,transcriber's ,note ,italic text displayed as3 italic ,bold text displayed as3 bold ,,work0 ,,handbooks ,,harness ,,making ,,harness ,,making ,,with ,,numerous ,,engravings ,,and ,,diagrams ,,edited ,,by ,,paul ,n4 ,,hasluck ,,editor ,,of 8,,work0 ,,and 8,,building ,,world10 ,,author ,,of 8,,handybooks ,,for ,,handicrafts10 ,,etc4 ,,etc4 ,illustration3 ,decoration ,,cassell ,,and ,,company1 ,,limited ,,london1 ,,paris1 ,,new ,,york ,,melbourne4 ,,mcmiv ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved ,,preface4 ,this ,handbook contains1 in form convenient for everyday use1 a comprehensive digest of the knowledge of harness making1 scattered over more than twenty thousand columns of ,,work--one of the weekly journals it is my fortune to edit--and supplies concise information on the details of the subjects of which it treats4 ,in preparing for publication in book form the mass of relevant matter contained in the volumes of ,,work1 much had to be arranged anew4 ,however1 it may be stated that the greater part of the contents of this ,handbook consists substantially of matter contributed by a working harness maker4 ,readers who may desire additional information respecting special details of the matters dealt with in this ,handbook1 or instructions on kindred subjects1 should address a question to ,,work1 so that it may be answered in the columns of that journal4 ,p4 ,n4 ,,hasluck4 ,la ,belle ,sauvage1 ,london1 ,may1 #aijd4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,,page ,i4--,harness-makers' ,tools #i ,,ii4--,harness-makers' ,materials #cj ,,iii4--,strap ,making and ,stitching #di ,,iv4--,looping #eg ,v4--,cart ,harness #fb ,,vi4--,cart ,collars #ge ,,vii4--,cart ,saddles1 ,reins1 etc4 #hf ,,viii4--,fore ,gear and ,leader ,harness #aja ,,ix4--,plough ,harness #ajg ,x4--,bits1 ,spurs1 ,stirrups1 and ,harness ,furniture #aaa ,,xi4--,van and ,cab ,harness #abg ,index #aeg ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,fig4 ,,page #a4--,paring ,knife #aj #b4--;,hand ,knife #aj #c4--,round ,knife #aa #d4--;,head ,knife #aa #e4--;,cutting ,gauge #aa #f4--,plough or ,plough ,gauge #ab #g4--,side ,elevation of ,plough ,gauge #ab #h4--;,end ,elevation of ,plough ,gauge #ac #i4--,slitting ,machine #ac #aj4--,spokeshave #ac #aa4--;,edge ,trimmer #ad #ab4--,washer ,cutter #ad #ac4--,round ,punch #ae #ad4--,oval ,punch #ae #ae4--;,buckle ,tongue1 or ,crew1 ,punch #ae #af4--;,girth ,chape ,punch #ae #ag4--;,brace ,end ,punch #ae #ah4--;,forepart of ,brace ,end ,punch #af #ai4--;,hand ,punch #af #bj4--;,hand ,punch ,nipple #af #ba to #bd4--,scalloping ,irons #af #be1 #bf4--,rosette ,punches #ag #bg4--,lead ,piece #ag #bh4--,wooden ,mallet #ag #bi1 #cj4--,useful ,wooden ,mallets #ag #ca4--,saddlers' ,hammer #ah #cb4--,pricking-iron #ah #cc1 #cd4--,wheel ,prickers #ah #ce4--,screw-race #ai #cf4--,single ,crease #ai #cg4--,screw-crease #ai #ch4--;,checker #bj #ci4--;,beveller #bj #dj4--;,compasses #bj #da4--,race ,compasses #bj #db1 #dc4--;,awl ,blades #ba #dd4--,sewing ,awl #bb #de4--;,bent ,awl #bb #df1 #dg4--;,harness ,needles #bc #dh1 #di4--,seat ,awls #bc #ej1 #ea4--;,hand-irons or ,palm-irons #bd #eb4--;,clamp or ,clams #bd #ec4--;,clamp for ,sewing ,shaft-tugs #be #ed4--;,home-made ,clamp ,holding ,work #be #ee4--;,jaws of ,clamp #be #ef4--,nail-claw #bf #eg4--;,cutting ,pliers #bf #eh4--;,iron ,collar ,rod #bg #ei4--,steel ,seat-iron #bg #fj4--,loop-stick #bh #fa4--,rubber #bh #fb4--,straining ,fork #bi #fc4--;,cutting up ,hide #ci #fd4--,plain ,waist ,belt #ec #fe4--;,fancy ,waist ,belt #ed #ff4--,waist ,belt with ,pockets #ee #fg4--;,box ,creased ,loop #eh #fh4--;,box ,creased ,loop #ei #fi1 #gj4--;,box ,creased ,loops #fj #ga4--;,horse in ,cart ,gear #fb #gb to #ge4--,scotch ,brass ,gear ,buckles #fc #gf1 #gg4--;,brass ,face-pieces #fd #gh4--;,brass ,face-piece #fe #gi4--;,bells and ,brush #fe #hj1 #ha4--;,brass ,hame ,plates #fe #hb4--;,brass ,oval #ff #hb to #he4--;,brass ,octagons #ff #hf4--;,brass ,heart #ff #hg1 #hh4--;,brass ,stars #ff #hi1 #ij4--;,brass ,hame ,knobs #fg #ia1 #ib4--;,brass ,swing #fg #ic4--;,ear-piece #fg #id4--;,corner-piece #fg #ie4--;,cart ,collar without ,side-piece #ge #if4--;,cart ,collar ,lining #gi #ig4--;,cart ,collar ,side-piece #hc #ih4--;,cart ,saddle ,tree #hg #ii4--;,cart ,saddle ,panel #hi #ajj4--;,cart ,saddle ,hind ,housing #ic #aja4--;,cart ,saddle ,front ,housing #ie #ajb4--,set of ,leader ,gear #ajc #ajc1 #ajd4--;,hip-strap ,chains #aje #aje4--,plough ,back-band ,hook #aji #ajf to #ajh4--,pelham ,bits #aaa #aji4--;,hackney ,bit #aaa #aaj4--;,bridoon #aaa #aaa1 #aab4--,ladies' ,horse ,bits #aab #aac4--,pelham ,snaffle with ,indiarubber ,mouth #aab #aad4--;,hackney ,bit with ,indiarubber ,mouth #aab #aae4--;,gig ,snaffle #aac #aaf4--,wilson ,snaffle #aac #aag4--,liverpool ,bit #aac #aah4--;,globe ,check ,curb ,bit #aac #aai4--,one-horn ,bridoon ,bit #aac #abj4--,one-horned ,bridoon with ,indiarubber ,mouth #aad #aba4--;,gig ,curb ,bit #aad #abb4--;,buxton ,bit #aad #abc4--,swivelled ,bridoon ,bit #aad #abd1 #abe4--;,breaking ,bits #aad #abf4--;,breaking ,bit #aae #abg4--,snaffle with ,indiarubber ,mouth #aae #abh1 #abi4--;,exercising ,bits #aae #acj4--,show or ,stallion ,bit #aae #aca4--;,double-mouthed ,snaffle #aaf #acb4--,ordinary ,spur #aaf #acc4--,officer's ,regulation ,spur #aaf #acd4--;,dress ,spur #aaf #ace4--,lady's ,spur #aag #acf4--,trousers ,spur #aag #acg4--,solid ,stirrup #aag #ach4--,open ,button ,stirrup #aag #aci4--,waving ,bar ,stirrup #aag #adj4--,lady's ,stirrup #aag #ada4--,stirrup ,slipper #aah #adb4--,safety ,stirrup #aah #adc4--;,flat ,side ,wire ,front ,buckle #aah #add4--;,front ,bevelled ,buckle #aah #ade4--;,bevelled ,flat ,top ,buckle #aah #adf4--,west ,end ,bevelled ,flat ,top ,buckle #aah #adg4--,spade ,buckle #aai #adh4--,square ,wire ,buckle #aai #adi4--;,chatham ,buckle #aai #aej4--;,flat ,top ,turned-up ,buckle #aai #aea4--;,fluted ,buckle #aai #aeb4--,swelled ,front ,bent-leg ,buckle #aai #aec4--;,flat ,top ,cab ,buckle #aai #aed4--,west ,end ,whole ,buckle #aai #aee4--;,chased ,buckle #abj #aef4--,melbourne ,buckle #abj #aeg4--,square ,buckle #abj #aeh1 #aei4--;,covered ,buckles #abj #afj1 #afa4--,part-covered ,buckles #abj #afb4--,shaft ,tug ,buckle #aba #afc4--;,burgess's ,buckle #aba #afd4--;,ball ,terret #aba #afe4--,plain ,terret #aba #aff to #afh4--;,ball ,terrets #abb #afi to #agb4--;,hames #abc #agc1 #agd4--;,bearing-rein ,swivels #abc #age1 #agf4--,roller ,buckles #abd #agg4--;,hame ,clip #abe #agh1 #agi4--;,breeching ,dees #abe #ahj1 #aha4--,winkers #abi #ahb4--,van ,saddle #aca #ahc4--,van ,saddle ,flap #aca #ahd4--,van ,saddle ,panel #aca #ahe4--;,chain and ,leather ,gig ,front #adj #ahf4--;,chain and ,leather ,gig ,front #ada #ahg4--;,chain and ,leather ,gig ,front #adc #ahh4--;,crupper ,dock #adg #ahi4--;,breeching1 etc4 #adg #aij4--;,back-band #adg #aia4--,shaft ,tugs #adg #aib4--;,four-wheeled ,cab ,saddle #aec #aic4--;,cab ,saddle ,tree #aec #aid4--;,hansom ,cab ,saddle #aed #aie1 #aif4--,rein ,stops #aed #aig4--;,hansom ,cab ,harness #aee ,,harness ,,making4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,harness-,,makers' ,,tools4 ,harness making and repairing is a branch of leather work that can often be undertaken profitably by many persons1 and the information given in the following pages has been adapted specially to the amateur's requirements4 ,doubtless the readers of a companion handbook on 8,boot ,making and ,mending0 have wished to pursue further the subject of leather working1 and will take up the making and repairing of harness with pleasure4 ,aspirants to more highly skilled work will find 8,practical ,saddlery0 of the greatest possible use to them1 whilst readers less ambitious may look to 8,leather ,working0 for instructions on making a number of articles1 such as bags1 portmanteaus1 and cases1 for which there is general employment and a consequently great demand4 ,the two books just mentioned are issued uniform in style and price with the present work4 ,in this handbook it is proposed to treat the subject of harness making so fully that anyone possessing tact and sense can make a set of harness from the instructions given1 or1 at any rate1 keep harness in good repair4 ,a start will be made by describing the tools that will be necessary4 ,in the list given below1 every essential tool is specified and its uses explained4 ,the tools are very numerous1 but the amateur may dispense with many of them2 for though all of them may have to be employed by a tradesman in turning out finished work1 an amateur may be content with a much smaller outfit4 ,the tools are not bulky1 however1 and all that are necessary for making a double set of harness could be carried in a small handbag1 excepting1 of course1 the mallet and collar-iron4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,paring ,knife4 ,the tools are here classified as 7a7 cutting tools1 7b7 punches and tools of percussion1 7c7 tools for setting out1 marking1 and ornamenting1 7d7 awls and needles for perforating1 7e7 tools for gripping and holding work1 7f7 tools used in stuffing collars and saddles1 and 7g7 miscellaneous4 ,it may be remarked that saddlers' tools1 as well as harness-makers'1 are included in this chapter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,hand ,knife4 ,with regard to cutting tools1 a paring knife 7,fig4 #a7 and a hand knife 7,fig4 #b7 are used for cutting thread1 paring down1 and splicing1 and are otherwise generally useful4 ,the round knife 7,fig4 #c7 is used by saddlers instead of the hand knife for cutting1 splicing1 and thinning leather2 they can be had in different sizes1 suited to light and heavy work2 their chief use is in thinning the edges of leather1 and for giving a rounded appearance to lined straps1 such as nosebands1 traces1 breeching straps1 etc4 ,the head knife 7,fig4 #d7 is used for cutting the holes for buckle tongues and cutting any circular shapes or holes in leather4 ,fig4 #e is a cutting gauge made in iron or wood4 ,a knife passes through the ruled stem1 and is held firmly by a screw4 ,it is adjusted by shifting the block1 which is also held by a screw4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,round ,knife4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--;,head ,knife4 ,a plough or plough gauge 7,fig4 #f7 is very useful when much strap or belt cutting has to be done4 ,by means of it1 straps can be cut from in4 to #d in4 wide1 by sliding the knife backwards or forwards along the marked gauge4 ,straps can be cut much more quickly by this machine than by hand1 and it quite dispenses with the use of the round knife and compasses4 ,a slightly different plough is illustrated by ,figs4 #g and #h4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,cutting ,gauge4 ,the slitting machine 7,fig4 #i7 is useful for thinning straps which are to be drawn down to half or one-third their thickness4 ,a saddler's spokeshave 7,fig4 #aj7 may be used for the same purpose as the slitting machine4 ,it is suitable for thinning light straps1 and not only takes less time to adjust1 but does the work more quickly than the slitter4 ,the chief use of the spokeshave1 however1 is to trim and finish traces1 backbands1 etc4 ,after a trace or backband or other lined strap is stitched1 the uneven edges require to be rounded and smoothed2 this is done by clamping the strap between the knees1 holding the clamp a little straighter than when stitching1 and using the spokeshave4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--,plough1 or ,plough ,gauge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--,side ,elevation of ,plough ,gauge4 ,edge trimmers 7,fig4 #aa7 are for running along the edges of straps of all kinds to take off the sharp edge and sides before dyeing4 ,it is made in sizes #a to #h4 ,sharp and strong scissors are necessary for cutting linings1 basil1 and other kinds of thin leather4 ,the washer cutter 7,fig4 #ab7 is used for cutting round pieces of leather by rule2 the knife can be set at all sizes up to #f in4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--;,end ,elevation of ,plough ,gauge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--,slitting ,machine4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,spokeshave ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--;,edge ,trimmer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--,washer ,cutter4 ,punches are indispensable1 and half a dozen different sizes each of round 7,fig4 #ac7 and oval 7,fig4 #ad7 tools should be obtained4 ,round punches are made in sizes from ,no4 #a1 suitable only for very narrow straps1 to ,no4 #af1 which make a hole in4 in diameter4 ,oval punches are numbered1 according to size1 from #ag to #cb1 and make a hole of similar dimensions to the round punches just mentioned4 ,punches of intermediate sizes1 ,nos4 #c to #ac or ,nos4 #ai to #bi1 will1 however1 answer for most repairing jobs4 ,the ovals are preferable in most cases1 as they make holes in the straps large enough for the purpose without impairing the strength so much as the round ones do4 ,buckle tongue punches1 or crew punches 7,fig4 #ae7 are handy2 these are made in three or four sizes1 and they run from ,no4 #cc to ,no4 #dc1 and are used for making the holes that take the heel of the buckle tongue when the buckle is placed in its chape4 ,this hole may also be made by punching two holes at a suitable distance from each other1 and cutting between them1 thus ,illustration3 symbol for cutting between two holes ,the strap has to be bent and a hole cut through the bent end1 the piece between the holes for the tongue of the buckle being afterwards cut out4 ,the punches shown by ,figs4 #af to #ah may be used to cut saddle girth chapes1 brace ends1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,round ,punch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--,oval ,punch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--;,buckle ,tongue or ,crew1 ,punch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--;,girth ,chape ,punch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--;,brace ,end ,punch4 ,a hand punch 7,fig4 #ai7 is useful for punching holes in small straps1 or for making holes in harness whilst it is worn by a horse4 ,saddlers are sometimes called upon to do this1 and without a hand punch the work is awkward1 necessitating the use of mallet1 punch1 and lead4 ,fig4 #bj shows a loose nipple which can be obtained in various sizes to screw in the handle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--;,forepart of ,brace ,end ,punch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--;,hand ,punch4 ,scalloping irons 7,figs4 #ba to #bd71 vandyke1 round1 straight1 and half-moon are used for cutting any fancy or ornamental designs in ,american cloth or fancy leather4 ,rosette punches 7,figs4 #be and #bf7 in sets of three or four1 are useful for making rosettes in patent fancy coloured leather or for cutting out round scalloped edge pieces4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--;,hand ,punch ,nipple4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #ba to #bd4--,scalloping ,irons4 ,a lead piece 7,fig4 #bg7 for punching on should be from #f in4 to #h in4 square1 and about #a in4 thick4 ,lead is used because1 being soft1 it does not damage the points of the punches2 but if lead is not handy1 a block of wood #e in4 or #f in4 thick will do1 if set up on end so that the punch does not cut across the grain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,fig4 #bf4 ,figs4 #be and #bf4--,rosette ,punches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--,lead ,piece4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--,wooden ,mallet4 ,a wooden mallet 7,fig4 #bh7 for punching is also required1 and a lignum-vit round mallet to work the forewales and shape the stuffed bodies of collars4 ,other useful mallets are shown by ,figs4 #bi and #cj4 ,two hammers are necessary1 one fairly light--the proper saddler's hammer 7,fig4 #ca7--;and the other a heavy one for heavy work4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #bi and #cj4--,useful ,wooden ,mallets4 ,tools for marking and ornamenting leather may now be mentioned4 ,fig4 #cb shows a tool used in stamping the lines preparatory to stitching4 ,these tools vary in width from three teeth1 which are used only for round points and scalloped work1 to twenty-four teeth for straight lines4 ,the teeth on each iron are cut to mark a certain number of stitches per inch1 from six to sixteen1 and these teeth are not at right angles to the flat part of the iron1 but are cut on the slant as at ,b1 thus making an impression on the leather which acts as a guide in forming a stitch perfect in shape as well as in length4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,fig4 #cb4 ,fig4 #cc4 ,fig4 #cd4 ,fig4 #ca4--,saddlers' ,hammer4 ,fig4 #cb4--,pricking-iron4 ,figs4 #cc and #cd4--,wheel ,prickers4 ,wheel prickers 7,figs4 #cc and #cd7 are used in sizes from seven or eight to sixteen teeth to the inch4 ,they are round pieces of steel1 having serrated edges and a hole in the centre1 and are provided with a handle in which they are adjusted with a pin and nut4 ,a change of stitch1 say from fine to coarse1 necessitates a change of wheel4 ,the wheel is run along the stitching line1 and in the holes made by the pricks the stitches are run4 ,the screw-race 7,fig4 #ce7 is a tool for grooving lines in any part where it is desired to sink the stitches below the surface4 ,it is easily adjustable4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,fig4 #ce4--,screw-race4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,fig4 #cf4--,single ,crease4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,fig4 #cg4--,screw-crease4 ,single creases 7,fig4 #cf7 are for marking in places where neither the screw-crease nor the compasses can go1 as for instance1 in the centre of a large piece of leather or wide strap4 ,they are also used to mark thick and heavy loops1 for which purpose they are heated before using4 ,two screw-creases must be obtained1 one light and the other heavy 7,fig4 #cg72 one is used for light lines and the other for heavy lines along the edge of the leather1 and for marking the lines for stitching4 ,by means of the screw1 the points are closed or opened1 thus bringing the line nearer to the edge of the work or taking it farther away4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--;,checker4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4--;,beveller4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4--;,compasses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4--,race ,compasses4 ,checkers 7,fig4 #ch7 are small double creases with two parallel edges1 one of which marks the small ornamental checked lines on loops2 one edge is run along the last line done1 which thus serves as a guide for keeping the lines parallel4 ,sizes #a1 #b1 and #c will be sufficient4 ,a brass foot-rule1 of course1 must be obtained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4--;,awl ,blade4 ,bevellers 7,fig4 #ci7 resemble the single creases1 but are much thicker and bevelled2 they are used for the sole purpose of creasing or marking loops on portions that require ornamenting4 ,in use1 they are heated and then made to form a deep1 wide groove on the loop1 such as the straight cross lines on the front1 and any fancy shapes worked on the outside of the loop4 ,compasses 7,fig4 #dj7 should have a screw and regulator so that they may be set at different widths4 ,they are used for marking the widths of straps to be cut and for marking distances1 etc4 ,race compasses 7,fig4 #da7 are for the purpose of cutting a slight groove or line along the edges2 they just take off a narrow strip of the grain and leave a faint line1 which is blacked with the edges4 ,it answers the same purpose as the line cut with the screw-crease1 either ornamenting the straps or marking the line for the stitches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4--;,awl ,blade4 ,with regard to perforating tools1 a few awl blades 7,figs4 #db and #dc7 and hafts may be obtained4 ,stitching blades vary in sizes from #a in4 to #c in4 long4 ,hold the blade fast in the vice1 and with a few sharp blows of a light hammer drive the haft or handle on the awl1 which is then ready for use4 ,fig4 #dd shows a sewing awl4 ,strong thick awls will be required for coarse work1 to stitch1 say1 a thread of seven1 eight1 or even more cords of hemp in one thread1 and the thickness of the awl should diminish until the fine awl for stitching fine silk and cotton threads is obtained4 ,bent awls 7,fig4 #de7 in one or two sizes1 such as shoemakers use1 are employed for putting in wire in saddle flabs for fastening the panel2 they have other uses also4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4--,sewing ,awl4 ,half a dozen packets of harness needles 7,figs4 #df and #dg71 varying in size from ,no4 #b to ,no4 #f1 will be necessary2 the lowest number is the coarsest4 ,these needles are for wax thread and all other stitching threads4 ,needles will also be required as follows3--#b-;in4 or #c-;in4 needles for quilting saddle panels1 etc42 pointed needles for thimble work in stitching linings to saddle panels1 etc42 collar needles of different sizes1 half-moon shape and straight with bent points2 these are from #c in4 to #f in4 long1 the longest being for heavy cart collar work and the lightest for patent and light harness collars4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4--;,bent ,awl4 ,the seat-awl 7two shapes are shown by ,figs4 #dh and #di7 is for easing and levelling stuffing in collars1 saddles1 and other stuffed or padded articles4 ,it is also useful for levelling thread2 this is turned once around the round awl1 which is then drawn sharply backwards and forwards1 the lumps thus being taken out of the thread4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,fig4 #dg4 ,fig4 #dh4 ,fig4 #di4 ,figs4 #df and #dg4--;,harness ,needles4 ,figs4 #dh and #di4--,seat ,awls4 ,the hand-or palm-iron 7,figs4 #ej and #ea7 is a kind of thimble used on the palm of the hand when driving collar needles through leather4 ,a shallow honeycombed well is formed in the hand part1 which prevents the needle from slipping1 however great the pressure may be2 and at the end or point a hole is bored lengthwise1 about in4 deep1 to take the eve end of the needle and force it closer to the leather when the broad part of the iron is not available4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,fig4 #ea4 ,figs4 #ej and #ea4--;,hand-irons or ,palm-irons4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--;,clamp or ,clams4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4--;,clamp for ,sewing ,shaft-tugs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4--;,home-made ,clamp ,holding ,work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4--;,jaws of ,clamp4 ,holding and gripping tools include the clamp1 known also as the pair of clams4 ,fig4 #eb shows the ordinary type1 while ,fig4 #ec is the kind used in sewing shaft-tugs4 ,held between the knees in a slightly slanting position1 the clamp keeps the work firmly in position while the stitching is being done2 it lies against the left knee1 and by throwing the right leg over it the work is held fast between the gripping points4 ,note that the saddler has the clamp between his legs in a slanting direction1 and not as the shoemaker1 who has them straight up1 almost against his nose1 when bending over the work4 ,one reason for this is that the work done by the saddler with the clamp requires more force to press the awl through than the work done by the shoemaker2 consequently the saddler must set his clamp against some firm object 7his left knee7 so that it will not yield under the pressure4 ,another reason is that the saddler stitches with needles1 while the shoemaker uses bristles1 and must see the hole made by the awl1 as the bristles cannot force their way1 as the needles1 to some slight extent1 are able to do4 ,the saddler feels for the hole with his needle and thus becomes accustomed to finding the hole without looking1 and to getting his needle to follow the awl as the latter is drawn back2 in fact1 the needle is inserted in the unseen lower side with more accuracy than on the top side1 which is in view4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4--,nail-claw4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4--;,cutting ,pliers4 ,a clamp can be made easily by the worker at home4 ,the parts ,a and ,b 7,fig4 #ed7 are made from two oak cask or barrel staves4 ,the lower portion ,c may be a sound piece of white deal1 #bj in4 by #c in4 by #c in41 and the only other requisites will be eight stout #b in4 screws4 ,the staves should be cut #b ft4 long by at least #c in4 wide1 the points of greatest convexity being in the centre2 the more bent the staves are the more useful the clamp will be4 ,clean up the outside with a spokeshave1 leaving one end the full thickness of the staves1 or about #a in41 and thinning off gradually to about in4 towards the upper ends1 which are to form the jaws of the clamp 7,fig4 #ee74 ,round off the outer corners1 and clean up the inside surface flat1 smoothing both sides with glass-paper4 ,the dovetail-shaped tenon in the lower part ,c1 should be at least #f in4 in length1 and will require careful cutting1 the depth of the shoulders and the width of the upper end depending upon the amount of curve in the staves which are to be attached to it4 ,it should be borne in mind that the object is to embed the staves so firmly that their upper ends1 or the jaws of the tool1 press tightly together4 ,with this object the tenon should be cut1 so that energetic screwing will be required to bring the staves home into their final position4 ,the screws should be countersunk flush with the surface of the staves4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4--;,iron ,collar ,rod4 ,a small wrench and a medium-sized vice will often be found useful4 ,a nail-claw 7,fig4 #ef7 is required for pulling out the nails used to keep the work together4 ,pincers1 nippers1 and cutting pliers 7,fig4 #eg7 will be found useful as occasion demands4 ,an iron collar rod 7,fig4 #eh7 for stuffing the forewale must be obtained1 as well as a hardwood stick1 about #b ft4 #f in4 long1 and having a ,v-shaped point1 for filling the body of collars with straw2 the stick is flat towards the ,v-shaped end1 and round at the other end1 the corners being rounded off smooth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4--,steel ,seat-iron4 ,a steel seat-iron 7,fig4 #ei7 is used in putting flock into cart-saddle panels1 but chiefly for stuffing the peak of riding saddles1 as the tool bends nicely with the shape of the saddle without tearing the cover or stretching it immoderately4 ,loop-sticks 7,fig4 #fj7 are made of hardwood in various sizes to suit the width and thickness of the straps4 ,a set made of hard boxwood or iron1 varying in width from in4 to #b in41 and in thickness from in4 to in41 should be obtained4 ,less room is wanted in shaping a loop for a single strap than when a strap of two or three thicknesses is required to go through a loop4 7,a loop is the piece of leather placed crosswise on straps having buckles1 and it keeps the point of the strap in its proper position47 ,a loop stick must be obtained that is thick enough and wide enough for a trace #a in4 wide and proportionately thick2 there must also be one sufficiently thin and narrow for a -in4 strap2 loop sticks for intermediate sizes are also necessary1 and it is as well to get two each of some of the sizes4 ,for instance1 those things that are done in pairs1 such as bridle-cheeks1 shaft-tugs1 etc41 will require the use of two loop sticks of the same size4 ,good loop sticks are essential to turning out good work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4--,loop-stick4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4--,rubber4 ,a rubber 7,fig4 #fa7 made of a piece of hard1 close-grained wood or of thick glass about #f in4 square and ,v-shaped on one edge is used to smooth down two edges whipped together1 or for flattening and levelling any two thin substances1 such as leather and linen pasted or stitched together2 it is also used to rub stitching on the underside of traces or any double straps1 and for rubbing or stretching damped leather4 ,the straining fork 7,fig4 #fb7 is sometimes employed for stretching wet webbing or leather1 one end of which is nailed down and the other end strained with the fork and secured until dry4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4--,straining ,fork4 ,a coarse file or rasp may be necessary to file down wooden and cane driving whip-stocks1 etc41 when putting on thongs and in splicing whip-sticks to level the splice so that both of the parts may lie flat against each other4 ,a small round file and a small square one1 as well as two or three coarser ones1 are sure to come in handy4 ,amongst their uses will be the filing down of the brass or ironwork of saddles1 and the making of holes in saddle trees1 etc4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,harness-,,makers' ,,materials4 ,it is now proposed to give some particulars of the materials used in saddle and harness making4 ,the threads used in the trade are many1 but the principal is waxed thread1 made by the saddler himself1 and used to stitch harness and straps together4 ,by waxed thread is generally meant thread dressed with black or cobbler's wax1 but the saddler also uses thread dressed with