,,transcriber',s ,,note ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,there are two instances of the letter c with a macron4 ,using the ,unicode combining diacritical1 this will display on this device as c4 ,the terms table and tablet 7a small table7 are used in reference to ancient writing surfaces4 ,the term size as used in this book often refers to glutinous material used in the paper-making process to make the paper surface smoother4 ,some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,paper ,,making ,,machine4 ,,paper ,,paper ,,making1 ,,ancient ,,and ,,modern4 ,,by ,,richard ,,herring3 ,,with ,,an ,,introduction1 ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,,george ,,croly1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,,london3 ,,longman1 ,,brown1 ,,green1 ,,and ,,longmans4 #ahee4 ,w4 ,,dewick1 ,,printer1 ,,barbican4 ,,to ,,the ,,right ,,honourable ,,sir ,,francis ,,graham ,,moon1 ,,baronet1 ,,lord ,,mayor ,,of ,,london3 ,,this ,,work1 ,,with ,,every ,,sentiment ,,of ,,respect ,,and ,,esteem1 ,,is ,,dedicated2 ,,by ,,his ,,lordship',s ,,obliged ,,and ,,faithful ,,servant1 ,,the ,,author4 ,,contents4 ,,page4 ,,preface ,,vii ,,introduction ix ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introduction--,language--,origin of the ,art of ,writing--,various modes of recording events which preceded it--,materials upon which men first ,wrote--,stones1 ,bricks1 ,metals1 ,skins and ,intestines of ,animals1 ,tablets1 ,leaves1 ,bark1 etc41 etc4--,the ,egyptian ,papyrus1 from which ,paper 7so called7 was first made--,process of ,manufacture--,usual dimensions and extreme durability of ,papyri--,modern ,paper--,its general advantages to mankind--,supposed period of its ,invention--,the ,introduction of ,paper-making into ,europe--,historical incidents connected therewith--,james ,whatman--,the superiority of his manufacture--,adoption of the ,fourdrinier-,machine--,general advantages of ,machinery over the ,original ,process1 etc41 etc4 #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,on the ,materials employed in the ,formation of ,paper--,method of ,preparation--,processes of ,comminution1 ,washing1 ,bleaching1 etc4 described--,paper-making by ,hand--,paper-making ,machine--,sizing ,apparatus--,cutting-,machine1 etc4 explained--,general ,observations on what are termed ,water-,marks--,manner of effecting the same--,importance frequently attached to them--,ireland's ,fabrication of the ,shakspeare ,,mss4--,difficulty in procuring suitable ,paper for the purpose--,on the perfection to which ,water-,marks have now attained1 especially with reference to the production of ,light and ,shade1 as seen in the ,new ,bank ,note1 etc41 etc4 #di ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,anecdote of an over-curious enquirer--,its probable application to many readers--,paper ,making1 when straightforward1 extremely simple1 but ordinarily involving considerable chemical and practical skill--,brief review of artificial aids--,anecdotes of the deleterious effects of bleaching1 and of imparting colour to the 8stuff0--,ultramarine1 its use and abuse--,manufactured ,paper1 its varieties and peculiarities--,excise ,regulations--,paper ,duty--,conclusion4 #ia ,,preface4 ,the present work is founded upon ,lectures recently delivered at the ,london ,institution4 ,the subject of ,paper and ,paper ,making is one which has been at all times regarded with considerable interest1 independently of that attention to it which commercial pursuits1 of necessity1 demand4 ,the confidence1 however1 which originally prompted me to treat the subject1 has1 been in no slight degree1 augmented by the advantage which ,i possess in the experience of my father1 extending over a period of nearly half a century4 ,in the illustration of the ,lectures1 7which here stand as ,,chapters #a and #b71--the syllabus furnished by the ,london ,institution being retained as a heading in each instance--,i have the pleasing duty to acknowledge myself much indebted to the kind assistance of many friends in connection with the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 the ,hon4 ,east ,india ,company1 the ,royal ,botanical ,gardens at ,kew1 the ,london ,missionary ,museum1 and the ,bank of ,england4 ,so far as it has been found practicable to illustrate the present work1 no effort has been spared1 and in order to sustain the interest which was so strikingly exhibited at the delivery of the ,lectures--the remembrance of which throughout life will be to me a constant source of gratification2--,i have appended1 amongst other specimens1 a sheet manufactured from the same mould as ,i then employed4 ,r4 ,h4 ,,walbrook1 ,,april1 #ahee4 ,,introduction4 ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,,george ,,croly1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,having been present at the delivery of these ,lectures1 and feeling an interest in them1 as the performance of my intelligent friend1 and parishioner1 ,mr4 ,herring1 ,i have added1 at his request1 a few preliminary observations1 on the chief employment of paper in our day1 namely1 in ,,printing4 ,it is a striking1 and perhaps a significant1 coincidence1 that the art of making paper from linen fibre1 and the art of printing1 were discovered nearly at the same time1 and were coeval with the first preaching of the ,reformation2 by ,huss and ,jerome of ,prague1 of whom ,luther was only the more eminent successor--the whole three events dating from the fifteenth century4 ,it is certain1 that printing was the great instrument of the ,reformation in ,germany1 and of spreading it through ,europe2 and it is equally certain1 that the making of paper1 by means of the cotton or flaxen fibre1 supplied the only material1 which has been found extensively available for printing4 ,whether this coincidence was simply accidental1 or was the effect of that high arrangement for high purposes1 which we so often find in the history of ,providence1 may be left to the consideration of the ,christian4 ,but1 it is evident1 that if printing had been invented in any of the earlier ages1 it would have been comparatively thrown away4 ,the ,chinese bark of the bamboo1 or the rice straw2 the ,egyptian papyrus1 and the ,greek or ,roman parchment1 would have been too feeble1 or too expensive1 for the rapid demands of the ,press4 ,but1 at the exact period1 when ,printing was given to the world1 the fabric was also given1 which was to meet the broadest exigency of that most illustrious invention4 ,that the ,chinese1 in ages almost beyond history1 had made paper of cotton1 and even of hemp2 and that the ,arabians either borrowed1 or invented1 the manufacture1 in the eighth century1 is known4 ,but1 the discovery perished for want of the ,press2 as the ,press would have perished for want of the vigour1 yet to be created in every faculty of human advance1 by the ,reformation4 ,it should not be forgotten1 that the first printed works were religious2 as the 8,biblia ,pauperum10 a small folio1 of forty leaves1 each with a picture1 and a text of ,scripture under it2 and the 8,speculum human ,salvationis10 a similar work of pictures and texts1 in ,latin2 and that the last1 and noblest1 achievement of ,printing1 has been the renewed publication of the ,gospel1 in nearly every language of the globe6 ,the actual origin of ,printing has been matter of learned controversy4 ,from the earliest ages1 impressions had been taken from seals4 ,there are in the ,british ,museum blocks of lead1 impressed with the name or stamp of the ,roman authorities4 ,the ,chinese1 who seem to have had a glimpse of every invention of ,europe1 produced blocks of wood-engraving1 with which they multiplied copies1 by impression at least1 so early as the tenth century2 and even appear to have applied it to a species of bank note4 ,whether the invention was introduced into ,europe by ,marco ,polo1 7who visited ,china in the thirteenth century71 or by others1 it is known1 that printed playing cards and devotional tracts1 7though of the simplest structure1 generally a single page71 were not infrequent1 from the year ,a4,d4 #adjj4 ,still1 the operation was so expensive1 and1 also1 so insufficient1 that the ,art of ,printing cannot be said1 to have been yet discovered4 ,for this discovery1 the essential was the use of moveable types4 ,the honour of this most simple1 yet most comprehensive1 change1 has been warmly disputed by ,holland1 and ,germany4 ,but1 though ,coster1 a ,hollander1 adopted it early2 general opinion gives it to ,gutenburg1 a printer at ,strasburg1 between #adcf and #addb4 ,gutenburg was originally a block-printer2 at length the fortunate idea occurred to him1 of getting rid of the solid page1 and making his types separate2 those1 in the first instance1 were cut out of wood4 ,returning to ,mayence1 his native city1 a partnership with ,faust supplied him with capital4 ,faust made a second step in the mechanical portion of the art1 by casting the types in metal4 ,a subsequent partnership with ,schoeffer1 ,faust's son-in-law1 supplied all that was wanting to the art1 in his invention of the ,punch for making the types4 ,the partners subsequently quarrelled1 and ,gutenburg1 in #adeh1 formed a new establishment in ,mayence4 ,the storming of the city by ,adolphus of ,nassau1 in #adfb1 dispersed the workmen1 and thus spread the art through ,europe4 ,it was thenceforth practised in ,italy1 in ,france1 in ,spain1 and in ,england1 7at ,westminster1 in #adge47 ,the ,cologne ,chronicle1 printed in #adgd1 states1 that the first large volume produced by printing1 was the ,bible1 7an edition of the ,vulgate17 a work which cost a preparation of ten years4 ,this edition is without date1 or printer's name1 but is supposed to have been completed in #adee4 ,in an age1 when the ,european mind was only emerging from a thousand years of darkness1 everything was tinged with superstition4 ,the printing of the ,bible shared the general charge2 and the comparative cheapness1 and still more1 the singular fidelity of the copies to each other1 were attributed to sorcery4 ,faust1 who probably had no objection to a report1 by which so much was to be gained1 and which was favoured by the absence of date and name2 has since been made the hero of ,german mysticism2 and is immortalized1 as the philosopher1 and master of magic1 in the celebrated poem of ,goethe4 ,the ,newspaper1 the most influential of all human works1 is the creation of ,printing4 ,it is to the honour of ,england1 that in this country1 it approaches nearest to excellence1 in intellectual vigour1 in variety of knowledge1 in extent of information1 and in patriotic principle4 ,it has1 like all the works of man1 occasional imperfections1 and perhaps among the most prominent1 are its too minute details of offences against public purity4 ,but1 there is scarcely a newspaper in this age1 which would not have been regarded as a triumph of ability1 in the last4 ,in fact1 the newspaper of ,england is the great practical teacher of the people4 ,its constant and universal teaching alone accounts for the superior intelligence of the population4 ,schools1 lecture-rooms1 and universities1 important as they all are1 altogether fall behind it in public effect1 or find1 that to retain their influence1 they must follow its steps4 ,those steps may now and then turn from the right road1 but their native tendency is1 forwards and upwards6 ,this intellectual giant always advances1 and carries the country with him to a height1 which no other country1 ancient or modern1 ever attained1 or perhaps1 ever hoped to attain4 ,i speak of this form of publication1 in no literary favoritism2 but1 as a great instrument1 offered to nations for the safety1 the speed1 and the security of national progress2 an intellectual railroad1 given to our era1 to meet the increased exigencies of intellectual intercourse2 and equal to any weight1 and any rapidity4 ,the most hopeless feature of foreign governments appears to me1 their hostility to the press4 ,thus1 they prohibit the mental air and exercise1 which would rectify the 8peccant humours0 of their people2 thus1 they aggravate popular stagnation into political disease2 thus1 casual passion is darkened into conspiracy1 and passing disgust is compressed into rebellion4 ,england has her ill-humours1 but the press ventilates them away2 the vapours are not suffered to lie on the ground1 until they condense into malaria4 ,there may be folly1 and even faction1 among us1 and the press may be the trumpet of both2 but1 the width of the area is the remedy4 ,a whole nation is always right4 ,no sound can stir it1 but the sound which is in accord with its own feelings2 the trumpet which is overwhelming within four walls1 is unheard at the horizon6 ,if1 in an age of foreign convulsion1 ,england has undergone no catastrophe2 if1 in the fall of monarchies1 she has preserved her hereditary throne2 if1 in the mingled infidelity and superstition of the ,continent1 which1 like the mingled frenzy and fetters of a lunatic hospital1 have1 in our day1 exhibited the lowest humiliation of human nature2 she has preserved her freedom and her religion2 ,i attribute all1 under ,god1 to the vigour1 and intelligence of public investigation2 the incessant urgency of appeal to the public mind2 the living organization1 of which the heart is the ,,press of ,england6 ,,paper ,,and ,,paper ,,making1 ,,ancient ,,and ,,modern4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,introduction--,language--,origin of the ,art of ,writing--,various modes of recording events which preceded it--,materials upon which ,men first ,wrote--,stones1 ,bricks1 ,metals1 ,skins and ,intestines of ,animals1 ,tablets1 ,leaves1 ,bark1 etc41 etc4--,the ,egyptian ,papyrus1 from which ,paper 7so called7 was first made--,process of ,manufacture--,usual dimensions and extreme durability of ,papyri--,modern ,paper--,its general advantages to mankind--,supposed period of its ,invention--,the ,introduction of ,paper-making into ,europe--,historical incidents connected therewith--,james ,whatman--,the superiority of his manufacture--,adoption of the ,fourdrinier-,machine--,general advantages of ,machinery over the ,original ,process1 etc41 etc4 ,amongst the numerous and diversified objects of human investigation and research1 it would1 perhaps1 be difficult to single out one1 more curious and interesting1 than that of the medium which bears the symbols of language2 which retains the register of circumstances and events of past ages1 and which hands down to us the transactions of primeval time1 with its intervening periods4 ,undoubtedly the noblest acquisition of mankind1 perhaps the greatest advantage which we possess1 is that of the faculty of speech4 ,without speech1 man1 in the midst of crowds1 would be solitary4 ,the endearments of friendship1 and the communications of wisdom1 alike would become unavailing2 man1 in fact1 without speech1 could hardly be accounted a rational being4 ,that the use of speech or language was given to ,adam immediately upon his formation1 we have no reason to doubt2 for from the testimony of ,moses it appears1 that he not only gave names to every living creature1 8to every beast of the field1 and to every fowl of the air10 as they were brought to him1 but that also as soon as ,eve was made he could say--8,this is now bone of my bone1 and flesh of my flesh10 the first sentence which is recorded of his uttering1 and which is sufficient to show1 that even then1 he possessed a competent stock of words to declare the ideas or conceptions of his mind4 ,thus was man at once rendered as superior to the brute creation1 as in after times by the aid of writing1 or the art of drawing those ideas into vision1 he was especially distinguished from the condition of uncivilized savages4 ,for of all the arts that contribute to the comfort and happiness of mankind1 no one1 perhaps1 is more intimately connected with our social habits1 or more closely entwined with the best and purest feelings of our nature1 than that of writing4 ,and yet to conceive or to account for the origin of an art so invaluable in its tendency to elevate and improve mankind1 as that of exhibiting to sight the various conceptions of the mind1 which have no corporeal forms1 by means of hieroglyphics or legible characters1 is still as difficult and perplexing1 as in past ages it has ever proved to the sagacity of mankind4 ,with the poet of old we have yet to enquire-- 8,whence did the wondrous mystic art arise1 ,of painting speech1 and speaking to the eyes8 ,that we by tracing magic lines are taught ,how to embody1 and to colour thought40 ,notwithstanding the great and manifold blessings which men have received from this curious and wonderful invention1 it is very remarkable1 as a distinguished writer observes1 that writing1 which gives a sort of immortality to all other things1 should1 by the disposal of ,divine ,providence1 be without any trace of the memory of its first founders4 ,indeed1 the invention of letters and their various combinations in forming words1 amounting1 it is computed1 to #fbj1ddh1dja1gcc1bci1dci1cfj1jjj1 without repeating any combination capable of being made from so small a number of letters as that now comprising our alphabet1 has something so extremely ingenious and surprising in its application1 that most men who have treated the subject1 can hardly forbear attributing it to a divine original4 ,many have conceived that the theatre of this important legacy to man was ,mount ,sinai4 ,but it is observable1 that previously to the arrival of the ,israelites at ,mount ,sinai1 ,scripture makes mention of writing as an art already understood by ,moses3 8,and the ,lord said unto ,moses1 write this for a memorial40 7,exodus1 #agth ch4 #adth v47 ,now1 ,moses seems to have expressed no difficulty of comprehension when he received this command1 nor does anything appear to induce the slightest doubt2 on the contrary1 ,i think we may safely conclude that ,moses was even then well acquainted with the art of writing1 or otherwise he would have been instructed by ,god1 as in the case of ,noah1 when he was required to build the ,ark4 ,and further1 we find that ,moses wrote all the words1 and all the judgments of the ,lord1 contained in the twenty-first and two following chapters of the ,book of ,exodus1 before the two written tables of stone were even so much as promised4 ,the delivery of the tables is not mentioned till the #ahth verse of the #cast chapter1 after ,god had made an end of communing with him upon the mount4 ,nevertheless1 ,i am not prepared to dispute the probability of a divine origin to so wonderful a medium1 any more than ,i am disposed to question the possibility of its resulting merely from what ,aristotle terms the ,faculty of ,imitation2 for which1 says he1 men are so remarkable1 even in an uncivilized state4 ,i pass by all questions of the kind1 satisfied for the present with the simple fact1 that such medium does exist2 that through it we become1 as it were1 introduced to the multitudinous throng of a world's tenantry1 while we thus learn their words1 works1 and ways1 their ,history1 ,literature1 and ,arts1 their ,science1 and ,theology2 and while even the mummy1 recovered from the subterranean recesses of the ,egyptian pyramids1 may still be said to talk with us1 by virtue of the roll of papyrus and its pictured inscription which he holds in his hand2 ,writing's art1 which like a sovereign queen1 ,amongst her subject sciences is seen2 ,as she in dignity the rest transcends1 ,so far her power of good1 and harm extends4 ,in the earliest ages of mankind1 very simple means were necessarily adopted1 to preserve the remembrance of any important event4 ,during many centuries1 tradition1 perhaps solely1 served to represent that1 which in recent times has been more completely effected by the introduction of printing4 ,at other periods we find trees were planted1 heaps of stones1 altars or pillars1 as we read in sacred history1 were erected2 and even games and festivals ordered1 to keep up the recollection of important facts4 ,since1 however1 the art of writing was invented 7be the period when it may71 various materials have from time to time been made use of1 for the purpose of transmitting to posterity the discoveries and deeds of their ancestors4 ,thus1 for instance1 the most ancient remains of writing which have been handed down to us1 are upon hard substances1 such as bricks1 stones1 and metals1 which were used by the ancients for all matters of public notoriety2 abundant proofs of which we have in the recent discoveries of ,mr4 ,layard4 ,and ,josephus1 in the third chapter of the first book of ,jewish ,antiquities1 tells us3 that1 8the descendants of ,seth1 leading a happy and quiet life1 found out by study and observation the motions and distribution1 or order1 of the heavenly bodies2 and1 that their discoveries might not be lost to men 7knowing that the destruction of the world had been foretold by ,adam1 which should be once by fire1 and once by water17 they made two pillars--one of brick1 and the other of stone1 and wrote or engraved their discoveries thereon2 so that if the rains should destroy that of brick1 the other of stone might continue to show mankind their observations40 ,in the sacred text we are further informed1 that great stones were directed to be set up by the children of ,israel1 after the passage of the ,jordan1 and being 8plastered with plaster10--which appears to have been a very common practice--8thereon were to be written all the words of the law very plainly40 ,in the book of ,job1 which some suppose to have been written by ,moses1 we have an obscure intimation of the method