last of his brothers1 the father of fierce men1 but him he could not even shake1 though he put forth all his strength4 ,what cared ,tu-matauenga for his brother's wrath8 ,he it was who has planned the destruction of their parents1 and had shown himself brave and fierce in war2 his brethren had yielded before the tremendous onset of the ,storm-god and his progeny2 the ,forest-god and his offspring had been broken and torn in pieces2 the ,sea-god and his children had fled to the depths of the ocean or the recesses of the shore2 the gods of food had been safe in hiding2 but man still stood erect and unshaken upon the bosom of his mother ,earth1 and at last the hearts of the ,heaven and the ,storm became tranquil1 and their passion was assuaged4 ,but now ,tu-matauenga1 father of fierce men1 took thought how he might be avenged upon his brethren who had left him unaided to stand against the god of storms4 ,he twisted nooses of the leaves of the whanake tree1 and the birds and beasts1 children of ,tane the ,forest-god1 fell before him2 he netted nets from the flax-plant1 and dragged ashore the fish1 the children of ,tangaroa the ,sea-god2 he found in the hiding-place underground the children of ,rongo-ma-tane1 the sweet potato and all cultivated food1 and the children of ,haumia-tikitiki1 the fern-root and all wild-growing food1 he dug them up and let them wither in the sun4 ,yet1 though he overcame his four brothers1 and they became his food1 over the fifth he could not prevail1 and ,tawhiri-ma-tea1 the ,storm-god1 still ever attacks him in tempest and hurricane1 striving to destroy him both by sea and land4 ,it was the bursting forth of the ,storm-god's wrath against his brethren that caused the dry land to disappear beneath the waters3 the beings of ancient days who thus submerged the land were ,terrible-rain1 ,long-continued-rain1 ,fierce-hailstorms2 and their progeny were ,mist1 and ,heavy-dew1 and ,light-dew1 and thus but little of the dry land was left standing above the sea4 ,then clear light increased in the world1 and the beings who had been hidden between ,rangi and ,papa before they were parted1 now multiplied upon the earth4 #8,up to this time the vast ,heaven has still ever remained separated from his spouse the ,earth4 ,yet their mutual love still continues2 the soft warm sighs of her loving bosom still ever rise up to him1 ascending from the woody mountains and valleys1 and men call these mists2 and the vast ,heaven1 as he mourns through the long nights his separation from his beloved1 drops frequent tears upon her bosom1 and men seeing these term them dew-drops4'#dbj ,the rending asunder of heaven and earth is a far-spread ,polynesian legend1 well known in the island groups that lie away to the north-east4#dba ,its elaboration1 however1 into the myth here sketched out was probably native ,new ,zealand work4 ,nor need it be supposed that the particular form in which the ,english governor took it down among the ,maori priests and tale-tellers1 is of ancient date4 ,the story carries in itself evidence of an antiquity of character which does not necessarily belong to mere lapse of centuries4 ,just as the adzes of polished jade and the cloaks of tied flax-fibre1 which these ,new ,zealanders were using but yesterday1 are older in their place in history than the bronze battle-axes and linen mummy cloths of ancient ,egypt1 so the ,maori poet's shaping of nature into nature-myth belongs to a stage of intellectual history which was passing away in ,greece five-and-twenty centuries ago4 ,the myth-maker's fancy of ,heaven and ,earth as father and mother of all things naturally suggested the legend that they in old days abode together1 but have since been torn asunder4 ,in ,china the same idea of the universal parentage is accompanied by a similar legend of the separation4 ,whether or not there is historical connexion here between the mythology of ,polynesia and ,china1 ,i will not guess1 but certainly the ancient ,chinese legend of the separation of heaven and earth in the primval days of ,puang-,ku seems to have taken the very shape of the ,polynesian myth3 #8,some say a person called ,puang-,ku opened or separated the heavens and the earth1 they previously being pressed down close together4'#dbb ,as to the mythic details in the whole story of #8,the ,children of ,heaven and ,earth1' there is scarcely a thought that is not still transparent1 scarcely even a word that has lost its meaning to us4 ,the broken and stiffened traditions which our fathers fancied relics of ancient history1 are1 as has been truly said1 records of a past which was never present2 but the simple nature-myth1 as we find it in its actual growth1 or reconstruct it from its legendary remnants1 may be rather called the record of a present which is never past4 ,the battle of the storm against the forest and the ocean is still waged before our eyes2 we still look upon the victory of man over the creatures of the land and sea2 the food-plants still hide in their mother earth1 and the fish and reptiles find shelter in the ocean and the thicket2 but the mighty forest-trees stand with their roots firm planted in the ground1 while with their branches they push up and up against the sky4 ,and if we have learnt the secret of man's thought in the childhood of his race1 we may still realize with the savage the personal being of the ancestral ,heaven and ,earth4 ,the idea of the ,earth as a mother is more simple and obvious1 and no doubt for that reason more common in the world1 than the idea of the ,heaven as a father4 ,among the native races of ,america the ,earth-mother is one of the great personages of mythology4 ,the ,peruvians worshipped her as ,mama-,pacha or #8,mother-,earth1' and the ,caribs1 when there was an earthquake1 said that it was their mother ,earth dancing1 and signifying to them to dance and make merry likewise1 which accordingly they did4 ,among the ,north-,american ,indians the ,comanches call on the ,earth as their mother1 and the ,great ,spirit as their father4 ,a story told by ,gregg shows a somewhat different thought of mythic parentage4 ,general ,harrison once called the ,shawnee chief ,tecumseh for a talk3--#8,come here1 ,tecumseh1 and sit by your father6' he said4 #8,you my father6' replied the chief1 with a stern air4 #8,no6 yonder sun 7pointing towards it7 is my father1 and the earth is my mother1 so ,i will rest on her bosom1' and he sat down on the ground4 ,like this was the ,aztec fancy1 as it seems from this passage in a ,mexican prayer to ,tezcatlipoca1 offered in time of war3 #8,be pleased1 ,o our ,lord1 that the nobles who shall die in the war be peacefully and joyously received by the ,sun and the ,earth1 who are the loving father and mother of all4'#dbc ,in the mythology of ,finns1 ,lapps1 and ,esths1 ,earth-,mother is a divinely honoured personage4#dbd ,through the mythology of our own country the same thought may be traced1 from the days when the ,anglo-,saxon called upon the ,earth1 #8,hl wes thu folde1 fira modor1' #8,hail thou ,earth1 men's mother1' to the time when medival ,englishmen made a riddle of her1 asking #8,who is ,adam's mother8' and poetry continued what mythology was letting fall1 when ,milton's archangel promised ,adam a life to last #8444 till like ripe fruit1 thou drop ,into thy mother's lap4'#dbe ,among the ,aryan race1 indeed1 there stands1 wide and firm1 the double myth of the #8two great parents1' as the ,rig-,veda calls them4 ,they are ,dyaushpitar1 1 ,jupiter1 the #8,heaven-father1' and ,prthiv mtar1 the #8,earth-mother2' and their relation is still kept in mind in the ordinance of ,brahman marriage according to the ,yajur-,veda1 where the bridegroom says to the bride1 #8,i am the sky1 thou art the earth1 come let us marry4' ,when ,greek poets called ,ouranos and ,gaia1 or ,zeus and ,dmtr1 husband and wife1 what they meant was the union of ,heaven and ,earth2 and when ,plato said that the earth brought forth men1 but ,god was their shaper1 the same old mythic thought must have been present to his mind4#dbf ,it reappears in ancient ,scythia2#dbg and again in ,china1 where ,heaven and ,earth are called in the ,shu-,king #8,father and ,mother of all things4' ,chinese philosophy naturally worked this idea into the scheme of the two great principles of nature1 the ,yin and ,yang1 male and female1 heavenly and earthly1 and from this disposition of nature they drew a practical moral lesson3 ,heaven1 said the philosophers of the ,sung dynasty1 made man1 and earth made woman and therefore woman is to be subject to man as ,earth to ,heaven4#dbh ,entering next upon the world-wide myths of ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,stars1 the regularity and consistency of human imagination may be first displayed in the beliefs connected with eclipses4 ,it is well known that these phenomena1 to us now crucial instances of the exactness of natural laws1 are1 throughout the lower stages of civilization1 the very embodiment of miraculous disaster4 ,among the native races of ,america it is possible to select a typical series of myths describing and explaining1 according to the rules of savage philosophy1 these portents of dismay4 ,the ,chiquitos of the southern continent thought the ,moon was hunted across the sky by huge dogs1 who caught and tore her till her light was reddened and quenched by the blood flowing from her wounds1 and then the ,indians1 raising a frightful howl and lamentation1 would shoot across into the sky to drive the monsters off4 ,the ,caribs1 thinking that the demon ,maboya1 hater of all light1 was seeking to devour the ,sun and ,moon1 would dance and howl in concert all night long to scare him away4 ,the ,peruvians1 imagining such an evil spirit in the shape of a monstrous beast1 raised the like frightful din when the ,moon was eclipsed1 shouting1 sounding musical instruments1 and beating the dogs to join their howls to the hideous chorus4 ,nor are such ideas extinct in our own days4 ,in the ,tupi language1 the proper description of a solar eclipse is #8oarasu jaguaret v1' that is1 #8,jaguar has eaten ,sun2' and the full meaning of this phrase is displayed by tribes who still shout and let fly burning arrows to drive the devouring beast from his prey4 ,on the northern continent1 again1 some savages believed in a great sun-swallowing dog1 while others would shoot up arrows to defend their luminaries against the enemies they fancied attacking them4 ,by the side of these prevalent notions there occur1 however1 various others2 thus the ,caribs could imagine the eclipsed ,moon hungry1 sick1 or dying2 the ,peruvians could fancy the ,sun angry and hiding his face1 and the sick ,moon likely to fall in total darkness1 and bring on the end of the world2 the ,hurons thought the ,moon sick1 and explained their customary charivari of shouting men and howling dogs as performed to recover her from her complaint4 ,passing on from these most primitive conceptions1 it appears that natives of both ,south and ,north ,america fell upon philosophic myths somewhat nearer the real facts of the case1 insomuch as they admit that the ,sun and ,moon cause eclipses of one another4 ,in ,cumana1 men thought that the wedded ,sun and ,moon quarrelled1 and that one of them was wounded2 and the ,ojibwas endeavoured by tumultuous noise to distract the two from such a conflict4 ,the course of progressive science went far beyond this among the ,aztecs1 who1 as part of their remarkable astronomical knowledge1 seem to have had an idea of the real cause of eclipses1 but who kept up a relic of the old belief by continuing to speak in mythologic phrase of the ,sun and ,moon being eaten4#dbi ,elsewhere in the lower culture1 there prevailed similar mythic conceptions4 ,in the ,south ,sea ,islands some supposed the ,sun and ,moon to be swallowed by an offended deity1 whom they therefore induced1 by liberal offerings1 to eject the luminaries from his stomach4#dcj ,in ,sumatra we have the comparatively scientific notion that an eclipse has to do with the action of the ,sun and ,moon on one another1 and1 accordingly1 they make a loud noise with sounding instruments to prevent the one from devouring the other4#dca ,so1 in ,africa1 there may be found both the rudest theory of the ,eclipse-monster1 and the more advanced conception that a solar eclipse is #8the ,moon catching the ,sun4'#dcb ,it is no cause for wonder that an aspect of the heavens so awful as an eclipse should in times of astronomic ignorance have filled men's minds with terror of a coming destruction of the world4 ,it may help us still to realize this thought if we consider how1 as ,calmet pointed out many years ago1 the prophet ,joel adopted the plainest words of description of the solar and lunar eclipse1 #8,the sun shall be turned into darkness and the moon into blood2' nor could the thought of any catastrophe of nature have brought his hearers face to face with a more lurid and awful picture4 ,but to our minds1 now that the eclipse has long passed from the realm of mythology into the realm of science1 such words can carry but a feeble glimmer of their early meaning4 ,the ancient doctrine of the eclipse has not indeed lost its whole interest4 ,to trace it upward from its early savage stages to the period when astronomy claimed it1 and to follow the course of the ensuing conflict over it between theology and science--ended among ourselves but still being sluggishly fought out among less cultured nations--this is to lay open a chapter of the history of opinion1 from which the student who looks forward as well as back may learn grave lessons4 ,there is reason to consider most or all civilized nations to have started from the myth of the ,eclipse-monster in forms as savage as those of the ,new ,world4 ,it prevails still among the great ,asiatic nations4 ,the ,hindus say that the demon ,rhu insinuated himself among the gods1 and obtained a portion of the amrita1 the drink of immortality2 ,vishnu smote off the now immortal head1 which still pursues the ,sun and ,moon whose watchful gaze detected his presence in the divine assembly4 ,another version of the myth is that there are two demons1 ,rhu and ,ketu1 who devour ,sun and ,moon respectively1 and who are described in conformity with the phenomena of eclipses1 ,rhu being black1 and ,ketu red2 the usual charivari is raised by the populace to drive them off1 though indeed1 as their bodies have been cut off at the neck1 their prey must of natural course slip out as soon as swallowed4 ,or ,rhu and ,ketu are the head and body of the dissevered demon1 by which conception the ,eclipse-monster is most ingeniously adapted to advanced astronomy1 the head and tail being identified with the ascending and descending nodes4 ,the following remarks on the eclipse-controversy1 made by ,mr4 ,samuel ,davis a century ago in the ,asiatick ,researches1 are still full of interest4 #8,it is evident1 from what has been explained1 that the ,pndits1 learned in the ,jyotish shastr1 have truer notions of the form of earth and the economy of the universe than are ascribed to the ,hindoos in general3 and that they must reject the ridiculous belief of the common ,brahmns1 that eclipses are occasioned by the intervention of the monster ,rahoo1 with many other particulars equally unscientific and absurd4 ,but as this belief is founded on explicit and positive declarations contained in the vds and pooranus1 the divine authority of which writings no devout ,hindoo can dispute1 the astronomers have some of them cautiously explained such passages in those writings as disagree with the principles of their own science3 and where reconciliation was impossible1 have apologized1 as well as they could1 for propositions necessarily established in the practice of it1 by observing1 that certain things1 as stated in other shastrs1 might have been so formerly1 and may be so still2 but for astronomical purposes1 astronomical rules must be followed4'#dcc ,it is not easy to give a more salient example than this of the consequence of investing philosophy with the mantle of religion1 and allowing priests and scribes to convert the childlike science of an early age into the sacred dogma of a late one4 ,asiatic peoples under ,buddhist influence show the eclipse-myth in its different stages4 ,the rude ,mongols make a clamour of rough music to drive the attacking ,aracho 7,rhu7 from ,sun or ,moon4 ,a ,buddhist version mentioned by ,dr4 ,bastian describes ,indra the ,heaven-god pursuing ,rhu with his thunderbolt1 and ripping open his belly1 so that although he can swallow the heavenly bodies1 he lets them slip out again4#dcd ,the more civilized nations of ,south-,east ,asia1 accepting the eclipse-demons ,rhu and ,ketu1 were not quite staggered in their belief by the foreigners' power of foretelling eclipses1 nor even by learning roughly to do the same themselves4 ,the ,chinese have official announcement of an eclipse duly made beforehand1 and then proceed to encounter the ominous monster1 when he comes1 with gongs and bells and the regularly appointed prayers4 ,travellers of a century or two ago relate curious details of such combined belief in the dragon and the almanac1 culminating in an ingenious argument to account for the accuracy of the ,europeans' predictions4 ,these clever people1 the ,siamese said1 know the monster's mealtimes1 and can tell how hungry he will be1 that is1 how large an eclipse will be required to satisfy him4#dce ,in ,europe popular mythology kept up ideas1 either of a fight of sun or moon with celestial enemies1 or of the moon's fainting or sickness2 and especially remnants of such archaic belief are manifested in the tumultuous clamour raised in defence or encouragement of the afflicted luminary4 ,the ,romans flung firebrands into the air1 and blew trumpets1 and clanged brazen pots and pans1 #8laboranti succurrere lunae4' ,tacitus1 relating the story of the soldiers' mutiny against ,tiberius1 tells how their plan was frustrated by the moon suddenly languishing in a clear sky 7luna claro repente coelo visa languescere73 in vain by clang of brass and blast of trumpet they strove to drive away the darkness1 for clouds came up and covered all1 and the plotters saw1 lamenting1 that the gods turned away from their crime4#dcf ,in the period of the conversion of ,europe1 ,christian teachers began to attack the pagan superstition1 and to urge that men should no longer clamour and cry #8vince luna6' to aid the moon in her sore danger2 and at last there came a time when the picture of the sun or moon in the dragon's mouth became a mere old-fashioned symbol to represent eclipses in the calendar1 and the saying1 #8,dieu garde la lune des loups' passed into a mocking proverb against fear of remote danger4 ,yet the ceremonial charivari is mentioned in our own country in the seventeenth century3 #8,the ,irish or ,welsh during eclipses run about beating kettles and pans1 thinking their clamour and vexations available to the assistance of the higher orbes4' ,in #afed ,nuremberg went wild with terror of an impending solar eclipse2 the markets ceased1 the churches were crowded with penitents1 and a record of the event remains in the printed thanksgiving which was issued 7,danckgebeth nach vergangener hchstbedrohlich und hochschdlicher ,sonnenfinstenuss71 which gives thanks to the ,almighty for granting to poor terrified sinners the grace of covering the sky with clouds1 and sparing them the sight of the awful sign in heaven4 ,in our own times1 a writer on ,french folklore was surprised during a lunar eclipse to hear sighs and exclamations1 #8,mon ,dieu1 qu'elle est souffrante6' and found on enquiry that the poor moon was believed to be the prey of some invisible monster seeking to devour her4#dcg ,no doubt such late survivals have belonged in great measure to the ignorant crowd1 for the educated classes of the ,west have never suffered in its extreme the fatal ,chinese union of scepticism and superstition4 ,yet if it is our mood to bewail the slowness with which knowledge penetrates the mass of mankind1 there stand dismal proofs before us here4 ,the eclipse remained an omen of fear almost up to our own century1 and could rout a horror-stricken army1 and fill ,europe with dismay1 a thousand years after ,pliny had written in memorable words his eulogy of the astronomers2 those great men1 he said1 and above ordinary mortals1 who1 by discovering the laws of the heavenly bodies1 had freed the miserable mind of men from terror at the portents of eclipses4 ,day is daily swallowed up by ,night1 to be set free again at dawn1 and from time to time suffers a like but shorter durance in the maw of the ,eclipse and the ,storm-cloud2 ,summer is overcome and prisoned by dark ,winter1 to be again set free4 ,it is a plausible opinion that such scenes from the great nature-drama of the conflict of light and darkness are1 generally speaking1 the simple facts1 which in many lands and ages have been told in mythic shape1 as legends of a ,hero or maiden devoured by a ,monster1 and hacked out again or disgorged4 ,the myths just displayed show with absolute distinctness1 that myth can describe eclipse as the devouring and setting free of the personal sun and moon by a monster4 ,the following ,maori legend will supply proof as positive that the episode of the ,sun's or the ,day's death in sunset may be dramatized into a tale of a personal solar hero plunging into the body of the personal ,night4 ,maui1 the ,new ,zealand cosmic hero1 at the end of his glorious career came back to his father's country1 and was told that here1 perhaps1 he might be overcome1 for here dwelt his mighty ancestress1 ,hine-nui-te-po1 ,great-,daughter-of-,night1 whom #8you may see flashing1 and as it were opening and shutting there1 where the horizon meets the sky2 what you see yonder shining so brightly-red1 are her eyes1 and her teeth are as sharp and hard as pieces of volcanic glass2 her body is like that of a man2 and as for the pupils of her eyes1 they are jasper2 and her hair is like the tangles of long sea-weed1 and her mouth is like that of a barra-couta4' ,maui boasted of his former exploits1 and said1 #8,let us fearlessly seek whether men are to die or live for ever2' but his father called to mind an evil omen1 that when he was baptizing ,maui he had left out part of the fitting prayers1 and therefore he knew that his son must perish4 ,yet he said1 #8,o1 my last-born1 and the strength of my old age1 444 be bold1 go and visit your great ancestress1 who flashes so fiercely there where the edge of the horizon meets the sky4' ,then the birds came to ,maui to be his companions in the enterprise1 and it was evening when they went with him1 and they came to the dwelling of ,hine-nui-te-po1 and found her fast asleep4 ,maui charged the birds not to laugh when they saw him creep into the old chieftainess1 but when he had got altogether inside her1 and was coming out of her mouth1 then they might laugh long and loud4 ,so ,maui stripped off his clothes1 and the skin on his hips1 tattooed by the chisel of ,uetonga1 looked mottled and beautiful1 like a mackerel's1 as he crept in4 ,the birds kept silence1 but when he was in up to his waist1 the little tiwakawaka could hold its laughter in no longer1 and burst out loud with its merry note2 then ,maui's ancestress awoke1 closed on him and caught him tight1 and he was killed4 ,thus died ,maui1 and thus death came into the world1 for ,hine-nui-te-po is the goddess both of night and death1 and had ,maui entered into her body and passed safely through her1 men would have died no more4 ,the ,new ,zealanders hold that the ,sun descends at night into his cavern1 bathes in the ,wai ,ora ,tane1 the ,water of ,life1 and returns at dawn from the under-world2 hence we may interpret the thought that if ,man could likewise descend into ,hades and return1 his race would be immortal4#dch ,further evidence that ,hine-nui-te-po is the deity of ,night or ,hades1 appears in another ,new ,zealand myth4 ,tane1 descending to the shades below in pursuit of his wife1 comes to the ,night 7,po7 of ,hine-a-te-po1 ,daughter-of-,night1 who says to him1 #8,i have spoken thus to her 8,return from this place1 as ,i1 ,hine-a-te-po1 am here4 ,i am the barrier between night and day40'#dci ,it is seldom that solar characteristics are more distinctly marked in the several details of a myth than they are here4 ,in the list of myths of engulfing monsters1 there are others which seem to display1 with a clearness almost approaching this1 an origin suggested by the familiar spectacle of ,day and ,night1 or ,light and ,darkness4 ,the simple story of the ,day may well be told in the ,karen tale of ,ta ,ywa1 who was born a tiny child1 and went to the ,sun to make him grow2 the ,sun tried in vain to destroy him by rain and heat1 and then blew him up large till his head touched the sky2 then he went forth and travelled from his home far over the earth2 and among the adventures which befell him was this--a snake swallowed him1 but they ripped the creature up1 and ,ta ,ywa came back to life1#ddj like the ,sun from the ripped up serpent-demon in the ,buddhist eclipse-myth4 ,in ,north ,american ,indian mythology1 a principal personage is ,manabozho1 an ,algonquin hero or deity whose solar character is well brought into view in an ,ottawa myth which tells us that ,manabozho 7whom it calls ,na-na-bou-jou7 is the elder brother of ,ning-gah-be-ar-nong ,manito1 the ,spirit of the ,west1 god of the country of the dead in the region of the setting sun4 ,manabozho's solar nature is again revealed in the story of his driving the ,west1 his father1 across mountain and lake to the brink of the world1 though he cannot kill him4 ,this sun-hero ,manabozho1 when he angled for the ,king of ,fishes1 was swallowed1 canoe and all2 then he smote the monster's heart with his war-club till he would fain have cast him up into the lake again1 but the hero set his canoe fast across the fish's throat inside1 and finished slaying him2 when the dead monster drifted ashore1 the gulls pecked an opening for ,manabozho to come out4 ,this is a story familiar to ,english readers from its introduction into the poem of ,hiawatha4 ,in another version1 the tale is told of the ,little ,monedo of the ,ojibwas1 who also corresponds with the ,new ,zealand ,maui in being the ,sun-,catcher2 among his various prodigies1 he is swallowed by the great fish1 and cut out again by his sister4#dda ,south ,africa is a region where there prevail myths which seem to tell the story of the world imprisoned in the monster ,night1 and delivered by the dawning ,sun4 ,the ,basutos have their myth of the hero ,litaolane2 he came to man's stature and wisdom at his birth2 all mankind save his mother and he had been devoured by a monster2 he attacked the creature and was swallowed whole1 but cutting his way out he set free all the inhabitants of the world4 ,the ,zulus tell stories as pointedly suggestive4 ,a mother follows her children into the maw of the great elephant1 and finds forests and rivers and highlands1 and dogs and cattle1 and people who had built their villages there2 a description which is simply that of the ,zulu ,hades4 ,when the ,princess ,untombinde was carried off by the ,isikqukqumadevu1 the #8bloated1 squatting1 bearded monster1' the ,king gathered his army and attacked it1 but it swallowed up men1 and dogs1 and cattle1 all but one warrior2 he slew the monster1 and there came out cattle1 and horses1 and men1 and last of all the princess herself4 ,the stories of these monsters being cut open imitate1 in graphic savage fashion1 the cries of the imprisoned creatures as they came back from darkness into daylight4 #8,there came out first a fowl1 it said1 8,kukuluku6 ,i see the world60 ,for1 for a long time it had been without seeing it4 ,after the fowl there came out a man1 he said 8,hau6 ,i at length see the world60' and so on with the rest4#ddb ,the well-known modern interpretation of the myth of ,perseus and ,andromeda1 or of ,herakles and ,hesione1 as a description of the ,sun slaying the ,darkness1 has its connexion with this group of legends4 ,it is related in a remarkable version of this story1 that when the ,trojan ,king ,laomedon had bound his daughter ,hesione to the rock1 a sacrifice to ,poseidon's destroying sea-monster1 ,herakles delivered the maiden1 springing full-armed into the fish's gaping throat1 and coming forth hairless after three days' hacking within4 ,this singular story1 probably in part of ,semitic origin1 combines the ordinary myth of ,hesione or ,andromeda with the story of ,jonah's fish1 for which indeed the ,greek sculpture of ,andromeda's monster served as the model in early ,christian art1 while ,joppa was the place where vestiges of ,andromeda's chains on a rock in front of the town were exhibited in ,pliny's time1 and whence the bones of a whale were carried to ,rome as relics of ,andromeda's monster4 ,to recognize the place which the nature-myth of the ,man swallowed by the ,monster occupies in mythology1 among remote and savage races and onward among the higher nations1 affects the argument on a point of ,biblical criticism4 ,it strengthens the position of the critics who1 seeing that the ,book of ,jonah consists of two wonder-episodes adapted to enforce two great religious lessons1 no longer suppose intention of literal narrative in what they may fairly consider as the most elaborate parable of the ,old ,testament4 ,had the ,book of ,jonah happened to be lost in old times1 and only recently recovered1 it is indeed hardly likely that any other opinion of it than this would find acceptance among scholars4#ddc ,the conception of ,hades as a monster swallowing men in death1 was actually familiar to ,christian thought4 ,thus1 to take instances from different periods1 the account of the ,descent into ,hades in the ,apocryphal ,gospel of ,nicodemus makes ,hades speak in his proper personality1 complaining that his belly is in pain1 when the ,saviour is to descend and set free the saints imprisoned in it from the beginning of the world2 and in medival representations of this deliverance1 the so-called #8,harrowing of ,hell1' ,christ is depicted standing before a huge fish-like monster's open jaws1 whence ,adam and ,eve are coming forth first of mankind4#ddd ,with even more distinctness of mythical meaning1 the man-devouring monster is introduced in the ,scandinavian ,eireks-,saga4 ,eirek1 journeying toward ,paradise1 comes to a stone bridge guarded by a dragon1 and entering into its maw1 finds that he has arrived in the world of bliss4#dde ,but in another wonder-tale1 belonging to that legendary growth which formed round early ,christian history1 no such distinguishable remnant of nature-myth survives4 ,st4 ,margaret1 daughter of a priest of ,antioch1 had been cast into a dungeon1 and there ,satan came upon her in the form of a dragon and swallowed her alive3 #8,maiden ,mergrete tho ,loked her beside1 ,and sees a loathly dragon1 ,out of an hirn glide3 ,his eyen were full griesly1 ,his mouth opened wide1 ,and ,margrete might no where flee ,there she must abide1 ,maiden ,margrete ,stood still as any stone1 ,and that loathly worm1 ,to her-ward gan gone ,took her in his foul mouth1 ,and swallowed her flesh and bone4 ,anon he brast--,damage hath she none6 ,maiden ,mergrete ,upon the dragon stood2 ,blyth was her harte1 ,and joyful was her mood4'#ddf ,stories belonging to the same group are not unknown to ,european folk-lore4 ,one is the story of ,little ,red ,ridinghood1 mutilated in the ,english nursery version1 but known more perfectly by old wives in ,germany1 who can tell that the lovely little maid in her shining red satin cloak was swallowed with her grandmother by the ,wolf1 but they both came out safe and sound when the hunter cut open the sleeping beast4 ,any one who can fancy with prince ,hal1 #8the blessed sun himself a fair hot wench in flame-coloured taffeta1' and can then imagine her swallowed up by ,skll1 the ,sun-devouring ,wolf of ,scandinavian mythology1 may be inclined to class the tale of ,little ,red ,ridinghood as a myth of sunset and sunrise4 ,there is indeed another story in ,grimm's ,mrchen1 partly the same as this one1 which we can hardly doubt to have a quaint touch of sun-myth in it4 ,it is called the ,wolf and ,seven ,kids1 and tells of the ,wolf swallowing the kids all but the youngest of the seven1 who was hidden in the clock-case4 ,as in ,little ,red ,ridinghood1 they cut open the ,wolf and fill him with stones4 ,this tale1 which took its present shape since the invention of clocks1 looks as though the tale-teller was thinking1 not of real kids and wolf1 but of days of the week swallowed by night1 or how should he have hit upon such a fancy as that the wolf could not get at the youngest of the seven kids1 because it was hidden 7like to-day7 in the clock case8#ddg ,it may be worth while to raise the question apropos of this nursery tale1 does the peasant folk-lore of modern ,europe really still display episodes of nature-myth1 not as mere broken-down and senseless fragments1 but in full shape and significance8 ,in answer it will be enough to quote the story of ,vasilissa the ,beautiful1 brought forward by ,mr4 ,w4 ,ralston in one of his lectures on ,russian ,folk-lore4 ,vasilissa's stepmother and two sisters1 plotting against her life1 send her to get a light at the house of ,bba ,yag1 the witch1 and her journey contains the following history of the ,day1 told in truest mythic fashion4 ,vasilissa goes and wanders1 wanders in the forest4 ,she goes1 and she shudders4 ,suddenly before her bounds a rider1 he himself white1 and clad in white1 the horse under him white1 and the trappings white4 ,and day began to dawn4 ,she goes farther1 when a second rider bounds forth1 himself red1 clad in red1 and on a red horse4 ,the sun began to rise4 ,she goes on all day1 and towards evening arrives at the witch's house4 ,suddenly there comes again a rider1 himself black1 clad all in black1 and on a black horse2 he bounded to the gates of the ,bba ,yag and disappeared as if he had sunk through the earth4 ,night fell4 ,after this1 when ,vasilissa asks the witch1 who was the white rider1 she answers1 #8,that is my clear ,day2' who was the red rider1 #8,that is my red ,sun2' who was the black rider1 #8,that is my black ,night2 they are all my trusty friends4' ,now1 considering that the story of ,little ,red ,ridinghood belongs to the same class of folk-lore tales as this story of ,vasilissa the ,beautiful1 we need not be afraid to seek in the one for traces of the same archaic type of nature-myth which the other not only keeps up1 but keeps up with the fullest consciousness of meaning4 ,the development of nature-myth into heroic legend seems to have taken place among the barbaric tribes of the ,south ,sea ,islands and ,north ,america much as it took place among the ancestors of the classic nations of the ,old ,world4 ,we are not to expect accurate consistency or proper sequence of episodes in the heroic cycles1 but to judge from the characteristics of the episodes themselves as to the ideas which suggested them4 ,as regards the less cultured races1 a glance at two legendary cycles1 one from ,polynesia and the other from ,north ,america1 will serve to give an idea of the varieties of treatment of phases of sun-myth4 ,the ,new ,zealand myth of ,maui1 mixed as it may be with other fancies1 is in its most striking features the story of ,day and ,night4 ,the story of the ,sun's birth from the ocean is thus told4 ,there were five brothers1 all called ,maui1 and it was the youngest ,maui who had been thrown into the sea by ,taranga his mother1 and rescued by his ancestor ,tama-nui-ki-te-,rangi1 ,great-,man-in-,heaven1 who took him to his house1 and hung him in the roof4 ,then is given in fanciful personality the tale of the vanishing of ,night at dawn4 ,one night1 when ,taranga came home1 she found little ,maui with his brothers1 and when she knew her last-born1 the child of her old age1 she took him to sleep with her1 as she had been used to take the other ,mauis his brothers1 before they were grown up4 ,but the little ,maui grew vexed and suspicious1 when he found that every morning his mother rose at dawn and disappeared from the house in a moment1 not to return till nightfall4 ,so one night he crept out and stopped every crevice in the wooden window and the doorway1 that the day might not shine into the house2 then broke the faint light of early dawn1 and then the sun rose and mounted into the heavens1 but ,taranga slept on1 for she knew not it was broad day outside4 ,at last she sprang up1 pulled out the stopping of the chinks1 and fled in dismay4 ,then ,maui saw her plunge into a hole in the ground and disappear1 and thus he found the deep cavern by which his mother went down below the earth as each night departed4 ,after this1 follows the episode of ,maui's visit to his ancestress ,muri-ranga-whenua1 at that western ,land's ,end where ,maori souls descend into the subterranean region of the dead4 ,she sniffs as he comes towards her1 and distends herself to devour him1 but when she has sniffed round from south by east to north1 she smells his coming by the western breeze1 and so knows that he is a descendant of hers4 ,he asks for her wondrous jawbone1 she gives it to him1 and it is his weapon in his next exploit when he catches the sun1 ,tama-nui-te-,ra1 ,great-,man-,sun1 in the noose1 and wounds him and makes him go slowly4 ,with a fishhook pointed with the miraculous jawbone1 and smeared with his own blood for bait1 ,maui next performs his most famous feat of fishing up ,new ,zealand1 still called ,te-,ika-a-,maui1 the fish of ,maui4 ,to understand this1 we must compare the various versions of the story in these and other ,pacific ,islands1 which show that it is a general myth of the rising of dry land from beneath the ocean4 ,it is said elsewhere that it was ,maui's grandfather1 ,rangi-,whenua1 ,heaven-,earth1 who gave the jawbone4 ,more distinctly1 it is also said that ,maui had two sons1 whom he slew when young to take their jawbones2 now these two sons must be the ,morning and ,evening1 for ,maui made the morning and evening stars from an eye of each2 and it was with the jawbone of the eldest that he drew up the land from the deep4 ,it is related that when ,maui pulled up his fish1 he found it was land1 on which were houses1 and stages on which to put food1 and dogs barking1 and fires burning1 and people working4 ,it appears1 moreover1 that the submarine region out of which the land was lifted was the under-world of ,night1 for ,maui's hook had caught the gable of the house of ,hine-nui-te-po1 ,great-,daughter-of-,night1 and when the land came up her house was on it1 and she was standing near4 ,another ,maori legend tells how ,maui takes fire in his hands1 it burns him1 and he springs with it into the sea3 #8,when he sank in the waters1 the sun for the first time set1 and darkness covered the earth4 ,when he found that all was night1 he immediately pursued the sun1 and brought him back in the morning4' ,when ,maui carried or flung the fire into the sea1 he set a volcano burning4 ,it is told1 again1 that when ,maui had put out all fires on earth1 his mother sent him to get new fire from her ancestress ,mahuika4 ,the ,tongans1 in their version of the myth1 relate how the youngest ,maui discovers the cavern that leads to ,bulotu1 the west-land of the dead1 and how his father1 another ,maui1 sends him to the yet older ,maui who sits by his great fire2 the two wrestle1 and ,maui brings away fire for men1 leaving the old earthquake-god lying crippled below4 ,the legendary group thus dramatizes the birth of the sun from the ocean and the departure of the night1 the extinction of the light at sunset and its return at dawn1 and the descent of the sun to the western ,hades1 the under-world of night and death1 which is incidentally identified with the region of subterranean fire and earthquake4 ,here1 indeed1 the characteristics of true nature-myth are not indistinctly marked1 and ,maui's death by his ancestress the ,night fitly ends his solar career4#ddh ,it is a sunset-story1 very differently conceived1 that begins the beautiful ,north ,american ,indian myth of the ,red ,swan4 ,the story belongs to the ,algonquin race4 ,the hunter ,ojibwa had just killed a bear and begun to skin him1 when suddenly something red tinged all the air around4 ,reaching the shore of a lake1 the ,indian saw it was a beautiful red swan1 whose plumage glittered in the sun4 ,in vain the hunter shot his shafts1 for the bird floated unharmed and unheeding1 but at last he remembered three magic arrows at home1 which had been his father's4 ,the first and second arrow flew near and nearer1 the third struck the swan1 and flapping its wings1 it flew off slowly towards the sinking of the sun4 ,with full sense of the poetic solar meaning of this episode ,longfellow has adapted it as a sunset picture1 in one of his ,indian poems3 #8,can it be the sun descending ,o'er the level plain of water8 ,or the ,red ,swan floating1 flying1 ,wounded by the magic arrow1 ,staining all the waves with crimson1 ,with the crimson of its life-blood1 ,filling all the air with splendour1 ,with the splendour of its plumage8' ,the story goes on to tell how the hunter speeds westward in pursuit of the ,red ,swan4 ,at lodges where he rests1 they tell him she has often passed there1 but those who followed her have never returned4 ,she is the daughter of an old magician who has lost his scalp1 which ,ojibwa succeeds in recovering for him and puts back on his head1 and the old man rises from the earth1 no longer aged and decrepit1 but splendid in youthful glory4 ,ojibwa departs1 and the magician calls forth the beautiful maiden1 now not his daughter but his sister1 and gives her to his victorious friend4 ,it was in after days1 when ,ojibwa had gone home with his bride1 that he travelled forth1 and coming to an opening in the earth1 descended and came to the abode of departed spirits2 there he could behold the bright western region of the good1 and the dark cloud of wickedness4 ,but the spirits told him that his brethren at home were quarrelling for the possession of his wife1 and at last1 after long wandering1 this ,red ,indian ,odysseus returned to his mourning constant ,penelope1 laid the magic arrows to his bow1 and stretched the wicked suitors dead at his feet4#ddi ,thus savage legends from ,polynesia and ,america1 possibly indeed shaped under ,european influence1 agree with the theory#dej that ,odysseus visiting the ,elysian fields1 or ,orpheus descending to the land of ,hades to bring back the #8wide-shining' ,eurydik1 are but the ,sun himself descending to1 and ascending from1 the world below4 ,where ,night and ,hades take personal shape in myth1 we may expect to find conceptions like that simply shown in a ,sanskrit word for evening1 #8rajanmukha1' i4e41 #8mouth of night4' ,thus the ,scandinavians told of ,hel the death-goddess1 with mouth gaping like the mouth of ,fenrir her brother1 the moon-devouring wolf2 and an old ,german poem describes ,hell's abyss yawning from heaven to earth3 #8der was der ,hellen gelch diu daz abgrunde begenit mit ir munde unde den himel zuo der erden4'#dea ,the sculptures on cathedrals still display for the terror of the wicked the awful jaws of ,death1 the mouth of ,hell wide yawning to swallow its victims4 ,again1 where barbaric cosmology accepts the doctrine of a firmament arching above the earth1 and of an under world whither the sun descends when he sets and man when he dies1 here the conception of gates or portals1 whether really or metaphorically meant1 has its place4 ,such is the great gate which the ,gold ,coast negro describes the ,heaven as opening in the morning for the ,sun2 such were the ancient ,greek's gates of ,hades1 and the ancient ,jew's gates of ,sheol4 ,there are three mythic descriptions connected with these ideas found among the ,karens1 the ,algonquins1 and the ,aztecs1 which are deserving of special notice4 ,the ,karens of ,burma1 a race among whom ideas are in great measure borrowed from the more cultured ,buddhists they have been in contact with1 have precedence here for the distinctness of their statement4 ,they say that in the west there are two massive strata of rocks which are continually opening and shutting1 and between these strata the sun descends at sunset1 but how the upper stratum is supported1 no one can describe4 ,the idea comes well into view in the description of a ,bghai festival1 where sacrificed fowls are thus addressed1--#8,the seven heavens1 thou ascendest to the top2 the seven earths1 thou descendest to the bottom4 ,thou arrivest at ,khu-the2 thou goest unto ,tha-ma i4e41 ,yama1 the ,judge of the ,dead in ,hades4 ,thou goest through the crevices of rocks1 thou goest through the crevices of precipices4 ,at the opening and shutting of the western gates of rock1 thou goest in between2 thou goest below the earth where the ,sun travels4 ,i employ thee1 ,i exhort thee4 ,i make thee a messenger1 ,i make thee an angel1 c4'#deb ,passing from ,burma to the region of the ,north ,american lakes1 we find a corresponding description in the ,ottawa tale of ,iosco1 already quoted here for its clearly marked personification of ,sun and ,moon4 ,this legend1 though modern in some of its description of the ,europeans1 their ships1 and their far-off land across the sea1 is evidently founded on a myth of ,day and ,night4 ,iosco seems to be ,ioskeha1 the ,white ,one1 whose contest with his brother ,tawiscara1 the ,dark ,one1 is an early and most genuine ,huron nature-myth of ,day and ,night4 ,iosco and his friends travel for years eastward and eastward to reach the sun1 and come at last to the dwelling of ,manabozho near the edge of the world1 and then1 a little beyond1 to the chasm to be passed on the way to the land of the ,sun and ,moon4 ,they began to hear the sound of the beating sky1 and it seemed near at hand1 but they had far to travel before they reached the place4 ,when the sky came down1 its pressure would force gusts of wind from the opening1 so strong that the travellers could hardly keep their feet1 and the sun passed but a short distance above their heads1 ,the sky would come down with violence1 but it would rise slowly and gradually4 ,iosco and one of his friends stood near the edge1 and with a great effort leapt through and gained a foothold on the other side2 but the other two were fearful and undecided1 and when their companions called to them through the darkness1 #8,leap6 leap6 the sky is on its way down1' they looked up and saw it descending1 but paralyzed by fear they sprang so feebly that they only reached the other side with their hands1 and the sky at the same moment striking violently on the earth with a terrible sound1 forced them into the dreadful black abyss4#dec ,lastly1 in the funeral ritual of the ,aztecs there is found a like description of the first peril that the shade had to encounter on the road leading to that subterranean ,land of the ,dead1 which the sun lights when it is night on earth4 ,giving the corpse the first of the passports that were to carry him safe to his journey's end1 the survivors said to him1 #8,with these you will pass between the two mountains that smite one against the other4'#ded ,on the suggestion of this group of solar conceptions and that of ,maui's death1 we may perhaps explain as derived from a broken-down fancy of solar myth that famous episode of ,greek legend1 where the good ship ,argo passed between the ,symplgades1 those two huge cliffs that opened and closed again with swift and violent collision4#dee ,can any effort of baseless fancy have brought into the poet's mind a thought so quaint in itself1 yet so fitting with the ,karen and ,aztec myths of the gates of ,night and ,death8 ,with the ,maori legend1 the ,argonautic tale has a yet deeper coincidence4 ,in both the event is to determine the future2 but this thought is worked out in two converse ways4 ,if ,maui passed through the entrance of ,night and returned to ,day1 death should not hold mankind2 if the ,argo passed the ,clashers1 the way should lie open between them for ever4 ,the ,argo sped through in safety1 and the ,symplgades can clash no longer on the passing ship2 ,maui was crushed1 and man comes not forth again from ,hades4 ,there is another solar metaphor which describes the sun1 not as a personal creature1 but as a member of a yet greater being4 ,he is called in ,java and ,sumatra #8,mata-ari1' in ,madagascar #8,maso-andro1' the #8,eye of ,day4' ,if we look for translation of this thought from metaphor into myth1 we may find it in the ,new ,zealand stories of ,maui setting his own eye up in heaven as the ,sun1 and the eyes of his two children as the ,morning and the ,evening ,stars4#def ,the nature-myth thus implicitly and explicitly stated is one widely developed on ,aryan ground4 ,it forms part of that macrocosmic description of the universe well known in ,asiatic myth1 and in ,europe expressed in that passage of the ,orphic poem which tells of ,jove1 at once the world's ruler and the world itself3 his glorious head irradiates the sky where hangs his starry hair1 the waters of the sounding ocean are the belt that girds his sacred body the earth omniparent1 his eyes are sun and moon1 his mind1 moving and ruling by counsel all things1 is the royal ther that no voice nor sound escapes3 #8,sunt oculi ,phbus1 ,phboque adversa recurrens ,cynthia4 ,mens verax nullique obnoxius ther ,regius interitu'1 qui cuncta movetque regitque ,consilio4 ,vox nulla potest1 sonitusve1 nec ullus ,hancce ,jovis sobolem strepitus1 nec fama latere4 ,sic animi sensum1 et caput immortale beatus ,obtinet3 illustre1 immensum1 immutabile pandens1 ,atque lacertorum valido stans robore certus4'#deg ,where the ,aryan myth-maker takes no thought of the lesser light1 he can in various terms describe the sun as the eye of heaven4 ,in the ,rig-,veda it is the #8eye of ,mitra1 ,varuna1 and ,agni'--#8chakshuh ,mitrasya ,varunasyah ,agneh4'#deh ,in the ,zend-,avesta it is #8the shining sun with the swift horses1 the eye of ,ahura-,mazda2' elsewhere both eyes1 apparently sun and moon1 are praised4#dei ,to ,hesiod it is the #8all-seeing eye of ,zeus'--#8 3' ,macrobius speaks of antiquity calling the sun the eye of ,jove--#8 2 4'#dfj ,the old ,germans1 in calling the sun #8,wuotan's eye1'#dfa recognized ,wuotan1 ,woden ,odhin1 as being himself the divine ,heaven4 ,these mythic expressions are of the most unequivocal type4 ,by the hint they give1 conjectural interpretations may be here not indeed asserted1 but suggested1 for two of the quaintest episodes of ancient ,european myth4 ,odin1 the ,all-father1 say the old skalds of ,scandinavia1 sits among his sir in