beeswax and sometimes with white wax4 ,the linen thread used is in various colours1 yellow1 red1 black1 white1 etc41 and is on reels or in hanks4 ,silk threads of the same colours are used for best work1 such as stitching best brown saddlery1 riding bridles1 martingales1 etc4 ,the white and black linen thread is used for whippingin lining in panels of both gig and riding saddles1 and for stitching saving pads in any thin material for light work1 and also in stitching along with the red and yellow thread in making riding bridles1 and all kinds of brown light work4 ,the hemp for wax threads1 of various strengths1 is to be had in black1 yellow1 green1 and white4 ,the white hemp is considered the best and toughest1 though the coloured perhaps is a little cheaper4 ,fine ,no4 #ae and coarse ,no4 #c will probably meet all requirements4 ,beeswax1 as already hinted1 is used to make threads for work that is light as regards both colour and substance4 ,single linen threads of all colours are1 before using1 rubbed with beeswax1 which does not deaden the colour4 ,white wax is sometimes made for brown harness by melting together white-lead and white wax2 instead of the latter1 the wax from best white wax candles may be used4 ,if the wax when cold is too soft1 add more white wax2 if too hard1 add a little more white-lead4 ,black cobbler's wax is made by melting together lb4 each of resin and pitch4 ,when thoroughly mixed1 remove the pan from the fire1 and add one pennyworth of boiled linseed oil1 or less1 according to the weather4 ,thoroughly mix this with the other ingredients and then pour a little into cold water to test it4 ,let it remain for a minute and then remove it from the water1 taking care to well wet the hands in doing so1 or in the subsequent working it will stick to them4 ,if it cracks when working it in the hands1 it is too hard2 if it pulls out properly and sticks well together1 it is all right4 ,put it back into the water1 and pour in the rest of the stuff after it4 ,it is important that the piece tested be not put back into the pan containing the rest of the wax1 as the water absorbed will evaporate and make the hot wax frothy and spongy4 ,gather the wax together in the water without loss of time1 remove it with wet hands1 and pull it fast hand over hand as quickly as possible till it attains a light golden colour4 ,pull off a small piece with the hands1 or cut it off with wet scissors1 and throw it into the water4 ,if it floats on the surface it has been pulled enough2 if it sinks1 the wax requires more working4 ,if not pulled enough1 the wax is brittle1 becoming tougher and better the more it is pulled4 ,in making the wax it must be remembered that only half as much oil is required in summer as in winter4 ,the colder the atmosphere the more oil will be required4 ,the quantities of ingredients mentioned will make about thirty handy lumps of wax1 and as a rule a pennyworth of oil is enough in the coldest weather4 ,if1 after working it1 the wax is too hard1 melt it again and add more oil2 if too soft1 add more pitch and resin4 ,hard wax may be used in a way that avoids re-melting4 ,the thread1 previous to being dressed with the wax1 is rubbed with tallow1 over which the wax will run smooth4 ,cut the wax into lumps the size of a large pigeon's egg and keep it in water4 ,directions will now be given for making wax threads4 ,so that the hemp may be kept tidy and not mixed up with the tools on the bench1 place the ball of hemp in a wooden or tin box having a small hole in the centre of its lid1 through which the hemp can pass4 ,take hold of the end of the hemp with the left hand1 twist it once around the fingers1 and draw it through the right hand4 ,when a sufficient quantity has been drawn out1 break the thread by rubbing it on the knee to take out the twist1 at the same time giving it a sharp pull2 the strands thus loosen and break in a ragged end4 ,throw the hemp over a nail or hook in the bench1 pull it until the sides are each about #b ft4 #i in4 long1 keep the hemp tight with the end in the left hand1 and with the right hand spin or rub it on the knee as before to untwist the strands2 then pull it sharply to break it4 ,the more ragged the broken end is the better will be the point on the finished thread4 ,there is now one strand #b ft4 #i in4 long and pointed2 with the right hand put the points together in the left hand1 and draw the hemp again over the hook1 spinning and cutting it as before1 and repeating the operation till the required number of strands is obtained4 ,the number varies with the required strength1 from three to sixteen4 ,in putting the ends of the cut hemp together1 do not leave them exactly the same length2 by leaving some shorter than others a nice pointed thread is obtained at the finish1 fine enough to go into the eye of a needle4 ,when the required number of strands is obtained1 take a ball of wax in the right hand1 and hold both ends of the thread separately in the left2 draw the wax over the points two or three times to keep the ends together1 taking care to keep the ends on the left of the hook twisted round the left hand1 and holding them tight with the third and fourth fingers1 leaving the thumb and forefinger loose to manipulate the other end in the process of twisting2 the wax on the ends or points is a great help at this stage4 ,having an end between the thumb and finger of the left hand1 set it on the knee1 and spin or twist it as when cutting the hemp4 ,the knee should be raised about #ab in4 from the floor by placing the foot on a support4 ,continue spinning with the palm of the right hand until the thread is twisted enough4 ,if twisted too much1 it will work into knots when used in stitching4 ,then put the twisted side round the left hand1 kept firm by the third and fourth fingers as before2 and take the other side between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand1 and spin it to the proper twist with the palm of the right hand as the other side was done4 ,if the thread is required very smooth1 twist both of the sides of the thread once round the seat-awl and draw the latter sharply backwards and forwards along the thread1 all unevenness being thus smoothed away4 ,for coarse work and repairs this is not necessary1 but for best and new work the thread should always be smoothed4 ,to wax the thread1 hold the two ends of the thread firmly in the left hand1 and with the ball of wax held in the palm of the right hand1 rub all along the thread1 pulling the thread from around the hook into the open to enable that portion to be waxed also4 ,pull back the thread into its former position1 and1 with a piece of soft leather or the bare hand1 rub the thread sharply from end to end to smooth the wax and make it even all along4 ,the thread is then ready for use4 ,yellow or white hemp thread is made with either beeswax or white wax in exactly the same manner1 but the point of the thread is not dressed with white wax1 being left unwaxed until the rest of the thread is finished4 ,the end has to be pointed with black wax1 which will not stick over beeswax or white wax4 ,black wax is the only kind that will keep the thread fast to the needles4 ,nails are extensively used both in putting materials together for working and as ornaments4 ,the nails used in putting work together are generally cut tacks1 ranging in length from in4 to #a in4 ,neat wire nails can now be had1 however1 much cheaper than the tacks1 and are to be preferred1 as they are of uniform size and leave a much smaller hole when withdrawn4 ,clumsy nails spoil good work1 as the holes made by them are larger than the awl used in stitching4 ,very fine nails do not spoil the work1 and can be obtained in sizes suitable for heavier and clumsier work2 and they may be used over and over again if care is taken in pulling them out with the nail-claw4 ,cut tacks are used in putting gig saddles together1 in nailing the leather to the tree1 in adjusting panels in the gullet and behind1 between the two prongs of the crupper staples1 for nailing seats in riding saddles1 etc4 ,cut tacks can be obtained as small as in4 in length4 ,saddlers' tacks of different sizes from in4 to in4 long are used in putting in cart-saddle and riding-saddle panels and flaps1 and for many other purposes4 ,clout nails are used now and then in putting houses on cart saddles1 and for nailing on straps and girths1 etc4 ,clout nails and saddlers' tacks are made of wrought iron4 ,round-headed and japanned nails may be used for nailing cart-saddle housings1 and have a neater appearance than common iron clouts4 ,tough nails are used in making all kinds of saddles2 they sometimes have heads covered with black patent leather1 and sometimes japanned heads only4 ,others have heads of silver1 nickel1 or brass4 ,they are used partly as ornaments and partly to hold the work together1 and are in two sizes1 cab and gig4 ,there are usually four in a gig or cab saddle1 one in each corner of the skirt in front and one on each side behind1 holding down the binding that comes over the cantle of the saddle4 ,the front ones are driven through1 bent1 and beaten close to the tree backwards1 whilst the hind ones are cut to taper for about half their lengths to a point2 they are driven into the tree4 ,in a riding saddle there is one nail in the front1 one in each of the sides1 one in the corner of the skirts driven through and bent1 and one on each side just at the thin end of the skirt1 driven inwards so as to catch the tree and be flattened close to it4 ,there is also one in each flap under the skirt in a line with the stirrup fastener1 driven through the tree on the outside of the plate running along the points from the gullet2 these are bent and flattened underneath4 ,sometimes brass nails are used as ornaments1 but brass beading has done away with their use to a great extent4 ,formerly country cart saddles were ornamented by nailing the housing to the tree with brass nails2 the covers of van saddles1 as well as the opening over the boards1 were also fastened down with these nails4 ,such pieces as loop leather1 the edges of black straps1 etc41 often have to be dyed4 ,the dye or stain is made by boiling together for half an hour #a lb4 logwood chips1 #d oz4 crushed nutgalls1 lb4 copperas1 a little gum arabic1 and #e qt4 of water4 ,keep a little in an old bottle hung in a handy position near the bench4 ,the dye is applied by a stick having a piece of felt attached to its end4 ,the ink can be thinned by the addition of water4 ,in dyeing brown leather1 it must first be coated with soda solution to kill the grease4 ,the solution is made by dissolving a piece of washing soda the size of a pigeon's egg in a quart of hot water4 ,the black dye may then be applied4 ,if it does not strike well1 rub over it a coarse brush and again coat with dye4 ,rub it well and dry with a rag1 afterwards well rubbing in a little tallow with either a rag or the bare hand4 ,the tallow gives a finish and counteracts any injury the dye might do the hand1 there being in the copperas a tendency to burn4 ,flocks1 both white and coloured1 are extensively used in the trade1 and can be bought at from #bjs4 to #ejs4 per hundredweight2 the material can also be had in small quantities--even as low as a pound4 ,best white flock should be free from cotton1 and should be tested by putting a small quantity in a candle flame2 if cotton is present1 it burns fiercely and with a big flame1 but fine wool burns slowly and smoulders4 ,the best flock is used for stuffing riding-saddle panels1 etc41 and the best drummed flock is used for collars1 being put near the horse's breast under the lining to make the collars easy for the shoulder4 ,the drummed flocks are in large sheets1 and these are cut to the size and shape required1 and1 being of even thickness1 will not be lumpy1 an important consideration in making a collar4 ,coarser flock of a white1 brown1 or any dark colour will do for stuffing and restuffing gig-saddle panels4 ,curled horsehair is sometimes used for stuffing panels1 and is found very cool for an animal with a tender back or shoulder2 goat hair is very suitable for stuffing4 ,neither this nor horsehair is so liable to be clogged by sweating as sheep's wool1 though the latter1 when dry1 containing but very little oil and being well carded1 is used extensively in country places4 ,all these materials before use should be put through the flock machine once or twice to loosen the fibre1 and care should be taken when stuffing with a rod that the flock or wool is not put in lumpy or uneven4 ,after stuffing1 the work should be levelled with the seat-awl until it is as smooth as a board4 ,the drummed flock1 of course1 is already level and even2 it is not stuffed in1 but laid on the inside of the collar lining before stuffing the collar with straw4 ,thick felt is a good substitute for pads to ease collars and saddles1 and can be bought in various thicknesses by the pound4 ,large cuttings and waste pieces can also be bought very cheaply1 and two thicknesses can be put together if necessary1 a strap and a buckle being on one side with a strap on the other to fasten to a saddle or collar4 ,felt is useful to put under cruppers and to line breechings when chafing1 or under any strappings that chafe the horse's skin4 ,they can be fastened to the above by stitching them with a spot stitch1 thus - - - - -1 about in4 apart1 and slanting the awl underneath to make the stitch small there as well as on the top2 or nails may be used when the felt is sufficiently thick4 ,false collars1 pads to be used like saddle cloths under gig or cab saddles and under cart-saddle panels1 riding-saddle cloths1 and many other articles are made of felt4 ,the harness maker and saddler uses many different kinds of leather1 and1 unless the worker possesses some knowledge of the particular purpose of each variety1 much waste is likely to result4 ,stuff too light or too heavy1 too thick or too thin1 spoils a job1 and of course entails loss4 ,in ,fig4 #fc1 which is a diagram showing a cut hide1 ,a ,a show the sides of a harness hide with belly on2 ,c ,c1 backs of harness hide with belly off2 ,b ,b ,b ,b1 bellies of hide2 ,d ,d1 middlings2 ,e1 shoulder2 and ,f1 uncut middling4 ,harness leather can be bought in hides 7,a ,a7 cut only along the back1 having the belly part attached1 at the rate of from #as4 #b;d4 to #as4 #aa;d4 per lb4 ,the best part can be used for harness and cart gear2 the belly will come in well for repairs1 linings1 and fillings4 ,harness backs 7,c ,c7 are half hides from which the belly 7,b ,b7 has been cut off2 these have all pure firm leather suitable for making all kinds of harness4 ,the price is from #as4 #i;d4 to #bs4 #e;d4 per pound4 ,trace backs 7,c ,c7 resemble the above1 but are picked and more carefully dressed1 and are made of the finest and best grown hides4 ,they cost from #as4 l#j;d4 to #bs4 #g;d4 per pound4 ,rein hides have the bellies attached but are dressed and of picked quality and thickness and uniform strength2 they are suitable for making into driving reins4 ,for the best part can also be made any good light single straps1 where strength and durability are required4 ,the best part of the belly can be cut up into small straps of any kind and into linings4 ,these hides cost from #efs4 to #gbs4 each4 ,rein backs resemble the above1 but have the belly cut off2 the price is from #djs4 to #gjs4 each4 ,black strap butts 7,d ,d7 are the best part of the hide from which the belly and shoulder have been cut4 ,they are from #d ft4 #f in4 to #d ft4 #i in4 long1 and are suitable for any kind of good single strap4 ,the price is from #efs4 to #gbs4 a pair4 ,black spur shoulders 7,e7 are light shoulders dressed and flattened2 from them are made spur and similar straps1 garters1 wrist straps1 etc4 ,the price is from #hs4 #f;d4 to #ajs4 each4 ,japanned horse hides for patent harness collars cost from #djs4 to #dfs4 each4 ,cow hides1 japanned for the same purpose1 cost from #chs4 to #dds4 each4 ,japanned cow-backs for collars1 etc41 cost from #cjs4 to #cis4 per pair4 ,japanned flap hides for making gig1 cab1 or brougham harness saddle flaps are priced at from #bs4 #c;d4 to #bs4 #f;d4 per pound4 ,the middlings cost from #bs4 to #bs4 #f;d4 per pound4 ,winker hides1 japanned for making bridle winkers1 cost #eds4 to #efs4 each1 and the middlings 7,f7 for the same purpose cost from #cbs4 to #cfs4 per pair4 ,japanned welting seals for making welts for gig saddles1 etc41 are priced at from #gs4 #f;d4 to #hs4 #f;d4 each4 ,japanned and enamelled hides for making military belts1 etc41 cost from #eds4 to #fjs4 each1 and middlings for the same purpose from #djs4 to #dbs4 per pair4 ,there is great variety in brown or stained leather4 ,bridle hides for all sorts of riding bridles cost from #ejs4 to #efs4 each4 ,backs 7,c ,c7 from the above cost #des4 to #ejs4 each1 whilst the butts cost #cbs4 to #djs42 these are in varying qualities and prices4 ,brown shoulders 7,e7 dressed for coat straps1 garters1 braces1 or small straps in general can be bought at from #fs4 #f;d4 to #ajs4 each1 and driving-rein brown hides at from #efs4 to #gbs4 each4 ,the backs cost from #efs4 to #ffs4 a pair1 and the butts for handparts of reins #chs4 to #dbs4 a pair4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4--;,cutting up ,hide4 ,double-rein hides--that is1 brown leather specially selected and dressed for making reins of double thickness stitched together1 cost from #dds4 to #ejs4 each4 ,the backs cost from #djs4 to #dhs4 per pair4 ,head-collar rein backs for making head-collars1 stallion bridles1 etc41 can be bought at from #bs4 #f;d4 to #bs4 #aa;d4 per pound4 ,stirrup hides for making stirrup straps cost from #bs4 #f;d4 to #bs4 #i;d4 per pound2 there are also inferior qualities4 ,butts for stirrup straps cost from #cs4 #f;d4 to #ds4 per pound4 ,brown harness hides cost from #as4 #f;d4 to #as4 #aa;d4 per pound4 ,the backs cost from #as4 #h;d4 to #bs4 #b;d4 per pound4 ,skirt hides for making ladies' and gents' saddle skirts and flaps are priced at from #as4 #aj;d4 to #bs4 #b;d4 per pound4 ,skirt backs are from #bs4 to #bs4 #d;d4 per pound1 and shoulders1 #as4 #e;d4 to #as4 #aj;d4 per pound4 ,hog-skins suitable for all purposes1 but chiefly used for saddles1 can be bought at from #i to #ab per dozen2 they can be bought singly1 and there are also inferior qualities4 ,sheep-skins in imitation of hog-skins can be bought at from #cjs4 to #fjs4 per dozen1 or copper plates for printing basils and a printing press for the purpose can be bought instead4 ,basils for gig-saddle panel pads and repairing collars1 and cart-saddle cheek pads1 etc41 can be bought at from #ajs4 to #cjs4 per dozen4 ,the common ones are good enough for repairs and cheap work4 ,specially dressed hides for making braces or any light straps can be bought at from #cfs4 to #djs4 each2 the shoulders 7,e7 or bellies 7,b7 dressed for the same purpose can be had apart from the hide4 ,purse and pocket-book hides are also specially dressed1 and cost from #cjs4 to #djs4 each4 ,calf-skins dressed for the same purpose cost from #is4 to #ajs4 #f;d4 each4 ,the brace and pocket-book and purse leather can be obtained stained in various colours1 red1 brown1 yellow1 orange1 etc4 ,the brown harness leather also can be had natural or tallow colour or stained fawn1 nut brown1 yellow1 or orange4 ,brown gear hides for cart work are from #as4 #c;d4 to #bs4 per pound1 the backs from #as4 #g;d4 to #bs4 #c;d4 per pound1 and bellies from #aj;d4 to #as4 #d;d4 per pound4 ,mill bands for making driving belts cost from #as4 #f;d4 to #bs4 #b;d4 per pound4 ,engine butts for making strong engine belts1 either single or double1 cost from #bs4 to #bs4 #f;d4 per pound4 ,fancy coloured leather for bridle fronts and rosettes cost from #djs4 to #dbs4 each middling4 ,striped patent frontings leather costs from #as4 #f;d4 to #bs4 #i;d4 per square foot4 ,white buff hides for hunting-crop keepers1 razor strops1 belts1 etc41 cost about #es4 per pound4 ,white bleached buff middling is about #es4 per pound4 ,a country saddler is often called upon to work in coach-builders' leather2 leathers for this purpose are not included in the above list1 but1 as a rule1 they can be obtained at the same place as harness leather4 ,enamelled cow1 ox1 and bull hides for carriage tops1 etc41 are sold whole1 and not slit along the middle1 at from #djs4 to #gjs4 each4 ,coach hides and backs for dashes and wings cost from #bfs4 to #djs4 each4 ,seal-skins for the same purpose cost from #gs4 #f;d4 to #abs4 each4 ,hides for window straps1 enamelled and prepared1 cost from #efs4 to #fjs4 each4 ,all coloured carriage cushion hides for making carriage cushions cost from #djs4 to #fjs4 each4 ,dyed and enamelled leather for cushions is sold by the square foot4 ,it is scarcely necessary to state that all the above prices fluctuate with the market4 ,a great quantity of harness leather1 nowadays1 is prepared by the quick tanning process1 but it is inferior stuff4 ,the best leather is that which has been through a pure oak tan4 ,it is very hard1 however1 to tell when the inferior process has been used1 but as a rule the colour1 smell1 and even taste of the leather decide the question2 soft1 mellow leather that has not a hard feeling to the touch is as a rule good leather1 especially if it has a close grain and a light yellow colour when cut4 ,the inferior quality feels and looks dry and hard3 it has a dull grey colour and an uneven grain facing4 ,a good test is to bend it1 poor and badly dressed leather cracking in the bend1 and the grain giving way2 these defects show that either chemicals or excessive heats have been used in the finishing and tanning4 ,well tanned and dressed leather stands the bending test well4 ,a few rules on cutting up hides may now be given4 ,when cutting a strap from a hide1 do not cut down lower than the width of the strap required1 so as not to interfere with the next cut into the hide4 ,all possible care should be taken to prevent waste1 and pieces of particular shape should be cut from a pattern4 ,it is sheer waste to cut off a piece of stuff larger than is required and then to trim it down4 ,in cutting up a hide1 lay it on the bench with the back part against the worker2 use a straightedge at least #h ft4 long1 and mark with a blunt-pointed awl or the seat-awl1 using the straightedge as a guide4 ,take care not to cut the grain of the leather with the point of the awl1 as in the case of the straightedge being shifted an indelible mark may be left4 ,if the strap is to be cut with the round knife1 set the compass to the right width1 and put one point in position to run along the edge of the leather1 and the other on the leather so that it marks the width to be cut2 pull the compass towards the worker1 pressing it so that it leaves a plain line4 ,with the round knife begin cutting at the right-hand end1 keeping the leather steady in its place on the cutting-board with the left hand4 ,a cutting-board ought always to be employed1 as nails on the top of the bench would interfere with the work4 ,push the knife along the marked line steadily1 taking care that the knife does not slip2 if it does1 it may make a bad slit and spoil the work4 ,straps are always cut along the hide and not across it1 the hide being much stronger lengthways4 ,the first cutting from the hide is suitable for reins1 and then in order come traces1 back-bands1 bridging-straps1 hip-straps1 and hip-strap tugs2 then crupper billet1 shaft tugs1 name tugs1 bellyband1 bridle head-strap1 cheeks1 etc42 and from the belly part or third quality in side of hide may be cut linings and layers for folds4 ,in making cart harness1 cut bridge-band1 crupper1 and bridge-band carrier or hip-straps and bearers1 and then cart-saddle bellybands and bridle2 the best part of the belly1 with the top well lined1 will do for side pieces of collar1 unless this can be cut from a specially dressed piece4 ,specially curried leather must be obtained for cart-saddle housings and winkers1 as the harness leather is not firm enough and contains too much oil4 ,the special leather also must be got for the saddle flaps1 the pieces lying against the ribs of the horse under the ridgworth4 ,a leather that is cheapest in first cost is not always the cheapest to use4 ,that leather is the best from which the greatest weight of firm straps can be made1 and which will continue firm for the greatest length down towards the belly part4 ,the compass and round knife only were mentioned in the description of cutting straps1 but the plough is very useful for cutting straps varying from in4 to #e in4 in width4 ,the plough does away with the use of both compass and round knife1 and cuts much more evenly and straight than it is possible to do by hand4 ,its use effects a great saving of time1 the knife merely requiring to be adjusted on the gauge and made fast by the thumb-screw4 ,hold the leather firm and flat on the board with the left hand1 and press it forward to the plough1 keeping the guard close and tight to the edge all along4 ,the uses of the head knife in cutting will be fully explained later4 ,brown harness work1 as small straps1 traces1 back-band1 and breechings1 may be finished with a thin solution of gum and water1 and should be well rubbed with a smooth bone until polished4 ,machines for trimming the edges are made1 but their work is incomplete1 because all lengthy straps have parts in which the fibres are less close than at others4 ,a good method is to knock the edges all along1 consolidate them as much as possible1 and then trim them round and level with the spokeshave2 afterwards run a glass scraper over them and sandpaper4 ,finally1 a good rubbing with brown paper and bone1 after gumming1 will give a fine polished edge to all brown work4 ,black straps and harness are prepared in the same way for polishing2 black dye them1 then rub dry with a rag1 and polish with brown paper and bone4 ,sometimes1 after blacking and rubbing1 a coat of liquid blacking is applied1 and rubbed until dry4 ,again1 some harness-makers employ black-ball and a burnisher to finish after blacking1 rubbing down well2 this is recommended for the best harness4 ,it should be understood that whenever the word finishing used here in connection with best harness this process is referred to for black and brown harness and single straps4 ,common harness and cart gear1 especially in country places1 are usually finished by levelling the edges1 scraping with glass1 blacking1 rubbing with a rag1 and finally1 after passing a ball of hard tallow along the edges1 rubbing with a bone or hard knife handle4 ,webs are used for a variety of purposes by saddlers4 ,girth web for making saddle girths is sold in #ae-yd4 pieces4 ,it can be had in cotton1 union1 or worsted4 ,race girth is a superior material for racing saddles2 it is about #e in4 wide4 ,web for roller girth is from #d in4 to #f in4 wide and in #ab-yd4 pieces2 it is of cotton1 union1 or worsted4 ,in the same material is made trace web in #ah-yd4 pieces1 #a in4 to #b in4 wide4 ,game-bag web is sometimes required1 and is bought by the yard in different colours4 ,men's body-belt web is to be had in #ah-yd4 pieces from #d in4 to #h in4 wide1 and in seven or eight colours4 ,straining-web for saddle seats can be bought by the yard or in the piece4 ,a country saddler finds diaper-web very useful2 this is bought in #ae-yd4 pieces4 ,other requisites1 such as bits1 spurs1 stirrups1 and harness furniture are described in ,chapter ,x4 ,a few reliable recipes for some of the most necessary articles employed in harness making will now be given4 ,iron ,liquor for ,dyeing4--7a7 ,green copperas1 #b lb42 vinegar1 #b qt42 pulverised nutgall1 lb42 and water1 #d qt4 ,two weeks after mixing add another #b qt4 of water4 7b7 ,bichromate of potash1 lb42 logwood extract1 #a lb42 copperas1 #a oz42 and water1 #a gal4 ,saddlers' ,black ,wax4--7a7 ,pitch1 #b lb42 resin1 #b lb42 seal oil1 one pennyworth4 ,in winter add #b lb4 of resin instead of #b lb41 and never more than of the oil until the stiffness of the wax has been tested4 7b7 ,pitch1 #a lb42 resin1 #a lb42 and linseed oil1 one pennyworth4 ,the exact amount of oil to be used in both of the above recipes depends on the season and the weather4 ,a little lampblack may be well mixed in when the wax is required very black4 ,always melt the pitch and resin together1 and then add the oil4 ,afterwards pour the mixture into cold water1 and knead and pull it until it floats4 ,try a small piece first to ascertain whether there is sufficient oil1 and likewise after pulling to see whether it floats4 ,brown ,wax4--,beeswax1 #a lb42 pale resin1 #c oz42 and white-lead1 #c oz4 ,the wax can be softened or hardened by adding more or less beeswax4 ,melt the mixture1 stirring it1 and then pour it into water and pull until it floats4 ,flour ,paste4--,water1 #a qt41 and alum #c oz4 ,heat until the alum has melted1 and when cold add flour to the consistency of cream2 then let the mixture boil1 stirring it at the same time4 ,by adding a little powdered resin and a clove or two before boiling1 the paste will keep for a year and can be softened with water when dry4 ,brown ,stain4--,boil equal parts of pine and alder bark in six times their bulk of water until the colour is extracted1 and when cold add a little alcohol4 ,yellow ,stain4--,boil some fustic berries in alum water and darken the shade by adding powdered brazil1 which must be boiled with the berries4 ,brown1 ,russet1 and ,yellow ,stain4--,boil a given amount of saffron in water until the colour