employed in registering upon the rock1 8graven with an iron pen and lead in the rock for ever40 ,but1 although there is apparently a want of clearness in our translation of the passage1 by no means does it affect the idea of ,job's desire to give the greatest possible permanence to the words he then uttered4 ,he exclaims1 8,oh that my words were now written10 or1 7though probably not an exact translation17 8,oh that they were printed in a book20 and more 7he adds7 8that they were even graven with an iron pen and lead in the rock for ever20 which latter clause some take to be in reference to the leaden tablets which are found to have been in very early use4 ,but ,i rather favour the interpretation1 for which ,i am indebted1 to my much esteemed friend the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,croly2 that as a still more indelible and effectual mode of perpetuating his thoughts1 it was ,job's conception that his words should be graven in the rock with an iron pen1 or tool1 and the interstices afterwards filled with lead1 in order that the contrast occasioned thereby might render them the more readily intelligible to those who happened to travel that way4 ,herodotus also mentions a letter engraven on plates of stone1 which ,themistocles1 the ,athenian general1 sent to the ,ionians1 about five hundred years before the birth of ,christ4 ,lead1 however1 and similar metals being less difficult to write upon1 and more simple and convenient1 afterwards superseded to a great extent the use of such unwieldy substances as bricks and stone4 ,and subsequently we find others of a still more pliable texture employed1 such as the skins of animals1 bark1 wood1 and the leaves of trees4 ,solomon1 for instance1 in the ,book of ,proverbs1 in allusion to the practice of writing upon thin slices of wood1 advises his son to write his precepts upon the tables of his heart4 ,and the prophet ,habakkuk was commanded to write a vision and make it plain upon tables1 that he may run that readeth it4 ,solomon1 as you are aware1 lived a thousand years1 and ,habakkuk about six hundred and twenty six1 before the ,christian era4 ,at a later period1 ,zacharias1 the father of ,john the ,baptist1 when enquired of as to what he would have his child called1 asked1 we are told1 for 8a writing table1 and wrote1 saying1 his name is ,john40 ,amongst the ,romans1 it was customary for the public affairs of every year to be committed to writing by the high priest1 and published on a table2 such tables being exposed to view1 either in their market-places or temples1 in order that the people might have an opportunity of becoming acquainted with their contents4 ,at an early period in their history1 both ,greeks and ,romans appear to have commonly used either those plain wooden boards1 or boards covered with wax4 ,it is probable1 that at first the tables were written upon just as they were planed1 and that the overlaying them with wax was an improvement on that invention4 ,a very decided advantage being thus obtained1 in the facility afforded for erasing any inaccuracies that might have occurred1 and consequently of correcting the manuscript4 ,the practice of writing upon tablets of one kind or another1 appears not to have been entirely laid aside1 until the commencement of the fourteenth century2 and1 indeed1 even in our day1 tablet books of ivory are occasionally used1 for writing upon with black lead pencils4 ,the use of boards was in some measure superseded by that of the leaves of palm1 olive1 poplar1 and other trees4 ,and1 although in ,europe1 all these disappeared upon the introduction of the papyrus and parchments1 in some countries the use of them remains even to this day4 ,perhaps a record of this old custom may still be found in the word leaf1 which we continue to apply to sheets of paper1 when sewed up into the form of a book4 ,according to the account of ,pliny1 the ,egyptians were the first to use the palm leaf1 and books written on it are still preserved in the ,east ,india ,museum1 as also in the ,library of the ,british ,museum4 ,the mode of preparation1 after cutting into strips of the length and width required1 is simply to soak them for a short time in boiling water1 after which they are rubbed backwards and forwards over a smooth piece of wood to make them pliable1 and then carefully dried4 ,the letters or characters being written or rather engraved thereon with an iron style1 which1 piercing the outside covering1 makes indelible letters2 and by afterwards rubbing the writing over with some dark coloured substance1 such as soot or charcoal1 the parts etched or scratched1 have greater relief imparted to them3 and the writing is more easily read4 ,notwithstanding many paper mills have been erected in ,india1 the natives1 ,i understand1 frequently prefer this method1 not only for the ordinary purposes of correspondence and accounts1 but even in some quarters for government documents of importance4 ,i must here express my sense of the kind assistance which has on several occasions been afforded me by the ,rev4 ,benjamin ,bailey1 late of ,cottyam1 ,allepie1 ,madras1 who has not only given to the world a translation in ,malayalim of the entire ,bible1 but has also compiled two voluminous dictionaries1 for rendering assistance in the study of that language4 ,this gentleman has recently afforded me an opportunity of inspecting many great curiosities of the kind3 indeed1 before me is now lying a very neat little specimen written in ,malayalim by him 7,st4 ,paul's ,second ,epistle to ,timothy71 which shows1 in a remarkable degree1 the astonishing distinctness which may be produced by this singular mode of writing4 ,the style with which the letters are engraven upon the leaf is usually worn in the girdle as a prominent ornament of dress4 ,the case which protects it containing also a small knife1 employed in preparing the slips1 and likewise a little instrument which is used for piercing the leaves1 in order that cords may be passed through them for the purpose of securing the manuscript1 as may be seen in the instance of various documents both in the ,east ,india ,company's ,museum1 and also in the ,library of the ,british ,museum4 ,a work which ,i possess1 termed the ,kammavakyam1 written in the ,pali language1 in ,burmese character1 upon palm leaf1 is thus secured between very handsome covers4 ,it is a ,catechism of ,sacred ,rites1 used by the ,buddhist priesthood in the examination of a candidate for admission to that order4 ,a translation of it here1 however1 would be no more consistent in point of matter contained1 than it would be in reference to the subject ,i am treating4 ,its character and language throughout are truly humiliating to human nature4 ,in the ,british ,museum there are many very singular documents of the kind1 one in particular1 which is written upon #cij leaves1 bound1 as it were1 in a frame of gilt copper in the form of a tortoise1 screws being passed through the strips instead of cords1 the fastenings1 with some addition1 representing the limbs of the animal4 ,and in the ,east ,india ,museum may be seen a smaller one1 protected by stout wooden covers1 which has been carved to represent some animal1 apparently a pig4 ,the custom of writing upon leaves of trees1 appears to have given rise to the adoption also of the interior bark2 the outer being seldom made use of1 in consequence of its extreme coarseness4 ,when employed1 it is customarily folded over1 to admit of its being written upon both sides4 ,the only documents of this kind1 which have come under my notice1 have been ,batta manuscripts1 from the island of ,sumatra4 ,before the art of making paper was known to the ,chinese1 they appear to have cut pieces of silk to such sizes as they wished to make their books1 and thereupon painted the letters with pencils2 the silk being first steeped in a kind of size1 to prevent the colour from running4 ,but such material being liable to decay1 various animal substances were afterwards employed1 as being of a more durable nature4 ,of course the skins were principally used1 after being tanned2 but their bones1 and even entrails1 were also made use of for the like purpose4 ,thus1 in the 8,history of ,mahomet10 we read that the ,arabians used the shoulder bones of sheep1 on which they carved remarkable events with a knife1 when1 after tying them with a string1 they hung those chronicles up in their cabinets4 ,and in the library of ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 which is said to have contained #gjj1jjj volumes1 were the works of ,homer1 written in golden letters1 on the skins of serpents4 ,i might mention1 that the term volume here1 should not be understood in the sense which it is now customary to receive it1 but in its derivation from the ,latin2 signifying simply a roll1 which was the most ancient form of book4 ,parchment1 or the skins of beasts1 dressed and prepared in a manner rendering them fit for writing upon1 appears to have been employed at a very early period4 ,diodorus ,siculus informs us1 that the ,persians of old wrote all their records on skins2 and ,herodotus also alludes to sheep skins1 and goat skins1 as in general use among the ,ionians about #ddj years before the ,christian ,era4 ,the word ,parchment is a corruption of the ,latin ,pergamena1 from ,pergamus1 which some allege to have been the place of its invention4 ,but it is very probable that in the time of ,eumenes1 who was king of ,pergamus1 7about #bjj years before ,christ17 the circumstance of increased consumption merely occasioned the discovery of a better method of dressing the skins2 from which fact alone1 and perhaps with sufficient reason1 the origin of the present term was derived4 ,eumenes1 about that period1 appears to have endeavoured to form a library at ,pergamus1 which should surpass that of ,ptolemy ,philadelphus at ,alexandria1 and in so doing enraged ,ptolemy to that degree1 that he immediately prohibited any further exportation from ,egypt1 of the papyrus which by that time was coming into very general use1 and thus effectually put a stop to ,eumenes' emulation in that particular4 ,it may be1 however1 that this prohibition was not solely occasioned by jealousy1 but by ,ptolemy's fearing that his dominions1 which were so much improved in arts1 sciences1 and civilization1 since the discovery and adoption of the papyrus1 7of which we shall presently speak71 would be again reduced to a state of ignorance for want of it2 the plant sometimes failing in unfavourable weather1 while the supply invariably proved unequal to the demand4 ,the people of ,pergamus1 therefore1 were obliged to devise other means1 and the improved manufacture of parchment would seem to have been the result4 ,but1 that ,eumenes on this occasion invented the art of making parchment is exceedingly dubious2 for in the books of ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 ,ezekiel1 and other parts of ,scripture1 we find mention made of rolls of writing3 in all probability rolls of parchment4 ,the manner of reading such rolls may be gathered from a passage extracted from ,hartley's 8,travels in ,greece10 which serves also to elucidate the peculiar scriptural expression of their being 8written within and without40 ,you began1 7says he7 to read by unfolding1 and you continued to read and to unfold1 till1 at last1 you arrived at the stick to which the roll was attached2 then you turned the parchment round1 and continued to read on the other side of the roll1 folding it gradually up until you completed the writing1 thus were they 8written within and without40 ,papyrus1 from which the term paper was derived1 is the name of a celebrated plant1 once extensively used by the ,egyptians for making various articles of utility1 such as baskets1 shoes1 cordage1 and the like4 ,some writers state that of this plant the little ark was made1 in which the parents of ,moses exposed him upon the banks of the ,nile1 and of this it was that the most ancient paper was manufactured4 ,not as would now be customary1 by first reducing it to a pulp1 nor1 indeed1 in any way as resembling modern paper1 except that in both1 vegetable fibre is the basis4 ,that a plant once so useful1 and for ages in ,egypt so commercially valuable1 should have totally disappeared1 being altogether unknown to modern botanists1 appears scarcely credible2 yet so it is4 ,for the ancient descriptions of the papyrus1 as a flag or bulrush1 with a triangular stem that could barely be spanned1 and which grew to the height of ten feet1 or even considerably more1 in the immense marshes occupying a large part of the surface of lower ,egypt2 a leafless wood1 as it were1 or as one writer describes it1 a forest without branches1 the bare stem being surmounted only by a head of long1 thin1 straight fibres1 is certainly quite irreconcilable with the nature of the plant which now bears that name1 and of which one of the stoutest growth has been very kindly furnished me by ,sir ,w4 ,j4 ,hooker1 from the ,royal ,gardens at ,kew4 ,in the prophecy of ,isaiah a very remarkable prediction occurs with reference to this plant4 8,the paper reeds by the brooks1 by the mouth of the brooks1 and everything sown by the brooks1 shall wither1 be driven away1 and be no more40 ,doubtless1 we may believe that this prophecy has literally received its fulfilment4 ,with reference to the mode in which the paper was manufactured from this plant1 two distinct opinions have been handed down to us4 ,one1 that the epidermis being removed1 the spongy part was cut into thin slices1 which were steeped in the waters of the ,nile1 or in water slightly imbued with gum2 after which two layers were placed one above another1 carefully arranged in contrary directions1 that is1 lengthwise and breadthwise1 which1 after being dried1 were finally smoothed and brought to a fit surface for receiving writing1 by being rubbed with a tooth or piece of polished ivory4 ,another method said to have been adopted in preparing this material1 was simply that of separating the thin concentric coats1 or pellicles of the plant which surrounded the stock1 by means of a needle or pointed shell 7on an average about twenty from each stalk71 and afterwards extending them longitudinally side by side on a table1 a similar layer being placed across them at right angles2 in which state they were moistened with water1 and while wet put under pressure1 being afterwards exposed to the rays of the sun1 and finally polished as in the former case1 with some hard substance1 such as a tooth or shell1 not merely for the purpose of improving the surface1 but to prevent its absorbing the ink4 ,the saccharine matter with which the whole juice of the plant is said to have been impregnated1 being usually sufficient to cause the adhesion of the strips together4 ,so great was the importance of this manufacture at some periods1 that ,gibbon informs us of one ,firmus1 who raised the standard of revolt in ,egypt against the ,emperor ,aurelian2 that he boasted he would maintain an army solely from the profits of his paper trade4 ,at another time1 in the reign of ,tiberius1 there happened such a scarcity of paper1 from causes that are not mentioned1 that the ,senate1 in order to prevent a riot1 were obliged to appoint commissioners to distribute paper to the applicants according to their respective demands4 ,papyri vary much more in length than in breadth1 and upon this fact ,i would dwell1 as decidedly favouring the conception that the outer coat merely was employed in preparing the writing material4 ,indeed1 in every specimen which ,i have examined1 ,i have found the slips of which it is composed rarely exceeding twelve or fifteen inches even lengthwise4 ,whereas1 if they had been produced from the pithy part of the stem1 after being cut into slices1 there would have been no difficulty whatever in manufacturing the paper of the entire length1 which1 as ,i have already stated1 sometimes exceeded ten feet4 ,the breadth of papyri seldom exceeds eighteen inches1 sometimes they are not more than four inches in width1 which ,i imagine to have been determined by the length of the outer coats or pellicles taken from the plant2 the length1 of course1 being carried to any extent1 simply by fastening one sheet to another4 ,the largest specimen of which ,i have heard is one at ,paris1 measuring thirty feet in length4 ,the most interesting which we possess in this country is one which may be seen in the ,manuscript ,department of the ,british ,museum1 which appears to have been written in ,latin in the year #egb1 upon a roll of papyrus1 eight feet and a half long1 and twelve inches wide4 ,it is a deed relating to the sale of a house and land at ,ravenna4 ,though papyri found on mummies are often in a good state of preservation1 it is necessary to be very careful in handling them4 ,the roll1 owing to its being pressed under the swathings of the mummy1 being completely flattened1 and from the unvarying high temperature of the tomb to which it has for so long a time been subjected1 is frequently so dry and brittle1 that if any attempt be made to unroll it without previous precaution1 small pieces will continually fall off4 ,still1 the durability of this writing material is one of its best qualities4 ,it can1 in some instances1 be rolled and unrolled after the lapse of many centuries without any detriment to it2 but the complete preservation of such specimens is generally to be attributed to their being kept from the air either in wooden or earthen vessels1 frequently in the interior of the ,idol to which the mummy was once wont to present his offering1 which is usually of some grotesque1 or even hideous form1 altogether unworthy of mention as representing any created thing1 either upon the face of the earth1 or in the waters beneath4 ,not long since ,i was shown one1 containing a roll of papyrus1 which had been roughly carved out of wood1 somewhat resembling an overgrown cat in a sitting posture4 ,and this so called god1 as appears to have been customarily the case1 was taken from the tomb1 where it stood over the mummy1 with two very beautiful vases1 which at one time contained fragrant oils1 believed to be acceptable to the ,idol1 placed in front4 ,the papyri thus curiously preserved1 usually contain an account of the rank or station which the dead once filled1 and occasionally some description of the particular rites and ceremonies observed with reference to the worship4 ,with respect to the period at which the ancients began to make a writing substance of the papyrus1 or1 indeed1 of the name of the originator1 nothing decisive is known4 ,it would1 however1 appear from the prophecy in ,isaiah1 which has been already referred to1 in which mention is made of paper reeds by the brooks1 that paper made of such reeds was actually in use when that prophecy was written4 ,and in accordance with this conception1 the learned ,dr4 ,gill1 in his commentary says1 8,on the banks of the ,nile grew a reed1 or rush1 called by the ,greeks papyrus1 or byblus1 from whence come the words paper and bible1 or book1 of which paper was anciently made1 even as early as the time of ,isaiah10 now nearly #cjjj years ago4 ,the kind of pen ordinarily used for writing upon this material was simply a reed1 cut and split just as our quill pens at present are1 but with a point not quite so sharp4 ,i have in my possession some very fine specimens of what is usually called ,bark ,cloth1 which1 in its manufacture1 approximates more nearly to that of modern paper than any other substance with which ,i am acquainted4 ,it is formed from the bark of a small tree1 or shrub1 called the ,paper ,mulberry 7morus papyrifera71 which grows wild in the southern provinces of ,china1 in ,ava1 in the ,burmese country1 and in ,india1 as well as in all the ,asiatic and ,polynesian islands from ,japan to ,otaheite4 ,if a strip of this bark1 which is remarkable for the fineness of its texture1 after being soaked in water1 be laid on a smooth stone1 and then carefully beaten with a bat or mallet1 the surface of which is cut into fine ribs1 the fibres will become separated more or less from one another1 and if the beating be carefully conducted1 the bark will ultimately assume the appearance of a web of fine linen1 two pieces of bark being made to incorporate with one another simply by laying them so as to overlap a little1 and then beating again4 ,in this simple way the material is formed2 and by a short exposure to the sunshine when wet1 becomes perfectly white4 ,to render it fit for writing1 it is afterwards polished in a manner similar to the papyrus1 by rubbing it with a shell or other hard substance until it has very much the appearance of parchment2 and that it bears ink perfectly well1 may be seen by an inspection of some ,javanese ,works1 which are contained in the library of the ,hon4 ,east ,india ,company4 ,the bat or mallet employed by the natives in preparing this material is usually about #ae inches in length1 and from two and a half to three inches square1 one side being grooved very coarsely1 another somewhat finer1 a third exceedingly fine1 and the fourth generally cut in chequers or small squares4 ,the bark is first beaten with the coarsest side of the instrument1 and then1 in turn1 with those parts which are finer1 the resinous matter contained in it being usually found sufficiently adhesive4 ,without1 however1 dwelling longer upon this portion of our subject1 which time will not permit1 let us now proceed to trace out1 in some measure1 the history and progress of that more perfect and ingenious invention1 ,,modern ,,paper2 and in so doing1 ,i can hardly forbear making some allusion to the incalculable advantages