the city ,asgard1 on his high throne ,hlidskialf 7,lid-shelf71 whence he can look down over the whole world discerning all the deeds of men4 ,he is an old man wrapped in his wide cloak1 and clouding his face with his wide hat1 #8os pileo ne cultu proderetur obnubens1' as ,saxo ,grammaticus has it4 ,odin is one-eyed2 he desired to drink from ,mimir's well1 but he had to leave there one of his eyes in pledge1 as it is said in the ,vluspa3 #8,all know ,i1 ,odin6 ,where thou hiddest thine eye ,in ,mimir's famous well4 ,mead drinks ,mimir every morning ,from ,wale-father's pledge--,wit ye what this is8' ,as ,odin's single eye seems certainly to be the sun in heaven1 one may guess what is the lost eye in the well--perhaps the sun's own reflection in any pool1 or more likely that of the moon1 which in popular myth is told of as found in the well4#dfb ,possibly1 too1 some such solar fancy may explain part of the myth of ,perseus4 ,there are three ,scandinavian ,norns1 whose names are ,urdhr1 ,verdhandi1 and ,skuld--,was1 and ,is1 and ,shall-be--and these three maidens are the #8,weird sisters' who fix the lifetime of all men4 ,so the ,fates1 the ,parkai1 daughters of the inevitable ,angk1 divide among them the periods of time3 ,lachesis sings the past1 ,klth the present1 ,atropos the future4 ,now is it allowable to consider these fatal sisters as of common nature with two other mythic sister-triads--the ,graiai and their kinsfolk the ,gorgons8#dfc ,if it be so1 it is easy to understand why of the three ,gorgons one alone was mortal1 whose life her two immortal sisters could not save1 for the deathless past and future cannot save the ever-dying present4 ,nor would the riddle be hard to read1 what is the one eye that the ,graiai had between them1 and passed from one to another8--the eye of day--the sun1 that the past gives up to the present1 and the present to the future4 ,compared with the splendid ,lord of ,day1 the pale ,lady of ,night takes1 in myth as in nature1 a lower and lesser place4 ,among the wide legendary group which associates together ,sun and ,moon1 two striking examples are to be seen in the traditions by which half-civilized races of ,south ,america traced their rise from the condition of the savage tribes around them4 ,these legends have been appealed to even by modern writers as gratefully remembered records of real human benefactors1 who carried long ago to ,america the culture of the ,old ,world4 ,but happily for historic truth1 mythic tradition tells its tales without expurgating the episodes which betray its real character to more critical observation4 ,the ,muyscas of the high plains of ,bogota were once1 they said1 savages without agriculture1 religion1 or law2 but there came to them from the ,east an old and bearded man1 ,bochica1 the child of the ,sun1 and he taught them to till the fields1 to clothe themselves1 to worship the gods1 to become a nation4 ,but ,bochica had a wicked1 beautiful wife1 ,huythaca1 who loved to spite and spoil her husband's work2 and she it was who made the river swell till the land was covered by a flood1 and but a few of mankind escaped to the mountain-tops4 ,then ,bochica was wroth1 and he drove the wicked ,huythaca from the earth1 and made her the ,moon1 for there had been no moon before2 and he cleft the rocks and made the mighty cataract of ,tequendama1 to let the deluge flow away4 ,then1 when the land was dry1 he gave to the remnant of mankind the year and its periodic sacrifices1 and the worship of the ,sun4 ,now the people who told this myth had not forgotten1 what indeed we might guess without their help1 that ,bochica was himself ,zuh1 the ,sun1 and ,huythaca the ,sun's wife1 the ,moon4#dfd ,like to this in meaning1 though different in fancy1 is the civilization-myth of the ,incas4 ,men1 said this ,quichua legend1 were savages dwelling in caves like wild beasts devouring wild roots and fruit and human flesh1 covering themselves with leaves and bark or skins of animals4 ,but our father the ,sun took pity on them1 and sent two of his children1 ,manco ,ccapac and his sister-wife1 ,mama ,occllo these rose from the lake of ,titicaca1 and gave to the uncultured hordes law and government1 marriage and moral order1 tillage and art and science4 ,thus was founded the great ,peruvian empire1 where in after ages each ,inca and his sister-wife1 continuing the mighty race of ,manco ,ccapac and ,mama ,occllo1 represented in rule and religion not only the first earthly royal ancestors1 but the heavenly father and mother of whom we can see these to be personifications1 namely1 the ,sun himself1 and his sister-wife the ,moon4#dfe ,thus the nations of ,bogota and ,peru1 remembering their days of former savagery1 and the association of their culture with their national religion1 embodied their traditions in myths of an often-recurring type1 ascribing to the gods themselves1 in human shape1 the establishment of their own worship4 ,the #8inconstant moon' figures in a group of characteristic stories4 ,australian legend says that ,mityan1 the ,moon1 was a native cat1 who fell in love with some one else's wife1 and was driven away to wander ever since4#dff ,the ,khasias of the ,himalaya say that the ,moon falls monthly in love with his mother-in-law1 who throws ashes in his face1 whence his spots4#dfg ,slavonic legend1 following the same track1 says that the ,moon1 ,king of ,night and husband of the ,sun1 faithlessly loved the ,morning ,star1 wherefore he was cloven through in punishment1 as we see him in the sky4#dfh ,by a different train of thought1 the ,moon's periodic death and revival has suggested a painful contrast to the destiny of man1 in one of the most often-repeated and characteristic myths of ,south ,africa1 which is thus told among the ,namaqua4 ,the ,moon once sent the ,hare to ,men to give this message1 #8,like as ,i die and rise to life again1 so you also shall die and rise to life again1' but the ,hare went to the ,men and said1 #8,like as ,i die and do not rise again1 so you shall also die and not rise to life again4' ,then the ,hare returned and told the ,moon what he had done1 and the ,moon struck at him with a hatchet and slit his lip1 as it has remained ever since1 and some say the ,hare fled and is still fleeing1 but others say he clawed at the ,moon's face and left the scars that are still to be seen on it1 and they also say that the reason why the ,namaqua object to eating the hare 7a prejudice which in fact they share with very different races7 is because he brought to men this evil message4#dfi ,it is remarkable that a story so closely resembling this1 that it is difficult not to suppose both to be versions from a common original1 is told in the distant ,fiji ,islands4 ,there was a dispute between two gods as to how man should die3 #8,ra ,vula 7the ,moon7 contended that man should be like himself--disappear awhile and then live again4 ,ra ,kalavo 7the ,rat7 would not listen to this kind proposal1 but said1 8,let man die as a rat dies40 ,and he prevailed4' ,the dates of the versions seem to show that the presence of these myths among the ,hottentots and ,fijians1 at the two opposite sides of the globe1 is at any rate not due to transmission in modern times4#dgj ,there is a very elaborate savage nature-myth of the generation of the ,stars1 which may unquestionably serve as a clue connecting the history of two distant tribes4 ,the rude ,mintira of the ,malayan ,peninsula express in plain terms the belief in a solid firmament1 usual in the lower grades of civilization2 they say the sky is a great pot held over the earth by a cord1 and if this cord broke1 everything on earth would be crushed4 ,the ,moon is a woman1 and the ,sun also3 the ,stars are the ,moon's children1 and the ,sun had in old times as many4 ,fearing1 however1 that mankind could not bear so much brightness and heat1 they agreed each to devour her children2 but the ,moon1 instead of eating up her stars1 hid them from the ,sun's sight1 who believing them all devoured1 ate up her own2 no sooner had she done it1 than the ,moon brought her family out of their hiding-place4 ,when the ,sun saw them1 filled with rage she chased the ,moon to kill her2 the chase has lasted ever since1 and sometimes the ,sun even comes near enough to bite the ,moon1 and that is an eclipse2 the ,sun1 as men may still see1 devours his ,stars at dawn1 and the ,moon hides hers all day while the ,sun is near1 and only brings them out at night when her pursuer is far away4 ,now among a tribe of ,north ,east ,india1 the ,ho of ,chota-,nagpore1 the myth reappears1 obviously from the same source1 but with a varied ending2 the ,sun cleft the ,moon in twain for her deceit1 and thus cloven and growing whole again she remains1 and her daughters with her which are the ,stars4#dga ,from savagery up to civilization1 there may be traced in the mythology of the ,stars a course of thought1 changed indeed in application1 yet never broken in its evident connexion from first to last4 ,the savage sees individual stars as animate beings1 or combines star-groups into living celestial creatures1 or limbs of them1 or objects connected with them2 while at the other extremity of the scale of civilization1 the modern astronomer keeps up just such ancient fancies1 turning them to account in useful survival1 as a means of mapping out the celestial globe4 ,the savage names and stories of stars and constellations may seem at first but childish and purposeless fancies2 but it always happens in the study of the lower races1 that the more means we have of understanding their thoughts1 the more sense and reason do we find in them4 ,the aborigines of ,australia say that ,yurree and ,wanjel1 who are the stars we call ,castor and ,pollux1 pursue ,purra the ,kangaroo 7our ,capella71 and kill him at the the beginning of the great heat and the mirage is the smoke of the fire they roast him by4 ,they say also that ,marpean-,kurrk and ,neilloan 7,arcturus and ,lyra7 were the discoverers of the ant-pupas and the eggs of the loan-bird1 and taught the aborigines to find them for food4 ,translated into the language of fact1 these simple myths record the summer place of the stars in question1 and the seasons of ant-pupas and loan-eggs1 which seasons are marked by the stars who are called their discoverers4#dgb ,not less transparent is the meaning in the beautiful ,algonquin myth of the ,summer-maker4 ,in old days eternal winter reigned upon the earth1 till a sprightly little animal called the ,fisher1 helped by other beasts his friends1 broke an opening through the sky into the lovely heaven-land beyond1 let the warm winds pour forth and the summer descend to earth1 and opened the cages of the prisoned birds3 but when the dwellers in heaven saw their birds let loose and their warm gales descending1 they started in pursuit1 and shooting their arrows at the ,fisher1 hit him at last in his one vulnerable spot at the tip of his tail2 thus he died for the good of the inhabitants of earth1 and became the constellation that bears his name1 so that still at the proper season men see him lying as he fell toward the north on the plains of heaven1 with the fatal arrow still sticking in his tail4#dgc ,compare these savage stories with ,orion pursuing the ,pleiad sisters who take refuge from him in the sea1 and the maidens who wept themselves to death and became the starry cluster of the ,hyades1 whose rising and setting betokened rain3 such mythic creatures might for simple significance have been invented by savages1 even as the savage constellation-myths might have been made by ancient ,greeks4 ,when we consider that the ,australians who can invent such myths1 and invent them with such fulness of meaning1 are savages who put two and one together to make their numeral for three1 we may judge how deep in the history of culture those conceptions lie1 of which the relics are still represented in our star-maps by ,castor and ,pollux1 ,arcturus and ,sirius1 ,botes and ,orion1 the ,argo and the ,charles's ,wain1 the ,toucan and the ,southern ,cross4 ,whether civilized or savage1 whether ancient or new made after the ancient manner1 such names are so like in character that any tribe of men might adopt them from any other1 as ,american tribes are known to receive ,european names into their own skies1 and as our constellation of the ,royal ,oak is said to have found its way1 in new copies of the old ,hindu treatises1 into the company of the ,seven ,sages and the other ancient constellations of ,brahmanic ,india4 ,such fancies are so fanciful1 that two peoples seldom fall on the same name for a constellation1 while1 even within the limits of the same race1 terms may differ altogether4 ,thus the stars which we call ,orion's ,belt are in ,new ,zealand either the ,elbow of ,maui1 or they form the stem of the ,canoe of ,tamarerete1 whose anchor dropped from the prow is the ,southern ,cross4#dgd ,the ,great ,bear is equally like a ,wain1 ,orion's ,belt serves as well for ,frigga's or ,mary's ,spindle1 or ,jacob's ,staff4 ,yet sometimes natural correspondences occur4 ,the seven sister ,pleiades seem to the ,australians a group of girls playing to a corroboree2 while the ,north ,american ,indians call them the ,dancers2 and the ,lapps the ,company of ,virgins4#dge ,still more striking is the correspondence between savages and cultured nations in fancies of the bright starry band that lies like a road across the sky4 ,the ,basutos call it the #8,way of the ,gods2' the ,ojis say it is the #8,way of ,spirits1' which souls go up to heaven by4#dgf ,north ,american tribes know it as #8the ,path of the ,master of ,life1' the #8,path of ,spirits1' #8the ,road of ,souls1' where they travel to the land beyond the grave1 and where their camp-fires may be seen blazing as brighter stars4#dgg ,such savage imaginations of the ,milky ,way fit with the ,lithuanian myth of the #8,road of the ,birds1' at whose end the souls of the good1 fancied as flitting away at death like birds1 dwell free and happy4#dgh ,that souls dwell in the ,galaxy was a thought familiar to the ,pythagoreans1 who gave it on their master's word that the souls that crowd there descend1 and appear to men as dreams1#dgi and to the ,manichans whose fancy transferred pure souls to this #8column of light1' whence they could come down to earth and again return4#dhj ,it is a fall from such ideas of the ,galaxy to the ,siamese #8,road of the ,white ,elephant1' the ,spaniards' #8,road of ,santiago1' or the ,turkish #8,pilgrims' ,road1' and a still lower fall to the #8,straw ,road' of the ,syrian1 the ,persian1 and the ,turk1 who thus compare it with their lanes littered with the morsels of straw that fall from the nets they carry it in4#dha ,but of all the fancies which have attached themselves to the celestial road1 we at home have the quaintest4 ,passing along the short and crooked way from ,st4 ,paul's to ,cannon ,street1 one thinks to how small a remnant has shrunk the name of the great street of the ,wtlingas1 which in old days ran from ,dover through ,london into ,wales4 ,but there is a ,watling ,street in heaven as well as on earth1 once familiar to ,englishmen1 though now almost forgotten even in local dialect4 ,chaucer thus speaks of it in his #8,house of ,fame3' -- #8,lo there 7quod he7 cast up thine eye ,se yondir1 lo1 the ,galaxie1 ,the whiche men clepe ,the ,milky ,way1 ,for it is white1 and some parfay1 ,ycallin it han ,watlynge strete4'#dhb ,turning from the mythology of the heavenly bodies1 a glance over other districts of nature-myth will afford fresh evidence that such legend has its early home within the precincts of savage culture4 ,it is thus with the myths of the ,winds4 ,the ,new ,zealanders tell how ,maui can ride upon the other ,winds or imprison them in their caves1 but he cannot catch the ,west wind nor find its cave to roll a stone against the mouth1 and therefore it prevails1 yet from time to time he all but overtakes it1 and hiding in its cave for shelter it dies away4#dhc ,such is the fancy in classic poetry of ,aeolus holding the prisoned winds in his dungeon cave3-- #8,hic vasto rex ,aeolus antro ,luctantes ventos1 tempestatesque sonoras ,imperio premit1 ac vinclis et carcere fraenat4'#dhd ,the myth of the ,four ,winds is developed among the native races of ,america with a range and vigour and beauty scarcely rivalled elsewhere in the mythology of the world4 ,episodes belonging to this branch of ,red ,indian folklore are collected in ,schoolcraft's #8,algic ,researches1' and thence rendered with admirable taste and sympathy1 though unfortunately not with proper truth to the originals1 in ,longfellow's masterpiece1 the #8,song of ,hiawatha4' ,the ,west ,wind ,mudjekeewis is ,kabeyun1 ,father of the ,winds1 ,wabun is the ,east ,wind1 ,shawondasee the ,south ,wind1 ,kabibonokka the ,north ,wind4 ,but there is another mighty wind not belonging to the mystic quaternion1 ,manabozho the ,north-,west ,wind1 therefore described with mythic appropriateness as the unlawful child of ,kabeyun4 ,the fierce ,north ,wind1 ,kabibnokka1 in vain strives to force ,shingebis1 the lingering diver-bird1 from his warm and happy winter-lodge2 and the lazy ,south ,wind1 ,shawondasee1 sighs for the maiden of the prairie with her sunny hair1 till it turns to silvery white1 and as he breathes upon her1 the prairie dandelion has vanished4#dhe ,man naturally divides his horizon into four quarters1 before and behind1 right and left1 and thus comes to fancy the world a square1 and to refer the winds to its four corners4 ,dr4 ,brinton1 in his #8,myths of the ,new ,world1' has well traced from these ideas the growth of legend after legend among the native races of ,america1 where four brother heroes1 or mythic ancestors or divine patrons of mankind1 prove1 on closer view1 to be in personal shape the ,four ,winds4#dhf ,the ,vedic hymns to the ,maruts1 the ,storm ,winds1 who tear asunder the forest kings and make the rocks shiver1 and assume again1 after their wont1 the form of new-born babes1 the mythic feats of the child ,hermes in the ,homeric hymn1 the legendary birth of ,boreas from ,astraios and ,es1 ,starry ,heaven and ,dawn1 work out1 on ,aryan ground1 mythic conceptions that ,red ,indian tale-tellers could understand and rival4#dhg ,the peasant who keeps up in fireside talk the memory of the ,wild ,huntsman1 ,wodejger1 the ,grand ,veneur of ,fontainebleau1 ,herne the ,hunter of ,windsor ,forest1 has almost lost the significance of this grand old storm-myth4 ,by mere force of tradition1 the name of the #8,wish' or #8,wush' hounds of the ,wild ,huntsman has been preserved through the west of ,england2 the words must for ages past have lost their meaning among the country folk1 though we may plainly recognize in them ,woden's ancient well-known name1 old ,german #8,wunsch4' ,as of old1 the ,heaven-,god drives the clouds before him in raging tempest across the sky1 while1 safe within the cottage walls1 the tale-teller unwittingly describes in personal legendary shape this same ,wild ,hunt of the ,storm4#dhh ,it has many a time occurred to the savage poet or philosopher to realize the thunder1 or its cause1 in myths of a ,thunder-bird4 ,of this wondrous creature ,north ,american legend has much to tell4 ,he is the bird of the great ,manitu1 as the eagle is of ,zeus1 or he is even the great ,manitu himself incarnate4 ,the ,assiniboins not only know of his existence1 but have even seen him1 and in the far north the story is told how he created the world4 ,the ,ahts of ,vancouver's ,island talk of ,tootooch1 the mighty bird dwelling aloft and far away1 the flap of whose wings makes the thunder 7,tootah71 and his tongue is the forked lightning4 ,there were once four of these birds in the land1 and they fed on whales2 but the great deity ,quawteaht1 entering into a whale1 enticed one thunder-bird after another to swoop down and seize him with his talons1 when plunging to the bottom of the sea he drowned it4 ,thus three of them perished1 but the last one spread his wings and flew to the distant height where he has since remained4 ,the meaning of the story may probably be that thunderstorms come especially from one of the four quarters of heaven4 ,of such myths1 perhaps that told among the ,dacotas is the quaintest3 ,thunder is a large bird1 they say3 hence its velocity4 ,the old bird begins the thunder2 its rumbling noise is caused by an immense quantity of young birds1 or thunders1 who continue it1 hence the long duration of the peals4 ,the ,indian says it is the young birds1 or thunders1 that do the mischief2 they are like the young mischievous men who will not listen to good counsel4 ,the old thunder or bird is wise and good1 and does not kill anybody1 nor do any kind of mischief4 ,descending southward to ,central ,america1 there is found mention of the bird ,voc1 the messenger of ,hurakan1 the ,tempest-god 7whose name has been adopted in ,european languages as huracano1 ouragan1 hurricane7 of the ,lightning and of the ,thunder4 ,so among ,caribs1 ,brazilians1 ,hervey ,islanders and ,karens1 ,bechuanas and ,basutos1 we find legends of a flapping or flashing ,thunder-bird1 which seem simply to translate into myth the thought of thunder and lightning descending from the upper regions of the air1 the home of the eagle and the vulture4#dhi ,the ,heaven-god dwells in the regions of the sky1 and thus what form could be fitter for him and for his messengers than the likeness of a bird8 ,but to cause the ground to quake beneath our feet1 a being of quite different nature is needed1 and accordingly the office of supporting the solid earth is given in various countries to various monstrous creatures1 human or animal in character1 who make their office manifest from time to time by a shake given in negligence or sport or anger to their burden4 ,wherever earthquakes are felt1 we are likely to find a version of the great myth of the ,earth-bearer4 ,thus in ,polynesia the ,tongans say that ,maui upholds the earth on his prostrate body1 and when he tries to turn over into an easier posture there is an earthquake1 and the people shout and beat the ground with sticks to make him lie still4 ,another version forms part of the interesting myth lately mentioned1 which connects the under-world whither the sun descends at night1 with the region of subterranean volcanic fire and of earthquake4 ,the old ,maui lay by his fire in the dead-land of ,bulotu1 when his grandson ,maui came down by the cavern entrance2 the young ,maui carried off the fire1 they wrestled1 the old ,maui was overcome1 and has lain there bruised and drowsy ever since1 underneath the earth1 which quakes when he turns over in his sleep4#dij ,in ,celebes we hear of the world-supporting ,hog1 who rubs himself against a tree1 and then there is an earthquake4#dia ,among the ,indians of ,north ,america1 it is said that earthquakes come of the movement of the great world-bearing ,tortoise4 ,now this ,tortoise seems but a mythic picture of the ,earth itself1 and thus the story only expresses in mythic phrase the very fact that the earth quakes2 the meaning is but one degree less distinct than among the ,caribs1 who say when there is an earthquake that their ,mother ,earth is dancing4#dib ,among the higher races of the continent1 such ideas remain little changed in nature2 the ,tlascalans said that the tired world-supporting deities shifting their burden to a new relay caused the earthquake2#dic the ,chibchas said it was their god ,chibchacum moving the earth from shoulder to shoulder4#did ,the myth ranges in ,asia through as wide a stretch of culture4 ,the ,kamchadals tell of ,tuil the ,earthquake-god1 who sledges below ground1 and when his dog shakes off fleas or snow there is an earthquake2#die ,ta ,ywa1 the solar hero of the ,karens1 set ,shie-oo beneath the earth to carry it1 and there is an earthquake when he moves4#dif ,the world-bearing elephants of the ,hindus1 the world-supporting frog of the ,mongol ,lamas1 the world-bull of the ,moslems1 the gigantic ,omophore of the ,manichan cosmology1 are all creatures who carry the earth on their backs or heads1 and shake it when they stretch or shift4#dig ,thus in ,european mythology the ,scandinavian ,loki1 strapped down with thongs of iron in his subterranean cavern1 writhes when the overhanging serpent drops venom on him2 or ,prometheus struggles beneath the earth to break his bonds2 or the ,lettish ,drebkuls or ,poseidon the ,earth-shaker makes the ground rock beneath men's feet4#dih ,from thorough myths of imagination such as most of these1 it may be sometimes possible to distinguish philosophic myths like them in form1 but which appear to be attempts at serious explanation without even a metaphor4 ,the ,japanese think that earthquakes are caused by huge whales creeping underground1 having been probably led to this idea by finding the fossil bones which seem the remains of such subterranean monsters1 just as we know that the ,siberians who find in the ground the mammoth-bones and tusks account for them as belonging to huge burrowing beasts1 and by force of this belief1 have brought themselves to think they can sometimes see the earth heave and sink as the monsters crawl below4 ,thus1 in investigating the earthquake myths of the world1 it appears that two processes1 the translation into mythic language of the phenomenon itself1 and the crude scientific theory to account for it by a real moving animal underground1 may result in legends of very striking similarity4#dii ,in thus surveying the mythic wonders of heaven and earth1 sun1 moon1 and stars1 wind1 thunder1 and earthquake1 it is possible to set out in investigation under conditions of actual certainty4 ,so long as such beings as ,heaven or ,sun are consciously talked of in mythic language1 the meaning of their legends is open to no question1 and the actions ascribed to them will as a rule be natural and apposite4 ,but when the phenomena of nature take a more anthropomorphic form1 and become identified with personal gods and heroes1 and when in after times these beings1 losing their first consciousness of origin1 become centres round which floating fancies cluster1 then their sense becomes obscure and corrupt1 and the consistency of their earlier character must no longer be demanded4 ,in fact1 the unreasonable expectation of such consistency in nature-myths1 after they have passed into what may be called their heroic stage1 is one of the mythologist's most damaging errors4 ,the present examination of nature-myths has mostly taken them in their primitive and unmistakable condition1 and has only been in some degree extended to include closely-corresponding legends in a less easily interpretable state4 ,it has lain beyond my scope to enter into any systematic discussion of the views of ,grimm1 ,grote1 ,max ,mller1 ,kuhn1 ,schirren1 ,cox1 ,bral1 ,dasent1 ,kelly1 and other mythologists4 ,even the outlines here sketched out have been purposely left without filling in surrounding detail which might confuse their shape1 although this strictness has caused the neglect of many a tempting hint to work out episode after episode1 by tracing their relation to the myths of far-off times and lands4 ,it has rather been my object to bring prominently into view the nature-mythology of the lower races1 that their clear and fresh mythic conceptions may serve as a basis in studying the nature-myths of the world at large4 ,the evidence and interpretation here brought forward1 imperfect as they are1 seem to countenance a strong opinion as to the historical development of legends which describe in personal shape the life of nature4 ,the state of mind to which such imaginative fictions belong is found in full vigour in the savage condition of mankind1 its growth and inheritance continue into the higher culture of barbarous or half-civilized nations1 and at last in the civilized world its effects pass more and more from realized belief into fanciful1 affected1 and even artificial poetry4 ,footnote #dah3 ,macrob4 #8,saturn4' i4 #ai1 #ab4 ,see ,eurip4 ,phn4 #aaaf1 c4 and ,schol42 ,welcker1 vol4 i4 p4 #ccf2 ,max ,mller1 #8,lectures1' vol4 ii4 p4 #chj4 ,footnote #dai3 ,francisque-,michel1 #8,argot1' p4 #dbe4 ,footnote #dbj3 ,sir ,g4 ,grey1 #8,polynesian ,mythology1' p4 i4 c41 translated from the original ,maori text published by him under the title of #8,ko nga ,mahinga a nga ,tupuna ,maori1 c4' ,london1 #ahed4 ,compare with ,shortland1 #8,trads4 of ,n4 ,z4' p4 #ee1 c42 ,r4 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #aad1 c4 ,footnote #dba3 ,schirren1 #8,wandersagen der ,neuseelnder1 c4' p4 #db2 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #aaf2 ,tyerman and ,bennet1 p4 #ebf2 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #bde4 ,footnote #dbb3 ,premare in ,pauthier1 #8,livres ,sacrs de l',orient1' p4 #ai2 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cif4 ,footnote #dbc3 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrelig4' pp4 #ajh1 #aaj1 #aag1 #bba1 #cfi1 #did1 #fbj2 ,rivero and ,tschudi1 #8,ant4 of ,peru1' p4 #afa2 ,gregg1 #8,journal of a ,santa ,f ,trader1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bcg2 ,sahagun1 #8,retorica1 c41 ,mexicana1' cap4 #c1 in ,kingsborough1 #8,ant4 of ,mexico1' vol4 v4 ,footnote #dbd3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #hf4 ,footnote #dbe3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' pp4 xix4 #bbi-cc1 #fjh2 ,halliwell1 #8,pop4 ,rhymes1' p4 #aec2 ,milton1 #8,paradise ,lost1' ix4 #bgc1 i4 #ece2 see ,lucretius1 i4 #bej4 ,footnote #dbf3 ,pictet1 #8,origines ,indo-,europ4' part ii4 pp4 #ffc-g2 ,colebrooke1 #8,essays1' vol4 i4 p4 #bbj4 ,plato1 ,repub4 iii4 #dad-e2 #8 --' 4' ,footnote #dbg3 ,herod4 iv4 #ei4 ,footnote #dbh3 ,plath1 #8,religion der alten ,chinesen' part i4 p4 #cg2 ,davis1 #8,chinese1' vol4 ii4 p4 #fd2 ,legge1 #8,confucius1' p4 #ajf2 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #dcg1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cjb4 ,footnote #dbi3 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrelig4' pp4 #ec1 #bai1 #bca1 #bee1 #cie1 #dbj2 ,martius #8,ethnog4 ,amer4' vol4 i4 pp4 #cbi1 #dfg1 #ehe1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aji2 ,southey1 #8,brazil1' vol4 i4 p4 #ceb1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cga2 ,de la ,borde1 #8,caraibes1' p4 #ebe2 ,dobrizhoffer #8,abipones1' vol4 ii4 p4 #hd2 ,smith and ,lowe1 #8,journey from ,lima to ,para1' p4 #bcj2 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes of ,n4 ,a4' part i4 p4 #bga2 ,charlevoix1 #8,nouv4 ,france1' vol4 vi4 p4 #adi2 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #bie2 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 iii4 p4 #aia2 #8,early ,hist1 of ,mankind1' p4 #afc4 ,footnote #dcj3 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #cca4 ,footnote #dca3 ,marsden1 #8,sumatra1' p4 #aid4 ,footnote #dcb3 ,grant in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #ij2 ,klle1 #8,kanuri ,proverbs1 c4' p4 #bjg4 ,footnote #dcc3 ,h4 ,h4 ,wilson1 #8,vishnupurana1' pp4 #gh1 #adj2 ,skr4 ,dic4 s4v4 rhu2 ,sir ,w4 ,jones in #8,as4 ,res4' vol4 ii4 p4 #bij2 ,s4 ,davis1 ibid41 p4 #beh2 ,pictet1 #8,origines ,indo-,europ4' part ii4 p4 #ehd2 ,roberts1 #8,oriental ,illustrations1' p4 #g2 ,hardy1 #8,manual of ,buddhism4' ,footnote #dcd3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth1' p4 #fc2 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cdd4 ,footnote #dce3 ,klemm1 #8,c4 ,g4' vol4 vi4 p4 #ddi2 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 i4 p4 #cjh2 ,turpin1 ,richard1 and ,borri in ,pinkerton1 vol4 iv4 pp4 #egi1 #gbe1 #hae2 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aji1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bdb4 ,see ,eisenmenger1 #8,entdecktes ,judenthum1' vol4 i4 p4 #cih 7,talmudic myth74 ,footnote #dcf3 ,plutarch1 de ,facie in ,orbe ,lunae2 ,juvenal1 ,sat4 vi4 #dda2 ,plin4 ii4 #i2 ,tacit4 ,annal4 i4 #bh4 ,footnote #dcg3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' pp4 #ffh-gh1 #bbd2 ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth1' p4 #bfh2 ,brand1 #8,pop4 ,ant4' vol4 iii4 p4 #aeb2 ,horst1 #8,zauber-,bibliothek1' vol4 iv4 p4 #cej2 ,d4 ,monnier1 #8,traditions populaires compares1' p4 #ach2 see ,migne1 #8,dic4 des ,superstitions1' art4 #8,eclipse'2 ,cornelius ,agrippa1 #8,de ,occulta ,philosophia1' ii4 c4 #de1 gives a picture of the lunar eclipse-dragon4 ,footnote #dch3 ,grey1 #8,polyn4 ,myth4' pp4 #ed-eh2 in his ,maori texts1 ,ko nga ,mahinga1 pp4 #bh-cj1 ,ko nga ,mateatea1 pp4 xlviii4-ix4 ,i have to thank ,sir ,g4 ,grey for a more explicit and mythologically more consistent translation of the story of ,maui's entrance into the womb of ,hine-nui-te-po and her crushing him to death between her thighs1 than is given in his ,english version4 ,compare ,r4 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #acb2 ,schirren1 #8,wandersagen der ,neuseel4' p4 #cc2 ,shortland1 #8,trads4 of ,n4 ,z4' p4 #fc 7a version of the myth of ,maui's death72 see also pp4 #aga1 #ahj1 and ,baker in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 p4 #ec4 ,footnote #dci3 ,john ,white1 #8,ancient ,history of the ,maori1' vol4 i4 p4 #adf4 ,in former editions a statement received from ,new ,zealand was inserted1 that the cry or laugh of the tiwakawaka or pied fantail is only heard at sunset4 ,this1 however does not agree with the accounts of ,sir ,w4 ,lawry ,buller1 who1 in his #8,birds of ,new ,zealand1' vol4 i4 p4 #fi1 supplemented by his answer to my enquiry1 makes it clear that the bird sings in the daytime4 ,thus the argument connecting the sunset-song with the story as a sunset-myth falls away4 ,in another version of ,maui's death1 in ,white1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aab1 the laughing bird is the patatai or little swamp-rail1 which cries at and after nightfall and in the early morning 7,buller1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ih74 ,note to #crd ed4 ,footnote #ddj3 ,mason1 #8,karens1' in #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1' #ahfe1 part ii4 p4 #agh1 c4 ,footnote #dda3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part iii4 p4 #cah2 #8,algic ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #ace1 c41 #add2 ,john ,tanner1 #8,narrative1' p4 #ceg2 see ,brinton1 #8,myths of ,new ,world1' p4 #aff4 ,for legends of ,sun-,catcher1 see #8,early ,hist4 of ,mankind1' ch4 xii4 ,footnote #ddb3 ,casalis1 #8,basutos1' p4 #cdg2 ,callaway1 #8,zulu ,tales1' vol4 i4 pp4 #ef1 #fi1 #hd1 #ccd 7see also the story1 p4 #bda1 of the frog who swallowed the princess and carried her safe home74 ,see ,cranz1 p4 #bga 7,greenland angekok swallowed by bear and walrus and thrown up again71 and ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #ejf-g2 ,j4 ,m4 ,harris in #8,mem4 ,anthrop4 ,soc4' vol4 ii4 p4 #ca 7similar notions in ,africa and ,new ,guinea74 ,footnote #ddc3 ,tzetzes ap4 ,lycophron1 ,cassandra1 #cc4 ,as to connexion with ,joppa and ,phnicia1 see ,plin4 v4 #ad2 ix4 #d2 ,mela1 i4 #aa2 ,strabo1 xvi4 #b1 #bh2 ,movers1 ,phnizier1 vol4 i4 pp4 #dbb-c4 ,the expression in ,jonah1 ii4 #b1 #8out of the belly of ,hades' 7mibten sheol1 7 seems a relic of the original meaning of the myth4 ,footnote #ddd3 #8,apocr4 ,gosp4' ,nicodemus1 ch4 xx42 ,mrs4 ,jameson1 #8,history of our ,lord in ,art1' vol4 ii4 p4 #beh4 ,footnote #dde3 ,eireks ,saga1 #c1 #d1 in #8,flateyjarbok1' vol4 i41 ,christiania1 #ahei2 ,baring-,gould1 #8,myths of the ,middle ,ages1' p4 #bch4 ,footnote #ddf3 ,mrs4 ,jameson1 #8,sacred and ,legendary ,art1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ach4 ,footnote #ddg3 ,j4 and ,w4 ,grimm1 #8,kinder und ,hausmrchen1' vol4 i4 pp4 #bf1 #adj2 vol4 iii4 p4 #ae4 7,see ref4 to these two stories1 #8,early ,hist1 of ,m4' #ast ed4 7#ahfe7 p4 #cch47 ,i find that ,sir ,g4 ,w4 ,cox1 #8,mythology' 7#ahgj71 vol4 i4 p4 #ceh1 had noticed the ,wolf and ,seven ,kids as a myth of the days of the week 7,note to #bnd ed474 ,for mentions of the wolf of darkness1 see ,hanusch1 p4 #aib2 ,edda1 #8,gylfaginning1' #ab2 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' pp4 #bbd1 #ffh4 ,with the episode of the stones substituted compare the myth of ,zeus and ,kronos4 ,for various other stories belonging to the group of the ,man swallowed by the ,monster1 see ,lucian1 ,histori ,ver ,i42 ,hardy1 #8,manual of ,buddhism1' p4 #eja2 ,lane1 #8,thousand and ,one ,nights1' vol4 iii4 p4 #ajd2 ,halliwell1 #8,pop4 ,rhymes1' p4 #ih2 #8,nursery ,rhymes1' p4 #dh2 #8,early ,hist4 of ,mankind1' p4 #ccg4 ,footnote #ddh3 ,grey1 #8,polyn4 ,myth4' p4 #af1 c41 see #add2 ,jas4 ,white1 #8,ancient ,history of the ,maori1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #gf1 #aae4 ,other details in ,schirren1 #8,wandersagen der ,neuseelnder1' pp4 #cb-g1 #adc-ea2 ,r4 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #abd1 c42 compare #aaf1 #ada1 c41 and volcano-myth1 p4 #bdh2 ,yate1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #adb2 ,polack1 #8,m4 and ,c4 of ,new ,z4' vol4 i4 p4 #ae2 ,s4 ,s4 ,farmer1 #8,tonga ,is4' p4 #acd4 ,see also ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' pp4 #beb1 #ebg 7,samoan version74 ,in comparing the group of ,maui-legends it is to be observed that ,new ,zealand ,mahuika and ,maui-,tikitiki correspond to ,tongan ,mafuike and ,kijikiji1 ,samoan ,mafuie and ,tiitii4 ,footnote #ddi3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,algic ,res4' vol4 ii4 pp4 #a-cc4 ,the three arrows recur in ,manabozho's slaying the ,shining ,manitu1 vol4 i4 p4 #aec4 ,see the remarkably corresponding three magic arrows in ,orvar ,odd's ,saga2 ,nilsson1 #8,stone ,age1' p4 #aig4 ,the ,red-,swan myth of sunset is introduced in ,george ,eliot's #8,spanish ,gypsy1' p4 #fc2 ,longfellow1 #8,hiawatha1' xii4 ,footnote #dej3 ,see ,kuhn's #8,zeitschrift1' #ahfj1 vol4 ix4 p4 #bab2 ,max ,mller1 #8,chips1' vol4 ii4 p4 #abg2 ,cox1 #8,mythology1' vol4 i4 p4 #bef1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bci4 ,footnote #dea3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' pp4 #bia1 #gfg4 ,footnote #deb3 ,mason1 #8,karens1' in #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1' #ahfe1 part ii4 pp4 #bcc-d4 ,prof4 ,liebrecht1 in his notice of the #ast ed4 of the present work1 in #8,gtt4 ,gel4 ,anz4' #ahgb1 p4 #abij1 refers to a ,burmese legend in ,bastian1 ,o4 ,a4 vol4 ii4 p4 #eae1 and a ,mongol legend1 ,gesser ,chan1 book iv4 ,footnote #dec3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,algic ,researches1' vol4 ii4 p4 #dj1 c42 ,loskiel1 #8,gesch4 der ,mission1' ,barby1 #aghi1 p4 #dg 7the ,english edition1 part i4 p4 #ce1 is incorrect74 ,see also ,brinton1 #8,myths of ,new ,world1' p4 #fc4 ,in an ,esquimaux tale1 ,giviok comes to the two mountains which shut and open2 paddling swiftly between1 he gets through1 but the mountains clashing together crush the stern of his kayak3 ,rink1 #8,eskimoische ,eventyr og ,sagn1' p4 #ih1 referred to by ,liebrecht1 l4c4 ,footnote #ded3 ,kingsborough1 #8,antiquities of ,mexico1' vol4 i42 ,torquemanda1 #8,monarquia ,indiana1' xiii4 #dg2 #8,con estos has de pasar por medio de dos ,sierras1 que se estan batiendo1 y encontrando la una con la otra4' ,clavigero1 vol4 ii4 p4 #id4 ,footnote #dee3 ,apollodor4 i4 #i1 #bb2 ,appollon4 ,rhod4 ,argonautica1 ii4 #caj-faf2 ,pindar1 #8,pythia ,carm4' iv4 #cgj4 ,footnote #def3 ,polack1 #8,manners of ,n4 ,z4' vol4 i4 p4 #af2 #8,new ,zealand1' vol4 i4 p4 #ceh2 ,yate1 p4 #adb2 ,schirren1 pp4 #hh1 #afe4 ,footnote #deg3 ,euseb4 ,prp4 ,evang4 iii4 #i4 ,footnote #deh3 ,rig-,veda1 i4 #aae2 ,bhtlingk and ,roth1 s4v4 #8mitra4' ,footnote #dei3 ,avesta1 tr4 ,spiegel1 #8,yana1' i4 #ce2 iii41 lxvii41 #fa-b2 compare ,burnouf1 #8,yana4' ,footnote #dfj3 ,macrob4 ,saturnal4 i4 #ba1 #ac4 ,see ,max ,mller1 #8,chips1' vol4 ii4 p4 #he4 ,footnote #dfa3 ,grimm1 #8,deutsche ,myth4' p4 #ffe4 ,see also ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth4' p4 #bac4 ,footnote #dfb3 ,edda1 #8,vluspa1' #bb2 #8,gylfaginning1' #ae4 ,see ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #acc2 #8,reinhart ,fuchs4' ,footnote #dfc3 ,as to the identification of the ,norns and the ,fates1 see ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' pp4 #cgf-hf2 ,max ,mller1 #8,chips1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aed4 ,it is to be observed in connexion with the ,perseus-myth1 that another of its obscure episodes1 the ,gorgon's head turning those who look on it into stone1 corresponds with myths of the sun itself4 ,in ,hispaniola1 men came out of two caves 7thus being born of their mother ,earth72 the giant who guarded these caves strayed one night1 and the rising sun turned him into a great rock called ,kauta1 just as the ,gorgon's head turned ,atlas the ,earth-bearer into the mountain that bears his name2 after this1 others of the early cave-men were surprised by the sunlight1 and turned into stones1 trees1 plants or beasts 7,friar ,roman ,pane in #8,life of ,columbus' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xii4 p4 #hj2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrelig4' p4 #agi74 ,in ,central ,america a ,quich legend relates how the ancient animals were petrified by the ,sun 7,brasseur1 #8,popol ,vuh1' p4 #bde74 ,thus the ,americans have the analogue of the ,scandinavian myths of giants and dwarfs surprised by daylight outside their hiding-places1 and turned to stones4 ,such fancies appear connected with the fancied human shapes of rocks or #8standing stones' which peasants still account for as transformed creatures4 ,thus in ,fiji1 two rocks are a male and female deity turned to stone at daylight1 ,seemann1 #8,viti1' p4 #ff2 see ,liebrecht in #8,heidelberg4 ,jahrb4' #ahfd1 p4 #baf4 ,this idea is brought also into the ,perseus-myth1 for the rocks abounding in ,seriphos are the islanders thus petrified by the ,gorgon's head4 ,footnote #dfd3 ,piedrahita1 #8,hist4 ,gen4 de las ,conquistas del ,nuevo ,reyno de ,granada1' ,antwerp1 #afhh1 part i4 lib4 i4 c4 #c2 ,humboldt1 #8,monumens1' pl4 vi42 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrelig4' pp4 #dbc-cj4 ,footnote #dfe3 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 #8,commentarios ,reales1' i4 c4 #ae2 ,prescott1 #8,peru1' vol4 i4 p4 #g2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 pp4 #cjc-h1 #cbh-ci4 ,other ,peruvian versions show the fundamental solar idea in different mythic shapes 7,tr4 of ,cieza de ,leon1 tr4 and ed4 by ,c4 ,r4 ,markham1 ,hakluyt ,soc4 #ahfd1 pp4 xlix4 #bih1 #caf1 #cgb74 ,w4 ,b4 ,stevenson 7#8,residence in ,s4 ,america1' vol4 i4 p4 #cid7 and ,bastian 7#8,mensch1' vol4 iii4 p4 #cdg7 met with a curious perversion of the myth1 in which ,inca ,manco ,ccapac1 corrupted into ,ingasman ,cocapac1 gave rise to a story of an ,englishman figuring in the midst of ,peruvian mythology4 ,footnote #dff3 ,stanbridge1 #8,abor4 of ,australia1' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 p4 #cja4 ,footnote #dfg3 ,h4 ,yule1 #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1' vol4 xiii4 p4 #fbh4 ,footnote #dfh3 ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth4' p4 #bfi4 ,footnote #dfi3 ,bleek1 #8,reynard in ,s4 ,africa1' pp4 #fi-gd2 ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1 #8,lake ,ngami1' p4 #cbh2 see ,grout1 #8,zulu-land1' p4 #adh2 ,arbousset and ,daumas1 p4 #dga4 ,as to connexion of the moon with the hare1 cf4 ,skr4 #8aanka2' and in ,mexico1 ,sahagun1 book vii4 c4 #b1 in ,kingsborough1 vol4 vii4 ,footnote #dgj3 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #bje4 ,compare the ,caroline ,island myth that in the beginning men only quitted life on the last day of the waning moon1 and resuscitated as from a peaceful sleep when she reappeared2 but the evil spirit ,erigirers inflicted a death from which there is no revival3 ,de ,brosses1 #8,hist4 des ,navig4 aux ,terres ,australes1' vol4 ii4 p4 #dgi4 ,also in a song of the ,indians of ,california it is said1 that even as the moon dies and returns to life1 so they shall be re-born after death2 ,duflot de ,mofras in ,bastian1 #8,rechtsverhltnisse1' p4 #che1 see #8,psychologie1' p4 #ed4 ,footnote #dga3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 i4 p4 #bhd2 vol4 iv4 p4 #ccc2 ,tickell in #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4' ,bengal1 vol4 ix4 part ii4 p4 #gig2 ,latham1 #8,descr4 ,eth4' vol4 ii4 p4 #dbb4 ,footnote #dgb3 ,stanbridge in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 pp4 #cja-c4 ,footnote #dgc3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,algic ,res4' vol4 i4 pp4 #eg-ff4 ,the story of the hero or deity invulnerable like ,achilles save in one weak spot1 recurs in the tales of the slaying of the ,shining ,manitu1 whose scalp alone was vulnerable1 and of the mighty ,kwasind1 who could be killed only by the cone of the white pine wounding the vulnerable place on the crown of his head 7vol4 i4 p4 #aec2 vol4 ii4 p4 #afc74 ,footnote #dgd3 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #cfc4 ,footnote #dge3 ,stanbridge1 l4c42 ,charlevoix1 vol4 vi4 p4 #adh2 ,leems1 #8,lapland1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 i4 p4 #daa4 ,the name of the ,bear occurring in ,north ,america in connexion with the stars of the ,great and ,little ,bear 7,charlevoix1 l4c42 ,cotton ,mather in ,schoolcraft1 #8,tribes1' vol4 i4 p4 #bhd7 has long been remarked on 7,goguet1 vol4 i4 p4 #bfb2 vol4 ii4 p4 #cff1 but with reference to ,greenland1 see ,cranz1 p4 #bid74 ,see observations on the history of the ,aryan name in ,max ,mller1 #8,lectures1' #bnd series1 p4 #cfa4 ,footnote #dgf3 ,casalis1 p4 #aif2 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aia4 ,footnote #dgg3 ,long's ,exp4 vol4 i4 p4 #bhh2 ,schoolcraft1 part i4 p4 #bgb2 ,le ,jeune in #8,rel4 des ,js4 de la ,nouvelle ,france1' #afcd1 p4 #ah2 ,loskiel1 part i4 p4 #ce2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #fc4 ,footnote #dgh3 ,hanusch1 pp4 #bgb1 #djg1 #dae4 ,footnote #dgi3 ,porphyr4 de ,antro ,nympharum1 #bh2 ,macrob4 de ,somn4 ,scip4 #a4 #ab4 ,footnote #dhj3 ,beausobre1 #8,hist4 de ,maniche1' vol4 ii4 p4 #eac4 ,footnote #dha3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 iii4 p4 #cda2 #8,chronique de ,tabari1' tr4 ,dubeux1 p4 #bd2 ,grimm1 #8,d4,m4' p4 #ccj1 c4 ,footnote #dhb3 ,chaucer1 #8,house of ,fame1' ii4 #dbg4 ,with reference to questions of ,aryan mythology illustrated by the savage galaxy-myths1 see ,pictet1 #8,origines1' part ii4 p4 #ehb1 c4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,jeremiah informs me that #8,watling ,street' is still 7#ahga7 a name for the ,milky ,way in ,scotland2 see also his paper on #8,welsh names of the ,milky ,way1' ,philological ,soc41 ,nov4 #ag1 #ahga4 ,the corresponding name #8,london ,road' is used in ,suffolk4 ,footnote #dhc3 ,yate1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #add1 see ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 ii4 p4 #dag4 ,footnote #dhd3 ,virg4 ,aeneid1 i4 #ef2 ,homer1 ,odyss4 x4 #a4 ,footnote #dhe3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,algic ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #bjj2 vol4 ii4 pp4 #abb1 #bad2 #8,indian ,tribes1' part iii4 p4 #cbd4 ,footnote #dhf3 ,brinton1 #8,myths of the ,new ,world1' ch4 iii4 ,footnote #dhg3 #8,rig-,veda1' tr4 by ,max ,mller1 vol4 i4 7,hymns to ,maruts72 ,welcker1 #8,griech4 ,gtterl4' vol4 iii4 p4 #fg2 ,cox1 #8,mythology of ,aryan ,nations1' vol4 ii4 ch4 v4 ,footnote #dhh3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' pp4 #abf1 #eii1 #hid2 ,hunt1 #8,pop4 ,rom4' #ast ser4 p4 xix42 ,baring-,gould1 #8,book of ,werewolves1' p4 #aja2 see #8,myths of the ,middle ,ages1' p4 #be2 ,wuttke1 #8,deutsche ,volksaberglaube1' pp4 #ac1 #bcf2 ,monnier1 #8,traditions1' pp4 #ge1 c41 #gda1 #gdg4 ,footnote #dhi3 ,pr4 ,max v4 ,wied1 #8,reise in ,n4 ,a4' vol4 i4 pp4 #ddf1 #dee2 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aeb1 #bbc2 ,sir ,alex4 ,mackenzie1 #8,voyages1' p4 cxvii42 ,sproat1 #8,scenes of ,savage ,life' 7,vancouver's ,i471 pp4 #agg1 #bac2 ,irving1 #8,astoria1' vol4 ii4 ch4 xxii42 ,le ,jeune1 op4 cit4 #afcd1 p4 #bf2 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part iii4 p4 #bcc1 #8,algic ,res4' vol4 ii4 pp4 #aad-f1 #aii2 ,catlin1 vol4 ii4 p4 #afd2 ,brasseur1 #8,popol ,vuh1' p4 #ga and ,index1 #8,hurakan2' ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrel4' pp4 #bbb1 #bga2 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 ii4 p4 #dag2 ,jno4 ,williams1 #8,missionary ,enterprise1' p4 #ic2 ,mason1 l4c4 p4 #bag2 ,moffat1 #8,south ,africa1' p4 #cch2 ,casalis1 #8,basutos1' p4 #bff2 ,callaway1 #8,religion of ,amazulu1' p4 #aai4 ,footnote #dij3 ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 ii4 p4 #abj2 ,s4 ,s4 ,farmer1 #8,tonga1' p4 #ace2 ,schirren1 pp4 #ce-g4 ,footnote #dia3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 ii4 p4 #hcg4 ,footnote #dib3 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrelig4' pp4 #fa1 #abb4 ,footnote #dic3 ,brasseur1 #8,mexique1' vol4 iii4 p4 #dhb4 ,footnote #did3 ,pouchet1 #8,plurality of ,races1' p4 #b4 ,footnote #die3 ,steller1 #8,kamtschatka1' p4 #bfg4 ,footnote #dif3 ,mason1 #8,karens1' l4c4 p4 #ahb4 ,footnote #dig3 ,bell1 #8,tr4 in ,asia1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 vii4 p4 #cfi2 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 ii4 p4 #afh2 ,lane1 #8,thousand and one ,nights1' vol4 i4 p4 #ba2 see ,latham1 #8,descr4 ,eth4' vol4 ii4 p4 #aga2 ,beausobre1 #8,maniche1' vol4 i4 p4 #bdc4 ,footnote #dih3 ,edda1 #8,gylfaginning1' #ej2 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #ggg1 c4 ,footnote #dii3 ,kaempfer1 #8,japan1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 vii4 p4 #fhd2 see mammoth-myths in #8,early ,hist1 of ,mankind1' p4 #cae4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,mythology 7continued74 ,philosophical ,myths3 inferences become pseudo-history--,geological ,myths--,effect of doctrine of ,miracles on ,mythology--,magnetic ,mountain--,myths of relation of ,apes to ,men by development or degeneration--,ethnological import of myths of ,ape-men1 ,men with tails1 ,men of the woods--,myths of ,error1 ,perversion1 and ,exaggeration3 stories of ,giants1 ,dwarfs1 and ,monstrous ,tribes of men--,fanciful explanatory ,myths--,myths attached to legendary or historical ,personages--,etymological ,myths on names of places and persons--,eponymic ,myths on names of tribes1 nations1 countries1 c42 their ethnological import--,pragmatic ,myths by realization of metaphors and ideas--,allegory--,beast-,fable--,conclu sion4 ,although the attempt to reduce to rule and system the whole domain of mythology would as yet be rash and premature1 yet the piecemeal invasion of one mythic province after another proves feasible and profitable4 ,having discussed the theory of nature-myths1 it is worth while to gain in other