is extracted1 cut a quantity of annatto1 putting it into urine1 and mix the urine and extract1 the proportion of each determining the shade2 the greater the amount of annatto the darker the colour4 ,stain for ,riding ,saddles1 etc4--,saffron1 three pennyworth2 annatto1 one pennyworth2 soft soap1 one pennyworth2 and boiling water1 #a qt4 ,mix and let the whole stand until ready4 ,reviver for ,patent ,leather4--,mix warm linseed oil #a pt41 and cream #a pt4 ,apply with a sponge and polish with a soft flannel or rag4 ,harness ,composition4--7a7 ,glue1 #d oz42 gum arabic1 #c oz42 water1 pt4 ,dissolve all by heat and add #f oz4 of treacle and #e oz4 of very finely powdered ivory black1 and slowly evaporate with constant trituration until the composition is of the proper consistency when cold4 ,when nearly cold1 bottle and cork2 if necessary the bottle can be warmed before use4 7b7 ,mutton suet #b oz41 and pure beeswax #f oz4 ,melt this mixture and then add finely powdered sugar candy1 #f oz42 soft soap1 #b oz42 lampblack1 #b oz42 and finely powdered indigo1 oz4 ,when perfectly incorporated add pt4 of oil of turpentine4 ,keep the composition in pots or tins1 7c7 ,beeswax1 #a lb42 soft soap1 #f oz42 ivory black1 lb42 ,prussian blue 7ground in71 #a oz42 linseed oil1 #b oz42 and oil of turpentine1 pt4 ,mix well together and pot4 ,put a thin layer of one of the above on the leather and polish gently with a brush or rubber4 ,harness ,jet4--,molasses1 #h parts2 lampblack1 #a part2 sweet oil1 #a part2 gum arabic1 #a part2 isinglass1 #a part2 and water1 #cb parts4 ,mix well together and add #a pt4 of turpentine4 ,apply the mixture with a sponge4 ,if it is hard1 place the bottle in hot water to soften the mixture4 ,one ounce of spirit of wine can also be added when cool4 ,waterproof ,paste for ,carriage ,harness4--7a7 ,dissolve three sticks of black sealing wax in pt4 of alcohol1 or dissolve lac in alcohol and colour with sufficient lampblack4 7b7 ,melt #b oz4 of black resin in a glazed vessel over the fire1 and then add #c oz4 of beeswax1 and as soon as all is melted remove from the fire and add oz4 of fine lampblack and oz4 of ,prussian blue in powder4 ,stir all well and add enough turpentine to form a thin paste4 ,cool and apply with a sponge2 polish with a soft brush4 ,oil for ,farm and ,team ,harness4--,melt #c lb4 of pure tallow without letting it boil1 and gently add #a lb4 of pure neatsfoot oil4 ,stir continually until cold1 so that it will be perfectly mixed1 otherwise the tallow will harden in lumps4 ,to colour1 add a little bone black or lampblack4 ,brass ,polishing ,paste4--7a7 ,dissolve #c parts of oxalic acid in #dj of water1 with #ajj of pumicestone powdered1 #b of oil of turpentine1 #ab of soft soap1 and #ab of any fat oil4 7b7 ,beat equal weights of soft soap and rottenstone into a paste4 ,plate ,powder4--,take as much sulphate of iron as will fill a clay pipe1 keep it on the fire for a quarter of an hour1 and mix with powdered chalk4 ,leather ,preserver4--,to preserve harness from the effect of ammonia in stables add a little glycerine to the oil employed4 ,leather ,cement4--7a7 ,dissolve guttapercha in bisulphate of carbon until of the consistency of treacle4 ,shave well the parts to be cemented and then spread a little cement evenly over them4 ,warm them for about half a minute1 apply one against the other quickly1 and press hard4 ,keep the bottle well corked and in a cool place4 7b7 ,melt guttapercha1 #af parts2 pure rubber1 #d parts2 yellow pitch1 #b parts2 shellac1 #a part2 and linseed oil1 #b parts1 and apply as above4 7c7 ,guttapercha1 #a lb42 indiarubber1 #d oz42 pitch1 #a oz42 shellac1 #a oz42 and linseed oil1 #b oz4 ,melt all together4 ,the composition will harden when kept1 and must be melted for use4 ,bronzing for ,leather4--,a small amount of so-called insoluble aniline violet is dissolved in a little water and the solution brushed over the article2 it will dry quickly4 ,if the result is not satisfactory1 repeat the process4 ,to ,gild ,calf- or ,sheepskin4--,wet the leather with some egg albumen1 and1 when dry1 rub it with the hands damped with a little olive oil4 ,then apply the gold leaf1 and pass a hot iron over it4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,strap ,,making ,,and ,,stitching4 ,instructions have been given on making threads and cutting leather1 and now a simple exercise in stitching may be given in the putting together of small straps4 ,in making a box strap1 cut with the round knife or plough from the back of the hide a good piece of leather1 which should be #f ft4 long1 and #a in4 wide4 ,turn down about #b in4 of one end1 cut a hole within about in4 of the bend1 and slit the part out with two cuts4 ,neatly shave down the point of the under piece with the round knife1 and slant the other end a bit at each side to make a neat point to enter the buckle easily4 ,run the ,no4 #a edge tool along the sharp edges of the two sides and of the top and bottom2 this takes a small strip off1 rounds the edges1 and produces a better finish4 ,if brown leather is used1 wipe the edges with a damp sponge2 instead of pure water1 a very thin solution of gum may be used4 ,then rub the edges with a rag or with a piece of brown paper until they are smooth and polished4 ,adjust the screw-crease so that it marks a line about in4 inside the edges1 warm the crease in a gas or candle flame1 and rub it sharply all along the edge1 guiding the crease mark on the strap by keeping the other side of the crease close up to the strap4 ,rub backwards and forwards until there is a deep polished mark on the strap1 then mark across the point in the same way4 ,this operation is known as creasing4 ,two crease marks instead of one may be made after turning the thumb-screw to widen the points of the tool4 ,then cut a piece to form a loop about in4 wide and long enough to go round any part of the strap and make the ends meet4 ,edge this in the same way as the strap1 polish with dye or water according to colour1 and then crease4 ,for a running loop--one that runs loosely along the strap--the leather about in4 longer than twice the width of the strap so as to overlap2 shave one end on the top or grain side1 and the other on the bottom or flesh side1 so that when jointed the pieces will make an even thickness4 ,allow sufficient length for the two thicknesses of strap to go through1 and mark where it is to overlap4 ,put one side of the doubled part in the clamp and stitch the side opposite1 then reverse it and stitch the other2 all running loops are made in this way except for very common straps1 when the strips are simply brought end to end and a stitch or two is made from side of the doubled part in the clamp and stitch the buckle1 put the tongue point of the latter through the hole made for it in the strap1 and having marked the stitches eight or ten to the inch with the wheel-pricker on the short underpart1 put the loop in between the two leathers deep enough for the stitches to hold firmly4 ,begin stitching by the buckle1 putting a cross stitch downwards close to it4 ,stitch the straight row along the line of marks close to the buckle end1 and have a stitch over2 do not pull the thread up at the last stitch1 but have both the ends underneath4 ,put two or three stitches in the centre at the point2 here also the last stitch is downwards4 ,then begin stitching the other side4 ,with the awl put the first hole close to the point and pull the thread through2 make the next hole and put the other thread up and the top one down1 and so on until the loop is reached4 ,see that the loop is of the right length2 if too long1 cut a bit off4 ,put the point in between the two leathers1 deep enough to catch the stitches1 and put one or two stitches in the side next to the thread1 slanting the awl a little outwards at the point4 ,put the upper needle through the loop so that the stitching will not be over it1 and have a stitch or two in the side of the loop next to the worker2 finish it up to the buckle4 ,put a cross stitch at the finish1 the same as on the other side1 and cut the thread4 ,put a loop stick of the same width and thickness as the strap through both loops1 hammer them lightly to shape1 and run the warm single crease along the edges4 ,with a punch of the right size cut the required number of buckle holes1 beginning about #e in4 from the point2 make the distance between the holes a little more than the width of the strap4 ,this is always the rule in punching single straps1 such as garters1 cart hame straps1 dog muzzle straps1 luggage straps1 etc4 ,with regard to threading the needles1 a properly made thread will have a nice point1 which must be well waxed1 and pulled between the finger and thumb two or three times to warm the wax so that it will stick4 ,pass the end through the eye of the needle for from #a in4 to #b in41 according to the fineness of the point1 and holding the thread between the finger and the thumb of the left hand1 spin it from you with the finger and thumb of the right hand4 ,afterwards draw the thread from the needle downwards at the point between the fingers so as to stick the point together well and make it smooth4 ,take care not to put it too far through the eye1 or it will be too thick to go through the holes in the leather1 while if it is not pulled through far enough the thread is liable to break4 ,be careful also to get needles of proper size2 light thread for light work and strong thread for thick and heavy work2 and a fine awl for fine thread1 and a coarse and strong one for coarser thread1 and so on4 ,in making the first hole in stitching1 put the needle and thread up from underneath1 and draw exactly half of the thread through4 ,put both needles together and adjust the lengths of the two portions of threads1 and with the awl cut the second hole1 and stitch on4 ,always put the lower thread in each hole first and draw it up about #c in41 then put the other needle in and pull1 always keeping the thread from below lowest in the hole and the top thread above4 ,this is managed by pulling with the upper hand a bit downwards1 and with the hand at the back of the work a bit upwards1 thus tending to keep the stitches in position4 ,it may be noticed that the hole is not round1 but square and elongated1 and tends to help the manipulation of the thread4 ,do not make a practice of pushing the awl through the work at right angles to the face1 but on the slant2 the holes made by the wheel-pricker are all on the slant4 ,the above instructions also apply to double-thread stitching1 the kind mostly used in harness making1 though many things1 such as the straps1 described above1 are stitched with single thread4 ,in back stitching1 use one thread only2 begin by putting it up from below2 put it down backwards in the next hole to the one last made1 and then pull it tightly from below4 ,there is not much difference on the top side1 but the stitches on the underside are twice as long and cross each other in chain fashion4 ,sometimes it is convenient to adopt this method to use up waste points1 etc41 but such things as traces1 surcingles1 waist-belts of web1 saddle girths1 etc41 are always stitched with single thread4 ,when repairing inferior harness1 single thread can sometimes be used without stitching backwards1 by doing what is called spotting1 that is1 always going forward thus _/ _/ _/1 and only up and down forward1 the stitching appearing like spots1 and not as an unbroken chain4 ,stitching with white lace in cart work is done in this manner3--,put the holes on the upper side very close together1 but underneath2 the distance apart may vary with the fineness of the work4 ,this kind of lace stitching is not much in vogue now1 but it looks well when across the end of breechings for cart purposes1 across the openings in cart cruppers1 etc4 ,lace needles and white skin will be necessary for this work4 ,riding bridles and almost all light brown work are stitched single thread and backwards1 with either white linen1 cotton1 or silk beeswaxed1 or sometimes with yellow fine hemp thread beeswaxed4 ,dog-collars are made in a similar way to the straps previously mentioned1 only the bend is made a little longer underneath to allow sufficient lining under the ,d to which the chain may be fastened4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4--,plain ,waist ,belt4 ,now that an insight into stitching has been obtained1 the making of a waist-belt1 ,figs4 #fd to #ff1 may be described4 ,cut the web so that its ends meet together round the waist1 and also cut pieces of very thin belly brown leather or basil1 for binding the ends2 the latter should be about #a in4 wide1 and as long as the webbing is wide4 ,turn down the binding along the centre lengthways1 hammer it lightly1 and with the screw-crease mark along one side2 then slip it in both sides of the ends of the web1 and either put a tack or two in it1 to keep it in place1 or paste it down4 ,allow the paste to dry before proceeding further4 ,with the wheel-pricker along the crease mark the stitches1 about ten to the inch1 then put the web in the clamp1 the latter being between the knees1 and begin stitching at the end farthest from the worker4 ,use one yellow or white linen thread dressed with beeswax4 ,on coming to the end1 cut the thread2 also cut the binding square with the edge of the web and stitch both ends across at some distance from the edge4 ,prepare the pieces to be put over the straps and chapes2 cut them about #c in4 wide1 and straight on one side1 making any fancy cut on the other2 two of these pieces are wanted1 one at each end4 ,then cut the straps and chapes1 and use light tinned bridle buckles or brown covered buckles in4 wide4 ,with the compasses set to the right width1 mark out the straps on a close piece of brown shoulder or belly leather4 ,cut the straps about #f in4 long and the chapes about #b in4 long4 ,they may be cut in long strips1 being afterwards divided into the required lengths4 ,form the strap1 point one end a little1 and shave the other end to go under the pieces above mentioned2 rub the edges either with water or solution1 and crease them about #a_/af in4 from the edge4 ,then turn down the chapes for the buckles1 shave down both ends thin1 and let the lower one be a little shorter than the other4 ,punch a small hole about in4 from the end1 cut the hole clean out at the bend1 and the piece is then ready for the buckle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4--;,fancy ,waist ,belt4 ,use thin brown waste to make the loops2 with the compasses mark a width of this about in41 cut to the right length2 then rub and crease the chapes4 ,place the buckles in the leather1 put in the loops about half the width of the chape between the two points of the chape1 and close to the buckle1 and put two or three stitches in each end4 ,the pieces to hold up the belt firmly at the small of the back should be about #a in4 wide4 ,rub the edges and crease them as well as the two pieces for the front1 and mark stitches with the pricker in all of them4 ,three of these back supports will be needed1 one right across the centre of the belt and one on each side1 #c in4 from the centre at the top and slanting inwards to within #a in4 from the centre at the bottom4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4--,waist ,belt with ,pockets4 ,to determine which is the lower and which is the upper side of the belt1 bear in mind that1 when being worn1 the buckles will be on the left-hand side and the straps on the right4 ,put one of the #c-;in4 wide pieces flat on the belt1 within about #c in4 of the end1 and either paste or tack it in its place from the lower side4 ,put the straps in about in41 all three exactly alike1 one in the centre1 and the others one on each side within in4 of the edge4 ,place the other piece in the other end so near the edge that1 in putting the buckle chapes up to the loops under the edge of the piece1 the outer edge of the buckle is flush with the end of the belt4 ,fasten the chapes in position exactly opposite the straps in the other end4 ,then backstitch the pieces in each end all round1 in the same way as the binding was treated4 ,put a second row of stitches farther in than the first1 through the strap ends and through the end of the chapes2 leave about in4 between two rows1 and then lay on the back straps4 ,having pricked them1 stitch them in the same way as the others4 ,if pasted on1 they can be kept more easily in their place2 if pasting is not convenient1 pencil on their positions and keep them to the mark in stitching4 ,it is usual to put a piece of whalebone or good hard cane inside these to keep them up2 thin the bone or cane and push it in between the leather and webbing from one end1 and then stitch both ends across4 ,put four or six holes in the straps and see that they work easily in the loops1 when the belt is finished4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,looping4 ,some hints on looping will be given in this chapter4 ,the loops are pieces of leather placed crosswise on all straps1 which have buckles1 to keep the point of the strap in its proper position4 ,sometimes also loops are employed merely to hold the straps in place1 as for example in the case of shaft tugs4 ,loops are common to all kinds of straps in general and to harness and cart gear in particular4 ,straps made to exact length with only one hole are cut long enough beyond the hole to go through the loop1 and so give the work a neat finish4 ,when the unused part of the strap varies considerably in length1 the part run through the buckle being sometimes #f in4 long and sometimes #c ft4 long1 a runner loop must be made to hold the point of the strap4 ,a runner is a loop which runs loosely along the strap to any required part4 ,to make it1 one end is laid on the other1 overlapping it more or less according to the size of the loop1 and the material is then stitched2 it must be made loose enough for two thicknesses of the strap to pass easily4 ,the width of the loops1 except in the case of pipe or box loops 7defined later7 must always be in proportion with that of the strap2 the broader the strap1 the broader is the loop4 ,taste and a due sense of proportion are necessary here as elsewhere4 ,the loop must never be placed too near the buckle1 particularly when the strap running through is stiff4 ,both ends of the loop should be placed so that they can be firmly stitched2 the first end is stitched easily1 but the second requires more practice4 ,the ends of the loop should be made to meet in the centre of the strap1 care being taken to catch it at the first stitch1 for then it will not easily slip from its place4 ,two stitches on each side may suffice1 but a very wide loop will need four or five on both sides of the ends4 ,slant the awl with every stitch1 using the end of the awl to drive the loop a little out of the way4 ,it must not be taken for granted that a firm hold of the loop has been obtained until it is completely stitched2 but make sure of the work at the first stitch1 as otherwise it may be necessary to unstitch the work and do it again4 ,care must be taken also to ascertain that the loop is straight in its place at the first stitch1 and that one side of the same end is not farther in than the other4 ,a crooked loop spoils the appearance of the whole of the work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4--;,box ,creased ,loop4 ,box loops 7,figs4 #fg to #gj7 or1 as they are styled1 pipe loops1 are long loops like those on bridle cheeks1 bearers of gig breechings1 hame tugs1 etc4 ,to make them1 measure the length and width of the loop required2 for example1 a bridle cheek in4 wide and #h in4 long will need a loop #a in4 wide and #g in4 long4 ,before making the loop1 crease a line along the place to be stitched1 about in4 from the edge1 and cut a groove along the line to about half the depth2 then open the groove well with the blunt point of a compass1 passing it backwards and forwards4 ,the stitching is done along this groove1 which is finally closed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4--;,box ,creased ,loops4 ,the groove is necessary on account of the coarse stitches1 about four to the inch1 which are thus kept out of sight and prevented from being worn away by friction4 ,another method is to slit the leather about #c_/af in4 from the side2 then to raise it and stitch under it4 ,when finished1 apply a little paste or gum to hold it firm1 and smooth it down over the stitches4 ,mark a line on the loop at about half the width of the strap and run a writing pen along it to keep the mark visible2 the loop1 being of brown leather1 will retain the mark of the ink1 whereas the compass mark alone would be obliterated by damping4 ,this mark is essential as a guide in fixing the loop and stitching4 ,mark the inside of the loop first time and the outer side the second4 ,damp the loop well first4 ,stitch the first side with black wax three-cord thread about in4 apart2 this is an easy job1 the difficult point being the blind-stitching4 ,put the loop between the winker and the cheek as far as the mark and put a tack in each end and one in the centre4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,fig4 #gj4 ,figs4 #fi and #gj4--;,box ,creased ,loops4 ,the first stitches are simple enough1 but when it becomes impossible to see and reach the hole the awl must be put right through the loop to the other thread about in4 apart2 this is an easy job1 the side1 the needle and thread being passed afterwards4 ,take the needles off both threads1 and by means of a wire hook pull the inside thread out through the loop until it is #c in4 from the hole it entered4 ,now put the awl through the thread close to the loop1 run the end of the other thread through for about #b in41 and pull it through the hole by the aid of the first thread to the side being stitched4 ,take out the end of the thread1 put through and pull both extremities until tight1 one in the groove and the other inside the loop4 ,repeat this operation with every stitch1 but when about half-way through the loop1 the thread inside must be run through to the other end1 the work being continued from that end until finished4 ,another method of making box loops1 though it is not recommended1 is as follows3 ,put an iron loop-stick inside and fasten the loop down by driving small tacks into the groove1 this groove being then closed by rubbing the edges well4 ,a third method consists in running the threads through with a bristle1 or twisting the threads together and thus running them through4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,cart ,,harness4 ,the make and pattern of cart gear are very varied in all parts of the kingdom1 and there is often a local name for each particular style2 but the only gear which can claim special favour is one that combines proper strength with minimum weight4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4--;,horse in ,cart ,gear4 ,a typical shaft gear is shown by ,fig4 #ga1 in which ,a is the bit ring1 ,b the noseband1 ,c winkers1 ,d cheeks1 ,e ear-pieces1 ,f throat-lash1 ,g head-strap1 ,h forehead band1 ,i reins1 ,k collar forewale1 ,k' hame straps1 ,l hame or jambles1 ,m collar body and side-piece1 ,n collar draught1 ,o forecart saddle housing1 ,p back housing1 ,r cart saddle skirt1 ,s girth and girth straps1 ,t crupper1 ,u and ,v hip and loin straps1 ,w and ,x fore and aft breeching tugs1 and ,y breeching4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,fig4 #gc4 ,figs4 #gb and #gc4--,scotch ,brass ,gear ,buckles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,fig4 #ge4 ,figs4 #gd and #ge4--,scotch ,brass ,gear ,buckles4 ,the ornaments used are brass buckles 7,figs4 #gb to #ge7 instead of tinned or japanned buckles1 with brass face-pieces 7,figs4 #gf to #gh7 on the bridle to hang on the horse's forehead1 brass bells for the bridle 7,fig4 #gi71 hame plates 7,figs4 #hj and #ha7 at the top of the collar between the two points of the hames or jambles1 with a strap across from one hame point to the other to hold it in position1 brass squares1 ovals 7,fig4 #hb71 octagons 7,figs4 #hc to #he71 hearts 7,fig4 #hf7 on bridle winker or saddle housing corners1 and brass beading instead of nails over the top of the housing where attached to the tree4 ,when making gears this must be remembered4 ,other details of cart ornaments are shown in ,figs4 #hg to #ib4 ,cart and leading gear made according to the following directions will be useful anywhere1 and when this method has been learned any other style can be made4 ,the winkers ,c 7,fig4 #ga7 must be prepared first2 blocked winkers with fancy pattern raised against the eye are little used nowadays4 ,main winkers are just as safe for the eyes if well made4 ,special winker leather must be obtained either from a middling in stock1 or1 cut to pattern1 from any currier or leather-seller4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,fig4 #gg4 ,figs4 #gf and #gg4--;,brass ,face-pieces4 ,cut the pieces straight #g in4 by #g in41 and mark three rows all round the long side and across one of the shorter sides with the race compass or racer1 making the groove deep2 edge them above and below with the edge tool and black the edges4 ,after soaking them well in water1 bend them along the centre of the longer width into something that is nearly1 though not quite1 a semicircle4 ,nail them down in any convenient way1 with the raised part above1 on a flat board and let them dry in this shape2 drive in the nails near the edges only at the side that will be covered and stitched over with the cheek4 ,they can be put to dry near a stove or fire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,fig4 #gi4 ,fig4 #hj4 ,fig4 #ha4 ,fig4 #gh4--;,brass ,face-piece4 ,fig4 #gi4--;,bells and ,brush4 ,figs4 #hj and #ha4--;,brass ,hame ,plates4 ,then run a big hot beveller round the edges and along the lines made until the groove looks deep and polished4 ,having two -in4 roller tinned buckles1 or brass ,scotch buckles1 cut two chapes to the same width4 ,chapes are pieces to hold on the buckles2 the name is also applied to the part going round buckles on any length of strap4 ,the chapes are made #c in4 long and turned down #b in4 from one end2 make the short end very thin and the other end slightly so1 then point the piece4 ,cut a buckle hole at the bend1 edge1 crease1 and prick for stitching2 then put the chapes in the buckles and make the tops of these last flush with edge and front of winkers1 working as follows3-- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,fig4 #hc4 ,fig4 #hd4 ,fig4 #he4 ,fig4 #hb4--;,brass ,oval4 ,figs4 #hc to #he4--;,brass ,octagons4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,fig4 #hg4 ,fig4 #hh4 ,fig4 #hf4--;,brass ,heart4 ,figs4 #hg and #hh4--;,brass ,stars4 ,tack the chape down in its place in the front corner where the creasing on the edges meets1 and stitch4 ,with tinned buckles put on a loop2 ,scotch buckles1 as ,figs4 #gb to #ge1 do not need any2 place the other chape and buckle on the corner of the other winker and stitch likewise1 taking care to put it on the reverse corner to the other to make the winkers pair4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,fig4 #ij4 ,fig4 #ia4 ,figs4 #hi and #ij4--;,brass ,hame ,knobs4 ,fig4 #ia4--;,brass ,swing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,fig4 #ic4 ,fig4 #id4 ,fig4 #ib4--;,brass ,swing4 ,fig4 #ic4--;,ear-piece4 ,fig4 #id4--;,corner-piece4 ,now cut the cheeks ,d1 or the pieces that run down the side of the head1 making them #b ft4 #b in4 by #a in42 turn them down so as to make both ends meet underneath in the centre1 and give the bends in each end a slight tap with the hammer4 ,it is better to draw in the underpart a little so as to have the top somewhat longer1 because as there is a bend in the winker outwards the lower side should be a little shorter4 ,cut a hole for the buckle in one end and another in the centre of the bend1 which is also the centre of the strap1 at the other end2 from this hole cut straight out to each side and shave the edges of the cut4 ,edge the cheek on the outside only and race it along the top part with the race compass2 the second race must be made close to the other1 care being taken not to run them into one another4 ,make another line a little more than in4 from the last1 blacken the edges and lines with black dye1 and rub them with a rag2 then prick the two inner rows with the pricker1 eight per inch1 put the buckle in its place and the bit ring ,a in the other end1 and stitch both ends of the cheek together4 ,there are two bit rings on each side1 fastened together by a small link2 one ring1 that placed in the cheek1 is larger than the other4 ,the smaller ring must be kept for the bit after the completion of the bridle4 ,both cheeks are made in the same way1 but the slit from the centre hole in the bend must be reversed1 otherwise the cheeks will not pair4 ,the winkers ,c and cheeks ,d 7,fig4 #ga7 being ready1 cut the nose-band ,b about #b ft4 long and #b in4 wide2 turn in both ends equally1 leaving about #a ft4 #d in4 for the noseband2 shave the ends rather thin1 and make a punch-hole in the centre of the bend1 then slit it out straight from both holes on the same side1 and shave the sides of the slit4 ,edge both sides of the nose-band where it is not double1 and make two rows along it with the race compass1 deepening and polishing them with the hot beveller1 after which prick the double row on both sides from the bend to the lined part4 ,the nose-band is now ready for adjustment at the