,,the ,,music ,,of ,,the ,,spheres ,a ,nature ,lover's ,astronomy ,,by ,,florence ,,armstrong ,,grondal ,,new ,,york ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #aibf ,all rights reserved ,,in ,,grateful ,,appreciation ,,of ,,his ,,kindly ,,and ,,helpful ,,interest ,,this ,,book ,,is ,,dedicated ,,to ,,samuel ,l4 ,,boothroyd ,,professor ,,in ,,charge ,,of ,,the ,,fuertes ,,observatory ,,cornell ,,university ,,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,behold--,,the ,,stars6 ,,ii ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,stars ,,iii ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,stars ,,iv ,,the ,,two ,,sky ,,dippers ,,and ,,draco1 ,,the ,,dragon ,v ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,andromeda ,,in ,,stars ,cepheus1 the ,king--,cassiopeia1 the ,queen--,perseus1 the ,hero--,andromeda1 the ,princess--,pegasus1 the ,flying ,horse--,cetus1 the ,sea-monster4 ,,vi ,,the ,,parade ,,of ,,the ,,zenith ,,constellations ,leo1 the ,lion--,berenice's ,hair--,botes1 the ,herdsman--,the ,northern ,crown--,hercules1 the ,giant--,lyra1 the ,harp--,the ,northern ,cross4 ,,vii ,,the ,,spectators ,,of ,,the ,,zenith ,,pageant ,aquila1 the ,eagle--,delphinus1 the ,dolphin--,sagittarius1 the ,archer--,hydra1 the ,watersnake--,auriga1 the ,charioteer4 ,,viii ,,great ,,stars ,,of ,,the ,,south ,spica--,antares--,formalhaut--,sirius4 ,,ix ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,orion ,,and ,,taurus1 ,,the ,,bull ,the ,lion's ,skin--,betelgeuse1 on ,orion's ,shoulder--,rigel1 on ,orion's ,foot--,orion's ,head--,orion's ,belt--,the ,great ,nebula of ,orion--,orion's ,two ,dogs1 ,canis ,major and ,canis ,minor--,taurus1 the ,bull--,the ,hyades--,the ,pleiades-,castor and ,pollux1 the ,heavenly ,twins4 ,x ,,along ,,the ,,milky ,,way ,the ,milky ,way--,the ,two ,crosses--,the ,magellanic ,clouds4 ,,xi ,,our ,,nearest ,,star--,,the ,,sun ,the ,surface of the ,sun--,an ,eclipse of the ,sun4 ,,xii ,,the ,,children ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,the ,planets--,the ,planetoids--,comets--,meteors4 ,,xiii ,,venus ,,and ,,jupiter ,the ,bright ,planet of ,venus1 the ,goddess of ,love--,the ,giant ,planet of ,jupiter1 the ,king of the ,gods4 ,,xiv ,,mars ,,and ,,saturn ,the ,red ,planet of ,mars1 the ,god of ,war--,the ,ringed ,planet of ,saturn1 the ,god of ,time4 ,,xv ,,mercury1 ,,uranus ,,and ,,neptune ,the ,tiny ,planet of ,mercury1 the ,messenger of the ,gods--,the ,strange ,planet of ,uranus1 the ,ancient ,god of the ,heavens--,the ,boundary ,planet of ,neptune1 the ,god of the ,sea4 ,,xvi ,,the ,,earth--,a ,,planet ,,at ,,close ,,range ,,xvii ,,the ,,earth',s ,,moon--,a ,,near ,,view ,,of ,a ,,satellite ,,pronouncing ,,dictionary ,,bibliography ,,and ,,literature ,,cited ,,index ,,full ,,page ,,plates ,a ,treasure ,trove of #ej1jjj ,stars ,an ,irregular ,nebula in ,scutum ,sobieski ,the ,two ,sky ,dippers and ,draco1 the ,dragon ,the ,sky ,drama of ,andromeda ,the ,story of ,andromeda in ,stars ,the ,great ,nebula of ,andromeda ,the ,zenith ,pageant ,a ,star ,cluster in ,hercules ,the ,ring ,nebula in ,lyra ,a ,dark ,nebula in ,ophiuchus ,the ,pageant ,spectators ,the ,four ,great ,southern ,stars ,the ,battle of ,orion ,the ,dark ,bay ,nebula ,nebulosity in the ,pleiades ,stages in ,eclipse of ,sun ,meteoric ,shower of #ahcc ,jupiter and ,four of ,his ,moons ,saturn and ,his ,rings ,the ,earth1 ,seen from a ,distance ,columbian ,lava ,flow in the ,state of ,washington ,southern ,portion of ,moon ,northern ,portion of ,moon ,lunar ,crater ,copernicus ,,illustrations ,,in ,,text ,big ,dipper ,earth's ,crust ,the ,ancient ,world ,cygnus1 the ,swan ,orientation of ,orion ,orientation of ,orion ,the ,big ,dipper ,arcturus ,the ,big ,dipper ,stars ,the ,little ,dipper ,orientation of ,little ,dipper ,the ,great ,bear's ,feet ,the ,two ,bears and ,draco1 the ,dragon ,the ,little ,bear's ,tail ,the ,great ,bear ,draco ,former ,pole ,star ,cepheus ,cassiopeia and ,cepheus ,cepheus symbol ,perseus1 ,andromeda and ,pegasus ,perseus and the ,star ,algol ,the ,w of ,cassiopeia ,orientation of ,cassiopeia ,stars in ,cassiopeia ,stars in ,cassiopeia ,perseus ,the ,chain of ,andromeda ,stars of ,andromeda ,the ,square of ,pegasus ,job's ,coffin ,stars of ,pegasus ,the ,winged ,horse ,cetus ,cetus1 the ,whale ,myra1 the ,wonderful ,triangulum1 ,aries and ,pisces ,leo ,leo1 the ,lion ,triangle of ,leo ,constellation of ,leo ,radiant ,point of ,november ,meteors ,radiant ,point of ,shooting ,stars ,prsepe ,berenice's ,hair ,ancient ,position of ,leo's ,tail ,present ,configuration of ,leo ,botes ,arcturus ,canes ,venatici ,parallax ,angles of ,star ,the ,northern ,crown ,ariadne's ,crown ,hercules ,the ,head ,stars of ,hercules and ,ophiuchus ,cluster of ,hercules ,lyra ,precessional ,orbit of the ,pole ,stars and ,ring ,nebula in ,lyra ,harp of ,orpheus ,the ,great ,northern ,cross ,the ,cross in the ,west ,cygni ,albireo1 on ,cygnus1 the ,swan ,aquila ,the ,three ,birds ,the ,shaft of ,altair ,delphinus ,delphinus1 the ,dolphin ,sagittarius ,the ,bow1 the ,scorpion and ,hydra's ,tail ,the ,bow and ,arrow ,the ,milk ,dipper ,the ,southern ,pointers ,hydra ,double ,stars on ,hydra ,constellation of ,hydra ,auriga ,capella and the ,kids ,perseus and ,capella ,the ,big ,dipper and ,capella ,locating ,vega1 ,capella and ,arcturus ,spica ,field of nebul ,relative ,position of ,virgo ,relative ,position of ,arcturus and ,spica ,antares ,scorpio ,formalhaut ,urn of ,aquarius ,the ,sky ,sea ,sirius ,orion and the ,dog ,star ,the winter battle ,orion ,the ,lion's ,skin ,betelgeuse ,rigel ,eridanus ,orion1 the ,hunter ,orion's ,head ,orion's ,belt ,nebula of ,orion ,orion's ,dogs ,taurus ,taurus with ,horns ,the ,hyades ,the ,pleiades ,the ,stars of the ,pleiades ,the ,december ,sky ,castor and ,pollux ,the ,heavenly ,twins ,gemini1 ,orion and ,taurus ,relative ,positions of ,constellations ,tanabata and ,hirkboshi ,the ,two ,crosses ,alpha and ,beta ,centauri ,solar ,prominences ,hydrogen ,flames on ,sun ,sun ,spots ,direct ,photograph of ,sun ,annular ,eclipse ,position of ,sun1 ,moon and ,earth ,during ,eclipse ,the ,solar ,corona ,orbits of ,outer ,planets ,plane of ,earth's ,orbit ,orbit of ,comet ,tail of ,comet ,comet #aiaj ,phases of ,venus ,venus1 showing ,crescent ,phase ,the ,planet ,jupiter ,polar ,caps and ,surface ,markings on ,mars ,rings of ,saturn ,aspects of ,saturn's ,rings ,earth's ,shadow ,earth-lit ,new ,moon ,the seas of the ,moon ,mountains of the ,moon ,seas of the ,crescent ,moon ,craters of the ,moon ,plato ,lunar ,craters ,,the ,,music ,,of ,,the ,,spheres ,figure #ja3 ,a ,,treasure-,,trove ,,of #ej1jjj ,,stars4 ,photograph of the star cluster in ,hercules by ,mount ,wilson ,observatory through the #fj-;inch reflector4 ,,the ,,music ,,of ,,the ,,spheres ,,chapter ,i ,,behold1--,,the ,,stars6 ,,how thrilling to read of great hunts for treasure6 ,yet the pirates who dug their spades into the earthy loam never cached such jewels as are hidden along the dark slopes of the sky4 ,armed with a chart of the heavens1 the fledgling astronomer prods about in the depths of the gloom1 shovels the dark with the aid of his telescope1 and discovers1--even more surely than the pirate his chest1--some wonderful treasure4 ,sometimes the find is a star-like diamond1 a twinkling emerald1 a fire-filled ruby or a cluster of star gems of colorful hues1 but it may be1 too1 a profusion of riches1 heaped in a magnificence that leaves one breathless4 ,one must know1 however1 before adventuring along the skyways1 just where to look for these starry jewels4 ,the air must also be clear and the eye color-true4 ,in the tropics where the atmosphere is more transparent1 the colors seem deeper and more beautiful4 ,this is also true on deserts1 on the ocean or on mountain tops4 ,to those who do not know that stars1 even as jewels1 have individuality1 the various colorings will come as a special surprise4 ,vega1 for instance1 is large and most wonderfully blue1 rising in the far northeast during the first of ,may2 ,arcturus1 appearing at the same time near the zenith1 is tinted like a ,king ,midas' rose4 ,on the first of ,june1 ,antares glows like a scarlet-shaded lamp hung low in the southeast1 while in the northeast1 creamy-hued ,capella scintillates like the electrified cross-section of a rainbow4 ,in the case of a double star where the colors are sharply contrasted--gold and blue or scarlet and green--the effect is startling and very beautiful4 ,weird looking purple stars and wan lavender ones may also be found1 but all these lovely tints and shades are hidden among the hosts of more common yellow and white stars1 and if one does not know just where to find them it is like hunting for treasure without a chart4 ,when the world was young1 people gazed in never-ending wonder as the darkness of the heavens filled up with the lights of stars4 ,according to an old ,malayan story the stars were the children of the ,moon-mother1 who brought her children out only at night when the jealous sun1 who had no children1 was far away on the other side of the earth4 ,the ancient ,greeks believed that night came because the ,god of the ,sun drove his sun-chariot along the invisible edge of the western ocean when he returned from the west to the east4 ,all the natural laws of ,nature were explained in some such nave manner by the ancient peoples2 the imagery of the ,greeks is especially interesting1 for they impressed shadowy figures on the very stars4 ,these figures have given names to the constellations1 or groups of stars1 and to the student of ,nature1 the legends of these heroes traced in the sky add to the charm of the stars in the same manner that the delicate aroma of the rose enhances its loveliness4 ,later1 these remarkable people1 in trying to account for the fixed and orderly movement of the stars as they slowly passed from east to west1 adduced that they must be fastened in crystal spheres which whirled1 one within the other1 over and under the motionless disk of the earth4 ,they noted that a few of these luminaries followed a wandering course1 and so called them planets--which means wandering stars4 ,since some of these wandering stars moved swiftly and others moved more slowly1 they fancied1 in their beautiful way of explaining things1 that these different rates of speed must cause a musical tone as each star rolled upon its crystal1 a deep note for the slow bodies and a high note for the swift bodies1 and that with the infinite swelling harmony of all the myriad stars1 one vast sweeping tone of heavenly music swirled around the spheres4 ,but this music was for the gods and no mortal could hear it4 ,our modern music of the spheres is no more audible to our dulled ears than the music of those ancient days1 yet its silent song of light and color1 its mystic setting of ancient tales1 and its wonder background of scientific fact1 descends in the same sweet way to all hearts lifted to receive it4 ,yet many people miss all this and only know that the stars are there4 ,it is easy to become acquainted with the more conspicuous of the star-designs which are formed by the brightest stars in a constellation for these seem to hang down from the dome of heaven like electrically lighted frames4 ,some of these1 such as the ,w of ,cassiopeia1 the ,square of ,pegasus1 the parallelogram of ,orion1 the ,northern ,cross and the ,big ,dipper1 are not only ornaments in the sky1 but serve also as guides to point the way to other constellations4 ,an endeavor has been made to arrange the constellations in this volume in the most easily-learned-without-effort way that could possibly be devised1 and to present them in such a manner that the student will go out of doors with a picture of the position of the stars in his mind so that in more advanced study sky maps will acquire a new significance4 ,first the stars in the vicinity of the ,north ,star are discussed--the two starry ,bears and ,draco1 the ,dragon2 then the great sky drama of ,perseus and ,andromeda1 with ,cepheus1 the ,king of ,ethiopia1 ,cassiopeia1 the ,queen1 ,pegasus1 the ,flying ,horse and ,cetus1 the terrible ,sea-monster2 the parade of the zenith constellations led by ,leo1 the fierce ,nemean ,lion2 the constellations on either side of this interesting spectacle2 the four great southern stars1 each noted enough to have the stage by itself1 and the gorgeous winter program with the brilliant stars of the ,giant ,orion1 ,taurus1 the ,bull1 and ,castor and ,pollux1 the ,heavenly ,twins4 ,whirling about the sun in the same plane as the earth are seven other planets4 ,these planets resemble stars to the unaided eye but show a definite disk through the telescope4 ,with but the expenditure of an idle moment now and then1 who would not like to learn a few facts about ,jupiter1 a world with nine moons and a thousand times larger than the earth2 ,saturn1 a globe surrounded by a magnificent ring and composed of such diaphanous material that it would float on water2 ,mars1 with its mysterious surface markings2 ,venus1 shrouded in the secret of its impenetrable atmosphere2 the hundreds of tiny worlds1 some but a few miles across1 and even the raging sun itself with its hydrogen flames1 spots1 moving belts and other idiosyncrasies8 ,these are only suggestions of what may be anticipated in our treasure hunt along the slopes of the sky1 but every star that has once been found and called by name will stand forth from the multitude with a magnetic radiance that forever after thrills the discoverer with the pride of achievement4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,stars ,he who knows what sweets and virtues are in the ground1 the waters--the planets1 the heavens1 and how to come at these enchantments1 is the rich and royal man4 --,emerson4 ,,the dome of the heavens with its constellations of stars turns westward at the rate of about #ae degrees an hour4 ,thus the stars1 in unchanging order1 rise majestically above the horizon in the east1 wend their way across the great expanse of sky above our heads1 and disappear below the horizon in the west4 ,it is only necessary to note the position of a particularly bright star or a conspicuous constellation lying near the horizon and then return after several hours have elapsed and again note its position in the sky to prove this general movement toward the west4 ,this is an interesting experiment for it is often a surprise to people to hear that the stars of the heaven are constantly shifting their position throughout the hours4 ,each star has an individual pathway which describes an arc across the heavens1 the exception to this being the circum polar stars which describe complete circles around a point north of the zenith4 ,the center indicated by the curved pathways of the stars is called the ,pole of the ,heavens1 and in the northern hemisphere this important location is marked by the ,north ,star4 ,the ,north ,star1 also called ,polaris or the ,pole ,star1 lies almost directly above the north pole of the earth1 and is located in the sky by the pointers on the bowl of the ,big ,dipper4 ,figure #jb ,since we cannot realize the whirling of the earth on its axis which causes the heavenly bodies to appear to pass in the opposite direction1 it is the same to us as if the axis of the earth continued upward to ,polaris1 thus causing this star to seem to stand still1 while all the other stars in the course of twenty-four hours seem to whirl in fixed orbits around it4 ,the earth in circling round the moving sun1 ,seems to give motion to the nearer stars1 ,bending the tracks they trace across the sky4 ,this remarkable performance may be photographed on a clear1 moonless night if a camera is properly focused on the ,north ,star and left exposed in that position for two or three hours4 ,the photograph thus obtained will consist of a series of circular trails around the central star4 ,these are produced by the stars moving slowly over the plate in consequence of their changing positions1--just as if the stars instead of our own little world had really moved4 ,this is what the ancient peoples believed and in the words of ,aratus the axis shifts not a whit1 but unchanging is forever fixed1 and in the midst of it holds the earth in equipoise1 and wheels the heavens itself around4 ,since the stars were always in the same order with reference to one another1 it was thought that perhaps these luminaries were the heads of golden nails which made the heavenly dome secure4 ,thus through their apparent immovability1 they acquired the name of fixed stars1 although this fixity has long since been disproved4 ,the stars nearest to the ,north ,star complete their circles above the horizon and are called circumpolar stars4 ,the ,big ,dipper1 the ,little ,dipper1 ,draco and the ,w of ,cassiopeia are star groups which do this for an observer in the north temperate latitudes4 ,if watched throughout the night any one of these star groups may be seen to complete half of its circle around the ,north ,star1 although the other half of the journey would be invisible on account of the daylight4 ,although the circumpolar stars may be seen to complete their pathways above the horizon1 the pathways of all the other stars are completed on the other side of the earth1--the greater the distance from the ,north ,star1 the larger their arcs above the horizon1 until the distance of #ij degrees is reached4 ,this greatest curve is shown by the stars which rise almost directly in the east4 ,the stars which rise south of east have only a small portion of their pathways visible4 ,it would seem that since the stars move as a complete unit1 the aspect of the star dome would appear the same at the same hour of the night throughout the year4 ,but this is known not to be the case for in consequence of the earth's motion around the sun1 or the apparent advance of the sun among the stars1 the same position of the stars re-occurs four minutes earlier each day1 and the star groups appear a little farther west at a given hour each evening4 ,they appear at the same time only after the lapse of a year4 ,this is the reason that the dates and hours for the appearance of the different stars are given in the star maps4 ,since four minutes a day total up to two hours a month1 a star seen to rise at ten o'clock in one month will be seen to rise at eight o'clock the next month1 and at six o'clock the following month1 and so on through the daylight at the rate of two hours a month1 until it has again worked back to a place in the darkness of the evening sky4 ,the number of the stars is beyond determination1 but those visible to the unaided eye amount to only a few thousands4 ,many stars on the border-line of invisibility send us flickering glints of light although seldom can we clearly see more than two thousand at one time and usually many of these are blotted out by the thick veil of atmosphere which surrounds the earth4 ,among the exceptionally bright stars which may be seen from the northern hemisphere are3 ,arcturus 7in ,botes7 ,regulus 7in ,leo7 ,aldebaran 7in ,taurus7 ,vega 7in ,lyra7 ,altair 7in ,aquila7 ,antares 7in ,scorpio7 ,betelgeuse 7in ,orion7 ,rigel 7in ,orion7 ,capella 7in ,auriga7 ,sirius 7in ,canis ,major7 ,procyon 7in ,canis ,minor7 ,spica 7in ,virgo7 ,deneb 7in ,cygnus7 ,formalhaut 7in ,piscis ,australis7 ,yet even these cannot be seen at the same time but must be viewed from different parts of the earth's journey around the sun4 ,these brightest stars1 which are called first magnitude stars1 should be among one's first star acquaintances1 for they serve conveniently as guides to locate the other stars1 which are also classified according to magnitudes4 ,the second1 third1 fourth and lesser magnitudes are each progressively two and a half times lower in the scale of brightness4 ,the smallest stars discernible to the unaided eye of ordinary vision are stars of the fifth magnitude1 although a sharp eye can discern those of the sixth and even of the seventh magnitude4 ,all below this are telescopic stars4 ,with a #fj-;inch reflector #bai1jjj1jjj stars are visible4 ,the ,mount ,wilson #aja-;inch telescope brings the number up to #cai1jjj1jjj4 ,stars are most dense in the region of the heavens called the ,milky ,way4 ,sir ,william ,herschel observed #aaf1jjj go past the field of his telescope in a quarter of an hour while directed at the densest part of the ,milky ,way4 ,this vast collection of stars differ not only in brightness but also in color4 ,the colors of the stars are brought out most vividly in the telescope if the observer knows just where to look for those which are the most pronounced4 ,some of the large stars are characterized by the most exquisite coloring1--which is sometimes further enhanced1 as a glass will reveal1 by a charming companion of a flamboyant or a delicate hue4 ,some of these companions are green1 blue1 orange1 purple1 gray1 maroon and other colors1 but such gayety is the exception rather than the rule4 ,about three-fourths of the stars are white or bluish-white and nearly one-fourth of them are varying shades of yellow4 ,the star ,arcturus is of the deepest shade of yellow while the star ,spica is so exceedingly white that poets and writers from the earliest times have spoken of the purity of its rays4 ,although every star visible to the unaided eye may be identified by a ,greek letter or a number1 most of the brightest stars have individual names4 ,these individual names were given by the ,arabian astronomers who nurtured astronomy through the ,dark ,ages when this science was almost forgotten by the rest of the world4 ,these odd names have a certain appeal and many of them possess rippling musical qualities which add to the plain word as twinkles add to the star4 ,it is a pleasure to say ',capella1' or ',antares1' when we see the gleam of the ,shepherd's ,star1 or the glow on the ,heart of the ,scorpion2 or to call such jewels as shine on ,orion's ,belt1 ',mintaka1' ',alnilam' and ',alnitak4' ,after the introduction one naturally takes a particular interest in ',capella1' or ',antares1' or ',mintaka1' or ',alnilam1' and continues to refer to it familiarly by name4 ,each star not only attains a certain charm and individuality by having its own particular name1 number1 magnitude1 color and pathway1 but it also forms a part of a highly interesting group called a constellation4 ,on a clear night points of starlight seem to fairly fill the sky1 yet it will be found1 on careful examination1 that the brightest of them often seem to be assembled together in a very picturesque manner1 forming the outlines of figures such as the ,dippers1 the ,crown1 the ,cross1 the ,sickle or the ,lyre4 ,since these designs unfailingly deck the heaven's dome at the same place1 hour and season each year1 there is not the hopeless confusion among the stars that the novice might think from his occasional glances at the sky4 ,these star groups1 or constellations1 were probably first noted and named in ,chaldea where the ancient shepherds amused themselves by tracing their heroes among the stars4 ,one can well imagine the hold that these dream-pictures would have on a lonely shepherd as he wandered about the solitudes of the hills and gazed through the quietness of the night at the distant stars4 ,for long ages these stories were told by one shepherd to another and so vivid were their fancies and so keenly were they enjoyed that they made an indelible impress upon the folk-lore of other nations and in this manner have been carried down to the present day4 ,the stars are self-luminous1 like our sun1--indeed1 the stars are distant suns1 and the sun is a nearby star4 ,with the exception of the star or sun around which the earth and the other planets of our solar system whirl1 all the other suns are so immensely remote from the earth that their huge diameters dwindle to a mere twinkle of light4 ,the diameters of some of the stars have been measured and have been found to vary from a few thousand miles to many million miles4 ,our sun1 a most medium sized star1 has also been measured and has a diameter of #hff1jjj miles2 this diameter1 as seen from any other system of planets1 would also dwindle to a twinkle1 and our great sun would thus be lost among the other stars4 ,throughout the sky are young stars1 adult stars1 and stars whose light has almost flickered out1 for stars1 we find1 even as all other things in ,nature1 have a limited span of life4 ,this life may last for untold ages but as surely as stars are formed1 so do they die4 ,the nucleus of a star is formed by gas under high pressure4 ,this gas is gathered together by the force of gravity and gradually condensed into a glowing ball4 ,in contracting the stars at first rise in temperature but when too advanced condensation retards this contraction1 then the star gradually cools4 ,recent studies have revealed the fact that stars when young are huge and red4 ,this early stage is called the giant stage4 ,antares1 ,betelgeuse1 ,arcturus and ,aldebaran are examples of stars at the beginning of their careers4 ,the giant red stars are gaseous throughout and of enormous volume--,antares1 the youngest and by far the largest of the four named above1 being #djj1jjj1jjj miles in diameter4 ,the bluish stars are the hottest stars2 a red tinge indicates comparative coolness whether the star is young or old4 ,the blue stars are in the prime of life1 intensely hot and brilliant1 and glow with a temperature of perhaps #aj1jjj degrees at their luminous surfaces4 ,with a gradual rise and fall of temperature1 stars burn1 even as earthly flames1 through a continuous series of colors1--generally speaking1 red1 yellow1 blue1 yellow1 red1--all of which bear a special meaning to an astronomer4 ,the yellow stars1 like our sun1 are middle-aged2 the dwarf red stars1 old1 like a dying ember4 ,after a star has expended its heat1 if it does not in the meantime meet with some accident1 it becomes a darkened1 lifeless and cold-surfaced globe4 ,figure #jc3 ,,an ,,irregular ,,nebula ,,in ,,scutum ,,sobieski4 ,photograph by ,mount ,wilson ,observatory through #fj-;inch reflecting telescope4 ,the material believed to condense into great hot stars is scattered about in various sections of the sky4 ,this material has somewhat the appearance of a summer-day cloud or an illuminated daub of paint1 occasionally as shapeless as a pinch of cotton2 however1 these objects1 called nebul1 have1 as a rule1 a definite form1 the most common being the 'spiral1' the 'ring' and the 'planetary1' these terms also being the descriptive names of such nebul4 ,but most of the nebul are not for ordinary folks to see for they lie at such vast distances that they are only visible in a large telescope4 ,sometimes stars are disclosed enmeshed in nebulous folds or again the nebula is seemingly sprinkled with the gold of stars1 and there is one object of this kind that every amateur may locate4 ,this is the ,great ,nebula of ,orion which stretches over the whole of the huge constellation of ,orion but is concentrated at the star at the center of the ,sword which swings from the ,giant's ,belt4 ,i never gazed upon it but ,i dreamt ,of some vast charm concluded in that star ,to make fame nothing4 --,tennyson4 ,the ,nebula of ,orion may be seen in the south in the wintertime with a comparatively small telescope4 ,with a large telescope it is one of the most beautiful and awe-inspiring sights in all the sky4 ,one theory of the life cycle of a star has it born of nebulous vapor and dead as a tiny1 shrunken old sun and thus the order of evolution would be from nebul to extinct stars1 but some astronomers believe that stars may change back to nebul1 thus forming a universe having no beginning and no end4 ,the earth travels in a long journey around the sun4 ,this was surmised by ,copernicus in #aecj and proved by ,kepler and ,galileo about #afaj4 ,before this the earth was supposed to be the center about which the universe moved4 ,figure #jd ,the star scenes along this tremendous journey1 which covers #egf1jjj1jjj miles and requires a year to complete1 vary with the seasons of the year--yet year after year as we retrace the same path1 the same familiar stars shine in the same familiar groups1 each appearing in its set position in the east and at the same time each season4 ,viewed through the window of the earth's cold and icy atmosphere1 the stars seen during the winter part of the journey seem to scintillate with particular brilliancy4 ,since we are then passing by the most colorful stars and the most spectacular star groups the gorgeousness of these scenes is unequaled4 ,during the summer the stars are more demure and tranquil in their light but their soft fires gleam with the gold of romance which the ancient people cast about them in journeys of the past4 ,after once recognizing a few of these constellations or beholding through a telescope the glories of a double star or the face of a distant world1 one will never again fail through indifference to raise his eyes to the heavens4 ,there is one thing certain--if all the wondrous phenomena of visible stars could be seen on but one of the nights of our long ride about the sun1 the civilized world would spend its last cent on glasses and sit up until dawn to feast its eyes on the sublimity of the spectacle4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,the ,,stars ,,in the vividness of their fancy1 intensified by glorious scenery and sunny skies1 the ancient ,greeks believed that the gods dwelt on the summit of ,mount ,olympus and that queer and lovely beings roamed about the land4 ,they heard the raging of the ,wind-gods1 the dancing feet of wood nymphs1 the trip1 trip1 trip of satyrs and the music of ,pandean pipes as this merry god went skipping over hill and lea4 ,they knew that naiads peeped from the mist in fountains and dryads lived in the hearts of trees1 while down in the sea1 ,neptune tossed up the billows with his trident and the little sea-maids sat in them and rocked and sang4 ,heroes1 semi-divine1 swept the earth of its monsters1 while gods in golden chariots attended to the welfare of mankind4 ,so deeply sincere was this mythological faith that great temples and beautiful shrines were built in honor of the gods1 and one can scarce find a spot in all of ,greece1 or in all the sky that hangs over ,greece1 that is not hallowed by some wonderful legend4 ,this beloved country was thought to lie on the center of the earth1 which was marked by the oracle of ,apollo1 at ,delphi4 ,in those days1 the earth was supposed to hang like a disk in the great hollow globe of the world1 its land divided into two parts by the ,mediterranean ,sea and its edges washed by the turbulent river of the ocean4 ,the upper part of this globe was illuminated by the sun1 moon and stars and was called ,heaven1 but the lower part extended below the earth-disk and formed a terrifying pit of utter darkness4 ,the ,milky ,way was a road which led to the home of the gods1 but this pit was a place of dire punishment4 ,one of the many duties of the gods was to see that the earth was properly lighted by the sun and the moon1 and that the stars were penned in at dawn and unpenned nightly4 ,the sun1 moon and stars rose and sank in the stream of the ocean1 but the sun1 instead of being submerged1 was carried around the stream from west to east in a winged cup or golden boat made by the god ,vulcan4 ,figure #je ,it was at first thought that ,vulcan1 with a mighty heave1 threw the hot sun-ball over the ,caucasus mountains in the east to the ,atlantic ocean in the west1 and then hastily paddled around the world stream to catch it as it fell1 but later it was believed that ,apollo1 the ,sun-god1 drove it across the sky in a chariot1 the return journey to the country of the sunrise being accomplished by placing both chariot and sun in ,vulcan's remarkable boat4 ,centuries later 7about #ccf ,b4 ,c47 ,eudoxus evolved the theory of the concentric crystalline spheres which brought the tracks of the heavenly bodies under and above the motionless disk of the earth with the stars rolling round in long-drawn notes of celestial sweetness audible only to the gods4 ,the ancient people imagined that before the earth was smoothed out flat in its present attractive form1 the whole world was tumbled together in great confusion1--land1 air1 sea1 sky1 hot1 cold1 soft1 hard1 light and heavy all mixed and melting in a desolate mass presided over by the god ,chaos4 ,chaos was dethroned by the ,god of ,darkness1 who in turn was dethroned by ,light and ,day4 ,light and ,day1 being orderly1 industriously sorted the earth from the sea and extracted the heavens from both4 ,the fiery part was cast into the sky where it splintered into stars1 while the earth1 a lifeless lump1 unfashion'd and unfram'd1 was heaped in a big1 broad mound with a deep and terrifying stream of waters flowing around it4 ,then ,uranus1 the ,heavens1 noting his superior position1 took the scepter away from ,light and ,day and became the first ruler of the created world4 ,love was then born and the ,earth1 entranced1 hemmed in her valleys and extended her plains1 made paths for the rivers and beds for the lakes4 ,the seeds1 relieved of weight1 burst their coverings1 and the hills became green with foliage and the meadows brilliant with flowers4 ,the world was now beautiful1 and ,heaven looked down on the colorful earth1 and ,earth looked up into the starry eyes of ,heaven1 and love grew1 and the ,earth became the ,heaven's bride4 ,in the course of time1 ,uranus began to seriously consider his numerous and somewhat fearful progeny1 for the huge ,titans1 the one-eyed ,cyclops and the hundred-handed giants were here and there and everywhere about the land4 ,foreseeing that his sovereignty might eventually become imperiled1 he picked up the ,cyclops and ,hecatoncheires and thrust them out of sight into the ,pit of ,darkness4 ,such heartless conduct on the part of her husband aroused the wrath of ,mother ,earth1 who urged the ,titans to revolt against their father and release their brothers from the ,pit4 ,but the ,titans looked at the great ,sky and were afraid1 all except one huge giant named ,saturn who picked up a keen-edged scythe and frightened his father into submission4 ,saturn then appropriated the throne and made ,rhea his ,queen1--although he prudently swallowed all of the children that were born to him lest they in turn might take the throne4 ,by the time ,jupiter1 her sixth child1 was born1 ,saturn's wife was aroused to such a point of opposition that she concealed a stone in the infant's clothes and hid the 'mighty babe4' ,jupiter1 however1 expressed himself so vigorously and so continuously that ,rhea1 in desperation1 sent him away from ,mount ,olympus1 the home of the gods1 to an island named ,crete1 lying to the south of ,greece4 ,here he was fed on honey1 milk and ambrosia while his attendants danced and clattered and kept up a perpetual din4 ,this concealment was quite necessary1 for his uncles1 the ,titans1 had now become a powerful race of giants and had decreed that not one of ,saturn's heirs1 but one of themselves would succeed to the throne4 ,his nurses1 by the way1 and the goat with which he played1 were afterwards placed in the sky as a reward for their kindness1 the nurses1 according to one legend1 being accorded a position on the ,v of stars in the constellation of ,taurus1 while the goat was placed in the arms of the shepherd in ,auriga4 ,when the ,titans discovered that they had been deceived and that a child of ,saturn's was among them1 they rushed with furious war-cries upon ,olympus4 ,hearing the commotion from the island of ,crete1 ,jupiter rushed to the aid of his father1 and so confident and strenuous was this powerful child1 that the surprised ,titans turned and fled4 ,the young god then displayed an inherited trait and helped himself to his father's kingdom and the golden palace on the top of the mountain4 ,after establishing his sovereignty over the world and rescuing his brothers and sisters through the aid of a powerful potion1 he called ,neptune and ,pluto into his presence and made ,neptune ,god of the ,sea1 and ,pluto ,god of the ,underworld4 ,these three deities were then armed with powerful weapons for ,jupiter could hurl his thunderbolts and flash his lightnings1 ,pluto walk about in the security of a hat of darkness1 and ,neptune stir up the sea1 or calm it1 by means of a three-pronged spear4 ,the ,titans1 now thoroughly cowed1 were punished in various ways1 some being imprisoned in the ,pit of ,darkness with their brothers1 the sons of ,uranus1 while others were doomed to work without ceasing on servile tasks for the gods4 ,atlas1 the tallest1 was commanded to stand on the western extremity of the earth and bear the vault of heaven on his head and shoulders4 ,his station was later said to be in the ,atlas mountains in ,africa4 ,aeschylus1 an ancient writer1 claims that the daughters of ,atlas and their mother1 the nymph ,pleone1 fled to the sky in sorrow when ,atlas was forced to undergo this terrible punishment4 ,the seven daughters1 now styled the ,pleiades1 represent one of our most beautiful star groups4 ,now when ,mother ,earth heard of the high-handed ways of her grandson1 ,jupiter1 she decided that she would give him a much needed lesson1 so gathering together the most terrible of the giants among ,uranus' sons1 she incited them to start another great war4 ,this war lasted ten years1 the giants proving so formidable that ,jupiter summoned the one-eyed ,cyclops and the hundred-handed sons of grandfather ,uranus to come to his aid4 ,the ,hecatoncheires gave immediate assistance by flinging rocks with all their three-hundred hands at once while the ,cyclops forged thunderbolts as fast as ,jupiter could handle them4 ,in the thick of this bombardment1 which left debris and bowlders strewn all over ,thessaly1 the giants balanced ,mount ,pelion on the summit of ,mount ,ossa1 which lay between ,pelion and ,olympus1 in a final effort to storm the home of the ,gods1 but ,jupiter1 hurling his thunderbolts1 struck ,ossa from under ,pelion and buried the giants beneath the ponderous mass4 ,the violence of this battle shook the foundations of the world3 the immeasurable sea ,roared3 earth resounded3 the wide heaven throughout ,groaned shattering3 from its base ,olympus vast ,reeled to the violence of the ,gods3 the shock ,of deep concussion rocked the dark abyss ,remote of ,tartarus3 --,the ,theogony--,hesiod4 7,trans4 by ,,elton47 ,only one giant escaped1 a terrible monster named ,typhon1 who picked up a whole mountain in a paroxysm of supernatural rage and hurled it at his adversaries4 ,he was finally subdued1 after a terrible struggle1 by a thunderbolt from ,olympus1 which knocked him into the sea4 ,there the gods lashed him with the ,lightnings of ,jupiter and heaped the vast three-cornered island of ,sicily upon his limbs1 two of the corners weighing down his arms and the third one crushing his feet1 while his head was entombed beneath ,mount ,etna which hurled off its crown to let out his fiery breath4 ,the lame god ,vulcan took advantage of this situation and henceforth used the location for his workshop where he forged many wonderful works of art within its fires4 ,this last war left ,jupiter reigning in peace4 ,he was the greatest of the deities1 the king of gods and men2 he watched over the state and family2 his hand wielded the lightnings and guided the stars2 and1 in short1 he regulated the whole course of ,nature4 ,since the world soon became far enough advanced to understand natural phenomena1 he was also the last of the ,olympian rulers4 ,he is probably the best known of any of the gods and one finds many of the stories of his loves and adventures immortalized in the skies4 ,his daughter ,urania was the ,muse of ,astronomy1 and is represented with a celestial globe1 to which she points with a little staff4 ,during the reign of ,jupiter's father1 ,saturn1 the ,god of ,time1 there was so much happiness in the world that it was called the ,golden ,age4 ,hesiod mentions five ages--the ,golden1 simple and patriarchal2 the ,silver1 voluptuous and godless2 the ,brazen1 warlike1 wild and violent2 the ,heroic1 an aspiration toward the better2 and the ,iron1 in which justice1 piety1 and faithfulness had vanished from the earth4 ,ovid omits the ,heroic ,age4 ,the ,golden ,age was said to be governed by ,saturn2 the ,silver1 by ,jupiter2 the ,brazen1 by ,neptune2 and the ,iron1 by ,pluto4 ,an ,age was regarded as a division of the great world year1 which would be completed when the stars and planets had performed a revolution around the heavens1 after which destiny would repeat itself in the same series of events4 ,thus mythology was brought into connection with astronomy4 ,it was believed that successive conflagrations and deluges were designed by the gods to purify the earth from guilt1 and that after each of these judgments man was again so regenerated as to live for a time in a state of virtue and happiness4 ,during the ,golden ,age1 the year was one continued springtime1 and the earth1 as yet unwounded by the plowshare1 produced of its own accord4 ,this was followed by the ,silver ,age where spring was but a season of the year and the wings of wind were clogged with ice and snow driving shivering mortals into houses4 ,next came the ,brazen ,age1 a warlike offspring1 prompt to bloody rage1 and last of all the ,iron ,age when again--according to ,dryden's translation of ,ovid's ,metamorphoses--landmarks were set up limiting to each his right1 and not satisfied with the blessings of earth men greedily rummaged beneath the soil for the precious ore the gods had wisely hidden next to ,tartarus4 ,this ungrateful race was then destroyed by ,jupiter1 who sank their country and formed a new people to take their place4 ,in the meantime1 all the gods and goddesses had left the earth1 ,astra1 ,goddess of ,justice and ,purity1 remaining to the last4 ,when man finally became so inferior that he engaged in strife and discord1 this goddess hid her face in sorrow and flew upward to the sky where she took her place among the stars of the constellation of the ,virgin4 ,ovid describes the ,milky ,way as being the great road which led to the palaces of the gods which were clustered about the lofty1 cloud-hidden summit of ,mount ,olympus4 ,in these golden homes with their ivory halls and furniture which possessed self-motion1 dwelt ,jupiter1 ,supreme ,ruler of ,heaven and ,earth2 ,juno1 his wife2 ,mars1 the ,god of ,war2 ,venus1 ,minerva1 ,mercury and all the other gods and goddesses and many lesser deities4 ,they drank nectar1 poured by ,hebe or ,ganymede1 and ate ambrosia1 which gave immortal life4 ,their statures were immense1 for when ,jupiter shook the locks of his hair the stars trembled1 but they often disguised themselves as earthly beings and mingled with mankind4 ,at times they issued commands through the voice of an oracle1 or displayed anger through some exhibition of nature1 such as when ,jupiter threw his thunderbolts4 ,although ,apollo1 ,neptune and ,pluto sometimes met in council at ,olympus1 these three gods had their principal palaces in quite a different part of the earth1 ,apollo's being beyond the ,land of the ,sunrise1 ,neptune's under the sea and ,pluto's under the ground4 ,around ,neptune's palace waved his lawns of seaweed and his trees of coral while the currents were the breezes which fanned and cooled his brow4 ,his scepter was a trident with which he raised and stilled storms while his chariot was a shell drawn by brazen-hoofed sea-horses4 ,dolphins1 tritons and sea-monsters made sportive homage about his watery path and sea-nymphs played among his rocks and grottoes or sat on the shore in the moonlight drying their long1 bright hair4 ,neptune married one of these1 a lovely dark-eyed nymph named ,amphitrite and made her ,goddess of the ,sea4 ,the dolphin which carried him during his courtship was rewarded by being placed on a diamond-shaped group of stars which have ever since been called ,delphinus1 the ,dolphin4 ,the kingdom of ,pluto1 the ,ruler of the ,shades1 was a level1 cloudy country under the ground and was inhabited by pale1 fleeting shadows1 the spirits of those who had died in the country on top of the ground4 ,across the meadows of this dreary land wandered the river of ,sighs and the river of ,forgetfulness1--but the flaming river of ,phlegethon1 with its sulphurous smoke and its waves of fire1 flowed in an endless circle about the walls of ,tartarus where the wicked groaned and clanked their chains4 ,if a soul was not condemned by the three judges1 who weighed the good and evil deeds in their scales1 it was led to a place of happiness called the ,elysian ,fields1 which was supposed by some writers to be next to ,tartarus1 but by others1 to be above the earth on the ,isles of the ,blest in the western ocean4 ,the gates to ,pluto's regions were guarded by a fiendish dog with three heads but there were supposed to be a number of pathways which led to the upper world for strange vapors drifted out of an unexplored cave in southern ,italy and both ,hercules and ,orpheus went down through caves in ,greece to ,pluto1 the grisly god1 who never spares1 ,who feels no mercy1 who hears no prayers4 --,homer4 ,hercules went down as one of his ,twelve ,labors1--some of which have constellations named after them1--while ,orpheus descended to find his ,eurydice1 playing so beautifully on his harp that this little instrument was afterwards placed among the stars and called the constellation ,lyra4 ,pluto rarely appeared above the ground but when he did he made himself invisible by wearing his ,hat of ,darkness or was drawn in a sooty chariot by fierce black horses whose reins were covered with rust4 ,one day when ,typhon was causing trouble around ,mount ,etna by his incessant grumbling and turning about1 ,pluto came up to ascertain just how much his roof under the ,sicilian land was endangered4 ,this proved a sorry day for the earth1 for while the gloomy-faced god was looking about for cracks1 ,venus saw him from a distant hilltop1 and calling ,cupid1 told him to shoot the dour fellow with a gold-tipped arrow1 for this was the only kingdom over which she had no control4 ,the first person whom ,pluto saw was ,proserpine1 the beautiful daughter of ,ceres1 the tutelary ,goddess of ,sicily1 and falling immediately in love with her1 he carried her off to his kingdom under the ground4 ,although for many days ,proserpine wept bitterly1 she gradually became reconciled1 and once ate six pomegranate seeds from a tree in ,pluto's sunless garden4 ,this proved her undoing1 for when ,ceres discovered that ,proserpine was ,queen of the ,kingdom of ,shades1 she inquired of the ,fates if there was any chance of her daughter's release and they informed her that since ,proserpine had tasted of the seeds1 the food of death1 she must spend six months of every year with ,pluto4 ,thus1 through six long months ,ceres1 the ,goddess of the ,harvests1 sits and weeps and no fresh crops are planted and no fruits appear on trees or vines2 in the meantime poor mortals do the best they can throughout the winter and wait eagerly for the springtime when ,proserpine again appears above the land and ,ceres1 in happiness1 sows the grain and covers the orchards with masses of blossoms4 ,apollo1 a son of ,jupiter1 was dazzling and life-giving--a direct contrast to ,pluto1 dark-visaged ,king of the ,dead4 ,apollo's sun-palace1 which had been built by ,vulcan in the country beyond the east1 was crusted thick with gold and embedded with large and wonderful jewels4 ,his sun-chariot was also of gold1 but of so great a radiance that it blinded the eyes of any one but the gods4 ,every morning ,apollo put the sun in this chariot and drove to the eastern gates where ,aurora1 ,goddess of the ,dawn1 flung down the bars for her ,sun-god1 who penned up the stars1 collected his ,hours about him and drove out along the pathway of the ,heaven with the brilliant light of the sun4 ,phthon1 an ambitious son of ,apollo1 watched his father day after day1 and wished that he1 too1 might ride in such radiant splendor above the clouds4 ,at last he made his way to the sun-palace and begged his father that he might show his comrades in ,greece that he was truly the child of so glorious a god by being privileged to drive the sun4 ,apollo was horrified1 but ,phthon persisted and at last he gave his reluctant consent4 ,the headstrong youth then jumped into the chariot1 grasped the reins of the celestial steeds and started along the zodiac4 ,ancient poets assert that the ,earth looked up and trembled as she watched the snow-white horses of the ,sun-god tear wildly up the steep slope in the east4 ,the constellations shook with terror as they swerved from the beaten pathway1 the ,serpent twined about the icy ,pole grew warm and began to writhe1 and the ,bear's stars fluttered and wished to dip in the forbidden sea4 ,half dead with fear1 ,phthon saw the shadowy star-decked forms of wild beasts scattered about the heavens and shuddered as the fierce ,scorpion moved his claws and brandished his sting4 ,now beyond all control1 the horses veered aside from the heat vex't creatures and rushed straight toward the earth1 but1 just in time1 ,jupiter hurled a tremendous thunderbolt and knocked ,phthon out of his chariot into a nearby river4 ,the horses now turned toward the horizon which rested beyond the waters in the west1 but the burning sun-ball had been drawn so close to the earth that the ,nile had fled in fright and hid its head1 which still remains hidden1 and over a great area now known as the ,african desert1 the moisture had risen like a cloud of steam leaving a drear1 unfertile waste of land good for naught4 ,the poor ,african people fared even worse1 for while gazing bewildered at the wild antics of the sun1 their faces were scorched and their bodies were scorched and they transmitted forever after to all succeeding generations the scourge of being hopelessly black6 ,as a memorial of this famous adventure1 the name of the river ,eridanus1 into which ,phthon had fallen1 was given to one of the star groups in the sky4 ,this was also supposed to be a consolation to ,apollo1 who grieved so deeply at the death of his son and all the unfortunate consequences of his adventure that he offered to allow any other god on ,olympus the privilege of driving the sun on its daily course from east to west1 but no other god could do this1 nor were any willing to try4 ,apollo had a twin sister named ,diana who owned a chariot as wonderful as his own1 only it was wrought of pure silver and made to carry the earth's night light1 called the moon4 ,but ,diana did not spend all of her time in the sky1 for she loved to hunt and would often leave her chariot at home1 take out her bow and arrow and spend whole nights upon the mountains with her nymphs4 ,she was wondrously fair and full of grace but not as faithful as her brother1 and at such times as she chooses to enjoy herself1 earth-beings must do without a moon4 ,besides the gods and the goddesses who dwelt in ancient ,greece1 there were many heroes who were semi-divine4 ,one recalls ,perseus1 ,hercules1 the twins ,castor and ,pollux and others4 ,perseus was a son of ,jupiter and a very noted hero4 ,one of his adventures was so thrilling that the early people of this little country impressed its story on six constellations6 ,hercules1 the hero famed for his wonderful strength1 patience and endurance1 was a grandson of ,perseus4 ,he was also rewarded with a constellation4 ,so was ,orion1 the giant1 who has the most conspicuous figure of stars in all the sky4 ,the twins1 ,castor and ,pollux1 were given twin stars and were much beloved by seamen for it was thought that if both stars were visible1 fine weather was sure to follow4 ,not only were gods and heroes placed in the sky1 but also objects and creatures connected with their adventures4 monstrous shadows of prodigious size1 ,that deck'd with stars1 lie scatter'd o'er the skies4 --,ovid's ,metamorphoses4 7,,addison',s ,trans47 ,thus we find among the constellations ,draco1 the ,dragon2 ,cygnus1 the ,swan2 ,ursa ,major1 the ,great ,bear2 ,ursa ,minor1 the ,little ,bear2 ,figure #jf3 ,the ,constellation of ,cygnus1 the ,swan4 ,lyra1 the ,harp2 ,pegasus1 the ,flying ,horse2 ,cancer1 the ,crab2 ,delphinus1 the ,dolphin2 ,pisces1 the ,fishes2 ,sagitta1 the ,arrow2 ,argo1 the ,ship2 ,corona1 the ,crown2 ,leo1 the ,lion2 ,scorpius1 the ,scorpion2 ,hydra1 the ,watersnake2 ,aries1 the ,ram2 ,taurus1 the ,bull2 ,eridanus1 the ,river1 and others4 ,mapmakers later drew fanciful pictures of these objects and animals and heroes which had been transposed to the sky and united them up with the positions of the stars4 ,this imaginative tapestry of figures is believed to be an attempt on the part of the ancient people to weave a record of their history in the dusk among the stars4 ,that this most original method was successful is attested by the fact that although several thousand years have elapsed these ancient figures still stand and the names that they gave to the constellations are used by astronomers today4 ,many of the ,grecian characters which are mentioned in the stories of the gods and heroes are personified in groups of three--the three ,fates1 daughters of ,chaos1 appointed to watch over the thread of human life-- ,spin1 ,spin1 ,clotho spin6 ,lachesis twist6 ,atropos sever6 --,lowell4 the three ,furies1 daughters of ,night1 who represent the remorse which torments and pursues the wicked2 the three ,sirens1 who lived on an enchanted ,isle in the ,mediterranean ,sea and lured mariners on the rocks with their bewitching songs2 the three ,graces1 who presided over feast and dance2 the nine ,muses1 daughters of ,jupiter1 who dwelt on ,mount ,helicon and presided over arts and sciences-- ,fortunate is he whomsoever the ,muses love1 and sweet blows his voice from his lips4 ,mount ,helicon was also the home of the great ,flying ,horse which is sought by poets and is now represented in the sky by a large square of stars called the ,square of ,pegasus4 ,in one of the adventures of the hero ,perseus he snatched the solitary eye away from the three ,grey ,sisters and thus forced them to tell where he might find the three terrible ,gorgons4 ,transcribed to stars1 he still holds the snaky ringlets of the ,gorgon ,medusa which he had been forced to obtain at the command of the king of the ,island of ,seriphus4 ,this head now has the added attraction of a mysterious star called ,algol1 which every few days indulges in a slow1 deliberate wink1 a performance most unusual among the wide-eyed stars4 ,the names of the gods and goddesses were bestowed upon the five planets then known--,saturn1 ,jupiter1 ,mars1 ,venus and ,mercury4 ,this plan was also followed when the two outer planets1 ,uranus and ,neptune1 were discovered in modern days4 ,these names are ,roman names but the mythology of the ,greeks and ,romans is so intermingled that the names of their characters are1 as a general rule1 used interchangeably1 although the ,roman names seem more popular and are used by astronomers4 ,many writers of mythology use the ,grecian names entirely because much of the material of the ,roman legends was brought into their literature by ,greek poetry4 ,roman ,greek ,jupiter ,zeus ,juno ,hera ,neptune ,poseidon ,ceres ,demeter ,diana ,artemis ,vulcan ,hephaestus ,minerva ,pallas ,athene ,mars ,ares ,venus ,aphrodite ,mercury ,hermes ,apollo ,apollo ,vesta ,hestia ,the symbols of the gods were used as signs for their planets4 ,these signs are very familiar objects in almanacs4 ,thus1 ,uranus 7,heaven7 and ,earth are respectively represented by and 2 ,saturn1 their son1 has a sign which suggests his ancient scythe 2 ,jupiter has a hieroglyph for the eagle 1 a bird which carried his thunderbolts2 his brother ,neptune is pictured with a trident 1 the pronged fork he used when issuing commands2 ,mercury1 son of ,jupiter1 is represented by his ,caduceus1 a miraculous staff intertwined with serpents 2 ,mars1 ,god of ,war and also a son of ,jupiter1 a conventionalized arrangement of his shield and spear 2 while ,venus1 ,goddess of ,love and born from the foam of the sea1 has a sign somewhat like ,mercury's 1 resembling a hand mirror4 ,a word as to ,mars1 ,mercury and ,venus might not be amiss4 ,mars was worshiped as a warrior in splendid armor1 his name being quite appropriate for the red tinged planet which shines as such a brilliant1 fiery star4 ,discord was visioned as running before him in tattered garments while ,anger and ,clamor follow in his train4 ,deimos and ,phobos1 children of ,venus and ,mars1 were given as names to the two satellites of his planet1 although these satellites 7or moons71 were not discovered until modern times4 7,the ten satellites of ,saturn were named after his brothers and sisters1 while those of ,jupiter1 who possessed nine1 were named after various favorites47 ,mercury1 also a son of ,jupiter1 was a somewhat mischievous but charming young man with wings fixed to his helmet and sandals1 and his hand held a rod which quieted all disputes4 ,he was messenger1 herald and ambassador for ,jupiter1 just as ,iris1 who flew along the rainbow in her tinted robes1 was a messenger for ,juno1 ,jupiter's wife4 ,it was afterwards discovered by astronomers that the tiny orb which had been given the name of ,mercury in honor of this god1 not only resembled a drop of quick-silver but also possessed the wing-shoe characteristic of its namesake1 for it speeds at the rate of more miles per second than any other planet in the solar system4 ,venus1 the beautiful ,goddess of ,love1 has been the inspiration for painters1 poets and sculptors in every corner of the world4 ,but light as any wind that blows1 ,so fleetly did she stir1 ,the flower she touched on dipt and rose1 ,and turned to look at her4 --,tennyson4 ,one of the most famous statues extant is the ,venus de' ,medici preserved in the ,uffizi ,gallery at ,florence4 ,this statue1 which was dug up in several fragments during the #agth century1 is the work of ,cleomenes1 an ,athenian who flourished in #aej ,b4 ,c4 ,venus was called ,aphrodite by the ,greeks1 from aphros1 meaning foam4 ,some poets have told how the foam itself suddenly turned iridescent1 trembled1 and from its center rose the lovely ,venus4 ,others tell how a closed shell tinted like a rose floated to the top of a billow where it opened and disclosed the pearly daintiness of the goddess4 ,the god ,zephyrus1 the west wind1 then wafted her to the shores of ,cyprus where she was adorned by the ,hours and later carried to the home of the gods on ,mount ,olympus where the most beautiful star in the sky1 the planet ,venus1 was named after her4 ,owing to the slanting motion of the stars when in the east or west1 the figures of these star groups show marked changes4 ,the ,great ,square1 for instance1 stands on a corner star when seen in the east and west although it is a perfect square when seen in the south1 while the ,twins appear above the eastern horizon standing on their heads1 slowly right themselves as they travel across the sky and sink feet first when they disappear below the horizon in the west4 ,to illustrate more clearly one might imagine the ,giant ,orion to be a tiny toy fastened by his waist to a wire bent in the shape of an arc4 ,figure #jg ,as he slides from east to west it is easy to see how his position changes in relation to an eye directly in front of him4 ,this varying orientation is easily understood and should give the reader but little trouble4 ,often a part of a constellation1 such as the ,big ,dipper1 is more familiar to the majority of people than the whole constellation1 which is called ,ursa ,major or the ,great ,bear1--the handle of the ,dipper is only the tail of the ,bear4 ,figure #jh3 ,constellations come and climb the heavens and go4--,bryant4 ,in all cases these prominent features will be used as index names4 ,romance is said to gain when tinctured with realism just as realism gains when tinctured with romance4 ,so1 with a heart filled with beauty and a mind filled with facts1 let us go forth on starry nights and seek1 with eyes that are friendly1 our acquaintances among the stars4 ,figure #ji3 ,,the ,,two ,,dippers ,,and ,,draco1 ,,the ,,dragon4 ,these stars circle about ,polaris1 the ,north ,star1 and are visible at any hour during the night throughout the year4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,two ,,sky ,,dippers ,,and ,,draco1 ,,the ,,dragon ,,the ,,big ,,dipper ,illustration ,a ,,broken handled duplicate of the old fashioned tin dipper that used to hang by the well1 lies twinkling in the northern half of the sky4 ,this ,dipper is ornamented with seven bright stars although a telescope or a field-glass will disclose dozens more encrusted on its handle and a starry phosphorescence in its bowl4 ,figure #aj ,this ,dipper may be found near the zenith1 almost overhead1 during the early evening hours in ,april and ,may2 it is west of the ,north ,star in ,july and ,august1 near the northern horizon in ,october and ,november and in the east during ,january and ,february4 ,although every twenty-four hours this ,sky ,dipper swings completely around the ,north ,star1 half of the journey is invisible because the strong light of the sun prevents us from seeing the stars in the daytime4 ,the fiery sun1 when wheeling up heaven's height1 ,obscures the stars and the moon's holy light4 --,leonidas4 ,the stars1 however1 rise two hours earlier every month and this brings the ,dipper1 when observed during the early hours of darkness1 to different positions in the sky during the different seasons4 ,since this conspicuous star figure travels completely around the arctic circle of the heavens in twenty-four hours1 the space within this circle has been likened to a great star clock1 the two outer stars on the bowl--called ,the ,pointers--forming the hour hand which always points toward the center of the clock marked by the ,north ,star4 ,with a little attention anyone may learn to judge the time by this timepiece and wager as much on it as the ,carrier in ,shakespeare's ,king ,henry ,,iv who looks up as he enters the ,inn ,yard with his lantern and remarks3 ,heigh-ho6 ,an't be not four by the day1 ,i'll be hanged1 ,charles' ,wain is over the new chimney1 and yet our horse is not packed4 ,the ,big ,dipper is called ,charles' ,wain in ,england1 the bowl being the wagon or wain1 and the stars on the handle1 the horses4 ,it is also called ,david's chariot and the ,plowshare4 ,in ,rome these seven bright stars were called ,septentriones or ,the ,seven ,plowing ,oxen2 in ,greece1 simply the ,triones4 ',twas the time when all things are silent1 and ,botes had turned