,transcriber's ,note ,italic text displayed as3 italic ,,dress ,,and ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,feet2 ,,showing ,,their ,,natural ,,shape ,,and ,,construction2 ,,their ,,usual ,,distorted ,,condition2 ,,how ,,corns1 ,,bunions1 ,,flat ,,feet1 ,,and ,,other ,,deformities ,,are ,,caused1 ,,with ,,instructions ,,for ,,their ,,prevention ,,or ,,cure4 ,,also1 ,,directions ,,for ,,dressing ,,the ,,feet ,,with ,,comfort ,,and ,,elegance1 ,,and ,,many ,,useful ,,hints ,,to ,,those ,,who ,,wear1 ,,as ,,well ,,as ,,those ,,who ,,make ,,foot-,,coverings4 ,,illustrated4 ,,london3 ,,william ,,tegg4 #ahgb4 ,,preface4 ,the object of this little treatise is to bring before the popular attention some ideas concerning the feet that are not generally familiar2 to exhibit the producing causes of the common deformities and discomforts to which they are subject2 to show the best means of preserving their natural shape and condition1 or of restoring it as far as possible when lost2 and to suggest better methods for their dress and general treatment1 in order to their more perfect health1 beauty1 and performance of function4 ,the subject has already received some little attention4 ,some time about the beginning of the present century ,dr4 ,peter ,camper1 of ,amsterdam--a distinguished man of his time--wrote a short dissertation upon the 8,best ,form of ,shoe10 which was eventually translated and published in ,england in #ahfa1 in connection with a larger work by ,mr4 ,james ,dowie4 ,dr4 ,camper's essay was excellent as a first effort in this direction1 furnishing some ideas upon the form of the foot and the defect of its covering1 which still remain hardly less just and appropriate4 ,mr4 ,dowie added some good suggestions1 and faithfully exposed the faults of the foot-gear worn by the ,british army and the humbler classes2 but a considerable portion of his book was taken up in the explanation and advocacy of elasticated leather--an article of his own invention--while the whole was written in a style too difficult to be generally read4 ,another work published in ,england was the 8,book of the ,feet10 by ,j4 ,sparkes ,hall1 issued a few years previous to that of ,mr4 ,dowie4 ,though very interesting as a concise history of the shoemaking art1 it touched but slightly upon those abuses of the feet with which shoemaking is connected4 ,but a late essay directly upon the subject1 by ,prof4 ,hermann ,meyer1 of ,zurich1 ,switzerland1 has a value superior in this respect to that of all the preceding ones4 ,the present writer has intended to include all the important ideas of previous writers on the subject1 together with such information as could be gathered from medical and other works1 but going farther and adding such original notions as the observation and thought of his own mind could supply1 with the purpose of making the whole as thorough and complete as possible1 both from the point of view of the physiologist and that of the practical shoemaker4 ,the book is not written in the dignified style of a professor1 nor with literary correctness2 but it is hoped the ideas contained1 and the nature of the subject-matter1 will make it readable4 ,it is addressed to those who desire comfort for their feet1 and no less to those who wish to see them handsome in form and tastefully dressed4 ,as first prepared1 the matter1 under a different title1 was printed in a trade journal--the ,shoe and ,leather ,reporter--in #ahfh1 since which a careful revision has improved and adapted it for its present form4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page ,,introductory #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,natural ,position of the ,toes--,anatomical ,argument--,correspondence of ,foot and ,hand--,necessity of ,freedom for the ,toes--,criticism on ,forms of ,sole #f ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,distortion of the ,toes and ,joint--,various ,causes--,want of ,harmony between ,shape of ,foot and ,shape of ,shoe--,grown-in-,nails--,influence of ,stockings1 ,narrow-,toed ,soles1 ,high ,heels1 and ,changing of ,shoes--,faults of ,lasts #ag ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,prevention of ,deformed ,toes and ,joint--,new ,forms of ,sole--,eureka ,last--,true ,standard of ,taste--,how ,distorted ,great ,toe may be ,straightened--,ancient and ,medieval ,foot-apparel--,suggestions #cf ,,chapter ,v4 ,flattened ,condition1 of the ,arch--,beauty of ,one that is ,natural--,nature and ,purpose of its ,construction--,how it becomes ,broken ,down--,lengthening of the ,foot--,lack of ,development--,means of ,improvement--,lasts for ,flat ,feet--,transverse ,arch #fa ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,natural ,character of the ,instep--,causes1 and ,prevention1 of ,sores upon it--,false ,taste--,callosities of the ,heel--,counters--,criticism of ,lasts #hg ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,inclinations of the ,feet--,how to ,make them tread ,squarely--,peculiar ,lasts--,weak ,ankles--,cultivation of ,muscle--,turning-in of the ,toes #ajj ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,corns1 ,bunions1 and ,callosities--,how they ,originate--,nature of the ,skin--,various ,causes of ,corns--,how to ,remove them--,quotations from the ,medical ,books--,nature and ,treatment of ,bunions #aaj ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,recapitulation--,lasts for ,individual ,feet--,possibility of all ,feet being ,well ,fitted in their ,clothing--,ease and ,grace of ,movement--,a ,last ,word for ,children #abh ,,chapter ,x4 ,miscellaneous--,criticism of ,different ,forms and ,fashions--,elasticity--,sensitiveness-- ,rubbers and ,water-proof ,leather--,cure for ,sweating--,qualities of a ,good ,covering #aci ,,dress ,,and ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,feet4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory ,the human foot1 it appears to us1 is one of those members of the body that have never received their due share of consideration4 ,like certain downtrodden members of the social body1 it seems to have been looked upon as having fewer 8rights that were entitled to respect0 than those organs which occupy a higher place1 as the hands and eyes4 ,no other part has been so abused by pinching1 squeezing1 chafing1 freezing1 and corning4 ,the waist1 of one sex especially1 has suffered a good deal of compression1 but not so much1 we think as has the foot4 ,it might perhaps be contended that the lowest parts of the system perform a function equally necessary with that of those above them and are therefore entitled to as tender care2 but whether this be so or not1 it is at least certain they are 8pressed to earth0 in a way that is wrong2 and knowing this1 it shall be our duty to set forth their wrongs and rights as well as we may1 hoping to effect some improvement in the manner of their treatment4 ,the natural object and intention of the foot is the support of the body1 and the carrying of it1 in all its movements1 lightly1 easily1 safely1 and gracefully4 ,to this object it is as beautiful and wonderfully adapted as the eye and ear1 those special objects of wonder1 to the functions performed by them4 ,its perfection may be most frequently seen in the graceful steps of the dance1 though often also in the ordinary walk1 while its capabilities may be judged of by the fact1 not so generally known1 that men deprived of their hands have succeeded in making their toes do the work of the fingers in writing4 ,anatomy recognizes the fact1 that in the number and character of the bones1 joints1 and muscles of the foot and leg1 and the connection of the femur or thigh-bone at the pelvis1 there is a strict similarity or correspondence with those of the hand and arm1 and the connection of the latter at the shoulder-blade4 ,this justifies the conclusion1 that all the variety of motion1 and complete adaptation to an infinite number of uses1 which exists in the hand1 exists also to a less degree in the foot1 and can be brought out and exhibited1 much of it at least1 under circumstances requiring its development4 ,there is no reason for scepticism as to the foot's concealed powers--none for withholding the admiration due to its perfect performance of the offices for which it is designed4 ,nature1 when allowed free scope for her work1 does it thoroughly and handsomely4 ,healthy children are born with arched insteps and straight toes4 ,notice the foot of the little urchin who runs barefoot in summer time around the outskirts of our cities and villages1 and there is no fault to be found with it4 ,though the parents' feet have flat insteps1 crooked toes1 and big joints1 those of the child are regular-shaped and sound4 ,there seems to be an intention to give every one a fair start in the race of life with good pedal extremities4 ,it is not at all probable that old father ,adam went perambulating about his garden with the 8hollow of his foot making a hole in the ground10 or that his great toes pointed off in the direction of the little ones1 as though they had a secret affinity for them1 while the others were forced upward out of place1 in order to cover up the affair2 nor that our beautiful mother ,eve wandered among the flowers with her feet disfigured by corns and large joints4 ,if they had been1 would the serpent have cultivated her acquaintance in the way he did8 ,on the contrary1 does not every painter and sculptor represent her with feet beautiful and shapely1 like every other feature of her person8 ,did the old ,greek1 ,phidias1 make flat feet on his statues1 and ornament them with corns and callosities8 ,did old ,hercules have a big toe-joint on which to rest his club8 ,or did the ancients of the ,golden ,age know about such things at all8 ,the ,art of the world has never recognized them as beautiful or natural4 ,we venture to say that in all the painting and sculpture of the past they cannot be found4 ,they are entirely unnatural and deformed1 belonging to the days of modern civilization4 ,nature makes her feet1 except in rare instances1 with arches well-marked and strong1 and toes that point directly forward in the line of the foot's length4 ,yet the deformities spoken of are very common at the present time1 and in this most intelligent part of the world4 ,we believe1 judging from a dozen years' experience in the making of boots and shoes for individual feet1 that those more or less deformed constitute the rule1 and the healthy and well-formed ones the exception4 ,such disfigurements and distortions are thrust upon our attention every day--crooked feet--short1 stumpy feet--feet that tread inward1 and those that tread only on the outside edge--flat feet--crippled feet--and feet so disproportioned that the part which should be an inch smaller than the instep is often half an inch larger--feet with large ankles1 and feet with long heels--swelled feet1 and feet that are nothing but bones--feet that turn inward and outward1 and backward--feet with flat insteps--with big joints--with great toes that lie crosswise of the smaller ones--with small ones that grow over each other--with nails grown in1 or to one side--with hard corns1 and soft corns1 little and big--with callosities on insteps1 and heels1 and ankles--with chilblains all over--feet with weak ankles that have lost their uprightness--sweaty feet--sensitive feet that take cold by wetting1 and give their owner a consumption--and dirty feet that deserve to be diseased if they are not4 ,the causes of these depravities1 diseases1 and deformities are many and various4 ,thick and stiff leather coverings have had much to do with corns and callosities4 ,false taste and fashions1 bad habits of changing shoes1 unnatural-shaped lasts1 awkwardness in gait and movement1 muscular weakness1 and perhaps other causes that we do not yet know1 have combined to produce flat insteps1 crooked toes1 large joints1 weak ankles1 and all the rest4 ,the subject is one in which all who have not lost their feet are more or less interested4 ,to those who have children it is more especially important4 ,while much may be done to reform the feet of adult persons1 and it is intended to hold out all possible encouragement to them to attempt it1 still it is with the children that the main work of correcting1 improving1 and educating must be effected4 ,if a child's feet are trained up in the way they should go1 they will not be likely1 when they are older1 to depart from it1 and incur those penalties appropriately attached to an abuse of the foot's nature4 ,the particular causes of the more important of these troubles will be shown in the succeeding chapters1 and suggestions for their remedy or prevention given4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,natural ,position of the ,toes--,anatomical ,argument--correspondence of ,foot and ,hand--,necessity of ,freedom for the ,toes--,criticism on ,forms of ,sole4 ,one of the worst of the distortions of the feet is the obliquity or bending of the great toe toward the outside1 a fault with which several troublesome affections are often connected1 besides the more prominent one1 the enlargement of the joints4 ,to be convinced that this is a deformity1 and of the extent to which it is so1 let any one notice the shape and natural position of a child's foot1 before it has been altered by forcing into a falsely-shaped shoe4 ,the toes will be found lying straight forward in the line of the foot's length1 with plenty of room for them to touch the ground without pressing against each other4 ,this is plainly the case with every barefoot boy who is running about the streets or over the farm4 ,there are no cramped toes2 on the contrary1 they sometimes appear to be separated more than necessary1 and the great toe1 instead of inclining toward the outside of the foot1 seems to be almost turning to the opposite direction4 ,all art1 as already noticed in the first chapter1 recognizes the right of the toes to sufficient space to touch the surface upon which they tread4 ,it does not crowd them or turn them aside from their natural straightness4#a ,an observation of the best specimens of statuary will confirm the assertion1 that the great toe ought1 naturally1 to lie pointing directly forward1 in such a position that a line drawn from the inner surface of the heel past the ball or joint will be nearly parallel to it4 ,it would seem that such a statement is so nearly self-evident that every one must instantly admit its truth1 and ought to be aware of it without argument4 ,yet we doubt that it is commonly recognized1 or that the mass of people ever really think of it4 ,nor do we suppose those who have thought of it have considered the matter to be of any importance1 unless they happened to be afflicted with some of the troubles that accompany toe-distortion2 nor often then with any idea of removing or preventing those evils4 ,it is certain that the shoe manufacturer and the last-maker have not had such a supposition clearly in mind1 at least with any idea of changing the shape of the last accordingly4 ,one manufacturer who had been engaged in making boots and shoes for the feet of his customers during twenty years recently stated that1 having drawings of thousands of feet1 and always finding the big toe turned toward the outside1 more or less1 he never thought of it as being other than the foot's normal shape4 ,this shows how common the deformity1 as well as how uncommon the thought of what is the foot's true form according to nature4 ,a pamphlet called 8,why the ,shoe ,pinches10 discussing this subject quite clearly1 and with the authority of science1 was written by ,hermann ,meyer1 ,m4,d41 ,professor of ,anatomy in the ,university of ,zurich4 ,to it we are indebted for many of the most important ideas here contained1 and for a presentation of the matter which first drew our earnest attention4 ,it gives an anatomical argument1 illustrated by diagrams1 to show the proper form of the toes and forward part of the foot1 which we will try to present in our own way4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;a a1 ,,metatarsal ,,bones2 b1 ,,joint4 ,the metatarsal bones are five of the longest bones of the foot1 lying below1 or in front of1 what is commonly known as the instep1 and filling the space between the instep and the toes1 though1 strictly speaking1 they form a part of the whole instep4 ,they are nearly parallel with each other1 and to their forward ends the bones of the toes are attached1 forming the back toe-joints1 at the part called the bend of the foot4 ,where the great toe joins its metatarsal bone1 is called the ball or inside ball2 or1 more strictly1 it is the under surface which is so called4 ,these metatarsal bones being straight1 and so nearly parallel to each other1 it is a natural inference that the toe-bones attached to them should lie straight in front of them1 on the same lines1 and nearly parallel to each other also4 ,in short1 they must do so1 in order that when covered with flesh they shall have room to touch the ground1 or bend1 without interfering4 ,this would bring all the toes1 and their metatarsal bones1 parallel or nearly so1 with a line drawn past the whole inside of the foot4 ,they would thus be allowed space to grow naturally1 to lie side by side1 and perform their proper functions without crowding or chafing1 or inclining sideways in either direction4 ,the diagram of a skeleton foot 7copied from ,professor ,meyer's pamphlet7 will show this more plainly than words4 ,it is claimed by the ,professor1 in this little book1 that a line drawn from the middle of the heel--on the sole--under the centre of the ball or joint1 should pass under the middle of the great toe1 through its whole length4 ,his reasoning for this idea is thus given3 8,the great toe plays by far the most important part in walking1 because when the foot is raised from the ground1 with the intention of throwing it forward1 we first raise the heel1 then rest for a second on the great toe1 and in lifting this from the ground the point of it receives a pressure which impels the body forward4 ,thus1 in raising the foot1 the whole of the sole is gradually1 as it were1 #8unrolled1' up to the point of the great toe1 which again receives an impetus by contact with the ground4 ,the great toe ought1 therefore1 to have such a position as will admit of its being unrolled in the manner described2 that is to say1 it must so lie that the line of its axis1 when carried backward1 will emerge at the centre of the heel2 and this is its position in the healthy foot40 ,the great toe certainly plays an important part in walking1 and is therefore entitled to all necessary freedom4 ,the position taken may be further strengthened by bringing forward the fact that all natural feet are slightly wider at the ball than at the instep1 an inch and a half farther back2 that is1 wider at the forward than at the back or upward ends of the metatarsal bones4 ,this is readily seen in the cut of a healthy foot1 ,fig4 #b1 and still more plainly in that of the foot-skeleton1 ,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,in each of these figures the difference in the width at the points a and b is what we wish to be noticed4 ,it is argued above1 with good reason1 that the bone of the great toe should lie directly forward of its metatarsal bone1 on the same line1 which line1 when carried back1 passes under the centre of the heel4 ,and it is equally fair to infer that the smaller toes should lie directly forward of their metatarsal bones1 on the same lines4 ,this would allow all the toes to be spread a very little1 as is apparent in ,fig4 #b1 and as the bones are spread in ,fig4 #c4 ,there is thus a slight1 but distinct1 gradual widening of the foot1 from the middle region to the ends of the toes1 an idea which will be confirmed in every child's foot that may be observed4 ,the correspondence between the bones of the foot and leg and those of the hand and arm also give countenance to this notion4 ,the metacarpal bones of the hand are those which answer to the metatarsal bones of the foot2 and that they are wider apart at their forward ends than at their base or origin1 is observable from the skeleton hand ,fig4 #d1 and from the hand having the thumb turned under1 ,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,in this case1 as in that of the foot1 if the fingers lie directly forward of their metacarpal bones1 they are slightly spread or separated4 ,and the next fact to which attention is requested is1 that we never think of forcing them into one position1 or of confining them there1 as is done with the toes--a treatment that would quickly destroy their usefulness1 if attempted4 ,they are allowed perfect freedom to close or separate2 to be pushed over to one side or the other1 as occasion requires2 and to assume any natural position when unoccupied4 ,now1 although there is a greater demand for the liberty of the fingers1 on account of the innumerable uses to which they are capable of being put1 the difference between them and the toes1 in this respect1 is only a difference of degree2 and it is evident that something1 more or less1 of the same bad effect which would attend the cramping of the former1 must1 as it does1 attend the confinement and squeezing undergone by the latter4 ,it seems clear that in a state of nature the toes are left equally free to 8spread themselves10 or draw together when necessary1 or to return to their proper places in line with the metatarsal bones1 when there is nothing to draw them on one-side4 ,in circumstances where they would not be interfered with1 the large one would doubtless have the position given it by ,professor ,meyer1 or1 at least one very nearly the same2 that is1 the line of the toes carried backward would touch the middle of the heel1 and the whole inside of the foot would have a general appearance of straightness4 ,this1 it is repeated1 is the form of the normal adult foot1 and of the child's foot universally4 ,the only form of shoe which is absolutely correct1 then1 is one allowing this amount of freedom to the toes--not alone to the great one1 but to all4 ,the form recommended by ,dr4 ,meyer1 which is represented in ,fig4 #f1 like every other now made distorts the little toe1 compelling it to turn under toward the middle of the foot1 and giving it that peculiar twist that almost every one may notice in his own4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,shape ,,of ,,sole ,,given ,,in 8,,why ,,the ,,shoe ,,pinches40 ,this1 however1 is only a slight fault compared to the bending aside of the large toe1 and is mentioned mainly to show that neither that form nor any other gives to all the toes the freedom which properly belongs to them4 ,the true standard form is one that will not compel any of them to be cramped or bent aside1 nor press injuriously upon any part of the foot2 and to this form it should be the shoemaker's endeavour to approximate as nearly as possible4 ,but such a shape as would fulfil this requirement has never been realised since the days of the ancient sandal4 ,and the problem for the shoemaker to solve is to create a covering that will give the freedom and ease of the old sandal1 combined with neatness and elegance of fit1 with protection from dirt1 cold1 and dampness2 and with propriety and beauty throughout4 ,it will be something considerably different from any now worn1 and may tax his ingenuity to a greater extent than is supposed4 ,professor ,meyer is right concerning the form of its sole at the inside2 but the curve at the outside is too much like the common style to be exactly the right thing4 ,there seems to be required a more abrupt curve at a point somewhat farther forward than where the widest part is usually found--a curve approaching more nearly to an obtuse angle1 something like what is represented in ,fig4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,thus1 modifying1 or adding to1 the form of sole given by ,dr4 ,meyer1 we present it as the most perfect one we are now able to suggest1 and one the correctness of which is confirmed by all the facts of anatomy1 and by everything bearing upon the subject4 ,as to what is theoretically right1 then1 we not only indorse all that is urged by the author quoted1 but go farther1 and claim for little toes1 as well as great ones1 the right to grow as straight as nature intended them1 and to spread as freely as circumstances may require4 ,there is a point1 however--one of practice1 not theory--upon which we may perhaps be said to partially disagree1 and which will be explained farther on4 ,it is designed now to show some of the bad results of a failure to conform the shape of the boot or shoe to that of the foot2 and afterward to consider what can be done in the way of improvement4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,it is also true that many artists have been led to a mistake by observation of the adult foot1 which has been more or less deformed by its coverings4 ,in many works of art there is a larger joint than natural1 and the great toe is turned aside sufficiently to bring all the toes close together1 though not enough to be a positive distortion4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,distortion of the ,toes and ,joint--,various ,causes--,want of ,harmony between ,shape of ,foot and ,shape of ,shoe--,grown-in ,nails--,influence of ,stockings1 ,narrow-,toed ,soles1 ,high ,heels1 and ,changing of ,shoes--,faults of ,lasts4 ,the doctrine concerning the shape and position of the toes is considered to be made sufficiently clear by what has been already advanced4 ,as the best illustration of it1 we copy from ,dr4 ,meyer's book a cut of the natural1 healthy foot of a child 7,fig4 #h71 in which the line of the great toe1 continued backward1 passes under the middle of the heel4 ,by the side of this is placed a shoe-sole of the common form 7,fig4 #i71 and which plainly does not harmonize with the shape of the foot4 ,from the ball forward instead of being straight on the inside line1 it slants off obliquely toward the middle of the toe1 making as great an inclination or curve on that side as on the outside4 ,as the toes of the foot cannot force the upper of a boot over the sole to any great extent1 the form of the sole determines the shape in which the toes shall lie when they are inside the boot4 ,the line c d1 in the diagram1 shows where the great toe ought to be2 but1 far from being there1 it is turned aside into the line c e1 a position entirely unnatural4 ,we will here quote again from the book1 taking the liberty to italicize3 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 8,it is quite clear that the foot must get into the shoe2 and if the shoe differs in shape from the foot1 it is no less plain that the foot1 being the more pliable1 must necessarily adapt itself to the shape of the shoe4 ,if1 then1 fashion prescribes an arbitrary form of shoe1 she goes far beyond her province1 and in reality arrogates to herself the right of determining the shape of the foot4 8,but the foot is a part of the