directions glimpses of the crude and child-like thought of mankind1 not arranged in abstract doctrines1 but embodied by mythic fancy4 ,we shall find the result in masses of legends1 full of interest as bearing on the early history of opinion1 and which may be roughly classified under the following headings3 myths philosophical or explanatory2 myths based on real descriptions misunderstood1 exaggerated1 or perverted2 myths attributing inferred events to legendary or historical personages2 myths based on realization of fanciful metaphor2 and myths made or adapted to convey moral or social or political instruction4 ,man's craving to know the causes at work in each event he witnesses1 the reasons why each state of things he surveys is such as it is and no other1 is no product of high civilization1 but a characteristic of his race down to its lowest stages4 ,among rude savages it is already an intellectual appetite whose satisfaction claims many of the moments not engrossed by war or sport1 food or sleep4 ,even to the ,botocudo or ,australian1 scientific speculation has its germ in actual experience3 he has learnt to do definite acts that definite results may follow1 to see other acts done and their results following in course1 to make inference from the result back to the previous action1 and to find his inference verified in fact4 ,when one day he has seen a deer or a kangaroo leave footprints in the soft ground1 and the next day he has found new footprints and inferred that such an animal made them1 and has followed up the track and killed the game1 then he knows that he has reconstructed a history of past events by inference from their results4 ,but in the early stages of knowledge the confusion is extreme between actual tradition of events1 and ideal reconstruction of them4 ,to this day there go about the world endless stories told as matter of known reality1 but which a critical examination shows to be mere inferences1 often utterly illusory ones1 from facts which have stimulated the invention of some curious enquirer4 ,thus a writer in the ,asiatick ,researches at the end of the #ahth century relates the following account of the ,andaman islanders1 as a historical fact of which he had been informed3 #8,shortly after the ,portuguese had discovered the passage to ,india round the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 one of their ships1 on board of which were a number of ,mozambique negroes1 was lost on the ,andaman islands1 which were till then uninhabited4 ,the blacks remained in the island and settled it3 the ,europeans made a small shallop in which they sailed to ,pegu4' ,many readers must have had their interest excited by this curious story1 but at the first touch of fact it dissolves into a philosophic myth1 made by the easy transition from what might have been to what was4 ,so far from the islands having been uninhabited at the time of ,vasco de ,gama's voyage1 their population of naked blacks with frizzled hair had been described six hundred years earlier1 and the story1 which sounded reasonable to people puzzled by the appearance of a black population in the ,andaman islands1 is of course repudiated by ethnologists aware of the wide distribution of the negroid ,papuans1 really so distinct from any race of ,african negroes4#ejj ,not long since1 ,i met with a very perfect myth of this kind4 ,in a brickfield near ,london1 there had been found a number of fossil elephant bones1 and soon afterwards a story was in circulation in the neighbourhood somewhat in this shape3 #8,a few years ago1 one of ,wombwell's caravans was here1 an elephant died1 and they buried him in the field1 and now the scientific gentlemen have found his bones1 and think they have got a pr-,adamite elephant4' ,it seemed almost cruel to spoil this ingenious myth by pointing out that such a prize as a living mammoth was beyond the resources even of ,wombwell's menagerie4 ,but so exactly does such a story explain the facts to minds not troubled with nice distinctions between existing and extinct species of elephants1 that it was on another occasion invented elsewhere under similar circumstances4 ,this was at ,oxford1 where ,mr4 ,buckland found the story of the ,wombwell's caravan and dead elephant current to explain a similar find of fossil bones4#eja ,such explanations of the finding of fossils are easily devised and used to be freely made1 as when fossil bones found in the ,alps were set down to ,hannibal's elephants1 or when a petrified oyster-shell found near ,mont ,cenis set ,voltaire reflecting on the crowd of pilgrims on their way to ,rome1 or when theologians supposed such shells on mountains to have been left on their slopes and summits by a rising deluge4 ,such theoretical explanations are unimpeachable in their philosophic spirit1 until further observation may prove them to be unsound4 ,their disastrous effect on the historic conscience of mankind only begins when the inference is turned upside down1 to be told as a recorded fact4 ,in this connexion brief notice may be taken of the doctrine of miracles in its special bearing on mythology4 ,the mythic wonder-episodes related by a savage tale-teller1 the amazing superhuman feats of his gods and heroes1 are often to his mind miracles in the original popular sense of the word1 that is1 they are strange and marvellous events2 but they are not to his mind miracles in a frequent modern sense of the word1 that is1 they are not violations or supersessions of recognized laws of nature4 ,exceptio probat regulam2 to acknowledge anything as an exception is to imply the rule it departs from2 but the savage recognizes neither rule nor exception4 ,yet a ,european hearer1 brought up to use a different canon of evidence1 will calmly reject this savage's most revered ancestral traditions1 simply on the ground that they relate events which are impossible4 ,the ordinary standards of possibility1 as applied to the credibility of tradition1 have indeed changed vastly in the course of culture through its savage1 barbaric1 and civilized stages4 ,what concerns us here is that there is an important department of legend which this change in public opinion1 generally so resistless1 left to a great extent unaltered4 ,in the middle ages the long-accepted practice rose to its height1 of allowing the mere assertion of supernatural influence by angels or devils1 saints or sorcerers1 to override the rules of evidence and the results of experience4 ,the consequence was that the doctrine of miracles became as it were a bridge along which mythology travelled from the lower into the higher culture4 ,principles of myth-formation belonging properly to the mental state of the savage1 were by its aid continued in strong action in the civilized world4 ,mythic episodes which ,europeans would have rejected contemptuously if told of savage deities or heroes1 only required to be adapted to appropriate local details1 and to be set forth as miracles in the life of some superhuman personage1 to obtain as of old a place of credit and honour in history4 ,from the enormous mass of available instances in proof of this let us take two cases belonging to the class of geological myths4 ,the first is the well-known legend of ,st4 ,patrick and the serpents4 ,it is thus given by ,dr4 ,andrew ,boorde in his description of ,ireland and the ,irish in ,henry ,,viii4's time4 #8,yet in ,ierland is stupendyous thynges2 for there is neyther ,pyes nor venymus wormes4 ,there is no ,adder1 nor ,snake1 nor ,toode1 nor ,lyzerd1 nor no ,euyt1 nor none such lyke4 ,i haue sene stones the whiche haue had the forme and shap of a snake and other venimus wormes4 ,and the people of the countre sayth that suche stones were wormes1 and they were turned into stones by the power of ,god and the prayers of saynt ,patryk4 ,and ,englysh marchauntes of ,england do fetch of the erth of ,irlonde to caste in their gardens1 to kepe out and to kyll venimus wormes4'#ejb ,in treating this passage1 the first step is to separate pieces of imported foreign myth1 belonging properly not to ,ireland1 but to islands of the ,mediterranean2 the story of the earth of the island of ,krete being fatal to venomous serpents is to be found in lian1#ejc and ,st4 ,honoratus clearing the snakes from his island 7one of the ,lerins opposite ,cannes7#ejd seems to take precedence of the ,irish saint4 ,what is left after these deductions is a philosophic myth accounting for the existence of fossil ammonites as being petrified snakes1 to which myth a historical position is given by claiming it as a miracle1 and ascribing it to ,st4 ,patrick4 ,the second myth is valuable for the historical and geological evidence which it incidentally preserves4 ,at the celebrated ruins of the temple of ,jupiter ,serapis at ,pozzuoli1 the ancient ,puteoli1 the marble columns1 encircled half-way up by borings of lithodomi1 stand to prove that the ground of the temple must have been formerly submerged many feet below the sea1 and afterwards upheaved to become again dry land4 ,history is remarkably silent as to the events demonstrated by this conclusive geological evidence2 between the recorded adornment of the temple by ,roman emperors from the second to the third century1 and the mention of its existence in ruins in the #afth century1 no documentary information was till lately recognized4 ,it has now been pointed out by ,mr4 ,tuckett that a passage in the ,apocryphal ,acts of ,peter and ,paul1 dating apparently more or less before the end of the #ith century1 mentions the subsidence of the temple1 ascribing it to a miracle of ,st4 ,paul4 ,the legend is as follows3 #8,and when he 7,paul7 came out of ,messina he sailed to ,didymus1 and remained there one night4 ,and having sailed thence1 he came to ,pontiole 7,puteoli7 on the second day4 ,and ,dioscorus the shipmaster1 who brought him to ,syracuse1 sympathizing with ,paul because he had delivered his son from death1 having left his own ship in ,syracuse1 accompanied him to ,pontiole4 ,and some of ,peter's disciples having been found there1 and having received ,paul1 exhorted him to stay with them4 ,and he stayed a week in hiding1 because of the command of ,csar 7that he should be put to death74 ,and all the toparchs were waiting to seize and kill him4 ,but ,dioscorus the shipmaster1 being himself also bald1 wearing his shipmaster's dress1 and speaking boldly1 on the first day went out into the city of ,pontiole4 ,thinking therefore that he was ,paul1 they seized him and beheaded him1 and sent his head to ,csar4444 ,and ,paul1 being in ,pontiole1 and having heard that ,dioscorus had been beheaded1 being grieved with great grief1 gazing into the height of the heaven1 said3 8,o ,lord ,almighty in ,heaven1 who hast appeared to me in every place whither ,i have gone on account of ,thine only-begotten ,word1 our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 punish this city1 and bring out all who have believed in ,god and followed ,his word40 ,he said to them1 therefore1 8,follow me40 ,and going forth from ,pontiole with those who had believed in the word of ,god1 they came to a place called ,baias 7,bai71 and looking up with their eyes1 they all see that city called ,pontiole sunk into the sea-shore about one fathom2 and there it is until this day1 for a remembrance1 under the sea4444 ,and those who had been saved out of the city of ,pontiole1 that had been swallowed up1 reported to ,csar in ,rome that ,pontiole had been swallowed up with all its multitude4'#eje ,episodes of popular myth1 which are often items of the serious belief of the times they belong to1 may serve as important records of intellectual history4 ,as an example belonging to the class of philosophical or explanatory myths1 let us glance at an ,arabian ,nights' story1 which at first sight may seem an effort of the wildest imagination1 but which is nevertheless traceable to a scientific origin2 this is the story of the ,magnetic ,mountain4 ,the ,third ,kalenter relates in his tale how a contrary wind drove his ships into a strange sea1 and there1 by the attraction of their nails and other ironwork1 they were violently drawn towards a mountain of black loadstone1 till at last the iron flew out to the mountain1 and the ships went to pieces in the surf4 ,the episode is older than the date when the #8,thousand and ,one ,nights' were edited4 ,when1 in ,henry of ,veldeck's #abth century poem1 ,duke ,ernest and his companions sail into the ,klebermeer1 they see the rock that is called ,magnes1 and are themselves dragged in below it among #8many a work of keels1' whose masts stand like a forest4#ejf ,turning from tale-tellers to grave geographers and travellers who talk of the loadstone mountain1 we find ,el ,kazwini1 like ,serapion before him1 believing such boats as may be still seen in ,ceylon1 pegged and sewn without metal nails1 to be so built lest the magnetic rock should attract them from their course at sea4 ,this quaint notion is to be found in #8,sir ,john ,mandeville'3 #8,in an isle clept ,crues1 ben schippes with-outen nayles of iren1 or bonds1 for the rockes of the adamandes2 for they ben alle fulle there aboute in that see1 that it is marveyle to spaken of4 ,and gif a schipp passed by the marches1 and hadde either iren bandes or iren nayles1 anon he sholde ben perishet4 ,for the adamande of this kinde draws the iren to him2 and so wolde it draw to him the schipp1 because of the iren2 that he sholde never departen fro it1 ne never go thens4'#ejg ,now it seems that accounts of the magnetic mountain have been given not only as belonging to the southern seas1 but also to the north1 and that men have connected with such notions the pointing of the magnetic needle1 as ,sir ,thomas ,browne says1 #8ascribing thereto the cause of the needle's direction1 and conceeving the effluxions from these mountains and rocks invite the lilly toward the north4'#ejh ,on this evidence we have1 ,i think1 fair ground for supposing that hypotheses of polar magnetic mountains were first devised to explain the action of the compass1 and that these gave rise to stories of such mountains exerting what would be considered their proper effect on the iron of passing ships4 ,the argument is clenched by the consideration that ,europeans1 who colloquially say the needle points to the north1 naturally required their loadstone mountain in high northern latitudes while on the other hand it was as natural that ,orientals should place this wondrous rock in the south1 for they say it is to the south that the needle points4 ,the conception of magnetism among peoples who had not reached the idea of double polarity may be gathered from the following quaint remarks in the #agth century cyclopdia of the ,chinese emperor ,kang-hi4 #8,i now hear the ,europeans say it is towards the ,north pole that the compass turns2 the ancients said it was toward the ,south2 which have judged most rightly8 ,since neither give any reason why1 we come to no more with the one side than with the other4 ,but the ancients are the earlier in date1 and the farther ,i go the more ,i perceive that they understood the mechanism of nature4 ,all movement languishes and dies in proportion as it approaches the north2 it is hard to believe it to be from thence that the movement of the magnetic needle comes4'#eji ,to suppose that theories of a relation between man and the lower mammalia are only a product of advanced science1 would be an extreme mistake4 ,even at low levels of culture1 men addicted to speculative philosophy have been led to account for the resemblance between apes and themselves by solutions satisfactory to their own minds1 but which we must class as philosophic myths4 ,among these1 stories which embody the thought of an upward change from ape to man1 more or less approaching the last-century theory of development1 are to be found side by side with others which in the converse way account for apes as degenerate from a previous human state4 ,central ,american mythology works out the idea that monkeys were once a human race4#eaj ,in ,south-,east ,africa1 ,father ,dos ,santos remarked long since that #8they hold that the apes were anciently men and women1 and thus they call them in their tongue the first people4' ,the ,zulus still tell the tale of an ,amafeme tribe who became baboons4 ,they were an idle race who did not like to dig1 but wished to eat at other people's houses1 saying1 #8,we shall live1 although we do not dig1 if we eat the food of those who cultivate the soil4' ,so the chief of that place1 of the house of ,tusi1 assembled the tribe1 and they prepared food and went out into the wilderness4 ,they fastened on behind them the handles of their now useless digging picks1 these grew and became tails1 hair made its appearance on their bodies1 their foreheads became overhanging1 and so they became baboons1 who are still called #8,tusi's men4'#eaa ,mr4 ,kingsley's story of the great and famous nation of the ,doasyoulikes1 who degenerated by natural selection into gorillas1 is the civilized counterpart of this savage myth4 ,or monkeys may be transformed aborigines1 as the ,mbocobis relate in ,south ,america3 in the great conflagration of their forests a man and woman climbed a tree for refuge from the fiery deluge1 but the flames singed their faces and they became apes4#eab ,among more civilized nations these fancies have graphic representatives in ,moslem legends1 of which one is as follows3--,there was a ,jewish city which stood by a river full of fish1 but the cunning creatures1 noticing the habits of the citizens1 ventured freely in sight on the ,sabbath1 though they carefully kept away on working-days4 ,at last the temptation was too strong for the ,jewish fishermen1 but they paid dearly for a few days' fine sport by being miraculously turned into apes as a punishment for ,sabbath-breaking4 ,in after times1 when ,solomon passed through the ,valley of ,apes1 between ,jerusalem and ,mareb1 he received from their descendants1 monkeys living in houses and dressed like men1 an account of their strange history4#eac ,so1 in classic times1 ,jove had chastised the treacherous race of the ,cercopes2 he took from them the use of tongues born but to perjure1 leaving them to bewail in hoarse cries their fate1 transformed into the hairy apes of the ,pithecus1 like and yet unlike the men they had been3-- #8,in deforme viros animal mutavit1 ut idem ,dissimiles homini possent similesque videri4'#ead ,turning from degeneration to development1 it is found that legends of the descent of human tribes from apes are especially applied to races despised as low and beast-like by some higher neighbouring people1 and the low race may even acknowledge the humiliating explanation4 ,thus the aboriginal features of the robber-caste of the ,marawars of ,south ,india are the justification for their alleged descent from ,rama's monkeys1 as for the like genealogy of the ,kathkuri1 or catechu-gatherers1 which these small1 dark1 low-browed1 curly-haired tribes actually themselves believe in4 ,the ,jaitwas of ,rajputana1 a tribe reckoned politically as ,rajputs1 nevertheless trace their descent from the monkey-god ,hanuman1 and confirm it by alleging that their princes still bear its evidence in a tail-like prolongation of the spine2 a tradition which has probably a real ethnological meaning1 pointing out the ,jaitwas as of non-,aryan race4#eae ,wild tribes of the ,malay peninsula1 looked down on as lower animals by the more warlike and civilized ,malays1 have among them traditions of their own descent from a pair of the #8unka puteh1' or #8white monkeys1' who reared their young ones and sent them into the plains1 and there they perfected so well that they and their descendants became men1 but those who returned to the mountains still remained apes4#eaf ,thus ,buddhist legend relates the origin of the flat-nosed1 uncouth tribes of ,tibet1 offspring of two miraculous apes1 transformed to people the snow-kingdom4 ,taught to till the ground1 when they had grown corn and eaten it their tails and hair gradually disappeared1 they began to speak1 became men1 and clothed themselves with leaves4 ,the population grew closer1 the land was more and more cultivated1 and at last a prince of the race of ,sakya1 driven from his home in ,india1 united their isolated tribes into a single kingdom4#eag ,in these traditions the development from ape to man is considered to have come in successive generations1 but the negroes are said to attain the result in the individual1 by way of metempsychosis4 ,froebel speaks of negro slaves in the ,united ,states believing that in the next world they shall be white men and free1 nor is there anything strange in their cherishing a hope so prevalent among their kindred in ,west ,africa4 ,but from this the traveller goes on to quote another story1 which1 if not too good to be true1 is a theory of upward and downward development1 almost thorough enough for a ,buddhist philosopher4 ,he says1 #8,a ,german whom ,i met here told me that the blacks believe the damned among the negroes to become monkeys2 but if in this state they behave well1 they are advanced to the state of a negro again1 and bliss is eventually possible to them1 consisting in their turning white1 becoming winged1 and so on4'#eah ,to understand these stories 7and they are worth some attention for the ethnological hints they contain71 it is necessary that we should discard the results of modern scientific zoology1 and bring our minds back to a ruder condition of knowledge4 ,the myths of human degeneration and development have much more in common with the speculations of ,lord ,monboddo than with the anatomical arguments of ,professor ,huxley4 ,on the one hand1 uncivilized men deliberately assign to apes an amount of human quality which to modern naturalists is simply ridiculous4 ,everyone has heard the story of the negroes declaring that apes really can speak1 but judiciously hold their tongues lest they should be made to work2 but it is not so generally known that this is found as serious matter of belief in several distant regions--,west ,africa1 ,madagascar1 ,south ,america1 c4--where monkeys or apes are found4#eai ,with this goes another widely-spread anthropoid story1 which relates how great apes like the gorilla and the orang-utan carry off women to their homes in the woods1 much as the ,apaches and ,comanches of our own time carry off to their prairies the women of ,north ,mexico4#ebj ,and on the other hand1 popular opinion has under-estimated the man as much as it has over-estimated the monkey4 ,we know how sailors and emigrants can look on savages as senseless1 ape-like brutes1 and how some writers on anthropology have contrived to make out of the moderate intellectual difference between an ,englishman and a negro something equivalent to the immense interval between a negro and a gorilla4 ,thus we can have no difficulty in understanding how savages may seem mere apes to the eyes of men who hunt them like wild beasts in the forests1 who can only hear in their language a sort of irrational gurgling and barking1 and who fail totally to appreciate the real culture which better acquaintance always shows among the rudest tribes of man4 ,it is well known that when ,sanskrit legend tells of the apes who fought in the army of ,king ,hanuman1 it really refers to those aborigines of the land who were driven by the ,aryan invaders to the hills and jungles1 and whose descendants are known to us as ,bhils1 ,kols1 ,sonthals1 and the like1 rude tribes such as the ,hindu still speaks of as #8monkey-people4'#eba ,one of the most perfect identifications of the savage and the monkey in ,hindustan is the following description of the bunmanus1 or #8man of the woods' 7,sanskr4 vana wood1 manusha man74 #8,the bunmanus is an animal of the monkey kind4 ,his face has a near resemblance to the human2 he has no tail1 and walks erect4 ,the skin of his body is black1 and slightly covered with hair4' ,that this description really applies not to apes1 but to the dark-skinned1 non-,aryan aborigines of the land1 appears further in the enumeration of the local dialects of ,hindustan1 to which1 it is said1 #8may be added the jargon of the bunmanus1 or wild men of the woods4'#ebb ,in the islands of the ,indian ,archipelago1 whose tropical forests swarm both with high apes and low savages1 the confusion between the two in the minds of the half-civilized inhabitants becomes almost inextricable4 ,there is a well-known ,hindu fable in the ,hitopadesa1 which relates as a warning to stupid imitators the fate of the ape who imitated the carpenter1 and was caught in the cleft when he pulled out the wedge2 this fable has come to be told in ,sumatra as a real story of one of the indigenous savages of the island4#ebc ,it is to rude forest-men that the ,malays habitually give the name of orang-utan1 i4e41 #8man of the woods4' ,but in ,borneo this term is applied to the miyas ape1 whence we have learnt to call this creature the orang-utan1 and the ,malays themselves are known to give the name in one and the same district to both the savage and the ape4#ebd ,this term #8man of the woods' extends far beyond ,hindu and ,malay limits4 ,the ,siamese talk of the khon pa1 #8men of the wood1' meaning apes2#ebe the ,brazilians of cauiari1 or #8wood-men1' meaning a certain savage tribe4#ebf ,the name of the ,bosjesman1 so amusingly mispronounced by ,englishmen1 as though it were some outlandish native word1 is merely the ,dutch equivalent for ,bush-man1 #8man of the woods or bush4'#ebg ,in our own language the #8homo silvaticus' or #8forest-man' has become the #8salvage man' or savage4 ,european opinion of the native tribes of the ,new ,world may be judged of by the fact that1 in #aecg1 ,pope ,paul ,,iii4 had to make express statement that these ,indians were really men 7attendentes ,indos ipsos utpote veros homines74#ebh ,thus there is little cause to wonder at the circulation of stories of ape-men in ,south ,america1 and at there being some indefiniteness in the local accounts of the selvage or #8savage1' that hairy wild man of the woods who1 it is said1 lives in the trees1 and sometimes carries off the native women4#ebi ,the most perfect of these mystifications is to be found in a ,portuguese manuscript quoted in the account of ,castelnau's expedition1 and giving1 in all seriousness1 the following account of the people called ,cuatas3 #8,this populous nation dwells east of the ,juruena1 in the neighbourhood of the rivers ,san ,joo and ,san ,thome1 advancing even to the confluence of the ,juruena1 and the ,arinos4 ,it is a very remarkable fact that the ,indians composing it walk naturally like the quadrupeds1 with their hands on the ground2 they have the belly1 breast1 arms1 and legs covered with hair1 and are of small stature2 they are fierce1 and use their teeth as weapons2 they sleep on the ground1 or among the branches of trees2 they have no industry1 nor agriculture1 and live only on fruits1 wild roots1 and fish4'#ecj ,the writer of this record shows no symptom of being aware that cuata or coata is the name of the large black ,simia ,paniscus1 and that he has been really describing1 not a tribe of ,indians1 but a species of apes4 ,various reasons may have led to the growth of another quaint group of legends1 describing human tribes with tails like beasts4 ,to people who at once believe monkeys a kind of savages1 and savages a kind of monkeys1 men with tails are creatures coming under both definitions4 ,thus the ,homo caudatus1 or satyr1 often appears in popular belief as a half-human creature1 while even in old-fashioned works on natural history he may be found depicted on the evident model of an anthropoid ape4 ,in ,east ,africa1 the imagined tribe of long-tailed men are also monkey-faced1#eca while in ,south ,america the coata tapuya1 or #8monkey-men1' are as naturally described as men with tails4#ecb ,european travellers have tried to rationalize the stories of tailed men which they meet with in ,africa and the ,east4 ,thus ,dr4 ,krapf points to a leather appendage worn behind from the girdle by the ,wakamba1 and remarks1 #8,it is no wonder that people say there are men with tails in the interior of ,africa1' and other writers have called attention to hanging mats or waist-cloths1 fly-flappers or artificial tails worn for ornament1 as having made their wearers liable to be mistaken at a distance for tailed men4#ecc ,but these apparently silly myths have often a real ethnological significance1 deeper at any rate than such a trivial blunder4 ,when an ethnologist meets in any district with the story of tailed men1 he ought to look for a despised tribe of aborigines1 outcasts1 or heretics1 living near or among a dominant population1 who look upon them as beasts1 and furnish them with tails accordingly4 ,although the aboriginal ,miau-tsze1 or #8children of the soil1' come down from time to time into ,canton to trade1 the ,chinese still firmly believe them to have short tails like monkeys2#ecd the half-civilized ,malays describe the ruder forest tribes as tailed men2#ece the ,moslem nations of ,africa tell the same story of the ,niam-,nam of the interior4#ecf ,the outcast race of ,cagots1 about the ,pyrenees1 were said to be born with tails2 and in ,spain the medival superstition still survives that the ,jews have tails1 like the devil1 as they say4#ecg ,in ,england the notion was turned to theological profit by being claimed as a judgment on wretches who insulted ,st4 ,augustine and ,st4 ,thomas of ,canterbury4 ,horne ,tooke quotes thus from that zealous and somewhat foul-mouthed reformer1 ,bishop ,bale3 #8,johan ,capgrave and ,alexander of ,esseby sayth1 that for castynge of fyshe tayles at thys ,augustyne1 ,dorsett ,shyre menne hadde tayles ever after4 ,but ,polydorus applieth it unto ,kentish men at ,stroud by ,rochester1 for cuttinge of ,thomas ,becket's horse's tail4 ,thus hath ,england in all other land a perpetuall infamy of tayles by theyr wrytten legendes of lyes1 yet can they not well tell where to bestowe them truely 444 an ,englyshman now cannot travayle in an other land1 by way of marchandyse or any other honest occupyinge1 but it is most contumeliously thrown in his tethe1 that al ,englishmen have tailes4'#ech ,the story at last sank into a commonplace of local slander between shire and shire1 and the ,devonshire belief that ,cornishmen had tails lingered at least till a few years ago4#eci ,not less curious is the tradition among savage tribes1 that the tailed state was an early or original condition of man4 ,in the ,fiji ,islands there is a legend of a tribe of men with tails like dogs1 who perished in the great deluge1 while the ,tasmanians declared that men originally had tails and no knee-joints4 ,among the natives of ,brazil1 it is related by a ,portuguese writer of about #afjj1 after a couple have been married1 the father or father-in-law cuts a wooden stick with a sharp flint1 imagining that by this ceremony he cuts off the tails of any future grandchildren1 so that they will be born tailless4#edj ,there seems no evidence to connect the occasional occurrence of tail-like projections by malformation with the stories of tailed human tribes4#eda ,anthropology1 until modern times1 classified among its facts the particulars of monstrous human tribes1 gigantic or dwarfish1 mouthless or headless1 one-eyed or one-legged1 and so forth4 ,the works of ancient geographers and naturalists abound in descriptions of these strange creatures2 writers such as ,isidore of ,seville and ,roger ,bacon collected them1 and sent them into fresh and wider circulation in the middle ages1 and the popular belief of uncivilized nations retains them still4 ,it was not till the real world had been so thoroughly explored as to leave little room in it for the monsters1 that about the beginning of the present century science banished them to the ideal world of mythology4 ,having had to glance here at two of the principal species in this amazing semi-human menagerie1 it may be worth while to look among the rest for more hints as to the sources of mythic fancy4#edb ,that some of the myths of giants and dwarfs are connected with traditions of real indigenous or hostile tribes is settled beyond question by the evidence brought forward by ,grimm1 ,nilsson1 and ,hanusch4 ,with all the difficulty of analyzing the mixed nature of the dwarfs of ,european folklore1 and judging how far they are elves1 or gnomes1 or such like nature-spirits1 and how far human beings in mythic aspect1 it is impossible not to recognize the element derived from the kindly or mischievous aborigines of the land1 with their special language1 and religion1 and costume4 ,the giants appear in ,european folklore as ,stone-,age heathen1 shy of the conquering tribes of men1 loathing their agriculture and the sound of their church-bells4 ,the rude native's fear of the more civilized intruder in his land is well depicted in the tale of the giant's daughter1 who found the boor ploughing his field and carried him home in her apron for a plaything--plough1 and oxen1 and all2 but her mother bade her carry them back to where she found them1 for1 said she1 they are of a people that can do the ,huns much ill4 ,the fact of the giant tribes bearing such historic names as ,hun or ,chud is significant1 and ,slavonic men have1 perhaps1 not yet forgotten that the dwarfs talked of in their legends were descended from the aborigines whom the ,old-,prussians found in the land4 ,beyond a doubt the old ,scandinavians are describing the ancient and ill-used ,lapp population1 once so widely spread over ,northern ,europe1 when their sagas tell of the dwarfs1 stunted and ugly1 dressed in reindeer kirtle and coloured cap1 cunning and cowardly1 shy of intercourse even with friendly ,norsemen1 dwelling in caves or in the mound-like ,lapland #8gamm1' armed only with arrows tipped with stone and bone1 yet feared and hated by their conquerors for their fancied powers of witchcraft4#edc ,moslem legend relates that the race of ,gog and ,magog 7,yajuj and ,majuj7 are of tiny stature1 but with ears like elephants2 they are a numerous people1 and ravaged the world2 they dwell in the ,east1 separated from ,persia by a high mountain1 with but one pass2 and the nations their neighbours1 when they heard of ,alexander the ,great 7,dh 'l-,karnain7 traversing the world1 paid tribute to him1 and he made them a wall of bronze and iron1 to keep in the nation of ,gog and ,magog4#edd ,who can fail to recognize in this a mystified description of the ,tatars of ,high ,asia8 ,professor ,nilsson tries to account in a general way for the huge or tiny stature of legendary tribes1 as being mere exaggeration of their actual largeness or smallness4 ,we must admit that this sometimes really happens4 ,the accounts which ,european eye-witnesses brought home of the colossal stature of the ,patagonians1 to whose waists they declared their own heads reached1 are enough to settle once for all the fact that myths of giants may arise from the sight of really tall men1#ede and it is so1 too1 with the dwarf-legends of the same region1 as where ,knivet1 the old traveller1 remarks of the little people of ,rio de la ,plata1 that they are #8not so very little as described4'#edf ,nevertheless1 this same group of giant and dwarf myths may serve as a warning not to stretch too widely a partial explanation1 however sound within its proper limits4 ,there is plenty of evidence that giant-legends are sometimes philosophic myths1 made to account for the finding of great fossil bones4 ,to give but a single instance of such connexion1 certain huge jaws and teeth1 found in excavating on the ,hoe at ,plymouth1 were recognized as belonging to the giant ,gogmagog1 who in old times fought his last fight there against ,corineus1 the eponymic hero of ,cornwall4#edg ,as to the dwarfs1 again1 stories of them are curiously associated with those long-enduring monuments of departed races--their burial-cysts and dolmens4 ,thus1 in the ,united ,states1 ranges of rude stone cysts1 often only two or three feet long1 are connected with the idea of a pygmy race buried in them4 ,in ,brittany1 the dolmens are the abodes and treasuries of the dwarfs who built them1 and likewise in ,india it is a usual legend of such prehistoric burial-places1 that they were dwarfs' houses--the dwellings of the ancient pygmies1 who here again appear as representatives of prehistoric tribes4#edh ,but a very different meaning is obvious in a medival traveller's account of the hairy1 man-like creatures of ,cathay1 one cubit high1 and that do not bend their knees as they walk1 or in an ,arab geographer's description of an island people in the ,indian seas1 four spans high1 naked1 with red downy hair on their faces1 and who climb up trees and shun mankind4 ,if any one could possibly doubt the real nature of these dwarfs1 his doubt may be resolved by ,marco ,polo's statement that in his time monkeys were regularly embalmed in the ,east ,indies1 and sold in boxes to be exhibited over the world as pygmies4#edi ,thus various different facts have given rise to stories of giants and dwarfs1 more than one mythic element perhaps combining to form a single legend--a result perplexing in the extreme to the mythological interpreter4 ,descriptions of strange tribes made in entire good faith may come to be understood in new extravagant senses1 when carried among people not aware of the original facts4 ,the following are some interpretations of this kind1 among which some far-fetched cases are given1 to show that the method must not be trusted too much4 ,the term #8nose-less' is apt to be misunderstood1 yet it was fairly enough applied to flat-nosed tribes1 such as ,turks of the steppes1 whom ,rabbi ,benjamin of ,tudela thus depicts in the twelfth century3--#8,they have no noses1 but draw breath through two small holes4'#eej ,again1 among the common ornamental mutilations of savages is that of stretching the ears to an enormous size by weights or coils1 and it is thus verbally quite true that there are men whose ears hang down upon their shoulders4 ,yet without explanation such a phrase would be understood to describe1 not the appearance of a real savage with his ear-lobes stretched into pendant fleshy loops1 but rather that of ,pliny's ,panotii1 or of the ,indian ,karnaprvarana1 #8whose ears serve them for cloaks1' or of the ,african dwarfs1 said to use their ears one for mattress and the other for coverlet when they lie down4 ,one of the most extravagant of these stories is told by ,fray ,pedro ,simon in ,california1 where in fact the territory of ,oregon has its name from the ,spanish term of ,orejones1 or #8,big-,ears1' given to the inhabitants from their practice of stretching their ears with ornaments4#eea ,even purely metaphorical descriptions1 if taken in a literal sense1 are capable of turning into catches1 like the story of the horse with its head where its tail should be4 ,i have been told by a ,french ,protestant from the ,nismes district that the epithet of gorgeo negro1 or #8black-throat1' by which ,catholics describe a ,huguenot1 was taken so literally that heretic children were sometimes forced to open their mouths to satisfy the orthodox of their being of the usual colour within4 ,on examining the description of savage tribes by higher races1 it appears that several of the epithets usually applied only need literalizing to turn into the wildest of the legendary monster-stories4 ,thus the ,burmese speak of the rude ,karens as #8dog-men2'#eeb ,marco ,polo describes the ,angaman 7,andaman7 islanders as brutish and savage cannibals1 with heads like dogs4#eec lian's account of the dog-headed people of ,india is on the face of it an account of a savage race4 ,the ,kynokephali1 he says1 are so called from their bodily appearance1 but otherwise they are human1 and they go dressed in the skins of beasts2 they are just1 and harm not men2 they cannot speak1 but roar1 yet they understand the language of the ,indians2 they live by hunting1 being swift of foot1 and they cook their game not by fire1 but by tearing it into fragments and drying it in the sun2 they keep goats and sheep1 and drink the milk4 ,the naturalist concludes by saying that he mentions these fitly among the irrational animals1 because they have not articulate1 distinct1 and human language4#eed ,this last suggestive remark well states the old prevalent notion that barbarians have no real language1 but are #8speechless1' #8tongueless1' or even mouthless4#eee ,another monstrous people of wide celebrity are ,pliny's ,blemmy1 said to be headless1 and accordingly to have their mouths and eyes in their breasts creatures over whom ,prester ,john reigned in ,asia1 who dwelt far and wide in ,south ,american forests1 and who to our medival ancestors were as real as the cannibals with whom ,othello couples them3-- #8,the ,anthropophagi1 and men whose heads ,do grow beneath their shoulders4' ,if1 however1 we look in dictionaries for the ,acephali1 we may find not actual headless monsters1 but heretics so called because their original head or founder was not known2 and when the kingless ,turkoman hordes say of themselves #8,we are a people without a head1' the metaphor is even more plain and natural4#eef ,moslem legend tells of the ,shikk and the ,nesnas1 creatures like one half of a split man1 with one arm1 leg1 and eye4 ,possibly it was thence that the ,zulus got their idea of a tribe of half-men1 who in one of their stories found a ,zulu maiden in a cave and thought she was two people1 but on closer inspection of her admitted1 #8,the thing is pretty6 ,but oh the two legs6' ,these realistic fancies coincide with the simple metaphor which describes a savage as only #8half a man1' semihomo1 as ,virgil calls the ferocious ,cacus4#eeg ,again1 when the ,chinese compared themselves to the outer barbarians1 they said #8,we see with two eyes1 the ,latins with one1 and all other nations are blind4' ,such metaphors1 proverbial among ourselves1 verbally correspond with legends of one-eyed tribes1 such as the savage cave-dwelling ,kyklopes4#eeh ,verbal coincidence of this kind1 untrustworthy enough in these latter instances1 passes at last into the vaguest fancy4 ,the negroes called ,europeans #8long-headed1' using the phrase in our familiar metaphorical sense2 but translate it into ,greek1 and at once ,hesiod's ,makrokephaloi come into being4#eei ,and1 to conclude the list1 one of the commonest of the monster-tribes of the ,old and ,new ,world is that distinguished by having feet turned backward4 ,now there is really a people whose name1 memorable in scientific controversy1 describes them as #8having feet the opposite way1' and they still retain that ancient name of ,antipodes4#efj ,returning from this digression to the region of philosophic myth1 we may examine new groups of explanatory stories1 produced from that craving to know causes and reasons which ever besets mankind4 ,when the attention of a man in the myth-making stage of intellect is drawn to any phenomenon or custom which has to him no obvious reason1 he invents and tells a story to account for it1 and even if he does not persuade himself that this is a real legend of his forefathers1 the story-teller who hears it from him and repeats it is troubled with no such difficulty4 ,our task in dealing with such stories is made easy when the criterion of possibility can be brought to bear upon them4 ,it has become a mere certainty to moderns that asbestos is not really salamander's wool2 that morbid hunger is not really caused by a lizard or a bird in a man's stomach2 that a ,chinese philosopher cannot really have invented the fire-drill by seeing a bird peck at the branches of a tree till sparks came4 ,the ,african ,wakuafi account for their cattle-lifting proclivities by the calm assertion that ,engai1 that is1 ,heaven1 gave all cattle to them1 and so wherever there is any it is their call to go and seize it4#efa ,so in ,south ,america the fierce ,mbayas declare they received from the ,caracara a divine command to make war on all other tribes1 killing the men and adopting the women and children4#efb ,but though it may be consistent with the notions of these savages to relate such explanatory legends1 it is not consistent with our notions to believe them4 ,fortunately1 too1 the ex post facto legends are apt to come into collision with more authentic sources of information1 or to encroach on the domain of valid history4 ,it is of no use for the ,chinese to tell their stupid story of written characters having been invented from the markings on a tortoise's shell1 for the early forms of such characters1 plain and simple pictures of objects1 have been preserved in ,china to this day4 ,nor can we praise anything but ingenuity in the ,west ,highland legend that the ,pope once laid an interdict on the land1 but forgot to curse the hills1 so the people tilled them1 this story being told to account for those ancient traces of tillage still to be seen on the wild hill-sides1 the so-called #8elf-furrows4'#efc ,the most embarrassing cases of explanatory tradition are those which are neither impossible enough to condemn1 nor probable enough to receive4 ,ethnographers who know how world-wide is the practice of defacing the teeth among the lower races1 and how it only dies gradually out in higher civilization1 naturally ascribe the habit to some general reason in human nature1 at a particular stage of development4 ,but the mutilating tribes themselves have local legends to account for local customs2 thus the ,penongs of ,burmah and the ,batoka of ,east ,africa both break their front teeth1 but the one tribe says its reason is not to look like apes1 the other that it is to be like oxen and not like zebras4#efd ,of the legends of tattooing1 one of the oldest is that told to account for the fact that while the ,fijians tattoo only the women1 their neighbours1 the ,tongans1 tattoo only the men4 ,it is related that a ,tongan1 on his way from ,fiji to report to his countrymen the proper custom for them to observe1 went on his way repeating the rule he had carefully learnt by heart1 #8,tattoo the women1 but not the men1' but unluckily he tripped over a stump1 got his lesson wrong1 and reached ,tonga repeating #8,tattoo the men1 but not the women1' an ordinance which they observed ever after4 ,how reasonable such an explanation seemed to the ,polynesian mind1 may be judged from the ,samoans having a version with different details1 and applied to their own instead of the ,tongan islands4#efe ,all men feel how wanting in sense of reality is a story with no personal name to hang it to4 ,this want is thus graphically expressed by ,sprenger the historian in his life of ,mohammed3 #8,it makes1 on me at least1 quite a different impression when it is related that 8the ,prophet said to ,alkama10 even if ,i knew nothing whatever else of this ,alkama1 than if it were merely stated that 8he said to somebody40' ,the feeling which this acute and learned critic thus candidly confesses1 has from the earliest times1 and in the minds of men troubled with no such nice historic conscience1 germinated to the production of much mythic fruit4 ,thus it has come to pass that one of the leading personages to be met with in the tradition of the world is really no more than--,somebody4 ,there is nothing this wondrous creature cannot achieve1 no shape he cannot put on2 one only restriction binds him at all1 that the name he assumes shall have some sort of congruity with the office he undertakes1 and even from this he oftentimes breaks loose4 ,so rife in our own day is this manufacture of personal history1 often fitted up with details of place and date into the very semblance of real chronicle1 that it may be guessed how vast its working must have been in days of old4 ,thus the ruins of ancient buildings1 of whose real history and use no trustworthy tradition survives in local memory1 have been easily furnished by myth with a builder and a purpose4 ,in ,mexico the great ,somebody assumes the name of ,montezuma1 and builds the aqueduct of ,tezcuco2 to the ,persian any huge and antique ruin is the work of the heroic ,antar2 in ,russia1 says ,dr4 ,bastian1 buildings of the most various ages are set down to ,peter the ,great1 as in ,spain to ,boabdil or ,charles ,v42 and ,european folklore may attribute to the ,devil any old building of unusual massiveness1 and especially those stone structures which antiquaries now class as pr-historic monuments4 ,with a more graceful thought1 the ,indians of ,north ,america declare that the imitative tumuli of ,ohio1 great mounds laid out in rude imitation of animals1 were shaped in old days by the great ,manitu himself1 in promise of a plentiful supply of game in the world of spirits4 ,the ,new ,zealanders tell how the hero ,kupe separated the ,north and ,south ,islands1 and formed ,cook's ,straits4 ,greek myth placed at the gate of the ,mediterranean the twin pillars of ,herakles2 in more recent times the opening of the ,straits of ,gibraltar became one of the many feats of ,alexander of ,macedon4#eff ,such a group of stories as this is no unfair test of the value of mere traditions of personal names which simply answer the questions that mankind have been asking for ages about the origin of their rites1 laws1 customs1 arts4 ,some such traditions are of course genuine1 and we may be able1 especially in the more modern cases1 to separate the real from the imaginary4 ,but it must be distinctly laid down that1 in the absence of corroborative evidence1 every tradition stands suspect of mythology1 if it can be made by the simple device of fitting some personal name to the purely theoretical assertion that somebody must have introduced into the world fire-making1 or weapons1 or ornaments1 or games1 or agriculture1 or marriage1 or any other of the elements of civilization4 ,among the various matters which have excited curiosity1 and led to its satisfaction by explanatory myths1 are local names4 ,these1 when the popular ear has lost their primitive significance1 become in barbaric times an apt subject for the myth-maker to explain in his peculiar fashion4 ,thus the ,tibetans declare that their lake ,chomoriri was named from a woman 7chomo7 who was carried into it by the yak she was riding1 and cried in terror ri-ri6 ,the ,arabs say the founders of the city of ,sennaar saw on the river bank a beautiful woman with teeth glittering like fire1 whence they called the place ,sinnr1 i4e41 #8tooth of fire4' ,the ,arkadians derived the name of their town ,trapezus from the table 7trapeza71 which ,zeus overturned when the wolfish ,lykaon served a child on it for a banquet to him4#efg ,such crude fancies in no way differ in nature from ,english local legends current up to recent