his wain with the pole obliquely directed among the ,triones4 --,ovid's ,metamorphoses4 ,botes1 so the story runs1 being of an ingenious turn of mind1 tilled his land in fine order by inventing the plow which he hitched to two oxen4 ,figure #aa ,for this he was given the title of the ,herdsman or the ,ox-driver and placed in the heavens to follow the stars of the ,big ,dipper which resembles a wain or a plow4 ,botes' constellation1 though very large1 is formed of faint stars1--with the exception of one brilliant golden-yellow star which may be located by drawing a curve from the end of the ,big ,dipper's handle4 ,the little star just above the star in the crook of the handle of the ,dipper is sometimes spoken of as a 'rider4' ,the ,arabs call these two stars a ,horse and its ,rider1 the ,english call the rider ,jack-on-the-,middle-,horse1 while the ,germans call him ,hans-on-the-,middle ,horse4 ,hans chose this position in preference to any other on the face of the earth or in the kingdom of ,heaven4 ,astronomers have still another name for the ,horse and its ,rider4 ,to them it is a naked-eye double1 the tiny star being called ,alcor1 and the one on the ,dipper's handle just below it1 ,mizar4 ,a #c-;inch telescope discloses a still closer companion to ,mizar which has a decided greenish tinge in its light4 ,of the two stars composing ,mizar1 each one is itself composed of two1 which revolve around a common center of gravity in a period to be counted in thousands of years4 ,this wonderful law of gravitation which holds not only planets in their orbits1 but also stars1 was discovered by ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 an ,english philosopher and mathematician4 ,two stars revolving around a common center of gravity in this manner are called a binary2 in the case of ,mizar and its companion1 each of the two visual components is called a spectroscopic binary4 ,the brighter component was discovered to be a binary in #ahhi by ,e4 ,c4 ,pickering with the aid of a spectroscope and the fainter component was found to be a spectroscopic binary in #aijh by ,frost and ,lee4 ,alcor is also a spectroscopic binary4 ,the stars are such an exceedingly great distance from the earth that even though they are in constant motion1 they do not seem to change their relations to other stars through long periods of time4 ,the whole configuration of the ,big ,dipper will some day be changed because its stars are traveling in various directions4 ,through the skill of various scientists this infinitesimal difference in motion is detected and recorded1--not only that a star is moving1 but which way and how fast6 ,thus the spectroscope exploded the old idea that the stars were fixed4 ,the facts1 however1 are amazing and one must immediately readjust his ideas of what constitutes big and little1 fast and slow1 for in studying astronomy the small distances on our earth and the vast distances in space1 and man-made speed and ,god-made speed1 can hardly even be compared4 ,figure #ab ,the stars of the ,big ,dipper are an exceptional group for they are all bright stars of the second magnitude1 with the exception of ,megrez at the junction of the handle to the bowl4 ,these seven stars1 and the ,rider1 were given names by the ,arabian astronomers1 and although modern astronomers prefer for the most part a ,greek letter prefixed to the genitive case of the ,latin name of the constellation--such as ,ursae ,majoris--these names are rather interesting to know4 ,starting from the top of the ,big ,dipper's handle1 the ,arabian names are as follows3 ,benetnasch1 ,mizar1 ,alioth1 ,megrez1 ,phaed1 ,merak1 and ,dubhe4 ,,the ,,little ,,dipper ,illustration ,the ,little ,dipper hangs on the ,pole of the ,heavens1 swinging swiftly around night after night1 century after century4 ,figure #ac ,it hangs stiffly1 as a dipper should1 from the bright golden nail of the ,north ,star4 ,from its appearance1 it would seem that the rapid motion near the pivot of the starry dome had caused its handle to bend forward at a most precarious angle--surely nothing less than the immortality conferred upon it as a part of ,ursa ,minor could prevent it from flinging its bowl through the depths of space and whirling henceforth an uninteresting stub of a handle4 ,the ,little ,dipper is rather faintly outlined1 the only bright stars being those which mark the extremities4 ,the two more conspicuous stars were named ,the ,guards for it was thought that they protected the hole in which the axle of the earth is borne4 ,this hole1 which was imagined as keeping in place the north pole of the heavens1 is marked by the ,north ,star4 ,figure #ad ,to be exact1 the ,north ,star does not mark its precise location but is about twice the diameter of the moon away from it4 ,such a small distance1 however1 is scarcely discernible to the eye4 ,as mentioned before1 all the stars travel in unchanged order along their arcs from east to west except this one star which marks the north pole of the heavens4 ,there is no star directly above the pole of the southern hemisphere of our earth4 ,the ,north ,star1 or ,polaris1 is therefore the only star which remains in an apparently fixed position in the sky1 and all the other stars visible to us whirl around it as a center1 although in most cases only a portion of their arcs may be seen4 ,if the earth should falter or halt in its rotation1 so would the whirl of the stars1 and this remarkable exhibition1 which is only a delusion dependent on the motion of the earth1 would immediately cease to be4 ,polaris has a minute blue companion star which may be viewed in a #b- or #c-;inch telescope4 ,the most reliable method of establishing a true meridian in surveying is to take observations on ,polaris4 ,amid the blue ice and rose-petal night of the pole this star is1 of course1 in the very dome of the sky1 and ,admiral ,peary once had the unique distinction of having it shine directly over his head4 ,but in any other location1 this star burns like the light of a signal fire marking the north1 and its steady1 never-failing presence has always heartened and given a feeling of security to travelers1 as well as being useful to surveyors4 ,,the ,,two ,,bears ,,and ,,their ,,stories ,the two sky ,dippers are only the flanks and the tails of the whole constellations which are called the ,great ,bear and the ,little ,bear4 ,their names are usually written in ,latin--,ursa ,major and ,ursa ,minor4 ,the tail of the ,great ,bear1 outlined by the bright stars of the ,big ,dipper's handle1 is the most clearly marked portion of his anatomy4 ,so inordinately proud is he of this huge appendage1 7which is also1 the most clearly marked figure in the sky71 that1 so old legends assert1 he gazes jealously at the lone bright star on the end of the ,little ,bear's tail in hopes that some day he may gain possession of it and add it to his own4 ,this is another reason why the ,guards have been placed to watch the ,north ,star4 ,the feet of this ,bear extend to three pairs of stars set nearly equidistant1 although there are no stars for one of his forefeet4 ,figure #ae ,the ,arabs call these the ,doe's ,leaps4 ,the ,bear's head is sprinkled with a scattered group of faint stars on a line with the bowl of the ,dipper4 ,this interesting creature is most impressive when in the springtime his shadowy1 star-decked form crosses the sky near the zenith4 ,he seems closest then and we cramp back our necks to get a better view of this ancient ,bear about whom is twined so many legends4 ,figure #af3 ,the ,bear that prowled all night about the fold ,of the ,north ,star4 --,lowell4 ,later1 during the autumn months1 he walks along the rim of the horizon in the north1 but there too often1 sad to relate1 he is more than half obscured by the mists and fogs which hover about near the surface of the earth4 ,many attempts have been made to account for the ridiculous length of the brightly-jeweled tails of the star-bears4 ,richard ,a4 ,proctor in ,easy ,star ,lessons suggests that as the star maps were arranged by astronomers who being aware of the many legends but who had themselves never seen a bear1 naturally supposed the three bright stars in the handle of the ,big ,dipper to be ,ursa ,major's tail and so drew it4 ,since the ,big ,dipper was made part of ,ursa ,major or the ,great ,bear1 the ,little ,dipper1 whose seven principal stars resemble those of ,ursa ,major1 was made part of ,ursa ,minor1 the ,little ,bear4 ,howe remarks in his ,descriptive ,astronomy that the length of the little fellow's tail might be ascribed to environment4 ,figure #ag ',tis reasonable indeed4 ,with the tip of it fastened to the ,north ,star for a pivot it might stretch after being swung round for a few centuries4 ,perhaps1 to go still further1 this is the reason it is now so thin and therefore faint1 and also why it is broken4 ,the quaint theory of ,dr4 ,thomas ,hood1 who wrote early in the #agth century1 is also quoted as a possible reason for the length of the ,great ,bear's tail3 ,imagine that ,jupiter1 fearing to come nigh unto her teeth layde hold on her tayle1 and thereby drew her up into heaven1 so shee of herself1 being very weightie1 and the distance from the earth to the heavens very great1 there was great likelihood that her tayle must stretch4 ,other reason know ,i none4 ,ursa ,major was not a real bear1 however1 but a beautiful and most unfortunate ,arcadian nymph1 named ,callisto1 who had been transformed by ,juno1 ,queen of the ,immortals1 into this great shaggy creature4 ,years afterward1 ,callisto's son ,arcas1 then a boy half-grown1 met the bear on a lonely pathway on the mountains and shot an arrow at the creature4 ,happily1 as was often the way with the gods1 ,jupiter looked down just then1 stopped the arrow in its flight and changed the young boy also into a bear4 ,the bears were then raised to the sky and placed among the stars1 for ,jupiter straightway3 ,snatched them through the air ,in whirlwinds up to heaven and fixed them there4 --,ovid's ,metamorphoses4 7,,addison',s ,trans47 ,the place is even yet easily located on account of the clearly marked outlines of the ,dippers4 ,this sympathy on the part of ,jupiter aroused ,juno to such a jealous rage that she immediately sought a way to bring discomfort to the ,bears1 particularly to the ,bear which was ,callisto4 ,it seems that the ,greeks believed that the stars enjoyed a dip in the western waves of the ocean before disappearing to the darkness below the horizon1 and seeing in this a chance for revenge1 ,juno harnessed up her peacocks and drove to the palace of ,oceanus1 the ancient ,god of the ,ocean ,stream4 ,here the goddess found the ,ocean ,god 7who was one of the ,titans and ruled before ,neptune's time71 and calling him up from the briny depths inveigled that deity to swear by the river ,styx that he would drive the seven ,triones away from his azure waters every time these stars appeared and never1 under any circumstances1 would he share his hospitality with the ,bears4 ,after the long journey from the east across the dimly lighted heavens1 this was a hardship difficult to endure1 yet to this day1 since a god's decree may never be changed1 the two ,bears turn as they approach the ocean and dare not even linger to sniff the spray4 ,while all the other constellations immerse their stars beneath the waves1 these poor creatures again ascend the steep slope of the sky and repeat the big circle about the pole of the heavens with never a rest--nor a bath4 ,but travelers have quietly observed these stars in a latitude south of #dj degrees1 and have noticed1 as they approached the equator1 that the ,bears slip their feet into the sea and still farther south despite of ,juno1 lave ,their tardy bodies in the boreal wave4 ,allen1 in ,star ,names and ,their ,meanings1 comments on the singularity that peoples separated by an impassable ocean had like ideas concerning the resemblance of ,ursa ,major to a bear4 ,figure #ah ,whence came the same idea into the minds of our ,north ,american ,indians8 ,was it by accident8 ,the conformation in no way resembles the animal1--indeed the contrary2 yet they called them ,okuari and ,paukunawa1 words for bear1 long before they were visited by white men4 ,in justice1 however1 to their familiarity with a bear's anatomy1 it should be said that the impossible tail of our ,ursa was to them either ,three ,hunters or a ,hunter and two dogs in pursuit of the creature1 the star ,alcor being the pot in which to cook her4 ,they thus avoided the incongruousness of the present astronomical ideas of ,bruin's makeup1 although their cooking utensil was inadequate4 ,according to this legend1 which is related from a monograph on ,the ,celestial ,bear by ,stansbury ,hagar1 the whole bear is represented by the stars of the ,big ,dipper4 ,the first hunter1 who is the first star in the handle of the ,dipper1 was called the robin and carried the bow with which to kill the bear4 ,the chicadee1 the second star in the handle of the ,dipper1 carried the pot1 the little star ,alcor1 in which to cook the bear4 ,the third hunter1 the moosebird1 carried the sticks with which to build the fire4 ,four other hunters followed besides the three represented by the stars in the ,dipper's handle4 ,the chase continues throughout the summer until part of the hunters disappear below the horizon4 ,about mid-autumn the ,bear rises up to defend herself but is pierced by an arrow of the robin1 and the autumn leaves are stained scarlet from his wounds4 ,the spirit of the dead ,bear enters into another ,bear and the chase begins again and so keeps up eternally4 ,in the ,indian version the group of stars above the hunters 7which is the ,bear's head in the ,ursa ,major of the ,greeks71 is the ,bear's den4 ,this den is picturesquely situated on the northern horizon early in the spring and1 to the mind of the ,indian1 the great ,bear seems as if it were just emerging after a long winter's hibernation4 ,there is also an old ,iroquois ,indian tale which claims that at one time in the distant past the bear had a fine bushy tail but that this tail was frozen off one cold winter when the foolish animal endeavored to catch a fish by letting the long appendage hang through a hole in the ice4 ,in those days1 perhaps1 the bears were vain creatures1--which might explain1 in part1 why the star-jeweled tails on the shadowy forms of ,ursa ,major and ,ursa ,minor are held with the upright pride of a cat with nine kittens as these mammoth plantigrades nightly promenade on their circular path around the ,pole4 ,,draco1 ,,the ,,dragon ,a sinuous line of stars divides the figures of the ,great and ,little ,bears4 ,these stars lie on the huge body of ,draco1 the ,sky ,dragon1 whose length coils halfway around the axis of the world4 ,figure #ai ,draco is sometimes called the ,guardian of the ,stars1 the stars being the golden apples which hang from the pole-tree in the ,garden of ,darkness4 ,this is rather a pretty conceit as the ,dragon's ,eyes1 represented by the stars ,alwaid and ,etanin1 never rest1 that is1 never set below the northern horizon of ,greece4 ,the above title was probably suggested by the legend which tells of ,laden1 the sleepless dragon1 that guarded the tree of golden fruit in the ,garden of the ,hesperides4 ,this garden lay near the feet of ,atlas1 the giant ,titan1 who sat on a mountain in northern ,africa supporting the dome of the heavens4 ,the bright eyes of this snake were at that time aided in their wakefulness by the silvery1 lilting voices of the ,hesperides1 daughters of ,hesperus1 whose name was given to the beautiful ,evening ,star so often seen in this direction4 ,according to one legend1 ,hercules slew this dragon in order to pick the gleaming fruit and bring it to his cousin ,eurystheus as his eleventh ,labor1 but that this ,dragon could be identical with the sky dragon1 ,draco1 whose head lies just beyond the heel of ,hercules1 is somewhat discounted by other legends which claim that ,hercules temporarily supported the weight of heaven while ,atlas went down to the garden and got the apples from his nieces4 ,in return for this favor1 ,atlas gained a little rest4 ,it has also been suggested that perhaps ,draco was the monster with a body more huge than any mountain pine and a roar like a fire among the woodlands1 which was entwined around a beech tree in the ,grove of ,mars1 the ,war-god1 at the eastern end of the ,euxine 7which we now call the ,black ,sea74 ,on this beech tree was nailed the golden fleece of the wondrous ram which flew into the sky and aided two persecuted children to escape4 ,to obtain this fleece1 ,orpheus drugged the snake with music while ,jason stepped across the mighty coils and tore the golden wool from the tree4 ,after the ,argonautic expedition1 both the ram and the dragon were placed among the stars4 ,still another legend relates that when the gods and the earth-born giants waged their mighty war to gain possession of ,olympus1 a huge crawling monster had the audacity to anger the ,goddess ,minerva who seized it and hurled it far into the heavens where it caught on the axis of the world1 and froze into immobility before it had time to unwind its contortions4 ,the only time on record that this dragon ever revived from its stupid torpor was when ,phthon1 son of ,apollo1 lost control of the steeds of his sun-chariot and the heated vehicle swerved northward from the beaten path4 ,then the folded ,serpent next the frozen pole1 ,stiff and benumb'd before1 began to roll1 ,and rag'd with inward heat1 and threatened war4 --,ovid's ,metamorphoses4 ,although there are a number of opinions as to just which dragon in legend is represented by ,draco1 the constellation is a very important one1 for one of its stars1 a star named ,thuban1 was at one time our ,pole ,star4 ,indeed1 in #bcjj ,b4 ,c4 the ,pharaohs of ,egypt looked up at ,thuban as their ,pole ,star4 ,as their ,pole ,star6 ,but where was our faithful ,north ,star during #bcjj ,b4 ,c41 and how could our earth's pole swing from this point in the heavens to one half the way between the ,guards on the tiny bowl of the ,little ,dipper1 and ,mizar on the crook of the handle of the ,big ,dipper8 ,this strange phenomenon not only happened but happens regularly1 for the earth reels like a top as well as whirls1 although the reeling motion is so much slower than the whirling motion that while it whirls once on its axis in a day1 it reels around only once in #be1jjj years4 ,during this time the earth's axis describes a circle from ,thuban1 through the present ,pole ,star1 around through ,vega and back again4 ,vega may be easily located for it crosses the zenith in the late evenings of summer1 a beautiful bluish-white star of the first magnitude4 ,it will be about #aa1ejj years or about #ac1ejj ,a4 ,d4 before this blue star will again shine above the northern pole of our earth4 ,it was not an uncommon thing in olden times to build temples dedicated to the observation of certain stars4 ,it is believed that the great pyramid of ,cheops1 built #dfjj years ago1 was so constructed that the light of ,thuban1 then the ,pole ,star1 would shine down its great stone tube at the time the star was at its lower culmination4 ,olcott in ,starlore of ,all ,ages tells us that the idea was to conduct the ray of light from ,thuban through the passage opening high up in the side of the pyramid1 to the eye of a god hidden far down beneath its foundations4 ,when viewed from the bottom of the tunnel1 which ends in a room hollowed out of solid stone1 it is said that the mouth appears but little larger than the moon's diameter4 ,it is interesting to note that the pyramid of ,cheops is the mightiest structure the world has ever seen4 ,according to ,herodotus1 #ajj1jjj men were employed constantly on this work for #bj years4 ,but the rays of ,thuban can no longer shine down the #chj feet of stone tube to light the eye of the god hidden in its depths1 for the reeling of the earth has caused the tube to be out of the star's line of light4 ,it may happen again in #ba1jjj years1 however--if the pyramid is still there4 ,in ,china there is an observatory #djjj years old which ,samuel ,g4 ,bayne in his little book the ,pith of ,astronomy speaks of visiting4 ,here is a slanting granite wall in which two eyeholes had been bored for the sole purpose of sighting ,thuban4 ,changes in the universe are very gradual and although #djjj years seems a long time to the limited mind of a human being1 it is but little in comparison to the vast periods of time which must pass before a visible change can be noticed in the heavens4 ,we speak of these years nonchalantly1 but astronomers have had to work hard and patiently in order to make such assertions and to back them up with sufficient proof4 ,traveling backward in imagination on the circle that our pole has taken #be1jjj years to describe in the sky1 and again imagining the star which we now see as our ,pole ,star as the ,pole ,star of that by-gone era1 what a difference we find in the appearance of the earth6 ,herds of strange and savage animals are scattered here instead of thriving villages and cities1 and man1 in equally savage state1 wanders about the hills and plains alone or in straggling bands4 ,figure #bj ,in traveling forward #ba1jjj years again to the time only #djjj years ago when ,thuban1 on the coils of the ,dragon1 shone as our ,pole ,star1 we come to comparatively recent times2 civilization on our earth has made great advances1 not the least of them being that it has raised its head and has noted that there are not only stars but that the stars differ from one another4 ,probably during this era the ,chinese chose the ,dragon for their national emblem4 ,the principal interest in the constellation of ,draco is1 of course1 the star ,thuban4 ,it is interesting to locate this ancient ,pole ,star which lies on the tail of ,draco1 just above the handle of the ,big ,dipper1 and reflect that this star was once the hub of the starry universe1 with the ,big ,dipper whirling round and round it in a close circle4 ,figure #ba3 ,a ,,summer ,,drama4 ,the ,stars of this ancient ,royal ,family shine conspicuously in the ,northeast during the late summer evenings4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,andromeda ,,in ,,stars ,characters ,,cepheus1 the ,king4 ,,andromeda1 the ,princess4 ,,cassiopeia1 the ,queen4 ,,pegasus1 the ,flying ,horse4 ,,perseus1 the ,hero4 ,,cetus1 the ,sea-monster4 ,,like the shadow of a dream among the summer stars of the northern sky is a wonderful story of romance and adventure4 ,this story has been mentioned in all ,greek literature of the #eth century before ,christ1 in incidents portrayed on early vases and in wall-paintings found in ,pompeii1 and its characters have been immortalized on brilliant groups of stars4 ,the tale that ,i am about to recount has lived since the time when great fabled sea-monsters were wont to appear and frighten the people along the coasts of the ,mediterranean4 ,wild with terror1 the king and his subjects would fly to the temples for protection and would even sacrifice their loved ones if an oracle so decreed4 ,in an age long past1 scientists tell us1 strange beasts actually inhabited the waters of the ocean4 ,this they know for they have found the fossilized skeletons4 ,for the sake of the romance let us imagine that some of these still survived in ,andromeda's time2 that one such monster had wandered in through the straits to the blue waters of the ,mediterranean during the reign of her father ,king ,cepheus1 and that this king1 following the advice of an oracle1 actually chained his daughter to a rock upon the sea-shore believing that by this supreme sacrifice the wrath of ,neptune might be appeased4 ,storms1 wrecks and other disasters relating to the sea were thought to be the handiwork of the ,sea-god seeking revenge for some fancied insult4 ,seeing the strange sea-beast appear along their coast1 the ,ethiopians probably considered all their sins and decided the cause was the excessive vanity of their ,queen4 ,thus1 from a bare thread1 a beautiful story was elaborated and woven about ,andromeda1 the ,princess2 ,perseus1 the ,hero2 ,cassiopeia1 the ,queen2 ,cepheus1 the ,king2 and ,cetus1 the terrible ,sea-monster4 ,not only was ,cassiopeia proud and beautiful1 but she wished others to be envious of her beauty1 and to prove her superiority sent challengers throughout the country so that none might question it4 ,in the excess of her vanity1 she deliberately took her throne and sat in state by the shore1 loudly repeating her boasts to show that she did not fear even the peerless sea-nymphs4 ,when the news of this audacious performance reached the ears of the ,nereids who inhabited the depths of the ,mediterranean1 there was great excitement1 but particularly was it resented by the sea-beauty ,atergatis who straightway swam to the palace of ,neptune1 under the gean ,sea1 and begged him to avenge the insult offered to his nymphs4 ,neptune1 furious at the effrontery of the ,ethiopian ,queen1 shook the land of ,king ,cepheus until the hills cracked and sent his waves to flood the country and wash away the coast4 ,with the onrushing waters came the ferocious sea-monster which loitered near the shores and the mouths of the rivers and destroyed every man and animal that came within its reach4 ,terrified by such a combination of calamities1 ,cepheus and ,cassiopeia fled to the oracle of ,jupiter1 but they found no peace here1 for the oracle informed them that the only way to make amends and ward off the evil that had befallen them1 lay in the sacrifice of their innocent daughter ,andromeda4 ,there being no alternative1 ,cepheus was compelled by his subjects to submit to these terms1 and taking poor ,andromeda to the sea-beach1 chained her wrists and ankles and fastened them to staples driven in a rock upon the shore4 ,in the meantime the population of the entire city had gathered weeping upon a cliff1 while in the distance ,neptune's monster1 sensing the commotion1 swam steadily nearer1 with his wicked1 gloating eyes staring fixedly on the dainty morsel baited on the rocks4 ,andromeda1 in utter despair1 bowed her head1--then looked up quickly on hearing the cheers of the people1 for the hero ,perseus had appeared1 bounding and skimming along the sky and slanting downward toward the foaming waves4 ,the hero gave one glance at the awful monster1 then drew his sword and drove it deep into the sea-beast's scaly neck4 ,with his other hand he pulled the ,medusa's head from his wallet1--and the sea-beast slowly hardened into a beast of stone4 ,with its glassy eyes protruding like balls of obsidian1 the creature then sank in a petrified mass to the bottom of the sea4 ,the heroic youth1 amazed at the effectiveness of the terrifying head1 flew quickly to ,andromeda and struck away the fetters which bound her to the shore4 ,the ,king and his subjects then swarmed around them and amid great rejoicing carried them to the palace4 ,not long after1 the ,princess became the bride of the hero1 who put away his fluttering shoes and set sail in a ship to the island of ,seriphus4 ,,cepheus1 ,,the ,,king ,figure #bb ,this is ,cepheus as he is traced among the stars1 a king done in shorthand4 ,he claims no star above the #crd magnitude1 but since his constellation is near the ,north ,star and just above the ,chair of his ,queen1 a large and conspicuous ,w1 it is easy to find and may be seen any clear night the year around4 ,cepheus may be seen at his best during the summer evenings when his stars are nearly overhead in the dome of the sky4 ,figure #bc ,the other characters in this drama were placed among bright stars and are therefore more easily found1 although to less romantic moderns these stars merely indicate the part of the sky-field where the ancients claim the royal family were lifted to the stars4 ,figure #bd ,below ,cepheus1 on a ,chair of bright stars1 sits ,cassiopeia1 his ,queen1 her arms upraised and her face pensive through long ages of humiliating sorrow2 below ,cassiopeia stands ,perseus transfixed in a heroic attitude1 the segment of three stars shining against his armor-clad body1 his diamond-bladed sword thrust among the fainter gleams above his head4 ,figure #be ,the snaky-locked ,gorgon ,medusa hangs downward from his shield1 while among its fearful tresses blinks ,algol1 the ,demon ,star4 ,on the line of stars that twinkle at the hero's feet1 lies the fair maid ,andromeda1 her hands outstretched and bound1 and her long1 dark hair caught with a star on the ,square of ,pegasus4 ,figure #bf ,the silvery-winged ,horse was1 oddly enough1 placed upside down upon his constellation with his head extending earthward from a corner of the ,square and his feet pawing upward into the darkness4 ,far below in the south glitters ,cetus1 ,neptune's wicked monster1 although ,cetus does not appear until ,september and is not completely visible until ,january4 ,the ancient royal family from ,ethiopia1 now famous for all time1 and the immortal ,perseus1 from whom proud kings claim their ancestry1 are conspicuous figures in the northeast during the late summer evenings1 and are at their best here rather than in the dome of the sky or in the west4 ,a small meteor shower radiates from the vicinity of ,cepheus during the latter part of ,june4 ,remember that ,cepheus lies up near the ,north ,star near the ,pole of the ,heavens and these meteors will not be difficult to locate4 ,it is also interesting to note that in the constellation of ,cepheus may be found the north polar star of the planet ,mars4 ,,cassiopeia1 ,,the ,,queen ,figure #bg ,the ,chair of ,cassiopeia rests upon the path of the ,milky ,way in the northern part of the heavens4 ,it consists of five bright stars which suggest the outlines of an ,m or ,w1 and may be easily located by projecting a line drawn from the ,big ,dipper through the ,north ,star and on again for an equal distance4 ,thus the ,dipper and the ,w in beautiful balance1 teeter1 now high and now low1 about the pole4 ,the ,w1 however1 is most impressive when near the horizon4 ,poets tell of the silvery currents of the ,milky ,way that wind in and out among the stars of this ,chair1 but with the telescope one may see more clearly and perceive that the silvery currents are a magnificent wilderness of suns4 ,figure #bh ,when the nymphs of the ,mediterranean discovered that ,cassiopeia had been honored with a choice position among the stars1 they were perfectly furious1 and even the sympathy of ,juno did not console them as she recalled the time that ,callisto was transposed as ,ursa ,major to the stars4 ,odd fate that forced an ,arcadian maid and an ,ethiopian ,queen to follow each other forever around the ,arctic circle of the heavens6 ,the ,nereids1 however1 protested violently to ,jupiter that such a reward for ,cassiopeia's boasting was unfair and their influence so far prevailed that the ,queen was set in a tilted fashion and forced to swing half of every night with her head hanging downward1 and both her arms upraised4 ,furthermore1 her ,chair was strongly outlined while her queenly person was quite ignored4 ,thus the petty spite of the sea-nymphs was much worse than ,cassiopeia's boasting4 ,figure #bi ,there was a slight compensation1 when1 for all this humiliation1 two of the stars in the ,w were named after the ,queen's 'heart' and 'hand' by the ,arabian astronomers1--,alpha1 the lower star of the five bright ones1 being called ,shedir1 the heart1 and ,beta1 in the back of the chair1 ,caph1 the tinted hand4 ,about six centuries ago1 a phenomenon happened among the stars in ,cassiopeia's constellation1 where1 suddenly1 in a position which had previously been blank1 a new star shone forth4 ,this star glowed as brightly as the planet ,venus1 which outshines every star in the sky4 ,it was so bright that it was even visible in the daytime6 ,this brilliancy then commenced to diminish1 the star growing fainter and fainter until in about a year and a half it had completely disappeared4 ,while new stars have been noted during the course of centuries1 the appearance of one is always so unusual that it stands out against the background of the sky with almost a disquieting effect4 ,the presence of an additional bright star1 strange as it may seem1 is immediately noticeable to one who is familiar with the constellations4 ,astronomers record its history with as much interest as the appearance of a new island or volcano would occasion on earth4 ,two theories for temporary stars are given in ,moulton's ,introduction to ,astronomy4 ,professor ,moulton tells us that these theories are surrounded by serious objections--but they are interesting nevertheless4 ,one is that there is invisible nebulous or meteoric matter lying in various parts of space1 particularly in the region occupied by the ,milky ,way 7there is confirmatory evidence of this hypothesis72 that there are also dark or very faint stars--7that is stars which are in the last stages of cooling1 a phenomenon also confirmed7--that the dark stars1 rushing through the nebul1 blaze into incandescence as meteors glow when they enter the earth's atmosphere2 that the heating is superficial and quickly dies away4 ,another hypothesis is that temporary stars are produced by collisions of stars with stars4 ,still another hypothesis among astronomers which has lately gained considerable support is that at the time of an outbreak in a typical nova 7new star71 a shell of incandescent gas is actually ejected at an enormous rate of speed4 ,such a phenomenon has been witnessed in the case of one very recent nova4 ,a #c-;inch telescope will show two interesting double stars on the second part of the ,w of ,cassiopeia1 although the lower of these double stars may also be seen through a #b-;inch telescope4 ,figure #cj ,the lower star 77 is a lovely double1 one of its components being a rose and the other a clear-hued blue2 the yellow star above it has a purple companion which with the larger star whirls around a common center of gravity in a period of about #bjj years4 ,since these stars are suns1 as all stars are suns1 it is often speculated what effect such combinations of colors would have on a family of planets1--but only a mathematical astronomer would be privileged to figure this out1 with such complicated days and nights and seasons4 ,perhaps there would be no nights--only purple days and yellow days1 or blue days and rose days1 while peculiar combinations of life--inducing light rays and heat rays might produce strange and awesome forms and eerie vegetation6 ,cassiopeia1 as well as the ,big ,dipper1 has been called a celestial clock for one may read the sidereal time from this configuration of stars with an error not exceeding #ae or #bj minutes4 ,when the star ,caph1 or ,cassiopei1 is vertically above the ,pole ,star it is sidereal noon2 #f hours when it is on the great circle drawn from the ,pole ,star to the west point of the horizon2 #ab hours when vertically below it2 and #ah hours when due east4 ,caph1 or ,cassiopei1 leads the other stars of the constellation in their journey westward4 ,,perseus1 ,,the ,,hero ,figure #ca ,this is the hero ,perseus1 easily recognized by the three bright stars which lie in a curved row4 ,these stars hang just below the ,w-shaped ,chair of the unfortunate ,queen ,cassiopeia who sits in the ,milky ,way4 ,aratus1 the ,greek poet1 claims that the sparkles of light which twinkle in this vicinity are particles of dust which the hero stirred up in his haste to rescue ,andromeda4 ,his giant strides the blue vault climb and move ,a cloud of dust in heaven4 ,what a charming picture to impress upon the sky6 ,but now in the twentieth century we analyze this dust which the ancients claim their ,perseus raised--and what do we find8 ,every particle in that misty path is a mighty sun1 suspended amidst multitudes of other mighty suns1 massed in one long strip of splendor across the sky4 ,for 7calmly speaking7 the ,milky ,way is a zone of innumerable stars so very distant that the individual lights are blended in one continuous band of silvery haze4 ,against this glorious path stands ,perseus1 sword upraised among its stars1 while entangled in the fearful locks of the ,gorgon ,medusa glows ,algol1 the ,blinking ,demon4 ,this so-called demon-star actually winks1 that is1 it indulges in one long1 slow wink at intervals of exactly #b days1 #bj hours and #di minutes4 ,such a phenomenon used to be a source of terror to the ,arabs who feared it might be predictive of some disaster4 ,although ,perseus and the ,gorgon are figments of fancy the wink of this amazing star is not imaginary by any means1 for its light actually drops from the #bnd magnitude to the #dth magnitude and stays thus1 half darkened1 for about #bj minutes4 ,then it begins to slowly brighten and in the course of the next three hours regains its former brilliancy4 ,in the clear air of the desert where the large stars burn like fire-brands1 this change in brightness is very noticeable4 ,since it was not understood1 it seemed terrifying and the superstitious ,arabs imagined it to be the eye of a demon4 ,it seemed a fitting star for the ancient ,greeks to place on the grewsome head of the ,gorgon ,medusa where ever after it has flashed and faded in the most eerie fashion4 ,the mystery of this winking star was not discovered until #ahhi4 ,then ,vogel found that the periodical change of brightness in ,algol is caused by a huge dimly lighted sun1--relatively dark compared with ,algol1--which revolves around the major sun at a distance of only #c1jjj1jjj miles4 7,the earth revolves at a distance of #ic1jjj1jjj miles from our sun47 ,every time this darker body passes between ,algol and the earth1 five-sixths of the light from ,algol is cut off1 thus making it appear to blink4 ,vogel also found1 through the aid of the spectroscope1 the diameter and mass of these stars4 ,algol was found to be about one million miles in diameter with a mass less than half that of the sun while its companion was found to be about #hjj1jjj miles in diameter with a mass about one fourth that of our sun4 ,thirty stars are now known to be of the ,algol type4 ,one of the most remarkable of these1 ,v4 ,puppis1 was found to be in the southern hemisphere and was carefully examined by ,dr4 ,a4 ,w4 ,roberts4 ,this star has a light variation of only #a days and is believed to whirl so closely to its companion that it is in actual contact4 ,the most favorable seasons for seeing ,algol during the early evening are in the autumn1 winter and early spring2 in the autumn1 low in the northeast1 when it rises at sunset in the middle of ,september2 in the winter1 high up in the north1 not far from the zenith2 and in the spring1 low down in the northwest4 ,at the correct time it is possible for anyone to see its change in brilliancy although the best time to watch for this is during ,september and ,october4 ,algol rises at sunset in the middle of ,september and consumes #i hours and #ab minutes in reaching the meridian4 ,to best appreciate the change in this star compare it with the stars near by1 especially to the #dth magnitude star that lies quite near to it4 ,thus ,perseus holds ,algol on the ,gorgon's head which flashes with fiery snakes1--his right hand brandishes a glittering sword1 his armor is decked with stars1 while the 'dust' he raised swirls in a milky path from the zenith to the trees on the horizon4 ,in the ,sword ,hand of ,perseus the ancient ,greeks saw the gleam of the sword borrowed from ,mercury1 a diamond-bladed1 diamond-hilted sword1 carved from a single diamond1 but modern astronomers searching in the same spot discovered a more wonderful object for1 through the eye of a telescope1 the two nebulous patches of hazy light on the ,sword ,hand were resolved into countless stars6 ,these star clusters are interesting even in a field-glass although higher powers disclose them as veritable sun-bursts of diamond-like stars4 ,the two clusters may be located about half-way between ,mirfak1 the brightest star in the ,segment of ,perseus1 and the ,w of ,cassiopeia4 ,one might at first glance take these crowded masses of stars as an example where the great force of gravity had worked not wisely but too well2 but it is only the unbelievable distance that our earth lies from these stars which makes them look so closely clustered together4 ,would the brighter naked-eye stars which bespangle our sky look like this--a glimmering spot--from so vast a distance8 ,to know that our solar cluster of stars is not the only cluster in the heavens is enough to take a little of the conceit out of man's colossal opinion of himself4 ,a good meteor shower appears in the vicinity of the constellation of ,perseus about the #ajth of ,august4 ,these meteors are best seen around three o'clock in the morning and have been recorded as appearing as far back as #haa ,a4,d4 ,this would seem to reasonably assure the annual reappearance of the spectacle but since the number of meteors is steadily decreasing there is a time in the future when it will cease to be4 ,these meteors are popularly known as the ,tears of ,saint ,lawrence1 mentioned as the fiery tears in ancient legends because ,saint ,lawrence was burned at the stake upon the #ajth of ,august in the sad old days of religious intolerance4 ,every year1 like ghosts1 his tears return and rain down from the sky in drops of fire4 ,they fall at the rate of about one a minute4 ,miss ,proctor1 in ,half ,hours with the ,summer ,stars1 mentions a quaint old oriental legend in which the meteors are supposed to be darts which are thrown by the angels at the evil ones who are barred from heaven and eavesdrop at its gates4 ,the myth which is woven about the hero ,perseus is a very beautiful one and a few words as to why the ,greeks so loved this gallant lad might be well appreciated by those who are not familiar with the story4 ,acrisius1 ,king of ,argos1 was so selfish and quarrelsome that finally ,jupiter1 who watched over the affairs of mankind1 determined to give him something real to worry about1 so ,acrisius was informed through an oracle that he would lose his crown and die by the hand of his own grandson4 ,soon after this ,perseus was born1 and the ,king was indeed terrified4 ,his fear increased daily1 finally bringing him to such a state of madness that he placed the ,princess ,danae1 his own daughter1 and her little son in a large chest and threw it into the sea4 ,the gods1 however1 watched the chest and held it steady among the roughest waves1 finally stranding it in the sea-weed on the little ,island of ,seriphus where the wanderers were rescued and given a home4 ,years passed1 and the ,king of ,seriphus grew to love ,danae1 but he feared ,perseus who looked like a golden-haired god4 ,one day this king planned a great feast and informed his guests that each must bring a gift as proof of his loyalty1 and the gift must be either costly or rare4 ,since ,perseus had no wealth1 the king suggested that he bring to court the head of the ,gorgon ,medusa who lived across the sea in the wilds of a strange and distant land4 ,with his heart filled with sorrow at the thought of this wellnigh impossible task1 ,perseus went out into the fields and walked about alone4 ,what chance had he against this fearful creature that had the wings of an eagle and hair that writhed in living snakes about her shoulders1 and coiled and hissed and darted on her head8 ,more than this1 her eyes were filled with horror and turned all who gazed upon her into stone6 ,walking along thus enwrapped in dreary thoughts1 the youth felt himself suddenly grow buoyant1 and looking down on his sandals saw that living wings had grown upon their heels2 then a polished shield reflecting like a mirror was hung upon his arm1 and a sword carved from a diamond1 which must have once equaled the size of a bowlder1 was thrust into his hand4 ,the gods had again taken care of their own6 ,holding himself proudly1 our hero walked to the end of the island where a high cliff jutted above the rocky shore below4 ,he stood on the edge and looked down at the rocks beneath him2 then he raised his head and looked at the high white clouds in the sunny sky4 ,he thought of the gods and his mother--and bravely stepped over--then laughed joyously as he skimmed like a bird in the warm rays of the sun4 ,it is a long tale to tell how he journeyed northward to the land of snow and ice1 then southward again1 and across the ,mediterranean4 ,he saw the southern1 and the northern pole3 ,and eastward thrice1 and westward thrice1 was whirl'd4 ,after finding the ,three ,gray ,sisters who had but one eye between them1 ,perseus forced them to tell him where to find the country where the ,gorgons dwelt4 ,after many hardships1 he found this country on the western shore of ,africa and knew it immediately1 for all around stood the images of men and beasts whose flesh and blood the ,medusa's eyes had hardened into stone3 ,beasts to the rocks were fix'd and all around ,were tribes of stone and marble nations found4 --,lucan's ,pharsalia4 ,there1 amid the rocks1 lay the ,medusa asleep1 with half of the snakes awake and squirming restlessly4 ,with his eyes on the reflection in the shield1 the son of ,danae swooped quickly downward1 cut off the monster's head and grasped its clammy1 lifeless locks in his hand4 ,winging his way over northern ,africa1 ,perseus came to the mountain on which the ,titan ,atlas sat1 hunched up on a peak with his shoulders sagging under the weight of the heavens4 ,somewhat weary after his long flight1 the youth landed in the ,garden of the ,hesperides1 which lay at the foot of the mountain1 and watched the maidens1 daughters of ,hesperus1 the silver ,evening ,star1 as they danced around a shining tree of golden apples4 ,but he dared not touch or even go near the apples1 for around the trunk was coiled old ,laden1 a monstrous dragon whose watchful eyes were never closed4 ,he then climbed up to the top of the mountain to talk to ,atlas1 but ,atlas did not receive him hospitably for an oracle had declared that the day would come when a son of ,jupiter would take his golden fruit1 and he had therefore forbidden strangers to come into his land4 ,perseus begged for just one night of rest1 but ,atlas roared in anger and would not even listen to him4 ,have a rest yourself1 then6 shouted our hero1 and held up the ,gorgon's head4 ,the great giant gave one startled look1 which was plenty1 for the features of his face grew stiff as weather-beaten ledges1 his bones congealed like a mass of ,tock1 and his beard stuck out like a forest of naked trees6 ,perseus hurriedly swung the head behind him and1 a trifle panic-stricken perhaps1 flew away over the ,african desert with the blood falling drip1 drip1 drip on the hot1 gray sands4 ,the gory drops distilled1 as swift he flew1 ,and from each drop envenomed serpents grew4 ,thus from this monster ,nature produced the first snakes1 which bred and multiplied on the desert until the region was infested with the miserable creatures4 ,the great dark splash which the sea had caught when first he rose in the air after beheading the ,gorgon1 had formed the silvery winged ,pegasus1 the world's first horse4 ,this splendid animal1 however1 did not stay with ,perseus1 but spread its beautiful feathered wings in the air and flew directly to ,greece1 where it was presented to the ,muses on ,mount ,helicon and afterwards given a constellation4 ,flying over mountains and deserts and the narrow green valley of the ,nile1 ,perseus came to the shore of ,palestine1 the home of the ,ethiopians1 which he found inundated with floods and strewn with the wreckage of towns and villages4 ,traveling slowly above the sea-coast of this unfortunate country1 he spied something white at the water's edge1 and coming closer saw that it was a maiden chained by her wrists and ankles to a rock1 while not far distant and ever approaching closer1 was the most terrifying monster that he had ever seen4 ,on the star maps this creature is labeled a whale4 ,it may have been a whale1 and it may not1 who knows8 ,sixty or seventy feet of whale lashing a tail big enough to destroy a large boat would certainly seem a terrible sea-monster to people who had never seen a whale4 ,how could they know that its fifteen or sixteen feet of gaping mouth had never tasted anything but tiny crustaceans and acaleph strained from sea-water6 ,hero indeed was ,perseus1 for he skimmed swiftly down to a nearby wave1 and poising upon its frothy peak1 thrust the monster deep below the jaw4 ,a brave1 brave deed was this1 and the people shouted their vast amazement and delight4 ,as the great sea-creature leaped and lunged and fell1 ,perseus again snatched the blood-freezing head of the ,medusa from his wallet--and the cliffs trembled as the monster hit the bottom of the sea6 ,figure #cb3 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,andromeda ,,immortalized ,,in ,,stars4 ,she still in heaven her captive form retains1 ,and on her wrists still hang the galling chains4 --,aratus4 ,according to some of the poets1 ,jupiter was so inordinately proud of the youth's achievements1 that he caused all the principal characters in his adventures to be immortalized in stars1 the sea-monster sharing the honor in a dim constellation far to the south4 ,he1 as well as the horse1 has been given a name and even grave astronomers call him ,cetus4 ,for a thousand years the famous rock was shown at ,joppa and the slaying of the ,medusa and the rescue of ,andromeda were favorite subjects in ancient art4 ,artists thrilled to their theme as they made it glow in colors on their canvases1 and poets made the story live again and again4 ,if anyone wonders what became of the awful ,medusa's head after ,perseus had won ,andromeda for his bride1 it might be well to add that after reducing two courts of cowardly nobles to statues of stone1 ,perseus gave the head to the goddess ,minerva who placed it on her shield4 ,this goddess is very chaste and with the fearful head has since succeeded in freezing all beholders4 ,,andromeda1 ,,the ,,princess ,figure #cc ,the charming ,princess ,andromeda wears her chains in the sky just as she did upon the sea-shore of the earth1 only as a constellation she has a line of pretty yellow stars on which to rest1 one of the stars lighting her dark hair1 one adorning her girdle and one sparkling like a jewel upon her sandal4 ,the head of the ,princess lies against the ,square of ,pegasus1 the ,winged ,horse1 and her feet reach out almost to ,perseus1 who with a ready sword watches her protectingly4 ,the orange star on ,andromeda's sandal is the radiant point of the ,biela meteors4 ,these appear every year on the #bgth of ,november4 ,this star is a delight to the eye when viewed through a large telescope1 for not only one star is disclosed but three--a sea-green and a blue beside the one of orange-gold6 ,just above ,mirach1 the star on the girdle1 are two fainter stars and a small misty object4 ,a large telescope will show that this misty object is a long shuttle-shaped nebula of the most colossal size4 ,this is the famous nebula of ,andromeda1 the only spiral nebula in the heavens which may be located without a telescope4 ,the nebula of ,andromeda is not a gaseous nebula but an outside universe1 an aggregation of millions of suns comparable to the ,galaxy4 7,the ,galaxy is our ,milky ,way47 ,figure #cd ,this in itself is astounding1 but it is also astounding that we have been privileged to gaze over a chasm so wide that an aggregation of millions of suns looks no more to our eyes than a misty spot of light4 ,dr4 ,edwin ,hubble1 of the ,mount ,wilson observatory in ,california1 has recently made the discovery that the more distant spiral nebul may also be resolved into stars4 ,dr4 ,hubble made his investigations photographically with the #fj-;inch and #ajj-;inch telescopes4 ,although most of the spiral nebul appear very small because they are at least a million light years distant1 the nebula of ,andromeda is comparatively close1 its apparent diameter being about six times the diameter of the moon4 ,this famous nebula may be most easily located when near the zenith during the latter part of ,october4 ,watch for it just after the star ,alpheratz1 on the head of ,andromeda1 has passed the meridian and started toward the west4 ,figure #ce3 ,,the ,,great ,,nebula ,,of ,,andromeda4 ,photograph by ,yerkes ,observatory through the #dj-;inch refracting telescope4 ,to the unaided eye1 it appears as a small mass of faint light and inexperienced observers often mistake it for a comet4 ,although this mass of light may be considered as being comparatively close compared to other spiral nebula1 it is scarcely like sighting a ship at sea1 for so far away does the spiral of ,andromeda lie1 that a ray of light must travel at least #cf1jjj years in order to reach the earth--#cf1jjj years with light traveling #ahf1jjj miles a second6 ,,pegasus1 ,,the ,,flying ,,horse ,figure #cf ,the constellation of ,pegasus1 the ,winged ,horse of the ,muses1 is marked by a great square formed by four bright stars4 ,this square lies against the horse's neck and wings1 while his head1 adorned by the star ,enif1 hangs downward from one corner and stretches toward the west4 ,figure #cg ,enif lies about #aj degrees west of a small but conspicuous diamond-shaped constellation called ,the ,dolphin1 or ,job's ,coffin4 ,although ,pegasus is close to ,perseus in the sky1 this winged horse was not with the hero either at the time he met ,andromeda or at any other period of his life4 ,since only half of his body is represented on his star square it is sometimes said that the remainder is hidden behind the rocks to which ,andromeda is chained4 ,the reason that artists so often draw ,pegasus beside the hero ,perseus must be that they take the astronomical picture instead of the mythological version of the story as a basis for their theme1 although his unnatural position of being upside down is studiously ignored2--even the ancient poets refrained from comment upon this point4 ,mr4 ,clark1 in ,astronomy from a ,dipper1 aptly remarks that the square suggests a box-stall in which a horse could be kept rather than a portion of a great flying horse4 ,there is certainly more truth than poetry in this idea and just about all of the constellations look most like what they are not4 ,not possessing the vivid imagery of the ,greeks1 most of us must be content with looking at the bright ,square which marks the place of the great ,winged ,horse in the darkness4 ,it will be recalled that when ,perseus swooped down and cut the head off the ,gorgon1 its life-blood crimsoned the foam on the sea4 ,neptune1 seeing this1 spun it into silver with the wind and waves1 and formed1 in a moment1 the wondrous horse4 ,born full-grown1 gifted with immortal life and blessed with incredible speed1 ,pegasus lifted his silvery wings and sprang toward the clouds4 ,he then rushed headlong toward ,mount ,helicon where he flew about the mountain1 alighted in its sacred groves1 and was petted by the ,muses4 ,according to all accounts the hoofs of this beautiful creature must have possessed not only miraculous strength but also some of the properties of a divining-rod1 for1 when thirsty1 all that he needs must do was to strike his magic hoof upon the ground and up would spout a fountain or a spring--crystal clear and delightfully cool4 ,he it was1 men say1 that brought down from lofty ,helicon the bright waters of bounteous ,hippocrene4 ,the ,fountain of ,hippocrene was the result of an almost unbelievable exhibition of strength which occurred1 as the story goes1 at the time that the nine ,muses and the nine daughters of ,pierus engaged in a musical contest on ,mount ,helicon4 ,when the nine daughters of ,pierus began to sing1 the heavens scowled and grew dark1 but when the nine ,muses lifted their voices in song1 the skies grew gold with sunlight1 the rivers stopped spellbound in their courses and ,mount ,helicon rose skyward in sheer delight4 ,neptune1 observing the mountain1 advised ,pegasus to stop its ascension by kicking it with his hoof4 ,the winged steed kicked and not only quenched the rising enthusiasm of ,helicon1 but caused the waters of ,hippocrene to burst forth from the very crest of a vast rock4 ,poets were not long in discovering that a draught of these sparkling waters fired their minds with divine inspiration1 and the beauty in their souls grew like flowers into poems which stayed fresh and fair through all succeeding centuries4 ,no wonder modern poets sigh for a beaker full of the warm south ,full of the true1 the blushful ,hippocrene1 ,with beaded bubbles winking on the brim4 --,longfellow4 ,twenty stadia below the ,fountain lay the ,grove of the ,muses1 situated in a pleasant hollow1 while below this ,grove1 at the foot of ,helicon1 was the village of ,ascra1 the residence of ,hesiod1 and the earliest seat of poetry in ,greece4 ,one can imagine that the poets made frequent trips up the two miles or so that brought them to the ,fountain of the ,horse4 ,in modern times1 ,hippocrene has been identified with a fine spring at ,makariotissa4 ,the limpid spring of ,pirene on the citadel of ,corinth was also opened by a blow from the winged horse's foot4 ,the water from ,pirene was in later days conveyed down the hill by subterranean conduits into a marble basin made especially to hold it ,pegasus was not given credit for having opened these springs1 however1 until the days of the ,alexandrian poets4 ,in lovely fancies1 these ,spring-inspired poets not only extolled the wondrous strength in the hoof of ,pegasus as he cleft a chasm in the earth1 but they also sang of so light a foot that he no more than shook the sweetness from the flowers4 ,for a long time ,pegasus flew about ,mount ,helicon1 adored by the ,muses and admired by the gods1 but finally one day1 while drinking at a spring1 he was captured by a ,grecian youth named ,bellerophon4 ,after making him fast with a golden bridle loaned to him by ,minerva1 ,bellerophon mounted the broad back1 slipped his feet between the wings and soared to the sky4 ,as might have been expected1 ,bellerophon henceforth spent a good part of his time along the dizzying heights above and around the clouds and one day accomplished the praiseworthy deed of swooping down and slaying a triple-headed monster which had been terrorizing all the surrounding land4 ,after this famous ride1 ,bellerophon seized what he considered a good opportunity and tried to ascend to the top of the broad summit of ,mount ,olympus which towered almost twice as high as the summit of ,mount ,helicon4 ,but ,mount ,olympus was the abode of the gods and this presumptuous act so angered ,jupiter that he sent an insect to torment the steed which reared backward and threw its rider to the earth4 ,being now quite accustomed to a rider1 ,pegasus was presented to ,aurora1 ,goddess of the ,dawn1 whose duty it was to lift the curtain of night with her rosy tinted fingers and open the eastern gates for ,apollo1 the ,sun-god4 ,in art ,aurora is often pictured as a spirited maiden in dazzling robes riding swiftly on the winged ,pegasus1 although she is also represented as rising out of the ocean in the east in a car drawn by four white horses4 ,perhaps she decided to employ the latter exclusively to usher in the dawn1 for ,pegasus was later transposed to the stars and never again permitted to stray earthward4 ,his great dark sky square with a star on each corner is exceedingly easy to find especially during ,september when it is on the sky slope in the east1 although if there is any difficulty in locating it1 let the eye travel from ,cassiopeia to the ,segment of ,perseus--which resembles a rod bent in the middle and swayed by the weight of this big chained ,square4 ,the ,square rises and sets in a tilted fashion with its corner star1 ,scheat1 on the horse's knee1 almost above ,algenib1 which lies on his wing4 ,figure #ch as if by art at equal distance placed4 ,this causes the ,square to resemble a distorted diamond-shaped figure when seen in the east or west but when the figure travels along the south about nine o'clock during the latter part of ,october or the first of ,november1 its sides are horizontal and vertical4 ,the ,winged ,horse first makes his appearance in the northeast near midnight in the middle of ,june but is better seen in the east between nine and ten o'clock a little later in the summer4 ,any time during the ,autumn he may be seen flying inverted across the dome of the heavens and by ,november is high in the west4 ,evening after evening his silvery wings fly lower and lower2 the star ,enif flutters as it nears the thickened atmosphere about the horizon and ,andromeda probably trembles as he draws her near ,cetus1 head downward through the western sky4 ,figure #ci3 ,the ,winged ,horse flies head downward in the west4 ,the head of ,andromeda is setting and against her is brought by the ,misty ,south the mighty terror1 ,cetus1 but over in the ,north ,cepheus with his mighty hand upraised warns him back4 --,aratus4 ,by the first of the year the starry ,square of the beautiful ,pegasus has entirely disappeared4 ,andromeda and ,perseus soon follow but ,cassiopeia continues around the horizon in the north4 ,throughout the spring and early summer ,pegasus remains in regions below our sight but in ,september he again appears and flies inverted up the heavens in the east4 ,,cetus1 ,,the ,,sea-,,monster ,figure #dj ,early poets describe ,cetus as a monster armored with heavy scales or as being long-necked and clawed1 which brings to mind the sea-reptiles which are known to have inhabited the sea during the ,mesozoic ,age4 ,although poets are known for their tendency to exaggerate1 this in itself is enough to lend a spicy interest to the legend1 for one's thoughts fly back to the world's young days when reptiles of great size literally overran the earth and cluttered up the sea4 ,many of these forms have been reconstructed from fossils found embedded in the rock strata4 ,these are most amazing1 grotesque and even terrifying and may be seen in any of the great museums4 ,if a museum is not handy one may shiver with real thrills by going through the pages of a well illustrated text on geology4 ,some such creature as one of these was ,cetus1--according to the poets4 ,some authors think that the whole story of ,andromeda is an allegory2 others1 that it may have been based1 though somewhat lightly1 upon a historical fact4 ,ancient authorities 7,pliny1 ,josephus and others71 claim that the bones of ,cetus were brought from ,joppa to ,rome and there exhibited by ,m4 ,scarus1 and it is also claimed that the people along the sea-coast at this time were driven forth in hysterical fear1 for when the monster