,,bohn',s ,,scientific ,,library4       
,,humboldt',s ,,personal ,,narrative    
,,volume #b4  ,,personal ,,narrative    
,,of ,,travels ,,to ,,the ,,equinoctial 
,,regions ,,of ,,america ,,during ,,the 
,,years #agii-ahjd  ,,by  ,,alexander   
,,von ,,humboldt ,,and ,,aime           
,,bonpland4  ,,translated ,,from ,,the  
,,french ,,of  ,,alexander ,,von        
,,humboldt  ,,and ,,edited ,,by         
,,thomasina ,,ross4  ,,in ,,three       
,,volumes  ,,volume #b4   ,,london4     
,,george ,,bell  ,,sons4 #aijg4         
,,london3 ,,portugal ,,st41 ,,lincoln',s
 ,,inn4 ,,cambridge3 ,,deighton1 ,,bell 
,,and ,,co4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,the         
,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,bombay3 ,a4,h4      
,,wheeler ,,and ,,co4   999999  ,a      
tablon1 equal to #ahdi square toises1   
contains nearly an acre and one-fifth3 a
 legal acre has #acdd square toises1 and
 #a4ie legal acre is equal to one       
hectare4  ,a torta weighs three quarters
 of a pound1 and three tortas cost      
generally in the province of ,caracas   

one silver rial1 or one-eighth of a     
piastre4  ,it is sufficient to mention1 
that the cubic foot contains #b1ihe1ihd 
cubic lines4  ,foot 7old measure of     
,france7 about five feet three inches   
,english measure4    ,,volume #b4       
,,contents4   ,,chapter #b4af4  ,,lake  
,,of ,,tacarigua4--,,hot ,,springs ,,of 
,,mariara4--,,town ,,of ,,nueva         
,,valencia ,,del ,,rey4--,,descent      
,,towards ,,the ,,coasts ,,of ,,porto   
,,cabello4   ,,chapter #b4ag4           
,,mountains ,,which ,,separate ,,the    
,,valleys ,,of ,,aragua ,,from ,,the    
,,llanos ,,of ,,caracas4--,,villa ,,de  
,,cura4--,,parapara4--,,llanos ,,or     
,,steppes4--,,calabozo4   ,,chapter     
#b4ah4  ,,san ,,fernando ,,de           
,,apure4--,,intertwinings ,,and         
,,bifurcations ,,of ,,the ,,rivers      
,,apure ,,and ,,arauca4--,,navigation   
,,on ,,the ,,rio ,,apure4   ,,chapter   
#b4ai4  ,,junction ,,of ,,the ,,apure   
,,and ,,the ,,orinoco4--,,mountains ,,of
                                        

,,encaramada4--,,uruana4--,,baraguan4--,
,carichana4--,,mouth ,,of ,,the         
,,meta4--,,island ,,of ,,panumana4      
,,chapter #b4bj4  ,,the ,,mouth ,,of    
,,the ,,rio ,,anaveni4--,,peak ,,of     
,,uniana4--,,mission ,,of               
,,atures4--,,cataract1 ,,or ,,raudal    
,,of ,,mapara4--,,islets ,,of           
,,surupamana ,,and ,,uirapuri4          
,,chapter #b4ba4  ,,raudal ,,of         
,,garcita4--,,maypures4--,,cataracts    
,,of ,,quituna4--,,mouth ,,of ,,the     
,,vichada ,,and ,,the ,,zama4--,,rock   
,,of ,,aricagua4--,,siquita4   ,,chapter
 #b4bb4  ,,san ,,fernando ,,de          
,,atabapo4--,,san ,,balthasar4--,,the   
,,rivers ,,temi ,,and                   
,,tuamini4--,,javita4--,,portage ,,from 
,,the ,,tuamini ,,to ,,the ,,rio        
,,negro4   ,,chapter #b4bc4  ,,the ,,rio
 ,,negro4--,,boundaries ,,of            
,,brazil4--,,the                        
,,cassiquiare4--,,bifurcation ,,of ,,the
 ,,orinoco4   ,,chapter #b4bd4  ,,the   
,,upper ,,orinoco1 ,,from ,,the         

,,esmeralda ,,to ,,the ,,confluence ,,of
 ,,the ,,guaviare4--,,second ,,passage  
,,across ,,the ,,cataracts ,,of ,,atures
 ,,and ,,maypures4--,,the ,,lower       
,,orinoco1 ,,between ,,the ,,mouth ,,of 
,,the ,,rio ,,apure1 ,,and ,,angostura  
,,the ,,capital ,,of ,,spanish ,,guiana4
   999999  ,,personal ,,narrative ,,of  
,a ,,journey ,,to ,,the ,,equinoctial   
,,regions ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,continent4 
,,volume #b4   ,,chapter #b4af4  ,,lake 
,,of ,,tacarigua4 ,,hot ,,springs ,,of  
,,mariara4 ,,town ,,of ,,nueva          
,,valencia ,,del ,,rey4 ,,descent       
,,towards ,,the ,,coasts ,,of ,,porto   
,,cabello4  ,the valleys of ,aragua form
 a narrow basin between granitic and    
calcareous mountains of unequal height4 
,on the north1 they are separated by the
 ,sierra ,mariara from the sea-coast2   
and towards the south1 the chain of     
,guacimo and ,yusma serves them as a    
rampart against the heated air of the   
steppes4 ,groups of hills1 high enough  
to determine the course of the waters1  

close this basin on the east and west   
like transverse dykes4 ,we find these   
hills between the ,tuy and ,la          
,victoria1 as well as on the road from  
,valencia to ,nirgua1 and at the        
mountains of ,torito499 799 ,the lofty  
mountains of ,los ,teques1 where the    
,tuy takes its source1 may be looked    
upon as the eastern boundary of the     
valleys of ,aragua4 ,the level of the   
ground continues1 in fact1 to rise from 
,la ,victoria to the ,hacienda de ,tuy2 
but the river ,tuy1 turning southward in
 the direction of the sierras of        
,guairaima and ,tiara has found an issue
 on the east2 and it is more natural to 
consider as the limits of the basin of  
,aragua a line drawn through the sources
 of the streams flowing into the lake of
 ,valencia4 ,the charts and sections ,i 
have traced of the road from ,caracas to
 ,nueva ,valencia1 and from ,porto      
,cabello to ,villa de ,cura1 exhibit the
 whole of these geological relations47  
,from this extraordinary configuration  

of the land1 the little rivers of the   
valleys of ,aragua form a peculiar      
system1 and direct their course towards 
a basin closed on all sides4 ,these     
rivers do not bear their waters to the  
ocean2 they are collected in a lake2 and
 subject to the peculiar influence of   
evaporation1 they lose themselves1 if we
 may use the expression1 in the         
atmosphere4 ,on the existence of rivers 
and lakes1 the fertility of the soil and
 the produce of cultivation in these    
valleys depend4 ,the aspect of the spot1
 and the experience of half a century1  
have proved that the level of the waters
 is not invariable2 the waste by        
evaporation1 and the increase from the  
waters running into the lake1 do not    
uninterruptedly balance each other4 ,the
 lake being elevated one thousand feet  
above the neighbouring steppes of       
,calabozo1 and one thousand three       
hundred and thirty-two feet above the   
level of the ocean1 it has been         
suspected that there are subterranean   

communications and filtrations4 ,the    
appearance of new islands1 and the      
gradual retreat of the waters1 have led 
to the belief that the lake may perhaps1
 in time1 become entirely dry4 ,an      
assemblage of physical circumstances so 
remarkable was well fitted to fix my    
attention on those valleys where the    
wild beauty of nature is embellished by 
agricultural industry1 and the arts of  
rising civilization4  ,the lake of      
,valencia1 called ,tacarigua by the     
,indians1 exceeds in magnitude the lake 
of ,neufchatel in ,switzerland2 but its 
general form has more resemblance to the
 lake of ,geneva1 which is nearly at the
 same height above the level of the sea4
 ,as the slope of the ground in the     
valleys of ,aragua tends towards the    
south and the west1 that part of the    
basin still covered with water is the   
nearest to the southern chain of the    
mountains of ,guigue1 of ,yusma1 and of 
,guacimo1 which stretch towards the high
 savannahs of ,ocumare4 ,the opposite   

banks of the lake of ,valencia display a
 singular contrast2 those on the south  
are desert1 and almost uninhabited1 and 
a screen of high mountains gives them a 
gloomy and monotonous aspect4 ,the      
northern shore on the contrary1 is      
cheerful1 pastoral1 and decked with the 
rich cultivation of the sugar-cane1     
coffee-tree1 and cotton4 ,paths bordered
 with cestrums1 azedaracs1 and other    
shrubs always in flower1 cross the      
plain1 and join the scattered farms4    
,every house is surrounded by clumps of 
trees4 ,the ceiba with its large yellow 
flowers99 799 ,carnes tollendas1 ,bombax
 hibiscifolius47 gives a peculiar       
character to the landscape1 mingling its
 branches with those of the purple      
erythrina4 ,this mixture of vivid       
vegetable colours contrasts finely with 
the uniform tint of an unclouded sky4   
,in the season of drought1 where the    
burning soil is covered with an         
undulating vapour1 artificial           
irrigations preserve verdure and promote

 fertility4 ,here and there the granite 
rock pierces through the cultivated     
ground4 ,enormous stony masses rise     
abruptly in the midst of the valley4    
,bare and forked1 they nourish a few    
succulent plants1 which prepare mould   
for future ages4 ,often on the summit of
 these lonely hills may be seen a       
fig-tree or a clusia with fleshy leaves1
 which has fixed its roots in the rock1 
and towers over the landscape4 ,with    
their dead and withered branches1 these 
trees look like signals erected on a    
steep cliff4 ,the form of these mounts  
unfolds the secret of their ancient     
origin2 for when the whole of this      
valley was filled with water1 and the   
waves beat at the foot of the peaks of  
,mariara 7the ,devil's ,nook99 799 ,el  
,rincon del ,diablo477 and the chain of 
the coast1 these rocky hills were shoals
 or islets4  ,these features of a rich  
landscape1 these contrasts between the  
two banks of the lake of ,valencia1     
often reminded me of the ,pays de ,vaud1

 where the soil1 everywhere cultivated1 
and everywhere fertile1 offers the      
husbandman1 the shepherd1 and the       
vine-dresser1 the secure fruit of their 
labours1 while1 on the opposite side1   
,chablais presents only a mountainous   
and half-desert country4 ,in these      
distant climes surrounded by exotic     
productions1 ,i loved to recall to mind 
the enchanting descriptions with which  
the aspect of the ,leman lake and the   
rocks of ,la ,meillerie inspired a great
 writer4 ,now1 while in the centre of   
civilized ,europe1 ,i endeavour in my   
turn to paint the scenes of the ,new    
,world1 ,i do not imagine ,i present the
 reader with clearer images1 or more    
precise ideas1 by comparing our         
landscapes with those of the equinoctial
 regions4 ,it cannot be too often       
repeated that nature1 in every zone1    
whether wild or cultivated1 smiling or  
majestic1 has an individual character4  
,the impressions which she excites are  
infinitely varied1 like the emotions    

produced by works of genius1 according  
to the age in which they were conceived1
 and the diversity of language from     
which they in part derive their charm4  
,we must limit our comparisons merely to
 dimensions and external form4 ,we may  
institute a parallel between the        
colossal summit of ,mont ,blanc and the 
,himalaya ,mountains2 the cascades of   
the ,pyrenees and those of the          
,cordilleras3 but these comparisons1    
useful with respect to science1 fail to 
convey an idea of the characteristics of
 nature in the temperate and torrid     
zones4 ,on the banks of a lake1 in a    
vast forest1 at the foot of summits     
covered with eternal snow1 it is not the
 mere magnitude of the objects which    
excites our admiration4 ,that which     
speaks to the soul1 which causes such   
profound and varied emotions1 escapes   
our measurements as it does the forms of
 language4 ,those who feel powerfully   
the charms of nature cannot venture on  
comparing one with another1 scenes      

totally different in character4  ,but it
 is not alone the picturesque beauties  
of the lake of ,valencia that have given
 celebrity to its banks4 ,this basin    
presents several other phenomena1 and   
suggests questions1 the solution of     
which is interesting alike to physical  
science and to the well-being of the    
inhabitants4 ,what are the causes of the
 diminution of the waters of the lake8  
,is this diminution more rapid now than 
in former ages8 ,can we presume that an 
equilibrium between the waters flowing  
in and the waters lost will be shortly  
re-established1 or may we apprehend that
 the lake will entirely disappear8      
,according to astronomical observations 
made at ,la ,victoria1 ,hacienda de     
,cura1 ,nueva ,valencia1 and ,guigue1   
the length of the lake in its present   
state from ,cagua to ,guayos1 is ten    
leagues1 or twenty-eight thousand eight 
hundred toises4 ,its breadth is very    
unequal4 ,if we judge from the latitudes
 of the mouth of the ,rio ,cura and the 

village of ,guigue1 it nowhere surpasses
 #b4c leagues1 or six thousand five     
hundred toises2 most commonly it is but 
four or five miles4 ,the dimensions1 as 
deduced from my observations are much   
less than those hitherto adopted by the 
natives4 ,it might be thought that1 to  
form a precise idea of the progressive  
diminution of the waters1 it would be   
sufficient to compare the present       
dimensions of the lake with those       
attributed to it by ancient chroniclers2
 by ,oviedo for instance1 in his        
,history of the ,province of ,venezuela1
 published about the year #agbc4 ,this  
writer in his emphatic style1 assigns to
 this inland sea1 this monstruoso cuerpo
 de la laguna de ,valencia99 799        
,enormous body of the lake of           
,valencia471 fourteen leagues in length 
and six in breadth4 ,he affirms that at 
a small distance from the shore the lead
 finds no bottom2 and that large        
floating islands cover the surface of   
the waters1 which are constantly        

agitated by the winds4 ,no importance   
can be attached to estimates which1     
without being founded on any            
measurement1 are expressed in leagues   
7leguas7 reckoned in the colonies at    
three thousand1 five thousand1 and six  
thousand six hundred and fifty varas499 
799 ,seamen being the first1 and for a  
long time the only1 persons who         
introduced into the ,spanish colonies   
any precise ideas on the astronomical   
position and distances of places1 the   
legua nautica of #ffej varas1 or of     
#bhed toises 7#bj in a degree71 was     
originally used in ,mexico and          
throughout ,south ,america2 but this    
legua nautica has been gradually reduced
 to one-half or one-third1 on account of
 the slowness of travelling across steep
 mountains1 or dry and burning plains4  
,the common people measure only time    
directly2 and then1 by arbitrary        
hypotheses1 infer from the time the     
space of ground travelled over4 ,in the 
course of my geographical researches1 ,i

 have had frequent opportunities of     
examining the real value of these       
leagues1 by comparing the itinerary     
distances between points lying under the
 same meridian with the difference of   
latitudes47 ,oviedo1 who must so often  
have passed over the valleys of ,aragua1
 asserts that the town of ,nueva        
,valencia del ,rey was built in #aeee1  
at the distance of half a league from   
the lake2 and that the proportion       
between the length of the lake and its  
breadth1 is as seven to three4 ,at      
present1 the town of ,valencia is       
separated from the lake by level ground 
of more than two thousand seven hundred 
toises 7which ,oviedo would no doubt    
have estimated as a space of a league   
and a half72 and the length of the basin
 of the lake is to its breadth as #aj to
 #b4c1 or as #g to #a4f4 ,the appearance
 of the soil between ,valencia and      
,guigue1 the little hills rising        
abruptly in the plain east of the ,cano 
de ,cambury1 some of which 7el ,islote  

and la ,isla de la ,negra or            
,caratapona7 have even preserved the    
name of islands1 sufficiently prove that
 the waters have retired considerably   
since the time of ,oviedo4 ,with respect
 to the change in the general form of   
the lake1 it appears to me improbable   
that in the seventeenth century its     
breadth was nearly the half of its      
length4 ,the situation of the granite   
mountains of ,mariara and of ,guigue1   
the slope of the ground which rises more
 rapidly towards the north and south    
than towards the east and west1 are     
alike repugnant to this supposition4    
,in treating the long-discussed question
 of the diminution of the waters1 ,i    
conceive we must distinguish between the
 different periods at which the sinking 
of their level has taken place4         
,wherever we examine the valleys of     
rivers1 or the basins of lakes1 we see  
the ancient shore at great distances4   
,no doubt seems now to be entertained1  
that our rivers and lakes have undergone

 immense diminutions2 but many          
geological facts remind us also1 that   
these great changes in the distribution 
of the waters have preceded all         
historical times2 and that for many     
thousand years most lakes have attained 
a permanent equilibrium between the     
produce of the water flowing in1 and    
that of evaporation and filtration4     
,whenever we find this equilibrium      
broken1 it will be well rather to       
examine whether the rupture be not owing
 to causes merely local1 and of very    
recent date1 than to admit an           
uninterrupted diminution of the water4  
,this reasoning is conformable to the   
more circumspect method of modern       
science4 ,at a time when the physical   
history of the world1 traced by the     
genius of some eloquent writers1        
borrowed all its charms from the        
fictions of imagination1 the phenomenon 
of which we are treating would have been
 adduced as a new proof of the contrast 
these writers sought to establish       

between the two continents4 ,to         
demonstrate that ,america rose later    
than ,asia and ,europe from the bosom of
 the waters1 the lake of ,tacarigua     
would have been described as one of     
those interior basins which have not yet
 become dry by the effects of slow and  
gradual evaporation4 ,i have no doubt   
that1 in very remote times1 the whole   
valley1 from the foot of the mountains  
of ,cocuyza to those of ,torito and     
,nirgua1 and from ,la ,sierra de        
,mariara to the chain of ,guigue1 of    
,guacimo1 and ,la ,palma1 was filled    
with water4 ,everywhere the form of the 
promontories1 and their steep           
declivities1 seem to indicate the shore 
of an alpine lake1 similar to those of  
,styria and ,tyrol4 ,the same little    
helicites1 the same valvatae1 which now 
live in the lake of ,valencia1 are found
 in layers of three or four feet thick  
as far inland as ,turmero and ,la       
,concesion near ,la ,victoria4 ,these   
facts undoubtedly prove a retreat of the

 waters2 but nothing indicates that this
 retreat has continued from a very      
remote period to our days4 ,the valleys 
of ,aragua are among the portions of    
,venezuela most anciently peopled2 and  
yet there is no mention in ,oviedo1 or  
any other old chronicler1 of a sensible 
diminution of the lake4 ,must we        
suppose1 that this phenomenon escaped   
their observation1 at a time when the   
,indians far exceeded the white         
population1 and when the banks of the   
lake were less inhabited8 ,within half a
 century1 and particularly within these 
thirty years1 the natural desiccation of
 this great basin has excited general   
attention4 ,we find vast tracts of land 
which were formerly inundated1 now dry1 
and already cultivated with plantains1  
sugar-canes1 or cotton4 ,wherever a hut 
is erected on the bank of the lake1 we  
see the shore receding from year to     
year4 ,we discover islands1 which1 in   
consequence of the retreat of the       
waters1 are just beginning to be joined 

to the continent1 as for instance the   
rocky island of ,culebra1 in the        
direction of ,guigue2 other islands     
already form promontories1 as the       
,morro1 between ,guigue and ,nueva      
,valencia1 and ,la ,cabrera1 south-east 
of ,mariara2 others again are now rising
 in the islands themselves like         
scattered hills4 ,among these last1 so  
easily recognised at a distance1 some   
are only a quarter of a mile1 others a  
league from the present shore4 ,i may   
cite as the most remarkable three       
granite islands1 thirty or forty toises 
high1 on the road from the ,hacienda de 
,cura to ,aguas ,calientes2 and at the  
western extremity of the lake1 the      
,serrito de ,don ,pedro1 ,islote1 and   
,caratapona4 ,on visiting two islands   
entirely surrounded by water1 we found  
in the midst of brushwood1 on small     
flats 7four1 six1 and even eight toises 
height above the surface of the lake17  
fine sand mixed with helicites1         
anciently deposited by the waters4      

7,isla de ,cura and ,cabo ,blanco4 ,the 
promontory of ,cabrera has been         
connected with the shore ever since the 
year #agej or #agfj by a little valley1 
which bears the name of ,portachuelo47  
,in each of these islands may be        
perceived the most certain traces of the
 gradual sinking of the waters4 ,but    
still farther 7and this accident is     
regarded by the inhabitants as a        
marvellous phenomenon7 in #agif three   
new islands appeared to the east of the 
island ,caiguira1 in the same direction 
as the islands ,burro1 ,otama1 and      
,zorro4 ,these new islands1 called by   
the people ,los nuevos ,penones1 or ,los
 ,aparecidos199 799 ,los ,nuevos        
,penones1 the ,new ,rocks4 ,los         
,aparecidos1 the                        
,unexpectedly-appeared47 form a kind of 
banks with surfaces quite flat4 ,they   
rose1 in #ahjj1 more than a foot above  
the mean level of the water4  ,it has   
already been observed that the lake of  
,valencia1 like the lakes of the valley 

of ,mexico1 forms the centre of a little
 system of rivers1 none of which have   
any communication with the ocean4 ,these
 rivers1 most of which deserve only the 
name of torrents1 or brooks199 are      
twelve or fourteen in number4 799 ,the  
following are their names3 ,rios de     
,aragua1 ,turmero1 ,maracay1 ,tapatapa1 
,agnes ,calientes1 ,mariara1 ,cura1     
,guacara1 ,guataparo1 ,valencia1 ,cano  
,grande de ,cambury1 etc47 ,the         
inhabitants1 little acquainted with the 
effects of evaporation1 have long       
imagined that the lake has a            
subterranean outlet1 by which a quantity
 of water runs out equal to that which  
flows in by the rivers4 ,some suppose   
that this outlet communicates with      
grottos1 supposed to be at great depth2 
others believe that the water flows     
through an oblique channel into the     
basin of the ocean4 ,these bold         
hypotheses on the communication between 
two neighbouring basins have presented  
themselves in every zone to the         

imagination of the ignorant1 as well as 
to that of the learned2 for the latter1 
without confessing it1 sometimes repeat 
popular opinions in scientific language4
 ,we hear of subterranean gulfs and     
outlets in the ,new ,world1 as on the   
shores of the ,caspian sea1 though the  
lake of ,tacarigua is two hundred and   
twenty-two toises higher1 and the       
,caspian sea fifty-four toises lower1   
than the sea2 and though it is well     
known1 that fluids find the same level1 
when they communicate by a lateral      
channel4  ,the changes which the        
destruction of forests1 the clearing of 
plains1 and the cultivation of indigo1  
have produced within half a century in  
the quantity of water flowing in on the 
one hand1 and on the other the          
evaporation of the soil1 and the dryness
 of the atmosphere1 present causes      
sufficiently powerful to explain the    
progressive diminution of the lake of   
,valencia4 ,i cannot concur in the      
opinion of ,m4 ,depons99 7who visited   

these countries since ,i was there7 that
 to set the mind at rest1 and for the   
honour of science1 a subterranean issue 
must be admitted4 799 ,in his ,voyage a 
la ,terre ,ferme ,m4 ,depons says1 ,the 
small extent of the surface of the lake 
renders impossible the supposition that 
evaporation alone1 however considerable 
within the tropics1 could remove as much
 water as the rivers furnish4 ,in the   
sequel1 the author himself seems to     
abandon what he terms this occult case1 
the hypothesis of an aperture47 ,by     
felling the trees which cover the tops  
and the sides of mountains1 men in every
 climate prepare at once two calamities 
for future generations2 want of fuel and
 scarcity of water4 ,trees1 by the      
nature of their perspiration1 and the   
radiation from their leaves in a sky    
without clouds1 surround themselves with
 an atmosphere constantly cold and      
misty4 ,they affect the copiousness of  
springs1 not1 as was long believed1 by a
 peculiar attraction for the vapours    

diffused through the air1 but because1  
by sheltering the soil from the direct  
action of the sun1 they diminish the    
evaporation of water produced by rain4  
,when forests are destroyed1 as they are
 everywhere in ,america by the ,european
 planters1 with imprudent precipitancy1 
the springs are entirely dried up1 or   
become less abundant4 ,the beds of the  
rivers1 remaining dry during a part of  
the year1 are converted into torrents   
whenever great rains fall on the        
heights4 ,as the sward and moss         
disappear with the brushwood from the   
sides of the mountains1 the waters      
falling in rain are no longer impeded in
 their course2 and instead of slowly    
augmenting the level of the rivers by   
progressive filtrations1 they furrow1   
during heavy showers1 the sides of the  
hills1 bearing down the loosened soil1  
and forming sudden and destructive      
inundations4 ,hence it results1 that the
 clearing of forests1 the want of       
permanent springs1 and the existence of 

torrents1 are three phenomena closely   
connected together4 ,countries situated 
in opposite hemispheres1 as1 for        
example1 ,lombardy bordered by the      
,alps1 and ,lower ,peru inclosed between
 the ,pacific and the ,cordillera of the
 ,andes1 afford striking proofs of the  
justness of this assertion4  ,till the  
middle of the last century1 the         
mountains round the valleys of ,aragua  
were covered with forests4 ,great trees 
of the families of mimosa1 ceiba1 and   
the fig-tree1 shaded and spread coolness
 along the banks of the lake4 ,the      
plain1 then thinly inhabited1 was filled
 with brushwood1 interspersed with      
trunks of scattered trees and parasite  
plants1 enveloped with a thick sward1   
less capable of emitting radiant caloric
 than the soil that is cultivated and   
consequently not sheltered from the rays
 of the sun4 ,with the destruction of   
the trees1 and the increase of the      
cultivation of sugar1 indigo1 and       
cotton1 the springs1 and all the natural

 supplies of the lake of ,valencia1 have
 diminished from year to year4 ,it is   
difficult to form a just idea of the    
enormous quantity of evaporation which  
takes place under the torrid zone1 in a 
valley surrounded with steep            
declivities1 where a regular breeze and 
descending currents of air are felt     
towards evening1 and the bottom of which
 is flat1 and looks as if levelled by   
the waters4 ,it has been remarked1 that 
the heat which prevails throughout the  
year at ,cura1 ,guacara1 ,nueva         
,valencia1 and on the borders of the    
lake1 is the same as that felt at       
midsummer in ,naples and ,sicily4 ,the  
mean annual temperature of the valleys  
of ,aragua is nearly #be4e degrees2 my  
hygrometrical observations of the month 
of ,february1 taking the mean of day and
 night1 gave #ga4d degrees of the hair  
hygrometer4 ,as the words great drought 
and great humidity have no determinate  
signification1 and air that would be    
called very dry in the lower regions of 

the tropics would be regarded as humid  
in ,europe1 we can judge of these       
relations between climates only by      
comparing spots situated in the same    
zone4 ,now at ,cumana1 where it         
sometimes does not rain during a whole  
year1 and where ,i had the means of     
collecting a great number of hygrometric
 observations made at different hours of
 the day and night1 the mean humidity of
 the air is #hf degrees2 corresponding  
to the mean temperature of #bg4g        
degrees4 ,taking into account the       
influence of the rainy months1 that is  
to say1 estimating the difference       
observed in other parts of ,south       
,america between the mean humidity of   
the dry months and that of the whole    
year2 an annual mean humidity is        
obtained1 for the valleys of ,aragua1 at
 farthest of #gd degrees1 the           
temperature being #be4e degrees4 ,in    
this air1 so hot1 and at the same time  
so little humid1 the quantity of water  
evaporated is enormous4 ,the theory of  