times1 such as that which relates how the ,romans1 coming in sight of where ,exeter now stands1 exclaimed in delight1 #8,ecce terra6' and thus the city had its name4 ,not long ago1 a curious enquirer wished to know from the inhabitants of ,fordingbridge1 or as the country people call it1 ,fardenbridge1 what the origin of this name might be1 and heard in reply that the bridge was thought to have been built when wages were so cheap that masons worked for a #8farden' a day4 ,the ,falmouth folks' story of ,squire ,pendarvis and his ale is well known1 how his servant excused herself for selling it to the sailors1 because1 as she said1 #8,the penny come so quick1' whence the place came to be called ,pennycomequick2 this nonsense being invented to account for an ancient ,cornish name1 probably ,penycumgwic1 #8head of the creek valley4' ,mythic fancy had fallen to a low estate when it dwindled to such remnants as this4 ,that personal names may pass into nouns1 we1 who talk of broughams and bluchers1 cannot deny4 ,but any such etymology ought to have contemporary document or some equally forcible proof in its favour1 for this is a form of explanation taken by the most flagrant myths4 ,david the painter1 it is related1 had a promising pupil named ,chicque1 the son of a fruiterer2 the lad died at eighteen1 but his master continued to hold him up to later students as a model of artistic cleverness1 and hence arose the now familiar term of chic4 ,etymologists1 a race not wanting in effrontery1 have hardly ever surpassed this circumstantial canard2 the word chic dates at anyrate from the seventeenth century4#efh ,another word with which similar liberty has been taken1 is cant4 ,steele1 in the #8,spectator1' says that some people derive it from the name of one ,andrew ,cant1 a ,scotch minister1 who had the gift of preaching in such a dialect that he was understood by none but his own congregation1 and not by all of them4 ,this is1 perhaps1 not a very accurate delineation of the real ,andrew ,cant1 who is mentioned in #8,whitelock's ,memorials1' and seems to have known how to speak out in very plain terms indeed4 ,but at any rate he flourished about #afej1 whereas the verb to cant was then already an old word4 ,to cante1 meaning to speak1 is mentioned in ,harman's #8,list of ,rogues' ,words1' in #aeff1 and in #aehg ,harrison says of the beggars and gypsies that they have devised a language among themselves1 which they name canting1 but others #8,pedlars' ,frenche4'#efi ,of all etymologies ascribed to personal names1 one of the most curious is that of the ,danse ,macabre1 or ,dance of ,death1 so well known from ,holbein's pictures4 ,its supposed author is thus mentioned in the #8,biographie ,universelle3' #8,macaber1 pote allemand1 serait tout--fait inconnu sans l'ouvrage qu'on a sous son nom4' ,this1 it may be added1 is true enough1 for there never was such a person at all1 the ,danse ,macabre being really ,chorea ,machaborum1 the ,dance of the ,maccabees1 a kind of pious pantomime of death performed in churches in the fifteenth century4 ,why the performance received this name1 is that the rite of ,mass for the dead is distinguished by the reading of that passage from the twelfth chapter of ,book ,,ii4 of the ,maccabees1 which relates how the people betook themselves to prayer1 and besought the ,lord that the sin of those who had been slain among them might be wholly blotted out2 for if ,judas had not expected that the slain should rise again1 it had been superfluous and vain to pray for the dead4#egj ,traced to its origin1 it is thus seen that the ,danse ,macabre is neither more nor less than the ,dance of the ,dead4 ,it is not an unusual thing for tribes and nations to be known by the name of their chief1 as in books of ,african travel we read of #8,eyo's people1' or #8,kamrazi's people4' ,such terms may become permanent1 like the name of the ,osmanli ,turks taken from the great ,othman1 or ,osman4 ,the notions of kinship and chieftainship may easily be combined1 as where some individual ,brian or ,alpine may have given his name to a clan of ,o',briens or ,mac ,alpines4 ,how far the tribal names of the lower races may have been derived from individual names of chiefs or forefathers1 is a question on which distinct evidence is difficult to obtain4 ,in ,patagonia bands or subdivisions of tribes are designated by the names of temporary chiefs1 every roving party having such a leader1 who is sometimes even styled #8yank1' i4e4 #8father4'#ega ,the ,zulus and ,maoris were races who paid great attention to the traditional genealogies of their clan-ancestors1 who were1 indeed1 not only their kinsfolk but their gods2 and they distinctly recognize the possibility of tribes being named from a deceased ancestor or chief4 ,the ,kafir tribe of ,ama-,xosa derives its name from a chief1 ,u-,xosa2#egb and the ,maori tribes of ,ngate-,wakaue and ,nga-,puhi claim descent from chiefs called ,wakaue and ,puhi4#egc ,around this nucleus of actuality1 however1 there gathers an enormous mass of fiction simulating its effects4 ,the myth-maker1 curious to know how many people or country gained its name1 had only to conclude that it came from a great ancestor or ruler1 and then the simple process of turning a national or local title into a personal name at once added a new genealogy to historical tradition4 ,in some cases1 the name of the imagined ancestor is invented in such form that the local or gentile name may stand as grammatically derived from it1 as usually happens in real cases1 like the derivation of ,csarea from ,csar1 or of the ,benedictines from ,benedict4 ,but in the fictitious genealogy or history of the myth-maker1 the mere unaltered name of the nation1 tribe1 country1 or city often becomes without more ado the name of the eponymic hero4 ,it has to be remembered1 moreover1 that countries and nations can be personified by an imaginative process which has not quite lost its sense in modern speech4 ,france is talked of by politicians as an individual being1 with particular opinions and habits1 and may even be embodied as a statue or picture with suitable attributes4 ,and if one were to say that ,britannia has two daughters1 ,canada and ,australia1 or that she has gone to keep house for a decrepit old aunt called ,india1 this would be admitted as plain fact expressed in fantastic language4 ,the invention of ancestries from eponymic heroes or name-ancestors has1 however1 often had a serious effect in corrupting historic truth1 by helping to fill ancient annals with swarms of fictitious genealogies4 ,yet1 when surveyed in a large view1 the nature of the eponymic fictions is patent and indisputable1 and so regular are their forms1 that we could scarcely choose more telling examples of the consistent processes of imagination1 as shown in the development of myths4 ,the great number of the eponymic ancestors of ancient ,greek tribes and nations makes it easy to test them by comparison1 and the test is a destructive one4 ,treat the heroic genealogies they belong to as traditions founded on real history1 and they prove hopelessly independent and incompatible2 but consider them as mostly local and tribal myths and such independence and incompatibility become their proper features4 ,mr4 ,grote1 whose tendency is to treat all myths as fictions not only unexplained but unexplainable1 here makes an exception1 tracing the eponymic ancestors from whom ,greek cities and tribes derived their legendary parentage to mere embodied local and gentile names4 ,thus1 of the fifty sons of ,lykan1 a whole large group consists of personified cities of ,arkadia1 such as ,mantinus1 ,phigalos1 ,tegeats1 who1 according to the simply inverting legend1 are called founders of ,mantina1 ,phigalia1 ,tegea4 ,the father of ,king akos was ,zeus1 his mother his own personified land1 gina2 the city of ,myknai had not only an ancestress ,mykn1 but an eponymic ancestor as well1 ,mykneus4 ,long afterwards1 medival ,europe1 stimulated by the splendid genealogies through which ,rome had attached herself to ,greece and the ,greek gods and heroes1 discovered the secret of rivalling them in the chronicles of ,geoffry of ,monmouth and others1 by claiming as founders of ,paris and ,tours the ,trojans ,paris and ,turnus1 and connecting ,france and ,britain with the ,trojan war through ,francus1 son of ,hector1 and ,brutus1 great grandson of neas4 ,a remarkably perfect eponymic historical myth accounting for the ,gypsies or ,egyptians1 may be found cited seriously in #8,blackstone's ,commentaries3' when ,sultan ,selim conquered ,egypt in #aeag1 several of the natives refused to submit to the ,turkish yoke1 and revolted under one ,zinganeus1 whence the ,turks called them ,zinganees1 but1 being at length surrounded and banished1 they agreed to disperse in small parties over the world1 c41 c4 ,it is curious to watch ,milton's mind emerging1 but not wholly emerging1 from the state of the medival chronicler4 ,he mentions in the beginning of his #8,history of ,britain1' the #8outlandish figment' of the four kings1 ,magus1 ,saron1 ,druis1 and ,bardus2 he has no approval for the giant ,albion1 son of ,neptune1 who subdued the island and called it after his own name2 he scoffs at the four sons of ,japhet1 called ,francus1 ,romanus1 ,alemannus1 and ,britto4 ,but when he comes to ,brutus and the ,trojan legends of old ,english history1 his sceptical courage fails him3 #8those old and inborn names of successive kings1 never any to have bin real persons1 or don in their lives at least som part of what so long hath bin remember'd1 cannot be thought without too strict an incredulity4'#egd ,among ruder races of the world1 asserted genealogies of this class may be instanced in ,south ,american tribes called the ,amoipira and ,potyuara1#ege ,khond clans called ,baska and ,jakso1#egf ,turkoman hordes called ,yomut1 ,tekke1 and ,chaudor1#egg all of them professing to derive their designations from ancestors or chiefs who bore as individuals these very names4 ,where criticism can be brought to bear on these genealogies1 its effect is often such as drove ,brutus and his ,trojans out of ,english history4 ,when there appear in the genealogy of ,haussa1 in ,west ,africa1 plain names of towns like ,kano and ,katsena1#egh it is natural to consider these towns to have been personified into mythic ancestors4 ,mexican tradition assigns a whole set of eponymic ancestors or chiefs to the various races of the land1 as ,mexi the founder of ,mexico1 ,chichimecatl the first king of the ,chichimecs1 and so forth1 down to ,otomitl the ancestor of the ,otomis1 whose very name by its termination betrays its ,aztec invention4#egi ,the ,brazilians account for the division of the ,tupis and ,guaranis1 by the legend of two ancestral brothers1 ,tupi and ,guarani1 who quarrelled and separated1 each with his followers3 here an eponymic origin of the story is made likely by the word ,guarani not being an old national name at all1 but merely the designation of #8warriors' given by the missionaries to certain tribes4#ehj ,and when such facts are considered as that ,north ,american clans named after animals1 ,beaver1 ,crayfish1 and the like1 account for these names by simply claiming the very creatures themselves as ancestors1#eha the tendency of general criticism will probably be not so much in favour of real forefathers and chiefs who left their names to their tribes1 as of eponymic ancestors created by backwards imitation of such inheritance4 ,the examination of eponymic legend1 however1 must by no means stop short at the destructive stage4 ,in fact1 when it has undergone the sharpest criticism1 it only displays the more clearly a real historic value1 not less perhaps than if all the names it records were real names of ancient chiefs4 ,with all their fancies1 blunders1 and shortcomings1 the heroic genealogies preserve early theories of nationality1 traditions of migration1 invasion1 connexion by kindred or intercourse4 ,the ethnologists of old days1 borrowing the phraseology of myth1 stated what they looked on as the actual relations of races1 in a personifying language of which the meaning may still be readily interpreted4 ,the ,greek legend of the twin brothers ,danaos and gyptos1 founders of the nations of the ,danaoi or ,homeric ,greeks and of the gyptians1 represents a distinct though weak ethnological theory4 ,their eponymic myth of ,helln1 the personified race of the ,hellnes1 is another and more reasonable ethnological document stating kinship among four great branches of the ,greek race3 the three sons of ,helln1 it relates1 were ,aiolos1 ,dros1 and ,xouthos2 the first two gave their names to the olians and ,dorians1 the third had sons called ,achaios and ,in1 whose names passed as a heritage to the ,achaioi and ,ionians4 ,the belief of the ,lydians1 ,mysians1 and ,karians as to their national kinship is well expressed in the genealogy in ,herodotus1 which traces their descent from the three brothers ,lydos1 ,mysos1 and ,kar4#ehb ,the ,persian legend of ,feridun 7,thraetaona7 and his three sons1 ,irej1 ,tur1 and ,selm1 distinguishes the two nationalities of ,iranian and ,turanian1 i4e4 ,persian and ,tatar4#ehc ,the national genealogy of the ,afghans is worthy of remark4 ,it runs thus3 ,melik ,talut 7,king ,saul7 had two sons1 ,berkia and ,irmia 7,berekiah and ,jeremiah71 who served ,david2 the son of ,berkia was ,afghan1 and the son of ,irmia was ,usbek4 ,thanks to the aquiline noses of the ,afghans1 and to their use of ,biblical personal names derived from ,biblical sources1 the idea of their being descendants of the lost tribes of ,israel found great credence among ,european scholars up to the present century4#ehd ,yet the pedigree is ethnologically absurd1 for the whole source of the imagined cousinship of the ,aryan ,afghan and the ,turanian ,usbek1 so distinct both in feature and in language1 appears to be in their union by common ,mohammedanism1 while the reckless jumble of sham history1 which derives both from a ,semitic source1 is only too characteristic of ,moslem chronicle4 ,among the ,tatars is found a much more reasonable national pedigree2 in the #acth century1 ,william of ,ruysbroek relates1 as sober circumstantial history1 that they were originally called ,turks from ,turk the eldest son of ,japhet1 but one of their princes left his dominions to his twin sons1 ,tatar and ,mongol which gave rise to the distinction that has ever since prevailed between these two nations4#ehe ,historically absurd1 this legend states what appears the unimpeachable ethnological fact1 that the ,turks1 ,mongols1 and ,tatars are closely-connected branches of one national stock1 and we can only dispute in it what seems an exorbitant claim on the part of the ,turk to represent the head of the family1 the ancestor of the ,mongol and the ,tatar4 ,thus these eponymic national genealogies1 mythological in form but ethnological in substance1 embody opinions of which we may admit or deny the truth or value1 but which we must recognize as distinctly ethnological documents4#ehf ,it thus appears that early ethnology is habitually expressed in a metaphorical language1 in which lands and nations are personified1 and their relations indicated by terms of personal kinship4 ,this description applies to that important document of ancient ethnology1 the table of nations in the #ajth chapter of ,genesis4 ,in some cases it is a problem of minute and difficult criticism to distinguish among its ancestral names those which are simply local or national designations in personal form4 ,but to critics conversant with the ethnic genealogies of other peoples1 such as have here been quoted1 simple inspection of this national list may suffice to show that part of its names are not names of real men1 but of personified cities1 lands1 and races4 ,the city ,zidon 77 is brother to ,heth 77 the father of the ,hittites1 and next follow in person the ,jebusite and the ,amorite4 ,among plain names of countries1 ,cush or thiopia 77 begets ,nimrod1 ,asshur or ,assyria 77 builds ,nineveh1 and even the dual ,mizraim 771 the #8two ,egypts1' usually regarded as signifying ,upper and ,lower ,egypt1 appears in the line of generations as a personal son and brother of other countries1 and ancestor of populations4 ,the ,aryan stock is clearly recognized in personifications of at least two of its members1 ,madai 77 the ,mede1 and ,javan 77 the ,ionian4 ,and as regards the family to which the ,israelites themselves belong1 if ,canaan 771 the father of ,zidon 771 be transferred to it to represent the ,phnicians1 by the side of ,asshur 771 ,aram 771 ,eber 771 and the other descendants of ,shem1 the result will be mainly to arrange the ,semitic stock according to the ordinary classification of modern comparative philology4 ,turning now from cases where mythologic phrase serves as a medium for expressing philosophic opinion1 let us quickly cross the district where fancy assumes the semblance of explanatory legend4 ,the medival schoolmen have been justly laughed at for their habit of translating plain facts into the terms of metaphysics1 and then solemnly offering them in this scientific guise as explanations of themselves--accounting for opium making people sleep1 by its possession of a dormitive virtue4 ,the myth-maker's proceedings may in one respect be illustrated by comparing them with this4 ,half mythology is occupied1 as many a legend cited in these chapters has shown1 in shaping the familiar facts of daily life into imaginary histories of their own cause and origin1 childlike answers to those world-old questions of whence and why1 which the savage asks as readily as the sage4 ,so familiar is the nature of such description in the dress of history1 that its easier examples translate off-hand4 ,when the ,samoans say that ever since the great battle among the plantains and bananas1 the vanquished have hung down their heads1 while the victor stands proudly erect1#ehg who can mistake the simple metaphor which compares the upright and the drooping plants to a conqueror standing among his beaten foes8 ,in simile just as obvious lies the origin of another ,polynesian legend1 which relates the creation of the coco-nut from a man's head1 the chestnuts from his kidneys1 and the yams from his legs4#ehh ,to draw one more example from the mythology of plants1 how transparent is the ,ojibwa fancy of that heavenly youth with green robe and waving feathers1 whom for the good of men the ,indian overcame and buried1 and who sprang again from his grave as the ,indian corn1 ,mondamin1 the #8,spirit's grain4'#ehi ,the ,new ,forest peasant deems that the marl he digs is still red with the blood of his ancient foes the ,danes2 the ,maori sees on the red cliffs of ,cook's ,straits the blood-stains that ,kupe made when1 mourning for the death of his daughter1 he cut his forehead with pieces of obsidian2 in the spot where ,buddha offered his own body to feed the starved tigress's cubs1 his blood for ever reddened the soil and the trees and flowers4 ,the modern ,albanian still sees the stain of slaughter in streams running red with earth1 as to the ancient ,greek the river that flowed by ,byblos bore down in its summer floods the red blood of ,adonis4 ,the ,cornishman knows from the red filmy growth on the brook pebbles that murder has been done there2 ,john the ,baptist's blood still grows in ,germany on his day1 and peasants still go out to search for it2 the red meal fungus is blood dropped by the flying ,huns when they hurt their feet against the high tower-roofs4 ,the traveller in ,india might see on the ruined walls of ,ganga ,raja the traces of the blood of the citizens spilt in the siege1 and yet more marvellous to relate1 at ,st4 ,denis's church in ,cornwall1 the blood-stains on the stones fell there when the saint's head was cut off somewhere else4#eij ,of such translations of descriptive metaphor under thin pretence of history1 every collection of myth is crowded with examples1 but it strengthens our judgment of the combined consistency and variety of what may be called the mythic language1 to extract from its dictionary such a group as this1 which in variously imaginative fashion describes the appearance of a blood-red stain4 ,the merest shadowy fancy or broken-down metaphor1 when once it gains a sense of reality1 may begin to be spoken of as an actual event4 ,the ,moslems have heard the very stones praise ,allah1 not in simile only but in fact1 and among them the saying that a man's fate is written on his forehead has been materialized into a belief that it can be deciphered from the letter-like markings of the sutures of his skull4 ,one of the miraculous passages in the life of ,mohammed himself is traced plausibly by ,sprenger to such a pragmatized metaphor4 ,the angel ,gabriel1 legend declares1 opened the prophet's breast1 and took a black clot from his heart1 which he washed with ,zemzem water and replaced2 details are given of the angel's dress and golden basin1 and ,anas ibn ,malik declared he had seen the very mark where the wound was sewn up4 ,we may venture with the historian to ascribe this marvellous incident to the familiar metaphor that ,mohammed's heart was divinely opened and cleansed1 and indeed he does say in the ,koran that ,god opened his heart4#eia ,a single instance is enough to represent the same habit in ,christian legend4 ,marco ,polo relates how in #abbe the ,khalif of ,bagdad commanded the ,christians of his dominions1 under penalty of death or ,islam1 to justify their ,scriptural text by removing a certain mountain4 ,now there was among them a shoemaker1 who1 having been tempted to excess of admiration for a woman1 had plucked out his offending eye4 ,this man commanded the mountain to remove1 which it did to the terror of the ,khalif and all his people1 and since then the anniversary of the miracle has been kept holy4 ,the ,venetian traveller1 after the manner of medival writers1 records the story without a symptom of suspicion2#eib yet to our minds its whole origin so obviously lies in three verses of ,st4 ,matthew's gospel1 that it is needless to quote them4 ,to modern taste such wooden fictions as these are far from attractive4 ,in fact the pragmatizer is a stupid creature2 nothing is too beautiful or too sacred to be made dull and vulgar by his touch1 for it is through the very incapacity of his mind to hold an abstract idea that he is forced to embody it in a material incident4 ,yet wearisome as he may be1 it is none the less needful to understand him1 to acknowledge the vast influence he has had on the belief of mankind1 and to appreciate him as representing in its extreme abuse that tendency to clothe every thought in a concrete shape1 which has in all ages been a mainspring of mythology4 ,though allegory cannot maintain the large place often claimed for it in mythology1 it has yet had too much influence to be passed over in this survey4 ,it is true that the search for allegorical explanation is a pursuit that has led many a zealous explorer into the quagmires of mysticism4 ,yet there are cases in which allegory is certainly used with historical intent1 as for instance in the apocryphal ,book of ,enoch1 with its cows and sheep which stand for ,israelites1 and asses and wolves for ,midianites and ,egyptians1 these creatures figuring in a pseudo-prophetic sketch of ,old ,testament chronicles4 ,as for moral allegory1 it is immensely plentiful in the world1 although its limits are narrower than mythologists of past centuries have supposed4 ,it is now reasonably thought preposterous to interpret the ,greek legends as moral apologues1 after the manner of ,herakleides the philosopher1 who could discern a parable of repentant prudence in ,athene seizing ,achilles when just about to draw his sword on ,agamemnon4#eic ,still1 such a mode of interpretation has thus much to justify it1 that numbers of the fanciful myths of the world are really allegories4 ,there is allegory in the ,hesiodic myth of ,pandora1 whom ,zeus sent down to men1 decked with golden band and garland of spring flowers1 fit cause of longing and the pangs of love1 but using with a dog-like mind her gifts of lies and treachery and pleasant speech4 ,heedless of his wiser brother's words1 the foolish ,epimetheus took her2 she raised the lid of the great cask and shook out the evils that wander among mankind1 and the diseases that by day and night come silently bringing ill2 she set on the lid again and shut hope in1 that evil might be ever hopeless to mankind4 ,shifted to fit a different moral1 the allegory remained in the later version of the tale1 that the cask held not curses but blessings2 these were let go and lost to men when the vessel was too curiously opened1 while ,hope alone was left behind for comfort to the luckless human race4#eid ,yet the primitive nature of such legends underlies the moral shape upon them4 ,zeus is no allegoric fiction1 and ,prometheus1 unless modern mythologists judge him very wrongly1 has a meaning far deeper than parable4 ,xenophon tells after ,prodikos the story of ,herakles choosing between the short and easy path of pleasure and the long and toilsome path of virtue1#eie but though the mythic hero may thus be made to figure in a moral apologue1 an imagination so little in keeping with his unethic nature jars upon the reader's mind4 ,the general relation of allegory to pure myth can hardly be brought more clearly into view than in a class of stories familiar to every child1 the ,beast-fables4 ,from the ordinary civilized point of view the allegory in such fictions seems fundamental1 the notion of a moral lesson seems bound up with their very nature1 yet a broader examination tends to prove the allegorical growth as it were parasitic on an older trunk of myth without moral4 ,it is only by an effort of intellectual reaction that a modern writer can imitate in parable the beast of the old ,beast-fable4 ,no wonder1 for the creature has become to his mind a monster1 only conceivable as a caricature of man made to carry a moral lesson or a satire4 ,but among savages it is not so4 ,to their minds the semi-human beast is no fictitious creature1 invented to preach or sneer1 he is all but a reality4 ,beast-fables are not nonsense to men who ascribe to the lower animals a power of speech1 and look on them as partaking of moral human nature2 to men in whose eyes any hyna or wolf may probably be a man-hyna or a werewolf2 to men who so utterly believe #8that the soul of our grandam might haply inhabit a bird' that they will really regulate their own diet so as to avoid eating an ancestor2 to men an integral part of whose religion may actually be the worship of beasts4 ,such beliefs belong even now to half mankind1 and among such the beast-stories had their first home4 ,even the ,australians tell their quaint beast-tales1 of the ,rat1 the ,owl1 and the fat ,blackfellow1 or of ,pussy-brother who singed his friends' noses while they were asleep4#eif ,the ,kamchadals have an elaborate myth of the adventures of their stupid deity ,kutka with the ,mice who played tricks upon him1 such as painting his face like a woman's1 so that when he looked in the water he fell in love with himself4#eig ,beast-tales abound among such races as the ,polynesians and the ,north ,american ,indians1 who value in them ingenuity of incident and neat adaptation of the habits and characters of the creatures4 ,thus in a legend of the ,flathead ,indians1 the ,little ,wolf found in ,cloudland his grandsires the ,spiders with their grizzled hair and long crooked nails1 and they spun balls of thread to let him down to earth2 when he came down and found his wife the ,speckled ,duck1 whom the ,old ,wolf had taken from him1 she fled in confusion1 and that is why she lives and dives alone to this very day4#eih ,in ,guinea1 where beast-fable is one of the great staples of native conversation1 the following story is told as a type of the tales which in this way account for peculiarities of animals4 ,the great ,engena-monkey offered his daughter to be bride of the champion who should perform the feat of drinking a whole barrel of rum4 ,the dignified ,elephant1 the graceful ,leopard1 the surly ,boar1 tried the first mouthful of the fire-water1 and retreated4 ,then the tiny ,telinga-monkey came1 who had cunningly hidden in the long grass thousands of his fellows2 he took his first glass and went away1 but instead of his coming back1 another just like him came for the second1 and so on till the barrel was emptied and ,telinga walked off with the ,monkey-king's daughter4 ,but in the narrow path the ,elephant and ,leopard attacked him and drove him off and he took refuge in the highest boughs of the trees1 vowing never more to live on the ground and suffer such violence and injustice4 ,this is why to this day the little telingas are only found in the highest tree-tops4#eii ,such stories have been collected by scores from savage tradition in their original state1 while as yet no moral lesson has entered into them4 ,yet the easy and natural transition from the story into the parable is made among savages1 perhaps without help from higher races4 ,in the ,hottentot ,tales1 side by side with the myth of the cunning ,jackal tricking the ,lion out of the best of the carcase1 and getting the black stripe burnt on his own back by carrying off the ,sun1 there occurs the moral apologue of the ,lion who thought himself wiser than his ,mother1 and perished by the ,hunter's spear1 for want of heed to her warning against the deadly creature whose head is in a line with his breast and shoulders4#fjj ,so the ,zulus have a thorough moral apologue in the story of the hyrax1 who did not go to fetch his tail on the day when tails were given out1 because he did not like to be out in the rain2 he only asked the other animals to bring it for him1 and so he never got it4#fja ,among the ,north ,american legends of ,manabozho1 there is a fable quite sopian in its humour4 ,manabozho1 transformed into a ,wolf1 killed a fat moose1 and being very hungry sat down to eat4 ,but he fell into great doubts as to where to begin1 for1 said he1 if ,i begin at the head1 people will laugh and say1 he ate him backwards1 but if ,i begin at the side they will say1 he ate him sideways4 ,at last he made up his mind1 and was just putting a delicate piece into his mouth1 when a tree close by creaked4 ,stop1 stop6 said he to the tree1 ,i cannot eat with such a noise1 and in spite of his hunger he left the meat and climbed up to quiet the creaking1 but was caught between two branches and held fast1 and presently he saw a pack of wolves coming4 ,go that way6 ,go that way6 he cried out1 whereupon the wolves said1 he must have something there1 or he would not tell us to go another way4 ,so they came on1 and found the moose1 and ate it to the bones while ,manabozho looked wistfully on4 ,the next heavy blast of wind opened the branches and let him out1 and he went home thinking to himself1 #8,see the effect of meddling with frivolous things when ,i had certain good in my possession4'#fjb ,in the ,old ,world1 the moral ,beast-fable was of no mean antiquity1 but it did not at once supplant the animal-myths pure and simple4 ,for ages the ,european mind was capable at once of receiving lessons of wisdom from the sopian crows and foxes1 and of enjoying artistic but by no means edifying beast-stories of more primitive type4 ,in fact the ,babrius and ,phdrus collections were over a thousand years old1 when the genuine ,beast-,epic reached its fullest growth in the incomparable #8,reynard the ,fox1' traceable in ,jakob ,grimm's view to an original ,frankish composition of the #abth century1 itself containing materials of far earlier date4#fjc ,reynard is not a didactic poem1 at least if a moral hangs on to it here and there it is oftenest a ,macchiavellian one2 nor is it essentially a satire1 sharply as it lashes men in general and the clergy in particular4 ,its creatures are incarnate qualities1 the ,fox of cunning1 the ,bear of strength1 the ,ass of dull content1 the ,sheep of guilelessness4 ,the charm of the narrative1 which every class in medival ,europe delighted in1 but which we have allowed to drop out of all but scholars' knowledge1 lies in great measure in he cleverly sustained combination of the beast's nature and the man's4 ,how great the influence of the ,reynard ,epic was in the middle ages1 may be judged from ,reynard1 ,bruin1 ,chanticleer1 being still names familiar to people who have no idea of their having been originally names of the characters in the great beast-fable4 ,even more remarkable are its traces in modern ,french4 ,the donkey has its name of baudet from ,baudoin1 ,baldwin the ,ass4 ,common ,french dictionaries do not even contain the word goupil 7vulpes71 so effectually has the ,latin name of the fox been driven out of use by his ,frankish title in the ,beast-,epic1 ,raginhard the ,counsellor1 ,reinhart1 ,reynard1 ,renart1 renard4 ,the moralized apologues like sop's which ,grimm contemptuously calls #8fables thinned down to mere moral and allegory1' #8a fourth watering of the old grapes into an insipid moral infusion1' are low in sthetic quality as compared with the genuine beast-myths4 ,mythological critics will be apt to judge them after the manner of the child who said how convenient it was to have #8,moral' printed in sop's fables1 that everybody might know what to skip4 ,the want of power of abstraction which has ever had such disastrous effect on the beliefs of mankind1 confounding myth and chronicle1 and crushing the spirit of history under the rubbish of literalized tradition1 comes very clearly into view in the study of parable4 ,the state of mind of the deaf1 dumb1 and blind ,laura ,bridgman1 so instructive in illustrating the mental habits of uneducated though full-sensed men1 displays in an extreme form the difficulty such men have in comprehending the unreality of any story4 ,she could not be made to see that arithmetical problems were anything but statements of concrete fact1 and when her teacher asked her1 #8,if you can buy a barrel of cider for four dollars1 how much can you buy for one dollar8' she replied quite simply1 #8,i cannot give much for cider1 because it is very sour4'#fjd ,it is a surprising instance of this tendency to concretism1 that among people so civilized as the ,buddhists1 the most obviously moral beast-fables have become literal incidents of sacred history4 ,gautama1 during his #eej jatakas or births1 took the form of a frog1 a fish1 a crow1 an ape1 and various other animals1 and so far were the legends of these transformations from mere myth to his followers1 that there have been preserved as relics in ,buddhist temples the hair1 feathers1 and bones of the creatures whose bodies the great teacher inhabited4 ,now among the incidents which happened to ,buddha during his series of animal births1 he appeared as an actor in the familiar fable of the ,fox and the ,stork1 and it was he who1 when he was a ,squirrel1 set an example of parental virtue by trying to dry up the ocean with his tail1 to save his young ones whose nest had drifted out to sea1 till his persevering courage was rewarded by a miracle4#fje ,to our modern minds1 a moral which seems the very purpose of a story is evidence unfavourable to its truth as fact4 ,but if even apologues of talking birds and beasts have not been safe from literal belief1 it is clear that the most evident moral can have been but slight protection to parables told of possible and life-like men4 ,it was not a needless precaution to state explicitly of the ,new ,testament parables that they were parables1 and even this guard has not availed entirely4 ,mrs4 ,jameson relates some curious experience in the following passage3--#8,i know that ,i was not very young when ,i entertained no more doubt of the substantial existence of ,lazarus and ,dives than of ,john the ,baptist and ,herod2 when the ,good ,samaritan was as real a personage as any of the ,apostles2 when ,i was full of sincerest pity for those poor foolish ,virgins who had forgotten to trim their lamps1 and thought them--in my secret soul--rather hardly treated4 ,this impression of the literal actual truth of the parables ,i have since met with in many children1 and in the uneducated but devout hearers and readers of the ,bible2 and ,i remember that when ,i once tried to explain to a good old woman the proper meaning of the word parable1 and that the story of the ,prodigal ,son was not a fact1 she was scandalized--she was quite sure that ,jesus would never have told anything to his disciples that was not true4 ,thus she settled the matter in her own mind1 and ,i thought it best to leave it there undisturbed4'#fjf ,nor1 it may be added1 has such realization been confined to the minds of the poor and ignorant4 ,st4 ,lazarus1 patron saint of lepers and their hospitals1 and from whom the lazzarone and the lazzaretto take their name1 obviously derives these qualities from the ,lazarus of the parable4 ,the proof of the force and obstinacy of the mythic faculty1 thus given by the relapse of parable into pseudo-history1 may conclude this dissertation on mythology4 ,in its course there have been examined the processes of animating and personifying nature1 the formation of legend by exaggeration and perversion of fact1 the stiffening of metaphor by mistaken realization of words1 the conversion of speculative theories and still less substantial fictions into pretended traditional events1 the passage of myth into miracle-legend1 the definition by name and place given to any floating imagination1 the adaptation of mythic incident as moral example1 and the incessant crystallization of story into history4 ,the investigation of these intricate and devious operations has brought ever more and more broadly into view two principles of mythologic science4 ,the first is that legend1 when classified on a sufficient scale1 displays a regularity of development which the notion of motiveless fancy quite fails to account for1 and which must be attributed to laws of formation whereby every story1 old and new1 has arisen from its definite origin and sufficient cause4 ,so uniform indeed is such development1 that it becomes possible to treat myth as an organic product of mankind at large1 in which individual1 national1 and even racial distinctions stand subordinate to universal qualities of the human mind4 ,the second principle concerns the relation of myth to history4 ,it is true that the search for mutilated and mystified traditions of real events1 which formed so main a part of old mythological researches1 seems to grow more hopeless the farther the study of legend extends4 ,even the fragments of real chronicle found embedded in the mythic structure are mostly in so corrupt a state1 that1 far from their elucidating history1 they need history to elucidate them4 ,yet unconsciously1 and as it were in spite of themselves1 the shapers and transmitters of poetic legend have preserved for us masses of sound historical evidence4 ,they moulded into mythic lives of gods and heroes their own ancestral heirlooms of thought and word1 they displayed in the structure of their legends the operations of their own minds1 they placed on record the arts and manners1 the philosophy and religion of their own times1 times of which formal history has often lost the very memory4 ,myth is the history of its authors1 not of its subjects2 it records the lives1 not of superhuman heroes1 but of poetic nations4 ,footnote #ejj3 ,hamilton in #8,as4 ,res4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cdd2 ,colebrooke1 ibid4 vol4 iv4 p4 #che2 ,earl in #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 iii4 p4 #fhb2 vol4 iv4 p4 #i4 ,see ,renaudot1 #8,travels of ,two ,mahommedans1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 vii4 p4 #ahc4 ,footnote #eja3 ,f4 ,buckland1 #8,curiosities of ,nat4 ,hist4' #crd series1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ci4 ,footnote #ejb3 ,andrew ,boorde1 #8,introduction of ,knowledge1' ed4 by ,f4 ,j4 ,furnivall1 ,early ,eng4 ,text ,soc4 #ahgj1 p4 #acc4 ,footnote #ejc3 lian1 ,de ,nat4 ,animal1 v4 #b1 see #h4 ,footnote #ejd3 ,acta ,sanctorum ,bolland4 ,jan4 xvi4 ,footnote #eje3 #8,acts of ,peter and ,paul1' trans4 by ,a4 ,walker1 in ,ante-,nicene ,library1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #beg2 ,f4 ,f4 ,tuckett in #8,nature1' ,oct4 #bj1 #ahgj4 ,see ,lyell1 #8,principles of ,geology1' ch4 xxx42 ,phillips1 #8,vesuvius1' p4 #bdd4 ,footnote #ejf3 ,lane1 #8,thousand and ,one ,n4' vol4 i4 pp4 #afa1 #bag2 vol4 iii4 p4 #gh2 ,hole1 #8,remarks on the ,ar4 ,n4' p4 #ajd2 ,heinrich von ,veldeck1 #8,herzog ,ernst's von ,bayern ,erhhung1 c4' ed4 ,rixner1 ,amberg1 #ahcj1 p4 #fe2 see ,ludlow1 #8,popular ,epics of ,middle ,ages1' p4 #bba4 ,footnote #ejg3 ,sir ,john ,maundevile1 #8,voiage and ,travaile4' ,footnote #ejh3 ,sir ,thomas ,browne1 #8,vulgar ,errours1' ii4 #c4 ,footnote #eji3 #8,mmoires conc4 l',hist41 c41 des ,chinois1' vol4 iv4 p4 #deg4 ,compare the story of the magnetic 787 horseman in #8,thousand and ,one ,n4' vol4 iii4 p4 #aai1 with the old ,chinese mention of magnetic cars with a movable-armed pointing figure1 ,a4 v4 ,humboldt1 #8,asie ,centrale1' vol4 i4 p4 xl42 ,goguet1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bhd4 7,the loadstone mountain has its power from a turning brazen horseman on the top47 ,footnote #eaj3 ,brasseur1 #8,popol ,vuh1' pp4 #bc-ca4 ,compare this ,central ,american myth of the ancient senseless mannikins who become monkeys1 with a ,pottowatomi legend in ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part i4 p4 #cbj4 ,footnote #eaa3 ,dos ,santos1 #8,ethiopia ,oriental1' ,evora1 #afji1 part i4 chap4 ix42 ,callaway1 #8,zulu ,tales1' vol4 i4 p4 #agg4 ,see also ,burton1 #8,footsteps in ,e4 ,afr4' p4 #bgd2 ,waitz1 #8,anthropologie1' vol4 ii4 p4 #agh 7,w4 ,afr474 ,footnote #eab3 ,d',orbigny1 #8,l',homme ,amricain1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ajb4 ,footnote #eac3 ,weil1 #8,bibl4 ,leg4 der ,muselmnner1' p4 #bfg2 ,lane1 #8,thousand and ,one ,n4' vol4 iii4 p4 #cej2 ,burton1 #8,el ,medinah1 c4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cdc4 ,footnote #ead3 ,ovid1 #8,metamm4' xiv4 #hi-ajj2 ,welcker1 #8,griechische ,gtterlehre1' vol4 iii4 p4 #ajh4 ,footnote #eae3 ,campbell in #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1' #ahff1 part ii4 p4 #acb2 ,latham1 #8,descr4 ,eth4' vol4 ii4 p4 #def2 ,tod1 #8,annals of ,rajasthan1' vol4 i4 p4 #aad4 ,footnote #eaf3 ,bourien in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #gc2 see #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 ii4 p4 #bga4 ,footnote #eag3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 iii4 p4 #dce2 #8,mensch1' vol4 iii4 pp4 #cdg1 #cdi1 #chg1 ,koeppen1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dd2 ,j4 ,j4 ,schmidt1 #8,vlker ,mittel-,asiens1' p4 #baj4 ,footnote #eah3 ,froebel1 #8,central ,america1' p4 #bbj2 see ,bosman1 #8,guinea1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #dja4 ,for other traditions of human descent from apes1 see ,farrar1 #8,chapters on ,language1' p4 #de4 ,footnote #eai3 ,bosman1 #8,guinea1' p4 #ddj2 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #agh2 ,cauche1 #8,relation de ,madagascar1' p4 #abg2 ,dobrizhoffer1 #8,abipones1' vol4 i4 p4 #bhh2 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #dd2 ,pouchet1 #8,plurality of ,human ,race1' p4 #bb4 ,footnote #ebj3 ,monboddo1 #8,origin and ,progress of ,lang4' #bnd ed4 vol4 i4 p4 #bgg2 ,du ,chaillu1 #8,equatorial ,africa1' p4 #fa2 ,st4 ,john1 #8,forests of ,far ,east1' vol4 i4 p4 #ag2 vol4 ii4 p4 #bci4 ,footnote #eba3 ,max ,mller in ,bunsen1 #8,phil4 ,univ4 ,hist4' vol4 i4 p4 #cdj2 #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1' vol4 xxiv4 p4 #bjg4 ,see ,marsden in #8,as4 ,res4' vol4 iv4 p4 #bbf2 ,fitch in ,pinkerton1 vol4 ix4 p4 #dae2 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 i4 p4 #dfe2 vol4 ii4 p4 #bja4 ,footnote #ebb3 ,ayeen ,akbaree1 trans4 by ,gladwin2 #8,report of ,ethnological ,committee ,jubbulpore ,exhibition1 #ahff-g1' part i4 p4 #c4 ,see the mention of the ban-manush in #8,kumaon and ,nepal1' ,campbell2 #8,ethnology of ,india1' in #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1' #ahff1 part ii4 p4 #df4 ,footnote #ebc3 ,marsden1 #8,sumatra1' p4 #da4 ,footnote #ebd3 ,logan in #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 i4 p4 #bdf2 vol4 iii4 p4 #dij2 ,thomson1 ibid4 vol4 i4 p4 #cej2 ,crawfurd1 ibid4 vol4 iv4 p4 #ahf4 ,footnote #ebe3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 i4 p4 #abc2 vol4 iii4 p4 #dce4 ,footnote #ebf3 ,martius1 #8,ethnog4 ,amer4' vol4 i4 pp4 #dbe1 #dga4 ,footnote #ebg3 ,its analogue is bosjesbok1 #8bush-goat1' the ,african antelope4 ,the derivation of the ,bosjesman's name from his nest-like shelter in a bush1 given by ,kolben and others since1 is newer and far-fetched4 ,footnote #ebh3 ,martius1 vol4 i4 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #ebi3 ,humboldt and ,bonpland1 vol4 v4 p4 #ha2 ,southey1 #8,brazil1' vol4 i4 p4 xxx42 ,bates1 #8,amazons1' vol4 i4 p4 #gc2 vol4 ii4 p4 #bjd4 ,footnote #ecj3 ,castelnau1 #8,exp4 dans l',amr4 du ,sud1' vol4 iii4 p4 #aah4 ,see ,martius1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bdh1 #dad1 #efc1 #fcc4 ,footnote #eca3 ,petherick1 #8,egypt1 c4' p4 #cfg4 ,footnote #ecb3 ,southey1 #8,brazil1' vol4 i4 p4 #fhe2 ,martius1 vol4 i4 pp4 #dbe1 #fcc4 ,footnote #ecc3 ,krapf1 p4 #adb2 ,baker1 #8,albert ,nyanza1' vol4 i4 p4 #hc2 ,st4 ,john1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ea1 #dje2 and others4 ,footnote #ecd3 ,lockhart1 #8,abor4 of ,china1' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 p4 #aha4 ,footnote #ece3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 ii4 p4 #ceh2 vol4 iv4 p4 #cgd2 ,cameron1 #8,malayan ,india1' p4 #abj2 ,marsden1 p4 #g2 ,antonio ,galvano1 pp4 #abj1 #bah4 ,footnote #ecf3 ,davis1 #8,carthage1' p4 #bcj2 ,bostock and ,riley's ,pliny 7,bohn's ed471 vol4 ii4 p4 #acd1 note4 ,footnote #ecg3 ,francisque-,michel1 #8,races ,maudites1' vol4 i4 p4 #ag2 #8,argot1' p4 #cdi2 ,fernan ,caballero1 #8,la ,gaviota1' vol4 i4 p4 #ei4 ,footnote #ech3 ,horne ,tooke1 #8,diversions of ,purley1' vol4 i4 p4 #cig4 ,footnote #eci3 ,baring-,gould1 #8,myths1' p4 #acg4 ,footnote #edj3 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #beb2 ,backhouse1 #8,austr4' p4 #eeg2 ,purchas1 vol4 iv4 p4 #abij2 ,de ,laet1 #8,novus ,orbis1' p4 #edc4 ,footnote #eda3 ,for various other stories of tailed men1 see #8,as4 ,res4' vol4 iii4 p4 #adi2 #8,mem4 ,anthrop4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 p4 #ded2 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 iii4 p4 #bfa1 c4 7,nicobar ,islands72 ,klemm1 #8,c4 ,g4' vol4 ii4 pp4 #bdf1 #caf 7,sarytschew ,is472 #8,letters of ,columbus1' ,hakluyt ,soc4 p4 #aa 7,cuba71 c41 c4 ,footnote #edb3 ,details of monstrous tribes have been in past centuries specially collected in the following works3 #8,anthropometamorphosis3 ,man ,transformed1 or the ,artificiall ,changeling1 c41' scripsit ,j4 ,b4 cognomento ,chirosophus1 ,m4,d41 ,london1 #afec2 ,calovius1 #8,de ,thaumatanthropologia1 vera pariter atque ficta tractatus historico-physicus1' ,rostock1 #afhe2 ,j4 ,a4 ,fabricius1 #8,dissertatio de hominibus orbis nostri incolis1 c41' ,hamburg1 #agba4 ,only a few principal references are here given4 ,footnote #edc3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' ch4 xvii4 xviii42 ,nilsson1 #8,primitive ,inhabitants of ,scandinavia1' ch4 vi42 ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth4' pp4 #bcj1 #cbe-g2 ,wuttke1 #8,volksabergl4' p4 #bca4 ,footnote #edd3 #8,chronique de ,tabari1' tr4 ,dubeux1 part i4 ch4 viii4 ,see ,koran1 xviii4 #ib4 ,footnote #ede3 ,pigafetta in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xi4 p4 #cad4 ,see ,blumenbach1 #8,de ,generis ,human ,varietate2' ,fitzroy1 #8,voy4 of ,adventure and ,beagle1' vol4 i42 ,waitz1 #8,anthropologie1' vol4 iii4 p4 #dhh4 ,footnote #edf3 ,knivet in ,purchas1 vol4 iv4 p4 #abca2 compare ,humboldt and ,bonpland1 vol4 v4 p4 #efd1 with ,martius1 #8,ethnog4 ,amer4' p4 #dbd2 see also ,krapf1 #8,east ,africa1' p4 #ea2 ,du ,chaillu1 #8,ashango-land1' p4 #cai4 ,footnote #edg3 #8,early ,hist4 of ,mankind1' ch4 xi42 ,hunt1 #8,pop4 ,rom4' #ast series1 pp4 #ah1 #cjd4 ,footnote #edh3 ,squier1 #8,abor4 ,monuments of ,n4 ,y4' p4 #fh2 ,long's #8,exp4' vol4 i4 pp4 #fb1 #bge2 ,hersart de ,villemarqu1 #8,chants ,populaires de la ,bretagne1' p4 liv41 #ce2 ,meadows ,taylor in #8,journ4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 p4 #aeg4 ,footnote #edi3 ,gul4 de ,rubruquis in ,pinkerton1 vol4 vii4 p4 #fi2 ,lane1 #8,thousand and ,one ,n4' vol4 iii4 pp4 #ha1 #ia1 see #bd1 #eb1 #ig2 ,hole1 p4 #fc2 ,marco ,polo1 book iii4 ch4 xii4 ,footnote #eej3 ,benjamin of ,tudela1 #8,itinerary1' ed4 and tr4 by ,asher1 #hc2 ,plin4 vii4 #b4 ,see ,max ,mller in ,bunsen #8,philos4 ,univ4 ,hist41' vol4 i4 pp4 #cdf1 #ceh4 ,footnote #eea3 ,plin4 iv4 #bg2 ,mela1 iii4 #f2 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 i4 p4 #abj2 vol4 ii4 p4 #ic2 ,st4 ,john1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aag2 ,marsden1 p4 #ec2 ,lane1 #8,thousand and ,one ,n4' vol4 iii4 pp4 #ib1 #cje2 ,petherick1 #8,egypt1 c4' p4 #cfg2 ,burton1 #8,central ,afr4' vol4 i4 p4 #bce2 ,pedro ,simon1 #8,indias ,occidentales1' p4 #g4 ,footnote #eeb3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol i4 p4 #acc4 ,footnote #eec3 ,marco ,polo1 book iii4 ch4 xviii4 ,footnote #eed3 lian1 iv4 #df2 ,plin4 vi4 #ce2 vii4 #b4 ,see for other versions1 ,purchas1 vol4 iv4 p4 #aaia2 vol4 v4 p4 #ija2 ,cranz1 p4 #bfg2 ,lane1 #8,thousand and ,one ,nights1' vol4 iii4 pp4 #cf1 #id1 #ig1 #cje2 ,davis1 #8,carthage1' p4 #bcj2 ,latham1 #8,descr4 ,eth4' vol4 ii4 p4 #hc4 ,footnote #eee3 ,plin4 v4 #h2 vi4 #bd1 #ce2 vii4 #b2 ,mela1 iii4 #i2 ,herberstein in ,hakluyt1 vol4 i4 p4 #eic2 ,latham1 #8,descr4 ,eth4' vol4 i4 p4 #dhc2 ,davis1 l4c42 see #8,early ,hist4 of ,mankind1' p4 #gg4 ,footnote #eef3 ,plin4 v4 #h2 ,lane1 vol4 i4 p4 #cc2 vol4 ii4 p4 #cgg2 vol4 iii4 p4 #ha2 ,eisenmenger1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eei2 ,mandeville1 p4 #bdc2 ,raleigh in ,hakluyt1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #feb1 #ffe2 ,humboldt and ,bonpland1 vol4 v4 p4 #agf2 ,purchas1 vol4 iv4 p4 #abhe2 vol4 v4 p4 #ija2 ,isidor4 ,hispal4 s4v4 #8,acephali2' ,vambry1 p4 #caj1 see p4 #dcf4 ,footnote #eeg3 ,lane1 vol4 i4 p4 #cc2 ,callaway1 #8,zulu ,tales1' vol4 i4 pp4 #aii1 #bjb4 ,virg4 n4 viii4 #aid2 a similar metaphor is the name of the ,nimchas1 from ,persian nim--half1 #8,journ4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 p4 #aib1 cf4 ,french demi-monde4 ,compare the #8one-legged' tribes1 ,plin4 vii4 #b2 