appeared it not only swallowed up the cattle as they came to browse at the river's mouth but also snatched the children as they splashed about at play4 ,mythology tells us that ,hercules1 as well as ,perseus1 once killed such a sea-monster as this and it is then related that he tried to narrow the width of the strait leading into the ,mediterranean by pushing the rocks on either shore closer together so as to prevent further invasions of ,neptune's fierce and terrible creatures4 ,the pictures of ,cetus differ in the old star-maps although he is almost always represented as being strange and ferocious4 ,after having drawn the animal1 however1 with scales and claws1 a mad1 mad tail and sometimes even rows of teeth1 the mapmaker becomes conservative and calls it ,cetus1 the ,whale4 ,as a constellation1 ,cetus first begins to appear in ,september but does not get fully above the horizon for almost four months4 ,by ,january he is completely visible1 his huge1 faint form covering over #dj degrees of sky4 ,his head is rather pentagonal as impressed among the stars and extends on a long neck above the celestial equator2 his tail is even longer than his neck and curls upward as if he were angry--which he assuredly was when petrified by ,perseus into stone4 ,his sides are clear and black with unadorned sky-space and seem quite devoid of even the fainter stars4 ,always look for ,cetus in the southeast1 south or southwest1 in front of and below ,orion and far below ,andromeda4 ,the point of the ,v-shaped ,hyades also directs the eye toward his pentagonal head which extends toward the east4 ,just about in the center of the long1 giraffe-like neck of ,cetus1 the villain in our play1 lies ,myra1 a most extraordinary star4 ,figure #da3 ,cetus1 the ,whale4 ,this star is called ,myra1 the ,wonderful because of its amazing behavior in a period of only eleven months4 ,for three months ,myra is visible to the unaided eye2 during the other eight it can only be seen in a good telescope4 ,put in another way--for five months at a time it is completely invisible to the unaided eye2 then from a mere speck it slowly brightens until in the course of three months more it has become a star of the #bnd magnitude1 although it remains a star of the #bnd magnitude for only a few weeks4 ,this change from a telescopic star of the #ith or #ajth magnitude to one of the #bnd magnitude means that ,myra must blaze up from #ajjj times to #aejj times its ordinary brilliancy6 ,such a statement may overwhelm the casual reader but we must remember 7in order not to become unduly excited7 that this star is so far away that such a conflagration would only mean the gradual appearance of a star where none had been visible before1 and then its gradual disappearance4 ,myra is indeed so far away that we are just #bc years behind time in seeing each explosion1 for it takes #bc years for its light to travel to our eyes4 ,if the roar of the conflagration could be heard here1 however1 the sound would not reach the earth for many millions of years1 for sound travels much more slowly than light4 ,figure #db3 ,myra1 the wonderful variable star1 on the neck of ,cetus1 the ,sea-monster4 ,because of the variation of its light1 which is very excessive in the case of ,myra1 this star is called a variable star4 ,our sun is also a variable star1 but it is variable only in a very slight degree as compared with the exuberant combustibility of ,myra4 ,but the theory of spots which are believed to be responsible for the almost imperceptible variation in the light intensity of our sun does not altogether explain the phenomenon of ,myra's variability and its mystery is still as great as ever4 ,thus is ended the story of ,perseus and ,andromeda and many of the interesting bits of information connected with the constellations of the various characters after they were transferred to the sky4 ,three small constellations lie between ,andromeda1 ,cetus and the ,square of ,pegasus1 and a word about them here will help to impress this part of the sky upon the mind without the trouble of carrying maps every time one feels inclined to gaze at the stars4 ,these constellations are ,pisces1 the ,fish2 ,triangulum1 the ,triangle and ,aries1 the ,ram4 ,figure #dc ,pisces represents two small fish tied by their tails by two long 'star lines' which meet at a common star sometimes called ,al ,rischa or the ,knot ,star4 ,their tails point to an angle ,filled by a goodly star4 --,aratus4 ,although the constellation occupies a large space in the heavens it has no conspicuous stars in it4 ,it is best seen when the parallelogram of ,orion is in the sky and may be located above and to the west of ,cetus4 ,look for it on the first of ,january about #h ,p4 ,m4 although it is also viewed to good advantage when passing the meridian during the evenings of ,october and ,november4 ,pisces lies in a region which in early times was known as the ,sea because several other sea-creatures such as the ,dolphin1 which lies west of the ,square1 the ,sea-goat and the ,whale are found here4 ,some authorities claim that when the fire-breathing giant ,typhon appeared in ,thessaly1 the horrible creature so frightened the inhabitants of ,olympus that they fled to the ,nile where they concealed themselves under assumed shapes4 ,here the great god ,jupiter was changed into a ,ram ,from whence the horns of ,libyan ,ammon came4 and the fun loving ,pan into a sea-goat1 now the constellation ,capricornus1 while the goddess ,venus and her son ,cupid threw themselves into the river and were changed into two fishes1 which are now represented by ,pisces1 in the sky4 ,the fate of ,typhon has already been mentioned1 and even modern ,sicilians have seen ,etna burst its crown to let out his fiery breath4 ,just below ,andromeda and above the head of ,cetus is a long slim triangle-shaped figure called ,triangulum1 the ,triangle1 and a crooked line formed by a large star and two smaller ones called ,aries1 the ,ram4 ,in legend1 ,aries was a great ram with a golden fleece and possessed the ability to fly4 ,mercury brought this beautiful creature to ,helle and ,prixus1 the persecuted children of the ,king of ,thessaly1 so that they might climb upon its back and escape across the sea from their cruel stepmother4 ,on the way over1 ,helle lost her hold on the fleece1 sank under the waves and was drowned4 ,commemorating this tragedy1 the sea was ever after called the ,sea of ,helle or the ,hellespont but in modern days1 the ,dardanelles4 ,the ,dardanelles is a narrow channel separating ,europe from ,asia1 and is the ,hellespont that ,leander so faithfully swam when visiting ,hero1 his sweetheart4 ,prixus1 coming safely to the end of his journey1 dedicated the ram to ,jupiter who placed it among the stars4 ,it is now a zodiacal constellation with the horns of the ram for its sign3 4 ,the golden fleece1 while on earth1 was of course very desirable so that it was fastened to an oak tree in the sacred grove of the ,war-god ,mars at the eastern end of the ,black ,sea and a sleepless dragon was wound around the tree-trunk to protect it4 ,it was to obtain this fleece that1 in #icf ,b4 ,c41 ,jason built a fifty-oared galley--the first of ships--and invited the heroes of ,greece to go with him on the expedition4 ,this adventurous undertaking was afterward known as the ,argonautic ,expedition4 ,the ship ,argo was placed in the sky as a southern constellation1 or at least a part of it was for the bow is said to have been lost when passing through the ,bosporus4 ,argo1 exalted for that daring feat ,to fix in heaven her shape with stars4 --,wordsworth4 ,but even the portion that was lifted to the sky is so large that astronomers1 for convenience1 have divided it into three parts1--,carina1 the ,keel2 ,puppis1 the ,stern2 and ,vela1 the ,sail4 ,the beautiful star ,canopus lies on the ,keel4 ,triangulum and ,aries1 traveling beneath ,andromeda1 rise in late ,september and ,october and pass the meridian in the early evenings during the first weeks of ,december4 ,figure #dd3 ,,the ,,parade ,,of ,,the ,,zenith ,,constellations4 ,during the spring and summer months these clearly marked constellations parade slowly across the dome of the heavens4 ,leo1 the ,lion1 may be easily located beneath the ,big ,dipper4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,parade ,,of ,,the ,,zenith ,,constellations ,,leo1 ,,the ,,lion ,figure #de ,,about #i o'clock on the #hth of ,april1 a large1 bright sickle passes near the zenith4 ,this sickle lies just south of the ,big ,dipper and is a clearly defined figure among the other designs which decorate the sky during the early spring4 ,figure #df ,truly1 this is a strange symbol to see emblazoned in the heavens2 has it too a story8 ,indeed1 yes2 this cluster of stars is the ,sickle of ,leo and lies on the head of the fierce ,nemean lion which came from the moon and which was later killed by ,hercules and transferred to the starry sky4 ,the lion's head rests in the curve of the figure2 his shaggy neck on the short straight line and his heart beneath the bright star on the end4 ,figure #dg ,not far away lies the rest of this brave creature with another bright star on the tuft of his tail4 ,drawn together1 the sickle and the triangle now suggest a very dignified lion1 although in the old star atlases he is pictured as a very ferocious lion transfixed in a moment of action4 ,note well this curious sickle-shaped figure beneath the bowl of the ,big ,dipper4 ,we will take this figure just at present1 as a leader1 while calling attention to the oddly assorted but interestingly assembled groups of stars which follow ,leo in a widely curved path near the dome of the heavens1 from the far northeast to the far northwest4 ,figure #dh ,these groups appear one by one like a line of floats pulled up over the horizon2 then drawn in a glittering procession toward the west4 ,each evening they appear farther along in their journey westward1--a pageant far distant in the darkness yet visible by the gleaming of its lights4 ,closely following ,leo1 the ,leader1 is a representation in faint golden starlight of ,queen ,berenice's ,hair2 next the lovely orange-yellow star1 ,arcturus1 on the dim kite-shaped figure of ,botes1 the ,herdsman2 then a crown of star gems which belonged to ,ariadne1 daughter of an ancient king of ,crete2 a huge giant called ,hercules2 the golden ,lyre with which ,apollo raised the walls of ,troy and ,orpheus charmed the souls in ,hades2 and last1 but not least1 a large and beautiful ,cross4 ,the ,lion disappears behind the western bulge of the world during the early summer1 although the last of the procession1 the great ,cross borne on the back of ,cygnus1 the ,swan1 does not even reach the meridian--the line midway between east and west--until ,september4 ,some of these groups are also seen later than ,october1 but at that time their splendor is dimmed by the gorgeous winter constellations in the southeast4 ,according to the classic legend of the ,greeks1 ,leo was the celebrated ,nemean ,lion which ,hercules killed as the first of the ,twelve ,labors which were imposed upon him by his cousin ,eurystheus1 who was king of the ,perseid only through priority of birth4 ,this lion was the largest and fiercest lion in the world with a skin so invulnerable that no arrow had ever succeeded in even denting it4 ,the huge beast was also so rapacious that it was fast annihilating all the inhabitants of ,nemea1 which was the ancient name of the deep valley of ,argolis4 ,hercules had no trouble in tracking the lion through the valley1 which was only two or three miles long and half a mile broad1 and easily found its den4 ,rushing in1 he barricaded the opening1 grasped the lion by the throat and after a terrific struggle1 crushed the beast in his arms4 ,ever after he wore the tough1 impenetrable skin as a covering for his own defense4 ,the ,nemean games1 one of the national festivals of the ,greeks1 are believed to have been founded by ,hercules after his victory over the ,nemean lion4 ,there is some evidence that there was a lion traced among the stars before the time of ,hercules1 but1 if so1 the ,greeks erased the impression and substituted their own lion in its stead4 ,leo1 the ,nemean lion in stars1 is seen at his best during the early evenings of ,march1 ,april1 ,may and ,june1 although he makes his first appearance on the #dth of ,march when1 just as the sun sets in the west1 his tail rises above the eastern horizon4 ,in ,april he is at his highest point in his path across the sky1 lying just to the south and below the bowl of the ,big ,dipper4 ,figure #di ,on the end of the handle of the ,sickle shines ,regulus1 also called ,cor ,leonis which means ,the ,heart of the ,lion4 ,regulus sends out #cjj times as much light as our sun1 but is so far away that it takes #ii years for its light to reach us4 ,this star rises in the northeast at twilight on the #aeth of ,february and crosses the meridian at #h o'clock on ,april #bcrd4 ,one generally thinks of stars as being bright and gay1 but ,regulus has a companion which is somber and so unusual in its appearance as compared with other stars that it was described by ,winlock1 its discoverer1 as if steeped in indigo4 ,later it was found that this oddly colored star also has a companion which makes ,regulus a triple star4 ,the second star above ,regulus is also interesting4 ,this star is a beautiful double described in such refreshing terms as golden-orange and bronze-green4 ,it may be seen in a medium sized telescope4 ,later we will become acquainted with a wonderful red star which also has a green companion4 ,such combinations are most amazing to gaze upon4 ,the second brightest star adorning ,leo is ,denebola1 which flashes on the end of his tail4 ,denebola is #aj times as bright as our sun and is #be light years away4 ,since ,regulus1 on the heart of the ,lion1 is #ii light years distant and ,denebola1 on the tail of the ,lion1 is only #be light years1 science has certainly played havoc with the poor ,nemean lion4 ,proctor tells us that ,coma ,berenices 7,berenice's ,hair7 was originally the tuft of the tail of the lion when the constellation was pictured in the maps as being more extended4 ,this was quite an appropriate place for the sparkles and gleams of these fine1 tiny stars4 ,it is likely that it would have still been the tuft on the ,lion's tail if a clever ,alexandrian astronomer had not found it necessary to use his wits quickly and call it ,berenice's ,hair to please the vanity of an ,egyptian ,queen4 ,the apparent center for the ,november meteors1 or shooting stars1 which appear about the #aeth of the month1 are within the curve of the ,sickle of ,leo near the star ,gamma4 ,figure #ej ,the apparent paths of shooting stars when projected backward meet at a point called the radiant point4 ,it looks from the diagram as if these meteors all came from one fixed place in the sky but the effect would also be the same if we saw1 for instance1 seventeen trains racing along seventeen tracks laid parallel across a desert from a point on the distant horizon4 ,they would all seem to start from this point and widen out as they approached the observer1 the effect in perspective1 the widening apart from a point1 being the same in the case of the meteors speeding along parallel lines in space4 ,we see only those meteors1 of course1 which become caught and ignited in the atmosphere surrounding the earth and which streak down the sky all aflame2 the rest pass on their way1 invisible4 ,of this more will be said later under the heading of ,comets and ,meteors4 ,the ,leonids1 as these ,november meteors are called1 are only seen in the early morning hours on the #aeth of ,november1 while the ,andromids1 which have their radiant point in ,andromeda1 are only seen in the early part of the evening on the #bdth of ,november4 ,the famous ,leonid meteors of #ahcc dropped down so fast and thick that it seemed that all the stars in the heavens were falling down on the earth4 ,this unique spectacle occurred again in #ahff1 and records show that1 for a thousand years back1 at intervals of every #cc years1 we have been visited by such a star shower4 ,the first disappointment came in #ahii1 just as the general public1 probably for the first time1 was looking forward to it with a great deal of pleasurable anticipation4 ,will we again be disappointed in #aicb8 ,although the earth passes across the pathway of these meteors every year1 it is believed that along a certain section of the pathway the meteors are strung in thick profusion4 ,it is through such a portion1 literally studded with the fragments1 that the earth rolls every #cc years1 although it is not known for a certainty why1 after all these years1 we failed to see a display in #ahii4 ,a small dark constellation called ,cancer1 the ,crab1 lies just in front of ,leo1 the ,lion4 ,although this constellation has been pointed out since very ancient times1 and holds an important position in the zodiac1 it does not contain a single conspicuous star and could scarcely be located in the sky1 were it not for a faintly shining spot of light about the size of the ,pleiades4 ,this spot of light is a coarse cluster of #gth and #hth magnitude stars1 resolvable by an opera-glass and easily located by a little star on either side4 ,in the mythology of ,greece1 this constellation represents the gigantic sea-crab which ,juno sent to bite the toes of ,hercules when he was struggling in the marshes with the hundred-headed hydra4 ,naturally1 ,hercules stamped his foot down on the petty annoyance1 which so offended ,juno that she set the creature among the stars4 ,it is the misty spot1 however1 that has always attracted the eyes of men4 ,the ,chaldeans thought that the dim light came from a hole in the floor of heaven1 and that it could be no other than the gate of men through which souls descended into human bodies4 ,it has also been regarded as the ,manger in which ,christ was born and the stars on either side were called ,aselli1 or ,little ,asses4 ,figure #ea ,the ,manger is now known to hold #cfc telescopic stars1 and is historically interesting because it afforded one of the earliest telescopic proofs that there were hosts of stars in the heavens besides those visible to the unaided eye4 ,galileo1 who first resolved its light into stars1 was able to count forty small stars in this spot1 and his telescope was no better than the field-glass of today1 if we may indeed make such a comparison4 ,in ancient times1 ,prsepe1 the ,manger1 was an infallible weather sign1 for if there was the slightest moisture in the air1 its faint light was invisible4 ,if the moisture was not sufficient to also obscure the two stars on either side1 only light showers of rain might be expected1 but if the two stars were also hidden1 there would be a very bad storm4 ,if the two stars and the ,manger were all three seen clearly1 one could depend on the weather not to spoil any plans for that particular evening4 ,when shine the ,bears1 and 'twixt the asses seen1 though faint1 their ,manger1 ocean proves serene4 --,idylliums of ,theocritus 7,,fawke',s ,trans47 ,in the days of ,aratus1 #bgj ,b4 ,c41 this advice as to how to judge the weather by means of the tiny cloud on the back of ,cancer1 the ,crab1 was taken so seriously that he gave it in quite extensive detail in his poem ,phenomena3 ,watch1 too1 the ,manger4 ,like a faint mist in the far ,north it plays the guide between ,cancer4 ,around it are borne two faintly gleaming stars1 not very far apart1 nor very near but distant to the view a cubit's length1 one on the ,north1 while the other looks toward the ,south4 ,they are called the ,asses and between them is the ,manger4 ,on a sudden when all the sky is clear1 the ,manger wholly disappears1 while all the stars that go on either side seem drawn to one another3 not slight then is the storm1 with which the fields are deluged4 ,if the ,manger darken and both stars remain unaltered1 they herald rain4 ,but if the ,ass to the ,north of the ,manger shine feebly through a faint mist1 while the ,southern ,ass is gleaming bright1 expect a wind from the ,south3 but if in turn the ,southern ,ass is cloudy and the ,northern bright1 watch for the ,north ,wind4 --,english trans41 by ,g4 ,r4 ,,mair4 ,in ,english folklore1 ,prsepe is called the ,beehive1 although this name was likely given it after telescopes were invented and it was seen that the dim light was resolved into a multitude of little flecks1 like a hive of golden bees4 ,prsepe passes the meridian about #i ,p4 ,m4 on ,march #aeth or #b o'clock ,a4 ,m4 on the morning of ,january #ast4 ,it is best seen on a clear night when the moon is absent from the sky1 and a glass of any kind will make it more interesting4 ,both the ,crab and the ,hydra1 who also has a constellation in the sky1 are quaint ways of commemorating the adventures of ,hercules1 but his fierce ,nemean lion is the most important just at this instant1 so on with the line of floats6 ,,berenice',s ,,hair ,figure #eb ,the name of ,coma ,berenices1--,berenice's ,hair1--was derived from an ,egyptian fable which dates back as far as the #crd century ,b4 ,c4 ,before this time1 the constellation was the tuft on the tail of ,leo1 the ,lion4 ,thus we find ,prsepe1 an interesting cluster of stars1 just in front of ,leo1 and ,coma ,berenices1 an equally interesting cluster1 just behind him4 ,these two clusters are among the very few clusters that may be located with the unaided eye4 ,coma ,berenices is most clearly visible on a dark night almost overhead in the early evenings of ,may4 ,with an effect like #ij minute stars scattered on velvet1 these stars are quite unlike anything else in the heavens that is visible without optical aid4 ,astronomers have found that many of the stars in this constellation are of a delicate lilac color4 ,these lilac stars are often the companions of other stars1 forming such lovely color combinations as orange and lilac1 white and lilac and blue and lilac1 although these double stars are not easy to locate in this thick sprinkling of stars without the help of a telescope with an equatorial mounting and graduated circles4 ,one wonders what it would be like to have a lilac sun as a source of light1 and what would be the psychological reaction on generations of beings brought up under pale lights1 mauve mists and shadowy purples4 ,there seems to be a slight difference in even the general characteristics of our earthly folks when those who live in a land of perpetual sunshine are compared with those who live in a city smothered in murky fogs4 ,the telescope has also discovered in ,coma ,berenices the rare sight of over #ajj nebul drawn together in a close group4 ,we say a close group1 but these nebul only look crowded to us because they lie at such an unthinkable distance from our solar system4 ,figure #ec ,an ancient story1 current #bdf ,b4 ,c41 relates that this constellation was named after the beautiful hair of ,berenice1 ,queen of ,euergetes1 one of the ,ptolemies of ,egypt4 ,the husband of this ,queen had gone to ,assyria on a dangerous campaign and1 grieving over his delay in returning1 the ,queen vowed to cut off her long locks of hair and consecrate it to the gods in the temple of ,venus1 if he might only come back to ,egypt safe and victorious4 ,not long after this great sacrifice had been determined upon1 ,euergetes returned and the ,queen cut off her tresses and hung them in the temple of the goddess4 ,but that same night the hair was stolen6 ,conon1 the royal astronomer of ,alexandria1 however1 in his goodness of heart and thinking to protect the guardians of the temple from their majesties' displeasure1 stepped forward and declared that ,venus had so appreciated such love as possessed by this faithful ,queen that she had caught up the strands of beautiful hair and laid them in the heavens4 ,figure #ed ,all looked toward the spot at which the astronomer pointed1 and1 sure enough1 there lay near ,leo a group of fine stars which shone like the mist on a woman's hair6 ,thus the guardians were saved1 the husband appeased and the astounded ,queen ,berenice flattered and satisfied4 ,the ,lion1 ,leo1 however1 was now obliged to change the position of his tail and instead of having it extended and brightened with this sprinkling of delicate stars1 he was forced to draw it back and curl it behind the light of ,denebola1 where it has since remained4 ,,bo,,tes1 ,,the ,,herdsman ,figure #ee ,the brilliant golden-yellow star1 ,arcturus1 has always been a favorite among star-gazers4 ,figure #ef ,this star hangs like a great globe of tinted light from the end of a curve drawn from the ,big ,dipper's handle and is one of the first stars to appear during the summer evenings4 ,two earthly honors have been given ,arcturus which are well worth noting4 ,in the excess of their great admiration1 the ,egyptian people in ancient times oriented huge temples to it at the cost of tremendous labor2 it was also given special mention in the ,bible4 ,up near the ,arctic circle1 this lovely star never sets1 but travels in a wide circular path above the horizon4 ,allen remarks on its use as timepiece for the seal-netters during the night fishing in ,december and ,january4 ,the netters judge the time by the position of the star on the four points of the compass1 in much the same manner that the ,big ,dipper is used for a clock as it swings around the pole4 ,the heavens would appear rather strange to us as viewed from the far north for ,polaris would rest almost at the zenith and the ,big ,dipper with its handle weighted down by ,arcturus1 would seem to encircle the sky above the earth on an unfamiliar pathway4 ,botes1 the constellation in which ,arcturus lies1 is usually described as forming a kite-shaped figure of stars1 which though faint1 covers a great deal of sky4 ,botes1 as mentioned before1 was a herdsman who invented the plow1 and as a reward for this ingenious method of tilling the soil1 was raised to a position below the stars of the ,big ,dipper4 ,but according to another story1 ,botes represents ,arcas1 the son of ,callisto1 whom ,juno so cruelly turned into a bear4 ,in modern days this legend seems to have been given preference for1 during the seventeenth century1 ,helvetius invented the ,hunting ,dogs1 the constellation of ,canes ,venatici1 and the huge figure of ,botes has since been usually pictured on the star maps as holding two lively dogs in leash4 ,these ,dogs are interposed between ,botes and ,ursa ,major4 ,although the ,hunting ,dogs have no mythology1 the two constellations are thus united in a common picture and ,botes and his dogs are said to be chasing the ,bear4 ,botes leading his hunting dogs over the zenith in the leash of sidereal fire4 --,,carlyle4 ,in ,ovid's version of the legend1 the hunter was placed in the sky just as he was and not first metamorphosed into a bear and hung on the ,pole ,star as ,ursa ,minor4 ,not recognizing his mother in the form of ,ursa ,major1 ,botes keeps on pursuing her in an eternal chase about the ,pole4 ,he is thus often called ,the ,watcher of the ,bear or ,the ,bear ,driver4 ,those who choose to consider ,callisto's son1 ,areas1 as having been metamorphosed into a bear and hung on the pole of the heavens may then consider ,botes as representing the herdsman who invented the plow4 ,the two ,hunting ,dogs1 ,asterion and ,chara1 now held enchained by ,botes1 form the constellation ,canes ,venatici1 which lies just below the handle of the ,big ,dipper and above ,arcturus and ,berenice's ,hair4 ,the collar of the hunting dog ,chara is marked by the star ,cor ,carolli1 which means ,charles' ,heart and was named in memory of ,charles ,i by ,halley1 the ,english astronomer1 on the suggestion of the ,court ,physician1 ,sir ,charles ,scarborough4 ,figure #eg ,this star is an attractive double as viewed in a small telescope with the delicate colorings of flushed white and lilac4 ,on the head of ,asterion lies the famous whirlpool nebula1 although this may only be seen in a large telescope4 ,this nebula has its great arms of nebulous material flung widely into space and looks as if it were whirling rapidly about1 but the motion1 if any1 is too slow for us really to see4 ,with a few exceptions most of the spiral nebul are so very distant that they may only be seen through a very large telescope1 but next to the stars1 they are the most abundant objects in all the sky and are of great interest to astronomers4 ,arcturus1 the beautiful first magnitude star which glows so conspicuously in the constellation of ,botes1 is1 however1 the main source of interest in these star groups4 ,the star is popular for its appearance alone1 for it is large and richly golden1 and always easily located1 but it is also of interest in a scientific way1 for it has been found to be an extremely huge and glorious sun4 ,our sun placed at the same distance--#ade millions of millions of miles--would shine as a faint and almost invisible star1 yet ,arcturus is so much larger than our sun that it drifts across our sky like a bowl of light4 ,arcturus is not only one of the largest but it is also one of the swiftest moving stars in the heavens4 ,it moves so swiftly that it covers #ajj miles in every second4 ,this speed has caused it to be labeled a runaway star4 ,although this star shoots through space at such an incredible rate of speed it has taken it #hjj years to describe a space 7as seen by our eyes7 equal to the apparent diameter of the moon4 ,this may give the reader some slight realization of the vast distance which separates us from ,arcturus4 ,but astronomers write it this way--,it has taken only #hjj years for ,arcturus to describe a space equal to the apparent diameter of the moon1 for the stars are so very distant that most of them do not seem to change their places in the heavens even in the course of many thousands of years4 ,amazing as the speed of ,arcturus appeared to astronomers1 they later discovered a star of the #hth magnitude in the southern hemisphere with even a greater proper motion4 ,this star has moved the distance of the diameter of the moon in #bbj years1 which means that it moves over a hundred times faster than the average star4 ,but the late ,professor ,barnard of the ,yerkes ,observatory had the distinction of discovering a star with the largest proper motion known4 ,the average star does not exceed one minute of arc in a thousand years but ,professor ,barnard's runaway star has the amazing proper motion of #aj4c seconds a year4 ,in that length of time it travels twice as far as the average star does in a century6 ,scientists accomplish many wonderful1 and most remarkable1 deeds4 ,even the heroes who lived in the vivid minds of the ancient peoples dwindle into insignificance beside these men with their calm patience and brilliant seeking minds4 ,these mathematic men have thoughts that march ,from sphere to sphere and measure out the blue ,of infinite space like roods of garden ground4 --,blackie4 ,professor ,michelson has now invented a new method of measuring the angular diameter of the more distant stars4 ,this is by means of an instrument called the interferometer which is attached to the #ajj-;inch reflector of the ,mount ,wilson ,observatory4 ,measurements of the angular diameter of ,arcturus with the interferometer combined with the knowledge of its distance give us the astounding size of #ai1jjj1jjj miles for the diameter of this huge sun4 ,henderson1 in #ahdj1 was the first astronomer to make a successful measurement of the distance to a star4 ,the trigonometric method such as surveyors use to find the distance to the far side of a river was employed for this and with a baseline and angles he reached out and touched the nearest stars4 ,the baseline of a triangle whose apex touched a star which lay millions of millions of miles away would have to be very long indeed--and a very delicate and difficult task to handle it4 ,where in the world could one find such a baseline8 ,certainly not on the earth6 ,a line extending from one side to the other of our earth would not even be as large as a point of light as seen from a star4 ,indeed when the moon was measured1 and the moon lies only #bdj1jjj miles away1 astronomers used a baseline which extended from ,america all the way to ,france4 ,the exceedingly clever idea of taking the earth's orbit as a baseline then suggested itself1 and focussing upon a star at an interval of six months when the earth is at the two ends of the diameter of its immense orbit around the sun4 ,figure #eh ,the angle between the baseline and the line of sight to the star may be noted in the summertime1 for instance1 and then again in the winter4 ,the shift of the star on the heavens caused by the observer changing his place from one side of the sun to the other gives the parallax angle of the star1 which is the angle between the two sight lines of the observer where they meet at the star4 ,if the star is distant more than #ejj billion miles this shift cannot be measured with any confidence for at #ijj or #ajjj billion miles1 the star ceases to show any displacement4 ,when a star is near enough to be measured by this trigonometric method it seems to describe a minute ellipse like a reflection of the ellipse of the earth's orbit4 ,if it lies so far in space that it does not seem to change its position even when viewed from stations on either side of the earth's orbit1 its distance may never be measured by using the diameter of the earth's orbit as a baseline4 ,even the near stars are so very distant that their displacement is almost imperceptible4 ,the parallax 7or the apparent angular shifting caused by the changed position of the observer7 of ,alpha ,centauri1 our nearest star1 would have1 says ,professor ,moulton1 the same difference in direction as a point of light #aa miles from the observer viewed with one eye and then the other1 with the difficulties of observation extended over several months4 ,but to return to ,arcturus4 ,this beautiful golden star is called the harbinger of spring because it rises on the first of ,march just as the flowers of this season are awakening along the brooks and hillsides4 ,watch for it about #h ,p4 ,m4 just a little north of east4 ,at this point it is at its very best for the thickened atmosphere near the horizon fires the orange-yellow to a molten rose1 while the flickering and the dancing causes burning waves of crimson1 sparks of opal and glints of gold4 ,it reaches the meridian ,june #hth about #i ,p4 ,m4 but its eager1 splintering light is now calmed to a steady glow and the star hangs like a golden lamp above the world4 ,from ,july to ,december1 this splendid star floats lower and lower through the western part of the heavens until it touches the horizon in the northwest and disappears4 ,,the ,,northern ,,crown ,figure #ei ,the ,northern ,crown really looks like a crown4 ,its outline is easily traced1 although its stars are delicate with the exception of one which is much larger and brighter than the others4 ,it closely follows ,arcturus and is best seen during the early evenings of ,july when it is floating high in the dome of the heavens1 a most fascinating star figure4 ,long ago1 in some of the old countries1 people saw in this ,crown the likeness to a broken plate held out by a beggar to receive alms2 the ,pawnee ,indians imagined it a camp circle of warriors sitting in council around their camp fire and that the bright star was a servant preparing a feast over the fire2 the ,australian natives called it the boomerang1 but in ,greek mythology this is the crown which ,bacchus gave the beautiful ,ariadne after she had been deserted by ,theseus1 ,king of ,athens1 on the island of ,naxos which lay far out to sea4 ,according to a later legend1 from which the ,crown obtained its name1 a yearly tribute of seven youths and maidens was exacted from the ,athenians by the tyrant ,minos1 ,king of the ,island of ,crete4 ,these ,athenian captives were then rowed over from ,greece to ,crete and confined in a labyrinth as a feast for a ferocious ,minotaur4 ,this labyrinth had been constructed by ,ddalus1 a most ingenious artist and artificer1 who had so perfected the intricate maze of passageways that neither the ,minotaur1 nor any of his victims1 could possibly escape4 ,theseus1 son of geus1 the king of ,athens1 grieved deeply at the fate of so many innocent sufferers1 and thinking that he might be able to overcome the monster1 bravely offered himself as one of the seven youths4 ,when ,ariadne1 daughter of the wicked ,king ,minos1 saw the handsome ,prince arrive among those to be sacrificed1 she was filled with love and pity and risked her own life by secretly furnishing him with a strong sword and a long thread4 ,theseus then attacked the ,minotaur and slew him1 afterwards extricating himself from the difficult windings of the labyrinth by means of the thread4 ,he and ,ariadne then slipped down to his vessel which had remained anchored in the harbor and set sail for ,athens4 ,on his homeward journey the goddess ,minerva appeared to ,theseus and told him that he must leave ,ariadne at ,naxos1 an island celebrated for its vineyards1 for the ,fates had decreed that she should not go with him to ,athens4 ,such barbarous conduct on the part of ,theseus must have been past all understanding to poor ,ariadne4 ,r has painted a very beautiful picture of her as she sits by the rocks on the sea-shore sadly gazing out to sea1 for she was a very sweet girl and not at all like her wicked father4 ,but ,theseus suffered also for his seemingly heartless desertion1 for he had promised his father1 geus1 that if he succeeded in subduing the ,minotaur he would exchange his black sail for a white one4 ,with one thing and another happening1 ,theseus forgot to change his sail1 and the poor old man watching the black wing loom in the distance1 supposed his son to be lost1 and threw himself into the sea4 ,this sea was henceforth called the gean ,sea in memory of the tragic fate of geus4 ,in the meantime ,bacchus1 the ,god of the ,vineyards1 came along decked in ivy and vine leaves1 and discovered the forsaken ,ariadne asleep on a rock1 worn out with sorrow and weeping4 ,figure #fj ,the god was so captivated by the beauty of the ,cretan maid that he did everything in his power to make her forget her unhappiness1 even marrying her and promising at her death to give her a place among the gods4 ,he then suspended her wedding crown in the sky1 where it still hangs1 although its jewels have grown so large that they resemble stars4 ,these stars are now called the ,northern ,crown though they are really ,a brilliant sign of the lost ,ariadne4 --,aratus4 ,spenser pointing them out in his ,faerie ,queene says ,look6 how the crowne which ,ariadne wore ,upon her ivory forehead-- --is unto the starres an ornament1 ,which round her move in order excellent4 ,ariadne's ,crown rests about #bj degrees east of ,arcturus and may be easily seen in the east just after sunset during the early spring1 about the #hth of ,april1 but it is at its best during the early evenings of ,july when it is almost overhead4 ,alphecca1 the bright one1 also called ,the ,pearl1 marks the radiant point of a shower of meteors called the ,coronids4 ,this shower occurs while the constellation is traveling between the east and the zenith1 being visible from ,april #abth to ,june #bjth4 ,the ,crown remains in view from ,april until late ,october1 then disappears between the west and northwest4 ,it lies concealed throughout the winter1 then rises in the direct northeast in the early spring1 its jewels sparkling as if they had been encased in a winter's casket of snow4 ,this beautiful little constellation is designated on the maps as ,corona ,borealis4 ,the ,northern ,crown and ,ariadne's ,crown are only popular names4 ,,hercules1 ,,the ,,giant ,figure #fa ,an astronomical work of ,eudoxus1 dated about #cgj ,b4 ,c41 but based upon observations made probably by the ,chaldeans fifteen centuries before1 was versified in a poem of #gcb verses called ,phenomena by ,aratus1 the court poet of ,macedonia1 who wrote about a century after ,eudoxus' time4 ,aratus mentions this constellation of ,hercules as being of immemorial antiquity and describes it as a figure of a man in sorrow with his hands upraised and stretched one this way and one that1 a fathom's length4 ,in the early days of the world's history it was called ,the ,kneeler although even this was not supposed to be its original name4 ,aratus says-- ,right there in its orbit wheels a ,phantom form1 like to a man that strives at a task4 ,that sign no man knows how to read clearly1 nor on what task he is bent1 but simply calls him ,on ,his ,knees4 --,trans4 by ,g4 ,r4 ,,mair4 ,on ,his ,knees was given the name of the hero ,hercules when the ,greeks placed their heroes and divinities among the stars1 but his pictures in the modern maps do not seem to accord with the description of his posture in this ancient poem4 ,his foot now rests upon ,draco1 the ,sky ,dragon1 which probably is here imagined as old ,laden1 the sleepless dragon which once coiled around the tree of golden apples4 ,hercules1 the great grandson of ,perseus1 was the greatest of all the heroes4 ,he possessed every high quality of mind and character and was endowed with such great physical strength that his life was filled with constant adventure4 ,armed with a huge club1 he performed the most remarkable deeds1 the most wonderful of these being his ,twelve ,labors4 ,some of these labors or adventures were so thrilling that the ,greeks named constellations in honor of them as well as of the hero1 and they have ever since been proverbs among men4 ,there are many allusions to these throughout literature-- ,thogh ,i had hadde--al the strengthe of ,ercules4 --,,chaucer4 ,leo1 who leads the zenith constellations across the sky1 was the same ferocious lion which ,hercules encountered and killed in the valley of ,nemea2 he also killed the ,crab now in ,cancer1 and the hundred-headed ,hydra whose constellation is seen in the south from ,march to ,june4 ,some writers see in ,sagitta1 the ,arrow2 ,aquila and ,cygnus1 the ,birds2 ,draco1 the ,dragon and other constellations1 memorials of the adventures of ,hercules4 ,this huge giant gave promise of a career while very young4 ,when no more than eight months old1 two monstrous snakes appeared and pushed their hissing heads between the bars of his cradle4 ,springing to his feet1 he seized the reptiles by their necks1 strangled them and threw them dead at the feet of his terror-stricken parents4 ,the mighty infant showed them to his sire1 ,and smil'd to see the wreathing snakes expire2 --,idylliums of ,theocritus 7,,fawke',s ,trans47 ,when ,hercules grew to manhood his cousin1 who ruled the ,perseid1 commanded him to perform ten difficult tasks1 which were later increased to twelve4 ,hercules was at first unwilling to obey but the oracle at ,delphi informed him that he would become an immortal hero if he performed the tasks1 and afterwards be given a just reward4 ,for a while ,hercules was so despondent that he eventually became mad1 but finally throwing off his depression1 he accomplished all he set out to do with such cleverness and foresight and with exhibitions of such amazing strength1 that not only did the gods carry him up to ,mount ,olympus after his death but gave him as a wife the lovely cupbearer1 ,hebe4 ,his gigantic figure is now among the stars and many of the creatures in his adventures have been placed far above the earth in honored positions in the heavens4 ,let us now go back for a moment and review some of these awe-inspiring accomplishments of ,hercules4 ,the lion and the hydra have already been mentioned4 ,the watersnake was particularly difficult to kill for it possessed the distressing faculty of being able to immediately grow two living heads in the place of each one destroyed1 thus increasing not only the snake but the number of poisonous fangs4 ,this seemingly insurmountable difficulty was finally overcome when ,hercules thought of searing each stump with a hot iron as soon as it was severed1 thus killing the root from which the head was born4 ,as seen on his constellation in the sky1 this watersnake is more conspicuous for length than for his number of heads1 for his faint starry outline covers one-fourth of the southern heavens and takes four months in passing any one place4 ,it was during the struggle with this creature that ,juno induced the crab to crawl out of the swamp and seize the mighty giant's toes1 afterward placing the crab on the ,dark ,sign1 ,cancer1 which lies just west of ,leo4 ,the eleventh ,labor of ,hercules was the obtaining of the three golden apples from the ,garden of the ,hesperides4 ,the location of these gardens1 according to most versions of the story1 was to the west of ,mount ,atlas where this most rare and delightful tree was guarded by a dragon and the four nieces of ,atlas4 ,atlas1 who knew best where to find the apples1 offered to obtain them for ,hercules if he would hold up the heavens while he was gone4 ,nothing daunted ,hercules1 so1 ,the wearied ,atlas he relieved1 ,his arm the starry realms upheaved1 ,and propped the ,gods above4 --,euripides4 ,in the meantime ,atlas went to the garden and got the apples from his nieces4 ,but according to another myth1 ,hercules went himself and stole the apples1 after slaying the dragon that guarded them4 ,it is to be noted that in the constellations ,hercules has been placed in a decidedly uncomfortable position so that he might rest his foot upon the ,sky ,dragon1 ,draco--so perhaps ,draco1 after all1 was the monster that was wound around that wondrous apple tree4 ,there is also a possibility that the sixth ,labor of ,hercules has been memorialized in the sky although the weight of evidence is against it4 ,in his sixth ,labor1 ,hercules destroyed the cruel carnivorous birds with the arrows he had dipped in the blood of the poisonous hydra4 ,these birds1 which had brazen wings1 beaks and claws1 hovered over the stagnant waters of ,lake ,stymphalus1 in ,arcadia1 and ravaged all the surrounding country4 ,this praiseworthy deed may have been represented in the sky by the bird constellations1 ,cygnus1 ,lyra and ,aquila1 which hover near the stream of the ,milky ,way1 and in the little arrow ,sagitta1 which lies not far away1 but it is more than likely1 according to the majority of the myths1 that these constellations were named in honor of other things rather than to commemorate the deeds of ,hercules4 ,among other exploits which illustrate the unrivaled prowess of this hero1 are his battles with giants1 monsters and centaurs2 catching ,diana's brazen-footed stag by driving it deep into a snowdrift in the distant northland2 obtaining the girdle of ,hippolyta1 ,queen of the ,amazons1 in the land of women2 capturing boars1 bulls1 mares and even bringing from the infernal regions the three-headed dog ,cerberus4 ,the greatest demonstration of his strength1 aside from the time that he upheld the heavens for ,atlas1 is reported by the historian ,pliny4 ,according to the myth which ,pliny relates1 ,hercules had rent asunder the rocks which had previously divided the ,mediterranean from the ocean2 although another legend takes the opposite view and asserts that he had narrowed the strait in order to exclude the sea-monsters which had hitherto forced their way in from the ocean4 ,this gateway1 known as the ,pillars of ,hercules1 consists of two promontories which bounded the western horizon of the then known world4 ,the promontory on the northern side of the straits is now called the ,rock of ,gibraltar4 ,hercules one day donned a tunic that had been steeped in the blood of a ,centaur which he had slain with a poisoned arrow4 ,to escape the terrible torture1 he erected a funeral pyre on ,mount ,etna1 lay down on his lion's skin and set the pyre on fire4 ,amid peals of thunder ,jupiter descended in his chariot and carried the hero to ,mount ,olympus where he was given his promised reward4 ,high o'er the hollow clouds the coursers fly1 ,and lodged the hero in the starry sky4 ,as seen in the sky1 ,hercules kneels on ,draco1 the ,dragon1 with his head lying downward near the head of the giant ,ophiuchus4 ,these two giants cover a vast amount of sky space although neither one have very bright stars4 ,although ,hercules rests inactive1 ,ophiuchus1 one notes1 is busily engaged1 for his limbs are enfolded by the scaly body of a huge serpent his right hand1 its writhing tail1 he grasps1 ,its swelling neck1 his left hand securely clasps1 ,the reptile rears its crested head on high ,reaching the seven-starred ,crown in northern sky4 ,in the meantime ,his feet stamp ,scorpio down1 enormous beast1 ,crushing the monster's eye and plated breast4 --,aratus4 ,and we gaze with admiration as ,aratus describes this struggle which seems by all odds to be against the giant4 ,ophiuchus perpetuates the memory of sculapius1 father of medicine4 ,he and his serpent1 as seen in the sky1 are exceedingly hard to trace but men also sought to do him honor on earth by erecting temples in which he was worshiped4 ,the brightest star in the constellation of ,ophiuchus1 the ,serpent ,bearer1 is ,ras ,alhague1 although this name has gone entirely out of use and the star is generally designated as ,ophiuchi4 ,figure #fb ,this star lies on the head of ,ophiuchus which is about three-quarters of the way up from the horizon to the zenith1 when on the meridian4 ,it rises a little north of east1 appearing ,when the sun sets on the #adth of ,may1 and requiring #f hours and #df minutes to reach the line midway between east and west4 ,ras ,algethi 7 ,herculis71 a beautiful orange colored star on the head of ,hercules1 is usually noted in connection with ,ras ,alhague1 since they stand rather isolated only about #f degrees apart4 7,the distance between the ,pointers on the outer side of the ,big ,dipper is equal to #e degrees47 ,when ,ras ,algethi and ,ras ,alhague are near the meridian1 a glance of the eye beyond will meet two stars of the #bnd magnitude also not far apart4 ,these are ,the ,dragon's ,eyes1 ,alwaid and ,etanin4 ,recalling that ,hercules has his foot on the ,dragon's head1 that the head stars of the two giants' lie almost together1 and the feet of the lower giant1 ,ophiuchus1 are crushing down ,scorpio1 the ,scorpion 7a conspicuous anchor shaped constellation in the south71 one has a fairly good idea of this section of the sky from the ,pole ,star to the horizon1 when ,ras ,alhague and ,ras ,algethi are near the meridian4 ,since both ,hercules and ,ophiuchus have very large but also very inconspicuous constellations1 it is well to keep them connected in some such manner4 ,in modern days the constellation of ,hercules has gained in interest through observations made by the telescope4 ,unfortunately the ancients were not privileged to see its gayly colored double stars and its marvelously beautiful star cluster4 ,figure #fc ,among the double stars1 ,young mentions an orange and blue1 and a white and emerald green2 the ,rev4 ,t4 ,w4 ,webb points out one almost appetizingly attractive in its light apple green and cherry red while ,serviss notes some charming combinations--orange and green1 pale green and purple1 light yellow and pale red--which may be seen with such meager assistance as an opera-glass4 ,serviss1 by the way1 has written a whole book on what may be seen in the sky with no greater aid than an opera-glass4 ,the star cluster in ,hercules lies on the west side of the constellation1 about one-third of the distance from the north end and not far from the figure of the ,northern ,crown4 ,to the unaided eye1 this cluster looks no more than a glimmering speck of light1 but if a powerful telescope is trained upon it1 it is resolved into a great cluster of stars4 ,these stars1 numbering into the thousands1 are so packed together toward the center that they have been described as resembling ice crystals in a snowball4 ,from such a lovely blaze within the center another observer adds that sprays of stars reach out in all directions like tendrils of a vine4 ,the stars counted on a photograph of the ,hercules cluster which was taken by the great #fj-;inch reflector on ,mount ,wilson1 number over #ej1jjj6 ,this telescope resolves even the solid glow of light at the center of the cluster into individual stars4 ,sir ,robert ,ball in ,star-land gives a good illustration of the appearance of a globular cluster of stars as seen in a large telescope4 ,i take a pepper-castor and on a sheet of white paper ,i begin to shake out pepper until there is a little heap in the center and the other grains of pepper are scattered loosely about4 ,imagine that every one of those grains of pepper was to be transformed into a tiny electric light1 and then you would have some idea of what a cluster of stars would look like when viewed through a telescope of sufficient power4 ,figure #fd3 ,a ,,star ,,cluster ,,in ,,hercules4 ,photograph by ,yerkes ,observatory through #bd-;inch telescope4 ,a photograph of the same star-cluster by the ,mount ,wilson ,observatory through a #fj-;inch reflecting telescope is shown on page #b4 ,it was at one time thought that the cluster of ,hercules might be a comparatively close cluster of small-sized suns1 but ,professor ,shapley has lately discovered that the cluster is a very distant one2 indeed it lies at such an exceedingly remote position in the realms of space that its parallax is slightly inferior to a #aj1jjjth second of arc which corresponds to a little more than #cf1jjj light years4 ,thus it takes #cf1jjj light years for its light to reach us1 for this light has to cross the unthinkable space of #bbj1jjj billion miles6 ,,lyra1 ,,the ,,harp ,figure #fe ,of the string of constellations twinkling high overhead during the spring and summer months1 we have already mentioned ,leo1 the ,lion2 ,berenice's ,hair2 ,botes with his golden ,arcturus2 the ,northern ,crown and the giant ,hercules4 ,next to ,hercules1 on the east1 lies the constellation of ,lyra1 represented in legend as the sweet toned harp which belonged to ,orpheus1 son of the ,muse ,calliope4 ,orpheus inherited the love of music from his mother1 and after the ,sun-god had presented him with this wonderful harp1 he played so delightfully that even trees1 rocks and hills gathered around him to listen4 ,treasuring the memory of such remarkable talents1 the ,greeks placed the instrument in the heavens at the edge of the ,milky ,way1 where its framework was adorned by a group of stars1 one of which is exceptionally bright1 vividly blue and very beautiful4 ,this blue star is called the ,harp ,star1 or ,vega1 by astronomers4 ,figure #ff3 ,precessional ,orbit of the ,pole4 ,vega rises in the far northeast in the early evenings during the first of ,may but during ,july and ,august it passes almost overhead4 ,when near the rim of the northern horizon yellow and red fires dart out amidst the blue1 but when high above in the dome of the sky1 its color is pure and coldly blue1 a decided contrast to the golden warmth of ,arcturus1 which lies not far to the west of it4 ,in consequence of the precession of the equinoxes1 in less than #ab1jjj years ,vega will be the nearest bright star to the pole2 indeed it will be close enough to serve as our ,north ,star4 ,then1 instead of wandering from the far northeast to the far northwest1 it will seem to stand in the north like a pale-blue pivot1 while all the other stars will circle round it4 ,vega will hold this position for #cjjj years4 ,the constellation of ,lyra and that of ,hercules are of particular interest because they mark that part of the universe to which our sun is traveling at the rate of #ab miles a second4 ,some day 7in half a million years or so71 this gorgeous sun1 a hundred times more brilliant than our sun1 may glow upon us as a near neighbor4 ,in #ab1jjj years1 when our north pole points to ,vega1 the great ,cross with its bright stars ,deneb and ,albireo1 will never set but will journey night after night in a small circle close about the celestial pole1 ,orion will climb over the zenith and the ,milky ,way in all its splendor will whirl about the north4 ,the principal figure formed by the stars of the constellation of ,lyra has been best described as an equilateral triangle balanced on the corner of a rhomboid4 ,this figure is easily traced although all of these stars1 with the exception of the brilliant blue one1 are of no more than the #crd or #dth magnitude4 ,to the average eye1 the little star east of ,vega1 at the top of the triangle1 appears a trifle elongated1 but a sharp eye divides the star into two stars set very closely together4 ,with a #c-;inch telescope each of these stars is found to be double4 ,this fourfold star in ,lyra is sometimes referred to as a double-double4 ,figure #fg ,the third star1 ,lyr1 at the base of the rhomboid on the same side of the figure as ,vega1 is a variable with three small stars near it1 forming a very pretty object with low power4 ,also at the base of the rhomboid1 between and 1 one-third of the way from 1 a small telescope will disclose a nebula which has assumed the shape of a ring1 or at least it looks like a ring at this distance4 ,there are various types of nebul1 some1 like the planetary and spiral1 having definite forms1 others being as shapeless as a puff of vapor4 ,sometimes a planetary nebula has a star at its center1 and again it appears hollow1 like a little smoke ring4 ,it is then called a ring nebula4 ,the most famous of these is the one found in ,lyra4 ,on the #aith and #bjth of ,april swift meteors1 known as the ,lyrids1 radiate from the vicinity of this constellation1 although the display is of interest rather than of any particular beauty4 ,the legend of this celestial harp1 which is often hung by map artists around the neck of an eagle1 is one of the most popular stories in mythology1 and its very appearance in the heavens brings to mind the beautiful lovers1 ,orpheus and ,eurydice4 ,the harp was anciently represented as having been invented by ,mercury1 who gave it to his half-brother ,apollo1 the ,sun-god1 who later presented it to ,orpheus1 the son of a ,muse4 ,mercury1 as an infant1 gave promise of being a most remarkable god1 for the very day that he was born1 he climbed out of his cradle1 wandered out of the lofty cavern of ,cyllene and picked up a little tortoise that was crawling past the entrance4 ,gently pulling off the scoop-shaped shell1 he bored neat holes along its edges1 stretched dried tendons across its face1 and wedged it firmly between two horns4 ,his tiny hands then strayed across the strings1 and he danced delightedly as the most delicious music issued from the shell4 ,and this1 whilst yet ,encradled1 ,hermes pierced and called it ,lyre4 --,aratus4 ,mercury then went in and slept awhile1 but when darkness came1 he again slipped out of his cavern and ran over to the hillside to see what further adventure awaited him4 ,here he found the pasture of ,apollo's cows1 and looking the animals over1 separated fifty of the best from the herd1 wrapped their hoofs in branches and drove them backwards into a large cave where he made a fire and sacrificed two of them to the twelve ,gods 7himself included74 ,figure #fh3 ,,the ,,ring ,,nebula ,,in ,,lyra4 ,photograph by ,mount ,wilson ,observatory through the #ajj-;inch ,hooker telescope4 ,the next day while ,apollo was driving his sun-chariot over the slopes in the east1 he noticed that a number of his favorite cows were missing4 ,investigating the matter1 he traced the theft to this baby1 who stood up in his cradle1 looked the ,sun-god in the face1 and stoutly denied it2 he even inquired in a nave manner what sort of animals cows were4 ,too amazed for further words1 ,apollo picked him up1 tucked him under his arm1 and went straightway up ,mount ,olympus to ,jupiter4 ,here the infant stood bravely in the midst of the assembly in the great ,olympian ,hall and with a look of injured innocence upon his face inquired1 ,how could ,i1 still wrapped in swaddling clothes1 drive away ,apollo's herd8 ,you well know that ,i was only born yesterday and have never crossed my mother's threshold4 ,the gods1 perfectly aware of his guilt1 roared with laughter and loudly applauded4 ,even ,jupiter smiled at the infant's cleverness and1 presenting him with a winged silver cap and silver wings for his feet1 told him to lead ,apollo to the cave where he had driven the cattle4 ,seeing that further subterfuge was useless1 ,mercury laughed gleefully and handed ,apollo his harp as a peace offering4 ,apollo soon played divinely on the little harp and was altogether so pleased with the instrument that he gave ,mercury entire charge of his flocks and herds1 as he preferred to become famous as the ,god of ,music4 ,the ,sun-god later gave the harp to ,orpheus1 and because a god had played upon it1 it responded to the touch of this beautiful youth in tones so pure and joyous that even wild beasts were charmed1 while birds swarmed about him in the air and sea-monsters came up to hear him from the bottom of the sea4 ,the power of his music was so great that rushing torrents slacked their rapid course to listen to him1 and once1 while playing1 he watched amazed as a whole forest marched up to a level place on a hill where it made a shade for a large assemblage of wild animals and the multitudes of birds who sat as if enchanted while he played4 ,this gay and happy musician had a lovely bride named ,eurydice1 daughter of the ,sea-god ,nereus1 whom he fondly loved4 ,one day while wandering in the fields1 ,eurydice was fatally bitten by a viper which lay concealed in the long grass4 ,orpheus filled the groves and valleys with his piteous lamentations and finally1 unable to live without her any longer1 he boldly walked into the cave that led to ,pluto's realm1 and braved the horrors of the steep1 dark path which led to the lower world4 ,after a difficult journey he arrived among the ,shades1 and wandered playing and singing among the admiring throng4 ,the ancients claim that the power of his music arrested for a while the torments of the damned1 that his golden tones seemed so heavenly in these gloomy depths that the stone of ,sisyphus remained motionless1 the ,danaides stopped their wearisome task of pouring water through a sieve1 and the ,furies withheld their persecutions4 ,e'en ,tantalus ceased from trying to sip ,the cup that flies from his arid lip4 --,saxe4 ,pluto was touched to unheard of softness and1 as he granted ,orpheus' plea that ,eurydice be returned to him1 iron tears rolled down the furrows of his cheeks4 ,but hold1 said the crafty monarch1 there is one condition4 ,if you once glance behind you to see if ,eurydice is following1 you must lose her again forever4 ,crashing chords