proper time4 ,the forehead band ,h 7,fig4 #ga71 or front1 must be cut about #b ft4 #c in4 long and #a in4 wide4 ,edge1 crease1 black1 and rub it and pass a hot beveller over the grooves4 ,cut the ear-pieces ,e 7see also ,fig4 #ic7 #a in4 wide and #i in4 long1 and double and flatten the bend1 shaving one end well4 ,take a piece of any strap #a in4 wide1 and put it in the bend1 close up2 mark how far the inner side runs in the ear-piece1 the #a in4 strap being allowed to run smooth in the opening between the line and the bend4 ,mark two rows of pricking1 eight per inch1 on each side from the cross-mark to the point or end1 having previously made a double row of creasing all along4 ,stitch from the cross line to the point with three-cord thread2 stitch the cross line coarse1 about two stitches for one of the other stitches4 ,rub the edges1 making them even by cutting if necessary1 then black and rub4 ,place the forehead band ,h in position1 and stitch it end to end with the ear-pieces1 and cut a small ,v-nick in the joint of each end on the same side4 ,the object of the nick is to provide space for the small projection in the tongue of the buckle when put into position4 ,some harness-makers cut the end of the ear-pieces1 before joining them to the forehead1 in a slightly slanting way in such a manner that the end with the opening will turn up a little when in place1 but this is not essential4 ,moreover1 if the forehead band is to be covered with any kind of fancy cloth or leather1 this covering had better be done before the ear-pieces are stitched1 because the work will be much easier than when the bridle is completed4 ,cut the material1 red ,american cloth1 leather1 etc41 double the width of the forehead1 and allow in4 more to go round the edges2 finally1 herring-bone-stitch underneath along the centre1 and stitch on the ear-pieces4 ,corner-pieces 7,fig4 #id7 are now required to support the nose-band and to join it and the cheek well together when complete4 ,they are in one single piece near the bit ring corner1 descending from cheek to nose-band4 ,to make the chin strap1 cut it #a in4 wide1 one piece being made #f in4 long1 leaving #b in4 of the original width1 and then narrowing the rest to in4 with a rounded point4 ,the other part is made #ab in4 long1 and #b in4 of the original width is preserved1 the rest being narrowed to in42 then turn down a chape and make a hole for the buckle in the narrow end1 after which edge1 crease1 and black both1 then adjust buckle and loop4 ,to put the bridle together ready for stitching1 work as follows3 ,with a ring at one end and a buckle at the other1 place the forehead band between the cheeks in such a way that the centre where the forehead band and ear-pieces join may be right under the centre of the buckle with the nick against the tongue4 ,drive a tack on the inner side1 and put the nose-band in the same ring as the cheek at the other end1 with the slits made in the bends upwards2 fix the corner-pieces one part in the cheek and the other in the nose-band1 sufficiently low to catch when stitching the nose-band4 ,the corner-pieces must1 of course1 be placed between the two leathers1 both in the cheeks and nose-band3 the inner side of the corner-piece must follow the ring in the cheek like a half-circle4 ,the outer part is supposed to have been previously edged and creased4 ,the point of the slits in the nose-band comes underneath the slits in the cheeks on both sides in such a way that the edges in the cheeks may cover and neatly overlap the edges of the slit in the nose-band and catch them during work of stitching the cheek4 ,both winkers are now adjusted with buckles in the front corners1 turned upwards to meet each other2 place the winkers close to the ear-pieces and forehead1 making the outside flush with the outer edge of the cheek4 ,tack down the winkers1 keeping the bend in shape as set after drying2 thus there is an opening between the two sides of the cheek from the end of the corner-piece to the bottom of the winker4 ,cut a piece of leather as near as possible of the same thickness as the winkers and of the same width as the cheeks4 ,place it between the two sides of the cheek to fill the hollow1 and so have a firm cheek all along2 tack the piece down and see that it fits tight2 there must be no looseness where it joins the winker and corner-piece4 ,the chin strap is now adjusted1 the wide end of the short piece being placed inside the cheek under the centre filling for a distance of about in4 and about #a in4 from the bottom ring4 ,this is the right-hand side1 taking a front view of the bridle4 ,the other piece1 with buckle1 goes on the other side1 and both are tacked down4 ,when two small loops are to be placed on each side near the buckle at the top of the cheek they should be tacked down so that they may be stitched in with the cheek2 but for a long loop1 adjust beforehand on the cheek1 by stitching the ends loosely together4 ,nail the first side of the long loop and clinch the nails underneath over a loop-stick1 leaving this inside while nailing the other side in the same manner1 partly running over the ear-piece ,e 7,fig4 #ga7 and forehead band ,h and partly over the winker4 ,stitching may be begun on the near side at the ring1 and continued up to the loop on the outside2 then begin at the loop on the outside of the other cheek and stitch down to the ring4 ,the outer row on the inner side of the first cheek and of the second check is now stitched4 ,when stitching opposite the winkers on the inner line two stitches may be made instead of one by slipping a stitch between each2 fine stitching is apt to cut the winkers1 and they often fall off before being worn out2 consequently slipping a stitch is a good method4 ,a row must now be stitched on each side of the nose-piece in each end1 then the inner rows of the cheek1 and finally the inner rows of the nose-band4 ,level the edges of the cheeks and nose-band1 scrape them1 and black the edges2 then rub them with tallow and bone4 ,having creased and finished the loops1 make two basil pads as long as the distance from the buckle to the bottom of the winkers4 ,for a cheek of #a in41 cut the pads #a in4 wider than twice the width2 fold them lengthwise so that the edges will meet in the centre1 and stitch the ends together with the basil inside out4 ,now1 after turning them inside out1 stitch the edges together like the ends with pointed needle1 thimble1 and white linen thread4 ,run the stitches from both ends and leave an opening about #a in4 long in the middle1 through which ram in the flock stuffing1 but not too hard4 ,having stitched the opening1 place this side against the cheek of the bridle under the winker1 and as far as the buckle2 choose three nails having large heads1 run small tufts of flock to the heads of the nails1 and fasten the pads down firmly to the cheek by driving a nail in each end and one in the centre1 taking care that the points do not appear on the other side2 trim the flock on the nails with the scissors4 ,the winker straps are made as follows3 ,cut a strap #bd in4 long and #a in4 wide1 then slit it exactly in the centre for #ac in41 making a punch hole at the end of the slit2 shape the points of each slit to go through the buckles on each winker1 and make a cross line #a in4 from the end of the slit1 marking it deeply4 ,at a distance of #a in4 from this line make a second line1 and a third #a in41 making them all deep2 turn down the strap so that the centre of the bend will be exactly at the last mark4 ,knock the bend flat if the point runs beyond the end of the slit after turning down2 cut some off and shave it down2 edge it on both sides except where the parts overlap4 ,crease all along the edges1 and make one or two rows with the screw-race2 then black1 rub1 and finish the creases4 ,leave an opening from the bend to the next cross line1 then put a piece of leather to fill the space between the cross line and the next to it and wide enough to be stitched through in working across2 then leave the space between the next two lines open1 and stitch down the point of the bend from the end to the cross line4 ,stitch along the pricked part and along the cross lines1 the stitches on the latter being twice as coarse as the straight lines4 ,there should now be two openings1 one at the end and the other beyond the next stitched part2 that at the end is for the throat lash ,f 7,fig4 #ga71 and the other for the head strap ,g4 ,having rubbed the edges and finished1 cut the head strap #a ft4 #aj in4 long and #a in4 wide2 narrow the ends for the passage of the buckle1 crease1 black1 and finish4 ,now cut the throat lash #c ft4 #h in4 long and #a in4 wide2 turn in #b in4 for the buckle at the best end and narrow the point to enter the buckle at the other end2 crease1 black1 finish1 stitch on the buckle and loop1 and then finish the loop4 ,a rein is now cut #e ft4 long and #a in4 wide for the off side1 and another #b ft4 #d in4 long for the near side4 ,turn down the chape for the buckle in the weakest end of the short rein1 and #c in4 at the best end of each to fasten to the ring at the bit2 then edge crease1 finish1 and stitch in the buckle and loop1 also making a running loop on the short rein4 ,now mark four rows of stitching on the double part about to be stitched to the rings2 stitch the shortest part of the rein with the buckle to the ring hanging by a link from the cheek ring on the right hand when looking at the front of the bridle1 then stitch the long rein to the ring on the other side4 ,make three punch holes on each side of the head strap1 equidistant from the point and from each other1 and then six holes in the throat lash1 three in the slits of each winker strap1 and nine in the long rein4 ,the bridle being ready for adjusting1 place the head strap up to its centre in the opening next to the slit in the winker strap2 then fasten each end of the head strap to the cheek buckles through the second holes4 ,now place the throat lash in the opening in the ear-piece on the off side1 running it through the outer opening in the winker strap1 down the opening in the other ear-piece1 and then through the buckle at the other end4 ,buckle the winker strap slits to the winker buckles1 pass them through the loop1 and buckle the rein in the sixth hole2 this completes the bridle4 ,if it is to be polished1 coated with jet1 or ornamented1 this must be done before putting the parts together4 ,cut out all parts according to the dimensions given before beginning to stitch2 this is more workmanlike than cutting the parts as the work proceeds4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,cart ,,collars4 ,in making a cart collar 7see ,fig4 #ie7 the first part to take in hand is the forewale ,a2 the material for this must always be cut #h in4 longer than double the length of the collar when finished1 to allow for shrinkage4 ,supposing the collar is to be #bj in41 the leather must be cut #dh in4 long4 ,the leather can be cut from the bellies of gear hides1 which come in handy when proper hide is not available4 ,cut it #g in4 wide and make the length to meet requirements1 and then damp it thoroughly4 ,stretch it on a flat board by holding one edge with the hand and pulling the other edge with the pincers4 ,fold it over #b in4 all along2 adjust the compass by rule to #b in41 and mark from the turned side1 so that there will be in4 of leather outside the mark on which to stitch the lining4 ,on the opposite side there will be about #b in4 to draw in the body ,b and stitch the side-pieces4 ,tack along the mark here and there to keep it in its place4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4--;,cart ,collar without ,side-piece4 ,make a ten-strand thread1 waxing it before and after twisting4 ,this thread must be long enough to stitch all the length1 and at least twice as long as ordinary thread4 ,use strong needles1 making about three stitches to the inch2 always leave the stitches slack1 merely drawing them home1 especially for about a foot on each side of the centre4 ,thus the forewale will bend easier in working round1 and the stitches will tighten enough in stuffing4 ,if the leather has an uneven grain1 close here and open there1 a piece of calico slack may be put inside the forewale ,a2 take care that both sides of it are caught in stitching4 ,this will help to keep it straight even when being stuffed4 ,the forewale is now ready for stuffing4 ,having a bundle of rye straw at hand1 pull a few handfuls across the knee until the straw is straight2 cut the ears off1 and then cut the handful of straw in half1 and again divide it with the collar knife until about #i in4 long4 ,place it neatly in a heap near the working-seat on the right-hand side1 with the collar rod and mallet lying close by2 there must also be a thick1 solid block of wood placed on the firm ground in front of the worker's seat4 ,the collar-maker must now sit down and mark the centre of the leather with a nick or stitch4 ,the forewale is now placed on the block1 and the left foot laid on it1 about #b in4 from the centre1 the folded part of the forewale being furthest4 ,put the other end on the right knee1 and1 holding the collar rod in the left hand point upwards with the head against the knee1 take about half a dozen cut straws1 and give them a half twist with both hands4 ,place the centre of the wisp in the nick of the collar rod and hold it firm with the right hand1 the forewale being handled with the left4 ,put the straw in the forewale and press it down to where the foot is on the block1 #b in4 from the centre2 beat the wisp well on the block with the mallet1 leather as well1 and then put another wisp in from the other end1 taking care1 when putting in the wisps1 that they do not catch those already inside and drive them back2 to avoid this1 beat well after each wisp has been put in1 and when the iron reaches them raise the point a little4 ,continue to work in this way1 putting in wisps alternately at each end until the forewale is as hard as it can be made4 ,when the straw seems firm enough not to move1 the wisps can be knocked in instead of being pushed by hand4 ,see that they go into the centre of the straw4 ,push the straw and rod down the centre as far as possible2 turn the forewale and the rod with the point upwards1 knocking the wisp in firmly against the collar block in front4 ,repeat the process from the other side1 and so on until all is as hard as a piece of wood4 ,to shape and round the collar it must be continually turned round the knee1 turning one side to the right and the other to the left hand4 ,this operation is repeated after every one or two wisps are put inside2 take care that the forewale does not get straight4 ,when turned enough1 three or four wisps may be put into each side before changing2 but both sides must be shaped alike4 ,when approaching the top1 shape it inwards a little in the same way as it was turned2 fill with straw until the top is quite firm1 and then place it flat on the block1 beating it well into shape with the round mallet1 and holding it down with both knees at one end while shaping the other4 ,now damp it1 and turn it backwards a little at the top on both sides2 stitch both points firmly together with waxed twine and collar needle and hand iron1 cutting a little off when necessary to bring it to the right length4 ,to make a pipe collar1 follow all the above directions and proceed as below4 ,obtain a piece of iron #i in4 long1 in4 in diameter1 and having a sharp point2 in the middle it must be shaped half-round1 with the points turning a little outwards and upwards4 ,put straw around it1 tying it as tightly as possible to within #b in4 from each point1 and let the straw at each end be of different lengths1 a few inches longer than the points of the iron1 so that it will splice well when stuffing is commenced4 ,add straw1 and tie again until the straw around the iron is the right size1 then place it in the centre of the forewale1 and stitch as tightly as possible1 pulling the stitches well2 make sure that it fills the forewale well1 but having passed this part1 leave the stitches slack4 ,now stitch from end to end1 and stuff from each end as in the other case1 remembering to splice them well where the iron ends2 the sharp point will not be much of a hindrance4 ,finish as with the other collar4 ,in making the body of the collar1 cut the lining to ,fig4 #if1 and in any required size2 #ad in4 is about the average at the draught when the strain of pulling is on the collar4 ,cut a leather throat-piece about #b in4 wide at the base1 and widening out to #c in4 in a sweep to the top4 ,stitch the narrowest end of the lining1 which is about #d in4 deep1 to the sweep of the throat-piece1 turning in a little of the linen or woollen check to make the part under the stitches strong4 ,the narrowest part of the centre of the throat-piece must now be tacked to the exact centre of the collar by the stitches1 putting the edge even with the rim of leather running inside from the stitches4 ,add another tack without pulling at the lining1 but leaving it rather slack from the centre1 just at the part where the forewale begins to run straight upwards4 ,another tack is now placed within #e in4 from the top on both sides1 and the lining pulled tightly to there from the bottom1 the edges being turned in all round4 ,basil is employed for part of the lining in some localities2 about #f in4 is measured from the top of the collar4 ,a pattern of the lining must be cut out of brown paper1 and then the basil can easily be made to fit the shape of the linen lining2 the basil must be whipped in with white linen thread and the linen turned in a little under the stitch1 being rubbed flat afterwards4 ,the lining being ready1 make a four-cord thread of black-wax1 cut it in two1 and thread a harness needle with half4 ,having a suitable awl1 whip the lining in all round through the leather rim above the stitches inside the forewale2 the stitches of course must be inside1 and should be well rubbed4 ,everything is now ready for making the body4 ,wax some strong twine or make a long beeswax thread1 with four or five strands1 #c yds4 long1 and have another about #a yd4 long with six or seven strands4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4--;,cart ,collar ,lining4 ,now a strong old strap1 #a ft4 long1 with a buckle is wanted2 this is called the throat strap4 ,the hand-iron1 a medium-sized collar needle1 seat-awl1 scissors1 and collar knife being placed near at hand1 get a bundle of rye or wheat straw1 preferably rye1 and place it straight together by the side of the stool1 with a sheet of drummed flock or basket of carded flock all within reach4 ,as during work the legs are placed inside the collar1 making it awkward for the operator to move1 it is well to have handy a flat-headed mallet besides the collar mallet4 ,thread the collar needle with the shortest thread and hang it close by1 and having pulled a big handful of straw from the bundle1 sit down and put the right leg through the collar lining1 the throat being placed upwards4 ,place the middle of the handful of straw exactly in the centre of the throat-piece1 between it and the forewale2 then take the needle and thread it1 the hand-iron being in the right hand4 ,make a stitch from the centre of the throat over the straw to the big margin of leather on the other side2 make another stitch at the same place to keep the throat in the centre1 and more stitches1 about #a in4 apart1 for about #f in4 up one side from the middle towards the left4 ,fasten the thread and cut it1 turn the collar with the other side facing you1 and stitch it again on this side exactly like the first1 taking great care to make both sides similar in shape and size4 ,take the stuffing-stick and fix a wisp of straw on the point1 beating it along to the centre of the straw and a little beyond the centre of the throat4 ,place a similar one on the opposite side1 and so continue until the bottom part is firm and hard4 ,now lay it on the block1 with the lining on the top1 and pull the lining outwards as much as possible4 ,hold it by the knees1 one on each side1 and beat the throat outwards as far as possible with the round collar mallet4 ,put the throat strap round it and the forewale1 pulling it as tightly as possible to keep it in position while making the other part4 ,now take a wisp of straw1 large enough to fill the body of the collar pretty well1 cut it square at one end1 so as to get almost the full bulk at the section1 and see that it is long enough to go the full length of the collar body4 ,wrap a piece of hemp five or six times round the part just cut1 making it firm for about #f in4 along1 and somewhat pointed4 ,run the long thread through the needle1 and put both knees through the collar with the lining towards you4 ,open the lining flat as it lies on the knee and raise the straw issuing from the throat so as not to be in the way2 then cut a piece of drummed flock to the same size as the lining1 to come within an inch or so of the edge4 ,take care to place it level in all parts1 reaching well down towards the throat and forewale4 ,cut another handful of straw and put it over the flock opposite the draught and as near as possible to the forewale4 ,open the straw running from the throat in the centre1 and put the long tied wisp inside1 ramming it as near as possible to the throat2 pull the lining over the straw from the top to the bottom1 and then pass the seat-awl through the lining and leather to fasten the top4 ,turn the collar the other way about1 put both legs in again1 and begin to draw in the lining where the bottom stitching left off4 ,now lace it from bottom to top1 running the needle from lining to leather and leather to lining till finished4 ,draw the stitches as tightly as possible1 pulling each to tighten the other1 as in lacing a boot4 ,so far1 the collar is neither hard enough nor shapely enough2 the straw must therefore be beaten down between the lacing4 ,to do this1 the mallet must be grasped round the handle close to the head1 and the straw struck as hard as possible with the handle4 ,having improved the shape of the collar1 begin to tighten the lacing again from end to end1 keeping the desired shape constantly in mind4 ,if the collar is not firm enough1 begin work at the bottom1 ramming down some wisps towards the throat from between the stitches1 and continue this until the draught is reached1 shaping as well as stuffing4 ,it may be hardened1 from the draught up to the top1 by driving some wisps from the extreme top1 and shaped by tightening or slackening the lacing1 as the work demands4 ,great attention must be given to shaping1 for a well-shaped body is very important from the point of view of both utility and appearance2 it should be graceful and rounded at the bottom and somewhat flat at the draught1 gradually growing narrow towards the top4 ,at the extreme tip1 however1 the collar should be rather full1 with extra flock to ease the neck4 ,work in the same manner with the other side1 using as nearly as possible the same amount of flock and straw2 take care to obtain the same shape and size4 ,if any lumps can be felt in the flock1 loosen and level it with the seat-awl by stuffing it off or on as required2 beat it slightly all round to give it a smooth appearance4 ,cut the straw at the top1 turning the lining down out of the way2 beginning close to the forewale1 cut it slanting upwards a little towards the back4 ,make two or three long stitches in each side through the lining on both sides and the straw to pull the linings together4 ,then stitch together the two sides1 drawing the lining over the outer side2 run the stitches through from side to side and cut the spare lining at the top2 this completes the work4 ,trim the points of the forewale previously stitched1 and cut them into a neat point1 which should be neither long nor sharp4 ,having cut a piece of soft leather1 form it into a cap reaching low enough to cover the stitches that join the point on each side2 stitch the front with a welt between the edges long enough to reach the back under the forewale1 so that a stitch can be put through it there when stitching the cap4 ,this last must be long enough to come over the point of the body behind2 damp the cap and put it in its place4 ,take a lace and the collar needle1 draw it down tightly into the hollow between the body and the forewale1 then stitch through it1 burying the welt underneath to fasten the cap in front by a stitch4 ,the other part must be stitched with a lace all round over the top of the body2 make the point of the forewale very prominent to hold the hame strap4 ,two #a-;in4 straps1 #ah in4 long1 must now be cut2 race the edges and blacken them1 point them for the buckle1 and punch four holes in each1 and another hole in each corner at the opposite end and one in the centre #b in4 from the end4 ,the four holes in the forepart are to fasten the buckles to the crupper or cart-saddle and the others to stitch to the collar4 ,place one on each side of the collar down to the forewale #e in4 from the top4 ,fasten them with lace by stitching through the hollow between the forewale and collar body1 putting two stitches through and through to the other side2 then send the collar needle in the direction of the other hole in the centre of the strap1 and make one stitch from each side of the strap through this hole2 fasten the lace well and cut it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4--;,cart ,collar ,side-piece4 ,pieces of leather of the shape shown by ,fig4 #ig are now required to cover the side of the body4 ,the pattern can be cut out of brown paper according to the made body and kept for other work4 ,cut the paper close to the rim all round to cover the body full in all parts outside1 but a little wider and pointed at the top to keep rain-water off and give a good appearance4 ,cut one side only at a time1 and1 as the two sides join in the centre at the top and bottom1 cut the top slanting downwards towards the forewale to the same shape as the body1 and line the top for about #a ft4 downwards on each side with firm leather2 shave it on the inner side and bottom4 ,the pieces need not be so wide as the side-piece2 half its width or a little more will do4 ,make three rows of stitching1 and join them together at the lower part along the lined part2 the distance between the rows should be about #a in41 with nine stitches per inch4 ,rub the side-pieces and blacken them2 crease two rows with a screw-crease all round the outer side not stitched4 ,when cutting1 take care to have the best part under draught4 ,join the two sides together at the top with stitch after stitch from one to the other1 thus drawing them close end to end4 ,crease and prick a #a-;in4 piece of leather1 cutting it to the same length as the joint1 and thinning it towards the collar end2 the other outer end must be shaped to the point of the joint4 ,now tack the piece and stitch1 keeping it quite over the centre of the joint1 and making the stitches exactly at the same distance on both sides2 it is well to put a bit of thin lining underneath the stitches4 ,damp the side-pieces well in water1 and have a long lace ready to run the side-piece in2 damp and grease it1 and have it long enough to go all round the collar if possible1 with sufficient to spare for fastening4 ,take out the side-pieces1 beat the water from the leather1 and fasten the pieces to the centre on top with a big strong awl or seat-awl4 ,pull them together as tightly as possible from top to bottom2 let them overlap about #c in4 at the bottom1 shave the leather down a little here1 and fix the pieces in place with the awl4 ,then see that they are in the right position1 not too near nor too far from the forewale2 put an awl on each side near the draught to keep them in position there4 ,begin lacing them in at the throat-piece1 making the stitches #b in4 or #b in4 apart1 at about the same distance from the edge all round2 be sure to catch the lining underneath with each stitch4 ,then take another long lace and pull it in at the throat2 draw it close to the forewale all round till the point of commencement is reached1 running a stitch over the edge of the side-piece1 and catching the leather everywhere by the forewale2 the stitches should be about #a in4 apart4 ,some harness makers run a piece of leather about #ac in4 under the draught1 fasten it with a few stitches to the collar body in the lower part1 and spot with lace to the side-piece all round the top part2 coarse flock1 or anything which will keep the chains from the horse's shoulder when pulling1 being employed for stuffing2 but this will not be necessary if the body of the collar is well made4 ,others make the side-piece without lining1 using instead a round piece of leather with canes round the rim1 covering them with leather stitched on both sides to protect the shoulders and collar from wet4 ,they are stitched with lace to the collar4 ,experience1 however1 has demonstrated that neither the horse nor the collar is any the worse without such a device4 ,in other localities the housing and side-piece are cut in one piece--a poor imitation of a ,scotch collar--and stiffened all round with cane2 this involves a great waste of leather1 and is unnecessary4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,cart ,,saddles1 ,,reins1 ,,etc4 ,the saddle is another important part of cart harness4 ,to make a saddle for a horse about #ae hands high will need a tree 7,fig4 #ih7 measuring #ad in4 across the board right through