,dalton estimates1 under the conditions 
just stated1 for the thickness of the   
sheet of water evaporated in an hour's  
time1 #j4cf mill41 or #c4h lines in     
twenty-four hours4 ,assuming for the    
temperate zone1 for instance at ,paris1 
the mean temperature to be #aj4f        
degrees1 and the mean humidity #hb      
degrees1 we find1 according to the same 
formulae1 #j4aj mill41 an hour1 and #a  
line for twenty-four hours4 ,if we      
prefer substituting for the uncertainty 
of these theoretical deductions the     
direct results of observation1 we may   
recollect that in ,paris1 and at        
,montmorency1 the mean annual           
evaporation was found by ,sedileau and  
,cotte1 to be from #cb in4 #a line to   
#ch in4 #d lines4 ,two able engineers in
 the south of ,france1 ,messrs4         
,clausade and ,pin1 found1 that in      
subtracting the effects of filtrations1 
the waters of the canal of ,languedoc1  
and the basin of ,saint ,ferreol lose   
every year from #j4geh met4 to #j4hab   

met41 or from #ccf to #cfj lines4 ,m4 de
 ,prony found nearly similar results in 
the ,pontine marshes4 ,the whole of     
these experiments1 made in the latitudes
 of #da and #di degrees1 and at #aj4e   
and #af degrees of mean temperature1    
indicate a mean evaporation of one line1
 or one and three-tenths a day4 ,in the 
torrid zone1 in the ,west ,india        
,islands for instance1 the effect of    
evaporation is three times as much1     
according to ,le ,gaux1 and double      
according to ,cassan4 ,at ,cumana1 in a 
place where the atmosphere is far more  
loaded with humidity than in the valley 
of ,aragua1 ,i have often seen evaporate
 during twelve hours1 in the sun1 #h4h  
mill41 in the shade #c4d mill42 and ,i  
believe1 that the annual produce of     
evaporation in the rivers near ,cumana  
is not less than one hundred and thirty 
inches4 ,experiments of this kind are   
extremely delicate1 but what ,i have    
stated will suffice to demonstrate how  
great must be the quantity of vapour    

that rises from the lake of ,valencia1  
and from the surrounding country1 the   
waters of which flow into the lake4 ,i  
shall have occasion elsewhere to resume 
this subject2 for1 in a work which      
displays the great laws of nature in    
different zones1 we must endeavour to   
solve the problem of the mean tension of
 the vapours contained in the atmosphere
 in different latitudes1 and at         
different heights above the surface of  
the ocean4  ,a great number of local    
circumstances cause the produce of      
evaporation to vary2 it changes in      
proportion as more or less shade covers 
the basin of the waters1 with their     
state of motion or repose1 with their   
depth1 and the nature and colour of     
their bottom2 but in general evaporation
 depends only on three circumstances1   
the temperature1 the tension of the     
vapours contained in the atmosphere1 and
 the resistance which the air1 more or  
less dense1 more or less agitated1      
opposes to the diffusion of vapour4 ,the

 quantity of water that evaporates in a 
given spot1 everything else being equal1
 is proportionate to the difference     
between the quantity of vapour which the
 ambient air can contain when saturated1
 and the quantity which it actually     
contains4 ,hence it follows that the    
evaporation is not so great in the      
torrid zone as might be expected from   
the enormous augmentation of            
temperature2 because1 in those ardent   
climates1 the air is habitually very    
humid4  ,since the increase of          
agricultural industry in the valleys of 
,aragua1 the little rivers which run    
into the lake of ,valencia can no longer
 be regarded as positive supplies during
 the six months succeeding ,december4   
,they remain dried up in the lower part 
of their course1 because the planters of
 indigo1 coffee1 and sugar-canes1 have  
made frequent drainings 7azequias71 in  
order to water the ground by trenches4  
,we may observe also1 that a pretty     
considerable river1 the ,rio ,pao1 which

 rises at the entrance of the ,llanos1  
at the foot of the range of hills called
 ,la ,galera1 heretofore mingled its    
waters with those of the lake1 by       
uniting with the ,cano de ,cambury1 on  
the road from the town of ,nueva        
,valencia to ,guigue4 ,the course of    
this river was from south to north4 ,at 
the end of the seventeenth century1 the 
proprietor of a neighbouring plantation 
dug at the back of the hill a new bed   
for the ,rio ,pao4 ,he turned the river2
 and1 after having employed part of the 
water for the irrigation of his fields1 
he caused the rest to flow at a venture 
southward1 following the declivity of   
the ,llanos4 ,in this new southern      
direction the ,rio ,pao1 mingled with   
three other rivers1 the ,tinaco1 the    
,guanarito1 and the ,chilua1 falls into 
the ,portuguesa1 which is a branch of   
the ,apure4 ,it is a remarkable         
phenomenon1 that by a particular        
position of the ground1 and the lowering
 of the ridge of division to south-west1

 the ,rio ,pao separates itself from the
 little system of interior rivers to    
which it originally belonged1 and for a 
century past has communicated1 through  
the channel of the ,apure and the       
,orinoco1 with the ocean4 ,what has been
 here effected on a small scale by the  
hand of man1 nature often performs1     
either by progressively elevating the   
level of the soil1 or by those falls of 
the ground occasioned by violent        
earthquakes4 ,it is probable1 that in   
the lapse of ages1 several rivers of    
,soudan1 and of ,new ,holland1 which are
 now lost in the sands1 or in inland    
basins1 will open for themselves a      
course to the shores of the ocean4 ,we  
cannot at least doubt1 that in both     
continents there are systems of interior
 rivers1 which may be considered as not 
entirely developed2 and which           
communicate with each other1 either in  
the time of great risings1 or by        
permanent bifurcations4  ,the ,rio ,pao 
has scooped itself out a bed so deep and

 broad1 that in the season of rains1    
when the ,cano ,grande de ,cambury      
inundates all the land to the north-west
 of ,guigue1 the waters of this ,cano1  
and those of the lake of ,valencia1 flow
 back into the ,rio ,pao itself2 so that
 this river1 instead of adding water to 
the lake1 tends rather to carry it away4
 ,we see something similar in ,north    
,america1 where geographers have        
represented on their maps an imaginary  
chain of mountains1 between the great   
lakes of ,canada and the country of the 
,miamis4 ,at the time of floods1 the    
waters flowing into the lakes           
communicate with those which run into   
the ,mississippi2 and it is practicable 
to proceed by boats from the sources of 
the river ,st4 ,mary to the ,wabash1 as 
well as from the ,chicago to the        
,illinois4 ,these analogous facts appear
 to me well worthy of the attention of  
hydrographers4  ,the land that surrounds
 the lake of ,valencia being entirely   
flat and even1 a diminution of a few    

inches in the level of the water exposes
 to view a vast extent of ground covered
 with fertile mud and organic remains499
 799 ,this ,i observed daily in the     
,lake of ,mexico47 ,in proportion as the
 lake retires1 cultivation advances     
towards the new shore4 ,these natural   
desiccations1 so important to           
agriculture1 have been considerable     
during the last ten years1 in which     
,america has suffered from great        
droughts4 ,instead of marking the       
sinuosities of the present banks of the 
lake1 ,i have advised the rich          
landholders in these countries to fix   
columns of granite in the basin itself1 
in order to observe from year to year   
the mean height of the waters4 ,the     
,marquis del ,toro has undertaken to put
 this design into execution1 employing  
the fine granite of the ,sierra de      
,mariara1 and establishing limnometers1 
on a bottom of gneiss rock1 so common in
 the lake of ,valencia4  ,it is         
impossible to anticipate the limits1    

more or less narrow1 to which this basin
 of water will one day be confined1 when
 an equilibrium between the streams     
flowing in and the produce of           
evaporation and filtration1 shall be    
completely established4 ,the idea very  
generally spread1 that the lake will    
soon entirely disappear1 seems to me    
chimerical4 ,if in consequence of great 
earthquakes1 or other causes equally    
mysterious1 ten very humid years should 
succeed to long droughts2 if the        
mountains should again become clothed   
with forests1 and great trees overshadow
 the shore and the plains of ,aragua1 we
 should more probably see the volume of 
the waters augment1 and menace that     
beautiful cultivation which now trenches
 on the basin of the lake4  ,while some 
of the cultivators of the valleys of    
,aragua fear the total disappearance of 
the lake1 and others its return to the  
banks it has deserted1 we hear the      
question gravely discussed at ,caracas1 
whether it would not be advisable1 in   

order to give greater extent to         
agriculture1 to conduct the waters of   
the lake into the ,llanos1 by digging a 
canal towards the ,rio ,pao4 ,the       
possibility99 of this enterprise cannot 
be denied1 particularly by having       
recourse to tunnels1 or subterranean    
canals4 7,the dividing ridge1 namely1   
that which divides the waters between   
the valleys of ,aragua and the ,llanos1 
lowers so much towards the west of      
,guigue1 as we have already observed1   
that there are ravines which conduct the
 waters of the ,cano de ,cambury1 the   
,rio ,valencia1 and the ,guataparo1 in  
the time of floods1 to the ,rio ,pao2   
but it would be easier to open a        
navigable canal from the lake of        
,valencia to the ,orinoco1 by the ,pao1 
the ,portuguesa1 and the ,apure1 than to
 dig a draining canal level with the    
bottom of the lake4 ,this bottom1       
according to the sounding1 and my       
barometric measurements1 is #dj toises  
less than #bbb1 or #ahb above the       

surface of the ocean4 ,on the road from 
,guigue to the ,llanos1 by the          
table-land of ,la ,villa de ,cura1 ,i   
found1 to the south of the dividing     
ridge1 and on its southern declivity1 no
 point of level corresponding to the    
#ahb toises1 except near ,san ,juan4    
,the absolute height of this village is 
#aid toises4 ,but1 ,i repeat that1      
farther towards the west1 in the country
 between the ,cano de ,cambury and the  
sources of the ,rio ,pao1 which ,i was  
not able to visit1 the point of level of
 the bottom of the lake is much further 
north47 ,the progressive retreat of the 
waters has given birth to the beautiful 
and luxuriant plains of ,maracay1 ,cura1
 ,mocundo1 ,guigue1 and ,santa ,cruz del
 ,escoval1 planted with tobacco1        
sugar-canes1 coffee1 indigo1 and cacao2 
but how can it be doubted for a moment  
that the lake alone spreads fertility   
over this country8 ,if deprived of the  
enormous mass of vapour which the       
surface of the waters sends forth daily 

into the atmosphere1 the valleys of     
,aragua would become as dry and barren  
as the surrounding mountains4  ,the mean
 depth of the lake is from twelve to    
fifteen fathoms2 the deepest parts are  
not1 as is generally admitted1 eighty1  
but thirty-five or forty deep4 ,such is 
the result of soundings made with the   
greatest care by ,don ,antonio ,manzano4
 ,when we reflect on the vast depths of 
all the lakes of ,switzerland1 which1   
notwithstanding their position in high  
valleys1 almost reach the level of the  
,mediterranean1 it appears surprising   
that greater cavities are not found at  
the bottom of the lake of ,valencia1    
which is also an ,alpine lake4 ,the     
deepest places are between the rocky    
island of ,burro and the point of ,cana 
,fistula1 and opposite the high         
mountains of ,mariara4 ,but in general  
the southern part of the lake is deeper 
than the northern3 nor must we forget   
that1 if all the shores be now low1 the 
southern part of the basin is the       

nearest to a chain of mountains with    
abrupt declivities2 and we know that    
even the sea is generally deepest where 
the coast is elevated1 rocky1 or        
perpendicular4  ,the temperature of the 
lake at the surface during my abode in  
the valleys of ,aragua1 in the month of 
,february1 was constantly from #bc to   
#bc4g degrees1 consequently a little    
below the mean temperature of the air4  
,this may be from the effect of         
evaporation1 which carries off caloric  
from the air and the water2 or because a
 great mass of water does not follow    
with an equal rapidity the changes in   
the temperature of the atmosphere1 and  
the lake receives streams which rise    
from several cold springs in the        
neighbouring mountains4 ,i have to      
regret that1 notwithstanding its small  
depth1 ,i could not determine the       
temperature of the water at thirty or   
forty fathoms4 ,i was not provided with 
the thermometrical sounding apparatus   
which ,i had used in the ,alpine lakes  

of ,salzburg1 and in the ,caribbean     
,sea4 ,the experiments of ,saussure     
prove that1 on both sides of the ,alps1 
the lakes which are from one hundred and
 ninety to two hundred and seventy-four 
toises of absolute elevation99 799 ,this
 is the difference between the absolute 
elevations of the lakes of ,geneva and  
,thun47 have1 in the middle of winter1  
at nine hundred1 at six hundred1 and    
sometimes even at one hundred and fifty 
feet of depth1 a uniform temperature    
from #d4c to #f degrees3 but these      
experiments have not yet been repeated  
in lakes situated under the torrid zone4
 ,the strata of cold water in           
,switzerland are of an enormous         
thickness4 ,they have been found so near
 the surface in the lakes of ,geneva and
 ,bienne1 that the decrement of heat in 
the water was one centesimal degree for 
ten or fifteen feet2 that is to say1    
eight times more rapid than in the      
ocean1 and forty-eight times more rapid 
than in the atmosphere4 ,in the         

temperate zone1 where the heat of the   
atmosphere sinks to the freezing point1 
and far lower1 the bottom of a lake1    
even were it not surrounded by glaciers 
and mountains covered with eternal snow1
 must contain particles of water which1 
having during winter acquired at the    
surface the maximum of their density1   
between #c4d and #d4d degrees1 have     
consequently fallen to the greatest     
depth4 ,other particles1 the temperature
 of which is #j4e degrees1 far from     
placing themselves below the stratum at 
#d degrees1 can only find their         
hydrostatic equilibrium above that      
stratum4 ,they will descend lower only  
when their temperature is augmented #c  
or #d degrees by the contact of strata  
less cold4 ,if water in cooling         
continued to condense uniformly to the  
freezing point1 there would be found1 in
 very deep lakes and basins having no   
communication with each other 7whatever 
the latitude of the place71 a stratum of
 water1 the temperature of which would  

be nearly equal to the maximum of       
refrigeration above the freezing point1 
which the lower regions of the ambient  
atmosphere annually attain4 ,hence it is
 probable1 that1 in the plains of the   
torrid zone1 or in the valleys but      
little elevated1 the mean heat of which 
is from #be4e to #bg degrees1 the       
temperature of the bottom of the lakes  
can never be below #ba or #bb degrees4  
,if in the same zone the ocean contain  
at depths of seven or eight hundred     
fathoms1 water the temperature of which 
is at #g degrees1 that is to say1 twelve
 or thirteen degrees colder than the    
maximum of the heat99 of the equinoctial
 atmosphere over the sea1 ,i think it   
must be considered as a direct proof of 
a submarine current1 carrying the waters
 of the pole towards the equator4 799   
,it is almost superfluous to observe    
that ,i am considering here only that   
part of the atmosphere lying on the     
ocean between #aj degrees north and #aj 
degrees south latitude4 ,towards the    

northern limits of the torrid zone1 in  
latitude #bc degrees1 whither the north 
winds bring with an extreme rapidity the
 cold air of ,canada1 the thermometer   
falls at sea as low as #af degrees1 and 
even lower47 ,we will not here solve the
 delicate problem1 as to the manner in  
which1 within the tropics and in the    
temperate zone1 7for example1 in the    
,caribbean ,sea and in the lakes of     
,switzerland17 these inferior strata of 
water1 cooled to #d or #g degrees1 act  
upon the temperature of the stony strata
 of the globe which they cover2 and how 
these same strata1 the primitive        
temperature of which is1 within the     
tropics1 #bg degrees1 and at the lake of
 ,geneva #aj degrees1 react upon the    
half-frozen waters at the bottom of the 
lakes1 and of the equinoctial ocean4    
,these questions are of the highest     
importance1 both with regard to the     
economy of animals that live habitually 
at the bottom of fresh and salt waters1 
and to the theory of the distribution of

 heat in lands surrounded by vast and   
deep seas4  ,the lake of ,valencia is   
full of islands1 which embellish the    
scenery by the picturesque form of their
 rocks1 and the beauty of the vegetation
 with which they are covered3 an        
advantage which this tropical lake      
possesses over those of the ,alps4 ,the 
islands are fifteen in number1          
distributed in three groups299 without  
reckoning ,morro and ,cabrera1 which are
 already joined to the shore4 799 ,the  
position of these islands is as follows3
 northward1 near the shore1 the ,isla de
 ,cura2 on the south-east1 ,burro1      
,horno1 ,otama1 ,sorro1 ,caiguira1      
,nuevos ,penones1 or the ,aparecidos2 on
 the north-west1 ,cabo ,blanco1 or ,isla
 de ,aves1 and ,chamberg2 on the        
south-west1 ,brucha and ,culebra4 ,in   
the centre of the lake rise1 like shoals
 or small detached rocks1 ,vagre1       
,fraile1 ,penasco1 and ,pan de ,azucar47
 ,they are partly cultivated1 and       
extremely fertile on account of the     

vapours that rise from the lake4 ,burro1
 the largest of these islands1 is two   
miles in length1 and is inhabited by    
some families of mestizos1 who rear     
goats4 ,these simple people seldom visit
 the shore of ,mocundo4 ,to them the    
lake appears of immense extent2 they    
have plantains1 cassava1 milk1 and a    
little fish4 ,a hut constructed of      
reeds2 hammocks woven from the cotton   
which the neighbouring fields produce2 a
 large stone on which the fire is made2 
the ligneous fruit of the tutuma 7the   
calabash7 in which they draw water1     
constitute their domestic establishment4
 ,an old mestizo who offered us some    
goat's milk had a beautiful daughter4   
,we learned from our guide1 that        
solitude had rendered him as mistrustful
 as he might perhaps have been made by  
the society of men4 ,the day before our 
arrival1 some hunters had visited the   
island4 ,they were overtaken by the     
shades of night2 and preferred sleeping 
in the open air to returning to         

,mocundo4 ,this news spread alarm       
throughout the island4 ,the father      
obliged the young girl to climb up a    
very lofty zamang or acacia1 which grew 
in the plain at some distance from the  
hut1 while he stretched himself at the  
foot of the tree1 and did not permit his
 daughter to descend till the hunters   
had departed4  ,the lake is in general  
well stocked with fish2 though it       
furnishes only three kinds1 the flesh of
 which is soft and insipid1 the guavina1
 the vagre1 and the sardina4 ,the two   
last descend into the lake with the     
streams that flow into it4 ,the guavina1
 of which ,i made a drawing on the spot1
 is #bj inches long and #c4e broad4 ,it 
is perhaps a new species of the genus   
erythrina of ,gronovius4 ,it has large  
silvery scales edged with green4 ,this  
fish is extremely voracious1 and        
destroys other kinds4 ,the fishermen    
assured us that a small crocodile1 the  
bava199 which often approached us when  
we were bathing1 contributes also to the

 destruction of the fish4 799 ,the bava1
 or bavilla1 is very common at          
,bordones1 near ,cumana4 ,see volume #a4
 ,the name of bava1 baveuse1 has misled 
,m4 ,depons2 he takes this reptile for a
 fish of our seas1 the ,blennius pholis4
 ,voyage a la ,terre ,ferme4 ,the       
,blennius pholis1 smooth blenny1 is     
called by the ,french baveuse           
7slaverer71 in ,spanish1 baba47 ,we     
never could succeed in procuring this   
reptile so as to examine it closely3 it 
generally attains only three or four    
feet in length4 ,it is said to be very  
harmless2 its habits however1 as well as
 its form1 much resemble those of the   
alligator 7,crocodilus acutus74 ,it     
swims in such a manner as to show only  
the point of its snout1 and the         
extremity of its tail2 and places itself
 at mid-day on the bare beach4 ,it is   
certainly neither a monitor 7the real   
monitors living only in the old         
continent17 nor the sauvegarde of ,seba 
7,lacerta teguixin17 which dives and    

does not swim4 ,it is somewhat          
remarkable that the lake of ,valencia1  
and the whole system of small rivers    
flowing into it1 have no large          
alligators1 though this dangerous animal
 abounds a few leagues off in the       
streams which flow either into the      
,apure or the ,orinoco1 or immediately  
into the ,caribbean ,sea between ,porto 
,cabello and ,la ,guayra4  ,in the      
islands that rise like bastions in the  
midst of the waters1 and wherever the   
rocky bottom of the lake is visible1 ,i 
recognised a uniform direction in the   
strata of gneiss4 ,this direction is    
nearly that of the chains of mountains  
on the north and south of the lake4 ,in 
the hills of ,cabo ,blanco there are    
found among the gneiss1 angular masses  
of opaque quartz1 slightly translucid on
 the edges1 and varying from grey to    
deep black4 ,this quartz passes         
sometimes into hornstein1 and sometimes 
into kieselschiefer 7schistose jasper74 
,i do not think it constitutes a vein4  

,the waters of the lake99 decompose the 
gneiss by erosion in a very             
extraordinary manner4 799 ,the water of 
the lake is not salt1 as is asserted at 
,caracas4 ,it may be drunk without being
 filtered4 ,on evaporation it leaves a  
very small residuum of carbonate of     
lime1 and perhaps a little nitrate of   
potash4 ,it is surprising that an inland
 lake should not be richer in alkaline  
and earthy salts1 acquired from the     
neighbouring soils4 ,i have found parts 
of it porous1 almost cellular1 and split
 in the form of cauliflowers1 fixed on  
gneiss perfectly compact4 ,perhaps the  
action ceases with the movement of the  
waves1 and the alternate contact of air 
and water4  ,the island of ,chamberg is 
remarkable for its height4 ,it is a rock
 of gneiss1 with two summits in the form
 of a saddle1 and raised two hundred    
feet above the surface of the water4    
,the slope of this rock is barren1 and  
affords only nourishment for a few      
plants of clusia with large white       

flowers4 ,but the view of the lake and  
of the richly cultivated neighbouring   
valleys is beautiful1 and their aspect  
is wonderful after sunset1 when         
thousands of aquatic birds1 herons1     
flamingoes1 and wild ducks cross the    
lake to roost in the islands1 and the   
broad zone of mountains which surrounds 
the horizon is covered with fire4 ,the  
inhabitants1 as we have already         
mentioned1 burn the meadows in order to 
produce fresher and finer grass4        
,gramineous plants abound1 especially at
 the summit of the chain2 and those vast
 conflagrations extend sometimes the    
length of a thousand toises1 and appear 
like streams of lava overflowing the    
ridge of the mountains4 ,when reposing  
on the banks of the lake to enjoy the   
soft freshness of the air in one of     
those beautiful evenings peculiar to the
 tropics1 it is delightful to           
contemplate in the waves as they beat   
the shore1 the reflection of the red    
fires that illumine the horizon4  ,among

 the plants which grow on the rocky     
islands of the lake of ,valencia1 many  
have been believed to be peculiar to    
those spots1 because till now they have 
not been discovered elsewhere4 ,such are
 the papaw-trees of the lake2 and the   
tomato99 of the island of ,cura4 799    
,the tomatoes are cultivated1 as well as
 the papaw-tree of the lake1 in the     
,botanical ,garden of ,berlin1 to which 
,i had sent some seeds47 ,the latter    
differs from our ,solanum lycopersicum2 
the fruit is round and small1 but has a 
fine flavour2 it is now cultivated at   
,la ,victoria1 at ,nueva ,valencia1 and 
everywhere in the valleys of ,aragua4   
,the papaw-tree of the lake 7papaya de  
la laguna7 abounds also in the island of
 ,cura and at ,cabo ,blanco2 its trunk  
shoots higher than that of the common   
papaw 7,carica papaya71 but its fruit is
 only half as large1 perfectly          
spherical1 without projecting ribs1 and 
four or five inches in diameter4 ,when  
cut open it is found quite filled with  

seeds1 and without those hollow places  
which occur constantly in the common    
papaw4 ,the taste of this fruit1 of     
which ,i have often eaten1 is extremely 
sweet499 799 ,the people of the country 
attribute to it an astringent quality1  
and call it tapaculo47 ,i know not      
whether it be a variety of the ,carica  
microcarpa1 described by ,jacquin4  ,the
 environs of the lake are insalubrious  
only in times of great drought1 when the
 waters in their retreat leave a muddy  
sediment exposed to the rays of the sun4
 ,the banks1 shaded by tufts of         
,coccoloba barbadensis1 and decorated   
with fine liliaceous plants199 799      
,pancratium undulatum1 ,amaryllis       
nervosa47 remind us1 by the appearance  
of the aquatic vegetation1 of the marshy
 shores of our lakes in ,europe4 ,we    
find there1 pondweed 7potamogeton71     
chara1 and cats'-tail three feet high1  
which it is difficult not to confound   
with the ,typha angustifolia of our     
marshes4 ,it is only after a careful    

examination1 that we recognise each of  
these plants for distinct species199 799
 ,potamogeton tenuifolium1 ,chara       
compressa1 ,typha tenuifolia47 peculiar 
to the new continent4 ,how many plants  
of the straits of ,magellan1 of ,chile1 
and the ,cordilleras of ,quito have     
formerly been confounded with the       
productions of the northern temperate   
zone1 owing to their analogy in form and
 appearance4  ,the inhabitants of the   
valleys of ,aragua often inquire why the
 southern shore of the lake1            
particularly the south-west part towards
 los ,aguacotis1 is generally more      
shaded1 and exhibits fresher verdure    
than the northern side4 ,we saw1 in the 
month of ,february1 many trees stripped 
of their foliage1 near the ,hacienda de 
,cura1 at ,mocundo1 and at ,guacara2    
while to the south-east of ,valencia    
everything presaged the approach of the 
rains4 ,i believe that in the early part
 of the year1 when the sun has southern 
declination1 the hills around ,valencia1

 ,guacara1 and ,cura are scorched by the
 heat of the solar rays1 while the      
southern shore receives1 along with the 
breeze when it enters the valley by the 
,abra de ,porto ,cabello1 an atmosphere 
which has crossed the lake1 and is      
loaded with aqueous vapour4 ,on this    
southern shore1 near ,guaruto1 are      
situated the finest plantations of      
tobacco in the whole province4  ,among  
the rivers flowing into the lake of     
,valencia some owe their origin to      
thermal springs1 and deserve particular 
attention4 ,these springs gush out at   
three points of the granitic ,cordillera
 of the coast2 near ,onoto1 between     
,turmero and ,maracay2 near ,mariara1   
north-east of the ,hacienda de ,cura2   
and near ,las ,trincheras1 on the road  
from ,nueva ,valencia to ,porto         
,cabello4 ,i could examine with care    
only the physical and geological        
relations of the thermal waters of      
,mariara and ,las ,trincheras4 ,in going
 up the small river ,cura towards its   

source1 the mountains of ,mariara are   
seen advancing into the plain in the    
form of a vast amphitheatre1 composed of
 perpendicular rocks1 crowned by peaks  
with rugged summits4 ,the central point 
of the amphitheatre bears the strange   
name of the ,devil's ,nook 7,rincon del 
,diablo74 ,the range stretching to the  
east is called ,el ,chaparro2 that to   
the west1 ,las ,viruelas4 ,these        
ruin-like rocks command the plain2 they 
are composed of a coarse-grained        
granite1 nearly porphyritic1 the        
yellowish white feldspar crystals of    
which are more than an inch and a half  
long4 ,mica is rare in them1 and is of a
 fine silvery lustre4 ,nothing can be   
more picturesque and solemn than the    
aspect of this group of mountains1 half 
covered with vegetation4 ,the ,peak of  
,calavera1 which unites the ,rincon del 
,diablo to the ,chaparro1 is visible    
from afar4 ,in it the granite is        
separated by perpendicular fissures into
 prismatic masses4 ,it would seem as if 

the primitive rock were crowned with    
columns of basalt4 ,in the rainy season1
 a considerable sheet of water rushes   
down like a cascade from these cliffs4  
,the mountains connected on the east    
with the ,rincon del ,diablo1 are much  
less lofty1 and contain1 like the       
promontory of ,la ,cabrera1 and the     
little detached hills in the plain1     
gneiss and mica-slate1 including        
garnets4  ,in these lower mountains1 two
 or three miles north-east of ,mariara1 
we find the ravine of hot waters called 
,quebrada de ,aguas ,calientes4 ,this   
ravine1 running north-west #ge degrees1 
contains several small basins4 ,of these
 the two uppermost1 which have no       
communication with each other1 are only 
eight inches in diameter2 the three     
lower1 from two to three feet4 ,their   
depth varies from three to fifteen      
inches4 ,the temperature of these       
different funnels 7pozos7 is from #ef to
 #ei degrees2 and what is remarkable1   
the lower funnels are hotter than the   

upper1 though the difference of the     
level is only seven or eight inches4    
,the hot waters1 collected together1    
form a little rivulet1 called the ,rio  
de ,aguas ,calientes1 which1 thirty feet
 lower1 has a temperature of only #dh   
degrees4 ,in seasons of great drought1  
the time at which we visited the ravine1
 the whole body of the thermal waters   
forms a section of only twenty-six      
square inches4 ,this is considerably    
augmented in the rainy season2 the      
rivulet is then transformed into a      
torrent1 and its heat diminishes for it 
appears that the hot springs themselves 
are subject only to imperceptible       
variations4 ,all these springs are      
slightly impregnated with sulphuretted  
hydrogen gas4 ,the fetid smell1 peculiar
 to this gas1 can be perceived only by  
approaching very near the springs4 ,in  
one of these wells only1 the temperature
 of which is #ef4b degrees1 bubbles of  
air are evolved at nearly regular       
intervals of two or three minutes4 ,i   

observed that these bubbles constantly  
rose from the same points1 which are    
four in number2 and that it was not     
possible to change the places from which
 the gas is emitted1 by stirring the    
bottom of the basin with a stick4 ,these
 places correspond no doubt to holes or 
fissures on the gneiss2 and indeed when 
the bubbles rise from one of the        
apertures1 the emission of gas follows  
instantly from the other three4 ,i could
 not succeed in inflaming the small     
quantities of gas that rise above the   
thermal waters1 or those ,i collected in
 a glass phial held over the springs1 an
 operation that excited in me a nausea1 
caused less by the smell of the gas1    
than by the excessive heat prevailing in
 this ravine4 ,is this sulphuretted     
hydrogen mixed with a great proportion  
of carbonic acid or atmospheric air8 ,i 
am doubtful of the first of these       
mixtures1 though so common in thermal   
waters2 for example at ,aix la          
,chapelle1 ,enghien1 and ,bareges4 ,the 