of joyous triumph1 ,orpheus hurried up the rough pathway that led to the top of the world1 but as he was about to pass the extreme limits of ,hades and saw beyond him the opening where the sunlight reached in gently through the darkness1 he grew afraid1 and in order to convince himself that his beloved wife was really behind him1 he turned suddenly around--only to see ,eurydice1 with her arms outstretched1 floating slowly backwards into the drear1 dead land below4 ,the grief of ,orpheus at this second loss was even more intense than before1 and half-crazed with sorrow and remorse1 the poor lad stumbled to the banks of the river ,strymon1 where he mourned for seven days with neither food nor drink4 ,at last he wandered up into the mountains where he fell into the hands of wild1 bacchanalian revelers and came to a violent end4 ,at the intercession of ,apollo and the ,muses1 the harp of ,orpheus was placed among the stars while the youth himself was tenderly cared for and buried beneath the shadow of ,mount ,olympus4 ,figure #fi ,some mythologists1 however1 claim that ,orpheus was changed into a swan and placed in the heavens as the constellation of ,cygnus so that he might be near ,lyra1 the constellation of the ,harp1 although the ,latin poet ,ovid claims that ,cygnus took its name from ,cycnus1 a friend of ,apollo's son ,phthon4 ,it might seem strange1 on the face of it1 that a celebrated singer like ,orpheus should be changed into a bird as lacking in song as the swan1 but it should be remembered that the ancients believed that a dying swan sang very sweetly4 ,at least we are quite certain that ,lyra is the harp that ,mercury invented1 that the ,sun-god endowed with a golden tone1 and that ,orpheus played upon when he held spellbound not only mankind1 but beasts1 rocks and trees4 ,this great ,harp floats across the dome of the heavens on summer evenings with the blue jewel ,vega blazing on its frame4 ,longfellow in ,the ,occultation of ,orion clearly visioned its celestial keys1 ,its chords of air1 its frets of fire4 ,it is easy to imagine that these twinkling chords still sigh and give forth strains of music1 for an olian ,harp is a harp that sings when a wind passes over its strings1 and the music of such an instrument is of a drowsy1 lulling quality which blends beautifully into dreams4 ,,the ,,great ,,northern ,,cross ,figure #gj ,just east of the ,harp ,star1 in the center of the ,milky ,way1 rests a cross of stars1 clear and bright1 as if a cross had really been placed there and then studded with five big stars4 ,during the month of ,may the ,cross rises on its side 7as viewed by an observer in the northern hemisphere71 but it rests north and south as it reaches the zenith in midsummer4 ,by ,december it has reached the slope in the west1 and now assuming an upright position1 descends majestically to the horizon4 ,this descent is quite effective1 especially at the moment when the pale orange star1 which rests at its base1 lightly touches a mountain range etched in the distance or the edge of a far-reaching plain4 ,this #crd magnitude star1 ,albireo1 is a favorite with amateur astronomers1 for it has a #eth magnitude companion star of the richest and most vivid greenish-blue4 ,figure #ga ,this lovely double star with its sharply contrasted colors may be seen to good advantage in a small telescope and vies in beauty with the famous three-colored star1 ,gamma ,andromed4 ,deneb1 the brilliant white star at the head of the ,cross1 is a very distant sun but is so large that it shines forth brightly among our finest stars4 ,it is estimated by astronomers as being at a much greater distance than the ,harp ,star1 ,vega1 and ,vega is distant about #bcb millions of millions of miles6 ,in contrast to the huge sun that ,deneb must be to shine so brightly at its great distance1 there is a little star above the armpiece on the eastern side of the ,cross1 which is the nearest star to the earth that has yet been found1 as seen from the northern hemisphere4 ,figure #gb ,this faint star is really a very tiny sun for nine more similar suns thrown into it and blazing as one big fire1 would no more than equal our sun in brilliancy4 ,in the vicinity of #fa ,cygni1 is a large1 mysterious1 black spot visible on account of the glow of light from the densely packed stars of the ,milky ,way4 ,this spot was first described as being like a hole and was curiously named ,a ,sack of ,coals4 ,science later suggested that since we have dark suns perhaps we also have dark nebul and that such an object may be lying between us and those distant stars4 ,the late ,e4 ,e4 ,barnard of ,yerkes ,observatory made extensive studies of the distribution of nebular matter and he seems to have definitely proved the existence of dark nebul4 ,the black spots and rifts in the ,milky ,way are now generally accepted to be dark nebulous matter which cuts out the light from the stellar regions behind them4 ,professor ,barnard made many wonderful photographs of such dark spots and compiled a famous ,catalogue of #ahb ,dark ,markings in the sky4 ,dr4 ,hubble of the ,mount ,wilson ,observatory found that in its normal state a nebula is dark rather than luminous4 ,if a nebula shines it is because it is either illuminated by the light from the stars near it or because it is electrically excited in some way not clearly understood4 ,figure #gc3 ,a ,,dark ,,nebula 7,s-,,shaped7 ,,in ,,ophiuchus4 ,photograph by ,mount ,wilson ,observatory through the #ajj-;inch ,hooker telescope4 ,there is also a ,cross on the ,milky ,way with a dark nebula beside it in a conspicuous position in the southern hemisphere1 although there the cross is not quite as perfect as our cross in the north1 for it is formed of only four bright stars instead of five4 ,even our cross is not quite perfect1 for one star1 the diamond-studded nail holding it together1 is just a little out of line4 ,julia ,e4 ,rogers in ,earth and ,sky has said that her fingers fairly itch to put it where it belongs4 ,imagine6 ,and since she has so aptly expressed it1 we now all feel that way4 ,this outlined figure of the great ,northern ,cross forms the basis of a constellation called ,cygnus1 the ,swan4 ,figure #gd ,the bill of the ,swan lies on ,albireo1 the double star at the foot of the ,cross1 while its wings curve gracefully back from the armpiece4 ,according to the story of ,phthon and ,cycnus1 ,phthon1 after his hectic ride in the sun-chariot1 fell a charred fragment into the river ,eridanus4 ,jupiter's thunderbolt had hit its mark3 ,and ,phthon caught in mid-career1 ,and hurled from sun to utter sunlessness1 ,like a flame-bearded comet1 with ghastliest hiss1 ,fell headlong in the amazed ,eridanus4 --,worsley4 ,phthon's three sisters1 the ,heliades1 wept so bitterly on the banks of the ,eridanus that the compassionate gods changed them into poplar trees and their tears into amber4 ,ovid pictures their terrible grief-- ,all the night long their mournful watch they keep1 ,and all the day stand round the tomb and weep4 ,cycnus1 ,phthon's friend1 also grieved deeply and watched over the waters for many days4 ,while watching thus his neck grew longer and longer until at last it became perfectly atrocious4 ,the gods again looked down in pity1 metamorphosed the youth into a swan and placed him on the river of the ,milky ,way4 ,for ,cycnus loved unhappy ,phthon1 ,and sung his loss in poplar groves alone1 ,beneath the sister shades to soothe his grief1 ,heaven heard his song and hastened his relief4 ,and changed to snowy plumes his hoary hair1 ,and winged his flight to sing aloft in air4 --,virgil4 ,if this swan is really ,cycnus it seems strange that he was not depicted as flying down the wavy line of ,eridanus' stars instead of being placed over the silvery stream of the ,milky ,way1 for the river ,eridanus1 into which ,phthon had fallen1 was placed in the winter sky at the foot of ,orion4 ,this was supposed to console ,apollo for the loss of his son4 ,perhaps the ,swan is ,orpheus1 as some mythologists claim1 carried up to the constellations to be near his well-loved harp4 ,however1 no matter which 'human' this long-necked bird is supposed to represent1 we see its gigantic1 graceful outlines sketched with star-like lightness beyond the stars of the ,cross1 and we see his snow-white wings extended and the orange light of ,albireo shining on his beak1 as he flies softly1 head downward1 along the misty river of stars4 ,figure #ge3 ,,the ,,zenith ,,constellations ,,and ,,the ,,spectators ,,of ,,the ,,pageant4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,spectators ,,of ,,the ,,zenith ,,pageant ,,aquila1 the ,eagle4 ,,sagittarius1 the ,archer4 ,,delphinus1 the ,dolphin4 ,,hydra1 the ,water-snake4 ,,auriga1 the ,charioteer4 ,,the above constellations1 which lie to either side of the great summer parade of star-figures which crosses the heavenly dome1 will be called1 for convenience in locating them1 the spectators4 ,the story of the spectator ,ophiuchus1 who is grasping ,serpens 7which is a separate constellation but usually mentioned in conjunction with ,ophiuchus71 has already been mentioned under the adventures of the giant ,hercules1 and that of ,crater1 the ,cup and of ,corvus1 the ,crow1 will appear in connection with the ,water-snake4 ,the four large stars in the southern part of the sky--,spica1 ,antares1 ,formalhaut and ,sirius--are1 however1 better taken in a group by themselves1 for they are thus more easily remembered as large stars conspicuous in different seasons of the year in a region where large stars are scarce4 ,,aquila1 ,,the ,,eagle ,figure #gf ,aquila1 the ,eagle1 was given a constellation not far below the ,cross1 at the edge of the ,milky ,way4 ,this ,eagle is designated as the ,flying ,eagle so as not to be confused with the ,eagle which holds ,lyra1 the ,harp4 ,in mythology the eagle was supposed to be the bird of ,jupiter because it could fly higher than other birds4 ,this particular eagle stood by the throne in the palace on ,mount ,olympus and carried the thunderbolts in his claws4 ,he1 a bird1 supplies the heavens with sacred bolts and arms the skies4 ,the ,eagle pictured on the star maps is a very large bird1 but the only portion of him not difficult to locate in the sky are the three bright stars which hang like a bar across his neck4 ,figure #gg ,these stars alone suggest a bird flying with outstretched wings4 ,this is a region of birds1 for the great ,cross with ,cygnus1 the ,swan1 drifts down the ,milky ,way between the two ,eagles4 ,the three birds are most effective and easily located when seen on the meridian in midsummer1 for they then form a large triangle across the star stream1 ,lyra and ,aquila being at the edges of the stream and at the base of the triangle with the center of the ,cross at its peak4 ,one day ,jupiter sent this eagle who is now in the sky down from ,mount ,olympus to seize a beautiful youth named ,ganymede who was tending his father's flocks on ,mount ,ida4 ,this youth was then carried up to the palaces of the ,gods and given the position of cupbearer4 ,the ,greeks believed that ,jupiter gave ,ganymede's grieving father a pair of divine horses as a compensation for kidnaping his boy and comforted him at the same time by saying that ,ganymede had now become immortal and free from all earthly ills4 ,the eagle was rewarded for its daring by being placed among the constellations4 ,ganymede was also1 in due time1 honored in the same manner and is represented by the constellation ,aquarius1 the ,waterbearer1 despite the fact that it was nectar1 and not water1 that this youth poured in the cups of the gods4 ,aquarius lies east of ,aquila4 ,the large white star in the center of the three stars which hang on the neck of the ,eagle is called ,altair4 ,altair rises a little north of east with its twin stars ,alshain and ,trazed1 about #i o'clock on the #bith of ,may4 ,it arrives at the meridian at #aj o'clock ,august #ahth1 at #i o'clock ,september #bnd1 and at #h o'clock ,september #ahth4 ,figure #gh ,it is then about two-thirds of the way up from the horizon4 ,the three stars are called ,the ,shaft of ,altair4 ,altair is one of the nearest of the brightest stars and is approaching the earth at the rate of #bj miles a second4 ,you may step out now and look up at this star with a personal interest1 but it is still far away4 ,indeed it is so very far away that generations will live and die and still an increase in its light will scarcely be noticeable4 ,a small arrow studded with five stars lies1 pointing east1 in the ,milky ,way1 slightly to the north of ,altair4 ,these stars lie in the constellation of ,sagitta1 the ,arrow1 which the ,greeks may have considered an arrow of ,hercules aimed at one of the bird constellations1 or the arrow with which the hero slew the vulture which tormented ,prometheus on the top of the ,caucasus mountains4 ,it is sometimes also called ,cupid's ,arrow4 ,sagitta is one of the oldest of the constellations1 its history being lost even in the time of ,aratus4 ,,delphinus1 ,,the ,,dolphin ,figure #gi ,delphinus1 the ,dolphin1 may be located #aj degrees to the northeast of ,aquila1 the ,eagle1 and below and to the east of ,cygnus1 on the ,milky ,way4 ,it is popularly known as ,job's ,coffin1 which1 ridiculous or not1 is said to have originated from the diamond-shaped form in which its stars are set4 ,this conception1 however1 places less strain on the imagination than in the case of ,pegasus 7whose nose starred by ,enif lies #aj degrees southeast of ,delphinus71 where the four principal stars form a square and are called a ,flying ,horse4 ,but the name of ,job's ,coffin1 as mentioned before1 is merely a popular name while ,delphinus1 the constellation known as the ,dolphin1 was named in honor of a dolphin connected with the adventures of ,arion1 far-famed as a musician of ,corinth about #gjj ,b4 ,c4 ,the dolphin which the map-makers drew on the star-maps is an exceedingly plump and queer-looking animal4 ,as ,admiral ,smith comically remarks1 it looks more like a huge periwinkle pulled out of its shell4 ,in reality dolphins are anything but periwinklian1 for they belong to the whale family4 ,they grow to be from six to eight feet in length and travel in herds1 and have been seen by the writer gamboling and playing on the surface of the sea in the most remarkable manner4 ,they are supposed to be strongly attracted toward harmonious sounds such as music1 delight in racing with passing ships and seem to be of an exceptionally friendly nature toward man4 ,on this foundation was based the legend of ,arion1 first given by ,herodotus and afterwards decorated by the poets4 ,arion had been sent by ,periander1 ruler of ,corinth1 to ,sicily and ,italy1 and at ,tarentum had won the prize in a musical contest4 ,as he returned laden with gifts in a ,corinthian ship1 the musician was attacked by avaricious sailors determined to do away with him and take possession of his goods4 ,warned by ,apollo in a dream1 ,arion lured close a troop of friendly dolphins by the sweet strains of his cithara4 ,leaping to the back of an admiring one1 he was carried to the promontory of ,tnarus1 where he landed and journeyed on to ,corinth4 ,for this praiseworthy deed1 the gods raised the dolphin among the constellations4 ,another legend tells us that when ,neptune1 ,ruler of the ,sea1 courted the lovely1 dark-eyed nymph ,amphitrite1 he came riding on the back of a dolphin4 ,figure #hj ,as his courtship was successful1 he rewarded the dolphin in the usual way1 by gaining permission to have him placed among the stars4 ,,sagittarius1 ,,the ,,archer ,figure #ha ,sagittarius1 the ,archer1 is supposed to be a centaur1 one of a fabulous race seen on the plains of ,thessaly and about the woods of ,mount ,pelion4 ,this race was supposed to possess the body of a horse and the head and shoulders of a man but none of them had ever amounted to much or accomplished anything of worth in the world1 with the grand exception of one centaur1 whose name was ,chiron4 ,chiron lived in a stone cave near the summit of ,mount ,pelion and it was here that all the heroes of ,greece--,hercules1 ,jason1 ,castor and ,pollux1 ,aesculapius1 ,achilles and others--spent their early lives1 for ,chiron was famous for his knowledge and served these young men as a tutor4 ,he not only taught them all the manly arts but he aided them in various enterprising adventures1 such as marking out the constellations for the heroes when they went with ,jason in the ,argo in search of the ,golden ,fleece4 ,one day ,hercules unfortunately opened the fatal wine-jar1 and the odor1 floating about on the breezes1 attracted hordes of common centaurs who fought ferociously to gain possession of it4 ,hercules managed to kill most of them with the arrows he had dipped in the blood of the poisonous hydra1 but his old master was also accidentally wounded by one of the terrible barbs4 ,any wound1 however slight1 inoculated with this poison1 was certain to prove fatal1 but the centaur ,chiron was immortal and could not die4 ,retiring to his cave1 he prayed to the gods to deprive him of his immortality so that he might be released from his suffering1 and to accept him as an atonement for ,prometheus1 the gigantic ,titan ,forethought1 who wished for immortality so that he might always be an aid to man4 ,this ,titan1 in his eagerness to aid mankind1 had once displeased the gods by secretly climbing up to heaven1 lighting a reed at the fire of the sun1 and bringing down the holy flame as a gift to the human race4 ,he thus was the founder of civilization4 ,resentment stung the ,thunderer's inmost soul1 ,and his heart chafed in anger1 when he saw ,the fire far-gleaming in the midst of man4 --,hesiod4 ,not only did ,jupiter punish the ,titan by chaining him to a crag in the ,caucasus mountains at the eastern end of the earth1 but he sent ,pandora to the ,titan's brother ,epimetheus1 and ,pandora1 through her unrestrained curiosity1 opened a forbidden box and let out all the woes and sorrows which now roam the world4 ,since1 however1 ungrateful mankind had informed on ,prometheus1 he rewarded them with a remedy for old age--which was slyly stolen by a snake as the gift was being conveyed down the mountain4 ,thus snakes renew their youth by casting off their skins while men suffer helplessly with all the evils that prey upon the old4 ,but ,jupiter now felt such great pity for ,chiron in his torture that he somewhat forgot his indignation at ,prometheus 7and anyway mortals had been using fire for many generations and it had spread to such an extent that it was now past regaining71 so the great god granted ,chiron's prayer that he might sacrifice his immortality for the release of ,prometheus4 ,figure #hb3 ,the ,bow1 the ,scorpion and the ,hydra's ,tail4 ,hercules then made his way up the precipice where ,prometheus was bound1 killed the vulture which was torturing him1 struck off his chains and set him free4 ,the centaur was then made mortal1 released from his sufferings by the gentle balm of death1 placed in the heavens and beautified with stars4 ,this centaur1 now called ,sagittarius1 the ,archer1 was given a constellation near the southern horizon1 indeed1 he lies so far to the south that he is partially hidden from view and only the head and bow and arrow may be seen by most of us living in the ,united ,states4 ,his constellation may be easily located by first finding the ,scorpion1 which has a large1 well-defined anchor-shaped figure marked in the center by a brilliantly red first magnitude star4 ,the ,greeks imagined that the ,arrow of the ,archer was drawn and held against the bow4 ,ovid says that the ,archer ,thrusts the ,scorpion with his bended bow4 ,figure #hc ,however1 most of the people in these ,united ,states call the ,bow and ,arrow a ,milk ,dipper because its stars seem to outline a little ,dipper embedded in the stream of the ,milky ,way4 ,figure #hd ,thus we have fancy adorned and plain fancy4 ,the arrow1 the stars in the bow and two other stars form this little ,dipper which is best seen directly in the south1 near the horizon1 on ,september first at #h ,p4 ,m4 ,sagittarius is low in the south at the same time that ,vega is on the meridian4 ,in the star-maps1 the ,centaur is shown halting at the edge of the star stream and aiming across its mist of light at the great red star which flutters on the heart of the ,scorpion4 ,the ,scorpion1 however1 is pictured as observing with interest the nearby tail of the many-headed watersnake although he is almost crushed by the mighty foot of the giant ,ophiuchus whose head lies high up in the sky against that of ,hercules4 ,the ,centaur's group of stars1 the constellation of ,sagittarius1 is a zodiacal constellation1 with the arrow and part of the bow for its symbol4 ,there is also another centaur in the sky but no part of him can be seen in these latitudes4 ,this constellation contains two famous stars1 ,alpha and ,beta ,centauri1 sometimes called the ,southern ,pointers because they point to the figure of the ,southern ,cross4 ,figure #he ,these two stars are on the ,centaur's forefeet4 ,alpha ,centauri is the nearest star to the earth1 lying at a distance of only #be1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj miles4 ,unthinkable as this number of miles may seem1 it is such a short distance across the fields of the heavens that ,alpha ,centauri and our sun would appear to be very close together as seen from the planets of other stars4 ,thus our kingdom of the sun is not an isolated isle among the dim star-lights of space1 but shines as one of the stars in a community of such kingdoms4 ,the tiny star #fa ,cygni is the nearest star to the earth as seen from the northern hemisphere4 ,,hydra1 ,,the ,,water-,,snake ,figure #hf ,hydra1 the ,water-snake1 first rears a venomous head above the eastern horizon on ,january #eth about #i ,p4 ,m4 ,he slowly squirms along the southern horizon1 his length being so appalling that it takes him four months to completely pass any one point in the sky4 ,along the body of this ,water-snake are scattered a few #dth magnitude stars4 ,the twinkling lights of these stars may be followed far to the south and then east1 almost to the boundary of ,scorpio4 ,indeed1 when the ,watersnake is completely above the horizon1 as he is in ,april1 these stars show that his long length stretches over nearly a quarter of the sky6 ,some poets state that this creature had one hundred heads1 others claim that he had only nine4 ,however this may be1 there is only one that is easily traced and this lies1 triangle-shaped1 just below ,leo1 the ,lion4 ,the only noticeably bright marking on the ,water-snake is the orange-hued star of the second magnitude which lies upon the reptile's heart4 ,this star is called ,cor ,hydr after its location1 but it also has the name of ,alphard1 the ,solitary4 ,since the naming of the star1 science has discovered the latter name to be rather a misnomer for it has a telescopic companion of a pale shade of green4 ,cor ,hydr rises in the early evening on the #bast of ,february1 and passes the meridian about #i o'clock during the middle of ,march4 ,the northernmost star of the group that marks the head is also a double4 ,this double consists of two stars of the #dth and #hth magnitudes1 the larger one being yellow and the smaller purple4 ,figure #hg3 ,double ,stars on ,hydra1 the ,water-snake4 ,two geometrical figures called ,corvus1 the ,crow1 and ,crater1 the ,cup1 rest on the back of this ,lernean ,hydra4 ,these two small constellations are easily traced1 one having the form of a quadrilateral figure and the other a section of a circle4 ,kippax says that ,crater has been variously called the ,cup of ,hercules1 the ,cup of ,achilles1 the ,cup of ,medea and the ,wine ,cup of ,noah4 ,the ,greeks called ,crater the ,goblet of ,apollo but according to ,manilius it was the generous ,bowl of ,bacchus1 ,god of ,wine4 ,figure #hh3 ,during the springtime1 ,hydra1 the ,water-snake1 may be seen creeping along the horizon in the south4 ,although this ,water-snake is generally represented as the one connected with the ,labors of ,hercules1 there is also another legend which combines the ,crow1 the ,cup and the ,snake in one tale4 ,the crow was at one time ,apollo's favorite bird until one day1 in anger at its tale bearing1 the ,sun-god turned its color from pure white to black and forbade it to fly any longer among other birds4 ,on another occasion this provoking little servant was given a cup and told to fetch some water for a sacrifice to ,jupiter4 ,instead of attending to its duty1 however1 it loitered at a fig tree until the fruit became ripe1 then returned to the ,god with a watersnake in his claws and a lie on his tongue4 ,for punishment the crow was fixed in the sky with the cup and the snake1 the latter being charged never to allow him to drink--although the constellation ,hydra1 which stretches over a quarter of the sky1 is certainly not the same little reptile which the crow carried from the spring4 ,,auriga1 ,,the ,,charioteer ,figure #hi ,the ,charioteer is an ancient title retained by the constellation ,auriga1 although in the star-maps one usually finds a man of huge stature carrying a goat and two frightened kids4 ,far in the north his giant form begins1 ,reaching athwart the sky the distant ,twins4 ,auriga1 according to the earliest ,grecian legends1 was a chariot-driver identified with ,erechtheus1 son of the ,god ,vulcan4 ,erechtheus inherited lameness from his father who was twice thrown from ,mount ,olympus1 the second time falling on the ,island of ,lemnos instead of the sea1--which broke his ankle4 ,his son1 fretting under the inconvenience caused by his deformity1 invented the four-horse chariot which provided himself and others with an easy way of traveling from place to place4 ,for this achievement ,jupiter rewarded him with a constellation1 choosing five bright stars which actually somewhat resemble an ancient chariot4 ,his art great ,jove admired1 when first he drove ,his rattling ,car1 and fix'd the ,youth above4 --,manilius4 ,yet1 on the star-maps1 the ,charioteer is pictured with a goat on his shoulders1 instead of driving a chariot1 although sometimes a chariot has also been represented4 ,allen says that modern research gives us reason to believe that the constellation was delineated by the early star-gazers of the ,euphrates valley millenniums ago and perhaps the ,greeks merely impressed their legends on another figure as it is possible they also did in the case of ,hercules4 ,the goat which the ,charioteer holds1 according to one tradition1 was the goat on whose milk the infant ,jupiter was fed after he had been carried to the island of ,crete to escape being devoured by his father ,saturn1 the ,god of ,time4 ,the sacred goat upon his shoulder rests1 ,to infant ,jove she gave a mother's breast4 and then ,grateful he placed her there1 ,and bade her kids their mother's honour share4 ,it is further related that one day while playing with the goat1 ,jupiter accidentally broke off one of its horns4 ,in atonement1 he filled the horn with fruits and flowers--the horn of plenty--and consoled the goat by giving it a constellation4 ,the brilliant star1 ,capella1 lies on the heart of this goat1 the name signifying the little ,she-goat1 and not only the ,greeks and ,romans1 but the ancient ,peruvians1 far across the ocean1 connected this star with the affairs of shepherds4 ,english poets refer to ,capella as the ,shepherd's ,star4 ,in the hand of this mighty man seated on the ,milky ,way1 who is sometimes called the ,charioteer or the ,wagoner1 are the two kids which were raised with their mother to the stars4 ,figure #ij ,these kids may be recognized by a small triangle of stars not far from ,capella4 ,they were often called the frightened kids by the ancients4 ,no wonder they looked frightened--the long horns of the red-eyed ,taurus are lowered in the sky below them1 the gleaming blade of the hero ,perseus is brandished among the stars not far to the side of them and the huge bulk of the ,great ,bear is shadowed in the darkness just beyond them4 ,the ancient people also called them the horrid1 mad stars and feared their influence on the weather1 for it so happened that these timid little creatures were either near the eastern or the western horizon during the storm weather4 ,since this coincidence happened year after year without fail1 it was felt that the ,kids were in some way responsible for it4 ,tempt not the winds forewarned of dangers nigh1 ,when the ,kids glitter in the western sky4 --,callimachus1 #bdj ,b4,c4 ,such severe storms were so common on the ,mediterranean when they glittered in the eastern sky during their early rising in ,october1 that their appearance was a signal for the closing of navigation4 ,after the stars had made their final disappearance in the west1 the people held a festival to celebrate their great relief and joy4 ,the ,kids were certainly not a popular star group with the ancient seaman's wife1 for literature pictures her as clasping her hands and gazing fearfully out to sea as the winds and waves swirled and leaped under the influence of the mad stars and imperiled the safety of her dear ones4 ,the beautiful first magnitude star ,capella may be seen any month of the year except ,july4 ,it lies below and to the north of ,perseus 7three bright stars dangling below the ,big ,w7 and may be sighted in a straight line from the top of the bowl of the ,big ,dipper4 ,figure #ia ,in the early evening on ,february #eth it lies exactly on the meridian halfway between ,orion and the ,north ,star1 while in ,august it is low in the northeast and in ,june low in the northwest4 ,the spectroscope has shown that ,capella really consists of two great suns of nearly equal brilliance4 ,these two stars lie so close together that there is not much more than half the distance between our earth and sun between them1--and they revolve around this common center of gravity in only #ajd4b days6 ,figure #ib ,as they revolve around this point the lines in the spectroscope periodically split1 thus proving the double nature of the star4 ,in the present state of our knowledge about eight stars out of twenty are binaries or multiples4 ,short as seems the period of revolution of ,capella and its companion compared to ,sirius and its companion1 which is about #ej years1 or the couple of couples composing ,castor1 which is about #ijj years1 there are stars so close that they complete a revolution in a few hours4 ,the very atmospheres of one pair of suns1 ,cephei1 perhaps intertwine like lovers' arms1 for they whirl about their common center of gravity in only #d hours6 ,the distance of ,capella from the earth has been estimated as being about #cd light years4 ,a light year is the distance that light would travel in one year at the rate of #ahf1jjj miles a second4 ,this is about six million million miles6 ,thus the twin suns in the system of ,capella could have rolled off their tracks and exploded into atoms #bi years ago and yet we would know nothing of this catastrophe for #e years to come4 ,the fact that light takes a certain amount of time to travel and is not instantaneous1 was first discovered by watching the little moons of the planet ,jupiter1 although it has since been determined from experiments on the surface of the earth4 ,for a long time1 an astronomer could foretell on what night and hour an eclipse of a given satellite would occur but he could not make the predicted minute agree with the actual time of eclipse4 ,during the seventeenth century1 ,roemer1 a ,danish astronomer1 discovered that the eclipses come #h minutes and #ah seconds early when the earth is nearest to ,jupiter and #h minutes and #ah seconds late when it is on the opposite side of its orbit4 ,he thus was the first to suspect that light could not flash instantaneously across the #ahf1jjj1jjj miles which is the diameter of the earth's orbit4 ,after it was found that light required #h minutes and #h seconds to come from the sun to the earth1 it was a simple matter to find the space that it would move over in a year4 ,this number1 #fc1cfh radii of the earth's orbit or about six million million miles1 has been since taken as a handy unit of measure in estimating the distances to the stars4 ,thus a light year is the distance that light will travel in a year at the rate of #ahf1jjj miles a second4 ,an astronomer expressing the distance of a star in terms of this unit would say that ,alpha ,centauri is #d4bf light years distant instead of #be1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj miles1 and #d4bf years would represent the time that it takes light to come from that star to the earth4 ,although it takes light only about #h minutes to reach the earth from the sun and about #d years from the nearest star1 it requires only one second from the moon1 which is nearer than the sun1 and #dg years from the ,north ,star1 which is a long way from being our nearest star4 ,sirius1 our largest star1 is distant only #h light years1 but ,vega and ,capella1 which rank just below it1 are respectively three and four times farther away4 ,some stars are so distant that it requires thousands of years for their light to reach us4 ,according to the calculations of ,kapteyn1 only one-eighth of the #fbjj stars whose distance was measured are nearer than #ajj light years4 ,four of these stars are known to be within #aj light years--,alpha ,centauri1 ,sirius1 ,barnard's runaway star1 and one of the #gth magnitude known as ,lalande #ba1ahe4 ,yet all of these stars1 those which are only a few light years away and those which are hundreds of light years away1 seem suddenly to be our neighbors1 when we think of them as being grouped within the protecting arms of the ,milky ,way1 and the space between1 which science has measured1 loses some of its awfulness4 ,our neighbor ,capella is a beautiful star4 ,it flashes like a great solitaire1 a star-poem of loveliness in color4 ,early in ,august1 in the far northeast1 its creamy-whiteness is accentuated by seashell pinks which splash through the thickened atmosphere like the effervescence of a rainbow4 ,this star1 with two others1--,vega1 a delicate blue and ,arcturus1 an orange-gold1--are the three brightest stars nearest the north4 ,since they are easy to locate and visible most of the year they are usually the star lover's favorites among the stars4 ,learn to locate these exquisite isles of starlight by using the ,big ,dipper as a base from which to start4 ,figure #ic3 ,how to locate ,vega1 ,capella1 and ,arcturus with the aid of the ,big ,dipper4 ,note also drawing on page #dc4 ,figure #id3 ,,the ,,four ,,great ,,southern ,,stars4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,great ,,stars ,,of ,,the ,,south ,,spica ,,formalhaut ,,antares ,,sirius ,,with the exception of the stars in the constellation of ,orion1--,spica1 ,antares1 ,formalhaut and ,sirius are the only stars of the first magnitude south of the celestial equator which are visible from any point in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,orion stars are winter stars and will be taken up in the chapter to follow1 but these four stars1 each of which in turn looms lonesomely in the south1 are representatives of the seasons1 and their very names1 ,spica1 ,antares1 ,formalhaut and ,sirius1 bring to mind successively1 spring1 summer1 autumn and winter4 ,spica1 the ,spring ,star1 rises at sunset on the #ajth of ,april and crosses the meridian during the early evenings of ,april1 ,may and ,june4 ,its beautiful silvery-white flame first appears just a little south of east and it takes only #e hours and #be minutes to cover half of its arc across the sky4 ,it is then a little less than half way up from the horizon and hangs on the same curve from the ,big ,dipper's handle as ,arcturus4 ,antares rises at sunset on the first of ,june and passes the meridian early in the evening during ,june and ,july4 ,it rises farther south of east than ,spica and takes only #d hours and #bc minutes to reach the meridian4 ,it is then only one-quarter of the way up from the horizon4 ,being a brilliantly red star in a conspicuous anchor-like constellation near the ,milky ,way1 it is very easy to locate4 ,formalhaut rises at sunset about the #ajth of ,october and reaches the meridian about #d hours later4 ,it first appears in the southeast and skims in a short arc closer to the horizon than any other first magnitude star4 ,sirius rises in the southeast about #i o'clock on the first of ,december1 but anyone wishing to see this magnificent star during the summer months should look toward the east about #d o'clock in the morning on the #afth of ,august4 ,in #e hours and #c minutes this star reaches the meridian1 one-third of the way up from the horizon4 ,sirius is the largest and loveliest star in the sky1 possessing such a vivacious character combined with a sparkling1 diamond-like beauty1 that it is a delight to every eye that beholds it4 ,,spica ,figure #ie ,the constellation of ,virgo1 in which ,spica is found1 is easily recognized by its brilliant white star and its large ,v or corner of five stars which marks off the upper portion4 ,the ,arabian astronomers called the corner ,the ,kennel or ,the ,retreat of the ,howling ,dog4 ,just beyond the ,kennel gleams the star-dust on ,berenice's ,hair1 and above this sprinkling of minute stars1 howl the furious hounds of ,botes struggling madly to pounce upon the ,bear4 ,a most remarkable nebulous region lies within the triangular corner of ,virgo1 although the nebul are very faint and only visible through a large telescope4 ,nebul as a class are found in abundance in the vicinity of the north pole of the galaxy1 which lies in the constellation ,coma ,berenices1 this corner alone containing almost #cjj1 although they are rarely found along the path of the ,milky ,way4 ,the yellow #crd magnitude star on the upper end of the corner in ,virgo has for many ages been called ,vindemiatrix1 which means ,grape-,gatherer4 ,figure #if ,it is believed that the star was given this curious name because it was observed to rise before the sun in the season in which grapes ripened4 ,vindemiatrix has a minute distant companion of a deep red color4 ,the star at the other end of the corner has the interesting name of ,zavijava1 while the point is noted as a binary having a period of #ahe years4 ,figure #ig ,spica1 the jewel of the ,virgin1 is best located by dropping an imaginary line through ,arcturus from the handle of the ,big ,dipper4 ,it rises about an hour later than ,arcturus 7who first appears at sunset during the latter part of ,march71 and travels in a curve through the south4 ,figure #ih ,these two stars contrast beautifully as they swing through the sky like gold and silver globes of fire strung on an invisible thread4 ,a tale current among ancient people was that ,virgo1 the ,virgin1 was once ,astra1 ,goddess of ,purity and ,justice1 who lived on earth during the ,golden ,age when all men were happy4 ,during the ,silver ,age contentment still prevailed and the ,gods lingered although men were less perfect and the world less tranquil4 ,when the ,bronze ,age was ushered in men became so inferior that the work of ,astra's office was ignored and she fled in sorrow to the sky4 ,even so long as the earth still nurtured the ,golden ,race1 she had her dwelling on earth4 ,but with the ,silver ,race only a little and no longer with utter readiness did she mingle-- ,when the ,bronze ,race was born she loathed them for they forged the sword of the highwayman1 ate the flesh of the plowing ox and engaged in strife and discord4 --,aratus 7,trans4 ,c4 ,r4 ,,mair74 ,somehow the goodness and purity of ,astra were incorporated in one beautiful star called ,spica1 and this star shone with such exceeding whiteness that the whole constellation became ,virgo1 the ,virgin4 ,the pictures drawn on the maps vision a goddess with wings carrying a palm branch in one hand and an ear of wheat in the other4 ,in some of the older maps1 the goddess carries a balance or a pair of golden scales with which to weigh the fate of mortals1 but this is now a separate constellation--,libra1 the ,scales--lying to the east of ,virgo4 ,in classic days1 the two bright stars which mark the ,scales were on the claws of the ,scorpion which were then pictured as more extended4 ,the ancient people worshiped the constellation of ,virgo with its beautiful white star1 and1 even as a quiet prayer may be said in music instead of in words1 the purity of ,spica seemed to glow like a benediction upon their revering hearts4 ,even to the modern world1 the springtime loveliness of this large and beautiful star is refreshing4 ,but we are wont to gaze upon it more with awe than reverence for science tells us that it is not only one white star but two1 the mass of each being much greater than that of our sun4 ,these two stars are only #aa1jjj1jjj miles apart and whirl around their common center of gravity in the amazingly short period of only four days6 ,such is the jewel found on the ,virgin's ear of wheat1 although the myths do not all agree that ,virgo is ,astra4 ,whether she be the daughter of ,astrus1 who1 men say1 was of old the father of the stars1 or the child of other sire1 untroubled be her course4 --,aratus4 ,however1 they all do seem to agree that the constellation is connected in some way with the thought of harvests4 ,virgo was early identified as the ,egyptian ,isis who dropped an ear of wheat as she fled from the monster ,typhon when he appeared around the ,nile4 ,as a result the wheat was scattered in a wide path along the heavens which is now called the ,milky ,way4 ,among other characters1 ,virgo has been regarded as ,ceres1 the ,goddess of the ,harvests1 and even as ,ceres' daughter ,proserpine4 ,plutarch seems to think that the ,greeks are indebted to the ,egyptians for their story of ,ceres4 ,thus the ,egyptian ,isis would be ,ceres1 or ,demeter4 ,isis also taught the use of corn which once stood neglected in the fields4 ,the story of ,ceres and ,proserpine is particularly beautiful and deserves a place in every one's thoughts4 ,one cannot have too many associations as he gazes at the starry skies1 for each bit of even ancient gossip added to modern facts increases the pleasure in knowing different stars4 ,this is particularly true if one does not own a telescope of any kind1 indispensable as it may be to an astronomer4 ,the temple of ,ceres1 or ,demeter1 meaning ,mother ,earth 7that is1 not the whole solid earth1 but the portion that produces vegetation71 stands in the sacred city of ,eleusis1 on the ,thracian plain1 and all men who earn their living by the soil come here to do her honor4 ,this temple was built on the spot where the ,goddess met ,triptolemus and taught him the use of grains1 also how to plow1 sow the seeds and gather the crops after they had ripened4 ,triptolemus then went forth and taught the nations of the world4 ,one day while ,ceres was watching the harvests1 ,proserpine1 her lovely daughter1 disappeared4 ,while like a child with busy speed and care ,she gathers lilies here1 and vi'lets there2 ,while first to fill her little lap she strives1 ,hell's grizzly monarch at the shade arrives4 ,see's her thus sporting on the flow'ry green ,and loves the blooming maid as soon as seen4 ,swift as a thought he seized the beauteous prey ,and bore her in his sooty car away4 --,ovid's ,metamorphoses 7,,maynwaring',s ,trans47 ,pluto1 it seems1 had come above the ground to survey the surface of the ,sicilian land1 for the roof of his kingdom had been considerably shaken on account of the struggles of the giant ,typhon confined beneath the roots of ,mount ,etna4 ,poets claim that no sooner had the ,underground ,god appeared than ,cupid1 the mischievous son of ,venus1 pulled a gold-tipped arrow from his sheath1 and laughing gleefully1 shot the gloomy monarch in the heart4 ,ceres1 in the meantime1 nearly frantic with grief1 searched over land and sea for her lost daughter1 and when night fell1 so that her search might not be hindered1 she tore up young pine trees by the roots and dipped them in the fires of ,mount ,etna4 ,she could not eat1 saying 7as ,tennyson puts it7 that the nectar smack'd of hemlock and the rich ambrosia tasted aconite1 while ancient poets claim that neither ,aurora1 the ,dawn1 nor ,hesperus1 the ,evening ,star1 ever saw her rest4 ,yet unweakened by fatigue and lack of sustenance1 the goddess turned to the earth and forbade it to bear until ,proserpine was returned to her4 ,when ,ceres discovered that the ,king of the somber1 joyless region under the ground had carried off ,proserpine and made her the ,queen of his ,shades1 she left the home of the gods in anger and went to live among mankind4 ,jupiter at last becoming fearful for the fate of man if earth no longer bore fruit or grain1 sent ,mercury down to inquire of ,pluto if there was any hope of ,proserpine's return4 ,the ,fates sent reply that if ,proserpine had not tasted the pomegranate1 the food of death1 she could not be detained1 otherwise she must remain forever4 ,ascalaphus then stepped forward and said that he had seen the ,queen eat some of the seeds of this fruit1--for which tattling he was turned into a screech owl4 ,jupiter1 pitying ,ceres in her disappointment1 succeeded in effecting a compromise by inducing his brother to allow ,proserpine to spend six months of every year with her mother4 ,this1 the ,greeks say1 is the cause of summer and winter4 ,when ,proserpine appears1 ,ceres commands the seeds1 also1 to force their way above the ground1 the orchards become bright with a wealth of blossoms and the fields fresh with sprouts and vines4 ,ceres then is happy and the world a busy1 beautiful place in which to live1 but when ,proserpine leaves1 she cares not what happens1 and the earth grows withered and drear4 ,of all the myths1 ,virgo seems the most charming when identified as ,proserpine4 ,watch for the white flame of ,spica as it rises just south of east on the #ajth of ,april1 for ,spica shines on the ear of wheat in the hand of ,ceres' daughter and is a symbol of the coming spring4 ,,antares ,figure #ii ,the red star ,antares lies on the heart of the ,scorpion and stands out conspicuously with a bright star on either side4 ,in ,greek legend this is the same ,scorpion which so frightened ,phthon1 rash child of the ,sun-god1 when he was driving his father's chariot along the zodiac4 ,the headstrong youth had experienced trouble enough in passing by the ferocious ,nemean ,lion1 and he was just getting a free breath while driving by the ,virgin and the ,scales when he came to this terrifying creature sprawled along and almost blocking the sky path4 ,unable to longer control either himself or his excited horses1 ,phthon turned the steeds aside and blazed a new pathway1 which soon grew cold and left a gray ash across the sky4 ,the strip burned out by the scorching heat of the chariot may still be seen at night and is claimed by some to be the ,milky ,way4 ,there is still another legend which tells how the scorpion came to be a constellation4 ,in ancient ,greece there was once a mighty hunter named ,orion4 ,armed with only a club1 this powerful and handsome giant was able to conquer any beast in the world but1 unfortunately1 he boasted so continuously that ,juno resolved to teach him a lesson4 ,one day while he was battling with a monster in a swamp1 a poisonous scorpion slipped up and stung him on the heel4 ,the wound proved fatal1 although he was afterward given a constellation as if in atonement for the rather mean advantage taken of so brave a hunter4 ,the vast ,orion thus he doomed to die1 ,and fix'd him1 his proud trophy1 in the sky4 --,lucan's ,pharsalia4 ,but the scorpion was also honored in the same way1 only he travels across the sky in the summer months while ,orion is seen during the winter4 ,thus the two are considerately placed so that they do not shine above the earth in the same season4 ,and so 'tis said that when the ,scorpion comes ,orion flies to the utmost ends of the earth4 --,aratus4 ,the constellation of the ,scorpion lies southeast of ,libra1 the ,scales1 and is the ninth and most brilliant in the zodiac4 ,the gigantic and clearly marked star design on his figure shows that the creature's head and outstretched claws extend upward and toward the west2 the upraised tail1 curving through the ,milky ,way and close to the horizon1 lies south and eastward2 while his feet touch the fainter stars to the right and left4 ,in the vicinity of his heart lies a star so large and red and beautiful that it was named ,antares1 which means the rival of ,ares 7the planet ,mars74 ,this star so impressed the ancient people of ,greece that they built a temple in honor of it1 where they might gaze upon it in solitude and worship it as if it were enthroned4 ,this temple is one of the oldest found in ,greece4 ,pease1 with the aid of the interferometer on the great #aja-;inch telescope on ,mount ,wilson1 has measured the diameter of ,antares and has found it to be a very enormous red sun4 ,this figure taken in connection with the best determined value of its distance1 indicates that its diameter is four hundred million miles6 ,the volume of this star is therefore about twenty-five million times as great as the volume of our sun4 ,as far as we know1 this is the largest star4 ,this is surely most interesting4 ,we might have imagined these gloriously tinted stars as small-sized novelties scattered about the heavens for our special edification--certainly we did not expect to find that some of them were so tremendously large that they would pass by our little golden orb as a speck of incandescent sand4 ,figure #ajj3 ,,the ,,battle ,,of ,,orion1 ,,the ,,giant1 ,,and ,,taurus1 ,,the ,,bull4 ,not only is ,antares of interest because of its great size and charming color but it also possesses a companion star of the vividest shade of green4 ,this companion was first noted during an occultation in #ahai1 quite amazing its observer by sliding out from behind the moon just before the large red star emerged and dimmed its light by its powerful ruddy rays4 ,the green-hued star is very tiny in comparison to ,antares and may only be seen with the aid of a #e- or #f-;inch telescope4 ,under good atmospheric conditions it is a very beautiful object4 ,the flame-red sun ,antares beside its woodsy-green companion is one of the most impressive color combinations among the stars4 ,imagine living on a planet whose orbits encompassed such ostentatious stars6 ,a green sunrise with a livid sky and a red sunset with a scarlet one--then a red sunrise and a green sunset--if colors affect one the way it is sometimes said that they do1 the inhabitants of such a planet might live through red hours and green hours like ,dr4 ,jekylls and ,mr4 ,hydes4 ,what a surprise to the eye and a delectable bit for the imagination are the blue1 gold1 green1 rose1 lilac1 purple and other fires in the sun-lit sky4 ,here is something as rare as a day in ,june4 ,it would seem as if the whole solar system were enchanted if we might visit the planets of a white and sapphire blue sun1 for instance1 or those of one of topaz-yellow and heliotrope hue4 ,on the other hand it might seem beyond the bounds of reason to an inhabitant of a planet with a dark blue sun that a ray of white light contains the whole seven primary colors and that these colors are separately and in combination absorbed by the different objects on such a planet as our earth1 permitting us to observe a wonderful exhibition of tints and colors1 gayety1 shade and brightness4 ,if he1 in his semi-dark blueness1 could possibly visualize such a marvel as this1 he surely would be well-nigh overwhelmed with the wonder of it4 ,perhaps our sun was the only star of the millions of stars in our ,universe--7or in the innumerable ,universes which drift in space beyond the island of our ,universe7--that was able to produce planets that could bear life2 and yet again1 since the spectroscope has proved that our sun is constituted like many another star in the heavens1 perhaps these other stars1 like our sun1 also have planets4 ,at least it is reasonable and rather exhilarating to think about it4 ,all the brilliant red stars are young and in the giant stage of their career but the faint red stars are dwarfs and on their decline4 ,the dwarf red stars are believed to be cooling for they possess chemical combinations only possible in a decreasing temperature relatively low for stars4 ,this must mean that such stars are growing old1 for metallic vapors are never found in stars that are young4 ,figure #aja ,in a still later stage1 these metallic vapors condense and form a solid crust4 ,about #ejj red stars have already been observed but they are all at a distance vastly remote from the territory of our sun4 ,antares1 however1 is among the most youthful of the giant red stars and will gradually rise in temperature and become brilliantly blue during the next few thousands of millions of years4 ,halfway between ,antares and ,akrab 7 on the end of the upper claw71 lies a very rich and condensed cluster of stars4 ,this cluster1 which is one of the finest known1 may be easily seen in a small telescope4 ,on the eastern side of the cluster is a dark nebula4 ,akrab is a triple star of the #bnd1 #dth and #ajth magnitudes4 ,the little star #b degrees east of ,akrab is of the #dth1 #eth1 #gth and #hth magnitudes and is claimed by some to be the most beautiful quadruple in the heavens4 ,many other interesting stars may be seen around this conspicuous figure with a #b- or #c-;inch telescope1 and a handy little reference book for the amateur fortunate enough to possess such a telescope is ,william ,tyler ,alcott's ,in ,starland with a ,three-,inch ,telescope4 ,,formalhaut ,figure #ajb ,formalhaut is called the ,fish's ,mouth star because it is supposed to shine on the mouth of ,piscis ,australis1 the ,southern ,fish4 ,this ,fish is represented in the star-maps as holding open its mouth in utter contentment while a long line of small1 glittering stars wash down in a stream of water4 ,this water flows from the ,urn of ,aquarius1 the ,water-bearer1 who stands just below the head of ,pegasus1 the ,winged ,horse4 ,the ,urn is formed by a little ,y of #crd and #dth magnitude stars1 and1 to the ,egyptians1 was an emblem of the rainy season4 ,rolls from ,aquarius' vase a limpid stream ,where numerous stars like sparkling bubbles gleam4 --,aratus4 ,the ,southern ,fish must not be confused with the two tied fishes of the constellation of ,pisces1 known as the ,northern ,fish1 which lie to the east of the ,waterbearer's ,urn4 ,this region of the sky has been called the ,sky ,sea1 for not only does it contain three fishes but also ,cetus1 the ,whale1 ,delphinus1 the ,dolphin1 and ,capricornus1 the ,sea-goat4 ,figure #ajc ,the three fish and the ,seagoat were placed in the sky to commemorate the adventures of the ,goddess ,venus1 the little ,god ,cupid and the ,god ,pan with the terrible fire-breathing monster ,typhon4 ,when ,typhon appeared with a deafening roar1 shaking his head and belching fire1 the immortals fled in a panic before him1 and when ,venus and ,cupid and ,pan jumped into a river1 they were transformed into two fish and a ,sea-goat4 ,figure #ajd3 ,the constellations which border the ,sky ,sea4 ,all of these stars are not in view at the same time4 ,the ,southern ,fish is connected in some way in the story but just how is not quite clear4 ,northwest of ,aquarius lies the region of birds1 while beyond the ,sea to the southeast is the hunting scene of the giant ,orion4 ,the ,river ,eridanus may also be seen flowing from a star near ,rigel1 on the foot of ,orion1 to a point on the shore of the ,sea4 ,formalhaut rises in the south at twilight about the #ajth of ,october and wanders westward in a small arc above the horizon4 ,it is visible such a short time that it is said that it comes when the leaves begin to fall and goes while they are still falling4 ,this star rises in the south at the same time that ,capella rises in the northeast1 but an easier way of locating it may be found by estimating two-thirds of the distance across the sky from the outside stars in the bowl of the ,big ,dipper4 ,it also lies almost exactly in a straight line with the two stars on the west side of the great ,square of ,pegasus at a distance equal to #c times the distance between them and the southernmost of the two4 ,,sirius ,figure #aje ,if all the diamonds in the world were melted into one huge1 magical jewel1 its sparkling brilliance would pale beside ,sirius1 the diamond of the heavens4 ,this wonderful1 iridescent beauty1 fresh as a prismatic ice-flame1 if such a thing might be1 is best appreciated on a clear1 cold winter night when the little stars swarm out like fire-flies and the large stars burn like ,aladdin gems of frost and fringing fire4 ,the ancient ,greeks1 strange to say1 dreaded the sight of this beautiful star1 for they not only imagined that its burning breath caused the unhealthy and oppressive heats of summer but that it was directly responsible for their parched grass and blighted corn1 their mad dogs and raging fevers6 ,the unpopularity of this star was due to the fact that during the hottest days of ,july it rose just before the sun and preceded that luminary all day long in his pathway through the heavens4 ,not knowing that ,sirius lay many millions of millions of miles beyond our solar system1 they quite naturally supposed that his bright rays blended with those of the sun1 greatly intensifying the heat4 ,thus ,sirius caused the hottest season of the year and all the dried fields1 mad dogs1 plagues and fevers were attributed to its malignant influence4 ,since the huge star belonged to the constellation of ,canis ,major1 the ,great ,dog1 it was called the ,dog ,star and these hot1 sultry days1 the dog-days4 ,the dog-days lasted for about #dj days1 extending from #bj days before the heliacal rising of the ,dog-star ,sirius to #bj days after4 ,owing to the precession of the equinoxes1 the heliacal rising of ,sirius is different from what it was to the ancients and the dog-days are now counted from the #crd of ,july to the #aath of ,august4 ,unlike the ,greeks1 the ancient ,egyptians held ,sirius in the highest esteem and built splendid temples in its honor in the valley of the ,nile4 ,j4 ,norman ,lockyer has made an extensive study of ,egyptian temples and has described them most interestingly in his book ,the ,dawn of ,astronomy4 ,during his explorations he found seven temples which were constructed solely to guide the light of ,sirius through an opening in the side of the temple1 down a long hallway to a point on the central altar4 ,olcott in ,star ,lore of ,all ,ages visualizes the following beautiful scene in the most notable of these1 the temple of ,isis at ,denerah3 ,here the rising beams of ,sirius flashed down a long vista of massive pylons and illuminated the inner recesses of the temple4 ,what a wonderful scene there must have been enacted within that darkened edifice1 when1 in the presence of a vast multitude silent in meditation1 there suddenly appeared a gleam of silver light1 that laved the marble altar in a refulgence born of the infinite1 a beam1 altho' the watchers knew it not1 that had started on its earthward journey #h years before it greeted their eyes4 ,why did the ,egyptians reverence this star and hold it sacred while the ancient ,greeks watched the same heliacal rising and vehemently denounced it for journeying so close to the sun at a season when additional heat was least desired8 ,the ,egyptians thought little about the heat1 but with the appearance of this star just before the rising of the sun they knew that the season had arrived for the annual overflow of the ,nile4 ,far in the south the daring waters rise1 ,as in disdain of ,cancer's burning skies2 ,thence1 with a downward course1 then seek the main1 ,direct against the lazy northern wain4 --,lucan's ,pharsalia4 ,this heliacal rising of ,sirius1 which the ,egyptians called ,sothis1 was an event which needs must be heeded1 for1 having no calendars in those ancient days1 it served as a warning that the river would soon overflow its banks and make a vast sea of the lowlands4 ,it then behooved the husbandmen and gardeners to act quickly1 and move themselves and their herds and flocks up to the dykes in a place of safety4 ,nile's redundant waters never rise ,till the hot ,dog inflames the summer skies2 ,nor to his banks his shrinking stream confines1 ,till high in ,heaven th' autumnal ,balance shines4 --,lucan's ,pharsalia4 ,during the inundation the lowlands are so completely covered with water that towns and villages rise like islands1 while here and there are seen the tops of groves and fruit-trees like shrubs on the surface of the sea4 ,this yearly tribute of rains which the ,nile brings from other countries1 gives new life to the parched land of the ,egyptians4 ,herodotus1 centuries ago1 said that ,egypt was the gift of this river1 for without it their country would be a part of a lifeless desert4 ,in the words of ,amru1 ,egypt first appears as a dusty plain1 then as a fresh sea1 and finally as a bed of flowers4 ,to still better understand why seven great temples were erected for ,sirius1 the ,nile ,star1 whose constellation was sometimes called the watch-dog on the ,nile1 let us read ,osborn's graphic description in ,monumental ,egypt of the transformations resulting from the watering of the sands by the overflow of the great river which the ,egyptians guarded and held sacred4 ,the ,nile has shrunk within its banks until its stream has contracted to half its ordinary dimensions1 and its turbid1 slimy1 stagnant waters scarcely seem to flow in any direction4 ,broad flats or steep banks of black1 unbaked ,nile mud1 form both shores of the river4 ,all beyond is sand and sterility2 for the ham-seen or sand-wind of fifty days duration has scarcely ceased to blow4 ,the trunks and branches of the trees may be seen here and there through the dusty1 hazy1 burning atmosphere1 but so entirely are their leaves coated with dust that at a distance they are not distinguishable from the desert sand that surrounds them4 ,then comes the inundation3 ,perhaps there is not in ,nature a more exhilarating sight1 or one more strongly exciting to confidence in ,god1 than the rise of the ,nile4 ,day by day1 night by night1 its turbid tide sweeps onward majestically over the parched sands of the waste howling wilderness4 ,almost hourly1 as we slowly ascended it before the ,etesian wind1 we heard the thundering fall of some mud bank1 and saw by the rush of all animated ,nature to the spot1 that the ,nile had overleapt another obstruction1 and that its bounding waters were diffusing life and