body1 and must not be changed by fashion2 for our body is a gift1 and its several parts are beautifully adapted to the purposes for which they were intended4 8,if1 therefore1 we in any way change its normal form1 not only do we not improve1 but we actually disfigure it4 8,we do not1 indeed at first sight1 perceive the arrogant absurdity of which fashion is guilty in going so far as to determine the shape of our feet1 because we are not alive to the fact that the case is peculiar to the feet4 ,we only see it influencing the shape of the shoe1 and come to the conclusion that it may regulate this1 as well as the cut of the coat4 ,to this prevalent opinion we yield1 regardless of the influence on the shape of the shoe1 and thereby on the foot4 ,as well1 indeed1 might fashion one day come to the conclusion that fingers are inelegant1 and decree that henceforth the hand be squeezed into a conical leather bag2 as well1 indeed1 might she in one of her freaks1 forbid the display of our arms1 and bind them firmly to our bodies1 like those of children in swaddling clothes4 8,the shoe ought to protect the foot1 but it has no right to distort its shape40 ,seeing1 therefore1 that the common form of boots and shoes1 as now made1 is not the true one1 and that it arbitrarily forces the great toe into a false position1 it follows that all the bad effects resulting from this false position are to be attributed directly to the incorrect form of the last and shoe4 ,the first of these is a crowding together of all the toes1 in which some are obliged to find their places under1 and some above1 the more ambitious of them sometimes pushing their nails through the upper leather1 the rubbing and chafing they meet making them sore1 while the more humble are glad to curl themselves down in any way that will give them a place of comfort4 ,when the crowding is not so great as to force them out of place there is still a constant pressure against each other that is liable to create corns between them4 ,another effect is the growing in1 or to one side1 of the nails4 ,the boot-upper presses the flesh against the nail of the great toe on one side1 while there is a similar pressure from the smaller toes on the opposite side1 and between both1 the nail is almost compelled to grow into the flesh1 if it grows at all4 ,if the great toe gets the advantage1 then the one next to it is likely to suffer in the same way1 and all of them are liable to the same trouble4 ,when the nail grows so far that its edge turns downward1 the pressure against the sole1 in walking or standing1 is a more aggravated discomfort4 ,dr4 ,meyer says that 8by degrees it the toe gets into a state of chronic inflammation1 and may eventually become ulcerated1 producing what is popularly known as #8proud flesh4' ,the ailment not only interferes with the use of the foot1 but too often requires1 for its relief1 medical1 and even operative interference40 ,a surgical operation of this kind1 which consists in removing the nail entirely1 we are assured1 by those who have seen it1 is an intensely painful thing to witness1 and cannot be less so to be borne4 ,the following description of the nature of the trouble1 and of the mode of treatment1 is copied from ,dr4 ,r4 ,t4 ,trall1 for the benefit of those who may wish to treat it for themselves4 8,onyxis4--,this distressing affliction consists in an incurvation of the toe-nail from a bruise or the pressure of a tight shoe1 producing inflammation and ulceration1 and followed eventually by fungous growths1 or proud flesh1 which is exceedingly tender and painful4 ,the cure is slow but certain4 ,the foot must be frequently soaked in warm water1 until the soreness is so far abated that it can be handled without pain2 then1 with a probe1 press pledgets of lint as firmly as can be borne under the most detached point of the nail1 pressing them also between the nail and projecting portions of the flesh1 as far as possible4 ,cover these with the wet compress1 and apply a moderately tight bandage over the whole1 frequently wetting the whole with warm1 tepid1 or cold water1 as either temperature is most agreeable4 ,the lints are to be pressed farther and farther under the nail1 from time to time1 and the foot should be soaked and dressed once or twice daily4 ,when portions of the nail become free they may be cut off1 and mild caustics may be employed to remove fungous or indurated growths1 which do not yield to the other measures of treatment40 ,a slim-toed shoe--one that is thin1 and scant in the upper--whatever be its width or shape1 has a bad influence upon the nails1 not only by inciting them to grow in1 but by turning them down at the ends1 and keeping them constantly irritated and sore1 a condition which effectually prevents the toes from being of any use4 ,the seller of such an article will sometimes try to persuade the wearer that it is a 8good fit0 when snug at the forward part1 however loose elsewhere2 and many persons are quite willing to be persuaded in this way4 ,but if they are wise they will not attempt to wear anything that is not perfectly easy to the toes1 for these may be allowed all necessary room1 and still1 if the fit is 8just right10 there will be no wrinkling1 nor any other bad appearance4 ,the next and most important of the difficulties springing from this source is the enlargement of the great-toe joint4 ,we continue to quote from ,meyer3 8,not less important are the evils arising at the root of the great toe from the same cause4 ,it has already been stated that the pressure of the upper leather pushes the point of the great toe against the smaller toes4 ,the joint at the metatarsal bone thus becomes bent aside1 so that it forms a protuberance on the inner side of the foot4 ,if the point of the toe is now pressed against the ground in walking1 this protuberance must be made still greater1 and so pressed more forcibly against the upper leather4 ,at the same time1 moreover1 the great transverse wrinkle in the upper leather--the result of the bending of the toes--presses directly on the same point1 and the protuberance at the root of the toe is thus constantly subjected to a twofold and very injurious pressure4 ,in these circumstances it is by no means wonderful that this joint becomes subject to a continual inflammation1 which by extending to the bones must1 in this situation1 produce permanent and painful swellings1 which become1 in their turn1 and even from slight causes1 the source of inflammations and new growths of bone4 8,in this manner arise those unseemly and painful swellings at the root of the great toe1 which1 either from mistaking their true nature1 or from wilful deception1 are called #8chilblains1' or #8gout1' just as one or the other term appears the most interesting4 ,in many cases1 moreover1 this kind of inflammation of the bones1 and their investing membrane1 may lead to the formation of matter1 and eventually to the disease known as #8caries1' or ulceration of the bone40 ,narrow-toed shoes furnish another influence strongly operating to produce large joints4 ,the great toe is drawn farther than usual toward the others1 and its joint thrown out in the opposite direction4 ,all the toes are more crowded1 until some of them are forced out of place while corns and grown-in nails are developed or made worse4 ,width at the ball alone will not prevent these effects4 ,french and ,english styles are in this respect often pernicious4 ,the whole tendency of narrow toes is toward deformity2 and those who cannot because they happen to be the style1 refuse to wear them1 should make up their minds to accept the consequences with a good grace4 ,another great cause of the prominence and swelling of the joint--which our author alludes to1 but gives it hardly any of its real importance--is the backward pressure of the toe by shoes that are too short4 ,this1 in addition to causing sore nails1 crowds the toes still more closely together1 and pushes the joint still farther inward1 away from its proper place4 ,to illustrate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,,fig4 #aa4 a1 ,,phalanges1 ,,or ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,toe2 b1 ,,metatarsal ,,bone2 c1 ,,joint4 ,supposing these to represent the bones of the great toe and its metatarsal bone--which1 in their normal position1 are on the same line--we can see that if the toe bones a are bent toward the other toes first1 and then pushed backward1 it necessarily forces out the joint in the only direction in which it can bend1 which is inward4 ,the greater and more constant the pressure against the end of the toe by the short boot or shoe1 the larger the joint1 and the more it will project from the inside of the foot2 the more liable also to soreness1 swelling1 corns1 bunions1 inflammation1 and settled disease1 and the more awkward1 ill-shaped1 and uncomfortable1 not only to walk with but to look upon4 ,high heels also do their share toward bringing on this deformity4 ,they cause the foot to pitch downward on the toes1 sometimes pushing it a size farther forward into the boot than it would go if the heel was only moderately high1 thus creating the necessity for a longer boot4 ,the crowding of the toes is increased2 and as they meet with resistance or a backward pressure from both sides and the end of the shoe1 at the same time that there is a forward pressure from the heel by the weight of the body1 of course the angle formed at the joint must be pushed out more acute1 the foot making room for itself by stretching and treading over the upper at the sides4 ,there is a peculiarity about the ,plumer last recommending it in this particular4 ,the heel1 on the bottom1 is quite convex1 which allows the heel of the foot to settle down into that of the boot more than usual1 and thus what appears to be a high heel1 outside1 feels1 on the foot1 to be no higher than one made upon ordinary lasts an eighth of an inch lower4 ,there is hence so much less pressure upon the ends of the toes4 ,a false habit1 tending in the same direction1 is that of changing the shoes of children to make them wear evenly or prevent their treading over to one side at the heel4 ,it is a practice productive of far more harm than good--a saving of shoe-leather at the foot's expense4 ,after one foot has shaped a shoe to itself1 to put the other into it forcing the great toe into the curve made by the little toe and outside of the foot1 must do much toward bending the toe permanently out of place4 ,it should never be allowed or proposed4 ,give children right and left shoes1 and guard against their wearing on one side by good firm counters4 ,it is their right1 when obtainable1 and anything less is injustice4 ,while the foot is growing1 it easily adapts itself to its surroundings2 and by wearing short boots and shoes it may be encouraged to grow into a bad shape in a few years4 ,most old people have joints deformed in this way4 ,we have also seen them on the feet of young and beautiful women1 where they seemed most sadly out of place4 ,young feet are often forced to grow into uncomely shape through the good intentions of parents1 whose falsely-taught instinct of beauty induces them to put as small a shoe on the child's foot as it will bear1 fearing that if left to itself it will grow too long1 or too wide1 to be elegant in form4 ,the motive of this action is most commendable1 but its wisdom extremely doubtful and weak4 ,beauty1 taste1 elegance1 are to be sought for everywhere and always4 ,we have not the least sympathy with any attempt to depreciate them4 ,but they are not to be sought by counteracting nature4 ,on the contrary1 nature is most trustworthy4 ,if not interfered with1 she will make the foot grow in due proportion to the size of the whole body2 and every part will be developed in the right proportion to itself4 8,children of a larger growth0 continue to carry out the same false idea by wearing as short and narrow a boot as they can squeeze their foot into with any degree of comfort4 ,while the object is to obtain a handsome foot1 all such cramping inevitably defeats its purpose4 ,the effect which it invariably has and must have1 is to make the joints project1 and add from one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch to the foot's width1 leaving out of account the torture accompanying the process4 ,nobody will claim that large joints and extra width at this point make a good-looking foot1 but they are the sure results1 in greater or less degree according to the severity of the pinching1 and the length of the time it is continued4 ,it is well to ascertain if stockings do not have some effect in giving a bad shape to this part of the foot1 although made of such yielding materials that they may at first thought1 appear harmless4 ,mr4 ,james ,dowie1 in a work published in ,england some years since1 speaking of the toes being cramped1 crowded1 bent1 and piled over each other1 attributes part of this result to the stocking1 and recommends the wearing of one having toes on it--similar to the fingers on a glove4 ,there is no reason to doubt that this conclusion is correct1 for while a stocking that is loose may be drawn into almost any shape to suit the toes1 one which is tight1 short1 and narrow-toed1 must1 and does1 draw the toes together and keep them so1 however favourable may be the form of the boot outside4 ,it is a fact1 too1 that stockings are narrow and pointed at the toe2 almost universally4 ,the suggestion of putting toes to them is a good one4 ,but if this is thought to be taking too much pains with such an article--though it is evidently impossible to take too much pains in dressing any part of the body so as to protect it from being injured in any manner--it is perfectly easy to make the stocking wider at this part1 leaving it nearly square1 or with only a slight roundness at the end4 ,this would be a very decided improvement1 and cannot be urged too strongly4#b ,like the defects of the shoe1 those of the stocking must be felt more seriously by children4 ,they are ignorant of the matter1 and would be careless and inattentive even if they were not4 ,but if parents will half do their duty by them1 there is no reason why they should not grow up with well-formed feet1 thankful for the care which has saved them from distortion and blessed them with pedal comeliness4 ,there is here1 also1 a question of the comparative taste and elegance of wide and narrow soles1 which needs a little discussion4 ,it is the practice with many persons to wear as narrow a boot or shoe as they can1 thinking we suppose1 that if they have not a narrow foot1 they ought to have1 and that by putting it into a narrow boot they prevent it from spreading4 ,as such a boot is and will be narrow at the toe1 the effect is just the opposite of that intended as in the case of short ones4 ,the toes are drawn together1 and the ball pushed out wider than before4 ,then besides this tendency to make it wider1 the foot looks wider in a shoe that is too narrow for it1 because it treads the upper over1 and the narrow toe makes it appear all the wider by contrast4 ,a foot that is narrow may wear a narrow-soled shoe with propriety2 for a wide one to attempt to do so is foolish4 ,we have seen a lady's boot trodden over so far that a hole had been worn through the upper on each side of the sole by its contact with the ground4 ,the wearer doubtless thought it was necessary for her to wear a narrow sole to prevent her foot from spreading1 and keep it in an elegant shape4 ,she did not know that she was taking the most direct way to defeat her object1 and that her true policy would have been to wear the widest-soled shoe she could get4 ,this case was extreme1 but it is quite common to see the upper worn through on one side from the same cause4 ,the right kind of shoe for a wide foot is one so wide on the sole that the upper will project over it on the sides but slightly1 and with as great a width of the toe1 in proportion to the ball1 as there would be in a narrow one4 ,such a shoe will make the foot appear narrower1 by contrast1 than it really is1 and the greater the width of the toe1 the more this effect is produced4 ,besides1 the shoe or boot keeps its proper shape much better and longer when not too narrow or too short4 ,if the foot be short proportionately1 as well as wide1 the covering should be of good length--at least a full size to spare at the toe1 after being worn a few days and fitted1 or broken in4 ,these doctrines may not be readily accepted1 but let any one who doubts give them a trial1 and we are willing to be judged by the opinion formed afterward4 ,there are those who appear to urge the idea that broad soles are eminently proper always1 and for everybody1 which doctrine we do not endorse2 but we mean to say that persons who have wide feet naturally1 or who have made them wide at the joints in the ways here pointed out1 ought to wear wide soles4 ,it is also quite certain that if people wore soles of the correct shape from childhood there would be a far less number than now of those feet1 that require this extra width of sole1 for nine-tenths of them are forced into a width which they would not have by nature1 and1 when once deformed1 no pains taken in fitting them can make them look well1 or like those which keep their proper shape4 ,a narrow foot must not be confounded with a slim one4 ,feet that are slim--that measure less than an average in circumference--are often found wider than most of those of the same length which are of medium size or fulness4 ,these are feet that spread1 and may generally be found on individuals of spare or muscular temperament4 ,such persons ought to wear boots made on wide lasts1 with wide toes1 though at the same time sufficiently slim to fit4 ,as such lasts cannot easily be found ready-made1 those having feet of this shape ought to possess a pair made expressly for themselves4 ,there is an opposite style of feet1 those which are long and narrow1 while they may be also full1 or thick1 vertically4 ,these are usually found on persons who are tall1 yet round1 and fleshy in physique4 ,they can wear boots made on lasts that are comparatively narrow1 such as may be found at any shoe-shop4 ,it is not intended to argue in favour of any unnecessary width in either case1 but simply to urge the necessity1 not only for comfort1 but especially for elegance also1 of having sufficient width to accommodate the foot easily1 and preserve the natural shape of both the foot and its covering4 ,bad fashions of lasts have had much to do in producing a deformed condition of the feet1 as well as the false ideas and tastes of the people4 ,shoemakers1 and more especially last-makers1 who should have studied the nature of the foot1 and given the people1 who looked to them for a correctly-shaped last and shoe1 something truly and naturally adapted to its purpose1 have failed in this part of their duty4 ,the latter have made lasts of all varieties of shape except the true one1 while the maker of the shoe has made a bad matter worse with his high and short heels4 ,formerly the great majority of ladies' shoes and gaiters were made upon lasts that were straight1 and the same is true even yet4 ,almost the whole of the cheaper kinds of work got up in the manufactories is of this style4 ,slippers are hardly ever seen made upon other than straight lasts4 ,the whole custom is a wrong one1 for this reason2 the middle of the toe of shoes made upon straight lasts is nearer to the outside than it is in those made on rights-and-lefts4 ,hence they draw the great toe farther toward the outside of the foot than do those of the latter kind1 and have a greater effect in producing all the evils that go with deformed toes and joints4 ,no woman ought to be asked to wear them1 nor should she allow herself to do so if those of another form can be obtained4 ,girls whose feet are growing cannot have them forced into straight shoes1 especially if tight1 without perpetrating a kind of tyranny very similar in character to that of the ,chinese4 ,right-and-left boots and shoes are the natural right of all men1 women1 and children4 ,men and boys have1 in this respect1 the advantage over their sisters1 as their foot apparel is almost wholly of the better shape4 ,there is no reason why women and girls should not have the benefit of the improvement in form1 though it is only a slight one1 and they are counselled to take it whenever they can4 ,in fact1 there is no excuse for straight shoes1 except that they can be made a little more cheaply--that is1 there is a little less expense for the lasts used4 ,they do not wear more evenly than the others--on the contrary1 they are quite as liable1 if not more so1 to tread over at the heel4 ,they never fit the foot so well in the hollow1 at the instep1 or on the side4 ,there is no necessity for their existence1 for there is no form of foot-covering but might be made on crooked lasts with equal facility4 ,ladies' slippers are believed to be the only article that is always made straight1 and for these1 right-and-left lasts1 properly adapted to the purpose1 might be used without the least difficulty4 ,considering these facts1 and that there is but a slight advantage to the manufacturer1 and to him only1 in their production1 and that the children and poorer class of women1 who wear them--the most helpless classes in the community--are almost compelled to deform their feet in doing so1 it becomes a disgrace to the shoemaking profession that straight shoes are not abolished4 ,many right-and-left lasts are made so nearly straight that the difference in form1 and the benefit arising from it1 amount to but very little4 ,this must be remedied by the people learning what is to be desired1 and making a demand for it4 ,it is sometimes argued that the straighter the last is1 the less liable is the foot to tread the boot over to one side2 but this we hold to be a fallacy1 and that the liability to tread over1 is determined by the shape of that part of the last between the heel and instep4 ,the form of the toe or forward part has nothing to do with the matter4 ,it is generally1 however1 an advantage to the foot1 though not to the boot1 if it succeeds in treading the latter over to the outside4 ,it thus gives the boot a more distinctly right-and-left shape1 and can hence more easily preserve its own4 ,when it goes over inside1 there is a good prospect of a big joint being soon produced4 ,the last-makers have given us toes of many styles1 from the turn-up toes an inch longer than necessary1 to the stub-toes half an inch shorter than the foot2 and from the round toe narrowed to a point1 to the square one nearly or quite as wide as the ball4 ,all that needs to be said of them is1 that the wider they are1 except the extreme just noted1 the better for the foot1 at least while the present lasts are in use1 and generally the handsomer also2 that the long toe is unnecessary1 and therefore unhandsome2 while the short or stub toe is decidedly awkward and clumsy-looking1 besides being injurious to the foot1 and utterly unworthy of toleration by any person of sense or taste4 ,the true and most tasteful shape will be found near the half-way point between the two extremes in each direction4 ,whether round or square is of no material consequence4 99 99 99 99 99 ,here1 then1 we have found several causes for the deformities of the forward part of the foot--the crooked great toe1 the cramped and distorted smaller ones1 the corns between1 the grown-in nails1 the big joint1 and the increased width4 ,the cause first operating to produce them is the wrong shape of the shoe at the inside1 which gives the oblique position to the great toe4 ,narrowness and shortness are stronger influences acting in the same direction1 aided still further by extreme height of heels1 by changing1 by narrow-toed stockings1 etc4 ,and it is especially worthy of being noticed that the short and narrow toes1 and the high heels often adopted to improve the foot's appearance1 do thus inevitably defeat that purpose4 ,the attention of those who regard their own foot-comfort is earnestly directed to the points and reasoning presented in this chapter4 ,just as earnestly it is desired that those whose principal aim in dressing the foot is its beauty1 elegance1 and perfection of form1 should give a thorough consideration to what has been said4 ,both classes will easily see that1 in order to gain the object sought1 there must be a reform in the shape and style of the foot's covering4 ,the nature of that improvement is already partially shown--that is1 as far as the toes are concerned--and will be shown fully in what is to follow4 ,the cuts below1 showing some of the worst deformities of the forward part of the foot1 and adding the force of illustration to what has been said1 are an appropriate conclusion to this chapter4 ,it will do no harm to contrast them with ,fig4 #h and ,fig4 #c1 previously given4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,,footnotes3 #b ,we have lately seen stockings for sale that were nearly square-toed1 and these should obtain the preference in buying4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,prevention of ,deformed ,toes and ,joint--,new ,forms of ,sole--,eureka ,last--,true ,standard of ,taste--,how ,distorted ,great ,toe may be ,straightened--,ancient and ,medieval ,foot apparel--,suggestions4 ,let us next endeavour to ascertain what shall be done toward substituting an improved form of covering for the present false style1 as a method of preventing distortion of the toes and the evils connected with it2 and also inquire how far these deformities can be relieved by proper effort after they have been induced4 ,the shape of sole previously described and illustrated 7,fig4 #g7 is taken to be as near the absolutely correct one as anything that can now be devised1 and to be approximated and realized as soon in the future as possible4 ,it is true that people should be capable of recognizing its correctness1 and of adopting it practically1 at once2 and1 doubtless1 there are some who can conscientiously disregard the strong tendency to conformity with the prevailing false styles1 and wear a boot or shoe which represents the right idea1 or one as near to it as it is possible for them to obtain4 ,all such are earnestly advised to take this course1 and continue it1 both for their own good1 and as a means of developing a sentiment in favour of the change4 ,but there are other people1 in larger numbers1 who will not be persuaded to attempt so much of a change without some encouragement from popular sympathy4 ,these must not only be taught to know what is right and wrong in the matter1 but be led to adopt the right through gradually approximating steps1 that do not vary so far from the style at any time prevalent as to be unpleasantly odd4 ,the eye must become accustomed to different forms1 and first to those that deviate least from the present fashion4 ,bearing this in mind1 what is the best improvement that can be made generally acceptable8 ,our principal care is the preservation of