which have resulted to mankind from the introduction of so ingenious and extraordinary a discovery4 ,it certainly would appear very remarkable1 that not only amongst mankind generally1 but even with those intimately associated with that branch of commerce1 so little interest should be found to exist in an acquaintance with its origin and advancement1 beyond the bare knowledge which directly concerns them4 ,it is true that with them1 no less than with people in general1 the very indispensableness of the material renders familiarity at once an unconscious stumbling-block1 to any conception of the grandeur of its importance1 or its vastly interesting1 and varied associations4 ,yet what infinite trouble and labour1 what fruitless consumption of time1 has not been saved by the invention of paper4 ,how many toilsome and dangerous experiments have not philosophical projectors been spared4 ,what laborious investigations and study have not thus been abridged1 by the facts of others' researches being so conveyed to posterity--knowledge1 more than any one man could have attained to in a thousand years1 though born with faculties in maturity4 ,to enumerate all the advantages which the invention of paper has afforded mankind1 it were1 indeed1 useless to attempt2 for1 whether we look at the traveller1 traversing sea and land1 without the knowledge of geography1 and navigation2 without those beautiful charts of the ocean1 by which he is now enabled to proceed with safety1 and even to predict with certainty1 his arrival at the most distant ports3 or1 whether we look at the man of science1 who being neither artist1 nor manufacturer1 is thus enabled to communicate his plans and projects with accuracy and ease1 for mechanics afterwards to improve and perfect3 or1 indeed1 whether we view the growing youth1 educated with such facility in the principles of their duty1 backward even to barbarous states1 softened and enlightened by means of the discovery2 its value1 in the applicability of its purposes1 stands out alike in each1 declaring it distinctly above all other inventions1 as truly the most wonderful1 useful1 and important1 which has ever yet transpired in any age of the world2 inasmuch1 as without it1 every other discovery must necessarily have continued comparatively useless to society4 ,for1 be it remembered1 that in contrasting the results of this invention1 with the productions of former periods1 we are1 in fact1 arraying in our train1 the mighty arm of the press against the feeble efforts of an unwieldy style1 or the tedious and uncertain process of the slow-paced pen1 which prior to an acquaintance with the art of printing1 were the only means mankind possessed for spreading the influence and advantages of learning amongst their fellow-creatures4 ,and1 again1 how highly interesting is it1 to observe the prodigious advancement resulting from an ingenious and successful application of machinery in the one case1 serving at the same time to develop to our wonder and amazement the extraordinary capabilities of production which have since been revealed by the ,printing ,machine4 ,truly may we now pronounce-- ,the ,press6 the venerated ,press6 ,freedom's impenetrable shield-- ,the sword that wins her best success1 ,the only sword that man should wield4 ,it is stated that the daily aggregate printed surface of the ,times alone1 actually exceeds that of thirty acres1 and the ,illustrated ,london ,news1 on one occasion1 sent forth no less than #ejj1jjj double numbers1 or one million sheets4 ,in fact1 #bjjj reams1 exceeding seventy tons in weight4 ,the manufacture of four or five hundred square feet of paper per minute1 and #ab1jjj impressions per hour1 are now matters of every day occurrence1 although it should be borne in mind1 that without the paper machine1 pouring forth its miles of web1 these corresponding advantages in printing could not have been developed4 ,we may take as an instance1 that book of books1 which ,pollok very beautifully describes as-- 8,the only star ,by which the bark of man could navigate ,the sea of life1 and gain the coast of bliss ,securely60 ,although now a handsome copy1 printed on tolerably fine paper1 gilt edged1 and bound in embossed roan1 may be purchased for one shilling1 in the reign of ,henry the ,third1 it is recorded that two arches of ,london ,bridge were built for a less sum than that for which a ,bible could be procured4 ,and1 as we continue the search still further back1 the contrast becomes increasingly interesting4 ,for let it be remembered1 that the sixty-six books of which the ,bible is composed1 were not always contained in so convenient a form4 ,during the sixteen centuries which were occupied in making known this revelation to man1 not only were the advantages which we possess altogether unknown1 even in their rudest form1 but substitutes1 apparently far less promising than many we have referred to1 were also at one period and another directed to be employed4 ,as for instance1 to ,ezekiel1 ,jehovah once said1 8,thou also son of man1 take thee a tile1 and lay it before thee1 and pourtray upon it the city1 even ,jerusalem40 ,and elsewhere1 8,moreover1 thou son of man1 take thee one stick1 and write upon it1 for ,judah1 and for the children of ,israel1 his companions40 ,of course there have been occasions when certain portions of the ,scriptures were very beautifully inscribed 7more particularly of the ,new ,testament7 sometimes in letters of gold1 on parchment of the richest purple4 ,still they were manuscript1 and as such1 not unfrequently occupied the labour of individuals for years4 ,instances are upon record1 of fifty years in the life of one man being engaged in the execution of a single copy of the ,scriptures4 ,in the present day it is1 perhaps1 impossible for us properly to appreciate the skill1 the labour1 and the immense expenditure employed in such productions4 ,for now1 by the aid of the printing machine1 we have an entire copy struck off in the space of one minute2 and such were the almost miraculous efforts of the ,british and ,foreign ,bible ,society last year1 that they actually issued1 in nearly #aej known languages1 an average circulation of a copy for every minute throughout the year4 ,it is much to be regretted that in tracing the origin of so curious an art as that of the manufacture of modern paper1 any definite conclusion as to the precise time or period of its adoption should hitherto have proved altogether unattainable4 ,the ,royal ,society of ,sciences at ,gottingen1 in #agee and #agfc1 offered considerable premiums for that especial object1 but unfortunately all researches1 however directed1 were utterly fruitless4 ,the most ancient manuscript on cotton paper appears to have been written in #ajej1 while ,eustathius1 who wrote towards the end of the #abth century1 states that the ,egyptian papyrus had gone into disuse but a little before his time4 ,to reconcile1 however1 in some measure contradictory accounts1 it may be observed1 that on some particular occasions1 and by some particular persons1 the ,egyptian paper might have been employed for several hundred years after it ceased to be in general use1 and it is quite certain1 that although the new invention must have proved of great advantage to mankind1 it could only have been introduced by degrees4 ,amongst the records which are preserved at the ,tower of ,london ,i have seen a letter addressed to ,henry the ,third1 and written previously to #abbb1 which appears to be upon strong paper1 of mixed materials4 ,several letters of the following reign1 which are there preserved1 are evidently written on cotton paper4 ,were we able to determine the precise time when paper was first made from cotton1 we should also be enabled to fix the invention of the art of paper making as it is now practised4 ,for the application of cotton to the purposes of paper making1 requires almost as much labour and ingenuity as the use of linen rags4 ,some have conceived1 and ,i think with sufficient reason1 that ,china originally gave birth to the invention4 ,certain it is1 that the art of making paper from vegetable matter reduced to pulp was known and understood there long before it was practised in ,europe1 which did not take place until the #aath century1 and the ,chinese have carried it to a high degree of perfection4 ,several kinds of their paper evince the greatest art and ingenuity1 and are applied with much advantage to many purposes4 ,one especially1 manufactured from the inner bark of the bamboo1 is particularly celebrated for affording the clearest and most delicate impressions from copper plates1 which we ordinarily term india proofs4 ,the ,chinese1 however1 make paper of various kinds1 some of the bark of trees1 especially the mulberry tree1 and the elm1 but chiefly of the bamboo and cotton tree1 and occasionally from other substances1 such as hemp1 wheat1 or rice straw4 ,to give an idea of the manner of fabricating paper from these different substances1 it will suffice1 7the process being nearly the same in each17 to confine our observations to the method adopted in the manufacture of paper from the bamboo1--a kind of cane or hollow reed1 divided by knots1 but larger1 more elastic1 and more durable than any other reed4 ,the whole substance of the bamboo is at times employed by the ,chinese in this operation1 but the younger stalks are preferred4 ,the canes being first cut into pieces of four or five feet in length1 are made into parcels1 and thrown into a reservoir of mud and water for about a fortnight1 to soften them2 they are then taken out1 and carefully washed1 every one of the pieces being again cut into filaments1 which are exposed to the rays of the sun to dry1 and to bleach4 ,after this they are boiled in large kettles1 and then reduced to pulp in mortars1 by means of a hammer with a long handle2 or as is more commonly the case1 by submitting the mass to the action of stampers1 raised in the usual way by cogs on a revolving axis4 ,the pulp being thus far prepared1 a glutinous substance1 extracted from the shoots of a certain plant1 is next mixed with it in stated quantities1 and upon this mixture chiefly depends the quality of the paper4 ,as soon as this has taken place the whole is again beaten together until it becomes a thick viscous liquor1 which1 after being reduced to an essential state of consistency1 by a further admixture of water1 is then transferred to a large reservoir or vat1 having on each side of it a drying stove1 in the form of the ridge of a house1 that is1 consisting of two sloping sides touching at top4 ,these sides are covered externally with an exceedingly smooth coating of stucco1 and a flue passes through the brickwork1 so as to keep the whole of each side equally and moderately warm4 ,a vat and a stove are placed alternately in the manufactory1 so that there are two sides of two different stoves adjacent to each vat4 ,the workman dips his mould1 which is sometimes formed merely of bulrushes1 cut in narrow strips1 and mounted in a frame1 into the vat1 and then raises it out again1 the water passing off through the perforations in the bottom1 and the pulpy paper-stuff remaining on its surface4 ,the frame of the mould is then removed1 and the bottom is pressed against the side of one of the stoves1 so as to make the sheet of paper adhere to its surface1 and allow the sieve1 7as it were7 to be withdrawn4 ,the moisture1 of course1 speedily evaporates by the warmth of the stove1 but before the paper is quite dry1 it is brushed over on its outer surface with a size made of rice1 which also soon dries1 and the paper is then stripped off in a finished state1 having one surface exquisitely smooth1 it being seldom the practice of the ,chinese to write or print on both sides of the paper4 ,while all this is taking place1 the moulder has made a second sheet1 and pressed it against the side of the other stove1 where it undergoes the operation of sizing and drying1 precisely as in the former case4 ,the very delicate material1 which is brought from ,china in pieces only a few inches square1 and commonly1 but erroneously1 termed rice paper1 is in reality but a membrane of the breadfruit tree1 obtained by cutting the stem spirally round the axis1 and afterwards flattening it by pressure4 ,that it is not an artificial production may very readily be perceived by contrasting one of the more translucent specimens with a piece of the finest manufactured paper1 by the aid of the microscope4 ,the precise period at which the manufacture of paper was first introduced into ,europe appears to be rather a matter of uncertainty4 ,paper mills1 moved by water power1 were in operation in ,tuscany at the commencement of the fourteenth century2 and at ,nuremberg1 in ,germany1 one was established in #acij1 by ,ulman ,stromer1 who wrote the first work ever published on the art of paper making4 ,he seems to have employed a great number of persons1 all of whom were obliged to take an oath that they would not teach any one the art of paper making1 or make it on their own account4 ,in the following year1 when anxious to increase the means of its production1 he met with such strong opposition from those he employed1 who would not consent to any enlargement of the mill1 that it became at length requisite to bring them before the magistrates1 by whom they were imprisoned1 after which they submitted1 by renewing their oaths4 ,two or three centuries later1 we find the ,dutch in like manner1 so extremely jealous with respect to the manufacture1 as to prohibit the exportation of moulds1 under no less severe a penalty than that of death4 ,fuller makes some exceedingly curious observations respecting the paper of his time1 which may1 perhaps1 be introduced here with advantage4 ,he says--8,paper participates in some sort of the character of the country which makes it2 the ,venetian being neat1 subtile1 and court like2 the ,french light1 slight1 and slender2 and the ,dutch thick1 corpulent1 and gross1 sucking up the ink with the sponginess thereof40 ,he complains that the paper manufactories were not then sufficiently encouraged1 considering the vast sums of money expended in our land for paper out of ,italy1 ,france1 and ,germany1 which might be lessened1 were it made in our nation4 8,to such who object10 says he1 8that we can never equal the perfection of ,venice paper1 ,i return1 neither can we match the purity of ,venice glasses1 and yet many green ones are blown in ,sussex1 profitable to the makers1 and convenient to the users1 our home-spun paper might be found beneficial40 ,with reference to any particular time or place at which this inestimable invention was first adopted in ,england1 all researches into existing records contribute little to our assistance4 ,the first paper mill erected here is commonly attributed to ,sir ,john ,spielman1 a ,german1 who established one in #aehh1 at ,dartford1 for which the honour of knighthood was afterwards conferred upon him by ,queen ,elizabeth1 who was also pleased to grant him a license 8for the sole gathering for ten years of all rags1 c41 necessary for the making of such paper40 ,it is1 however1 quite certain that paper mills were in existence here long before ,spielman's time4 ,shakspeare1 in the second part of his play of ,henry the ,sixth1 the plot of which appears laid at least a century previously1 refers to a paper mill4 ,in fact1 he introduces it as an additional weight to the charge which ,jack ,cade is made to bring against ,lord ,saye1 8,thou hast most traitorously corrupted10 says he1 8the youth of the realm1 in erecting a grammar school1 and whereas1 before1 our forefathers had no other books but the score and the tally1 thou hast caused printing to be used1 and contrary to the king1 his crown and dignity1 thou hast built a paper mill40 ,understanding that some five-and-thirty or forty years since it was asserted by the then occupier of ,north ,newton mill1 near ,banbury1 in ,oxfordshire1 which at that time was the property of ,lord ,saye and ,sele1 that such was the first erected in this country for the manufacture of paper1 and also that it was to that mill ,shakspeare referred in the passage just quoted1 ,i recently communicated with ,lord ,saye and ,sele as to the plausibility of the supposition2 remarking at the same time as ,i would now1 that although it was of course quite impossible to award the immortal bard great credit for chronological accuracy1 it must1 ,i thought1 be admitted1 that so marvellous an invention1 unless really in existence1 could not by any possibility of conception have been conjured up even to supply the unlimited necessities of the poet's strain4 ,his ,lordship1 however1 at once terminated the probability of this mill taking the precedence1 even of ,sir ,john ,spielman's1 by informing me that the first nobleman succeeding to that title who had property in ,oxfordshire1 which he acquired by marriage1 was the son of the first ,lord ,saye1 to whom ,shakspeare makes reference4 ,the earliest trace of the manufacture in this country occurs in a book printed by ,caxton1 about the year #adij1 in which it is said of ,john ,tate-- 8,which late hathe in ,england doo make thys paper thynne1 ,that now in our ,englyssh thys booke is prynted inne40 ,his mill was situate at or near ,stevenage1 in ,hertfordshire1 and that it was considered worthy of especial notice is evident from an entry made in ,henry the ,seventh's ,household ,book1 on the #beth of ,may1 #adih--8;,for a rewarde geven at the paper-mylne1 #afs4 #h;d40 ,and again in #adii--8;,geven in rewarde to ,tate of the mylne1 #fs4 #h;d40 ,still1 it appears to me far less probable that ,shakspeare alluded to this mill1 although established at a period corresponding in many respects with that of occurrences referred to in connection1 than to that of ,sir ,john ,spielman's1 which1 standing as it did in the immediate neighbourhood of ,jack ,cade's rebellion1 and being esteemed so important at the time1 as to call forth the marked patronage of ,queen ,elizabeth2 while the extent of the operations carried on there1 if we may judge from the remarks of a poet of the time1 were equally calculated to arouse undivided national interest2 one can hardly help thinking1 that the prominence to which ,shakspeare assigns the existence of a paper mill1 coupled as such allusion is with an acknowledged liberty1 inherent in him1 of transposing events1 to add force to his style1 as also with very considerable doubt as to the exact year in which he wrote the play1 that the reference made was to none other than that of ,sir ,john ,spielman's establishment of #aehh1 concerning which we find it said-- 8,six hundred men are set to work by him1 ,that else might starve or seek abroad their bread1 ,who now live well1 and go full brave and trim1 ,and who may boast they are with paper fed40 ,be the introduction or establishment of the invention1 so far as this country is concerned1 when it may2 little progress appears to have resulted therefrom1 even so late as the middle of the #agth century4 ,in #afie1 a company was formed in ,scotland 8for manufacturing white writing and printing paper10 relating to which1 8,articles concluded and agreed upon at a general meeting at ,edinburgh1 the #aith day of ,august10 in the same year1 may still be seen by those who are sufficiently curious1 in the ,library of the ,british ,museum4 ,it is also recorded in the ,craftsman 7#iaj71 that ,william the ,third granted the ,huguenots refuged in ,england a patent for establishing paper manufactories1 and that ,parliament likewise granted to them other privileges1 amongst which1 in all probability1 that very unsatisfactory practice of putting up each ream with two quires composed entirely of sheets spoiled in course of production4 ,their undertaking1 however1 like that of many others1 appears to have met with very little success4 ,in fact1 the making of paper here scarcely reached any high degree of perfection until about #agfj-e1 at which period the celebrated ,james ,whatman established his reputation at ,maidstone4 ,the report of the ,juries of the ,great ,exhibition of #ahea--;a work from whence information might very naturally be sought1 and which one would have supposed to be unexceptionable in point of authenticity1--contains1 ,i regret to say1 a very unfortunate misstatement with reference to the position of ,mr4 ,whatman at that time4 ,it is there stated that he gained his knowledge of the manufacture prior to establishing these well-known mills 8by working as a journeyman in most of the principal paper manufactories of the ,continent10 which is altogether an erroneous assertion2 for ,mr4 ,whatman previously to his being engaged as a manufacturer1 was an officer in the ,kent ,militia1 and acquired the information1 which eventually rendered him so successful1 by travelling in the suite of the ,british ,ambassador to ,holland1 where the best papers were then made1 and the insight thus obtained enabled his genius to effect the great improvements afterwards so universally admitted4 ,at the present time1 ,whatman's papers 7so called7 are manufactured at two mills1 totally distinct1 both of which are still worked by the descendants of ,mr4 ,whatman's successors2 the paper in the one case being readily distinguished by the water-mark1 8,j4 ,whatman1 ,turkey ,mill10 and in the other1 by the water-mark simply 8,j4 ,whatman10 but bearing upon the upper wrapper of each ream the original and well-known stamp1 containing the initials ,l4 ,v4 ,g41 which are those of ,l4 ,v4 ,gerrevink1 as celebrated a ,dutch manufacturer prior to ,mr4 ,whatman's improvements1 as ,mr4 ,whatman's name has since become in all parts of the world4 ,in making so marked an allusion to this particular manufacture1 ,i am bound1 perhaps1 to qualify it in some measure by directing attention to the comparatively recent application of continuous or rotatory motion which has1 indeed1 effected no more wonderful or extraordinary results than in the singular conversion of pulp into paper4 ,the largest paper now made by hand1 which is termed ,antiquarian1 measures #ec inches by #ca1 and so great is the weight of liquid pulp employed in the formation of a single sheet1 that no fewer than nine men are required1 besides additional assistance in raising the mould out of the vat by means of pulleys2 while by the aid of the paper machine1 the most perfect production may be ensured1 of a continuous length1 and eight feet wide1 without any positive necessity for personal superintendence4 ,the principle of paper making by machinery is simply this1 instead of employing moulds and felts of limited dimensions1 as was originally the practice1 the peculiar merit of the invention consists in the adaptation of an endless wire-gauze to receive the paper pulp1 and again an endless felt1 to which in progress the paper is transferred2 and thus by a marvellously delicate adjustment1 while the wire at one end receives but a constant flow of liquid pulp1 in the course of two or three minutes we may have1 carefully wound on a roller at the other extremity1 the most beautiful and serviceable of fabrics4 ,instead of counting sheets in course of production as formerly1 or even measuring the length by yards1 we may actually have the paper drawn out as it were1 and wound up1 miles in length4 ,in the recent ,dublin ,exhibition1 a sheet was exhibited which was said to have been of sufficient length to wrap round the world2 but1 ,i must confess1 that ,i am not in a position to vouch for the accuracy of the statement4 ,an anecdote1 however1 is told1 7the truth of which ,i have no reason to doubt17 of the patentee of this machine1 and a relative or friend of his1 of some considerable standing and influence in the pottery district1 who were dining together about the period at which this machine was first adopted2 when the one speaking of the advantages which he conceived the new mode would prove to his friend1 alluded above all others to the remarkable capability which it possessed of producing paper of any length that could possibly be required4 8,well10 said his friend1 8,i very much doubt that1 but if you can make me five miles of the quality ,i require1 ,i shall certainly have little hesitation in admitting all the perfection and suitability which you have laboured to impress upon me40 ,the very next day the machine was set to work1 and timed1 in order to ascertain the required length wound upon the reel1 which1 after being charged with ,excise duty1 was forwarded without delay to its destination2 and1 as may be conceived1 to the utter astonishment of his incredulous friend4 ,it is a fact1 which certainly deserves to be noticed for its singularity as well as for the strong point of view in which it places the merits of this invention1 that an art of such great importance to society as that of the manufacture of paper1 should have remained for at least eight centuries since paper is first believed to have been in use1 and that upwards of #bjj of those years should have elapsed since its first introduction into ,england1 without any mechanical improvement whatever as regards the processes which were then employed4 ,it is true1 that various attempts from time to time were made1 but in every instance they appear to have met with very little success4 ,in ,france1 an ingenious artist contrived three figures in wood to do the work of the vatman1 the coucher1 and the layer2 but1 after persevering for six months1 and incurring considerable expense1 he was at length compelled to abandon his scheme4 ,and although paper was previously manufactured in ,china1 in ,persia1 and indeed throughout all ,asia1 sometimes of considerable length1 ,i might mention that it was so1 not by machinery1 but by means of a mould of the size of the paper intended to be made1 suspended like a swing1 and having men placed at the distance of about every four feet1 for the purpose of producing an uniform shaking motion1 after the mould had been immersed in the vat1 in order to compact the pulp4 ,such then was the rude state of this important manufacture1 even up to the commencement of the present century1 when another ingenious ,frenchman1 named ,didot1 brought over to this country a small model of a continuous machine1 with the view of getting the benefit of ,english capital and mechanical skill to bring it into an operative state2 and fortunately for the vigorous development of this embryo project1 which had proved an abortion in ,france1 he communicated his ideas of the practicability of the measure to a mercantile firm of considerable opulence1 who1 with great public spirit1 at once concluded an agreement with him for the purchase of a principle which might be said at that period never to have been tried4 ,the firm alluded to was that of the ,messrs4 ,fourdrinier1 who at that time1 and for several years afterwards1 were the principal stationers and paper manufacturers in ,great ,britain4 ,in order to accomplish the arduous object which those gentlemen then had in view1 they appear to have laboured without intermission for nearly six years1 when1 after incurring an expense which would have exhausted any fortune of moderate extent 7upwards of #fj1jjj71 they at length succeeded in giving some sort of organization and connection to the mechanical parts1 for which they obtained a patent1 and finding eventually that there was little prospect of being recompensed for labour and risk1 or even reimbursed their expenses1 unless ,parliament should think proper to grant an extension of their patent1 they determined upon making a fresh application to the ,legislature for that purpose4 ,but1 it would appear that although in the ,bill as it passed the ,house of ,commons1 such prolonged period extended to fourteen years2 in the ,lords it was limited to seven1 with an understanding that such term should be extended to seven years more in the event of the patentees proving1 upon a future application1 that they had not been sufficiently remunerated4 ,no such application1 however1 was made1 in consequence of a ,standing ,order of the ,house of ,lords1 placed on their journal subsequently to the passing of the said act2 which regulation had the effect of depriving the ,messrs4 ,fourdrinier of any benefit whatever from the invention2 and ultimately1 so great were the difficulties they had to encounter1 and so little encouragement or support did they receive1 that the time and attention required to mature this valuable invention1 and the large capital which it absorbed1 were the means of reducing that wealthy and liberal firm to the humiliating condition of bankruptcy2 and only within the past few months the surviving partner1 ,mr4 ,henry ,fourdrinier1 to whom mainly we owe the success of the invention1 and as unquestionably our present high position in the scale of nations1 was carried to his grave1 in his ninetieth year1 comparatively a beggar4 ,a leading article in the ,times1 ,june #ag1 #ahdg1 speaking of ,mr4 ,henry ,fourdrinier1 thus concludes by advocating his claims3--8,three days only are past since an assembly1 illustrious for rank and station1 met to celebrate and immortalize the memory of ,caxton4 ,what more fitting or graceful opportunity of paying a tribute of respect and justice to his fellow-labourer in an adjoining field8 the one the father of printing1 the other the inventor of a process by which the full benefits of printing have been realized to the civilized world4 ,and in the case of ,mr4 ,fourdrinier this advantage is found1 that he can receive in person the tribute of a nation's gratitude2 an octogenarian1 he still lives2 unlike ,caxton1 he is not yet a subject for posthumous honours4 ,it is not a monument he wants1 but justice4 ,the world1 no doubt1 according to ancient precedent1 would rather pay its tribute of admiration1 if we should not rather say its debt of homage1 after death4 ,but it is fortunately in the power of the present age to point to a modern example of tardy but full reparation made to a living man1 a great improvement upon the old rule1 the mockery of a national funeral1 and ,westminster ,abbey4 ,lord ,dundonald's case will always stand as a brilliant exception to the common neglect of contemporary merit1 and by his side it would be well to place1 at no great interval1 the man who in a humbler sphere1 but better suited to an age of peace1 has benefitted humanity by facilitating the diffusion of letters1 and the acquisition of knowledge40 ,powerful and influential as is that journal1 however1 this worthy man was still left to combat so bitter a reverse1 without even the means of procuring comfort in his declining years4 ,but ,i am happy to say that an appeal has lately been made to that particular branch of trade so materially benefitted by the invention1 the paper manufacturers1 in the hope that thus a sufficient fund may be raised to furnish his surviving daughters with a competent annuity for the remainder of their days4 ,and ,i sincerely hope that the results of this laudable effort may speedily prove to be as worthy the spirit of its originators1 as on the part of the public generally it deserves consideration1 as being supremely a national duty4 ,for1 be it remembered1 that while the value and importance of such an invention to the paper maker is sufficiently clear and conclusive1 from the fact of its general adoption throughout the united kingdom1 by no less than #gjj manufacturers 7averaging1 probably1 twice that number of machines72 so on the other hand1 we surely cannot remain unmindful of its effects and benefits upon ourselves1 when in contrasting the results of the paper-making-machine with the productions of a former period1 we find the cost reduced to the consumer considerably more than one-half1 in some instances to actually a fourth4 ,thus then1 it will be seen that as civilization has advanced1 the facilities for recording and transmitting facts have uniformly improved and multiplied until now1 instead of oral tradition1 necessarily uncertain2 instead of the bark and leaf1 perishable or fragile2 instead of the papyrus1 so brittle2 the parchment1 so costly2 the raw cotton paper1 so expensive2 instead of inscriptions by the unwieldy style and by the slow-paced pen1 we have now a cheap1 serviceable material1 manufactured from the most useless of fabrics1 and even from the very refuse of our clothing1 which1 conjointly with that art which preserves all other arts1 enables us far to surpass in recording and transmitting power1 even the greatest demands in the world's history4 ,,note4--,since the 8proof0 sheet was put into my hands1 ,i have heard with very great satisfaction1 that some interest has at length been awakened in the case of the ,fourdriniers1 and that a list has been commenced1 headed with liberal subscriptions from his ,grace the ,duke of ,sutherland1 the ,right ,hon4 the ,earl of ,harrowby1 the ,proprietors of ,the ,times1 ,illustrated ,london ,news1 and several leading firms connected with the ,paper ,trade4--,r4 ,h4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,on the ,materials employed in the ,formation of ,paper--,method of ,preparation--,processes of ,comminution1 ,washing1 ,bleaching1 etc4 described--,paper-making by ,hand--,paper-making ,machine--,sizing ,apparatus--,cutting-,machine1 etc4 explained--,general ,observations on what are termed ,water-,marks--,manner of effecting the same--,importance frequently attached to them--,ireland's ,fabrication of the ,shakspeare ,,mss4--,difficulty in procuring suitable ,paper for the purpose--,on the perfection to which ,water-,marks have now attained1 especially with reference to the production of ,light and ,shade1 as seen in the ,new ,bank ,note1 etc41 etc4 ,in the present chapter it will be my object to take as general a glance at the principles of paper making1 as in the former it was my endeavour to treat its history4 ,first then1 we have to notice the nature of some of the materials employed4 ,and although everybody is supposed to know that paper is made from rags1 it may1 perhaps1 be excuseable to consider of what the rags themselves originally were composed4 ,unquestionably1 the simplest definition one could give would be1 fragments of worn-out clothing2 and by clothing1 no doubt1 we all sufficiently understand the dress1 vesture or garments usually adopted by man4 ,still we have to ask ourselves of what are these articles of clothing composed8 ,it has been somewhat shrewdly remarked in every instance1 of a something of which man has previously denuded something else4 ,at one time 7as we all know7 he cunningly entraps innumerable individuals1 of the fox1 weazel1 and squirrel tribes1 to strip them of their warm and valuable fur4 ,at another1 he hatches and feeds legions of caterpillars1 that he may rob them of the defensive padding which they spin to protect their helplessness while passing through the chrysalis state4 ,sometimes he pastures the sheep for its skin and its wool1 occasionally setting so little store by the carcase as to melt it into tallow1 or burn it as fuel4 ,and even mother earth herself is treated with no greater forbearance1 by alternately feeding her up with manure1 and teazing and tormenting her surface with tillage1 she is coaxed and compelled to send forth a living vegetable down1 which is shorn1 plucked and plundered from her bosom1 in the shape of cotton1 flax1 and hemp4 ,and all those silks1 woollens1 flax1 hemp1 and cotton1 in all their varied forms1 whether as cambric1 lace1 linen1 holland1 fustian1 corduroy1 bagging1 canvas1 or even as cables1 are or can be used in the manufacture of paper of one kind or another4 ,still1 when we speak of rags1 as of necessity1 they accumulate1 and are gathered up by those who make it their business to collect them1 they are very far from answering the purposes of paper making4 ,rags1 to the paper-maker1 are almost as various in point of quality or distinction1 as the materials which are sought after through the influence of fashion4 ,thus1 the paper maker1 in buying rags1 requires to know exactly of what the bulk is composed4 ,if he is a manufacturer of white papers1 no matter whether intended for writing or printing1 silk or woollen rags1 would be found altogether useless1 inasmuch1 as is well known1 the bleach will fail to act upon any animal substance whatever4 ,and although he may purchase even a mixture in proper proportions adapted for the quality he is in the habit of supplying1 it is as essential in the processes of preparation1 that they shall be previously separated4 ,cotton in its raw state1 as may be readily conceived1 requires far less preparation than a strong hempen fabric1 and thus1 to meet the requirements of the paper-maker1 we have rags classed under different denominations1 as for instance1 besides ,fines and ,seconds1 we have ,thirds1 which are composed of fustians1 corduroy1 and similar fabrics2 ,stamps or ,prints 7as they are termed by the paper-maker71 which are coloured rags1 and also innumerable foreign rags1 distinguished by certain well-known marks1 indicating their various peculiarities4 ,i might mention1 however1 that although by far the greater portion of the materials employed are such as we have already alluded to1 it is not from their possessing any exclusive suitableness--since various fibrous vegetable substances have frequently been used1 and are indeed still successfully employed--but rather on account of their comparatively trifling value1 arising from the limited use to which they are otherwise applicable4 ,the agitation of late1 which was partly-occasioned by the war1 and partly by a sudden and unprecedented demand1 that there was a great scarcity of fibrous materials fit to be used in paper making1 coupled with an advance in the price of at least twenty per cent41 and still further heightened by the offer of #a1jjj to any one who could procure an advantageous substitute1 has necessarily called forth many suggestions1 but1 to quote the words of ,dr4 ,forbes ,royle1 8,the generality of modern experimentalists seem to be wholly unacquainted with the labours of their predecessors1 many of them commencing improvement by repeating experiments which had already been made1 and announcing results as new1 which had long previously been ascertained40 ,the latest suggestion of the kind1 and indeed the only one worth referring to1 is that which ,lord ,derby recently brought forward in the ,house of ,lords4 ,he first referred to a ,bill before the other ,house of ,parliament for incorporating a company established for the manufacture of paper from flax straw4 ,of course there is little new in this4 ,the rags or materials already employed1 are composed1 as everybody knows1 to a very great extent1 of the fibre of flax1 and besides1 possess this great advantage1 that they have been repeatedly prepared for paper making by the numerous alkaline washings which they necessarily receive during their period of use1 which1 if left to the paper-maker1 as would be the case with flax in its raw state1 to be done all at once1 7and it must be done before the fibre is fit for use17 would add so fearfully to the expense1 as to render its adoption for printing or writing paper altogether unadvisable4 ,however1 ,lord ,derby proceeds--8,it was proposed to employ the fibres of various plants indigenous to the ,west ,indies1 such as the plantain1 the aloe1 and others1 which grow in vast abundance1 and which were utterly valueless at the present moment4 ,he need not say1 that an immense abundance of this material could be produced2 and he wished only to mention1 that on one estate in ,demerara no less than #afj1jjj plantain trees were cut down every year1 the trees going to waste1 as they were cut down only for the purpose of getting at the fruit2 and this wasted material contained #bej tons of fibre1 capable of being manufactured into paper40 ,now1 admitting all this1 which ,lord ,derby is reported to have said1 ,i can again assert that there is nothing whatever new in it4 ,i have specimens of paper from the same materials1 which were made several years ago4 ,the cost1 however1 of reducing the plantain into fibre1 coupled with the expense of freight1 was found1 and will still be found1 to bring up the price so much1 as to effectually exclude it from the manufacture of paper2 for this simple reason1 that rags1 of necessity1 must continue accumulating1 and before it will answer the purpose of the paper-maker to employ new material--which is not so well adapted for his purpose as the old--he must be enabled to purchase it for considerably less than it would be worth in the manufacture of textile fabrics4 ,all that can be said as to the suitableness of fibre in general may be summed up in very few words2 any vegetable fibre having a corrugated edge1 which will enable it to cohere in the mass1 is fit for the purposes of paper making2 the extent to which such might be applied can solely be determined by the question of cost in its production2 and hitherto1 everything proposed has been excluded1 as in the case of the plantain or banana1 either by the cost of freight1 the cost of preparation1 or the expenses combined4 ,to convey some idea of the number of substances which have been really tried2 in the ,library of the ,british ,museum may be seen a book1 printed in low ,dutch1 containing upwards of sixty specimens of paper1 made of different materials1 the result of one man's experiments alone1 so far back as the year #aggb4 ,in fact1 almost every species of tough fibrous vegetable1 and even animal substance1 has at one time or another been employed3 even the roots of trees1 their bark1 the bine of hops1 the tendrils of the vine1 the stalks of the nettle1 the common thistle1 the stem of the hollyhock1 the sugar cane1 cabbage stalks1 wood shavings1 saw dust1 hay1 straw1 willow1 and the like4 ,at the present time straw is occasionally used1 sometimes in connection with other materials1 such as linen or cotton rags1 and even with considerable advantage1 providing the processes of preparation are thoroughly understood4 ,where such is not the case1 and the silica contained in the straw has not been destroyed 7by means of a strong alkali71 the paper will invariably be found more or less brittle2 in some cases so much so as to be hardly applicable to any purpose whatever of practical utility4 ,specimens1 numbered #ah and #ai1 affixed at the end of this work1 are manufactured from as much as #hj per cent4 straw and #bj per cent4 rope1 and certainly1 as regards toughness1 are excellent4 ,no4 #bj1 is manufactured almost entirely from wheat straw1 which is first bleached to the utmost1 and then blued by an admixture of ultramarine4 ,the waste1 however1 which the straw undergoes1 in addition to a most expensive process of preparation1 necessarily precludes its adoption to any great extent4 ,an ingenious invention has recently been patented for converting large blocks of wood into paper pulp2 but to what extent it is likely to receive favourable attention at the hands of paper makers generally1 is quite impossible to say4 ,the invention is very simple1 consisting merely of a wooden box enclosing a grindstone1 which has a roughened surface1 and against which the blocks of wood are kept in close contact by a lever1 a small stream of water being allowed to flow upon the stone as it turns1 in order to free it of the pulp1 and to assist in