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part iii4 p4 #eba2 ,charlevoix1 vol4 i4 p4 #be4 ,the ,australians use the metaphor #8of one leg' 7matta gyn7 to describe tribes as of one stock1 ,g4 ,f4 ,moore1 #8,vocab4' pp4 #e1 #ga4 ,footnote #eeh3 ,hayton in ,purchas1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ajh2 see ,klemm1 #8,c4 ,g4' vol4 vi4 p4 #abi2 ,vambry1 p4 #di2 ,homer4 ,odyss4 ix42 ,strabo1 i4 #b1 #ab2 see ,scherzer1 #8,voy4 of ,novara1' vol4 ii4 p4 #dj2 ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1 #8,lake ,ngami1 c41' p4 #dec2 ,du ,chaillu1 #8,equatorial ,africa1' p4 #ddj2 ,sir ,j4 ,richardson1 #8,polar ,regions1' p4 #cjj4 ,for tribes with more than two eyes1 see ,pliny's metaphorically explained ,nisacth and ,nisyti1 ,plin4 vi4 #ce2 also ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #dad2 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 i4 pp4 #be1 #gf2 ,petherick1 l4c42 ,bowen1 #8,yoruba ,gr4' p4 xx42 ,schirren1 p4 #aif4 ,footnote #eei3 ,klle1 #8,vei ,gr4' p4 #bbi2 ,strabo1 i4 #b1 #ce4 ,the artificially elongated skulls of real 7,hippokrates1 #8,de ,aeris1' #ad47 are found in the burial-places of ,kertch4 ,footnote #efj3 ,plin41 vii4 #b42 ,humboldt and ,bonpland1 vol4 v4 p4 #ha4 ,footnote #efa3 ,krapf1 p4 #cei4 ,footnote #efb3 ,southey1 #8,brazil1' vol4 iii4 p4 #cij4 ,footnote #efc3 ,d4 ,wilson1 #8,archology1 c4 of ,scotland1' p4 #abc4 ,footnote #efd3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 i4 p4 #abh2 ,livingstone1 p4 #ecb4 ,footnote #efe3 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' p4 #afj2 ,seemann1 #8,viti1' p4 #aac2 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #ahb 7a similar legend told by the ,samoans74 ,another tattooing legend in ,latham1 #8,descr4 ,eth4' vol4 i4 p4 #aeb2 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 i4 p4 #aab4 ,footnote #eff3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 iii4 pp4 #afg-h2 ,wilkinson in ,rawlinson's #8,herodotus1' vol4 ii4 p4 #gi2 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' pp4 #igb-f2 ,w4 ,g4 ,palgrave1 #8,arabia1' vol4 i4 p4 #bea2 ,squier and ,davis1 #8,monuments of ,mississippi ,valley1' p4 #acd2 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #beh4 ,footnote #efg3 ,latham1 #8,descr4 ,eth4' vol4 i4 p4 #dc2 ,lejean in #8,rev4 des ,deux ,mondes1' #ae ,feb4 #ahfb1 p4 #hef2 ,apollodor4 iii4 #h4 ,compare the derivation of ,arequipa by the ,peruvians from the words ari6 quepay #8yes6 remain1' said to have been addressed to the colonists by the ,inca3 ,markham1 #8,quichua ,gr4 and ,dic42' also the supposed etymology of ,dahome1 ,danh-ho-men #8on the belly of ,danh1' from the story of ,king ,dako building his palace on the body of the conquered ,king ,danh3 ,burton1 in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #dja4 ,footnote #efh3 ,charnock1 #8,verba ,nominalia1' s4v4 #8chic2' see ,francisque-,michel1 #8,argot1' s4v4 ,footnote #efi3 #8,spectator1' ,no4 #adg2 ,brand1 #8,pop4 ,ant4' vol4 iii4 p4 #ic2 ,hotten1 #8,slang ,dictionary1' p4 #c2 ,charnock1 s4v4 #8cant4' ,as to the real etymology1 that from the beggar's whining chaunt is defective1 for the beggar drops this tone exactly when he cants1 i4e41 talks jargon with his fellows4 ,if cant is directly from ,latin cantare1 it will correspond with ,italian cantare and ,french chanter1 both used as slang words for to speak 7,francisque-,michel1 #8,argot'74 ,a ,keltic origin is more probable1 ,gaelic and ,irish cainnt1 caint talk1 language1 dialect 7see ,wedgwood #8,etymological ,dictionary'74 ,the ,gaelic equivalents for pedlars' ,french or tramps' slang1 are #8,laidionn nan ceard1' #8cainnt cheard1' i4e41 tinkers' ,latin or jargon1 or exactly #8cairds' cant4' ,a deeper connexion between cainnt and cantare does not affect this4 ,footnote #egj3 ,see also ,francisque-,michel1 #8,argot1' s4v4 #8maccabe1 macchabe'noy4 ,footnote #ega3 ,musters1 #8,patagonians1' pp4 #fi1 #ahd4 ,footnote #egb3 ,dhne1 #8,zulu ,dic4' p4 #dag2 ,arbousset and ,daumas1 p4 #bfi2 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cdi1 #ceb4 ,footnote #egc3 ,shortland1 #8,trads4 of ,n4 ,z4' p4 #bbd4 ,footnote #egd3 ,on the adoption of imaginary ancestors as connected with the fiction of a common descent1 and the important political and religious effects of these proceedings1 see especially ,grote1 #8,history of ,greece1' vol4 i42 ,mc,lennan1 #8,primitive ,marriage2' ,maine1 #8,ancient ,law4' ,interesting details on eponymic ancestors in ,pott1 #8,anti-,kaulen1 oder ,mythische ,vorstellungen vom ,ursprnge der ,vlker and ,sprachen4' ,footnote #ege3 ,martius1 #8,ethnog4 ,amer4' vol4 i4 p4 #ed2 see p4 #bhc4 ,footnote #egf3 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' p4 #gh4 ,footnote #egg3 ,vambry1 #8,central ,asia1' p4 #cbe2 see also ,latham1 #8,descr4 ,eth4' vol4 i4 p4 #def 7,ostyaks72 ,georgi1 #8,reise im ,russ4 ,reich1' vol4 i4 #bdb 7,tunguz74 ,footnote #egh3 ,barth1 #8,n4 ,centr4 ,afr4' vol4 ii4 p4 #ga4 ,footnote #egi3 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrelig4' p4 #egd4 ,footnote #ehj3 ,martius1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ahj-d2 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #daf4 ,footnote #eha3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part i4 p4 #cai1 part iii4 p4 #bfh1 see part ii4 p4 #di2 ,catlin1 vol4 ii4 p4 #abh2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 pp4 #acd1 #cbg4 ,footnote #ehb3 ,grote1 #8,hist4 of ,greece2' ,pausan4 iii4 #bj2 ,diod4 ,sic4 v42 ,apollodor4 ,bibl4 i4 #g1 #c1 vi4 #a1 #d2 ,herodot4 i4 #aga4 ,footnote #ehc3 ,max ,mller in ,bunsen1 vol4 i4 p4 #cch2 ,tabari1 part i4 ch4 xlv41 lxix4 ,footnote #ehd3 ,sir ,w4 ,jones in #8,as4 ,res4' vol4 ii4 p4 #bd2 ,vansittart1 ibid4 p4 #fg2 see ,campbell1 in #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1' #ahff1 part ii4 p4 #g4 ,footnote #ehe3 ,will1 de ,rubruquis in ,pinkerton1 vol4 vii4 p4 #bc2 ,gabelentz in #8,zeitschr4 fr die ,kunde des ,morgenlandes1' vol4 ii4 p4 #gc2 ,schmidt1 #8,vlker ,mittel-,asien1' p4 #f4 ,footnote #ehf3 ,see also ,pott1 #8,anti-,kaulen1' pp4 #ai1 #bc2 #8,rassen1' pp4 #gj1 #aec2 and remarks on colonization-myths in ,max ,mller1 #8,chips1' vol4 ii4 p4 #fh4 ,footnote #ehg3 ,seemann1 #8,viti1' p4 #caa2 ,turner1 #8,polynesia1' p4 #beb4 ,footnote #ehh3 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #fi4 ,footnote #ehi3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,algic ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #abb2 #8,indian ,tribes1' part i4 p4 #cbj1 part ii4 p4 #bcj4 ,footnote #eij3 ,j4 ,r4 ,wise1 #8,the ,new ,forest1' p4 #afj2 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #bfh2 ,max ,mller1 #8,chips1' vol4 i4 p4 #bdi2 ,m4 ,a4 ,walker1 #8,macedonia1' p4 #aib2 ,movers1 #8,phnizier1' vol4 i4 p4 #ffe2 ,lucian4 de ,de ,syri1 #h2 ,hunt1 #8,pop4 ,rom4' #bnd ,series1 p4 #ae2 ,wuttke1 #8,volksaberglaube1' pp4 #af1 #id2 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ei1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ahe2 ,buchanan1 #8,mysore1 c4' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 viii4 p4 #gad4 ,footnote #eia3 ,sprenger1 #8,leben des ,mohammad1' vol4 i4 pp4 #gh1 #aai1 #afb1 #caj4 ,footnote #eib3 ,marco ,polo1 book i4 ch4 viii4 ,footnote #eic3 ,grote1 vol4 i4 p4 #cdg4 ,footnote #eid3 ,welcker1 vol4 i4 p4 #gef4 ,footnote #eie3 ,xenoph4 ,memorabilia1 ii4 #a4 ,footnote #eif3 ,oldfield in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #bei4 ,footnote #eig3 ,steller1 #8,kamtschatka1' p4 #bee4 ,footnote #eih3 ,wilson in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iv4 p4 #cjf4 ,footnote #eii3 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr4' p4 #chb4 ,footnote #fjj3 ,bleek1 #8,reynard in ,s4 ,afr4' pp4 #e1 #dg1 #fg 7these are not among the stories which seem recently borrowed from ,europeans74 ,see #8,early ,history of ,mankind1' p4 #aj4 ,footnote #fja3 ,callaway1 #8,zulu ,tales1' vol4 i4 p4 #cee4 ,footnote #fjb3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,algic ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #afj2 see pp4 #dc1 #ea4 ,footnote #fjc3 ,jakob ,grimm1 #8,reinhart ,fuchs1' ,introd4 ,footnote #fjd3 ,account of ,laura ,bridgman1 p4 #abj4 ,footnote #fje3 ,bowring1 #8,siam1' vol4 i4 p4 #cac2 ,hardy1 #8,manual of ,budhism1' p4 #ih4 ,see the fable of the #8,crow and ,pitcher1' in ,plin4 x4 #fj1 and ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 i4 p4 #gf4 ,footnote #fjf3 ,jameson1 #8,history of ,our ,lord in ,art1' vol4 i4 p4 #cge4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,animism4 ,religious ideas generally appear among low races of ,mankind--,negative statements on this subject frequently misleading and mistaken3 many cases uncertain--,minimum definition of ,religion--,doctrine of ,spiritual ,beings1 here termed ,animism--,animism treated as belonging to ,natural ,religion--,animism divided into two sections1 the philosophy of ,souls1 and of other ,spirits--,doctrine of ,souls1 its prevalence and definition among the lower races--,definition of ,apparitional ,soul or ,ghost-,soul--,it is a theoretical conception of primitive ,philosophy1 designed to account for phenomena now classed under ,biology1 especially ,life and ,death1 ,health and ,disease1 ,sleep and ,dreams1 ,trance and ,visions--,relation of ,soul in name and nature to ,shadow1 ,blood1 ,breath--,division of ,plurality of ,souls--,soul cause of ,life2 its restoration to body when supposed absent--,exit of ,soul in ,trances--,dreams and ,visions3 theory of exit of dreamer's or seer's own soul2 theory of visits received by them from other souls--,ghost-,soul seen in ,apparitions--,wraiths and ,doubles--,soul has form of body2 suffers mutilation with it--,voice of ,ghost--,soul treated and defined as of ,material ,substance2 this appears to be the original doctrine--,transmission of ,souls to service in future life by ,funeral ,sacrifice of wives1 attendants1 c4--,souls of ,animals--,their transmission by ,funeral ,sacrifice--,souls of ,plants--,souls of ,objects--,their transmission by ,funeral ,sacrifice--,relation of doctrine of ,object-,souls to ,epicurean theory of ,ideas--,historical development of ,doctrine of ,souls1 from the ,ethereal ,soul of primitive ,biology to the ,immaterial ,soul of modern ,theology4 ,are there1 or have there been1 tribes of men so low in culture as to have no religious conceptions whatever8 ,this is practically the question of the universality of religion1 which for so many centuries has been affirmed and denied1 with a confidence in striking contrast to the imperfect evidence on which both affirmation and denial have been based4 ,ethnographers1 if looking to a theory of development to explain civilization1 and regarding its successive stages as arising one from another1 would receive with peculiar interest accounts of tribes devoid of all religion4 ,here1 they would naturally say1 are men who have no religion because their forefathers had none1 men who represent a pr-religious condition of the human race1 out of which in the course of time religious conditions have arisen4 ,it does not1 however1 seem advisable to start from this ground in an investigation of religious development4 ,though the theoretical niche is ready and convenient1 the actual statue to fill it is not forthcoming4 ,the case is in some degree similar to that of the tribes asserted to exist without language or without the use of fire2 nothing in the nature of things seems to forbid the possibility of such existence1 but as a matter of fact the tribes are not found4 ,thus the assertion that rude non-religious tribes have been known in actual existence1 though in theory possible1 and perhaps in fact true1 does not at present rest on that sufficient proof which1 for an exceptional state of things1 we are entitled to demand4 ,it is not unusual for the very writer who declares in general terms the absence of religious phenomena among some savage people1 himself to give evidence that shows his expressions to be misleading4 ,thus ,dr4 ,lang not only declares that the aborigines of ,australia have no idea of a supreme divinity1 creator1 and judge1 no object of worship1 no idol1 temple1 or sacrifice1 but that #8in short1 they have nothing whatever of the character of religion1 or of religious observance1 to distinguish them from the beasts that perish4' ,more than one writer has since made use of this telling statement1 but without referring to certain details which occur in the very same book4 ,from these it appears that a disease like small-pox1 which sometimes attacks the natives1 is ascribed by them #8to the influence of ,budyah1 an evil spirit who delights in mischief2' that when the natives rob a wild bees' hive1 they generally leave a little of the honey for ,buddai2 that at certain biennial gatherings of the ,queensland tribes1 young girls are slain in sacrifice to propitiate some evil divinity2 and that1 lastly1 according to the evidence of the ,rev4 ,w4 ,ridley1 #8whenever he has conversed with the aborigines1 he found them to have definite traditions concerning supernatural beings--,baiame1 whose voice they hear in thunder1 and who made all things1 ,turramullum the chief of demons1 who is the author of disease1 mischief1 and wisdom1 and appears in the form of a serpent at their great assemblies1 c4'#fjg ,by the concurring testimony of a crowd of observers1 it is known that the natives of ,australia were at their discovery1 and have since remained1 a race with minds saturated with the most vivid belief in souls1 demons1 and deities4 ,in ,africa1 ,mr4 ,moffat's declaration as to the ,bechuanas is scarcely less surprising--that #8man's immortality was never heard of among that people1' he having remarked in the sentence next before1 that the word for the shades or manes of the dead is #8liriti4'#fjh ,in ,south ,america1 again1 ,don ,felix de ,azara comments on the positive falsity of the ecclesiastics' assertion that the native tribes have a religion4 ,he simply declares that they have none2 nevertheless in the course of his work he mentions such facts as that the ,payaguas bury arms and clothing with their dead and have some notions of a future life1 and that the ,guanas believe in a ,being who rewards good and punishes evil4 ,in fact1 this author's reckless denial of religion and law to the lower races of this region justifies ,d',orbigny's sharp criticism1 that1 #8this is indeed what he says of all the nations he describes1 while actually proving the contrary of his thesis by the very facts he alleges in its support4'#fji ,such cases show how deceptive are judgments to which breadth and generality are given by the use of wide words in narrow senses4 ,lang1 ,moffat1 and ,azara are authors to whom ethnography owes much valuable knowledge of the tribes they visited1 but they seem hardly to have recognized anything short of the organized and established theology of the higher races as being religion at all4 ,they attribute irreligion to tribes whose doctrines are unlike theirs1 in much the same manner as theologians have so often attributed atheism to those whose deities differed from their own1 from the time when the ancient invading ,aryans described the aboriginal tribes of ,india as adeva1 i4e4 #8godless1' and the ,greeks fixed the corresponding term on the early ,christians as unbelievers in the classic gods1 to the comparatively modern ages when disbelievers in witchcraft and apostolical succession were denounced as atheists2 and down to our own day1 when controversialists are apt to infer1 as in past centuries1 that naturalists who support a theory of development of species therefore necessarily hold atheistic opinions4#faj ,these are in fact but examples of a general perversion of judgment in theological matters1 among the results of which is a popular misconception of the religions of the lower races1 simply amazing to students who have reached a higher point of view4 ,some missionaries1 no doubt1 thoroughly understand the minds of the savages they have to deal with1 and indeed it is from men like ,cranz1 ,dobrizhoffer1 ,charlevoix1 ,ellis1 ,hardy1 ,callaway1 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 ,t4 ,williams1 that we have obtained our best knowledge of the lower phases of religious belief4 ,but for the most part the #8religious world' is so occupied in hating and despising the beliefs of the heathen whose vast regions of the globe are painted black on the missionary maps1 that they have little time or capacity left to understand them4 ,it cannot be so with those who fairly seek to comprehend the nature and meaning of the lower phases of religion4 ,these1 while fully alive to the absurdities believed and the horrors perpetrated in its name1 will yet regard with kindly interest all record of men's earnest seeking after truth with such light as they could find4 ,such students will look for meaning1 however crude and childish1 at the root of doctrines often most dark to the believers who accept them most zealously2 they will search for the reasonable thought which once gave life to observances now become in seeming or reality the most abject and superstitious folly4 ,the reward of these enquirers will be a more rational comprehension of the faiths in whose midst they dwell1 for no more can he who understands but one religion understand even that religion1 than the man who knows but one language can understand that language4 ,no religion of mankind lies in utter isolation from the rest1 and the thoughts and principles of modern ,christianity are attached to intellectual clues which run back through far pr-,christian ages to the very origin of human civilization1 perhaps even of human existence4 ,while observers who have had fair opportunities of studying the religion of savages have thus sometimes done scant justice to the facts before their eyes1 the hasty denials of others who have judged without even facts can carry no great weight4 ,a #afth-century traveller gave an account of the natives of ,florida which is typical of such3 #8,touching the religion of this people1 which wee have found1 for want of their language wee could not understand neither by signs nor gesture that they had any religion or lawe at all4444 ,we suppose that they have no religion at all1 and that they live at their own libertie4'#faa ,better knowledge of these ,floridans nevertheless showed that they had a religion1 and better knowledge has reversed many another hasty assertion to the same effect2 as when writers used to declare that the natives of ,madagascar had no idea of a future state1 and no word for soul or spirit2#fab or when ,dampier enquired after the religion of the natives of ,timor1 and was told that they had none2#fac or when ,sir ,thomas ,roe landed in ,saldanha ,bay on his way to the court of the ,great ,mogul1 and remarked of the ,hottentots that #8they have left off their custom of stealing1 but know no ,god or religion4'#fad ,among the numerous accounts collected by ,lord ,avebury as evidence bearing on the absence or low development of religion among low races1#fae some may be selected as lying open to criticism from this point of view4 ,thus the statement that the ,samoan ,islanders had no religion cannot stand1 in face of the elaborate description by the ,rev4 ,g4 ,turner of the ,samoan religion itself2 and the assertion that the ,tupinambas of ,brazil had no religion is one not to be received on merely negative evidence1 for the religious doctrines and practices of the ,tupi race have been recorded by ,lery1 ,de ,laet1 and other writers4 ,even with much time and care and knowledge of language1 it is not always easy to elicit from savages the details of their theology4 ,they try to hide from the prying and contemptuous foreigner their worship of gods who seem to shrink1 like their worshippers1 before the white man and his mightier ,deity4 ,mr4 ,sproat's experience in ,vancouver's ,island is an apt example of this state of things4 ,he says3 #8,i was two years among the ,ahts1 with my mind constantly directed towards the subject of their religious beliefs1 before ,i could discover that they possessed any ideas as to an overruling power or a future state of existence4 ,the traders on the coast1 and other persons well acquainted with the people1 told me that they had no such ideas1 and this opinion was confirmed by conversation with many of the less intelligent savages2 but at last ,i succeeded in getting a satisfactory clue4'#faf ,it then appeared that the ,ahts had all the time been hiding a whole characteristic system of religious doctrines as to souls and their migrations1 the spirits who do good and ill to men1 and the great gods above all4 ,thus1 even where no positive proof of religious ideas among any particular tribe has reached us1 we should distrust its denial by observers whose acquaintance with the tribe in question has not been intimate as well as kindly4 ,it is said of the ,andaman ,islanders that they have not the rudest elements of a religious faith2 yet it appears that the natives did not even display to the foreigners the rude music which they actually possessed1 so that they could scarcely have been expected to be communicative as to their theology1 if they had any4#fag ,in our time the most striking negation of the religion of savage tribes is that published by ,sir ,samuel ,baker1 in a paper read in #ahff before the ,ethnological ,society of ,london1 as follows3 #8,the most northern tribes of the ,white ,nile are the ,dinkas1 ,shillooks1 ,nuehr1 ,kytch1 ,bohr1 ,aliab1 and ,shir4 ,a general description will suffice for the whole1 excepting the ,kytch4 ,without any exception1 they are without a belief in a ,supreme ,being1 neither have they any form of worship or idolatry2 nor is the darkness of their minds enlightened by even a ray of superstition4' ,had this distinguished explorer spoken only of the ,latukas1 or of other tribes hardly known to ethnographers except through his own intercourse with them1 his denial of any religious consciousness to them would have been at least entitled to stand as the best procurable account1 until more intimate communication should prove or disprove it4 ,but in speaking thus of comparatively well known tribes such as the ,dinkas1 ,shilluks and ,nuehr1 ,sir ,s4 ,baker ignores the existence of published evidence1 such as describes the sacrifices of the ,dinkas1 their belief in good and evil spirits 7adjok and djyok71 their good deity and heaven-dwelling creator1 ,dendid1 as likewise ,nar the ,deity of the ,nuehr1 and the ,shilluk's creator1 who is described as visiting1 like other spirits1 a sacred wood or tree4 ,kaufmann1 ,brun-,rollet1 ,lejean1 and other observers1 had thus placed on record details of the religion of these ,white ,nile tribes1 years before ,sir ,s4 ,baker's rash denial that they had any religion at all4#fah ,the first requisite in a systematic study of the religions of the lower races1 is to lay down a rudimentary definition of religion4 ,by requiring in this definition the belief in a supreme deity or of judgment after death1 the adoration of idols or the practice of sacrifice1 or other partially-diffused doctrines or rites1 no doubt many tribes may be excluded from the category of religious4 ,but such narrow definition has the fault of identifying religion rather with particular developments than with the deeper motive which underlies them4 ,it seems best to fall back at once on this essential source1 and simply to claim1 as a minimum definition of ,religion1 the belief in ,spiritual ,beings4 ,if this standard be applied to the descriptions of low races as to religion1 the following results will appear4 ,it cannot be positively asserted that every existing tribe recognizes the belief in spiritual beings1 for the native condition of a considerable number is obscure in this respect1 and from the rapid change or extinction they are undergoing1 may ever remain so4 ,it would be yet more unwarranted to set down every tribe mentioned in history1 or known to us by the discovery of antiquarian relics1 as necessarily having passed the defined minimum of religion4 ,greater still would be the unwisdom of declaring such a rudimentary belief natural or instinctive in all human tribes of all times2 for no evidence justifies the opinion that man1 known to be capable of so vast an intellectual development1 cannot have emerged from a non-religious condition1 previous to that religious condition in which he happens at present to come with sufficient clearness within our range of knowledge4 ,it is desirable1 however1 to take our basis of enquiry in observation rather than from speculation4 ,here1 so far as ,i can judge from the immense mass of accessible evidence1 we have to admit that the belief in spiritual beings appears among all low races with whom we have attained to thoroughly intimate acquaintance2 whereas the assertion of absence of such belief must apply either to ancient tribes1 or to more or less imperfectly described modern ones4 ,the exact bearing of this state of things on the problem of the origin of religion may be thus briefly stated4 ,were it distinctly proved that non-religious savages exist or have existed1 these might be at least plausibly claimed as representatives of the condition of ,man before he arrived at the religious state of culture4 ,it is not desirable1 however1 that this argument should be put forward1 for the asserted existence of the non-religious tribes in question rests1 as we have seen1 on evidence often mistaken and never conclusive4 ,the argument for the natural evolution of religious ideas among mankind is not invalidated by the rejection of an ally too weak at present to give effectual help4 ,non-religious tribes may not exist in our day1 but the fact bears no more decisively on the development of religion1 than the impossibility of finding a modern ,english village without scissors or books or lucifer-matches bears on the fact that there was a time when no such things existed in the land4 ,i propose here1 under the name of ,animism1 to investigate the deep-lying doctrine of ,spiritual ,beings1 which embodies the very essence of ,spiritualistic as opposed to ,materialistic philosophy4 ,animism is not a new technical term1 though now seldom used4#fai ,from its special relation to the doctrine of the soul1 it will be seen to have a peculiar appropriateness to the view here taken of the mode in which theological ideas have been developed among mankind4 ,the word ,spiritualism1 though it may be1 and sometimes is1 used in a general sense1 has this obvious defect to us1 that it has become the designation of a particular modern sect1 who indeed hold extreme spiritualistic views1 but cannot be taken as typical representatives of these views in the world at large4 ,the sense of ,spiritualism in its wider acceptation1 the general belief in spiritual beings1 is here given to ,animism4 ,animism characterizes tribes very low in the scale of humanity1 and thence ascends1 deeply modified in its transmission1 but from first to last preserving an unbroken continuity1 into the midst of high modern culture4 ,doctrines adverse to it1 so largely held by individuals or schools1 are usually due not to early lowness of civilization1 but to later changes in the intellectual course1 to divergence from1 or rejection of1 ancestral faiths2 and such newer developments do not affect the present enquiry as to the fundamental religious condition of mankind4 ,animism is1 in fact1 the groundwork of the ,philosophy of ,religion1 from that of savages up to that of civilized men4 ,and although it may at first sight seem to afford but a bare and meagre definition of a minimum of religion1 it will be found practically sufficient2 for where the root is1 the branches will generally be produced4 ,it is habitually found that the theory of ,animism divides into two great dogmas1 forming parts of one consistent doctrine2 first1 concerning souls of individual creatures1 capable of continued existence after the death or destruction of the body2 second1 concerning other spirits1 upward to the rank of powerful deities4 ,spiritual beings are held to affect or control the events of the material world1 and man's life here and hereafter2 and it being considered that they hold intercourse with men1 and receive pleasure or displeasure from human actions1 the belief in their existence leads naturally1 and it might almost be said inevitably1 sooner or later to active reverence and propitiation4 ,thus ,animism in its full development1 includes the belief in souls and in a future state1 in controlling deities and subordinate spirits1 these doctrines practically resulting in some kind of active worship4 ,one great element of religion1 that moral element which among the higher nations forms its most vital part1 is indeed little represented in the religion of the lower races4 ,it is not that these races have no moral sense or no moral standard1 for both are strongly marked among them1 if not in formal precept1 at least in that traditional consensus of society which we call public opinion1 according to which certain actions are held to be good or bad1 right or wrong4 ,it is that the conjunction of ethics and ,animistic philosophy1 so intimate and powerful in the higher culture1 seems scarcely yet to have begun in the lower4 ,i propose here hardly to touch upon the purely moral aspects of religion1 but rather to study the animism of the world so far as it constitutes1 as unquestionably it does constitute1 an ancient and world-wide philosophy1 of which belief is the theory and worship is the practice4 ,endeavouring to shape the materials for an enquiry hitherto strangely undervalued and neglected1 it will now be my task to bring as clearly as may be into view the fundamental animism of the lower races1 and in some slight and broken outline to trace its course into higher regions of civilization4 ,here let me state once for all two principal conditions under which the present research is carried on4 ,first1 as to the religious doctrines and practices examined1 these are treated as belonging to theological systems devised by human reason1 without supernatural aid or revelation2 in other words1 as being developments of ,natural ,religion4 ,second1 as to the connexion between similar ideas and rites in the religions of the savage and the civilized world4 ,while dwelling at some length on doctrines and ceremonies of the lower races1 and sometimes particularizing for special reasons the related doctrines and ceremonies of the higher nations1 it has not seemed my proper task to work out in detail the problems thus suggested among the philosophies and creeds of ,christendom4 ,such applications1 extending farthest from the direct scope of a work on primitive culture1 are briefly stated in general terms1 or touched in slight allusion1 or taken for granted without remark4 ,educated readers possess the information required to work out their general bearing on theology1 while more technical discussion is left to philosophers and theologians specially occupied with such arguments4 ,the first branch of the subject to be considered is the doctrine of human and other ,souls1 an examination of which will occupy the rest of the present chapter4 ,what the doctrine of the soul is among the lower races1 may be explained in stating the animistic theory of its development4 ,it seems as though thinking men1 as yet at a low level of culture1 were deeply impressed by two groups of biological problems4 ,in the first place1 what is it that makes the difference between a living body and a dead one2 what causes waking1 sleep1 trance1 disease1 death8 ,in the second place1 what are those human shapes which appear in dreams and visions8 ,looking at these two groups of phenomena1 the ancient savage philosophers probably made their first step by the obvious inference that every man has two things belonging to him1 namely1 a life and a phantom4 ,these two are evidently in close connexion with the body1 the life as enabling it to feel and think and act1 the phantom as being its image or second self2 both1 also1 are perceived to be things separable from the body1 the life as able to go away and leave it insensible or dead1 the phantom as appearing to people at a distance from it4 ,the second step would seem also easy for savages to make1 seeing how extremely difficult civilized men have found it to unmake4 ,it is merely to combine the life and the phantom4 ,as both belong to the body1 why should they not also belong to one another1 and be manifestations of one and the same soul8 ,let them then be considered as united1 and the result is that well-known conception which may be described as an apparitional-soul1 a ghost-soul4 ,this1 at any rate1 corresponds with the actual conception of the personal soul or spirit among the lower races1 which may be defined as follows3 ,it is a thin unsubstantial human image1 in its nature a sort of vapour1 film1 or shadow2 the cause of life and thought in the individual it animates2 independently possessing the personal consciousness and volition of its corporeal owner1 past or present2 capable of leaving the body far behind1 to flash swiftly from place to place2 mostly impalpable and invisible1 yet also manifesting physical power1 and especially appearing to men waking or asleep as a phantasm separate from the body of which it bears the likeness2 continuing to exist and appear to men after the death of that body2 able to enter into1 possess1 and act in the bodies of other men1 of animals1 and even of things4 ,though this definition is by no means of universal application1 it has sufficient generality to be taken as a standard1 modified by more or less divergence among any particular people4 ,far from these world-wide opinions being arbitrary or conventional products1 it is seldom even justifiable to consider their uniformity among distant races as proving communication of any sort4 ,they are doctrines answering in the most forcible way to the plain evidence of men's senses1 as interpreted by a fairly consistent and rational primitive philosophy4 ,so well1 indeed1 does primitive animism account for the facts of nature1 that it has held its place into the higher levels of education4 ,though classic and medival philosophy modified it much1 and modern philosophy has handled it yet more unsparingly1 it has so far retained the traces of its original character1 that heirlooms of primitive ages may be claimed in the existing psychology of the civilized world4 ,out of the vast mass of evidence1 collected among the most various and distant races of mankind1 typical details may now be selected to display the earlier theory of the soul1 the relation of the parts of this theory1 and the manner in which these parts have been abandoned1 modified1 or kept up1 along the course of culture4 ,to understand the popular conceptions of the human soul or spirit1 it is instructive to notice the words which have been found suitable to express it4 ,the ghost or phantasm seen by the dreamer or the visionary is an unsubstantial form1 like a shadow or reflexion1 and thus the familiar term of the shade comes in to express the soul4 ,thus the ,tasmanian word for the shadow is also that for the spirit2#fbj the ,algonquins describe a man's soul as otahchuk1 #8his shadow2'#fba the ,quich language uses natub for #8shadow1 soul2'#fbb the ,arawak ueja means #8shadow1 soul1 image2'#fbc the ,abipones made the one word lokal serve for #8shadow1 soul1 echo1 image4'#fbd ,the ,zulus not only use the word tunzi for #8shadow1 spirit1 ghost1' but they consider that at death the shadow of a man will in some way depart from the corpse1 to become an ancestral spirit4#fbe ,the ,basutos not only call the spirit remaining after death the seriti or #8shadow1' but they think that if a man walks on the river bank1 a crocodile may seize his shadow in the water and draw him in2#fbf while in ,old ,calabar there is found the same identification of the spirit with the ukpon or #8shadow1' for a man to lose which is fatal4#fbg ,there are thus found among the lower races not only the types of those familiar classic terms1 the skia and umbra1 but also what seems the fundamental thought of the stories of shadowless men still current in the folklore of ,europe1 and familiar to modern readers in ,chamisso's tale of ,peter ,schlemihl4 ,thus the dead in ,purgatory knew that ,dante was alive when they saw that1 unlike theirs1 his figure cast a shadow on the ground4#fbh ,other attributes are taken into the notion of soul or spirit1 with especial regard to its being the cause of life4 ,thus the ,caribs1 connecting the pulses with spiritual beings1 and especially considering that in the heart dwells man's chief soul1 destined to a future heavenly life1 could reasonably use the one word iouanni for #8soul1 life1 heart4'#fbi ,the ,tongans supposed the soul to exist throughout the whole extension of the body1 but particularly in the heart4 ,on one occasion1 the natives were declaring to a ,european that a man buried months ago was nevertheless still alive4 #8,and one1 endeavouring to make me understand what he meant1 took hold of my hand1 and squeezing it1 said1 8,this will die1 but the life that is within you will never die20 with his other hand pointing to my heart4'#fcj ,so the ,basutos say of a dead man that his heart is gone out1 and of one recovering from sickness that his heart is coming back4#fca ,this corresponds to the familiar ,old ,world view of the heart as the prime mover in life1 thought1 and passion4 ,the connexion of soul and blood1 familiar to the ,karens and ,papuas1 appears prominently in ,jewish and ,arabic philosophy4#fcb ,to educated moderns the idea of the ,macusi ,indians of ,guiana may seem quaint1 that although the body will decay1 #8the man in our eyes' will not die1 but wander about4#fcc ,yet the association of personal animation with the pupil of the eye is familiar to ,european folklore1 which not unreasonably discerned a sign of bewitchment or approaching death in the disappearance of the image1 pupil1 or baby1 from the dim eyeballs of the sick man4#fcd ,the act of breathing1 so characteristic of the higher animals during life1 and coinciding so closely with life in its departure1 has been repeatedly and naturally identified with the life or soul itself4 ,laura ,bridgman showed in her instructive way the analogy between the effects of restricted sense and restricted civilization1 when one day she made the gesture of taking something away from her mouth3 #8,i dreamed1' she explained in words1 #8that ,god took away my breath to heaven4'#fce ,it is thus that ,west ,australians used one word waug for #8breath1 spirit1 soul2#fcf that in the ,netela language of ,california1 piuts means #8life1 breath1 soul2#fcg that certain ,greenlanders reckoned two souls to man1 namely his shadow and his breath2#fch that the ,malays say the soul of the dying man escapes through his nostrils1 and in ,java use the same word awa for #8breath1 life1 soul4'#fci ,how the notions of life1 heart1 breath1 and phantom unite in the one conception of a soul or spirit1 and at the same time how loose and vague such ideas are among barbaric races1 is well brought into view in the answers to a religious inquest held in #aebh among the natives of ,nicaragua4 #8,when they die1 there comes out of their mouth something that resembles a person1 and is called julio ,aztec yulito live4 ,this being goes to the place where the man and woman are4 ,it is like a person1 but does not die1 and the body remains here4' ,question4 #8,do those who go up on high keep the same body1 the same face1 and the same limbs1 as here below8' ,answer4 #8,no2 there is only the heart4' ,question4 #8,but since they tear out their hearts i4e4 when a captive was sacrificed1 what happens then8' ,answer4 #8,it is not precisely the heart1 but that in them which makes them live1 and that quits the body when they die4' ,or1 as stated in another interrogatory1 #8,it is not their heart that goes up above1 but what makes them live1 that is to say1 the breath that issues from their mouth and is called julio4'#fdj ,the conception of the soul as breath may be followed up through ,semitic and ,aryan etymology1 and thus into the main streams of the philosophy of the world4 ,hebrew shows nephesh1 #8breath1' passing into all the meanings of #8life1 soul1 mind1 animal1' while ruach and neshamah make the like transition from #8breath' to #8spirit'2 and to these the ,arabic nefs and ruh correspond4 ,the same is the history of ,sanskrit tman and prna1 of ,greek psych and pneuma1 of ,latin animus1 anima1 spiritus4 ,so ,slavonic duch has developed the meaning of #8breath' into that of soul or spirit2 and the dialects of the ,gypsies have this word dk with the meanings of #8breath1 spirit1 ghost1' whether these pariahs brought the word from ,india as part of their inheritance of ,aryan speech1 or whether they adopted it in their migration across ,slavonic lands4#fda ,german geist and ,english ghost1 too1 may possibly have the same original sense of breath4 ,and if any should think such expressions due to mere metaphor1 they may judge the strength of the implied connexion between breath and spirit by cases of most unequivocal significance4 ,among the ,seminoles of ,florida1 when a woman died in childbirth1 the infant was held over her face to receive her parting spirit1 and thus acquire strength and knowledge for its future use4 ,these ,indians could have well understood why at the death-bed of an ancient ,roman1 the nearest kinsman leant over to inhale the last breath of the departing 7et excipies hanc animam ore pio74 ,their state of mind is kept up to this day among ,tyrolese peasants1 who can still fancy a good man's soul to issue from his mouth at death like a little white cloud4#fdb ,it will be shown that men1 in their composite and confused notions of the soul1 have brought into connexion a list of manifestations of life and thought even more multifarious than this4 ,but also1 seeking to avoid such perplexity of combination1 they have sometimes endeavoured to define and classify more closely1 especially by the theory that man has a combination of several kinds of spirit1 soul1 or image1 to which different functions belong4 ,already in the barbaric world such classification has been invented or adopted4 ,thus the ,fijians distinguished between a man's #8dark spirit' or shadow1 which goes to ,hades1 and his #8light spirit' or reflexion in water or a mirror1 which stays near where he dies4#fdc ,the ,malagasy say that the saina or mind vanishes at death1 the aina or life becomes mere air1 but the matoatoa or ghost hovers round the tomb4#fdd ,in ,north ,america1 the duality of the soul is a strongly marked ,algonquin belief2 one soul goes out and sees dreams while the other remains behind2 at death one of the two abides with the body1 and for this the survivors leave offerings of food1 while the other departs to the land of the dead4 ,a division into three souls is also known1 and the ,dakotas say that man has four souls1 one remaining with the corpse1 one staying in the village1 one going in the air1 and one to the land of spirits4#fde ,the ,karens distinguish between the #8l' or #8kelah1' the personal life-phantom1 and the #8thah1' the responsible moral soul4#fdf ,more or less under ,hindu influence1 the ,khonds have a fourfold division1 as follows3 the first soul is that capable of beatification or restoration to ,boora the ,good ,deity2 the second is attached to a ,khond tribe on earth and is re-born generation after generation1 so that at the birth of each child the priest asks who has returned2 the third goes out to hold spiritual intercourse1 leaving the body in a languid state1 and it is this soul which can pass for a time into a tiger1 and transmigrates for punishment after death2 the fourth dies on the dissolution of the body4#fdg ,such classifications resemble those of higher nations1 as for instance the three-fold division of shade1 manes1 and spirit3 #8,bis duo sunt homini1 manes1 caro1 spiritus1 umbra3 ,quatuor ista loci bis duo suscipiunt4 ,terra tegit carnem1 tumulum circumvolat umbra1 ,orcus habet manes1 spiritus astra petit4' ,not attempting to follow up the details of such psychical division into the elaborate systems of literary nations1 ,i shall not discuss the distinction which the ancient ,egyptians seem to have made in the ,ritual of the ,dead between the man's ba1 akh1 ka1 khaba1 translated by ,dr4 ,birch as his #8soul1' #8mind1' #8image1' #8shade1' or the ,rabbinical division into what may be roughly described as the bodily1 spiritual1 and celestial souls1 or the distinction between the emanative and genetic souls in ,hindu philosophy1 or the distribution of life1 apparition1 ancestral spirit1 among the three souls of the ,chinese1 or the demarcations of the nous1 psych1 and pneuma1 or of the anima and animus1 or the famous classic and medival theories of the vegetal1 sensitive1 and rational souls4 ,suffice it to point out here that such speculation dates back to the barbaric condition of our race1 in a state fairly comparing as to scientific value with much that has gained esteem within the precincts of higher culture4 ,it would be a difficult task to treat such classification on a consistent logical basis4 ,terms corresponding with those of life1 mind1 soul1 spirit1 ghost1 and so forth1 are not thought of as describing really separate entities1 so much as the several forms and functions of one individual being4 ,thus the confusion which here prevails in our own thought and language1 in a manner typical of the thought and language of mankind in general1 is in fact due not merely to vagueness of terms1 but to an ancient theory of substantial unity which underlies them4 ,such ambiguity of language1 however1 will be found to interfere little with the present enquiry1 for the details given of the nature and action of spirits1 souls1 phantoms1 will themselves define the exact sense such words are to be taken in4 ,the early animistic theory of vitality1 regarding the functions of life as caused by the soul1 offers to the savage mind an explanation of several bodily and mental conditions1 as being effects of a departure of the soul or some of its constituent spirits4 ,this theory holds a wide and strong position in savage biology4 ,the ,south ,australians express it when they say of one insensible or unconscious1 that he is #8wilyamarraba1' i4e41 #8without soul4'#fdh ,among the ,algonquin ,indians of ,north ,america1 we hear of sickness being accounted for by the patient's #8shadow' being unsettled or detached from his body1 and of the convalescent being reproached for exposing himself before his shadow was safely settled down in him2 where we should say that a man was ill and recovered1 they would consider that he died1 but came again4 ,another account from among the same race explains the condition of men lying in lethargy or trance2 their souls have travelled to the banks of the ,river of ,death1 but have been driven back and return to reanimate their bodies4#fdi ,among the ,fijians1 #8when any one faints or dies1 their spirit1 it is said1 may sometimes be brought back by calling after it2 and occasionally the ludicrous scene is witnessed of a stout man lying at full length1 and bawling out lustily for the return of his own soul4'#fej ,to the negroes of ,north ,guinea1 derangement or dotage is caused by the patient being prematurely deserted by his soul1 sleep being a more temporary withdrawal4#fea ,thus1 in various countries1 the bringing back of lost souls becomes a regular part of the sorcerer's or priest's profession4 ,the ,salish ,indians of ,oregon regard the spirit as distinct from the vital principle1 and capable of quitting the body for a short time without the patient being conscious of its absence2 but to avoid fatal consequences it must be restored as soon as possible1 and accordingly the medicine-man in solemn form replaces it down through the patient's head4#feb ,the ,turanian or ,tatar races of ,northern ,asia strongly hold the theory of the soul's departure in disease1 and among the ,buddhist tribes the ,lamas carry out the ceremony of soul-restoration in most elaborate form4 ,when a man has been robbed by a demon of his rational soul1 and has only his animal soul left1 his senses and memory grow weak and he falls into a dismal state4 ,then the ,lama undertakes to cure him1 and with quaint rites exorcises the evil demon4 ,but if this fails1 then it is the patient's soul itself that cannot or will not find its way back4 ,so the sick man is laid out in his best attire and surrounded with his most attractive possessions1 the friends and relatives go thrice round the dwelling1 affectionately calling back the soul by name1 while as a further inducement the ,lama reads from his book descriptions of the pains of hell1 and the dangers incurred by a soul which wilfully abandons its body1 and then at last the whole assembly declare with one voice that the wandering spirit has returned and the patient will recover4#fec ,the ,karens of ,burma will run about pretending to catch a sick man's wandering soul1 or as they say with the ,greeks and ,slavs1 his #8butterfly' 7leip-pya71 and at last drop it down upon his head4 ,the ,karen doctrine of the #8l' is indeed a perfect and well-marked vitalistic system4 ,this l1 soul1 ghost1 or genius1 may be separated from the body it belongs to1 and it is a matter of the deepest interest to the ,karen to keep his l with him1 by calling it1 making offerings of food to it1 and so forth4 ,it is especially when the body is asleep1 that the soul goes out and wanders2 if it is detained beyond a certain time1 disease ensues1 and if permanently1 then its owner dies4 ,when the #8wee' or spirit-doctor is employed to call back the departed shade or life of a ,karen1 if he cannot recover it from the region of the dead1 he will sometimes take the shade of a living man and transfer it to the dead1 while its proper owner1 whose soul has ventured out in a dream1 sickens and dies4 ,or when a ,karen becomes sick1 languid and pining from his l having left him1 his friends will perform a ceremony with a garment of the invalid's and a fowl which is cooked and offered with rice1 invoking the spirit with formal prayers to come back to the patient4#fed ,this ceremony is perhaps ethnologically connected1 though it is not easy to say by what manner of diffusion or when1 with a rite still practised in ,china4 ,when a ,chinese is at the point of death1 and his soul is supposed to be already out of his body1 a relative may be seen holding up the patient's coat on a long bamboo1 to which a white cock is often fastened1 while a ,tauist priest by incantations brings the departed spirit into the coat1 in order to