gas collected in the tube of ,fontana's 
eudiometer had been shaken for a long   
time with water4 ,the small basins are  
covered with a light film of sulphur1   
deposited by the sulphuretted hydrogen  
in its slow combustion in contact with  
the atmospheric oxygen4 ,a few plants   
near the springs were encrusted with    
sulphur4 ,this deposit is scarcely      
visible when the water of ,mariara is   
suffered to cool in an open vessel2 no  
doubt because the quantity of disengaged
 gas is very small1 and is not renewed4 
,the water1 when cold1 gives no         
precipitate with a solution of nitrate  
of copper2 it is destitute of flavour1  
and very drinkable4 ,if it contain any  
saline substances1 for example1 the     
sulphates of soda or magnesia1 their    
quantities must be very insignificant4  
,being almost destitute of chemical     
tests199 799 ,a small case1 containing  
acetate of lead1 nitrate of silver1     
alcohol1 prussiate of potash1 etc41 had 
been left by mistake at ,cumana4 ,i     

evaporated some of the water of         
,mariara1 and it yielded only a very    
small residuum1 which1 digested with    
nitric acid1 appeared to contain only a 
little silica and extractive vegetable  
matter47 we contented ourselves with    
filling at the spring two bottles1 which
 were sent1 along with the nourishing   
milk of the tree called palo de vaca1 to
 ,,mm4 ,fourcroy and ,vauquelin1 by the 
way of ,porto ,cabello and the          
,havannah4 ,this purity in hot waters   
issuing immediately from granite        
mountains is in ,europe1 as well as in  
the ,new ,continent1 a most curious     
phenomenon499 799 ,warm springs equally 
pure are found issuing from the granites
 of ,portugal1 and those of ,cantal4 ,in
 ,italy1 the ,pisciarelli of the lake   
,agnano have a temperature equal to #ic 
degrees4 ,are these pure waters produced
 by condensed vapours87 ,how can we     
explain the origin of the sulphuretted  
hydrogen8 ,it cannot proceed from the   
decomposition of sulphurets of iron1 or 

pyritic strata4 ,is it owing to         
sulphurets of calcium1 of magnesium1 or 
other earthy metalloids1 contained in   
the interior of our planet1 under its   
rocky and oxidated crust8  ,in the      
ravine of the hot waters of ,mariara1   
amidst little funnels1 the temperature  
of which rises from #ef to #ei degrees1 
two species of aquatic plants vegetate2 
the one is membranaceous1 and contains  
bubbles of air2 the other has parallel  
fibres4 ,the first much resembles the   
,ulva labyrinthiformis of ,vandelli1    
which the thermal waters of ,europe     
furnish4 ,at the island of ,amsterdam1  
tufts of lycopodium and marchantia have 
been seen in places where the heat of   
the soil was far greater3 such is the   
effect of an habitual stimulus on the   
organs of plants4 ,the waters of        
,mariara contain no aquatic insects4    
,frogs are found in them1 which1 being  
probably chased by serpents1 have leaped
 into the funnels1 and there perished4  
,south of the ravine1 in the plain      

extending towards the shore of the lake1
 another sulphureous spring gushes out1 
less hot and less impregnated with gas4 
,the crevice whence this water issues is
 six toises higher than the funnel just 
described4 ,the thermometer did not rise
 in the crevice above #db degrees4 ,the 
water is collected in a basin surrounded
 by large trees2 it is nearly circular1 
from fifteen to eighteen feet diameter1 
and three feet deep4 ,the slaves throw  
themselves into this bath at the end of 
the day1 when covered with dust1 after  
having worked in the neighbouring fields
 of indigo and sugar-cane4 ,though the  
water of this bath 7bano7 is habitually 
from #ab to #ad degrees hotter than the 
air1 the negroes call it refreshing2    
because in the torrid zone this term is 
used for whatever restores strength1    
calms the irritation of the nerves1 or  
causes a feeling of comfort4 ,we        
ourselves experienced the salutary      
effects of the bath4 ,having slung our  
hammocks on the trees round the basin1  

we passed a whole day in this charming  
spot1 which abounds in plants4 ,we found
 near the bano of ,mariara the volador1 
or gyrocarpus4 ,the winged fruits of    
this large tree turn like a fly-wheel1  
when they fall from the stalk4 ,on      
shaking the branches of the volador1 we 
saw the air filled with its fruits1 the 
simultaneous fall of which presents the 
most singular spectacle4 ,the two       
membranaceous and striated wings are    
turned so as to meet the air1 in        
falling1 at an angle of #de degrees4    
,fortunately the fruits we gathered were
 at their maturity4 ,we sent some to    
,europe1 and they have germinated in the
 gardens of ,berlin1 ,paris1 and        
,malmaison4 ,the numerous plants of the 
volador1 now seen in hot-houses1 owe    
their origin to the only tree of the    
kind found near ,mariara4 ,the          
geographical distribution of the        
different species of gyrocarpus1 which  
,mr4 ,brown considers as one of the     
laurineae1 is very singular4 ,jacquin   

saw one species near ,carthagena in     
,america499 799 ,the ,gyrocarpus        
,jacquini of ,gartner1 or ,gyrocarpus   
americanus of ,willdenouw47 ,this is the
 same which we met with again in        
,mexico1 near ,zumpango1 on the road    
from ,acapulco to the capital499 799    
,the natives of ,mexico called it       
quitlacoctli4 ,i saw some of its young  
leaves with three and five lobes2 the   
full-grown leaves are in the form of a  
heart1 and always with three lobes4 ,we 
never met with the volador in flower47  
,another species1 which grows on the    
mountains of ,coromandel199 799 ,this is
 the ,gyrocarpus asiaticus of           
,willdenouw47 has been described by     
,roxburgh2 the third and fourth99 grow  
in the southern hemisphere1 on the      
coasts of ,australia4 799 ,gyrocarpus   
sphenopterus1 and ,g4 rugosus47  ,after 
getting out of the bath1 while1         
half-wrapped in a sheet1 we were drying 
ourselves in the sun1 according to the  
custom of the country1 a little man of  

the mulatto race approached us4 ,after  
bowing gravely1 he made us a long speech
 on the virtues of the waters of        
,mariara1 adverting to the numbers of   
invalids by whom they have been visited 
for some years past1 and to the         
favourable situation of the springs1    
between the two towns ,valencia and     
,caracas4 ,he showed us his house1 a    
little hut covered with palm-leaves1    
situated in an enclosure at a small     
distance1 on the bank of a rivulet1     
communicating with the bath4 ,he assured
 us that we should there find all the   
conveniences of life2 nails to suspend  
our hammocks1 ox-leather to stretch over
 benches made of reeds1 earthern vases  
always filled with cool water1 and what1
 after the bath1 would be most salutary 
of all1 those great lizards 7iguanas71  
the flesh of which is known to be a     
refreshing aliment4 ,we judged from his 
harangue1 that this good man took us for
 invalids1 who had come to stay near the
 spring4 ,his counsels and offers of    

hospitality were not altogether         
disinterested4 ,he styled himself the   
inspector of the waters1 and the        
pulpero99 799 ,proprietor of a pulperia1
 or little shop where refreshments are  
sold47 of the place4 ,accordingly all   
his obliging attentions to us ceased as 
soon as he heard that we had come merely
 to satisfy our curiosity2 or as they   
express it in the ,spanish colonies1    
those lands of idleness1 para ver1 no   
mas1 to see1 and nothing more4 ,the     
waters of ,mariara are used with success
 in rheumatic swellings1 and affections 
of the skin4 ,as the waters are but very
 feebly impregnated with sulphuretted   
hydrogen1 it is necessary to bathe at   
the spot where the springs issue4       
,farther on1 these same waters are      
employed for the irrigation of fields of
 indigo4 ,a wealthy landed proprietor of
 ,mariara1 ,don ,domingo ,tovar1 had    
formed the project of erecting a        
bathing-house1 and an establishment     
which would furnish visitors with better

 resources than lizard's flesh for food1
 and leather stretched on a bench for   
their repose4  ,on the #bast of         
,february1 in the evening1 we set out   
from the beautiful ,hacienda de ,cura   
for ,guacara and ,nueva ,valencia4 ,we  
preferred travelling by night1 on       
account of the excessive heat of the    
day4 ,we passed by the hamlet of ,punta 
,zamuro1 at the foot of the high        
mountains of ,las ,viruelas4 ,the road  
is bordered with large zamang-trees1 or 
mimosas1 the trunks of which rise to    
sixty feet high4 ,their branches1 nearly
 horizontal1 meet at more than one      
hundred and fifty feet distance4 ,i have
 nowhere seen a vault of verdure more   
beautiful and luxuriant4 ,the night was 
gloomy3 the ,rincon del ,diablo with its
 denticulated rocks appeared from time  
to time at a distance1 illumined by the 
burning of the savannahs1 or wrapped in 
ruddy smoke4 ,at the spot where the     
bushes were thickest1 our horses were   
frightened by the yell of an animal that

 seemed to follow us closely4 ,it was a 
large jaguar1 which had roamed for three
 years among these mountains4 ,he had   
constantly escaped the pursuits of the  
boldest hunters1 and had carried off    
horses and mules from the midst of      
enclosures2 but1 having no want of food1
 had not yet attacked men4 ,the negro   
who conducted us uttered wild cries1    
expecting by these means to frighten the
 tiger2 but his efforts were            
ineffectual4 ,the jaguar1 like the wolf 
of ,europe1 follows travellers even when
 he will not attack them2 the wolf in   
the open fields and in unsheltered      
places1 the jaguar skirting the road and
 appearing only at intervals between the
 bushes4  ,we passed the day on the     
#bcrd in the house of the ,marquis de   
,toro1 at the village of ,guacara1 a    
very considerable ,indian community4 ,an
 avenue of carolineas leads from        
,guacara to ,mocundo4 ,it was the first 
time ,i had seen in the open air this   
majestic plant1 which forms one of the  

principal ornaments of the extensive    
conservatories of ,schonbrunn499 799    
,every tree of the ,carolinea princeps  
at ,schonbrunn has sprung from seeds    
collected from one single tree of       
enormous size1 near ,chacao1 east of    
,caracas47 ,mocundo is a rich plantation
 of sugar-canes1 belonging to the family
 of ,toro4 ,we there find1 what is so   
rare in that country1 a garden1         
artificial clumps of trees1 and on the  
border of the water1 upon a rock of     
gneiss1 a pavilion with a mirador1 or   
belvidere4 ,the view is delightful over 
the western part of the lake1 the       
surrounding mountains1 and a forest of  
palm-trees that separates ,guacara from 
the city of ,nueva ,valencia4 ,the      
fields of sugar-cane1 from the soft     
verdure of the young reeds1 resemble a  
vast meadow4 ,everything denotes        
abundance2 but it is at the price of the
 liberty of the cultivators4 ,at        
,mocundo1 with two hundred and thirty   
negroes1 seventy-seven tablones1 or     

cane-fields1 are cultivated1 each of    
which1 ten thousand varas square199 799 
,a tablon1 equal to #ahdi square toises1
 contains nearly an acre and one-fifth3 
a legal acre has #acdd square toises1   
and #a4ie legal acre is equal to one    
hectare47 yields a net profit of two    
hundred or two hundred and forty        
piastres a-year4 ,the creole cane and   
the cane of ,otaheite99 are planted in  
the month of ,april1 the first at four1 
the second at five feet distance4 799   
,in the island of ,palma1 where in the  
latitude of #bi degrees the sugar-cane  
is said to be cultivated as high as #adj
 toises above the level of the          
,atlantic1 the ,otaheite cane requires  
more heat than the ,creole cane47 ,the  
cane ripens in fourteen months4 ,it     
flowers in the month of ,october1 if the
 plant be sufficiently vigorous2 but the
 top is cut off before the panicle      
unfolds4 ,in all the monocotyledonous   
plants 7for example1 the maguey         
cultivated at ,mexico for extracting    

pulque1 the wine-yielding palm-tree1 and
 the sugar-cane71 the flowering alters  
the quality of the juices4 ,the         
preparation of sugar1 the boiling1 and  
the claying1 are very imperfect in      
,terra ,firma1 because it is made only  
for home consumption2 and for wholesale1
 papelon is preferred to sugar1 either  
refined or raw4 ,this papelon is an     
impure sugar1 in the form of little     
loaves1 of a yellow-brown colour4 ,it   
contains a mixture of molasses and      
mucilaginous matter4 ,the poorest man   
eats papelon1 as in ,europe he eats     
cheese4 ,it is believed to have         
nutritive qualities4 ,fermented with    
water it yields the guarapo1 the        
favourite beverage of the people4 ,in   
the province of ,caracas subcarbonate of
 potash is used1 instead of lime1 to    
purify the juice of the sugar-cane4 ,the
 ashes of the bucare1 which is the      
,erythrina corallodendrum1 are          
preferred4  ,the sugar-cane was         
introduced very late1 probably towards  

the end of the sixteenth century1 from  
the ,west ,india ,islands1 into the     
valleys of ,aragua4 ,it was known in    
,india1 in ,china1 and in all the       
islands of the ,pacific1 from the most  
remote antiquity2 and it was planted at 
,khorassan1 in ,persia1 as early as the 
fifth century of our era1 in order to   
obtain from it solid sugar499 799 ,the  
,indian name for the sugar-cane is      
sharkara4 ,thence the word sugar47 ,the 
,arabs carried this reed1 so useful to  
the inhabitants of hot and temperate    
countries1 to the shores of the         
,mediterranean4 ,in #acjf1 its          
cultivation was yet unknown in ,sicily2 
but was already common in the island of 
,cyprus1 at ,rhodes1 and in the ,morea4 
,a hundred years after it enriched      
,calabria1 ,sicily1 and the coasts of   
,spain4 ,from ,sicily the ,infante ,don 
,henry transported the cane to ,madeira3
 from ,madeira it passed to the ,canary 
,islands1 where it was entirely unknown2
 for the ferulae of ,juba1 quae         

expressae liquorem fundunt potui        
ucundum1 are euphorbias 7the ,tabayba   
dulce71 and not1 as has been recently   
asserted199 sugar-canes4 799 ,on the    
origin of cane-sugar1 in the ,journal de
 ,pharmacie #ahaf page #chg4 ,the       
,tabayba dulce is1 according to ,von    
,buch1 the ,euphorbia balsamifera1 the  
juice of which is neither corrosive nor 
bitter like that of the cardon1 or      
,euphorbia canariensis47 ,twelve        
sugar-manufactories 7ingenios de azucar7
 were soon established in the island of 
,great ,canary1 in that of ,palma1 and  
between ,adexe1 ,icod1 and ,guarachico1 
in the island of ,teneriffe4 ,negroes   
were employed in this cultivation1 and  
their descendants still inhabit the     
grottos of ,tiraxana1 in the ,great     
,canary4 ,since the sugar-cane has been 
transplanted to the ,west ,indies1 and  
the ,new ,world has given maize to the  
,canaries1 the cultivation of the latter
 has taken the place of the cane at     
,teneriffe and the ,great ,canary4 ,the 

cane is now found only in the island of 
,palma1 near ,argual and ,tazacorte199  
where it yields scarcely one thousand   
quintals of sugar a year4 799 ,notice   
sur la ,culture du ,sucre dans les      
,isles ,canariennes by ,leopold von     
,buch47 ,the sugar-cane of the          
,canaries1 which ,aiguilon transported  
to ,st4 ,domingo1 was there cultivated  
extensively as early as #aeac1 or during
 the six or seven following years1 under
 the auspices of the monks of ,st4      
,jerome4 ,negroes were employed in this 
cultivation from its commencement2 and  
in #aeai representations were made to   
government1 as in our own time1 that the
 ,west ,india ,islands would be ruined  
and made desert1 if slaves were not     
conveyed thither annually from the coast
 of ,guinea4  ,for some years past the  
culture and preparation of sugar has    
been much improved in ,terra ,firma2    
and1 as the process of refining is      
prohibited by the laws at ,jamaica1 they
 reckon on the fraudulent exportation of

 refined sugar to the ,english colonies4
 ,but the consumption of the provinces  
of ,venezuela1 in papelon1 and in raw   
sugar employed in making chocolate and  
sweetmeats 7dulces7 is so enormous1 that
 the exportation has been hitherto      
entirely null4 ,the finest plantations  
of sugar are in the valleys of ,aragua  
and of the ,tuy1 near ,pao de ,zarate1  
between ,la ,victoria and ,san          
,sebastian1 near ,guatire1 ,guarenas1   
and ,caurimare4 ,the first canes arrived
 in the ,new ,world from the ,canary    
,islands2 and even now ,canarians1 or   
,islenos1 are placed at the head of most
 of the great plantations1 and          
superintend the labours of cultivation  
and refining4  ,it is this connexion    
between the ,canarians and the          
inhabitants of ,venezuela1 that has     
given rise to the introduction of camels
 into those provinces4 ,the ,marquis del
 ,toro caused three to be brought from  
,lancerote4 ,the expense of conveyance  
was very considerable1 owing to the     

space which these animals occupy on     
board merchant-vessels1 and the great   
quantity of water they require during a 
long sea-voyage4 ,a camel1 bought for   
thirty piastres1 costs between eight and
 nine hundred before it reaches the     
coast of ,caracas4 ,we saw four of these
 animals at ,mocundo2 three of which had
 been bred in ,america4 ,two others had 
died of the bite of the coral1 a        
venomous serpent very common on the     
banks of the lake4 ,these camels have   
hitherto been employed only in the      
conveyance of the sugarcanes to the     
mill4 ,the males1 stronger than the     
females1 carry from forty to fifty      
arrobas4 ,a wealthy landholder in the   
province of ,varinas1 encouraged by the 
example of the ,marquis del ,toro1 has  
allotted a sum of #ae1jjj piastres for  
the purpose of bringing fourteen or     
fifteen camels at once from the ,canary 
,islands4 ,it is presumed these beasts  
of burden may be employed in the        
conveyance of merchandise across the    

burning plains of ,casanare1 from the   
,apure and ,calabozo1 which in the      
season of drought resemble the deserts  
of ,africa4 ,how advantageous it would  
have been had the ,conquistadores1 from 
the beginning of the sixteenth century1 
peopled ,america with camels1 as they   
have peopled it with horned cattle1     
horses1 and mules4 ,wherever there are  
immense distances to cross in           
uninhabited lands2 wherever the         
construction of canals becomes difficult
 7as in the isthmus of ,panama1 on the  
table-land of ,mexico1 and in the       
deserts that separate the kingdom of    
,quito from ,peru1 and ,peru from       
,chile71 camels would be of the highest 
importance1 to facilitate inland        
commerce4 ,it seems the more surprising1
 that their introduction was not        
encouraged by the government at the     
beginning of the conquest1 as1 long     
after the taking of ,grenada1 camels1   
for which the ,moors had a great        
predilection1 were still very common in 

the south of ,spain4 ,a ,biscayan1 ,juan
 de ,reinaga1 carried some of these     
animals at his own expense to ,peru4    
,father ,acosta saw them at the foot of 
the ,andes1 about the end of the        
sixteenth century2 but little care being
 taken of them1 they scarcely ever bred1
 and the race soon became extinct4 ,in  
those times of oppression and cruelty1  
which have been described as the era of 
,spanish glory1 the commendatories      
7encomenderos7 let out the ,indians to  
travellers like beasts of burden4 ,they 
were assembled by hundreds1 either to   
carry merchandise across the            
,cordilleras1 or to follow the armies in
 their expeditions of discovery and     
pillage4 ,the ,indians endured this     
service more patiently1 because1 owing  
to the almost total want of domestic    
animals1 they had long been constrained 
to perform it1 though in a less inhuman 
manner1 under the government of their   
own chiefs4 ,the introduction of camels 
attempted by ,juan de ,reinaga spread an

 alarm among the encomenderos1 who were1
 not by law1 but in fact1 lords of the  
,indian villages4 ,the court listened to
 the complaints of the encomenderos2 and
 in consequence ,america was deprived of
 one of the means which would have most 
facilitated inland communication1 and   
the exchange of productions4 ,now1      
however1 there is no reason why the     
introduction of camels should not be    
attempted as a general measure4 ,some   
hundreds of these useful animals1 spread
 over the vast surface of ,america1 in  
hot and barren places1 would in a few   
years have a powerful influence on the  
public prosperity4 ,provinces separated 
by steppes would then appear to be      
brought nearer to each other2 several   
kinds of inland merchandize would       
diminish in price on the coast2 and by  
increasing the number of camels1 above  
all the species called hedjin1 or the   
ship of the desert1 a new life would be 
given to the industry and commerce of   
the ,new ,world4  ,on the evening of the

 #bbnd we continued our journey from    
,mocundo by ,los ,guayos to the city of 
,nueva ,valencia4 ,we passed a little   
forest of palm-trees1 which resembled1  
by their appearance1 and their leaves   
spread like a fan1 the ,chamaerops      
humilis of the coast of ,barbary4 ,the  
trunk1 however1 rises to twenty-four and
 sometimes thirty feet high4 ,it is     
probably a new species of the genus     
corypha2 and is called in the country   
palma de sombrero1 the footstalks of the
 leaves being employed in weaving hats  
resembling our straw hats4 ,this grove  
of palm-trees1 the withered foliage of  
which rustles at the least breath of    
air--the camels feeding in the          
plain--the undulating motion of the     
vapours on a soil scorched by the ardour
 of the sun1 give the landscape an      
,african aspect4 ,the aridity of the    
land augments as the traveller          
approaches the town1 after passing the  
western extremity of the lake4 ,it is a 
clayey soil1 which has been levelled and

 abandoned by the waters4 ,the          
neighbouring hills1 called ,los ,morros 
de ,valencia1 are composed of white     
tufa1 a very recent limestone formation1
 immediately covering the gneiss4 ,it is
 again found at ,victoria1 and on       
several other points along the chain of 
the coast4 ,the whiteness of this tufa1 
which reflects the rays of the sun1     
contributes greatly to the excessive    
heat felt in this place4 ,everything    
seems smitten with sterility2 scarcely  
are a few plants of cacao found on the  
banks of the ,rio de ,valencia2 the rest
 of the plain is bare1 and destitute of 
vegetation4 ,this appearance of         
sterility is here attributed1 as it is  
everywhere in the valleys of ,aragua1 to
 the cultivation of indigo2 which1      
according to the planters1 is1 of all   
plants1 that which most exhausts 7cansa7
 the ground4 ,the real physical causes  
of this phenomenon would be an          
interesting inquiry1 since1 like the    
effects of fallowing land1 and of a     

rotation of crops1 it is far from being 
sufficiently understood4 ,i shall only  
observe in general1 that the complaints 
of the increasing sterility of          
cultivated land become more frequent    
between the tropics1 in proportion as   
they are near the period of their first 
breaking-up4 ,in a region almost        
destitute of herbs1 where every plant   
has a ligneous stem1 and tends to raise 
itself as a shrub1 the virgin soil      
remains shaded either by great trees1 or
 by bushes2 and under this tufted shade 
it preserves everywhere coolness and    
humidity4 ,however active the vegetation
 of the tropics may appear1 the number  
of roots that penetrate into the earth1 
is not so great in an uncultivated soil2
 while the plants are nearer to each    
other in lands subjected to cultivation1
 and covered with indigo1 sugar-canes1  
or cassava4 ,the trees and shrubs1      
loaded with branches and leaves1 draw a 
great part of their nourishment from the
 ambient air2 and the virgin soil       

augments its fertility by the           
decomposition of the vegetable          
substances which progressively          
accumulate4 ,it is not so in the fields 
covered with indigo1 or other herbaceous
 plants2 where the rays of the sun      
penetrate freely into the earth1 and by 
the accelerated combustion of the       
hydrurets of carbon and other           
acidifiable principles1 destroy the     
germs of fecundity4 ,these effects      
strike the imagination of the planters  
the more forcibly1 as in lands newly    
inhabited they compare the fertility of 
a soil which has been abandoned to      
itself during thousands of years1 with  
the produce of ploughed fields4 ,the    
,spanish colonies on the continent1 and 
the great islands of ,porto-,rico and   
,cuba1 possess remarkable advantages    
with respect to the produce of          
agriculture over the lesser ,west ,india
 islands4 ,the former1 from their       
extent1 the variety of their scenery1   
and their small relative population1    

still bear all the characters of a new  
soil2 while at ,barbadoes1 ,tobago1 ,st4
 ,lucia1 the ,virgin ,islands1 and the  
,french part of ,st4 ,domingo1 it may be
 perceived that long cultivation has    
begun to exhaust the soil4 ,if in the   
valleys of ,aragua1 instead of          
abandoning the indigo grounds1 and      
leaving them fallow1 they were covered  
during several years1 not with corn1 but
 with other alimentary plants and       
forage2 if among these plants such as   
belong to different families were       
preferred1 and which shade the soil by  
their large leaves1 the amelioration of 
the fields would be gradually           
accomplished1 and they would be restored
 to a part of their former fertility4   
,the city of ,nueva ,valencia occupies a
 considerable extent of ground1 but its 
population scarcely amounts to six or   
seven thousand souls4 ,the streets are  
very broad1 the market place1 7plaza    
mayor17 is of vast dimensions2 and1 the 
houses being low1 the disproportion     

between the population of the town1 and 
the space that it occupies1 is still    
greater than at ,caracas4 ,many of the  
whites1 7especially the poorest17       
forsake their houses1 and live the      
greater part of the year in their little
 plantations of indigo and cotton1 where
 they can venture to work with their own
 hands2 which1 according to the         
inveterate prejudices of that country1  
would be a disgrace to them in the town4
  ,nueva ,valencia1 founded in #aeee    
under the government of ,villacinda1 by 
,alonzo ,diaz ,moreno1 is twelve years  
older than ,caracas4 ,valencia was at   
first only a dependency of ,burburata2  
but this latter town is nothing now but 
a place of embarkation for mules4 ,it is
 regretted1 and perhaps justly1 that    
,valencia has not become the capital of 
the country4 ,its situation in a plain1 
on the banks of a lake1 recalls to mind 
the position of ,mexico4 ,when we       
reflect on the easy communication       
afforded by the valleys of ,aragua with 

the ,llanos and the rivers that flow    
into the ,orinoco2 when we recognize the
 possibility of opening an inland       
navigation1 by the ,rio ,pao and the    
,portuguesa1 as far as the mouths of the
 ,orinoco1 the ,cassiquiare1 and the    
,amazon1 it may be conceived that the   
capital of the vast provinces of        
,venezuela would have been better placed
 near the fine harbour of ,porto        
,cabello1 beneath a pure and serene sky1
 than near the unsheltered road of ,la  
,guayra1 in a temperate but constantly  
foggy valley4 ,near the kingdom of ,new 
,grenada1 and situate between the       
fertile corn-lands of ,la ,victoria and 
,barquesimeto1 the city of ,valencia    
ought to have prospered2 but1           
notwithstanding these advantages1 it has
 been unable to maintain the contest    
with ,caracas4  ,only those who have    
seen the myriads of ants1 that infest   
the countries within the torrid zone1   
can form an idea of the destruction and 
the sinking of the ground occasioned by 

these insects4 ,they abound to such a   
degree on the site of ,valencia1 that   
their excavations resemble subterranean 
canals1 which are filled with water in  
the time of the rains1 and become very  
dangerous to the buildings4 ,here       
recourse has not been had to the        
extraordinary means employed at the     
beginning of the sixteenth century in   
the island of ,st4 ,domingo1 when troops
 of ants ravaged the fine plains of ,la 
,vega1 and the rich possessions of the  
order of ,st4 ,francis4 ,the monks1     
after having in vain burnt the larvae of
 the ants1 and had recourse to          
fumigations1 advised the inhabitants to 
choose by lot a saint1 who would act as 
a mediator against the plague of the    
ants499 799 ,un abogado contra los      
harmigos47 ,the honour of the choice    
fell on ,st4 ,saturnin2 and the ants    
disappeared as soon as the first        
festival of this saint was celebrated4  
,incredulity has made great progress    
since the time of the conquest2 and it  

was only on the back of the ,cordilleras
 that ,i found a small chapel1 destined1
 according to its inscription1 for      
prayers to be addressed to ,heaven for  
the destruction of the termites4        
,valencia affords some historical       
remembrances2 but these1 like everything
 connected with the colonies1 have no   
remote date1 and recall to mind either  
civil discords or sanguinary conflicts  
with the savages4 ,lopez de ,aguirre1   
whose crimes and adventures form some of
 the most dramatic episodes of the      
history of the conquest1 proceeded in   
#aefa1 from ,peru1 by the river ,amazon 
to the island of ,margareta2 and thence1
 by the port of ,burburata1 into the    
valleys of ,aragua4 ,on his entrance    
into ,valencia1 which proudly entitles  
itself the ,city of the ,king1 he       
proclaimed the independence of country1 
and the deposition of ,philip ,,ii4 ,the
 inhabitants withdrew to the islands of 
the lake of ,tacarigua1 taking with them
 all the boats from the shore1 to be    