joy through another desert4 ,after the flood comes sowing time and the effects of it all are exhibited3 in a scene of fertility and beauty such as will scarcely be found in another country at any season of the year4 ,the vivid green of the springing corn1 the groves of pomegranate trees ablaze with the rich scarlet of their blossoms1 the fresh breeze laden with the perfumes of gardens of roses and orange thickets1 every tree and every shrub covered with sweet-scented flowers4 ,no wonder that the appearance of ,sirius was hailed with reverence when its rising just before the sun meant also the rise of the life-giving river and the prosperity of the inhabitants of ,egypt6 ,however1 as mentioned before1 with the precession of the equinoxes1 the heliacal rising of ,sirius has changed and its brilliant light no longer announces the rising of the ,nile4 ,sirius is one of our nearest stars for its light requires only #h years to reach the earth4 ,yet its nearness does not account altogether for its quite exceptional brightness1 for our sun at the same distance would appear as a star of the #fth magnitude and be invisible to the unaided eye4 ,only two stars1 as far as has yet been discovered1 lie closer to the earth than ,sirius4 ,the second brightest star in the sky is ,canopus1 visible from the southern hemisphere1 but so far away that its distance can scarcely be estimated4 ,halley1 a celebrated ,english astronomer born #afef1 made the first discovery of the relative motion of the stars when he noted that ,sirius had moved from the position assigned to it on ,ptolemy's map of #aej ,a4 ,d4 ,we have now reliable data for discussing the proper motion of about #aj1jjj stars4 ,the proper motion of stars consists of a displacement in various directions of the individual stars4 ,thus the configuration of a constellation may slowly change1 and1 although many groups of stars all travel in the same direction1 there are also conspicuous instances where they move in different directions4 ,the ,big ,dipper and the ,southern ,cross are two star groups whose stars are traveling along different courses and after a period of time extending over thousands of years1 the 'dipper' and the 'cross' effect of these two constellations will have altogether disappeared4 ,for a while ,sirius was believed to be traveling in a straight line1 but soon irregularities were discovered in the great star's motion1 an undulatory progressive motion on each side of a middle line4 ,from a knowledge of these oscillating movements1 ,bessel inferred that ,sirius must have an unseen companion attracting or pulling it as the two stars traveled together around a common center of gravity4 ,in #ahfb1 ,mr4 ,alvan ,g4 ,clarke of ,new ,york detected this companion situated at an angular distance of only #g from ,sirius1--about as far distant as ,uranus is from the earth4 ,the larger star is only about twice as massive as its companion but is #bj1jjj times brighter4 ,the light that we see from ,sirius then comes from two stars which together radiate #dh times as much light as the sun4 ,compared to ,sirius1 our sun is rather an inconspicuous star1 although ,barnard gave us great satisfaction by discovering a neighbor not much farther away than ,sirius which gives out only as much light as the sun6 ,sirius1 the ,dog ,star1 rests on the nose of the ,great ,dog1 in the constellation ,canis ,major1 and may be found in a straight line from the three evenly spaced stars in ,orion's ,belt4 ,he was originally ,orion's hunting dog1 and1 as if to give atmosphere to a hunting scene in the sky1 ,lepus1 the ,hare1 has been placed on a constellation just in front of ,sirius and below the feet of ,orion1 where he is pursued continually through all time by the ,dog with the huge star4 ,a vividly red variable star glows in the constellation of ,lepus1 the ,hare4 ,every so often1 this little star becomes radiantly red4 ,this additional light is caused by the star bursting explosively through the layer of absorbent vapors which are smothering the life from its flames4 ,some day this crimson star will flare and flicker for the last time and its final ray be wafted to our earth--the ,swan ,song of a dying star4 ,about #i o'clock during the first part of ,december1 ,sirius rises on its pathway south of east1 the brilliant beauty of its light adding to the celestial scene like a torch among a thousand candles4 ,this is true though the month of ,december exhibits the loveliest assembly of stars to be seen in all the year4 ,from ,december on into early spring1 the ,dog ,star is the cynosure of every eye4 ,night after night1 through the winter evenings1 it flashes in the sky a little farther west2 finally it gleams in the western sky at sunset1 jewels the rim of the horizon1 and disappears4 ,figure #ajf3 ,orion and the ,dog ,star4 ,figure #ajg3 ,,the ,,winter ,,battle ,,of ,,orion1 ,,the ,,giant1 ,,and ,,taurus1 ,,the ,,bull4 ,these beautiful constellations first make their appearance during ,october1 although they may be viewed to better advantage during the winter-time1 when they lie directly in the south4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,orion ,,and ,,taurus1 ,,the ,,bull ,,orion1 ,,the ,,mighty ,,hunter ,figure #ajh ,,of all the interesting star-scenery that we pass as we travel in our year-long1 never-ending path around the sun1 the most magnificent and impressive is the figure of the beautiful constellation of ,orion4 ,this constellation is not only one of the largest1 but its stars are so particularly vivid as a group and so uniquely arranged as a design1 that they never fail to catch the eye of even the casual observer1--like the carpenter1 who1 on noticing it for the first time1 humorously exclaimed1 ,well1 look at the house-roof up in the sky6 thus unconsciously recognizing the stars as being united in a common picture or constellation4 ,all the ancient legends agree in describing ,orion as a giant of extraordinary height and the greatest hunter in the world4 ,classical evidence is abundant as to his huge stature1 though obviously1 this evidence is not trustworthy4 ,pliny reports that an earthquake in ,crete disclosed the bones of a giant #df cubits in length1 held by some to be ,orion4 ,a cubit is an ancient measure of about #ah inches so that if ,pliny's report is correct1 ,orion was #fi feet tall4 ,there are many stories which relate the adventures of ,orion but these vary even to the point of contradiction4 ,even the manner of his death is open to question1 the two most popular versions being as follows3 ,diana1 the lovely ,moon-goddess1 sometimes neglected to carry the moon across the sky so that she might spend the evening hunting with her nymphs upon the mountains4 ,on one of these occasions she met ,orion1 the mighty hunter1 and straightway fell in love with him1 thereby so greatly displeasing her twin-brother ,apollo1 the ,sun-god1 that he determined to put an end to the affair4 ,the opportunity1 unfortunately1 came soon afterward when the hunter was wading in the sea4 ,pouring his golden rays on ,orion so that the brightness would conceal him1 the god suggested to the goddess that they practice archery on the beach4 ,then1 pointing to a bright object shining on the waves in the distance1 ,apollo persuaded ,diana to try her skill by aiming one of her arrows at it4 ,diana aimed1 and since she had never missed1 the arrow hit its mark4 ,amid the ruffled waters tossed about in the giant's death agony1 the goddess recognized the face of her beloved1 and weeping bitterly1 accused ,apollo of the wildest category of sins4 ,proceeding then to ,jupiter1 she begged that god to place the hunter among the stars where she might always see him shining in the night time1 as she drove her silver chariot along the pathway of the zodiac4 ,another legend claims that ,orion's death was caused by the sting of a poisonous scorpion which ,juno had commanded to spring out of the ground and punish him for his unparalleled boasting4 ,this has already been referred to in a previous chapter4 ,although the scorpion and the hunter were both placed in the sky1 they were considerately situated in such positions1 that when the ,hunter appears in the east1 the ,scorpion disappears below the horizon in the west1 thus saving the hunter the embarrassment of seeing his innocuous conqueror4 ,still another legend describes the attempt of sculapius1 famous physician and son of ,apollo1 to restore ,orion to life4 ,this attempt so angered ,jupiter1 due to the influence of ,pluto1 who had become irritated by the physician's power to detain a soul after it had started for the ,kingdom under the ground1 that ,jupiter sent one of his thunderbolts and annihilated sculapius1 otherwise his brother's realms might in time have become depopulated4 ,apollo1 in fury1 shot the one-eyed ,cyclops who had furnished the thunderbolts1 and then sought ,jupiter1 as had his sister1 and requested him to place the physician in the sky and light him up with everlasting stars1 for this was the second son that he had killed with a thunderbolt and he was feeling rather badly about it4 ,jupiter1 having no objection to this1 kindly granted the request1 and it is believed by many that the physician is represented by ,ophiuchus1 a huge sky figure whose head rests next to that of ,hercules4 ,when ,orion was placed in the sky1 he was allowed to bring along his lion's skin1 which hangs on his arm1 his sword1 which swings from his girdle1 his great club1 which he flourishes above his head1 and his two dogs1 who watch his battle with the red-eyed ,bull4 ,begirt with many a blazing star1 ,stood the great giant ,algebar ,orion1 hunter of the beast4 --,longfellow4 ,taurus1 the ,bull1 is easily recognized by his ,v-shaped face and the red glare of the star which marks his eye4 ,this angry creature charges with lowered head1 his golden horns just above the ,hunter1 who defends himself with his club now decked with glittering star-points and forces the ,bull to back before him all the way across the sky4 ,a first glimpse of the ,hunter and the ,bull may be obtained in the east about midnight during late ,october although it is more convenient to look for them in ,november or ,december when the ,hunter's huge figure stands squarely in the south4 ,by the middle of ,may1 the battle scene has reached the western horizon4 ,one by one1 each sparkling light disappears not to be seen again until the following ,october4 ,one should say perhaps 'at a convenient hour' for in the summer-time ,orion may be seen in the east at dawn4 ,aurora1 the ,dawn-goddess1 up bright and early to open the sun gates for ,apollo1 saw the handsome hunter on the sky slope decked with red and white and yellow lights of stars4 ,like ,diana1 she loved him immediately1 but1 in the words of the poets1 he pales before her colorful radiance as she reaches upward to announce the coming of the sun4 ,because dawn takes away the stars1 ,orion is said to have been carried away by this goddess and even yet this story may be seen enacted when watching the glory of ,orion captured by ,aurora as she flashes rosy-tinted in the east4 ,,the ,,lion',s ,,skin ,,of ,,orion ,figure #aji ,during the course of his adventurous wanderings on earth1 ,orion once came to the ,island of ,chios1 in the gean ,sea1 where he fell in love with a maiden named ,merope4 ,in order to display his skill as a hunter1 he cleared the island of its scourge of wild beasts and brought their skins as presents to his sweetheart4 ,this he accomplished alone and unaided except by his mighty club and the protecting hide of a lion4 ,this is the same lion's skin that he wears in the sky during his struggle with ,taurus1 the ,bull1 only here it is adorned by a faintly curved row of tiny #dth and #eth magnitude stars1 and about ten stars of the #fth magnitude4 ,this tawny skin hangs over the ,hunter's left arm between his western shoulder and the ,bull4 ,and on his arm the lion's hide ,scatters across the midnight air ,the golden radiance of his hair4 --,longfellow4 ,the skin appears first of all above the eastern horizon and its little stars flutter vigorously as if being shaken warningly at any who might defy him4 ,then ,orion1 arrayed in large stars1 slowly rises from his reclining position along the eastern ledge4 ,one might imagine that he at first peers along the south in search of the poisonous scorpion which had stung him on the heel1 for this must have been a supreme humiliation for so brave a hunter4 ,but there is nothing in the south but the river ,eridanus and the lightly starred ,sea-monster with his head reared upward toward ,andromeda4 ,feeling reasonably safe from any rear attacks1 ,orion now confidently climbs the darkened eastern slope2 his ,lion's ,skin twinkles as he tautens his arm2 his great ,club is raised in readiness above his head1 and joying in the combat1 he henceforth wages1 in unmolested peace1 his eternal battle with ,taurus1 the ,bull4 ,,betelgeuse1 ,,on ,,orion',s ,,shoulder ,figure #aaj ,just opposite the ,lion's ,skin1 on the right shoulder of the ,hunter1 rests the beautifully tinted star1 ,betelgeuse4 ,this star1 like ,antares1 makes one think of roses1 although ,antares is more the shade of a deep red rose1 while ,betelgeuse is a wild rose pink4 ,diana probably notes the decoration as she passes in her chariot1 for on certain dates she drives directly in front of his head-stars4 ,on the opposite shoulder lies the yellow ,bellatrix1 the female warrior or ,amazon star4 ,the title of this star was likely given it in honor of ,orion's mother1 who was fabled as ,euryale1 the famous ,amazon ,queen4 ,on account of recent discoveries concerning it1 ,betelgeuse has become one of the most interesting of our stars4 ,when ,professor ,michelson of the ,university of ,chicago discovered a means of measuring the diameter of stars1 he measured ,betelgeuse and found it to be of the most enormous size4 ,indeed1 if this huge rose-tinted star were placed in the position of our sun1 it would fill the solar system nearly to the planet ,mars6 ,this unique achievement of measuring the diameter of a star made the world sit up in amazement4 ,the measurement was made at the ,mount ,wilson ,observatory with the largest reflecting telescope ever made1 a telescope which has an aperture of a little more than #ajj inches4 ,a set of mirrors was attached in such a way that for the purpose of measurement the effect of a #bj-;foot aperture was obtained and ,professor ,michelson was able to prove that the disk of ,betelgeuse has an angular diameter of approximately one twenty-second of a second--which means that if the distance deduced from the best determined parallax of the star is correct1 the actual diameter is #bcj1jjj1jjj miles6 ,but this giant red star is a globe of little density2 the dwarf red stars1 although about the same mass1 are found to be more compact4 ,hale in ,the ,new ,heavens says that there are good reasons for believing that the mass of ,betelgeuse cannot be more than ten times that of the sun's volume4 ,therefore its average density must be like that of an attenuated gas in an electric vacuum tube4 ,it is difficult to adjust one's everyday conception of a star to such a sheer and rarefied object4 ,such a star seems almost too spiritual to exist1 and is certainly an amazing thing to picture in the heavens4 ,but ,betelgeuse is not a starry spirit1 but a full-fledged mammoth star1 though it is only recently 7in a cosmic sense7 that it started on its career4 ,,rigel1 ,,on ,,orion',s ,,foot ,figure #aaa ,the brilliant white light of ,rigel on ,orion's foot shines in charming contrast to the pink-tinged ,betelgeuse which lies upon his shoulder4 ,rigel is a young star but not as young as ,betelgeuse1 for ,betelgeuse1 like ruddy ,antares1 is among the youngest of the stars4 ,figure #aab3 ,the scorched waters of ,eridanus' tear-swollen flood ,welling beneath the foot of ,orion4 --,aratus4 ,it has been many hundred million years since ,rigel was as big and red as ,betelgeuse now is4 ,rigel belongs to a group which includes the hottest of all the stars and even at a distance of at least #dej light years1 it still appears so brilliant that it is one of our brightest stars4 ,it has been estimated that in actual luminosity it exceeds our sun about #ac1jjj times4 ,a blue star of the #ith magnitude lies close beside ,rigel4 ,this little star may be seen with even a small telescope4 ,just a little west of ,rigel wanders a crooked line of stars1 first toward ,cetus1 then southward toward the horizon4 ,this is the poor remains of the river ,eridanus4 ,aratus speaks of it as those poor remains because it represents what is left of the amazed ,eridanus after ,phthon had1 like a streaming comet1 plunged into it and partly burned it up4 ,aratus also calls it ,the ,river of ,many ,tears because the ,heliades1 ,phthon's sisters1 who were metamorphosed into poplar trees1 all the day stand round the tomb and weep great amber tears4 ,this constellation1 which is best seen directly in the south during ,september1 is a tribute of respect to the grief of the ,sungod who had gazed with horror at the wild flight of the sun-horses and the thunderbolt of ,jupiter that had hurled his boy through the air4 ,touched by ,apollo's remorse for allowing the youth to drive his horses1 ,jupiter drew the river to the heavens1 thinking that it might be a consolation to ,apollo1 as he performed his daily task1 to view the kindly river1 now flecked with stars1 which had once caught the charred fragment of ,phthon and cooled it in his waters4 ,figure #aac3 ,but earthbound winds could not dismember thee1 ,nor shake thy frame of jewels4 --,charles ,tennyson ,turner4 ,,orion',s ,,head ,figure #aad ,the head of ,orion is marked by two small stars and a larger one4 ,these stars form a tiny triangle named ,meissa1 which means ,the ,head of the ,giant4 ,the three stars form rather a small head for the rest of the giant's well proportioned body1 so they are sometimes placed on the side of his head and sometimes as beauty-spots upon his face1 according to the fancy of the artist who portrays him4 ,the triangle is faint but very easily seen and a happy addition to the figure2 without them1 or if they happened to lie in another position1 the constellation might well have represented something other than a giant4 ,there is a curious optical illusion which occurs when the moon is among these stars1 for the big1 round full face of the moon actually passes through the sides of this 7seemingly7 tiny triangle4 ,but one must be on the alert to view this interesting occurrence for the ,moon-goddess travels swiftly in her chariot over the sky and leaves even her lover no more than a passing caress4 ,the explanation is1 that the triangle of stars on ,orion's head appears small in comparison with the great quadrilateral figure which lies below it1 and the delusion as to the size of the moon is accounted for partly as a result of its brightness 7the bright rays spreading its image on the retina71 and partly because there is nothing in the sky with which to compare it4 ,when the moon rises behind a tree on the hillside it seems a mammoth thing1 a silver ball so huge that it seems almost absurd to state that it can flit between the sides of ,orion's triangle4 ,yet the closer it comes to ,orion's head the smaller does it seem to become and the larger becomes the triangle4 ,when the two touch sides1 the triangle is seen to be large enough to contain the moon1 which slides through without touching its stars4 ,,orion',s ,,belt ,figure #aae ,although most popularly known as the ,belt of ,orion1 this ,belt is also known by other names4 ,in the ,book of ,job it is referred to as the ,bands of ,orion2 in the mythology of ,greece and ,rome1 as the arrow with which ,diana killed the hunter when he was wading in the sea1 and in the mythology of ,northern races1 as ,frigga's jeweled ,spinning ,wheel with which the ,goddess wove the long threads of fleecy clouds4 ,miss ,proctor says that the ,eskimos believe that the stars may be three seal hunters who have lost their way1 and call them the ,lost ,ones1 although they also think that the ,belt resembles three steps cut in a snowbank4 ,the native ,australians unite the ,belt stars in a picture with the ,pleiad group above ,orion's shoulder and1 according to ,allen1 imagine them as three young men dancing a corroboree while the ,pleiades are the maidens playing for them4 ,in ,england the ,belt is called the ,ell and ,yard1 the ,yard ,wand and the ,golden ,yard1 because its stars are equidistant like a measuring rod2 it is also called ,jacob's ,staff and sometimes the stars are called the ,three ,kings1 although the ,germans call them the ,three ,mowers4 ,far south on the hot deserts1 the ,arabs see the ,belt stars as a ,string of ,pearls and the ,arabian astronomers1 giving each pearl a name1 called the first ,mintaka1 the second ,alnilam and the third ,alnitak4 ,other countries have called the stars ,the ,spangles and ,the ,golden ,grains1 while ,tennyson speaks of them as being burnished by the frosty dark1 which is the poet's way of saying that the stars of the ,giant's ,belt are exceptionally beautiful4 ,modern astronomers turning their telescopes upon the stars of this ,belt note that there is more to be seen here than meets the unaided eye1 for suspended from either side1 like an added attempt at decoration1 hang tiny stars of different sizes1 daintily colored4 ,mintaka 771 the double star on the west1 is a white and pale violet1 of the #bnd and the #gth magnitudes4 ,alnitak 77 on the lower end to the southeast1 is a topaz-yellow1 light purple and gray1 of the #bnd1 #fth and #ajth magnitudes4 ,the faint star just below ,alnitak is composed of an exquisite group of delicate stars of various colors4 ,if the north pole of our earth was shot out like a dart1 it would hit the dome of our sky somewhere in the vicinity of the ,north ,star4 ,likewise1 if the earth's equator could be conceived of as swelling and swelling and swelling1 it would hit ,orion just about at the top star of his belt4 ,the circular line where this imaginary terrestrial hoop would fit against the heavens is called the celestial equator and it1 of course1 is in a position equally distant between the two heavenly poles4 ,a good way to remember just where the celestial equator passes is noticing the pathway which the star mentioned above traces in its journey from east to west4 ,a teacher of astronomy would now add that not only is the terrestrial equator marked as the celestial equator in the sky1 but every meridian of the 'swollen' earth is traced up there as an hour circle1 all of the hour circles being fastened in a great framework to both poles1 as they are on earth4 ,but instead of latitude the astronomer says declination1 and in place of longitude he says right ascension1 just as in place of meridian1 he says hour circle4 ,he then can designate the places of the stars in the sky in exactly the manner in which he designates the position of a sea or a city on the earth and as large telescopes are provided with equatorial mountings1 so that their axes conform with that of our earth1 objects in the sky can be located by the use of graduated circles and verniers1 thus greatly facilitating astronomical research4 ,,the ,,great ,,nebula ,,of ,,orion ,figure #aaf ,one of the most impressive spectacles in the sky lies on the center of the ,sword of ,orion4 ,this ,sword is adorned with three stars1 the central one appearing misty1 like an eye in tears4 ,a large telescope discloses that this is not a star after all but beautiful cloudy masses of nebul1 which cover the whole central part of the constellation4 ,a photograph uncovers a still further surprise 7for the eye of a camera is more sensitive to light than the eye at a telescope71 and one sees then that the nebula spreads in all directions1 over and beyond most of the stars on the ,hunter's figure4 ,it is a wonderful sight1 says ,peck in ,the ,constellations1 the whole field of view is filled with an irregular mass of green shining mist1 which is apparently broken up into flocculent masses1 delicate clouds of light1 sprays and wisps1 and standing out from the cloudy background1 like a sprinkling of diamond dust1 are seen faint1 glittering stars4 ,vast masses of dark nebul in the ,nebula of ,orion are also effectively revealed in telescopes4 ,the dark nebula is visible in the photographs as veil-like clouds obscuring the light of the stars beyond them1 or1 again1 as definitely outlined black blotches lying like some huge object on a brilliantly glowing background4 ,such a 'blotch' is the ,dark ,bay or ,dark ,horse ,nebula in ,orion whose photograph is so fearfully suggestive and wonderfully beautiful4 ,nebulous clouds are1 in general1 dark rather than luminous4 ,these clouds are believed by many astronomers to be cosmic dust-particles driven out from bright stars4 ,these particles finally collect in great clouds which1 when far from the light of stars1 are dark4 ,when the accumulating clouds of dust become so heavy that gravitation begins to draw their particles together1 heat is generated and the mass begins to glow1 although sometimes dark masses1 if they are close to stars1 will glow with reflected starlight4 ,the gaseous clouds are devoid of solid or liquid matter1 and consist1 the spectroscope shows1 of glowing gases1 apparently nebulium and hydrogen4 ,thus the ,nebula of ,orion1 which is a gaseous nebula1 is never spoken of as a universe1 like the ,nebula of ,andromeda1 which may be resolved into stars4 ,figure #aag3 ,,the ,,dark ,,bay ,,or ,,dark ,,horse ,,nebula ,,in ,,orion4 ,photograph by ,mount ,wilson ,observatory through the #ajj-;inch ,hooker telescope4 ,the finest example of an irregular nebula is the ,nebula of ,orion2 of a ring nebula1 that found in the constellation of ,lyra2 and of a spiral nebula1 the one found in the constellation of ,canes ,venatici1 just below the handle of the ,big ,dipper4 ,the spiral of ,andromeda1 which is turned edgewise to the earth1 is the largest nebula in the sky4 ,,orion',s ,,two ,,dogs--,,canis ,,major ,,and ,,canis ,,minor ,canis ,major1 the ,great ,dog of ,orion1 lies in a straight line southeast of his ,belt ,stars4 ,canis ,minor1 his ,small ,dog1 lies across the ,milky ,way1 #bj degrees northeast of ,betelgeuse1 the pink star on his shoulder4 ,the three stars form a large and easily traced triangle4 ,canis ,minor is usually pictured as a ,spaniel standing on the bank of the ,milky ,way and gazing across its river of stars at the giant ,orion with his club upraised against the ,bull4 ,although this dog is usually said to be ,orion's dog1 it is sometimes claimed to be one of ,diana's hounds that followed her in the hunt4 ,other legends claim that ,canis ,minor was the dog of ,icarus who discovered the slaying of his master by the shepherds of ,attica and for this was placed among the stars4 ,procyon1 the brightest star in this constellation1 is called the ,little ,dog's ,star4 ,it appears above the eastern horizon on the #bcrd of ,january just after darkness1 and shines for about half an hour before ,sirius appears upon the scene4 ,figure #aah ,sirius is the head star of ,canis ,major and the brightest star in the sky4 ,this dog sits at the feet of ,orion watching ,lepus1 the ,hare4 ,,taurus1 ,,the ,,bull ,figure #aai ,aries glorious in his golden wool1 ,looks back and wonders at the mighty ,bull4 --,manilius4 ,this is the bull that ,orion chases backwards across the winter's sky1 although only his foremost portion is visible among the stars4 ,the rest of this creature might be imagined as hidden behind a cloud2 but no1 mythologists say the other half is immersed beneath the waves of the sea4 ,beneath the waves of the sea6 ,it looks to us as if he were defending himself with considerable gusto against the advance of ,orion1 for did we not see him clamber backwards up the slope in the east only an hour and a half ahead of the giant who rose with his star club lifted menacingly above his head8 ,thy hoofs1 unwilling1 climb the sphery vault2 ,thy red eye trembles in an angry glare1 ,when the hounds follow1 and in fierce assault ,bay through the fringes of the lion's hair4 --,bayard ,taylor4 ,if thus engaged1 why was ,taurus placed in the sky with a little cross-section of the sea about him8 ,it was quite likely1 we find1 to preserve a note on the following legend3 ,jupiter1 the great ruler of ,olympus1 once changed himself into a snow-white bull4 ,such baffling disguises were the delight of this god when he had some particular object in view4 ,this particular time he wished to carry off ,europa1 ,princess of ,phnicia4 ,he found the ,princess playing in the meadow joyous1 fresh1 with roses bound ,about her sunny head1 and on her cheek ,the glow of morn4 and placing himself conspicuously amongst the scenery1 he soon caught her attention4 ,as soon as ,europa spied this strange1 white1 gentle-appearing creature1 she ran over to it1 caressed it1 and finally climbed upon its back4 ,no sooner had she done this1 than the bull1 gathering the speed of the wind1 ran to the sea-shore1 plunged into the waves1 and swam to the ,island of ,crete4 ,sweet ,europa's mantle blew unclasp'd ,from off her shoulders backward borne2 ,from one hand droop'd a crocus2 one hand clasp'd ,the mild bull's golden horn4 --,tennyson4 ,this little ,princess gave her name to the continent of ,europe and the white bull was placed among the constellations4 ,thus a plausible explanation is found for but half of the bull being shown among the stars--he is carrying ,europa across the waves--then we look on his starry mane and find--not sweet little ,europa clinging there1 but seven lithesome maidens6 ,these are represented by a lovely group of stars called the ,pleiades4 ,how does this happen8 ,well1 that is another story4 ,one day1 while hunting1 ,orion came suddenly upon seven graceful sisters dancing on the mossy turf in the woodland4 ,he watched entranced until the happy creatures noticed him1 and filled with terror at his gigantic stature1 turned and fled4 ,figure #abj ,for five long years they ran1 with ,orion close behind1 until weary and distressed they begged the gods for aid4 ,then ,orion saw the maidens vanish as seven fluttering doves which flew far up into the sunlit sky4 ,that evening ,diana saw them1 and telling them to keep up heart1 drove her moon-chariot past ,olympus where she directed ,jupiter's attention to the unfortunate plight of the maidens4 ,jupiter then changed the doves to stars and placed them on the back of ,taurus1 the ,bull4 ,here they rest protected by a pair of golden horns1 secure but still pale1 for every winter's evening just as surely as they rise above the horizon1 up comes ,orion just a little way behind and pursues the ,bull across the heavens with his dogs and club4 schylus1 however1 claims that the ,pleiades were named after the daughters of ,atlas because of their touching sorrow when their father was laden with the weight of the sky4 ,thus many of the stories of ,orion's adventures seem to conflict with other fables4 ,since the stars of the ,pleiades bear the individual names of seven of ,atlas's daughters1 schylus was probably right4 ,the stars outlining the face of ,taurus were named after the half-sisters of the ,pleiades and are called the ,hyades4 ,,the ,,hyades ,figure #aba ,the group of five stars which deck the face of the mythological ,bull have the individual names of ,phaola1 ,ambrosia1 ,eudora1 ,coronis and ,pholyxo4 ,however these names are rarely1 if ever1 used and the bright red star at the top of the ,v is generally known as ,aldebaran1 the name given it by the ,arabian astronomers4 ,during ancient times there was a certain amount of ill-feeling directed toward the ,hyades1 just as in the case of the mad stars in ,auriga1 for it was thought that since this group of stars rose in ,november when the stormy weather usually began they exerted an unsettling influence on the atmosphere1 which caused rain4 ,the word itself is derived from the ,greek word meaning rain4 ,thro' scudding drifts the rainy ,hyades ,vext the dim sea4 --,tennyson4 ,in ,april when the ,hyades set they also ,vext the dim sea so by watching these stars the ancients were forewarned when the stormy weather and rain was at hand4 ,hesiod1 who gave the ancient world one of its most famous poems1 ,works and ,days1 mentions that when the ,hyades are near the horizon they seem to disturb the calm of the waters and when the ,pleiades1 ,hyades and ,orion set1 it is time to plow again4 ,but not to go to sea6 ,aratus further warned the seamen at this point by reminding them that only a thin plank separates the sailor from ,hades4 ,kippax remarks that the watery or moist reputation of the ,hyades may be due partly to the legend that the sisters were metamorphosed into stars for immoderately bewailing the fate of their brother ,hyas who had been killed by a wild boar4 ,perhaps the sisters still think of ,hyas when near the horizon and their unrestrained tears pour in floods upon the earth4 ,but according to another legend1 the ,hyades were cloud nymphs and it was their nature to be incessantly weeping4 ,the beautiful1 rose-colored star ,aldebaran1 the eye of the ,bull1 flashes on the end of this ,v of stars4 ,like ,antares1 ,betelgeuse and the planet ,mars1 its rare and colorful light shines like a beacon among the gold and silver of more somber stars4 ,aldebaran is a much larger sun than ours and gives #de times as much light4 ,what a contrast to our sun with its sunflower shade would be this one of a wild-rose pink6 ,but the restful greens of little earth are much to be preferred1 with ,aldebaran a star in the heavens1 #bh light years away4 ,a little to the west and north of the star1 on the tip of the southern horn of ,taurus1 lies the ,crab ,nebula1 so-called on account of its resemblance to a crab4 ,this nebula is often mistaken for a comet4 ,the two horns of the ,bull reach over into the ,milky ,way1 just below ,capella4 ,the star group of the ,hyades rises a little north of east about #ab ,p4 ,m4 in ,september4 ,by the first of ,november they are all rising as early as #h ,p4 ,m4 and by the latter part of ,january are directly in the south4 ,at such a time1 they have been picturesquely likened to a flock of wild geese flying southward4 ,even so small a glass as an opera-glass will disclose a rich field of small stars about ,taurus4 ,these stars look as if they had been shuffled and had fallen together in interesting little groups of lights1 which are very pleasing to the eye4 ,,the ,,pleiades ,figure #abb ,the ,pleiades are visible from ,august until ,may4 ,five of the stars in this group may be plainly seen although most people can see six and many with keen eyesight can see seven and even nine4 ,the telescope reveals about #cjjj more surrounding the group which gives the appearance of mistiness in the vicinity of each star4 ,these stars fill a space in the heavens equal to about #ahj millions of millions of miles6 ,the five more important stars of the ,pleiades lie in the form of a short-handled dipper4 ,this is the fourth clearly marked dipper found in the sky--the ,big ,dipper1 the ,little ,dipper1 the ,milk ,dipper and the ,dipper of the ,pleiades4 ,these stars are also1 with the ,hyades1 ,prsepe1 ,coma ,berenices and the cluster on the ,sword ,handle of ,perseus1 among the few clusters visible to the unaided eye4 ,small is the place that holds them and singly they dimly shine4 --,aratus4 ,seven of the stars in the ,pleiad group1 named after the daughters of ,atlas1 are called ,alcyone1 ,merope1 ,electra1 ,celno1 ,taygeta1 ,maia and ,asterope4 ,two other stars were named after the father ,atlas and the mother ,pleione4 ,the ,hyades and the ,pleiades1 or the twelve sisters which ,taurus carries across the sky every winter's evening1 are altogether called ,the ,atlantides4 ,atlas1 by the way1 also gave his name to the second largest body of water on earth1 the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,figure #abc3 ,,nebulosity ,,in ,,the ,,pleiades4 ,photograph by ,yerkes ,observatory through the #dj-;inch refracting telescope4 ,since the ,pleiad group may be seen from every civilized country in the world1 the stars have a host of legends1 songs and stories twined about them4 ,one idea1 however1 has run like a herald through all these widely separated countries and that is that one of the stars of the ,pleiades was lost and that there were originally seven bright stars4 ,figure #abd3 ,the ,little ,dipper of the ,pleiades4 ,although it is generally agreed that one of the ,pleiads was lost1 opinions seem to differ as to whether it was ,electra or ,merope as these two sisters had earthly reasons for sorrow2 ,merope1 for instance1 hiding embarrassed because she had married a mortal when all of her sisters had married gods4 ,another legend claims that it was ,pleione1 mother of the seven sisters1 who was lost4 ,pickering1 taking a practical view1 believes that the true ,lost ,pleiad was ,pleione1 for the spectroscope reveals her star to be a variable star4 ,to the ancient people of ,greece who taught even their children how to tell the time of the day by the position of the sun and what to do when certain stars rose and set1 it would have been unpardonable not to have known the ,pleiades4 ,they thought that the gods had set the stars in the sky to keep the people from living in confusion4 ,thus ,jupiter tells when the land ,must be upturned by ploughshare or by spade-- ,what time to plant the olive or the vine-- ,what time to fling on earth the golden grain4 ,for ,he it was who scattered o'er the sky ,the shining stars1 and fixed them where they are-- ,provided constellations through the year1 ,to mark the seasons in their changeless course4 --,aratus4 ,the farmer and the sailor1 especially1 watched the rising and the setting of the stars and abided by the advice in ,hesiod's ,works and ,days3 when the snail1 in fear of the ,pleiades1 climbs up the young plants1 sharpen your sickle for the harvest-- ,at the rising of the ,atlas-born ,pleiades begin harvesting but plowing when they set4 ,when ,atlas-born1 the ,pleiad stars arise ,before the sun above the dawning skies1 ',tis time to reap2 and when they sink below ,the mom-illumined west1 'tis time to sow4 ,the rising of ,orion an hour and a half later was also a sign from heaven that the season for threshing had arrived4 ,forget not when ,orion first appears ,to make your servants thresh the sacred ears4 ,but when the giant is in midheaven it is time for vintage4 ,at this time ,orion has backed the ,bull pretty far over in the west and the ,greeks watch the frightened ,pleiades drop into the sea4 ,it is now a dangerous time for small crafts to venture forth4 ,when the ,pleiades1 fleeing the mighty strength of ,orion1 fall into the murky sea make the boats secure for the sailing season is over4 ,the ,pleiads and ,hiads make the seasons1 ,the ,dogstarre maketh the heat of ,sommer4 --#aejg1 ,golding ,de ,mornay4 ,yet the people around the ,mediterranean were not the only ones who considered the importance of these stars4 ,spence in ,myths of ,mexico and ,peru tells with what trepidation the ancient ,mexican people watched1 every period of #eb years1 the passage of these stars across the zenith4 ,with the conclusion of each period of fifty-two years a terrible dread came upon the ,mexicans that the world would come to an end4 ,a stated period of time had expired1 a period which was regarded as fixed by divine command1 and it had been ordained that on the completion of one of those series of fifty-two years earthly time would cease and the universe be demolished4 ,the ,mexicans then abandoned themselves to utmost prostration and the wicked went about in terrible fear4 ,as the first day of the fifty-third year dawned the people narrowly observed the ,pleiades1 for if they passed the zenith1 time would proceed and the world would become respited4 ,perhaps the reason for periodical recurrence of this fear lay in the old ,mexican tradition that the world was once destroyed when the ,pleiades culminated at midnight4 ,poets in all lands have sung the praises of the ,pleiad stars4 ,probably the most quoted are those from ,tennyson's ,locksley ,hall4 ,these are so truly beautiful that one almost involuntarily repeats them whenever the huge giant ,orion or this lovely star group comes into view4 ,many a night from yonder ivied casement1 ere ,i went to rest ,did ,i look on great ,orion sloping slowly to the west4 ,many a night ,i saw the ,pleiads1 rising through the mellow shade1 ,glitter like a swarm of fire-flies tangled in a silver braid4 ,and ,bayard ,taylor speaks of ,the stars that once were mortal in their love1 ,and by their love are made immortal now1 ,cluster like golden bees upon thy mane4 ,the poets1 with their magic words1 make the stars seem close to us1 despite the fact that science tells us that the ,pleiades1 for instance1 lie so far away in space that it takes #bjj years for their light to reach the earth4 ,since ,december1 when ,orion and ,taurus are at their best1 is the month of beautiful stars1 let us look around the heavens and see how many of them we are able to recognize4 ,from the far northeast to the far northwest1 passing just a little north of the zenith1 the ,milky ,way stretches in one continuous line of splendor4 ,up and down the heavenly vault1 hundreds of diamond-like little stars glitter like gleams from pinholes in heaven1 while the large stars hang down through the cold1 black nights almost within reaching distance4 ,one may now count ten brilliant stars of the first magnitude1 but the configuration of stars which forms the constellation of ,orion and the peerless ,dog ,star1 ,sirius1 are the stars which hold the eye4 ,watch the ,dog ,star rise in the east about #i o'clock during the first part of ,december or about #h o'clock later in the month4 ,if all the other stars burn like wind-enflamed jewels1 ,sirius sputters and sparkles like a bonfire of ,jupiter's lightning rods4 ,across the ,milky ,way from ,sirius1 the yellow star ,procyon1 the head-star on the ,little ,dog1 is also appearing1 while in the west1 two large stars are setting1 the scene being almost duplicated4 ,thus1 paraphrasing the words of the ancient poet ,aratus1 when the ,dogs appear in the east1 the ,birds set in the west4 ,above ,procyon1 and on the same side of the ,milky ,way1 shine ,castor and ,pollux1 the ,heavenly ,twins1 seemingly with an eye on the battle of the ,giant and the red-eyed ,bull2 above the ,bull's horns glows ,capella1 always an attractive star but not as radiant when near the meridian as when rising in the east4 ,this is also true of ,cassiopeia's ,chair1 now in the zenith1 and of the ,segment of ,perseus1 the ,chain of ,andromeda and the ,square of ,pegasus1 which lie just below her4 ,figure #abe3 ,the ,december ,sky4 ,the ,cross is now descending in the west1 closely following ,vega and ,altair1 while low in the southwest1 ,formalhaut is just about to disappear below our view4 ,the ,north ,star shines1 as always1 in its fixed place in the sky1 but ,ursa ,minor now hangs perilously by the tip of his tail with nothing between him and the northern horizon but the straggling form of ,draco and the brightly decorated tail of ,ursa ,major4 ,ursa ,major is just about ready to climb the eastern slope and patiently continue on his endless circle around the pole4 ,along the southern horizon1 the stars are faint1 for here lies ,cetus1 the dark-sided ,sea-monster1 and the glints on the river ,eridanus which rolls down to the ',sea4' ,,castor ,,and ,,pollux ,figure #abf ,according to legendary history1 ,castor and ,pollux were the sons of ,leda and the brothers of ,helen of ,troy4 ,these twins were noted near and far for their bravery and had divine honors paid to them both in ,sparta and in ,rome4 ,their boyhood days were spent on ,mount ,pelion under the guidance of the wise centaur ,chiron1 but they spent most of their manhood adventuring1 one of their best known exploits being the journey after the ,golden ,fleece on the ship ,argo4 ,during this journey a great storm arose and the frail little bark1 whose only power was its fifty oars and the strong arms of the heroes1 was tossed about like a shell4 ,orpheus1 with his magic harp1 sought to calm the waters and soothe the fears of the oarsmen1 and had just about succeeded when two stars suddenly shone above the heads of the twins4 ,this1 of course1 was static electricity1 which sometimes appears like two stars of light attaching itself to each mast1 but the ,greeks considered it a sign from ,jupiter that all was well and that there was nothing to fear from the storm4 ,the ,argo went on in safety1 and ever after lights at the mastheads were called ,castor and ,pollux and sailors predict fair weather from their appearance4 ,the ,greeks called them ,castor and ,pollux--which some call ,hermes fire2 ,saint ,elmo others4 --,sir ,t4 ,herbert4 ,sometimes1 however1 but one light is seen4 ,this is then called ,helena1 after their sister1 and is regarded as foreboding a storm4 ,as a reward for their great affection 7for the twins even shared their immortality together since only one was immortal71 ,jupiter placed them among the stars under the name of ,gemini1 and the two bright stars in this constellation were placed upon their brows4 ,sailors love these stars for they are well above the eastern horizon during the first part of ,january and are visible during the remainder of the stormy season of the year4 ,they watch them and know that if both stars are visible at the same time1 the weather is clearing4 ,thus the twins1 indulgent save ,the shatter'd vessel from the wave4 --,idyllium ,,xxii 7,,fawke',s ,trans47 ,if the storm continues to rage and the stars remain hidden behind the clouds sailors trembling ,call on the twins of ,jove with prayer and vow4 --,shelley4 ,gemini1 the constellation of the ,twins1 lies near the stream of the ,milky ,way1 just above ,procyon1 below ,capella1 and in front of ,leo1 the ,lion4 ,the feet of the ,twins are among the stars at the edge of the stream1 while their heads extend northeast1 in the same general direction as the horns of ,taurus1 the ,bull1 which are thrust into the stream on the other side4 ,the ,twins have no connection with the story of ,orion and the ,bull1 although their constellation is so situated that one might consider them as interested spectators4 ,the stars on the brows of the ,twins are not exactly twin stars for one is brighter than the other and1 although they look much alike to the unaided eye1 a telescope reveals their delicate colors4 ,the star on ,pollux is then seen to be a pale orange while that on ,castor is a greenish-white4 ,pollux is also a triple star1 described by one observer as pale orange1 lilac and gray4 ,castor is equally interesting1 for a #c-;inch telescope resolves it into two brilliant stars4 ,figure #abg ,the spectroscope1 making further discoveries1 disclosed the fact that a companion whirls around the fainter component1 completing its orbit in #c days1 while the brighter component also has a companion which completes its orbit in #i days4 ,these four stars1 which form the star we call ,castor1 revolve in pairs about a common center of gravity1 completing their period in about #ijj years4 ,the ,heavenly ,twins claim a unique distinction--that of having a planet found at their feet2 ,sir ,william ,herschel1 an ,english astronomer1 has the equally unique distinction of having found the planet4 ,this planet was surely an odd and interesting thing for a mortal to discover for it is not only a gaseous globe #cb1jjj miles in diameter1 but its pole points almost at the sun at one time in its #hd-year journey1 causing it to have #db years of daylight and #db years of night6 ,this was the first planet added to the five known since antiquity and its discovery was a joyful surprise4 ,the boundary line of the solar system was now greatly increased for ,uranus travels in an orbit which lies at an average distance of #a1gga1jjj1jjj miles from the sun4 ,in accordance with the ancient custom of naming the planets after the immortals on ,mount ,olympus1 the planet was named ,uranus1 after the ,god of the starry sky4 ,a wonderful star cluster was later discovered also at the feet of the ,twins1--a little northwest of the feet of ,castor4 ,this is designated at #cd,m on star-maps and may be located in the sky even with a field-glass4 ,castor and ,pollux may be found a little south of the zenith during the evenings of ,february and ,march4 ,castor1 which is the higher star1 passes the meridian first1 but ,pollux1 the brighter star1 passes it #aa minutes later4 ,they are sometimes called ,ledan lights in honor of ,leda1 their mother4 ,owen ,meredith in ,the ,wanderer says ,the lone ,ledan lights from yon enchanted air1 ,look down upon my spirit like spirit's eyes that love me4 ,figure #abh ,because of their nearness and similarity to one another1 old ,english people sometimes call them the ,giant's ,eyes4 ,we have now covered the most important constellations and have seen that a little knowledge of romance1 beauty1 story and fact add wonderfully to the spectacle of a heaven filled with stars4 ,the thrill of rediscovery is for every individual who learns a little science2 the romance and beauty for every heart which feels a little song4 ,from an open plain1 the boundless sea1 or the solitude of a mountain1 the stars seem to hold their greatest appeal4 ,if one knows the name of a star or two1 one will find1 as in ,the ,wanderer1 a comradeship that is comforting4 ,figure #abi3 ,relative positions of the constellations grouped about the pole1 those appearing in the story of ,andromeda1 the ,spring and ,summer ,pageant1 and the story of ,orion and ,taurus1 the ,bull4 ,bayard ,taylor1 who often wrote about the stars1 looked up1 in a foreign land1 and saw ,above the palms1 the peaks of pearly gray1 ,canopus1 a star of the southern hemisphere1 only surpassed by ,sirius4 ,an urn of light1 a golden-hearted torch1 ,voluptuous1 drowsy-throbbing mid the stars1 ,as1 incense-fed1 from ,aphrodite's porch ,lifted to beacon ,mars4 ,then-- ,ah1 bliss to lie beside the jasper urn ,of founts1 and through the open arabesque ,to watch ,canopus burn6 ,let us face the heavens and dream for a moment1 forget the earth--let it drop away--just drift and dream4 ,ring out1 ye crystal spheres6 ,once bless our human ears 7,if ye have power to charm our senses so27 ,and let your silver chime ,move in melodious time1 7,and let the base of ,heaven's deep organ blow27 ,and with your ninefold harmony ,make up full concert with angelic symphony4 --,milton4 ,how rapturously the poets have dwelt upon the music of the crystalline spheres6 ,how sad that the volume of it was so excessive that the ear could not hear it6 ,and great it must have been with the whirr of a globe so huge that it contained eight concentric crystalline spheres whirling around every twenty-four hours and resounding with the stars as they rolled in their orbits4 ,this idea of the crystal spheres of ancient astronomy was beautifully described by ,milton in ,paradise ,lost4 ,milton believed without a doubt in the theories of ,copernicus who taught that the sun was a center of a system of planets which revolved about it at various distances1 but he probably used this old conception of the universe because it gave him more artistic freedom in the writing of his great epic poem4 ,let us pursue this fascinating theme1 while drifting and dreaming1 and see in what way the great poet painted it in as a background for his story4 ,milton pictured the boundless cosmos as divided into two parts--the resplendent ,kingdom of ,heaven which rested in brightness above1 and the turbulent darkness of ,chaos which surged in blackness below4 ,our cheerful sun-illumined ,universe was thought to be contained in an opaque sphere which hung from the floor of ,heaven by a golden chain4 ,at the rebellion of ,satan and his rebel followers1 ,god hurled them through the floor of ,heaven and down through the darkness of immeasurable space to a place in ,chaos hollowed out to receive them4 ,this place contained such dire discomforts that ,satan in his wrath swore revenge4 ,satan had heard that in order to hollow out this awful place in ,chaos1 the ether1 which was believed to fill all space1 flew upward spirited with various forms1 ,that rowl'd orbicular1 and turned to starrs4 the stars walling-in a ,universe which was to contain a dwelling place for a new race which might eventually take the place of the rebels cast from ,heaven4 ,the stars were then surrounded by a translucent shell which protected this new creation from the cold and tempests of outer space4 ,satan searched long and ardently through the darkness for this splendid ball of light4 ,finally he found it1 hanging on its golden chain from ,heaven1 and1 descending within by the radiant stairway of the angels1 passed the stars and the planets in their sliding spheres of impalpable crystal1 and discovered the earth1 radiant in the brightness of the sun6 ,of the further adventures of ,satan we need not speak1 but the handling of the whole subject is masterly and brought to ,milton undying fame4 ,the idea of the crystalline spheres first came to ,eudoxus in the #dth century ,b4 ,c4 from watching the movements of the planets among the stars4 ,he imagined that there must be nine of these hollow1 transparent globes enclosed one within the other and surrounding the quiescent body of the earth2 first1 the primum mobile1 which carried around all the inner spheres and communicated to them a universal motion1 next a sphere for all the stars1 then one for the sun1 one for the moon1 and one for each of the five planets then known4 ,these spheres were conceived to be of the finest crystal1 for past the wandering stars or planets1 the light came penetrating from that distant sphere studded with stars4 ,the daily movements of these stars were watched as they were carried along on their spheres1 and it was seen that they moved in law and order4 ,noting that the planets seemed to be placed at intervals corresponding to the scale in music and being at the same time greatly impressed with the discovery that music was based on mathematics1 he beautifully combined these discoveries and arrived at the entrancing conclusion that so great and orderly a movement of so many crystal spheres must give forth strains which united in a wonderful harmony of incredible volume and sweetness4 ,the picture is enchanting--a beautiful world set in the midst of whirling1 star-gemmed1 crystalline globes1 which by their motion1 create a melody so divine that it may only be heard by the gods6 ,with the advent of modern science1 our thoughts now wing their way through unobstructed star spaces of once crystalline spheres1 to the great space beyond1 and find in the void of what the ancients termed chaos1 not one sun-illuminated universe but millions of them1 some so distant that they appear no more than a filmy mist on a petal or a ghost of a fairy cloud6 ,to the true lover of the stars1 one universe or a million makes not a whit of difference4 ,the silent song of the heavens is as sweet today1 its mystery as alluring1 its delights more marvelous1 than in the days of yore when planets rolled out heavenly notes and stars shone through the seven spheres of pure1 translucent crystal4 ,,chapter ,x ,,along ,,the ,,milky ,,way ,,the ,,milky ,,way ,,one of the loveliest1 and most amazing1 phenomena of the heavens is the ,milky ,way4 ,in olden times1 imagination ran riot as to just what this luminous band of light could be4 ,it was almost as great a mystery as the tides1 which were called the grave of curiosity4 ,fully equal to solving the problem to their own satisfaction1 even as they did the motion of the stars1 the ancient people considered that here1 perhaps1 was a crack or seam where the two halves of heaven were imperfectly joined thus giving to earth a glimpse of the glory beyond the darkness4 ,whether the skies grown old here shrink their frame1 ,and through the chinks admit an upper ,flame1 ,or whether here the heaven's two ,halves are joyn'd1 ,but oddly clos'd1 still leave a ,seam behind4 --,manilius4 ,in ancient ,judea it was imagined as a ,long ,bandage wrapped around the heavens4 ,others thought that the ,milky ,way was not an imperfection in the floor of heaven but a pathway left open for the angels4 ,a ,french legend has it the glimmering of lights held by angels to guide mortals on their way to heaven4 ,some of the tribes of ,american ,indians have a legend somewhat like the ,french legend for they1 too1 thought that it was a road on which souls journeyed to their happy hunting ground4 ,the large stars1 on either side of the road1 were camp fires which cheered and warmed the travelers on their way4 ,aristotle imagined that this misty arch of light was the result of gaseous exhalations which had risen from the earth and now rested between the region of the ether and that of the planets4 ,the stars1 and ,sun himself1 as some have said ,by exhalations from the deep are fed4 --,lucan's ,pharsalia4 ,posidonious thought that it was a compound of fire less dense than that of the stars but more luminous4 ,still others fancifully considered it to be the course of the sun-chariot after ,phthon had lost control of his horses and that along here were the imprints of the hot hoofs and the ruts scorched by the fiery wheels4 ,a more modern legend of ,swedish origin tells of the construction of the ,milky ,way by two lovers who were mourning for each other on separate stars4 ,after toiling a thousand years they built this bridge of starry light which spanned the space between the two stars and enabled them to once more be united4 ,and now ,salami and ,zulamith1 when this long toil was done1 ,straight rushed into each other's arms1 and melted into one4 ,so they became the brightest star in heaven's high arch that dwelt1 ,great ,sirius1 the mighty sun1 beneath ,orion's belt4 --,topelius4 ,the ,chinese1 ,japanese and ,koreans thought of the ,milky ,way as a river4 ,an ancient tale1 current in these countries1 connects this river and the constellations of ,lyra and ,aquila in the quaint and charming romance of two lovers who were so happily married that they could not bear to be separated4 ,as a result1 they neglected their duties to such an extent that the ,god of the ,firmament placed the bride on a constellation on one side of the celestial river and her husband on a constellation on the other side4 ,now1 said he1 on the #gth night of the #gth month you may meet--if you are able4 ,this date occurs during the summer-time1 in ,july1 at a time of the year when the ,milky ,way and these stars are well placed for observation1 and1 on a clear night anyone with a keen eye and an open mind may witness a remarkable thing happen4 ,every magpie in sight flies upward1 higher than it ever flew before1 up to the very fields of heaven where the ,milky ,river wends its way4 ,figure #acj ,ranging themselves side by side1 the birds make a bridge of their bodies and wings which spans the celestial river and solves the problem of how the lovers shall meet4 ,on this happy night1 the stars of ,lyra and ,aquila burn with five different colors4 ,if1 however1 the weather is stormy and rain falls1 the river rises and flows over the plains and all the magpies in ,china1 ,korea and ,japan cannot reach across it4 ,the children of ,korea stone every magpie they see loitering around its usual haunts1 to remind it of its duty4 ,lafcadio ,hearn1 who wrote the ,japanese version of this story in a most delightful way1 said it seemed to be the origin of a festival called ,tanabata4 ,during this festival the ,japanese write poems with dew from the ,river of ,heaven1 which is collected fresh from yam leaves4 ,these poems are written on strips of blue1 green1 red1 yellow and white paper to match the colors of the stars1 and are tied on bamboo stalks set up about the houses4 ,mr4 ,hearn in his ,romance of the ,milky ,way refers to the story in this exquisite manner3 ,in the silence of the transparent night1 before the rising of the moon1 the charm of the ancient tale sometimes descends upon me out of the scintillant sky1 to make me forget the monstrous facts of science and the stupendous horror of space4 ,then ,i no longer behold the ,milky ,way1 as that awful ,ring of ,cosmos1 whose hundred million suns are powerless to lighten the abyss1 but as the very ,amanogwa itself--the river ,celestial4 ,i see the thrill of its shining stream1 the mists that hover along the verge1 and the watergrasses that bend in the winds of autumn4 ,white ,orihime ,i see at her starry loom and the ,ox that grazes on the farther shore--and ,i know that the falling dew is the spray of the ,herdsman's oar4 ,there are any number of references to the ,milky ,way throughout the realms of poetry4 ,amelia describes it as a fair illumined path ,that leadeth upward to the gate of heaven4 ,milton--an ample road whose dust is gold ,and pavement stars as stars to thee appear4 ,ovid--a high-road whose groundwork is of stars3 ,a way there is1 in heaven's expanded plain1 ,which1 when the skies are clear1 is seen below1 ,and mortals1 by the name of ,milky1 know4 ,the ground work is of stars2 through which the road ,lies open to the ,thunderer's abode4 --,ovid's ,metamorphoses 7,,dryden',s ,trans47 ,chaucer calls it ,watling street3 ,lo1 quoth he1 cast up thine eye1 ,see yonder1 lo6 the galaxie1 ,the which men clepe the ,milky ,way ,for it is white2 and some parfay ,callen it ,watling streete4 ,this great street was brent with hete1 he goes on to say1 when the ,sunne's sonne lost control of the sun-chariot1 that he could no governaunce4 ,in ,germany this same street was called ,irmin's ,way1 for the ,saxon ,god ,irmin was believed to ride along here in a ponderous brazen chariot now seen in the constellation of the ,great ,bear4 ,in #afji ,galileo1 the distinguished ,italian astronomer1 turned his newly invented telescope toward this mysterious illuminated arch1 and saw1 to his delight1 that it was a track of countless stars4 ,this fact1 which he proclaimed to the world1 has even more lure for the imaginative mind than a road whose dust is gold4 ,a modern poet describes it as ,infinity's illimitable fields where bloom the worlds like flowers about ,god's feet4 ,thus the cold glass eye of the telescope does not1 like the eye of the ,medusa1 turn a singing heart into stone4 ,some of the early writers1 such as ,ovid1 evidently suspected that the ,milky ,way consisted of millions of distant stars1 but the suggestion did not take well with the mass of people who preferred the belief that it was a radiant stairway used by