the shape of the great toe and inside joint1 not forgetting that the little toe is also entitled to care2 still1 the great one is much the most important1 and if only one can be properly attended to1 the little one must wait its opportunity4 ,its deformity consists in being bent and twisted under1 and though the pressure causing this may also develop corns1 and injury of the toe joint1 the joint itself is not forced out of place1 nor is the bad effect so common1 nor so serious as in the case of the large one4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,,compromise4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,,common ,,sole4 ,figure #ad represents the sole of a crooked last1 such as may occasionally be seen in use by some of our best boot-makers at the present time4 ,contrasted with the one beside it1 which is a pretty fair specimen of right-and-left lasts generally1 it is evidently nearer to the true form4 ,in it1 the line drawn from the middle of the heel to the middle of the ball region passes through the toe nearest the outside corner1 leaving the greater space at the inside2 while in the other the line passes through the toe at the middle1 thus making it virtually only a straight last1 hollowed out a little the most at the inner side4 ,for the purpose of giving the great toe a straight position1 it is seen at a glance that the form of ,fig4 #ad is far superior to that of ,fig4 #ae1 though the tendency to distortion would still remain with it to a considerable extent4 ,for the sake of a name to distinguish it1 this may be called the ,compromise4 ,it is not so much in advance of the common styles that many people would notice the difference at all1 and last-makers and shoe manufacturers might adopt it1 and with a slight effort force it into general use1 with great benefit to those feet that are still tolerably well-shaped1 if not to their own direct advantage4 ,at least1 the acceptance of it is one step in the right direction for those who are not ready to make a more radical innovation4 ,our next form is something better4 ,the reason for it is the rule given1 some fifty or sixty years ago1 by ,dr4 ,peter ,camper1 of ,amsterdam1 who wrote an essay on the subject1 in which he stated that the proper form of shoe was such as to allow all the toes to lie parallel with a line drawn through the middle of the sole from heel to toe4 ,this1 though not perfect1 was1 considering its date1 a pretty good standard2 but the shoemakers1 if they were ever governed by it at all1 have transgressed it since1 until its intention has been entirely defeated4 ,they have done this by narrowing the toe of the sole so much that the toes of the foot1 instead of lying parallel to each other and to the line of the foot's length1 have had their ends drawn together at an angle till they were compelled even to lie one over the other4 ,when the toes lie as closely together as they can without crowding--parallel1 the middle ones at least1 to the line of the foot's length--there is but little variation on the inside of the foot from a straight line4 ,the cuts #af and #ag represent1 one a foot in which the toes are drawn together just enough to touch1 and one as they usually appear in the common boot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,toes ,,parallel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,toes ,,drawn ,,to ,,an ,,angle4 ,here it may be observed that in ,fig4 #af the lines drawn past the sides of the toes are nearly parallel to the line through the foot's centre1 while in ,fig4 #ag they quickly form an angle with it4 ,dr4 ,camper's rule1 strictly interpreted1 would have made a right-and-left last of the most extreme character1 but by narrowing the toe from inside and outside alike1 it was converted into one no better than straight4 ,what is now proposed is1 that we take this rule and amend it by providing that when the inside of the sole has the right form to let the great toe lie parallel to the line through the middle1 any further narrowing of the toe shall be done from the outside only2 and as the ball of the last projects slightly over the bottom or sole1 it is conceived that the inside margin of the sole should be nothing less than straight1 and parallel to the line of the foot's length1 from the ball forward1 in order to give the great toe the position claimed4 ,this would make a last a little more straight on the inside than the one described as the ,compromise4 ,we will call it the ,excelsior1 and represent it by a diagram1 ,fig4 #ah4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,,sole ,,of ,,excelsior ,,last4 ,our reason for insisting that the toe be narrowed only from the outside is the fact already stated1 that the consequences of bending the great toe are far worse than those of bending the little ones4 ,besides1 it is not intended to draw them together any farther than to make them touch1 and this can be done without distorting any of them1 by leaving the great one in its natural position1 or nearly so1 and making all the curve of the sole on the outside4 ,the outside toes being shortest1 they permit this to be done without bending them more than a very little4 ,of course it must be remembered that the sole cannot be narrowed beyond a certain limit without injury to the foot4 ,a medium width of toe is the narrowest that is allowable1 consistently with the object we have in view4 ,the last-maker will understand that the thickest part of the toe of the last is not to be at the middle1 but at the inside1 in order to give room for the great toe in the straight-ahead position claimed for it4 ,at the ball the wood is expected to project1 as in all lasts1 very slightly over the bottom4 ,this is1 perhaps1 the best form--the nearest approach to that of the foot--which is practically attainable while the modern boot and shoe retain their present peculiarity1 of a sole narrower at the toe than at the ball4 ,on the whole1 it is probably equal or superior to that recommended by ,prof4 ,meyer1 for though his is more crooked1 giving larger latitude to the great toe1 it is a question if it does not1 by the extreme curve1 tend to cramp the little ones more than necessary1 thus making a balance between a good point and a bad one4 ,prof4 ,meyer's form may be best for certain feet1 and for a particular purpose1 as will be explained in speaking of the remedy for crooked toes1 but for general purposes we have more faith in this4 ,if it were adopted in general use1 and more especially for the shoes of children1 and those who have not yet seriously deformed their feet at the joint1 the next generation would show that crooked toes1 soft corns1 inverted nails1 big joints1 and bunions had been almost abolished4 ,such a result is entirely worthy of a noble effort on the part of those who furnish foot coverings4 ,such an effort1 too1 when made1 will surely be seconded by the growing intelligence of the whole people1 who will be constantly learning a better appreciation of the reform4 ,it is to be hoped that manufacturers and wearers will both see what is for their credit and interest1 and unite in securing its realization4 ,but it will not do to be content with what is1 after all1 only a rough approximation to the perfect form1 for1 superior as is the ,excelsior last to all the existing shapes1 it is still but a transition to one more complete and more permanently enduring4 ,like all the others1 it fails to give the outside toes a chance to keep their natural form4 ,the foot1 in its normal condition1 does not very closely resemble any of the shapes that have here been illustrated4 ,it is only after it has been distorted that there appears any real fitness between it and the shoe4 ,the forward part of the foot is wider than the middle2 but this fact is not recognized in making its covering4 ,even ,prof4 ,meyer is no more consistent than others1 as may be seen by contrasting one of the specimens of natural feet which he shows us with the sole of a shoe such as he would have it clothed with4 ,as exhibited in the cuts below1 is there any good correspondence between the two1 except that both have a general straightness upon the inside8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,,meyer',s ,,form ,,of ,,sole4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,natural ,,foot4 ,the foot is a wide one1 and the shoe-sole rather narrow2 but this need not be taken into account1 for the same want of harmony would exist if the widths were alike4 ,a narrow foot1 however1 may be seen by reference to ,fig4 #h1 in a preceding chapter4 ,the only way out of this awkward inconsistency is the acceptance of the form before suggested1 and here reproduced 7,fig4 #ba7 to be compared with its competitors4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,,eureka4 ,this has all the merits of any of them1 and the additional one that it allows as much freedom to the toes at the outside of the foot as to those at the inside4 ,all have a chance1 provided other things are as they should be1 to develop normally and to perform their functions without interference4 ,there is an agreement between it and the foot1 not only on one side1 but on both sides and all around4 ,it represents completely the idea of ,dr4 ,camper1 which cannot be done by anything of the narrow-toed form4 ,by a very slight addition to the width from the ball forward1 on the inside1 it also represents the idea of ,prof4 ,meyer4 ,so far as we can see1 it fulfils all the requirements that can be made concerning the form of sole4 ,it is proposed to name it the ,eureka4 ,if a requirement were made that it should agree with the present popular taste1 this pattern would signally fail4 ,but though it does not do this1 still1 if it corresponds with the true form of the foot1 and possesses the merits claimed1 its excellence will1 in time1 be acknowledged1 and public taste will come to see its elegance also4 ,if there is any reason at all why a thing is beautiful1 that reason consists in its fitness or propriety2 and if there is any shape more fit and proper for a sole that is to be trod upon by an undeformed foot1 will some one discover it and make it known4 ,taste comes1 at least to a great extent1 from education4 ,the teaching of ,china creates a taste which admires a short1 stumpy1 small1 useless foot1 as beautiful on a lady4 ,in more enlightened countries a more intelligent taste condemns such a foot as anything else than elegant4 ,a still better educated taste will admire only one that is entirely normal2 and to bring opinion up to this standard is the object of effort4 ,people are to learn that pointed toes and big joints are not natural2 that they do not come of themselves1 and that the foot-gear which produces them cannot have any propriety or beauty4 ,the various long-toed1 narrow-toed1 broad-toed1 stub-toed1 short-heeled1 thick-soled1 stiff1 awkward things that are worn by the masses must be seen to be1 as they are1 unfit coverings to be put upon a decent human foot4 ,shapes1 styles1 and fashions must be judged by their harmony or want of harmony with natural requirements1 and accepted or rejected accordingly4 ,there must be less deference to an unreasoning1 arbitrary opinion1 and more of original thought and independent action2 though it could hardly be supposed that for such a matter any great amount of personal independence would be required4 ,a different set of views and tastes will thus1 however1 be substituted for the present ones1 as the work of time and a more general knowledge of the subject4 ,there is no difficulty in starting a revolutionary movement4 ,any of the proposed forms of lasts can be obtained from the last-makers of the large cities--all but the ,eureka very readily--and often the shoemaker himself1 if ingenious1 can provide them for individual feet by altering some of those now in use4 ,this is not so very difficult when the last has sufficient thickness at the toe4 ,at the inside1 from the ball forward1 it may be shaved or rasped off enough to give a plane surface half an inch or more in width1 a shoulder being cut at the commencement near the ball4 ,successive layers of firm1 solid sole-leather are then pegged or nailed very strongly to the wood without splitting it1 each thickness separately1 to make the work more firm1 until enough are on to bring the corner out where it should be1 when they are rasped into the form required4 ,nails must not be driven in the outside pieces4 ,the opposite side of the toe may be narrowed1 curved1 and thinned to give the whole the proper shape4 ,there is no reason why those persons who are capable of appreciating the doctrine of this treatise should not set an example worthy of imitation2 and as the abuses complained of are so very common1 it is quite probable they might soon find themselves in the company of a large number4 ,ultimately1 it is expected that something not less perfect than the form last proposed1 and having all the qualities desirable in a model shoe1 will be universally adopted4 ,there will still remain to be discovered a mode of covering the foot which will secure to it all its natural freedom4 ,what this will be it is not easy1 just now1 to tell4 ,possibly it may take the peculiarity of the glove1 and provide separate apartments for each of the toes1 becoming thus a kind of foot-glove1 with a flexible sole1 separated between the toes1 and which will allow them to bend or spread1 and the whole foot to lengthen or contract without hindrance whenever occasion may require4 ,it will be an article of luxury1 rather than otherwise1 and there is no prospect of its immediate production4 ,yet such an one cannot1 without difficulty1 perhaps1 be made sufficiently thick to be a good protection against dampness and the coldest weather4 ,some compromise1 with the existing style of boot will become necessary1 though a shape better adapted to the comfort of the toes may be given to the forward part of it1 as by the time it is made1 the cramping1 narrow-toed boot will be out of favour2 and this brings us again to the ,eureka as the most appropriate form4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what1 now1 can be done toward the cure of crooked toes and enlarged joints after they have been induced8 ,the way of their prevention is already made plain1 but to remove the disfigurement after it has become a settled thing is a much more difficult matter4 ,the toe must be forced back to its former position1 and kept there by a steady1 constant pressure1 and the parts be allowed time to gradually re-adapt themselves and grow fixed in their proper shape4 ,the straightening of the toe will allow the bones to come nearer together at the joint1 and this1 when not sore1 may perhaps be pushed back slightly1 toward the middle of the foot1 by the pressure of a narrow boot4 ,as this process is the exact opposite of that by which the deformity is developed1 it ought1 with proper time1 patience1 and thoroughness1 to be tolerably successful4 ,dr4 ,meyer even leaves it to be inferred that toes which are not badly distorted will gradually re-assume their primary position without any assistance1 provided the shoe is of the right form1 with plenty of room at the end1 and the stocking is not allowed to prevent4 ,for straightening the toe it would seem that some efficient mechanical contrivance could be easily arranged1 but as yet there is nothing entirely satisfactory4 ,to be completely successful it ought to be something that can be easily fastened to the bare foot1 so that all the toes may be brought to their proper place before covering with the stocking4 ,but there is a difficulty in making the little toe1 or even more than one of them1 act as a point of support from which a force can be brought to bear against the great one4 ,so1 while unable to do better1 this stationary point must be found in the sole of the shoe4 ,the best thing we have been able to discover is a simple plate of metal1 standing upright between the great toe and its neighbour1 so securely fastened to the insole as to prevent the toe from inclining toward the side4 ,of course nothing can be done in a boot or shoe of the common form1 as in such a one the toe cannot be straightened by any means whatever4 ,the last on which it is made must be one like that described as the ,excelsior1 or1 what is still better for this case1 one of the form proposed by ,dr4 ,meyer4 ,there is no danger of going to an extreme in so shaping the last as to turn the toe inward1 because1 the toe1 after being fastened at its end1 tends strongly to resume its old1 deformed position by pushing the upper over the edge of the sole at the joint4 ,it thus partially defeats the object1 and will be straightened less than the form of the last 7and shoe7 indicates that it ought to be4 ,hence it is well not to let the ball of the last project over the bottom1 and thus try to keep back the joint from pushing over the upper of the shoe4 ,and1 even if the last is crooked inward at the toe a little more than ,meyer's rule directs1 there will be no harm4 ,it should also be well hollowed or curved on the inside1 at the region back of the ball and above the shank4 ,the more the wood is taken off here1 the more the foot will be thrown toward the outside of the shoe1 or made to tread outside1 and this will somewhat counterbalance the tendency which the toe has1 when the end of it is made stationary1 to push the joint and whole foot toward the inside4 ,the crookedness will appear extreme1 and perhaps ridiculous1 but it will be found in practice that it takes a very crooked shoe to make a big toe straight4 ,we believe1 however1 that this tendency of the toe and joint to keep their old position by treading over inside can be counteracted by putting a low counter or stiffening of sole-leather into the upper of the shoe at the ball1 in the same way a similar one is inserted at the heel4 ,or1 if the joint is too sensitive to be touched by stiff leather1 let the stiffening piece be placed just back of the ball1 in the shank4 ,the top part of it must be thinned1 while the bottom part remains thick and firm4 ,it has not been fairly tried1 but if the joint is not sore it can hardly fail to be effective4 ,it should be a false insole to which the partition or separator is fastened1 so that it can be easily changed1 because there is some difficulty in fitting it exactly right the first time1 and1 besides1 the wearer may wish1 even when it suits as well as possible1 to remove it and give the toe a resting-spell in its old position2 while if the partition is secured to the proper insole of the boot1 it must remain there1 whether right or wrong1 and in the latter case the boot will be worthless4 ,a strip of thick tin1 half or three-fourths of an inch wide1 and two and a half inches long1 is all that is required for the material4 ,if preferred1 it may be of thin sheet iron or sheet brass4 ,any tinsmith will furnish it1 bent and doubled into the form represented in the diagram4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,separator4 ,the upright part is five-eighths or three-fourths of an inch high1 according to the thickness of the toes4 ,a cut is made in the insole1 and this part put through1 while the ends are fastened to the under-side of the sole by some very small-headed tacks1 such as every shoemaker has upon his bench1 or can readily procure1 and can drive after making holes through the tin with a sharp-pointed peg-awl1 clinching their points on his lap-iron2 or if the part goes through snugly1 there is no real need of fastening at all4 ,it is best not to set the partition very far back from the end of the toe1 because at the first joint there is but a thin covering of flesh to guard the bone from being hurt4 ,the exact place for it must be determined by carefully measuring the foot1 while the toe is kept straight by the hand1 and afterward measuring the same length on the insole1 with the size-stick2 the width of the toe1 as well as the foot's length1 being also taken1 and in the same way4 ,to make sure that it shall not chafe the toe1 the partition or separator may be covered neatly with cloth1 or with a piece of thin sheepskin or kid leather4 ,the following cut shows it when ready to be put into the shoe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,,insole ,,with ,,separator4 ,the edges and corners of the separator need to be smoothly rounded1 and the forward upright corner may be lowered by filing off1 if desired1 to prevent its showing against the upper4 ,it should not be wider or thicker at its forward part1 that is1 it should not be triangularshaped1#c so as to separate the toes more at the ends than farther back1 for if so it would prevent the smaller ones from straightening out to correspond with the large one4 ,the large toe often pushes the smaller ones to the outside--part of them1 at least--and when the great toe is restored to straightness the smaller ones should be allowed to follow it1 as they will be inclined to do1 while the curve of the shoe on the outside tends also to push them back toward the inside4 ,almost anything between them will keep them apart temporarily1 as for the purpose of giving ease to a sore joint1 where there is no intention to continue the improvement4 ,when the shoe is made ready there may still be some difficulty about getting the foot into it4 ,there must first be a toe made in the stocking2 which can be done in a rough way by sewing two parallel seams1 an eighth of an inch or so apart1 from the end of the stocking to a depth equal to the length of the great toe1 of sufficient width to give room for it1 and then cutting down between these seams with the scissors4 ,the stocking should itself be of good width1 to give space for the smaller toes to be separated also4 ,an ingenious woman would probably find a better way of making the toe1 but this will answer if necessary4 ,then1 if the joint is not too stiff1 or the toe too much bent aside1 it can be kept straight while going into the boot by the fingers of one hand pressing against it outside of the upper leather2 and when this is the case the foot may be clothed in any kind of a boot or shoe1 and no difficulty will be experienced in putting it on4 ,a man's calf boot may be drawn on in this way the first time it is worn4 ,but when the deformity is too decided to allow of the toe being kept straight by the hand in this manner1 a shoe which laces in front must be made1 the opening being cut down somewhat lower than usual--as low1 in fact1 as will answer--though the line of the vamp is still curved so much that the seam will not cross the joints--a direction which the maker will understand4 ,on account of the vamp being so short1 the shoe will look better if made rather long for the foot4 ,with this the foot can be turned a little1 and worked around in such a way as commonly to get the toe to go in on the right side of the partition2 but if there is still difficulty1 a pretty sure way of accomplishing the object is to take a yard of tape1 ribbon1 or something similar1 wind it up around the finger into a large1 compact wad1 and crowd it in between the toes till the great one is well straightened out1 taking care to leave one end of the tape hanging outside the shoe4 ,the toe will then be likely to go into the place made for it1 and the tape can be pulled out by its free end before the shoe is fully drawn on4 ,a low shoe is still better than a high one for these difficult cases1 as the lower it is the more freedom will be allowed to turn the foot one side in entering the toe4 ,even where no trouble of this kind is anticipated1 it is still advisable that the first trial be made with a laced shoe--whether high or low is not material--when1 if entirely successful1 a boot1 or a ,button gaiter may next be ventured2 and to those who cannot feel sufficient faith in these statements to risk a failure on a pair of good shoes1 we recommend that they have a pair made of the poorest and cheapest materials1 and try them as an experiment4 ,the methods here given of straightening the toe1 and the way of making the shoe and getting the foot into it1 have been tried with fair success4 ,great toes that were badly deformed have been brought back so much as to give the appearance of well-formed feet1 without creating any discomfort1 and with positive ease and benefit to all the other toes4 ,of course1 the less the distortion1 and the less time it has existed1 the easier to accomplish the purpose4 ,there may be many cases which there would be little use in attempting to reform2 but the great majority can probably be improved2 and though a complete success may not be always attainable1 the gain in appearance1 to say nothing of comfort1 ought to be sufficient inducement to make a trial of the plan4 ,in some cases an unpleasant feeling to the toe or joint may be occasioned by the change1 as might be expected in any change of a similar kind1 but it is likely to become less and less till it entirely disappears4 ,the greatest direct benefit1 however1 will doubtless be in the case of bunion or other soreness of the joint1 where the straightening of the toe would give immediate relief1 and furnish a motive to continue the new habit4 ,the difficulty of effecting this in the common-shaped shoe is well known to those who have had occasion to try it4 ,with the new form it will be comparatively easy4 ,having the great toe corrected1 and the smaller ones left free to correct themselves1 being also influenced to do so by the curve on the outside of the shoe1 there is the best reason to believe that by perseveringly continuing the position for a sufficient length of time1 all the parts would return permanently to their natural form4 ,in the worst cases this time might be several years2 in others only as many months4 ,the law that any limb or organ of the body will adapt itself to a change of position is one that cannot be questioned2 the only doubt is as to the extent of the change which may be thus effected4 ,when the foot has been years in growing into a bad shape1 it cannot be expected to right itself immediately1 though much may depend upon the thoroughness with which the remedy is applied4 ,prevention1 however1 is said to be far better than cure4 ,it certainly is in this matter1 and1 being so easy and simple1 there can hardly be any good reason for its neglect4 ,as a means of developing some hints that may be of service in originating an article superior to any now worn1 as well as a matter of curiosity1 and to show some of the elegance formerly existing1 we give a few representations of the foot-apparel worn in ancient and medieval times4 ,it seems possible there may be some peculiarity about them that can be adopted and made of use for the future4 ,we are indebted for them to ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,hall's 8,,book ,,of ,,the ,,feet40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,,ancient ,,egyptian4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,,roman4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,,old ,,english4 ,the first cut