more secure in their retreat4 ,in       
consequence of this stratagem1 ,aguirre 
could exercise his cruelties only on his
 own people4 ,from ,valencia he         
addressed to the king of ,spain1 a      
remarkable letter1 in which he boasts   
alternately of his crimes and his piety2
 at the same time giving advice to the  
king on the government of the colonies1 
and the system of missions4 ,surrounded 
by savage ,indians1 navigating on a     
great sea of fresh water1 as he calls   
the ,amazon1 he is alarmed at the       
heresies of ,martin ,luther1 and the    
increasing influence of schismatics in  
,europe499  799 ,the following are some 
remarkable passages in the letter from  
,aguirre to the king of ,spain4  ,king  
,philip1 native of ,spain1 son of       
,charles the ,invincible6 ,i1 ,lopez de 
,aguirre1 thy vassal1 an old ,christian1
 of poor but noble parents1 and a native
 of the town of ,onate in ,biscay1      
passed over young to ,peru1 to labour   
lance in hand4 ,i rendered thee great   

services in the conquest of ,india4 ,i  
fought for thy glory1 without demanding 
pay of thy officers1 as is proved by the
 books of thy treasury4 ,i firmly       
believe1 ,christian ,king and ,lord1    
that1 very ungrateful to me and my      
companions1 all those who write to thee 
from this land ,america1 deceive thee   
much1 because thou seest things from too
 far off4 ,i recommend to thee to be    
more just toward the good vassals whom  
thou hast in this country3 for ,i and   
mine1 weary of the cruelties and        
injustice which thy viceroys1 thy       
governors1 and thy judges1 exercise in  
thy name1 are resolved to obey thee no  
more4 ,we regard ourselves no longer as 
,spaniards4 ,we wage a cruel war against
 thee1 because we will not endure the   
oppression of thy ministers2 who1 to    
give places to their nephews and their  
children1 dispose of our lives1 our     
reputation1 and our fortune4 ,i am lame 
in the left foot from two shots of an   
arquebuss1 which ,i received in the     

valley of ,coquimbo1 fighting under the 
orders of thy marshal1 ,alonzo de       
,alvarado1 against ,francis ,hernandez  
,giron1 then a rebel1 as ,i am at       
present1 and shall be always2 for since 
thy viceroy1 the ,marquis de ,canete1 a 
cowardly1 ambitious1 and effeminate man1
 has hanged our most valiant warriors1  
,i care no more for thy pardon than for 
the books of ,martin ,luther4 ,it is not
 well in thee1 ,king of ,spain1 to be   
ungrateful toward thy vassals2 for it   
was whilst thy father1 the emperor      
,charles1 remained quietly in ,castile1 
that they procured for thee so many     
kingdoms and vast countries4 ,remember1 
,king ,philip1 that thou hast no right  
to draw revenues from these provinces1  
the conquest of which has been without  
danger to thee1 but inasmuch as thou    
recompensest those who have rendered    
thee such great services4 ,i am certain 
that few kings go to heaven4 ,therefore 
we regard ourselves as very happy to be 
here in the ,indies1 preserving in all  

their purity the commandments of ,god1  
and of the ,roman ,church2 and we       
intend1 though sinners during life1 to  
become one day martyrs to the glory of  
,god4 ,on going out of the river        
,amazon1 we landed in an island called  
,la ,margareta4 ,we there received news 
from ,spain of the great faction and    
machination 7maquina7 of the ,lutherans4
 ,this news alarmed us extremely2 we    
found among us one of that faction2 his 
name was ,monteverde4 ,i had him cut to 
pieces1 as was just3 for1 believe me1   
,senor1 wherever ,i am1 people live     
according to the law4 ,but the          
corruption of morals among the monks is 
so great in this land that it is        
necessary to chastise it severely4      
,there is not an ecclesiastic here who  
does not think himself higher than the  
governor of a province4 ,i beg of thee1 
great ,king1 not to believe what the    
monks tell thee down yonder in ,spain4  
,they are always talking of the         
sacrifices they make1 as well as of the 

hard and bitter life they are forced to 
lead in ,america3 while they occupy the 
richest lands1 and the ,indians hunt and
 fish for them every day4 ,if they shed 
tears before thy throne1 it is that thou
 mayest send them hither to govern      
provinces4 ,dost thou know what sort of 
life they lead here8 ,given up to       
luxury1 acquiring possessions1 selling  
the sacraments1 being at once ambitious1
 violent1 and gluttonous2 such is the   
life they lead in ,america4 ,the faith  
of the ,indians suffer by such bad      
examples4 ,if thou dost not change all  
this1 ,o ,king of ,spain1 thy government
 will not be stable4  ,what a misfortune
 that the ,emperor1 thy father1 should  
have conquered ,germany at such a price1
 and spent1 on that conquest1 the money 
we procured for him in these very       
,indies6 ,in the year #aeei the ,marquis
 de ,canete sent to the ,amazon1 ,pedro 
de ,ursua1 a ,navarrese1 or rather a    
,frenchman3 we sailed on the largest    
rivers of ,peru till we came to a gulf  

of fresh water4 ,we had already gone    
three hundred leagues when we killed    
that bad and ambitious captain4 ,we     
chose a caballero of ,seville1 ,fernando
 de ,guzman1 for king3 and we swore     
fealty to him1 as is done to thyself4 ,i
 was named quarter-master-general3 and  
because ,i did not consent to all he    
willed1 he wanted to kill me4 ,but ,i   
killed this new king1 the captain of his
 guards1 his lieutenant-general1 his    
chaplain1 a woman1 a knight of the order
 of ,rhodes1 two ensigns1 and five or   
six domestics of the pretended king4 ,i 
then resolved to punish thy ministers   
and thy auditors 7counsellors of the    
audiencia74 ,i named captains and       
sergeants3 these again wanted to kill   
me1 but ,i had them all hanged4 ,in the 
midst of these adventures we navigated  
for eleven months1 till we reached the  
mouth of the river4 ,we sailed more than
 fifteen hundred leagues4 ,god knows how
 we got through that great mass of      
water4 ,i advise thee1 ,o great ,king1  

never to send ,spanish fleets into that 
accursed river4 ,god preserve thee in   
his holy keeping4  ,this letter was     
given by ,aguirre to the vicar of the   
island of ,margareta1 ,pedro de         
,contreras1 in order to be transmitted  
to ,king ,philip ,,ii4 ,fray ,pedro     
,simon1 ,provincial of the ,franciscans 
in ,new ,grenada1 saw several manuscript
 copies of it both in ,america and in   
,spain4 ,it was printed1 for the first  
time1 in #agbc1 in the ,history of the  
,province of ,venezuela1 by ,oviedo1    
volume #a page #bjf4 ,complaints no less
 violent1 on the conduct of the monks of
 the #afth century1 were addressed      
directly to the pope by the ,milanese   
traveller1 ,girolamo ,benzoni47  ,lopez 
de ,aguirre1 or as he is still called by
 the common people1 the ,tyrant1 was    
killed at ,barquesimeto1 after having   
been abandoned by his own men4 ,at the  
moment when he fell1 he plunged a dagger
 into the bosom of his only daughter1   
that she might not have to blush before 

the ,spaniards at the name of the       
daughter of a traitor4 ,the soul of the 
tyrant 7such is the belief of the       
natives7 wanders in the savannahs1 like 
a flame that flies the approach of      
men499 799 ,see volume #a chapter #a4d47
  ,the second historical event connected
 with the name of ,valencia is the great
 incursion made by the ,caribs of the   
,orinoco in #aegh and #aehj4 ,that      
cannibal horde went up the banks of the 
,guarico1 crossing the plains or llanos4
 ,they were happily repulsed by the     
valour of ,garcia ,gonzales1 one of the 
captains whose names are still most     
revered in those provinces4 ,it is      
gratifying to recollect1 that the       
descendants of those very ,caribs now   
live in the missions as peaceable       
husbandmen1 and that no savage nation of
 ,guiana dares to cross the plains which
 separate the region of the forests from
 that of cultivated land4 ,the          
,cordillera of the coast is intersected 
by several ravines1 very uniformly      

directed from south-east to north-west4 
,this phenomenon is general from the    
,quebrada of ,tocume1 between ,petares  
and ,caracas1 as far as ,porto ,cabello4
 ,it would seem as if the impulsion had 
everywhere come from the south-east2 and
 this fact is the more striking1 as the 
strata of gneiss and mica-slate in the  
,cordillera of the coast are generally  
directed from the south-west to the     
north-east4 ,most of these ravines      
penetrate into the mountains at their   
southern declivity1 without crossing    
them entirely4 ,but there is an opening 
7abra7 on the meridian of ,nueva        
,valencia1 which leads towards the      
coast1 and by which a cooling sea-breeze
 penetrates every evening into the      
valleys of ,aragua4 ,this breeze rises  
regularly two or three hours after      
sunset4  ,by this abra1 the farm of     
,barbula1 and an eastern branch of the  
ravine1 a new road is being constructed 
from ,valencia to ,porto ,cabello4 ,it  
will be so short1 that it will require  

only four hours to reach the port2 and  
the traveller will be able to go and    
return in the same day from the coast to
 the valleys of ,aragua4 ,in order to   
examine this road1 we set out on the    
#bfth of ,february in the evening for   
the farm of ,barbula4  ,on the morning  
of the #bgth we visited the hot springs 
of ,la ,trinchera1 three leagues from   
,valencia4 ,the ravine is very large1   
and the descent almost continual from   
the banks of the lake to the sea-coast4 
,la ,trinchera takes its name from some 
fortifications of earth1 thrown up in   
#afgg by the ,french buccaneers1 who    
sacked the town of ,valencia4 ,the hot  
springs 7and this is a remarkable       
geological fact17 do not issue on the   
south side of the mountains1 like those 
of ,mariara1 ,onoto1 and the            
,brigantine2 but they issue from the    
chain itself almost at its northern     
declivity4 ,they are much more abundant 
than any we had till then seen1 forming 
a rivulet which1 in times of the        

greatest drought1 is two feet deep and  
eighteen wide4 ,the temperature of the  
water1 measured with great care1 was    
#ij4c degrees of the centigrade         
thermometer4 ,next to the springs of    
,urijino1 in ,japan1 which are asserted 
to be pure water at #ajj degrees of     
temperature1 the waters of the          
,trinchera of ,porto ,cabello appear to 
be the hottest in the world4 ,we        
breakfasted near the spring2 eggs       
plunged into the water were boiled in   
less than four minutes4 ,these waters1  
strongly charged with sulphuretted      
hydrogen1 gush out from the back of a   
hill rising one hundred and fifty feet  
above the bottom of the ravine1 and     
tending from south-south-east to        
north-north-west4 ,the rock from which  
the springs gush1 is a real             
coarse-grained granite1 resembling that 
of the ,rincon del ,diablo1 in the      
mountains of ,mariara4 ,wherever the    
waters evaporate in the air1 they form  
sediments and incrustations of carbonate

 of lime2 possibly they traverse strata 
of primitive limestone1 so common in the
 mica-slate and gneiss of the coasts of 
,caracas4 ,we were surprised at the     
luxuriant vegetation that surrounds the 
basin2 mimosas with slender pinnate     
leaves1 clusias1 and fig-trees1 have    
pushed their roots into the bottom of a 
pool1 the temperature of which is #he   
degrees2 and the branches of these trees
 extended over the surface of the water1
 at two or three inches distance4 ,the  
foliage of the mimosas1 though          
constantly enveloped in the hot vapours1
 displayed the most beautiful verdure4  
,an arum1 with a woody stem1 and with   
large sagittate leaves1 rose in the very
 middle of a pool the temperature of    
which was #gj degrees4 ,plants of the   
same species vegetate in other parts of 
those mountains at the brink of         
torrents1 the temperature of which is   
not #ah degrees4 ,what is still more    
singular1 forty feet distant from the   
point whence the springs gush out at a  

temperature of #ij degrees1 other       
springs are found perfectly cold4 ,they 
all follow for some time a parallel     
direction2 and the natives showed us    
that1 by digging a hole between the two 
rivulets1 they could procure a bath of  
any given temperature they pleased4 ,it 
seems remarkable1 that in the hottest as
 well as the coldest climates1 people   
display the same predilection for heat4 
,on the introduction of ,christianity   
into ,iceland1 the inhabitants would be 
baptized only in the hot springs of     
,hecla3 and in the torrid zone1 in the  
plains1 as well as on the ,cordilleras1 
the natives flock from all parts to the 
thermal waters4 ,the sick1 who come to  
,la ,trinchera to use vapour-baths1 form
 a sort of frame-work over the spring   
with branches of trees and very slender 
reeds4 ,they stretch themselves naked on
 this frame1 which appeared to me to    
possess little strength1 and to be      
dangerous of access4 ,the ,rio de ,aguas
 ,calientes runs towards the north-east1

 and becomes1 near the coast1 a         
considerable river1 swarming with great 
crocodiles1 and contributing1 by its    
inundations1 to the insalubrity of the  
shore4  ,we descended towards ,porto    
,cabello1 having constantly the river of
 hot water on our right4 ,the road is   
extremely picturesque1 and the waters   
roll down on the shelves of rock4 ,we   
might have fancied we were gazing on the
 cascades of the ,reuss1 that flows down
 ,mount ,st4 ,gothard2 but what a       
contrast in the vigour and richness of  
the vegetation6 ,the white trunks of the
 cecropia rise majestically amid        
bignonias and melastomas4 ,they do not  
disappear till we are within a hundred  
toises above the level of the ocean4 ,a 
small thorny palm-tree extends also to  
this limit2 the slender pinnate leaves  
of which look as if they had been curled
 toward the edges4 ,this tree is very   
common in these mountains2 but not      
having seen either its fruit or its     
flowers1 we are ignorant whether it be  

the piritu palm-tree of the ,caribbees1 
or the ,cocos aculeata of ,jacquin4     
,the rock on this road presents a       
geological phenomenon1 the more         
remarkable as the existence of real     
stratified granite has long been        
disputed4 ,between ,la ,trinchera and   
the ,hato de ,cambury a coarse-grained  
granite appears1 which1 from the        
disposition of the spangles of mica1    
collected in small groups1 scarcely     
admits of confounding with gneiss1 or   
with rocks of a schistose texture4 ,this
 granite1 divided into ledges of two or 
three feet thick1 is directed #eb       
degrees north-east1 and slopes to the   
north-west regularly at an angle of from
 #cj or #dj degrees4 ,the feldspar1     
crystallized in prisms with four unequal
 sides1 about an inch long1 passes      
through every variety of tint from a    
flesh-red to yellowish white4 ,the mica1
 united in hexagonal plates1 is black1  
and sometimes green4 ,the quartz        
predominates in the mass2 and is        

generally of a milky white4 ,i observed 
neither hornblende1 black schorl1 nor   
rutile titanite1 in this granite4 ,in   
some ledges we recognised round masses1 
of a blackish gray1 very quartzose1 and 
almost destitute of mica4 ,they are from
 one to two inches diameter2 and are    
found in every zone1 in all granite     
mountains4 ,these are not imbedded      
fragments1 as at ,greiffenstein in      
,saxony1 but aggregations of particles  
which seem to have been subjected to    
partial attractions4 ,i could not follow
 the line of junction of the gneiss and 
granitic formations4 ,according to      
angles taken in the valleys of ,aragua1 
the gneiss appears to descend below the 
granite1 which must consequently be of a
 more recent formation4 ,the appearance 
of a stratified granite excited my      
attention the more1 because1 having had 
the direction of the mines of           
,fichtelberg in ,franconia for several  
years1 ,i was accustomed to see granites
 divided into ledges of three or four   

feet thick1 but little inclined1 and    
forming masses like towers1 or old      
ruins1 at the summit of the highest     
mountains499 799 ,at ,ochsenkopf1 at    
,rudolphstein1 at ,epprechtstein1 at    
,luxburg1 and at ,schneeberg4 ,the dip  
of the strata of these granites of      
,fichtelberg is generally only from #f  
to #aj degrees1 rarely 7at ,schneeberg7 
#ah degrees4 ,according to the dips ,i  
observed in the neighbouring strata of  
gneiss and mica-slate1 ,i should think  
that the granite of ,fichtelberg is very
 ancient1 and serves as a basis for     
other formations2 but the strata of     
grunstein1 and the disseminated tin-ore 
which it contains1 may lead us to doubt 
its great antiquity1 from the analogy of
 the granites of ,saxony containing     
tin47  ,the heat became stifling as we  
approached the coast4 ,a reddish vapour 
veiled the horizon4 ,it was near sunset1
 and the breeze was not yet stirring4   
,we rested in the lonely farms known    
under the names of the ,hato de ,cambury

 and the house of the ,canarian 7,casa  
del ,isleno74 ,the river of hot water1  
along the banks of which we passed1     
became deeper4 ,a crocodile1 more than  
nine feet long1 lay dead on the strand4 
,we wished to examine its teeth1 and the
 inside of its mouth2 but having been   
exposed to the sun for several weeks1 it
 exhaled a smell so fetid that we were  
obliged to relinquish our design and    
remount our horses4 ,when we arrived at 
the level of the sea1 the road turned   
eastward1 and crossed a barren shore a  
league and a half broad1 resembling that
 of ,cumana4 ,we there found some       
scattered cactuses1 a sesuvium1 a few   
plants of ,coccoloba uvifera1 and along 
the coast some avicennias and mangroves4
 ,we forded the ,guayguaza and the ,rio 
,estevan1 which1 by their frequent      
overflowing1 form great pools of        
stagnant water4 ,small rocks of         
meandrites1 madrepores1 and other       
corals1 either ramified or with a       
rounded surface1 rise in this vast      

plain1 and seem to attest the recent    
retreat of the sea4 ,but these masses1  
which are the habitations of polypi1 are
 only fragments imbedded in a breccia   
with a calcareous cement4 ,i say a      
breccia1 because we must not confound   
the fresh and white corallites of this  
very recent littoral formation1 with the
 corallites blended in the mass of      
transition-rocks1 grauwacke1 and black  
limestone4 ,we were astonished to find  
in this uninhabited spot a large        
,parkinsonia aculeata loaded with       
flowers4 ,our botanical works indicate  
this tree as peculiar to the ,new       
,world2 but during five years we saw it 
only twice in a wild state1 once in the 
plains of the ,rio ,guayguaza1 and once 
in the llanos of ,cumana1 thirty leagues
 from the coast1 near la ,villa del     
,pao1 but there was reason to believe   
that this latter place had once been a  
conuco1 or cultivated enclosure4        
,everywhere else on the continent of    
,america we saw the ,parkinsonia1 like  

the ,plumeria1 only in the gardens of   
the ,indians4  ,at ,porto ,cabello1 as  
at ,la ,guayra1 it is disputed whether  
the port lies east or west of the town1 
with which the communications are the   
most frequent4 ,the inhabitants believe 
that ,porto ,cabello is north-north-west
 of ,nueva ,valencia2 and my            
observations give a longitude of three  
or four minutes more towards the west4  
,we were received with the utmost       
kindness in the house of a ,french      
physician1 ,m4 ,juliac1 who had studied 
medicine at ,montpelier4 ,his small     
house contained a collection of things  
the most various1 but which were all    
calculated to interest travellers4 ,we  
found works of literature and natural   
history2 notes on meteorology2 skins of 
the jaguar and of large aquatic         
serpents2 live animals1 monkeys1        
armadilloes1 and birds4 ,our host was   
principal surgeon to the royal hospital 
of ,porto ,cabello1 and was celebrated  
in the country for his skilful treatment

 of the yellow fever4 ,during a period  
of seven years he had seen six or eight 
thousand persons enter the hospitals1   
attacked by this cruel malady4 ,he had  
observed the ravages that the epidemic  
caused in ,admiral ,ariztizabal's fleet1
 in #agic4 ,that fleet lost nearly a    
third of its men2 for the sailors were  
almost all unseasoned ,europeans1 and   
held unrestrained intercourse with the  
shore4 ,m4 ,juliac had heretofore       
treated the sick as was commonly        
practised in ,terra ,firma1 and in the  
island1 by bleeding1 aperient medicines1
 and acid drinks4 ,in this treatment no 
attempt was made to raise the vital     
powers by the action of stimulants1 so  
that1 in attempting to allay the fever1 
the languor and debility were augmented4
 ,in the hospitals1 where the sick were 
crowded1 the mortality was often        
thirty-three per cent among the white   
,creoles2 and sixty-five in a hundred   
among the ,europeans recently           
disembarked4 ,since a stimulant         

treatment1 the use of opium1 of benzoin1
 and of alcoholic draughts1 has been    
substituted for the old debilitating    
method1 the mortality has considerably  
diminished4 ,it was believed to be      
reduced to twenty in a hundred among    
,europeans1 and ten among ,creoles299   
even when black vomiting1 and           
haemorrhage from the nose1 ears1 and    
gums1 indicated a high degree of        
exacerbation in the malady4 799 ,i have 
treated in another work of the          
proportions of mortality in the yellow  
fever4 7,nouvelle ,espagne volume #b    
pages #ggg1 #ghe1 and #hfg47 ,at ,cadiz 
the average mortality was1 in #ahjj1    
twenty per cent2 at ,seville1 in #ahja1 
it amounted to sixty per cent4 ,at ,vera
 ,cruz the mortality does not exceed    
twelve or fifteen per cent1 when the    
sick can be properly attended4 ,in the  
civil hospitals of ,paris the number of 
deaths1 one year with another1 is from  
fourteen to eighteen per cent2 but it is
 asserted that a great number of        

patients enter the hospitals almost     
dying1 or at very advanced time of      
life47 ,i relate faithfully what was    
then given as the general result of     
observation3 but ,i think1 in these     
numerical comparisons1 it must not be   
forgotten1 that1 notwithstanding        
appearances1 the epidemics of several   
successive years do not resemble each   
other2 and that1 in order to decide on  
the use of fortifying or debilitating   
remedies1 7if indeed this difference    
exist in an absolute sense17 we must    
distinguish between the various periods 
of the malady4  ,the climate of ,porto  
,cabello is less ardent than that of ,la
 ,guayra4 ,the breeze there is stronger1
 more frequent1 and more regular4 ,the  
houses do not lean against rocks that   
absorb the rays of the sun during the   
day1 and emit caloric at night1 and the 
air can circulate more freely between   
the coast and the mountains of ,ilaria4 
,the causes of the insalubrity of the   
atmosphere must be sought in the shores 

that extend to the east1 as far as the  
eye can reach1 towards the ,punta de    
,tucasos1 near the fine port of         
,chichiribiche4 ,there are situated the 
salt-works2 and there1 at the beginning 
of the rainy season1 tertian fevers     
prevail1 and easily degenerate into     
asthenic fevers4 ,it is affirmed that   
the mestizoes who are employed in the   
salt-works are more tawny1 and have a   
yellower skin1 when they have suffered  
several successive years from those     
fevers1 which are called the malady of  
the coast4 ,the poor fishermen1 who     
dwell on this shore1 are of opinion that
 it is not the inundations of the sea1  
and the retreat of the salt-water1 which
 render the lands covered with mangroves
 so unhealthful299 799 ,in the ,west    
,india ,islands all the dreadful        
maladies which prevail during the wintry
 season1 have been for a long time      
attributed to the south winds4 ,these   
winds convey the emanations of the      
mouths of the ,orinoco and of the small 

rivers of ,terra ,firma toward the high 
latitudes47 they believe that the       
insalubrity of the air is owing to the  
fresh water1 that is1 to the            
overflowings of the ,guayguaza and      
,estevan1 the swell of which is so great
 and sudden in the months of ,october   
and ,november4 ,the banks of the ,rio   
,estevan have been less insalubrious    
since little plantations of maize and   
plantains have been established2 and1 by
 raising and hardening the ground1 the  
river has been confined within narrower 
limits4 ,a plan is formed of giving     
another issue to the ,rio ,san ,estevan1
 and thus to render the environs of     
,porto ,cabello more wholesome4 ,a canal
 is to lead the waters toward that part 
of the coast which is opposite the      
island of ,guayguaza4  ,the salt-works  
of ,porto ,cabello somewhat resemble    
those of the peninsula of ,araya1 near  
,cumana4 ,the earth1 however1 which they
 lixivate by collecting the rain-water  
into small basins1 contains less salt4  

,it is questioned here1 as at ,cumana1  
whether the ground be impregnated with  
saline particles because it has been for
 ages covered at intervals with         
sea-water evaporated by the heat of the 
sun1 or whether the soil be             
muriatiferous1 as in a mine very poor in
 native salt4 ,i had not leisure to     
examine this plain with the same        
attention as the peninsula of ,araya4   
,besides1 does not this problem reduce  
itself to the simple question1 whether  
the salt be owing to new or very ancient
 inundations8 ,the labouring at the     
salt-works of ,porto ,cabello being     
extremely unhealthy1 the poorest men    
alone engage in it4 ,they collect the   
salt in little stores1 and afterwards   
sell it to the shopkeepers in the town4 
,during our abode at ,porto ,cabello1   
the current on the coast1 generally     
directed towards the west199 ran from   
west to east4 ,this upward current      
7corriente por arriba71 is very frequent
 during two or three months of the year1

 from ,september to ,november4 ,it is   
believed to be owing to some north-west 
winds that have blown between ,jamaica  
and ,cape ,st4 ,antony in the island of 
,cuba4 799 ,the wrecks of the ,spanish  
ships1 burnt at the island of ,trinidad1
 at the time of its occupation by the   
,english in #agig1 were carried by the  
general or rotary current to ,punta     
,brava1 near ,porto ,cabello4 ,this     
general current toward the east1 from   
the coasts of ,paria to the isthmus of  
,panama and the western extremity of the
 island of ,cuba1 was the subject of a  
violent dispute between ,don ,diego     
,columbus1 ,oviedo1 and the pilot       
,andres1 in the sixteenth century47     
,the military defence of the coasts of  
,terra ,firma rests on six points3 the  
castle of ,san ,antonio at ,cumana2 the 
,morro of ,nueva ,barcelona2 the        
fortifications of ,la ,guayra1 7mounting
 one hundred and thirty-four guns72     
,porto ,cabello2 fort ,san ,carlos1 7at 
the mouth of the lake of ,maracaybo72   

and ,carthagena4 ,porto ,cabello is1    
next to ,carthagena1 the most important 
fortified place4 ,the town of ,porto    
,cabello is quite modern1 and the port  
is one of the finest in the world4 ,art 
has had scarcely anything to add to the 
advantages which the nature of the spot 
presents4 ,a neck of land stretches     
first towards the north1 and then       
towards the west4 ,its western extremity
 is opposite to a range of islands      
connected by bridges1 and so close      
together that they might be taken for   
another neck of land4 ,these islands are
 all composed of a calcareous breccia of
 extremely recent formation1 and        
analagous to that on the coast of       
,cumana1 and near the castle of ,araya4 
,it is a conglomerate1 containing       
fragments of madrepores and other corals
 cemented by a limestone basis and      
grains of sand4 ,we had already seen    
this conglomerate near the ,rio         
,guayguaza4 ,by a singular disposition  
of the ground the port resembles a basin

 or a little inland lake1 the southern  
extremity of which is filled with little
 islands covered with mangroves4 ,the   
opening of the port towards the west    
contributes much to the smoothness of   
the water499 799 ,it is disputed at     
,porto ,cabello whether the port takes  
its name from the tranquillity of its   
waters1 which would not move a hair     
7cabello71 or 7which is more probable7  
derived from ,antonio ,cabello1 one of  
the fishermen with whom the smugglers of
 ,curacoa had formed a connexion at the 
period when the first hamlet was        
constructed on this half-desert coast47 
,one vessel only can enter at a time2   
but the largest ships of the line can   
anchor very near land to take in water4 
,there is no other danger in entering   
the harbour than the reefs of ,punta    
,brava1 opposite which a battery of     
eight guns has been erected4 ,towards   
the west and south-west we see the fort1
 which is a regular pentagon with five  
bastions1 the battery of the reef1 and  

the fortifications that surround the    
ancient town1 founded on an island of a 
trapezoidal form4 ,a bridge and the     
fortified gate of the ,staccado join the
 old to the new town2 the latter is     
already larger than the former1 though  
considered only as its suburb4 ,the     
bottom of the basin or lake which forms 
the harbour of ,porto ,cabello1 turns   
behind this suburb to the south-west4   
,it is a marshy ground filled with      
noisome and stagnant water4 ,the town1  
which has at present nearly nine        
thousand inhabitants1 owes its origin to
 an illicit commerce1 attracted to these
 shores by the proximity of the town of 
,burburata1 which was founded in #aedi4 
,it is only since the administration of 
the ,biscayans1 and of the company of   
,guipuzcoa1 that ,porto ,cabello1 which 
was but a hamlet1 has been converted    
into a well-fortified town4 ,the vessels
 of ,la ,guayra1 which is less a port   
than a bad open roadstead1 come to      
,porto ,cabello to be caulked and       