the centre4 ,it may have an iron plate for the back chain covering entirely the top of the tree1 or only partially covering it1 but with plates at the point and one in the centre of the groove4 ,the plate can be removed from the first kind of tree when making the saddle1 but the partial plates are permanently riveted with an iron pin4 ,if the board across the tree is very long it may be sawn off at each end1 but never at one end only4 ,saw off the same length at each end2 a #a-;ft4 board is always long enough4 ,the tree can be obtained also in the pattern required for nailing housings 7leather covers7 on the bridge of the tree at the top1 or with a projection running along both sides lower down for nailing4 ,if the housings are nailed at the side1 the width need not be so great as when nailed on the top2 the part of the tree above must be covered with thin leather1 nailed under the housing at the lower edge1 damped and rubbed down close to the tree and nailed at the very top4 ,the panel 7,fig4 #ii7 can be made when the tree is ready4 ,from the middle of each side cut the panel-back about in4 longer than the boards and #b in4 wider than the central width of the board4 ,leave the space between the middle lines of stitches about #b in4 wider in front than at the back to prevent the shoulder-bone of the horse being caught when carrying a weight4 ,cut both sides alike1 reversing the pattern to pair them4 ,then whip them together along the centre and shorten the panel-back in front by cutting from the point1 slanting inwards and upwards in the fore part4 ,when the sides are joined1 rub the stitches flat and put pieces of leather1 about #c in4 square1 at each end at the positions of the boards when the panel is in position2 mark the back of the panel on the spot to which the boards reach and then adjust the pieces of leather1 stitching them across1 the marks being nailed as nearly as possible in the centre of the board4 ,these pieces are for nailing the panel in place when completed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4--;,cart ,saddle ,tree4 ,the panel must now be laid flat on the flannel check or linen lining1 which is cut about in4 larger than the back4 ,as the panel is wider in front1 the lining must be slit in the centre of the front as far as the point where the panel begins to widen2 then cut a piece of the same material of the necessary width in front and narrowing towards the back4 ,whip this piece to the lining1 turning down the edges of both while stitching4 ,the extra in4 beyond the size of the back is now turned in1 and a coarse stitch run all round4 ,the leather basil facing for the panel is now cut about #b in4 wide1 then whipped in all round the lining1 being joined and stitched in the centre of each side4 ,rub the stitches flat1 and cut the lining down round the back to about #b in4 wide1 from the centre on each side4 ,then1 when stuffed1 the panel will be somewhat thicker in the front than at the back1 and will not sink down and press on the shoulder-bones under a load4 ,now cut about #a in4 from the front part of the facing opposite the widening piece stitched to the lining2 cut it about #d in4 long1 gradually slanting it out towards the ends1 and cut about #b in4 at the back in a similar style4 ,tack the facing round the back1 centre to centre1 and both inside out2 run it with coarse stitches1 about three to the inch1 keeping the edges together2 it can be either spotted or stitched double4 ,now well damp the back of the panel and the basil facing with sponge and water4 ,with scissors cut an opening in the lining exactly in the centre of the panel and just large enough to allow it to be turned inside out2 the cut must run along the panel1 not across4 ,this opening can be utilised for stuffing1 but if it is necessary to make the cut longer than is required for this1 let the opening be made a little shorter at each end so that the slit will be in the centre of the length4 ,put a line on each side of the stitches in the joining of the back1 about #a in4 on each side at the back1 and then gradually widen from halfway to the front until it is about #b in4 on each side of the stitches4 ,tack the lining underneath1 making it tight and flat between the two lines and keep the slit in the centre1 so as to have the lining distributed equally on both sides of the centre of the joining in the back4 ,now take a wisp of straw1 about #i in4 long1 and wrap it round with hemp1 making it firm and slightly thicker than a finger2 tie the centre of the wisp for about #e in4 and place its centre against that of the panel in the gullet at the front1 and draw the facing tight for the distance between the two lines just made4 ,stitch it from above tightly round the wisp with a spot stitch to keep the gullet open and from the shoulder4 ,the lining must now be spot-stitched on the back along the two lines which have been marked1 the needle being passed up and down through both4 ,leave an opening of the same length as the slit1 and carry the thread on the leather side from end to end of the slit so that the panel can be stuffed through4 ,to stuff the panel1 place it on the bench in front1 with the lining uppermost4 ,drive a stout clout nail with a head into each corner1 and one into each end of the stitches in the side opposite the outer corners1 the other side of the panel being allowed to hang over the bench1 and the slit in the lining running along the edge of the bench4 ,having a heap of straw cut to the same length as the panel close by1 and grasping the stuffing stick in the right hand1 lay a wisp across the front and push it to its position with the stick4 ,lay another across the back1 and work it through the hole with the fingers2 then use the stick to drive it against the facing inside4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4--;,cart ,saddle ,panel4 ,a third wisp must now be placed in the side farthest from the operator1 and worked into place with the right hand and stick1 the left hand being employed to keep the straw in position4 ,wisp after wisp can now be added along the front until the side is filled1 but no more straw is put in the ends after the first wisp4 ,beat the panel level and flat with the collar mallet1 and run a piece of leather of the same width as the opening and about #i in4 long inside the slit for about half the length between the straw and the lining2 this will clear the opening for the flock4 ,have a hamper full of carded flock1 and put a thick1 even layer over the straw1 and press it down with a stick or seat iron to the edges and corners1 making it as smooth as possible2 then beat it again with the mallet1 and use a seat awl to level the surface1 feeling for lumps with the left hand4 ,work in the same way on the other side to complete the panel4 ,a dock to fasten the crupper to the saddle is placed across from board to board at the back4 ,two #a in4 tinned rings are needed1 and the leather must be cut #a in4 wide1 and doubled to reach on each side as far as half the width of the board4 ,it is better to make the dock in four thicknesses1 running double through the rings4 ,insert these1 one at each end1 and drive a clout nail through each extremity and clinch it on a piece of iron2 put one or two nails in the centre1 the points being shaved to make a good joint in the leather4 ,spot it with white lace1 or stitch it coarse with strong thread1 a row on each side4 ,trim the edges1 and black and rub it with tallow4 ,take two fine-pointed staples1 and1 with the dock in its place1 mark the position with the points of the staples4 ,make holes for these with a gimlet half-way between the tree and the end of the board4 ,run the staples through the ring and knock them down in the holes until about in4 shows on the other side2 turn the points and knock them against the iron level with the board1 turning in the tips a little to enter the board4 ,the dock must be slack1 with at least the same sweep from board to board as there is in the tree4 ,some harness makers nail to the centre of the tree a #b-;in4 strap1 about #aj in4 long1 for fastening the crupper4 ,this device can be adopted instead of the dock1 and a buckle put on the crupper2 with a dock the crupper goes round it4 ,the flaps to protect the horse's side from the back trace reach from end to end of the boards on each side of the saddle4 ,cut them #i in4 deep more or less1 according to needs1 making them in4 longer at each end at the top than the boards4 ,swell them out at the sides from the top and round the corners at the bottom1 and cut a fancy point in the centre of the lower side4 ,now hold them against the board with the same length exactly over each end1 and mark the width of the tree on both sides on the flaps4 ,at the marks cut a slit about in4 deep towards the near edge1 and turn the leather inwards between the cuts in the centre4 ,knock it down between the slits1 and cut a hole to admit the #a-;in4 girth or strap at about the middle of the flap on each side just opposite the junction of the boards and the tree2 as there will be two girths1 a strap will run from each end of the board4 ,edge the flaps and holes all round on both sides1 and make two or three rows round them with the race compass2 finish them with a hot iron after having blacked the edges4 ,reverse the cuts in cutting the flap to catch at the top on the boards1 as these may not be the same length1 back and front1 over the trees1 and there may be a difference in the positions of the holes for the girth4 ,the girths and straps must be made from good leather1 the fore girth being #d ft4 #aj in4 and the hind #e ft4 #b in4 long1 an allowance of #b in4 being made to turn down for the chape4 ,the fore strap must be #a ft4 #f in4 long and the hind #a ft4 #h in42 the width of girth and straps is #a in4 to #a in4 ,edge the girths along both sides1 and turn down the chapes and shape the points of the straps4 ,leave the best end of each girth and strap for nailing to the tree2 put two rows along the edge with a race compass and bevel with a hot iron4 ,stitch the buckles and make the loops1 adding two running loops2 finish the loops with a loop-stick1 and then crease them4 ,black the edges before using a hot beveller and cut four or five holes in the straps4 ,now take the flaps and place the slit in the centre opposite the tree1 and turn down the part below1 thus having about an inch of leather on the board under the slit4 ,drive a saddler's tack in each end of the board2 do this gently to avoid splitting4 ,put the shorter strap in front and the longer behind into the flap hole from above so as to bring the square end out at the top between the flap and the board4 ,adjust both in the same manner1 and put four or five nails along the edge of the flap and board1 taking care to drive two of them through the straps and flap2 finally put another nail in the centre of the strap above the edge of the flap4 ,add the girths on the other side in the same way1 and see that the straps are on the near side and the girths on the off1 and that the longer of each set is behind4 ,it is not difficult to determine which is the front of the tree because in this part the boards rise a little and converge towards each other4 ,sometimes1 instead of cutting a hole1 a leather loop is stitched on the flap with an opening wide enough to admit straps and girths4 ,the girths1 flaps1 and dock are now put in position4 ,then place the front of the panel against that of the tree1 and press it in the centre just against the top of the tree4 ,having the pieces to be nailed on the centre of the board stitched to the panel1 fasten them to this part with four or five small tacks1 making sure that the panel lies close4 ,deal with the hind part of the panel in the same manner4 ,some harness makers always run a piece of lace from the centre of the panel to the centre of the tree in front1 where it is nailed close to the tree4 ,the next operation is to cut the housings 7,figs4 #ajj and #aja7 or cover for the saddle top2 the width must be #e in4 to #g in41 and the length sufficient to reach from end to end over the tree by the side of the groove on each side4 ,the length can be measured with string4 ,do not cut the ends square to the measurement1 but bulge and round them so that they are #c in4 more along the centre4 ,narrow the front housing 7,fig4 #aja7 slightly for about #aj in4 in the centre so that it will rise there1 and cut the part to be nailed at the back as before1 namely about #f in4 wide on each side from the centre1 narrowing to a sharp point at the lower end4 ,the back housing 7,fig4 #ajj7 being straight on the outside1 begin to cut on the side about to be nailed from the corners upwards1 narrowing an inch from the corner until it comes to a point in the middle4 ,this improves the appearance and lifts the front from the shoulder1 the back being thus made to match the entire piece4 ,make three rows around the edges with a race compass and run the lines deep with a beveller4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4--;,cart ,saddle ,hind ,housing4 ,a brass oval or octagon may be placed on each corner of the housings at equal distances from the edge and end4 ,put these pieces in position and nail them to the tree through the centre2 then tighten them at each end with the seat awl or other strong awl1 pulling down hard from the centre and driving in a nail on each side while tightening4 ,drive nails all along about #b in4 apart1 being careful to make the edge of the housing quite flush with the edge of the tree so as to obtain the proper shape4 ,the nails can then be covered with brass beading in4 wide1 or a welt of the same width may be nailed down with brass or japanned head nails4 ,seven or eight stitches1 nine per inch1 must now be put in the lower part of the housing at the four ends through the flap1 and will thus bind all neatly and firmly4 ,for the cart-saddle crupper1 the body must be cut #b ft4 #f in4 or #b ft4 #h in4 long and #c in4 to #d in4 wide2 cut a semicircle in the centre from the weak end1 a point about in4 wide being left at each side of the semicircle1 and then cut an #h-;in4 piece to line with this end4 ,next cut a piece of leather in4 wide and #h in4 long1 shaving the ends thin4 ,stitch it with the edges together so as to make it round to within #a in4 from each end4 ,a cord or bit of leather may be placed in the centre to reinforce this2 then rub it round and blacken it1 and flatten both ends out with a hammer2 this is for hanging the saddle on a peg4 ,the body that was cut first must now be pointed at the square end1 the width being reduced to about #b in41 the same cut being made on each side4 ,race it along the sides and ends1 then edge1 black1 and run a hot iron over the creases4 ,now prick it1 about nine per inch1 as far as the termination of the lining from the semicircle4 ,the ends of the round piece lately made are brought together and put under the points1 one on each side2 place the lining under them1 and stitch it all round and across the points from side to side with a three-cord black wax thread1 and trim1 black1 and rub the edges4 ,cut the lay #a in4 narrower than the body and #c ft4 long2 turn it in #aj in4 at the strong end and beat it flat4 ,turn it down #b in4 at the other end1 and cut it slanting down to #a in4 wide for a buckle of the same width2 cut a hole for the buckle and run a line across the broad end #b in4 from the point1 another in the same direction in4 from the end of the bend underneath1 and a third #b in4 from this part towards the buckle4 ,edge only the top1 just reaching over the end of the broad bend2 then make two lines of creasing and run a hot iron over them4 ,inner lines are made about in4 from the innermost line1 from the first cross line to the second1 and from the third to the buckle4 ,two spaces are left for openings for the hip straps1 one in the bend and the other in the middle2 black and prick the parts to be stitched1 four lines between the two openings and four lines from the other side of the second opening in the direction of the buckle4 ,fix the buckle in place and lay it flat in the centre of the body1 the extremity of the broad end of the lay reaching the edge of the semicircle2 tack it down and stitch1 keeping it well in position while working4 ,stitch coarse or spot along the three marked lines near the openings4 ,the body is now finished4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4--;,cart ,saddle ,front ,housing4 ,a pad or panel is next needed4 ,cut some thick felt to the same width as the body1 and long enough to reach from the point of the semicircle to #b in4 beyond the cross line near the buckle2 cover it with basil1 and coarse-stitch it with a pointed needle along the centre4 ,turn the ends neatly over the felt and fasten2 then with stitches put it in place next the crupper body4 ,tack down each end1 and run four or five stitches here and there through the body and panel2 make sure that the work is well secured at each corner4 ,cut a hole through the body exactly opposite the buckle #a in4 wide and broad enough to pass the strap2 this is made #i in4 long1 pointing one end and shaving the other4 ,crease and black it1 and stitch the shaved end against the narrowed end of the body4 ,when finished and punched1 this will go round the dock in the saddle and fasten to the buckle on the lay1 running down through the hole made in the body4 ,sometimes1 instead of the opening in the bend1 an iron dee is employed for the crupper1 and the hip straps are fastened thereto1 a strap about #bj in4 long being used on each side of the dee4 ,this is a matter of taste1 but care must be taken that the measurement from the second cross line to the extreme end of the dee1 when the lay is turned down1 equals what it would be to the extreme end of the bend4 ,to make the breeching1 cut the body1 if possible1 #g ft4 #d in4 long and about #d in4 wide4 ,turn it down to #d ft4 #aj in4 long1 the strong end less than the weak2 edge and black1 and crease two rows along the edges4 ,shave the ends1 and mark a cross line about #a in4 from the centre of the bend on both sides and at each end of the body4 ,now cut some pieces #a ft4 long for lining between the two marks in the bend and shave their ends2 bend them flesh outwards1 leaving one end about #a in4 shorter than the other2 otherwise it will be bulky when inside the breeching4 ,put it inside the bend after pricking the second row along the part having the leather doubled1 and across the bend from one cross line to the other4 ,when this lining has been tacked in the bend1 stitch from row to row2 this is the eye for the bridgeband pin used for fastening the chain4 ,trim the edges of the bend1 blacken1 and rub them with tallow and a bone2 then tack down the double part as far as it goes4 ,if1 after being lined1 the bend is rather hard1 beat it with a wooden mallet and stitch the double part along both the ends and sides2 then trim1 black1 and rub the edges4 ,the body is now ready for the lay1 which must be of the same length and #a in4 narrower2 edge1 crease1 and black it all along1 and make another line with the compass in4 from the inner line of the crease4 ,prick the two innermost lines nine to the inch1 and turn down the lay at both ends to the same extent as the body4 ,shave the ends and tack the lay in the centre of the body1 the light end of the lay being placed against the heavy end of the body and inversely2 pull it down close over the ends of the body and tack it in place4 ,stitch all along the pricked part from end to end to the cross lines1 and spot or stitch cross lines1 making the stitching bulge inwards at the middle to the extent of about #a in4 ,make a hole with a large punch exactly in the centre where the stitches bulge inwards1 and then1 holding the round knife firmly in the hand1 cut out straight at each side to remove a piece that allows the chain to enter and catch the pin4 ,cut another hole in the centre #a ft4 #d in4 from the ends by punching a hole #a in4 farther on2 then remove the part between the holes by two cuts1 allowing space for the #a-;in4 tug to go through4 ,prepare the two bridgeband pins and four #a-;in4 buckles to match those on the saddle and crupper4 ,the pins have a dee at one end1 and at the other a screw-thread with nut and washer to fix it in place4 ,two hind tugs #a ft4 #h in4 long must be cut from the leather1 #f in4 being turned down at each end to meet the point2 make a buckle hole in the weak end of each1 and black1 crease1 and rub them4 ,prick the tugs from where the chapes leave the bridgeband to the loop or to the part which will have the loop4 ,place the strong end in the hole in the centre of the bridgeband from underneath1 so that the joint will be in the front under the loop1 and put a buckle on the other end4 ,make a loop about #b in4 long and sufficiently wide to go round the two thicknesses of the strap4 ,make two rows of creasing1 one at each end1 and stitch the sides loosely together2 then put the loop on the tug and stitch the end of the tug4 ,pull the loop over the joint and keep this and the stitches out of sight in the centre of the strap4 ,a safe must now be cut sufficiently long to run from the body of the bridgeband to an inch beyond the end of the buckle at the top and in4 wider on each side of the tug4 ,narrow the bottom to the width of the tug and shave it2 round the other end1 putting a loop on its extreme point in the centre1 both the ends meeting4 ,stitch it for about #a in4 along both sides through the safe2 put the #a-;in4 loop-stick in it1 and black1 crease1 and finish4 ,in the next place put the #a-;in4 iron loop-stick in the long loop on the tug and beat it gently until it is quite flat and square4 ,fasten it securely from underneath with about five nails on each side1 clinching them against the iron loop-stick inside4 ,crease this again with a hot iron and put a fancy stamp with the maker's name or a neat creasing in the centre4 ,then put the safes in their places1 fixing the loops on their ends just against the buckle at the top1 and stitch the safe along the part pricked from the loop to the body of the bridgeband4 ,make two or four rows and strong cross-stitch the tug at the bottom4 ,now run a row of stitches across the top of the tug through the safe between the buckle and the loop4 ,make both the tugs alike1 and to prepare the tugs for the pins the loop is made as before1 but it must be shorter because the tug with the dee-pin should have the same length from the body of the bridgeband as the hind tugs4 ,join the ends and make the safes similar1 creasing the loops to a similar pattern2 in fastening the safe to the tug1 however1 stitch a row only across the bottom and top of the tug1 as it will be too short for more4 ,two loin straps #c ft4 #h in4 long by #a in4 wide must be cut to fasten to the tugs and pass through openings in the crupper2 point at each end1 crease double at each side1 edge1 black1 pass a hot iron along the creases1 and make six or seven holes in each end to complete them4 ,the parts next to be made are a leading rein1 a #a-;in4 strap with a billet and buckle at one end and a chain with a spring hook1 called a cheek1 at the other4 ,black and crease the rein1 and then stitch on the buckles1 billet1 and chain4 ,the billet is the piece of leather stitched under or behind the buckle for fastening this particular end to any object4 ,make the billet #a ft4 long4 ,the full length of the rein must be about #h ft4 #f in42 the chain by which it is fastened to the horse's mouth is put through the near ring and secured with a spring hook to the opposite ring4 ,the billet end is fastened to the crupper of the leader or the shaft horse4 ,this is very useful when horses take fright1 as the driver may then be able to catch the rein and pull them in1 though unable to reach their heads4 ,the #a-;in4 hame straps are simple straps with a buckle and loop at one extremity1 the other end being pointed with holes4 ,their length is about #a ft4 #h in42 they are employed to secure the hames at the top4 ,some harness-makers1 for the purpose of ornament1 make1 for cart horses1 a breast-plate which extends from the bottom of the hames and collar to the fore girth of the saddle or to the belly-band of a leader4 ,it is made of leather1 bound with red or yellow leather or ,american cloth1 and the sides are scalloped1 and have two or three face-pieces placed opposite the swell in the scallop1 these face-pieces being a little narrower than the leather4 ,a narrow strap runs from underneath through a hole1 catching a loop at the top of the face-piece1 and then down through another hole1 and so on to the next4 ,when the strap is run all along1 fasten the end at the bottom1 the other extremity being secured by the billet1 and buckle to the hames at the top4 ,run a strap about #b ft4 long from the base of this scalloped part1 and furnish it with a buckle4 ,put it on the reverse way and bring the other end through the buckle1 fastening it thereto2 stitch the end to the bottom of the scalloped part1 the other end being furnished with a loop through which the girth may pass4 ,the part underneath the face-pieces may1 before being bound1 be covered with coloured leather to give it a good appearance4 ,now cut the cart belly-band #c in4 wide and #c ft4 #h in4 long2 narrow it down to #b in4 along a length of #f in4 at both ends1 and1 without bending the band1 cut a buckle hole about #c in4 from the point4 ,make two billets #b ft4 #b in4 long and #b in4 wide1 and edge1 crease1 and black everything4 ,two loops must also be made about #a in4 wide4 ,prick the billet1 six per inch1 for about #f in4 from the shaved end1 and adjust the buckle and billet1 making the latter lap over the buckle for #c in4 lower down4 ,place the loop about #a in4 from the buckle1 tack all down1 and stitch with a six-cord black wax thread1 twice waxed2 then make two or three stitches in the centre of each end4 ,having opened and creased the loops1 make four holes in the billets2 finally1 give them a coat of ,harris's liquid or composition4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,fore ,,gear ,,or ,,leader ,,harness4 ,the bridle and collar for a fore gear or leader harness must be made in the way described in the previous chapters1 and will require no further explanation here4 ,the back-band ,a 7,fig4 #ajb71 long crupper ,f1 and belly-band ,d1 still need description1 however4 ,cut the crupper from good leather #c ft4 #h in4 long and #e in4 wide1 and make a split #i in4 long at the light end and another1 #g in4 long1 at the tail end1 leaving the points of the slits in front of the full width1 merely cutting a little out of the corners4 ,narrow the points at the tail end gradually to about #a in41 and cut a little from the sides of each slit4 ,a piece of leather must be cut to line a foot or so of the tail end1 and a piece of soft leather #af in4 by #c in4 for a dock4 ,damp the dock well and turn down both edges in such a manner as to overlap deeply along the centre1 the ends having been previously shaved thin4 ,now bring both ends together1 making both sides meet flat1 but not with the flat sides together2 then1 taking hold of the piece on the flat in the centre1 turn the lower edge inwards and upwards1 still keeping the points together with the other hand4 ,nail each point to a board and keep all parts in shape until dry1 when the dock will be firm4 ,edge1 crease1 and black the body1 making two rows all round1 rubbing the edges well and hot-creasing the lines4 ,at the tail end prick the second line as far as the double runs2 if the dock is dry1 put it between the lining and body at each end of the slit4 ,tack it down around the lining1 and stitch4 ,a few egg-shaped stitches can be put inside the outer stitches through the body and points of the dock to keep the last in place2 trim the edges1 and black1 rub1 and tallow them1 and do the same inside the edges of the slits4 ,cut two chapes to hold the buckles in front for fastening the crupper to the collar straps2 bend the chapes down about #d in41 shave one end and point the other4 ,cut a hole for the buckle and prepare the chapes for stitching2 then1 having two loops ready1 about #a in4 wide1 tack them in their places1 keeping the outside of the buckle exactly level with the end of each slit and the chapes right in the centre4 ,stitch them down1 put a cross stitch on each side of the buckle1 and shape and crease the loops4 ,now cut the crupper lay #a ft4 #c in4 by #c in41 and turn it down for about #a ft4 at the good end2 shave the end of the short turn thin1 and round the other end2 then edge1 crease1 and black the lay4 ,cut two hip straps ,h 7,fig4 #ajb7 #b ft4 by #a in41 and turn them down for #c in4 at the heavy end2 then shave the turn down1 point the buckle end1 and crease and black the straps4 ,attach them to a #c-;in4 japanned or tinned dee1 one strap on each side2 stitch four rows in the double of each1 and rub and finish the edge4 ,prepare two more straps in the same manner1 each #b ft4 #aj in4 by #a in41 and stitch them in the middle round part of the dee between the two other straps4 ,these are the carrier straps ,l 7,fig4 #ajb7 for the stretcher2 the hip straps are for carrying the traces4 ,the straight part of the dee is now put in the bend of the lay and placed on the centre of the crupper body at the same distance from each side1 the extreme point of the dee being within #h in4 from the points of the tail slits4 ,tack down and stitch two rows in4 apart all round1 eight per inch1 with three-cord thread2 then