is that of a sandal worn by the aristocracy of ,egypt in the earliest ages4 ,there is a fastening over the instep1 and another passing from that1 to a point between the great toe and the smaller ones1 to prevent slipping toward either side4 ,the foot is a handsome one--evidently that of a lady--and the sandal seems appropriate to a dry1 warm climate1 in the days when a partially bare foot had not become disgraceful4 ,the second figure represents the cothurnus of the old ,romans--a sort of boot-sandal1 laced in front down to the roots of the toes1 but leaving the toes themselves exposed and free1 and with a sole like a sandal1 evidently shaped to fit the foot--not the foot to fit it4 ,the sturdy conquerors of the world did not1 it is plain1 believe in subjecting their toes to any such tyranny as we impose upon ours4 ,who can say the foot is not finely formed1 although the toes are not drawn together into a pile8 or that the covering is not appropriate1 neat1 and elegant8 ,figure #bf shows us a form of shoe in fashion among the nobility of ,england in the fifteenth century4 ,though the toe is somewhat lengthy1 the shoe is otherwise eminently sensible4 ,we ought to be1 and think we are1 able to improve upon what was done by our ancestors of four hundred years ago2 yet here is a sole that1 notwithstanding its ridiculously long toe1 is better adapted to fit the natural foot and preserve its shape than any of those made at the present day4 ,a turn-up toe is not so objectionable1 when of moderate length1 as it leaves less necessity for a high heel4 ,and if our shoes must have long and narrow toes1 something like this is decidedly better1 and no more ridiculous1 than the cramping1 distorting shapes now in use4 ,it is at least extraordinary that with all our modern wisdom we are not yet able to produce a better form than any of them4 ,but while waiting for the right thing1 if the ,paris cordonniers will adopt this1 and return it to us duly indorsed as the latest orthodox ,french style1 there will be reason for gratitude to them1 and for congratulation among ourselves4 ,it may be noticed that the form here shown would1 if its long toe were taken off1 have a strong resemblance to that called the ,eureka1 the breadth at the part where the toes lie1 being its best and most important point4 ,and thus comparing the ,eureka with all the modern shapes of boots and shoes1 we are compelled to re-assert that it is not only the best of any for all proper purposes1 but that1 looked upon with a rightly educated taste--with a knowledge that the forward part of the foot is1 and ought to be1 the widest--it is also the most beautiful4 ,,footnotes3 #c ,there is no objection to this form in particular cases where it is desired to go to an extreme in straightening the toe1 provided that side of the separator next the small toes be kept straight1 and the increase of width made to throw the great one still farther inward4 ,it may be done by filing off the forward corner of the upright portion till its two sides are separated nearly back to the opposite corner1 when a wedge of leather can be inserted to keep them apart4 ,there must be plenty of room in the upper1 or the pressure of such a separator may create soreness at the nail4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,flattened ,condition of the ,arch--,beauty of one that is ,natural--,nature and ,purpose of its ,construction--,how it ,becomes ,broken ,down--,lengthening of the ,foot--,lack of ,development--,means of ,improvement--,lasts for ,flat ,feet--,transverse ,arch4 ,another of the prominent disfigurements of the foot is that commonly known as flat-foot1 which is seen where the arch of the instep is in a broken-down or flattened condition4 ,this deformity has1 if possible1 a more awkward and ungraceful effect than that caused by the unnatural position of the toes and joints2 though there may be less painful effects attending it than are attached to the latter4 ,the worst trouble accompanying this kind of disfigurement is the weakness which is attendant upon it1 and which is sometimes so extreme as to interfere seriously with walking for any great distance1 or standing long at a time2 making itself felt at various periods1 as there happens to be a demand for strength and activity4 ,it is almost needless to say how unnatural is such a condition4 ,children are seldom subject to it1 except when connected with weak ankles4 ,even the children of parents who are notoriously flat-footed have feet that are tolerably well arched4 ,we venture to say that the wild ,indian of the native forest was never seen with the beauty of his symmetrical and handsome frame marred by flat feet4 ,there are some of the race who flatten their heads1 but they never wear boots1 nor heels on their moccasins1 and their feet are therefore free from this disagreeable shape4 ,the artist never allows a representation of this deformity to appear in his work2 on the contrary1 an arch that is high and well-marked has always been considered beautiful4 ,it gives an airiness1 elegance1 and grace to the appearance of the foot which is as beautiful as the flat foot is ungraceful and awkward4 ,a firm step and upright carriage of the whole body are also generally to be found with the arched instep--never without2 while the flat foot1 if not seen1 may always be inferred from the unnatural1 shuffling gait of its possessor4 ,the high arch is thus beautiful for the same reason that any other organ or part of the body is beautiful--because it is better adapted to perform its intended function or office1 which is the support of the weight of the body1 this design being more perfectly accomplished when the arch is high1 because it is then stronger than when low or flattened4 ,to flatten it is like drawing apart the ends upon which it rests1 and this1 it is apparent1 weakens1 if it does not entirely break1 the unity and strength of the whole4 ,the nature of the construction of the foot in this respect is thus set forth by ,prof4 ,meyer3 8,if the inner aspect of the foot is examined1 we find that it is an arch1 resting in front on the anterior heads of the five metatarsal bones1 but principally on that of the great toe1 and on that of the calcaneum behind4 ,the astragalus forms the key-stone of the arch4 8,the arch is enabled to retain its form by means of strong ligaments or bands passing from one bone to the others1 and thus held closely together1 sustains the superincumbent weight of the body without giving way4 8,when we rest on the foot1 as in standing1 the arch is flattened by the pressure from above1 and consequently becomes lengthened4 ,when1 however1 the foot is allowed to hang free1 the curvature of the arch is increased4 ,at every step in walking1 also1 when the foot is raised from the ground1 the curvature immediately becomes greater through the action of the muscles40 ,this action1 it will be readily seen1 is precisely that of a spring under a carriage1 or other similar vehicle1 and seems to have a like intention--that of preventing the transmission of a shock or jar to the joints1 and the internal organs of the body above4 ,it will be found true1 we believe1 that in persons of muscular temperament--the temperament that gives tall1 spare1 and angular forms--the curvature of the arch is greater than in those whose natural disposition of body is toward fleshiness4 ,in the latter case1 the muscles of the whole system being weaker1 they allow the bones of the foot to separate more easily1 and this1 consequently1 allows the flattening4 ,in other words1 we strongly suspect that in this temperament of the body the ligaments are not so dense1 firm1 and strong as they are in persons whose physical structure is more predominantly muscular4 ,the ligaments which hold the bones together at the joints are not designed to stretch1 under ordinary circumstances1 but they do yield when sufficient force is exerted upon them1 as in the case of sprains and dislocations1 and it is reasonable to infer that they adapt themselves to the demand made upon them4 ,the muscles grow longer and larger1 as do also the bones1 under circumstances that call for such growth or adaptations to conditions4 ,so do all the organs and tissues of the body1 in greater or less degree2 and if the ligaments do not1 they are a plain exception1 which is not probable4 ,this being so1 a constant strain upon the ligaments of the foot's arch1 as in standing for several hours without rest1 must cause them to stretch somewhat1 allowing the bones to loosen and sink down1 while the same severe strain1 if continued for a yet longer period1 would force them to grow into this lengthened condition1 to meet the demand upon them1 thus rendering the fault permanent4 ,in persons of fleshy tendency1 the natural softness and weakness of the muscles and ligaments allow them the more easily to give way to the pressure upon the arch4 ,it is believed to be the fact that the deformity is more common among people of this type1 and it will be well for those so constituted to guard against anything that tends to its development4 ,it is in persons of the opposite type--those who have firm1 close1 hard1 and strong muscles1 and no extra flesh--that the arch is found in its greatest perfection4 ,there the strong muscles and ligaments bind the bones together with such firmness that the arch is enabled longer to resist the influences which tend to break it down4 ,yet the flat foot is very common1 in spite of all nature's efforts for prevention4 ,the deformity1 in greater or less degree1 may be said to exist as the rule among adult persons1 while the natural arch is the exception4 ,among some classes of people1 flat-foot is almost wholly prevalent4 ,hard toil and degrading conditions not only debase the person morally and intellectually1 but they affect the gait and carriage1 and their influence may be seen to reach down to the very bottom of the foot4 ,it was this fault1 possibly1 which first suggested the practice of wearing heels1 or1 if it did not originate1 at least continued it4 ,heels partially restore that elevation and airiness of the foot which is given by a natural arch1 and which constitutes its grace and beauty4 ,when rightly made1 and worn as a choice of two evils1 or as a partial remedy for an evil1 they are not objectionable2 but they can be only a partial corrective4 ,they can never be substituted for a good arch2 while1 worn as they are and have been1 they really become one of the causes of the deformity which in turn calls for their use4 ,another cause is thus explained in ,prof4 ,meyer's book3 8,flat-foot is occasioned by the loosening of the ligaments that knit the foot firmly together1 and1 by the consequent sinking of the arch1 the inner aspect of the foot no longer presents the natural hollow in the sole4 ,the causes of such loosening of the ligaments are numerous1 but by far the most frequent1 and one readily induced by the ordinary shoe1 is weight improperly directed on the arch4 ,if1 for example1 a shoe happens to be trodden on one side1 and especially1 as is most commonly the case1 if it be so at the heel1 then the heel has no support1 except from the inner margin of the sole1 which is thus worn away1 and the heel-piece becomes oblique1 or1 in other words1 lower at one side than the other4 ,in walking and standing on such a heel-piece1 the whole external margin of the foot is raised1 and the inner1 which naturally supports the arch1 is so depressed as gradually to lose its convexity1 and thus flat-foot is produced40 ,the nature of the cause here spoken of seems to be like that of a sprain1 to a slight degree1 and may be an influential one1 but we doubt that it is the most common cause of that loosening of the ligaments which allows the foot to break down4 ,the most common and efficient of all the causes of this difficulty1 it appears to us1 is the short heel which has always been worn on boots and shoes1 and is still1 except where an innovation upon its shape has been made within a few years past4 ,this1 though not strictly a direct cause1 like a strain from above1 is the condition which most frequently admits and encourages the sinking of the arch4 ,that short heels most frequently admit of and encourage the sinking of the arch of the foot will be readily seen by an explanation4 ,there are several bones which1 together1 form the forward part of the arch1 while the back part consists of one larger bone1 technically called the calcaneum1 or os calcis1 which makes up the principal part of the heel4 ,partly above this1 and between it and the forward bones1 is the one called the astragalus1 which is the keystone1 being located the highest of any1 and the one upon which rest the bones of the leg2 in size it is next to the calcaneum4 ,an illustration will show the position4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,the inner aspect of the foot1 showing the arched construction of the whole foot--a1 head of metatarsal bone of great toe1--b1 calcaneum1--c1 astragalus4 ,the forward part of the calcaneum1 or heel-bone1 at its lower surface1 is somewhat higher than the back part1 and has under it a thicker cushion of flesh4 ,when the bare foot treads upon the surface1 or when there is no heel upon the shoe-sole1 this point--letter e in the diagram--is as well supported as any other1 and1 being so1 enables all the other bones to keep their proper places1 but when there is a heel on the sole of the shoe1 it is not long enough--does not extend under far enough--to support this forward part of the heel-bone4 ,the sole1 forward of the heel1 is not usually stiff enough to support it1 and therefore it falls downward as much as the leather will give way2 the heel-piece being often half an inch too short1 and sometimes more than that4 ,then1 if the sole is light1 so as to give way easily1 there is nothing to prevent this part of the bone from settling down to the extent of a quarter of an inch1 or even more4 ,while the back part is supported1 the front is turning directly downward4 ,this allows the astragalus and the whole arch to sink down to the same extent1 and1 in time1 all parts of the foot will adapt themselves to their changed condition1 and the flat shank become a permanent thing4 ,if any person will examine a slipper worn with a heel1 or a boot having an ordinary sole1 it will be seen that just in front of the heel the sole is depressed1 or bent downward1 from one-eighth to three-eighths of an inch4 ,this is almost invariable1 except when a very long heel1 or a stiff shank in the sole1 preserves the natural position of the calcaneum or bone of which the heel is formed4 ,the amount of this depression shows how much the arch has sunk1 and how much higher it would be if properly supported4 ,it indicates very plainly the occasion and origin of a large proportion of the flat and splay feet that may be so frequently observed4 ,this inefficiency of the common short heel to properly support the arch was first discovered by ,dr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,plumer1 of ,boston1 to whom is due the credit of showing the bad effects just noticed as the result of its being worn4 ,his style of boot and last will be discussed further on4 ,it has been stated that as the foot flattens1 it also lengthens4 ,it has been estimated that some flat feet are as much as two sizes1 or two-thirds of an inch1 longer than the same feet would be if well arched2 an item worth noticing by those who are fastidious upon this point4 ,in falling down1 the calcaneum is pushed backward making the long-heeled foot1 while the bones forward of the astragalus must advance more or less in their direction1 thus adding to the foot's length at both ends1 and making the leg appear to be set far toward the middle4 ,the ends must necessarily be separated before the middle of the arch can sink1 and this is why its flattening is accompanied by the long heel4 ,in a foot that is well arched1 the projection of bone at the upper part of the heel extends farther back than the lower edge at the sole4 ,in a flat foot1 on the contrary1 the bottom part extends back farther than the bony projection above1 which1 in fact1 is pretty sure not to project at all4 ,it may be asked1 ,why not keep the ends of the arch together by a boot that is short at both ends1 supposing such a one could be made that would not distort the toes8 ,simply because it would prevent the use1 and consequent strength1 of the muscles of the under side of the foot1 which are themselves the natural bands for holding the ends together1 and the whole arch in its raised position4 ,these muscles1 being weakened by the cramping of a short boot1 would allow the arch to sink whenever the artificial support was taken away4 ,this reasoning seems to indicate such a treatment as one of the causes by which flatness is produced1 and as pinching the foot lengthwise has been a common fault1 this cause may have been quite effective4 ,dr4 ,meyer thus refers to another bad influence3 8,we have already seen that the foot forms an arch1 the efficiency of which in a special manner depends on the tensity of its ligaments being maintained4 ,if then1 an unnatural and flattening pressure be constantly exercised on this arch1 the binding ligaments get slackened and the arch falls down2 a broken-down arch1 as we have already seen1 causes flat-foot4 ,the pressure of the upper leather on the instep must1 therefore1 and particularly in the case of narrow boots1 favour the origin of this deformity4 ,the same cause must further interfere with locomotion1 for at every step the increased arching of the instep1 which takes place the moment that the foot is set to 8 raised from the ground is resisted by the upper leather1 and an injurious influence is thus exercised on the action of some of the muscles used in walking1 and which runs from the anterior aspect of the lower leg to the back of the foot40 ,all cramping1 binding1 and confining of any part of the body weakens it1 as is well known to every intelligent reader4 ,hence the manifest impropriety of wearing anything unnecessarily tight or binding to the arch of the instep4 ,every boot that is uncomfortably tight has to some degree the effect of weakening1 and rendering it more liable to fall down4 ,more especially is this the case when the leather used is thick1 hard1 or stiff4 ,much of the cheap and inferior goods offered for sale ready-made are seriously objectionable on this account4 ,the uppers themselves are--a large share of them1 at least--thick and hard1 while the pegged soles are made as stiff as possible1 to give the appearance of thick1 solid1 and serviceable leather in that part4 ,many a poor man is thus actually hobbled1 to a greater or less extent1 by the miserable foot-gear his poverty compels him to wear4 ,as there is but very little bend to them1 there is but little use of the muscles of the foot4 ,it is cramped or unnaturally pressed upon1 even though having plenty of room1 and might almost as well be cased in iron as in the stiff kip or cowhide boot or brogan4 ,the result is weakness1 flattening1 and a tendency to other kinds of distortion4 ,we believe the frequency of flat-foot among some of the poorer classes of people may thus be easily accounted for4 ,the peasantry of other countries are even less fortunate than our own4 ,saying nothing of wooden shoes1 the leather ones they wear are not only thick and stiff in material1 but the soles are often filled with stout iron nails besides4 ,with such things on the feet there can be no spring to the toes1 no use for the forward part of the arch1 no play to the muscles4 ,the feet can hardly be otherwise than weak and flat4 ,when tightness is added to stiffness the effect must be still worse4 ,children must feel these bad consequences more than adults1 for being less firm in their muscles and bones1 they have less power of resisting the cramping1 weakening influence4 ,some of the boots manufactured in this country for boys can be recommended only as a slightly less evil than going barefoot in cold weather4 ,one other reason is1 very probably1 lack of development4 ,the calf of the leg is but partially developed in some races of men1 and only comes to its full growth in conditions of civilized society that call for the use of all its muscles4 ,so it is confidently believed that all those steps and motions which give lightness1 grace1 ease1 and elegance to the movements of the body1 such as occur in most varieties of the dance1 and particularly such as demand the use of the toes1 have a tendency to develop and strengthen the foot's arch4 ,as its full development tends to create easy1 light1 and graceful movements1 so these in turn help it to grow into full strength and beauty4 ,hence the well-developed calf1 the well-arched foot1 and the graceful step will almost invariably be found to go together4 ,there may be yet other and unknown causes of this deformity2 but enough have been noticed to account for the great majority of cases4 ,while it is already very common1 the influences that have produced it are still producing and confirming the wrong shape4 ,of course the longer the fault is established the more difficult it is to make a change2 but there is believed to be a partial remedy1 at least1 in the case of young persons4 ,it consists in simply supporting the back part of the arch as nature does in her own way2 that is1 in supporting the whole under-surface of the calcaneum1 or heel-bone1 as is done when the bare foot is pressed upon the ground4 ,a long heel--one extending under the sole far enough for its front edge to support the front part of the bone--is the thing required4 ,when the foot rests upon such a heel1 the whole weight of the body acts as a force to compel the forward part of the bone to push itself upward into its true place1 because1 being a quarter of an inch--more or less--lower than it ought to be1 it cannot be perfectly at ease until it gets back where it belongs4 ,the weight of the body1 then1 is just as influential in restoring the arch to its natural form when the long heel is worn1 as it is in breaking it down when the short heel is the only support4 ,there is reason to think that a large number of the flat feet could be corrected by this simple expedient4 ,the long-standing cases might require considerable time1 and even prove too obdurate for this remedy2 but the law which compels all parts of the system to adapt themselves to circumstances would tend constantly and strongly to bring about the effect desired4 ,in those cases where the feet have not grown into a positive1 settled distortion1 we doubt not the result would be decided and very gratifying2 and if the children wore these long heels--if1 in short1 the whole people were educated to see the necessity of wearing them1 when any at all are worn1 the instances of flat-foot would be far less common4 ,a few years since1 ,dr4 ,plumer 7before referred to7 patented a style of boot1 of which the long heel is one characteristic4 ,this is1 in fact1 the best thing about his invention1 and should go far to make it popular1 even if it has no other recommendation4 ,the fashion has been considerably introduced in some places1 and has also had some effect in increasing the length of heels in work not made after that style1 and thus may indirectly have saved many from having the arch of their feet broken down4 ,for this it is deserving of praise1 though we attach less importance to its other peculiarities4 ,the old-fashioned way of making heels leaves them from one-fourth to five-eighths of an inch too short4 ,the whole tendency of such heels is downward1 in a double sense4 ,the more they are worn the farther downward goes the foot1 not only in form1 but in character--in beauty1 gracefulness1 and strength4 ,the long heel1 on the contrary1 tends to raise the foot upward in shape1 and also to restore its strength and grace4 ,as a means of prevention1 it should be adopted for all children1 to preserve the shape of feet that are still natural4 ,the ,plumer heel has frequently been carried to an extreme1 and in such a way as to make its shape appear clumsy and inelegant4 ,for this there is no real necessity4 ,a heel that will extend under the foot half an inch farther than the generality of short ones1 can be made1 by pitching it well under behind1 to appear only slightly longer than common at the top1 7or bottom17 and be tasteful in every particular4 ,the form may be that of the most approved1 and there is no demand for greater width4 ,if the counters or stiffenings be of the right kind1 the heel may be made sufficiently narrow to look well1 and correspond with the general appearance of an elegant boot1 without danger of its treading over4 ,this latter kind of trouble comes mainly from counters that are too weak1 though1 of course1 a heel that is too small relatively--which is not handsome--or that is built inclining to one side1 will be likely to produce the same result4 ,a high heel has an influence in encouraging this false condition of the arch by throwing the foot forward1 thus creating the same effect as a shortening of the heel itself4 ,this is not so great a cause as some others1 it is true1 but1 as one thing tending to the same general result1 it should be considered and guarded against4 ,it is claimed that a necessity exists for a heel of some kind in order to prevent the stubbing of the toes in walking2 and the fact that people of ,eastern countries turn up the toes of their shoes seems to countenance the claim4 ,yet1 it is doubtful4 ,although ,nature did not put anything under our heels1 it cannot be supposed that she intended us to go about constantly stubbing our toes4 ,if there had really been a need of raising up the heel1 she would have raised it4 ,it is more likely that by wearing heels we have got the foot into a false habit of pointing the toes downward more than is natural1 and hence our inclination to stub them when the artificial heels are not under us1 if such is the fact4 ,the heels must be decided 7described7 as unnatural as they are unnecessary4 ,still1 a moderately high one is not so obnoxious as to be worth disputing about4 ,if the height were limited to an inch for the heels of a lady's boot1 and an inch and a quarter for those of gentlemen1 as a general rule1 in both cases1 the disadvantage of such heels would be so trifling that they could hardly be objectionable1 provided the length was sufficient4 ,but a short heel1 however low it may be1 is a villainous thing4 ,another great means1 both of preventing the fall of the arch1 and of restoring it afterward--one hardly inferior to that of the heel--is the exercise and development of the muscles of the under side of the foot4 ,these are chiefly concerned in the use of the toes4 ,they act whenever we spring upon the forward part of the foot in walking1 leaping1 or dancing4 ,their exercise not only strengthens them1 but it strengthens all the other parts also2 the ligaments and bones1 as well1 being made more dense1 firm1 and enduring1 according to the law that the proper