repaired4  ,the real defence of the     
harbour consists in the low batteries on
 the neck of land at ,punta ,brava1 and 
on the reef2 but from ignorance of this 
principle1 a new fort1 the ,mirador of  
,solano99 has been constructed at a     
great expense1 on the mountains         
commanding the suburb towards the south4
 799 ,the ,mirador is situate eastward  
of the ,vigia ,alta1 and south-east of  
the battery of the salt-works and the   
powder-mill47 ,more than ten thousand   
mules are annually exported from ,porto 
,cabello4 ,it is curious enough to see  
these animals embarked2 they are thrown 
down with ropes1 and then hoisted on    
board the vessels by means of a machine 
resembling a crane4 ,ranged in two      
files1 the mules with difficulty keep   
their footing during the rolling and    
pitching of the ship2 and in order to   
frighten and render them more docile1 a 
drum is beaten during a great part of   
the day and night4 ,we may guess what   
quiet a passenger enjoys1 who has the   

courage to embark for ,jamaica in a     
schooner laden with mules4  ,we left    
,porto ,cabello on the first of ,march1 
at sunrise4 ,we saw with surprise the   
great number of boats that were laden   
with fruit to be sold at the market4 ,it
 reminded me of a fine morning at       
,venice4 ,the town presents in general1 
on the side towards the sea1 a cheerful 
and agreeable aspect4 ,mountains covered
 with vegetation1 and crowned with peaks
 called ,las ,tetas de ,ilaria1 which1  
from their outline would be taken for   
rocks of a trap-formation1 form the     
background of the landscape4 ,near the  
coast all is bare1 white1 and strongly  
illumined1 while the screen of mountains
 is clothed with trees of thick foliage 
that project their vast shadows upon the
 brown and rocky ground4 ,on going out  
of the town we visited an aqueduct that 
had been just finished4 ,it is five     
thousand varas long1 and conveys the    
waters of the ,rio ,estevan by a trench 
to the town4 ,this work has cost more   

than thirty thousand piastres2 but its  
waters gush out in every street4  ,we   
returned from ,porto ,cabello to the    
valleys of ,aragua1 and stopped at the  
,farm of ,barbula1 near which1 a new    
road to ,valencia is in the course of   
construction4 ,we had heard1 several    
weeks before1 of a tree1 the sap of     
which is a nourishing milk4 ,it is      
called the cow-tree2 and we were assured
 that the negroes of the farm1 who drink
 plentifully of this vegetable milk1    
consider it a wholesome aliment4 ,all   
the milky juices of plants being acrid1 
bitter1 and more or less poisonous1 this
 account appeared to us very            
extraordinary2 but we found by          
experience during our stay at ,barbula1 
that the virtues of this tree had not   
been exaggerated4 ,this fine tree rises 
like the broad-leaved star-apple499 799 
,chrysophyllum cainito47 ,its oblong and
 pointed leaves1 rough and alternate1   
are marked by lateral ribs1 prominent at
 the lower surface1 and parallel4 ,some 

of them are ten inches long4 ,we did not
 see the flower3 the fruit is somewhat  
fleshy1 and contains one and sometimes  
two nuts4 ,when incisions are made in   
the trunk of this tree1 it yields       
abundance of a glutinous milk1 tolerably
 thick1 devoid of all acridity1 and of  
an agreeable and balmy smell4 ,it was   
offered to us in the shell of a         
calabash4 ,we drank considerable        
quantities of it in the evening before  
we went to bed1 and very early in the   
morning1 without feeling the least      
injurious effect4 ,the viscosity of this
 milk alone renders it a little         
disagreeable4 ,the negroes and the free 
people who work in the plantations drink
 it1 dipping into it their bread of     
maize or cassava4 ,the overseer of the  
farm told us that the negroes grow      
sensibly fatter during the season when  
the palo de vaca furnishes them with    
most milk4 ,this juice1 exposed to the  
air1 presents at its surface 7perhaps in
 consequence of the absorption of the   

atmospheric oxygen7 membranes of a      
strongly animalized substance1          
yellowish1 stringy1 and resembling      
cheese4 ,these membranes1 separated from
 the rest of the more aqueous liquid1   
are elastic1 almost like caoutchouc2 but
 they undergo1 in time1 the same        
phenomena of putrefaction as gelatine4  
,the people call the coagulum that      
separates by the contact of the air1    
cheese4 ,this coagulum grows sour in the
 space of five or six days1 as ,i       
observed in the small portions which ,i 
carried to ,nueva ,valencia4 ,the milk  
contained in a stopped phial1 had       
deposited a little coagulum2 and1 far   
from becoming fetid1 it exhaled         
constantly a balsamic odour4 ,the fresh 
juice mixed with cold water was scarcely
 coagulated at all2 but on the contact  
of nitric acid the separation of the    
viscous membranes took place4 ,we sent  
two bottles of this milk to ,m4         
,fourcroy at ,paris3 in one it was in   
its natural state1 and in the other1    

mixed with a certain quantity of        
carbonate of soda4 ,the ,french consul  
residing in the island of ,st4 ,thomas1 
undertook to convey them to him4  ,the  
extraordinary tree of which we have been
 speaking appears to be peculiar to the 
,cordillera of the coast1 particularly  
from ,barbula to the lake of ,maracaybo4
 ,some stocks of it exist near the      
village of ,san ,mateo2 and1 according  
to ,m4 ,bredemeyer1 whose travels have  
so much enriched the fine conservatories
 of ,schonbrunn and ,vienna1 in the     
valley of ,caucagua1 three days journey 
east of ,caracas4 ,this naturalist      
found1 like us1 that the vegetable milk 
of the palo de vaco had an agreeable    
taste and an aromatic smell4 ,at        
,caucagua1 the natives call the tree    
that furnishes this nourishing juice1   
the milk-tree 7arbol del leche74 ,they  
profess to recognize1 from the thickness
 and colour of the foliage1 the trunks  
that yield the most juice2 as the       
herdsman distinguishes1 from external   

signs1 a good milch-cow4 ,no botanist   
has hitherto known the existence of this
 plant4 ,it seems1 according to ,m4     
,kunth1 to belong to the sapota family4 
,long after my return to ,europe1 ,i    
found in the ,description of the ,east  
,indies by ,laet1 a ,dutch traveller1 a 
passage that seems to have some relation
 to the cow-tree4 ,there exist trees1   
says ,laet199 in the province of        
,cumana1 the sap of which much resembles
 curdled milk1 and affords a salubrious 
nourishment4 799 ,inter arbores quae    
sponte hic passim nascuntur1 memorantur 
a scriptoribus ,hispanis quaedam quae   
lacteum quemdam liquorem fundunt1 qui   
durus admodum evadit instar gummi1 et   
suavem odorem de se fundit2 aliae quae  
liquorem quemdam edunt1 instar lactis   
coagulati1 qui in cibis ab ipsis        
usurpatur sine noxa4 7,among the trees  
growing here1 it is remarked by ,spanish
 writers that there are some which pour 
out a milky juice which soon grows      
solid1 like gum1 affording a pleasant   

odour2 and also others that give out a  
liquid which coagulates like cheese1 and
 which they eat at meals without any ill
 effects74 ,descriptio ,indiarum        
,occidentalium1 lib4 #ah47  ,amidst the 
great number of curious phenomena which 
,i have observed in the course of my    
travels1 ,i confess there are few that  
have made so powerful an impression on  
me as the aspect of the cow-tree4       
,whatever relates to milk or to corn1   
inspires an interest which is not merely
 that of the physical knowledge of      
things1 but is connected with another   
order of ideas and sentiments4 ,we can  
scarcely conceive how the human race    
could exist without farinaceous         
substances1 and without that nourishing 
juice which the breast of the mother    
contains1 and which is appropriated to  
the long feebleness of the infant4 ,the 
amylaceous matter of corn1 the object of
 religious veneration among so many     
nations1 ancient and modern1 is diffused
 in the seeds1 and deposited in the     

roots of vegetables2 milk1 which serves 
as an aliment1 appears to us exclusively
 the produce of animal organization4    
,such are the impressions we have       
received in our earliest infancy3 such  
is also the source of that astonishment 
created by the aspect of the tree just  
described4 ,it is not here the solemn   
shades of forests1 the majestic course  
of rivers1 the mountains wrapped in     
eternal snow1 that excite our emotion4  
,a few drops of vegetable juice recall  
to our minds all the powerfulness and   
the fecundity of nature4 ,on the barren 
flank of a rock grows a tree with       
coriaceous and dry leaves4 ,its large   
woody roots can scarcely penetrate into 
the stone4 ,for several months of the   
year not a single shower moistens its   
foliage4 ,its branches appear dead and  
dried2 but when the trunk is pierced    
there flows from it a sweet and         
nourishing milk4 ,it is at the rising of
 the sun that this vegetable fountain is
 most abundant4 ,the negroes and natives

 are then seen hastening from all       
quarters1 furnished with large bowls to 
receive the milk1 which grows yellow1   
and thickens at its surface4 ,some empty
 their bowls under the tree itself2     
others carry the juice home to their    
children4  ,in examining the physical   
properties of animal and vegetable      
products1 science displays them as      
closely linked together2 but it strips  
them of what is marvellous1 and perhaps1
 therefore1 of a part of their charms4  
,nothing appears isolated2 the chemical 
principles that were believed to be     
peculiar to animals are found in plants2
 a common chain links together all      
organic nature4  ,long before chemists  
had recognized small portions of wax in 
the pollen of flowers1 the varnish of   
leaves1 and the whitish dust of our     
plums and grapes1 the inhabitants of the
 ,andes of ,quindiu made tapers with the
 thick layer of wax that covers the     
trunk of a palm-tree499 799 ,coroxylon  
andicola47 ,it is but a few years since 

we discovered1 in ,europe1 caseum1 the  
basis of cheese1 in the emulsion of     
almonds2 yet for ages past1 in the      
mountains of the coast of ,venezuela1   
the milk of a tree1 and the cheese      
separated from that vegetable milk1 have
 been considered as a salutary aliment4 
,how are we to account for this singular
 course in the development of knowledge8
 ,how have the unlearned inhabitants of 
one hemisphere become cognizant of a    
fact which1 in the other1 so long       
escaped the sagacity of the scientific8 
,it is because a small number of        
elements and principles differently     
combined are spread through several     
families of plants2 it is because the   
genera and species of these natural     
families are not equally distributed in 
the torrid1 the frigid1 and the         
temperate zones2 it is that tribes1     
excited by want1 and deriving almost all
 their subsistence from the vegetable   
kingdom1 discover nutritive principles1 
farinaceous and alimentary substances1  

wherever nature has deposited them in   
the sap1 the bark1 the roots1 or the    
fruits of vegetables4 ,that amylaceous  
fecula which the seeds of the cereal    
plants furnish in all its purity1 is    
found united with an acrid and sometimes
 even poisonous juice1 in the roots of  
the arums1 the ,tacca pinnatifida1 and  
the ,jatropha manihot4 ,the savage of   
,america1 like the savage of the ,south 
,sea islands1 has learned to dulcify the
 fecula1 by pressing and separating it  
from its juice4 ,in the milk of plants1 
and in the milky emulsions1 matter      
extremely nourishing1 albumen1 caseum1  
and sugar1 are found mixed with         
caoutchouc and with deleterious and     
caustic principles1 such as morphine and
 hydrocyanic acid499 799 ,opium contains
 morphine1 caoutchouc1 etc47 ,these     
mixtures vary not only in the different 
families1 but also in the species which 
belong to the same genus4 ,sometimes it 
is morphine or the narcotic principle1  
that characterises the vegetable milk1  

as in some papaverous plants2 sometimes 
it is caoutchouc1 as in the hevea and   
the castilloa2 sometimes albumen and    
caseum1 as in the cow-tree4  ,the       
lactescent plants belong chiefly to the 
three families of the euphorbiaceae1 the
 urticeae1 and the apocineae499 799     
,after these three great families follow
 the papaveraceae1 the chicoraceae1 the 
lobeliaceae1 the campanulaceae1 the     
sapoteae1 and the cucurbitaceae4 ,the   
hydrocyanic acid is peculiar to the     
group of rosaceo-amygdalaceae4 ,in the  
monocotyledonous plants there is no     
milky juice2 but the perisperm of the   
palms1 which yields such sweet and      
agreeable milky emulsions1 contains1 no 
doubt1 caseum4 ,of what nature is the   
milk of mushrooms87 ,since1 on examining
 the distribution of vegetable forms    
over the globe1 we find that those three
 families are more numerous in species  
in the low regions of the tropics1 we   
must thence conclude1 that a very       
elevated temperature contributes to the 

elaboration of the milky juices1 to the 
formation of caoutchouc1 albumen1 and   
caseous matter4 ,the sap of the palo de 
vaca furnishes unquestionably the most  
striking example of a vegetable milk in 
which the acrid and deleterious         
principle is not united with albumen1   
caseum1 and caoutchouc3 the genera      
euphorbia and asclepias1 however1 though
 generally known for their caustic      
properties1 already present us with a   
few species1 the juice of which is sweet
 and harmless4 ,such are the ,tabayba   
dulce of the ,canary ,islands1 which we 
have already mentioned199 799 ,euphorbia
 balsamifera4 ,the milky juice of the   
,cactus mamillaris is equally sweet47   
and the ,asclepias lactifera of ,ceylon4
 ,burman relates that1 in the latter    
country1 when cow's milk is wanting1 the
 milk of this asclepias is used2 and    
that the ailments commonly prepared with
 animal milk are boiled with its leaves4
 ,it may be possible1 as ,decandolle has
 well observed1 that the natives employ 

only the juice that flows from the young
 plant1 at a period when the acrid      
principle is not yet developed4 ,in     
fact1 the first shoots of the apocyneous
 plants are eaten in several countries4 
,i have endeavoured by these comparisons
 to bring into consideration1 under a   
more general point of view1 the milky   
juices that circulate in vegetables2 and
 the milky emulsions that the fruits of 
the amygdalaceous plants and palms      
yield4 ,i may be permitted to add the   
result of some experiments which ,i     
attempted to make on the juice of the   
,carica papaya during my stay in the    
valleys of ,aragua1 though ,i was then  
almost destitute of chemical tests4 ,the
 juice has been since examined by       
,vauquelin1 and this celebrated chemist 
has very clearly recognized the albumen 
and caseous matter2 he compares the     
milky sap to a substance strongly       
animalized--to the blood of animals2 but
 his researches were confined to a      
fermented juice and a coagulum of a     

fetid smell1 formed during the passage  
from the ,mauritius to ,france4 ,he has 
expressed a wish that some traveller    
would examine the milk of the papaw-tree
 just as it flows from the stem or the  
fruit4  ,the younger the fruit of the   
carica1 the more milk it yields3 it is  
even found in the germen scarcely       
fecundated4 ,in proportion as the fruit 
ripens1 the milk becomes less abundant1 
and more aqueous4 ,less of that animal  
matter which is coagulable by acids and 
by the absorption of atmospheric oxygen1
 is found in it4 ,as the whole fruit is 
viscous199 799 ,the same viscosity is   
also remarked in the fresh milk of the  
palo de vaca4 ,it is no doubt occasioned
 by the caoutchouc1 which is not yet    
separated1 and which forms one mass with
 the albumen and the caseum1 as the     
butter and the caseum in animal milk4   
,the juice of a euphorbiaceous plant    
7,sapium aucuparium71 which also yields 
caoutchouc1 is so glutinous that it is  
used to catch parrots47 it might be     

supposed that1 as it grows larger1 the  
coagulable matter is deposed in the     
organs1 and forms a part of the pulp1 or
 the fleshy substance4 ,when nitric     
acid1 diluted with four parts of water1 
is added drop by drop to the milk       
expressed from a very young fruit1 a    
very extraordinary phenomenon appears4  
,at the centre of each drop a gelatinous
 pellicle is formed1 divided by greyish 
streaks4 ,these streaks are simply the  
juice rendered more aqueous1 owing to   
the contact of the acid having deprived 
it of the albumen4 ,at the same time1   
the centre of the pellicles becomes     
opaque1 and of the colour of the yolk of
 an egg2 they enlarge as if by the      
prolongation of divergent fibres4 ,the  
whole liquid assumes at first the       
appearance of an agate with milky       
clouds2 and it seems as if organic      
membranes were forming under the eye of 
the observer4 ,when the coagulum extends
 to the whole mass1 the yellow spots    
again disappear4 ,by agitation it       

becomes granulous like soft cheese499   
799 ,the substance which falls down in  
grumous and filamentous clots is not    
pure caoutchouc1 but perhaps a mixture  
of this substance with caseum and       
albumen4 ,acids precipitate the         
caoutchouc from the milky juice of the  
euphorbiums1 fig-trees1 and hevea2 they 
precipitate the caseum from the milk of 
animals4 ,a white coagulum was formed in
 phials closely stopped1 containing the 
milk of the hevea1 and preserved among  
our collections1 during our journey to  
the ,orinoco4 ,it is perhaps the        
development of a vegetable acid which   
then furnishes oxygen to the albumen4   
,the formation of the coagulum of the   
hevea1 or of real caoutchouc1 is        
nevertheless much more rapid in contact 
with the air4 ,the absorption of        
atmospheric oxygen is not in the least  
necessary to the production of butter   
which exists already formed in the milk 
of animals2 but ,i believe it cannot be 
doubted that1 in the milk of plants1    

this absorption produces the pellicles  
of caoutchouc1 of coagulated albumen1   
and of caseum1 which are successively   
formed in vessels exposed to the open   
air47 ,the yellow colour reappears on   
adding a few more drops of nitric acid4 
,the acid acts in this instance as the  
oxygen of the atmosphere at a           
temperature from #bg to #ce degrees2 for
 the white coagulum grows yellow in two 
or three minutes1 when exposed to the   
sun4 ,after a few hours the yellow      
colour turns to brown1 no doubt because 
the carbon is set more free             
progressively as the hydrogen1 with     
which it was combined1 is burnt4 ,the   
coagulum formed by the acid becomes     
viscous1 and acquires that smell of wax 
which ,i have observed in treating      
muscular flesh and mushrooms 7morels7   
with nitric acid4 ,according to the fine
 experiments of ,mr4 ,hatchett1 the     
albumen may be supposed to pass partly  
to the state of gelatine4 ,the coagulum 
of the papaw-tree1 when newly prepared1 

being thrown into water1 softens1       
dissolves in part1 and gives a yellowish
 tint to the fluid4 ,the milk1 placed in
 contact with water only1 forms also    
membranes4 ,in an instant a tremulous   
jelly is precipitated1 resembling       
starch4 ,this phenomenon is particularly
 striking if the water employed be      
heated to #dj or #fj degrees4 ,the jelly
 condenses in proportion as more water  
is poured upon it4 ,it preserves a long 
time its whiteness1 only growing yellow 
by the contact of a few drops of nitric 
acid4 ,guided by the experiments of     
,fourcroy and ,vauquelin on the juice of
 the hevea1 ,i mixed a solution of      
carbonate of soda with the milk of the  
papaw4 ,no clot is formed1 even when    
pure water is poured on a mixture of the
 milk with the alkaline solution4 ,the  
membranes appear only when1 by adding an
 acid1 the soda is neutralized1 and the 
acid is in excess4 ,i made the coagulum 
formed by nitric acid1 the juice of     
lemons1 or hot water1 likewise disappear

 by mixing it with carbonate of soda4   
,the sap again becomes milky and liquid1
 as in its primitive state2 but this    
experiment succeeds only when the       
coagulum has been recently formed4  ,on 
comparing the milky juices of the papaw1
 the cow-tree1 and the hevea1 there     
appears a striking analogy between the  
juices which abound in caseous matter1  
and those in which caoutchouc prevails4 
,all the white and newly prepared       
caoutchouc1 as well as the waterproof   
cloaks1 manufactured in ,spanish        
,america by placing a layer of milk of  
hevea between two pieces of cloth1      
exhale an animal and nauseating smell4  
,this seems to indicate that the        
caoutchouc1 in coagulating1 carries with
 it the caseum1 which is perhaps only an
 altered albumen4  ,the produce of the  
bread-fruit tree can no more be         
considered as bread than plantains      
before the state of maturity1 or the    
tuberous and amylaceous roots of the    
cassava1 the dioscorea1 the ,convolvulus

 batatas1 and the potato4 ,the milk of  
the cow-tree contains1 on the contrary1 
a caseous matter1 like the milk of      
mammiferous animals4 ,advancing to more 
general considerations1 we may regard1  
with ,m4 ,gay-,lussac1 the caoutchouc as
 the oily part--the butter of vegetable 
milk4 ,we find in the milk of plants    
caseum and caoutchouc2 in the milk of   
animals1 caseum and butter4 ,the        
proportions of the two albuminous and   
oily principles differ in the various   
species of animals and of lactescent    
plants4 ,in these last they are most    
frequently mixed with other substances  
hurtful as food2 but of which the       
separation might perhaps be obtained by 
chemical processes4 ,a vegetable milk   
becomes nourishing when it is destitute 
of acrid and narcotic principles2 and   
abounds less in caoutchouc than in      
caseous matter499  799 ,the milk of the 
lactescent agarics has not been         
separately analysed2 it contains an     
acrid principle in the ,agaricus        

piperatus1 and in other species it is   
sweet and harmless4 ,the experiments of 
,,mm4 ,braconnot1 ,bouillon-,lagrange1  
and ,vauquelin 7,annales de ,chimie1    
volume #df1 volume #ea1 volume #gi1     
volume #hj1 volume #he1 have pointed out
 a great quantity of albumen in the     
substance of the ,agaricus deliciosus1  
an edible mushroom4 ,it is this albumen 
contained in their juice which renders  
them so hard when boiled4 ,it has been  
proved that morels 7,morchella          
esculenta7 can be converted into        
sebaceous and adipocerous matter1       
capable of being used in the fabrication
 of soap4 7,de ,candolle1 sur les       
,proprietes medicinales des ,plantes47  
,saccharine matter has also been found  
in mushrooms by ,gunther4 ,it is in the 
family of the fungi1 more especially in 
the clavariae1 phalli1 helvetiae1 the   
merulii1 and the small gymnopae which   
display themselves in a few hours after 
a storm of rain1 that organic nature    
produces with most rapidity the greatest

 variety of chemical principles--sugar1 
albumen1 adipocire1 acetate of potash1  
fat1 ozmazome1 the aromatic principles1 
etc4 ,it would be interesting to        
examine1 besides the milk of the        
lactescent fungi1 those species which1  
when cut in pieces1 change their colour 
on the contact of atmospheric air4      
,though we have referred the palo de    
vaca to the family of the sapotas1 we   
have nevertheless found in it a great   
resemblance to some plants of the       
urticeous kind1 especially to the       
fig-tree1 because of its terminal       
stipulae in the shape of a horn2 and to 
the brosimum1 on account of the         
structure of its fruit4 ,m4 ,kunth would
 even have preferred this last          
classification2 if the description of   
the fruit1 made on the spot1 and the    
nature of the milk1 which is acrid in   
the urticeae1 and sweet in the sapotas1 
did not seem to confirm our conjecture4 
,bredemeyer saw1 like us1 the fruit1 and
 not the flower of the cow tree4 ,he    

asserts that he observed sometimes8 two 
seeds1 lying one against the other1 as  
in the alligator pear-tree 7,laurus     
persea74 ,perhaps this botanist had the 
intention of expressing the same        
conformation of the nucleus that ,swartz
 indicates in the description of the    
brosimum--nucleus bilobus aut           
bipartibilis4 ,we have mentioned the    
places where this remarkable tree grows3
 it will be easy for botanical          
travellers to procure the flower of the 
palo de vaca and to remove the doubts   
which still remain1 of the family to    
which it belongs47  ,whilst the palo de 
vaca manifests the immense fecundity and
 the bounty of nature in the torrid     
zone1 it also reminds us of the numerous
 causes which favour in those fine      
climates the careless indolence of man4 
,mungo ,park has made known the         
butter-tree of ,bambarra1 which ,m4 ,de 
,candolle suspects to be of the family  
of sapotas1 as well as our milk-tree4   
,the plantain1 the sago-tree1 and the   

mauritia of the ,orinoco1 are as much   
bread-trees as the rema of the ,south   
,sea4 ,the fruits of the crescentia and 
the lecythis serve as vessels for       
containing food1 while the spathes of   
the palms1 and the bark of trees1       
furnish caps and garments without a     
seam4 ,the knots1 or rather the interior
 cells of the trunks of bamboos1 supply 
ladders1 and facilitate in a thousand   
ways the construction of a hut1 and the 
fabrication of chairs1 beds1 and other  
articles of furniture that compose the  
wealth of a savage household4 ,in the   
midst of this lavish vegetation1 so     
varied in its productions1 it requires  
very powerful motives to excite man to  
labour1 to rouse him from his lethargy1 
and to unfold his intellectual          
faculties4  ,cacao and cotton are       
cultivated at ,barbula4 ,we there found1
 what is very rare in that country1 two 
large cylindrical machines for          
separating the cotton from its seed2 one
 put in motion by an hydraulic wheel1   

and the other by a wheel turned by      
mules4 ,the overseer of the farm1 who   
had constructed these machines1 was a   
native of ,merida4 ,he was acquainted   
with the road that leads from ,nueva    
,valencia1 by the way of ,guanare and   
,misagual1 to ,varinas2 and thence by   
the ravine of ,collejones1 to the       
,paramo de ,mucuchies and the mountains 
of ,merida covered with eternal snows4  
,the notions he gave us of the time     
requisite for going from ,valencia by   
,varinas to the ,sierra ,nevada1 and    
thence by the port of ,torunos1 and the 
,rio ,santo ,domingo1 to ,san ,fernando 
de ,apure1 were of infinite value to us4
 ,it can scarcely be imagined in        
,europe1 how difficult it is to obtain  
accurate information in a country where 
the communications are so rare2 and     
where distances are diminished or       
exaggerated according to the desire that
 may be felt to encourage the traveller1
 or to deter him from his purpose4 ,i   
had resolved to visit the eastern       

extremity of the ,cordilleras of ,new   
,grenada1 where they lose themselves in 
the paramos of ,timotes and ,niquitao4  
,i learned at ,barbula1 that this       
excursion would retard our arrival at   
the ,orinoco thirty-five days4 ,this    
delay appeared to us so much the longer1
 as the rains were expected to begin    
sooner than usual4 ,we had the hope of  
examining afterwards a great number of  
mountains covered with perpetual snow1  
at ,quito1 ,peru1 and ,mexico2 and it   
appeared to me still more prudent to    
relinquish our project of visiting the  
mountains of ,merida1 since by so doing 
we might miss the real object of our    
journey1 that of ascertaining by        
astronomical observations the point of  
communication between the ,orinoco1 the 
,rio ,negro1 and the river ,amazon4 ,we 
returned in consequence from ,barbula to
 ,guacara1 to take leave of the family  
of the ,marquis del ,toro1 and pass     
three days more on the borders of the   
lake4  ,it was the carnival season1 and 

all was gaiety4 ,the sports in which the
 people indulge1 and which are called   
carnes tollendas199 assume occasionally 
somewhat of a savage character4 799 ,or 
farewell to flesh4 ,the word carnival   
has the same meaning1 these sports being
 always held just before the            
commencement of ,lent47 ,some led an ass
 loaded with water1 and1 where-ever they
 found a window open1 inundated the     
apartment within by means of a pump4    
,others carried bags filled with hairs  
of picapica299 799 ,dolichos pruriens   
7cowage747 and blew the hair1 which     
causes a great irritation of the skin1  
into the faces of those who passed by4  
,from ,guacara we returned to ,nueva    
,valencia4 ,we found there a few ,french
 emigrants1 the only ones we saw during 
five years passed in the ,spanish       
colonies4 ,notwithstanding the ties of  
blood which unite the royal families of 
,france and ,spain1 even ,french priests
 were not permitted to take refuge in   
that part of the ,new ,world1 where man 

with such facility finds food and       
shelter4 ,beyond the ,atlantic1 the     
,united ,states of ,america afford the  
only asylum to misfortune4 ,a           
government1 strong because it is free1  
confiding because it is just1 has       
nothing to fear in giving refuge to the 
proscribed4  ,we have endeavoured above 
to give some notions of the state of the
 cultivation of indigo1 cotton1 and     
sugar1 in the province of ,caracas4     
,before we quit the valley of ,aragua   
and its neighbouring coast1 it remains  
for us to speak of the                  
cacao-plantations1 which have at all    
times been considered as the principal  
source of the prosperity of those       
countries4 ,the province of ,caracas199 
799 ,the province1 not the              
capitania-general1 consequently not     
including the cacao plantations of      
,cumana1 the province of ,barcelona1 of 
,maracaybo1 of ,varinas1 and of ,spanish
 ,guiana47 at the end of the eighteenth 
century1 produced annually a hundred and

 fifty thousand fanegas1 of which a     
hundred thousand were consumed in       
,spain1 and thirty thousand in the      
province4 ,estimating a fanega of cacao 
at only twenty-five piastres for the    
price given at ,cadiz1 we find that the 
total value of the exportation of cacao1
 by the six ports of the ,capitania     
,general of ,caracas1 amounts to four   
million eight hundred thousand piastres4
 ,so important an object of commerce    
merits a careful discussion2 and ,i     
flatter myself1 that1 from the great    
number of materials ,i have collected on
 all the branches of colonial           
agriculture1 ,i shall be able to add    
something to the information published  
by ,m4 ,depons1 in his valuable work on 
the provinces of ,venezuela4  ,the tree 
which produces the cacao is not at      
present found wild in the forests of    
,terra ,firma to the north of the       
,orinoco2 we began to find it only      
beyond the cataracts of ,ature and      
,maypure4 ,it abounds particularly near 

the banks of the ,ventuari1 and on the  
,upper ,orinoco1 between the ,padamo and
 the ,gehette4 ,this scarcity of wild   
cacao-trees in ,south ,america1 north of
 the latitude of #f degrees1 is a very  
curious phenomenon of botanical         
geography1 and yet little known4 ,this  
phenomenon appears the more surprising1 
as1 according to the annual produce of  
the harvest1 the number of trees in full
 bearing in the cacao-plantations of    
,caracas1 ,nueva ,barcelona1 ,venezuela1
 ,varinas1 and ,maracaybo1 is estimated 
at more than sixteen millions4 ,the wild
 cacao-tree has many branches1 and is   
covered with a tufted and dark foliage4 
,it bears a very small fruit1 like that 
variety which the ancient ,mexicans     
called tlalcacahuatl4 ,transplanted into
 the conucos of the ,indians of         
,cassiquiare and the ,rio ,negro1 the   
wild tree preserves for several         
generations that force of vegetable     
life1 which makes it bear fruit in the  
fourth year2 while1 in the province of  