carrying it off through an outlet at the bottom4 ,of course1 it is not expected1 that the pulp thus produced should be employed for any but the coarser kinds of paper1 in the manufacture of which there has hitherto been found the greatest scarcity of material4 ,for all writing and printing purposes1 which manifestly are the most important1 nothing has yet been discovered1 to lessen the value of rags1 neither is it at all probable that there will be2 indeed1 the value of paper for some time past has considerably declined1 while during the most exciting period of last year1 the scarcity so much talked of1 was1 in fact1 comparatively trifling4 ,the annual consumption of rags in this country alone far exceeds #abj1jjj tons1 three-fourths of which are imported1 ,italy and ,germany furnishing the principal supplies4 ,that the condition in which the rags are imported furnishes any criterion of the national habits of the people from which they came1 as has been frequently asserted1 however plausible in theory1 must1 at least1 be received with caution4 ,but that is by no means important4 ,the specimen of printing paper1 ,no4 #ba1 was manufactured from a selection far from cleanly2 in fact1 there was not a white rag employed1 while even fustians1 corduroy1 and coloured rags formed a considerable proportion4 ,in considering the various processes or stages of the manufacture of paper1 we have first to notice that1 of carefully sorting and cutting the rags into small pieces1 which is done by women2 each woman standing at a table frame1 the upper surface of which consists of very coarse wire-cloth2 a large knife being fixed in the centre of the table1 nearly in a vertical position4 ,the woman stands so as to have the back of the blade opposite to her1 while at her right hand on the floor is a large wooden box1 with several divisions4 ,her business consists in examining the rags1 opening the seams1 removing dirt1 pins1 needles1 and buttons1 of endless variety1 which would be liable to injure the machinery1 or damage the quality of the paper4 ,she then cuts the rags into small pieces1 not exceeding four inches square1 by drawing them sharply across the edge of the knife1 at the same time keeping each quality distinct1 in the several divisions of the box placed on her right hand4 ,during this process1 much of the dirt1 sand1 and so forth1 passes through the wire-cloth into a drawer underneath1 which is occasionally cleaned out4 ,after this1 the rags are removed to what is called the dusting machine1 which is a large cylindrical frame1 covered with similar coarse iron wire-cloth1 and having a powerful revolving shaft extending through the interior1 with a number of spokes fixed transversely1 nearly long enough to touch the cage4 ,by means of this contrivance1 the machine being fixed upon an incline of some inches to the foot1 the rags1 which are put in at the top1 have any remaining particles of dust that may still adhere to them effectually beaten out1 by the time they reach the bottom4 ,some objection1 however1 may be made to this method1 which has a tendency to blow away at the same time a considerable portion of fibre set loose in cutting the rags1 along with the dust4 ,to avoid this waste1 an invention has recently been brought out by a son of the late eminent ,mr4 ,fourdrinier1 which he terms his 8,patent ,accelerator40 ,the process adopted is simply that of placing the rags in their dirty state in water1 and employing that as a medium for carrying off the dust and dirt1 in preference to air4 ,the invention has not yet been very extensively used1 and consequently ,i am not in a position to say much as to its merits4 ,the rags being thus far cleansed1 have next to be boiled in an alkaline lye or solution1 made more or less strong1 as the rags are more or less coloured1 the object being to get rid of the remaining dirt and some of the colouring matter4 ,the proportion is from four to ten pounds of carbonate of soda with one-third of quick lime to the hundred weight of material4 ,in this the rags are boiled for several hours1 according to their quality4 ,the mode now adopted as the most recent improvement is that of placing the rags in large cylinders1 which are constantly1 though slowly1 revolving1 thus causing the rags to be as frequently turned over1 and into which a jet of steam is cast with a pressure of something near #cj lbs4 to the square inch4 ,illustration3 ,,rag ,,engine ,after this process of cleansing1 the rags are considered in a fit state to be torn or macerated until they become reduced to pulp1 which was accomplished some five and thirty or forty years since1 by setting them to heat and ferment for many days in close vessels1 whereby in reality they underwent a species of putrefaction4 ,another method subsequently employed was that of beating them by means of stamping rods1 shod with iron1 working in strong oak or stone mortars1 and moved by water-wheel machinery4 ,so rude and ineffective however was this apparatus1 that no fewer than forty pairs of stamps were required to operate a night and a day in preparing one hundred weight of material4 ,at the present time1 the average weekly consumption of rags1 at many paper mills1 exceeds even #cj tons4 ,the cylinder or engine mode of comminuting rags into paper pulp appears to have been invented in ,holland1 about the middle of the last century1 but received very little attention here for some years afterwards4 ,the accompanying drawing will serve to convey some idea of the wonderful rapidity with which the work is at present accomplished4 ,no less than twelve tons per week can now be prepared by means of this simple contrivance4 ,the horizontal section represents an oblong cistern1 of cast iron1 or wood lined with lead1 into which the rags1 with a sufficient quantity of water1 are received4 ,it is divided by a partition1 as shown 7,a71 to regulate the course of the stuff4 ,the spindle upon which each cylinder 7,c7 moves1 extending across the engine1 and being put in motion by a band wheel or pinion at the point 7,b74 ,one cylinder1 is made to traverse at a much swifter rate than the other1 in order that the rags may be the more effectually triturated4 ,the cylinders 7,c71 as shown in the vertical section1 are furnished with numerous cutters1 running parallel to the axis1 and again beneath them similar cutters are mounted 7,d7 somewhat obliquely1 against which1 when in motion1 the rags are drawn by the rapid rotation of the cylinders1 and thus reduced to the smallest filaments requisite1 sometimes not exceeding the sixteenth of an inch in length2 the distance between the fixed and moveable blades being capable of any adjustment1 simply by elevating or depressing the bearings upon which the necks of the shaft are supported4 ,when in operation1 it is of course necessary to enclose the cylinders in a case1 as shown 7,e71 otherwise a large proportion of the rags would inevitably be thrown out of the engine4 ,i should mention1 that the rags are first worked coarsely1 with a stream of water running through the engine1 which tends effectually to wash them1 as also to open their fibres2 and in order to carry off the dirty water1 what is termed a washing drum is usually employed1 consisting simply of a framework covered with very fine wire-gauze1 in the interior of which1 connected with the shaft or spindle1 which is hollow1 are two suction tubes1 and by this means1 on the principle of a syphon1 the dirty water constantly flows away through a larger tube running down outside1 which is connected with that in the centre1 without carrying away any of the fibre4 ,after this1 the mass is placed in another engine1 where1 if necessary1 it is bleached by an admixture of chloride of lime1 which is retained in the engine until its action becomes apparent4 ,the pulp is then let down into large slate cisterns to steep1 prior to being reduced to a suitable consistency by the beating engine1 as already described4 ,the rolls or cylinders1 however1 of the beating engine are always made to rotate much faster than when employed in washing or bleaching1 revolving probably from #abj to #aej times per minute1 and thus1 supposing the cylinders to contain #dh teeth each1 passing over eight others1 as shown in the drawing1 effecting no fewer than #ajc1fhj cuts in that short period4 ,from this the great advantage of the modern engine over the old fashioned mortar machine1 in turning out a quantity of paper pulp1 will be at once apparent4 ,the operation of paper making1 after the rags or materials to be used have been thus reduced and prepared1 may be divided into two kinds2 that which is carried on in hand-mills1 where the formation of the sheet is performed by manual labour2 and that which is carried on in machine-mills1 where the paper is produced upon the machine wire-cloth in one continuous web4 ,with respect to hand-made papers1 the sheet is formed by the vatman's dipping a mould of fine wire-cloth fixed upon a wooden frame1 and having what is termed a deckle1 to determine the size of the sheet1 into a quantity of pulp which has been previously mixed with water to a requisite consistency2 when after gently shaking it to and fro in a horizontal position1 the fibres become so connected as to form one uniform fabric1 while the water drains away4 ,the deckle is then removed from the mould1 and the sheet of paper turned off upon a felt1 in a pile with many others1 a felt intervening between each sheet1 and the whole subjected to great pressure1 in order to displace the superfluous water2 when after being dried and pressed without the felts1 the sheets are dipped into a tub of fine animal size1 the superfluity of which is again forced out by another pressing2 each sheet after being finally dried1 undergoing careful examination before it is finished4 ,specimens #b1 #c1 #d1 and #e1 inserted at the end of the work1 serve to illustrate the different stages of the manufacture4 ,first1 we have what is termed the water-leaf1 7#b7 or the condition in which the paper appears after being pressed between the felts--this is the first stage4 ,next1 a sheet from the bulk1 as pressed without the felts 7#c7 which still remains in a state unfit for writing on1 not having been sized--and is in fact but white blotting paper4 ,then we have a sheet after sizing1 which completely changes its character 7#d72 and lastly one with the beautiful surface1 which most of us1 in this steel-pen age are capable of appreciating 7#e74 ,this is produced by placing the sheets separately between very smooth copper plates1 and then passing them through rollers1 which impart a pressure of from #bj to #cj tons4 ,after only three or four such pressures1 it is simply called rolled 7#e71 but if passed through more frequently1 the paper acquires a higher surface1 and is then called glazed 7#f74 ,the paper-making machine 7see frontispiece7 is constructed to imitate in a great measure1 and in some respects to improve1 the processes used in making paper by hand2 but its chief advantages are the increased rapidity with which it accomplishes the manufacture1 and the means of producing paper of any size which can practically be required4 ,by the agency of this admirable contrivance1 which is so adjusted as to produce the intended effect with unerring precision1 a process1 which in the old system of paper-making1 occupied about three weeks1 is now performed in as many minutes4 ,the paper-making machine is supplied from the 8chest0 or reservoir 7,f71 into which the pulp descends from the beating engine1 when sufficiently ground2 being kept in constant motion1 as it descends1 by means of the agitator 7,g71 in order that it shall not settle4 ,from this reservoir the pulp is again conveyed by a pipe into what is technically termed the 8lifter0 7,h71 which consists of a cast-iron wheel1 enclosed in a wooden case1 and having a number of buckets affixed to its circumference4 ,the trough 7,i71 placed immediately beneath the endless wire 7,k7 is for the purpose of receiving the water which drains away from the pulp during the process of manufacture1 and as this water is frequently impregnated with certain chemicals used in connexion with paper-making1 it is returned again by a conducting spout1 into the 8lifter10 where1 by the rotation of the buckets1 both the pulp and back-water become again thoroughly mixed1 and are together raised by the lifter through the spout 7,l7 into the vat 7,m7 where the pulp is strained by means of a sieve or 8knotter10 as it is called1 which is usually formed of brass1 having fine slits cut in it to allow the comminuted pulp to pass through1 while it retains all lumps and knots2 and so fine are these openings1 in order to free the pulp entirely from anything which would be liable to damage the quality of the paper1 that it becomes necessary to apply a means of exhaustion underneath1 in order to facilitate the passage of the pulp through the strainer4 ,i have frequently examined a mass of these lumps collected upon the top of the knotter1 more particularly when printing papers are being manufactured1 and have generally found them composed1 to a very great extent1 of ,india ,rubber1 which is a source of much greater annoyance to the paper maker than is readily conceived4 ,for1 in the first place1 it is next to impossible in sorting and cutting the rags to free them entirely from the braiding1 and so forth1 with which ladies will insist upon adorning their dresses1 and in the next1 the bleach failing to act upon a substance of that character1 the quality of the paper becomes greatly deteriorated1 by the large black specks which it occasions1 and which1 by the combined heat and pressure of the rolls and cylinders1 enlarge considerably as it proceeds4 ,passing from this strainer the pulp is next made to distribute itself equally throughout the entire width of the machine1 and is afterwards allowed to flow over a small lip or ledge1 in a regular and even stream1 whence it is received by the upper surface of the endless wire 7,k71 upon which the first process of manufacture takes place4 ,of course the thickness of the paper depends in some measure upon the speed at which the machine is made to travel1 but it is mainly determined by the quantity of pulp allowed to flow upon the wire1 which by various contrivances can be regulated to great nicety4 ,among the specimens at the end1 you will find one1 ,no4 #g1 which was made by this machine1 and which is considerably less than the thousandth of an inch in thickness1--a thousand sheets measuring but three quarters of an inch4 ,and ,i would call your attention to the fact1 that although so thin1 it is capable of being coloured1 it is capable of being glazed1 it is capable of receiving a water-mark2 and what is perhaps still more astonishing1 a strip not exceeding four inches in width1 will be found capable of sustaining a weight of twenty pounds3 so great is its tenacity4 ,but1 to return to the machine itself4 ,the quantity of pulp required to flow from the vat 7,m7 being determined2 it is first received by the continuous woven wire 7,k71 upon which it forms itself into paper4 ,this wire-gauze1 which resembles a jack-towel1 passing over the small copper rollers 7,n71 round the larger one marked 7,o71 and being kept in proper tension by two others placed underneath4 ,a gentle vibratory motion from side to side is given to the wire1 which assists to spread the pulp evenly1 and also to facilitate the separation of the water1 and by this means1 aided by a suction pump1 the pulp solidifies as it advances4 ,the two black squares on either side of the 8dandy0 roller 7,p7 indicate the position of two wooden boxes1 from which the air is partially exhausted1 thus causing the atmospheric pressure to operate in compacting the pulp into paper1 the water and moisture being drawn through the wire1 and the pulp retained on the surface4 ,next1 we have to notice the deckle or boundary straps 7,q7 which regulate the width of the paper1 travelling at the same rate as the wire1 and thus limiting the spread of pulp4 ,the 8dandy0 roller 7,p71 is employed to give any impression to the paper that may be required4 ,we may suppose for instance1 that the circumference of that roller answers exactly to the length or breadth of the wire forming a hand mould1 which1 supposing such wire to be fixed or curved in that form1 would necessarily leave the same impression as when employed in the ordinary way4 ,being placed between the air boxes1 the paper becomes impressed by it when in a half formed state1 and whatever marks are thus made1 the paper will effectually retain4 ,the marks seen in ,specimens #b1 #c1 #d1 and #e1 have been occasioned by a hand mould1 those in #f1 #g1 #i1 and #aa1 are impressions given by a dandy roller4 ,the two rollers following the dandy1 marked 7,r7 and 7,o71 are termed couching rollers1 from their performing a similar operation in the manufacture of machine-made papers1 to the business of the coucher in conducting the process by hand4 ,they are simply wooden rollers covered with felt4 ,in some instances1 however1 the upper couch roll 7,r7 is made to answer a double purpose4 ,in making writing or other papers1 where smalts1 ultramarine1 and various colours are used1 considerable difference will frequently be found in the tint of the paper when the two sides are compared1 in consequence of the colouring matter sinking to the lower side1 by the natural subsidence of the water1 or from the action of the suction boxes2 and to obviate this1 instead of employing the ordinary couch roll1 which acts upon the upper surface of the paper1 a hollow one is substituted1 having a suction box within it1 acted upon by an air pump1 which tends in some measure to counteract the effect1 justly considered objectionable4 ,merging from those rollers the paper is received from the wire-gauze by a continuous felt 7,s71 which conducts it through two pair of pressing rollers1 and afterwards to the drying cylinders4 ,you will observe1 that the paper1 after passing through the first pair of rollers1 is carried along the felt for some distance1 and then turned over1 in order to receive a corresponding pressure on the other side1 thus obviating the inequality of surface which would otherwise be apparent1 especially if the paper were to be employed for books4 ,the advantage gained by the use of so great a length of felt1 is simply1 that it becomes less necessary to stop the machine for the purpose of washing it1 than would be the case if the felt were limited in length to its absolute necessity4 ,in some instances1 when the paper being made is sized in the pulp with such an ingredient as resin1 the felt becomes so completely clogged in the space of a few hours1 that unless a very great and apparently unnecessary length of felt be employed1 a considerable waste of time is constantly incurred in washing or changing the felt4 ,to obviate all this--whether waste of time or waste of felt--,i have suggested in one or two quarters1 the propriety of passing the felt1 as it returns from conducting the paper to the heated cylinders1 through a trough of water1 and while travelling through the water to apply suction boxes to both the upper and lower surface of the felt1 which by an alternate action1 might be made sufficiently powerful to remove all impurity1 without in any way obstructing the progress of the felt2 which if found necessary1 might be assisted1 while at the same time the felt would be restored to its original condition1 by employing a suction roller to which a steady motion was given in connexion with the machine4 ,the operation of the manufacture will now be apparent4 ,the pulp flowing from the reservoir into the lifter1 and thence through the strainer1 passes over a small lip to the continuous wire1 being there partially compacted by the shaking motion1 more thoroughly so on its passage over the air boxes1 receiving any desired marks by means of the dandy roller passing over the continuous felt between the first pressing rollers1 then turned over to receive a corresponding pressure on the other side1 and from thence off to the drying cylinders1 which are heated more or less by injected steam2 the cylinder which receives the paper first1 being heated less than the second1 the second than the third1 and so on2 the paper after passing over those cylinders1 being finally wound upon a reel1 as shown1 unless it be printing paper1 which can be sized sufficiently in the pulp1 by an admixture of alum1 soda1 and resin1 or the like2 in which case it may be at once conducted to the cutting machine1 to be divided into any length and width required4 ,but1 supposing it to be intended for writing purposes1 it has first to undergo a more effectual method of sizing1 as shown in the accompanying drawing4 ,the size in this instance being made from parings obtained from tanners1 curriers1 and parchment-makers1 as employed in the case of hand-made papers4 ,of course1 sizing in the pulp or in the engine offers many advantages1 but as gelatine1 or animal size1 which is really essential for all good writing qualities1 cannot at present be employed during the process of manufacturing by the machine without injury to the felts1 it becomes necessary to pass the web of paper1 after it has been dried by the cylinders1 through this apparatus4 ,illustration3 ,,sizing ,,apparatus ,in most cases1 however1 the paper is at once guided as it issues from the machine1 through the tub of size1 and is thence carried over the skeleton drums shown1 inside each of which are a number of fans rapidly revolving2 sometimes there are forty or fifty of these drums in succession1 the whole confined in a chamber heated by steam4 ,i have seen a