use of the muscles of any part of the body draws blood1 vitality1 and strength into the surrounding or contiguous parts4 ,as these muscles extend in a general lengthwise direction1 their strong and firm condition tends directly to hold the ends of the arch as near together as they naturally belong1 or in other words1 prevent their separation4 ,and as they must separate before the arch can sink1 it is seen that here is a powerful influence naturally exerting itself to restrain the foot from flattening2 a view which can be sustained by good anatomical and medical authority4 ,the ladies of ,spain are said to possess the finest feet of any race of women in the world4 ,the fact can hardly be disputed2 and to account therefore it is only necessary to take into consideration the general prevalence of their national habit of dancing1 which1 by all its movements and exercises of the foot1 tends directly toward strengthening the toes and raising the arch4 ,a person who can support the weight of the body on the tips of the great toes1 either naturally or by cultivation1 must possess not only strong muscles in the toes themselves1 but a strong arch1 and strong foot throughout4 ,we will risk the reputation of this book on the assertion that a broken-down arch cannot be found in the whole dancing profession4 ,here1 then1 is indicated one course of practical effort by which to avoid or ameliorate the deformity4 ,all those movements of gymnastics which go to strengthen the foot may likewise be adopted with advantage4 ,the toes must also be taught to do their share in the process of walking2 and whatever action1 in short1 will cause the exercise of the muscles of the lower part of the foot1 should be favoured1 and will help to develop and raise the arch4 ,but this effect cannot be produced immediately4 ,it may require patience1 determination1 and steady perseverance4 ,there is no royal road to recovery from flat-footedness1 any more than there is to knowledge4 ,the coverings for flat feet should always be made upon lasts that are flat in the shank like themselves4 ,a boot made on an arched last cannot possibly fit a foot whose sole is convex from heel to toe2 hence such feet need lasts made expressly for them4 ,the upper leather of the boot cannot1 in this case1 be too soft and pliable4 ,it should be loose enough to allow the bending at the ball and the movements of the toes to be performed with ease4 ,all the muscles must have a chance to act freely1 and the blood be permitted to circulate without hindrance4 ,at the same time there is no need of having big wrinkles1 or any extra looseness in the fit of the boot1 if only sufficient care is taken in the making4 ,another thing to be considered is the stiffening in the shank of boots1 more particularly in those of men4 ,if a short heel must be worn a stiff shank had better go with it4 ,a metallic shank1 if strong1 will then be useful1 and perhaps generally effective in keeping up the foot4 ,a shank-piece of leather is seldom so stiff but that a flat foot will bend it downward to adapt it to its own shape4 ,so it will also depress the steel shank at the forward and middle portions1 but probably not directly in front of the heel1 where the most support is required4 ,the shank1 too1 unless nearly straight1 will be apt to press against the middle of the arch--or where the arch ought to be--so strongly as to cause discomfort2 and it is a question if such a pressure does not itself tend to weaken the foot still more4 ,it is thus doubtful if the metallic shank will be of any benefit to a flat foot1 unless pains are taken to make it conform to a flat-bottomed last by straightening4 ,feet that are tolerably well-arched can wear it with no difficulty4 ,but1 further3 the stiffness in the shank of the boot interferes somewhat with the flexibility of the foot1 and therefore no more of it than is necessary to pull off the boot ought to be allowed4 ,by far the best way1 and the only right way1 is to wear a heel sufficiently long to give all the needed support1 and a shank as flexible as it can be without breaking or clinging to the foot when the boot is drawn off4 ,the foot--at least the heel and arch portion--is then left unimpeded in its natural action4 ,if it be said that the stiffness is intended to keep the sole in its proper shape1 it is replied that when the boot fits naturally and easily--not loosely--it will keep its correct shape without any help1 while if it does not it will tread badly in spite of all the stiffness4 ,there is an additional elegance1 and general appearance of elevation given to the foot by having the sole of the boot made as thin and light in the shank or waist as possible4 ,this can be done in men's boots by driving a row of pegs through the shank-piece1 putting the pegs close together1 to create stiffness1 without increasing the thickness of the leather4 ,the shoemaker will understand4 ,a shank made in this manner will be firm enough in drawing off the boot1 the thickly-driven pegs not leaving room between them for the leather to break2 while it is much more flexible than a thick one4 ,it is thus better adapted to the foot1 at the same time that it is quite as reliable for its own proper purpose4 ,one piece of leather may thus take the place of two or three4 ,where a metallic shank is used1 there will of course be the appearance of lightness4 ,the model boot or shoe of the future1 however1 will be one in which there shall exist no need of stiffness in order to draw it off1 but where this part of the sole will be so thin and flexible as to be easily pressed downward by the large ligament under the arch when the toes are raised1 while it will cling upward close to the hollow of the foot when the arch is raised and the toes extended4 ,another hint to the bootmaker may not be inappropriate4 ,it is generally considered desirable to have the side seams correspond with1 or meet1 the forward corners of the heel4 ,to effect this when a long heel is made it is only necessary to add half an inch1 or more1 to the width of the back-pattern at the bottom1 before cutting4 ,this width may be added at the bottom1 and lessened gradually toward the top1 or continued through the whole length of the pattern equally1 as preferred4 ,a corresponding amount must of course be taken off from the width of the front pattern at the same time4 ,in a boot without sideseams the same rule applies in cutting the ends of the outside counter4 ,the front of the heel should not be cut out in curved form1 as is sometimes done1 because that is a virtual shortening of it2 though there is no objection to cutting out the upper lifts of the leather1 letting the point of the knife come out before touching the sole1 which makes a shortened appearance without affecting the length at all where the sole and heel surfaces unite4 ,a heel rounded out1 lengthwise1 would be preferable to one curved in1 though it might not be thought so elegant unless indorsed by fashion4 ,we speak thus particularly about the construction of the heel1 because it is important2 as the good or ill form of the foot's arch seems to depend upon it more than upon anything else1 except it be the strengthening of the muscles4 ,there is a third peculiarity of the ,plumer last that is worthy of notice1 and which consists in a hollowing out or concaving of the bottom or sole from the heel forward to the toe1 but mostly through the ball4 ,this hollow is designed to be filled up with leather in making the boot1 so as to leave the bottom of the sole flat1 while inside it is rounded upward4 ,the object of this change in the shape of the last is to make it conform to the shape of the foot1 which it does very closely4 ,but1 at the same time1 so far as this has any effect upon the foot at all it has an injurious one4 ,the form of the sole of the foot at this place is one that ought not to be conformed to by the sole of the boot4 ,there is a low arch1 transversely of the foot1 from the ball of the great toe to that of the little one1 its two opposite resting points4 ,in nature it is somewhat like the great arch between the ball and heel4 ,to raise the sole under it is like supporting an arch in the middle1 which would be absurd4 ,in this case it is entirely unnatural1 and only of use in a boot that is very tight1 or much too narrow1 where it may do good by preventing the formation of a big wrinkle in the sole of the foot1 lengthwise1 which might come from the drawing together of the opposite sides4 ,the following quotation strongly sets forth the impropriety of the new mode4 8,there has been a good deal said of late about the transverse arch of the foot1 and the necessity of supporting it to prevent its breaking down1 and the unfortunate possessor becoming splay-footed4 ,did any one ever hear of an arch requiring support8 99 99 99 ,what is called the transverse arch is in reality a portion of an elliptic spring2 and the moment you fill up the natural hollow of the foot you destroy its elasticity4 ,what carriage-maker puts supports under the arches of his carriage-springs8 ,the human foot is a combination of bones and strong muscles that act as springs1 and at each point where it comes in contact with the ground is placed a cushion to prevent jarring4 ,when the weight of the body is placed upon the foot1 it spreads both in length and breadth1 and it contracts again when the weight is removed2 and any artificial support under the hollow of the foot prevents this expansion and contraction1 and one may as well have a wooden foot1 for all practical purposes1 as one which has a support under the transverse arch40#d ,as the foot spreads at every step1 the arch naturally flattens in the middle1 but this is prevented when the sole is built up under it4 ,it is self-evident that the foot is designed to tread on a flat surface1 as its most natural function4 ,any attempt to make it tread constantly on a convex one is manifestly wrong4 ,yet1 as said before1 it may be of use to prevent a greater evil where people are determined to wear tight or narrow boots in spite of all reason or propriety4 ,it is also true that a slight hollow will exist under the ball of a well-arched foot1 even when pressed upon by the weight of the body4 ,this may be filled up if desired1 for1 being so small1 it is a matter of indifference whether it is so or not1 while there is perfect safety in letting it alone4 ,we see1 then1 that while one characteristic of the ,plumer boot--the long heel--is a very valuable one1 another--that of filling under the transverse arch--is useless1 or positively injurious4 ,the first1 or good quality1 however1 overbalances the latter1 and therefore the boot is an improvement upon the old or common style4 ,the true and natural-shaped boot would have a flat or level surface from heel to toe on the sole1 not wholly1 but precisely where in this it is hollowed out4 ,the parts on each side of the level strip would be slightly convex1 like the corresponding parts of the foot2 not too much so1 however1 for then the last would be too rounding on the bottom1 taking the whole width in view1 which is as bad a fault as the hollow1 or even worse2 as it interferes more with the spreading of the transverse arch1 and1 by making a concave upper surface to the insole of the shoe1 compels the ball to tread into just such a hollow as would fit a broken-down1 splay foot4 ,the natural inference is that such a shoe would tend to favour the production of just such a foot4 ,it is believed that the broken-down transverse arch will almost always be found accompanied by the broken-down arch of the instep4 ,though the latter may exist without the former1 yet we suspect that the two incline to go together--that the sinking of the greater arch tends to carry down the other along with it1 while a natural weakness of muscle would be a predisposing condition4 ,if there are other causes they are not yet known4 ,the last supposition being correct1 then the most direct way to a cure would be to restore the arch of the instep to its proper shape and position2 which would probably have the same tendency to raise the other1 that its depression had to break it down4 ,the grand recipe for this1 as already given1 is the long heel2 which can be made upon any kind of covering1 whatever its peculiarities4 ,the use of the muscles of the toes must also come in as an auxiliary help not to be underrated4 ,still another remedial measure is the 8righting up0 of the foot4 ,many1 if not most1 of the feet that have broken-down arches also tread over inward along the whole side4 ,in such cases the weight of the body1 as already stated1 falls upon the arch in a wrong direction4 ,the arch1 instead of standing upright and receiving the weight directly over itself1 supports the body while itself leaning over to one side4 ,any other kind of arch1 in a similar condition1 would quickly fall over or settle down2 and it is no wonder the foot settles down to a level in the shank4 ,weak muscles in the ankle and foot of a child will allow the foot to take a one-sided tendency1 and it is not impossible the child may inherit something of this weakness from a weak-footed parent1 and thus the infirmity be perpetuated4 ,but with the fault existing1 however produced1 the foot cannot get strong till the arch is restored to its natural perpendicularity4 ,the best manner of righting it up will be described in a chapter farther on4 ,the uprightness will give the muscles a better chance to grow strong1 while these assist the operation of the long heel2 and possibly it will prove not inferior to either of them in promoting the desired result4 ,we are sorry that facts from practical effort cannot be given to show a realized success in this direction4 ,but in truth we doubt that an earnest and systematic attempt was ever made to raise up a broken-down foot4 ,all that can be said is that the methods recommended must necessarily tend toward the restoration of the arch4 ,but this alone ought to furnish assurance of success1 and encourage an archless-footed person to combine those methods1 and give them a faithful trial4 ,,footnotes3 #d ,this paragraph is from ,mr4 ,j4 ,l4 ,watkins1 a boot and shoe manufacturer of ,new ,york city1 who has attempted to carry into practice the idea of ,prof4 ,meyer4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,natural ,character of the ,instep--,causes1 and ,prevention1 of ,sores upon it--,false ,taste--,callosities of the ,heel--,counters--,criticism of ,lasts4 ,in the last chapter the instep was spoken of as a part of the whole arch of the foot4 ,it is now to be looked at from the upper side4 ,when the foot is in its best shape this part is elevated and prominent1 with a well-marked and graceful rise from the ball upward1 and a distinct projection or convexity at its upward portion1 or about half way between the joint and the ankle1 which is the upper surface of the first cuneiform bone1 or the point where that bone joins the first metatarsal4 ,this place is subject to callosities or thickenings of the skin1 resembling corns1 but more frequently is affected by soreness without any thickening of the skin4 ,in the broken-down foot there is no convexity here at all1 or but very little1 the instep being a straight inclined plane from the ankle to the ball1 and sometimes even bending downward4 ,insteps of this kind1 whatever bad effects may come from their flatness1 are not afflicted in the way just described4 ,corns and callosities are never known to fasten upon them2 an advantage which shows that some good is mixed with evil1 in the foot as well as elsewhere4 ,it is the best formed instep1 on the contrary1 that is most subject to callosity and tenderness4 ,this tenderness or callosity1 whichever it may be1 has one cause in the general tightness of the boot worn1 and may have two others1 arising from the shape of the lasts used4 ,one of these is in the fact that the corresponding part of the last--technically called the cone of the instep--does not extend far enough forward1 or is shaved off too much--is left too flat1 for the fitting of well-arched feet4 ,there is not wood enough1 proportionally1 in the last at this point4 ,the other cause comes from the whole instep1 being placed too near the middle1 instead of on the side1 where the foot has it4 ,mr4 ,watkins1 who was referred to in the last chapter1 thus explains this defect3 8,if the instep is not in the right place1 the foot swells in that place4 ,i have seen very troublesome sores on the instep1 and very difficult to cure1 arising from the misplacing of the instep of the last4 ,by a peculiar measurement#e ,i have been enabled to obviate all difficulty in that respect1 so that none of my customers now complain of tender insteps4 ,the insteps on ordinary lasts are placed near the middle1 which is erroneous1 as the point of the instep lies on one side1 and not in the centre1 and common sense would indicate that the thicker parts of the lasts should be on the side of the large joints and toe1 and the thinner on the outside of the foot1 where the small toes are placed40 ,it may seem1 at first thought1 as we look at a boot after it is made1 that the leather will accommodate itself to the shape of the foot with the greatest ease4 ,it appears perfectly pliable1 ready to take any form or place that the foot may give to it2 and this is true to a great extent1 but it is not so entirely4 ,when the boot is made the leather is stretched1 and worked into a definite shape--that of the last4 ,when a foot large enough to fill it is put inside1 if it be of a different form there will be more or less force exerted to change the shape and adapt it to that of the foot4 ,this is one reason of the difficulty often experienced the first time1 or first few times1 a new boot is worn4 ,the resistance1 pressure1 and friction may be considerable1 or only slight1 with a corresponding effect4 ,this misplacement of the instep is true of the ordinary right-and-left lasts1 and it is necessarily still more marked in the straight lasts on which the great majority of ladies' boots and shoes are made4 ,if women's insteps do not suffer from this difficulty more than men's1 it is because they wear softer material1 and boots fitting less tightly than those of men4 ,the latter have an advantage of the former in this respect1 as in some others2 for while they have right-and-left lasts wholly1 with ladies the straight last is the rule1 the other the exception4 ,as long as woman does not have her boots and shoes made right and left1 she is losing one of her 8rights10 and subjecting her feet to an 8oppression0 which1 unless they can bear a great deal1 they will be likely to complain of in an unpleasant way4 ,and this right is not so unimportant1 but that it will be found best to give it a little attention1 although the remonstrating 8subject0 may be in a very humble position4 ,the best thing to be done for feet with sore insteps is to have lasts made to fit them1 and their coverings made by some one who knows the real source of the trouble4 ,the sore will generally disappear soon after removing the pressure4 ,the prevention of it is a much better thing1 and will come with a more general understanding of the foot's nature1 and with the more correctly-shaped lasts and more perfect skilfulness which that knowledge will give to the shoe manufacturer4 ,there is another deformity of the foot1 chiefly of the instep1 which might be called the stub-foot4 ,it is not the natural short1 thick foot of short1 stout persons1 but seem an unnatural chubbiness1 made by prevention of the foot's growth lengthwise4 ,it is an approximation to the ,chinese foot--thick and large round the ankle and instep1 but short and small at the toes4 ,there is no correct proportion between one part and another4 ,the arch is high1 but thick and clumsy1 without its natural regularity and beauty4 ,the constant cramping of small shoes1 worn when the feet are young1 is most probably the cause of such development1 by preventing a normal and perfect growth4 ,as the forward parts of the foot1 being smaller and weaker1 are more easily cramped1 the increase of size is at the heel1 and around and above the arch4 ,it is a very ,chinese idea of perfection which admires feet of this character4 ,a correctly educated taste prefers to see a foot equally well developed in all its parts1 and of a size proportionate to the size of the whole body4 ,this is the idea of the artist1 as opposed to that of the ,chinaman1 and has a reason for it1 while the other has none4 ,if a chance is given the toes to develop themselves before the body gets its full growth1 the fault may perhaps be partially outgrown2 but after that1 the foot will be almost sure to keep the same shape always4 ,the thing to be remedied1 is the strange taste which looks upon feet that are abnormally small with any more admiration than would be given to a small head1 or short legs1 or stumpy fingers4 ,when people who are otherwise intelligent come to see that the foot has the same right to a full and natural growth that belongs to any other part of the body1 they will not cramp it with tight boots1 or consider a foot of this kind as any more beautiful than a pug nose1 a dwarfed limb1 or any other lack of development whatever4 ,the defect will then become the result of chance or misfortune only1 instead of intention1 governed by a false standard of beauty4 ,it is not1 however1 intended to deny that there are many feet which are proportionally too large1 made so by some occupation or habit demanding an extreme development of bone1 muscle1 and strength4 ,nature committed no mistake in their production4 ,she made them no larger than was necessary to adapt them to the habits of their possessor1 or of the parents from whom they were inherited4 ,to attempt to improve them by cramping1 is only to make them worse by distortion4 ,they will probably decrease their size somewhat in time1 if circumstances favour them in so doing2 but if not1 they are still no worse than big hands1 big noses1 big bodies1 or many of those other unbalanced developments from which none of us can claim to be entirely free4 ,callosities upon the heel1 sometimes so bad as to be called corns1 are often troublesome1 and mostly so to those persons whose feet are bony and spare of flesh4 ,in these1 if they are not broken down1 the heel bone1 at its upper part1 projects backward distinctly4 ,if the boot worn slips at the heel1 there is no flesh over the bone to ease the pressure and friction of the leather1 and the skin must thicken for its own protection4 ,after a while it becomes so thick1 callous1 and hard1 that every pressure upon it hurts the bone1 as much as before it was formed4 ,it has become similar to a hard corn1 and must be removed4 ,this can often be done without any softening1 by carefully cutting1 scraping1 or lifting up gradually with the knife4 ,it will probably grow again1 and need relifting occasionally as long as the irritation continues4 ,it is due to flat feet to say that they usually escape these annoyances1 as well as sores of the instep4 ,slipping of the boot at the heel1 is almost always the fault of the boot-maker4 ,it may come from bad cutting1 from bad fitting of the upper1 from bad lasting1 and from badly shaped lasts upon which the boots are made4 ,when the cutting is wrong--which affects men's boots mainly--it is the leg through the ankle that is too large1 or there is some defect that will not allow the upper to last properly4 ,sometimes it is fitted badly1 so as to produce the same result4 ,more often than either of these it is the workman1 who neglects to draw it over the last in the right way2 sometimes from want of knowledge1 and sometimes from carelessness or indifference4 ,the error consists in not drawing it over the toe sufficiently tight to make it fit closely at the heel4 ,a bad fit upon the foot is another cause1 in addition to those mentioned2 and it is also true that the heels of well-arched feet are more liable to slip than those whose arches are more or less flattened down4 ,still another and very decided influence in producing callosities on the heel1 is a counter that is hard and stiff at its upper portion4 ,counters of this kind are very common1 and ought to be as commonly avoided4 ,the stiffness of a counter should be at the bottom of it1 where there can hardly be too much1 while the upper half1 or more1 should taper to a thin edge1 that is soft and flexible4 ,then1 while firm at the proper place1 it bends and fits snugly to the heel1 preventing its slipping2 when1 if it stands up straight and stiff throughout1 the foot will slip almost invariably4 ,lasts1 particularly boot lasts1 are at fault in this respect generally4 ,those upon which shoes and slippers are made are so shaped as to force the shoe to set tightly at the heel and ankle4 ,the principle upon which they are formed is well known1 and is a correct one4 ,it is difficult to see why it should not be carried further in its application1 and govern the making of lasts for boots and gaiters as well as of those intended for low shoes4 ,the necessity is the same in both these styles2 there is only a difference in degree1 which is greater in the low shoe and slipper than in the high gaiter and boot4 ,the tightness at the ankle which prevents slipping1 is supplied1 more or less perfectly1 in side spring gaiters1 and those that are laced4 ,lacing compels the boot to fit closely1 whether it does so easily or not4 ,in men's boots1 where there is no lacing this effect is produced only by having them so small about the heel and ankle that the foot can hardly move at all after it is crowded inside4 ,this may1 or may not1 be too tight for comfort1 but it is doubtful if there is need of its being so for the sake of having a well-fitting boot4 ,the fit can be produced in the same way as in the slipper or shoe1 and the demand for doing it is the same1 only not to the same extent4 ,the slipper has nothing to keep it on the foot1 unless strings are resorted to1 except the tightness lengthwise caused by the peculiarity of the last4 ,a boot1 by covering the instep is held more securely1 yet it often slips at the heel1 and is all the more likely to do so when the foot is well arched4 ,it seems to us that the way to remedy this trouble in boots is precisely the same as the means taken to prevent it in shoes3 that is1 to make more spring in the last forward of the instep2 in other words1 a greater curve on the bottom4 ,the amount of this spring or curve need not be so great as in the shoe last1 for the reason just stated1 that the boot is confined at the instep1 while the shoe is not1 to the same extent4 ,a good shoemaker would not like to make an ,oxford shoe upon a boot last1 although it is laced well up toward the ankle4 ,why should he be willing to make a boot on it1 when the boot is confined at the instep no more than the shoe8 ,there is the same danger of slipping in both cases1 and why should it not be guarded against in the same way8 ,every one who has made or sold shoes knows that a slipper1 