,caracas1 the harvest begins only the   
sixth1 seventh1 or eighth year4 ,it is  
later in the inland parts than on the   
coasts and in the valley of ,guapo4 ,we 
met with no tribe on the ,orinoco that  
prepared a beverage with the seeds of   
the cacao-tree4 ,the savages suck the   
pulp of the pod1 and throw away the     
seeds1 which are often found in heaps   
where they have passed the night4       
,though chorote1 which is a very weak   
infusion of cacao1 is considered on the 
coast to be a very ancient beverage1 no 
historical fact proves that chocolate1  
or any preparation whatever of cacao1   
was known to the natives of ,venezuela  
before the arrival of the ,spaniards4   
,it appears to me more probable that the
 cacao-plantations of ,caracas were     
suggested by those of ,mexico and       
,guatimala2 and that the ,spaniards     
inhabiting ,terra ,firma learned the    
cultivation of the cacao-tree1 sheltered
 in its youth by the foliage of the     
erythrina and plantain299 7,this process

 of the ,mexican cultivators1 practised 
on the coast of ,caracas1 is described  
in the memoirs known under the title of 
,relazione di certo ,gentiluomo del     
,signor ,cortez1 ,conquistadore del     
,messico4 7,ramusio1 tome #b page       
#acd747 the fabrication of cakes of     
chocolatl1 and the use of the liquid of 
the same name1 in course of their       
communications with ,mexico1 ,guatimala1
 and ,nicaragua4  ,down to the sixteenth
 century travellers differed in opinion 
respecting the chocolatl4 ,benzoni      
plainly says that it is a drink fitter  
for hogs than men499 799 ,benzoni1      
,istoria del ,mondo ,nuovo1 #aegb page  
#ajd47 ,the ,jesuit ,acosta asserts1    
that the ,spaniards who inhabit ,america
 are fond of chocolate to excess2 but   
that it requires to be accustomed to    
that black beverage not to be disgusted 
at the mere sight of its froth1 which   
swims on it like yeast on a fermented   
liquor4 ,he adds1 the cacao is a        
prejudice 7una supersticion7 of the     

,mexicans1 as the coca is a prejudice of
 the ,peruvians4 ,these opinions remind 
us of ,madame de ,sevigne's prediction  
respecting the use of coffee4 ,fernando 
,cortez and his page1 the gentilhombre  
del gran ,conquistador1 whose memoirs   
were published by ,ramusio1 on the      
contrary1 highly praise chocolate1 not  
only as an agreeable drink1 though      
prepared cold199 but in particular as a 
nutritious substance4 799 ,father ,gili 
has very clearly shown1 from two        
passages in ,torquemada 7,monarquia     
,indiana1 lib4 #ad7 that the ,mexicans  
prepared the infusion cold1 and that the
 ,spaniards introduced the custom of    
preparing chocolate by boiling water    
with the paste of cacao47 ,he who has   
drunk one cup1 says the page of         
,fernando ,cortez1 can travel a whole   
day without any other food1 especially  
in very hot climates2 for chocolate is  
by its nature cold and refreshing4 ,we  
shall not subscribe to the latter part  
of this assertion2 but we shall soon    

have occasion1 in our voyage on the     
,orinoco1 and our excursions towards the
 summit of the ,cordilleras1 to         
celebrate the salutary properties of    
chocolate4 ,it is easily conveyed and   
readily employed3 as an aliment it      
contains a large quantity of nutritive  
and stimulating particles in a small    
compass4 ,it has been said with truth1  
that in the ,east1 rice1 gum1 and ghee  
7clarified butter71 assist man in       
crossing the deserts2 and so1 in the    
,new ,world1 chocolate and the flour of 
maize1 have rendered accessible to the  
traveller the table-lands of the ,andes1
 and vast uninhabited forests4  ,the    
cacao harvest is extremely variable4    
,the tree vegetates with such vigour    
that flowers spring out even from the   
roots1 wherever the earth leaves them   
uncovered4 ,it suffers from the         
north-east winds1 even when they lower  
the temperature only a few degrees4 ,the
 heavy showers that fall irregularly    
after the rainy season1 during the      

winter months1 from ,december to ,march1
 are also very hurtful to the           
cacao-tree4 ,the proprietor of a        
plantation of fifty thousand trees often
 loses the value of more than four or   
five thousand piastres in cacao in one  
hour4 ,great humidity is favourable to  
the tree only when it augments          
progressively1 and is for a long time   
uninterrupted4 ,if1 in the season of    
drought1 the leaves and the young fruit 
be wetted by a violent shower1 the fruit
 falls from the stem2 for it appears    
that the vessels which absorb water     
break from being rendered turgid4       
,besides1 the cacao-harvest is one of   
the most uncertain1 on account of the   
fatal effects of inclement seasons1 and 
the great number of worms1 insects1     
birds1 and quadrupeds199 799 ,parrots1  
monkeys1 agoutis1 squirrels1 and stags47
 which devour the pod of the cacao-tree2
 and this branch of agriculture has the 
disadvantage of obliging the new planter
 to wait eight or ten years for the     

fruit of his labours1 and of yielding   
after all an article of very difficult  
preservation4  ,the finest plantations  
of cacao are found in the province of   
,caracas1 along the coast1 between      
,caravalleda and the mouth of the ,rio  
,tocuyo1 in the valleys of ,caucagua1   
,capaya1 ,curiepe1 and ,guapo2 and in   
those of ,cupira1 between cape ,conare  
and cape ,unare1 near ,aroa1            
,barquesimeto1 ,guigue1 and ,uritucu4   
,the cacao that grows on the banks of   
the ,uritucu1 at the entrance of the    
llanos1 in the jurisdiction of ,san     
,sebastian de las ,reyes1 is considered 
to be of the finest quality4 ,next to   
the cacao of ,uritucu comes that of     
,guigue1 of ,caucagua1 of ,capaya1 and  
of ,cupira4 ,the merchants of ,cadiz    
assign the first rank to the cacao of   
,caracas1 immediately after that of     
,socomusco2 and its price is generally  
from thirty to forty per cent higher    
than that of ,guayaquil4  ,it is only   
since the middle of the seventeenth     

century1 when the ,dutch1 tranquil      
possessors of the island of ,curacoa1   
awakened1 by their smuggling1 the       
agricultural industry of the inhabitants
 of the neighbouring coasts1 that cacao 
has become an object of exportation in  
the province of ,caracas4 ,we are       
ignorant of everything that passed in   
those countries before the establishment
 of the ,biscay ,company of ,guipuzcoa1 
in #agbh4 ,no precise statistical data  
have reached us3 we only know that the  
exportation of cacao from ,caracas      
scarcely amounted1 at the beginning of  
the eighteenth century1 to thirty       
thousand fanegas a-year4 ,from #agcj to 
#agdh1 the company sent to ,spain eight 
hundred and fifty-eight thousand nine   
hundred and seventy-eight fanegas1 which
 make1 on an average1 forty-seven       
thousand seven hundred fanegas a-year2  
the price of the fanega fell1 in #agcb1 
to forty-five piastres1 when it had     
before kept at eighty piastres4 ,in     
#agfc the cultivation had so much       

augmented1 that the exportation rose to 
eighty thousand six hundred and         
fifty-nine fanegas4  ,in an official    
document1 taken from the papers of the  
minister of finance1 the annual produce 
7la cosecha7 of the province of ,caracas
 is estimated at a hundred and          
thirty-five thousand fanegas of cacao2  
thirty-three thousand of which are for  
home consumption1 ten thousand for other
 ,spanish colonies1 seventy-seven       
thousand for the mother-country1 fifteen
 thousand for the illicit commerce with 
the ,french1 ,english1 ,dutch1 and      
,danish colonies4 ,from #aghi to #agic1 
the importation of cacao from ,caracas  
into ,spain was1 on an average1         
seventy-seven thousand seven hundred and
 nineteen fanegas a-year1 of which      
sixty-five thousand seven hundred and   
sixty-six were consumed in the country1 
and eleven thousand nine hundred and    
fifty-three exported to ,france1 ,italy1
 and ,germany4  ,the late wars have had 
much more fatal effects on the cacao    

trade of ,caracas than on that of       
,guayaquil4 ,on account of the increase 
of price1 less cacao of the first       
quality has been consumed in ,europe4   
,instead of mixing1 as was done formerly
 for common chocolate1 one quarter of   
the cacao of ,caracas1 with             
three-quarters of that of ,guayaquil1   
the latter has been employed pure in    
,spain4 ,we must here remark1 that a    
great deal of cacao of an inferior      
quality1 such as that of ,maranon1 the  
,rio ,negro1 ,honduras1 and the island  
of ,st4 ,lucia1 bears the name1 in      
commerce1 of ,guayaquil cacao4 ,the     
exportation from that port amounts only 
to sixty thousand fanegas2 consequently 
it is two-thirds less than that of the  
ports of the ,capitania-,general of     
,caracas4  ,though the plantations of   
cacao have augmented in the provinces of
 ,cumana1 ,barcelona1 and ,maracaybo1 in
 proportion as they have diminished in  
the province of ,caracas1 it is still   
believed that1 in general1 this ancient 

branch of agricultural industry         
gradually declines4 ,in many parts      
coffee and cotton-trees progressively   
take place of the cacao1 of which the   
lingering harvests weary the patience of
 the cultivator4 ,it is also asserted1  
that the new plantations of cacao are   
less productive than the old2 the trees 
do not acquire the same vigour1 and     
yield later and less abundant fruit4    
,the soil is still said to be exhausted2
 but probably it is rather the          
atmosphere that is changed by the       
progress of clearing and cultivation4   
,the air that reposes on a virgin soil  
covered with forests is loaded with     
humidity and those gaseous mixtures that
 serve for the nutriment of plants1 and 
arise from the decomposition of organic 
substances4 ,when a country has been    
long subjected to cultivation1 it is not
 the proportions between the azote and  
oxygen that vary4 ,the constituent bases
 of the atmosphere remain unaltered2 but
 it no longer contains1 in a state of   

suspension1 those binary and ternary    
mixtures of carbon1 hydrogen1 and       
nitrogen1 which a virgin soil exhales1  
and which are regarded as a source of   
fecundity4 ,the air1 purer and less     
charged with miasmata and heterogeneous 
emanations1 becomes at the same time    
drier4 ,the elasticity of the vapours   
undergoes a sensible diminution4 ,on    
land long cleared1 and consequently     
little favourable to the cultivation of 
the cacao-tree 7as1 for instance1 in the
 ,west ,india ,islands71 the fruit is   
almost as small as that of the wild     
cacao-tree4 ,it is on the banks of the  
,upper ,orinoco1 after having crossed   
the ,llanos1 that we find the true      
country of the cacao-tree2 thick        
forests1 in which1 on a virgin soil1 and
 surrounded by an atmosphere continually
 humid1 the trees furnish1 from the     
fourth year1 abundant crops4 ,wherever  
the soil is not exhausted1 the fruit has
 become by cultivation larger and       
bitter1 but also later4  ,on seeing the 

produce of cacao gradually diminish in  
,terra ,firma1 it may be inquired1      
whether the consumption will diminish in
 the same proportion in ,spain1 ,italy1 
and the rest of ,europe2 or whether it  
be not probable1 that by the destruction
 of the cacao plantations1 the price    
will augment sufficiently to rouse anew 
the industry of the cultivator4 ,this   
latter opinion is generally admitted by 
those who deplore1 at ,caracas1 the     
diminution of so ancient and profitable 
a branch of commerce4 ,in proportion as 
civilization extends towards the humid  
forests of the interior1 the banks of   
the ,orinoco and the ,amazon1 or towards
 the valleys that furrow the eastern    
declivity of the ,andes1 the new        
planters will find lands and an         
atmosphere equally favourable to the    
culture of the cacao-tree4  ,the        
,spaniards1 in general1 dislike a       
mixture of vanilla with the cacao1 as   
irritating the nervous system2 the      
fruit1 therefore1 of that orchideous    

plant is entirely neglected in the      
province of ,caracas1 though abundant   
crops of it might be gathered on the    
moist and feverish coast between ,porto 
,cabello and ,ocumare2 especially at    
,turiamo1 where the fruits of the       
,epidendrum vanilla attain the length of
 eleven or twelve inches4 ,the ,english 
and the ,anglo-,americans often seek to 
make purchases of vanilla at the port of
 ,la ,guayra1 but the merchants procure 
with difficulty a very small quantity4  
,in the valleys that descend from the   
chain of the coast towards the          
,caribbean ,sea1 in the province of     
,truxillo1 as well as in the ,missions  
of ,guiana1 near the cataracts of the   
,orinoco1 a great quantity of vanilla   
might be collected2 the produce of which
 would be still more abundant1 if1      
according to the practice of the        
,mexicans1 the plant were disengaged1   
from time to time1 from the creeping    
plants by which it is entwined and      
stifled4  ,the hot and fertile valleys  

of the ,cordillera of the coast of      
,venezuela occupy a tract of land which1
 on the west1 towards the lake of       
,maracaybo1 displays a remarkable       
variety of scenery4 ,i shall exhibit in 
one view1 to close this chapter1 the    
facts ,i have been able to collect      
respecting the quality of the soil and  
the metallic riches of the districts of 
,aroa1 of ,barquesimeto1 and of ,carora4
  ,from the ,sierra ,nevada of ,merida1 
and the paramos of ,niquitao1 ,bocono1  
and ,las ,rosas199 7,many travellers1   
who were monks1 have asserted that the  
little ,paramo de ,las ,rosas1 the      
height of which appears to be more than 
#a1fjj toises1 is covered with rosemary1
 and the red and white roses of ,europe 
grow wild there4 ,these roses are       
gathered to decorate the altars in the  
neighbouring villages on the festivals  
of the church4 ,by what accident has our
 ,rosa centifolia become wild in this   
country1 while we nowhere found it in   
the ,andes of ,quito and ,peru8 ,can it 

really be the rose-tree of our garden87 
which contain the valuable bark-tree1   
the eastern ,cordillera of ,new         
,granada99 799 ,the bark exported from  
the port of ,maracaybo does not come    
from the territory of ,venezuela1 but   
from the mountains of ,pamplona in ,new 
,grenada1 being brought down the ,rio de
 ,san ,faustino1 that flows into the    
lake of ,maracaybo4 7,pombo1 ,noticias  
sobre las ,quinas1 #ahad page #fe47     
,some is collected near ,merida1 in the 
ravine of ,viscucucuy47 decreases in    
height so rapidly1 that1 between the    
ninth and tenth degrees of latitude1 it 
forms only a chain of little mountains1 
which1 stretching to the north-east by  
the ,altar and ,torito1 separates the   
rivers that join the ,apure and the     
,orinoco from those numerous rivers that
 flow either into the ,caribbean ,sea or
 the lake of ,maracaybo4 ,on this       
dividing ridge are built the towns of   
,nirgua1 ,san ,felipe el ,fuerte1       
,barquesimeto1 and ,tocuyo4 ,the first  

three are in a very hot climate2 but    
,tocuyo enjoys great coolness1 and we   
heard with surprise1 that1 beneath so   
fine a sky1 the inhabitants have a      
strong propensity to suicide4 ,the      
ground rises towards the south2 for     
,truxillo1 the lake of ,urao1 from which
 carbonate of soda is extracted1 and ,la
 ,grita1 all to the east of the         
,cordillera1 though no farther distant1 
are four or five hundred toises high4   
,on examining the law which the         
primitive strata of the ,cordillera of  
the coast follow in their dip1 we       
believe we recognize one of the causes  
of the extreme humidity of the land     
bounded by this ,cordillera and the     
ocean4 ,the dip of the strata is most   
frequently to the north-west2 so that   
the waters flow in that direction on the
 ledges of rock2 and form1 as we have   
stated above1 that multitude of torrents
 and rivers1 the inundations of which   
become so fatal to the health of the    
inhabitants1 from cape ,codera as far as

 the lake of ,maracaybo4  ,among the    
rivers which descend north-east toward  
the coast of ,porto ,cabello1 and ,la   
,punta de ,hicacos1 the most remarkable 
are those of ,tocuyo1 ,aroa1 and        
,yaracuy4 ,were it not for the miasmata 
which infect the atmosphere1 the valleys
 of ,aroa and of ,yaracuy would perhaps 
be more populous than those of ,aragua4 
,navigable rivers would even give the   
former the advantage of facilitating the
 exportation of their own crops of sugar
 and cacao1 and that of the productions 
of the neighbouring lands2 as the wheat 
of ,quibor1 the cattle of ,monai1 and   
the copper of ,aroa4 ,the mines from    
which this copper is extracted1 are in a
 lateral valley1 opening into that of   
,aroa2 and which is less hot1 and less  
unhealthy1 than the ravines nearer the  
sea4 ,in the latter the ,indians have   
their gold-washings1 and the soil       
conceals rich copper-ores1 which no one 
has yet attempted to extract4 ,the      
ancient mines of ,aroa1 after having    

been long neglected1 have been wrought  
anew by the care of ,don ,antonio       
,henriquez1 whom we met at ,san         
,fernando on the borders of the ,apure4 
,the total produce of metallic copper is
 twelve or fifteen hundred quintals a   
year4 ,this copper1 known at ,cadiz by  
the name of ,caracas copper1 is of      
excellent quality4 ,it is even preferred
 to that of ,sweden1 and of ,coquimbo in
 ,chile4 ,part of the copper of ,aroa is
 employed for making bells1 which are   
cast on the spot4 ,some ores of silver  
have been recently discovered between   
,aroa and ,nirgua1 near ,guanita1 in the
 mountain of ,san ,pablo4 ,grains of    
gold are found in all the mountainous   
lands between the ,rio ,yaracuy1 the    
town of ,san ,felipe1 ,nirgua1 and      
,barquesimeto2 particularly in the ,rio 
de ,santa ,cruz1 in which the ,indian   
gold-gatherers have sometimes found     
lumps of the value of four or five      
piastres4 ,do the neighbouring rocks of 
mica-slate and gneiss contain veins8 or 

is the gold disseminated here1 as in the
 granites of ,guadarama in ,spain1 and  
of the ,fichtelberg in ,franconia1      
throughout the whole mass of the rock8  
,possibly the waters1 in filtering      
through it1 bring together the          
disseminated grains of gold2 in which   
case every attempt to work the rock     
would be useless4 ,in the ,savana de la 
,miel1 near the town of ,barquesimeto1 a
 shaft has been sunk in a black shining 
slate resembling ampelite4 ,the minerals
 extracted from this shaft1 which were  
sent to me at ,caracas1 were quartz1    
non-auriferous pyrites1 and carbonated  
lead1 crystallized in needles of a silky
 lustre4  ,in the early times of the    
conquest the working of the mines of    
,nirgua and of ,buria99 was begun1      
notwithstanding the incursions of the   
warlike nation of the ,giraharas4 799   
,the valley of ,buria1 and the little   
river of the same name1 communicate with
 the valley of the ,rio ,coxede1 or the 
,rio de ,barquesimeto47 ,in this very   

district the accumulation of negro      
slaves in #aeec gave rise to an event   
bearing some analogy to the insurrection
 in ,st4 ,domingo4 ,a negro slave       
excited an insurrection among the miners
 of the ,real de ,san ,felipe de ,buria4
 ,he retired into the woods1 and        
founded1 with two hundred of his        
companions1 a town1 where he was        
proclaimed king4 ,miguel1 this new king1
 was a friend to pomp and parade4 ,he   
caused his wife ,guiomar1 to assume the 
title of queen2 and1 according to       
,oviedo1 he appointed ministers and     
counsellors of state1 officers of the   
royal household1 and even a negro       
bishop4 ,he soon after ventured to      
attack the neighbouring town of ,nueva  
,segovia de ,barquesimeto2 but1 being   
repulsed by ,diego de ,losada1 he       
perished in the conflict4 ,this ,african
 monarchy was succeeded at ,nirgua by a 
republic of ,zamboes1 the descendants of
 negroes and ,indians4 ,the whole       
municipality 7cabildo7 is composed of   

men of colour to whom the king of ,spain
 has given the title of his faithful and
 loyal subjects1 the ,zamboes of        
,nirgua4 ,few families of ,whites will  
inhabit a country where the system of   
government is so adverse to their       
pretensions2 and the little town is     
called in derision ,la republica de     
,zambos y ,mulatos4  ,if the hot valleys
 of ,aroa1 of ,yaracuy1 and of the ,rio 
,tocuyo1 celebrated for their excellent 
timber1 be rendered feverish by         
luxuriance of vegetation1 and extreme   
atmospheric humidity1 it is different in
 the savannahs of ,monai and ,carora4   
,these ,llanos are separated by the     
mountainous tract of ,tocuyo and ,nirgua
 from the great plains of ,la           
,portuguesa and ,calabozo4 ,it is very  
extraordinary to see barren savannahs   
loaded with miasmata4 ,no marshy ground 
is found there1 but several phenomena   
indicate a disengagement of hydrogen499 
799 ,what is that luminous phenomenon   
known under the name of the ,lantern    

7farol7 of ,maracaybo1 which is         
perceived every night toward the seaside
 as well as in the inland parts1 at     
,merida for example1 where ,m4 ,palacios
 observed it during two years8 ,the     
distance1 greater than #dj leagues1 at  
which the light is observed1 has led to 
the supposition that it might be owing  
to the effects of a thunderstorm1 or of 
electrical explosions which might daily 
take place in a pass in the mountains4  
,it is asserted that1 on approaching the
 farol1 the rolling of thunder is heard4
 ,others vaguely allege that it is an   
air-volcano1 and that asphaltic soils1  
like those of ,mena1 cause these        
inflammable exhalations which are so    
constant in their appearance4 ,the      
phenomenon is observed on a mountainous 
and uninhabited spot1 on the borders of 
the ,rio ,catatumbo1 near the junction  
with the ,rio ,sulia4 ,the situation of 
the farol is such that1 being nearly in 
the meridian of the opening 7boca7 of   
the lake of ,maracaybo1 navigators are  

guided by it as by a lighthouse47 ,when 
travellers1 who are not acquainted with 
natural inflammable gases1 are shown the
 ,cueva del ,serrito de ,monai1 the     
people of the country love to frighten  
them by setting fire to the gaseous     
combination which is constantly         
accumulated in the upper part of the    
cavern4 ,may we attribute the           
insalubrity of the atmosphere to the    
same causes as those which operate in   
the plains between ,tivoli and ,rome1   
namely1 disengagements of sulphuretted  
hydrogen899 799 ,don ,carlos del ,pozo  
has discovered in this district1 at the 
bottom of the ,quebrada de ,moroturo1 a 
stratum of clayey earth1 black1 strongly
 soiling the fingers1 emitting a        
powerful smell of sulphur1 and inflaming
 spontaneously when slightly moistened  
and exposed for a long time to the rays 
of the tropical sun4 ,the detonation of 
this muddy substance is very violent47  
,possibly1 also1 the mountainous lands1 
near the llanos of ,monai1 may have a   

baneful influence on the surrounding    
plains4 ,the south-easterly winds may   
convey to them the putrid exhalations   
that rise from the ravine of ,villegas1 
and from ,la ,sienega de ,cabra1 between
 ,carora and ,carache4 ,i am desirous of
 collecting every circumstance having a 
relation to the salubrity of the air2   
for1 in a matter so obscure1 it is only 
by the comparison of a great number of  
phenomena1 that we can hope to discover 
the truth4  ,the barren yet feverish    
savannahs1 extending from ,barquesimeto 
to the eastern shore of the lake of     
,maracaybo1 are partly covered with     
cactus2 but the good                    
silvester-cochineal1 known by the vague 
name of grana de ,carora1 comes from a  
more temperate region1 between ,carora  
and ,truxillo1 and particularly from the
 valley of the ,rio ,mucuju199 to the   
east of ,merida4 799 ,this little river 
descends from the ,paramo de los        
,conejos1 and flows into the ,rio       
,albarregas47 ,the inhabitants          

altogether neglect this production1 so  
much sought for in commerce4   ,,chapter
 #b4ag4  ,,mountains ,,which ,,separate 
,,the ,,valleys ,,of ,,aragua ,,from    
,,the ,,llanos ,,of ,,caracas4 ,,villa  
,,de ,,cura4 ,,parapara4 ,,llanos ,,or  
,,steppes4 ,,calabozo4  ,the chain of   
mountains1 bordering the lake of        
,tacarigua towards the south1 forms in  
some sort the northern shore of the     
great basin of the ,llanos or savannahs 
of ,caracas4 ,to descend from the       
valleys of ,aragua into these savannahs1
 it is necessary to cross the mountains 
of ,guigue and of ,tucutunemo4 ,from a  
peopled country embellished by          
cultivation1 we plunge into a vast      
solitude4 ,accustomed to the aspect of  
rocks1 and to the shade of valleys1 the 
traveller beholds with astonishment     
these savannahs without trees1 these    
immense plains1 which seem to ascend to 
the horizon4  ,before ,i trace the      
scenery of the ,llanos1 or of the region
 of pasturage1 ,i will briefly describe 

the road we took from ,nueva ,valencia1 
by ,villa de ,cura and ,san ,juan1 to   
the little village of ,ortiz1 at the    
entrance of the steppes4 ,we left the   
valleys of ,aragua on the #fth of ,march
 before sunrise4 ,we passed over a plain
 richly cultivated1 keeping along the   
south-west side of the lake of          
,valencia1 and crossing the ground left 
uncovered by the waters of the lake4 ,we
 were never weary of admiring the       
fertility of the soil1 covered with     
calabashes1 water-melons1 and plantains4
 ,the rising of the sun was announced by
 the distant noise of the howling       
monkeys4 ,approaching a group of trees1 
which rise in the midst of the plain1   
between those parts which were anciently
 the islets of ,don ,pedro and ,la      
,negra1 we saw numerous bands of        
araguatos moving as in procession and   
very slowly1 from one tree to another4  
,a male was followed by a great number  
of females2 several of the latter       
carrying their young on their shoulders4

 ,the howling monkeys1 which live in    
society in different parts of ,america1 
everywhere resemble each other in their 
manners1 though the species are not     
always the same4 ,the uniformity with   
which the araguatos99 799 ,simia        
ursina47 perform their movements is     
extremely striking4 ,whenever the       
branches of neighbouring trees do not   
touch each other1 the male who leads the
 party suspends himself by the callous  
and prehensile part of his tail2 and1   
letting fall the rest of his body1      
swings himself till in one of his       
oscillations he reaches the neighbouring
 branch4 ,the whole file performs the   
same movements on the same spot4 ,it is 
almost superfluous to add how dubious is
 the assertion of ,ulloa1 and so many   
otherwise well-informed travellers1     
according to whom1 the marimondos199 799
 ,simia belzebuth47 the araguatos1 and  
other monkeys with a prehensile tail1   
form a sort of chain1 in order to reach 
the opposite side of a river499 799     