stitch the lay coarse1 or spot it across just to the dee4 ,some makers put a pad under the crupper as with the cart-saddle crupper1 running it from the end of the tail slit to #a in4 beyond the point of the lay4 ,hip-strap tugs ,k1 must be made to buckle to the hip straps running from the dee1 and for hooking in the traces4 ,having a pair of #a-;in4 hip-strap chains 7,figs4 #ajc and #ajd71 cut the tugs #aj in4 by #a in42 bend them so that the points meet in the centre1 and cut a hole for the buckle in one end4 ,stitch the points together and put in two narrow loops1 one to be used to hide the joint1 or have one single broad loop for the same purpose4 ,place a safe underneath the same as on the bridgeband fore tugs1 but stitch it instead of nailing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4--,set of ,leader ,gear4 ,in the next place make the tugs for the stretcher carrier strap ,m 7,fig4 #ajb71 and a strap #a in4 by #a ft4 #b in41 and in the last bend a chape1 and cut a hole for the buckle4 ,stitch the buckle on with a loop and make a running loop and a hole #a in4 from the point of the strap4 ,when placing the carrier straps in position1 fix a loop on each end of the stretcher and nail the ends of the latter1 leaving space for the strap to pass4 ,run the strap down through this loop1 the runner loop having previously been put on the strap2 then pass it through the runner loop to the buckle1 where it is fastened4 ,secure the carrier straps to the same buckle over the carrier straps1 bringing their points down into the loop4 ,keep the runner loop down by the stretcher to tighten the tug and to produce a neat finish4 ,the hip straps must now be buckled in the tug buckles1 the hook fastened to chain traces1 and the collar straps buckled in the fore-slit buckles4 ,whether the dock is put under the tail is optional1 because the hip straps1 when fastened in the dee1 suffice to keep the crupper in place4 ,the back-band ,a1 to carry the traces1 is the next part of the harness to be made4 ,it must measure about #d ft4 #d in4 from tip to tip1 including the terminal chains or the eye1 to which the traces are hooked4 ,if pipe1 the leather must be made #f ft4 #d in4 by #e in4 ,mark a cross-line #a ft4 from each extremity1 and another #f in4 from each line1 so that there will be #c ft4 #d in4 between the two middle marks4 ,a piece of lining is required for the part between the two lines at each end2 this should be of the same width as the back-band and #a ft4 #c in4 long4 ,shave thin both tips of the lining and also the ends of the turn-in of the back-band2 crease1 black1 and rub the back-band1 the crease being made from the extreme lines right along4 ,prick the piece from the outer cross-line at each end as far as the double will run1 making five rows with two on each side2 then put the lining under the space between the two lines so that it is #f in4 over one and #c in4 over the other4 ,a narrow piece1 shaved at the inner edge and about #f in4 long1 is now placed on both ends at each side of the #f-;in4 space to strengthen the eye4 ,stitch the four rows in the #f-;in4 space1 between the two lines1 with three-cord thread1 eight per inch2 turn the edges of this part and black and rub them4 ,now turn down the ends1 bringing the cross-lines dividing the eye exactly opposite each other2 flatten the eye so as to bring the parts with the lines close together1 and tack it in this position4 ,take two #a-;in4 dees and place a piece of leather inside them1 on the flat side1 for about half their width4 ,put both on each side of the back-band1 one in each end between the double close to the eye and low enough to stitch through the piece of leather inside1 when stitching the outer row4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,figs4 #ajc and #ajd4--;,hip-strap ,chains4 ,the dees must be tacked down as well as the double2 fasten it right along both sides4 ,the four rows at both ends and sides are stitched to the top of the double from the cross rows4 ,if desired1 a fancy wave or pattern can be made instead of the two inner lines of stitching4 ,then stitch or spot with lace across the back-band along the cross-lines near the eye2 open out the last by placing a thick piece of wood1 etc41 inside4 ,two straps must be cut #aj in4 by in41 a buckle and loop being adjusted to one end1 and four or five punch holes made at the other for the dee fixed at the side of the back-band to pass through a link in the trace1 and thus secure the back-band4 ,some harness-makers line back-bands from one end to the other and stitch them2 others line the inner part of the eye with sole leather1 and place a safe under the eye4 ,this safe is about #a in4 wider at the bottom1 and narrows down to the same width as the back-band at the top2 the lower corners are rounded1 and then it is stitched in from the eye upwards4 ,for the belly-band ,d1 a pair of #c-;in4 chains is required1 and the leather must be cut #c ft4 #d in4 by #c in4 ,turn in #d in4 at the ends1 and shave1 edge1 black1 and crease them2 then put the leather into the openings in the chains1 stitch four rows along the double part1 and spot or stitch across near the chain4 ,the set of shaft and chain gear1 as described in ,chapters ,v4 to ,,viii41 is now complete4 ,the chains are attached to the shaft harness or jambles to pull from the shaft1 while the leader harness has only a hook for hitching the chain traces4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,plough ,,harness4 ,in plough gears the ordinary bridle and collar are employed4 ,the back-band is made in various ways4 ,the method with hooks is taken first4 ,the eye of the hook 7,fig4 #aje1 p4 #aji7 is #d in4 wide4 ,cut the leather #c ft4 #i in4 long and #d in4 wide2 turn down #c in4 at each end1 and beat the bend slightly with the hammer to keep it down1 and crease it with the screw-race1 making two rows on each side2 mark the centre from each end1 and draw a line straight across at this point1 then two lines each #e in4 from the centre1 so that the distance between them will be #aj in4 ,cut two pieces of leather #aj in4 long and in4 wide2 dye and crease one side of each piece1 having previously cut a small piece out of each corner of the side being worked4 ,a line must then be drawn with the compasses along the centre of this narrow piece4 ,make a mark across the centre1 and place it underneath the back-band1 centre to centre1 as far as the line just drawn2 tack it down for stitching1 and place the other piece in the same manner on the other side1 so that the pieces may be a little over both lower lines at each end4 ,this piece is called the facing2 the place on the back-band where the pieces are to be stitched is pricked out before tacking them down4 ,the work of stitching is now commenced1 care being taken to keep the line close to the edge of the back-band2 make the thread of three or four cords of coarse hemp4 ,having a #a-;in4 tinned dee at hand1 cut a piece of leather #a in4 by #d in42 shave and point both ends1 then crease1 black1 and prick them like the side1 with eight or ten marks per inch4 ,place the dee in the centre of this piece1 and lay it flat on the back-band in the centre1 measured from both sides1 or from the top line to either of the lines below1 and then stitch1 having tacked it down4 ,when ploughing is being done1 the rein is run through this dee1 and there must be one dee on each back-band on the opposite side when the horses work in pairs1 but for a single horse there is one on each side of the same back-band4 ,the next part to be made is the panel1 used for preventing soreness of the back of the animal when ploughing1 brought about by the constant pressure in one place4 ,take a piece of linen1 or basil leather1 #ad in4 by #g in41 and lay the back-band on it centre to centre1 and evenly over both sides2 make the spot stitch thus _/_/ _/_/ _/_/ across the back-band1 and through the linen along the middle line4 ,then the partition between the two sides will show the object of these facings1 which make the pad slightly wider than the back-band1 and so ease the horse's back4 ,having stitched across the centre1 turn in the lining all round about in42 if1 however1 the material employed is basil1 no turning is required4 ,make a pleat at each corner of the end of the facing1 making both exactly the same length2 put another pleat opposite the first1 so that the width may be the same as that of the back-band and facing combined4 ,if the panel is basil1 the corner is cut off to obtain the true length1 and then stitched together where the cut was made instead of making a pleat4 ,now begin to stitch all round1 commencing about #a in4 from the centre on one side so as to have an opening for stuffing4 ,work round along the cross lines at the bottom until within #a in4 of the centre of the other side in a direct line from the starting point4 ,spot-stitching is executed in the usual style4 ,stuffing is the next operation1 the flock being put through the opening left on each side of the centre line4 ,lay the back-band flat on the bench and stuff each side rather tightly by the aid of the stuffing-stick2 the leather side of the back-band is underneath1 whilst the openings are near the edge of the bench4 ,smooth well towards the sides1 and flatten with a mallet1 and continue the stitching along the opening to the starting-point2 this completes the top4 ,the hooks must now be put in1 an operation which is performed as follows3 ,cut two saving pieces from a thick1 firm face of hide2 good1 close-grained stuff is wasted on such work as this1 the best material1 as a rule1 being that from the face of a gear hide4 ,cut the pieces #g in4 long1 and if the back-band is to be #d in4 wide1 make the pieces #e in wide4 ,cut one end slanting to #d in41 of the same width as the back-band1 and shave it4 ,round off the corners of the other end1 leaving it the full width2 black and crease the edges4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4--,plough ,back-band ,hook4 ,put the hooks in their places and the saving pieces under them about #a in4 lower down than the extremity of the hook2 tack them down exactly in the centre4 ,having marked and pricked the back-band with four rows running from the hook upwards to the end of the saving pieces1 stitch with a four-cord thread1 nine or ten stitches per inch1 and then stitch a line across close to the hook to bind all together4 ,now the back-band is in working order4 ,the plough back-band1 with chains instead of hooks1 is made in exactly the same manner1 but when there is only one chain and a bar across in the bend to hold it1 a hole must be cut in the centre of the bend for the passage of the chain4 ,for two chains and a bar make two holes2 the saving pieces can be made a little narrower with chains1 and the body of the back-band need not be so long in proportion to the length of the chains4 ,as a guide in determining the length of the body1 whatever may be the length of the chains or hooks1 it should be remembered that the length of the back-band over all must be about #d ft4 #d in4 ,couplings are also a necessary part of plough gear4 ,in some localities only cross-straps are employed from mouth to mouth when ploughing in pairs4 ,cut the strap #a in4 wide and #bh in4 to #cj in4 long1 turn it in about #a in4 at each end1 and make a hole for the buckle1 and shave the points4 ,take two billets of the same width1 #a ft4 long1 and trim them to a point at one end1 shaving the other2 then edge back1 and crease them2 place the buckle in1 and then the thin end1 #b in4 down at the back of the buckle4 ,put a loop between the chape by the buckle and stitch one billet and buckle at each end2 punch two holes in each billet4 ,sometimes two coupling straps are employed for a pair3 the straps cross each other from the hames of each horse to the mouth of the other4 ,they are made to the first style1 but longer1 being #ch in4 in length1 each with #ab-;in4 billets2 in some cases they are made a foot longer than this1 the coupling being cut into two1 one end #ae in4 long with a buckle and loop1 and the other made to buckle on1 with numerous holes for adjusting the length4 ,this is a very convenient method1 for when a young horse is coupled with an old one1 the coupling must be shortened on the side of the former animal to keep it back until it has learned the ordinary working pace4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,bits1 ,,spurs1 ,,stirrups1 ,,and ,,harness ,,furniture4 ,bits1 their patterns and materials1 will now be considered4 ,bits are made in polished iron1 tinned iron1 in steel of various qualities1 and in nickel4 ,nickel is as expensive as good steel1 but does not tarnish so soon1 and when worn still continues to take a good polish4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,figs4 #ajf and #ajg4--,pelham ,bits4 ,some of the more expensive kinds of bits have ornamented and silver-plated cheeks2 this is especially the case with carriage1 military1 and riding bits4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,fig4 #aji4 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,fig4 #ajh4--,pelham ,bit4 ,fig4 #aji4--;,hackney ,bit4 ,fig4 #aaj4--;,bridoon4 ,riding bits are snaffles for a single head bridle and rein1 hence their name snaffle bridles4 ,pelham bits 7,figs4 #ajf to #ajh7 are used for single head bridle and double rein1 this bridle being known as the ,pelham4 ,the ,hackney bit 7,fig4 #aji7 has a bridoon 7,fig4 #aaj71 that is1 the bit has only a mouthpiece and a ring at each end with a jointed bar4 ,this bit is used for the ,weymouth bridle1 which has a double head and a double rein4 ,curbs are used with the two bits last mentioned4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,fig4 #aab4 ,figs4 #aaa and #aab4--,ladies' ,horse ,bits4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,fig4 #aac4--,pelham ,snaffle with ,indiarubber ,mouth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,fig4 #aad4--;,hackney ,bit with ,indiarubber ,mouth4 ,bits for horses to be ridden by ladies are shown by ,figs4 #aaa and #aab4 ,they are on the same principle as those previously mentioned1 but are lighter and more fanciful1 many of them being ornamented about the cheeks4 ,the ,pelham snaffle 7,fig4 #aac7 and the ,hackney bit 7,fig4 #aad71 with indiarubber mouths1 can be had for tender-mouthed horses1 and double or twisted or smooth-mouthed bits can be had for vicious or quiet horses as required4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,fig4 #aae4--;,gig ,snaffle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,fig4 #aaf4--,wilson ,snaffle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4 ,fig4 #aah4 ,fig4 #aai4 ,fig4 #aag4--,liverpool ,bit4 ,fig4 #aah4--;,globe ,cheek ,curb ,bit4 ,fig4 #aai4--,one-horn ,bridoon ,bit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4--,one-horned ,bridoon with ,indiarubber ,mouth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4--;,gig ,curb ,bit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,fig4 #abc4 ,fig4 #abd4 ,fig4 #abe4 ,fig4 #abb4--;,buxton ,bit4 ,fig4 #abc4--,swivelled ,bridoon ,bit4 ,figs4 #abd and #abe4--;,breaking ,bits4 ,driving bits are commonly gig snaffles 7,fig4 #aae72 ,wilson snaffles 7,fig4 #aaf7 have rings at each end and two loose rings on the mouthpiece1 one of which is buckled to the bridle cheek2 the outer ring on each side is for the driving rein1 but sometimes the rein billet is put through both rings at the same time4 ,wilson snaffles can be obtained bar jointed1 twisted1 or smooth-mouth4 ,the ,liverpool bit 7,fig4 #aag7 has a curb cheek1 and a straight or solid bar mouth with the mouth bar loose on the cheek4 ,the ,globe cheek curb bit 7,fig4 #aah7 has a ring at the bottom of the cheek to which the mouthpiece is attached instead of being loose as in the ,liverpool bit4 ,a 8one-horn bridoon0 7,fig4 #aai71 with one ring at each side and either a solid or a jointed mouth1 sometimes has a leather or indiarubber mouth 7see ,fig4 #abj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf4--;,breaking ,bit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4--,snaffle with ,indiarubber ,mouth4 ,gig curb bits 7,fig4 #aba7 have the billet of the bridle fastened to the top of the cheek1 with cheeks on the lower side to which the reins are fastened4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,fig4 #abi4 ,figs4 #abh and #abi4--;,exercising ,bits4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj4--,show or ,stallion ,bit4 ,the carriage bit most in use is the ,buxton bit 7,fig4 #abb71 which has a bend in the cheek below the mouthpiece1 and a bar across at the bottom from one side of the cheek to the other1 the solid mouthpiece having a port in the centre2 this is a smart and very powerful curb bit1 but it is being superseded by the ,liverpool bit4 ,a swivelled bridoon 7,fig4 #abc71 as sometimes used with the ordinary driving bit1 has the bearing rein running from the hames down through the swivel and up to a strap stitched between the two slit straps of the head-strap4 ,breaking bits 7,figs4 #abd to #abf7 are special kinds of patent bits4 ,fig4 #abg is an indiarubber mouth snaffle2 ,figs4 #abh and #abi are exercising bits2 ,fig4 #acj is a show or stallion bit2 and ,fig4 #aca is a double-mouthed snaffle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4--;,double-mouthed ,snaffle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4 ,fig4 #acc4 ,fig4 #acd4 ,fig4 #acb4--,ordinary ,spur4 ,fig4 #acc4--,officer's ,regulation ,spur4 ,fig4 #acd4--;,dress ,spur4 ,on the subject of spurs1 very little need be said4 ,besides ordinary pattern spurs 7,fig4 #acb71 there are officers' regulation spurs 7,fig4 #acc71 dress spurs 7,fig4 #acd71 ladies' spurs 7,fig4 #ace71 trousers spurs 7,fig4 #acf71 and box spurs4 ,the last-named are fastened to the heel of the boot by a spring inserted in a steel box inside the heel4 ,like screw spurs1 which screw into a hole in the heel1 they may be taken off at will4 ,spurs are made in polished steel and brass1 some being silver-plated4 ,the saddler must have a supply of spur rowels for repairing spurs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ace4 ,fig4 #acf4 ,fig4 #acg4 ,fig4 #ace4--,lady's ,spur4 ,fig4 #acf4--,trousers ,spur4 ,fig4 #acg4--,solid ,stirrup4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4 ,fig4 #aci4 ,fig4 #adj4 ,fig4 #ach4--,open ,bottom ,stirrup4 ,fig4 #aci4--,waving ,bar ,stirrup4 ,fig4 #adj4--,lady's ,stirrup4 ,stirrups may be solid 7,fig4 #acg71 three bar or open bottom 7,fig4 #ach71 or they may be of the waving bar pattern 7,fig4 #aci74 ,they vary greatly in weight according to the purpose for which they are required1 and are made of polished steel and of plated brass or silver4 ,ladies' stirrups 7,fig4 #adj7 are of various patterns1 some having pads to protect the foot1 others having foot plates of the same shape as the foot2 others1 again1 have slippers 7,fig4 #ada74 ,safety stirrups 7,fig4 #adb7 both for ladies and gentlemen are made so that if the rider falls or is thrown off the horse the stirrups spring open and release the rider's feet4 ,thus the danger of being dragged along the ground by the horse is obviated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4--,stirrup ,slipper4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb4--,safety ,stirrup4 ,some particulars will now be given of harness furniture4 ,first the material will be touched upon4 ,japanned iron furniture is strong and durable1 and has a fairly good appearance when new1 but the japan soon wears off and allows the iron to get rusty4 ,common iron buckles1 covered with leather1 are also used1 but not so extensively as they were formerly4 ,the iron soon rusts1 and the rust affects the leather and causes it to crumble off1 giving a very shabby appearance to the rest of the set of harness4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc4 ,fig4 #add4 ,fig4 #ade4 ,fig4 #adf4 ,fig4 #adc4--;,flat ,side ,wire ,front ,buckle4 ,fig4 #add4--,wire ,front ,bevelled ,buckle4 ,fig4 #ade4--;,bevelled ,flat ,top ,buckle4 ,fig4 #adf4--,west ,end ,bevelled ,flat ,top ,buckle4 ,brass furniture is largely used1 and it is got up in many qualities and styles of finish4 ,the best brass does not tarnish nearly so soon as common brass1 and1 of course1 has a good appearance when clean4 ,partly covered brass or plated furniture is also sometimes used1 the buckles being covered with leather about half-way up the sides1 leaving the top and a little of the side bare4 ,this looks very well1 and is more durable than iron-covered buckles1 as the brass- or silver-plate does not destroy the leather so soon as iron2 partly covered furniture is1 however1 very awkward to clean4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg4 ,fig4 #adh4 ,fig4 #adi4 ,fig4 #aej4 ,fig4 #adg4--,spade ,buckle4 ,fig4 #adh4--,square ,wire ,buckle4 ,fig4 #adi4--;,chatham ,buckle4 ,fig4 #aej4--;,flat ,top ,turned-up ,buckle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aea4 ,fig4 #aeb4 ,fig4 #aec4 ,fig4 #aed4 ,fig4 #aea4--;,fluted ,buckle4 ,fig4 #aeb4--,swelled ,front ,bent-leg ,buckle4 ,fig4 #aec4--;,flat ,top ,cab ,buckle4 ,fig4 #aed4--,west ,end ,whole ,buckle4 ,buckles are occasionally covered with celluloid2 sometimes this only partly covers the brass1 aluminium1 or gold-plated buckle1 and it then looks very rich4 ,the celluloid-covered article is made in imitation of the leather-covered buckle2 it is durable1 and does not require much cleaning1 the occasional application of a wet sponge being sufficient4 ,celluloid is more commonly used in ,america than in this country4 ,it is a very inflammable material1 and will break if given a hard knock or if allowed to fall4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aee4 ,fig4 #aef4 ,fig4 #aeg4 ,fig4 #aee4--;,chased ,buckle4 ,fig4 #aef4--,melbourne ,buckle4 ,fig4 #aeg4--,west ,end ,square ,buckle4 ,nickel furniture looks well1 but costs a little more than brass4 ,nickoline1 white metal1 or ,victoria metal furniture costs about the same as brass2 all three look well when cleaned1 but quickly tarnish4 ,plated furniture is used on superior harness2 it can be bought in different qualities1 being plated with silver1 white metal1 ,german silver1 or nickel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeh4 ,fig4 #aei4 ,fig4 #afj4 ,fig4 #afa4 ,figs4 #aeh and #aei4--;,covered ,buckles4 ,figs4 #afj and #afa4--,part-covered ,buckles4 ,of course1 the hames and the buckle tongues are of iron1 plated in whatever metal the rest of the furniture is made2 they have to be of iron to withstand the strain to which they are subjected4 ,in ordering1 it is necessary to state whether plated hames are required of the same material as the furniture1 and whether the latter is brass1 silver-plated1 etc4 ,the pattern of buckle required will make a little difference in the price2 the wire-shaped pattern is the one mostly used4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afb4 ,fig4 #afc4 ,fig4 #afd4 ,fig4 #afe4 ,fig4 #afb4--,shaft ,tug ,buckle4 ,fig4 #afc4--;,burgess's ,buckle4 ,fig4 #afd4--;,ball ,terret4 ,fig4 #afe4--,plain ,terret4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aff4 ,fig4 #afg4 ,figs4 #aff and #afg4--;,ball ,terrets4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afh4--;,ball ,terret4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4 ,fig4 #agj4 ,fig4 #aga4 ,fig4 #agb4 ,figs4 #afi to #agb4--;,hames4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agc4 ,fig4 #agd4 ,figs4 #agc and #agd4--;,bearing-rein ,swivels4 ,there are so many patterns in gig and carriage furniture that it is impossible to mention them all4 ,attention will be directed1 however1 to some of the most useful patterns of buckles4 ,the flat side wire front 7,fig4 #adc1 p4 #aah71 the wire front bevelled 7,fig4 #add71 the bevelled flat top 7,fig4 #ade71 the ,west ,end flat top wire 7,fig4 #adf71 and the spade pattern 7,fig4 #adg1 p4 #aai7 are all very neat buckles4 ,square wire buckles 7,fig4 #adh7 on light gig harness look very well4 ,the ,chatham 7,fig4 #adi71 flat top turned up 7,fig4 #aej71 and fluted 7,fig4 #aea71 are very strong buckles for cab harness1 as are also the swelled front bent leg 7,fig4 #aeb71 and side and flat top cab 7,fig4 #aec7 buckles4 ,the ,west ,end whole buckle is shown by ,fig4 #aed2 it looks very neat for any fancy harness4 8,chased0 7,fig4 #aee1 p4 #abj71 8,melbourne0 7,fig4 #aef71 or 8,west ,end square10 or 8square wire0 7,fig4 #aeg7 whole buckles1 are all very showy and smart when worked up4 ,figs4 #aeh and #aei are covered buckles1 and ,figs4 #afj and #afa part-covered buckles4 ,there are many different kinds of shaft tug buckles2 that shown by ,fig4 #afb 7p4 #aba7 is a good pattern1 as is also ,burgess's patent buckle 7,fig4 #afc74 ,the terrets 7,figs4 #afd to #afh7 for the reins to run through on the saddle and hames 7,figs4 #afi to #agb71 as well as the bearing-rein swivels 7,figs4 #agc and #agd7 and all parts of the set of furniture1 are of a pattern conforming with that of the buckles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #age4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agf4 ,figs4 #age and #agf4--,roller ,buckles4 ,cart-harness furniture may be of galvanised or japanned iron1 with buckles of brass or white metal4 ,all the brass patterns illustrated are known as ,scotch gear buckles4 ,cart fancy-brass breeching loops may be used instead of leather ones for bridgeband carriers and bridle cheeks4 ,fly-terrets are much used as ornaments on the top of the bridle between the ears of the horse1 being either screwed down into a socket or riveted in place4 ,brass face-pieces for the front of the bridles on the forehead can be obtained in numerous patterns4 ,hame plates1 to be put between the two points of the hames or jambles above the collar1 look very well with a strap across from side to side as a fastening4 ,cart hames are either wholly or partly covered with iron1 and generally take their names from the district in which the particular pattern is mostly used4 ,thus there are the ,manchester1 ,lancashire1 ,irish1 and ,yorkshire hames4 ,cart bits1 together with their fittings1 are always firmly attached to the bridle1 and are made either of tinned or japanned iron4 ,they may be straight and jointed1 or twisted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agi4 ,fig4 #agg4--;,hame ,clip4 ,figs4 #agh and #agi4--;,breeching ,dees4 ,chains1 such as backband1 crupper1 or hip strap chains1 and watering chains for bridle reins1 and plough backband hooks or chains1 are all wanted in making up a set4 ,others necessary are3--,leader backband chains1 cheek chains for the end of leading rein1 bridgeband chains1 and chains for the bellyband1 instead of billets1 to go round the shafts4 ,riding bridle buckles range in width from in4 to #a in4 ,stirrup leather buckles are also a special line1 being from #a in4 to #a in4 in width4 ,saddle girth buckles are #a in4 wide4 ,roller buckles 7,figs4 #age and #agf1 p4 #abd7 vary in size from in4 to #a in41 and are largely used on all kinds of leather work4 ,head-stall or head-collar buckles range in size from #a in4 to #a in42 some have the collar attached1 to which is fastened the throat lash4 ,the following buckles must also be kept ready to hand3--,d-buckles for use on small straps2 and japanned legging buckles1 in sizes ranging from in4 to in4 ,head-collar stop squares1 for making and repairing head-collars1 must also be stocked1 as well as tinned and brass rings of different sizes1 for making head-collars and for miscellaneous repairs4 ,brass1 tin1 and plated dees will be necessary for making and repairing dog collars1 and for holding coat straps on riding saddles1 etc4 ,they range in size from in4 to #a in4 ,belt1 brace1 and garter buckles may often be wanted1 and #b lb4 or #c lb4 of buckle tongues for repairing old buckles should also be obtained in all sizes and strengths4 ,strong double-pronged buckles may be wanted from #a in4 to #b in4 ,there may also be occasion to use harness buckles of all sizes1 patterns1 and material1 saddle terrets1 hame clips 7,fig4 #agg71 various kinds of nails1 breeching and bearing-rein rings1 breeching dees 7,figs4 #agh and #agi71 and rivets for clips1 etc4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,van ,,and ,,cab ,,harness4 ,the making of a set of gig harness is described in the companion volume 8,saddlery40 ,van harness for heavy work requires a set of furniture1 including buckles1 hames1 and chains1 and a van saddle-tree4 ,the furniture should be of brass1 nickel1 or silver4 ,burgess's patent tug buckles 7,fig4 #afc1 p4 #aba7 can be recommended for shaft tugs4 ,a pair of winker plates of any pattern 7see ,figs4 #ahj and #aha7 are necessary to make the winkers4 ,beginning with the winkers1 cut the leather about in4 wider than the plate all round1 except at the back1 where it must be in4 wider4 ,if patent leather is used1 make a line all round the edge1 and another about in4 from it1 and race a line across1 #a in4 from the back part1 from one end of the inner line to the end of the other2 of course1 the other lines must not be brought nearer than this to the back4 ,prick along the lines1 about eleven per inch1 and single stitch the inner line all round the four sides1 through the leather1 employing black linen thread double1 with two needles4 ,cut the lining to the same size as the top1 but lightly stuffed and with little oil in2 put the top on it and stitch all round three sides1 leaving the back open4 ,put the leather in water and wet it