put it back into the sick man4 ,if the bamboo after a time turns round slowly in the holder's hands1 this shows that the spirit is inside the garment4#fee ,such temporary exit of the soul has a world-wide application to the proceedings of the sorcerer1 priest1 or seer himself4 ,he professes to send forth his spirit on distant journeys1 and probably often believes his soul released for a time from its bodily prison1 as in the case of that remarkable dreamer and visionary ,jerome ,cardan1 who describes himself as having the faculty of passing out of his senses as into ecstasy whenever he will1 feeling when he goes into this state a sort of separation near the heart as if his soul were departing1 this state beginning from his brain and passing down his spine1 and he then feeling only that he is out of himself4#fef ,thus the ,australian native doctor is alleged to obtain his initiation by visiting the world of spirits in a trance of two or three days' duration2#feg the ,khond priest authenticates his claim to office by remaining from one to fourteen days in a languid and dreamy state1 caused by one of his souls being away in the divine presence2#feh the ,greenland angekok's soul goes forth from his body to fetch his familiar demon2#fei the ,turanian shaman lies in lethargy while his soul departs to bring hidden wisdom from the land of spirits4#ffj ,the literature of more progressive races supplies similar accounts4 ,a characteristic story from old ,scandinavia is that of the ,norse chief ,ingimund1 who shut up three ,finns in a hut for three nights1 that they might visit ,iceland and inform him of the lie of the country where he was to settle2 their bodies became rigid1 they sent their souls on the errand1 and awakening after the three days they gave a description of the ,vatnsdl4#ffa ,the typical classic case is the story of ,hermotimos1 whose prophetic soul went out from time to time to visit distant regions1 till at last his wife burnt the lifeless body on the funeral pile1 and when the poor soul came back1 there was no longer a dwelling for it to animate4#ffb ,a group of the legendary visits to the spirit-world2 which will be described in the next chapter1 belong to this class4 ,a typical spiritualistic instance may be quoted from ,jung-,stilling1 who says that examples have come to his knowledge of sick persons who1 longing to see absent friends1 have fallen into a swoon during which they have appeared to the distant objects of their affection4#ffc ,as an illustration from our own folklore1 the well-known superstition may serve1 that fasting watchers on ,st4 ,john's ,eve may see the apparitions of those doomed to die during the year come with the clergyman to the church door and knock2 these apparitions are spirits who come forth from their bodies1 for the minister has been noticed to be much troubled in his sleep while his phantom was thus engaged1 and when one of a party of watchers fell into a sound sleep and could not be roused1 the others saw his apparition knock at the church door4#ffd ,modern ,europe has indeed kept closely enough to the lines of early philosophy1 for such ideas to have little strangeness to our own time4 ,language preserves record of them in such expressions as #8out of oneself1' #8beside oneself1' #8in an ecstasy1' and he who says that his spirit goes forth to meet a friend1 can still realize in the phrase a meaning deeper than metaphor4 ,this same doctrine forms one side of the theory of dreams prevalent among the lower races4 ,certain of the ,greenlanders1 ,cranz remarks1 consider that the soul quits the body in the night and goes out hunting1 dancing1 and visiting2 their dreams1 which are frequent and lively1 having brought them to this opinion4#ffe ,among the ,indians of ,north ,america1 we hear of the dreamer's soul leaving his body and wandering in quest of things attractive to it4 ,these things the waking man must endeavour to obtain1 lest his soul be troubled1 and quit the body altogether4#fff ,the ,new ,zealanders considered the dreaming soul to leave the body and return1 even travelling to the region of the dead to hold converse with its friends4#ffg ,the ,tagals of ,luzon object to waking a sleeper1 on account of the absence of his soul4#ffh ,the ,karens1 whose theory of the wandering soul has just been noticed1 explain dreams to be what this l sees and experiences in its journeys when it has left the body asleep4 ,they even account with much acuteness for the fact that we are apt to dream of people and places which we knew before2 the leip-pya1 they say1 can only visit the regions where the body it belongs to has been already4#ffi ,onward from the savage state1 the idea of the spirit's departure in sleep may be traced into the speculative philosophy of higher nations1 as in the ,vedanta system1 and the ,kabbala4#fgj ,st4 ,augustine tells one of the double narratives which so well illustrate theories of this kind4 ,the man who tells ,augustine the story relates that1 at home one night before going to sleep1 he saw coming to him a certain philosopher1 most well known to him1 who then expounded to him certain ,platonic passages1 which when asked previously he had refused to explain4 ,and when he 7afterwards7 enquired of this philosopher why he did at his house what he had refused to do when asked at his own3 #8,i did not do it1' said the philosopher1 #8but ,i dreamt ,i did4' ,and thus1 says ,augustine1 that was exhibited to one by phantastic image while waking1 which the other saw in a dream4#fga ,european folklore1 too1 has preserved interesting details of this primitive dream-theory1 such as the fear of turning a sleeper over lest the absent soul should miss the way back4 ,king ,gunthram's legend is one of a group interesting from the same point of view4 ,the king lay in the wood asleep with his head in his faithful henchman's lap2 the servant saw as it were a snake issue from his lord's mouth and run to the brook1 but it could not pass1 so the servant laid his sword across the water1 and the creature ran along it and up into a mountain2 after a while it came back and returned into the mouth of the sleeping king1 who waking told him how he had dreamt that he went over an iron bridge into a fountain full of gold4#fgb ,this is one of those instructive legends which preserve for us1 as in a museum1 relics of an early intellectual condition of our ,aryan race1 in thoughts which to our modern minds have fallen to the level of quaint fancy1 but which still remain sound and reasonable philosophy to the savage4 ,a ,karen at this day would appreciate every point of the story2 the familiar notion of spirits not crossing water which he exemplifies in his ,burmese forests by stretching threads across the brook for the ghosts to pass along2 the idea of the soul going forth embodied in an animal2 and the theory of the dream being a real journey of the sleeper's soul4 ,finally1 this old belief still finds1 as such beliefs so often do1 a refuge in modern poetry3 #8,yon child is dreaming far away1 ,and is not where he seems4' ,this opinion1 however1 only constitutes one of several parts of the theory of dreams in savage psychology4 ,another part has also a place here1 the view that human souls come from without to visit the sleeper1 who sees them as dreams4 ,these two views are by no means incompatible4 ,the ,north ,american ,indians allowed themselves the alternative of supposing a dream to be either a visit from the soul of the person or object dreamt of1 or a sight seen by the rational soul1 gone out for an excursion while the sensitive soul remains in the body4#fgc ,so the ,zulu may be visited in a dream by the shade of an ancestor1 the itongo1 who comes to warn him of danger1 or he may himself be taken by the itongo in a dream to visit his distant people1 and see that they are in trouble2 as for the man who is passing into the morbid condition of the professional seer1 phantoms are continually coming to talk to him in his sleep1 till he becomes1 as the expressive native phrase is1 #8a house of dreams4'#fgd ,in the lower range of culture1 it is perhaps most frequently taken for granted that a man's apparition in a dream is a visit from his disembodied spirit1 which the dreamer1 to use an expressive ,ojibwa idiom1 #8sees when asleep4' ,such a thought comes out clearly in the ,fijian opinion that a living man's spirit may leave the body1 to trouble other people in their sleep2#fge or in a recent account of an old ,indian woman of ,british ,columbia sending for the medicine-man to drive away the dead people who came to her every night4#fgf ,a modern observer's description of the state of mind of the negroes of ,west ,africa in this respect is extremely characteristic and instructive4 #8,all their dreams are construed into visits from the spirits of their deceased friends4 ,the cautions1 hints1 and warnings which come to them through this source are received with the most serious and deferential attention1 and are always acted upon in their waking hours4 ,the habit of relating their dreams1 which is universal1 greatly promotes the habit of dreaming itself1 and hence their sleeping hours are characterized by almost as much intercourse with the dead as their waking are with the living4 ,this is1 no doubt1 one of the reasons of their excessive superstitiousness4 ,their imaginations become so lively that they can scarcely distinguish between their dreams and their waking thoughts1 between the real and the ideal1 and they consequently utter falsehood without intending1 and profess to see things which never existed4'#fgg ,to the ,greek of old1 the dream-soul was what to the modern savage it still is4 ,sleep1 loosing cares of mind1 fell on ,achilles as he lay by the sounding sea1 and there stood over him the soul of ,patroklos1 like to him altogether in stature1 and the beauteous eyes1 and the voice1 and the garments that wrapped his skin2 he spake1 and ,achilles stretched out to grasp him with loving hands1 but caught him not1 and like a smoke the soul sped twittering below the earth4 ,along the ages that separate us from ,homeric times1 the apparition in dreams of men living or dead has been a subject of philosophic speculation and of superstitious fear4#fgh ,both the phantom of the living and the ghost of the dead figure in ,cicero's typical tale4 ,two ,arcadians came to ,megara together1 one lodged at a friend's house1 the other at an inn4 ,in the night this latter appeared to his fellow-traveller1 imploring his help1 for the innkeeper was plotting his death2 the sleeper sprang up in alarm1 but thinking the vision of no consequence went to sleep again4 ,then a second time his companion appeared to him1 to entreat that though he had failed to help1 he would at least avenge1 for the innkeeper had killed him and hidden his body in a dung-cart1 wherefore he charged his fellow-traveller to be early next morning at the city-gate before the cart passed out4 ,struck with this second dream1 the traveller went as bidden1 and there found the cart2 the body of the murdered man was in it1 and the innkeeper was brought to justice4 #8,quid hoc somnio dici potest divinius6'#fgi ,augustine discusses with reference to the nature of the soul various dream-stories of his time1 where the apparitions of men dead or living are seen in dreams4 ,in one of the latter he himself figured1 for when a disciple of his1 ,eulogius the rhetor of ,carthage1 once could not get to sleep for thinking of an obscure passage in ,cicero's ,rhetoric1 that night ,augustine came to him in a dream and explained it4 ,but ,augustine's tendency was toward the modern theory of dreams1 and in this case he says it was certainly his image that appeared1 not himself1 who was far across the sea1 neither knowing nor caring about the matter4#fhj ,as we survey the immense series of dream-stories of similar types in patristic1 medival1 and modern literature1 we may find it difficult enough to decide which are truth and which are fiction4 ,but along the course of these myriad narratives of human phantoms appearing in dreams to cheer or torment1 to warn or inform1 or to demand fulfilment of their own desires1 the problem of dream-apparitions may be traced in progress of gradual determination1 from the earlier conviction that a disembodied soul really comes into the presence of the sleeper1 toward the later opinion that such a phantasm is produced in the dreamer's mind without the perception of any external objective figure4 ,the evidence of visions corresponds with the evidence of dreams in their bearing on primitive theories of the soul1#fha and the two classes of phenomena substantiate and supplement one another4 ,even in healthy waking life1 the savage or barbarian has never learnt to make that rigid distinction between subjective and objective1 between imagination and reality1 to enforce which is one of the main results of scientific education4 ,still less1 when disordered in body and mind he sees around him phantom human forms1 can he distrust the evidence of his very senses4 ,thus it comes to pass that throughout the lower civilization men believe1 with the most vivid and intense belief1 in the objective reality of the human spectres which they see in sickness1 exhaustion1 or excitement4 ,as will be hereafter noticed1 one main reason of the practices of fasting1 penance1 narcotising by drugs1 and other means of bringing on morbid exaltation1 is that the patients may obtain the sight of spectral beings1 from whom they look to gain spiritual knowledge and even worldly power4 ,human ghosts are among the principal of these phantasmal figures4 ,there is no doubt that honest visionaries describe ghosts as they really appear to their perception1 while even the impostors who pretend to see them conform to the descriptions thus established2 thus1 in ,west ,africa1 a man's kla or soul1 becoming at his death a sisa or ghost1 can remain in the house with the corpse1 but is only visible to the wong-man1 the spirit-doctor4#fhb ,sometimes the phantom has the characteristic quality of not being visible to all of an assembled company4 ,thus the natives of the ,antilles believed that the dead appeared on the roads when one went alone1 but not when many went together2#fhc thus among the ,finns the ghosts of the dead were to be seen by the shamans1 but not by men generally unless in dreams4#fhd ,such is perhaps the meaning of the description of ,samuel's ghost1 visible to the witch of ,endor1 but not to ,saul1 for he has to ask her what it is she sees4#fhe ,yet this test of the nature of an apparition is one which easily breaks down4 ,we know well how in civilized countries a current rumour of some one having seen a phantom is enough to bring a sight of it to others whose minds are in a properly receptive state4 ,the condition of the modern ghost-seer1 whose imagination passes on such slight excitement into positive hallucination is rather the rule than the exception among uncultured and intensely imaginative tribes1 whose minds may be thrown off their balance by a touch1 a word1 a gesture1 an unaccustomed noise4 ,among savage tribes1 however1 as among civilized races who have inherited remains of early philosophy formed under similar conditions1 the doctrine of visibility or invisibility of phantoms has been obviously shaped with reference to actual experience4 ,to declare that souls or ghosts are necessarily either visible or invisible1 would directly contradict the evidence of men's senses4 ,but to assert or imply1 as the lower races do1 that they are visible sometimes and to some persons1 but not always or to every one1 is to lay down an explanation of facts which is not indeed our usual modern explanation1 but which is a perfectly rational and intelligible product of early science4 ,without discussing on their merits the accounts of what is called #8second sight1' it may be pointed out that they are related among savage tribes1 as when ,captain ,jonathan ,carver obtained from a ,cree medicine-man a true prophecy of the arrival of a canoe with news next day at noon2 or when ,mr4 ,j4 ,mason ,brown1 travelling with two voyageurs on the ,coppermine ,river1 was met by ,indians of the very band he was seeking1 these having been sent by their medicine-man1 who1 on enquiry1 stated that #8,he saw them coming1 and heard them talk on their journey4'#fhf ,these are analogous to accounts of the ,highland second-sight1 as when ,pennant heard of a gentleman of the ,hebrides1 said to have the convenient gift of foreseeing visitors in time to get ready for them1 or when ,dr4 ,johnson was told by another laird that a labouring man of his had predicted his return to the island1 and described the peculiar livery his servant had been newly dressed in4#fhg ,as a general rule1 people are apt to consider it impossible for a man to be in two places at once1 and indeed a saying to that effect has become a popular saw4 ,but the rule is so far from being universally accepted1 that the word #8bilocation' has been invented to express the miraculous faculty possessed by certain ,saints of the ,roman ,church1 of being in two places at once2 like ,st4 ,alfonso di ,liguori1 who had the useful power of preaching his sermon in church while he was confessing penitents at home4#fhh ,the reception and explanation of these various classes of stories fit perfectly with the primitive animistic theory of apparitions1 and the same is true of the following most numerous class of the second-sight narratives4 ,death is the event which1 in all stages of culture1 brings thought to bear most intensely1 though not always most healthily1 on the problems of psychology4 ,the apparition of the disembodied soul has in all ages been thought to bear especial relation to its departure from its body at death4 ,this is well shown by the reception not only of a theory of ghosts1 but of a special doctrine of #8wraiths' or #8fetches4' ,thus the ,karens say that a man's spirit1 appearing after death1 may thus announce it4#fhi ,in ,new ,zealand it is ominous to see the figure of an absent person1 for if it be shadowy and the face not visible1 his death may ere long be expected1 but if the face be seen he is dead already4 ,a party of ,maoris 7one of whom told the story7 were seated round a fire in the open air1 when there appeared1 seen only by two of them1 the figure of a relative left ill at home2 they exclaimed1 the figure vanished1 and on the return of the party it appeared that the sick man had died about the time of the vision4#fij ,examining the position of the doctrine of wraiths among the higher races1 we find it especially prominent in three intellectual districts1 ,christian hagiology1 popular folklore1 and modern spiritualism4 ,st4 ,anthony saw the soul of ,st4 ,ammonius carried to heaven in the midst of choirs of angels1 the same day that the holy hermit died five days' journey off in the desert of ,nitria2 when ,st4 ,ambrose died on ,easter ,eve1 several newly-baptized children saw the holy bishop1 and pointed him out to their parents1 but these with their less pure eyes could not behold him2 and so forth4#fia ,folklore examples abound in ,silesia and the ,tyrol1 where the gift of wraith-seeing still flourishes1 with the customary details of funerals1 churches1 four-cross-roads1 and headless phantoms1 and an especial association with ,new ,year's ,eve4 ,the accounts of #8second-sight' from ,north ,britain mostly belong to a somewhat older date4 ,thus the ,st4 ,kilda people used to be haunted by their own spectral doubles1 forerunners of impending death1 and in #agii a traveller writes of the peasants of ,kirkcudbrightshire1 #8,it is common among them to fancy that they see the wraiths of persons dying1 which will be visible to one and not to others present with him4 ,within these last twenty years1 it was hardly possible to meet with any person who had not seen many wraiths and ghosts in the course of his experience4' ,those who discuss the authenticity of the second-sight stories as actual evidence1 must bear in mind that they prove a little too much2 they vouch not only for human apparitions1 but for such phantoms as demon-dogs1 and for still more fanciful symbolic omens4 ,thus a phantom shroud seen in spiritual vision on a living man predicts his death1 immediate if it is up to his head1 less nearly approaching if it is only up to his waist2 and to see in spiritual vision a spark of fire fall upon a person's arm or breast1 is a forerunner of a dead child to be seen in his arms4#fib ,as visionaries often see phantoms of living persons without any remarkable event coinciding with their hallucinations1 it is naturally admitted that a man's phantom or #8double' may be seen without portending anything in particular4 ,the spiritualistic theory specially insists on cases of apparition where the person's death corresponds more or less nearly with the time when some friend perceives his phantom4#fic ,narratives of this class1 which ,i can here only specify without arguing on them1 are abundantly in circulation4 ,thus1 ,i have an account by a lady1 who #8saw1 as it were1 the form of some one laid out1' near the time when a brother died at ,melbourne1 and who mentions another lady known to her1 who thought she saw her own father look in at the church window at the moment he was dying in his own house4 ,another account is sent me by a ,shetland lady1 who relates that about twenty years ago she and a girl leading her pony recognized the familiar figure of one ,peter ,sutherland1 whom they knew to be at the time in ill-health in ,edinburgh2 he turned a corner and they saw no more of him1 but next week came the news of his sudden death4 ,that the apparitional human soul bears the likeness of its fleshly body1 is the principle implicitly accepted by all who believe it really and objectively present in dreams and visions4 ,my own view is that nothing but dreams and visions could have ever put into men's minds such an idea as that of souls being ethereal images of bodies4 ,it is thus habitually taken for granted in animistic philosophy1 savage or civilized1 that souls set free from the earthly body are recognized by a likeness to it which they still retain1 whether as ghostly wanderers on earth or inhabitants of the world beyond the grave4 ,man's spirit1 says ,swedenborg1 is his mind1 which lives after death in complete human form1 and this is the poet's dictum in #8,in ,memoriam3' #8,eternal form shall still divide ,the eternal soul from all beside2 ,and ,i shall know him when we meet4' ,this world-wide thought1 coming into view here in a multitude of cases from all grades of culture1 needs no collection of ordinary instances to illustrate it4#fid ,but a quaint and special group of beliefs will serve to display the thoroughness with which the soul is thus conceived as an image of the body4 ,as a consistent corollary to such an opinion1 it is argued that the mutilation of the body will have a corresponding effect upon the soul1 and very low savage races have philosophy enough to work out this idea4 ,thus it was recorded of the ,indians of ,brazil by one of the early ,european visitors1 that they #8believe that the dead arrive in the other world wounded or hacked to pieces1 in fact just as they left this4'#fie ,thus1 too1 the ,australian who has slain his enemy will cut off the right thumb of the corpse1 so that although the spirit will become a hostile ghost1 it cannot throw with its mutilated hand the shadowy spear1 and may be safely left to wander1 malignant but harmless4#fif ,the negro fears long sickness before death1 such as will send him lean and feeble into the next world4 ,his theory of the mutilation of soul with body could not be brought more vividly into view than in that ugly story of the ,west ,indian planter1 whose slaves began to seek in suicide at once relief from present misery and restoration to their native land2 but the white man was too cunning for them1 he cut off the heads and hands of the corpses1 and the survivors saw that not even death could save them from a master who could maim their very souls in the next world4#fig ,the same rude and primitive belief continues among nations risen far higher in intellectual rank4 ,the ,chinese hold in especial horror the punishment of decapitation1 considering that he who quits this world lacking a member will so arrive in the next1 and a case is recorded lately of a criminal at ,amoy who for this reason begged to die instead by the cruel death of crucifixion1 and was crucified accordingly4#fih ,the series ends as usual in the folklore of the civilized world4 ,the phantom skeleton in chains that haunted the house at ,bologna1 showed the way to the garden where was buried the real chained fleshless skeleton it belonged to1 and came no more when the remains had been duly buried4 ,when the ,earl of ,cornwall met the fetch of his friend ,william ,rufus carried black and naked on a black goat across the ,bodmin moors1 he saw that it was wounded through the midst of the breast2 and afterwards he heard that at that very hour the king had been slain in the ,new ,forest by the arrow of ,walter ,tirell4#fii ,in studying the nature of the soul as conceived among the lower races1 and in tracing such conceptions onward among the higher1 circumstantial details are available4 ,it is as widely recognized among mankind that souls or ghosts have voices1 as that they have visible forms1 and indeed the evidence for both is of the same nature4 ,men who perceive evidently that souls do talk when they present themselves in dream or vision1 naturally take for granted at once the objective reality of the ghostly voice1 and of the ghostly form from which it proceeds4 ,this is involved in the series of narratives of spiritual communications with living men1 from savagery onward to civilization1 while the more modern doctrine of the subjectivity of such phenomena recognizes the phenomena themselves1 but offers a different explanation of them4 ,one special conception1 however1 requires particular notice4 ,this defines the spirit-voice as being a low murmur1 chirp1 or whistle1 as it were the ghost of a voice4 ,the ,algonquin ,indians of ,north ,america could hear the shadow-souls of the dead chirp like crickets4#gjj ,the divine spirits of the ,new ,zealand dead1 coming to converse with the living1 utter their words in whistling tones1 and such utterances by a squeaking noise are mentioned elsewhere in ,polynesia4#gja ,the ,zulu diviner's familiar spirits are ancestral manes1 who talk in a low whistling tone short of a full whistle1 whence they have their name of #8imilozi' or whistlers4#gjb ,these ideas correspond with classic descriptions of the ghostly voice1 as a #8twitter or #8thin murmur3' 1 4'#gjc #8,umbra cruenta ,remi visa est assistere lecto1 ,atque haec exiguo murmure verba loqui4'#gjd ,as the attributes of the soul or ghost extend to other spiritual beings1 and the utterances of such are to a great extent given by the voice of mediums1 we connect these accounts with the notion that the language of demons is also a low whistle or mutter1 whence the well-known practice of whispering or murmuring charms1 the #8susurrus necromanticus' of sorcerers1 to whom the already cited description of #8wizards that peep 7i4e4 chirp7 and mutter' is widely applicable4#gje ,the conception of dreams and visions as caused by present objective figures1 and the identification of such phantom souls with the shadow and the breath1 has led to the treatment of souls as substantial material beings4 ,thus it is a usual proceeding to make openings through solid materials to allow souls to pass4 ,the ,iroquois in old times used to leave an opening in the grave for the lingering soul to visit its body1 and some of them still bore holes in the coffin for the same purpose4#gjf ,the ,malagasy sorcerer1 for the cure of a sick man who had lost his soul1 would make a hole in a burial-house to let out a spirit which he would catch in his cap and so convey to the patient's head4#gjg ,the ,chinese make a hole in the roof to let out the soul at death4#gjh ,and lastly1 the custom of opening a window or door for the departing soul when it quits the body is to this day a very familiar superstition in ,france1 ,germany1 and ,england4#gji ,again1 the souls of the dead are thought susceptible of being beaten1 hurt and driven like any other living creatures4 ,thus the ,queensland aborigines would beat the air in an annual mock fight1 held to scare away the souls that death had let loose among the living since last year4#gaj ,thus ,north ,american ,indians1 when they had tortured an enemy to death1 ran about crying and beating with sticks to scare the ghost away2 they have been known to set nets round their cabins to catch and keep out neighbours' departed souls2 fancying the soul of a dying man to go out at the wigwam roof1 they would habitually beat the sides with sticks to drive it forth2 we even hear of the widow going off from her husband's funeral followed by a person flourishing a handful of twigs about her head like a flyflapper1 to drive off her husband's ghost and leave her free to marry again4#gaa ,with a kindlier feeling1 the ,congo negroes abstained for a whole year after a death from sweeping the house1 lest the dust should injure the delicate substance of the ghost2#gab the ,tonquinese avoided house-cleaning during the festival when the souls of the dead came back to their houses for the ,new ,year's visit2#gac and it seems likely that the special profession of the ,roman #8everriatores' who swept the houses out after a funeral1 was connected with a similar idea4#gad ,to this day1 it remains a ,german peasants' saying that it is wrong to slam a door1 lest one should pinch a soul in it4#gae ,the not uncommon practice of strewing ashes to show the footprints of ghosts or demons takes for granted that they are substantial bodies4 ,in the literature of animism1 extreme tests of the weight of ghosts are now and then forthcoming4 ,they range from the declaration of a ,basuto diviner that the late queen had been bestriding his shoulders1 and he never felt such a weight in his life1 to ,glanvil's story of ,david ,hunter the neat-herd1 who lifted up the old woman's ghost1 and she felt just like a bag of feathers in his arms1 or the pathetic ,german superstition that the dead mother's coming back in the night to suckle the baby she has left on earth1 may be known by the hollow pressed down in the bed where she lay1 and at last down to the alleged modern spiritualistic reckoning of the weight of a human soul at from #c to #d ounces4#gaf ,explicit statements as to the substance of soul are to be found both among low and high races1 in an instructive series of definitions4 ,the ,tongans imagined the human soul to be the finer or more aeriform part of the body1 which leaves it suddenly at the moment of death2 something comparable to the perfume and essence of a flower as related to the more solid vegetable fibre4#gag ,the ,greenland seers described the soul as they habitually perceived it in their visions2 it is pale and soft1 they said1 and he who tries to seize it feels nothing1 for it has no flesh nor bone nor sinew4#gah ,the ,caribs did not think the soul so immaterial as to be invisible1 but said it was subtle and thin like a purified body4#gai ,turning to higher races1 we may take the ,siamese as an example of a people who conceive of souls as consisting of subtle matter escaping sight and touch1 or as united to a swiftly moving aerial body4#gbj ,in the classic world1 it is recorded as an opinion of ,epicurus that #8they who say the soul is incorporeal talk folly1 for it could neither do nor suffer anything were it such4'#gba ,among the ,fathers1 ,irenus describes souls as incorporeal in comparison with mortal bodies1#gbb and ,tertullian relates a vision or revelation of a certain ,montanist prophetess1 of the soul seen by her corporeally1 thin and lucid1 aerial in colour and human in form4#gbc ,for an example of medival doctrine1 may be cited a #adth-century ,english poem1 the #8,ayenbite of ,inwyt' 7i4e4 #8,remorse of ,conscience'7 which points out how the soul1 by reason of the thinness of its substance1 suffers all the more in purgatory3 #8,the soul is more tendre and nesche ,than the bodi that hath bones and fleysche2 ,thanne the soul that is so tendere of kinde1 ,mote nedis hure penaunce hardere y-finde1 ,than eni bodi that evere on live was4'#gbd ,the doctrine of the ethereal soul passed on into more modern philosophy1 and the ,european peasant holds fast to it still2 as ,wuttke says1 the ghosts of the dead have to him a misty and evanescent materiality1 for they have bodies as we have1 though of other kind3 they can eat and drink1 they can be wounded and killed4#gbe ,nor was the ancient doctrine ever more distinctly stated than by a modern spiritualistic writer1 who observes that #8a spirit is no immaterial substance2 on the contrary1 the spiritual organization is composed of matter 444 in a very high state of refinement and attenuation4'#gbf ,among rude races1 the original conception of the human soul seems to have been that of ethereality1 or vaporous materiality1 which has held so large a place in human thought ever since4 ,in fact1 the later metaphysical notion of immateriality could scarcely have conveyed any meaning to a savage4 ,it is moreover to be noticed that1 as to the whole nature and action of apparitional souls1 the lower philosophy escapes various difficulties which down to modern times have perplexed metaphysicians and theologians of the civilized world4 ,considering the thin ethereal body of the soul to be itself sufficient and suitable for visibility1 movement1 and speech1 the primitive animists required no additional hypotheses to account for these manifestations2 they had no place for theories such as detailed by ,calmet1 as that immaterial souls have their own vaporous bodies1 or occasionally have such vaporous bodies provided for them by supernatural means to enable them to appear as spectres1 or that they possess the power of condensing the circumambient air into phantom-like bodies to invest themselves in1 or of forming from it vocal instruments4#gbg ,it appears to have been within systematic schools of civilized philosophy that the transcendental definitions of the immaterial soul were obtained1 by abstraction from the primitive conception of the ethereal-material soul1 so as to reduce it from a physical to a metaphysical entity4 ,departing from the body at the time of death1 the soul or spirit is considered set free to linger near the tomb1 to wander on earth or flit in the air1 or to travel to the proper region of spirits--the world beyond the grave4 ,the principal conceptions of the lower psychology as to a ,future ,life will be considered in the following chapters1 but for the present purpose of investigating the theory of souls in general1 it will be well to enter here upon one department of the subject4 ,men do not stop short at the persuasion that death releases the soul to a free and active existence1 but they quite logically proceed to assist nature1 by slaying men in order to liberate their souls for ghostly uses4 ,thus there arises one of the most widespread1 distinct1 and intelligible rites of animistic religion--that of funeral human sacrifice for the service of the dead4 ,when a man of rank dies and his soul departs to its own place1 wherever and whatever that place may be1 it is a rational inference of early philosophy that the souls of attendants1 slaves1 and wives1 put to death at his funeral1 will make the same journey and continue their service in the next life1 and the argument is frequently stretched further1 to include the souls of new victims sacrificed in order that they may enter upon the same ghostly servitude4 ,it will appear from the ethnography of this rite that it is not strongly marked in the very lowest levels of culture1 but that1 arising in the lower barbaric stage1 it develops itself in the higher1 and thenceforth continues or dwindles in survival4 ,of the murderous practices to which this opinion leads1 remarkably distinct accounts may be cited from among tribes of the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,the following account is given of the funerals of great men among the rude ,kayans of ,borneo3--#8,slaves are killed in order that they may follow the deceased and attend upon him4 ,before they are killed the relations who surround them enjoin them to take great care of their master when they join him1 to watch and shampoo him when he is indisposed1 to be always near him1 and to obey all his behests4 ,the female relatives of the deceased then take a spear and slightly wound the victims1 after which the males spear them to death4' ,again1 the opinion of the ,idaan is #8that all whom they kill in this world shall attend them as slaves after death4 ,this notion of future interest in the destruction of the human species is a great impediment to an intercourse with them1 as murder goes farther than present advantage or resentment4 ,from the same principle they will purchase a slave1 guilty of any capital crime1 at fourfold his value1 that they may be his executioners4' ,with the same idea is connected the ferocious custom of #8head-hunting1' so prevalent among the ,dayaks before ,rajah ,brooke's time4 ,they considered that the owner of every human head they could procure would serve them in the next world1 where1 indeed1 a man's rank would be according to his number of heads in this4 ,they would continue the mourning for a dead man till a head was brought in1 to provide him with a slave to accompany him to the #8habitation of souls2' a father who lost his child would go out and kill the first man he met1 as a funeral ceremony2 a young man might not marry till he had procured a head1 and some tribes would bury with a dead man the first head he had taken1 together with spears1 cloth1 rice1 and betel4 ,waylaying and murdering men for their heads became1 in fact1 the ,dayaks' national sport1 and they remarked #8the white men read books1 we hunt for heads instead4'#gbh ,of such rites in the ,pacific islands1 the most hideously purposeful accounts reach us from the ,fiji group4 ,till lately1 a main part of the ceremony of a great man's funeral was the strangling of wives1 friends1 and slaves1 for the distinct purpose of attending him into the world of spirits4 ,ordinarily the first victim was the wife of the deceased1 and more than one if he had several1 and their corpses1 oiled as for a feast1 clothed with new fringed girdles1 with heads dressed and ornamented1 and vermilion and turmeric powder spread on their faces and bosoms1 were laid by the side of the dead warrior4 ,associates and inferior attendants were likewise slain1 and these bodies were spoken of as #8grass for bedding the grave4' ,when ,ra ,mbithi1 the pride of ,somosomo1 was lost at sea1 seventeen of his wives were killed2 and after the news of the massacre of the ,namena people1 in #ahci1 eighty women were strangled to accompany the spirits of their murdered husbands4 ,such sacrifices took place under the same pressure of public opinion which kept up the widow-burning in modern ,india4 ,the ,fijian widow was worked upon by her relatives with all the pressure of persuasion and of menace2 she understood well that life to her henceforth would mean a wretched existence of neglect1 disgrace1 and destitution2 and tyrannous custom1 as hard to struggle against in the savage as in the civilized world1 drove her to the grave4 ,thus1 far from resisting1 she became importunate for death1 and the new life to come1 and till public opinion reached a more enlightened state1 the missionaries often used their influence in vain to save from the strangling-cord some wife whom they could have rescued1 but who herself refused to live4 ,so repugnant to the native mind was the idea of a chieftain going unattended into the other world1 that the missionaries' prohibition of the cherished custom was one reason of the popular dislike to ,christianity4 ,many of the nominal ,christians1 when once a chief of theirs was shot from an ambush1 esteemed it most fortunate that a stray shot at the same time killed a young man at a distance from him1 and thus provided a companion for the spirit of the slain chief4#gbi ,in ,america1 the funeral human sacrifice makes its characteristic appearance4 ,a good example may be taken from among the ,osages1 whose habit was sometimes to plant in the cairn raised over a corpse a pole with an enemy's scalp hanging to the top4 ,their notion was that by taking an enemy and suspending his scalp over the grave of a deceased friend1 the spirit of the victim became subjected to the spirit of the buried warrior in the land of spirits4 ,hence the last and best service that could be performed for a deceased relative was to take an enemy's life1 and thus transmit it by his scalp4#gcj ,the correspondence of this idea with that just mentioned among the ,dayaks is very striking4 ,with a similar intention1 the ,caribs would slay on the dead master's grave any of his slaves they could lay hands on4#gca ,among the native peoples risen to considerably higher grades of social and political life1 these practices were not suppressed but exaggerated1 in the ghastly sacrifices of warriors1 slaves1 and wives1 who departed to continue their duteous offices at the funeral of the chief or monarch in ,central ,america#gcb and ,mexico1#gcc in ,bogota#gcd and ,peru4#gce ,it is interesting to notice1 in somewhat favourable contrast with these customs of comparatively cultured ,american nations1 the practice of certain rude tribes of the ,north-,west4 ,the ,quakeolths1 for instance1 did not actually sacrifice the widow1 but they made her rest her head on her husband's corpse while it was being burned1 until at last she was dragged more dead than alive from the flames2 if she recovered1 she collected her husband's ashes and carried them about with her for three years1 during which any levity or deficiency of grief would render her an outcast4 ,this looks like a mitigated survival from an earlier custom of actual widow-burning4#gcf ,of such funeral rites1 carried out to the death1 graphic and horrid descriptions are recorded in the countries across ,africa--,east1 ,central1 and ,west4 ,a headman of the ,wadoe is buried sitting in a shallow pit1 and with the corpse a male and female slave alive1 he with a bill-hook in his hand to cut fuel for his lord in the death-world1 she seated on a little stool with the dead chief's head in her lap4 ,a chief of ,unyamwezi is entombed in a vaulted pit1 sitting on a low stool with a bow in his right hand1 and provided with a pot of native beer2 with him are shut in alive three women slaves1 and the ceremony is concluded with a libation of beer on the earth heaped up above them all4 ,the same idea which in ,guinea makes it common for the living to send messages by the dying to the dead1 is developed in ,ashanti and ,dahome into a monstrous system of massacre4 ,the ,king of ,dahome must enter ,deadland with a ghostly court of hundreds of wives1 eunuchs1 singers1 drummers1 and soldiers4 ,nor is this all4 ,captain ,burton thus describes the yearly #8,customs3'--#8,they periodically supply the departed monarch with fresh attendants in the shadowy world4 ,for unhappily these murderous scenes are an expression1 lamentably mistaken but perfectly sincere1 of the liveliest filial piety4' ,even this annual slaughter must be supplemented by almost daily murder3--#8,whatever action1 however trivial1 is performed by the ,king1 it must dutifully be reported to his sire in the shadowy realm4 ,a victim1 almost always a war-captive1 is chosen2 the message is delivered to him1 an intoxicating draught of rum follows it1 and he is dispatched to ,hades in the best of humours4'#gcg ,in southern districts of ,africa1 accounts of the same class begin in ,congo and ,angola with the recorded slaying of the dead man's favourite wives1 to live with him in the other world1 a practice still in vogue among the ,chevas of the ,zambesi district1 and formerly known among the ,maravis2 while the funeral sacrifice of attendants with a chief is a thing of the past among the ,barotse1 as among the ,zulus1 who yet have not forgotten the days when the chief's servants and attendant warriors were cast into the fire which had consumed his body1 that they might go with him1 and prepare things beforehand1 and get food for him4#gch ,if now we turn to the records of ,asia and ,europe1 we shall find the sacrifice of attendants for the dead widely prevalent in both continents in old times1 while in the east its course may be traced continuing onward to our own day4 ,the two ,mohammedans who travelled in ,southern ,asia in the ninth century relate that on the accession of certain kings a quantity of rice is prepared1 which is eaten by some three or four hundred men1 who present themselves voluntarily to share it1 thereby undertaking to burn themselves at the monarch's death4 ,with this corresponds ,marco ,polo's thirteenth-century account in ,southern ,india of the king of ,maabar's guard of horsemen1 who1 when he dies and his body is burnt1 throw themselves into the fire to do him service in the next world4#gci ,in the seventeenth century the practice is described as still prevailing in ,japan1 where1 on the death of a nobleman1 from ten to thirty of his servants put themselves to death by the #8hara kari1' or ripping-up1 having indeed engaged during his lifetime1 by the solemn compact of drinking wine together1 to give their bodies to their lord at his death4 ,yet already in ancient times such funeral sacrifices were passing into survival1 when the servants who followed their master in death were replaced by clay images set up at the tomb4#gdj ,among the ,ossetes of the ,caucasus1 an interesting relic of widow-sacrifice is still kept up3 the dead man's widow and his saddle-horse are led thrice round the grave1 and no man may marry the widow or mount the horse thus devoted4#gda ,in ,china1 legend preserves the memory of the ancient funeral human sacrifice4 ,the brother of ,chin ,yang1 a disciple of ,confucius1 died1 and his widow and steward wished to bury some living persons with him1 to serve him in the regions below4 ,thereupon the sage suggested that the proper victims would be the widow and steward themselves1 but this not precisely meeting their views1 the matter dropped1 and the deceased was interred without attendants4 ,this story at least shows the rite to have been not only known but understood in ,china long ago4 ,in modern ,china1 the suicide of widows to accompany their husbands is a recognized practice1 sometimes even performed in public4 ,moreover1 the ceremonies of providing sedan-bearers and an umbrella-bearer for the dead1 and sending mounted horsemen to announce beforehand his arrival to the authorities of ,hades1 although these bearers and messengers are only made of paper and burnt1 seem to represent survivals of a more murderous reality4#gdb ,the ,aryan race gives striking examples of the rite of funeral human sacrifice in its sternest shape1 whether in history or in myth1 that records as truly as history the manners of old days4#gdc ,the episodes of the ,trojan captives laid with the horses and hounds on the funeral pile of ,patroklos1 and of ,evadne throwing herself into the funeral pile of her husband1 and ,pausanias's narrative of the suicide of the three ,messenian widows1 are among its ,greek representatives4#gdd ,in ,scandinavian myth1 ,baldr is burnt with his dwarf foot-page1 his horse and saddle2 ,brynhild lies on the pile by her beloved ,sigurd1 and men and maids follow after them on the hell-way4#gde ,the ,gauls in ,csar's time burned at the dead man's sumptuous funeral whatever was dear to him1 animals also1 and much-loved slaves and clients4#gdf ,old mentions of ,slavonic heathendom describe the burning of the dead with clothing and weapons1 horses and hounds1 with faithful servants1 and above all1 with wives4 ,thus ,st4 ,boniface says that #8the ,wends keep matrimonial love with so great zeal1 that the wife may refuse to survive her husband1 and she is held praiseworthy among women who slays herself by her own hand1 that she may be burnt on one pyre with her lord4'#gdg ,this ,aryan rite of widow-sacrifice has not only an ethnographic and antiquarian interest1 but even a place in modern politics4 ,in ,brahmanic ,india the widow of a ,hindu of the ,brahman or the ,kshatriya caste was burnt on the funeral pile with her husband1 as a sat or #8good woman1' which word has passed into ,english as suttee4 ,mentioned in classic and medival times1 the practice was in full vigour at the beginning of the last century4#gdh ,often one dead husband took many wives with him4 ,some went willingly and gaily to the new life1 many were driven by force of custom1 by fear of disgrace1 by family persuasion1 by priestly threats and promises1 by sheer violence4 ,when the rite was suppressed under modern ,british rule1 the priesthood resisted to the uttermost1 appealing to the ,veda1 as sanctioning the ordinance1 and demanding that the foreign rulers should respect it4 ,yet in fact1 as ,prof4 ,h4 ,h4 ,wilson proved1 the priests had actually falsified their sacred ,veda in support of a rite enjoined by long and inveterate prejudice1 but not by the traditional standards of ,hindu faith4 ,the ancient ,brahmanic funeral rites have been minutely detailed from the ,sanskrit authorities in an essay by ,prof4 ,max ,mller4 ,their directions are that the widow is to be set on the funeral pile with her husband's corpse1 and if he be a warrior his bow is to be placed there too4 ,but then a brother-in-law or adopted child or old servant is to lead the widow down again at the summons1 #8,rise1 woman1 come to the world of life2 thou sleepest nigh unto him whose life is gone4 ,come to us4 ,thou hast thus fulfilled thy duties of a wife to the husband who once took thy hand1 and made thee a mother4' ,the bow1 however1 is to be broken and thrown back upon the pile1 and the dead man's sacrificial instruments are to be laid with him and really consumed4 ,while admitting that the modern ordinance of ,suttee-burning is a corrupt departure from the early ,brahmanic ritual1 we may nevertheless find reason to consider the practice as not a new invention by the later ,hindu priesthood1 but as the revival1 under congenial influences1 of an ancient ,aryan rite belonging originally to a period even earlier than the ,veda4 ,the ancient authorized ceremony looks as though1 in a primitive form of the rite1 the widow had been actually sent with the dead1 for which real sacrifice a humaner law substituted a mere pretence4 ,this view is supported by the existence of an old