,ulloa has not hesitated to represent in
 an engraving this extraordinary feat of
 the monkeys with a prehensile          
tail4--,see ,viage a la ,america        
,meridional1 ,madrid #agdh47 ,we had    
opportunities1 during five years1 of    
observing thousands of these animals2   
and for this very reason we place no    
confidence in statements possibly       
invented by the ,europeans themselves1  
though repeated by the ,indians of the  
,missions1 as if they had been          
transmitted to them by their fathers4   
,man1 the most remote from civilization1
 enjoys the astonishment he excites in  
recounting the marvels of his country4  
,he says he has seen what he imagines   
may have been seen by others4 ,every    
savage is a hunter1 and the stories of  
hunters borrow from the imagination in  
proportion as the animals1 of which they
 boast the artifices1 are endowed with a
 high degree of intelligence4 ,hence    
arise the fictions of which foxes1      
monkeys1 crows1 and the condor of the   

,andes1 have been the subjects in both  
hemispheres4  ,the araguatos are accused
 of sometimes abandoning their young1   
that they may be lighter for flight when
 pursued by the ,indian hunters4 ,it is 
said that mothers have been seen        
removing their young from their         
shoulders1 and throwing them down to the
 foot of the tree4 ,i am inclined to    
believe that a movement merely          
accidental has been mistaken for one    
premeditated4 ,the ,indians have a      
dislike and a predilection for certain  
races of monkeys2 they love the         
viuditas1 the titis1 and generally all  
the little sagoins2 while the araguatos1
 on account of their mournful aspect1   
and their uniform howling1 are at once  
detested and abused4 ,in reflecting on  
the causes that may facilitate the      
propagation of sound in the air during  
the night1 ,i thought it important to   
determine with precision the distance at
 which1 especially in damp and stormy   
weather1 the howling of a band of       

araguatos is heard4 ,i believe ,i       
obtained proof of its being             
distinguished at eight hundred toises   
distance4 ,the monkeys which are        
furnished with four hands cannot make   
excursions in the ,llanos2 and it is    
easy1 amidst vast plains covered with   
grass1 to recognize a solitary group of 
trees1 whence the noise proceeds1 and   
which is inhabited by howling monkeys4  
,now1 by approaching or withdrawing from
 this group of trees1 the maximum of the
 distance may be measured1 at which the 
howling is heard4 ,these distances      
appeared to me sometimes one-third      
greater during the night1 especially    
when the weather was cloudy1 very hot1  
and humid4  ,the ,indians pretend that  
when the araguatos fill the forests with
 their howling1 there is always one that
 chaunts as leader of the chorus4 ,the  
observation is pretty accurate4 ,during 
a long interval one solitary and strong 
voice is generally distinguished1 till  
its place is taken by another voice of a

 different pitch4 ,we may observe from  
time to time the same instinct of       
imitation among frogs1 and almost all   
animals which live together and exert   
their voices in union4 ,the             
,missionaries further assert1 that1 when
 a female among the araguatos is on the 
point of bringing forth1 the choir      
suspends its howlings till the moment of
 the birth of the young4 ,i could not   
myself judge of the accuracy of this    
assertion2 but ,i do not believe it to  
be entirely unfounded4 ,i have observed 
that1 when an extraordinary incident1   
the moans for instance of a wounded     
araguato1 fixed the attention of the    
band1 the howlings were for some minutes
 suspended4 ,our guides assured us      
gravely1 that1 to cure an asthma1 it is 
sufficient to drink out of the bony drum
 of the hyoidal bone of the araguato4   
,this animal having so extraordinary a  
volume of voice1 it is supposed that its
 larynx must necessarily impart to the  
water poured into it the virtue of      

curing affections of the lungs4 ,such is
 the science of the vulgar1 which       
sometimes resembles that of the         
ancients4  ,we passed the night at the  
village of ,guigue1 the latitude of     
which ,i found by observations of       
,canopus to be #aj degrees #d minutes   
#aa seconds4 ,the village1 surrounded   
with the richest cultivation1 is only a 
thousand toises distant from the lake of
 ,tacarigua4 ,we lodged with an old     
sergeant1 a native of ,murcia1 a man of 
a very original character4 ,to prove to 
us that he had studied among the        
,jesuits1 he recited the history of the 
creation of the world in ,latin4 ,he    
knew the names of ,augustus1 ,tiberius1 
and ,diocletian2 and while enjoying the 
agreeable coolness of the nights in an  
enclosure planted with bananas1 he      
employed himself in reading all that    
related to the courts of the ,roman     
emperors4 ,he inquired of us with       
earnestness for a remedy for the gout1  
from which he suffered severely4 ,i     

know1 said he1 a ,zambo of ,valencia1 a 
famous curioso1 who could cure me2 but  
the ,zambo would expect to be treated   
with attentions which ,i cannot pay to a
 man of his colour1 and ,i prefer       
remaining as ,i am4  ,on leaving ,guigue
 we began to ascend the chain of        
mountains1 extending on the south of the
 lake towards ,guacimo and ,la ,palma4  
,from the top of a table-land1 at three 
hundred and twenty toises of elevation1 
we saw for the last time the valleys of 
,aragua4 ,the gneiss appeared uncovered1
 presenting the same direction of       
strata1 and the same dip towards the    
north-west4 ,veins of quartz1 that      
traverse the gneiss1 are auriferous2 and
 hence the neighbouring ravine bears the
 name of ,quebrada del ,oro4 ,we heard  
with surprise at every step the name of 
ravine of gold1 in a country where only 
one single mine of copper is wrought4   
,we travelled five leagues to the       
village of ,maria ,magdalena1 and two   
leagues more to the ,villa de ,cura4 ,it

 was ,sunday1 and at the village of     
,maria ,magdalena the inhabitants were  
assembled before the church4 ,they      
wanted to force our muleteers to stop   
and hear mass4 ,we resolved to remain2  
but1 after a long altercation1 the      
muleteers pursued their way4 ,i may     
observe1 that this is the only dispute  
in which we became engaged from such a  
cause4 ,very erroneous ideas are formed 
in ,europe of the intolerance1 and even 
of the religious fervour of the ,spanish
 colonists4  ,san ,luis de ,cura1 or1 as
 it is commonly called1 the ,villa de   
,cura1 lies in a very barren valley1    
running north-west and south-east1 and  
elevated1 according to my barometrical  
observations1 two hundred and sixty-six 
toises above the level of the ocean4    
,the country1 with the exception of some
 fruit-trees1 is almost destitute of    
vegetation4 ,the dryness of the plateau 
is the greater1 because 7and this       
circumstance is rather extraordinary in 
a country of primitive rocks7 several   

rivers lose themselves in crevices in   
the ground4 ,the ,rio de ,las ,minas1   
north of the ,villa de ,cura1 is lost in
 a rock1 again appears1 and then is     
ingulphed anew without reaching the lake
 of ,valencia1 towards which it flows4  
,cura resembles a village more than a   
town4 ,we lodged with a family who had  
excited the resentment of government    
during the revolution at ,caracas in    
#agig4 ,one of the sons1 after having   
languished in a dungeon1 had been sent  
to the ,havannah1 to be imprisoned in a 
strong fortress4 ,with what joy his     
mother heard that after our return from 
the ,orinoco1 we should visit the       
,havannah6 ,she entrusted me with five  
piastres1 the whole fruit of her        
savings4 ,i earnestly wished to return  
them to her2 but ,i feared to wound her 
delicacy1 and give pain to a mother1 who
 felt a pleasure in the privations she  
imposed on herself4  ,all the society of
 the town was assembled in the evening1 
to admire in a magic lantern views of   

the great capitals of ,europe4 ,we were 
shown the palace of the ,tuileries1 and 
the statue of the ,elector at ,berlin4  
,an apothecary who had been ruined by an
 unhappy propensity for working mines1  
accompanied us in our excursion to the  
,serro de ,chacao1 very rich in         
auriferous pyrites4 ,we continued to    
descend the southern declivity of the   
,cordillera of the coast1 in which the  
plains of ,aragua form a longitudinal   
valley4 ,we passed a part of the night  
of the #aath of ,march at the village of
 ,san ,juan1 remarkable for its thermal 
waters1 and the singular form of two    
neighbouring mountains1 called the      
,morros of ,san ,juan4 ,they form       
slender peaks1 which rise from a wall of
 rocks with a very extensive base4 ,the 
wall is perpendicular1 and resembles the
 ,devil's ,wall1 which surrounds a part 
of the group of mountains in the        
,hartz499 799 ,die ,teufels ,mauer near 
,wernigerode in ,germany47 ,these peaks1
 when seen from afar in the ,llanos1    

strike the imagination of the           
inhabitants of the plain1 who are not   
accustomed to the least unequal ground1 
and the height of the peaks is          
singularly exaggerated by them4 ,they   
were described to us as being in the    
middle of the steppes 7which they in    
reality bound on the north7 far beyond a
 range of hills called ,la ,galera4     
,judging from angles taken at the       
distance of two miles1 these hills are  
scarcely more than a hundred and        
fifty-six toises higher than the village
 of ,san ,juan1 and three hundred and   
fifty toises above the level of the     
,llanos4 ,the thermal waters glide out  
at the foot of these hills1 which are   
formed of transition-limestone4 ,the    
waters are impregnated with sulphuretted
 hydrogen1 like those of ,mariara1 and  
form a little pool or lagoon1 in which  
the thermometer rose only to #ca4c      
degrees4 ,i found1 on the night of the  
#ith of ,march1 by very satisfactory    
observations of the stars1 the latitude 

of ,villa de ,cura to be #aj degrees #b 
minutes #dg seconds4  ,the ,villa de    
,cura is celebrated in the country for  
the miracles of an image of the ,virgin1
 known by the name of ,nuestra ,senora  
de los ,valencianos4 ,this image was    
found in a ravine by an ,indian1 about  
the middle of the eighteenth century1   
when it became the object of a contest  
between the towns of ,cura and ,san     
,sebastian de los ,reyes4 ,the vicars of
 the latter town asserting that the     
,virgin had made her first appearance on
 the territory of their parish1 the     
,bishop of ,caracas1 in order to put an 
end to the scandal of this long dispute1
 caused the image to be placed in the   
archives of his bishopric1 and kept it  
thirty years under seal4 ,it was not    
restored to the inhabitants of ,cura    
till #ahjb4  ,after having bathed in the
 cool and limpid water of the little    
river of ,san ,juan1 the bottom of which
 is of basaltic grunstein1 we continued 
our journey at two in the morning1 by   

,ortiz and ,parapara1 to the ,mesa de   
,paja4 ,the road to the ,llanos being at
 that time infested with robbers1       
several travellers joined us so as to   
form a sort of caravan4 ,we proceeded   
down hill during six or seven hours2 and
 we skirted the ,cerro de ,flores1 near 
which the road turns off1 leading to the
 great village of ,san ,jose de ,tisnao4
 ,we passed the farms of ,luque and     
,juncalito1 to enter the valleys which1 
on account of the bad road1 and the blue
 colour of the slates1 bear the names of
 ,malpaso and ,piedras ,azules4  ,this  
ground is the ancient shore of the great
 basin of the steppes1 and it furnishes 
an interesting subject of research to   
the geologist4 ,we there find           
trap-formations1 probably more recent   
than the veins of diabasis near the town
 of ,caracas1 which seem to belong to   
the rocks of igneous formation4 ,they   
are not long and narrow streams as in   
,auvergne1 but large sheets1 streams    
that appear like real strata4 ,the      

lithoid masses here cover1 if we may use
 the expression1 the shore of the       
ancient interior sea2 everything subject
 to destruction1 such as the liquid     
dejections1 and the scoriae filled with 
bubbles1 has been carried away4 ,these  
phenomena are particularly worthy of    
attention on account of the close       
affinities observed between the         
phonolites and the amygdaloids1 which1  
containing pyroxenes and                
hornblende-grunsteins1 form strata in a 
transition-slate4 ,the better to convey 
an idea of the whole situation and      
superposition of these rocks1 we will   
name the formations as they occur in a  
profile drawn from north to south4  ,we 
find at first1 in the ,sierra de        
,mariara1 which belongs to the northern 
branch of the ,cordillera of the coast1 
a coarse-grained granite2 then1 in the  
valleys of ,aragua1 on the borders of   
the lake1 and in the islands1 it        
contains1 as in the southern branch of  
the chain of the coast1 gneiss and      

mica-slate4 ,these last-named rocks are 
auriferous in the ,quebrada del ,oro1   
near ,guigue2 and between ,villa de     
,cura and the ,morros de ,san ,juan1 in 
the mountain of ,chacao4 ,the gold is   
contained in pyrites1 which are found   
sometimes disseminated almost           
imperceptibly in the whole mass of the  
gneiss199 and sometimes united in small 
veins of quartz4 799 ,the four metals1  
which are found disseminated in the     
granite rocks1 as if they were of       
contemporaneous formation1 are gold1    
tin1 titanium1 and cobalt47 ,most of the
 torrents that traverse the mountains   
bear along with them grains of gold4    
,the poor inhabitants of ,villa de ,cura
 and ,san ,juan have sometimes gained   
thirty piastres a-day by washing the    
sand2 but most commonly1 in spite of    
their industry1 they do not in a week   
find particles of gold of the value of  
two piastres4 ,here1 however1 as in     
every place where native gold and       
auriferous pyrites are disseminated in  

the rock1 or by the destruction of the  
rocks1 are deposited in alluvial lands1 
the people conceive the most exaggerated
 ideas of the metallic riches of the    
soil4 ,but the success of the workings1 
which depends less on the abundance of  
the ore in a vast space of land than on 
its accumulation in one point1 has not  
justified these favourable              
prepossessions4 ,the mountain of        
,chacao1 bordered by the ravine of      
,tucutunemo1 rises seven hundred feet   
above the village of ,san ,juan4 ,it is 
formed of gneiss1 which1 especially in  
the superior strata1 passes into        
mica-slate4 ,we saw the remains of an   
ancient mine1 known by the name of ,real
 de ,santa ,barbara4 ,the works were    
directed to a stratum of cellular       
quartz199 full of polyhedric cavities1  
mixed with iron-ore1 containing         
auriferous pyrites and small grains of  
gold1 sometimes1 it is said1 visible to 
the naked eye4 799 ,this stratum of     
quartz1 and the gneiss in which it is   

contained1 lie hor #h of the ,freyberg  
compass1 and dip #gj degrees to the     
south-west4 ,at a hundred toises        
distance from the auriferous quartz1 the
 gneiss resumes its ordinary situation1 
hor #c to #d1 with #fj degrees dip to   
the north-west4 ,a few strata of gneiss 
abound in silvery mica1 and contain1    
instead of garnets1 an immense quantity 
of small octohedrons of pyrites4 ,this  
silvery gneiss resembles that of the    
famous mine of ,himmelsfurst1 in        
,saxony47 ,it appears that the gneiss of
 the ,cerro de ,chacao also furnishes   
another metallic deposit1 a mixture of  
copper and silver-ores4 ,this deposit   
has been the object of works attempted  
with great ignorance by some ,mexican   
miners under the superintendance of ,m4 
,avalo4 ,the gallery99 directed to the  
north-east1 is only twenty-five toises  
long4 799 ,la ,cueva de los ,mexicanos47
 ,we there found some fine specimens of 
blue carbonated copper mingled with     
sulphate of barytes and quartz2 but we  

could not ourselves judge whether the   
ore contained any argentiferous fahlerz1
 and whether it occurred in a stratum1  
or1 as the apothecary who was our guide 
asserted1 in real veins4 ,this much is  
certain1 that the attempt at working the
 mine cost more than twelve thousand    
piastres in two years4 ,it would no     
doubt have been more prudent to have    
resumed the works on the auriferous     
stratum of the ,real de ,santa ,barbara4
  ,the zone of gneiss just mentioned is1
 in the coast-chain from the sea to the 
,villa de ,cura1 ten leagues broad4 ,in 
this great extent of land1 gneiss and   
mica-slate are found exclusively1 and   
they constitute one formation499 799    
,this formation1 which we shall call    
gneiss-mica-slate1 is peculiar to the   
chain of the coast of ,caracas4 ,five   
formations must be distinguished1 as    
,,mm4 von ,buch and ,raumer have so ably
 demonstrated in their excellent papers 
on ,landeck and the ,riesengebirge1     
namely1 granite1 granite-gneiss1 gneiss1

 gneiss-mica-slate1 and mica-slate4     
,geologists whose researches have been  
confined to a small tract of land1      
having confounded these formations which
 nature has separated in several        
countries in the most distinct manner1  
have admitted that the gneiss and       
mica-slate alternate everywhere in      
superimposed beds1 or furnish insensible
 transitions from one rock to the other4
 ,these transitions and alternating     
superpositions take place no doubt in   
formations of granite-gneiss and        
gneiss-mica-slate2 but because these    
phenomena are observed in one region1 it
 does not follow that in other regions  
we may not find very distinct           
circumscribed formations of granite1    
gneiss1 and mica-slate4 ,the same       
considerations may be applied to the    
formations of serpentine1 which are     
sometimes isolated1 and sometimes belong
 to the eurite1 mica-slate1 and         
grunstein47 ,beyond the town of ,villa  
de ,cura and the ,cerro de ,chacao the  

aspect of the country presents greater  
geognostic variety4 ,there are still    
eight leagues of declivity from the     
table-land of ,cura to the entry of the 
,llanos2 and on the southern slope of   
the mountains of the coast1 four        
different formations of rock cover the  
gneiss4 ,we shall first give the        
description of the different strata1    
without grouping them systematically4   
,on the south of the ,cerro de ,chacao1 
between the ravine of ,tucutunemo and   
,piedras ,negras1 the gneiss is         
concealed beneath a formation of        
serpentine1 of which the composition    
varies in the different superimposed    
strata4 ,sometimes it is very pure1 very
 homogeneous1 of a dusky olive-green1   
and of a conchoidal fracture3 sometimes 
it is veined1 mixed with bluish         
steatite1 of an unequal fracture1 and   
containing spangles of mica4 ,in both   
these states ,i could not discover in it
 either garnets1 hornblende1 or         
diallage4 ,advancing farther to the     

south 7and we always passed over this   
ground in that direction7 the green of  
the serpentine grows deeper1 and        
feldspar and hornblende are recognised  
in it3 it is difficult to determine     
whether it passes into diabasis or      
alternates with it4 ,there is1 however1 
no doubt of its containing veins of     
copper-ore499 799 ,one of these veins1  
on which two shafts have been sunk1 was 
directed hor4 #b4a1 and dipped #hj      
degrees east4 ,the strata of the        
serpentine1 where it is stratified with 
some regularity1 run hor4 #h1 and dip   
almost perpendicularly4 ,i found        
malachite disseminated in this          
serpentine1 where it passes into        
grunstein47 ,at the foot of this        
mountain two fine springs gush out from 
the serpentine4 ,near the village of    
,san ,juan1 the granular diabasis       
appears alone uncovered1 and takes a    
greenish black hue4 ,the feldspar       
intimately mixed with the mass1 may be  
separated into distinct crystals4 ,the  

mica is very rare1 and there is no      
quartz4 ,the mass assumes at the surface
 a yellowish crust like dolerite and    
basalt4  ,in the midst of this tract of 
trap-formation1 the ,morros of ,san     
,juan rise like two castles in ruins4   
,they appear linked to the mornes of    
,st4 ,sebastian1 and to ,la ,galera     
which bounds the ,llanos like a rocky   
wall4 ,the ,morros of ,san ,juan are    
formed of limestone of a crystalline    
texture2 sometimes very compact1        
sometimes spongy1 of a greenish-grey1   
shining1 composed of small grains1 and  
mixed with scattered spangles of mica4  
,this limestone yields a strong         
effervescence with acids4 ,i could not  
find in it any vestige of organized     
bodies4 ,it contains in subordinate     
strata1 masses of hardened clay of a    
blackish blue1 and carburetted4 ,these  
masses are fissile1 very heavy1 and     
loaded with iron2 their streak is       
whitish1 and they produce no            
effervescence with acids4 ,they assume  

at their surface1 by their decomposition
 in the air1 a yellow colour4 ,we seem  
to recognize in these argillaceous      
strata a tendency either to the         
transition-slates1 or to the            
kieselschiefer 7schistose jasper71 which
 everywhere characterise the black      
transition-limestones4 ,when in         
fragments1 they might be taken at first 
sight for basalt or hornblende499 799 ,i
 had an opportunity of examining again1 
with the greatest care1 the rocks of    
,san ,juan1 of ,chacao1 of ,parapara1   
and of ,calabozo1 during my stay at     
,mexico1 where1 conjointly with ,m4 del 
,rio1 one of the most distinguished     
pupils of the school of ,freyberg1 ,i   
formed a geognostical collection for the
 ,colegio de ,mineria of ,new ,spain47  
,another white limestone1 compact1 and  
containing some fragments of shells1    
backs the ,morros de ,san ,juan4 ,i     
could not see the line of junction of   
these two limestones1 or that of the    
calcareous formation and the diabasis4  

,the transverse valley which descends   
from ,piedras ,negras and the village of
 ,san ,juan1 towards ,parapara and the  
,llanos1 is filled with trap-rocks1     
displaying close affinity with the      
formation of green slates1 which they   
cover4 ,sometimes we seem to see        
serpentine1 sometimes grunstein1 and    
sometimes dolerite and basalt4 ,the     
arrangement of these problematical      
masses is not less extraordinary4       
,between ,san ,juan1 ,malpaso1 and      
,piedras ,azules1 they form strata      
parallel to each other2 and dipping     
regularly northward at an angle of #dj  
or #ej degrees1 they cover even the     
green slates in concordant              
stratification4 ,lower down1 towards    
,parapara and ,ortiz1 where the         
amygdaloids and phonolites are connected
 with the grunstein1 everything assumes 
a basaltic aspect4 ,balls of grunstein  
heaped one upon another1 form those     
rounded cones1 which are found so       
frequently in the ,mittelgebirge in     

,bohemia1 near ,bilin1 the country of   
phonolites4 ,the following is the result
 of my partial observations4  ,the      
grunstein1 which at first alternated    
with strata of serpentine1 or was       
connected with that rock by insensible  
transitions1 is seen alone1 sometimes in
 strata considerably inclined1 and      
sometimes in balls with concentric      
strata1 imbedded in strata of the same  
substance4 ,it lies1 near ,malpaso1 on  
green slates1 steatitic1 mingled with   
hornblende1 destitute of mica and grains
 of quartz1 dipping1 like the           
grunsteins1 #de degrees toward the      
north1 and directed1 like them1 #ge     
degrees north-west4  ,a great sterility 
prevails where these green slates       
predominate1 no doubt on account of the 
magnesia they contain1 which 7as is     
proved by the magnesian-limestone of    
,england997 is very hurtful to          
vegetation4 799 ,magnesian limestone is 
of a straw-yellow colour1 and contains  
madrepores3 it lies beneath red marl1 or

 muriatiferous red sandstone47 ,the dip 
of the green slates continues the same2 
but by degrees the direction of their   
strata becomes parallel to the general  
direction of the primitive rocks of the 
chain of the coast4 ,at ,piedras ,azules
 these slates1 mingled with hornblende1 
cover in concordant stratification a    
blackish-blue slate1 very fissile1 and  
traversed by small veins of quartz4 ,the
 green slates include some strata of    
grunstein1 and even contain balls of    
that substance4 ,i nowhere saw the green
 slates alternate with the black slates 
of the ravine of ,piedras ,azules3 at   
the line of junction these two slates   
appear rather to pass one into the      
other1 the green slates becoming of a   
pearl-grey in proportion as they lose   
their hornblende4  ,farther south1      
towards ,parapara and ,ortiz1 the slates
 disappear4 ,they are concealed under a 
trap-formation more varied in its       
aspect4 ,the soil becomes more fertile2 
the rocky masses alternate with strata  

of clay1 which appear to be produced by 
the decomposition of the grunsteins1 the
 amygdaloids1 and the phonolites4  ,the 
grunstein1 which farther north was less 
granulous1 and passed into serpentine1  
here assumes a very different character4
 ,it contains balls of mandelstein1 or  
amygdaloid1 eight or ten inches in      
diameter4 ,these balls1 sometimes a     
little flattened1 are divided into      
concentric layers3 this is the effect of
 decomposition4 ,their nucleus is almost
 as hard as basalt1 and they are        
intermingled with little cavities1 owing
 to bubbles of gas1 filled with green   
earth1 and crystals of pyroxene and     
mesotype4 ,their basis is greyish blue1 
rather soft1 and showing small white    
spots which1 by the regular form they   
present1 ,i should conceive to be       
decomposed feldspar4 ,m4 von ,buch      
examined with a powerful lens the       
species we brought4 ,he discovered that 
each crystal of pyroxene1 enveloped in  
the earthy mass1 is separated from it by

 fissures parallel to the sides of the  
crystal4 ,these fissures seem to be the 
effect of a contraction which the mass  
or basis of the mandelstein has         
undergone4 ,i sometimes saw these balls 
of mandelstein arranged in strata1 and  
separated from each other by beds of    
grunstein of ten or fourteen inches     
thick2 sometimes 7and this situation is 
most common7 the balls of mandelstein1  
two or three feet in diameter1 are found
 in heaps1 and form little mounts with  
rounded summits1 like spheroidal basalt4
 ,the clay which separates these        
amygdaloid concretions arises from the  
decomposition of their crust4 ,they     
acquire by the contact of the air a very
 thin coating of yellow ochre4          
,south-west of the village of ,parapara 
rises the little ,cerro de ,flores1     
which is discerned from afar in the     
steppes4 ,almost at its foot1 and in the
 midst of the mandelstein tract we have 
just been describing1 a porphyritic     
phonolite1 a mass of compact feldspar of

 a greenish grey1 or mountain-green1    
containing long crystals of vitreous    
feldspar1 appears exposed4 ,it is the   
real porphyrschiefer of ,werner2 and it 
would be difficult to distinguish1 in a 
collection of stones1 the phonolite of  
,parapara from that of ,bilin1 in       
,bohemia4 ,it does not1 however1 here   
form rocks in grotesque shapes1 but     
little hills covered with tabular       
blocks1 large plates extremely sonorous1
 translucid on the edges1 and wounding  
the hands when broken4  ,such are the   
successions of rocks1 which ,i described
 on the spot as ,i progressively found  
them1 from the lake of ,tacarigua to the
 entrance of the steppes4 ,few places in
 ,europe display a geological           
arrangement so well worthy of being     
studied4 ,we saw there in succession six
 formations3 namely1 mica-slate-gneiss1 
green transition-slate1 black           
transition-limestone1 serpentine and    
grunstein1 amygdaloid 7with pyroxene71  
and phonolite4  ,i must observe1 in the 

first place1 that the substance just    
described under the name of grunstein1  
in every respect resembles that which   
forms layers in the mica-slate of ,cabo 
,blanco1 and veins near ,caracas4 ,it   
differs only by containing neither      
quartz1 garnets1 nor pyrites4 ,the close
 relations we observed near the ,cerro  
de ,chacao1 between the grunstein and   
the serpentine1 cannot surprise these   
geologists who have studied the         
mountains of ,franconia and ,silesia4   
,near ,zobtenberg99 799 ,between        
,tampadel and ,silsterwiz47 a serpentine
 rock alternates also with gabbro4 ,in  
the district of ,glatz the fissures of  
the gabbro are filled with a steatite of
 a greenish white colour1 and the rock  
which was long thought to belong to the 
grunsteins99 is a close mixture of      
feldspar and diallage4 799 ,in the      
mountains of ,bareuth1 in ,franconia1 so
 abundant in grunstein and serpentine1  
these formations are not connected      
together4 ,the serpentine there belongs 

rather to the schistose hornblende      
7hornblendschiefer71 as in the island of
 ,cuba4 ,near ,guanaxuato1 in ,mexico1  
,i saw it alternating with syenite4     
,these phenomena of serpentine rocks    
forming layers in eurite 7weisstein71 in
 schistose hornblende1 in gabbro1 and in
 syenite1 are so much the more          
remarkable1 as the great mass of        
garnetiferous serpentines1 which are    
found in the mountains of gneiss and    
mica-slate1 form little distinct mounts1
 masses not covered by other formations4
 ,it is not the same in the mixtures of 
serpentine and granulated limestone47   
,the grunsteins of ,tucutunemo1 which we
 consider as constituting the same      
formation as the serpentine rock1       
contain veins of malachite and          
copper-pyrites4 ,these same             
metalliferous combinations are found    
also in ,franconia1 in the grunsteins of
 the mountains of ,steben and           
,lichtenberg4 ,with respect to the green
 slates of ,malpaso1 which have all the 

characters of transition-slates1 they   
are identical with those which ,m4 von  
,buch has so well described1 near       
,schonau1 in ,silesia4 ,they contain    
beds of grunstein1 like the slates of   
the mountains of ,steben just           
mentioned499 799 ,on advancing into the 
adit for draining the                   
,friedrich-,wilhelmstollen mine1 which  
,i caused to be begun in #agid1 near    
,steben1 and which is yet only #cdj     
toises long1 there have successively    
been found1 in the transition-slate     
subordinate strata of pure and          
porphyritic grunstein1 strata1 of       
,lydian stone and ampelite              
7alaunschiefer71 and strata of          
fine-grained grunstein4 ,all these      
strata characterise the                 
transition-slates47 ,the black limestone
 of the ,morros de ,san ,juan is also a 
transition-limestone4 ,it forms perhaps 
a subordinate stratum in the slates of  
,malpaso4 ,this situation would be      
analogous to what is observed in several