or low shoe of any kind1 will fit on the foot much better if made on a shoe last2 that it is less liable to be loose at the sides1 and to show big wrinkles across the ball2 that1 in short1 it must be made on such a last4 ,the same reasoning and the same rule applies almost as well to the boot or gaiter4 ,if there is any exception1 it is the side-spring boot1 with its elastic sides to draw the surface smooth1 and even this is not an exception when the material is leather1 though it may be when cloth of any kind is used4 ,in fact1 there is no kind of foot clothing manufactured but would have a better fit upon the foot1 both in front and at the heel1 sides1 and ankle1 if a last more closely resembling the common shoe or slipper last was used in the making4 ,there may not be1 and we are confident there is not1 a necessity for having it so flat in the shank as the common slipper last1 nor so wide through the same region1 but the upward curve of the forward part should be nearly or quite as great4 ,the curve of the shank might be very nearly the same as that of the hollow of the foot1 while at the toes it may curve1 we will say1 one-half as much as the whole bend of the toes in walking4 ,this form makes it a shoe last at the fore part1 while the shank is but little different from the ordinary boot last4 ,the part between the heel and instep need not be so wide at the bottom1 nor1 perhaps1 so narrow at the top1 as the best shaped lasts for shoes4 ,it is believed possible1 however1 to make the shank sufficiently wide1 at a slight distance above the bottom1 to accommodate the foot easily1 while it may be suddenly narrowed below sufficiently to allow a narrow-shanked sole to be made upon it1 if desired1 without difficulty4 ,if so1 this would be the blending of taste with comfort in the fit4 ,the outside edge would be a little lower than the other1 as it is in the foot4 ,perhaps the whole may be well described as half-way between the extremes of the two different styles4 ,there would be no difference between those designed for men and those for women1 except in width and bulk--none in the general form4 ,it may be feared that a tongued boot--patent leather or ,napoleon--may be more difficult to draw on the foot if made upon a last of this style4 ,we believe that it can make but very little difference1 probably not any after the boot is bent in the shank1 while it will do much to prevent slipping at the heel when cut with a large ankle1 as is usually the case4 ,the pitch of the leg will be very nearly the same when on the last as when the boot is worn4 ,it may be observed1 however1 that an improvement has lately been made in many lasts by giving them a greater degree of this curve on the bottom4 ,but it is easy to carry it to an extreme4 ,the sole can be curved too much as well as left too straight4 ,men's lasts of medium size have been made with the toes raised an inch and a half above the level of the ball and heel2 which is half an inch more than is necessary1 or useful4 ,too much spring1 in a thick-soled1 stiff boot1 prevents the straightening of the toes1 while in a thin one1 where the toes can be straightened1 it may create longitudinal wrinkles in the upper1 near the sole at the inside joint4 ,an average spring of an inch in men's lasts1 and three-fourths of an inch in those for women1 is not far from the proper standard4 ,forms of lasts have always been subject to change4 ,fifteen or twenty years ago boot lasts were made very hollow in the shank1 and very much curved upward at the toe4 ,after that came the stub-toes--flat in shank1 and with scarcely any curve at all2 and1 in addition to all the changes fashion has imposed1 besides the two indicated1 every manufacturer seems to have a style of his own1 more or less distinct4 ,the principles which should govern their form seem to be very loosely understood1 and hence all the differing shapes and styles4 ,all this is exactly the opposite of what it should be4 ,we have no more right to change the shape of lasts every few years than we have to change that of the foot1 and to do this1 for it amounts to nothing less1 when ,nature has formed it exactly in the best way to adapt it to its design and use1 is simple absurdity4 ,to change either is just as foolish as it would be to make hats that would flatten the head on the back or sides1 and compel it to grow in an upward direction4 ,the whole matter of the shape of lasts is something which fashion has no right to meddle with1 unless1 it may be1 to round or square the toes4 ,it has no right to narrow them beyond a certain limit1 nor even at all except from the outside4 ,the business of the last-maker is to learn what is the true shape of the natural1 healthy foot1 and then to imitate it as closely as possible1 making only the slight differences for different kinds of coverings that have been pointed out4 ,and when so formed1 let it be considered as a thing not to be altered1 except to make it resemble the foot still more perfectly4 ,fashion and taste may change and dictate the cut and style of the upper parts of the boot or shoe to almost any extent1 but they must not be allowed to shorten the length of the heel1 nor to interfere in any manner with the shape of the last4 ,we have been somewhat particular in description1 for the sake of influencing the makers of lasts and boots1 as well as for the comfort of those who are to wear the latter4 ,when these principles govern in its manufacture1 the boot will fit almost as easily at the first putting on as it will after a week's wearing4 ,the trouble of 8breaking in0 will be nearly abolished4 ,it may also be promised that slipping at the heel will be of rare occurrence1 and the callosities produced by it be got rid of with little difficulty4 ,when once removed they will not be likely to come again1 with a boot that causes no irritation4 ,,footnotes3 #e ,a measurement for such cases may be taken by drawing the strap-measure from the point of the instep around the heel1 to give the size1 while the distance between the same two points1 in a straight line1 should be taken by the size-stick1 in the same way we take the length of the foot1 to show how far forward the point of the instep ought to be located on the last4 ,the measure around the foot at the latter place must also be taken4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,inclinations of the ,feet--,how to ,make them ,tread ,squarely--,peculiar ,lasts--,weak ,ankles--,cultivation of ,muscle--,turning in of the ,toes4 ,there remains still one other defect to be noticed--that of treading upon the side of the foot4 ,this is a very common fault1 and seems to be a habit often acquired quite early4 ,the feet appear to leave the old1 upright way of getting through the world1 and take a sidewise deviation4 ,having commenced losing their uprightness when young1 they1 unless speedily helped1 seldom recover it entirely afterward4 ,the individual who possesses such unfortunate inclinations never has the satisfaction of knowing what it is to stand up in perfect rectitude4 ,whether the physical leaning of the feet has any tendency to create a moral one-sidedness may be considered an open question4 ,it is hardly safe to say that it does not1 when we know that the whole carriage1 attitude1 and dress of the individual has an effect upon the condition of the mind4 ,but leaving that to be settled as it may1 we must see what can be done to straighten the feet up to their natural position4 ,feet that tread upon the inside are1 many of them1 flattened somewhat at the same time4 ,this latter fault may come from any of the influences previously pointed out1 or from a natural weakness of the muscles and ligaments of the ankle1 which condition frequently exists in children4 ,when this is the case1 the arch of the foot being turned1 the weight of the body is improperly directed upon it--that is1 the arch bears this weight slightly upon one side instead of directly over itself4 ,this tends to break it down and make the foot flat4 ,the flatness1 if already existing1 may tend to throw the foot still more toward the side4 ,either way1 the first thing to be done is to counteract the flatness by a sufficiently long heel under the shoe1 to support the arch4 ,the shoe should also be made upon a flat-bottomed last1 and one that will compel it to draw tight along the sides and ankle4 ,another requisite is that the counter shall be very stiff on the inside1 while on the opposite side it should be weak4 ,it should also be high as well as firm1 sometimes very high1 as when the ankle requires very much support4 ,when1 however1 it reaches so high as to touch the prominences of the joint1 it must be carefully thinned on the edge to prevent chafing the bone4 ,if the weakness is but slight1 the principal part of the stiffness may be near the bottom1 where a good deal of it will do no harm4 ,all persons having feet thus turned should patronize the last maker before expecting to accomplish much toward correcting them4 ,an ordinary last is1 in these cases1 good for nothing4 ,it needs to be straight1 or nearly so1 on its outside edge1 from heel to ball1 and that part between the heel and instep--the back half of it--should be very full on the outside1 while it should be much hollowed out on the inside4 ,in other words without altering the general form of the front part1 the bulk of the wood in the back and middle parts should incline toward1 and be on1 the outside4 ,the bottom of the last1 particularly at the heel1 may then be thinned off at the outside edge of the sole1 leaving it deepest1 or thickest1 relatively1 at its inside4 ,it then has the appearance of being inclined over outwardly4 ,the shoe or boot made upon it would really be inclined outwardly1 and possess a tendency to push the foot which wore it over in the same direction4 ,this is its precise intention4 ,the maker must not forget to see that the upper is lasted over equally on both sides1 or more on the outside1 if either4 ,then it is just such a shoe as would fit easily and comfortably a foot that treads outside2 and for that very reason it is exactly such a one as ought to be worn by a foot that treads inwardly4 ,all the force exerted by the stiffness of the counter1 and the inclination of the whole shoe1 goes toward righting up the foot and pushing it over outwardly4 ,still there is nothing that can hurt the foot--only a steady and gentle pressure in the right direction1 which does not interfere with the use of the muscles4 ,in extreme cases a further precaution may be taken by building the heels more upon the inside than the other1 and raising them a little the highest on that side1 fortifying them still more by some large nails1 while the outside is not guarded at all4 ,the inside edge of the sole1 if sufficiently thick1 may be treated in the same way4 ,we have said the last should be flat4 ,it ought to be quite as much so as the foot2 and the long heel must not be forgotten4 ,of course if there is no flatness of the shank1 as is sometimes the case1 there need be none in the last4 ,this plan of treatment will not only right up the foot1 but we believe it will be a great help toward raising the flattened arch4 ,at least1 it ought not to be neglected in any case of flat-foot associated with treading inward2 for as long as the foot treads on the inside1 there is one cause--weight wrongly directed on the arch--constantly operating to break it down4 ,and this might defeat all the efforts for its restoration4 ,those feet that tread outside need exactly the same treatment recommended for the others1 only1 in the shoes made for them1 it must be directed in a way exactly opposite4 ,the stiffness of the counter must be on the outside1 as also the guarding of the heel4 ,the last must be straight and very full upon the inside4 ,the main bulk of the wood between the heel and instep should be on that side1 projecting well over the bottom at the ball1 while it is spare1 thinned1 or hollowed on the other4 ,the bottom should be thinned off at the inner edge1 so that when placed upon a level surface it seems to lean that way4 ,in a word1 it will look as though it would fit beautifully a foot that treads inward4 ,then it is just adapted for one that goes outward4 ,the whole shape and fit of a boot made upon such a last exerts an easy pressure1 tending to right up the foot and force it to tread on the opposite side4 ,the principle has not heretofore been generally recognized4 ,let it not be forgotten that the last that would appear to fit a foot that treads outward is just the one to be used for a foot that goes inward1 and vice versa4 ,when this is acted upon1 the principal step is taken in overcoming the difficulty4 ,but as many persons having such feet preserve the natural form of them by treading the boots outside1 it is about as well to let them go so1 as attempt to right them up1 even if a little more leather is thus worn out4 ,on the contrary1 when the tendency is to tread inside1 the remedy can not be applied too soon if it is wished to avoid the big joints that result from such a habit4 ,without the lasts here mentioned1 however1 a little temporary improvement can still be effected in those feet that tread over but slightly1 by what shoemakers call 8working under0 the sole of the shoe on the side opposite that which treads over1 and by also putting a piece of leather on the last above the sole or bottom1 to make room in the upper at that side without increasing the width of the sole4 ,the sole may be 8worked full0 on the treading-over side at the same time4 ,feet that tread outside generally1 if not always1 have good arches4 ,the directions here given1 if put in practice by a shoemaker who can appreciate and apply them thoroughly1 will1 it is believed1 straighten up and cure any case of treading-over feet that can be helped at all4 ,and this probably includes the majority of instances4 ,the adoption of such lasts has never been fairly tried1 as far as we know1 and we are quite confident they will prove successful4 ,the turning over of the foot is believed to be sometimes occasioned in children by their being obliged or encouraged to stand or walk upon them for too long a time1 when making their first attempts1 in infancy4 ,the bones1 ligaments1 and muscles being all soft1 tender1 and weak at this period1 they may be forced into almost any shape by pressure or overstraining4 ,this is something worthy of careful attention from parents4 ,it is very easy to let a child contract a habit of walking which will render the feet and legs deformed through a whole lifetime4 ,it is also very easy to prevent it1 and give the child a natural1 upright1 easy1 and graceful walk by taking a little pains at the proper period4 ,and it should also be remembered that crooked feet and ankles are more easily straightened while they are young than when the foot has obtained its growth1 and every part become firmly settled in its false position4 ,the legs and feet may turn inward1 developing knockknees and flat-foot1 or outward1 growing into bow-legs1 with the feet invariably treading over the opposite way4 ,if a child grows up with either of these distortions1 after being born with sound limbs1 which might have been continued in their natural perfection1 there is1 on the part of somebody1 a sad lack of duty4 ,it is quite possible1 also1 that this habit may be adopted by children sometimes from wearing a shoe that hurts the foot4 ,the sufferer may turn it on one side to avoid a peg1 or some rough projection on the insole1 and in this way the fault may be developed in some of those cases where one foot treads over1 while the other stands upright4 ,and children will often get into an awkward manner of standing or walking1 even without any reason for it--from sheer carelessness--and require a great deal of watching1 in order to train up their feet correctly4#f ,it is to be borne in mind that in all cases of weak ankles1 except those incurably so1 the object should be to support them no more than is necessary2 but instead1 to allow the muscles to be used as much as possible for the sake of strengthening them4 ,when the whole support comes from braces--in the shoe or outside of it--there is nothing left to be done by the muscles on the side of the foot and leg1 and consequently they remain weak4 ,the law of growth and strength is use1 exercise1 or labour4 ,hence1 though guards and braces are sometimes required for weak-ankled children1 there ought to be plenty of room between them and the foot2 and it will be well to discard them as soon as a leather stiffening in the shoe can be safely substituted4 ,there are many movements of the ,light ,gymnastics that for weak ankles would be highly beneficial4 ,it would be well1 where there is an opportunity1 to adopt all those movements in which the muscles of the feet are called into play such as charging1 leaning1 bracing1 springing on the toes1 and1 in short1 almost the whole routine of exercises2 and to practice them1 cautiously at first1 but thoroughly1 until the muscles and ligaments become strong enough to do their duty in bracing up the foot without any assistance4 ,there are many feet in which the toes turn inward in walking--a habit which may be easily corrected by a little care and perseverance1 and the subject of it enabled to go on his way rejoicing in the knowledge that he has gained a respectable walk in place of one that was ridiculously awkward4 ,all that is required to change the habit is to develope the strength of the muscles by calling them into exercise4 ,an every-day practice of turning the feet outward as far as possible1 for a few minutes at a time1 will do a great deal4 ,if1 in addition to this1 the step is constantly watched1 the toes being kept turned out until the muscles are tired1 and then1 after resting by a return to the old step1 the toes are again forced outward1 and this is repeated continuously for a few weeks1 the awkwardness will be entirely gone4 ,the practice of light gymnastics is a good corrective for this fault2 and the dancing-school is another equally excellent4 ,it is to be hoped that both of them will have their due influence in this respect1 till an ungraceful walk is far less common than it is now4 ,with such easy means of correcting and avoiding these faults1 any one who will not make a little effort for that purpose1 deserves1 to say the least1 a good share of ridicule4#g ,there is a less number of feet that are turned too much outward1 and these can be brought into their right place by the same means directed in the opposite way4 ,the only trouble with them usually is a habit1 or a weakness of particular muscles4 ,if the toes are turned in1 and perseveringly kept so for a short time1 a great difference will be discovered4 ,a further continuance in well-doing will bring its reward in an easy1 natural1 and graceful step4 ,those feet that are wholly turned1 or deformed by being drawn up at the heel or toe1 and those impaired by disease of the structure1 are cases belonging to the surgeon and physician4 ,many of them might probably have been prevented by calling in the surgeon's aid during the childhood of the unfortunate possessor4 ,let us hope that few who can be saved from such disfigurement will be allowed to suffer from it through ignorance or culpable negligence in the future4 ,,footnotes3 #f ,another reason for care in guarding against weak ankles is thus given in a work upon the 8,theory and ,practice of the ,movement-,cure10 by ,dr4 ,charles ,f4 ,taylor4 8,weak ankles1 often the result of the ungraceful1 and1 in other respects1 pernicious fashion of wearing high1 narrow-heeled shoes1 straining them by their rolling about1 etc41 may be the exciting cause of lateral curvature of the spine4 ,the weaker ankle is generally the left1 and the individual soon forms the habit of standing on the right foot4 ,the lower portion of the spine is thrown to the left1 and the dorsal portion necessarily thrown to the right40 ,in another place he repeats3 8,we find that almost without exception1 in curvature to the right1 the left ankle is much weaker than the other4 ,movements of the foot must be employed1 such as inward and outward flexion1 twisting the whole leg from the hip1 and many others1 calculated to strengthen the left leg1 hip1 and ankle40 #g ,as a matter not wholly out of place1 it may be said that the graceful walker stands upright1 and in taking a step uses the muscles and joints of the hip1 the knee1 and the toes4 ,many people use the toes but very little1 and their step lacks spring1 elasticity1 life1 and grace2 while others do not use the muscles in front of the hip enough1 and their walk has no dignity4 ,instead of swinging the whole leg1 they seem as though kicking their feet along ahead of them1 swinging only that half of it below the knee4 ,stiff coverings on the feet1 or very high heels under them1 effectually prevent all gracefulness in walking4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,corns1 ,bunions1 and ,callosities--,how they ,originate--,nature of the ,skin--,various ,causes of ,corns--,how to ,remove ,them--,quotations from the ,medical ,books--,nature and ,treatment of ,bunions4 ,we come now to another class of difficulties to which the foot is subject1 though they affect the outside mainly1 not its structure1 and which appropriately call for a notice here1 and for some hints concerning their nature and treatment4 ,almost every one1 at some period in a lifetime1 forms their unpleasant acquaintance2 and to know how to avoid them entirely1 or to destroy and remove them at pleasure1 may be considered information worth possessing4 ,although we lack the familiar practical knowledge of the man who makes corns his profession1 the reader shall have the benefit of as much as we are able to supply4 ,a common corn is caused by friction or irritation of the skin--the chafing and pressure of the foot against the leather of the boot1 or the crowding of the toes against each other4 ,the skin thickens and hardens to protect itself in the same way that it does upon the hands or other parts of the body exposed to rough contact1 the fact and law of which are familiar to everybody4 ,as the irritation is continued the skin continues growing harder and thicker1 until a large and ugly corn is produced4 ,to understand its nature more fully1 and why it assumes a sharp point1 thus turning its protection into a torture1 it will be necessary to explain something more of the nature of the skin itself4 ,there are two layers of membrane composing the skin--the cutis vera1 dermis1 or true skin1 which is the inner portion2 and the cuticle1 epidermis1 or scarf-skin1 which is the outside layer4 ,the dermis1 or true skin1 consists mainly of a net-work or web of fibrous material1 having outside of this a net-work of capillary blood-vessels and lymphatics1 interwoven with still another net-work1 of nerves1 both blood-vessels and nerves terminating in projecting or upright loops1 each loop formed of a blood-vessel and a nerve-cord1 the two being together side by side4 ,these loops1 which are the most extremely sensitive portion of the skin1 are called papill1 and they form the projecting fine ridges that are seen on the palm of the hand1 where their abundance gives the hand its superior sense of feeling or touch4 ,all these parts--the fibrous meshes1 the blood-vessels1 nerves1 and loops of papill--are microscopically minute4 ,the outside skin or cuticle has no blood-vessels or nerves1 and hence no life or sensation1 but seems to be a covering to protect the true skin1 and to modify or diminish its otherwise too extreme sensitiveness2 besides being of use in other ways to the general system4 ,it is that part which is raised up when a blister is produced2 and the sensitiveness of the papill under it1 where it is taken off1 shows its necessity4 ,the matter of which it is formed is secreted or poured out by the true skin1 and is the same matter which1 when dried and hardened in various degrees1 becomes the thick skin on the sole of the foot1 the callous place on the hand or elsewhere1 the dandruff of the head1 the hair on any part of the body1 the nails of fingers and toes1 the hard portion of warts1 and the hard or soft corn4 ,all these are essentially the same thing under different modifications4 ,it is constantly worn off from the external surface1 and as constantly added to at the under side4 ,this internal or under-side layer of the cuticle is commonly distinguished as the rete mucosum1 and contains a colouring matter secreted from the true skin1 which1 as it is greater or less in quantity gives the different shades of complexion2 the semi-transparent nature of the matter outside allowing it to show through4 ,the oil tubes and perspiratory ducts take their rise immediately under the skin1 and find their way to the surface1 while nerves and blood-vessels traverse it forth and back4 ,some further idea of the nature of the skin may be gained by observing a piece of thick sole-leather in which that part called the grain is the cuticle or epidermis1 and the thicker portion is the dermis1 or cutis vera4 ,now1 when any portion of these sensitive loops is injuriously irritated by pressure or friction1 they sometimes push entirely through the cuticle1 growing large and covering themselves with hard cuticular matter1 thus forming the warts that appear on the hands and other parts of the body4 ,some corns1 we believe1 are produced in a similar way--a larger number of the papill projecting and being covered completely and thickly with epidermis1 which1 becoming dry and hard1 still further pains the sore and sensitive papill as it is pressed upon by the boot4 ,this kind of corn can be cured only as a wart is removed--by burning the papill1 or1 as they are called in the wart1 the roots2 thus changing the structure of the skin1 or1 in other words1 making a scar4 ,ordinarily a hard corn commences at a point1 or by the irritation of a small surface of the skin1 or only a few of the papill4 ,from this point an increased supply of the cuticular matter is pushed out in every direction to protect them1 growing harder as the process advances1 and being more pressed against by the shoe1 while the increasing external pressure incites the foot to push out a still larger corn4 ,thus it grows2 and as the matter first thrown out is the first to become hardened1 a point is formed1 and the pressure forces it into the flesh1 which is compelled to retire before it4 ,the longer this is continued the larger the surface of skin that is made sore1 the larger and more conical in shape the corn becomes1 and the farther its point is forced into the flesh4 ,this description is more especially true of the smaller corns2 those which extend over a large surface being1 probably1 originated by a slighter irritation of a larger portion of the skin2 hence they have less of a point and penetrate less deeply4 ,soft corns appear between the toes1 and are soft for the reason that1 so situated1 they are kept moist by perspiration4 ,some of them are secretions