thoroughly1 and then1 having opened out the two leathers with the hand1 put a good coat of paste on both of the inner sides by the aid of a spoon or other convenient implement4 ,push in the winker plate front to front2 but if the front is round cornered1 it must1 of course1 be put in first4 ,push in the pieces until they lie square in the leather and close to the front stitches2 then rub the top and the lining down to the sheet iron1 being careful to make the lining stick well to the sheet4 ,place the winker on a board1 lining underneath1 and tack down each of the hind corners1 and if necessary1 the middle2 then put some paper or rags between the winker and the board so as to keep the lining up to the sheet4 ,when quite dry and perfectly adhering1 remove them from the board1 trim the edges1 finish and polish well4 ,the collar is made practically in the same way as a cart collar4 ,the forewale must be turned down #b in41 that is #d in4 altogether1 and instead of whipping the basil lining in as previously described1 cut it a little smaller1 and stitch it in at the same time as the forewale2 tack it down in such a manner that when the lining is turned over to stuff the body1 the stitches will not be visible4 ,take a pattern 7see ,fig4 #if1 p4 #gi7 and let the lining overlap in the centre of the forewale for quite #b in4 ,stitching is done as for a cart collar1 both for the forewale and the drawing in the body1 but the last must not be so big and clumsy4 ,in making and setting the top piece1 no stitches should appear in front other than the cross row2 the top piece must not be joined downwards as in the other4 ,turn in the bottom of the top piece for in4 across1 and stitch a line with black linen thread in4 from the edge to keep the turn in its place4 ,damp the top piece1 put it across the front1 and draw it tight1 putting a tack in both sides2 then make it overlap at the top centre of the back so as to obtain a good point to hold the hame strap in place2 then stitch all round the hollow4 ,cut the side piece close along the sides of the body to fit tight by the forewale4 ,then take a piece of soft thin leather binding #a in4 wide1 damp it1 and place it edge to edge with the outside of the side piece1 tacking it down4 ,having stitched the side piece1 putting a small welt at the joint at the bottom1 and shaving a little round the edges1 stitch the binding and side piece together around the edge with black linen thread1 about seven stitches per inch4 ,run a piece of twine along the stitches round the rim1 and turn down the binding over the twine towards the inside1 being careful to keep the twine in place4 ,mark a line and prick it1 about eight per inch1 and in4 from the edge2 then stitch the binding down below the twine4 ,the last must be in one piece with #d in4 or #e in4 to spare at each end4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aha4 ,figs4 #ahj and #aha4--,winkers4 ,damp the side piece and adjust it2 tack it with an awl at the bottom and draw it tight at the top4 ,now wax a piece of collar twine1 about #ah in4 longer than is necessary to pass round the collar1 and begin to stitch the side piece in at the top on the off side1 running the stitches through the binding close to the stitching and through the lining at every other stitch4 ,the stitches may be about #b in4 long2 draw them tight while working1 and be careful that the side piece is in its proper position1 with both sides equally level4 ,fasten the thread after stitching the side piece all round4 ,take hold of the hanging ends of the twine which has been run along the binding inside1 and pull them well to draw down the edges of the side-piece along the side of the body2 then knot and fasten them together4 ,draw in the side piece at the forewale as with the cart collar1 using only thread or very fine white lace4 ,a layer of old carpet may be placed on the stitches next to the body under the side piece to give the sides smoothness and roundness4 ,fasten the two side pieces together at the top by stitching over from one to the other with the collar needle4 ,a small housing to cover the top of the collar must be cut1 almost half-round in shape1 but with slightly widening points and a ,v-shaped notch on the side next the collar for the points to pass1 one on each side of the top piece2 bring it down close to the forewale4 ,it may be bound in the same style as the side piece1 stitched fast edge to edge with the binding1 the latter being then turned and a line stitched round a short distance from the edges2 about in4 below that another row of stitches is made all round4 ,the point on the outside of the body must not project more than about in4 ,plain or patent leather can be employed to make the collar and winkers2 patent leather must always be marked for stitching with the race compass1 and a groove cut so that the patent will be raced off and the line quite visible4 ,this kind of leather1 when used to make the collar forewale1 must be lined with calico to prevent it cracking4 ,the van saddle 7,fig4 #ahb7 is the next part to be made4 ,the tree is a miniature cart-saddle tree1 with similar boards and groove4 ,the plates to be put in the point of the groove where the backband runs through may be nickel or brass to match the furniture4 ,begin work by fixing the terrets and bearing-rein stand hook on the tree4 ,take off the sockets which are attached to the screws1 and see that they are of the proper length to reach over the groove of the tree from side to side2 file them down to the width of the tree if they are too long4 ,place the stand-hook socket exactly in the centre at the top1 and mark its position on each side and end4 ,cut out a hollow at the mark deep enough for the socket to enter and lie flush with the surface1 and drive a small screw through each socket into the tree4 ,the terret sockets are fixed in the same manner1 being sunk level and screwed down1 about #c in4 lower than the stand hook on each side4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahd4 ,fig4 #ahb4--,van ,saddle4 ,fig4 #ahc4--,van ,saddle ,flap4 ,fig4 #ahd4--,van ,saddle ,panel4 ,cut two pieces of thin leather1 either plain or patent1 to the same shape as each side of the tree and about #a in4 larger each way4 ,damp them and make a nick at the top of the boards in the leather so that the centre of the piece will turn down underneath4 ,tack each end of the leather to the board close to the tree1 then pull it tightly along the entire surface of the side over the top1 nailing it here and there4 ,level it down on the surface of the tree1 and tack the centre part between the boards underneath the tree1 pulling it tight and flat over all parts4 ,to make the flaps1 cut out a paper pattern as a guide 7see ,fig4 #ahc71 making it wider at the top than at the other parts and slightly raised in front4 ,the flaps must reach down from the lower part of the groove in the centre for about #ae in41 swelling slightly at the sides and gradually narrowing to about #b in4 at the bottom4 ,the patterns may also be cut straight without the swelling sides1 but in both styles they must rise in front more than at the back2 as they are cut in two pieces1 one for each side1 this can easily be managed1 because when they are joined at the top this part will stand out prominently in front4 ,some flaps are made with stout firm leather1 others are lined4 ,in the first case1 make two rows along the sides with the race compass and bevel deep with a hot bevel2 but patent leather1 instead of needing the race compass1 has tallow rubbed along the part to be creased and the lines are marked with the compass2 then run a warm beveller deep along the marks1 being careful that it does not cut the leather4 ,when patent or plain leather is lined1 use the race compass and prick the grooves for stitching4 ,when stitched 7or made without lining71 cut and polish the edges well and join them with a stitch at the top2 place a piece of leather over the joint at the front about #a in4 wide1 and stitch it on both sides of the joint and across the front2 then shave it thin at the side next the tree4 ,a dee1 of brass or other metal1 is placed on the outside for fastening the crupper4 ,cover the joint at the back with another piece of leather1 turning it down on the outside and shaving the other end thin4 ,these pieces should be long enough on both sides to pass under the tree when the flaps are nailed4 ,on these the tree is placed centre to centre and front to front1 and a line is marked along the sides of the tree from board to board on the leather4 ,make a mark at the lower side of the board to indicate the width of the tree there1 and the width of the wood on both sides of the groove4 ,note that this must be marked at the bottom side of the boards1 four marks being made at each end of the tree1 outside and inside the wood on each side of the groove4 ,at this point take away the tree1 and cut a slit from the outer lower mark to the point of the one running along the side of the tree2 there will then be two slits of the width of the board1 one on each side of the tree4 ,now cut upwards from each of the two inner marks at the bottom1 for the length of the other cuts and equal in width to the wood1 on both sides of the groove4 ,then cut across the top of each incision from side to side2 there will now be one cross cut and four cuts upward1 and a portion along the centre4 ,cut the middle piece between the four slits at each end about #a in4 from the bottom1 and shave the points2 now cut the two narrow strips at each end to the same length4 ,the middle piece1 unless there are plates1 is nailed along the groove with the narrow cuts underneath4 ,place flaps over the top and make the edges of the centre slit meet at the centre of the tree below4 ,nail the flaps down along the edge of the tree1 putting four or five extra nails opposite the crupper loop in its chape4 ,when there is no plate1 nail the centre piece in the bottom along the groove2 put the narrow pieces down and nail them with the brass beading1 making sure that the part of the flaps over the boards runs close to the tree2 fasten it to the boards with four or five tacks4 ,turn the centre piece down like the narrow ones1 and nail it to the board at each end4 ,cut a top cover of strong leather of the same width as the tree and to reach to within #b in4 from the bottom1 so that there will be an opening for the backband2 crease it across both ends and bevel the creases with a hot iron1 or line both ends for about #b in4 and shave the inner side2 then make two rows of stitching across the points4 ,place it on the tree in its proper position1 and give two or three light taps with a hammer opposite the three openings for the terrets and stand hooks in the sockets2 thus the size and position of the holes is marked on the cover4 ,holes1 of the same dimensions as the socket holes1 must now be cut in the cover1 and this nailed down on both sides of the tree1 keeping the holes in the leather exactly opposite those for the sockets4 ,a strong nail must be driven into each corner so that it will not be prized up by the backband4 ,take a piece of beading long enough to run along the top on each side and go down underneath through the opening opposite the narrow cuts in the bottom2 nail the beading on the side of the boards or under them1 securing in the same way the narrow turned-down strip4 ,the beading should lie close to the leather along the top of the tree2 drive the nails for the beading with a wooden mallet4 ,the saddle is now ready for the panel 7,fig4 #ahd1 p4 #aca71 the back of which must be cut to the same size as the flaps2 it must not reach quite to the bottom2 let it end1 say1 #b in4 from it4 ,basil can be employed as material1 and if this is light1 a piece of linen can be pasted inside1 or a narrow slip may be pasted along the edges4 ,when dry1 see again that it is of the same size and shape4 ,the facing must be cut about #a in4 wide1 and of the same length as the sides of the panel2 it may be in patent or plain leather to match the flaps4 ,when the material is not long enough it may be cut into two parts and joined at the centre2 it is then tacked along the edges and stitched for about six inches4 ,rub the joint down as flat as possible4 ,take some blue serge lining or collar lining and lay it out smooth on the bench1 and place the panel back on it inside out2 with hemp1 tack it along the sides to the lining1 cutting the latter to the same shape as the back1 but wider by #a in4 or more on both sides at the top4 ,the lining then tapers to exactly the same width as the base at the extreme point4 ,narrow the lining at the gullet and1 just at the back in the centre opposite the opening to be left1 turn it in about in42 run a stitch to keep it down1 and then whip it in with the facing from end to end and across the bottom1 employing black linen thread and a pointed needle and thimble4 ,no facing is placed across the bottom4 ,now turn the panel inside out through the opening at the top2 the joint is not stitched right across1 only two or three stitches being used at each end4 ,some piping is now needed to run round the facing to make both sides of the panel front stand out round and straight4 ,sometimes the facing is made of straw whipped round with hemp until it is hard and round2 sometimes with damp brown paper rolled with both hands on the bench2 or a simple cord of light twist may be employed1 and1 in ,america1 cane4 ,in harness of this description1 cord will suffice2 it may be covered with brown paper to about in4 in diameter4 ,place it in the facing through the opening at the top1 making it reach to the bottom at each side but not across4 ,turn the facing tightly over it and begin to spot from the back1 the stitches being small and even on the lined side4 ,while working1 the panel should be kept flat on the bench1 the lining being uppermost and being stitched close to the facing with a quilting needle and thimble4 ,then place the lining flat and even at the top1 parting it alike on both sides and running a line of cross stitches from side to side on both sides of the joining at the back1 to about #a in4 apart at the back and about #d in4 in the front4 ,the panel is now in two compartments4 ,cut two openings across it1 one on each side1 below the line of stitches just made1 and one to cross them2 then stuff the panel with carded flock through these openings1 the stuffing-stick being employed for the purpose4 ,fill it level from top to bottom1 but not too full4 ,next mark1 say1 six cross lines1 about #a in4 apart1 from the bottom of the panel towards the top1 a rule being used as a guide4 ,take a long three-cord black hemp thread made with beeswax and quilt it1 making four stitches or so in each line2 use a thimble and quilting needle4 ,keep the stitches in a straight line both downwards and crosswise1 and when the last line is reached1 make two stitches from back to front1 thus leaving the last line half finished4 ,now flatten it over the stitches and stuff the top to the requisite thickness1 taking care to make it firm1 though not hard1 otherwise it will become very thin when pressure bears on it4 ,place the panel to the centre of the tree and flaps1 and put a tack on each side at the top to retain it in this position4 ,some harness makers run five or six stitches through the flap and panel here and there1 others spot them all the way along2 but the best method is to put the panel in with copper wire4 ,stitching or spotting might do for common work1 small stitches being put in spotting on the flap side and about #a in4 apart below4 ,the stitches1 whether spotting or stitching double-handed1 should run out in the hollow between the facing and stuffing below4 ,keep the facing even along the edge of the flap a little outside rather than underneath4 ,to fasten a panel1 cut the wire into pieces about #e in4 long1 and with a bent awl cut holes underneath the flaps close by the outer row of stitches1 all at the same distance from the outside4 ,then place a piece of wire in each1 and1 if for a gig or cab saddle1 nail the panel in the centre on both sides2 but in the case of a van saddle1 nails need not be employed2 simply wire it all round4 ,keep the panel right in the centre and fasten a wire in the top1 on each side1 by cutting a hole with the bent awl for each point of the wire just below the facing4 ,put one wire in each hole and push the panel close to the flap2 then twist the wire on the panel side with a pair of pincers till the panel is pulled tight to the flap4 ,give the wire a sharp twist with its points together1 and cut them within in4 of the panel2 turn down the points and press them out of sight into the hollow between the panel and the facing1 repeating the process along both sides with the wire about #b in4 apart4 ,a strap and a girth are needed to fasten to the bottom of the flaps4 ,cut the girth #b ft4 long and #b in4 wide1 and have a lay to put on about #i in4 by #a in4 ,make a buckle hole in the lay so that the edge of the buckle will be level with the end of the girth1 as the chape is not to be turned down1 but is stitched on the flat4 ,a strong strap must now be cut #ah in4 by #a in41 rounded at one end and shaved at the other1 and another piece of leather #b in4 by #d in41 with one end shaved and the other narrowed to #a in42 edge1 black1 and crease both4 ,tack the lay on the girth with the buckle level to the end1 and narrow the girth to the width of the lay at the point2 then place two loops beyond the buckle and stitch the lay4 ,in the next place1 the shaved end of the strap must be stitched to the #d in4 piece1 the strap being placed within #a in4 of the broad end4 ,finish the loops1 punch the straps1 and stitch them1 the strap on the near side and the girth on the off side at the base of the flaps1 the stitches running across and in a half circle from corner to corner4 ,the winkers by this time will be dry and fit to work as part of the bridle4 ,straighten the outside--that is1 the part to be stitched--if it has got a little out of shape in wetting and nailing4 ,rub the other edges with sandpaper and give them a fine polish2 then shave the side for the cheek4 ,having got four -in4 buckles ready for the cheeks1 cut the latter #b ft4 #i in4 by in4 and measure #a ft4 from the better end1 marking it across for a billet4 ,now round its point and measure #h in4 from the first mark2 turn it down there1 and again turn it down #h in4 from the bend4 ,make a buckle hole in each bend1 and edge1 black1 and crease along the billet part4 ,make a groove with a round knife or grooving tool underneath on the billet side from the cross mark to within in4 of the top bend1 the depth of the groove being about half the thickness of the leather2 open it out with the point of a blunt compass or anything suitable4 ,the buckles can now be fixed1 one in each bend1 and the winkers can also be placed between the cheek up to the buckles at the top bend and level with the outside4 ,cut a small nick just opposite the projection of the buckle tongue so that the winker will ascend on the top end close to the buckle4 ,see that the point of the turn-down running from the base bend is cut level with the bottom of the winker1 and run a stitch through both1 making the point fit tightly in the hollow between the lower buckle and the winker4 ,place three tacks on the outer side to keep the edges together in their places4 ,make one loop for each from medium heavy winker brown loop leather about #g in4 by #a in42 damp it well and place it in half the width of the cheek on the inner side and stitch along the groove4 ,adjust the two sides in the same manner1 reversing the winker to pair them4 ,the loops having been damped before being attached1 place a loop-stick in4 wide in each loop2 then knock them square and level to shape4 ,black them with soda and dye1 dry partially with rag1 and rub and polish well with a bone1 making them shine brightly4 ,now trim the underside of the cheek1 round the square edges1 and polish4 ,apply a coat of ,harris's harness liquid both to the loops and to the edges2 rub them well with the palm of the hand and then with a little tallow1 after which they must be again rubbed with a rag4 ,the loops are now ready for creasing and checking1 but in the first place make sure that the loops are in condition2 if too dry1 they cannot be creased deeply enough1 and if too wet the bevels and marks cannot be polished4 ,test with a hot crease and then hold them near the fire a little while2 finally rub with the hand until they are dry enough4 ,attention must also be given to the temperature of the tools when heated in the fire1 candle1 or gas4 ,therefore1 keep on the bench a small quantity of water into which to dip the heated tools2 if the beveller or checker hisses in the water it must be kept there until this ceases4 ,now with the screw crease or compass make two or three lines across each end of the loop1 and two rows near each other along the edges on the face4 ,trace out the design on the surface between the outer lines1 namely diamonds1 single arrow point1 or double arrow points1 etc4 ,having warmed the beveller1 mark deeply the cross and outside lines1 polish them1 and then mark the outer lines of the design with the beveller on the surface of the loop4 ,the space between the outer lines of the design and the straight lines at the edge and sides must now be marked with the warm checker1 which may be fine or coarse1 according to the style of work2 the design also will vary with the fineness or coarseness of the work4 ,the checking being finished1 run the beveller along all the outer lines in the design and the straight line1 to smooth down the checker marks running to the bevelled lines and to give boldness to the work4 ,the noseband is made by cutting the leather #b ft4 #h in4 long by #a in42 it must then be marked #e in4 from the point and again at a distance of in4 from this mark2 then a third mark is made #ac in4 farther on1 and a fourth in4 from the last mark4 ,turn down #b in4 of the end marked last for the buckle2 take in4 from each end and each side as far as the cross mark nearest the ends4 ,make a buckle hole and shave1 bend1 and round the other end for the point4 ,cut another piece for a lining1 taking the first as a pattern1 and then thin the edges of both1 slanting from the middle of the strap on both sides1 but do not thin the -in4 space in either piece4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahe4--;,chain and ,leather ,gig ,front4 ,the first piece of leather that was cut with a buckle hole can now be damped2 then with a grooving board and hammer handle a groove is made along the full length1 not including the two -in4 spaces4 ,now cut a hole in the outer side of each of the cross lines1 marking two spaces1 and cut two loops about in4 by #b in4 ,shave the points1 damp1 and put one end in each hole over the -in4 space2 beat the points a little to flatten them to the leather1 and leave sufficient space for the billet to pass between the loops and the noseband4 ,crease the noseband on both sides from end to end1 in4 from the edge1 and1 if required1 another line can be made at the same distance farther in from opening to opening in the centre only4 ,prick the lines all along except opposite the openings1 fine or coarse1 according to the style of work1 and then put the lining underneath and the buckle in its place4 ,tack it here and there with fine tacks and with three-cord fine hemp stitch from end to end1 around the point1 and across at the end of the centre loops to fasten the loops near the openings4 ,stitch a second line if needed1 and then the buckle chape from underneath1 and put in one or two loops4 ,trim the edges1 sandpaper1 black them1 and polish2 then place sticks in the loops and finish1 making four holes in the short end4 ,the next part of the harness to be described is the front or forehead band4 ,begin work by cutting it #ba in4 by #a in41 bend it down to pass easily round a #a in4 strap1 and then mark it across the length of the required opening4 ,see that there are #ac in4 between the two cross marks in the centre and sufficient to stitch down the ends beyond the openings2 shave the points and stitch down the ends from the cross lines to the points4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4--;,chain and ,leather ,gig ,front4 ,it can be covered with fancy coloured or striped cloth or leather and herring-bone stitched along the centre underneath1 making a cross at each end2 or a chain front 7,figs4 #ahe to #ahg7 can be employed4 ,in the last case a piece of patent leather must be cut of the same length as the front from one cross line to the other and of the same width as the forehead band2 adjust the chain and stitch along its centre1 taking the thread out at one side of the chain1 and running it through the link and down on the other side close by the chain1 and so on through every link2 at each end through the link joint make a little chape and stitch double through it when the patent leather is being adjusted to the forehead band4 ,now mark a line along the edges of the patent leather outside the chain and prick it fine1 laying on the patent leather from opening to opening1 and stitching double with beeswaxed linen thread and a fine awl4 ,stitch the patent leather across also at the ends1 catching the above-mentioned little chapes4 ,then pare1 sandpaper1 black1 and well polish the edges4 ,to make the head-piece1 cut the leather #a in4 wide and #a ft4 #aj in4 long2 slit it #f in4 at each end1 and edge1 black1 and rub it well1 and then crease it with a hot creaser close to the edge and at both sides of the slits4 ,now cut a -in4 chape1 long enough to clasp the buckle and the head-piece and to reach no farther than the far side4 ,make a buckle hole in it1 and edge1 black1 crease1 and finally prick it4 ,cut a loop in4 wide1 trim it and place the chape in the buckle1 tacking it exactly in the centre of the head-piece1 after having cut a small nick exactly in the centre for the projecting tongue to enter4 ,stitch it in place1 running a line across at the end opposite the buckle2 then make four holes in each of the slits4 ,the winker strap is made as follows3 ,cut it from stiff leather #a in4 by #ac in4 long and remove the centre piece with a punch at the top of the slit1 the last being #g in4 by in4 ,beginning at the slit1 gradually narrow the other part to in4 wide to run to the head-piece buckle at the top4 ,crease1 black1 and rub well with a hot iron and make three punch holes at the pointed end4 ,take the winkers and open a small slit by cutting the stitches between the leather at the top corner in the front2 put a -in4 length of the slit in each winker and stitch the points there firmly4 ,all that is now required to complete the bridle is the throat lash2 make it #b ft4 #c in4 by in4 and turn it down at each end to #a ft4 #h in42 then make buckle holes in the bend and shave the points4 ,edge1 black1 crease and rub well1 prick the bend1 and put in the buckles with the bearing-rein swivels1 one at each extremity4 ,having made a loop or two between the buckles and swivels1 stitch down the chapes1 going below the swivel sufficiently to keep it in place4 ,put the bridle together by passing the ends of the front piece into the rosette loops1 and placing one slit of the head strap on each side of the rosette loops at both ends of the front piece1 the centre buckle at the top pointing in the same direction as the front4 ,secure the winker strap at the top buckle1 and both inner slits of the head strap in the top buckle of the cheeks2 then pass the billet through the noseband opening4 ,make sure that the noseband is buckled on the near side1 and then put the billets through the cheek of the bit and up again through the loops on the outside of the noseband and cheek buckle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahg4--;,chain and ,leather ,gig ,front4 ,the throat lash must now be buckled on the off side and the strap passed through the loop on the near side2 the noseband being buckled1 the bridle is finished4 ,it may be coated with liquid blacking or composition before it is put together1 and the buckles and rosettes can be cleaned with paste and washleather or a clean soft rag4 ,to make a bearing rein a middle piece must be cut #f ft4 by in42 finish it and bend #b in41 making it ready for a buckle4 ,shave the end thin and cut it to a point2 if two buckles are employed both ends must be prepared alike1 but with only one buckle one end must be pricked for stitching to the ring of the round part4 ,cut the round parts #a in4 wide and #b ft4 long2 turn them down and narrow them to in4 at one end1 the turned-down part being #b in4 long4 ,turn down about #a in4 at the other end and prepare it for a buckle1 shaving the point thin2 then damp round the central part1 bring the edges together1 and cut a groove on each side to sink the stitches4 ,with a blunt point1 open the groove before stitching and have a piece of cord thick enough to fill the inside and #a in4 longer at each end2 unravel it at the ends and thin the strands by pulling off some of the material with an awl4 ,run one end of the cord through the bearing-rein ring for an inch and whip it round with waxed hemp so that it will be secured there4 ,open the strands at the other end and put half of them on each side of the buckle tongue at the part which will be in the leather2 whip this again fast to the buckle and see that it is of the right length inside the round to reach tightly from the buckle to the ring