and express prohibition of the wife being sacrificed1 a prohibition seemingly directed against a real custom1 #8to follow the dead husband is prohibited1 so says the law of the ,brahmans4 ,with regard to the other castes this law for women may be or may not be4'#gdi ,to treat the ,hindu widow-burning as a case of survival and revival seems to me most in accordance with a general ethnographic view of the subject4 ,widow-sacrifice is found in various regions of the world under a low state of civilization1 and this fits with the hypothesis of its having belonged to the ,aryan race while yet in an early and barbarous condition4 ,thus the prevalence of a rite of suttee like that of modern ,india among ancient ,aryan nations settled in ,europe1 ,greeks1 ,scandinavians1 ,germans1 ,slaves1 may be simply accounted for by direct inheritance from the remote common antiquity of them all4 ,if this theory be sound1 it will follow that ancient as the ,vedic ordinances may be1 they represent in this matter a reform and a reaction against a yet more ancient barbaric rite of widow-sacrifice1 which they prohibited in fact1 but yet kept up in symbol4 ,the history of religion displays but too plainly the proneness of mankind to relapse1 in spite of reformation1 into the lower and darker condition of the past4 ,stronger and more tenacious than even ,vedic authority1 the hideous custom of the suttee may have outlived an attempt to suppress it in early ,brahmanic times1 and the ,english rulers1 in abolishing it1 may have abolished a relic not merely of degenerate ,hinduism1 but of the far more remotely ancient savagery out of which the ,aryan civilization had grown4 ,in now passing from the consideration of the souls of men to that of the souls of the lower animals1 we have first to inform ourselves as to the savage man's idea1 which is very different from the civilized man's1 of the nature of these lower animals4 ,a remarkable group of observances customary among rude tribes will bring this distinction sharply into view4 ,savages talk quite seriously to beasts alive or dead as they would to men alive or dead1 offer them homage1 ask pardon when it is their painful duty to hunt and kill them4 ,a ,north ,american ,indian will reason with a horse as if rational4 ,some will spare the rattlesnake1 fearing the vengeance of its spirit if slain2 others will salute the creature reverently1 bid it welcome as a friend from the land of spirits1 sprinkle a pinch of tobacco on its head for an offering1 catch it by the tail and dispatch it with extreme dexterity1 and carry off its skin as a trophy4 ,if an ,indian is attacked and torn by a bear1 it is that the beast fell upon him intentionally in anger1 perhaps to revenge the hurt done to another bear4 ,when a bear is killed1 they will beg pardon of him1 or even make him condone the offence by smoking the peace-pipe with his murderers1 who put the pipe in his mouth and blow down it1 begging his spirit not to take revenge4#gej ,so in ,africa1 the ,kafirs will hunt the elephant1 begging him not to tread on them and kill them1 and when he is dead they will assure him that they did not kill him on purpose1 and they will bury his trunk1 for the elephant is a mighty chief1 and his trunk is his hand that he may hurt withal4 ,the ,congo people will even avenge such a murder by a pretended attack on the hunters who did the deed4#gea ,such customs are common among the lower ,asiatic tribes4 ,the ,stiens of ,kambodia ask pardon of the beast they have killed2#geb the ,ainos of ,yesso kill the bear1 offer obeisance and salutation to him1 and cut up his carcase4#gec ,the ,koriaks1 if they have slain a bear or wolf1 will flay him1 dress one of their people in the skin1 and dance round him1 chanting excuses that they did not do it1 and especially laying the blame on a ,russian4 ,but if it is a fox1 they take his skin1 wrap his dead body in hay1 and sneering tell him to go to his own people and say what famous hospitality he has had1 and how they gave him a new coat instead of his old one4#ged ,the ,samoyeds excuse themselves to the slain bear1 telling him it was the ,russians who did it1 and that a ,russian knife will cut him up4#gee ,the ,goldi will set up the slain bear1 call him #8my lord' and do ironical homage to him1 or taking him alive will fatten him in a cage1 call him #8son' and #8brother1' and kill and eat him as a sacrifice at a solemn festival4#gef ,in ,borneo1 the ,dayaks1 when they have caught an alligator with a baited hook and rope1 address him with respect and soothing till they have his legs fast1 and then mocking call him #8rajah' and #8grandfather4'#geg ,thus when the savage gets over his fears1 he still keeps up in ironical merriment the reverence which had its origin in trembling sincerity4 ,even now the ,norse hunter will say with horror of a bear that will attack man1 that he can be #8no ,christian bear4' ,the sense of an absolute psychical distinction between man and beast1 so prevalent in the civilized world1 is hardly to be found among the lower races4 ,men to whom the cries of beasts and birds seem like human language1 and their actions guided as it were by human thought1 logically enough allow the existence of souls to beasts1 birds1 and reptiles1 as to men4 ,the lower psychology cannot but recognize in beasts the very characteristics which it attributes to the human soul1 namely1 the phenomena of life and death1 will and judgment1 and the phantom seen in vision or in dream4 ,as for believers1 savage or civilized1 in the great doctrine of metempsychosis1 these not only consider that an animal may have a soul1 but that this soul may have inhabited a human being1 and thus the creature may be in fact their own ancestor or once familiar friend4 ,a line of facts1 arranged as waymarks along the course of civilization1 will serve to indicate the history of opinion from savagery onward1 as to the souls of animals during life and after death4 ,north ,american ,indians held every animal to have its spirit1 and these spirits their future life2 the soul of the ,canadian dog went to serve his master in the other world2 among the ,sioux1 the prerogative of having four souls was not confined to man1 but belonged also to the bear1 the most human of animals4#geh ,the ,greenlanders considered that a sick human soul might be replaced by the sorcerer with a fresh healthy soul of a hare1 a reindeer1 or a young child4#gei ,maori tale-tellers have heard of the road by which the spirits of dogs descend to ,reinga1 the ,hades of the departed2 the ,hovas of ,madagascar know that the ghosts of beasts and men1 dwelling in a great mountain in the south called ,ambondrombe1 come out occasionally to walk among the tombs or execution-places of criminals4#gfj ,the ,kamchadals held that every creature1 even the smallest fly1 would live again in the under-world4#gfa ,the ,kukis of ,assam think that the ghost of every animal a ,kuki kills in the chase or for the feast will belong to him in the next life1 even as the enemy he slays in the field will then become his slave4 ,the ,karens apply the doctrine of the spirit or personal life-phantom1 which is apt to wander from the body and thus suffer injury1 equally to men and to animals4#gfb ,the ,zulus say the cattle they kill come to life again1 and become the property of the dwellers in the world beneath4#gfc ,the ,siamese butcher1 when in defiance of the very principles of his ,buddhism he slaughters an ox1 before he kills the creature has at least the grace to beseech its spirit to seek a happier abode4#gfd ,in connexion with such transmigration1 ,pythagorean and ,platonic philosophy gives to the lower animals undying souls1 while other classic opinion may recognize in beasts only an inferior order of soul1 only the #8anima' but not the human #8animus' besides4 ,thus ,juvenal3 #8,principio indulsit communis conditor illis ,tantum animas2 nobis animum quoque4444'#gfe ,through the middle ages1 controversy as to the psychology of brutes has lasted on into our own times1 ranging between two extremes2 on the one the theory of ,descartes which reduced animals to mere machines1 on the other what ,mr4 ,alger defines as #8the faith that animals have immaterial and deathless souls4' ,among modern speculations may be instanced that of ,wesley1 who thought that in the next life animals will be raised even above their bodily and mental state at the creation1 #8the horridness of their appearance will be exchanged for their primval beauty1' and it even may be that they will be made what men are now1 creatures capable of religion4 ,adam ,clarke's argument for the future life of animals rests on abstract justice3 whereas they did not sin1 but yet are involved in the sufferings of sinful man1 and cannot have in the present state the happiness designed for them1 it is reasonable that they must have it in another4#gff ,although1 however1 the primitive belief in the souls of animals still survives to some extent in serious philosophy1 it is obvious that the tendency of educated opinion on the question whether brutes have soul1 as distinguished from life and mind1 has for ages been in a negative and sceptical direction4 ,the doctrine has fallen from its once high estate4 ,it belonged originally to real1 though rude science4 ,it has now sunk to become a favourite topic in that mild speculative talk which still does duty so largely as intellectual conversation1 and even then its propounders defend it with a lurking consciousness of its being after all a piece of sentimental nonsense4 ,animals being thus considered in the primitive psychology to have souls like human beings1 it follows as the simplest matter of course that tribes who kill wives and slaves1 to dispatch their souls on errands of duty with their departed lords1 may also kill animals in order that their spirits may do such service as is proper to them4 ,the ,pawnee warrior's horse is slain on his grave to be ready for him to mount again1 and the ,comanche's best horses are buried with his favourite weapons and his pipe1 all alike to be used in the distant happy hunting-grounds4#gfg ,in ,south ,america not only do such rites occur1 but they reach a practically disastrous extreme4 ,patagonian tribes1 says ,d',orbigny1 believe in another life1 where they are to enjoy perfect happiness1 therefore they bury with the deceased his arms and ornaments1 and even kill on his tomb all the animals which belonged to him1 that he may find them in the abode of bliss2 and this opposes an insurmountable barrier to all civilization1 by preventing them from accumulating property and fixing their habitations4#gfh ,not only do ,pope's now hackneyed lines express a real motive with which the ,indian's dog is buried with him1 but on the ,north ,american continent the spirit of the dog has another remarkable office to perform4 ,certain ,esquimaux1 as ,cranz relates1 would lay a dog's head in a child's grave1 that the soul of the dog1 who is everywhere at home1 might guide the helpless infant to the land of souls4 ,in accordance with this1 ,captain ,scoresby in ,jameson's ,land found a dog's skull in a small grave1 probably a child's4 ,again1 in the distant region of the ,aztecs1 one of the principal funeral ceremonies was to slaughter a techichi1 or native dog2 it was burnt or buried with the corpse1 with a cotton thread fastened to its neck1 and its office was to convey the deceased across the deep waters of ,chiuhnahuapan1 on the way to the ,land of the ,dead4#gfi ,the dead ,buraet's favourite horse1 led saddled to the grave1 killed1 and flung in1 may serve for a ,tatar example4#ggj ,in ,tonquin1 even wild animals have been customarily drowned at funeral ceremonies of princes1 to be at the service of the departed in the next world4#gga ,among ,semitic tribes1 an instance of the custom may be found in the ,arab sacrifice of a camel on the grave1 for the dead man's spirit to ride upon4#ggb ,among the nations of the ,aryan race in ,europe1 the prevalence of such rites is deep1 wide1 and full of purpose4 ,thus1 warriors were provided in death with horses and housings1 with hounds and falcons4 ,customs thus described in chronicle and legend1 are vouched for in our own time by the opening of old barbaric burial-places4 ,how clear a relic of savage meaning lies here may be judged from a ,livonian account as late as the fourteenth century1 which relates how men and women slaves1 sheep and oxen1 with other things1 were burnt with the dead1 who1 it was believed1 would reach some region of the living1 and find there1 with the multitude of cattle and slaves1 a country of life and happiness4#ggc ,as usual1 these rites may be traced onward in survival4 ,the ,mongols1 who formerly slaughtered camels and horses at their owner's burial1 have been induced to replace the actual sacrifice by a gift of the cattle to the ,lamas4#ggd ,the ,hindus offer a black cow to the ,brahmans1 in order to secure their passage across the ,vaitaran1 the river of death1 and will often die grasping the cow's tail as if to swim across in herdsman's fashion1 holding on to a cow4#gge ,it is mentioned as a belief in ,northern ,europe that he who has given a cow to the poor will find a cow to take him over the bridge of the dead1 and a custom of leading a cow in the funeral procession is said to have been kept up to modern times4#ggf ,all these rites probably belong together as connected with ancient funeral sacrifice1 and the survival of the custom of sacrificing the warrior's horse at his tomb is yet more striking4 ,saint-,foix long ago put the ,french evidence very forcibly4 ,mentioning the horse led at the funeral of ,charles ,,vi41 with the four valets-de-pied in black1 and bareheaded1 holding the corners of its caparison1 he recalls the horses and servants killed and buried with pr-,christian kings4 ,and that his readers may not think this an extraordinary idea1 he brings forward the records of property and horses being presented at the offertory in ,paris1 in #acbi1 of ,edward ,,iii4 presenting horses at ,king ,john's funeral in ,london1 and of the funeral service for ,bertrand ,duguesclin1 at ,st4 ,denis1 in #achi1 when horses were offered1 the ,bishop of ,auxerre laid his hand on their heads1 and they were afterwards compounded for4#ggg ,germany retained the actual sacrifice within the memory of living men4 ,a cavalry general1 ,count ,friedrich ,kasimir ,boos von ,waldeck1 was buried at ,treves in #agha according to the forms of the ,teutonic ,order2 his horse was led in the procession1 and the coffin having been lowered into the grave the horse was killed and thrown in upon it4#ggh ,this was1 perhaps1 the last occasion when such a sacrifice was consummated in solemn form in ,europe4 ,but that pathetic incident of a soldier's funeral1 the leading of the saddled and bridled charger in the mournful procession1 keeps up to this day a lingering reminiscence of the grim religious rite now passed away4 ,plants1 partaking with animals the phenomena of life and death1 health and sickness1 not unnaturally have some kind of soul ascribed to them4 ,in fact1 the notion of a vegetable soul1 common to plants and to the higher organisms possessing an animal soul in addition1 was familiar to medival philosophy1 and is not yet forgotten by naturalists4 ,but in the lower ranges of culture1 at least within one wide district of the world1 the souls of plants are much more fully identified with the souls of animals4 ,the ,society ,islanders seem to have attributed #8varua1' i4e4 surviving soul or spirit1 not to men only but to animals and plants4#ggi ,the ,dayaks of ,borneo not only consider men and animals to have a spirit or living principle1 whose departure from the body causes sickness and eventually death1 but they also give to the rice its #8samangat padi1' or #8spirit of the paddy1' and they hold feasts to retain this soul securely1 lest the crop should decay4#ghj ,the ,karens say that plants as well as men and animals have their #8l' 7#8kelah'71 and the spirit of sickly rice is here also called back like a human spirit considered to have left the body4 ,their formulas for the purpose have even been written down1 and this is part of one3--#8,o come1 rice kelah1 come4 ,come to the field4 ,come to the rice4444 ,come from the ,west4 ,come from the ,east4 ,from the throat of the bird1 from the maw of the ape1 from the throat of the elephant4444 ,from all granaries come4 ,o rice kelah1 come to the rice4'#gha ,there is reason to think that the doctrine of the spirits of plants lay deep in the intellectual history of ,south-,east ,asia1 but was in great measure superseded under ,buddhist influence4 ,the ,buddhist books show that in the early days of their religion1 it was matter of controversy whether trees had souls1 and therefore whether they might lawfully be injured4 ,orthodox ,buddhism decided against the tree-souls1 and consequently against the scruple to harm them1 declaring trees to have no mind or sentient principle1 though admitting that certain dewas or spirits do reside in the body of trees1 and speak from within them4 ,buddhists also relate that a heterodox sect kept up the early doctrine of the actual animate life of trees1 in connexion with which may be remembered ,marco ,polo's somewhat doubtful statement as to certain austere ,indians objecting to green herbs for such a reason1 and some other passages from later writers4 ,the subject of the spirits of plants is an obscure one1 whether from the lower races not having definite opinions1 or from our not finding it easy to trace them4#ghb ,the evidence from funeral sacrifices1 so valuable as to most departments of early psychology1 fails us here1 from plants not being thought suitable to send for the service of the dead4#ghc ,yet1 as we shall see more fully elsewhere1 there are two topics which bear closely on the matter4 ,on the one hand1 the doctrine of transmigration widely and clearly recognises the idea of trees or smaller plants being animated by human souls2 on the other1 the belief in tree-spirits and the practice of tree-worship involve notions more or less closely coinciding with that of tree-souls1 as when the classic hamadryad dies with her tree1 or when the ,talein of ,south-,east ,asia1 considering every tree to have a demon or spirit1 offers prayers before he cuts one down4 ,thus far the details of the lower animistic philosophy are not very unfamiliar to modern students4 ,the primitive view of the souls of men and beasts1 as asserted or acted on in the lower and middle levels of culture1 so far belongs to current civilized thought1 that those who hold the doctrine to be false1 and the practices based upon it futile1 can nevertheless understand and sympathise with the lower nations to whom they are matters of the most sober and serious conviction4 ,nor is even the notion of a separable spirit or soul as the cause of life in plants too incongruous with ordinary ideas to be readily appreciable4 ,but the theory of souls in the lower culture stretches beyond this limit1 to take in a conception much stranger to modern thought4 ,certain high savage races distinctly hold1 and a large proportion of other savage and barbarian races make a more or less close approach to1 a theory of separable and surviving souls or spirits belonging to stocks and stones1 weapons1 boats1 food1 clothes1 ornaments1 and other objects which to us are not merely soulless but lifeless4 ,yet1 strange as such a notion may seem to us at first sight1 if we place ourselves by an effort in the intellectual position of an uncultured tribe1 and examine the theory of object-souls from their point of view1 we shall hardly pronounce it irrational4 ,in discussing the origin of myth1 some account has been already given of the primitive stage of thought in which personality and life are ascribed not to men and beasts only1 but to things4 ,it has been shown how what we call inanimate objects--rivers1 stones1 trees1 weapons1 and so forth--are treated as living intelligent beings1 talked to1 propitiated1 punished for the harm they do4 ,hume1 whose #8,natural ,history of ,religion' is perhaps more than any other work the source of modern opinions as to the development of religion1 comments on the influence of this personifying stage of thought4 #8,there is an universal tendency among mankind to conceive all beings like themselves1 and to transfer to every object those qualities with which they are familiarly acquainted1 and of which they are intimately conscious4444 ,the unknown causes1 which continually employ their thought1 appearing always in the same aspect1 are all apprehended to be of the same kind or species4 ,nor is it long before we ascribe to them thought and reason1 and passion1 and sometimes even the limbs and figures of men1 in order to bring them nearer to a resemblance with ourselves4' ,auguste ,comte has ventured to bring such a state of thought under terms of strict definition in his conception of the primary mental condition of mankind--a state of #8pure fetishism1 constantly characterized by the free and direct exercise of our primitive tendency to conceive all external bodies soever1 natural or artificial1 as animated by a life essentially analogous to our own1 with mere differences of intensity4'#ghd ,our comprehension of the lower stages of mental culture depends much on the thoroughness with which we can appreciate this primitive1 childlike conception1 and in this our best guide may be the memory of our own childish days4 ,he who recollects when there was still personality to him in posts and sticks1 chairs1 and toys1 may well understand how the infant philosophy of mankind could extend the notion of vitality to what modern science only recognises as lifeless things2 thus one main part of the lower animistic doctrine as to souls of objects is accounted for4 ,the doctrine requires for its full conception of a soul not only life1 but also a phantom or apparitional spirit2 this development1 however1 follows without difficulty1 for the evidence of dreams and visions applies to the spirits of objects in much the same manner as to human ghosts4 ,everyone who has seen visions while lightheaded in fever1 everyone who has ever dreamt a dream1 has seen the phantoms of objects as well as of persons4 ,how then can we charge the savage with far-fetched absurdity for taking into his philosophy and religion an opinion which rests on the very evidence of his senses8 ,the notion is implicitly recognized in his accounts of ghosts1 which do not come naked1 but clothed1 and even armed2 of course there must be spirits of garments and weapons1 seeing that the spirits of men come bearing them4 ,it will indeed place savage philosophy in no unfavourable light1 if we compare this extreme animistic development of it with the popular opinion still surviving in civilized countries1 as to ghosts and the nature of the human soul as connected with them4 ,when the ghost of ,hamlet's father appeared armed cap-a-pe1 #8,such was the very armour he had on1 ,when he the ambitious ,norway combated4' ,and thus it is a habitual feature of the ghost-stories of the civilized1 as of the savage world1 that the ghost comes dressed1 and even dressed in well-known clothing worn in life4 ,hearing as well as sight testifies to the phantoms of objects3 the clanking of ghostly chains and the rustling of ghostly dresses are described in the literature of apparitions4 ,now by the savage theory1 according to which the ghost and his clothes are alike real and objective1 and by the modern scientific theory1 according to which both ghost and garment are alike imaginary and subjective1 the facts of apparitions are rationally met4 ,but the modern vulgar who ignore or repudiate the notion of ghosts of things1 while retaining the notion of ghosts of persons1 have fallen into a hybrid state of opinion which has neither the logic of the savage nor of the civilized philosopher4 ,among the lower races of mankind1 three have been observed to hold most explicitly and distinctly the doctrine of object-souls4 ,these are the ,algonquin tribes1 extending over a great district of ,north ,america1 the islanders of the ,fijian group1 and the ,karens of ,burma4 ,among the ,indians of ,north ,america1 ,father ,charlevoix wrote1 souls are1 as it were1 the shadows and the animated images of the body1 and it is by a consequence of this principle that they believe everything to be animate in the universe4 ,this missionary was especially conversant with the ,algonquins1 and it was among one of their tribes1 the ,ojibwas1 that ,keating noticed the opinion that not only men and beasts have souls1 but inorganic things1 such as kettles1 c41 have in them a similar essence4 ,in the same district ,father ,le ,jeune had described1 in the seventeenth century1 the belief that the souls1 not only of men and animals1 but of hatchets and kettles1 had to cross the water to the ,great ,village1 out where the sun sets4#ghe ,in interesting correspondence with this quaint thought is ,mariner's description of the ,fiji doctrine--#8,if an animal or a plant die1 its soul immediately goes to ,bolotoo2 if a stone or any other substance is broken1 immortality is equally its reward2 nay1 artificial bodies have equal good luck with men1 and hogs1 and yams4 ,if an axe or a chisel is worn out or broken up1 away flies its soul for the service of the gods4 ,if a house is taken down or any way destroyed1 its immortal part will find a situation on the plains of ,bolotoo2 and1 to confirm this doctrine1 the ,fiji people can show you a sort of natural well1 or deep hole in the ground1 at one of their islands1 across the bottom of which runs a stream of water1 in which you may clearly perceive the souls of men and women1 beasts and plants1 of stocks and stones1 canoes and houses1 and of all the broken utensils of this frail world1 swimming1 or rather tumbling along one over the other pell-mell into the regions of immortality4' ,a full generation later the ,rev4 ,thomas ,williams1 while remarking that the escape of brutes and lifeless substances to the spirit-land of ,mbulu does not receive universal credit among the ,fijians1 nevertheless confirms the older account of it3--#8,those who profess to have seen the souls of canoes1 houses1 plants1 pots1 or any artificial bodies1 swimming with other relics of this frail world on the stream of the ,kauvandra well1 which bears them into the regions of immortality1 believe this doctrine as a matter of course2 and so do those who have seen the footmarks left about the same well by the ghosts of dogs1 pigs1 c4'#ghf ,the theory among the ,karens is stated by the ,rev4 ,e4 ,b4 ,cross1 as follows3--#8,every object is supposed to have its 8kelah40 ,axes and knives1 as well as trees and plants1 are supposed to have their separate 8kelahs40' #8,the ,karen1 with his axe and cleaver1 may build his house1 cut his rice1 and conduct his affairs1 after death as before4'#ghg ,as so many races perform funeral sacrifices of men and animals1 in order to dispatch their souls for the service of the soul of the deceased1 so tribes who hold this doctrine of object-souls very rationally sacrifice objects1 in order to transmit these souls4 ,among the ,algonquin tribes1 the sacrifice of objects for the dead was a habitual rite1 as when we read of a warrior's corpse being buried with musket and war-club1 calumet and war-paint1 and a public address being made to the body at burial concerning his future path2 while in like manner a woman would be buried with her paddle and kettle1 and the carrying-strap for the everlasting burden of her heavily-laden life4 ,that the purpose of such offerings is the transmission of the object's spirit or phantom to the possession of the man's is explicitly stated as early as #afbc by ,father ,lallemant2 when the ,indians buried kettles1 furs1 c41 with the dead1 they said that the bodies of the things remained1 but their souls went to the dead who used them4 ,the whole idea is graphically illustrated in the following ,ojibwa tradition or myth4 ,gitchi ,gauzini was a chief who lived on the shores of ,lake ,superior1 and once1 after a few days' illness1 he seemed to die4 ,he had been a skilful hunter1 and had desired that a fine gun which he possessed should be buried with him when he died4 ,but some of his friends not thinking him really dead1 his body was not buried2 his widow watched him for four days1 he came back to life1 and told his story4 ,after death1 he said1 his ghost travelled on the broad road of the dead toward the happy land1 passing over great plains of luxuriant herbage1 seeing beautiful groves1 and hearing the songs of innumerable birds1 till at last1 from the summit of a hill1 he caught sight of the distant city of the dead1 far across an intermediate space1 partly veiled in mist1 and spangled with glittering lakes and streams4 ,he came in view of herds of stately deer and moose1 and other game1 which with little fear walked near his path4 ,but he had no gun1 and remembering how he had requested his friends to put his gun in his grave1 he turned back to go and fetch it4 ,then he met face to face the train of men1 women1 and children who were travelling toward the city of the dead4 ,they were heavily laden with guns1 pipes1 kettles1 meats1 and other articles2 women were carrying basket-work and painted paddles1 and little boys had their ornamented clubs and their bows and arrows1 the presents of their friends4 ,refusing a gun which an overburdened traveller offered him1 the ghost of ,gitchi ,gauzini travelled back in quest of his own1 and at last reached the place where he had died4 ,there he could see only a great fire before and around him1 and finding the flames barring his passage on every side1 he made a desperate leap through1 and awoke from his trance4 ,having concluded his story1 he gave his auditors this counsel1 that they should no longer deposit so many burdensome things with the dead1 delaying them on their journey to the place of repose1 so that almost everyone he met complained bitterly4 ,it would be wiser1 he said1 only to put such things in the grave as the deceased was particularly attached to1 or made a formal request to have deposited with him4#ghh ,with purpose no less distinct1 when a dead ,fijian chief is laid out oiled and painted and dressed as in life1 a heavy club is placed ready near his right hand1 which holds one or more of the much-prized carved #8whale's tooth' ornaments4 ,the club is to serve for defence against the adversaries who await his soul on the road to ,mbulu1 seeking to slay and eat him4 ,we hear of a ,fijian taking a club from a companion's grave1 and remarking in explanation to a missionary who stood by1 #8,the ghost of the club has gone with him4' ,the purpose of the whale's tooth is this2 on the road to the land of the dead1 near the solitary hill of ,takiveleyawa1 there stands a ghostly pandanus-tree1 and the spirit of the dead man is to throw the spirit of the whale's tooth at this tree1 having struck which he is to ascend the hill and await the coming of the spirits of his strangled wives4#ghi ,the funeral rites of the ,karens complete the present group4 ,they kept up what seems a clear survival from actual human and animal sacrifice1 fastening up near an important person's grave a slave and a pony2 these invariably released themselves1 and the slave became henceforth a free man4 ,moreover1 the practice of placing food1 implements and utensils1 and valuables of gold and silver1 near the remains of the deceased1 was general among them4#gij ,now the sacrifice of property for the dead is one of the great religious rites of the world2 are we then justified in asserting that all men who abandon or destroy property as a funeral ceremony believe the articles to have spirits1 which spirits are transmitted to the deceased8 ,not so2 it is notorious that there are people who recognize no such theory but who nevertheless deposit offerings with the dead4 ,affectionate fancy or symbolism1 a horror of the association of death leading the survivors to get rid of anything that even suggests the dreadful thought1 a desire to abandon the dead man's property1 an idea that the hovering ghost may take pleasure in or make use of the gifts left for him1 all these are or may be efficient motives4#gia ,yet1 having made full allowance for all this1 we shall find good reason to judge that many other peoples1 though they may never have stated the theory of object-souls in the same explicit way as the ,algonquins1 ,fijians1 and ,karens1 have recognized it with more or less distinctness4 ,it has given me the more confidence in this opinion to find it held1 under proper reservation1 by ,mr4 ,w4 ,r4 ,alger1 an ,american investigator1 who in a treatise entitled #8,a ,critical ,history of the ,doctrine of a ,future ,life' has discussed the ethnography of his subject with remarkable learning and sagacity4 #8,the barbarian brain1' he writes1 #8seems to have been generally impregnated with the feeling that everything else has a ghost as well as man4444 ,the custom of burning or burying things with the dead probably arose1 in some cases at least1 from the supposition that every object1 has its manes4'#gib ,it will be desirable briefly to examine further the subject of funeral offerings1 as bearing on this interesting question of early psychology4 ,a wide survey of funeral sacrifices over the world will plainly show one of their most usual motives to be a more or less defined notion of benefiting the deceased1 whether out of kindness to him or from fear of his displeasure4 ,how such an intention may have taken this practical shape we can perhaps vaguely guess1 familiar as we are with a state of mind out of which funeral sacrifices could naturally have sprung4 ,the man is dead1 but it is still possible to fancy him alive1 to take his cold hand1 to speak to him1 to place his chair at the table1 to bury suggestive mementoes in his coffin1 to throw flowers into his grave1 to hang wreaths of everlastings on his tomb4 ,the ,cid may be set on ,babieca with his sword ,tizona in his hand1 and carried out to do battle as of old against the unbeliever2 the dead king's meal may be carried in to him in state1 although the chamberlain must announce that the king does not dine to-day4 ,such childlike ignoring of death1 such childlike make-believe that the dead can still do as heretofore1 may well have led the savage to bury with his kinsman the weapons1 clothes1 and ornaments that he used in life1 to try to feed the corpse1 to put a cigar in the mouth of the skull before its final burial1 to lay playthings in the infant's grave4 ,but one thought beyond would carry this dim blind fancy into the range of logical reasoning4 ,granted that the man is dead and his soul gone out of him1 then the way to provide that departed soul with food or clothes or weapons is to bury or burn them with the body1 for whatever happens to the man may be taken to happen to the objects that lie beside him and share his fate1 while the precise way in which the transmission takes place may be left undecided4 ,it is possible that the funeral sacrifice customary among mankind may have rested at first1 and may to some extent still rest1 on vague thoughts and imaginations like these1 as yet fitted into no more definite and elaborate philosophic theory4 ,there are1 however1 two great groups of cases of funeral sacrifice1 which so logically lead up to or involve the notion of souls or spirits of objects1 that the sacrificer himself could hardly answer otherwise a point-blank question as to their meaning4 ,the first group is that in which those who sacrifice men and beasts with the intention of conveying their souls to the other world1 also sacrifice lifeless things indiscriminately with them4 ,the second group is that in which the phantoms of the objects sacrificed are traced distinctly into the possession of the human phantom4 ,the ,caribs1 holding that after decease man's soul found its way to the land of the dead1 sacrificed slaves on a chief's grave to serve him in the new life1 and for the same purpose buried dogs with him1 and also weapons4#gic ,the ,guinea negroes1 at the funeral of a great man1 killed several wives and slaves to serve him in the other world1 and put fine clothes1 gold fetishes1 coral1 beads1 and other valuables1 into the coffin1 to be used there too4#gid ,when the ,new ,zealand chief had slaves killed at his death for his service1 and the mourning family gave his chief widow a rope to hang herself with in the woods and so rejoin her husband1#gie it is not easy to discern here a motive different from that which induced them at the same time to provide the dead man also with his weapons4 ,nor can an intellectual line well be drawn between the intentions with which the ,tunguz has buried with him his horse1 his bow and arrows1 his smoking apparatus and kettle4 ,in the typical description which ,herodotus gives of the funeral of the ancient ,scythian chiefs1 the miscellaneous contents of the burial-mound1 the strangled wife and household servants1 the horses1 the choice articles of property1 the golden vessels1 fairly represent the indiscriminate purpose which actuated the barbaric sacrifice of creatures and things4#gif ,so in old ,europe1 the warrior with his sword and spear1 the horse with his saddle1 the hunter's hound and hawk and his bow and arrow1 the wife with her gay clothes and jewels1 lie together in the burial-mound4 ,their common purpose has become one of the most undisputed inferences of ,archology4 ,as for what becomes of the objects sacrificed for the dead there are on record the most distinct statements taken from the sacrificers themselves4 ,although the objects rot in the grave or are consumed on the pile1 they nevertheless come in some way into the possession of the disembodied souls they are intended for4 ,not the material things themselves1 but phantasmal shapes corresponding to them1 are carried by the souls of the dead on their far journey beyond the grave1 or are used in the world of spirits2 while sometimes the phantoms of the dead appear to the living1 bearing property which they have received by sacrifice1 or demanding something that has been withheld4 ,the ,australian will take his weapons with him to his paradise4#gig ,a ,tasmanian1 asked the reason of a spear being deposited in a native's grave1 replied #8,to fight with when he is asleep4'#gih ,many ,greenlanders thought that the kayak and arrows and tools laid by a man's grave1 the knife and sewing implements laid by a woman's1 would be used in the next world4#gii ,the instruments buried with the ,sioux are for him to make a living with hereafter2 the paints provided for the dead ,iroquois were to enable him to appear decently in the other world4#hjj ,the ,aztec's water-bottle was to serve him on the journey to ,mictlan1 the land of the dead2 the bonfire of garments and baskets and spoils of war was intended to send them with him1 and somehow to protect him against the bitter wind2 the offerings to the warrior's manes on earth would reach him on the heavenly plains4#hja ,among the old ,peruvians1 a dead prince's wives would hang themselves in order to continue in his service1 and many of his attendants would be buried in his fields or places of favourite resort1 in order that his soul1 passing through those places1 might take their souls along with him for future service4 ,in perfect consistency with these strong animistic notions1 the ,peruvians declared that their reason for sacrifice of property to the dead was that they #8have seen1 or thought they saw1 those who have long been dead walking1 adorned with the things that were buried with them1 and accompanied by their wives who had been buried alive4'#hjb ,as definite an implication of the spirit or phantom of an object appears in a recent account from ,madagascar1 where things are buried to become in some way useful to the dead4 ,when ,king ,radama died1 it was reported and firmly believed that his ghost was seen one night in the garden of his country seat1 dressed in one of the uniforms which had been buried with him1 and riding one of the best horses killed opposite his tomb4#hjc ,turanian tribes of ,north ,asia avow that the motive of their funeral offerings of horses and sledges1 clothes and axes and kettles1 flint and steel and tinder1 meat and butter1 is to provide the dead for his journey to the land of souls1 and for his life there4#hjd ,among the ,esths of ,northern ,europe1 the dead starts properly equipped on his ghostly journey with needle and thread1 hairbrush and soap1 bread and brandy and coin2 a toy1 if it is a child4 ,and so full a consciousness of practical meaning survived till lately1 that now and then a soul would come back at night to reproach its relations with not having provided properly for it1 but left it in distress4#hje ,to turn from these now ,europeanized ,tatars to a rude race of the ,eastern ,archipelago1 among the ,orang ,binua of ,sambawa there prevails this curious law of inheritance2 not only does each surviving relative1 father1 mother1 son1 brother1 and so forth1 take his or her proper share1 but the deceased inherits one share from himself1 which is devoted to his use by eating the animals at the funeral feast1 burning everything else that will burn1 and burying the remainder4#hjf ,in ,cochin ,china1 the common people object to celebrating their feast of the dead on the same day with the upper classes1 for this excellent reason1 that the aristocratic souls might make the servant souls carry home their presents for them4 ,these people employ all the resources of their civilization to perform with the more lavish extravagance the savage funeral sacrifices4 ,here are details from an account published in #ahdi of the funeral of a late king of ,cochin ,china4 #8,when the corpse of ,thien ,tri was deposited in the coffin1 there were also deposited in it many things for the use of the deceased in the other world1 such as his crown1 turbans1 clothes of all descriptions1 gold1 silver1 and other precious articles1 rice and other provisions4' ,meals were set out near the coffin1 and there was a framed piece of damask with woollen characters1 the abode of one of the souls of the defunct4 ,in the tomb1 an enclosed edifice of stone1 the childless wives of the deceased were to be perpetually shut up to guard the sepulchre1 #8and prepare daily the food and other things of which they think the deceased has need in the other life4' ,at the time of the deposit of the coffin in a cavern behind the tomb building1 there were burnt there great piles of boats1 stages1 and everything used in the funeral1 #8and moreover of all the objects which had been in use by the king during his lifetime1 of chessmen1 musical instruments1 fans1 boxes1 parasols1 mats1 fillets1 carriages1 c41 c41 and likewise a horse and an elephant of wood and pasteboard4' #8,some months after the funeral1 at two different times1 there were constructed in a forest near a pagoda two magnificent palaces of wood with rich furnishings1 in all things similar to the palace which the defunct monarch had inhabited4 ,each palace was composed of twenty rooms1 and the most scrupulous attention was given in order that nothing might be awanting necessary for a palace1 and these palaces were burned with great pomp1 and it is thus that immense riches have been given to the flames from the foolish belief that it would serve the dead in the other world4'#hjg ,though the custom is found among the ,beduins of arraying the dead with turban1 girdle1 and sword1 yet funeral offerings for the service of the dead are by no means conspicuous among ,semitic nations4 ,the mention of the rite by ,ezekiel1 while showing a full sense of its meaning1 characterizes it as not ,israelite1 but ,gentile3 #8,the mighty fallen of the uncircumcised1 which are gone down to ,hades with weapons of war1 and they have laid their swords under their heads4'#hjh ,among the ,aryan nations1 on the contrary1 such funeral offerings are known to have prevailed widely and of old1 while for picturesqueness of rite and definiteness of purpose they can scarcely be surpassed even among savages4 ,why the ,brahman's sacrificial instruments are to be burnt with him on the funeral pile1 appears from this line of the ,veda recited at the ceremony3 #8,yad gachhatyasuntimetmath devnm vasanrbhavti1'--#8,when he cometh unto that life1 faithfully will he do the service of the gods4'#hji ,lucian is sarcastic1 but scarcely unfair1 in his comments on the ,greek funeral rites1 speaking of those who slew horses and slave-girls and cupbearers1 and burned or buried clothes and ornaments1 as for use and service in the world below2 of the meat and drink offerings on the tombs which serve to feed the bodiless shades in ,hades2 of the splendid garments and the garlands of the dead1 that they might not suffer cold upon the road1 nor be seen naked by ,kerberos4 ,for ,kerberos was intended the honey-cake deposited with the dead2 and the obolus placed in the mouth was the toll for ,charon1 save at ,hermione in ,argolis1 where men thought there was a short descent to ,hades1 and therefore provided the dead with no coin for the grim ferryman4 ,how such ideas could be realized1 may be seen in the story of ,eukrates1 whose dead wife appeared to him to demand one of her golden sandals1 which had been dropped underneath the chest1 and so not burnt for her with the rest of her wardrobe2 or in the story of ,periander1 whose dead wife ,melissa refused to give him an oracular response1 for she was shivering and naked1 because the garments buried with her had not been burnt1 and so were of no use1 wherefore ,periander plundered the ,corinthian women of their best clothes1 which he burned in a great trench with prayer1 and now obtained his answer4#haj ,the ancient ,gauls were led1 by their belief in another life1 to burn and bury with the dead things suited to the living2 nor is the record improbable that they transferred to the world below the repayment of loans1 for even in modern centuries the ,japanese would borrow money in this life1 to be repaid with heavy interest in the next4#haa ,the souls of the ,norse dead took with them from their earthly home servants and horses1 boats and ferry-money1 clothes and weapons4 ,thus1 in death as in life1 they journeyed1 following the long dark #8hell-way' 7helvegr74 ,the #8hell-shoon' 7helsk7 were bound upon the dead man's feet for the toilsome journey2 and when ,king ,harald was slain in the battle of ,bravalla1 they drove his war-chariot1 with the corpse upon it into the great burial-mound1 and there they killed the horse1 and ,king ,hring gave his own saddle beside1 that the fallen chief might ride or drive to ,walhalla1 as it pleased him4#hab ,lastly1 in the ,lithuanian and old ,prussian district1 where ,aryan heathendom held its place in ,europe so firmly and so late1 accounts of funeral sacrifice of men1 and beasts1 and things1 date on even beyond the middle ages4 ,even as they thought that men would live again in the resurrection rich or poor1 noble or peasant1 as on earth1 so #8they believed that the things burned would rise again with them1 and serve them as before4' ,among these people lived the ,kriwe ,kriweito1 the great priest1 whose house was on the high steep mountain ,anafielas4 ,all the ,souls of their dead must clamber up this mountain1 wherefore they burned with them claws of bears and lynxes for their help4 ,all the souls must pass through the ,kriwe's house1 and he could describe to the surviving relatives of each the clothes1 and horse1 and weapons he had seen him come with1 and even show1 for greater certainty1 some mark made with lance or other instrument by the passing soul4#hac ,such examples of funeral rites show a common ceremony1 and to a great degree a common purpose1 obtaining from savagery through barbarism1 and even into the higher civilization4 ,now could we have required from all these races a distinct answer to the question1 whether they believed in spirits of all things1 from men and beasts down to spears and cloaks1 sticks and stones1 it is likely that we might have often received the same acknowledgment of fully developed animism which stands on record in ,north ,america1 ,polynesia1 and ,burma4 ,failing such direct testimony1 it is at least justifiable to say that the lower culture1 by practically dealing with object-souls1 goes far towards acknowledging their existence4 ,before quitting the discussion of funeral offerings for transmission to the dead1 the custom must be traced to its final decay4 ,it is apt not to die out suddenly1 but to leave surviving remnants1 more or less dwindled in form and changed in meaning4 ,the ,kanowits of ,borneo talk of setting a man's property adrift for use in the next world1 and even go so far as to lay out his valuables by the bier1 but in fact they only commit to the frail canoe a few old things not worth plundering4#had ,so in ,north ,america1 the funeral sacrifice of the ,winnebagos has come down to burying a pipe and tobacco with the dead1 and sometimes a club in a warrior's grave1 while the goods brought and hung up at the burial-place are no longer left there1 but the survivors gamble for them4#hae ,the ,santals of ,bengal put two vessels1 one for rice and the other for water1 on the dead man's couch1 with a few rupees1 to enable him to appease the demons on the threshold of the shadowy world1 but when the funeral pile is ready these things are removed4#haf ,the fanciful art of replacing costly offerings by worthless imitations is at this day worked out into the quaintest devices in ,china4 ,as the men and horses dispatched by fire for the service of the dead are but paper figures1 so offerings of clothes and money may be represented likewise4 ,the imitations of ,spanish pillar-dollars in pasteboard covered with tinfoil1 the sheets of tinfoil-paper which stand for silver money1 and if coloured yellow for gold1 are consumed in such quantities that the sham becomes a serious reality1 for the manufacture of mock-money is the trade of thousands of women and children in a ,chinese city4 ,in a similar way trunks full of property are forwarded in the care of the newly deceased1 to friends who are gone before4 ,pretty paper houses1 #8replete with every luxury1' as our auctioneers say1 are burnt for the dead ,chinaman to live in hereafter1 and the paper keys are burnt also1 that he may unfasten the paper locks of the paper chests that hold the ingots of gold-paper and silver-paper1 which are to be realized as current gold and silver in the other world1 an idea which1 however1 does not prevent the careful survivors from collecting the ashes to re-extract the tin from them in this4#hag ,again1 when the modern ,hindu