the angels4 ,the silvery glow1 which is such an attractive feature of the star stream1 is caused by the accumulated light of a dazzling torrent of stars4 ,these stars1 or suns1 are so unthinkably distant that their individuality is lost like particles of mist1 thus causing the bright faces of ,sirius1 ,capella and other great stars to seem suddenly close4 ,this path of stars1 called the ,milky ,way1 stretches entirely around the sky1 or seems to do so1 because our solar system rests almost within its center--almost meaning within about #fj1jjj light years1 which is comparatively close to the center of a ,galaxy some #cjj1jjj light years in diameter4 ,if we could step off the earth and look at these stars they would appear as a gigantic wreath2 as it is1 we see one half of the wreath from the northern hemisphere and the other half by traveling to the southern hemisphere4 ,at least this much of the ancient conception of the universe was correct--that our earth was situated near its center--but the idea that the sun1 moon and stars whirled around it for its particular benefit1 is looked upon as a vast conceit4 ,we now know for a certainty that our glorious ,galaxy of stars is itself but an item in space1 for since the recent investigations with the #fj- and the #ajj-;inch telescopes at ,mount ,wilson observatory with which the outer portions of the spiral nebul were resolved into swarms of stars1 we know that there are hundreds of thousands of ,galaxies separated from ours by a million light years1 and from one another equally far4 ,probably the smaller nebul are even more remote4 ,and we used to imagine that our own ,galaxy floated through an infinite void of boundless space as lorn and lonely as ,wordsworth's cloud6 ,then science goes still further and wonders if all these ,galaxies form a part of a starry region which extends indefinitely in all directions or whether the star producing region is limited and surrounded by empty space6 ,the eagle flying in the face of the sun is as naught to the audacity of man poised on a speck in space1 marshalling the heavenly host about him and calling them by name across an abyss of space that may take years1 hundreds of years1 thousands and possibly millions of years for light to cross4 --,j4 ,r4 ,collins4 ,our thoughts1 now half stunned1 fly back across unthinkable starless intervals1 back like a magnet to the phosphorescent gleam which is ours in the boundless ocean in which a universe is but a gleam4 ,nearer--nearer--nearer--the gleam has softened to a touch of mist1 the mist has expanded to a definite shape studded with stars which are brightening1 and widening apart4 ,now the shape has become an ethereal form1 and before us rises a marvelous creation4 ,as seen from this outer point1 our ,galaxy is neither a ring nor a wreath but is formed of huge spirals which reach far outward into the heavens4 ,this cathedral of light1 whose lace-work is of suns1 covers an area so magnificent that a beam of light traveling #f1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj miles a year would require some #cjj1jjj years to cross it6 ,around a modest1 medium-sized star in the central cluster of this overwhelming and heroic structure1 whirls a tiny planet named ,earth1 and on this ,earth1 the infinitesimal human being named ,man1 whose questioning mind thus flies from star to star4 ,round ,that world of worlds ,his arm the ,almighty wound2 ,the bright immensity ,he raised1 and pressed1 ,all trembling1 like a babe1 unto ,his breast4 ,think ye that ,i1 who thus do ye maintain2 ,thus always cherish ye1 or all were vain-- ,ye all would drop into your native void1 ,if by my hand ye were not held and buoyed4 --with ,god1 'tis one ,to guide a sunbeam or create a sun-- ,to rule ten thousand thousand worlds or none4 ,go1 worlds6 said ,god1 but learn1 ere ye depart1 ,my favored temple is an human heart2 --,festus1 ,philip ,james ,bailey4 ,,the ,,two ,,crosses ,at the foot of the ,northern ,cross1 the ,milky ,way divides into two large channels which are quite irregular along the edges4 ,these two channels do not unite again for a distance of #aej degrees1 which leads us around to the southern hemisphere4 ,as seen from the southern hemisphere1 one of these divisions is particularly bright1 while the other is not only fainter but looks as if its streams of stars had encountered obstacles along their pathway and had been forced to run up little rills along its sides4 ,on the ,milky ,way in the southern hemisphere1 is the famous ,southern ,cross4 ,figure #aca ,this ,cross contains four bright stars set close together1 one of the first magnitude1 two of the second magnitude1 and one of the third magnitude4 ,although its figure is not quite so large nor as perfect as that of the ,northern ,cross1 its stars are brighter and it holds a prominent position near the southern pole4 ,in the first maps of the southern hemisphere1 ,south ,america is designated as ,terra sancti crucis1 the land of the holy cross4 ,when ,vega is our ,pole ,star1 the ,northern ,cross will hold a prominent position near the northern pole4 ,near the ,southern ,cross1 as is the case near the ,northern ,cross1 lies a remarkable dark blot which stands out sharply against the silvery path of the ,milky ,way4 ,this dark body is #acj times larger than the area of the full moon and is much more impressive than the one seen in the north4 ,it is said that superstitious sailors used to shudder and cross themselves because it lay so close to the ,cross1 but in those days1 dark nebul were thought to be holes in the heavens and the combination was suggestive of what happened to sailors who were good1 or who failed to be good4 ,not far from the ,southern ,cross is a telescopic treasure which has long been enjoyed by astronomers4 ,this treasure is a cluster of colored stars so delicately beautiful that the loveliest of rubies1 emeralds and sapphires seem to have been filled with fire and turned to stars4 ,there are over a hundred of these sparkling jewels in a space of only one forty-eighth of a square degree4 ,what a delight it would be to suddenly uncover such a wonderful casket in our treasure hunt among the stars6 ,but imagine the pleasure in watching the sky from the surface of a planet swinging in a field of such stars4 ,quite a thrill was experienced at the thought of a daytime tinted by a colored sun1 or even two colored suns1 but now imagine a night-time adorned with large and glowing pink1 green1 orange1 red and yellow stars6 their skies flowered with stars1 ,violet1 rose1 or pearl-hued or soft blue1 ,golden or green1 the light now blended1 now ,alternate4 --,bailey4 ,just below the ,southern ,cross lie two stars which outrival the twin stars of ,castor and ,pollux4 ,figure #acb3 ,the two pointers on the forefeet of ,centaurus1 the ,centaur1 and the ,southern ,cross4 ,these two stars are often called the southern pointers because they point out the ,southern ,cross4 ,they belong to the constellation of the ,centaur1 ,alpha ,centauri being noted as lying closer to the earth than any other star4 ,the light we call ,alpha ,centauri comes from two suns instead of one4 ,these suns are separated from each other by a distance of #b1jjj million miles and gravitate one round the other in a time equalling #ha of our years4 ,above the ,cross shines ,canopus on the stern of ,argo1 the ship of the ,argonauts4 ,canopus ranks next to ,sirius in brightness4 ,the bright stars of ,orion and the ,scorpion are each in their season seen high in the sky4 ,thus the appearance of the heavens would seem quite strange to one who had come from the north4 ,,the ,,magellanic ,,clouds ,the ,magellanic ,clouds1 which are almost as famous as the ,southern ,cross1 lie to one side of the ,milky ,way1 as seen by persons south of the equator1 but they have no apparent connection with our ,galaxy of stars4 ,the clouds resemble the ,milky ,way and are easily discernible with the unaided eye1 the larger one being #bjj times the apparent size of the moon--about as large as the bowl of the ,big ,dipper--and the smaller one-fourth as large4 ,photographs reveal the large ,magellanic ,cloud as being composed of nebul1 individual stars and star clusters1 the stars ranging from the fifth to the fifteenth magnitude4 ,flammarion counted #bia distinct nebul1 #df clusters and #ehb stars4 ,herschel counted several hundred nebul and clusters which far exceeds anything that is to be met with in any other region of the heavens4 ,dr4 ,harlow ,shapley1 director of the ,harvard ,observatory1 found the linear diameter of the cloud to be #ae1jjj light years1 and that it lay at such an immense distance that it required #aaj1jjj years for its light to reach us4 ,this cloud is like a small universe in itself1 although many of its stars are anything but small for ,dr4 ,shapley found that hundreds of them exceed the brightness of the sun by #aj1jjj times4 ,the large ,magellanic ,cloud lies between the southern pole and ,canopus2 the smaller one between ,beta ,centauri and the pole4 ,these starry clouds1 which look so much like real clouds1 were named after the celebrated navigator1 ,magellan4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,our ,,nearest ,,star--,,the ,,sun ,,stars are suns which lie at such vast distances that they seem no more than twinkling points of light4 ,through the aid of the spectroscope we have learned a great deal about these stars but so distant do they lie that no telescope on earth can bring them close enough for us to see the outline of a face4 ,there is one star1 however1 that lies so near that when it is in the sky its light blots out that of all the other stars4 ,this sun1 which classic poets call our day star1 lies only #ic1jjj1jjj miles away2 the next nearest star is over #bjj1jjj times as far4 ,this distance of #ic1jjj1jjj miles is close enough to enable us to examine the face of such a star as ours with comparative ease1 indeed1 it is close enough to enable us to feel the warmth of the fierce fires which rage upon its surface4 ,it is not at all a difficult matter to realize the distance from our earth to the sun4 ,a train traveling #fj miles an hour would reach the sun in #agf years2 an airplane flying at the rate of #bjj miles an hour would reach it in #ej years4 ,thus the distance seems to shrink as we adjust our rate of speed4 ,a ray of light crosses the same space in about #h minutes4 ,the existence of all life upon the earth is absolutely dependent upon the sun4 ,it is perceived that the sun of the world1 with all its essence1 which is heat and light1 flows into every tree1 and every shrub and flower1 and into every stone1 mean as well as precious4 --,swedenborg4 ,equally dependent are the seven other planets which1 with the earth1 whirl in elliptical orbits about this source of heat and light4 ,the ,sun the seasons of the year supplies ,and bids the evening and the morning rise2 ,commands the planets with superior force1 ,and keeps each wandering light to his appointed course4 --,lucan's ,pharsalia4 ,the planets are sometimes called the family of the sun1 although his family also includes the retinue of each planet1 which in the case of six of them at least1 consists of from one to ten moons4 ,our sun is no different than thousands of other stars in the sky2 is it likely that our star alone of all the countless millions which shine in our universe1 should be the only one to possess this additional charm of maturity8 ,one looks far out in the darkness to the hosts of radiant stars--then wonders--how many stars have flocks of planets--how many travel alone8 ,,the ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,compared to a point of starlight1 the disk of our day star looks most exceedingly huge1 and this at a distance of #ic1jjj1jjj miles4 ,one is therefore not quite so surprised to learn that this great sunball1 which rests like the hub of a wheel in the center of the solar system1 has a diameter of #hhf1jjj miles4 ,the #hjjj miles which measures across the earth seems quite inconspicuous when compared with such a diameter as this4 ,completely covering the sun's surface is a mass of intensely hot crimson gases4 ,these gases are like a turbulent upper atmosphere with a depth of #ejjj to #aj1jjj miles4 ,raging and seething in long tongues of flame1 they swirl up for thousands of miles above the surface1 or are thrown far above it in titanic explosions4 ,formerly1 these burning gases could only be seen at the time of total eclipse when the black disc of the moon passed in front of the glaring face of the sun leaving only the red flames licking out beyond the dark edge4 ,the invention of the spectroheliograph now makes it possible to photograph these projections when the sun is shining4 ,one should never try to see them by looking at the sun unless the glare is shut off either by the moon or by artificial means1 for the sun is so unbearably brilliant that the eyesight of an observer would soon be ruined4 ,figure #acc3 ,,solar ,,prominences4 ,huge flames ejected from the surface of the sun1 photographed at ,yerkes ,observatory with the ,rumford spectroheliograph attached to the #dj-;inch refractor4 ,this colorful gas which covers the surface of the sun1 is called the chromosphere or color-sphere on account of the vivid color which it acquires from the hydrogen and calcium of which it is largely composed4 ,the colossal flames which rise above its surface are called prominences4 ,some of the prominences shoot up with a velocity ranging from #cjj to #fjj miles a second1 sometimes to a height of #bjj1jjj miles1 and even higher4 ,the largest so far recorded extended upward for #ejj1jjj miles4 ,others extend horizontally for a distance of over #cjj1jjj miles1 racing forward at the rate of a thousand miles a minute1 although sometimes they remain in an unchanged position above the surface of the sun for days at a time4 ,these flames seem tremendous compared to our terrestrial standards1 but they would not seem so large on the globe of the sun which is #c1jjj1jjj miles in circumference4 ,figure #acd3 ,,hydrogen ,,flames ,,on ,,the ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,sun4 ,photographed with the aid of the spectroheliograph at the ,mount ,wilson ,observatory4 ,it seems strange to think that the tranquil stars must also be seething in such wild commotion1--blazing orbs torn by terrific tornadoes of fire4 ,it is fortunate that we cannot hear the terrible roar as well as see the light of their conflagrations4 ,since sound waves do not travel through space like the waves of light and heat1 the tumult on even our nearest star could never reach us2 yet sound is such a laggard traveler compared with fleet-winged light1 that light could cover the distance of #ic1jjj1jjj miles in less than #h minutes while sound would require over #ad years to travel over the same space4 ,thus1 even if we could hear the voices of these explosions1 they would never coincide with the scenes enacted4 ,the bright yellow surface of the sun which every one sees1 is called the photosphere or light-sphere4 ,if strongly magnified through a telescope1 this surface is seen to have a decided mottled appearance1 like a layer of little clouds with dark spaces between1 spread over the whole face of the sun4 ,these are now known to be masses of calcium gas4 ,practically all that is known of the physical constitution of the sun has been discovered through the study of the fine1 dark lines in the solar spectrum4 ,through the aid of the spectroscope1 many terrestrial elements have been discovered1 among these being calcium1 sodium1 magnesium1 potassium1 aluminum1 silver1 iron1 nickel1 copper1 zinc1 tin1 lead1 hydrogen1 oxygen and carbon4 ,all these elements are either in the form of permanent gases or metallic vapors4 ,the photosphere or light-sphere lies below the chromosphere or color-sphere4 ,beyond the crimson color-sphere lies another envelope of very delicate light called the corona4 ,this may only be seen at the time of total eclipse4 ,it was once thought to belong to the moon but it is now known that the moon has very little atmosphere4 ,besides1 the moon's black disk may be seen floating across this beautiful halo of light4 ,the corona has been described by those who have seen it1 as having a soft1 pearly radiance tinged with green2 its form is quite irregular and varies at different times1 extending from #a1jjj1jjj to #c1jjj1jjj and sometimes even #i1jjj1jjj miles beyond the surface of the sun4 ,in the eclipse of #ahgi the streamers were quite extensive in the equatorial plane of the sun where they united in a formation like the petals of a narcissus while at the solar poles they were shorter and extended in well-defined rays4 ,yet no matter what its form1 it is a magnificent background during the sun's eclipse for the narrow rim of deep crimson projects beyond the inky edges of the moon4 ,the corona seems to be caused by electrical discharges in a medium of fine dust and rarefied gases1 chiefly coronium and protofluorine4 ,various electrical phenomena take place in the strong magnetic fields of the sun as a whole and in the sun-spots1 and the changing fields of magnetic force cause the changing appearance of the corona4 ,the sun-spots1 however1 are of the greatest interest to amateurs for these may often be seen with very little optical aid4 ,these dark1 movable spots were first noted by ,galileo1 although the idea that the sun could have spots upon its surface was ridiculed by the scholars of the medieval schools who argued in the fervid language of scholastic philosophy and medieval dogmatism1 that the sun was a sphere of pure fire undefiled by any spots4 ,sun-spots are1 as a rule1 thousands of miles across and usually appear in groups which cover an immense area on the surface of the sun1 but1 since the sun lies #ic1jjj1jjj miles away1 a spot large enough to contain the earth would appear to us about the size of a pinhead on a pincushion4 ,right here one should be warned again not to attempt to look at the sun without adequate protection 7such as smoked glasses7 for the eyes4 ,a photograph taken through a large telescope is the most satisfactory4 ,although these dark blotches--which are only comparatively dark--were called spots and were later drawn as saucer-like depressions1 modern research and increased power in the telescopes has revealed them as gigantic solar tornadoes4 ,these tornadoes usually last from a few days to several months1 and are especially numerous in cycles of #aa years4 ,during sun-spot activity eruptive prominences rise to heights of many thousands of miles and streams of electrons are shot forth with such force that they may possibly even penetrate deeply into our own atmosphere causing disturbances such as magnetic storms and auroras4 ,figure #ace3 ,,sun-,,spots4 ,the earth is so small compared with the huge bulk of the sun that it would be lost in one of these spots4 ,photograph by the ,mount ,wilson ,observatory4 ,if a total solar eclipse occurs at a time when these great magnetic storms are raging in particular fury on the sun's surface1 the corona always appears brighter and more intricate than when the sun is peaceful4 ,sun-spots were very numerous in #aiae and #aiaf4 ,the next spot maximum will occur about #aibf1 then in #aicg and so on4 ,for three years or four years they appear with great frequency1 then declining to a minimum for three or four years1 rise to a maximum again2 thus the period from maximum to maximum is about #aa years4 ,through watching these black spots disappear around one edge of the sun and then reappear after an interval of time on the other side1 ,galileo discovered that the sun turned completely around on its axis in #be days4 ,figure #acf3 ,,sun-,,spots1 ,,direct ,,photograph4 ,compare with photograph on page #bad1 also made on same day by the ,mount ,wilson ,observatory4 ,further study disclosed the still stranger fact that the sun does not turn around in a solid body4 ,areas near the equator were found to complete a revolution in #be days1 but they were seen to forge ahead of those regions in higher latitudes2 #de degrees north and south latitude1 the rotation period is #bg days2 #fj degrees north and south latitude1 the period is #ca4b days1 and in #hj degrees north and south latitude1 the period is #ce4c days4 ,this alone can be regarded as proof that the sun's apparent surface is not solid but is either in a liquid or gaseous state4 ,,an ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,a total eclipse of the sun is caused by the moon passing between the earth and the sun1 and since the moon is apparently the same size as the sun in the heavens1 it hides the bright face of this luminary from our view2 but the long shadow which trails behind the moon must touch the earth4 ,the shadow moves along a narrow strip as the earth revolves and only those who are in this shadow can see the sun totally eclipsed4 ,if the shadow of the moon does not quite touch the earth1 the moon's disk does not quite cover the sun4 ,figure #acg ,then the dark body of the moon is seen surrounded by a ring of light4 ,this is called an annular eclipse4 ,in a partial eclipse1 the sun's disk suddenly becomes indented on one side1 the indentation slowly increasing for some time1 and then diminishing until it disappears altogether4 ,total solar eclipses are extremely infrequent in any one place because of the smallness of the cone of the moon's shadow4 ,this shadow draws a black streak across the earth1 which1 under favorable circumstances1 may have a breadth of a little more than #afj miles and a length of #aj1jjj to #ab1jjj miles4 ,the width of the shadow depends upon the nearness of the moon for if its shadow just touches the earth1 the streak will have no sensible width4 ,a partial solar eclipse is visible #b1ajj miles or more on either side of the region where the eclipse is total4 ,figure #ach3 ,,relative ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,sun1 ,,moon ,,and ,,earth ,,at ,,the ,,total ,,solar ,,eclipse ,,of ,,september #aj1 #aibc4 7,the two words at the point of the shadow's contact with the ,earth are ,catalina and ,san ,diego47 ,drawing by ,dr4 ,mars ,f4 ,baumgardt1 ,curator of ,clark ,observatory1 ,los ,angeles1 ,calif4 ,since the shadow of the moon passes across the earth at the furious rate of #acjj miles an hour1 a total eclipse of the sun lasts for only a few minutes1--and for this length of time1 short as it is1 some thanks is due to the fact that the earth1 in revolving upon its axis1 carries the observer and the ground upon which he stands along the same direction in which the shadow is moving4 ,total eclipses are of extremely rare occurrence and only happen about once in every three hundred years for any selected spot on the earth's surface4 ,an interesting description of a total eclipse may be found in ,flammarion's ,astronomy for ,amateurs3 ,the luminous disk of the sun is gradually corroded4 ,another disk1 as black as ink1 creeps in front of it and little by little invades it entirely4 ,the atmosphere takes on a wan1 sepulchral hue2 astonished nature is hushed in profound silence2 an immense veil of sadness spreads over the world4 ,night comes on suddenly1 and the stars shine out in the ,heavens4 ,it seems as though by some mysterious cataclysm the ,sun had disappeared forever4 ,professor ,moulton in his ,astronomy gives another splendid description3 ,it always occurs precisely at new moon1 and consequently the moon is invisible until it begins to obscure the sun4 ,steadily the moon moves over the sun's disk2 and1 as the instant of totality draws near1 the light rapidly fails1 animals become restless and everything takes on a weird appearance4 ,suddenly a shadow rushes across the surface of the earth at the rate of more than #acjj miles an hour1 the sun is covered1 the stars flash out1 around the apparent edge of the moon are rose-colored prominences of vaporous material forced up from the sun's surface to a height of perhaps #bjj1jjj miles1 and all around the sun extending out as far as half its diameter are streamers of pearly light which constitutes the sun's corona4 ,after seven minutes at the very most1 the western edge of the sun is uncovered and daylight suddenly appears4 ,in ,new ,astronomy1 ,langley tells of the sensations of an observer as the moon's shadow passes furiously on its way3 ,the bright cloud ,i saw distinctly put out like a candle4 ,the rapidity of the shadow1 and the intensity produced a feeling that something material was sweeping over the earth at a speed perfectly frightful4 ,i involuntarily listened for the rushing noise of a mighty wind4 ,on ,june #hth1 #aiah1 ,september #aj1 #aibc1 and on ,january #bdth1 #aibe1 many people in the ,united ,states were privileged to view the wonderful spectacle of a total eclipse4 ,scientists came from all over the world to witness the solar eclipse of #aibc1 for not only was it visible from an attractive corner of our country at a pleasant time of the year1 but the sun was at a convenient altitude for observation4 ,many photographs were taken of the great flaming corona1 some even from airplanes4 ,although people now travel halfway across the earth in order to be able to witness an eclipse1 in olden days such an occasion was marked by the greatest terror4 ,figure #aci3 ,,the ,,solar ,,corona4 ,photographed during the eclipse of ,june #h1 #aiah1 at ,green ,river1 ,wyoming1 by the ,mount ,wilson ,observatory ,expedition4 ,to the ancients they were without the order of nature1 and in ,rome1 at one time1 it was blasphemy1 and punishable by law1 to talk publicly of their being due to natural causes4 ,the ,chaldeans believed the sun and moon to be black on the hidden side1 and upon the displeasure of the ,gods1 the darkened side was turned to the earth thus causing an eclipse4 ,figure #adj3 ,,successive ,,stages ,,of ,,an ,,eclipse ,,of ,,the ,,sun1 ,,recorded ,,with ,,the ,,aid ,,of ,a ,,kodak4 ,photographed by ,edith ,carlson at ,palo ,alto1 ,california1 ,september #aj1 #aibc4 ,many people among the ,european nations covered their wells and fountains for fear that the water would become contaminated by the poisonous1 mists which arose during an eclipse4 ,the notion was probably due to the fact that the drop in temperature is often accompanied by a fall of dew4 ,the ,peruvians thrashed dogs during an eclipse so that their howling would keep evil spirits away1 and for the same reason1 the ,romans beat their pots and pans1 lifted up torches and fire-brands into the air4 ,the people of the ,northern nations also created a great din1 for they imagined that the sun was pursued by fierce wolves 7,skoll and ,hati71 who tried to swallow their brilliant prey so that the world would return to its primeval darkness4 ,crooke1 in ,popular ,religion and ,folk-,lore1 says that ,a high-caste ,hindu will eat no food that has remained in the house during an eclipse1 and all earthen vessels which are in the house at the time1 must be broken4 ,during an eclipse all household business is suspended1 and eating and drinking is prohibited1 even sleep at such times is forbidden1 for it is then that the demons and devils are most active4 ,the most effectual way of scaring the demon ,rahu and releasing the afflicted planets is to bathe in some sacred stream and for protection1 a ,brahman should stand in the water beside the worshipper and recite the ,gayatri4 ,it is said that at such times the rivers are covered with human heads4 ,some barbarian tribes imagined that when the sun or moon began to lose its light1 the orb was sickening under the arts of a wicked magician and they danced and screamed and beat their tomtoms in a wild frenzy so that the wicked one might become afraid and steal away4 ,the well-known idea of the ,chinese1 however1 is the most interesting of all1 for there are records showing that for several thousand years these people believed that an eclipse was caused by the attempt on the part of a huge black dragon to seize the burning ball and swallow it4 ,the dread of such a catastrophe so preyed upon the minds of the populace that it is reported in the ,tshu-,king1 one of the oldest chronicles in existence1 that the ancient astronomers ,ho and ,hi had their heads laid before their feet for failing to predict an eclipse of the sun4 ,plenty of time to get out drums and kettles and to make the deafening noise which had always caused the monster to drop the sun was always given after this little incident4 ,douglas1 in ,history of ,china1 relates that at this time1 the intervention of every official in the country is called upon to save the sun from being destroyed4 ,some months before the expected eclipse the board of astronomers notifies the exact date of its appearance to the officials of the board of rites1 who in their turn announce its appearance to the viceroys and governors of the provinces4 ,they transmit the message to all their subordinates1 so that1 when the time arrives1 an army of mandarins stand prepared to avert disaster4 ,their procedure is simple and as neither the sun nor the moon have ever been devoured1 it is regarded as efficacious4 ,at the appointed time the mandarins assemble at the yamen of the senior official1 and arrange themselves before an altar set up in the courtyard1 on which incense is burning4 ,at a given signal1 they fall down on their knees and perform ,ko-t-ow1 after which the attendants beat drums and gongs to frighten away the oppressive monster1 while the priests move in a procession round the altar chanting prayers and formulas4 ,to assist the mandarins in their patriotic efforts1 the people mount to the roofs of their houses1 and add to the din which issues from the yamen by beating everything capable of emitting resounding noises4 ,the ,grecians1 however1 ascribing all things to the gods1 thought that the phenomenon was due to ,jupiter1 who1 sometimes wishing to keep his business on earth secret from the other immortals on ,mount ,olympus1 kept them from seeing him by hanging a little covering over the sun4 ,the ,olympian ,father hangs a noon-day night ,o'er the sun's disk and veils its glittering light1 ,fear falls on man4 ,hence miracles1 before ,incredible1 are counted miracles no more4 --,archilochus4 7,trans4 by ,,sir ,,chas4 ,,abraham ,,elton47 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,children ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,the ,,planets ,,we have just obtained a close view of one of the stars of the ,galaxy1--the nearest star1 our own sun1--and have gazed in admiration at the pearly setting of its corona1 the turbulent waves of its crimson atmosphere1 its black spots and moving belts1 and our admiration increases as we visualize in our mind's eye1 the eight fine planets which swing unceasingly around in its beautiful light4 ,in comparison with the sun1 these planets are very small2 either the earth1 ,mars1 ,venus or ,mercury could be dropped into an average-sized sun-spot1 or all four into an extra large sun-spot1 while a thousand globes huge as ,jupiter would scarcely balance the globe of the sun4 ,indeed1 it has been computed that if the total mass of the whole solar system1 with the exception of the sun1 were called ,i1 then the mass of the sun on the same scale would be #gdd4 ,all of the planets of the solar system roll as if on a great shield1 one orbit set within the other at widely separated intervals4 ,these orbits are not round but elliptical1 with the sun shining at one focus of each elliptical orbit4 ,an unseen force called gravitation holds the planets in their pathways1 always just so near and just so far from the sun4 ,this is the same force that holds the stars in a ,galaxy and keeps the objects on the earth from sliding off into space4 ,since the attractive power of the sun is tremendous1 the planets must travel around their pathways at a tremendous rate in order to develop enough centrifugal force to offset the gravitational pull1 and the closer the planet the faster it must fly4 ,figure #ada3 ,the orbits of the four outer planets1 ,neptune1 ,uranus1 ,saturn and ,jupiter1 and the orbits of ,mars and the ,earth1 drawn to scale4 7,within the orbit of the ,earth would appear the orbits of ,venus and ,mercury1 too small to be shown in this drawing47 ,mercury1 for instance1 travels at a rate of #ce miles a second while ,neptune1 seventy-five times as far off1 has an orbital velocity of only #c4d miles a second4 ,the following table shows the distances of each planet from the sun and the time it takes it to complete its journey around its orbit1 beginning with ,mercury1 the nearest planet to the sun1 and continuing outward4 ,distances ,period of from the ,sun ,revolution ,mercury #ce1gej1jjj miles #hh days ,venus #ff1gej1jjj #bbe ,earth #ib1ejj1jjj #cfe ,mars #ada1jjj1jjj #fhg ,jupiter #deg1jjj1jjj #ab years ,saturn #hha1jjj1jjj #bi ,uranus #a1gga1jjj1jjj #hd ,neptune #b1gge1jjj1jjj #afe ,mercury1 ,venus1 ,earth and ,mars are sometimes called the inner planets because they form a group nearest the sun but more frequently are called the ,terrestrial ,planets because they all have solid crusts like the earth4 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus and ,neptune1 forming a group called the outer or major planets1 are more or less in a gaseous condition and are very huge in comparison to the first four4 ,the orbit of ,neptune1 the farthermost planet1 encloses the orbits of all the other planets1 and is so very large that it requires #afe years for ,neptune to travel around it4 ,this is quite a contrast to the time consumed by little ,mercury who flies so close to the sun that he travels around it in #hh days4 ,this1 of course1 means the length of the year on each of these planets4 ,since the planets shine by light reflected from the sun1 half of their globes are always bright1--and the other half is always hidden in the darkness of the shadow which trails behind4 ,each planet1 however1 rotates on its axis1 which gives each side in turn a night and day4 ,exception to this must be made in the case of ,mercury and ,venus1 their rotation with respect to the sun having been destroyed by the powerful tidal actions of the sun eons ago4 ,hence only one hemisphere in each of these planets is warmed by the light of the sun2 the other forever faces the darkness and the cold of outer space4 ,the period of a planet's rotation is determined by watching its markings1 just as the period of the sun's rotation was determined by watching its spots4 ,the larger planets rotate much more swiftly than the smaller ones2 a day on ,jupiter or ,saturn is not half as long as on ,mars or on ,earth4 ,the seasons of a planet depend on the angle at which its axis is tipped4 ,the axis of the earth tips over at an angle of #bc degrees from the perpendicular to the plane of its orbit1 so its seasons are fairly well divided4 ,jupiter leans only #c degrees and has little seasonal change but poor ,uranus is inclined about #ih degrees and is subjected to the direst extremes4 ,since the year of ,uranus consists of #hd of our years1 each hemisphere has #db years of darkness and #db years of light4 ,the four inner planets are quite solid in comparison to the four outer ones1 which are largely gaseous4 ,figure #adb3 ,the ,axis of the ,earth tips from the ,perpendicular to the ,plane of its ,orbit4 ,mercury is the most solid planet of all1 being more like metal than the earth2 neither ,jupiter nor ,saturn have stable surface crusts while ,saturn is so light that it would float on water4 ,following are the diameters of the planets starting from ,mercury1 nearest to the sun1 to ,neptune1 the farthest away4 ,mercury #c1jcj miles ,venus #g1gjj ,earth #g1ibg ,mars #d1bcj ,jupiter #hh1cjj ,saturn #gc1gjj ,uranus #cb1jjj ,neptune #ce1jjj ,the planets that are relatively near the sun have few or no satellites1 ,mercury and ,venus having none1 ,earth one1 ,mars two2 those farther distant have a goodly number1 ,uranus possessing four1 ,jupiter nine and ,saturn ten4 ,mars has been studied in much detail and1 of all the planets1 has excited the most popular interest4 ,conditions are such that markings1 mysterious at this distance1 and colorful details1 may be studied with comparative ease4 ,the other planets that have been studied are too far away1 too close to the sun1 or are obscured by too cloudy atmospheres to permit detailed observations4 ,the great planet ,jupiter forms a magnificent picture1 his broad face striped by colored bands which occasionally vary4 ,this planet may be seen to turn completely around in #i hours and #ej minutes1 while four of its moons revolve about it in close attendance4 ,saturn is even more superbly magnificent than ,jupiter1 for the great1 flat1 shining ring which encircles this planet is the wonder of the whole solar system4 ,because the planets are so much closer than the stars1 they may be seen to change their places against the background of the constellations4 ,an almanac will tell which of these worlds are visible in the evening during the different months and where they may be found4 ,since they lie nearly in the same plane as the orbit of the earth1 they are always found within the boundaries of a pathway #af degrees wide4 ,this pathway circles the sky and is marked by the sun in the daytime and the moon at night4 ,all the planets except ,mars1 ,venus and ,mercury travel nearly in the middle of this path which in ancient times was named the zodiac4 ,the constellations which lie along the pathway of the sun1 moon and planets are called the constellations of the zodiac4 ,the following are the ,latin names of the signs of the twelve parts of the zodiac1 with their ,english equivalents3 ,spring3 ,aries1 the ,ram ,summer3 ,cancer1 the ,crab ,taurus1 the ,bull ,leo1 the ,lion ,gemini1 the ,twins ,virgo1 the ,virgin ,autumn3 ,libra1 the ,scales ,winter3 ,capricornus1 the ,goat ,scorpio1 the ,scorpion ,aquarius1 the ,water-carrier ,sagittarius1 the ,archer ,pisces1 the ,fishes ,when the winter months begin1 the sun is in the constellation of ,sagittarius1 in the beginning of spring in the constellation of ,pisces1 in the beginning of summer1 in ,gemini1 and at the commencement of autumn1 in the constellation of ,virgo4 ,the zodiacal constellations are very important1 and to the people in the olden days1 the sun's position in front of them was a way to tell the season of the year4 ,the words of ,chaucer and the young sonne ,hath in the ,ram his halfe cours y-ronne meant to any ploughboy in old ,england that it was ,april because during the first half of ,april the sun traverses the last half of ,aries1 the constellation of the ,ram4 ,chaucer1 by the way1 wrote a book to teach litel ,lewis his son1 to knowe every time of the day by the light of the sonne1 and every time of the night by the starres fixed4 ,to locate a planet in modern days one has only to look up its position in the almanac or on a monthly sky map and then find it similarly located in the same constellation in the sky4 ,the ,monthly ,evening ,sky ,map1 an eight page journal for the amateur published by ,leon ,barritt1 #aej ,nassau ,st41 ,new ,york1 contains not only a map of the sky for every month1 but also current astronomical news4 ,with such aid1 after becoming familiar with the belt of zodiacal constellations--which are easily learned by the following verse1 it is not difficult to find the nearest planets4 ,the ,ram1 the ,bull1 the ,heavenly ,twins ,and next the ,crab1 the ,lion shines ,the ,virgin and the ,scales4 ,the ,scorpion1 the ,archer and ,he-goat1 ,the ,man that holds the ,watering-pot1 ,the ,fish with glittering tails4 ,both ,venus and ,jupiter are brighter than first magnitude stars and will be recognized with but little difficulty4 ,mars and ,saturn are as bright as first magnitude stars1 although ,saturn is not so easy to find unless its location is definitely known4 ,venus is a very white star1 ,jupiter a bright yellow1 ,saturn a pale orange1 and ,mars a fiery red4 ,mars wanders farther south than any other planet seen in the evening skies4 ,mercury may sometimes be seen after sunset in the spring or before sunrise in the fall1 but only for a few days at a time and hence will seldom be seen by one who does not know just when1 as well as where1 to look for it4 ,uranus and ,neptune are too far away and the planetoids too small to be of much interest to amateurs4 ,if examined with a glass the planets will show a bright round disk while a star is no more than a point of light4 ,mercury and ,venus show phases just as our moon for their orbits lie between the earth and the sun4 ,venus is particularly beautiful as a crescent and is best seen in the west near the setting sun4 ,jupiter ranks second in popularity for even a field-glass discloses his round shining face and four of his principal moons4 ,,the ,,planetoids ,,the ,,miniature ,,worlds ,,of ,,the ,,solar ,,system ,between ,mars and ,jupiter lies an immense lane of over #cjj1jjj1jjj miles4 ,this lane had been considered vacant until a century and a quarter ago1 and since it was an exception to the general law of planetary distances1 it had long been of interest to astronomers4 ,mercury1 ,venus1 ,earth and ,mars are distant #ce1gej1jjj2 #ff1gej1jjj2 #ib1ejj1jjj and #ada1jjj1jjj miles1 respectively1 from the sun2 then came this wide vacancy1 with the order for the distances between the planets again resumed beyond ,jupiter4 ,when the great ,kepler suggested that there must be an invisible planet revolving in this gap1 many thought that the idea was only a dream of a great mind1 for a planet so close would have been discovered long ago4 ,yet the suggestion was often considered1 for the space had been to astronomers as a false note is to a musician1 and they knew that if there were only a planet circling here1 the spaces between every world would increase with regularity in proceeding outward from the sun and the solar kingdom would then be laid out in perfect harmony4 ,the matter was left at this stage for many years1 indeed it was not until #bjj years after the suggestion was made that astronomers banded together1 divided up the zodiac into twenty-four parts and1 distributing them among an equal number of observers1 began a systematic search4 ,it is quite likely that during the #bjj years previous to #ahja1 when the search began1 not an astronomer lived but who had at some time wished to participate in such a search4 ,astronomers were1 however1 so few1 the heavens so wide and life so short1 that there was more than a load already on each of those earnest workers among the star fields4 ,why is it1 by the way1 that more people are not curious about the sky8 ,it sometimes happens that those who have stars for a hobby1 a rocking-horse ,pegasus1 unexpectedly find themselves transported by the ,winged ,horse to regions above4 ,thus1 ,piazzi1 at ,palermo on the island of ,sicily1 happened across the first of the little planets1 or planetoids1 quite by accident1 delighting not only himself but every scientist in the world1 for order was now established in the solar system4 ,although this newly discovered planet was so tiny that its whole surface was no more than equal to the area of the ,united ,states1 the very fact of its existence in what had seemed a wasted space1 probably gave as much satisfaction as the discovery of ,uranus ten years before4 ,at the request of ,piazzi1 the new planet was named ,ceres after the tutelary ,goddess of ,sicily1 and ,c as a symbol was appropriately given the sign of the sickle3 ,c4 ,but a year later1 ,dr4 ,olbers1 a physician at ,bremen in ,lower ,saxony1 discovered a second planetoid in the same region1 with a mean distance and a periodic time so nearly identical with that of ,ceres that they were almost within hailing distance4 ,this second planetoid1 which was named ,pallas1 was not greeted as joyously as the first1 for now a situation was created that was harder to explain than the great vacant gap4 ,but this was not all4 ,in #ahjd1 still another little globe was discovered1 which was called ,juno1 and another in #ahjg1 which was named ,vesta1--four little planets in less than six years6 ,subsequent discoveries have brought the number almost up to #ajjj4 ,an explanation by ,olbers suggested that these minute bodies might be fragments of an exploded planet1 but since they do not lie in the same plane nor do their orbits have a common point of intersection1 this theory was discarded4 ,it was then thought that the great attractive force of ,jupiter would not allow a planet to form in the space4 ,this theory was also discarded1 and even now1 a century and a quarter later1 no one theory bearing on the origin of the little worlds has found general acceptance4 ,following the custom of the ancients1 the planetoids were given the names of ,greek divinities1 the next four being named ,astra1 ,hebe1 ,iris and ,flora4 ,but the names of ,greek divinities at last ran out1 and the planetoids were christened with more common names4 ,astronomers do not bother with any of these names1 however1 except in the case of a few4 ,the rest they refer to by inclosing its number in a circle4 ,although these little globes are very small1 many of them have been found to possess distinct individuality4 ,vesta1 for instance1 is exceedingly bright1 while ,ceres1 in contrast1 is gray and dull4 ,an explanation is that ,ceres may be composed of rugged and sombre rock1 unclothed by any vestige of air1 while ,vesta displays a brilliant shell of clouds4 ,ceres is the largest of the planetoids1 although even ,ceres is less than #ejj miles in diameter4 ,eros1 which comes closer to the earth than any other known celestial body with the exception of the moon1 exhibits a rapid variation in the brilliancy of its light4 ,it is thought that this may be due to a rough1 uneven surface with unequal reflecting power1 for ,eros is no more than a huge rock only #bj miles across4 ,it has also been suggested that perhaps ,eros consists of two bodies revolving close together so that one body eclipses the other in certain parts of its orbit1 or again1 it may be an angular body1 not round at all6 ,many of the planetoids are smaller than ,eros1 some being only a few miles across4 ,thus a thousand mysterious little worlds of assorted shapes and sizes roll along on their individual pathways in the great space between the orbit of ,mars and the orbit of the earth4 ,the bright light of ,vesta1 the dull glow of ,ceres and the variable brilliancy of ,eros lightly suggest the interest with which further observations and study may invest each tiny planet1 as larger and more powerful telescopes are constructed4 ,,comets ,,and ,,meteors ,comets ,jove brandishing a star which men a comet call4 ,a comet1 in olden times1 was an object of terror and dread and was regarded as an omen of pestilence and war4 ,searching through ancient records1 incidents without number could be narrated to show that the malicious influence of some comet had caused-- ,fever1 sickness1 plague1 and death1 ,hard times1 need and hunger's scathe1 ,great heat1 drought1 and barren ,nature1 ,war1 murder1 riots1 fire and slaughter1 ,frost1 cold1 storms1 and want of water4 ,josephus tells us that the destruction of ,jerusalem in #fi ,a4,d4 was caused by no less than the sword shaped comet which pierced the heavens above the city6 ,a story is sometimes told of the great consternation caused in ,europe in #adef at the appearance of ,halley's comet4 ,this great shaft of light moving across the sky so disturbed the equanimity of ,pope ,calixtus that he instituted a form of prayer 7,lord1 deliver us from the devil1 the ,turk and the comet7 as a protection against its baleful influence4 ,but the comet remained1 and1 with his people mightily afraid1 the pope himself was forced to interfere1 exorcise and expell the malignant one from the skies4 ,halley's comet has always been a most interesting comet4 ,the last time that it appeared1 in #aiaj1 the earth rolled right through its beautiful1 highly diffused tail1 and although the experience was of interest to astronomers1 it affected not a whit the affairs of the populace2 indeed1 but few people knew about it4 ,in #afhj1 ,halley1 an ,english astronomer and mathematician1 while on a passage to ,france1 was the first to observe this great comet1 and later made observations with ,cassini at ,paris1 where he observed its appearance with great care and painstakingly computed the elements of its orbit4 ,from the nature of its orbit1 he predicted that it would return at regular intervals of #ge years4 ,he even traced this comet back on his historical table of comets1 and found that the comets of #afjg1 #aeca and #adef had the same orbit as the one which had appeared in #afhj4 ,seventy-five years after1 true to his prediction1 the comet returned1 thus proving that comets may travel in elongated orbits and appear periodically4 ,halley has the honor of being the first to predict the return of a comet4 ,it is now known that some comets require hundreds and even thousands of years to perform a revolution around the sun2 ,donati's comet1 one of the most famous comets1 which appeared in #aheh like a plume of fire1 shaped like a bird of paradise1 travels on such a long circuit that it returns only every #bjjj years4 ,the brilliant comet of #ahaa1 which remained visible for nearly ten months1 has a period estimated as being around #cjjj years4 ,but the orbits of some comets are even longer than this1 some traveling so far into space that they not only over-leap the boundary of ,neptune but fly to a turning-post so distant that we may never see them return4 ,more than #cj short period comets have been discovered and these have their orbits entirely within the solar system4 ,encke's comet1 with a period of #c years1 has the shortest period known4 ,figure #adc ,although it was discovered to the relief of mankind that comets have no influence upon the earth1 it was also discovered that some of the planets with great mass and strong gravitational power1 can exert considerable influence on a comet1 in fact1 enough influence to attract many of these celestial bodies out of their courses and force them to make their outer turn around a point near that planet's orbit4 ,jupiter has a larger family of comets than any other planet4 ,if a planet once captures a comet it is his captive forever1 unless the near approach of some planet of greater mass pulls the comet away and forces it to enclose its new master in the outer end of its orbit4 ,figure #add ,a large comet first appears among the stars as a dim spot of light4 ,it may appear from any direction1 for1 although comets are considered members of the solar system1 their orbits do not lie in the same plane as the planets4 ,as it sweeps toward the sun with terrible velocity1 which increases hourly1 a long streamer of luminous gas gradually develops and floats backward from its head4 ,a small comet often has no tail1 but a large comet usually possesses a long and beautiful one1 and has been known to possess two1 and even half a dozen4 ,this tail1 or tails1 are at their best when close to the sun1 although at all times swung carefully away from the terrific flames of that luminary4 ,scientists almost hold their breath sometimes at the close call of comets1 for the ,great ,comet of #ahdc almost grazed the surface of the sun and many another has passed right through the outstretched banners of the corona4 ,after darting swiftly around this brilliant center1 the comet again heads into fathomless space1 its long1 bright tail gradually disappearing and its fierce speed relaxing as it escapes farther and farther from the sun's control4 ,the word comet means a long-haired star4 ,the star-like nucleus of the comet is called the head and the long nebulous streamer which trails behind1 the tail4 ,the head may be colossal1 or it may be a mere shred2 the head of ,donati's comet would have more than filled the space between the earth and moon1 while that of the comet of #ahaa was considerably larger than the sun itself4 ,the length of a comet's tail is equally amazing for it extends often for millions of miles4 ,the comet of #ahhb had #ajj1jjj1jjj miles of tail while that of #adhc had one twice as long4 ,the comet of #afhj extended below the horizon when its head touched the zenith4 ,the mean density of a comet is very small4 ,young states that it is nothing more than a sandbank--a swarm of solid particles of unknown size and widely separated4 ,this light and airy object darts through space at a most hectic speed1 often at the rate of a number of hundred miles per second1 when close to the sun4 ,it is of such flimsy construction that its light does not even obscure the stars although there have been comets so bright that they were visible in the daytime4 ,it is now believed that a comet derives its light1 except that portion which is reflected sunlight1 from electrical discharges between its particles4 ,by some influence emanating from the sun1 gas is emitted from the scattered swarm of meteoric particles which compose the head1 and these stream out like smoke from a locomotive in a magnificent luminous trail4 ,this only occurs when in the vicinity of the sun4 ,each time the comet comes back to the sun1 it loses some of its beauty and its mass decreases--yet like a moth to a flame1 it always returns4 ,newcomb describes the way in which a comet gradually loses itself in the following manner3 ,altogether a good idea of the operations going on in a comet may be obtained if we conceive of a nucleus 7or head7 to be composed of water or other volatile fluid which is boiling away under the heat of the sun1 while the tail is a column of steam rising from it4 ,we do not see the same tail of the comet all the time because the matter which makes up the tail is constantly streaming outwards and constantly being replaced by new vapor rising from the nucleus4 ,in the course of time1 the whole comet becomes disintegrated and its pathway scattered with debris4 ,astronomers now look upon meteors as the remains of worn out comets1 for meteoric swarms follow along the same orbits as many of the comets4 ,when the earth crosses the orbit of a disintegrated comet1 or meteoric swarm1 the fragments come in contact with our atmosphere where they blaze into incandescence and are seen as shooting stars4 ,the ,biela comet is often mentioned as furnishing the best example of comet disintegration4 ,this comet1 which was discovered in #ahbf1 had a period of #f4f years4 ,in #ahdf1 after a lapse of twenty years1 it was noticed to be considerably more elongated than usual and a month later it had separated into two comets1 each developing a tail of its own4 ,before long these twin comets had become separated by #bjj1jjj miles4 ,on its next return1 in #aheb1 the two halves of ,biela appeared for the second time1 with the distance between them increased to #a1ejj1jjj miles4 ,once again they flew around the sun1 but it was a farewell tour1 for one streak of light followed the other out into space1 grew fainter and fainter and finally disappeared1 never to be seen again4 ,figure #ade3 ,,comet #aiaj;a4 ,photograph with #f-;inch ,bruce ,lens by ,yerkes ,observatory4 ,but just here is the best part of the story1 for although the comets have completely vanished1 in their place every year comes a radiant display of meteors6 ,these meteors--the ,andromids1 coming on the #bgth of ,november regularly--are believed to be the fragments of the lost comet of ,biela6 ,thus1 ,serviss1 with a touch of art1 gives the shivery atmosphere of ,poe to such an uncanny proceeding4 ,although comets have here been placed with planets and planetoids under the heading of ,the ,children of the ,sun1 we are not sure1 as yet1 of the origin of comets4 ,there is one theory which suggests that comets may be the waste material of the solar system2 the left-overs1 as it were1 after the planetary system was formed4 ,again1 perhaps1 a great comet may be material drawn in from outside space1 perhaps flying back and forth between two stars until it becomes so exhausted that one of the stars is able to capture it4 ,at least we know that the solar system now possesses a great number of comets who bow to the mastery of our star and never wander beyond the orbits of his planets4 ,if these are not true children of the sun they are at least his adopted ones1 and there is nothing that will ever lure them from his magnetic personality4 ,meteors ,meteoric showers are popularly called shooting stars4 ,at least one shooting star may be seen every ten minutes but at certain times of the year they appear in showers4 ,three of the most profuse of these star showers appear from the #ith to #aath of ,august--,perseus 7radiant point7 #acth to #aeth of ,november--,leo #bgth to #bith of ,november--,andromeda ,the ,perseids1 radiating from a point in the constellation of ,perseus1 are best seen about three o'clock in the morning4 ,these meteors are called the ,tears of ,saint ,lawrence and are noted in ancient legends as the fiery tears of this saint who was cruelly persecuted and burned at the stake4 ,his festival is celebrated on the #ajth of ,august1 but his tears fall for three whole nights4 ,the ,leonid star shower radiates from the vicinity of the star ,y in the ,sickle of ,leo and rains most thickly in the early morning hours4 ,on an average of every #cc years the earth's orbit seems to cut through a denser portion of this meteoric swarm which causes especially beautiful displays4 ,there is a record of this spectacular performance for a thousand years back1 although it was not until after the brilliant displays of #agii1 #ahcc and #ahff that astronomers began a vigorous investigation of the subject of shooting stars4 ,on the night of ,november #acth1 #ahcc1 the stars fell like flakes of snow1 varying in size from a moving point or phosphorescent line to globes of the moon's diameter4 ,a witness of the spectacle wrote for the ,christian ,advocate and ,journal of the following month1 #ahcc1 the following enthusiastic description3 ,it seemed as if the whole starry heavens had congregated to a point near the zenith1 and were simultaneously shooting forth1 with the velocity of lightning1 to every part of the horizon2 and yet they were not exhausted2 thousands swiftly followed in the track of thousands1 as if created for the occasion4 ,this shower was particularly well observed in the eastern part of ,north ,america4 ,one eye-witness in the ,southern ,states says that the negroes on the plantations were so unnerved that they lay prostrate on the ground1 some speechless and some with the bitterest cries1 but with their hands upraised1 imploring ,god to save the world and them4 ,another witness of the scene in the vicinity of ,niagara ,falls says that no spectacle so terribly grand and sublime was ever before beheld by man as that of the firmament descending in fiery torrents over the dark and roaring cataract4 ,comstock tells of one illiterate observer being anxious to see how the heavens would appear the next evening1 for he believed that there would be no stars left4 ,in #ahff this shower was also a wonderful spectacle commencing about #aa3cj ,p4 ,m41 with the appearance at brief intervals of single meteors2 then they came in twos and threes1 steadily and rapidly increasing in number till #a h4 #ac min4 ,a4 ,m4 on ,november #adth1 when no fewer than #eg appeared in one minute4 ,from this time the intensity of the shower diminished gradually1 wholly ceasing about #d ,a4 ,m4 ,the total number of meteors which at that time came within the limits of the earth's atmosphere was estimated at about #bdj1jjj4 ,this was not as brilliant a spectacle as when in #ahcc the meteors fell like snowflakes1 but it must have been very fine for1 to continue with the description of an observer who witnessed it from ,great ,britain3 ,figure #adf3 ,,meteoric ,,shower ,,of ,,november #ac1 #ahcc4 ,the stars from ,heaven like rain-drops from a bough4 ,like tears they poured adown creation's face4 --,bailey4 ,the great majority were white1 with a bluish or yellowish tinge2 a considerable number were red and orange2 and a few were blue2 many surpassed the fixed stars in lustre and some were even brighter than ,venus--,most of the meteors left trains of vivid green light #e degrees to #ae degrees in length1 which marked their course through the heavens1 and endured for #c seconds on the average1 then became dissipated2 though some of the trains were almost #dj degrees in length1 and remained in sight for several minutes4 ,the shower of #ahii was quite naturally anticipated with much eagerness but it fell far short of the brilliant displays seen in #ahff and #ahcc4 ,the third shower listed1 the ,andromids1 radiate from the orange-gold star on the foot of ,andromeda during the last week in ,november4 ,these are best seen during the evening4 ,they are also called the ,biela meteors and bring to mind the interesting history of the late ,biela comet4 ,many hundreds of these radiant points have now been discovered4 ,the meteors which appear in a direct line to the eye1 appear as points or stars2 those appearing farthest from the center1 other things being equal1 appear to have the longest trails but their paths are all parallel4 ,the illustration in perspective of the trains coming forward from a point on the horizon of a desert illustrates this clearly4 ,meteors1 which represent the wreckage which comets strew along their orbits1 are not visible until they strike our atmosphere1 which causes them to glow4 ,they glow because they become white-hot1 and they become white-hot because they have been rushing through space at planetary speed1 and striking our atmosphere is like striking a match against a stone wall4 ,the friction thus engendered causes the smaller particles to burst into flame and melt in a streak of fire1 although the larger ones only melt on the outside1 which is thrown off in a streaming tail of incandescent matter1 the remainder of the meteor falling to the earth like a heavy rock4 ,thunders and visible explosions sometimes are heard as an accompaniment of the falling meteor4 ,the meteors which fall to the ground are called meteorites1 or rolites1 a literal translation of the latter term being airstone4 ,on an average1 however1 the individual bodies of a meteor swarm are very small1 being represented by a cloud of silver dimes each about #bej miles from its nearest neighbor4 ,the smaller and lighter meteors called shooting stars which are consumed in our atmosphere probably number from #aj to #bj million daily4 ,occasionally a meteorite found is very large1 a few weighing several tons1 but this is most unusual4 ,the one brought by ,commander ,peary from ,greenland is #aa feet long and #e feet wide and weighs #cf tons4 ,this is now on display in the ,museum of ,natural ,history in ,new ,york ,city4 ,at ,ensisheim1 in ,alsace1 during the #aeth century1 a stone weighing #bfj pounds which had descended from the sky was ordered by ,emperor ,maximilian to be suspended in the church where it hung for #cjj years4 ,a shower of nearly #cjjj stones of various sizes occurred in ,normandy within an elliptical area seven miles long and three miles wide4 ,nearly all the inhabitants of a large district saw the cloud and witnessed the rain of the stones4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans thought that casting stones upon the earth was some sort of pastime indulged in by the ,gods and the ,romans incorporated in a temple a shower of stones which fell on ,alban ,mount near ,rome4 ,a stone from ,heaven was also reverenced in the masonry of the great ,mosque of ,mecca where it is annually kissed by thousands of pilgrims who begin holy rites by walking seven times around the ,kaaba starting from the corner where the black stone is fixed4 ,the great stone in the pyramid of ,cholula1 in ,mexico1 and a black stone at ,emesa1 in ,syria1 have also been regarded with religious veneration4 ,in ,india1 the residence of a soul in heaven is believed to be proportionate to its charities on earth1 and when its allotted period is over1 it falls to earth as a meteorite4 ,if picked up soon after it falls1 a meteoric stone is found to be very hot on the outside while the inside is cold4 ,one constant characteristic by which it may be identified is the fused1 black1 thin and glossy crust1 somewhat like varnish1 which coats the surface of the meteoric stone4 ,this surface crust is thin and sharply defined from the inner mass4 ,the predominating element in one class of meteorites is iron1 generally combined with a small amount of nickel4 ,copper1 tin1 cobalt and other substances are also found1 but never silver or gold4 ,stony meteorites are1 however1 more common than iron meteorites4 ,the velocity of meteors1 or shooting stars1 varies from #ab to #dj miles a second4 ,herschel estimates their average height above the earth at the time of their appearance as #gc miles1 and #eb miles at the time of their disappearance4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,venus ,,and ,,jupiter ,,the ,,bright ,,planet ,,of ,,venus1 ,,the ,,goddess ,,of ,,love ,diameter--#g1gjj miles ,,almost every one knows ,venus1 the beautiful ,evening ,star1 which is also1 by the way1 an equally beautiful ,morning ,star4 ,in ancient times the ,greeks believed these to be two different stars1 calling the ,morning ,star ,phosphorus1 the torchbearer who lights the way for the ,dawn1 and the ,evening ,star ,hesperus1 leader of the stars of night4 ,these names were translated into ,latin as ,lucifer and ,vesper4 ,the ,morning ,star was the son of ,astrus and ,aurora and the ,evening ,star a brother of the ,titan ,atlas4 ,pythagoras is said to have been the first to identify ,hesperus with ,phosphorus4 ,now glowed the firmament ,with living sapphires3 ,hesperus1 that led ,the starry host1 rode brightest4 --,milton4 ,the dates that ,venus may be seen are announced in the ,almanac4 ,always look in the west after sunset for this lovely star1 or in the east before sunrise1 never in either case more than #dh degrees away from the sun4 ,it follows the sun so closely that it is never seen more than four hours after sunset4 ,the ,sun was sunk1 and after him the ,star of ,hesperus1 whose ,office is to bring the ,twilight upon the ,earth4 --,milton4 ,every #ehd days ,venus appears in the west as an evening star1 first appearing about #bj minutes after sunset1 near the horizon4 ,figure #adg3 ,,venus4 ,showing crescent phase4 ,photographed with the #dj-;inch refractor at the ,yerkes ,observatory4 ,after being visible but a short time1 it disappears from view not far from the point where the sun went down4 ,every succeeding day this star appears at a higher elevation and glows brighter and brighter2 this continues for several months until it appears like a great lamp1 outshining every other object in the heavens1 except the moon4 ,it then begins to appear at a lower elevation each evening and to set a little earlier1 until in the course of two or three weeks it disappears in the early twilight4 ,about two weeks after her departure from the evening sky1 ,venus appears in the east shining brightly in the cool1 gray hours just before ,aurora opens the gates for the ,sun-god4 ,day by day1 the ,morning ,star increases in brilliance just as did the ,evening ,star until it appears at the highest point above the horizon2 then its light gradually declines as each day its stay becomes shorter and shorter1 until finally it pales in the morning light and is immersed in the rays of the sun4 ,venus passes through its period of greatest brilliance every eighth year4 ,this last occurred in #aiba and will next occur in #aibi4 ,at such a time the planet is so bright that it may be seen in daylight1 if one knows where to look for it4 ,the discovery through a telescope that ,venus had phases firmly established the theories of ,copernicus4 ,figure #adh ,when this ,polish astronomer1 in #aedc1 announced the astounding theory that the sun was the center of our solar system1 he said that if the planets between the earth and the sun could be clearly seen1 they would show phases like the moon4 ,when in #afaj1 ,galileo turned his telescope on ,venus and beheld the beautiful little crescent1 the followers of the ancient system of ,ptolemy--who claimed that the earth was the central body around which the sun and planets revolved--were1 for the first time1 silenced1 for they saw that the orbit of the earth must enclose the orbit of ,venus1 and that they must both revolve around the sun4 ,even a small telescope will show the phases of ,venus1 the crescent being far more beautiful than one would imagine4 ,calm star6 who was it named thee ,lucifer1 ,from him who drew the third of ,heaven down with him8 ,oh6 it was but the tradition of thy beauty6 ,for if the sun hath one part1 and the moon one1 ,thou hast the third part of the host of ,heaven-- ,which is its power--which is its beauty6 --,bailey4 ,when first seen through a telescope1 in the evening twilight1 ,venus is gibbous1 or nearly round4 ,it has then just emerged on the farther side of the sun from us4 ,after first becoming visible as a disk1 it gradually assumes the figure of a half moon 7this is at the point of its greatest elongation when it is at its highest in the sky72 then as it again approaches the sun1 it gradually becomes more and more like a slender crescent of light4 ,when ,venus is showing nearly a full face1 it is the whole diameter of its orbit farther away than when it shows a slender crescent4 ,in this position it is #afj millions of miles distant from the earth2 when nearest the earth it is only #bb millions of miles distant4 ,this is the reason why it appears much smaller when its full hemisphere is turned toward us than when it is seen as a small crescent4 ,the proportion of this disk to the crescent is as #aj to #fe4 ,after becoming a silver bow1 ,venus disappears from the evening sky1 later to appear on the other side of the sun in the same guise1 and gradually1 as the days go by1 changing to a half moon and on again through all its phases4 ,the orbit of ,venus is tipped slightly from the plane of the earth's orbit2 thus only on very rare occasions does it pass directly in front of the sun4 ,such a passage is called a transit4 ,these transits occur in pairs--two transits being #h years apart and the successive pairs being separated by #abb years4 ,the last transit occurred on ,december #ith1 #ahgd1 and ,december #fth1 #ahhb4 ,they will not occur again until ,june #hth1 #bjjd1 and ,june #fth1 #bjab4 ,there is only a slight possibility that some young reader may see this4 ,when passing before the face of the sun1 ,venus appears as a round1 black spot surrounded by an illuminated ring of atmosphere4 ,the spectroscope has shown that this atmosphere is about the same as the earth's1 possibly a little more dense1 and1 strange to say1 there is now strong evidence that water vapor and oxygen are conspicuous by their absence4 ,the dense atmosphere on ,venus causes it to reflect light most beautifully but it also obscures its surface so that it is very difficult to see any markings4 ,from time to time1 when ,venus passes between the sun and ourselves1 it approaches to within #be million miles of the earth1 and even less--which is about #aj million miles closer than ,mars comes at its nearest approach--yet we can clearly see the surface of ,mars for its atmosphere is very tenuous1 while the surface of ,venus is almost completely hidden under thick white clouds4 ,at such a time1 ,venus is also a slender crescent while ,mars shows a full round face4 ,the spectroscope combined with observations made upon such surface markings as may be seen in full daylight has1 however1 enabled us to determine that ,venus rotates so slowly upon her axis that one face is always turned toward the sun4 ,thus the day on ,venus must last forever and its night-side has only one long night4 ,it has been conjectured that this condition may cause storms of frightful intensity upon its surface1 for high air currents on the light torrid side probably flow rapidly to the dark1 cold side1 with the cold air near the surface of the dark1 cold side flowing with equal rapidity to the torrid side4 ,this state of affairs may tend to equalize the intensity of the two extremes of climate4 ,being almost #cj million miles closer to the sun than the earth1 ,venus may have a higher temperature than the earth1 although the heat may be somewhat modified by the clouds which are always in the sky4 ,sometimes a faint1 grayish light has been observed on the dark side of the planet when it is nearest the earth4 ,this was at one time thought to be a reflection from a cold and frozen hemisphere1 but a more likely suggestion hints that it may be an electrical manifestation in the planet's atmosphere1 similar to our ,aurora4 ,venus completes its orbit in #g months1 its year being rather shorter than ours4 ,the question of the existence of life not only on ,venus1 but on the other planets1 is always a subject of general interest4 ,professor ,barnard of the ,yerkes ,observatory had the following convictions on the subject3 ,there are possibilities of life on some of our brother worlds1 though that is not in any way a necessity1 possibly on ,mars and probably on ,venus1 with ,mercury very doubtful but more probably lifeless4 ,the moon we will not consider1 for we believe that it is dead long ago--even if it ever had any form of life upon it4 ,it may even be that some world of our solar system has ceased to bear life and it has been suggested that possibly ,mars is such a world4 ,this is in no wise unreasonable4 ,it is entirely probable that some of them are not in a life-bearing condition1 just as a tree in your orchard may not have obtained maturity yet4 ,their heyday is yet to come1 perhaps this will be when the earth and all its present life are cold and dead--dead of old age6 for a world must die just as a man must die4 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus and ,neptune are considered1 he says1 to be worlds of the future1 their low density and other considerations leaving little doubt of their unripeness for life4 ,perhaps millions of years will pass before these giant worlds are in a condition to welcome life of any description4 ,many astronomers believe that the conditions for life such as we know it on earth1 are more likely to be found on ,venus than on any other planet2 others think that ,mars1 being evolutionally older1 may have even passed the stage in which we now find ourselves1 or that it may have developed1 to suit the conditions on ,mars1 along quite a different line4 ,life adapts itself to many extremes1 it may live in intense heat and freezing cold1 in the air1 in the water and under the ground4 ,speculation on this subject has disclosed the most interesting data1 but as yet we do not know1 and may never know1 if there is life on any of the planets4 ,,the ,,giant ,,planet ,,of ,,jupiter1 ,,the ,,king ,,of ,,the ,,gods ,diameter--#hh1cjj miles ,jupiter is the largest planet in our solar system4 ,with high magnifying power it is seen to be a great orange-shaped globe1 larger than the full moon to the unaided eye1 with a bulging equator and flattened poles4 ,this polar depression is th of its diameter causing the polar diameter of #hd1djj miles to be several thousand miles less than its equatorial diameter1 which is #ij1bjj miles4 ,this colossal world is favorably situated for observation three months out of every year1 traveling eastward along the zodiac1 and spending around twelve months in each zodiacal constellation4 ,it requires twelve of our years for ,jupiter to complete a revolution around the sun4 ,even an opera-glass will give a view of ,jupiter as a minute disk with two bands across its center and four luminous points on either side4 ,these luminous points are satellites1 three of which are larger than our moon and one almost as large4 ,jupiter has nine satellites in all but only four are visible in any but the most powerful telescope and three cannot be seen except in photographs4 ,the four large satellites may be seen to change their positions from hour to hour1 occasionally disappearing in the shadow behind ,jupiter1 and then reappearing with startling abruptness on the other side4 ,figure #adi3 ,,the ,,planet ,,jupiter4 ,photographed by ,yerkes ,observatory through the #dj-;inch refractor4 ,with a stronger glass they may be seen moving as bright spots across the face of the planet1 followed or preceded by the dark disks of their shadows4 ,with a large telescope1 various colored belts are seen to streak this globe like dark stripes from east to west1 the most prominent ones being the two deep red bands some #gjjj miles broad which lie on either side of a faint golden equatorial belt1 some #fjjj miles across4 ,besides these1 there are lesser belts to the north and south which are red1 green1 brown1 black and brilliant white4 ,the spots on the equatorial belt move rapidly toward the west with a speed of over #bgj miles an hour1 with respect to the other markings on the planet4 ,by watching these impressive colorings and markings the gigantic globe may actually be seen to turn around on its axis6 ,it does this in only #i hours and #ej minutes--less than half the time that it takes the earth to rotate4 ,with a still larger telescope1 however1 it was discovered that #i hours and #ej minutes was only the average time that it takes ,jupiter to rotate and that the day varies according to the location on the planet4 ,thus1 like the sun1 its surface is not a fixed one1 for at the equator the rate of rotation is #i hours and #dg minutes1 a little distance at either side #i hours and #ef minutes1 and in higher latitudes over #aj hours4 ,but ,jupiter is not as hot a globe as the sun1 which has been described as somewhat resembling thick molasses1 for if it shone by its own light it would not cast a shadow1 nor would the shadows of its satellites be dark spots upon its surface4 ,such facts have led to the general belief that ,jupiter is still in an early stage of development with its globe probably in a semi-fluid condition so hot that the gases which will some day form its waters and be cradled in the hollows of its crust1 now rise as hot vapor into its thick1 warm atmosphere and fall as incessant rains4 ,the surface visible to us on earth must therefore be in the nature of dense clouds and vapors while its real surface is probably in a hot1 muddy thickish liquid condition1 quite unattractive to think about4 ,yet there are some considerations that tend to disprove the cloud theory4 ,barnard mentions that the semi-permanent nature often shown by the markings is against it4 ,the great ,red ,spot has been visible at intervals for a hundred years or more1 and other markings may be traced with but little change of form for months1 although these objects are free to drift around and their rotation periods are not constant4 ,professor ,barnard1 using the powerful ,yerkes telescope1 said that when seen under the finest conditions the appearance of the surface is more of a pasty nature4 ,the great oval-shaped spot mentioned above and famed as the ,great ,red ,spot appeared in the southern hemisphere in #ahgh1 or at least it appeared more distinctly on that date1 for early drawings show that traces of it had been observed long before that4 ,it was at first of a very strong red color and stretched above the equator for a distance of #cj1jjj miles4 ,it is now of a delicate pinkish tinge1 extremely faint but still visible4 ,the cause of this prominent marking is not known4 ,it has been suggested that it might have been a gigantic eruption4 ,gigantic indeed1 if it covered #cj1jjj miles6 ,it also has a curious repellent nature1 for all the belts and spots that come near it1 instead of passing onto it or over it1 seem to be forcibly pushed to one side and held at a certain distance until they have completely passed this whatever-it-is4 ,it has also been suggested that a new continent may be forming here1 but the fact that this feature like other features on ,jupiter's apparent surface does not seem to have a fixed position has caused it to be likened rather to a vast drifting island4 ,this vast drifting island sometimes moves fast1 sometimes slowly and sometimes remains perfectly stationary6 ,the last suggestion was brought forward before the more or less irregular drift was noticed which seems to prove after all that it could not be a true part of the real surface of ,jupiter4 ,if ,jupiter were composed of materials as dense and solid as the earth1 he would not be as large a planet as he now is4 ,the materials of which this great world is composed are only about one fourth as dense as the earth or #a4be as dense as water4 ,figure #aej3 ,,jupiter ,,and ,,four ,,of ,,his ,,moons4 ,photograph by the ,yerkes ,observatory4 ,the axis of the planet is nearly perpendicular to the plane of its motion1 the inclination being only about three degrees from the perpendicular4 ,thus there is no great variety of seasons on ,jupiter although his year is twelve times as long as our year4 ,if his axis were inclined as much to his ecliptic as the axis of the earth1 his polar regions would remain in darkness for six years at a time4 ,,jupiter',s ,,satellites ,with a telescope magnifying thirty-three times which he had constructed himself1 ,galileo discovered the moons of ,jupiter4 ,three of them were first seen on the #gth of ,january1 #afaj1 and the fourth on the #acth of the same month4 ,these moons1 which are sometimes called the ,galilean quartet1 were the first heavenly bodies which had not been known from time immemorial4 ,delighted beyond measure1 ,galileo sent his drawings and an account of his observations to his patron ,cosmo de' ,medici1 ,great ,duke of ,tuscany1 in honor of whom he called the moons the ,medician ,stars4 ,equally anxious to show the world1 ,galileo set his telescope on the tower of ,st4 ,mark where the advocates of the ,copernican system hailed them with joyful satisfaction for here was a miniature of the sun and its planets hung up in the heavens to demonstrate the truth of the new doctrines4 ,but the stubborn followers of ,ptolemy1 viewing them argued that such pretended discoveries were absurd1 and that since we had seven openings in the head--two ears1 two eyes1 two nostrils and the mouth1 there could be in the heavens but seven planets4 ,he had therefore either bewitched them or the telescope1 for which they threw him into prison4 ,after the moons had finally been accepted as a fact1 they were given the names of ,io1 ,europa and ,callisto1 three lovely maidens of whom the great ,olympian ,god was fond1 and ,ganymede1 his cupbearer1 although astronomers usually designate them as ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii 7,ganymede7 and ,,iv1 in order of their distance from ,jupiter4 ,their orbits lie in the plane of ,jupiter's equator and as that lies always in the plane of our vision1 the satellites seem to swing back and forth in their journey around him1 sometimes in one position and sometimes in another--sometimes all four on one side1 sometimes two on one side and two on the other1 or perhaps one of them will be hidden by the planet4 ,they present a different aspect and relation to each other every successive evening and even in a few hours may be seen to change4 ,frequently these moons may be seen as bright spots against the surface of the planet or their shadows appear as conspicuous round black spots traveling along one of the colorful belts4 ,ganymede1 satellite ,,iii1 is the largest of all known moons in the solar system1 having a diameter of #cefj miles1 actually exceeding the planet ,mercury in size4 ,satellite ,i exceeds our moon in diameter by a couple of hundred miles1 satellites ,,iii and ,,iv by over a thousand miles4 ,io1 the satellite closest to ,jupiter 7named after the maiden who was transformed into a cow and chased to the end of the world71 is a very swiftly moving satellite1 traveling completely around its orbit in #a day1 #ah hours and #bh minutes4 ,this means that it must move at the tremendous speed of #cbj miles a minute6 ,our moon takes #bg days or nearly a month to travel around the earth in an orbit of almost the same size1 but the attractive force of our earth is so much less than the attractive force of ,jupiter that our moon does not have to travel so fast in order to keep from being pulled down on its surface4 ,europa's period of revolution is #c days1 #ac hours and #ad minutes2 ,ganymede's1 #g days1 #c hours and #dc minutes and ,callisto's #af days1 #af hours and #cb minutes4 ,in #ahib ,professor ,barnard discovered through the ,lick telescope a moon closer to ,jupiter than ,io4 ,this little moon is only th part as bright as the other satellites and is only #cj miles across4 ,in #aije two other satellites were discovered by photography1 still another in #aijh and another in #aiad1 making a retinue of nine satellites in all4 ,these last two1 which are very remote from the planet1 were found to be revolving in the opposite direction from the other seven1 which is from west to east1 the direction that generally prevails throughout the heavens4 ,other exceptions to this rule are the outermost moon of the planet ,saturn1 the moon of ,neptune and all four moons of ,uranus4 ,the ninth moon of ,jupiter is about #ae1djj1jjj miles from the planet and takes nearly #c years to complete a revolution4 ,only #aa hours and #eg minutes for ,barnard's satellite and nearly #c years for the most distant one1 is quite a contrast in periods4 ,although ,jupiter's #e-;hour night is rich in moons1 he is not nearly as well supplied with moonlight as is the earth4 ,it has already been mentioned how ,roemer1 a ,danish astronomer of the #agth century1 discovered the finite velocity of light through the disappearance and reappearance of ,jupiter's satellites within his shadow4 ,this was later found true through direct experiment4 ,at least a peep at this mammoth and colorful world1 with its bands and spots and swiftly moving satellites1 should be the privilege of every man1 woman and child4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,mars ,,and ,,saturn ,,the ,,red ,,planet ,,of ,,mars1 ,,the ,,god ,,of ,,war ,diameter--#dbcj miles ,,the orbit of the little planet ,mars1 #ada1jjj1jjj miles from the sun1 encompasses the orbits of ,earth1 ,venus and ,mercury1 and forms the boundary line between the four inner planets and the planetoids or minor planets4 ,beyond the planetoids are the four great planets1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus and ,neptune4 ,the orbit of ,mars is very eccentric1 more eccentric1 in fact1 than any other planet in the solar system with the exception of ,mercury4 ,at its nearest approach to the earth's orbit it is only #ce1jjj4jjj miles away1 while at its furthermost point it is distant #fb1jjj4jjj miles4 ,the two planets1 however1 when at different points in their orbits1 may be over #bjj1jjj1jjj miles apart4 ,this eccentricity in the orbit of our neighbor ,mars causes it to differ in brightness as we see it shining as a star1 for1 although it is always large and beautiful1 at its nearest approach to the earth it shines with more than tenfold the brilliancy of a first magnitude star4 ,at such a time its fiery light attracts the attention of everyone4 ,such extreme increase in light can only occur in the months of ,august and ,september and then only about every fifteen years4 ,this was a much heralded astronomical event of the year #aibd1 when the two planets were closer together than any other time during more than a hundred years4 ,however1 ,mars was low in the sky and not in such a good position for observation as it will be two years from that date when at a higher altitude1 even though it will be at a greater distance from the earth4 ,during shorter periods at intervals of two years and two months1 the earth passes between ,mars and the sun2 ,mars then shines in our night-sky as an especially red and lovely star with a well-illumined face just right for observation4 ,mars is a much smaller globe than either the earth or ,venus1 but it is larger than the planet ,mercury4 ,figure #aea3 ,,mars1 ,,showing ,,surface ,,markings ,,and ,,polar ,,caps4 ,photographs by the ,mount ,wilson ,observatory4 ,its diameter of #dbcj miles is only a little more than half that of the earth1 although its period of rotation is almost the same1 the earth gaining by two-thirds of an hour4 ,its day therefore is only about #dj minutes longer than ours4 ,the seasons of ,mars are twice as long as ours1 and its year equals #fhg of our days1 or #ffi of its own4 ,the atmosphere of ,mars is very rare and thin1 more rare and thin than that surrounding the peak of ,mount ,everest1 our highest mountain4 ,being less than one-fourth as dense as that found on the earth1 one may see through it easily and discern the permanent markings on its surface4 ,the first thing one notices through a telescope is the ruddy color of its surface and the dark belt across the equatorial regions4 ,the ruddy color is presumed to be the characteristic color of its soil1 five-eighths of which is in a desert condition2 there are also regions of other colors which are subject to change1 and a white cap marking either pole4 ,the two white caps about the poles increase greatly during severe months of winter and vanish to small spots during the warmth of the ,martian summer4 ,these are the reservoirs of moisture for the planet4 ,a series of photographs illustrating the phenomenon of the increase and decrease of these caps is very interesting1 for at the height of the ,martian winter1 for instance1 the north polar cap extends to the temperate zone while during the summer it dwindles until it is but a tiny patch a few hundred miles across4 ,as the polar caps melt1 they are bordered by a blue belt and this blue belt is only visible as the brilliant caps disappear4 ,judging from the same phenomena which are manifest on our earth1 these polar caps were supposed to be snow4 ,through the aid of the spectroscope1 they are now known to be snow4 ,the ruddy areas on ,mars are interpreted as desert regions--great unfertile tracts of land but little affected by changes in climatic conditions1 while the large irregular dark or blue-green regions are regarded as marshes or areas covered with vegetation1 since they invariably grow darker during the ,martian summer and reveal themselves in massed colors changing from the initial blue-green to ocher and finally to chocolate-brown4 ,these changes follow the melting of the polar caps and each hemisphere undergoes the change in turn4 ,mars1 however1 is best known and famous for the theory of its so-called canals4 ,the canals were first observed by ,schiaparelli1 the distinguished ,italian observer1 in #ahgg4 ,schiaparelli thought that the dark irregular areas were oceans and that they were connected by these narrow streaks which he called canale or channels4 ,unfortunately the word was not translated as channels but as canals1 which implies artificial construction1 and this latter does therefore not convey the idea which the astronomer sought to convey4 ,these black lines1 or canale1 are generally straight and although spoken of as narrow1 must be at least #ab miles in width and from a few hundred to three or four thousand miles in length4 ,starting from points near the polar caps1 they follow the arcs of great circles1 proceeding to what seem to be centers in the middle of the continent where1 most surprisingly1 they meet other lines which have come to the same spots4 ,schiaparelli says that every channel opens at its end either into a sea or into a lake or into another channel1 or else into the intersection of several other channels4 ,none of them as yet have been seen cut off in the middle of a continent1 remaining without beginning or without end 444 by preference they converge toward the small spots which we have given the names of lakes4 ,these lakes are sometimes several hundred miles in diameter1 although many are very much smaller4 ,the late ,dr4 ,lowell1 splendidly equipped with an observatory #gjjj feet above sea-level in the clear air of ,flagstaff1 ,arizona1 maintained that each canal marked the route of a waterway1 and that the visible mark is not the canal itself1 but a broad band of vegetation irrigated from a narrow channel4 ,he studied and mapped #ebb of these canals1 #ef of which were double4 ,he also mapped the lakes which he called oases4 ,dr4 ,lowell wrote a very interesting book on ,mars as the ,abode of ,life as a result of his observations4 ,he explains the strips of vegetation in this manner3 ,since ,mars is fast approaching a desert condition1 there is a great scarcity of water1 the only reliable source of supply coming from the melting of the snows at the polar caps4 ,with the advance of spring the white caps begin to recede and a dark band appears around the edge4 ,the water thus formed then flows away from the poles over the flat1 dry surface1 collects in the greenish areas 7which are probably marshes7 and from there is led into the canals4 ,these canals do not begin to appear until the snows begin to melt and are always in the same position each season4 ,the land is then moistened with water1 the process starting near or around the melting polar caps and gradually moving down toward the equator4 ,this water takes about #ee days to reach the equator1 vegetation springing up along the way4 ,at the end of the season1 the fresh green withers and dies down4 ,the spots1 or oases1 always connected by a canal to the rest of the dark area1 appear and disappear1 like the canals1 with seasonal changes4 ,these start faint in tone as large as they are to be1 then darken throughout4 ,since the vivifying water advanced from the south pole toward the equator and also toward the equator from the north pole1 ,lowell concluded that it must have some propelling force behind it1 at least in one direction4 ,this presupposes the directing influence of an intelligence4 ,accepting the theory that ,mars is inhabited by intelligent beings1 it is presumed that the water resulting from the melting of the snow caps is consciously controlled and turned over certain designated portions of its surface1 otherwise the tremendous floods would prove more of a curse than blessing4 ,the picture is one of a high order of intelligent beings realizing that their water is gradually disappearing and that their planet is rapidly becoming a desert1 and who are struggling heroically to prolong its life4 ,there are many objections to this theory1 but at least it is an interesting hypothesis presented by a noted astronomer who possessed a splendid telescope erected in the clear air of ,arizona1 and who spent his life in a study of this planet4 ,the entire surface of ,mars is about equal to the land surface of our earth4 ,the density of the planet is only #gc that of the earth and the force of gravity on its surface is #ce as great as on the surface of our world4 ,the lesser force of gravity1 also the lower temperature and rare atmosphere1 would all have their influence on any life found on ,mars with the result that beings found there might be constituted physically in a very different way from ourselves4 ,the temperature of ,mars was computed lately at the ,mount ,wilson and the ,lowell observatories and the results obtained at the two observatories were in excellent agreement4 ,although it was found to be #id degrees below zero at one pole and #if degrees below zero at the other pole1 the average temperature on other parts of the planet during the brightest parts of the day averages between #dj to #fj degrees ,f4 ,this would be a livable temperature for life as we know it1 although another fact is commented upon which might cause curious complications4 ,since the blanket of air surrounding the planet is not of sufficient thickness to hold the heat on the planet1 most of it may escape during the night-time1 thus causing the temperature to drop to over #aab degrees below zero4 ,if intelligent life wished to survive from day to day it would have to hibernate1 perhaps in heated underground galleries1 during the night half of its existence4 ,the question as to whether or not there could be life on this planet has been hotly disputed by astronomers for years4 ,it is certainly one of the most interesting aspects of astronomy to the public at large4 ,it is often argued that since ,mars is smaller than the earth it must have cooled down millions of years before the earth reached a similar stage1 and that its organic life must therefore be proportionally farther advanced4 ,others have contended that it is past the age where it would be able to support life of any kind4 ,professor ,w4 ,h4 ,pickering has advanced a new speculative theory called ,the ,theory of ,aerial ,deposition4 ,according to this theory the major canals are natural marshes fed by storm laden air currents4 ,these marshes furnish ,mars a substitute for our oceans4 ,without them the water evaporated from the summer pole would find its way too rapidly1 through the natural general atmospheric circulation of the planet1 to the southern polar regions1 where1 wrapped at this season in the long winter night and subjected to the cold of space1 it would quickly be withdrawn from further use in support of vegetal and perhaps animal life4 ,the function of the so-called canals or marshes in the economy of the planet is in short to furnish a substitute for our oceans1 and to furnish by evaporation during the ,martian summer a steady and continuous supply of water after that derived from the northern snows has appreciably diminished4 ,the above is quoted from a report on ,mars by ,professor ,pickering in the ,january number of ,popular ,astronomy1 #aiah4 ,professor ,pickering believes that the canals are either bands of moistened soil or vegetation growing on moistened soil and that they cannot be anything else for we know of no solid in the mineral world that darkens and then fades out in the sunlight4 ,he does not think that the major canals are necessarily the work of intelligent beings1 but they do serve the purpose of furnishing the northern hemisphere with a supply of water in the form of natural marshes during the long northern summer until the southern polar cap starts to melt at the coming of the autumnal equinox4 ,professor ,pickering1 who has written a book called ,mars1 gives the following interesting information as to how the planet appears through the telescope at ,flagstaff3 ,we may examine the moon some night through a small opera-glass4 ,the sharpness and amount of detail visible in the two cases will be similar1 although the appearance of the two bodies is quite unlike4 ,general public interest in ,mars is probably keener than in any other planet and since the great event of ,august #bcrd1 #aibd1 when ,mars shone like a lantern in the sky1 this interest will probably grow greater than ever4 ,this small matter of #cd1fdh1jjj miles--not much over a third of the distance to the sun away from us--is almost as near as the earth and ,mars will ever approach one another4 ,an association of observers interested in ,mars who are stationed in different parts of the world has recently been formed4 ,all parts of the planet are now kept under inspection and regular reports are sent to a central bureau which publishes the results in an astronomical magazine4 ,,the ,,satellites ,,of ,,mars ,the following story is often related in connection with the satellites of ,mars3 ,many years before the satellites were discovered1 ,swift1 in ,gulliver's ,travels1 described the little planet as having two moons1 one of which flew across the ,martian sky three times a day6 ,the thing seemed absurd1 for never during all the explorations of the solar system had a moon been found which behaved in such an erratic fashion4 ,nevertheless1 in #ahgg4 ,professor ,asaph ,hall1 of ,washington1 discovered two tiny attendants to the planet of the ,war-god weaving like golden shuttles around the ,martian orb1 and one of these made three revolutions in its orbit while the planet itself turned once on its axis6 ,thus the month of this surprising moon is less than eight hours long4 ,this little rapid-transit moon flies only #cgjj miles above the planet's surface1 and1 on account of the curvature of the globe it would not be visible beyond #fi degrees of latitude on each side of the equator4 ,as seen from ,mars1 it rises in the west and sets in the east1 changing from new to full one and a half times every night6 ,with the constantly recurring metamorphoses of this tiny moon1 which is scarcely #g miles in diameter1 and its most exceedingly rapid flight1 it would seem that there would be some reason in naming it ,phobos 7,fear71 after one of ,mars' attendants4 ,on account of its nearness to the surface of ,mars1 ,phobos would appear to a ,martian about the same size as our moon does to us4 ,the other moon1 which was named ,deimos 7,terror71 is about #ad miles in diameter and is #ab1ejj miles from the planet4 ,its period is also very short1 being only #cj hours and #ah minutes4 ,since this period is only a few hours more than the rotation period of ,mars1 the moon moves very slowly across the sky1 remaining continuously above the horizon of any given place on the planet for more than #fj hours4 ,it has been computed that these two small moons would cause #adjj eclipses of the sun a year1 as seen from ,mars4 ,they are the smallest objects visible in the sky1 as seen from earth4 ,our month of ,march1 as well as this fiery-hued planet1 was named after the ,war-god4 ,since ,tuesday was also named after the ,war-god1 it might be well to mention here how the other days and months obtained their names4 ,in the early days of ,astrology1 a science which was based on legends and myths1 the names of the five planets then known were given to the days of the week4 ,apollo1 the ,sun-god1 gave his name to ,sunday1 and his sister1 ,goddess ,diana1 to ,monday1 and these two days retained their names1 but the days which followed those named for the sun and moon later became ,germanized1 as it were1 or the names of the originally imported gods translated into those of the ,germanic divinities4 ,thus the name of the ,northern ,sword-god ,tyr1 who resembles the ,roman ,war-god ,mars1 was given the day of the week held sacred to ,mars1 now known as ,tuesday1 or ,tiu's day1 ,mercury's day became ,wodan's or ,wednesday1 ,jove's day was called ,thor's or ,thursday1 and the day of ,venus transformed into ,friday1 the day of ,freya1 the wife of ,wodan4 ,the day of ,saturnus1 retained under this name in some northern tongues1 became a langardage1 or a bathing day1 in others4 ,as for the months--,october and ,february were names derived from ,roman festivals2 a horse named ,october was sacrificed to the ,war-god ,mars during this month1 while ,february derived its name from the ,roman festival ,februalia1 from februare1 to purify4 ,april1 meaning ,aprilis1 from aperire to open1 obtained its name because it was the season when the buds began to open4 ,september 7septem1 seven71 ,november 7novem1 nine71 and ,december 7decern1 ten7 were the #gth1 #ith and #ajth months of the year of the ,roman calendar when the year consisted of #aj months4 ,january was named after ,janus1 the porter with the double head which enabled him to look back into the past and forward into the future2 ,may after ,maia1 one of the ,pleiades2 and ,june1 after ,juno1 ,queen of the gods and the ,goddess of ,marriage4 ,quintilis1 the #eth month of the ,roman year1 which began in ,march1 was named ,july in honor of ,julius ,csar1 while the #fth month1 which was originally styled ,sextilis1 received its present name1 ,august1 from the ,emperor ,augustus4 ,,the ,,ringed ,,planet ,,of ,,saturn1 ,,the ,,god ,,of ,,time ,diameter--#gc1gjj ,although ,jupiter is the largest planet and ,mars the most interesting planet1 the planet ,saturn1 as seen through a large telescope1 is the most uniquely beautiful creation that man has ever beheld4 ,the spectacle of a huge silvery ball surrounded by an equally huge and silvery ring suddenly disclosed in the midst of the darkness1 is such an astounding surprise that one can never forget the strange sensations experienced when first beholding it4 ,saturn moves very slowly through the sky1 traveling on the average only about one degree a month and spending two or three years in each zodiacal constellation4 ,this is because its pathway lies millions of miles beyond that of ,jupiter's1 and is so large that it takes the planet #bi years to complete its circuit around the sun4 ,saturn is believed to be composed mainly of gases and vapors or to be at least in a fluid condition with no solid crust4 ,its density is less than that of any other planet in the solar system1 being only #j4gj as compared with water as unity4 ,this is only about one-half as great as the density of ,jupiter1 which is somewhat greater than that of water4 ,the weight of the earth is five and one-half times that of water4 ,if the earth and ,saturn were two balls immersed in an ocean large enough to hold them1 the earth would sink like a ball of metal while ,saturn would float like a ball of wood4 ,a white belt may usually be seen near the equator of ,saturn and curious pale gray caps cover both the poles4 ,between these are faint colors and other dim belts4 ,its colors as markings are not as pronounced as in the case of ,jupiter1 on which they are far more distinct as this latter planet is #djj1jjj1jjj miles closer to the earth4 ,the mysterious gray color of the caps at the poles of ,saturn remain an enigma and the spectroscope shows that ,saturn contains some substance which has not yet been identified4 ,saturn's equator is inclined to the plane of its orbit at an angle of #bg degrees--a direct contrast to the axis of ,jupiter which is almost perpendicular4 ,this would cause ,saturn to have very marked seasonal changes and very long seasons for one of its years is equal to almost #cj of ours4 ,day and night on ,saturn are very short for this huge planet turns completely around in #aj hours4 ,with only #e hours of daylight 7and ,saturn receives only th as much light per unit area as that received by the earth71 one would hardly get up before it was time to go to bed4 ,but perhaps the future ,saturnian will be so constructed that he does not have to spend so many hours in sleep1 or perhaps1 as in the ,golden ,age when the god ,saturn ruled on earth and the needs of man were brought forth without labor1 this length of day would be quite enough for general entertainment4 ,again1 they might be such quick-witted creatures that they could accomplish a thing while we were thinking about it1 or1 yet again1 they might not care to slave all their days in order to indulge in such foolishly complex lives as we do here and #e hours would prove a great plenty4 ,how we do ramble on6 ,yet is it not a little fun to stop a moment and conjecture about folks on a distant world8 ,perhaps they could never be--perhaps ,saturn may never mature into a habitable globe--but then1 who knows8 ,,the ,,rings ,,of ,,saturn ,john ,h4 ,thayer in his interesting article on ,saturn in ,popular ,astronomy1 ,march1 #aiai1 says3 ,if you want to see a picture painted as only the hand of ,god can paint it1 go with me to ,saturn4 ,he then beautifully describes the scene of the wonderful band of silvery light which arches the sky near the equator1 and the bewildering panorama of many moons1 full round disks1 quarter phases and thin crescents displayed in the ,saturnian nights4 ,not only would the nights be startling to an earth-being2 during the daytime their tiny sun would skim across the sky at the rate of about the distance of the diameter of the moon in every minute1 and then after the sun literally dropped below the horizon1 the stars and crescents and disks and quarters of moons would shoot across equally fast4 ,suppose all the inhabitants of the solar system were forced to exist in a medium like the ocean1 for instance1 to know nothing of such celestial scenes2 perhaps the unfortunate inhabitants of ,venus can see no more clearly through that dense atmosphere which surrounds their globe4 ,one might think that the atmosphere was made transparent with this design1 to give man in the heavenly bodies1 the perpetual presence of the sublime4 ,if the stars should appear one night in a thousand years1 how would men believe and adore2 and preserve for many generations the remembrance of the city of ,god which had been shown6 ,but every night come out these envoys of beauty1 and light the universe with their admonishing smile4 --,emerson4 ,the crowning glory of ,saturn1 its thin flat ring1 is poised above the huge body without in any way touching it4 ,although this ring appears as a solid piece1 it is now known positively that it is made up of swarms of meteors or exceedingly minute satellites1 all whirling round and round ,saturn in the same plane4 ,it may easily be seen why a brightly swirling mass of these shining moons would seem as one object at such a distance4 ,through a large telescope it becomes apparent that ,saturn's ring is really composed of three rings lying one inside of the other1 the two outer rings1 which are about #aa1jjj and #ah1jjj miles in width1 being separated by a dark1 narrow clean-cut space of about #bbjj miles4 ,the third ring is a thin1 faint inner ring1 so transparent that the planet may be seen shining through it4 ,it is about the same width as the outer ring1 #aa1jjj miles1 and its inner edge lies only #fjjj miles above the surface of the planet4 ,this inner ring is called the crape ring because it has a dusky look4 ,it is believed to be the inner ring thinning off toward the planet4 ,it has been suggested that the crape ring may have originated from collisions of particles in the bright ring1 thus reducing their orbits1 and that the rings of ,saturn are slowly shrinking down upon the planet and will sometimes in the future have entirely disappeared4 ,figure #aeb3 ,,twelve ,,photographs ,,of ,,saturn1 ,,made ,,with ,a #fj-;,,inch ,,reflecting ,,telescope4 ,photographs by the ,mount ,wilson ,observatory4 ,the first individual to gain a glimpse of ,saturn's rings was ,galileo4 ,to ,galileo1 whose telescope was not much superior to the field-glass of today1 the planet appeared triple with two outer stars touching the middle star like two servants assisting old ,saturn to complete his journey4 ,a few years later when he again turned his telescope upon ,saturn1 these attendant orbs had disappeared4 ,it is possible some demon mocked me1 he exclaimed1 and would look no more4 ,but for these news ,i know not what they be1 ,some one perhaps has lit on a new vein ,of stars in ,heaven3 --,bailey4 ,later the side features reappeared and became larger and larger1 until they fitted the globe like a pair of handles4 ,figure #aec3 ,this drawing shows the rings of ,saturn opened to their fullest extent1 as seen on ,july #g1 #ahih1 by ,prof4 ,e4 ,e4 ,barnard through the #dj-;inch refractor at the ,yerkes ,observatory4 ,the drawings of those days look very strange to us now1 for some pictured a bar run through the planet or a ball with ears4 ,fifty years later1 in #afef1 ,huygens1 with his #abc-;foot tubeless telescope1 solved the mystery and proved the existence of a thin1 disconnected ring1 which was as astounding a phenomenon as the ears or bars or handles4 ,proof by direct observation that the ring was neither liquid nor solid but a multitude of very small bodies journeying close together1 was made by ,professor ,keeler when he applied the spectroscope to determine the velocity at which the rings rotate4 ,it was then discovered that the inner parts revolved more rapidly than the outer parts and the only way in which such a phenomenon can be explained is to accept the hypothesis that the rings are composed of separate independent bodies4 ,every #ae years the plane of the ring passes through the plane of the earth and hence it is seen edgewise to the earth4 ,it then almost disappears1 being so thin as to be seen only in the larger telescopes4 ,figure #aed3 ,the ,earth might roll upon this ring like a ball upon a road4 7,aspects of ,saturn's ,rings47 ,from ,comstock's ,textbook on ,astronomy1 by permission of publishers1 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 ,seen edgewise through the #dj-;inch ,yerkes telescope1 it is scarcely more than a streak of light like a pair of illuminated needles piercing the ball on opposite sides4 ,this is because all of these tiny moons which fly about ,saturn are moving in the same plane4 ,we obtained this edgewise view in #aijg2 in #aiae the ring was opened at its widest extent while in #aiba it was again almost invisible4 ,the reason that this ring may be observed at so many angles is because it is inclined about #bg degrees to the plane of the planet's orbit and about #bh degrees to the plane of the ecliptic4 ,in the course of the earth's journey and ,saturn's journey around the sun1 we sometimes look up at this ring and sometimes down upon it1 but when the earth lies exactly in the same plane1 we look only on the edge which is so thin that it becomes almost invisible4 ,the thickness of the ring is1 indeed1 scarcely anything at all in comparison to its width for1 although the distance from one side to the other of the entire ring is about #agb1jjj miles1 its edge is estimated as only about #fb miles4 ,when the rings are open1 the dark shadow of ,saturn's planet may be seen against the light of these rings4 ,while ,saturn whirls1 his steadfast shade ,sleeps on his luminous ring4 --,tennyson4 ,this shadow proves that the dull1 yellowish glow on the planet is reflected sunlight1 and that the planet does not shine with its own light1 as a star4 ,,the ,,moons ,,of ,,saturn ,besides all the tiny moonlets in the beautiful ring1 ten large moons whirl about the planet ,saturn4 ,these give ,saturn a system with a radius of #h million miles1 which is quite extensive compared to the earth and moon system which has a radius of #bdj1jjj miles4 ,the moons of ,saturn range in size from about #bjj miles to nearly #cjj miles in diameter but being so far away only ,titan1 the largest1 can be seen except in a large telescope4 ,these satellites were given the names of the brothers and sisters of the ,god of ,time and are called ,mimas1 ,enceladus1 ,tethys1 ,dione1 ,rhea1 ,titan1 ,hyperion1 ,japetus1 ,phbe and ,themis4 ,titan1 the largest satellite1 is #gga1jjj miles distant from the planet4 ,the nearest one is only #aag1jjj miles away but there are also three others which are closer to the planet than our moon is to us4 ,phbe1 the most distant one1 is almost #h1jjj1jjj miles away and takes nearly #ah months to make a revolution4 ,it appears as a full moon only once in a year and a half--quite a contrast to ,mars' little ,phobos who goes through his phases one and a half times every night6 ,phbe seems to be possessed with a streak of contrariness for she moves in her orbit around ,saturn in the opposite direction from all of the other moons4 ,japetus1 the second largest satellite1 has the interesting peculiarity of appearing three or four times as bright when on the western side of ,saturn as when on the eastern side of it4 ,this is explained by the supposition that one of its sides has a greater reflecting power than the other and1 like our moon1 always has the same side toward its planet4 ,we would1 therefore1 see one side of it when east of ,saturn and the other side of it when west of it4 ,themis1 the tenth moon1 was first recognized by ,w4 ,h4 ,pickering in #aije but it is only recently that its discovery was fully confirmed4 ,professor ,pickering also discovered the ninth moon of ,saturn4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,mercury1 ,,uranus ,,and ,,neptune ,,the ,,tiny ,,planet ,,of ,,mercury1 ,,the ,,messenger ,,of ,,the ,,gods ,diameter--#cjcj miles ,,mercury1 the smallest and fleetest and hottest of the planets1 shines as a star of the first magnitude4 ,it lies closer to the sun than any other planet1 which increases the difficulty of studying it4 ,most of the time it is either hidden behind the sun or is passing between us and the sun1 and the only time when it is observable is when it is to the east or the west of the sun4 ,indeed it is so often hidden or lost in the brightness of the sun that it is rarely seen except by a professional astronomer4 ,like ,venus1 ,mercury is seen first on one side of the sun and then on the other4 ,in the early spring it appears in the west almost invisible in the twilight2 in the early autumn1 in the east as a morning star just preceding or mingled in the rays of the dawn4 ,it is always seen very close to the eastern or western horizon1 never more than two hours before the sun in the morning nor more than two hours after it in the evening4 ,because of the great inclination of the orbit of ,mercury1 it is seen in a transit across the face of the sun not more than thirteen times in a hundred years4 ,this transit may only be seen in a telescope4 ,if it so happens that it travels across the center of the sun1 the journey consumes about eight hours1 although the little black dot is skimming across the big1 bright disk at the rate of #ajj1jjj miles an hour4 ,the next five transits will occur on ,november #hth1 #aibg2 ,may #ajth1 #aicg2 ,november #abth1 #aidj2 ,may #acth1 #aiec1 and ,november #fth1 #aifj4 ,the eccentricity of the orbit of ,mercury is so pronounced that its greatest and least distance from the sun varies nearly #ae1jjj1jjj miles4 ,this causes considerable variation in the speed of this planet1 for as the sun does not lie in the center of the orbit but at one focus1 it is not compelled to go as fast on the far side as on the side nearest to this tremendous mass4 ,being so close to the great attracting force of the sun1 it is however1 forced to move faster than any other planet in the solar system in order that the right balance of speed may be obtained to counteract the gravitational pull which would otherwise draw him instantly to the burning surface4 ,mercury's average rate of speed around its orbit is #ce miles a second4 ,neptune1 seventy-five times as far off1 feels so much less this relentless pull that it can roll leisurely along at the comfortable rate of #c4d miles a second with no fear of being drawn to destruction4 ,mercury completes his orbit in #hh days and this is1 of course1 the length of his year4 ,during this journey he always turns the same face to the sun4 ,the heat on this side must therefore be terrible and the surface unmercifully scorched and possibly cracked4 ,moreaux1 a ,french astronomer1 thinks that it may even be so hot that it has oceans of lead and molten tin4 ,a few features are discernible1 and although faint1 these features are fixed4 ,the general impression gained is that the tiny planet is barren1 rough and mountainous1 bleak1 seared and desolate1 with one side sweltering in terrific heat and the other numbed with dark and cold4 ,since there is no appreciable atmosphere on ,mercury1 there must be no wind--no warm currents of air to flow from the hot side to the cold side1 nor from the cold side to the hot side1--thus making what is already drear seem motionless and dead4 ,yet there is often some alleviating quality to make the drear seem less drear4 ,for instance1 a slight exception may be taken to the statement that the day side of ,mercury is always day and the night side always night4 ,as an effect of libration1 an oscillatory movement of the planet on its axis1 there is a strip of ground on either side1 where the dark and light hemispheres meet1 upon which the sun rises and shines for #dd days and then sets1 leaving it in #dd days of darkness4 ,this strip of ground is #bc angular degrees in breadth and enjoys a true day1 although its day is as long as its year1 and is equal to #hh of our earth-days4 ,,the ,,strange ,,planet ,,of ,,uranus1 ,,the ,,ancient ,,god ,,of ,,the ,,heavens ,diameter--#cb1jjj miles ,mercury1 ,venus1 ,mars and ,jupiter have been known since antiquity but ,uranus was the first planet to be discovered with the aid of a telescope4 ,this planet was discovered in #agha by ,william ,herschel while mapping stars1 and the very fact of its existence astounded the world4 ,because ,galileo had named the satellites of ,jupiter the ,medician ,stars after his patron1 ,herschel wished to name his newly discovered planet ,georgium ,sidus1 in honor of ,george the ,third4 ,but foreign astronomers would not agree to this and until a name was decided upon1 called the planet ,herschel4 ,later1 the planet was called ,uranus after the most ancient of all the deities1 and its sign was the sign of the world hung on the initial of ,herschel4 ,h ,in appreciation of the fact that he had discovered a planet1 ,herschel was made private astronomer to his king and later knighted4 ,uranus is the smallest of the major planets and ranks next to the earth in size1 which is the largest of the minor planets1 yet there is a great difference in the size of these two planets1 for the diameter of the earth is only #gibg miles1 while that of ,uranus is #cb1jjj miles4 ,there is also as great a difference in the nature of these two worlds4 ,uranus travels through space in an orbit at an average distance of #a1gga1jjj1jjj miles from the sun1 encompassing the orbits of ,saturn1 ,jupiter1 the ,planetoids1 ,mars1 ,earth1 ,venus and ,mercury2 an orbit so large that it takes the planet #hd years to complete its journey around the sun4 ,it has only been a year and a half1 according to time figured on ,uranus1 since ,herschel first introduced this planet to earth-dwellers4 ,although the year of ,uranus is #hd of our years long1 which causes long and remarkable seasons1 its day is very short1 for the planet turns so rapidly on its axis that it sees both day and night in #aj hours and #ej minutes4 ,even the few hours of daylight it enjoys are not very bright ones1 or warm ones either1 for the planet is so far from the sun 7which appears as an intense point of light71 that it receives only th as much light and heat as we do on earth4 ,the axis of ,uranus is tipped #ih degrees from the perpendicular which causes not only extreme but peculiar seasonal changes4 ,since the axis of the planet is always pointing in the same direction and at one place in its #hd-year journey points almost directly at the sun1 each pole in turn is bathed in #db years of dim daylight and then1 when on the other side of the orbit1 sleeps through a night that is just as long4 ,brgel remarks that an inhabitant born at the beginning of winter and dying at the age of forty1 would never see daylight1 or the sun1 but live in everlasting darkness like the pit-ponies in coal mines4 ,the contrary would be the case with the summer-born1 who would know of night and the stars only from hearsay4 ,quite different from what life might enjoy on ,jupiter1 for ,jupiter's axis is inclined only #c degrees from the perpendicular and its year would be almost a perpetual spring4 ,careful observations seem to indicate that ,uranus is a gaseous body1 although cooler and more solid than ,saturn and ,jupiter4 ,this planet is immersed in an exceedingly dense atmosphere quite different in constitution from the light1 diaphanous covering of air which encloses the ball of the earth4 ,this is indicated by the broad absorption band in its spectrum4 ,uranus is attended by four moons but these are too far away for us to observe in any detail4 ,herschel discovered two of these soon after the planet was discovered1 and they were given the names of ,titania and ,oberon4 ,in #ahea1 ,lassel of ,liverpool discovered two more which were called ,ariel and ,umbriel4 ,two of these moons are seen with great difficulty even with the aid of the most powerful telescopes4 ,the orbits of these moons are tipped nearly perpendicular to the plane of the orbits of the earth and ,uranus1 and their movements are retrograde as regards most of the known movements of the solar system4 ,this strange planet of the most ancient ,god of the ,heavens is now visible during the spring and summer months as a faint1 greenish star of the #fth magnitude1 but it is rather difficult to locate unless the observer is an experienced astronomer4 ,,the ,,boundary ,,planet ,,of ,,neptune1 ,,the ,,god ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,diameter--#ce1jjj miles ,after the discovery of ,uranus in #agha1 its pathway among the stars of the sky was carefully noted and geometers were not long in fitting it with an orbit4 ,in a few years1 however1 it was noted that the planet was out of its computed orbit by a distance as great as the moon's distance from the earth4 ,the deviations attracted general attention and popular opinion feared that the new planet1 being so far from the center of the solar system1 was breaking away from the sun's control4 ,but a young mathematician1 ,j4 ,c4 ,adams1 and a few months later an older and experienced mathematical astronomer1 ,leverrier1 conceived a more logical solution of the mystery1 and decided that they would search beyond ,uranus and see if there was not a planet which was attracting ,uranus and causing irregularities in the great world's motion4 ,this was a tremendous task1 for not only was it necessary to calculate the orbit of the hypothetical planet1 but also the weight and speed that such a planet would have in order to pull ,uranus in exactly the way that it was being perturbed4 ,after much hard work the problem was satisfactorily solved by each man independently4 ,challis at ,oxford1 following the computations of ,adams1 first commenced to search in the place where these indicated that the planet might be found1 and on ,august #dth1 #ahdf1 actually saw and mapped the star but did not recognize its planetary character4 ,on the #bcrd of ,september1 #ahdf1 ,galle of ,berlin1 searching at the place indicated by ,leverrier1 found the new world at almost the exact place indicated by the computations6 ,this should satisfy the most skeptical as to the validity of the great ,newtonian law of gravitation and the accuracy of the mathematical deductions therefrom4 ,to prove the existence of a planet and to determine its position before it was ever seen1 is considered by scientists to be among the most amazing intellectual achievements ever recorded in history4 ,neptune requires #afe years to complete a revolution around the sun4 ,the boundary line of the solar system1 which is the planet's orbit1 is a tremendously long pathway on which to travel1 for it lies at a distance of #b1gge1jjj1jjj miles from the sun4 ,the length of a day on ,neptune is not known as it lies too far away to permit an observer to distinguish any permanent surface features even with the largest telescopes4 ,it has been estimated that as ,neptune is so far away from the sun1 it receives only th as much light and heat as our earth4 ,when the keen north wind with all its fury blows1 ,congeals the floods1 and forms the fleecy snows1 ',tis heat intense to what can there be known2 ,warmer our poles than is its burning zone4 ,who there inhabit must have other powers1 ,juices1 and veins1 and sense1 and life1 than ours4 ,one moment's cold1 like theirs1 would pierce the bone1 ,freeze the heart's blood1 and turn us all to stone4 --,baker's ,universe4 ,the sun1 as viewed from ,neptune1 would look very small1 not much larger than ,venus does to us when she is nearest the earth1 although he gives to ,neptune #bej1jjj times more light than ,venus gives to us at her best4 ,neptune possesses only one known satellite4 ,this satellite has the peculiarity of whirling much as if it had been tipped over through an angle of #aej degrees1 which causes it to move in a direction opposite to that in which the planets travel around the sun4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,earth ,a ,,planet ,,at ,,close ,,range ,diameter--#gibg miles ,,volumes could not cover the extremely complex history of the earth1 nor picture with justice the exquisite construction of even its smallest features4 ,it is here that the astronomer puts away his glass and turns detective with the geologist on his own home ground4 ,astronomers1 basing their computations of the earth's age upon the rate at which the sun is shrinking or contracting1 have placed it at #be1jjj1jjj years1 but geologists claim that this is too short a time to account for the enormous thickness of stratified deposits1 the salinity of the ocean1 and other similar evidence which seems to prove that it is probably #ajj1jjj1jjj years old1 or even older4 ,later estimates based upon other modes of production of solar heat may extend this estimate several hundred fold4 ,the moon is believed by some to have once been a part of the earth and that it was formed through a division of the earth's ball when our world was in an early stage of evolution4 ,becoming two separated bodies1 they have remained bound together by mutual attraction1 and thus move around the sun4 ,according to the ,nebular ,hypothesis expounded by ,la ,place1 the earth and moon once shone like stars but1 through the long ages of time they have gradually cooled1 and1 their lights extinguished1 two cold-surfaced globes now wend their way around the sun4 ,figure #aee3 ,,the ,,earth1 ,,seen ,,from ,a ,,distance4 7,used by permission of the publishers1 ,rand ,mc,nally ,company1 from ,dodge's ,elementary ,geography47 ,the smaller of these two globes is now scarred and old but the other is still fresh with sparkling waters1 green verdure1 and is teeming with life4 ,according to the later and more generally accepted ,planetesimal ,theory of ,moulton and ,chamberlain1 these globes were cold in the beginning but became hot through compression as the material of which they were composed was drawn toward their centers by the pull of gravitation4 ,the four outer planets are mostly gaseous2 the four inner ones have hardened crusts4 ,let us scan for a moment the various surface features of the third one in order from the sun1--the ,earth1 our own globe1 and consider the unique and marvelous manner in which its various features have come to be4 ,in the course of millions of years1 the earth1 through the pull of gravitation1 became gradually more and more dense4 ,different elements in its gases 7which according to the later theory were squeezed out by pressure71 combined to form rock1 water and atmosphere4 ,hydrogen united with oxygen formed water2 nitrogen1 oxygen and small quantities of carbonic acid gas formed the atmosphere2 oxygen mixed with silicon made quartz1 the earth's first rock4 ,this rock1 called granite1 rose to the top of the molten liquid material and formed a thin film of crust1 for it was lighter than the metallic substance which sank to form the earth's core4 ,this thin1 rocky film of crust which covered the hot liquid matter was at first so hot that the gases which had formed the water could not stay on its surface but rose in the air as steam4 ,after the temperature became lower and the rocks cooled1 rain poured down in sheets of water1 remained on the crust and formed a warm sea4 ,for a long time this film was but a slight obstruction to the raging fiery forces confined beneath it and again and again these forces tore the crust asunder and made the surface of the earth a scene of wild commotion4 ,but each time the cooling gained a slight mastery over the heat1 and by cooling the earth's film was continually shrinking thus forming a thicker and more solid protective crust4 ,after an heroic struggle between these mighty forces the crust was at last strong enough even to sink down in places to fit the inner core2 the sea then ran into these hollows and into the wrinkles formed from the shrinking1 and the first ridges or islands appeared above the surface of the water4 ,these ridges or islands were then attacked by the elements1 eroded by the weather and the rains1 and the granite which formed them was crumbled into quartz1 feldspar and mica4 ,the torrents of rain formed rivers1 and these1 seeking a level1 carried the debris down to the shores of the ridges1--the finer sediment1 the feldspar and mica1 being washed far out from the rocky land where it settled to the bottom of the sea and in time formed which under pressure turned to clay1 while the clay under greater pressure1 turned to slate4 ,the quartz of the granite1 ground to fine particles1 stayed near the shore and formed sandy beaches1 which if covered under great pressure1 became sandstone4 ,thus were some of our various rocks formed from the original rock of granite1 and no matter where one sees sandstone or claybanks1 even if on top of a mountain1 such a place was once under water1 for that is the only place where such sedimentary material could form4 ,the sound of streams that swift and slow1 ,draw down onian hills1 and sow ,the dust of continents to be4 ,this slow disintegration of the earth's first land continued for millions of years1 the waste accumulating along the shores1 and as far out as the finer sediment could be carried4 ,finally the pressure on the edges of this land caused the thin crust to soften and break1 the molten magma poured forth in great masses1 and the thick sediments were smashed together1 folded up and thrust upward to form the earth's first hills4 ,figure #aef3 ,a ,,portion ,,of ,,the ,,columbian ,,lava ,,flow ,,in ,,the ,,state ,,of ,,washington4 ,photograph by ,asahel ,curtis1 ,seattle4 ,the crust was then so thin and easily broken that only low hills appeared but after it became thicker it was not so easily rent and mountain ranges were born with an accompanying roar of tremendous volcanoes4 ,geologists1 studying the ages of the different ranges in the ,united ,states1 have concluded that the first to appear were the ,appalachian mountains2 later the ,rocky mountains in the west1 and still later the ,coast ranges4 ,mountain ranges are invariably found along lines of very thick sediments4 ,the same strata which along the ,appalachian range are #dj1jjj feet thick1 thin out1 when traced westward1 to only #djjj feet at the ,mississippi ,river4#a ,the high tablelands in portions of ,idaho1 ,oregon and ,washington were formed by great streams of lava which poured through many of the fissures of the coast ranges and buried the whole country above the hill tops4 ,this lava cooled into thick massive layers of solid rock--an interesting sight to this very day4 ,although mountain ranges appear amid violence and their growth1 in a geologic sense1 is rapid1 plains and plateaus are illustrations of sea-bottoms which have been covered with sediment carried down from the mountains1--mainly pebbles1 sand and clay1--pressed and cemented together under the water and then gently raised to the surface4 ,sometimes the sea-bottom is exposed as a vast plain2 again the strata are upheaved1 bent or broken1 forming faults and ridges4 ,many of the elevated plains and plateaus are later sculptured into hills by rains1 winds1 frosts and rivers4 ,the hills are then gently torn down1 the valleys filled up and the sediment again deposited by the rivers upon the bed of the ocean4 ,for every valley shall be exalted and every mountain shall be laid low4 ,a few million years passed by and these same deposits may again be raised and become dry land4 ,the great stretches of land between the mountains of the eastern and western portion of ,america were formed from the sediment washed down from these mountains and deposited in the sea which lay between4 ,the crust of the earth is still rising and sinking1 the land gaining on the water1 but as this is usually such a slow movement1 it can only be traced through a period of many years4 ,the notion that the ground is naturally steadfast is an error4 ,the idea of terra firma belongs with the ancient belief that the earth was the center of the universe4 ,it is1 indeed1 by their mobility that the continents survive the increasing assaults of the ocean waves1 and the continuous down-wearing which the rivers and glaciers bring about4 --,professor ,shaler4 ,nearly the whole of ,sweden and ,norway1 for instance1 has been rising for thousands of years4 ,this is proved by the fact that old sea-beaches full of shells of species now living in neighboring seas1 are found from fifty to seventy miles inland1 and several hundred feet above the present sea-level on both sides of the ,scandinavian peninsula4#b ,such sea-beaches are found high above the present water level in ,chile and ,patagonia1 and the chalk cliffs of ,england were formed under the waves of the ocean4 ,le ,conte says that one of the most evident proofs of crustal movements in ancient geologic times is the great thickness of shallow water sediments 7sandstones1 shales and limestones7 over the greater portions of all of the continents1 which represent areas of slow subsidence2 and the great breaks or unconformities between the series of strata1 which represent areas of uplift and atmospheric erosion4 ,although sand and gravel are distributed over the bottom of the ocean near the land1 dredging expeditions reaching down their metal cylinders for samples of the sea-floor at greater depths in various sections of the globe1 have discovered that it is of a different composition1 one-third of its area being covered with red clay4 ,red clay is composed of iron and silica and represents all that is left of the minute shells which cover the tiny sea-animals which flourish in such countless multitudes throughout the ocean4 ,these shells1 after the animal dies1 drift downward in ceaseless showers and the lime1 of which they are largely composed1 is dissolved during the long journey to the bottom4 ,ooze is found in water less deep and is formed by the accumulation of minute shells of different species4 ,minute shells of the same species have formed great thicknesses of limestone or of chalk even as grains of sand build in time their banks of sandstone4 ,such information as this is1 of course1 disclosed by the penetrating eye of the microscope4 ,chalk cliffs1 now dry land1 form thousands of miles of habitable land in ,europe1 while coral sand pressed into rock forms the unique foundation of the ,bahama ,islands1 the ,bermudas1 many islands of the ,pacific1 and the ,great ,barrier ,reef extending for a thousand miles along the shores of northern ,australia6 ,looking again about our own country on the land that lies cradled between the eastern and the western mountains of the ,united ,states1 one cannot help but regard with awe the magnificent stretches of time it must have taken for this great area to have been formed beneath the sea4 ,this alone proves the great age of the earth4 ,because it was raised slowly1 the strata lie there little disturbed1 one over the other1 like the leaves of a great stone book1 containing the history of the earth4 ,a good view of the river strata may be obtained in the canyon of the ,colorado river1 for this mighty river has carved a bed through the stratified deposits to a depth of from #cjjj to #fjjj feet4 ,to quarry the heart of the earth ,till1 in the rocks red rise1 ,its age and birth1 through an awful girth ,of strata1 should show the wonder-worth ,of patience to all eyes4 ,the elevated sea-bottom is a fertile field for the fossil hunter1 affording evidence that enables the geologist to reconstruct the evolutionary development of life on our planet in its divinely ordained stages4 ,there is often but little resemblance in the fossils found in the lower strata to the plants and animals now in existence1 but traced from stratum to stratum1 the connection is obvious4 ,the fire-formed rocks of the ,archan ,age1 which support all the other strata1 contain no evidence of life2 neither do the first sedimentary rocks which were deposited above them4 ,the first fossils are found in the strata overlying the first sedimentary rock4 ,geologists have divided the history of the earth into seven ages3 #a4 ,the ,archan ,age1 represented by the ,archan system of rocks4 #b4 ,the ,age of ,invertebrates1 represented by the ,cambrian1 the ,lower ,silurian and the ,upper ,silurian rocks4 #c4 ,the ,age of ,fishes1 represented by the ,devonian rocks4 #d4 ,the ,age of ,amphibians1 represented by the ,carboniferous rocks4 #e4 ,the ,age of ,reptiles1 represented by the ,mesozoic rocks4 #f4 ,the ,age of ,mammals1 represented by the ,cenozoic rocks4 #g4 ,the ,age of ,man1 represented by recent rocks4 ,all of these ,ages1 which represent the life history of the world1 left their impression on the rocks of their times1 and each ,age is connected with the preceding and the succeeding ,age like links in a long1 long chain4 ,in regard to the distinctness and importance of the last great era1 the ,age of ,man1 ,le ,conte1 in ,elements of ,geology1 says that there are two views which will ever divide geologists1 depending on the two views regarding the relation of man to ,nature3 ,from a purely structural and animal point of view1 man is very closely united with the animal kingdom4 ,he has no department of his own1 but belongs to the vertebrate department1 along with the quadrupeds1 birds1 reptiles and fishes4 ,he has no class of his own1 but belongs to the class ,mammalia1 along with the quadrupeds4 ,neither has he an order of his own1 but belongs to the order of the ,primates1 along with the monkeys1 lemurs1 etc4 ,even a family of his own1 the ,hominidae1 is grudgingly admitted by some4 ,but from a psychical point of view it is simply impossible to overestimate the space which separates man from all lower things4 ,man must be set off not only against the whole animal kingdom1 but against the whole book of ,nature besides1 as an equivalent3 ,nature the ,book--the revelation--and man the interpreter4 ,so in the history of the earth3 from one point of view the era of man is not equivalent to an era1 nor to an age1 nor to a period1 nor even to an epoch4 ,but from another point of view it is the equivalent of the whole geological history of the earth besides4 ,for the history of the earth finds its consummation1 and its interpreter1 and its significance1 in man4 ,ah--how exhilarating the thought6 ,once again with the astronomer1 we gaze out on the huge planets of the solar system1--the groups and great galaxies of stars4 ,does the earth really seem so insignificant in its smallness8 ,the beautiful little earth-ball1 with its precious freight of human beings1 softly flies about the sun4 ,amply protected in a transparent case of atmosphere1 it completes its tremendous journey of #egf1jjj1jjj miles once every year4 ,during this year its temperature is varied by four seasons which are caused by the earth being inclined #bc degrees on its axis4 ,some say1 he bid his angels turn askance ,the poles of earth twice ten degrees or more ,from the sun's axle2 they with labor push'd ,oblique the centric globe4 --,milton's ,paradise ,lost4 ,during this journey around the sun1 the earth rotates #cff times on its axis1 making one revolution every #bc hours1 #ef minutes and #d4ji seconds4 ,this causes each side to be alternately warmed and lighted every few hours4 ,cupped close to the darkened hemisphere lies a huge cone of shadow which extends out in space past the moon4 ,when the moon rolls through this shadow it is eclipsed for it has come into our night4 ,figure #aeg ,this cone of the earth's shadow is our personal night and ours alone1 and1 although the stars seem enmeshed in its velvet sides1 it is not the night of earth that holds the stars1--its darkness merely shuts out the glare of the sun and the stars of the universe therefore become visible4 ,this remarkable view gave to man a science set in beauty so keen that in the world's young days it was thought that it was music too sweet to be heard by any but the gods4 ,but now we know that all ,nature is like that1 and there is not a cliff1 rock1 shell1 mountain1 valley1 water1 land or any living thing in the botanical or zoological kingdom1 no matter how common or how lowly1 which does not carry1 even as the stars1 its quota of science and song4 ,footnote #a3 ,le ,conte4 ,footnote #b3 ,de ,greer1 ,bulletin of the ,geological ,society of ,america1 vol4 ,,iii1 #ahib4 ,figure #aeh3 ,,the ,,southern ,,portion ,,of ,,the ,,moon ,,at ,,last ,,quarter4 ,photograph by ,mount ,wilson ,observatory through the #ajj-;inch ,hooker telescope4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,earth',s ,,moon ,a ,,near ,,view ,,of ,a ,,satellite ,diameter--#bafc miles ,,the moon's diameter is equal to one-fourth that of the earth4 ,as viewed from a nearby planet--neighbor ,venus1 the planetoids1 or neighbor ,mars--the moon and the earth would appear as two close stars4 ,both ,jupiter and ,saturn have moons larger than ours1 but ,jupiter1 for instance1 is over a thousand times larger than the earth1 and ,saturn ranks next to ,jupiter4 ,the moons of ,mars are exceedingly tiny1 and ,mercury and ,venus have none at all4 ,neptune has one moon1 ,uranus four1 ,jupiter nine and ,saturn ten4 ,of all these moons1 it is most natural for us to want complete information on the moon that lies nearest to us1 the moon of the earth1 which travels around us as we journey around the sun1 at a distance of only #bdj1jjj miles4 ,with the aid of the greatest of telescopes1 through which the accompanying photograph was taken1 the moon can be brought within a clear range of #fj miles1 and even closer4 ,however1 an opera-glass reduces the distance to one-half1 and such a glass1 or a very small telescope1 is much better in every way for the amateur4 ,with the nearest planets millions of miles in the distance and the nearest stars millions of millions of miles away1 the short distance of #bdj1jjj miles to the moon seems almost no distance at all2 in fact1 the moon lies so close to us that it not only rolls through the shadow of the earth1 but we may also see the various features1 and even the shadows of those features1 upon its surface4 ,the moon and the earth form a little system of their own and are bound together by a strong attraction4 ,figure #aei3 ,,earth-,,lit ,,new ,,moon4 ,showing a slender crescent embracing the earth-lit night portion of the moon4 ,photograph through #dj-;inch refractor by ,yerkes ,observatory4 ,this strong attraction1 called the force of gravity1 has resulted in a strange thing happening to both the earth and the moon1 for the earth pulls so hard on the moon that it has long since destroyed the moon's axial rotation with reference to itself1 and the moon pulls so hard on the earth that it moves the great fluid body of the ocean4 ,thus the moon has always the same face toward the earth for it cannot turn around and show us the other side1 while the pulling of the earth by the moon causes the ocean's waters to rise and fall every #ab hours and #bf minutes1 or twice a day4 ,when the ,greek and ,roman travelers first ventured to the ocean1 they could not understand why great stretches of beaches were left dry1 and with equal regularity covered up2 where did the water go1 and why8 ,it seemed a hopeless mystery to people who had lived around a landlocked sea where the tide1 with few exceptions1 rises but a few inches4 ,when the sun and moon are in line with the earth they co-operate in their pulling and hauling at the sea4 ,the moon is then either new or full and it is then that the highest tides occur4 ,the silver ,moon o'er briny seas presides1 ,and heaves huge ocean with alternate tides4 --,lucan's ,pharsalia 7,,rowe',s ,trans47 ,at exactly new moon 7the moon is called new when it lies between the earth and sun71 the moon comes above the horizon at the same time as the sun and sets with it4 ,a few days after new moon we sometimes see what is called the old moon in the young moon's arms1 the dimly lighted portion being illuminated by light reflected from the day side of the earth4 ,this earthlight at the moon is at least #ej times greater than moonlight at the earth4 ,its somewhat ruddy color is caused by the sunlight having passed twice through our atmosphere4 ,the bright crescent1 which is the young moon's arms enclosing the old moon1 is the sun-illuminated portion of the moon4 ,i saw the new moon late yestere'en1 ,wi' the auld moon in her arms4 --,old ,scotch ,ballad4 ,after new moon the moon appears a little to the east of the sun as a thin semicircle1 the horns of which always point to the cast4 ,the horns point to the east because the sun sets in the west and the illuminated part of the moon is on the side nearest to the sun1 a fact sometimes forgotten by artists4 ,the thin crescent of the moon gradually becomes broader as the moon moves away from the sun and in the course of four or five days increases to a semicircle4 ,the ,moon her monthly course had now begun1 ,and with increasing horns forsook the ,sun2 --,lucan's ,pharsalia4 ,the semicircle then increases to an oval and by the time the moon is behind the earth with the earth between it and the sun1 the oval has increased to a full circle4 ,each day the moon rises about #ej minutes later than on the preceding day and in the course of a month changes from a crescent--a quarter--a full shining face1 to a quarter1 a crescent and again a slender new moon4 ,it has now traveled completely around the earth4 ,since the moon has always the same face toward the earth 7if one will walk around a table with the eyes always toward the center1 this journey will be well illustrated71 it will be seen by us in all its phases before it completes a day and night1 or1 in other words1 although the earth turns all sides to the sun in #bd hours1 the moon must travel all the way around the earth1 which takes almost #cj of our days1 before it completes a day and night4 ,this means a continuous stretch of #ad times #bd hours of daylight1 which is about equal to #bi of our days1 of daylight1 followed by #ad times #bd hours of night1 when the sun is below the horizon4 ,it would be a strange experience to travel to this country where the day and night each last half a month4 ,if a journey to the weird1 rough country of the moon were possible1 one would experience even greater surprises than the length of the day and the night1 for the sky1 as seen from this airless sphere1 would be strangely different from anything that we are accustomed to4 ,here the sun hangs like a big gold jewel edged with a tiny fringe of scarlet1 the pearly petals of its delicate corona far outstretched against the star-filled sky4 ,the brilliant ball of the earth1 which would appear almost #ac times as large in area as the moon1 rests immovable and ever present1 its great globe turning completely around every #bd hours4 ,also1 as the moon does to us1 it would exhibit to an observer on the moon an interesting variety of phases1 mammoth crescents1 quarters and disks4 ,such a sky6--a huge white planet1 a flower-like sun and multitudes of unwinking stars4 ,and even more1 for stretched from horizon to horizon of that black dome1 even though the sun shines brightly1 is the misty arch of the ,milky ,way glowing in a glory quite unknown to mortals on earth4 ,all this would happen for the simple reason that the moon has no appreciable amount of atmosphere to diffuse the sun's rays1 make the sky seem blue and render the stars invisible4 ,this would also unveil many of the smaller stars that are not seen here without optical aid--and every star would burn but none would twinkle4 ,in the morning of that long lunar day of #ced hours1 the yellow face of the sun would slowly push its gayly bedecked head above the black rim of the horizon unheralded by a dawn2 neither would twilight trail behind it when it sank beyond our sight after the long day was done1 for these phenomena are due entirely to the light-reflecting and refracting power of an atmosphere4 ,the absence of an atmosphere on the moon1 or at least the presence of only a very rare one1 is proved by the suddenness with which a star will disappear when the moon passes between the star and us4 ,also surface features would not otherwise stand forth with such clearness nor shadows be so sharp and inky-black4 ,when the moon passes in front of the sun at the time of an eclipse1 its outline shows perfectly sharp against the yellow disk1 even showing1 like jagged saw-teeth1 the mountains of eternal light which tower near the southern pole4 ,when ,venus makes a transit across the sun its whole edge is illuminated instead of being merely sharply defined1 for ,venus is enclosed in a wrapping of atmosphere4 ,the spectroscope has proved that there is no water on the moon4 ,if it is airless and waterless it consequently must be lifeless4 ,but hold1 a moment4 ,perhaps we go too fast with our this anti that and therefore1 for here come reports from ,pickering1 one of our most tireless observers1 who declares that there is a considerable amount of dampness still lodged in the deep cavities of the circular mountains1 and that this dampness ascends in mists when the sun rises4 ,these mists do not seem to float freely but cling to ridges and higher levels and later dissolve there4 ,the outlines of these cavities are slightly blurred until the mist is banished4 ,,the ,,gray ,,land ,,on ,,the ,,moon ,the curious gray areas which extend over two-fifths of the surface of the moon are the most conspicuous features to be seen with the unaided eye4 ,these areas are comparatively smooth and level and invariably lower than the surrounding country4 ,figure #afj3 ,,the ,,gray ,,land ,,of ,,the ,,moon4 ,the rest of the moon is extremely rough1 the southern hemisphere in particular presenting the most singular circumambient scenery of thousands of round pits fringed by lofty ramparts of circular mountains4 ,with the aid of a small telescope1 the grayish spots on the moon somewhat resemble seas as they might appear at a great distance4 ,thus old astronomers1 believing that they might at least be ancient sea-bottoms from which the water had evaporated1 named them accordingly--although rather romantically4 ,these names are still retained1 disguised in ,latin on the map of the moon and referred to in ,latin by present day astronomers4 ,translated1 however1 they add a quaint glamour to the ,gray ,land and the eye wanders interestedly over ,the ,sea of ,showers1 ,the ,sea of ,tranquillity1 ,the ,sea of ,clouds1 ,the ,sea of ,nectar1 ,the ,gulf of ,dews1 ,the ,ocean of ,storms1 ,the ,bay of ,rainbows1 ,the ,marsh of ,sleep or ,the ,lake of ,dreams4 ,since the days of ,galileo1 improved telescopes and continued research have constantly increased our knowledge of the moon4 ,the curious so-called seas are not1 seemingly1 old sea-bottoms2 they are dark plains on the lunar surface much more likely to be great lava plains than sea-basins1 according to the evidence that has been collected4 ,many scientists now regard these areas as a part of the surface where the thin crust became weakened and succumbed in an early stage of the moon's development2 the lava then welled forth from the interior and flowed out in great molten sheets over the surrounding country4 ,since over #ajj1jjj craters have also been observed on this side of the moon1 all in fairly good condition1 and since there has been no weathering1 it is sometimes said that the moon presents a picture of the volcanic age petrified4 ,the gray patches are best seen when the moon is full4 ,under a telescope these areas appear darker with occasional traces of yellow or green tints4 ,the colors may be due to some form of vegetation or masses of colored volcanic material4 ,,moon ,,mountains ,the most prominent mountains on the moon are the ,apennines4 ,these extend in a continuous curve for #dej miles a little north of the center of the moon1 forming an impressive shoreline for ,mare ,imbrium1 the ,sea of ,showers4 ,running northward1 just above the ,apennines1 is the ,caucasus range1 and east of the ,caucasus1 lie the ,alps4 ,the ,alps and ,caucasus mountains are far less conspicuous than the ,apennines1 for not only do these latter mountains reach into a higher altitude but they also are crowned along their #dej miles with some #cjjj steep and rugged peaks4 ,figure #afa ,the ,alps are noted for a remarkable flat-bottomed valley which cuts in a straight line through these mountains for a distance of #hj miles4 ,this valley is from to #f miles wide and at least #aa1jjj feet in depth4 ,such a long1 level strip bordered by gigantic mountains is as unique a formation as the mammoth craters with the towering rims4 ,the ,leibnitz and the ,doerfel mountains are on the southern part of the moon near the pole4 ,these mountains are so situated that the light of the sun always shines from their summits1 and even during an eclipse they are visible in profile4 ,some of the peaks on these mountains of eternal light are very high1 their needle-like points reaching upward for #bf1jjj to #bg1jjj feet4 ,it has been estimated that if our mountains on earth were comparatively as high as the mountains on the moon1 our earthly mountains would rise to the height of about #ae miles6 ,the height and sharpness of the moon mountains is due partly to the low surface gravity1 which is only about th that of the earth1 and to the fact that there is no leveling influence such as is caused by frosts and rains4 ,isolated mountains rising up like a huge lump1 or a pen point1 from a flat surface1 are commonly found on the moon4 ,these often stand several miles high and are particularly interesting as seen in the northern hemisphere of the moon1 when the long shadow of such a solitary mountain stretches in inky-blackness against the smooth gray plain4 ,several of these may be seen in ,mare ,imbrium just above the crater ,plato1 the loftiest of which is ,pico1 rising about #hjjj feet4 ,isolated mountains are very frequently found in the center of craters4 ,this would seem a strange formation close at hand--a large crater1 or a ringed plain1 miles in extent1 with a tall slender mountain standing in its center4 ,the oddest and most common mountains1 however1 are the circular mountains which surround a plain or a large sunken cavity1 like a mighty wall4 ,such mountains appear on almost every part of the moon's surface and in some places they appear in such profusion that their rings frequently touch and even overlap one another4 ,the peaks of the circular mountains are often two or three miles in height and their shadows sometimes cover a large portion of the plain which they surround4 ,these shadows are continually varying1 for during the increase of the moon they are thrown in one direction and during the decrease1 in the direction exactly opposite4 ,during full moon they disappear altogether and the plains are filled with light1 but lunar scenes are much more interesting when the sunlighted portions are accentuated by the long1 queer shadows1 for these shadows are black and clear-edged and stand out like silhouettes done in ebony1 even at this distance of #bdj1jjj miles4 ,because they have no light reflected into them from an atmosphere1 these shadows are actually so densely black that if one stepped into such a shadow he would instantly be blotted from view4 ,on account of the vividness of the shadows1 moon-mountains are best observed during the first and last quarter of the moon4 ,a good time to begin observing with a glass is when the moon is a narrow crescent in the western sky4 ,figure #afb ,the most prominent object in the narrow crescent is the ,mare ,crisium or the ,sea of ,crises1 #chj miles long4 ,south of ,mare ,crisium is ,mare ,fecunditatis1 the ,sea of ,fecundity and ,mare ,nectaris1 the ,sea of ,nectar4 ,when these three ,seas are visible with ,mare ,tranquillitatis just coming into view1 the moon is between #e and #f days old1 that is1 #e or #f days after new moon4 ,the ,leibnitz mountains may then be seen near the southern pole4 ,watch carefully evening after evening as the light creeps over new regions and brings them into view4 ,the best place to select for observation is the boundary line between the illuminated and unilluminated portions1 called the terminator1 for the shadows that are cast make the irregular features stand out more distinctly and bring out the individual beauties of the lunar scenes4 ,since we are looking down upon the moon1 a mountain peak1 at this distance1 resembles a point of light1 and a mountain range whose base is still in the shadow1 but whose peaks are lighted by the rays of the sun1 a straight or curved row of lights4 ,besides beautifying the country of the moon and revealing to us the peculiar sharpness of the mountain peaks1 the shadows have proved of great practical value to astronomers1 for by measuring the length of their shadows1 the heights of the mountains are calculated4 ,,the ,,craters ,,on ,,the ,,moon ,craters are so numerous in some localities on the moon that one might walk for hundreds and hundreds of miles and step on nothing but crater rims4 ,on the earth a crater is usually a rare object situated on the top of a mountain1 but on the moon they are scattered all over the lunar plains1 a state of landscape which permits of no short cuts4 ,if1 however1 in the dim1 distant past1 life had ever developed on the moon1 a moon-being would have been th as heavy and able to jump six times as high as an earth-being for the surface gravity of the moon is only about th that of the earth4 ,thus if a lunarian had no other mode of transportation1 he might at least have been able to surmount many of the minor obstacles by jumping over them4 ,a map of the moon resembles a big mud-ball with all the little pebbles picked out4 ,figure #afc3 ,,northern ,,portion ,,of ,,the ,,moon4 ,note the ,sea of ,showers1 the ,bay of ,rainbows1 ,copernicus and ,plato1 the three craters north of the lunar ,apennines1 the ,caucasus ,range1 the ,alps and the ,valley of the ,alps4 ,refer to the maps4 ,photograph by ,mount ,wilson ,observatory through the #ajj-;inch ,hooker telescope4 ,a crater only six miles in diameter may be easily seen in a small telescope1 although there are thousands less than a mile in diameter which may be seen in a large telescope4 ,craters from #af miles to #fj miles in diameter are common and a few even measure as much as #ajj to #aej miles4 ,these craters have deeply sunken floors and are usually surrounded by gigantic mountain walls which rise like a fringe of rock above the general level of the region outside4 ,near the center of many of the craters with the largest brims1 one and sometimes two or three sharp-peaked mountains tower1 casting a long1 weird shadow over the crater's floor4 ,the surrounding brim is almost invariably higher than the central mountain1 yet many of these central mountains are a mile or so high4 ,probably the deepest of the moon's craters is ,theophilus1 on the edge of the circular sea ,mare ,nectaris1 and it is best seen while the moon is still a slender crescent4 ,the encircling walls of this crater rise from #ad1jjj to #ah1jjj feet above its floor1 the floor itself being #aj1jjj feet below the general level of the moon outside the wall4 ,the walls of this amazing cavity1 in the main1 slope gently to the outer plain but rise very steeply from the depths of the inner floor which measures #fd miles across4 ,three lofty cone-shaped mountains rest in the center of this floor1 their sharp1 black shadows stretching to the left4 ,one of these mountains rises #fjjj feet1 yet its summit is some #djjj feet lower than the level of the outside plain6 ,imagine standing on the rim of ,theophilus and watching the darkness flow into its huge bowl until the mountain peaks in the center look like sunny isles in a dense1 black sea6 ,this is a real crater1 for the word crater means cup4 ,most of the large craters on the moon1 however1 are not so cup-like1 but1 to pursue the simile still farther1 are more like platters and saucers and individual butter plates1 for their diameters range from five times to more than fifty times their depth4 ,figure #afd3 ,,the ,,lunar ,,crater ,,copernicus1 ,,fifty ,,miles ,,in ,,diameter4 ,photograph by ,mount ,wilson ,observatory through the #ajj-;inch ,hooker telescope4 ,chacornac mentions a walled-plain called ,schickard1 on the southeast portion of the moon1 which is #acd miles in breadth1 and1 although encircled by a mountain wall which in one place is nearly #aj1jjj feet high1 a spectator centrally located on the floor of the crater would think himself on a boundless desert1 for this encircling wall1 due to the curvature of the surface of the moon1 would lie entirely beneath his horizon4 ,one of the most magnificent craters on the moon is the great crater ,copernicus4 ,copernicus lies in an isolated position a little southeast of the range of the ,apennines1 on the darkened space called ,mare ,imbrium4 ,being not far from the center of the lunar disk1 it is an easy object for the eye to find and to use as a guiding point from which to locate other craters4 ,a circular range of mountains much terraced on the inner side surrounds the great plain of ,copernicus1 while in the very center of its #ef miles of floor stands a solitary mountain with an altitude of #aa1jjj feet4 ,it is believed by many astronomers that such terracing as is shown in the interior of ,copernicus1 is mainly due to the repeated alternate rise1 partial congelation1 and subsequent retreat of a great flow of lava which rose up from the floor during a period long past4 ,a number of other craters also show such terracing4 ,the bright appearance of ,copernicus is caused by an interesting system of bright streaks which radiate from the circular rim of its mountains4 ,tycho1 near the southern pole1 has also such a system of radiating streaks1 but so enlarged and intensified are the rays of ,tycho's system that they run for hundreds of miles and dominate the whole scene when the moon is full4 ,aristarchus1 northeast of ,copernicus1 is the brightest single point on the moon4 ,the peak in the center of its #bi miles of brilliant interior shines so brightly that it has often been seen on the dark side after new moon4 ,indeed1 when ,sir ,william ,herschel first observed it through a telescope he mistook it for a volcano in action4 ,the walls of ,aristarchus are also conspicuously terraced and rise about #djjj feet above its floor4 ,figure #afe ,south of ,aristarchus and east of ,copernicus may be seen ,kepler1 a #bb-mile crater noted for its extended system of glistening streaks4 ,its surrounding wall1 like that of ,tycho and ,copernicus1 seems to be covered with the same shining substance4 ,the wall of ,kepler is very low but its crater is about #aj1jjj feet below the exterior plain4 ,southeast of the two bright craters1 ,kepler and ,copernicus1 and almost at the edge of the moon1 lies the darkest and also one of the largest of the moon's craters1 or walled-plains1 as the large craters are now more frequently called4 ,this huge crater1 ,grimaldi1 extends north and south for a distance of #adh miles and covers an area of #ad1jjj square miles4 ,it is very noticeably dark in comparison to all surrounding objects4 ,gassendi1 a little southwest of ,grimaldi1 contains a great variety of detail both on its rim and on its floor4 ,its plain is #ed miles in diameter and includes a number of central peaks4 ,again starting from ,copernicus and letting the eye travel northwest along the ,apennine mountains almost to the ,caucasus1 one arrives at a group of three beautiful craters which rest conspicuously on the level floor of ,mare ,imbrium4 ,the largest of these craters is named ,archimedes after the most celebrated of ancient mathematicians4 ,it is to be noted that lunar craters have been given the names of great men--,copernicus1 ,tycho1 ,kepler1 great astronomers2 ,aristotle1 ,plato1 great philosophers1--a very fine recognition of scholarly worth4 ,archimedes1 #eb miles in diameter1 has no interior mountain1 but the shadows of its tall rim are imposing as they fall across its plain4 ,figure #aff3 ,some ,interesting ,craters on the ,moon4 ,aristillus is about #cd miles in diameter1 and #aj1jjj feet deep4 ,in the center of this deep cavity rises a massive many-peaked mountain whose base is often lost in the darkness of the crater's shadows4 ,autolycus1 south of ,aristillus and somewhat smaller1 is #bc miles in diameter with a floor somewhat depressed below the country which surrounds it4 ,figure #afg3 ,some interesting ,craters on the ,moon4 ,on the shore-line of ,mare ,imbrium1 north of ,archimedes1 ,aristillus and ,autolycus1 and not far from the ,valley of the ,alps1 lies ,plato1 one of the most easily found craters on the moon4 ,plato is a very huge oblong crater1 #fj miles in diameter and containing an area of #b1gjj miles4 ,its floor is exceptionally dark and flat and forms a striking contrast with the bright border of mountains which surround it4 ,quite a number of minute craterlets have been distinguished on its floor4 ,the southern hemisphere of the moon1 particularly as one approaches the region about the southern pole1 is pitted with such a bewildering number of both large and small craters that astronomers say that it is relief to the eye to study the comparatively smooth1 shaded portions of the globe after having gazed for any length of time at the crowded mass of detail in this wild and rugged region4 ,the two craters in the southern hemisphere that are perhaps the easiest for the amateur to locate are ,clavius1 an enormous crater near the mountains at the southern pole1 and ,tycho1 just below it1 with its wonderful streaks1 or rays4 ,clavius is a crater of gorgeous depth and has an area of #af1ejj miles4 ,around its walls and on its floor are many secondary craters1 while from its center rise tall mountain peaks1 one of which reaches #bd1jjj feet above the bottom of one of its included craters4 ,tycho is called ,the ,metropolitan ,crater of the ,moon1 because its brilliant rays stand forth so prominently when the moon is full that all other craters are lost in obscurity4 ,this magnificent crater measures #ed miles from rim to rim with its floor over #c miles below the highest ridge of the massive mountains which surround it4 ,these mountains are diversified by a series of terraces on their interior slopes while a peak #fjjj feet in height rises in the center of its floor4 ,the ray system of ,tycho is wholly invisible at the time the sun rises or sets1 which is the time when most of the objects on the moon are seen at their best4 ,however when the sun has attained an altitude of #cj degrees1 they mysteriously make their appearance1 extending for hundreds and some even for several thousands of miles4 ,these rays are never irregular because of interposed obstructions but stretch straight and true in a most remarkable way over mountains1 pits and plains4 ,so numerous are these bright rays about the brilliant crater of ,tycho that at full moon they may even be located as a patch of light to the unaided eye1 although an opera-glass1 which brings the moon down to #abj1jjj miles instead of #bdj1jjj1 greatly improves the seeing4 ,william ,h4 ,pickering1 in his book on ,mars1 gives some of the latest information concerning ,tycho3 ,the white radiating lines or bands are seen to be due to numerous minute craterlets each giving out a triangular white streamer producing the general effect of a white band4 ,it is probable that this observed regular distribution of the craterlets is due to their lying along invisible cracks radiating from the inner crater4 ,it is much the same as the great volcanoes of the ,andes1 which stretch in a straight line for over #bjjj miles between ,peru and the strait of ,magellan4 ,the ,alaskan volcanoes lie upon a uniformly curved line of nearly equal length4444 ,this line formation is generally considered by geologists to be due to subterranean lines of weakness or cracks in the earth's crust4 ,the moon is considered to be a matured globe1 evolutionally old1 and it has even been referred to as being nearly dead4 ,lacking1 air1 water1 life and even the diversion of sound1 it surely is at least in but a semi-conscious stage1 as worlds go4 ,mars is also called an old world1 but ,mars has air1 its snow-caps melt in sheets of water1 and we view the colors which mark its seasons1 across a distance of #ej1jjj1jjj miles4 ,the moon looks as it is1 seared and old4 ,there have been many theories advanced to explain the abundance of its craters and their peculiar construction1 but some modified form of the volcanic action is the only tenable one4 ,no one theory has as yet met with universal approval4 ,a great telescope with a #ajj-;inch lens has lately been erected at ,mount ,wilson1 near ,pasadena1 ,california4 ,the telescopes which have mirrors1 like this one1 are called reflecting telescopes4 ,the largest reflecting telescope before the one now mounted on ,mount ,wilson became available1 was the splendid instrument at ,little ,saanich1 ,victoria1 ,b4,c41 which has a #gb-;inch mirror4 ,a telescope in which the light rays pass through a series of lenses fixed in a long tube pointed directly at the object is called a refracting telescope4 ,the ,yerkes telescope at the ,university of ,chicago is an unusually fine #dj-;inch refractor4 ,with the greatest of telescopes the moon may be brought to within #fj miles of the earth and a lunar object a mile or so in diameter is easily discernible4 ,the imagination is entranced4 ,all success to astronomers6 ,,pronouncing ,,dictionary ,acrisius--a-crish'-e-us gean--ee-gee'-an geus--ec'-juce sculapius--es-cu-la'-pe-us ,albireo--al-bi'-re-o ,alcyone--al-si'-o-ne ,algenib--al-ge'-nib ,algol--al'-gol ,alioth--al-i'-oth ,almach--al'-mach ,alnilam--al-ni-lam' ,alnitak--al-ni-tak' ,alpha ,centauri--al-fa sen-ta'-re ,alphard--al-fard' ,alpheratz--al-fe'-ratz ,altair--al-tar' ,alwaid--al'-waid ,ambrosia--am-bro'-zhia ,amphitrite--am-fe-tri'-te ,andromeda--an-drom'-e-dah ,andromids--an-drom'-ids ,antares--an-ta'-rez ,aphrodite--af-ro-di'-te ,aquarius--a-qua'-ri-us ,aquila--ak'-wi-la ,aratus--ara'-tus ,arcas--ar'-cas ,archimedes--ar-chi-me'-des ,arcturus--ark-tu'-rus ,ares--a'-rez ,argonauts--ar'-go-nawts ,ariadne--a-ri-ad'-ne ,aries--a'-ri-es ,arion--a-ri'-on ,aristarchus--ar-is-tar'-chus ,aristillus--ar-is-til'-us ,asterope--as-ter-o'-pe ,astra--as-tree'-ah ,atlas--at'-las ,atergatis--a-ter-ga'-tis ,auriga--aw-ri'-ga ,aurora--aw-ro'-rah ,autolycus--au-to-ly'-cus ,bacchus--bac'-cus ,bellerophon--bel-ler'-o-fon ,berenices--ber-e-ni'-ces ,beta ,centauri--be'-ta sen-ta'-re ,betelgeuse--bet'-cl-gooz ,botes--bo-o'-tez ,caduceus--ca-du'-she-us ,canopus--ka-no'-pus ,canis--ca'-nis ,canes ,venatici--ca'-nez ven-at'-i-si ,capella--ca-pel'-la ,castor--kas'-tor ,cassiopeia--cas-se-o-pee'-ah ,caucasus--caw'-ca-sus ,centaurus--cen'-taw-rus ,centaur--cen'-tawr ,ceres--ser'-reez ,cepheus--se'-fus ,cerberus--cer'-be-rus ,cetus--se'-tus ,chaos--ka'-oss ,chromosphere--kro'-mo-sfer ,chimara--ki-mee'-rah ,chiron--chi'-ron ,constellation--con-stel-la'-tion ,coma ,berenices--co'ma ber-a-ni'-ses ,copernicus--co-per'-ni-cus ,cor-,carolli--kor-kar-o'-li ,corona--ko-ro'-na ,crete--cre'-te ,cyclops--si'-clops ,cycnus--sik'-nus ,cygnus--sig'-nus ,danae--dan'-a-e ,dadalus--ded'-a-lus ,danaides--dan-a'-i-deez ,deimos--dei'-mos ,delphi--del'-fi ,diana--di-an'-a ,demeter--de-mee'-ter ,deneb--den'-eb ,delphinus--del-fin'-us ,dolphin--dol'-fin ,doerfel--doer'-fel ,draco--,dra'-co ,electra--e-lek'-tra ,elysian--e-lizh'-e-an ,erechtheus--e-rek'-thuce ,eridanus--e-rid'-an-us ,etanin--et'-a-nin ,eurydice--u-rid'-i-se ,europa--eu-ro'-pa ,formalhaut--for'-mal-o ,galileo--gal-i-le'-o ,ganymede--gan-i-mee'-de ,gassendi--gas-sen'-di ,gemini--jem'-i-ni ,gorgons--gor'-gons ,hades--ha'-deez ,hecatoncheires--hec-a-ton'-sheires ,helicon--hel'-i-con ,hellespont--hel'-les-pont ,hercules--her'-ku-leez ,hesiod--he'-she-od ,hesperides--hes-per'-i-dees ,hesperus--hes'-pe-rus ,hyades--hi'-a-deez ,isis--i'-sis ,janus--ja'-nus ,juno--ju'-no ,jupiter--ju'-pe-ter ,leda--le'-dah ,leonids--le'-o-nids ,maia--ma'-ya ,markab--mar'-kab ,medusa--me-du'-sa ,merope--mer'-o-pe ,minotaur--min'-o-tawr ,minos--mi'-nos ,mintaka--min'-ta-ka ,mirfak--mir'-fak ,mizar--mi'-zar ,naxos--nax'-os ,neptune--nep'-tune ,nemean--ne-me'-an ,nebula--neb'-u-la ,nebul--neb'-u-l ,oceanus--o-see'-a-nus ,ophiuchus--o-fi-u'-kus ,ossa--oss'-sah ,orion--o-ri'-on ,orpheus--or'-fe-us ,parnassus--par-nas'-sus ,pegasus--peg'-a-sus ,pelion--pee'-le-on ,perseus--per'-se-us ,phaethon--fa'-e-thon ,phbus--fo'-bus ,photosphere--fo'-to-sfer ,phlegethon--fleg'-i-thon ,phbe--fee'-be ,pirene--pi-re'-ne ,pleiades--ple'-ia-deez ,pleione--ple'-io-ne ,pluto--plu'-to ,polaris--po-lar'-is ,pollux--pol'-lux ,prometheus--pro-me'-the-us ,proserpine--pross'-er-pine ,prsepe--pr-se'-pe ,procyon--pro'-cy-on ,regulus--reg' u-lus ,rigel--ri'-gel ,sagittarius--sa-jet-ta'-ri-us ,saturn--sat'-urn ,schickard--schick'-ard ,scheat--she-at' ,sirius--sir'-us ,tartarus--tar'-ta-rus ,taurus--taw'-rus ,taygeta--tay-ge'-ta ,thuban--thu'-ban ,tycho--ty'-cho ,uffizi--oof'-fid-ze ,urania--u-ra'-ne-ah ,uranus--u'-ra-nus ,vega--,vee'-ga ,venus--,vee'-nus ,vindemiatrix--vin-de-mi a'-trix ,zeus--zuce ,,bibliography ,,and ,,literature ,,cited ,text ,book of ,astronomy--,,george ,c4 ,,comstock2 ,d4 ,appleton and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aijc4 ,descriptive ,astronomy--,,forest ,,ray ,,moulton2 ,american ,technical ,society1 #aibc4 ,popular ,astronomy--,,simon ,,newcomb2 ,american ,book ,co41 ,new ,york1 ,cincinnati1 ,chicago1 #ahib4 ,manual of ,astronomy--,,charles ,a4 ,,young2 ,ginn and ,co41 #aijd4 ,uranography--,,charles ,a4 ,,young2 ,ginn and ,co41 #ahig4 ,astronomy--,,clerk ,,and ,,others2 ,d4 ,appleton and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahih4 ,new ,astronomy--,,samuel ,,pierpont ,,langley2 ,boston1 #aijj4 ,popular ,astronomy--,,nicolas ,,camille ,,flammarion2 trans4 from the ,french by ,j4 ,ellard ,gore1 ,london1 ,chatto and ,windus1 #aijg4 ,astronomy for ,amateurs--,,nicolas ,,camille ,,flammarion2 trans4 from the ,french by ,frances ,a4 ,welby2 ,d4 ,appleton and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aijd4 ,astronomy for ,all--,,bruno ,h4 ,b,,rgel2 trans4 from the ,german by ,stella ,bloch2 ,cassell and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 ,pith of ,astronomy--,,samuel ,g4 ,,bayne2 ,new ,york1 #ahif4 ,the ,dawn of ,astronomy--,j4 ,,norman ,,lockyer2 ,macmillan ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahig4 ,the ,new ,heavens--,,george ,,ellery ,,hale2 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #aibb4 ,astronomy without a ,telescope--,,edward ,,walter ,,maunder2 ,knowledge ,office1 ,london1 #aijc4 ,in ,starland with a ,three-,inch ,telescope--,,william ,,tyler ,,olcott2 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #aiji4 ,pleasures of the ,telescope--,,garrett ,p4 ,,serviss2 ,d4 ,appleton and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aija4 ,celestial ,objects for ,common ,telescopes--,t4 ,w4 ,,webb2 ,longmans1 ,green and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aijd4 ,half ,hours with the ,telescope--,r4 ,a4 ,,proctor2 ,longmans1 ,green and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahif4 ,the ,story of the ,heavens--,,sir ,,robert ,s4 ,,ball2 ,cassell and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aija4 ,the ,call of the ,stars--,,john ,r4 ,,kippax2 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #aiai4 ,friendly ,stars--,,martha ,,evans ,,martin2 ,harper and ,brothers1 ,new ,york1 #aijg4 ,starlore of ,all ,ages--,,william ,,tyler ,,olcott2 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 ,star-names and their ,meanings--,,richard ,,hinckley ,,allen2 ,g4 ,e4 ,stechert1 ,new ,york1 #ahii4 ,half ,hours with the ,summer ,stars--,,mary ,,proctor2 ,a4 ,c4 ,mc,clurg and ,co41 ,chicago1 #aiaa4 ,stars in ,song and ,legend--,,jermain ,g4 ,,porter2 ,ginn and ,co41 ,boston1 #aija4 ,beginner's ,star ,book--,,kelvin ,mc,k,r,e,a,d,y2 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #aibc4 ,astronomy with an ,opera-,glass--,,garrett ,p4 ,,serviss2 ,d4 ,appleton and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiab4 ,the ,constellations--,,william ,,peck2 ,silver1 ,burdett and ,co41 ,new ,york1 ,boston and ,chicago4 ,astronomy from a ,dipper--,,eliot ,c4 ,,clark2 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co41 #aiji4 ,earth and ,sky--,,julia ,e4 ,,rogers2 ,doubleday1 ,page and ,co41 #aiaj4 ,splendors of the ,sky--,,isobel ,,martin ,,lewis2 ,duffield and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aibj4 ,the ,moon--,,nasmyth ,,and ,,carpenter2 ,james ,pott and ,co41 ,new ,york1 and ,john ,murry1 ,london1 #aijc4 ,the ,moon--,,thomas ,,gwynn ,,elger2 ,george ,philip and ,son1 ,london1 #ahie4 ,by ,starlight and ,moonlight--,warner and ,swasey ,co41 ,cleveland1 #aiji4 ,mars and its ,canals--,,percival ,,lowell2 ,macmillan ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aijf4 ,mars as the ,abode of ,life--,,percival ,,lowell2 ,macmillan ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aijh4 ,mars--,,william ,h4 ,,pickering2 ,richard ,g4 ,badger1 ,boston1 #aiba4 ,popular ,astronomy--,astronomical ,magazine4 ,ovid's ,metamorphoses--,trans4 by ,english ,authors1 ,sir ,samuel ,garth4 ,prose translation of ,ovid's ,metamorphoses--,,henry ,t4 ,,riley2 ,g4 ,bell and ,sons1 ,london1 #aiab4 ,phaenomena--,aratus1 trans4 by ,g4 ,r4 ,,mair2 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 ,new ,york4 ,hesiod and ,theognis--,,rev4 ,,james ,,davies2 ,j4 ,b4 ,lippincott1 ,philadelphia4 ,festus--,,philip ,,james ,,bailey2 ,morton and ,griswold1 ,louisville4 ,paradise ,lost--,,john ,,milton2 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co41 ,boston1 ,new ,york1 ,chicago1 #ahif4 ,popular ,religion and ,folklore--,,william ,,crooke2 #ahif4 ,the ,religions of the ,ancient ,world--,,george ,,rawlinson2 ,united ,states ,book ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,student ,mythology--,c4 ,a4 ,,white2 ,a4 ,c4 ,armstrong and ,son1 ,new ,york1 #aijj4 ,manual of ,mythology--,,alexander ,s4 ,,murry2 ,david ,mc,kay1 ,philadelphia1 #ahie4 ,grecian and ,roman ,mythology--,m4 ,a4 ,,dwight2 ,a4 ,s4 ,barnes and ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,mythology of ,greece and ,rome--,,arthur ,,fairbanks2 ,d4 ,appleton and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aiab4 ,myths of ,greece and ,rome--,h4 ,a4 ,,guerber2 ,american ,book ,co41 ,new ,york1 ,cincinnati1 ,chicago1 #ahic4 ,age of ,fable--,,thomas ,,bulfinch2 ,david ,mc,kay1 ,philadelphia1 #ahih4 ,famous ,men of ,greece--,,john ,,harvey ,,haaren2 ,university ,pub4 ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aijd4 ,greek ,poets--,,nathan ,,haskell ,,dole2 ,thomas ,y4 ,crowell1 #aijd4 ,studies of the ,greek ,poets--,,john ,,addington ,,symonds2 ,adam and ,black1 ,london1 #ahic4 ,mythology--,,thomas ,,keightley2 ,d4 ,appleton and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahcf4 ,classic ,myths in ,english ,literature--,,charles ,,mills ,,gayley2 ,ginn and ,co41 ,boston1 ,n4 ,y41 ,chicago1 ,london1 #ahic4 ,myths of ,northern ,lands--,h4 ,a4 ,,guerber2 ,american ,book ,co41 ,new ,york1 ,cincinnati1 ,chicago1 #ahie4 ,myths and ,legends of ,japan--,f4 ,,hadland ,,davis2 ,g4 ,g4 ,harrap and ,co41 ,london1 #aiab4 ,mythologies of ,ancient ,mexico and ,peru--,,lewis ,,spence2 ,a4 ,constable and ,co41 ,london1 #aijg4 ,romance of the ,milky ,way--,,lafcadio ,,hearn2 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co41 ,boston and ,new ,york1 #aijg4 ,textbook in ,general ,zoology--,,linville ,,and ,,kelly2 ,ginn and ,co41 ,boston1 ,new ,york1 ,chicago1 #aijf4 ,physical ,geography--,ralph ,s4 ,tarr2 ,macmillan ,co41 ,new ,york1 ,london1 #aija4 ,geology--,,joseph ,,leconte2 ,d4 ,appleton and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aijh4 ,,index ,achilles1 #aca ,acrisius1 #ff ,adams1 #bhc geus1 #ajc rolites1 #bde schylus1 #ba1 #ahd sculapis1 #aji1 #afi ,akrab1 #aeg ,albireo1 #aae1 #abb1 #abd1 #abe ,alcor1 #ci1 #dg ,alcott1 #aeg ,alcyone1 #ahf ,aldebaran1 #ac1 #ahd1 #ahe ,algenib1 #gh ,algol1 #ca1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe ,alioth1 #dj ,allen1 #if1 #ach1 #agf ,alnilam1 #agf ,alnitak1 #aa1 #agf1 #agg ,alpha ,centauri1 #aja1 #acd1 #ada1 #adb1 #bji ,alphard1 #ace ,alphecca1 #ajd ,alpheratz1 #gb ,alps1 lunar mountains1 #cjc1 #cjd ,alps1 ,valley of1 #cjd ,al ,rischa1 #hc ,alshain1 #abi ,altair1 #abi1 #aib ,alwaid1 #aaj ,amazon ,star1 #aga ,ambrosia1 #bj1 #bd1 #ahd ,amelia1 #bjd ,amphitrite1 #be1 #aca ,amru1 #afb ,andromeda1 constellation1 #ga1 #ge1 #gi ,nebula1 #gb1 #gd ,triple star1 #gb ,andromids1 #ga1 #ia1 #bdj1 #bdd ,legend1 #ee1 #ef1 #eg1 #eh1 #ei ,anger1 #cb ,antares1 #c1 #aa1 #ac1 #abg1 #ade1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aee1 #aef1 #aga1 #ahe ,autolycus1 lunar crater1 #cac ,apennines1 lunar mountains1 #cjc1 #caa1 #cjd ,aphrodite1 #cc ,apollo1 #ag1 #ah1 #bd1 #bf1 #bg1 #bh1 #di1 #gg1 #hh1 #aaf1 #aah1 #abj1 #afh1 #afi1 #bfh ,april meteors1 #aaf ,aquarius1 constellation1 #abh1 #aeg ,legend1 #abh ,aquila1 constellation1 #abg1 #abh1 #abi ,altair1 #abi1 #aib ,legend1 #abg1 #abh1 #bjb ,arabian astronomers1 #aa1 #dj1 #db1 #fj1 #fc1 #adf1 #agf1 #ahd ,aratus1 #h1 #fc1 #gi1 #hc1 #ic1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje1 #abi1 #adh1 #adi1 #aeg1 #agd1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aib ,archer1 ,the1 #aca1 #acb1 #acc1 #acd ,areas1 #dd1 #ig ,archan ,age1 #bic ,archilochus1 #bbe ,archimedes1 lunar crater1 #cab ,arcturus1 #c1 #aa1 #ac1 #ch1 #hh1 #if1 #ig1 #ih1 #ii1 #aja1 #ajd1 #aac1 #aad1 #adb1 #adg1 #adh ,argo1 constellation1 #bi1 #he1 #bji ,canopus1 #afc1 #aic1 #aig1 #bji1 #baj ,legend1 #aca1 #aic ,argonautic ,expedition1 #di1 #he1 #baj ,ariadne1 #hh1 #ajb1 #ajc ,ariadne's ,crown1 #ajd ,ariel1 #bhb ,aries1 constellation1 #bi1 #hc1 #hd1 #bca ,legend1 #hd ,arion1 #acj ,aristarchus1 lunar crater1 #caa1 #cab ,aristillus1 lunar crater1 #cac ,aristotle1 #bjb ,arrow of ,hercules1 #abi ,arrow of the ,archer1 #acc ,ascalaphus1 #aea ,aselli1 #ib ,asterion1 #ig1 #ih ,asterope1 #ahf ,astra1 goddess1 #bd1 #adh1 #adi ,astra1 planetoid1 #bcd ,astrus1 #bdg ,astrology1 #bfh ,atergatis1 #ef ,atlantides1 #ahh ,atlas1 #ba1 #dh1 #fh1 #ajg1 #ahf1 #ahh1 #bdg ,auriga1 constellation1 #acg ,capella1 #ach1 #aci1 #adj1 #adb ,legend1 #bj1 #acg1 #ach1 #aci ,aurora1 #bg1 #gg1 #aea1 #agj1 #bdg1 #bdh ,auror1 #bag ,bacchus1 #ajb1 #ajc ,bailey1 #bjg1 #bji1 #bdi1 #bgd ,baker1 #bhd ,ball1 #aaa ,binds of ,orion1 #agf ,barnard1 #ii1 #abb1 #abd1 #adb1 #afd1 #bea1 #bed1 #bee1 #beh1 #bei ,barritt1 #bca ,baumgardt1 #bbj ,bay of ,rainbows1 #cjc ,bayne1 #ej ,bear ,driver1 #ig ,bear's ,stars1 #bg1 #db1 #dd ,beehive1 #ic ,bellatrix1 #bga ,bellerophon1 #gg ,benetnasch1 #dj ,berenice's ,hair1 #hh1 #id1 #ie1 #aac1 #adf ,bessel1 #afd ,beta ,centauri1 #acd1 #bji1 #baj ,betelgeuse1 #ac1 #aga1 #agb1 #agc1 #ahj1 #ahe ,biela ,comet1 #bci1 #bdd ,biela ,meteors1 #ga1 #bdd ,big ,dipper1 #e1 #h1 #cd1 #cg1 #ch1 #ci1 #dj1 #dd1 #dg1 #ei1 #hg1 #if1 #ig1 #adj1 #adb1 #afc ,binaries1 #ci1 #adj ,birds1 ,three1 #ajf1 #ajh1 #abh1 #beh ,blue stars1 #ac1 #ii1 #da1 #aaa1 #aba1 #agd ,boomerang1 ,the1 #ajb ,botes1 constellation1 #hh1 #if1 #ig1 #aac ,arcturus1 #ac1 #if1 #ih1 #ii1 #bjb1 #adb1 #bdh ,legend1 #ch1 #ig ,bow and ,arrow1 ,the1 #acc ,bowl of ,bacchus1 ,the1 #acf ,bronze ,age1 #bdh ,bryant1 #cd ,brgel1 #bha ,caduceus1 #cb ,callimachus1 #aci ,calliope1 #aac ,callisto1 #dd1 #de1 #fj1 #ig ,cancer1 constellation1 #bi1 #ia1 #ic ,prsepe1 #ib1 #ic1 #ahf ,legend1 #ib1 #ajg ,canes ,venatici1 constellation1 #ig1 #ahj ,cor ,carolli1 #ig1 #ih ,spiral ,nebula1 #ih ,canis ,major1 constellation1 #bfj1 #bfd1 #ahj ,sirius1 #abg1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb1 #ade1 #adf1 #aei1 #afj1 #afa1 #afb1 #afc1 #afd1 #afe1 #ahb1 #aia1 #aig1 #bjj1 #baj ,legend1 #afj1 #bfd ,canis ,minor1 #bhj ,procyon1 #ahj1 #bhb ,legend1 #bhj ,canopus1 #afc1 #aig1 #bji1 #baj ,capella1 #c1 #aa1 #ach1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb1 #aei1 #aib1 #aid1 #bjf ,caph1 #fj ,capricornus1 constellation1 #aeh ,legend1 #aeh ,carina1 #he ,carlyle1 #ig ,cassiopeia1 constellation1 #e1 #h1 #eh1 #ei1 #fj1 #fa1 #gi1 #aib ,double stars1 #fb ,legend1 #ei1 #fj ,castor and ,pollux1 #f1 #bh1 #bi1 #aca1 #aib1 #bic1 #aid1 #aie ,caucasus1 lunar mountains1 #cjc ,celno1 #ahf ,celestial ,bear1 #dg ,celestial ,equator1 #bgg ,centaurs1 #aji1 #bcb ,centaur1 ,the1 #bcd ,centaurus1 constellation1 #bcd1 #bji ,alpha 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