paper machine with the sizing apparatus attached1 which from the wire-cloth where the pulp first flows on1 to the cutting machine at the extremity1 measured no less than one thousand feet4 ,the advantage of drying the paper in this manner over so many of these drums is1 that it turns out much harder and stronger1 than if dried more rapidly over heated cylinders4 ,some manufacturers adopt a peculiar process of sizing1 which in fact answers very much better1 and is alike applicable to papers made by hand or by machine1 provided the latter description be first cut into pieces or sheets of the required dimensions4 ,the contrivance consists of two revolving felts1 between which the sheets are carried under several rollers through a long trough of size1 being afterwards hung up to dry upon lines1 previously to rolling or glazing4 ,the paper thus sized becomes much harder and stronger1 by reason of the freedom with which the sheets can contract in drying2 and this is mainly the reason why paper made by hand continues to be so much tougher than that made by the machine1 in consequence of the natural tendency of the pulp to contract in drying1 and consequently becoming1 where no resistance is offered1 more entwined or entangled1 which of course adds very considerably to the strength and durability of the paper4 ,in making by the machine1 this tendency1 you will observe1 is completely checked4 ,the next operation which we have to notice1 now that the paper is finished1 is that of cutting it into standard sizes4 ,originally1 the reel upon which it was finally wound1 was formed so that its diameter might be lessened or increased at pleasure1 according to the sizes which were required4 ,thus1 for instance1 supposing we wanted to cut the web of paper into sheets of #ah inches in length1 we should either lessen the diameter of the reel to #f inches1 and thus the circumference to #ah inches1 or if convenient increase it to #cf inches1 afterwards cutting the paper in two with a large knife1 similar in size and shape to that employed by a cheesemonger2 the width of the web being regulated by the deckle straps 7,q7 to either twice or three times the width of the sheet1 as the case might be4 ,however1 in regard to the length considerable waste1 of necessity1 arose1 from the great increase in the circumference of the reel as the paper was wound upon it1 and to remedy this1 several contrivances have been invented4 ,to dwell upon their various peculiarities or separate stages of improvement1 would1 no doubt1 prove to the general reader of little comparative interest1 ,i shall1 therefore1 confine my attention to a brief explanation of the cutting machine1 of which ,i have given an illustration1 and which is unquestionably the best1 as well as the most ingenious1 invention of the kind4 ,the first movement or operation peculiar to this machine is that of cutting the web of paper longitudinally1 into such widths as may be required4 ,and this is effected by means of circular blades1 placed at stated distances1 which receive the paper as it issues direct from the other machinery1 and by a very swift motion1 much greater than that at which the paper travels1 slit it up with unerring precision wherever they may be fixed4 ,a pair of those circular blades is shown in the drawing 7a71 the upper one being much larger than the lower1 which is essential to the smoothness of the cut4 ,and not only is the upper blade larger in circumference1 but it is also made to revolve with much greater rapidity1 by means of employing a small pinion1 worked by one at least twice its diameter1 which is fixed upon the same shaft as the lower blade1 to which the motive power is applied4 ,the action aimed at is precisely such as we obtain from a pair of scissors4 ,the web1 as it is termed by the paper-maker1 being thus severed longitudinally1 the next operation is that of cutting it off into sheets of some particular length horizontally2 and to do this requires a most ingenious movement4 ,to give a very general idea of the contrivance1 the dotted line is intended to represent the paper travelling on with a rapidity in some cases of #hj feet per minute1 and yet its course has to be temporarily arrested while the required separation is effected1 and that too without the paper's accumulating in any mass1 or getting creased in the slightest degree4 ,illustration3 ,,cutting ,,machine4 ,the large drum 7b71 over which the paper passes1 in the direction indicated by the arrows1 has simply an alternating motion1 which serves to gather the paper in such lengths as may be required4 ,the crank arm 7c71 which is capable of any adjustment either at top or bottom1 regulating the extent of the movement backwards and forwards1 and thus the length of the sheet4 ,as soon as the paper to be cut off has passed below the point 7d71 at which a presser is suspended1 having an alternating motion given to it1 in order to make it approach to1 and recede from1 a stationary presser-board2 it is taken hold of as it descends from the drum1 and the length pendant from the presser1 is instantly cut off by the moveable knife 7e71 to which motion is given by the crank 7f71 the connecting rod 7g71 the lever 7h71 and the connecting rod 7i74 ,the combined motion of these rods and levers1 admits of the moveable knife 7e71 remaining nearly quiescent for a given time1 and then speedily closing upon the fixed knife 7k71 cutting off the paper in a similar manner to a pair of shears1 when it immediately slides down a board1 or in some instances is carried along a revolving felt1 at the extremity of which several men or boys are placed to receive the sheets1 according to the number into which the width of the web is divided4 ,as soon as the pressers are closed for a length of paper to be cut off1 the motion of the gathering drum is reversed1 smoothing out the paper upon its surface1 which is now held between the pressers2 the tension roll 7l71 taking up the slack in the paper as it accumulates1 or rather bearing it gently down1 until the movement of the drum is again reversed to furnish another length4 ,the handle 7m71 is employed merely to stop a portion of the machinery1 should the water-mark not fall exactly in the centre of the sheet1 when by this means it can be momentarily adjusted4 ,the paper being thus made1 and cut up into sheets of stated dimensions1 is next looked over and counted out into quires of #bd sheets1 and afterwards into reams of #bj quires2 which subsequently1 under the superintendence of an ,excise ,officer1 are carefully weighed and stamped1 previously to their being sent into the market4 ,connected with the manufacture of paper1 there is one point of considerable interest and importance1 and that is1 what is commonly1 but erroneously1 termed the water-mark1 which may be noticed in the ,times ,newspaper1 in the ,new ,bank of ,england ,notes1 ,cheques and ,bills1 as also in every ,postage and ,receipt ,label of the present day4 ,the curious1 and in some instances absurd terms1 which now puzzle us so much in describing the different sorts and sizes of paper1 may frequently be explained by reference to the various paper-marks which have been adopted at different periods4 ,in ancient times1 when comparatively few people could read1 pictures of every kind were much in use where writing would now be employed4 ,every shop1 for instance1 had its sign1 as well as every public-house1 and those signs were not then1 as they often are now1 only painted upon a board1 but were invariably actual models of the thing which the sign expressed--as we still occasionally see some such sign as a bee-hive1 a tea-canister1 or a doll1 and the like4 ,for the same reason printers employed some device1 which they put upon the title pages and at the end of their books1 and paper makers also introduced marks1 by way of distinguishing the paper of their manufacture from that of others2 which marks becoming common1 naturally gave their names to different sorts of paper4 ,and since names often remain long after the origin of them is forgotten and circumstances are changed1 it is not surprising to find the old names still in use1 though in some cases they are not applied to the same things which they originally denoted4 ,one of the illustrations of ancient water-mark which ,i have given in the accompanying plate2 that of an open hand with a star at the top1 which was in use as early as #aecj2 probably gave the name to what is still called hand paper4 ,another very favourite paper-mark1 at a subsequent period #aedj-fj1 was the jug or pot1 which is also shown1 and would appear to have originated the term pot paper4 ,the foolscap was a later device1 and does not appear to have been nearly of such long continuance as the former4 ,it has given place to the figure of ,britannia1 or that of a lion rampant1 supporting the cap of liberty on a pole4 ,the name1 however1 has continued1 and we still denominate paper of a particular size1 by the title of foolscap4 ,the original figure has the cap and bells1 of which we so often read in old plays and histories1 as the particular head-dress of the fool1 who at one time formed part of every great man's establishment4 ,i have met with the water-mark of a cap1 much simpler than that which we have just noticed1 somewhat resembling the jockey-caps of the present day1 with a trifling ornamentation or addition to the upper part4 ,the first edition of 8,shakspeare10 printed by ,isaac ,jaggard ,ed4 ,blount1 #afbc1 will be found to contain this mark1 interspersed with several others of a different character4 ,no doubt the general use of the term cap to various papers of the present day owes its origin to marks of this description4 ,the term imperial was in all probability derived from the finest specimens of papyri1 which were so called by the ancients4 ,illustration3 7,water-marks7 ,post paper seems to have derived its name from the post-horn1 which at one time was its distinguishing mark4 ,it does not appear to have been used prior to the establishment of the general post-office 7#afgj71 when it became the custom to blow a horn1 to which circumstance no doubt we may attribute its introduction4 ,the mark is still frequently used1 but the same change which has so much diminished the number of painted signs in the streets of our towns and cities1 has nearly made paper-marks a matter of antiquarian curiosity2 the maker's name being now generally used1 and the mark1 in the few instances where it still remains1 serving the purpose of mere ornament1 rather than that of distinction4 ,water-marks1 however1 have at various periods been the means of detecting frauds1 forgeries and impositions1 in our courts of law and elsewhere1 to say nothing of the protection they afford in the instances already referred to1 such as bank notes1 cheques1 receipt1 bill1 and postage stamps4 ,the celebrated ,curran once distinguished himself in a case which he had undertaken1 by shrewdly referring to the water-mark1 which effectually determined the verdict4 ,and another instance1 which ,i introduce merely in the form of an amusing anecdote1 occurred once at ,messina1 where the monks of a certain monastery exhibited1 with great triumph1 a letter as being written by the ,virgin ,mary with her own hand4 ,unluckily for them1 however1 this was not1 as it easily might have been1 written upon the ancient papyrus1 but on paper made of rags4 ,on one occasion a visitor1 to whom this was shown1 observed1 with affected solemnity1 that the letter involved also a miracle1 for the paper on which it was written was not in existence until several centuries after the mother of our ,lord had died4 ,a further illustration of the kind occurs in a work entitled 8,ireland's ,confessions10 which was published respecting his fabrication of the ,shakspeare manuscripts1--a literary forgery even still more remarkable1 ,i think1 than that which is said to have been perpetrated by ,chatterton1 as ,rowley's ,poems4 ,the interest which at the time was universally felt in this production of ,ireland's1 may be partially gathered from the fact1 that the whole of the original edition1 which appeared in the form of a shilling pamphlet1 was disposed of in a few hours2 while so great was the eagerness to obtain copies afterwards1 that single impressions were sold in an auction room at the extravagant price of a guinea4 ,this gentleman tells us1 at one part of his explanation1 that the sheet of paper which he used was the outside of several others1 on some of which accounts had been kept in the reign of ,charles the ,first2 and being at that time wholly unacquainted with the water-marks used in the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth1 8,i carefully selected 7says he7 two half-sheets1 not having any mark whatever1 on which ,i penned my first effusion40 ,a few pages further on he writes--8,being thus urged forward to the production of more manuscripts1 it became necessary that ,i should possess a sufficient quantity of old paper to enable me to proceed1 in consequence of which ,i applied to a bookseller1 named ,verey1 in ,great ,may's ,buildings1 ,st4 ,martin's ,lane1 who1 for the sum of five shillings1 suffered me to take from all the folio and quarto volumes in his shop1 the fly leaves which they contained4 ,by this means ,i was amply stored with that commodity2 nor did ,i fear any mention of the circumstance by ,mr4 ,verey1 whose quiet unsuspecting disposition1 ,i was well convinced1 would never lead him to make the transaction public1 in addition to which he was not likely even to know anything concerning the supposed ,shaksperian discovery by myself1 and even if he had1 ,i do not imagine that my purchase of the old paper in question1 would have excited in him the smallest degree of suspicion4 ,as ,i was fully aware from the variety of water-marks which are in existence at the present day1 that they must have constantly been altered since the period of ,elizabeth1 and being for some time wholly unacquainted with the water-marks of that age1 ,i very carefully produced my first specimens of the writing on such sheets of old paper as had no mark whatever4 ,having heard it frequently stated that the appearance of such marks on the papers would have greatly tended to establish their validity1 ,i listened attentively to every remark which was made upon the subject1 and from thence ,i at length gleaned the intelligence that a jug was the prevalent water-mark of the reign of ,elizabeth1 in consequence of which ,i inspected all the sheets of old paper then in my possession1 and having selected such as had the jug upon them1 ,i produced the succeeding manuscripts upon these1 being careful1 however1 to mingle with them a certain number of blank leaves1 that the production on a sudden of so many water-marks might not excite suspicion in the breasts of those persons who were most conversant with the manuscripts40 ,thus1 this notorious literary forgery1 through the cunning ingenuity of the perpetrator1 ultimately proved so successful as to deceive many learned and able critics of the age4 ,indeed1 on one occasion a kind of certificate was drawn up1 stating that the undersigned names were affixed by gentlemen who entertained no doubt whatever as to the validity of the ,shaksperian production1 and that they voluntarily gave such public testimony of their convictions upon the subject4 ,to this document several names were appended by persons as conspicuous for their erudition as they were pertinacious in their opinions4 ,the water-mark in the form of a letter p1 of which ,i have given an illustration1 is taken from ,caxton's well-known work1 8,the ,game of the ,chesse10 a fac simile of which is about to be published as a tribute to his memory4 ,paper has recently been made expressly for the purpose1 in exact representation of the original1 and containing this water-mark1 which will be found common in works printed by him4 ,the ordinary mode of effecting such paper marks as we have been describing is that of affixing a stout wire in the form of any object to be represented to the surface of the fine wire-gauze1 of which the hand-mould1 or machine dandy roller is constructed4 ,the perfection1 however1 to which water-marks have now attained1 which in many instances is really very beautiful1 is owing to a more ingenious method recently patented1 and since adopted by the ,bank of ,england1 as affording considerable protection to the public in determining the genuineness of a bank note4 ,for the original idea of producing light and shade1 as seen in specimens #a1 #ac1 and #ae1 we are indebted to ,mr4 ,wm4 ,henry ,smith1 whose patient perseverance1 and laborious efforts1 at length enabled him to overcome many difficulties1 and finally to produce not only any peculiarity of design1 however complicate1 but also to secure its repetition with a certainty of uniformity which1 in the process of manufacture as hitherto conducted1 it was found impossible to accomplish4 ,to produce a line water-mark of the character shown in specimens #aj1 #ab1 and #af1 or of any of the autographs or crests in ,no4 #ad1 7which sheet was produced from the mould which ,i employed at the ,london ,institution17 we might either engrave the pattern or device first in some yielding surface1 precisely as we should engrave a copper-plate for printing1 and afterwards by immersing the plate in a solution of sulphate of copper1 and electrotyping it in the usual way1 allow the interstices of the engraving to give it as were a casting of pure copper1 and thus an exact representation of the original device1 which1 upon being removed from the plate1 and affixed to the surface of the wire-gauze forming the mould1 would produce a corresponding impression in the paper3 or1 supposing perfect identity to be essential1 as in the case of a bank note1 we might engrave the design upon the surface of a steel die1 taking care to cut those parts in the die deepest which are intended to give greater effect in the paper1 and then1 after having hardened1 and otherwise properly prepared the die1 it would be placed under a steam hammer or other stamping apparatus1 for the purpose of producing what is technically termed a 8force10 which is required to assist in transferring an impression from the die to a plate of sheet brass4 ,this being done1 the die1 with the mould-plate in it1 would next be taken to a perforating or cutting machine1 where the back of the mould-plate--that is the portion which projects above the face of the die--would be removed1 while that portion which was impressed into the design engraven1 would remain untouched1 and this being subsequently taken from the interstices of the die and placed in a frame upon a backing of fine wire-cloth1 becomes a mould for the manufacture of paper of the pattern which is desired1 or for the production of any water-mark1 autograph1 crest or device1 however complicate4 ,light and shade1 as seen in ,nos4 #a1 #ac1 and #ae1 are occasioned by a very similar process1 but one which perhaps requires a little more care1 and necessarily becomes somewhat more tedious4 ,for instance1 in the former case the pulp is distributed equally throughout the entire surface of the wire forming the mould1 whereas now we have to contrive the means of increasing to a very great nicety the thickness or distribution of the pulp1 and at the same time to make provision for the water's draining away4 ,this has been accomplished1 as in the case of ,no4 #ac1 by first taking an electrotype of the raised surface of any model or design1 and again from that1 forming in a similar manner a matrix or mould1 both of which are subsequently mounted upon lead or gutta percha1 in order that they may withstand the pressure which is required to be put upon them in giving impression to a sheet of very fine copper wire-gauze1 which1 in the form of a mould1 and in the hands of the vatman1 suffices ultimately to produce such beautiful transparent effects in paper pulp as those to which ,i have called your attention4 ,by similar means a portrait of the ,emperor ,napoleon was produced for the ,paris ,exhibition4 ,the other specimens1 #a and #ae1 are produced in the same manner as the word 8,five0 in the centre of the new ,bank of ,england note4 ,the deepest shadows in the water-mark being occasioned by the deepest engraving upon the die1 the lightest1 by the shallowest1 and so forth2 the die being employed to give impression by means of the stamping press and 8force0 to the fine wire-gauze itself1 which by this means1 providing the die be properly cut1 is accomplished far more successfully than by any other process1 and with the additional advantage of securing perfect identity4 ,it may be interesting to call attention to the contrast as regards the method of mould-making originally practised1 and that which has recently been adopted by the ,bank of ,england4 ,in a pair of five pound note moulds1 prepared by the old process1 there were #h curved borders1 #af figures1 #afh large waves1 and #bdj letters1 which had all to be separately secured by the finest wire to the waved surface4 ,there were #a1jef wires1 #fg1ehd twists1 and the same repetition where the stout wires were introduced to support the under surface4 ,therefore1 with the backing1 laying1 large waves1 figures1 letters1 and borders1 before a pair of moulds was completed1 there were some hundreds of thousands of stitches1 most of which are now avoided by the new patent4 ,but further1 by this multitudinous stitching and sewing1 the parts were never placed precisely in the same position1 and the water-mark was consequently never identical4 ,now1 the same die gives impression to the metal which transfers it to the water-mark1 with a