of epidermis having no centre or point1 but thrown out from the foot at the bottom and sides of the spade between the toes1 and giving a sensation as of some foreign body1 like a pea or a gravel stone1 confined there4 ,there may be others that are accompanied by projections of the papill4 ,it is to be noticed that a corn is thus composed wholly of cuticular matter1 and is entirely outside of the true skin4 ,it has been suggested that here is an instance in which the remedial effort made by ,nature converts itself into a diseased and painful action1 defeating its primary purpose and creating a worse condition than the one sought to be relieved4 ,but this is not correct4 ,nature does not put the boot on the foot1 nor continue its wear after the corn has originated4 ,on the contrary1 if her intimations were heeded1 the boot would be discarded the first time it pinched1 and there is every reason to believe that then the growth of the corn would be discontinued1 and what had already formed would disappear4 ,it is stated in medical works that persons confined by sickness for a considerable time have had their corns entirely leave them without any treatment at all1 simply because there was no pressure to keep up the irritation1 and consequently no demand for their existence4 ,it has been generally considered that tight boots were the great cause of all the corns and bunions with which the feet have been tormented1 and tight boots have accordingly been cursed from toe to heel for their mischievous qualities in this respect4 ,though it is true that the unnecessary tightness of boots is a principal source of corns1 there are others that may not be overlooked4 ,loose boots1 that allow the heel to slip up and down1 or the whole foot to slide forward at every step1 are effective in the production of these annoyances4 ,hard1 stiff leather is another quite efficient thing in this way4 ,whether the boot be tight or loose makes not much difference1 if it be stiff and hard4 ,large wrinkles over the joint may sometimes have an effect of the same kind1 especially if the leather is no softer 8than it ought to be40 ,high heels1 that pitch the foot forward1 and keep it constantly bearing against the leather over the toes1 have a great tendency to develop corns4 ,the drawing together of the toes by boots and shoes that are narrow at this point1 forcing the toes to crowd against each other1 and pushing out the great-toe joint1 is one of the most productive of all causes4 ,when occurring upon the bottom of the foot1 a peg or some hard projection of the insole of the boot is the agent to which they may be attributed4 ,between the toes they are most frequently developed1 probably by the pressure of a boot that is too narrow1 not only at the ends of the toes1 but at their roots or metatarsal joints4 ,bunions1 we believe1 are never found except upon the joint of the great toe1 and the projection of this joint1 from the wearing of short and narrow-toed shoes1 can not be otherwise than strongly influential in producing them4 ,from wearing foot-coverings of this fashion1 which is almost the only kind we have at present1 there is the constant tendency of the joint to enlarge1 widen1 and project4 ,this increases its pressure against the leather1 and may even create a pressure where there was none at the time the boot was first worn4 ,it is not strange1 therefore1 that bunions make their appearance under such circumstances4 ,thus it is seen that1 setting aside the habit of wearing boots that are tight enough to pinch the foot1 there is already found an abundant cause for corns4 ,it ought to be sufficiently obvious that the principal characteristics of the present foot-covering--the narrow toes1 being often short besides1 and the high heels--are corn-producing in all their tendencies4 ,if to these is added the practice1 as with many persons1 of wearing boots and shoes that are too tight for comfort1 and often too narrow on the sole1 there is ample reason for the fact that corned feet are numerous4 ,we do not know what first induced people to wear boots unnecessarily tight1 unless it was the ,chinese idea of taste1 which desired to prevent the full development of the feet1 or make them appear as small as possible4 ,if this be still the motive1 it is only necessary to repeat that a true taste demands that a foot be of a size proportionate to the size of the whole body1 whether that be large or small4 ,if it is to make the boot fit more smoothly and handsomely1 then the object is more often defeated than accomplished4 ,a boot that is too tight--tight enough to be uncomfortable--is not the boot that best fits the foot4 ,it will have as many wrinkles in it as a loose one1 and even more1 if the leather be thin1 while the foot can not go into it naturally4 ,the best fitting boot or shoe is one made of the right shape to adapt it to the particular foot2 which is just snug enough to confine it without any uneasy feeling2 and into which it goes easily and naturally to its proper position4 ,there is sufficient length to allow the toe to move without pressure on the nail1 and sufficient width to let the toes lie side by side1 in which position they appear much better than when piled one over another4 ,there are no wrinkles made by loose leather--none by over-tightness4 ,the room is entirely filled1 while at the same time the foot is easy1 and can make its natural movements in walking with ease and grace2 which it can not do when squeezed into a boot that is too tight4 ,a person wearing a tight boot has a stiff and unnatural walk1 which can not be compensated by any beauty of the fit so gained1 provided it is gained4 ,there are only the soft and fleshy feet that can bear compression with any benefit to their appearance1 and with these still the same rule is equally good--they must not be squeezed more than comfort will allow4 ,if complaint is made that the upper leather stretches out1 and the foot treads over the sole1 and spreads and sprawls about more than appears neat and proper1 it is only to be replied that if a shoe of the right shape1 and sufficiently wide is worn1 there will be no trouble of this kind4 ,on the whole1 tight-boot-wearing is a humbug4 ,it is entirely unnecessary1 doing no good1 while often defeating itself when its object is to improve the foot's appearance4 ,besides the ordinary discomfort created by it1 the whole tendency of extreme tightness is toward corns and deformity4 ,how much1 now1 it may be inquired1 is meant by extreme tightness8 ,the answer is--discomfort4 ,a new boot or shoe that fits as it should1 may be worn without serious discomfort for several hours1 or half a day1 when first put on4 ,after three or four days it may be worn all the time4 ,it ought not to be expected that it can be worn constantly at first2 for if loose enough1 for this it will soon be too loose for a handsome fit4 ,then1 an article that is tight for a foot belonging to a weak and delicate organization1 with a feeble circulation of blood1 may be perfectly easy to a foot of the same size and shape belonging to a strong1 healthy constitution with an energetic circulation2 and for the same reason a person can wear a tighter shoe when young than when advanced in life1 or failing in health2 but either of these1 and at any time1 may be governed by the rule1 that positive discomfort indicates extreme tightness4 ,there are some kinds of material that stretch considerably under the foot's pressure1 and boots made from these should be a little tighter at first than those made of firmer stock4 ,besides1 there are some feet so sensitive that very slight pressure or friction will develope corns on them1 and such must wear a softer material than is worn by feet that are more hardy4 ,the question of tightness is somewhat complicated by such considerations4 ,most of us1 however1 can usually tell for ourselves what is tight1 and we have no right to decide for others4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ordinary hard corns1 when young1 may be removed by scraping up the callous skin around the borders and prying out carefully with a pocket knife4 ,there is no need of cutting through the under skin4 ,in more difficult cases some further treatment will be necessary1 and for them we quote the following methods1 the first from ,cooper's 8,dictionary of ,surgery40 8,wide1 soft shoes should be worn4 ,such means are not only requisite for a radical cure1 but they alone often effect it4 ,though the radical cure is thus easy1 few obtain it1 because their perseverance ceases1 as soon as they experience the wished-for relief4 8,when business or other circumstances prevent the patient from adopting this plan1 and oblige him to stand or walk a good deal1 still it is possible to remove all pressure from the corn4 ,for this purpose from eight to twelve pieces of linen1 smeared with an emollient ointment1 and having an aperture cut in the middle exactly adapted to the corn1 are to be laid over each other1 and so applied to the foot that the corn is to lie in the opening in such a manner that it can not be touched by the shoe or stocking4 ,when the plaster has been applied some weeks the corn commonly disappears without other means4 ,should the corn be on the sole of the foot1 it is only necessary to put in the shoe a felt sole wherein a whole has been cut1 corresponding to the situation1 size1 and figure of the induration4 8,a corn may also be certainly1 permanently1 and speedily eradicated by the following method1 especially when the plaster and felt with a hole in it are employed at the same time4 ,the corn is to be rubbed twice a day with an emollient ointment1 such as that of marshmallows1 or with the volatile liniment1 which is still better2 and in the interim it is to be covered with a softening plaster4 ,every morning and evening the foot is to be put1 for half an hour1 in warm water1 and while there the corn is to be well rubbed with soap4 ,afterwards all the soft1 white1 pulpy matter outside of the corn is to be scraped off with a blunt knife2 but the scraping must be left off the moment the patient begins to complain of pain from it4 ,the same treatment is to be persisted in without interruption until the corn is totally extirpated1 which is generally effected in eight or twelve days4 ,if left off sooner the corn grows again40 ,the 8,hydropathic ,encyclopdia0 recommends a more summary mode of dealing4 8,these well-known toe-tormenters are produced by tight shoes or boots4 ,the first principle of cure is to give the feet a respectable #8area of freedom2' and the second is1 to soak them in warm water and shave off the horny substance1 and then touch them with the nitric or nitro-muriatic acid4 ,when the corn is inflamed or highly irritable1 the tepid foot-bath should be employed to remove this condition before the acid is applied4 ,the aqua-regia--nitro-muriatic acid--is the ordinary secret remedy of the #8corn-curers4' ,when the corn is fully formed1 or ripe1 a membrane separates it from the true skin1 so that it can be taken off without injuring that surface2 and this circumstance enables professional chiropodists to #8elevate the grain' on the point of a penknife1 after an application of the acid40 ,another mode1 similar in character1 is taken from a late work by ,dr4 ,ira ,warren4 8,corns should be shaved down close1 after being soaked in warm water and soap1 and then covered with a piece of wash-leather or buck-skin1 on which lead plaster is spread1 a hole being cut in the leather the size of the corn4 ,they may be softened so as to be easily scooped out by rubbing glycerine on them4 ,manganic acid destroys warts and corns rapidly40 ,still another1 and one very easy to practice1 is from ,dr4 ,calvin ,cutter's 8,anatomy1 ,physiology1 and ,hygiene40 8,to remove these painful excrescences1 take a thick piece of soft leather1 somewhat larger than the corn2 in the centre punch a hole of the size of the summit of the corn2 spread the leather with adhesive plaster1 and apply it around the corn4 ,the hole in the leather may be filled with a paste made of soda and soap on going to bed4 ,in the morning remove it1 and wash with warm water4 ,repeat this for several successive nights1 and the corn will be removed4 ,the only precaution is1 not to repeat the application so as to cause pain40 ,it is altogether probable that the last treatment here advised for hard corns would be equally effective for soft ones1 if we could contrive to cover up the surrounding parts with a plaster so as to admit of its application4 ,the other remedies are1 to keep continually cutting away at them with the knife1 or burn them out thoroughly with caustic4 ,in all these cures the essential parts of the treatment are1 first1 the emollient ointment or warm water to soften the skin and remove soreness2 then caustics--soap and soda1 nitric1 muriatic1 and manganic acids--to destroy the mass of the corn2 after which the remainder is lifted out with a knife2 the leather and felt serving as a protection from the shoe4 ,it is said1 and with considerable evidence to support the statement1 that ordinary mild corns may be cured in a couple of weeks by winding a cotton rag around the toe or foot1 so as to cover the corn with several thicknesses1 and then keeping this bandage constantly wet by bathing the feet twice a day in cold water4 ,to which it may be added1 that many corns will probably disappear if constantly kept moist and soft in any manner1 provided the external irritation is entirely removed4 ,very often it is the case that new corns1 both hard and soft1 grow up in the places where they have been taken away before1 re-appearing1 some of them1 several times2 and it is a question if the common practice of putting leather with a hole in it around the corn does not tend to make the latter grow up again by pressing on the edges of the cavity4 ,it is perhaps better1 therefore1 that the leather or felt be worn for some time after the corn is gone1 to keep the pressure of the boot away from the part till it has regained its natural condition1 and it is well to make the hole in the plaster so large1 that even the border of the sensitive cavity will not be touched4 ,when a surface has been secreting corn-material for a length of time1 it is not strange that it should continue the habit without much provocation4 ,in these cases where the corn grows again1 it may perhaps be advisable to touch the most central part1 or place of the point1 with nitric acid or some other caustic1 to destroy the papill1 and change the structure of the skin1 as is done with a wart2 where it is so effectual that the wart never re-appears4 ,it is not necessary to burn the surrounding surface1 or make anything more than a very small burn anywhere4 ,the acid should be applied with some sharp-pointed instrument1 just wet with it1 so there shall be no danger of putting on too much4 ,if there is any fear of creating too much inflammation1 it can be postponed till the acute sensitiveness has become somewhat abated4 ,for soft corns it is doubtful whether any other treatment than burning will be completely successful1 though it may be well to try some other method first4 ,burning is rather severe1 but reasonably sure1 and a thousand times better1 than to suffer from the corn4 ,but little acid need be applied at a time1 and as soon as the under skin becomes inflamed the desired effect is accomplished2 for when it heals1 the corn is 8done for0 and gone4 ,something soft may be put between the toes to separate them1 and prevent any unnecessary irritation during the process4 ,corns on the bottom of the foot are amenable to caustic like the rest1 the felt sole with a hole in it being used for protection during the operation4 ,inflamed and suppurated corns are to be cut down as much as possible and lanced1 according to ,erichsen--one of the best authorities--though it would seem to one unacquainted with the matter that they might be removed like the others4 ,they are intensely painful1 and a surgeon's skill is necessary to treat them properly4 ,some of the medical books represent that there is more or less danger in using caustics in severe cases1 where the patient is an old person1 or one of feeble vitality1 or extreme nervous sensibility4 ,it is always well to proceed safely1 and have medical advice before operating on such a patient4 ,in addition to the ordinary hard and soft varieties1 black and bleeding corns are described by one writer on the subject1 some of which are reported very difficult to cure and dangerous to manage2 their injudicious removal being liable to result in convulsions1 and even lockjaw and death2 all of which frightful consequences may be accepted as inducements to avoid the productive first causes of the trouble4 ,in regard to the treatment of bunions1 the following from the 8,hydropathic ,encyclopdia10 is the only thing we are able to find in the books4 8,this affliction1 though generally regarded as a kind of corn1 is really an inflammation and swelling of the bursa mucosa1#h at the inside of the ball of the great toe2 it often produces a distortion of the metatarsal joint of the great toe1 and is produced by the same causes as corns4 ,the treatment is1 warm foot-baths when the part is very tender and irritable2 at other times frequent cold baths2 and when a horny substance1 resembling a corn1 appears externally1 the application of caustic4 ,i have known bad corns and bunions cease to be troublesome after the patient had been a few months under hydropathic treatment for other complaints40 ,the straightening of the great toe in the manner previously described will probably do more toward the relief and cure of bunions than any other remedy4 ,the material of a shoe for that purpose should1 of course1 be soft--the softest kinds of calfskin are good--but not of too yielding a nature1 or the toe and joint will force it into their own abnormal shape in spite of the form of the shoe1 unless this can be prevented by a stiffening piece of sole-leather at the ball 7see ,chapter ,four71 because the parts tend to assume their old position1 and do so1 as far as the leather will allow4 ,with the ordinary shoe1 all that can be done1 is to give the foot the softest of leather--buck-skin1 when obtainable1 is the best--and make the shoe over a last having also a big joint upon it1 made of sole-leather1 in the exact place to fit that of the foot1 and thus allow it plenty of room4 ,the callosities that come upon the heel1 instep1 or other part of the foot1 can almost always be lifted or scraped off1 without the necessity of using caustic1 and there is less probability of their re-appearing after the cause is removed than in the case of corns4 ,but if the pressure that caused them first is continued1 of course they grow again4 ,when they are so bad as to make it difficult to remove them without softening1 they can be subjected to the same treatment which softens corns4 ,sore insteps1 big joints1 and corns1 when no positive means are adopted for their cure or removal1 may often be made tolerably comfortable by having the shoe carefully adapted to fit them4 ,this is done by making leather corns or joints on the lasts before the shoes are made4 ,particular places in a shoe can also1 generally1 be stretched1 so as to render them much more easy4#i ,trusting that those readers who are not able to avail themselves of the services of a professional chiropodist1 will here find a sufficient guide for the management of ordinary difficulties of this kind1 attention will next be called to a re-statement of some of the ideas and points of argument previously advanced in this treatise4 ,,footnotes3 #h ,the bursa mucosa is a synovial membrane lining the joint1 and secreting a lubricating fluid1 like similar membranes in other joints4 #i ,it will1 perhaps1 not be amiss here to give a cure for chilblains1 taken from a recent work upon the 8,movement ,cure10 by ,dr4 ,george ,h4 ,taylor4 ,it consists in raising the foot1 with the shoe upon it1 and giving it thirty or forty smart blows upon the sole with a heavy stick of convenient length to be handled4 ,the shock upon the foot dissipates the congestion of blood in the capillary vessels under the skin1 which causes the intense itching and smart4 ,it is so simple that every one afflicted ought to try it1 and is asserted to be1 with few repetitions1 a permanent cure4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,recapitulation--,lasts for ,individual ,feet--,possibility of all ,fee being ,well ,fitted in their ,clothing--,ease and ,grace of ,movement--,a ,last ,word for ,children4 ,we have heretofore endeavoured to show what is the true1 normal shape of the healthy foot1 as recognized by science1 art1 and common sense2 that in it the toes lie directly forward of the metatarsal bones1 in the same line1 having plenty of room for all of them to come to the ground1 or the surface on which they tread2 that there is no occasion for grown-in-nails1 big joints1 or corns until after the adoption of false habits in the manner of the foot's clothing2 that the elevation of the instep is made by a well-formed and distinct arch1 the breaking-down of which1 as manifested in the flattened instep and elongated heel1 is unnatural2 that all the various deformities1 weaknesses1 and ailments pointed out and remarked upon are so many vitiations or perversions of the foot's condition4 ,it has been made plain1 also1 that all our present habits and ways of dressing the feet tend1 more or less directly and strongly1 toward this depravity and distortion4 ,we have seen that the common sole1 by being curved where it should be straight--on its inside line--inevitably draws the great toe to one side1 and all the toes too closely together1 pushing out the joint1 creating corns between and outside the toes1 and lameness or bunion at the joint itself2 that this tendency is increased by straight and narrow-toed soles2 that it is made still worse by high heels1 which pitch the foot far forward2 while the practice of wearing boots and shoes that are too short makes yet another addition toward the production of the whole bad result4 ,so also it is seen that the old-fashioned short heels1 so long worn1 have had an influence in producing the broken-down arch of the flat-foot2 while other defects in the construction of the foot's covering manifest themselves by callosities on the heel and instep1 the turning over to one side1 and the pressure1 squeezing1 and general discomfort in the fit4 ,we have1 still further1 tried to indicate what is the true1 natural1 and proper shape of last1 and wherein it differs from those in common use4 ,this it will do no harm to re-state4 ,first it was proven that a correctly-formed last was not a thing to be changed by fashion or custom1 but on the contrary1 to be as permanent in its form as that of the foot which it imitates2 that one of its peculiarities was the straight line on the inside1 with the curve upon the outside2 that another was the spring1 or curve on the bottom2 another1 the additional thickness over the place of the great toe2 another1 the level bottom side-wise1 from the shank1 through the middle1 forward2 another1 the placing of the instep nearer to the side than is done in lasts of the present time4 ,this was offered as a positively sure preventive of all those troubles arising from distortion of the toes1 while also having a tendency to encourage feet already deformed in a return to their natural state4 ,from several of the positions thus taken1 it necessarily follows that straight lasts are entirely wrong in formation and use1 and that nothing inferior to1 or essentially different from1 a right and left last of the form described1 can fully serve the natural requirements of the foot4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for flat-footedness the long heel was recommended as one great help toward recovering the natural position of the arch4 ,a long heel is the next best thing to no heel at all4 ,it supports the arch the most nearly as it is supported when the bare foot is pressed upon the ground or floor4 ,where this will not restore the shape1 it will at least be likely to prevent the fault from becoming any worse4 ,the other remedies--the proper exercise and full development of the muscles at the bottom of the foot1 and the righting of it up when it treads inward--must be considered as in no way inferior1 if not superior1 to the first4 ,taken together1 they offer a strong encouragement to those who wish to overcome the weakness1 while they furnish a sure prevention of it where it does not already exist4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the importance of having lasts made expressly to fit individual feet has not been sufficiently urged4 ,though many persons can get their feet very well fitted at any time without them1 and others may be so situated that they can buy a handsomer and better article than they can get made1 yet where a good shoemaker can be relied upon to make such a covering as is wanted1 there is advantage in knowing how a good fit can always be obtained4 ,this is by having a pair of lasts made as nearly right as possible1 then allowing the shoemaker to test and correct them after making a first pair of boots or shoes on them1 when they will be right for the remainder of a lifetime4 ,the shoemaker may also1 after making the first pair1 have a pattern for any particular form of the upper1 likewise corrected and made reliable for further use4 ,the expense of such lasts is not great1 and the custom shoemaker can himself furnish those from his own stock for a large proportion of his customers1 altering and fitting them up as may be necessary1 and supplying their places with others from the last-maker4 ,they will need to be so fitted up that they can be slightly raised or lessened in size for thick or thin stockings1 or an increase or decrease of flesh4 ,if a perfect fit is not made when they are used the second time1 a further slight correction will insure it4 ,after this there will be no dissatisfaction on the part of the buyer2 no fear of loss by misfits on the part of the maker4 ,those who have any peculiar notion about their foot-apparel can be suited4 ,there will be very little trouble from delay1 or from getting the foot accustomed to the boot when first worn4 ,still further1 and better1 the danger of making corns1 bunions1 grown-in nails1 and sore insteps is reduced to almost nothing2 for the covering1 being a good fit1 is neither tight nor loose1 and does not pinch1 cramp1 or chafe any part of the foot4 ,all these considerations are much more forcible when the feet differ from an ordinary size and shape4 ,a ready-made article to fit cannot be bought4 ,it is often difficult for even the best mechanic to make work that will fit easily and handsomely upon feet that are flat1 and have corns and large joints besides--a combination of difficulties he is frequently called upon to meet4 ,there is the additional fact that many feet can seldom or never be measured twice alike1 for all feet vary in size under