offers to his dead parent funeral cakes with flowers and betel1 he presents a woollen yam which he lays across the cake1 and naming the deceased says1 #8,may this apparel1 made of woollen yam1 be acceptable to thee4'#hah ,such facts as these suggest a symbolic meaning in the practically useless offerings which ,sir ,john ,lubbock groups together--the little models of kayaks and spears in ,esquimaux graves1 the models of objects in ,egyptian tombs1 and the flimsy unserviceable jewelry buried with the ,etruscan dead4#hai ,just as people in ,borneo1 after they had become ,mohammedans1 still kept up the rite of burying provisions for the dead man's journey1 as a mark of respect1#hbj so the rite of interring funeral offerings survived in ,christian ,europe4 ,the ancient ,greek burial of the dead with the obolus in his mouth for ,charon's toll is represented in the modern ,greek world1 where ,charon and the funeral coin are both familiar4 ,as the old ,prussians furnished the dead with spending-money to buy refreshment on his weary journey1 so to this day ,german peasants bury a corpse with money in his mouth or hand1 a fourpenny-piece or so4 ,similar little funeral offerings of coin are recorded in the folklore books elsewhere in ,europe4#hba ,christian funeral offerings of this kind are mostly trifling in value1 and doubtful as to the meaning with which they were kept up4 ,the early ,christians retained the heathen custom of placing in the tomb such things as articles of the toilette and children's playthings2 modern ,greeks would place oars on a shipman's grave1 and other such tokens for other crafts2 the beautiful classic rite of scattering flowers over the dead still holds its place in ,europe4#hbb ,whatever may have been the thoughts which first prompted these kindly ceremonies1 they were thoughts belonging to far pr-,christian ages4 ,the change of sacrifice from its early significance is shown among the ,hindus1 who have turned it to account for purposes of priestcraft3 he who gives water or shoes to a ,brahman will find water to refresh him1 and shoes to wear1 on the journey to the next world1 while the gift of a present house will secure him a future palace4#hbc ,in interesting correspondence with this1 is a transition from pagan to ,christian folklore in our own land4 ,the ,lyke-,wake ,dirge1 the not yet forgotten funeral chant of the ,north ,country1 tells1 like some savage or barbaric legend1 of the passage over the ,bridge of ,death and the dreadful journey to the other world4 ,but though the ghostly traveller's feet are still shod with the old ,norseman's hell-shoon1 he gains them no longer by funeral offering1 but by his own charity in life3-- #8,this a nighte1 this a nighte ,every night and alle2 ,fire and fleet and candle-light1 ,and ,christe receive thy saule4 ,when thou from hence away are paste ,every night and alle2 ,to ,whinny-moor thou comes at laste1 ,and ,christe receive thy saule4 ,if ever thou gave either hosen or shoon1 ,every night and alle2 ,sit thee down and put them on1 ,and ,christe receive thy saule4 ,but if hosen nor shoon thou never gave neean1 ,every night and alle2 ,the ,whinnes shall prick thee to the bare beean1 ,and ,christe receive thy saule4 ,from ,whinny-moore when thou may passe1 ,every night and alle2 ,to ,brig o' ,dread thou comes at laste1 ,and ,christe receive thy saule4 ,from ,brig o' ,dread when thou are paste1 ,every night and alle2 ,to ,purgatory ,fire thou comes at laste1 ,and ,christe receive thy saule4 ,if ever thou gave either milke or drink1 ,every night and alle2 ,the fire shall never make thee shrinke1 ,and ,christe receive thy saule4 ,but if milk nor drink thou never gave neean1 ,every night and alle2 ,the fire shall burn thee to the bare beean ,and ,christe receive thy saule4'#hbd ,what reader1 unacquainted with the old doctrine of offerings for the dead1 could realize the meaning of its remnants thus lingering in peasants' minds8 ,the survivals from ancient funeral ceremony may here again serve as warnings against attempting to explain relics of intellectual antiquity by viewing them from the changed level of modern opinion4 ,having thus surveyed at large the theory of spirits or souls of objects1 it remains to point out what1 to general students1 may seem the most important consideration belonging to it1 namely1 its close relation to one of the most influential doctrines of civilized philosophy4 ,the savage thinker1 though occupying himself so much with the phenomena of life1 sleep1 disease1 and death1 seems to have taken for granted1 as a matter of course1 the ordinary operations of his own mind4 ,it hardly occurred to him to think about the machinery of thinking4 ,metaphysics is a study which first assumes clear shape at a comparatively high level of intellectual culture4 ,the metaphysical philosophy of thought taught in our modern ,european lecture-rooms is historically traced back to the speculative psychology of classic ,greece4 ,now one doctrine which there comes into view is especially associated with the name of ,democritus1 the philosopher of ,abdera1 in the fifth century ,b4,c4 ,when ,democritus propounded the great problem of metaphysics1 #8,how do we perceive external things8'--thus making1 as ,lewes says1 an era in the history of philosophy1--he put forth1 in answer to the question1 a theory of thought4 ,he explained the fact of perception by declaring that things are always throwing off images of themselves1 which images1 assimilating to themselves the surrounding air1 enter a recipient soul1 and are thus perceived4 ,now1 supposing ,democritus to have been really the originator of this famed theory of ideas1 how far is he to be considered its inventor8 ,writers on the history of philosophy are accustomed to treat the doctrine as actually made by the philosophical school which taught it4 ,yet the evidence here brought forward shows it to be really the savage doctrine of object-souls1 turned to a new purpose as a method of explaining the phenomena of thought4 ,nor is the correspondence a mere coincidence1 for at this point of junction between classic religion and classic philosophy the traces of historical continuity may be still discerned4 ,to say that ,democritus was an ancient ,greek is to say that from his childhood he had looked on at the funeral ceremonies of his country1 beholding the funeral sacrifices of garments and jewels and money and food and drink1 rites which his mother and his nurse could tell him were performed in order that the phantasmal images of these objects might pass into the possession of forms shadowy like themselves1 the souls of dead men4 ,thus ,democritus1 seeking a solution of his great problem of the nature of thought1 found it by simply decanting into his metaphysics a surviving doctrine of primitive savage animism4 ,this thought of the phantoms or souls of things1 if simply modified to form a philosophical theory of perception1 would then and there become his doctrine of ,ideas4 ,nor does even this fully represent the closeness of union which connects the savage doctrine of flitting object-souls with the ,epicurean philosophy4 ,lucretius actually makes the theory of film-like images of things 7simulacra1 membran7 account both for the apparitions which come to men in dreams1 and the images which impress their minds in thinking4 ,so unbroken is the continuity of philosophic speculation from savage to cultured thought4 ,such are the debts which civilized philosophy owes to primitive animism4 ,the doctrine of ideas1 thus developed in the classic world1 has1 indeed1 by no means held its course thenceforth unchanged through metaphysics1 but has undergone transition somewhat like that of the doctrine of the soul itself4 ,ideas1 fined down to the abstract forms or species of material objects1 and applied to other than visible qualities1 have at last come merely to denote subjects of thought4 ,yet to this day the old theory has not utterly died out1 and the retention of the significant term #8idea' 71 visible form7 is accompanied by a similar retention of original meaning4 ,it is still one of the tasks of the metaphysician to display and refute the old notion of ideas as being real images1 and to replace it by more abstract conceptions4 ,it is a striking instance that ,dugald ,stewart can cite from the works of ,sir ,isaac ,newton the following distinct recognition of #8sensible species3' #8,is not the sensorium of animals1 the place where the sentient substance is present2 and to which the sensible species of things are brought1 through the nerves and brain1 that there they may be perceived by the mind present in that place8' ,again1 ,dr4 ,reid states the original theory of ideas1 while declaring that he conceives it #8to have no solid foundation1 though it has been adopted very generally by philosophers4444 ,this notion of our perceiving external objects1 not immediately1 but in certain images or species of them conveyed by the senses1 seems to be the most ancient philosophical hypothesis we have on the subject of perception1 and to have1 with small variations1 retained its authority to this day4' ,granted that ,dr4 ,reid exaggerated the extent to which metaphysicians have kept up the notion of ideas as real images of things1 few will deny that it does linger much in modern minds1 and that people who talk of ideas do often1 in some hazy metaphorical way1 think of sensible images4#hbe ,one of the shrewdest things ever said about either ideas or ghosts was ,bishop ,berkeley's retort upon ,halley1 who bantered him about his idealism4 ,the bishop claimed the mathematician as an idealist also1 his #8ultimate ratios' being ghosts of departed quantities1 appearing when the terms that produced them vanished4 ,it remains to sum up in few words the doctrine of souls1 in the various phases it has assumed from first to last among mankind4 ,in the attempt to trace its main course through the successive grades of man's intellectual history1 the evidence seems to accord best with a theory of its development1 somewhat to the following effect4 ,at the lowest levels of culture of which we have clear knowledge1 the notion of a ghost-soul animating man while in the body1 and appearing in dream and vision out of the body1 is found deeply ingrained4 ,there is no reason to think that this belief was learnt by savage tribes from contact with higher races1 nor that it is a relic of higher culture from which the savage tribes have degenerated2 for what is here treated as the primitive animistic doctrine is thoroughly at home among savages1 who appear to hold it on the very evidence of their senses1 interpreted on the biological principle which seems to them most reasonable4 ,we may now and then hear the savage doctrines and practices concerning souls claimed as relics of a high religious culture pervading the primval race of man4 ,they are said to be traces of remote ancestral religion1 kept up in scanty and perverted memory by tribes degraded from a nobler state4 ,it is easy to see that such an explanation of some few facts1 sundered from their connexion with the general array1 may seem plausible to certain minds4 ,but a large view of the subject can hardly leave such argument in possession4 ,the animism of savages stands for and by itself2 it explains its own origin4 ,the animism of civilized men1 while more appropriate to advanced knowledge1 is in great measure only explicable as a developed product of the older and ruder system4 ,it is the doctrines and rites of the lower races which are1 according to their philosophy1 results of point-blank natural evidence and acts of straightforward practical purpose4 ,it is the doctrines and rites of the higher races which show survival of the old in the midst of the new1 modification of the old to bring it into conformity with the new1 abandonment of the old because it is no longer compatible with the new4 ,let us see at a glance in what general relation the doctrine of souls among savage tribes stands to the doctrine of souls among barbaric and cultured nations4 ,among races within the limits of savagery1 the general doctrine of souls is found worked out with remarkable breadth and consistency4 ,the souls of animals are recognized by a natural extension from the theory of human souls2 the souls of trees and plants follow in some vague partial way2 and the souls of inanimate objects expand the general category to its extremest boundary4 ,thenceforth1 as we explore human thought onward from savage into barbarian and civilized life1 we find a state of theory more conformed to positive science1 but in itself less complete and consistent4 ,far on into civilization1 men still act as though in some half-meant way they believed in souls or ghosts of objects1 while nevertheless their knowledge of physical science is beyond so crude a philosophy4 ,as to the doctrine of souls of plants1 fragmentary evidence of the history of its breaking down in ,asia has reached us4 ,in our own day and country1 the notion of souls of beasts is to be seen dying out4 ,animism1 indeed1 seems to be drawing in its outposts1 and concentrating itself on its first and main position1 the doctrine of the human soul4 ,this doctrine has undergone extreme modification in the course of culture4 ,it has outlived the almost total loss of one great argument attached to it1--the objective reality of apparitional souls or ghosts seen in dreams and visions4 ,the soul has given up its ethereal substance1 and become an immaterial entity1 #8the shadow of a shade4' ,its theory is becoming separated from the investigations of biology and mental science1 which now discuss the phenomena of life and thought1 the senses and the intellect1 the emotions and the will1 on a ground-work of pure experience4 ,there has arisen an intellectual product whose very existence is of the deepest significance1 a #8psychology' which has no longer anything to do with #8soul4' ,the soul's place in modern thought is in the metaphysics of religion1 and its especial office there is that of furnishing an intellectual side to the religious doctrine of the future life4 ,such are the alterations which have differenced the fundamental animistic belief in its course through successive periods of the world's culture4 ,yet it is evident that1 notwithstanding all this profound change1 the conception of the human soul is1 as to its most essential nature1 continuous from the philosophy of the savage thinker to that of the modern professor of theology4 ,its definition has remained from the first that of an animating1 separable1 surviving entity1 the vehicle of individual personal existence4 ,the theory of the soul is one principal part of a system of religious philosophy which unites1 in an unbroken line of mental connexion1 the savage fetish-worshipper and the civilized ,christian4 ,the divisions which have separated the great religions of the world into intolerant and hostile sects are for the most part superficial in comparison with the deepest of all religious schisms1 that which divides ,animism from ,materialism4 ,footnote #fjg3 ,j4 ,d4 ,lang1 #8,queensland1' pp4 #cdj1 #cgd1 #chj1 #chh1 #ddd 7,buddai appears1 p4 #cgi1 as causing a deluge2 he is probably identical with ,budyah74 ,footnote #fjh3 ,moffat1 #8,south ,africa1' p4 #bfa4 ,footnote #fji3 ,azara1 #8,voy4 dans l',amrique ,mridionale1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #c1 #ad1 #be1 #ea1 #fj1 #ia1 #aai1 c42 ,d',orbigny1 #8,l',homme ,amricain1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cah4 ,footnote #faj3 ,muir1 #8,sanskrit ,texts1' part ii4 p4 #dce2 ,euseb4 #8,hist4 ,eccl4' iv4 #ae2 ,bingham1 book i4 ch4 ii42 ,vanini1 #8,de ,admirandis ,naturae ,arcanis1' dial4 #cg2 ,lecky1 #8,hist4 of ,rationalism1' vol4 i4 p4 #abf2 ,encyclop4 ,brit4 7#eth ed47 s4v4 #8,superstition4' ,footnote #faa3 ,j4 de ,verrazano in ,hakluyt1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cjj4 ,footnote #fab3 ,see ,w4 ,ellis1 #8,hist4 of ,madagascar1' vol4 i4 p4 #dbi2 ,flacourt1 #8,hist4 de ,madagascar1' p4 #ei4 ,footnote #fac3 ,dampier1 #8,voyages1' vol4 ii4 part ii4 p4 #gf4 ,footnote #fad3 ,roe in ,pinkerton1 vol4 viii4 p4 #b4 ,footnote #fae3 ,lubbock1 #8,prehistoric ,times1' p4 #efd3 see also #8,origin of ,civilization1' p4 #ach4 ,footnote #faf3 ,sproat1 #8,scenes and ,studies of ,savage ,life1' p4 #bje4 ,footnote #fag3 ,mouat1 #8,andaman ,islanders1' pp4 #b1 #bgi1 #cjc4 ,since the above was written1 the remarkable ,andaman religion has been described by ,mr4 ,e4 ,h4 ,man1 in #8,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4' vol4 xii4 7#ahhc7 p4 #aef4 7,note to #crd ed47 ,footnote #fah3 ,baker1 #8,races of the ,nile ,basin1' in ,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4 vol4 v4 p4 #bca2 #8,the ,albert ,nyanza1' vol4 i4 p4 #bdf4 ,see ,kaufmann1 #8,schilderungen aus ,central-afrika1' p4 #abc2 ,brun-,rollet1 #8,le ,nil ,blanc et le ,soudan1' pp4 #ajj1 #bbb1 also pp4 #afd1 #bjj1 #bcd2 ,g4 ,lejean in #8,rev4 des ,deux ,m4' ,april #a1 #ahfb1 p4 #gfj2 ,waitz1 #8,anthropologie1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #gb-e2 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 iii4 p4 #bjh4 ,other recorded cases of denial of religion of savage tribes on narrow definition or inadequate evidence may be found in ,meiners1 #8,gesch4 der ,rel4' vol4 i4 pp4 #aa-ae 7,australians and ,californians72 ,waitz1 #8,anthropologie1' vol4 i4 p4 #cbc 7,aru ,islanders1 c472 ,farrar in #8,anthrop4 ,rev4' ,aug4 #ahfd1 p4 ccxvii1 7,kafirs1 c472 ,martius1 #8,ethnog4 ,amer4' vol4 i4 p4 #ehc 7,manaos72 ,j4 ,g4 ,palfrey1 #8,hist4 of ,new ,england1' vol4 i4 p4 #df 7,new ,england tribes74 ,footnote #fai3 ,the term has been especially used to denote the doctrine of ,stahl1 the promulgator also of the phlogiston-theory4 ,the ,animism of ,stahl is a revival and development in modern scientific shape of the classic theory identifying vital principle and soul4 ,see his #8,theoria ,medica ,vera1' ,halle1 #agcg2 and the critical dissertation on his views1 ,lemoine1 #8,le ,vitalisme et l',animisme de ,stahl1' ,paris1 #ahfd4 ,footnote #fbj3 ,bonwick1 #8,tasmanians1' p4 #ahb4 ,footnote #fba3 ,tanner's #8,narr4' p4 #bia1 ,cree atchksoul4 ,footnote #fbb3 ,brasseur1 #8,langue ,quiche1' s4v4 ,footnote #fbc3 ,martius1 #8,ethnog4 ,amer4' vol4 i4 p4 #gje2 vol4 ii4 p4 #caj4 ,footnote #fbd3 ,dobrizhoffer1 #8,abipones1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aid4 ,footnote #fbe3 ,dhne1 #8,zulu ,dic4' s4v4 #8tunzi2' ,callaway1 #8,rel4 of ,amazulu1' pp4 #ia1 #abf2 #8,zulu ,tales1' vol4 i4 p4 #cdb4 ,footnote #fbf3 ,casalis1 #8,basutos1' p4 #bde2 ,arbousset and ,daumas1 #8,voyage1' p4 #ab4 ,footnote #fbg3 ,goldie1 #8,efik ,dictionary1' s4v42 see ,klle1 #8,afr4 ,native ,lit4' p4 #cbd 7,kanuri74 ,also #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 v4 p4 #gac 7,australian74 ,footnote #fbh3 ,dante1 #8,div4 ,comm4 ,purgatorio1' canto iii4 ,compare ,grohmann1 #8,aberglauben aus ,bhmen1' p4 #bba4 ,see ante1 p4 #he4 ,footnote #fbi3 ,rochefort1 pp4 #dbi1 #eaf2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #bjg4 ,footnote #fcj3 ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 ii4 p4 #ace2 ,s4 ,s4 ,farmer1 #8,tonga1' c4 p4 #aca4 ,footnote #fca3 ,casalis1 l4c4 ,see also ,mariner1 ibid4 ,footnote #fcb3 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' pp4 #ae-bc4 ,footnote #fcc3 ,j4 ,h4 ,bernau1 #8,brit4 ,guiana1' p4 #acd4 ,footnote #fcd3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' pp4 #ajbh1 #aacc4 ,anglo-,saxon man-lica4 ,footnote #fce3 ,lieber1 #8,laura ,bridgman1' in ,smithsonian ,contrib4 vol4 ii4 p4 #h4 ,footnote #fcf3 ,g4 ,f4 ,moore1 #8,vocab4 of ,w4 ,australia1' p4 #ajc4 ,footnote #fcg3 ,brinton1 p4 #ej1 see p4 #bce2 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #ae4 ,footnote #fch3 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #beg4 ,footnote #fci3 ,crawfurd1 #8,malay ,gr4 and ,dic4' s4v42 ,marsden1 #8,sumatra1' p4 #chf4 ,footnote #fdj3 ,oviedo1 #8,hist4 du ,nicaragua1' pp4 #ba-ea4 ,footnote #fda3 ,pott1 #8,zigeuner1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cjf2 #8,indo-,germ4 ,wurzel-,wrterbuch1' vol4 i4 p4 #ajgc2 ,borrow1 #8,lavengro1' vol4 ii4 ch4 xxvi4 #8write the lil of him whose dook gallops down that hill every night1' see vol4 iii4 ch4 iv4 ,footnote #fdb3 ,brinton1 #8,myths of ,new ,world1' p4 #bec2 ,comm4 in ,virg4 n4 iv4 #fhd2 ,cic4 ,verr4 v4 #de2 ,wuttke1 #8,volksaberglaube1' p4 #baj2 ,rochholz1 #8,deutscher ,glaube1' c4 vol4 i4 p4 #aaa4 ,footnote #fdc3 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #bda4 ,footnote #fdd3 ,ellis1 #8,madagascar1' vol4 i4 p4 #cic4 ,footnote #fde3 ,charlevoix1 #8,nouvelle ,france1' vol4 vi4 pp4 #ge-h2 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part i4 pp4 #cc1 #hc1 part iv4 p4 #gj2 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aid2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 pp4 #ff1 #bjg-h4 ,footnote #fdf3 ,cross in #8,journ4 ,amer4 ,oriental ,soc4' vol4 iv4 p4 #caj4 ,footnote #fdg3 ,macpherson1 pp4 #ia-b4 ,see also ,klemm1 #8,c4 ,g4' vol4 iii4 p4 #ga 7,lapp72 ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 p4 #ahi 7,dayaks74 ,footnote #fdh3 ,shrmann1 #8,vocab4 of ,parnkalla ,lang4' s4v4 ,footnote #fdi3 ,tanner's #8,narr4' p4 #bia2 ,keating1 #8,narr4 of ,long's ,exp4' vol4 ii4 p4 #aed4 ,footnote #fej3 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #bdb2 see the converse process of catching away a man's soul1 causing him to pine and die1 p4 #bej4 ,footnote #fea3 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr4' p4 #bbj4 ,footnote #feb3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cai2 also ,sproat1 p4 #bac 7,vancouver's ,i474 ,footnote #fec3 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #cd2 ,gmelin1 #8,reisen durch ,sibirien1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cei 7,yakuts72 ,ravenstein1 #8,amur1' p4 #cea 7,tunguz74 ,footnote #fed3 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 i4 p4 #adc2 vol4 ii4 pp4 #chh1 #dah2 vol4 iii4 p4 #bcf4 ,mason1 #8,karens1' l4c4 p4 #aif1 c42 ,cross1 #8,karens1' in #8,journ4 ,amer4 ,oriental ,soc4' vol4 iv4 #ahed1 p4 #cjg4 ,see also ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' l4c4 7,dayaks74 ,footnote #fee3 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 i4 p4 #aej4 ,footnote #fef3 ,cardan1 #8,de ,varietate ,rerum1' ,basel1 #aeef1 cap4 xliii4 ,footnote #feg3 ,stanbridge1 #8,abor4 of ,victoria1' in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 p4 #cjj4 ,footnote #feh3 ,macpherson1 #8,india1' p4 #ajc4 ,footnote #fei3 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #bfi4 ,see also ,sproat1 l4c4 ,footnote #ffj3 ,rhs1 #8,finland1' p4 #cjc2 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #acd2 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cai4 ,footnote #ffa3 ,vatnsdla ,saga2 ,baring-,gould1 #8,werewolves1' p4 #bi4 ,footnote #ffb3 ,plin4 vii4 #ec2 ,lucian4 ,hermotimus1 ,musc4 ,encom4 #g4 ,footnote #ffc3 ,r4 ,d4 ,owen1 #8,footfalls on the ,boundary of another ,world1' p4 #bei4 ,see ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace1 #8,scientific ,aspect of the ,supernatural1' p4 #dc4 ,footnote #ffd3 ,brand1 #8,pop4 ,ant4' vol4 i4 p4 #cca1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bcf4 ,see ,calmet1 #8,diss4 sur les ,esprits2' ,maury1 #8,magie1' part ii4 ch4 iv4 ,footnote #ffe3 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #beg4 ,footnote #fff3 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aie4 ,footnote #ffg3 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' pp4 #ajd1 #ahd1 #ccc2 ,baker in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 p4 #eg4 ,footnote #ffh3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cai2 ,jagor in #8,journ4 ,eth4 ,soc41' vol4 ii4 p4 #age4 ,footnote #ffi3 ,mason1 #8,karens1' l4c4 p4 #aii2 ,cross1 l4c42 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 i4 p4 #add1 vol4 ii4 p4 #chi1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bff4 ,footnote #fgj3 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' pp4 #af-bj2 ,eisenmenger1 vol4 i4 p4 #deh1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ac1 #bj1 #dec2 ,franck1 #8,kabbale1' p4 #bce4 ,footnote #fga3 ,augustin4 ,de ,civ4 ,dei1 xviii4 #ah4 ,footnote #fgb3 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #ajcf4 ,footnote #fgc3 ,charlevoix1 #8,nouvelle ,france1' vol4 vi4 p4 #gh2 ,lafitau1 #8,murs des ,sauvages1' vol4 i4 p4 #cfc4 ,footnote #fgd3 ,callaway1 #8,relig4 of ,amazulu1' pp4 #bbh1 #bfj1 #caf2 #8,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,inst4' vol4 i4 p4 #agj4 ,see also ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 p4 #aii 7,dayaks74 ,footnote #fge3 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #bdb4 ,footnote #fgf3 ,mayne1 #8,brit4 ,columbia1' p4 #bfa2 see ,sproat1 l4c4 ,footnote #fgg3 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,africa1' pp4 #baj1 #cie2 ,m4 ,h4 ,kingsley1 #8,w4 ,african ,studies1' p4 #bje4 ,see also ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #cif2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrel4' p4 #bhg2 ,buchanan1 #8,mysore1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 viii4 p4 #fgg2 #8,early ,hist4 of ,mankind1' p4 #h4 ,footnote #fgh3 ,homer4 ,il4 xxiii4 #ei4 ,see also ,odyss4 xi4 #bjg1 #bbb2 ,porphyr4 ,de ,antro ,nympharum2 ,virgil4 n4 ii4 #gid2 ,ovid4 ,fast4 v4 #dge4 ,footnote #fgi3 ,cicero ,de ,divinatione1 i4 #bg4 ,footnote #fhj3 ,augustin4 ,de ,cur pro ,mortuis1 x4-xii4 ,epist4 clviii4 ,footnote #fha3 ,compare ,voltaire's remarks1 #8,dict4 ,phil4' art4 #8ame1' c4 ,footnote #fhb3 ,steinhauser1 #8,religion des ,negers1' in #8,magazin der ,evang4 ,missionen'1 ,basel1 #ahef1 ,no4 #b1 p4 #ace4 ,footnote #fhc3 #8,historie del ,s4 ,d4 ,fernando ,colombo1' tr4 ,alfonso ,ulloa1 ,venice1 #aega1 p4 #abg1 ,eng4 ,tr4 in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xii4 p4 #hj4 ,footnote #fhd3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #abj4 ,footnote #fhe3 #a ,sam4 xxviii4 #ab4 ,footnote #fhf3 ,brinton1 #8,myths of ,new ,world1' p4 #bfi4 ,footnote #fhg3 ,pennant1 #8#bnd ,tour in ,scotland1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cae2 ,johnson1 #8,journey to the ,hebrides4' ,footnote #fhh3 ,j4 ,gardner1 #8,faiths of the ,world1' s4v4 #8bilocation4' ,footnote #fhi3 ,mason1 #8,karens1' l4c4 p4 #aih4 ,footnote #fij3 ,shortland1 #8,trads4 of ,new ,zealand1' p4 #adj2 ,polack1 #8,m4 and ,c4 of ,new ,zealanders1' vol4 i4 p4 #bfh4 ,see also ,ellis1 #8,madagascar1' vol4 i4 p4 #cic2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #bfa4 ,footnote #fia3 ,calmet1 #8,diss4 sur les ,esprits1' vol4 i4 ch4 xl4 ,footnote #fib3 ,wuttke1 #8,volksaberglaube1' pp4 #dd1 #ef1 #bjh2 ,brand1 #8,popular ,antiquities1' vol4 iii4 pp4 #aee1 #bce2 ,johnson1 #8,journey to the ,hebrides2' ,martin1 #8,western ,islands of ,scotland1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 iii4 p4 #fgj4 ,footnote #fic3 ,see ,r4 ,d4 ,owen1 #8,footfalls on the ,boundary of another ,world2' ,mrs4 ,crowe1 #8,night-,side of ,nature2' ,howitt's ,tr4 of ,ennemoser's #8,magic1' c4 ,footnote #fid3 ,the conception of the soul as a small human image is found in various districts2 see ,eyre1 #8,australia1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cef2 ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 p4 #ahi 7,dayaks72 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aid 7,n4 ,a4 ,ind474 ,the idea of a soul as a sort of #8thumbling' is familiar to the ,hindus and to ,german folklore2 compare the representations of tiny souls in medival pictures4 ,footnote #fie3 ,magalhanes de ,gandavo1 p4 #aaj2 ,maffei1 #8,indie ,orientali1' p4 #ajg4 ,footnote #fif3 ,oldfield in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #bhg4 ,footnote #fig3 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aid2 ,rmer1 #8,guinea1' p4 #db4 ,footnote #fih3 ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #gef1 #gfc2 ,purchas1 vol4 iii4 p4 #die2 ,j4 ,jones in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #ach4 ,footnote #fii3 ,calmet1 vol4 i4 ch4 xxxvi42 ,plin4 ,ep4 vii4 #bg2 ,hunt1 #8,pop4 ,romances1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aef4 ,footnote #gjj3 ,le ,jeune in #8,rel4 des ,jsuites1' #afci1 p4 #dc2 see #afcd1 p4 #ac4 ,footnote #gja3 ,shortland1 #8,trads4 of ,n4 ,z4' p4 #ib2 ,yate1 p4 #adj2 ,r4 ,taylor1 pp4 #ajd1 #aec2 ,ellis1 #8,polyn4 ,res4' vol4 i4 p4 #djf4 ,footnote #gjb3 ,callaway1 #8,rel4 of ,amazulu1' pp4 #bfe1 #cdh1 #cgj4 ,footnote #gjc3 ,homer1 ,,ii4 xxiii4 #ajj4 ,footnote #gjd3 ,ovid1 ,fast4 v4 #deg4 ,footnote #gje3 ,isaiah viii4 #ai2 xxix4 #d4 ,the ,arabs hate whistling 7el sifr71 it is talking to devils 7,burton1 #8,first ,footsteps in ,east ,africa1' p4 #adb74 #8,nicolaus ,remigius1 whose 8,daemonolatreia0 is one of the ghastliest volumes in the ghastly literature of witchcraft1 cites ,hermolaus ,barbarus as having heard the voice sub-sibilantis daemonis1 and1 after giving other instances1 adduces the authority of ,psellus to prove that the devils generally speak very low and confusedly in order not to be caught fibbing1' ,dr ,sebastian ,evans in #8,nature1' ,june #bb1 #ahga1 p4 #adj4 7,nicolai ,remigii ,daemonolatreia1 ,col4 ,agripp4 #aeif1 lib4 i4 c4 #h1 #8pleraeque aliae vocem illis esse aiunt qualem emittunt qui os in dolium aut restam rimosam insertum habent'--#8ut ,daemones e pelvi stridul voce ac tenui sibilo verba ederent'74 ,footnote #gjf3 ,morgan1 #8,iroquois1' p4 #agf4 ,footnote #gjg3 ,flacourt1 #8,madagascar1' p4 #aja4 ,footnote #gjh3 ,n4 ,b4 ,dennys1 #8,folk-,lore of ,china1' p4 #bb4 ,footnote #gji3 ,monnier1 #8,traditions ,populaires1' p4 #adb2 ,wuttke1 #8,volksaberglaube1' p4 #bji2 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #hja2 ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #gfa4 ,footnote #gaj3 ,lang1 #8,queensland1' p4 #dda2 ,bonwick1 #8,tasmanians1' p4 #ahg4 ,footnote #gaa3 ,charlevoix1 #8,nouvelle ,france1' vol4 vi4 pp4 #gf1 #abb2 ,le ,jeune in #8,rel4 des ,jsuites1' #afcd1 p4 #bc2 #afci1 p4 #dd2 ,tanner's #8,narr4' p4 #bib2 ,peter ,jones1 #8,hist4 of ,ojebway ,indians1' p4 #ii4 ,footnote #gab3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cbc4 ,footnote #gac3 ,meiners1 vol4 i4 p4 #cah4 ,footnote #gad3 ,festus1 s4v4 #8everriatores2' see ,bastian1 l4c41 and compare ,hartknoch1 cited below1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dj4 ,footnote #gae3 ,wuttke1 #8,volksaberglaube1' pp4 #acb1 #baf4 ,footnote #gaf3 ,casalis1 #8,basutos1' p4 #bhe2 ,glanvil1 #8,saducismus ,triumphatus1' part ii4 p4 #afa2 ,wuttke1 p4 #baf2 ,bastian #8,psychologie' p4 #aib4 ,footnote #gag3 ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 ii4 p4 #ace4 ,footnote #gah3 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #beg4 ,footnote #gai3 ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' p4 #dbi4 ,footnote #gbj3 ,loubere1 #8,siam1' vol4 i4 p4 #deh2 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 iii4 p4 #bei2 see p4 #bgh4 ,footnote #gba3 ,diog4 ,laert4 x4 #fg-h2 see ,serv4 ad4 n4 iv4 #fed4 ,footnote #gbb3 ,irenus contra ,hres4 v4 #g1 #a2 see ,origen1 ,de ,princep4 ii4 #c1 #b4 ,footnote #gbc3 ,tertull4 ,de ,anima1 #i4 ,footnote #gbd3 ,hampole1 #8,ayenbite of ,inwyt4' ,footnote #gbe3 ,wuttke1 #8,volksaberglaube1' pp4 #baf1 #bbf4 ,footnote #gbf3 ,a4 ,j4 ,davis1 #8,philosophy of ,spiritual ,intercourse1' ,new ,york1 #ahea1 p4 #di4 ,footnote #gbg3 ,calmet1 vol4 i4 ch4 xli4 c4 ,footnote #gbh3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cei2 vol4 iii4 pp4 #ajd1 #eef2 ,earl1 #8,eastern ,seas1' p4 #bff2 ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 pp4 #eb1 #gc1 #gi1 #aai2 ,mundy1 #8,narr4 from ,brooke's ,journals1' p4 #bjc4 ,heads were taken as funeral offerings by the ,garos of ,n4 ,e4 ,india1 ,eliot in #8,as4 ,res4' vol4 iii4 p4 #bh1 ,dalton1 #8,descr4 ,ethnol4 of ,bengal1' p4 #fg2 see also pp4 #df-g 7,kukis74 ,footnote #gbi3 ,t4 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 pp4 #ahh-bjd2 ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 ii4 p4 #bbj4 ,for ,new ,zealand accounts1 see ,r4 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' pp4 #bah1 #bbg2 ,polack1 #8,new ,zealanders1' vol4 i4 pp4 #ff1 #gh1 #aaf4 ,footnote #gcj3 ,j4 ,m',coy1 #8,hist4 of ,baptist ,indian ,mission1' p4 #cfj2 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bjj4 ,footnote #gca3 ,rochefort1 #8,iles ,antilles1' pp4 #dbi1 #eab2 see also ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 pp4 #agd1 #bbb4 ,footnote #gcb3 ,oviedo1 #8,hist4 de las ,indias1' lib4 xxix4 c4 #ca2 ,charlevoix1 #8,nouv4 ,fr4' vol4 vi4 p4 #agh 7,natchez72 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bai4 ,see ,brinton1 #8,myths of ,new ,world1' p4 #bci4 ,footnote #gcc3 ,brasseur1 #8,mexique1' vol4 iii4 p4 #egc4 ,footnote #gcd3 ,piedrahita1 #8,nuevo ,reyno de ,granada1' part i4 lib4 i4 c4 #c4 ,footnote #gce3 ,cieza de ,leon1 p4 #afa2 ,rivero and ,tschudi1 #8,peruv4 ,ant4' p4 #bjj2 ,prescott1 #8,peru1' vol4 i4 p4 #bi4 ,see statements as to effigies1 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 p4 #cgi4 ,footnote #gcf3 ,simpson1 #8,journey1' vol4 i4 p4 #aij2 similar practice among ,takulli or ,carrier ,ind41 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bjj4 ,footnote #gcg3 ,burton1 #8,central ,afr4' vol4 i4 p4 #abd2 vol4 ii4 p4 #be2 #8,dahome1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ah1 c42 #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #djc2 ,j4 ,l4 ,wilson1 #8,w4 ,afr4' pp4 #bjc1 #bai1 #cid4 ,see also ,h4 ,rowley1 #8,mission to ,central ,africa1' p4 #bbi4 ,footnote #gch3 ,cavazzi1 #8#ast4 ,descr4 de' tre ,regni ,congo1 ,matamba1 et ,angola1' ,bologna1 #afhg1 lib4 i4 #bfd2 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #dai-ba2 ,callaway1 #8,religion of ,amazulu1' p4 #bab4 ,footnote #gci3 ,renaudot1 #8,acc4 by two ,mohammedan ,travellers1' ,london1 #agcc1 p4 #ha2 and in ,pinkerton1 vol4 vii4 p4 #bae2 ,marco ,polo1 book iii4 chap4 xx42 and in ,pinkerton1 vol4 vii4 p4 #afb4 ,footnote #gdj3 ,caron1 #8,japan1' ibid41 p4 #fbb2 ,siebold1 #8,nippon1' v4 p4 #bb4 ,footnote #gda3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' new series1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cgd4 ,footnote #gdb3 ,legge1 #8,confucius1' p4 #aai2 ,doolittle1 #8,chinese1' vol4 i4 pp4 #ajh1 #agd1 #aib4 ,the practice of attacking or killing all persons met by a funeral procession is perhaps generally connected with funeral human sacrifice2 any one met on the road by the funeral of a ,mongol prince was slain and ordered to go as escort2 in the ,kimbunda country1 any one who meets a royal funeral procession is put to death with the other victims at the grave 7,magyar1 #8,sd4 ,afrika1' p4 #cec72 see also ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 i4 p4 #djc2 ,cook1 #8,first ,voy4' vol4 i4 pp4 #adf1 #bcf 7,tahiti74 ,footnote #gdc3 ,jakob ,grimm1 #8,verbrennen der ,leichen1' contains an instructive collection of references and citations4 ,footnote #gdd3 ,homer1 ,il4 xxiii4 #age2 ,eurip4 ,suppl42 ,pausanias1 iv4 #b4 ,footnote #gde3 ,edda1 #8,gylfaginning1' #di2 #8,brynhildarqvitha1' c4 ,footnote #gdf3 ,csar41 ,bell4 ,gall4 vi4 #ai4 ,footnote #gdg3 ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth4' p4 #ade4 ,footnote #gdh3 ,strabo1 xv4 #a1 #fb2 ,cic4 ,tusc4 ,disp4 v4 #bg1 #gh2 ,diod4 ,sic4 xvii4 #ia2 xix4 #cc1 c42 ,grimm1 #8,verbrennen1' p4 #bfa2 ,renaudot1 #8,two ,mohammedans1' p4 #d2 and in ,pinkerton1 vol4 vii4 p4 #aid4 ,see ,buchanan1 ibid4 pp4 #fge1 #fhb2 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #bih-cab4 ,footnote #gdi3 ,h4 ,h4 ,wilson1 #8,on the supposed ,vaidik authority for the ,burning of ,hindu ,widows1' in #8,journ4 ,roy4 ,as4 ,soc4' vol4 xvi4 7#ahed7 p4 #bja2 in his #8,works1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bgj4 ,max ,mller1 #8,todtenbestattung bei den ,brahmanen1' in #8,zeitschr4 der ,deutsch4 ,morgenl4 ,ges4' vol4 ix42 #8,chips1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cd4 ,footnote #gej3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part i4 p4 #edc2 part iii4 pp4 #bbi1 #ebj2 ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #aia-c4 ,footnote #gea3 ,klemm1 #8,cultur-,gesch4' vol4 iii4 pp4 #cee1 #cfd2 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #agh4 ,footnote #geb3 ,mouhot1 #8,indo-,china1' vol4 i4 p4 #beb4 ,footnote #gec3 ,wood in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iv4 p4 #cf4 ,footnote #ged3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 iii4 p4 #bf4 ,footnote #gee3 ,de ,brosses1 #8,dieux ,ftiches1' p4 #fa4 ,footnote #gef3 ,ravenstein1 #8,amur1' p4 #chb2 ,t4 ,w4 ,atkinson1 p4 #dhc4 ,footnote #geg3 ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bec 7,dayaks74 ,footnote #geh3 ,charlevoix1 #8,nouvelle ,france1' vol4 vi4 p4 #gh2 ,sagard1 #8,hist4 du ,canada1' p4 #dig2 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part iii4 p4 #bbi4 ,footnote #gei3 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' p4 #beg4 ,footnote #gfj3 ,taylor1 #8,new ,zealand1' p4 #bga2 ,ellis1 #8,madagascar1' vol4 i4 p4 #dbi4 ,footnote #gfa3 ,steller1 #8,kamtschatka1' p4 #bfi4 ,footnote #gfb3 ,stewart1 #8,notes on ,northern ,cachar1' in #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1' vol4 xxiv4 p4 #fcb2 ,cross1 #8,karens1' l4c42 ,mason1 #8,karens1' l4c4 ,footnote #gfc3 ,callaway1 #8,zulu ,tales1' vol4 i4 p4 #cag4 ,footnote #gfd3 ,low in #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 i4 p4 #dbf4 ,see ,meiners1 vol4 i4 p4 #bbj2 vol4 ii4 p4 #gia4 ,footnote #gfe3 ,juvenal1 ,sat4 xv4 #adh4 ,footnote #gff3 ,alger1 #8,future ,life1' p4 #fcb1 and see #8,bibliography1' appendix ii42 ,wesley1 #8,sermon on ,rom4 viii4 #ai-bb2' ,adam ,clarke1 #8,commentary1' on same text4 ,this1 by the way1 is the converse view to ,bellarmine's1 who so patiently let the fleas bite him1 saying1 #8,we shall have heaven to reward us for our sufferings1 but these poor creatures have nothing but the enjoyment of the present life4'--,bayle #8,biog4 ,dic4' ,the argument in ,butler's #8,analogy1' part i4 ch4 i4 puts the evidence for souls of brutes on much the same footing as that for souls of men4 ,footnote #gfg3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part i4 pp4 #bcg1 #bfb2 part ii4 p4 #fh4 ,footnote #gfh3 ,d',orbigny1 #8,l',homme ,amricain1' vol4 i4 p4 #aif2 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bc1 #gh2 ,falkner1 #8,patagonia1' p4 #aah2 ,musters1 #8,patagonians1' p4 #agh4 ,footnote #gfi3 ,egede1 #8,greenland1' p4 #aeb2 ,cranz1 p4 #cja3 sec ,nilsson1 p4 #adj4 ,torquemada1 #8,monarquia ,indiana1' xiii4 ch4 #dg2 ,clavigero1 #8,messico1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #id-f4 ,footnote #ggj3 ,georgi1 #8,reise im ,russ4 ,r4' vol4 i4 p4 #cab4 ,footnote #gga3 ,baron1 #8,tonquin1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 ix4 p4 #gjd4 ,footnote #ggb3 ,w4 ,g4 ,palgrave1 #8,arabia1' vol4 i4 p4 #aj2 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ccd2 ,waitz1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eai 7,gallas74 ,footnote #ggc3 ,grimm1 #8,verbrennen der ,leichen4' ,a curious correspondence in the practice of cutting off a fowl's head as a funeral rite is to be noticed among the ,yorubas of ,w4 ,africa 7,burton1 #8,w4 and ,w4' p4 #bbj71 ,chuwashes of ,siberia 7,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' p4 #abj71 old ,russians 7,grimm1 #8,verbrennen1' p4 #bed74 ,footnote #ggd3 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cce4 ,footnote #gge3 ,colebrooke1 #8,essays1' vol4 i4 p4 #agg2 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #fb1 #bhd1 #cca4 ,footnote #ggf3 ,mannhardt1 #8,gtterwelt der ,deutschen1 c4' vol4 i4 p4 #cai4 ,footnote #ggg3 ,saint-,foix1 #8uvres1' ,maestricht1 #aggh1 vol4 iv4 p4 #aej4 ,footnote #ggh3 ,chr4 von ,stramberg1 #8,rheinischer ,antiquarius1' i4 vol4 i41 ,coblence1 #ahea1 p4 #bjc2 ,j4 ,m4 ,kemble1 #8,hor ,ferales1' p4 #ff4 ,footnote #ggi3 ,moerenhout1 #8,voy4 ,aux ,iles du ,grand ,ocan1' vol4 i4 p4 #dcj4 ,footnote #ghj3 ,st4 ,john #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 p4 #ahg4 ,footnote #gha3 ,mason1 #8,karens1' in #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1' #ahfe1 part ii4 p4 #bjb2 ,cross in #8,journ4 ,amer4 ,oriental ,soc4' vol4 iv4 p4 #cji4 ,see comparison of ,siamese and ,malay ideas2 ,low in #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 i4 p4 #cdj4 ,footnote #ghb3 ,hardy1 #8,manual of ,budhism1' pp4 #bia1 #ddc2 ,bastian1 #8,oestl4 ,asien1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ahd2 ,marco ,polo1 book iii4 ch4 xxii4 7compare various readings72 ,meiners1 vol4 i4 p4 #bae2 vol4 ii4 p4 #gii4 ,footnote #ghc3 ,malay evidence has since been noticed by ,wilken1 #8,het ,animisme bij den ,volken van den ,indischen ,archipel4' p4 #ajd4 7,note to #crd edition47 ,footnote #ghd3 ,hume1 #8,nat4 ,hist4 of ,rel4' sec4 ii42 ,comte1 #8,philosophie ,positive1' vol4 v4 p4 #cj4 ,footnote #ghe3 ,charlevoix1 vol4 vi4 p4 #gd2 ,keating1 #8,long's ,exp4' vol4 ii4 p4 #aed2 ,le ,jeune1 #8,nouvelle ,france1' p4 #ei2 also ,waitz1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aii2 ,gregg1 #8,commerce of ,prairies1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bdd2 see ,addison's ,no4 #ef of the #8,spectator4' ,footnote #ghf3 ,mariner1 #8,tonga ,is4' vol4 ii4 p4 #abi2 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 p4 #bdb4 ,similar ideas in ,tahiti1 ,cook's #crd ,voy4 vol4 ii4 p4 #aff4 ,footnote #ghg3 ,cross1 l4c4 pp4 #cji1 #cac2 ,mason1 l4c4 p4 #bjb4 ,compare ,meiners1 vol4 i4 p4 #add2 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth4' pp4 #afa-c4 ,footnote #ghh3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part ii4 p4 #fh2 #8,algec ,res4' vol4 ii4 p4 #abh2 ,lallemant in #8,rel4 des ,jsuites dans la ,nouvelle ,france1' #afbf1 p4 #c4 ,footnote #ghi3 ,williams1 #8,fiji1' vol4 i4 pp4 #ahh1 #bdc1 #bdf2 ,alger1 p4 #hb2 ,seemann1 #8,viti1' p4 #bbi4 ,footnote #gij3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' new series1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dba4 ,footnote #gia3 ,for some cases in which horror or abnegation are assigned as motives for abandonment of the dead man's property1 see ,humboldt and ,bonpland1 vol4 v4 p4 #fbf2 ,dalton in #8,journ4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1' #ahff1 part ii4 p4 #aia1 c42 ,earl1 #8,papuans1' p4 #ajh2 ,callaway1 #8,rel4 of ,amazulu1' p4 #ac2 ,egede1 #8,greenland1' p4 #aea2 ,cranz1 p4 #cja2 ,loskiel1 #8,ind4 ,n4 ,a4' part i4 p4 #fd1 but see p4 #gf4 ,the destruction or abandonment of the whole property of the dead may plausibly1 whether justly or not1 be explained by horror or abnegation2 but these motives do not generally apply to cases where only part of the property is sacrificed1 or new objects are provided expressly1 and here the service of the dead seems the reasonable motive4 ,thus1 at the funeral of a ,garo girl1 earthen vessels were broken as they were thrown in above the buried ashes4 #8,they said1 the spirit of the girl would not benefit by them if they were given unbroken1 but for her the fragments would unite again4' 7,dalton1 #8,descriptive ,ethnology of ,bengal1' p4 #fg47 ,the mere fact of breaking or destruction of objects at funerals does not carry its own explanation1 for it is equally applicable to sentimental abandonment and to practical transmission of the spirit of the object1 as a man is killed to liberate his soul4 ,for good cases of the breaking of vessels and utensils given to the dead1 see #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 i4 p4 #cbe 7,mintira72 ,grey1 #8,australia1' vol4 i4 p4 #cbb2 ,g4 ,f4 ,moore1 #8,vocab4 ,w4 ,australia1' p4 #ac 7,australians72 ,markham in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 p4 #ahh 7,ticunas72 ,st4 ,john1 vol4 i4 p4 #fh 7,dayaks72 ,ellis1 #8,madagascar1' vol4 i4 p4 #bed2 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part i4 p4 #hd 7,appalachicola72 ,d4 ,wilson1 #8,prehistoric ,man1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aif 7,n4 ,a4 ,i4 and ancient graves in ,england74 ,cases of formal sacrifice where objects are offered to the dead and taken away again1 are generally doubtful as to motive2 see ,spix and ,martius1 vol4 i4 p4 #chc2 ,martius1 vol4 i4 p4 #dhe 7,brazilian ,tribes72 ,moffat1 #8,s4 ,africa1' p4 #cjh 7,bechuanas72 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 iii4 p4 #adi 7,kayans74 ,footnote #gib3 ,alger1 #8,future ,life1' p4 #ha4 ,he treats1 however 7p4 #gf71 as intentionally symbolic the rite of the ,winnebagos1 who light fires on the grave to provide night after night camp-fires for the soul on its far journey 7,schoolcraft1 #8,ind4 ,tr4' vol4 iv4 p4 #ee2 the idea is introduced in ,longfellow's #8,hiawatha1' xix474 ,i agree with ,dr4 ,brinton 7#8,myths of ,new ,world1' p4 #bda7 that to look for recondite symbolic meaning in these simple childish rites is unreasonable4 ,there was a similar ,aztec rite 7,clavigero1 vol4 ii4 p4 #id74 ,the ,mintira light fires on the grave for the spirit to warm itself at 7#8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 i4 p4 #cbe1 see p4 #bga1 and compare ,martius1 vol4 i4 p4 #dia74 ,so ,australians will light a fire near their camp at night for the ghost of some lately dead relative to sit by 7,millett1 #8,australian ,parsonage1' p4 #gf47 ,footnote #gic3 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrelig4' p4 #bbb1 see #dbj4 ,footnote #gid3 ,bosman1 #8,guinea1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #dcj4 ,footnote #gie3 ,polack1 #8,m4 of ,new ,zealanders1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #ff1 #gh1 #aaf1 #abg4 ,footnote #gif3 ,georgi1 #8,russ4 ,r4' vol4 i4 p4 #bff2 ,herodot4 iv4 #ga1 see note in ,rawlinson's ,tr4 c4 c4 ,footnote #gig3 ,oldfield in #8,tr4 ,eth4 ,soc4' vol4 iii4 pp4 #bbh1 #bde4 ,footnote #gih3 ,bonwick1 #8,tasmanians1' p4 #ig4 ,footnote #gii3 ,cranz1 #8,grnland1' pp4 #bfc1 #cja4 ,footnote #hjj3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part iv4 pp4 #ee1 #fe2 ,j4 ,g4 ,mller1 #8,amer4 ,urrel4' pp4 #hh1 #bhg4 ,footnote #hja3 ,sahagun1 book iii4 ,app4 in ,kingsborough1 #8,antiquities of ,mexico1' vol4 vii42 ,clavigero1 vol4 ii4 p4 #id2 ,brasseur1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #dig1 #efi4 ,footnote #hjb3 ,cieza de ,leon1 p4 #afa2 ,rivero and ,tschudi1 #8,peruvian ,antiquities1' pp4 #ahf1 #bjj4 ,footnote #hjc3 ,ellis1 #8,hist1 of ,madagascar1' vol4 i4 pp4 #bed1 #dbi2 see ,flacourt1 p4 #fj4 ,footnote #hjd3 ,castrn1 #8,finn4 ,myth1' p4 #aah2 ,j4 ,billings1 #8,exp4 to ,n4 ,russia1' p4 #abi2 see #8,samoiedia' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 i4 p4 #ecb1 and ,leems1 #8,lapland1' ibid4 p4 #dhd4 ,footnote #hje3 ,boecler1 #8,ehsten ,gebrache1' p4 #fi4 ,footnote #hjf3 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 ii4 p4 #fia2 see vol4 i4 pp4 #big1 #cdi4 ,footnote #hjg3 ,bastian1 #8,psychologie1' p4 #hi2 #8,journ4 ,ind4 ,archip4' vol4 iii4 p4 #ccg4 ,for other instances1 see ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ccb1 c42 ,alger1 #8,future ,life1' part ii4 ,footnote #hjh3 ,klemm1 #8,c4 ,g4' vol4 iv4 p4 #aei2 ,ezek4 xxxii4 #bg4 ,footnote #hji3 ,max ,mller1 #8,todtenbestattung der ,brahmanen1' in ,d4 ,m4 ,z4 vol4 ix4 pp4 vii4-xiv4 ,footnote #haj3 ,lucian4 ,de ,luctu1 #i1 c42 ,philopseudes1 #bg2 ,strabo1 viii4 #f1 #ab2 ,herodot4 v4 #ib2 ,smith's #8,dic4 ,gr4 and ,rom4 ,ant4' art4 #8funus4' ,footnote #haa3 ,valer4 ,max4 ii42 ,mela1 iii4 #b4 ,froius 7#aefe7 in ,maffei1 #8,histor4 ,indicarum1' lib4 iv4 ,footnote #hab3 ,grimm1 #8,verbrennen der ,leichen1' pp4 #bcb1 c41 #bdg1 c42 #8,deutsche ,myth4' pp4 #gie-hjj4 ,footnote #hac3 ,dusburg1 #8,chronicon ,prussi1' iii4 c4 v42 ,hanusch1 #8,slaw4 ,myth4' pp4 #hih1 #dae 7,anafielas is the glass-mountain of ,slavonic and ,german myth1 see ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' p4 #gif74 ,compare statement in ,st4 ,clair and ,brophy1 #8,bulgaria1' p4 #fa2 as to food transmitted to dead in other world1 with more probable explanation1 p4 #gg4 ,footnote #had3 ,st4 ,john1 #8,far ,east1' vol4 i4 pp4 #ed1 #fh4 ,compare ,bosman1 #8,guinea1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #dcj4 ,footnote #hae3 ,schoolcraft1 #8,indian ,tribes1' part iv4 p4 #ed4 ,footnote #haf3 ,hunter1 #8,rural ,bengal1' p4 #baj4 ,footnote #hag3 ,davis1 #8,chinese1' vol4 i4 p4 #bgf2 ,doolittle1 vol4 i4 p4 #aic2 vol4 ii4 p4 #bge2 ,bastian1 #8,mensch1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ccd2 see ,marco ,polo1 book ii4 ch4 lxviii4 ,footnote #hah3 ,colebrooke1 #8,essays1' vol4 i4 pp4 #afa1 #afi4 ,footnote #hai3 ,lubbock1 #8,prehistoric ,times1' p4 #adb2 ,wilkinson1 #8,ancient ,eg4' vol4 ii4 p4 #cai4 ,footnote #hbj3 ,beeckmann1 #8,voy4 to ,borneo1' in ,pinkerton1 vol4 xi4 p4 #aaj4 ,footnote #hba3 ,politis1 #8,neohellen4 ,mythologia1' vol4 i4 part i4 p4 #bff2 ,hartknoch1 #8,alt4 und ,neues ,preussen1' part i4 p4 #aha2 ,grimm1 #8,d4 ,m4' pp4 #gia-e2 ,wuttke1 #8,deutsche ,volksaberglaube1' p4 #bab2 ,rochholz1 #8,deutscher ,glaube1' c4 vol4 i4 p4 #ahg1 c42 ,maury1 #8,magie1' c4 p4 #aeh 7,france74 ,footnote #hbb3 ,maitland1 #8,church in the ,catacombs1' p4 #acg2 ,forbes ,leslie1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ejb2 ,meiners1 vol4 ii4 p4 #gej2 ,brand1 #8,pop4 ,ant4'1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cjg4 ,footnote #hbc3 ,ward1 #8,hindoos1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bhd4 ,footnote #hbd3 ,from the collated and annotated text in ,j4 ,c4 ,atkinson1 #8,glossary of ,cleveland ,dialect1' p4 #eie 7a one1 neean none1 beean bone74 ,other versions in ,scott1 #8,minstrelsy of the ,scottish ,border1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cfg2 ,kelly1 #8,indo-,european ,folk-lore1' p4 #aae2 ,brand1 #8,pop4 ,ant4' vol4 ii4 p4 #bge4 ,two verses have perhaps been lost between the fifth and sixth4 ,j4 ,c4 ,a4 reads #8meate' in vv4 #g and #h2 the usual reading #8milke' is retained here4 ,the sense of these two verses may be that the liquor sacrificed in life will quench the fire3 an idea parallel to that known to folklore1 that he who gave bread in his lifetime will find it after death ready for him to cast into the hellhound's jaws 7,mannhardt1 #8,gtterwelt der ,deutschen und ,nordischen ,vlker1' p4 #cai71 a sop to ,cerberus4 ,footnote #hbe3 ,lewes1 #8,biographical ,history of ,philosophy1' ,democritus 7and see his remarks on ,reid72 ,lucretius1 lib4 iv42 #8,early ,hist4 of ,mankind1' p4 #h2 ,stewart1 #8,philosophy of ,human ,mind1' vol4 i4 chap4 i4 sec4 #b2 ,reid1 #8,essays1' ii4 chaps4 iv4 xiv42 see ,thos4 ,browne1 #8,philosophy of the ,mind1' lect4 #bg4 ,,end ,,of ,,vol4 ,i4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores 7italics74 ,footnotes have been moved to follow the chapters in which they are referenced4