certainty of identity unattainable before1 and one could almost say1 never to be surpassed4 ,but1 as it has been properly remarked1 may we not detect principles in this process which are not only valuable to the ,bank1 but to all public establishments having important documents on paper1 for what can exceed the value of such a test for discovering the deceptions of dishonest men4 ,one's signature1 crest1 or device of any kind1 rendering the paper exclusively one's own1 can now be secured in a pair of moulds1 at the cost merely of a few guineas4 ,thus then1 ,i have endeavoured briefly to glance at all the varied manipulations comprised in the term ,paper ,making2 from the soiled rags1 which by this regenerating process1 are converted into pure and spotless paper1 and thence to the operations which in degree distinguish it1 until finally1 the stronger the test for illuminating its perfection1 but suffices to prove it of that most aristocratic class1 to which belongs our new bank note4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,anecdote of an over-curious enquirer--,its probable application to many readers--,paper ,making1 when straightforward1 extremely simple1 but ordinarily involving considerable chemical and practical skill--,brief review of artificial aids--,anecdotes of the deleterious effects of bleaching1 and of imparting colour to the 8stuff0--,ultramarine1 its use and abuse--,manufactured ,paper1 its varieties and peculiarities--,excise ,regulations--,paper ,duty--,conclusion4 ,not long since ,i heard of a very inquisitive gentleman1 as some people would term him1 who wrote to a friend of mine asking him to obtain certain information respecting the manufacture of isinglass2 and although the questions put1 were by no means essential to general knowledge1 my friend complied with his request1 and forwarded the application to the party immediately interested in its production2 who1 with similar promptitude undertook to furnish the answers per return of post1 upon receiving from the anxious applicant a repetition of the inquiry1 accompanied by his cheque for three thousand pounds4 ,now1 it is not at all improbable that many into whose hands this book may fall will be disposed to charge me with similar motives1 as concealing secrets connected with paper making4 ,it is1 however1 a reliable fact1 that nothing can be more simple or straightforward than the manufacture of that1 which1 for want of a more comprehensive expression1 ,i must denominate genuine paper4 ,chemical aid1 combined with great practical skill1 is absolutely indispensable1 ,i admit1 to enable one to keep pace with competition in the present day2 when even the rags and tatters1 cast off by the very poorest of the poor1 may now be forwarded after sunrise1 many miles distant1 and before sunset1 received back again converted into a becoming ground-work for the most enchanting billet-doux4 ,still1 productions of this character1 when contrasted with the results of a slow and simple manipulation of finer materials1 even to the unpractised eye1 will be found far inferior1 as regards the one grand test of superiority1 viz41 durability4 ,the slower the process of manufacture is conducted from beginning to end1 from the trituration of the 8stuff0 in the rag engine1 to the formation of the sheet1 its sizing1 drying1 and rolling1 the stronger and more durable will the paper ultimately turn out4 ,no4 #ag1 which is a specimen of paper thus carefully made1 and almost as tough and durable as parchment1 is capable of sustaining a weight of no less than #bjj lbs41 simply by means of a slip the width of a bank note4 ,if1 however1 we glance at the other extreme1 and take the aids frequently adopted to produce paper of apparent excellence from comparatively worthless materials1 we shall find occasion to regret more than one form of artificial assistance1 which is perpetually liable to objection4 ,the effects1 for instance1 of excessive bleaching are still occasionally manifested1 although by a better system of washing the pulp and the use of counteracting chemicals1 evils which at one time resulted therefrom are now mainly checked4 ,within the recollection of my father1 it was not at all an uncommon occurrence for a parcel of paper to become so completely perished from the circumstance of its not having been thoroughly washed after bleaching1 that to draw a sheet as a sample1 and to fold it up in the usual way1 was found utterly impossible1 without the sheets being cracked or broken at every fold4 ,in some instances1 the fibre was so completely destroyed1 that an entire ream1 composed of #dhj sheets1 might be as readily snapped asunder as a piece of rotten wood1 merely by giving it a sharp blow against the back of a chair4 ,the evils and inconveniences which must have resulted from this are altogether incalculable4 ,mr4 ,hansard 78,typographia10 #ahbe17 thus writes1 8,whole piles of quired stock1 meaning books unbound1 are already crumbling to dust in the warehouses of booksellers1 never to come to light as books1 and many a volume designed to enrich the library of its possessor and to descend as an heir-loom to posterity1 now presents to the mortified owner its elegant print surrounded by a margin of tan colour1 which in some instances forms1 as it were1 a complete frame round each page1 the oil varnish in the composition of the ink seeming to preserve the interstices between the print from the same kind of discoloration4 ,school books 7he adds7 printed on this species of paper1 will scarcely last out their destined period1 from one vacation to the next40 ,another gentleman informs us1 speaking of a quantity of ,bibles1 which were printed for the ,british and ,foreign ,bible ,society1 that one in his possession1 printed at the ,university press at ,oxford in #ahaf1 7which had never been used7 was then1 within a year or two afterwards1 literally crumbling into dust4 8,almost the entire book of ,genesis 7says he7 has mouldered away1 and left not a trace behind40 ,of course1 paper of this description 7if it deserves the name at all7 would prove very bad stock in like manner for the stationer1 being for any purpose whatever as utterly useless as it was worthless1 with but one exception1 which in the case of a large parcel of this description1 ,i understand1 was once adopted1 viz41 that of shipping it in very common cases1 thus securing the drawback1 which1 at that time1 was far more worth consideration than it would be now1 and eventually consigning it to the fate of innumerable other treasures within the boundless limits of the ocean4 ,if to speak of the various artificial aids which the manufacturer has recourse to in the present day be necessary1 it surely cannot but be equally advisable1 to point out their main cause2 and if blame exist at all1 or fault be found1 it cannot1 ,i apprehend1 be rested with greater safety than with those who1 stipulating their own terms1 must of necessity be supplied in their own way4 ,the paper maker requires to be remunerated2 and with competition to grapple with and contend against1 not only all the improvements which mechanical science is capable of supplying1 must be adopted by him1 but even in many cases1 however much to be regretted1 he is tempted to an intermixture of noxious and heterogeneous materials1 in order that the minimum price may be attained4 ,some specimens of paper will be found to contain as much as one-fourth their weight of gypsum2 and in fact1 even worse material1 as a means of adulteration1 is as eagerly sought after by the manufacturer of paper1 as the public generally1 to the sacrifice of quality1 seek the cheapest article which it is possible to procure4 ,i need but refer1 as an instance1 to the packing papers of the present day1 of which one sheet properly made 7#be71 contrasted with one of the same weight of the sort usually selected1 will be found to possess three times the amount of strength1 although not #aj per cent4 higher in price4 ,with a finer class of papers common materials are as readily employed1 through the assistance of some colouring matter1 which tends to conceal the imperfection4 ,indeed1 it would be difficult to name an instance of apparent deception more forcible than that which is accomplished by the use of ultramarine4 ,until very recently the fine bluish tinge given to many writing papers was derived from the admixture of that expensive mineral blue1 the oxide of cobalt1 generally termed smalts1 and which has still the advantage over the ultramarine of imparting a colour which will endure for a much longer period4 ,one pound of ultramarine1 however1 going further than four of smalts at the same price1 the former necessarily meets with more extended application1 and where the using is rightly understood1 and the materials employed instead of being fine rags1 comparative rubbish1 excessively bleached2 its application proves remarkably serviceable in concealing for a time all other irregularities1 and even far surpassing in appearance the best papers of the kind4 ,at first the introduction of ultramarine led to some difficulty in sizing the paper1 for so long as smalts continued to be used1 any amount of alum might be employed1 and it was actually added to the size to preserve it from putrefaction4 ,but since artificial ultramarine is bleached by alum1 it became of course necessary to add this salt to the size in very small proportions1 and as a natural consequence1 the gelatine was no longer protected from the action of the air1 which led to incipient decomposition1 and in such cases the putrefaction once commenced1 proceeded even after the size was dried on the paper1 and gave to it a most offensive smell1 which rendered the paper unsaleable4 ,this difficulty1 however1 has now been overcome1 and providing the size be quite free from taint when applied to the paper1 and quickly dried1 putrefaction will not subsequently occur2 but if decay has once commenced1 it cannot be arrested by drying only4 ,the practice of blueing the paper pulp had its origin in a singularly accidental circumstance1 which not merely as an historical fact1 but as forming an amusing anecdote1 is perhaps worth mentioning4 ,it occurred about the year #agij1 at a paper mill belonging to ,mr4 ,buttenshaw1 whose wife1 on the occasion in question1 was superintending the washing of some fine linen1 when accidentally she dropped her bag of powdered blue into the midst of some pulp in a forward state of preparation1 and so great was the fear she entertained of the mischief she had done1 seeing the blue rapidly amalgamated with the pulp1 that all allusion to it was studiously avoided2 until1 on ,mr4 ,buttenshaw's inquiring in great astonishment what it was that had imparted the peculiar colour to the pulp1 his wife1 perceiving that no very great damage had been done1 took courage and at once disclosed the secret1 for which she was afterwards rewarded in a remarkable manner by her husband1 who being naturally pleased with an advance of so much as four shillings per bundle1 upon submitting the improved make to the ,london market1 immediately purchased a costly scarlet cloak1 7somewhat more congenial to taste in those days1 it is presumed1 than it would be now17 which he carefully conveyed home1 and presented with much satisfaction to the sharer of his joy4 ,although the practice of blueing paper is not1 perhaps1 so customary now as was the case a few years back1 the extent to which it is still carried may be a matter of considerable astonishment4 ,on its first introduction1 when1 as regards colour1 the best paper was anything but pleasing1 so striking a novelty would no doubt be hailed as a great improvement1 and as such received into general use1 but when we contrast a first class paper now 7#h71 without any colouring matter whatever1 and without any superfluous marks upon its surface1 with the miserable blue tints one so frequently sees1 it becomes a source of surprise1 that the superior delicacy of the former is not more generally appreciated4 ,the only objection which can be urged against the use of a colourless paper is1 its comparative transparency when glazed in the ordinary way3 but this is by no means essential4 ,a finished surface imparted by calendering1 when contrasted with one more highly glazed1 will be found wholly superior for a writing paper1 and unobjectionable as regards opaqueness4 ,in paper making1 there has seldom1 perhaps1 arisen a greater difficulty than in furnishing a supply suited to the purposes of photography4 ,unquestionably1 great care is requisite in the selection of the materials1 their preparation1 and subsequent manufacture4 ,but the difficulty is owing more to the want of positive information on the part of the photographer1 than to failure in the exertions of the ,paper ,maker4 ,i have recently been informed by a gentleman who has devoted much time and attention to this particular class of paper1 that after forwarding specimens to many score members of that profession1 and inviting observations and suggestions thereon1 not one in ten favoured him with any reply1 and of those who did1 although many first-rate names might be mentioned1 the conclusions to which they severally came were totally adverse4 ,it is not my intention to wander further into the field of paper and paper making than to mark the boundary which has been set up by ,act of ,parliament1 in the form of ,excise ,regulations1 with a few general observations upon the varieties and peculiarities of manufactured paper1 as a becoming and at the present time somewhat important termination to our subject4 ,manufactured paper1 independently of the miscellaneous kinds1 such as blotting1 filtering1 and the like1 which are rendered absorbent by the free use of woollen rags1 may be divided into three distinct classes1 viz41 writing1 printing1 and wrapping4 ,the former again into five1 cream wove 7#h71 yellow wove 7#ag71 blue wove 7#g71 cream laid 7#af71 and blue laid 7#e74 ,the printing into two1 laid and wove1 and the latter into four1 blue 7#bb71 purple 7#bd71 brown 7#be71 and whited brown 7#bc71 as it is commonly termed4 ,each of these sorts ought again to be classified1 until it would appear as if not merely all the wants1 wishes1 and fancies of mankind had been fully studied and provided for1 but that even the utmost bounds of variety in like manner had been included1 in order to test the comprehensiveness of human caprice4 ,to give a simple definition of the mode adopted for distinguishing the various kinds1 ,i must include1 with the class denominated writing papers1 those which are used for drawing1 which being sized in like manner1 and with the exception of one or two larger kinds1 of precisely the same dimensions as those passing by the same name1 which are used strictly for writing purposes1 7the only distinction1 in fact1 being1 that the drawings are cream wove1 while the writings are laid17 there would of course be no necessity for separating them4 ,indeed1 since many of the sizes used for printing are exactly the same as those which would be named as writing papers1 for the sake of abridgment ,i will reduce my distinctions of difference to but two heads1 fine and coarse2 under the latter1 including the ordinary brown papers1 the whited brown1 or small hand quality1 and the blues and purples1 used by grocers4 ,the smallest size of the fine quality1 as sent from the mill1 measures #ab by #ae inches1 and is termed ,pot2 next to that ,foolscap1 #ag by #ac2 then ,post1 #ah by #ae2 ,copy1 #bj by #af2 ,large ,post1 #bj by #af2 ,medium ,post1 #ah by #bc2 ,sheet-and-third ,foolscap1 #bc by #ac2 ,sheet-and-half ,foolscap1 #bd by #ac2 ,double ,foolscap1 #bg by #ag2 ,double ,pot1 #cj by #be2 ,double ,post1 #cj by #ai2 ,double ,crown1 #bj by #cj2 ,demy1 #bj by #ae2 ditto ,printing1 #bb by #ag2 ,medium1 #bb by #ag2 ditto ,printing1 #bc by #ah2 ,royal1 #bd by #ai2 ditto ,printing1 #be by #bj2 ,super ,royal1 #bg by #ai2 ditto ,printing1 #ba by #bg2 ,imperial1 #cj by #bb2 ,elephant1 #bh by #bc2 ,atlas1 #cd by #bf2 ,columbier1 #cd by #bc2 ,double ,elephant1 #bf by #dj2 and ,antiquarian1 #ec by #ca4 ,the different sizes of letter and note paper ordinarily used are prepared from those kinds by the stationer1 whose business consists chiefly in smoothing the edges of the paper1 and afterwards packing it up in some tasteful form1 which serves to attract attention4 ,under the characteristic names of coarse papers may be mentioned ,kent ,cap1 #ba by #ah2 ,bag ,cap1 #ai by #bd2 ,havon ,cap1 #ba by #bf2 ,imperial ,cap1 #bb by #bi2 ,double #b-lb41 #ag by #bd2 ,double #d-lb41 #ba by #cj2 ,double #f-lb41 #ai by #bh2 ,casing of various dimensions1 also ,cartridges1 with other descriptive names1 besides ,middle ,hand1 #bb by #af2 ,lumber ,hand1 #ai by #bi2 ,royal ,hand1 #bj by #be2 ,double ,small ,hand1 #ai by #bi2 and of the purples1 such significations as ,copy ,loaf1 #af by #ba1 #ch-lb42 ,powder ,loaf1 #ah by #bf1 #eh-lb42 ,double ,loaf1 #af by #bc1 #dh-lb42 ,single ,loaf1 #ba by #bg1 #gh-lb42 ,lump1 #bc by #cc1 #ajj-lb42 ,hambro'1 #af by #bc1 #dh-lb42 ,titler1 #bi by #ce1 #abj-lb42 ,prussian or ,double ,lump1 #cb by #db1 #bjj-lb42 and so forth1 with glazed boards1 of various sizes1 used chiefly by printers1 for pressing1 which are manufactured in a peculiar manner by hand1 the boards being severally composed of various sheets made in the ordinary way1 but turned off the mould one sheet upon another1 until the required substance be attained2 a felt is then placed upon the mass and another board formed4 ,by this means1 the sheets1 when pressed1 adhere more effectually to each other1 and the boards consequently become much more durable than would be the case if they were produced by pasting4 ,indeed1 if any great amount of heat be applied to pasteboards1 they will split1 and be rendered utterly useless4 ,the glazing in this case is accomplished by friction4 ,to complete the category of coarse papers1 ,i ought to mention1 as coming within the range of the ,excise1 ,milled ,boards1 employed in bookbinding1 of not less than one hundred and fifty descriptions1 that is1 as regards sizes and substances4 ,still1 however1 an incomplete idea is conveyed of the extraordinary number of sizes and descriptions into which paper is at present divided4 ,for instance1 ,i have said with reference to writing qualities1 that there are five kinds1 cream wove1 yellow wove1 blue wove1 cream laid1 and blue laid1 and again1 that of each of those kinds there are numerous sizes2 but in addition there are1 as a matter of course1 various thicknesses and makes of each size and kind4 ,in fact1 no house in ,london1 carrying on the wholesale stationery trade1 is without a thousand different sorts2 many keep stock of twice that number4 ,so much having of late been said with reference to a repeal of what are termed 8,taxes on ,knowledge10 occasioning thereby many very erroneous opinions1 it may be useful to offer some remarks upon ,excise ,regulations in connection with the duty on paper4 ,and1 in adverting to those regulations1 we shall have an opportunity for observing the gradual increase which has taken place in the consumption1 which in some measure tends to illustrate national advancement in the arts and sciences1 and the general extension of literary pursuits4 ,the ,excise duty on paper was first imposed in the reign of ,queen ,anne4 ,the statute1 bearing date #agaa1 recites as a reason for the grant--which no doubt corresponds with that of our ,chancellor of the ,exchequer for its continuance--8the necessity of raising large supplies of money to carry on the present war1 until your ,majesty shall be enabled to establish a good and lasting peace40 ,the duties at that time were charged on the ream1 at rates varying according to the kind of paper1 which was for this purpose divided into numerous denominations or classes1 thus--8,that there shall be raised1 levyed1 collected1 and paid to and for the use of her ,majesty1 her heires and successors1 for and upon all paper of what kind soever----which shall at any time or times within1 or during the terme of #cb years1 to be reckoned from the foure and twentieth day of ,june1 one thousand seven hundred and twelve1 be made in ,great ,britaine1 the severall and respective duties hereinafter menconed1 that is to say1 for and upon all paper usually called or knowne by the name of demy fine1 which shall be soe made in ,great ,britaine1 the sume of one shilling and sixpence for every reame1 and after that rate for a greater or lesser quantity40 ,and in like manner it goes on1 fixing the amount per ream to be paid for second demy1 fine and second crown1 fine and second foolscap1 fine and second pott1 brown1 large cap1 small ordinary brown1 whited brown1 pasteboards1 and lastly1 8,for and upon all other paper1 white or browne1 or of any other colour or kind whatsoever1 which shall be made in ,great ,britaine as aforesaid1 7not being particularly charged in this ,act17 a duty after the rate of twelve pounds for every one hundred pounds of the true and reall value of the same1 and after that rate for any greater or lesser quantities1 which said duties for and upon the said severall sorts of paper and other the commodities last menconed to be made in ,great ,britaine1 shall be paid by the makers thereof respectively40 ,but this method of drawing distinctions between different qualities and sizes of paper1 being found to lead to frequent disputes with the ,excise1 and great inequality in the charge on the manufactured article at different mills1 alterations were gradually made1 till at length it was enacted in the #dcrd year of the reign of ,george ,,iii41 8that all paper and pasteboards should be considered