different conditions1 and some of them a great deal2 and hence the uncertainty of being fitted by a shoemaker the first time he is employed4#aj ,but when a last of the right size1 length1 width1 and general shape has been obtained1 with all the corns1 joints1 sore insteps and other peculiarities fairly represented upon it1 the owner may expect more comfort for the feet1 and a better-looking boot1 than has ever been realized for them before4 ,but such a last cannot be made perfectly correct at first1 and the customer must not be discouraged at finding a little difficulty4 ,the final satisfaction will repay all the trouble4 ,a pair of lasts for boots1 if made in the right way1 with a good width at the shank 7or just above it71 while rather narrow at the top1 and with a full amount of spring at the toe1 can be used for making shoes and slippers1 in ordinary cases1 by filling up the shank with a piece of sole-leather in a way well known to custom shoemakers2 although the most perfect results are obtained by having a separate pair designed for slippers and low shoes4 ,those who have difficult feet had better limit themselves to one pair for all kinds of coverings4 ,there is hence no need of feet being badly fitted because they are badly shaped1 if their possessors will act upon the suggestions given4 ,yet it must not be expected that big joints and flat insteps can be made handsome by any degree of skill2 they can be well fitted1 but their shape remains visible4 ,a boot or shoe ought to fit easily1 yet snugly and smoothly1 all over the foot--around the heel and ankle as well as the forward part ,there is no necessity for pinching the instep or crowding the toes2 no occasion for loose leather at the ankle and heel2 no propriety in wrinkles over the instep of a flat foot1 nor having a slipper loose at the sides4 ,all boots must have wrinkles at the ankle1 and all kinds of covering must have some across the foot at the joints4 ,there need not be any of marked size elsewhere1 nor should these be as large as they commonly are4 ,a new boot should be put on with care to avoid making them4 ,the ease and grace of movement connected with feet in their normal condition1 and when properly dressed1 has been hinted at several times previously4 ,this is a consideration almost entirely overlooked2 yet it is not a thing of small importance4 ,everybody1 in greater or less degree1 admires grace and beauty4 ,nearly everyone who has a consciousness of being awkward in any way1 suffers from that feeling or knowledge4 ,this love of the beautiful is as much a part of human nature as conscience2 and contributes as much to our pleasure as almost any other sentiment or affection4 ,when turned more in this direction1 as it should be1 it will appreciate beauty in the feet as quickly as elsewhere4 ,its influence must be brought to bear in developing the true and elegant in this department1 no less than in others4 ,it should appreciate a well-formed foot1 whether small or large2 and a graceful1 easy step in the street as well as in the ball-room4 ,let the shuffling or stamping gait of flat-footed persons generally1 be contrasted with the light yet dignified carriage of those whose feet are properly arched2 let the stiff walk of a man in tight boots be noticed1 and then the step of one who goes along in a pair of light1 easy shoes with low heels4 ,the difference in each of these cases will be very plain4 ,a person cannot walk easily and handsomely--much less run--in boots that are uncomfortable1 or with corns and sore joints crying out at every step4 ,high heels necessarily give an unnatural character to the step1 because the heel of the foot does not come near the surface1 as ,nature intended4 ,the weight of the body is thrown too much upon the forward part of the foot1 which would seem likely to have some tendency toward breaking it down1 while it prevents that very spring upon the ball and toes which is the most essential thing in graceful walking4#aa ,besides this1 it is known that high heels prevent the full growth of the calf of the leg1 by preventing the full exercise of those muscles which raise the heel at every step4 ,as it is kept constantly raised already by an inch and a half of leather under it1 of course there is less required of the muscles1 and they are decreased in size4 ,stiffness1 also1 has a decided effect upon the carriage of the body4 ,one who has always worn stiff1 clumsy foot-gear has a stiff1 awkward walk1 because all the muscles of the foot and leg brought into play by natural walking have been interfered with and cramped by the miserable clogs on the feet4 ,as these will bend1 or allow the foot to bend1 but very little1 there can be but little use of the muscles which form the calf of the leg and raise the heel4 ,hence the calf remains weak and undeveloped1 instead of presenting the full1 round1 muscular appearance it shows in a well-developed leg1 and which is so necessary to a light1 easy1 elastic step1 and graceful movement4 ,the fashionable world--those people whom the earnest thinker and the practical utilitarian look upon almost as useless idlers in the community--still have their superiority in one direction1 over the thinker or business man1 which must be fairly acknowledged4 ,they are artists in the matter of dress and personal ornamentation4 ,they possess that taste and keen sense of the beautiful which forms everything around them into elegance1 grace1 and charm4 ,though they sometimes sacrifice strength and usefulness1 and often go to foolish extremes1 as do the plainer sort in an opposite way1 yet they generally manifest a propriety in dress and surroundings which compels the admiration even of those sensible and steady ones who think so highly of the useful1 but depreciate the value of beauty4 ,to the fashionable class1 then1 no less than to others we appeal to adopt a fashion in dressing the feet which will tend strongly to develop beauty in their form and appearance1 and grace in all their movements4 ,what this is1 has been sufficiently well explained4 ,it may be added that no one should be satisfied without a good fit1 and an article as tasteful and carefully selected as anything that is worn upon the head1 or any other part of the person4 ,the foot has the same right to be well dressed that is possessed by any other portion of the body4 ,a shape of the sole that would be a compromise between the common form and the correct one1 has been suggested for the benefit of those who could not be persuaded to have anything better4 ,this is a good one for such feet as are somewhat distorted at the toes1 and whose owners are not disposed to attempt any correction4 ,but we protest against putting anything less perfect than the 8,excelsior0 upon young feet1 that are still undeformed1 and hence entitled to a covering that will correspond4 ,parents have no right to treat their children in such a way as to induce any of the troubles that have been described4 ,but this they are almost sure to do1 in greater or less degree1 by compelling them to wear the ordinary boot and shoe4 ,it is true the better kind cannot be obtained ready-made at first1 though the demand will produce them in a reasonable time1 yet some approach to the true thing can be made by a shoemaker of intelligence and ingenuity1 even though1 in the absence of proper lasts1 he is obliged to alter and improve some which he already has4 ,some day the better article will be both obtainable and inexpensive4 ,in the mean time those most interested must take the best substitute within their reach--that which comes nearest the true standard4 ,,footnotes3 #aj ,to those custom shoemakers who continue trying to fit everybody without any specially-made lasts it is suggested that in some of the most difficult they make a trial shoe1 the upper for it being cut from some cheap material1 such as cotton drilling for representing serge or cloth1 and split-leather or sheepskin for leather uppers1 while a piece of insole-leather will answer for the bottom4 ,the upper can be sewed together without lining1 only some eyelets being necessary for lacing1 and when drawn over such a last as is judged likely to fit the foot it may be roughly fastened down all around with a waxed thread4 ,after trial on the customer's foot1 the upper can be ripped off and the sole-leather used for an insole or something else1 while if the shoe fits badly the last is easily modified1 before making a permanent article4 ,the same plan might be tried with any new last designed for a particular foot4 #aa ,the effects upon the foot are not the only bad results springing from heels that are extremely high4 ,the work of ,dr4 ,c4 ,f4 ,taylor has already been quoted from to show the influence of weak ankles in developing lateral curvature of the spine4 ,we also find in it some hints concerning stoop-shoulders1 which are thus expressed4 8,man has a much narrower base of sustentation than most other animals1 which renders it important that that base should not be lessened by cramping the feet in narrow shoes1 rendering progression difficult1 awkward1 and quickly fatiguing4 ,but probably the most serious fault in the feet-coverings is the elevated heel often given to them4 ,by elevating the heel1 besides the still narrower base given1 whether in progression or standing1 the anatomical relations of the whole body as an instrument of locomotion are materially changed4 ,as in lateral curvature of the spine1 a deviation from the proper position at one point may cause several other compensating curves at other points1 so an improper position of one part of the locomotive apparatus will cause a succession of other false positions of other parts4 ,by elevating the heel and constantly keeping the flexors of the feet the muscles on the upper side on the stretch1 relief to them is instinctively sought by a slight flexion at the knee2 this would destroy the perpendicularity of the figure1 were not another slight flexion made at the hips2 but as this would throw the trunk forward still another flexion backward is required1 and then forward1 etc4 ,but in the spinal column a compromise is effected by a forward curve and inclination of the head4 ,thus1 high heels tend to produce and permanently establish a succession of zigzags from the ankles upward1 with the weight of the body supported by the tension of the muscles1 and not1 as in erect stature1 by the bony framework40--,theory and ,practice of the ,movement-,cure1 p4 #ge4 ,the position here described is an approach to that assumed by old people--those 8bent over by age0--who are unable from weakness to stand upright4 ,the abdominal muscles are relaxed1 the chest sinks1 the head falls forward1 and the spine adapts itself by bending at the neck and shoulders4 ,the author goes on to show that these effects are felt more sensibly by women than by men1 and that their diseases and weaknesses are thus rendered more aggravated1 and the complete cure of them retarded or prevented by the wearing of high heels4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,miscellaneous--,criticism of ,different ,forms and ,fashions--,elasticity--,sensitiveness-- ,rubbers and ,water-proof ,leather--,cure for ,sweating--,qualities of a good ,covering4 ,it has been said that fashion should never be allowed to change the shape of the sole1 or interfere with the form of the lasts used in the construction of the foot's coverings4 ,this restriction1 however1 does not apply to the materials of which they are made1 nor the form into which the uppers may be cut4 ,the latter may be of a great variety of forms1 and the material of almost any kind or quality1 and of all colours and descriptions of ornamentation4 ,yet there are many particulars that are matters of style now1 which will give way to something different in another year1 or in two or three years4 ,each of the different kinds of boots has certain peculiar advantages which1 in addition to its being fashionable1 contribute to make it popular4 ,the side-spring boot1 that has been a favourite so long1 seldom slips at the heel1 and this is a decidedly good point2 it also1 by fitting closely at the ankles1 gives a feeling of snugness and security which is comfortable1 while it admits of perfect freedom in all movements of the ankle in walking4 ,there is less trouble in putting it on and off than with most other descriptions of boots and shoes which is a recommendation to many people who value time or dislike extra labour4 ,the ,balmoral boot for ladies has its recommendation in its superiority of fit4 ,this has made1 and keeps it1 a favourite1 causing it to be more generally worn than any other4 ,the mariner of lacing enables the wearer to draw it smooth and snug over the instep and around the heel and ankle--an advantage possessed by no other1 except1 partially1 by the side-laced boot2 which is likely to come again into favour4 ,the ,polish boot takes the place of the ,balmoral when a greater height upon the leg is required4 ,there is no other difference in its form1 and the quality of fit is the same4 ,its worst disadvantage is the amount of time required in lacing and unlacing it1 although1 when made of thick leather1 it may have a slight cramping effect upon the muscles of the ankle4 ,the ,button boot1 often called the ,hungarian1 when cut high like the ,polish1 is at this time the most fashionable4 ,it is quite as handsome1 but has not usually the neatness of fit which the ,balmoral possesses4 ,one style1 not generally introduced1 but of which a pair has been made occasionally1 is superior to the ,polish or ,hungarian in that there is only half as much trouble in lacing4 ,it may be made very high--thirteen inches1 if desired--being laced or buttoned about as far up as the ,balmoral1 when the upper part of one quarter is folded over past the opening1 and fastened with two or three handsome clasps attached to elastic straps1 which give and retract sufficiently to accommodate the action of the leg1 while at the same time the leg is snugly fitted4 ,this is a good heavy winter boot for ladies1 where an extreme height or length of leg is in demand4 ,the ,highland buckle is similar to it1 the part that laps over being fastened with one inelastic strap4 ,we have also noticed a high boot made with gores like the side-spring--one at the ankle and two above on each side--which would seem to be a very convenient thing to put on1 but one that needs the best gores to make it serviceable4 ,it is not probable that either of these varieties will be extensively popular4 ,the first is of the three the most deserving4 ,the quality needed by all laced1 buckled1 or buttoned boots is elasticity at the leg1 ankle1 or instep1 such as is possessed at one point--the ankle--by the side-spring4 ,a great advantage would be gained if this elasticity could be extended down even to the ball or joint4 ,one purpose of it is to give free play to the muscles of the leg and ankle1 and also allow the foot to lengthen and spread without hindrance as its arches expand under the weight of the body in walking or standings and another is to keep the upper closely drawn over all parts of the foot1 ankle1 and leg1 when the arches are contracted and the muscles inactive1 as in a state of rest2 both objects--ease to the foot and beauty of fit--being secured by the same means4 ,buckle and button boots for gentlemen1 with this quality supplied at the ankle by a narrow goring on one side of it1 while the buckles or buttons are on the other side1 have lately been made4 ,the gored ,oxford shoe supplies the elasticity at the instep4 ,perhaps some other style can be invented that will do as much for the ball and transverse arch as these kinds have done for the parts above4 ,any boot or shoe with this peculiarity is superior to the same thing without it4 ,it must not1 of course1 be supposed that such a shoe will fit a thick or a slim foot equally well1 for the elastic may be too tight for ease in one case1 and too loose for a good fit in the other4 ,in connection with this matter1 strong elastic cords for laces are suggested as worthy of a trial in ,balmoral and ,polish boots4 ,if successful1 they accomplish the same result as elastic goring1 and1 besides1 may be drawn tightly or loosely to meet the defect of the boot1 or suit the convenience or taste of the wearer4 ,cloth and leather materials are joined together in ladies' work in all sorts of proportions4 ,in regard to this practice it may be said that those kinds of shoes in which the higher part is made of cloth or lasting1 and the lower and forward parts of leather1 are to be preferred for one reason3 the softer part at the ankle allows of more freedom and ease to the muscles1 while the leather below serves all the purposes it would if extending throughout1 and thus the advantages of both are combined4 ,there is no difficulty in making this union1 whatever the cut of the boot may be--whether gored1 laced1 or buttoned4 ,tender feet may find what suits their wants in the softer kinds of kid and morocco1 when cloth is not preferred4 ,there is no reason why a woman's boot1 though a heavy one1 should be hard and stiff2 as a good quality of oiled morocco1 pebbled calf1 or calf-kid leather1 to be obtained almost anywhere1 will commonly be found pliable enough1 even for moderately sensitive corns4 ,still more softness may be given by double linings of flannel4 ,there is no leather worn by ladies that is water-proof1 and that quality ought not to be expected4 ,their heaviest boots are made with a double sole and double upper1 which give additional warmth1 and protect against ordinary dampness4 ,but the only thing they have as a sure protection against wet is rubber4 ,rubber sandals or shoes for the sidewalk or a rainy day1 and high rubber boots for snow1 are a complete security4 ,men are1 in this respect1 better provided for4 ,there are several kinds of leather worn by them which1 if saturated with grease or special preparations1 will be water-proof1 though exposed for a considerable time4 ,they have the benefit of rubber besides4 ,the ,napoleon tongued boot1 for a heavy one1 is supposed to have a superiority of fit about the ankle1 and is more tasteful in a general way4 ,the double-footed boot is considered1 with some reason1 to be warmer than a single one of the same thickness4 ,for men's feet that are very sensitive to cold1 perhaps the best thing is a doubled boot1 having the inside part1 or foot-lining1 made of fur-calf--calf skin dressed with the hair on--or some other kind of fur4 ,arctic overshoes are very excellent for riding in cold weather1 provided they are not too small4 ,cork soles1 covered with wool or flannel1 for either sex1 are another help toward keeping the feet warm1 with which1 in addition to flannel linings and other provisions1 the most cold-footed ought to be tolerably comfortable4 ,it must not1 however1 be expected to keep the feet warm in any kind of a covering that is tight4 ,but as this kind of sensitiveness is1 in healthy persons1 very much a matter of habit1 it is perhaps quite as well for such to accustom themselves to wearing an ordinary doubled boot through the winter1 unless much exposed1 and put on a light boot1 shoe1 or gaiter for the summer4 ,appropriateness and adaptation to weather or circumstances are always to be considered4 ,a heavy leather boot with double sole is as much out of place and time in a warm day1 as a light cloth gaiter in a snow-storm4 ,while the latter would expose the foot unnecessarily1 the first1 besides being uncomfortable1 keeps the foot in an unnaturally sensitive condition4 ,it is not intended to make any suggestions to invalids4 ,we only state the well-known rule that exposure to cold makes the feet1 or any other part of the body1 more hardy1 when there is an ordinary state of health1 or sufficient blood in the system to be easily drawn to the surface by this demand4 ,where there is too little vitality for this1 the experience of the person or the counsel of the physician is the best guide4 ,so also in regard to dampness or wetting the feet4 ,while making no law for sickly or feeble constitutions1 it seems to us very evident that the more often the feet are exposed to damp or wet1 the greater the ability acquired by the system to resist it2#ab and that when the feet happen to get wet only occasionally1 the consequences of the exposure are proportionately more serious4 ,it is probable that if care were taken to keep the feet comfortably warm when wet1 either by exercise1 as in walking1 or in some other manner1 there would be very little danger from the wet alone1 unless in cases of invalid feebleness1 or where they were dampened so seldom that the intelligence of the physical system was unprepared for such an occurrence4 ,one of the well-established facts of physiology is that anything worn upon the feet which1 like rubber or patent leather1 prevents the passing off of the insensible perspiration1 is detrimental to the health4 ,those who regard the organic laws as having any sacredness1 will not use patent leather boots covering the whole foot1 for constant wear1 but limit them to particular occasions4 ,rubbers ought to be removed1 and something else substituted in their place1 as soon as the feet come out of the wet which occasions their being put on4 ,the same is true of all boots that are water-proof4 ,they should be worn only when times of exposure make them necessary4 ,this is sufficiently well known with regard to rubbers2 but few know that leather boots are objectionable1 for the same reason1 in proportion as they are watertight4 ,there are comparatively few of them which are perfectly so2 yet there are many1 which1 worn as they are1 day after day1 in dry weather as well as wet1 must1 by retaining a large part of the foot's perspiration1 have an unhealthful effect4 ,it is a good practice to bathe the feet after removing a pair of water-proof boots which have been worn during the day4 ,with many men this is a necessity1 and it would be such with many more if they knew all the requirements of the laws of hygiene1 to say nothing of any other reason4 ,to give the boots themselves a washing-out occasionally might be advantageous4 ,the feet must be allowed to perspire naturally1 or the skin in some other part is liable to be overtasked2 and it is stated by medical authorities that skin diseases have been produced by neglect of the feet in this particular4 ,the following cure for abnormal sweating of the feet is taken from one of our first-class periodicals2#ac and from the nature of the remedy it would seem that it ought to have the effect indicated4 8,pulverized tannin sprinkled inside the boots or shoes in three days prevents tender feet from perspiring and blistering4 ,tanning thus applied1 rapidly strengthens and hardens the skin1 softened by the simultaneous action of moisture and heat2 perspiration being thus reduced to the proper degree1 without its healthy action being in the slightest interfered with1 the exhalations as a matter of course cease to be offensive4 ,the cessation of disagreeable odours is explained by the fact that the products of the ammoniacal decomposition of the skin are immediately combined with the tannin and so carried off40 ,rubber-soled shoes for ladies1 with leather or other material for the uppers1 have been manufactured to a slight extent2 and1 as far as we know1 are a success4 ,the objection on account of health does not apply to them seriously1 because the rubber is at the bottom4 ,possibly1 however1 an uncomfortable effect may be produced upon the sole of the foot4 ,water-proof serge or lasting1 also1 is among the late inventions4 ,it is claimed to be sufficiently porous to allow the escape of perspiration1 yet water-proof under all ordinary exposure4 ,the two qualities are incompatible and if really water-proof it is only fit1 like rubber1 to be worn occasionally4 ,cloth materials of different kinds have been much worn4 ,they permit a partial saving of leather1 and are equally handsome4 ,they are light1 soft1 may be made sufficiently warm1 and are far more favourable to health4 ,they answer nearly every requirement for a good shoe1 except the defence against dampness2 and their wearing ought to be encouraged4 ,the defect named must be supplied by rubbers4 ,nearly all the coarser and cheaper kinds of men's shoe goods have the bad quality of general stiffness4 ,their wearing makes1 in a very decided and proper sense1 stiff feet4 ,they are all the worse for having pegged soles4 ,whether the soles are curved or straight makes not much difference1 for the stiffness prevents the use of either the upper or lower set of the foot's muscles4 ,as these goods can not be generally manufactured at the present time without being made stiff by pegs1 in addition to the firmness of the leather1 there is but little chance for improvement4 ,those obliged to wear them are advised to do so only so far as they are compelled1 and to keep the upper parts in as pliable a condition as possible by frequent applications of oil4 ,it is to be hoped that something softer will some time take their place4 ,the value of all these various styles1 and of any other that may come up hereafter1 may be tested by the presence or absence of the following general qualities3 sufficient porosity of the upper to admit the passage of the insensible perspiration2 softness and pliability sufficient to allow of ease and comfort to the foot in all its movements2 flexibility and elasticity that will yield to accommodate the action of the muscles at the ankle and top of the foot1 yet draw the upper tight enough to fit smoothly2 general good shape and proportion2 flexibility of sole2 strength for protection and service4 ,the more of these there can be combined into any species of foot-clothing the better will the foot be protected and preserved1 and at the least expense of money and trouble in proportion to the benefit gained4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,billing1 ,,printer1 ,,guildford1 ,,surrey4 ,,footnotes3 #ab ,it may become an important problem to the physiologist and physician to determine whether the same law does not hold good in respect to whatever is naturally injurious to the human constitution in any way1 so long as its resisting power is not overbalanced4 ,if all kinds of unhealthy conditions1 surroundings1 and exposures can be made to produce the good effects of healthful stimulation when made use of to the proper extent1 however little that may be1 while only past that limit they become destructive1 then a change will come over a great many notions and practices4 ,some facts are reconciled by such a theory which are otherwise quite contradictory4 #ac ,appleton's ,journal--department devoted to ,science4 ,transcriber's ,notes pg #ba ,changed3 which is excedingly tender and painful to3 which is exceedingly tender and painful pg #bg ,changed3 it invaribly has and must have to3 it invariably has and must have pg #abi ,changed3 ,the 8,hydropathic ,enclyclopdia0 recommends to3 ,the 8,hydropathic ,encyclopdia0 recommends