when in its place4 ,it is now necessary to put the ring in the long bend and the buckle in the short one4 ,now cut a billet #i in4 by in41 and after shaving one end thin1 round the other and prepare and crease it4 ,put it in the billet and a loop1 and stitch the other end fine in the ring2 stitch the round along the groove1 being careful to have the thread in the centre of the groove at both sides and to catch the points of the turn-down at the ring and the point of the billet in the other end1 between the edges of the round part1 making two or three stitches in each1 thus joining them firmly with the round part4 ,then with the spokeshave trim them round and neat1 rub with coarse glasspaper1 and finish with fine2 close the edges of the groove well over the stitches and try to make it look as much as possible like one round1 solid piece4 ,after well blacking and polishing the bearing rein1 give it a coat of liquid blacking1 polishing by sharp rubbing2 finish neatly around the ring and buckle1 crease the loops1 and make one or two holes in the billets4 ,now prepare the middle part4 ,when there are two buckles1 begin by punching a dozen holes within #i in4 of each end2 with one buckle of course only one end is punched4 ,five running loops large enough to pass over the strap double must now be made1 as explained4 ,when they are finished and polished1 put the two points together through one of the loops and pull that loop to within #b in4 from the top2 fix a buckle on each side and two loops after each buckle with the right side out4 ,now run the points through the rings to the buckle and put a chape in place1 fastening the buckle in about the sixth hole from the end and leaving the chape unstitched4 ,then pull one loop over the chape close to the buckle and the other loop down to the ring on each side4 ,to make the crupper1 cut out the body #b ft4 by #a in4 and slit it for #h in4 at the strongest end2 taper the other end to #a in4 wide and cut a #a-;in4 billet #c ft4 #i in4 long4 ,shave the strong end thin and round the other2 cut the lay #af in4 by #a in4 and shave one end1 rounding the other4 ,the points of the slits and the end of the body must also be shaved1 the slit points being tapered4 ,black and crease them all1 only the top of the lay being edged4 ,place the round end of the lay close to the slit end1 in the centre of the body1 and #d in4 from the round end make a deep cross line followed by three other lines at intervals of #b in41 and at the same distance from the fourth line cut a hole for the buckle2 then put an awl at each corner formed by the cross lines into both lay and body so as to make a mark visible below2 there will thus be a guide for use when stitching underneath to indicate where to begin and end4 ,cut a groove from the shaved end of the body as far as the first awl mark below1 then from the second to the third1 and finally from the fourth to a distance of about #a in4 towards the point of the lay2 this groove must be made on the underside4 ,cut through one half the thickness of the leather at a sufficient distance from the edge to catch the lay on both sides in stitching4 ,now adjust the buckle and lay once again1 and then trim four loops about in4 wide and place one before the buckle1 a second on the other side before reaching the first opening1 another between the two openings1 and1 finally1 the fourth beyond the lash4 ,the lay must be stitched in from the underside with double waxed thread1 a cross stitch being made at the corners of each opening and the thread being brought straight over the opening to the opposite corner without cutting4 ,stitch over the loop at the slit end1 but no farther1 the remainder being stitched fine round the end from above4 ,it is better to stitch the crupper lay from below because it will then be smoother and the stitches will not be so likely to rub the hair off as when they are on the surface1 there being much friction at this part4 ,having placed the stick in the loops1 finish with the hot iron1 making a running loop for the billet4 ,the dock 7,fig4 #ahh7 that is placed under the tail is made of soft close-grained leather1 #a ft4 #c in4 in length1 and tapered from the centre on each side to about in4 when doubled over at the points4 ,groove it carefully along the edges at a slight distance therefrom1 and stitch it loosely with three-cord fine hemp1 about six per inch1 merely pulling the stitches home2 then damp it well4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aij4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aia4 ,fig4 #ahh4--;,crupper ,dock4 ,fig4 #ahi4--;,breeching1 etc4 ,fig4 #aij4--;,back-band4 ,fig4 #aia4--,shaft ,tugs4 ,having a pint of whole linseed near at hand1 drive a nail through one end to close the opening1 and then1 placing the linseed on the apron1 scoop it in with the open end and ram the dock tight from end to end with a stick or iron rod till it is filled4 ,take one end in each hand and twist the piece to a round shape1 endeavouring to bring the stitches on the lower side4 ,knock the two ends with nails in them into a flat board1 and keeping the centre on the board1 raise both sides and draw them as close together as possible with a piece of soft leather tied around them4 ,then allow them to dry and trim the stitched part and sand it1 rounding it with the other parts2 polish well1 thin the top sides of the points1 and knock them flat with the hammer4 ,stitch one to each slit of the crupper body for about in41 finish the edges1 and put about a dozen holes in the billet4 ,to make the breeching 7,fig4 #ahi71 cut the leather #g ft4 #f in4 by #a in41 and turn it in #d in4 at the better end1 so that it will be #c ft4 #h in4 long when double4 ,if the lower part is too long1 cut it off1 allowing about #b in4 for splicing1 and shave both ends4 ,both edges must now be shaved on the inside of the top and bottom so as to slant outwards2 damp the top from one bend to the other4 ,round it on the large groove of the grooving board1 crease it along both edges1 and prick it eight per inch4 ,if the bend seems too weak for the rings these can be lined4 ,cut a strip of leather or an old rein1 #a in4 wide1 and shave it round along the edges and at the ends2 it must be long enough to run from ring to ring4 ,having prepared the rings and breeching dees 7,fig4 #agh and #agi1 p4 #abe71 cut the bearers from good leather1 #aj in4 by in42 turn them down so that the points will meet1 and flatten the bends4 ,prepare one end of each for the buckle1 and cut a groove along the lower side1 where there is no joint1 and open it4 ,place the buckles and dees in two bearers and the rings and buckle in the two remaining1 joining them on the side under the loop4 ,stitch the ends together1 making them meet exactly in the centre of the bearer4 ,after edging the end bends1 black them1 because this would be troublesome work later2 then cut four loops1 #c in4 by #a in41 blind-stitch them1 and finish them like the others4 ,make the pattern match1 finish the back of the bearer1 and close the groove well4 ,a ring must now be put in each end of the breeching1 which is then tacked in place for stitching4 ,place the lining lately cut in the centre to raise and strengthen it1 and then stitch along both the sides with three-cord coarse hemp2 reserve an opening about #f in4 from the ring for the bearers1 but do not fix these in it until the body has been stitched and trimmed4 ,some fancy style of stitching can be run along each end from the ring about #f in4 when the straight lines have been stitched along the sides1 or have two extra straight lines instead of fancy work1 bringing the lines to a point at #f in4 from the ring1 or again make four rows all along the breeching4 ,the body being well trimmed and finished1 put both bearers in on the same side1 one at each end where the opening was left4 ,before this1 however1 put a small piece of leather inside to fill the hollow square in the breeching dees2 stitch this firmly in place4 ,for a hip-strap to match the breeching1 cut a strap #d ft4 long and a little more than double the width of the buckles on the bearers2 slit it for #af in4 at each end1 each slit being the width of the bearer buckles1 and if it is altogether too wide1 the waste should come off the centre4 ,then edge1 black1 and crease it neatly and put eight holes in each end4 ,the breeching straps to go round the shafts must be cut #c ft4 #c in4 by #a in41 and when the light ends are turned down1 are #b ft4 #f in4 long4 ,round the point1 and shave that of the turn over2 then prepare the bend for the buckle1 and edge1 black1 and crease4 ,cut four strong loops about in4 wide1 and having neatly finished them1 prick along about #c in4 from the buckle on the lower side4 ,tack on the two loops1 one near the buckle in the usual position1 and the other close to it but in the reverse position to turn under the strap4 ,stitch them with strong thread1 and1 having finished them1 bend the strap from the loop to the end of the underpiece and run a dozen stitches on each side at the point4 ,bend it so that when in position in the ring the parts will be even2 if stitched without bending1 the lower part will pucker4 ,finish the loops and put six holes in each strap4 ,the back-band 7,fig4 #aij1 p4 #adg7 may now be cut out1 its complete length being #h ft4 ,the centre piece passing through the saddle is #c ft4 #c in4 long1 the strap or buckling end measuring #a ft4 #f in41 and the remainder being for girth4 ,if it is for a van harness it must be in three thicknesses along the centre1 but the strap end will be strong enough in two thicknesses2 when the belly-band part is very light it may also be thickened a little4 ,place the belly-band buckle in the belly-band end1 and if necessary line the chape2 then round the point at the strap end4 ,crease all along and make two rows on each side of the centre1 bringing them together in a point at the extremities4 ,strictly speaking1 one row on each side of the belly band and strap will suffice1 but four rows are better2 in the last case1 crossing the two middle centre lines at the end of the centre part will improve the appearance4 ,an opening must be left in the stitching about #a in4 from the buckle1 and two openings lower down1 #b in4 apart1 to receive three loops when the back-band has been completed4 ,stitch it about eight per inch1 with four-cord thread4 ,for finishing1 use a spokeshave1 and rub the stitches underneath to level them well2 round the edges well towards the stitches1 making the edges neat in appearance4 ,scrape it with glasspaper1 place the buckle on the hook1 and black the edges and stitches2 rub vigorously with the rag in the right hand1 holding each side of the back-band with the other4 ,the hand should be moved briskly backwards and forwards so as to dry and polish the edges well4 ,now pass a ball of tallow along the edges and again rub well with the rag1 after which the three loops may be placed on the belly band and stitched from below1 the reverse side to the other stitches4 ,then punch eight or nine holes in the strap and three in the centre part at equal distances from each crossing of the middle row of stitches1 or from the point of the inner rows if the centre only has four rows of stitching4 ,leave about #a ft4 #f in4 in the centre without holes4 ,the shaft tugs 7,fig4 #aia1 p4 #adg7 are made by cutting a #a ft4 #g in4 length of leather to the same width as the buckles and back-band--that is1 #a in4 ,overlap this piece #d in41 the overlap then being bent together and knocked flat in the centre4 ,through both leathers cut a hole for a buckle in the bend1 and shave a little on the sides of the hole underneath where the tongue enters1 so that the buckle will run close to the leather4 ,shave both ends1 the inner very thin and the outer or top one moderately1 cutting a little off each corner4 ,crease two rows on each side as on the back-band1 and1 having pricked the rows seven per inch1 place the brass or nickel loop loose on the strap and adjust the buckle therein4 ,draw the two holes in the centre1 where the buckle is placed1 exactly opposite each other1 and stitch the top point of the overlap along the two inner lines for about #b in4 through the two leathers4 ,the shape being now obtained1 the tug must be filled and thickened4 ,this is done by cutting a piece of leather to fit the inside tight from one side of the buckle to the other1 keeping the buckle in position while working4 ,cut a nick in the centre of each end of this piece so that the tongue and sides may fit close to the buckle1 and then cut another good piece of leather to go round inside tight and to overlap at the top for about #a in4 ,now shave each end and cut a groove on each side for about the length of the loop on the part intended for it1 and overlap it on the side opposite the loop just below the buckle1 with the outer point of the overlap on the top pointing towards the buckle and not downwards4 ,if the tug needs more thickening1 place another piece under the inside lining to reach from the metal loop 7placed below the leather loop7 round the bottom and about halfway up the other side1 leaving it with its thickness at the end near the metal loop2 shave the other end thin4 ,the metal loop must fit tight between the end of the piece and the leather loop4 ,it must now be tacked together from the inside1 the joint at the overlap being made firm4 ,the lining should be of sole leather2 damp it well so that it will fit into its place and be easier to stitch4 ,begin stitching at the buckle with four-cord thread and work round to the metal loop2 then begin at this part on the other side and stitch to the buckle4 ,continue to work in this way until four rows are stitched4 ,trim the edges1 and black and polish them1 paying particular attention to the part about the buckle4 ,there is an opening from the metal loop to the buckle remaining unstitched2 this1 with a groove cut underneath on the lower side1 is for the loop1 which must be about #b in4 wide4 ,having inserted one side for about half the width of the tug1 stitch it with six-cord double waxed thread from the buckle to the metal loop1 being careful to bring the awl out with each stitch in the centre of the groove4 ,stitch the other side as far as the buckle and make two or three cross stitches on each side of the buckle4 ,if there is much unevenness on the part from the end of the loop to the buckle1 a little filling may be put in the space4 ,the loop must be longer than usual because the back-band is extra thick4 ,shape the loop with a thick bent loop-stick big enough to make plenty of room for a back-band4 ,black and finish the loop1 make a pattern or check it if necessary1 and then remove all unevenness1 close the grooves1 and trim neatly about the loop and buckle4 ,repeat the operation with the second tug1 and then all will be ready4 ,the big loops for a shaft and the hame tugs1 etc41 must always be made of firm loop leather1 which will grow hard in finishing and retain its firmness and shape in spite of rain and weather4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aib4--;,four-wheeled ,cab ,saddle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aic4--;,cab ,saddle ,tree4 ,for the traces1 trace end chains will be needed2 van and cab traces are stitched to the hames1 being shortened by having ten or twelve links of a chain at the other end4 ,the traces may be #d ft4 #i in4 long by #a in41 being #a ft4 #a in4 longer with a chain4 ,they must be in three thicknesses1 but with two thicknesses to go through the chain dee and hame ring 7,fig4 #aga1 p4 #abc74 ,in putting the upper and lower part together1 place the light end of one against the heavy end of the other1 thus levelling the trace and making it of equal strength4 ,shave the points well where one ends and another begins--for example1 the lining in the hame ring and chain dee4 ,having turned the leathers down to the right length1 crease and prick them1 seven or eight per inch4 ,tack down with only the chain on and stitch the four rows1 but not so far in the hame end as to prevent the hame ring being placed in position when they are finished4 ,when both are stitched1 trim1 black1 and polish them2 then rub down the stitches underneath1 and having fixed them to the hame ring1 stitch them to it1 and finish that end like the other parts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aid4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aie4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aif4 ,fig4 #aid4--;,hansom ,cab ,saddle4 ,figs4 #aie and #aif4--,rein ,stops4 ,make two hame straps in4 wide1 the top strap #a ft4 #aj in4 long1 and the lower #a ft4 #d in4 ,adjust the buckles at the strong ends and make two loops1 reversing them as on the breeching straps2 have seven or eight holes in each4 ,the driving reins are #a in4 wide1 and the forepart near the horse's head is #f ft4 long on each side4 ,turn down the chapes at the strong ends for the buckles1 and shave the point thin2 then cut two billets1 #a ft4 long1 from a firm piece of leather4 ,shave one end and round the other1 and1 having cut two loops1 edge and finish them2 then rub all and crease them close to the edge with a hot creaser4 ,adjust the buckles1 prick the part of the billet to be stitched a little inside the outer crease1 and stitch the billets in with the loop4 ,when the loops are finished1 make a hole in each billet far enough from the point to allow what is over to come through the loop1 and cover the stitches on the front4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aig4--;,hansom ,cab ,harness4 ,make the brown hand parts #e ft4 #f in4 long1 and narrow the light end of one part to pass through into a -in4 covered buckle2 then turn down the other point and narrow it for the buckle chape4 ,finally1 prepare a narrow brown loop4 ,shave and taper the other end of the hand parts to a point1 edge both sides below and under1 and damp the edges with gum and water1 or with water only4 ,polish them well by rubbing1 making them even everywhere2 brown paper is excellent for polishing either black or brown edges4 ,after creasing them very near the edge with a screw crease1 place the buckle and loop on the end and mark a line a little inside the outer one1 about #b in4 or #c in4 long1 on the end to be spliced on the fore-part4 ,prick it fine and stitch with a fine thread1 pointing the stitches in the upper end to the same shape as the others4 ,the hand parts can be obtained ready cut with buckles1 and then all that has to be done is to shave the ends and stitch them to the fore-parts4 ,four-wheel cab harness can be made in the same way as van harness1 except the saddle 7,fig4 #aib71 which is made exactly like a gig saddle1 but is heavier and has brass or nickel screw studs in each corner of the skirts2 ,fig4 #aic shows the top or tree4 ,hansom cab harness is not much different1 though the saddle 7,fig4 #aid7 is lighter1 and some have rollers inside the saddle so that the back-band may run smoothly backwards and forwards through the tree2 these trees are made to order4 ,in ,fig4 #aig1 ,a indicates the noseband1 ,b winker1 ,c forehead band1 ,e throatlash1 ,f cheek1 ,g rein1 ,h collar1 ,i trace1 ,j saddle1 ,k shaft tug1 ,l cantle of saddle1 ,m crupper1 ,n tug strap1 ,o bearer1 ,p breeching1 and ,r shaft strap4 ,the hansom reins must be about #bj ft4 long on each side1 each brown hand part being about #g ft4 long4 ,they are generally showy and ornamental4 ,winkers and saddle1 hip straps1 martingale1 and breastplate have ornaments1 the reins have ivory rings and stops 7,figs4 #aie and #aif71 and there is a face piece ornament on the bridle4 ,both four-wheeler and hansom harness 7,fig4 #aig7 are larger and heavier than gig harness1 except at the saddle4 ,,index4 ,awls1 #ba1 #bb ,back ,stitching1 #eb ,backband ,hook1 ,plough1 #ajg ----1 ,van ,harness1 #aej ,backs1 ,hide1 #cg1 #ci1 #dj ,ball ,terret1 #abd ,band1 ,forehead1 #fh ,bands1 ,mill1 #dj ----1 ,nose1 #fh ,basils1 #dj ,beeswax1 #cj ,bells and ,brush1 ,bridle1 #fc ,belly ,band1 ,cart1 #ii ,belt1 ,waist1 #di ,bent ,awl1 #ba ,bevellers1 #ba ,billet1 #ic ,bits1 #aaa-aaf ,black ,wax1 #ca1 #cc1 #de ,black-ball1 #dd ,board1 ,cutting1 #db ,body-belt ,webs1 #de ,box ,creased ,loop1 #eg ---- ,loop1 #eg ---- ,strap1 #di ---- ,spurs1 #aaf ,brace ,end ,punch1 #ae ,brass ,face-pieces1 #fc ---- ,gear ,buckles1 ,scotch1 #fc ---- ,hame ,plates1 #fc ---- ,nails1 #ce ---- ,ornaments1 #fc ---- ,polishing ,paste1 #dg ---- ,squares1 #fc ---- ,swing1 #fc ,breaking ,bit1 #aaf ,breeching1 ,cart ,harness1 #if ----1 ,van ,harness1 #adi ,bridle1 #gj ---- ,hides1 #ch ,bridoon ,bits1 #aab1 #aad1 #aae ,bronzing for ,leather1 #dh ,brown ,gear ,hides1 #dj ---- ,harness ,hides1 #dj ---- ,shoulders1 #ci ---- ,stain1 #df ---- ,wax1 #de ,brush and ,bells for ,bridle1 #fc ,buckle ,tongue ,punch1 #ad ,buckles1 #fc1 #aah-abf ,buff ,hides1 ,white1 #da ,buff ,middling1 ,white ,bleached1 #da ,bull ,hides1 ,enamelled1 #da ,burgess's ,buckles1 #abd ,burnisher1 #dd ,butts1 ,black ,strap1 #ch ,buxton ,bit1 #aae ,cab1 ,hansom1 ,harness for1 #aef ---- ,harness1 #aef ---- ,saddle1 #aef ---- ,tree1 #aef ,calf-skins1 #dj ,cart ,belly ,band1 #ii ---- ,collars1 #ge-he ---- ,harness1 #fb-gd ---- ,saddles1 #hf-ajj ---- ----1 ,panel of1 #hf ---- ----1 ,tree for1 #hf ,cement1 ,leather1 #dg ,chain ,front1 #ada ,chains1 #abe ----1 ,hip-strap1 #ajc ,chapes1 #ff ,chased ,buckles1 #abc ,chatham ,buckles1 #abc ,checkers1 #bj ,cheek ,curb ,bit1 ,globe1 #aad ,chin ,strap1 #ga ,clamp or ,clams1 #bd ,clip1 ,hame1 #abc ,clout ,nails1 #cd ,coach ,hides1 #da ,collar1 ,cart1 #ge-he ----1 ,lining1 #gh ----1 ,pipe1 #gg ---- ,rod1 ,iron1 #bg ---- ,side-piece1 #hc ----1 ,van1 #abh ,coloured ,flocks1 #cf ,couplings for ,plough ,gear1 #aaj ,compasses1 #ba ----1 ,race1 #ba ,composition1 ,harness1 #df ,corner-piece1 ,nose-band1 #fi ,cow-backs1 ,japanned1 #ch ,cow-hides1 ,enamelled1 #da ,creased ,loop1 ,box1 #eg ,creases1 #ai ,crew ,punch1 #ad ,crupper1 ,cart ,harness1 #ic ---- ,dock1 #adf ,crupper1 ,van ,harness1 #ade ,curb ,bit1 #aae ---- ----1 ,globe ,cheek1 #aad ,cut ,tacks1 #cd ,cutter1 ,washer1 #ac ,cutting ,board1 #db ---- ,gauge1 #aj1 #aa ---- ,pliers1 #bg ,cutting up ,hides1 #db ,dees1 ,breeching1 #adh ,diaper ,webs1 #de ,dock1 #adf ,double-rein ,hides1 #ci ,dress ,spurs1 #aaf ,drummed ,flocks1 #cf ,dye1 #ce ,dyeing1 ,iron ,liquor for1 #de ,ear-piece1 #fi ,edge ,trimmers1 #ab ,enamelled ,hides1 #da ,exercising ,bit1 #aaf ,face-pieces1 ,brass1 #fc ,farm ,harness1 ,oil for1 #dg ,felt1 #cf ,files1 #bi ,flap ,hides1 ,japanned1 #ch ,flocks1 #cf ,flour ,paste1 #de ,fly-terrets1 #abd ,foot-rule1 #ba ,fore ,gear and ,leader ,harness1 #aja-ajf ,forehead ,band1 #fh ---- ----1 ,van ,harness1 #ada ,forewale1 #gf ,fork1 ,straining1 #bi ,four-wheel ,cab ,harness1 #aef ,gauge1 ,cutting1 #aj1 #aa ----1 ,plough1 #aa ,gear ,buckles1 ,scotch1 #fc ---- ,hides1 ,brown1 #dj ----1 ,plough1 #ajg-aaj ----1 ,shaft1 #fb ,gig ,curb ,bit1 #aae ---- ,harness1 #abg ---- ,snaffle1 #aac ,gilding ,leather1 #dh ,girth1 ,cart ,saddle1 #ia ---- ,chape ,punch1 #ae ----1 ,van ,harness1 #acg ---- ,webs1 #dd ,globe ,cheek ,curb ,bit1 #aad ,hackney ,bits1 #aab1 #aac ,half-moon ,scalloping ,irons1 #af ,hame ,clip1 #abe ---- ,knobs1 ,brass1 #fc ---- ,plates1 ,brass1 #fc ---- ,straps1 #ii ---- ,tug ,loops1 #aec ,hames1 #abd-abe ,hammer1 #ag ,hand ,knife1 #aj ---- ,punch1 #ae ,hand-iron1 #bc ,hansom ,cab ,harness1 #aef ---- ---- ,saddle1 #aef ,hard ,wax1 #ca ,harness1 ,cab1 #abg-aef ----1 ,cart1 #fb-gd ---- ,composition1 #df ----1 ,fore ,gear and ,leader1 #aja-ajf ----1 ,gig1 #abg ---- ,jet1 #dg ---- ,oil1 #dg ----1 ,plough1 #ajg-aaj ----1 ,van1 #abg-aef ---- ,waterproof ,paste1 #dg ,head ,knife1 #aj ---- ,strap1 #gc ,head-collar ,rein ,backs1 #ci ,hearts1 ,brass1 #fc ,hemp1 #cj1 #cc ,hides1 #cg-db ----1 ,cutting up1 #db ,hind ,tugs1 #ig ,hip-strap ,chains1 #ajc ,hog-skins1 #dj ,hook1 ,plough ,back-band1 #ajg ----1 ,wire1 #fa ,horse ,hides1 ,japanned1 #ch ,horsehair1 ,curled1 #cf ,housing1 ,cart ,saddle1 #ib ,iron ,collar ,rod1 #bg ----1 ,hand1 #bc ---- ,liquor for ,dyeing1 #de ----1 ,palm1 #bc ----1 ,pricking1 #ah ----1 ,scalloping1 #af ---- ,seat1 #bg ,jambles ,plates1 #fc ,japanned ,hides1 #ch ---- ,nails1 #cd ---- ,welting ,seals1 #ch ---- ,winker ,hides1 #ch ,jet1 ,harness1 #dg ,knives1 #aj ,lace ,needles1 #ec ,ladies' ,horse ,bits1 #aab ---- ,spurs1 #aaf ---- ,stirrups1 #aag ,lash1 ,throat1 #gc ,lead ,piece for ,punching1 #af ,leader ,harness1 ,fore ,gear and1 #aja-ajf ,leather1 #cg-db ----1 ,bronzing1 #dh ---- ,cement1 #dg ----1 ,fancy1 #da ,leather ,preserver1 #dg ----1 ,patent1 ,reviver for1 #df ----1 ,testing ,quality of1 #da ,lignum-vit ,round ,mallet1 #ag ,linen ,threads1 #cj ,lining ,cart ,saddle ,panel1 #hg ---- ,collar1 #gh ---- ,winkers1 #abg ,liverpool ,bits1 #aad ,loin ,straps1 #ih ,loop1 ,box1 #eg ----1 ,creasing1 #ei ---- ,leather1 ,dyeing1 #ce ----1 ,pipe1 #eg ----1 ,running1 #di1 #eg ,looping1 #eg-fa ,loop-sticks1 #bh ,machine1 ,slitting1 #aa ,mallets1 #ag ,materials1 #cj-dh ,melbourne ,buckles1 #abd ,middling1 ,white ,bleached ,buff1 #da ,mill ,bands1 #dj ,nail-claw1 #bg ,nails1 #cd1 #ce ,needles1 #bb ----1 ,threading1 #ea ,nipple1 ,hand ,punch1 #af ,nose-band1 #fc ----1 ,van ,harness1 #adj ,octagons1 ,brass1 #fc ,officers' ,spurs1 #aaf ,oil1 ,harness1 #dg ,oval ,punch1 #ac1 #ad ,ovals1 ,brass1 #fc ,ox ,hides1 ,enamelled1 #da ,palm-iron1 #bc ,panel1 ,cart ,saddle1 #hf ----1 ,van ,saddle1 #acd ,paring ,knife1 #aj ,paste1 #de1 #abg ----1 ,brass ,polishing1 #dg ----1 ,harness1 #dg ,patent ,leather ,reviver1 #df ,pelham ,bits1 #aab ---- ,snaffles1 #aac ,pincers1 #bg ,pipe ,collar1 #gg ---- ,loop1 #eg ,plate ,powder1 #dg ,pliers1 #bg ,plough ,back-band ,hook1 #ajg ---- ,gear ,couplings1 #aaj ---- ,harness1 #ajg-aaj ,plough-gauge1 #aa ,pocket-book or ,purse ,hides1 #dj ,polishing ,paste1 ,brass1 #dg ,powder1 ,plate1 #dg ,preserver1 ,leather1 #dg ,prickers1 ,wheel1 #ai ,pricking-iron1 #ah ,punches1 #ac-af ,punching1 ,lead ,piece for1 #af ,purse or ,pocket-book ,hides1 #dj ,race ,compasses1 #ba ---- ,girth ,webs1 #dd ,rasps1 #bi ,rein1 #gc ---- ,backs1 ,head-collar1 #ci ---- ,hides and ,backs1 #ch ---- ,stops1 #aef ,reins1 ,van ,harness1 #aed ,reviver1 ,patent ,leather1 #df ,riding ,bits1 #aab ---- ,saddles1 ,stain for1 #df ,rivets1 #abf ,roller ,buckles1 #abf ---- ,girth ,webs1 #dd ,rosette ,punches1 #af ,round ,awl1 #bb ---- ,file1 #bi ---- ,knife1 #aj ---- ,punch1 #ac1 #ad ,round-headed ,nails1 #cd ,rubber1 #bh ,running ,loop1 #ej1 #eg ,russet ,brown ,stain1 #df ,saddle1 ,cab1 #aef ----1 ,cart1 #hf-ajj ---- ,girths1 #ia ----1 ,hansom ,cab1 #aef ---- ,stain1 #df ---- ,straps1 #ia ----1 ,van1 #acj ,safety ,slipper ,stirrup1 #aag ,scalloping ,irons1 #af ,scotch ,brass ,gear ,buckles1 #fc ,screw ,crease1 #ai ---- ,race1 #ai ---- ,spurs1 #aaf ,seals1 ,japanned ,welting1 #ch ,seal-skins1 #da ,seat ,awl1 #bb ---- ,iron1 #bg ,sewing ,awl1 #ba ,shaft ,gear1 #fb ---- ,tug ,buckles1 #abd ---- ,tugs1 ,clamp for ,sewing1 #bd ---- ----1 ,van1 #aea ,sheep-skins1 #dj ,sheep's ,wool1 #cf ,shoulders1 ,hide1 #ch-dj ,show or ,stallion ,bit1 #aaf ,silk ,threads1 #cj ,single ,crease1 #ai ,skins1 ,calf1 #dj ----1 ,hog1 #dj ----1 ,seal1 #da ----1 ,sheep1 #dj ----1 ,white1 #ec ,skirt ,hides and ,backs1 #dj ,slipper ,stirrups1 #aag ,slitting ,machine1 #aa ,snaffles1 #aac1 #aaf ,spokeshave1 #aa ,spur ,shoulders1 ,black1 #ch ,spurs1 #aaf ,square ,file1 #bi ,squares1 ,brass1 #fc ,stain1 #ce ,stains1 ,various1 #df ,stallion or ,show ,bit1 #aaf ,stars1 ,brass1 #fc ,steel ,seat-iron1 #bg ,stirrup ,hides1 #dj ,stirrups1 #aag ,stitching ,awls1 #ba ----1 ,back1 #eb ----1 ,simple ,exercises in1 #di-ef ---- with ,white ,lace1 #eb ,straight ,scalloping ,irons1 #af ,straining ,fork1 #bi ---- ,webs1 #de ,strap1 ,box1 #di ---- ,butts1 ,black1 #ch ---- for ,cart ,saddle1 #ia ----1 ,chin1 #ga ----1 ,hame1 #ii ----1 ,head1 #gc ----1 ,loin1 #ih ----1 ,winker1 #gb ,swing1 ,brass1 #fc ,swivelled ,bridoon ,bit1 #aae ,swivels1 #abd ,tacks1 ,cut1 #cd ,tallow1 #ca ,team ,harness1 ,oil for1 #dg ,terrets1 #abd ,threads1 #cj1 #cc1 #ge ,throat ,lash1 #gc ,tools1 #aj-bi ,trace ,backs1 #cg ----1 ,van ,harness1 #aec ,tree1 ,cab ,saddle1 #aef ,tree1 ,cart ,saddle1 #hf ----1 ,van ,saddle1 #acb ,trimmers1 ,edge1 #ab ,trousers ,spurs1 #aaf ,tugs1 ,hind1 #ig ,van ,collar1 #abc ---- ,harness1 #abg-aee ---- ,saddle1 #acj ,vandyke ,scalloping ,irons1 #af ,vice1 #bg ,waist-belt1 #di-ef ,washer ,cutter1 #ac ,waterproof ,harness ,paste1 #dg ,wax1 ,black1 #ca1 #cc1 #de ----1 ,brown1 #de ----1 ,hard1 #ca ----1 ,white1 #cj ,waxed ,threads1 #cj ,webs1 #dd1 #de ,welting ,seals1 ,japanned1 #ch ,west ,end ,buckles1 #abb-abd ,weymouth ,bits1 #aab ,wheel ,prickers1 #ai ,white ,bleached ,buff ,middling1 #da ---- ,buff ,hides1 #da ---- ,flocks1 #cf ---- ,hemp ,thread1 #cc ---- ,lace1 ,stitching with1 #eb ---- ,skin1 #ec ---- ,wax1 #cj ,wilson ,snaffle1 #aac ,winker ,hides1 #ch ---- ----1 ,japanned1 #ch ---- ,straps1 #gb ---- ----1 ,van ,harness1 #adb ,winkers1 #fd1 #abg ,wire ,hook1 #fa ---- ,nails1 #cd ,wrench1 #bg ,yellow ,hemp ,thread1 #cc ---- ,stain1 #df ,,printed ,,by ,,cassell ,,and ,,company1 ,,limited1 ,,la ,,belle ,,sauvage1 ,e4,c4 ,transcriber's ,notes pg #bd ,added period after3 part of the iron is not available pg #ec ,changed3 ,with the wheel pricker to3 ,with the wheel-pricker pg #ei ,changed3 ,when finished1 apply a litle to3 ,when finished1 apply a little pg #ii ,changed3 these face-pieces being a litle to3 these face-pieces being a little ,many hyphenated and non-hyphenated word combinations left as written4