first class1 and subject to #c;d4 per lb4 duty1 unless made wholly out of old tarred rope and cordage1 without extracting therefrom the pitch or tar1 or any part thereof10 and the ,act further says1 8and without any mixture of other materials therewith20 and 8that for every pound weight avoirdupois of paper made in ,great ,britain1 of the second class or denomination1 that is to say1 all brown paper made of old ropes or cordage only1 as aforesaid1 a duty of #a;d4 per lb40 ,the professed object of the last mentioned ,act being a simplification of the mode of charging the duties1 the numerous distinct classes into which paper had been divided being here reduced to two4 ,but again1 evasion of the law was soon discovered to be practicable4 ,either by a partial purification of the tarred rope1 selecting also that which was most whitened by use and exposure1 and then charging the paper so made 7which was nearly equal to first class in marketable value7 with the second class duty2 or as tarred rope increased in price1 and some sorts of first class material very considerably declined1 the great temptation of an extensive evasion of the law necessarily followed1 by the use of first class material in second class paper4 ,whether the duty on paper as now imposed1 or the ,excise regulations under which that duty is collected1 be the more objectionable1 is perhaps difficult to say4 ,of course1 the paper-maker is subjected to considerable annoyance1 and the publisher compelled to submit to an outlay which he deems unjust1 and would very happily dispense with2 but the public are not really affected by it to the extent it is customary to suppose4 ,the duty at present levied upon paper of all kinds is fourteen guineas per ton1 or a little more than three halfpence per lb4 ,when1 therefore1 we hear men pronouncing it 8a most obnoxious tax10 and one 8directly opposed to the advancement of literature10 ,i freely confess that1 for my own part1 ,i hesitate very much to reiterate their sentiments4 ,some1 however1 prefer an intermediate course1 and propose a partial abolition of the duty4 ,mr4 ,charles ,dickens has favoured us with a suggestion to this effect3 he says1 8,in ,england1 where coloured paper is so little used1 the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer might as well1 as not1 take off the duty altogether from coloured paper4 ,it would cost the revenue a mere trifle1 while it would be a vast boon to the public40 ,but what induces this assertion8 ,if coloured paper is so little used1 the trifling reduction could not be considered a vast boon4 ,and one would like to know how or where it would be possible to draw a line of distinction between such papers as are coloured and those which are not4 ,i happen to be in a position to assert that there is no class of paper whatever1 which is not tinted more or less by different manufacturers4 ,to suggest then a partial repeal of the duty upon such grounds1 is1 ,i apprehend1 useless4 ,if it had been confessed that the reduction would be a boon to the publisher1 ,i should promptly have assented1 simply because ,i am equally well aware that printing paper may be slightly tinted1 with considerable advantage both as regards setting off the type1 and the general appearance of a work2 consequently if such really were to the public a boon1 to the publisher it would be very considerably increased4 ,however1 in order that we may not be supposed to lean to the present regulations1 ,i shall refer to one or two clauses of the ,act which ,i have no doubt will suffice to show1 that while in itself it is very far from perfect in its operation1 as protecting the interests of those concerned1 it is equally unsatisfactory1 and in some respects unjust4 ,i shall observe1 that with regard to the ,tax itself1 ,i simply question whether it would be possible to impose one less injurious to the well-being of society1 and against which1 as of necessity1 fewer persons could have cause to murmur1 than the existing duty on paper4 ,the sections of the ,act to which ,i content myself with calling attention1 are three1 affecting the convenience and interest of the manufacturer1 and one which offers a ready opportunity for an act of seeming dishonesty4 ,every step of the manufacture of paper must be conducted under the surveillance of the ,excise1 and the provisions as to entries1 folding1 weighing1 sorting1 labelling1 removing1 and so on1 are not only exceedingly numerous and vexatious1 but enforced under heavy penalties4 ,for instance1 every paper maker is required by sections #bj #ba1 to provide suitable scales and weights for the use of the ,excise1 and also to assist the officer in what we might conceive to be the execution of his peculiar duty1 under the penalties1 in the former case of #ajj41 and in the latter1 #ej4 for every refusal or neglect4 ,to many manufacturers the cost of this extra labour alone becomes an important consideration4 ,again1 in the instance of procuring the ,excise labels1 which have to be pasted on each ream1 section #i requires that every one signed for by the workman on delivery1 must be produced or accounted for1 under a penalty of #aj4 each1 which is equal to the duty upon no less than #afjj lbs4 weight of paper2 an idea necessarily inconsistent with that of its being packed in one parcel2 and therefore1 since for every time we divide such quantity1 an additional label is required1 a very forcible argument against so excessive a penalty may readily be deduced4 ,the labels employed are of three colours1--red1 blue1 and green2 denoting in which part of the kingdom the paper was made4 ,red being used for ,england2 blue1 for ,scotland2 and green for ,ireland4 ,the #bgth section of the ,act1 relating to the real and nominal weight of each ream or parcel1 is that to which ,i have referred as being liable to deceptive or dishonest purposes4 ,it runs thus--8,and be it enacted--,that if any ream1 c41 be found to weigh under or over the weight marked1 in the proportion of #e per centum1 if the weight marked on such ream exceed twenty pounds1 or #aj per centum if such weight be twenty pounds or less1 the same shall be forfeited40 ,of course there is no necessity for a proviso lest the maker should give a preference to an increase of weight upon that marked1 but since some cylinder dried papers are apt afterwards to increase in weight1 the addition is requisite to prevent unjust seizure4 ,however1 in all probability1 at the suggestion of the paper maker1 when aiding the ,excise1 in consequence of a great quantity to be charged1 it has become customary to average the weight of a draft1 instead of putting each ream separately into the scale4 ,thus the practicability of rendering this clause highly objectionable will be at once apparent1 and deserves to be pointed out for the purpose of warning against the temptation4 ,the quantity of paper manufactured in this country at the commencement of the eighteenth century1 when the duty was first imposed1 appears to have been far from sufficient to meet the necessities of the time4 ,even in #agba1 it is supposed that there were but about #cjj1jjj reams of paper annually produced in ,great ,britain1 which were equal merely to two-thirds of the consumption4 ,but in #aghd1 the value of the paper manufactured in ,england alone is stated to have amounted to #hjj1jjj42 and that1 by reason of the increase in price1 as also of its use1 in less than twenty years1 it nearly doubled that amount4 ,i have extracted1 from a ,parliamentary report1 various returns relating to the ,excise duties levied upon paper1 which1 since an article of the kind is necessarily subjected to great alteration in value1 according to the scarcity or abundance of raw materials1 are1 of course1 better calculated to show a steady increase in the demand1 than any mere references to statements of supposed value1 from time to time4 ,in one return1 specifying the rates of duty and amount of duty received upon each denomination of paper since #aggj1 it appears that the total amount of duty on paper manufactured in ,england for the year #aghd1 to which ,i have just alluded as being estimated in value at #hjj1jjj41 was #df1hfg4 #ais4 #i;d41 the duty at that time being divided into seven distinct classes or rates of collection2 while twenty years after1 when the mode of assessing the duty was reduced to but three classes1 it had risen to #cae1hjb4 #ds4 #h;d42 in #ahcj1 fifteen years after1 to #fai1hbd4 #gs4 #aa;d42 in #ahce1 for the ,united ,kingdom1 to #hcc1hbb4 #abs4 #d;d41 or1 in weight1 to #gj1fee1bhg lbs41 which was1 again1 within so short a period as fifteen years1 very nearly doubled4 ,the quantity of paper charged with ,excise duty in the ,united ,kingdom1 being1 in #ahej1 no less than #ada1jcb1dgd lbs41 and last year 7#ahed7 the enormous weight of #agi1hif1bbb lbs4 ,those observations1 which are partly technical1 because1 without technicality1 the view would be incomplete1--may give some idea of the skill required in the workman1 and the expenditure demanded of the capitalist1 to produce so simple a thing1 as a sheet of paper4 ,the most exact care1 the most ingenious invention1 the nicest work of hand1 and the most complicated machinery1 are essential to that superiority which the ,british manufacture of paper has at length established4 ,but the capabilities of paper are still more extensive4 ,there are probably few branches of use1 taste1 or ornament1 to which it may not be applicable4 ,we have it already moulded into many forms of utility1 and even of elegance1 under the well-known name of papier mache--a material which may yet be formed into works of art1 painted and enamelled tables1 antique candelabra1 models of busts1 statuettes1 classic temples1 and everything which can be shaped in a mould4 ,an earlier and more important use of ,paper is in the decoration of dwellings4 ,formerly1 the apartments of persons of opulence were hung with tapestry1 generally brought from the ,continental loom4 ,but its cost1 its loss of colour by time2 and the rise of commercial and industrial opulence1 displaced this elaborate and heavy decoration1 and substituted 8paper hangings40 ,the first specimens of those exhibited nothing but the rudeness of an art in its infancy1 and were almost wholly foreign2 but the capability of the invention was large1 and it had the advantage of converting the humble covering of walls into copies of the pencil1 on a new and extended scale4 ,the ,continental specimens of this manufacture already display representations of leading national events1 memorable battles1 and even portraits of eminent men1 forming1 for even the humbler ranks1 a kind of historic galleries4 ,the ,english manufacturer excels in the proportions of his paper1 7,english1 #ab yards long1 by #ba inches wide2 ,french1 #i yards1 by #ah inches74 ,but1 the art is still difficult and costly2 the blocks for a single pattern sometimes amounting to thousands4 ,one of the principal ,french manufacturers is1 at present1 producing a design1 requiring upwards of three thousand blocks1 at a cost of #bjjj41 the design alone costing #abjj4 ,but1 time and practice will lighten both the difficulty and the expense4 ,the manufacture may yet spread through every mart in the world4 ,in its more advanced stage1 it may supply the place of ,,fresco1 or rather be a multiplied ,fresco4 ,the ,cartoons of ,raphael1 the noblest work of design1 are upon paper2 the finest ,italian pictures might be copied upon paper2 and the tardy and toilsome work of the ,engraver might be exchanged for the rapid1 cheap1 and popular design1 no longer limited to the palace or the cloister1 but sent1 in thousands of copies1 round the globe4 ,nor let this be called ,utopian2 what can be ,utopian1 in the country of the ,railroad1 the ,steam-ship1 and the ,electric ,telegraph6 ,the art wants only public encouragement4 ,let the encouragement be given1 and the talent will be found4 ,let ,government offer a premium of even a thousand pounds for the best specimen4 ,let the ,society of ,arts make it one of the objects of their patronage2 let it be once favoured1 and it will soon advance to excellence4 ,nor let any one scoff at the interest1 which ,i venture to express in the ornament even of a cottage wall4 ,ornament is the crown of art4 ,taste is thought4 ,elegance is the refinement of civilization4 ,the study of beauty1 grandeur1 and truth1 in ,history and in ,nature1 is the most practical education of man6 ,who shall say1 that the sight of some heroic action--some noble figure of history--some sublime exercise of talent1 magnanimity1 or patriotism1 pictured on a cottage wall1--may not be like a flash through the darkness of the peasant heart2 may not suddenly awake the latent energy of the unconscious poet1 the patriot1 and the hero2 may not give to the world a ,shakspeare1 a ,wallace1 or a ,wellington6 ,,advertisement4 ,the ,author desires to state for the information of the ,subscribers1 that the delay which has arisen in the publication of this work has been altogether unavoidable2 owing to the labour and difficulty of preparing such illustrations as were found to be necessary3 many of the ,specimens inserted having been produced from moulds which were manufactured expressly for the purpose4 ,,list ,,of ,,subscribers4 ,,adams1 ,,francis ,,bryant1 ,esq41 7,messrs4 ,charles ,morgan and ,co47 ,,amos1 ,c4 ,e41 ,esq41 ,consulting ,engineer to the ,royal ,agricultural ,society of ,england4 ,,annandale1 ,,james1 ,esq41 ,newcastle4 ,,annandale1 ,,peter1 ,esq41 ,newcastle4 ,,appold1 ,j4 ,g41 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,balston1 ,r4 ,e4 ,p41 ,esq41 ,maidstone4 ,,balston1 ,,william1 ,esq41 ,maidstone4 ,,baring1 ,,thomas1 ,esq41 ,m4,p41 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 c41 ,president of the ,london ,institution4 ,,barlow1 ,,thomas1 ,esq41 ,metropolitan ,life ,assurance ,society4 ,,barrett1 ,,richard1 ,esq4 ,,barry1 ,,sir ,,charles1 ,r4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 c41 c4 ,,barry1 ,,james1 ,esq4 7,messrs4 ,barry and ,hayward47 ,,batt1 ,,benjamin1 ,esq4 ,,beavis1 ,,william1 ,esq4 ,,bebbington1 ,h4 ,a41 ,esq4 ,,blunt1 ,,henry1 ,esq4 ,,brayley1 ,e4 ,w41 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,s41 c41 c4 ,,brookman1 ,,william1 ,esq41 ,romsey4 ,,brown1 ,,richard1 ,esq4 ,,browne1 ,,george1 ,esq4 ,,burr1 ,t4 ,w41 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,,carter ,,bromley1 ,messrs4 ,,chater1 ,,george1 ,esq41 7,messrs4 ,grosvenor1 ,chater and ,co47 ,,coe1 ,,john1 ,esq41 ,superintendent of the ,stationery and ,printing ,department at the ,bank of ,england4 ,,cohen1 ,a41 ,esq4 ,,coles1 ,,henry1 ,esq41 ,wells1 ,somerset4 ,,collins1 ,,charles1 ,esq41 ,hele1 ,devon4 ,,crompton1 ,,roger1 ,esq41 ,bolton1 ,lancashire4 ,,cooke1 ,,wakeman ,e41 ,esq4 ,,cookes1 ,,james1 ,esq4 ,,cooper1 ,,thomas1 ,esq4 7,messrs4 ,williams1 ,coopers and ,co47 ,,cowan1 ,,charles1 ,esq41 ,m4,p4 ,,cowley1 ,,frederick ,t41 ,esq4 ,,cranstoun1 ,,george ,c4 ,,trotter1 ,esq4 ,,crosby1 ,,james1 ,esq4 ,,davies1 ,,charles1 ,esq4 ,,diggens1 ,j4 ,g41 ,esq41 ,h4 ,m4 ,stationery ,office4 ,,draper1 ,s41 ,esq4 ,,drew1 ,,william1 ,esq41 ,bradninch1 ,devon4 ,,dunster1 ,,thomas1 ,esq4 ,,editor ,,of ,,notes ,,and ,,queries4 ,,ehrensperger1 ,c41 ,,co41 ,messrs4 ,,evans ,,and ,,adlard1 ,messrs41 ,birmingham4 ,,evans1 ,,samuel1 ,,co41 ,messrs41 ,derby4 ,,fickling1 ,w41 ,esq4 ,,fourdrinier ,,and ,,hunt1 ,messrs4 ,,gale1 ,a41 ,esq4 ,,gallon1 ,,thomas1 ,,co41 ,messrs41 ,gateshead4 ,,gooch1 ,,edward ,f41 ,esq4 ,,gower1 ,,john1 ,esq4 ,,grace1 ,,william1 ,esq41 ,scotswood4 ,,greenaway1 ,,edward1 ,esq4 ,,greer1 ,,alfred1 ,esq41 ,cork4 ,,hale1 ,,ford1 ,esq4 ,,hallows1 ,w4 ,a41 ,esq4 ,,hammond1 ,,charles1 ,esq4 ,,hardy1 ,t4 ,,duffus1 ,esq41 ,record ,office1 ,tower4 ,,hardy1 ,,john ,,smart1 ,esq4 ,,harris1 ,,charles1 ,esq41 ,countess ,weir1 ,exeter4 ,,hawtin1 ,,william1 ,esq4 ,,hayles1 ,,james ,n41 ,esq4 ,,herring1 ,,george1 ,esq4 ,,hodgkinson1 ,,william ,,sampson1 ,esq4 ,,hollingworth1 ,,thomas1 ,esq41 ,maidstone4 ,,hussey1 ,,thomas ,e41 ,esq41 ,dudley4 ,,hutton1 ,,thomas ,o41 ,esq4 7,messrs4 ,millington ,hutton47 ,,jeaffreson1 ,,henry1 ,esq41 ,m4,d4 ,,johnson1 ,,richard1 ,esq4 ,,kelly1 ,rev4 ,a4 ,p41 ,m4,a4 ,,kidd1 ,,david1 ,esq4 7,messrs4 ,dobbs1 ,kidd and ,co47 ,,lawson1 ,f4 ,l41 ,esq4 ,,le ,,blond1 ,,robert1 ,esq4 ,,lunnon1 ,,thomas1 ,esq41 ,wooburn4 ,,mcmurray1 ,,william1 ,esq41 ,hon4 ,sec4 to the 8,fourdrinier ,fund40 ,,magnay1 ,,sir ,,william1 ,baronet4 ,,martyn1 ,,richard1 ,esq41 ,broadclist1 ,devon4 ,,matthews1 ,,charles1 ,esq41 ,bradninch1 ,devon4 ,,millington1 ,,charles1 ,esq4 ,,mills1 ,a4 ,d41 ,esq4 ,,morgan1 ,,charles1 ,esq4 ,,morgan1 ,,george1 ,esq4 ,,munn1 ,r4 ,j41 ,esq41 ,thetford4 ,,murrell1 ,h4 ,e41 ,esq4 ,,muschamp1 ,,william1 ,esq41 ,gateshead4 ,,neill1 ,,john1 ,esq41 ,leeds4 ,,nicholl1 ,,john1 ,esq41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,,nissen ,,and ,,parker1 ,messrs4 ,,norris1 ,,john ,,thomas1 ,esq4 ,,pamplin1 ,,james1 ,esq41 ,winchester4 ,,pattison1 ,t4 ,s41 ,esq4 ,,peebles1 ,,alexander ,m41 ,esq4 ,,phelps1 ,j4 ,b41 ,esq4 ,,pirie1 ,,alexander1 ,,and ,,sons1 ,messrs4 ,,pollard1 ,,george1 ,esq4 ,,pollock1 ,,john1 ,esq4 ,,pope1 ,,henry1 ,esq4 ,,poulter1 ,,thomas1 ,esq4 ,,prince1 ,,george1 ,esq4 ,,ralph1 ,f4 ,w41 ,esq4 ,,richard1 ,,john ,,edmund1 ,esq4 ,,rock1 ,,william ,,frederick1 ,esq4 ,,rock1 ,,brothers ,,and ,,payne1 ,messrs4 ,,roe1 ,,thomas1 ,esq4 7,messrs4 ,gibbons and ,roe47 ,,rosselli1 ,e41 ,esq4 ,,russell1 ,,rev4 ,,samuel ,,henry1 ,b4 ,d4 ,,saker1 ,,william ,e41 ,esq41 ,reading4 ,,sandell1 ,,richard ,b41 ,esq4 ,,saunders1 ,j4 ,e41 ,messrs4 ,,saunders1 ,t4 ,h41 ,esq41 ,dartford4 ,,shaw1 ,,edmund1 ,esq4 ,,slade1 ,,william1 ,esq4 ,,smee1 ,,alfred1 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,,smith1 ,,james1 ,esq4 ,,smith1 ,,john1 ,esq41 ,bingley4 ,,smith1 ,j4 ,w41 ,esq41 ,bingley4 ,,smith1 ,,john1 ,esq41 ,langley4 ,,smith1 ,,william1 ,esq4 ,,smith1 ,,william ,,lepard1 ,,and ,,co41 ,messrs4 ,,sommerville1 ,,william1 ,esq41 ,bitton4 ,,spalding ,,and ,,hodge1 ,messrs4 ,,sterry1 ,,henry1 ,esq4 ,,tanner1 ,r4 ,t41 ,esq4 ,,tarbox1 ,,edward1 ,esq4 ,,taylor1 ,,william1 ,esq4 ,,templeton1 ,,allan1 ,esq4 ,,tite1 ,,william1 ,esq41 ,m4,p41 ,f4,r4,s41 c41 c4 ,,toovey1 ,a4 ,d41 ,esq4 ,,towgood1 ,,alfred1 ,esq41 ,reading4 ,,towgood1 ,,edward1 ,esq41 ,sawston4 ,,towgood1 ,,frederick1 ,esq41 ,st4 ,neots4 ,,town1 ,,joseph1 ,esq41 ,leeds4 ,,tullis ,,and ,,co41 ,messrs4 ,r41 ,markinch1 ,n4,b4 ,,tyler1 ,,william1 ,esq4 7,messrs4 ,venables1 ,wilson and ,tyler47 ,,varty1 ,,edward1 ,esq4 ,,venables1 ,,george1 ,esq4 ,,vincent1 ,j41 ,esq4 ,,wall1 ,,james1 ,esq4 ,,warren1 ,b4 ,j41 ,esq41 ,deal4 ,,warren1 ,g4 ,r41 ,esq41 ,bramshott4 ,,watson1 ,,william1 ,esq4 ,,weaklin1 ,,frederick1 ,esq4 ,,west1 ,,frederick1 ,esq4 ,,whatman1 ,,james1 ,esq41 ,m4,p41 ,f4,r4,s41 c41 c41 ,maidstone4 ,,white1 ,,edward1 ,esq4 ,,whitaker1 ,,thomas1 ,esq4 ,,williams1 ,,samuel ,t41 ,esq4 ,,williams1 ,,robert1 ,esq4 ,,wilmot1 ,,george1 ,esq41 ,shoreham4 ,,wilson1 ,,samuel1 ,esq41 ,alderman1 ,lieutenant-,colonel of the ,royal ,london ,militia4 ,,winstone1 ,,benjamin1 ,esq4 ,,wire1 ,,david ,,williams1 ,esq41 ,alderman of the ,ward of ,walbrook4 ,,wood1 ,,drew1 ,esq4 ,,woodward1 ,,charles1 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,president of the ,islington ,literary and ,scientific ,society4 ,,young1 ,,john ,t41 ,esq4 ,,specimens4 ,illustration3 #a ,illustration3 7back of #a7 ,illustration3 #b ,illustration3 7back of #b7 ,illustration3 #c ,illustration3 7back of #c7 ,illustration3 #d ,illustration3 7back of #d7 ,illustration3 #e ,illustration3 7back of #e7 ,illustration3 #f ,illustration3 7back of #f7 ,illustration3 #g ,illustration3 7back of #g7 ,illustration3 #h ,illustration3 7back of #h7 ,illustration3 #i ,illustration3 7back of #i7 ,illustration3 #aj ,illustration3 7back of #aj7 ,illustration3 #aa ,illustration3 7back of #aa7 ,illustration3 #ab ,illustration3 7back of #ab7 ,illustration3 #ac ,illustration3 7back of #ac7 ,illustration3 #ad ,illustration3 7back of #ad7 ,illustration3 #ae ,illustration3 7back of #ae7 ,illustration3 #af ,illustration3 7back of #af7 ,illustration3 #ag ,illustration3 7back of #ag7 ,illustration3 #ah ,illustration3 7back of #ah7 ,illustration3 #ai ,illustration3 7back of #ai7 ,illustration3 #bj ,illustration3 7back of #bj7 ,illustration3 #ba ,illustration3 7back of #ba7 ,illustration3 #bb ,illustration3 7back of #bb7 ,illustration3 #bc ,illustration3 7back of #bc7 ,illustration3 #bd ,illustration3 7back of #bd7 ,illustration3 #be ,illustration3 7back of #be7 ,,transcriber',s ,,note ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,some hyphens in words have been silently removed1 some added1 when a predominant preference was found in the original book4 ,except for those changes noted below1 all misspellings in the text1 and inconsistent or archaic usage1 have been retained4 ,pg #ce3 #8,shakespeare' replaced by #8,shakspeare' for consistency4 ,pg #ce3 #8,lord ,say' replaced by #8,lord ,saye' for consistency4 ,pg #cf3 #8first ,lord ,say' replaced by #8first ,lord ,saye'4 ,pg #db3 #8,i have no no reason to' replaced by #8,i have no reason to'4 ,pg #dg3 #8so bitter a a reverse' replaced by #8so bitter a reverse'4 ,pg #ei3 #8an alkaline ley' replaced by #8an alkaline lye'4 ,pg #gg3 #8or ratherb earing' replaced by #8or rather bearing'4 ,pg #gg3 #8until th emovement' replaced by #8until the movement'4 ,pg #hf3 #8indeterm ining the' replaced by #8in determining the'4 ,pg #aaf3 #8,shakespeare' replaced by #8,shakspeare' for consistency4 ,the number #8#a' was missing and has been inserted as a caption on the first #8,specimen' illustration at the back of the book4