 parts of ,switzerland499 799 ,for      
,instance1 at the ,glyshorn1 at the ,col
 de ,balme1 etc47 ,the slaty zone1 the  
centre of which is the ravine of        
,piedras ,azules1 appears divided into  
two formations4 ,on some points we think
 we observe one passing into the other4 
,the grunsteins1 which begin again to   
the south of these slates1 appear to me 
to differ little from those found north 
of the ravine of ,piedras ,azules4 ,i   
did not see there any pyroxene2 but on  
the very spot ,i recognized a number of 
crystals in the amygdaloid1 which       
appears so strongly linked to the       
grunstein that they alternate several   
times4  ,the geologist may consider his 
task as fulfilled when he has traced    
with accuracy the positions of the      
diverse strata2 and has pointed out the 
analogies traceable between these       
positions and what has been observed in 
other countries4 ,but how can he avoid  
being tempted to go back to the origin  
of so many different substances1 and to 

inquire how far the dominion of fire has
 extended in the mountains that bound   
the great basin of the steppes8 ,in     
researches on the position of rocks we  
have generally to complain of not       
sufficiently perceiving the connection  
between the masses1 which we believe to 
be superimposed on one another4 ,here   
the difficulty seems to arise from the  
too intimate and too numerous relations 
observed in rocks that are thought not  
to belong to the same family4  ,the     
phonolite 7or leucostine compacte of    
,cordier7 is pretty generally regarded  
by all who have at once examined burning
 and extinguished volcanoes1 as a flow  
of lithoid lava4 ,i found no real basalt
 or dolerite2 but the presence of       
pyroxene in the amygdaloid of ,parapara 
leaves little doubt of the igneous      
origin of those spheroidal masses1      
fissured1 and full of cavities4 ,balls  
of this amygdaloid are enclosed in the  
grunstein2 and this grunstein alternates
 on one side with a green slate1 on the 

other with the serpentine of            
,tucutunemo4 ,here1 then1 is a connexion
 sufficiently close established between 
the phonolites and the green slates1    
between the pyroxenic amygdaloids and   
the serpentines containing copper-ores1 
between volcanic substances and others  
that are included under the vague name  
of transition-traps4 ,all these masses  
are destitute of quartz like the real   
trap-porphyries1 or volcanic trachytes4 
,this phenomenon is the more remarkable1
 as the grunsteins which are called     
primitive almost always contain quartz  
in ,europe4 ,the most general dip of the
 slates of ,piedras ,azules1 of the     
grunsteins of ,parapara1 and of the     
pyroxenic amygdaloids embedded in strata
 of grunstein1 does not follow the slope
 of the ground from north to south1 but 
is pretty regular towards the north4    
,the strata incline towards the chain of
 the coast1 as substances which had not 
been in fusion might be supposed to do4 
,can we admit that so many alternating  

rocks1 imbedded one in the other1 have a
 common origin8 ,the nature of the      
phonolites1 which are lithoid lavas with
 a feldspar basis1 and the nature of the
 green slates intermixed with           
hornblende1 oppose this opinion4 ,in    
this state of things we may choose      
between two solutions of the problem in 
question4 ,in one of these solutions the
 phonolite of the ,cerro de ,flores is  
to be regarded as the sole volcanic     
production of the tract2 and we are     
forced to unite the pyroxenic           
amygdaloids with the rest of the        
grunsteins1 in one single formation1    
that which is so common in the          
transition-mountains of ,europe1        
considered hitherto as not volcanic4 ,in
 the other solution of the problem1 the 
masses of phonolite1 amygdaloid1 and    
grunstein1 which are found in the south 
of the ravine of ,piedras ,azules1 are  
separated from the grunsteins and       
serpentine rocks that cover the         
declivity of the mountains north of the 

ravine4 ,in the present state of        
knowledge ,i find difficulties almost   
equally great in adopting either of     
these suppositions2 but ,i have no doubt
 that1 when the real grunsteins 7not the
 hornblende-grunsteins7 contained in the
 gneiss and mica-slates1 shall have been
 more attentively examined in other     
places2 when the basalts 7with pyroxene7
 forming strata in primitive rocks99 799
 ,for instance1 at ,krobsdorf1 in       
,silesia1 a stratum of basalt has been  
recognized in the mica-slate by two     
celebrated geologists1 ,,mm4 von ,buch  
and ,raumer4 7,vom ,granite des         
,riesengebirges1 #ahac47 and the        
diabases and amygdaloids in the         
transition mountains1 shall have been   
carefully studied2 when the texture of  
the masses shall have been subjected to 
a kind of mechanical analysis1 and the  
hornblendes better distinguished from   
the pyroxenes199 799 ,the grunsteins or 
diabases of the ,fichtelgebirge1 in     
,franconia1 which belong to the         

transition-slate1 sometimes contain     
pyroxenes47 and the grunsteins from the 
dolerites2 a great number of phenomena  
which now appear isolated and obscure1  
will be ranged under general laws4 ,the 
phonolite and other rocks of igneous    
origin at ,parapara are so much the more
 interesting1 as they indicate ancient  
eruptions in a granite zone2 as they    
belong to the shore of the basin of the 
steppes1 as the basalts of ,harutsh     
belong to the shore of the desert of    
,sahara2 and lastly1 as they are the    
only rocks of the kind we observed in   
the mountains of the ,capitania-,general
 of ,caracas1 which are also destitute  
of trachytes or trap-porphyry1 basalts1 
and volcanic productions499 799 ,from   
the ,rio ,negro to the coasts of ,cumana
 and ,caracas1 to the east of the       
mountains of ,merida1 which we did not  
visit47  ,the southern declivity of the 
western chain is tolerably steep2 the   
steppes1 according to my barometrical   
measurements1 being a thousand feet     

lower than the bottom of the basin of   
,aragua4 ,from the extensive table-land 
of the ,villa de ,cura we descended     
towards the banks of the ,rio           
,tucutunemo1 which has hollowed for     
itself1 in a serpentine rock1 a         
longitudinal valley running from east to
 west1 at nearly the same level as ,la  
,victoria4 ,a transverse valley1 lying  
generally north and south1 led us into  
the ,llanos1 by the villages of         
,parapara and ,ortiz4 ,it grows very    
narrow in several parts4 ,basins1 the   
bottoms of which are perfectly          
horizontal1 communicate together by     
narrow passes with steep declivities4   
,they were1 no doubt1 formerly small    
lakes1 which1 owing to the accumulation 
of the waters1 or some more violent     
catastrophe1 have broken down the dykes 
by which they were separated4 ,this     
phenomenon is found in both continents1 
wherever we examine the longitudinal    
valleys forming the passages of the     
,andes1 the ,alps199 799 ,for example1  

the road from the valley of ,ursern to  
the ,hospice of ,st4 ,gothard1 and      
thence to ,airolo47 or the ,pyrenees4   
,it is probable1 that the irruption of  
the waters towards the ,llanos have     
given1 by extraordinary rents1 the form 
of ruins to the ,morros of ,san ,juan   
and of ,san ,sebastian4 ,the volcanic   
tract of ,parapara and ,ortis is now    
only #cj or #dj toises above the        
,llanos4 ,the eruptions consequently    
took place at the lowest point of the   
granitic chain4  ,in the ,mesa de ,paja1
 in the ninth degree of latitude1 we    
entered the basin of the ,llanos4 ,the  
sun was almost at its zenith2 the earth1
 wherever it appeared sterile and       
destitute of vegetation1 was at the     
temperature of #dh or #ej degrees499 799
 ,a thermometer1 placed in the sand1    
rose to #ch4d and #dj degrees ,reaumur47
 ,not a breath of air was felt at the   
height at which we were on our mules2   
yet1 in the midst of this apparent calm1
 whirls of dust incessantly arose1      

driven on by those small currents of air
 which glide only over the surface of   
the ground1 and are occasioned by the   
difference of temperature between the   
naked sand and the spots covered with   
grass4 ,these sand-winds augment the    
suffocating heat of the air4 ,every     
grain of quartz1 hotter than the        
surrounding air1 radiates heat in every 
direction2 and it is difficult to       
observe the temperature of the          
atmosphere1 owing to these particles of 
sand striking against the bulb of the   
thermometer4 ,all around us the plains  
seemed to ascend to the sky1 and the    
vast and profound solitude appeared like
 an ocean covered with sea-weed4        
,according to the unequal mass of       
vapours diffused through the atmosphere1
 and the variable decrement in the      
temperature of the different strata of  
air1 the horizon in some parts was clear
 and distinct2 in other parts it        
appeared undulating1 sinuous1 and as if 
striped4 ,the earth there was confounded

 with the sky4 ,through the dry mist and
 strata of vapour the trunks of         
palm-trees were seen from afar1 stripped
 of their foliage and their verdant     
summits1 and looking like the masts of a
 ship descried upon the horizon4  ,there
 is something awful1 as well as sad and 
gloomy1 in the uniform aspect of these  
steppes4 ,everything seems motionless2  
scarcely does a small cloud1 passing    
across the zenith1 and denoting the     
approach of the rainy season1 cast its  
shadow on the earth4 ,i know not whether
 the first aspect of the ,llanos excite 
less astonishment than that of the chain
 of the ,andes4 ,mountainous countries1 
whatever may be the absolute elevation  
of the highest summits1 have an         
analogous physiognomy2 but we accustom  
ourselves with difficulty to the view of
 the ,llanos of ,venezuela and          
,casanare1 to that of the ,pampas of    
,buenos ,ayres and of ,chaco1 which     
recal to mind incessantly1 and during   
journeys of twenty or thirty days1 the  

smooth surface of the ocean4 ,i had seen
 the plains or llanos of ,la ,mancha in 
,spain1 and the heaths 7ericeta7 that   
extend from the extremity of ,jutland1  
through ,luneburg and ,westphalia1 to   
,belgium4 ,these last are really        
steppes1 and1 during several ages1 only 
small portions of them have yielded to  
cultivation2 but the plains of the west 
and north of ,europe present only a     
feeble image of the immense llanos of   
,south ,america4 ,it is in the          
south-east of our continent1 in         
,hungary1 between the ,danube and the   
,theiss2 in ,russia1 between the        
,borysthenes1 the ,don1 and the ,volga1 
that we find those vast pastures1 which 
seem to have been levelled by a long    
abode of the waters1 and which meet the 
horizon on every side4 ,the plains of   
,hungary1 where ,i traversed them on the
 frontiers of ,germany1 between         
,presburg and ,oedenburg1 strike the    
imagination of the traveller by the     
constant mirage2 but their greatest     

extent is more to the east1 between     
,czegled1 ,debreczin1 and ,tittel4      
,there they present the appearance of a 
vast ocean of verdure1 having only two  
outlets1 one near ,gran and ,waitzen1   
the other between ,belgrade and ,widdin4
  ,the different quarters of the world  
have been supposed to be characterized  
by the remark1 that ,europe has its     
heaths1 ,asia its steppes1 ,africa its  
deserts1 and ,america its savannahs2 but
 by this distinction1 contrasts are     
established that are not founded either 
on the nature of things1 or the genius  
of languages4 ,the existence of a heath 
always supposes an association of plants
 of the family of ericae2 the steppes of
 ,asia are not everywhere covered with  
saline plants2 the savannahs of         
,venezuela furnish not only the gramina1
 but with them small herbaceous mimosas1
 legumina1 and other dicotyledonous     
plants4 ,the plains of ,songaria1 those 
which extend between the ,don and the   
,volga1 and the puszta of ,hungary1 are 

real savannahs1 pasturages abounding in 
grasses299 799 ,these vast steppes of   
,hungary are elevated only thirty or    
forty toises above the level of the sea1
 which is more than eighty leagues      
distant from them4 ,see ,wahlenberg's   
,flora ,carpathianica4 ,baron           
,podmanitzky1 an ,hungarian nobleman1   
highly distinguished for his knowledge  
of the physical sciences1 caused the    
level of these plains to be taken1 to   
facilitate the formation of a canal then
 projected between the ,danube and the  
,theiss4 ,he found the line of division1
 or the convexity of the ground1 which  
slopes on each side towards the beds of 
the two rivers1 to be only thirteen     
toises above the height of the ,danube4 
,the widely extended pastures1 which    
reach in every direction to the horizon1
 are called in the country1 ,puszta1    
and1 over a distance of many leagues1   
are without any human habitation4       
,plains of this kind1 intermingled with 
marshes and sandy tracts1 are found on  

the western side of the ,theiss1 between
 ,czegled1 ,csaba1 ,komloss1 and        
,szarwass2 and on the eastern side1     
between ,debreczin1 ,karczag1 and       
,szoboszlo4 ,the area of these plains of
 the interior basin of ,hungary has been
 estimated1 by a pretty accurate        
calculation1 to be between two thousand 
five hundred and three thousand square  
leagues 7twenty to a degree74 ,between  
,czegled1 ,szolnok1 and ,ketskemet1 the 
plain resembles a sea of sand47 while   
the savannahs to the east and west of   
the ,rocky ,mountains and of ,new       
,mexico produce chenopodiums containing 
carbonate and muriate of soda4 ,asia has
 real deserts destitute of vegetation1  
in ,arabia1 in ,gobi1 and in ,persia4   
,since we have become better acquainted 
with the deserts in the interior of     
,africa1 so long and so vaguely         
confounded together under the name of   
desert of ,sahara 7,zahra72 it has been 
observed1 that in this continent1       
towards the east1 savannahs and pastures

 are found1 as in ,arabia1 situated in  
the midst of naked and barren tracts4   
,it is these deserts1 covered with      
gravel and destitute of plants1 which   
are almost entirely wanting in the ,new 
,world4 ,i saw them only in that part of
 ,peru1 between ,amotape and ,coquimbo1 
on the shores of the ,pacific4 ,these   
are called by the ,spaniards1 not       
llanos1 but the desiertos of ,sechura   
and ,atacamez4 ,this solitary tract is  
not broad1 but it is four hundred and   
forty leagues long4 ,the rock pierces   
everywhere through the quicksands4 ,no  
drop of rain ever falls on it2 and1 like
 the desert of ,sahara1 north of        
,timbuctoo1 the ,peruvian desert        
affords1 near ,huaura1 a rich mine of   
native salt4 ,everywhere else1 in the   
,new ,world1 there are plains desert    
because not inhabited1 but no real      
deserts499 799 ,we are almost tempted1  
however1 to give the name of desert to  
that vast and sandy table-land of       
,brazil1 the ,campos dos ,parecis1 which

 gives birth to the rivers ,tapajos1    
,paraguay1 and ,madeira1 and which      
reaches the summit of the highest       
mountains4 ,almost destitute of         
vegetation1 it reminds us of ,gobi1 in  
,mongolia47  ,the same phenomena are    
repeated in the most distant regions2   
and1 instead of designating those vast  
treeless plains in accordance with the  
nature of the plants they produce1 it   
seems natural to class them into        
deserts1 steppes1 or savannahs2 into    
bare lands without any appearance of    
vegetation1 and lands covered with      
gramina or small plants of the          
dicotyledonous tribe4 ,the savannahs of 
,america1 especially those of the       
temperate zone1 have in many works been 
designated by the ,french term prairies2
 but this appears to me little          
applicable to pastures which are often  
very dry1 though covered with grass of  
four or five feet in height4 ,the       
,llanos and the ,pampas of ,south       
,america are really steppes4 ,they are  

covered with beautiful verdure in the   
rainy season1 but in the time of great  
drought they assume the aspect of a     
desert4 ,the grass is then reduced to   
powder2 the earth cracks2 the alligators
 and the great serpents remain buried in
 the dried mud1 till awakened from their
 long lethargy by the first showers of  
spring4 ,these phenomena are observed on
 barren tracts of fifty or sixty leagues
 in length1 wherever the savannahs are  
not traversed by rivers2 for on the     
borders of rivulets1 and around little  
pools of stagnant water1 the traveller  
finds at certain distances1 even during 
the period of the great droughts1       
thickets of mauritia1 a palm1 the leaves
 of which spread out like a fan1 and    
preserve a brilliant verdure4  ,the     
steppes of ,asia are all beyond the     
tropics1 and form very elevated         
table-lands4 ,america also has savannahs
 of considerable extent on the backs of 
the mountains of ,mexico1 ,peru1 and    
,quito2 but its most extensive steppes1 

the ,llanos of ,cumana1 ,caracas1 and   
,meta1 are little raised above the level
 of the ocean1 and all belong to the    
equinoctial zone4 ,these circumstances  
give them a peculiar character4 ,they   
have not1 like the steppes of southern  
,asia1 and the deserts of ,persia1 those
 lakes without issue1 those small       
systems of rivers which lose themselves 
either in the sands1 or by subterranean 
filtrations4 ,the ,llanos of ,america   
incline to the east and south2 and their
 running waters are branches of the     
,orinoco4  ,the course of these rivers  
once led me to believe1 that the plains 
formed table-lands1 raised at least from
 one hundred to one hundred and fifty   
toises above the level of the ocean4 ,i 
supposed that the deserts of interior   
,africa were also at a considerable     
height2 and that they rose one above    
another as in tiers1 from the coast to  
the interior of the continent4 ,no      
barometer has yet been carried into the 
,sahara4 ,with respect to the ,llanos of

 ,america1 ,i found by barometric       
heights observed at ,calabozo1 at the   
,villa del ,pao1 and at the mouth of the
 ,meta1 that their height is only forty 
or fifty toises above the level of the  
sea4 ,the fall of the rivers is         
extremely gentle1 often nearly          
imperceptible2 and therefore the least  
wind1 or the swelling of the ,orinoco1  
causes a reflux in those rivers that    
flow into it4 ,the ,indians believe     
themselves to be descending during a    
whole day1 when navigating from the     
mouths of these rivers to their sources4
 ,the descending waters are separated   
from those that flow back by a great    
body of stagnant water1 in which1 the   
equilibrium being disturbed1 whirlpools 
are formed very dangerous for boats4    
,the chief characteristic of the        
savannahs or steppes of ,south ,america 
is the absolute want of hills and       
inequalities--the perfect level of every
 part of the soil4 ,accordingly the     
,spanish conquerors1 who first          

penetrated from ,coro to the banks of   
the ,apure1 did not call them deserts or
 savannahs1 or meadows1 but plains      
7llanos74 ,often within a distance of   
thirty square leagues there is not an   
eminence of a foot high4 ,this          
resemblance to the surface of the sea   
strikes the imagination most powerfully 
where the plains are altogether         
destitute of palm-trees2 and where the  
mountains of the shore and of the       
,orinoco are so distant that they cannot
 be seen1 as in the ,mesa de ,pavones4  
,a person would be tempted there to take
 the altitude of the sun with a         
quadrant1 if the horizon of the land    
were not constantly misty on account of 
the variable effects of refraction4     
,this equality of surface is still more 
perfect in the meridian of ,calabozo1   
than towards the east1 between ,cari1   
,la ,villa del ,pao1 and ,nueva         
,barcelona2 but it extends without      
interruption from the mouths of the     
,orinoco to ,la ,villa de ,araure and to

 ,ospinos1 on a parallel of a hundred   
and eighty leagues in length2 and from  
,san ,carlos to the savannahs of        
,caqueat1 on a meridian of two hundred  
leagues4 ,it particularly characterises 
the ,new ,continent1 as it does the low 
steppes of ,asia1 between the           
,borysthenes and the ,volga1 between the
 ,irtish and the ,obi4 ,the deserts of  
central ,africa1 of ,arabia1 ,syria1 and
 ,persia1 ,gobi1 and ,casna1 present1 on
 the contrary1 many inequalities1 ranges
 of hills1 ravines without water1 and   
rocks which pierce the sands4  ,the     
,llanos1 however1 notwithstanding the   
apparent uniformity of their surface1   
present two kinds of inequalities1 which
 cannot escape the observation of the   
traveller4 ,the first is known by the   
name of banks 7bancos72 they are in     
reality shoals in the basin of the      
steppes1 fractured strata of sandstone1 
or compact limestone1 standing four or  
five feet higher than the rest of the   
plain4 ,these banks are sometimes three 

or four leagues in length2 they are     
entirely smooth1 with a horizontal      
surface2 their existence is perceived   
only by examining their margins4 ,the   
second species of inequality can be     
recognised only by geodesical or        
barometric levellings1 or by the course 
of rivers4 ,it is called a mesa or      
table1 and is composed of small flats1  
or rather convex eminences1 that rise   
insensibly to the height of a few       
toises4 ,such are1 towards the east1 in 
the province of ,cumana1 on the north of
 the ,villa de la ,merced and           
,candelaria1 the ,mesas of ,amana1 of   
,guanipa1 and of ,jonoro1 the direction 
of which is south-west and north-east2  
and which1 in spite of their            
inconsiderable elevation1 divide the    
waters between the ,orinoco and the     
northern coast of ,terra ,firma4 ,the   
convexity of the savannah alone         
occasions this partition3 we there find 
the dividing of the waters 7divortia    
aquarum99 799 ,c4 ,manlium prope jugis  

,tauri ad divortia aquarum castra       
posuisse4 ,livy lib4 #ch c4 #ge4771 as  
in ,poland1 where1 far from the         
,carpathian mountains1 the plain itself 
divides the waters between the ,baltic  
and the ,black ,sea4 ,geographers1 who  
suppose the existence of a chain of     
mountains wherever there is a line of   
division1 have not failed to mark one in
 the maps1 at the sources of the ,rio   
,neveri1 the ,unare1 the ,guarapiche1   
and the ,pao4 ,thus the priests of      
,mongol race1 according to ancient and  
superstitious custom1 erect oboes1 or   
little mounds of stone1 on every point  
where the rivers flow in an opposite    
direction4  ,the uniform landscape of   
the ,llanos2 the extremely small number 
of their inhabitants2 the fatigue of    
travelling beneath a burning sky1 and an
 atmosphere darkened by dust2 the view  
of that horizon1 which seems for ever to
 fly before us2 those lonely trunks of  
palm-trees1 which have all the same     
aspect1 and which we despair of         

reaching1 because they are confounded   
with other trunks that rise by degrees  
on the visual horizon2 all these causes 
combine to make the steppes appear far  
more extensive than they are in reality4
 ,the planters who inhabit the southern 
declivity of the chain of the coast see 
the steppes extend towards the south1 as
 far as the eye can reach1 like an ocean
 of verdure4 ,they know that from the   
,delta of the ,orinoco to the province  
of ,varinas1 and thence1 by traversing  
the banks of the ,meta1 the ,guaviare1  
and the ,caguan1 they can advance three 
hundred and eighty leagues99 799 ,this  
is the distance from ,timbuctoo to the  
northern coast of ,africa47 into the    
plains1 first from east to west1 and    
then from north-east to south-east      
beyond the ,equator1 to the foot of the 
,andes of ,pasto4 ,they know by the     
accounts of travellers the ,pampas of   
,buenos ,ayres1 which are also ,llanos  
covered with fine grass1 destitute of   
trees1 and filled with oxen and horses  

become wild4 ,they suppose that1        
according to the greater part of our    
maps of ,america1 this continent has    
only one chain of mountains1 that of the
 ,andes1 which stretches from south to  
north2 and they form a vague idea of the
 contiguity of all the plains from the  
,orinoco and the ,apure to the ,rio de  
la ,plata and the ,straits of ,magellan4
  ,without stopping here to give a      
mineralogical description of the        
transverse chains which divide ,america 
from east to west1 it will be sufficient
 to notice the general structure of a   
continent1 the extremities of which1    
though situated in climates little      
analogous1 nevertheless present several 
features of resemblance4 ,in order to   
have an exact idea of the plains1 their 
configuration1 and their limits1 we must
 know the chains of mountains that form 
their boundaries4 ,we have already      
described the ,cordillera of the coast1 
of which the highest summit is the      
,silla de ,caraccas1 and which is linked

 by the ,paramo de las ,rosas to the    
,nevada de ,merida1 and the ,andes of   
,new ,grenada4 ,we have seen that1 in   
the tenth degree of north latitude1 it  
stretches from ,quibor and ,barquesimeto
 as far as the point of ,paria4 ,a      
second chain of mountains1 or rather a  
less elevated but much larger group1    
extends between the parallels of #c and 
#g degrees from the mouths of the       
,guaviare and the ,meta to the sources  
of the ,orinoco1 the ,marony1 and the   
,essequibo1 towards ,french and ,dutch  
,guiana4 ,i call this chain the         
,cordillera of ,parime1 or of the great 
cataracts of the ,orinoco4 ,it may be   
followed for a length of two hundred and
 fifty leagues2 but it is less a chain1 
than a collection of granitic mountains1
 separated by small plains1 without     
being everywhere disposed in lines4 ,the
 group of the mountains of ,parime      
narrows considerably between the sources
 of the ,orinoco and the mountains of   
,demerara1 in the ,sierras of           

,quimiropaca and ,pacaraimo1 which      
divide the waters between the ,carony   
and the ,rio ,parime1 or ,rio de ,aguas 
,blancas4 ,this is the scene of the     
expeditions which were undertaken in    
search of ,el ,dorado1 and the great    
city of ,manoa1 the ,timbuctoo of the   
,new ,continent4 ,the ,cordillera of    
,parime does not join the ,andes of ,new
 ,grenada1 but is separated from them by
 a space eighty leagues broad4 ,if we   
suppose it to have been destroyed in    
this space by some great revolution of  
the globe 7which is scarcely probable7  
we must admit that it anciently branched
 off from the ,andes between ,santa ,fe 
de ,bogota and ,pamplona4 ,this remark  
serves to fix more easily in the memory 
of the reader the geographical position 
of a ,cordillera till now very          
imperfectly known4 ,a third chain of    
mountains unites in #af and #ah degrees 
south latitude 7by ,santa ,cruz de la   
,sierra1 the ,serranias of ,aguapehy1   
and the famous ,campos dos ,parecis7 the

 ,andes of ,peru1 to the mountains of   
,brazil4 ,it is the ,cordillera of      
,chiquitos which widens in the          
,capitania de ,minas ,geraes1 and       
divides the rivers flowing into the     
,amazon from those of the ,rio de la    
,plata199 799 ,there is only a portage  
or carrying-place of #ecbb bracas       
between the ,guapore 7a branch of the   
,marmore and of the ,madeira71 and the  
,rio ,aguapehy 7a branch of the ,jaura  
and of the ,paraguay747 not only in the 
interior of the country1 in the meridian
 of ,villa ,boa1 but also at a few      
leagues from the coast1 between ,rio    
,janeiro and ,bahia499 799 ,the         
,cordillera of ,chiquitos and of ,brazil
 stretches toward the south-east1 in the
 government of the ,rio ,grande1 beyond 
the latitude of #cj degrees south47     
,these three transverse chains1 or      
rather these three groups of mountains  
stretching from west to east1 within the
 limits of the torrid zone1 are         
separated by tracts entirely level1 the 

plains of ,caracas1 or of the ,lower    
,orinoco2 the plains of the ,amazon and 
the ,rio ,negro2 and the plains of      
,buenos ,ayres1 or of ,la ,plata4 ,i use
 the term plains1 because the ,lower    
,orinoco and the ,amazon1 far from      
flowing in a valley1 form but a little  
furrow in the midst of a vast level4    
,the two basins1 placed at the          
extremities of ,south ,america1 are     
savannahs or steppes1 pasturage without 
trees2 the intermediate basin1 which    
receives the equatorial rains during the
 whole year1 is almost entirely one vast
 forest1 through which no other roads   
are known save the rivers4 ,the strong  
vegetation which conceals the soil1     
renders also the uniformity of its level
 less perceptible2 and the plains of    
,caracas and ,la ,plata bear no other   
name4 ,the three basins we have just    
described are called1 in the language of
 the colonists1 the ,llanos of ,varinas 
and of ,caracas1 the bosques or selvas  
7forests7 of the ,amazon1 and the       

,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres4 ,the trees   
not only for the most part cover the    
plains of the ,amazon1 from the         
,cordillera de ,chiquitos1 as far as    
that of ,parime2 they also crown these  
two chains of mountains1 which rarely   
attain the height of the ,pyrenees499   
799 ,we must except the most western    
part of the ,cordillera of ,chiquitos1  
between ,cochabamba and ,santa ,cruz de 
la ,sierra where the summits are covered
 with snow2 but this colossal group     
almost belongs to the ,andes de la ,paz1
 of which it forms a promontory or spur1
 directed toward the east47 ,on this    
account1 the vast plains of the ,amazon1
 the ,madeira1 and the ,rio ,negro1 are 
not so distinctly bounded as the ,llanos
 of ,caracas1 and the ,pampas of ,buenos
 ,ayres4 ,as the region of forests      
comprises at once the plains and the    
mountains1 it extends from #ah degrees  
south to #g and #h degrees north199 799 
,to the west1 in consequence of the     
,llanos of ,manso1 and the ,pampas de   

,huanacos1 the forests do not extend    
generally beyond the parallels of #ah or
 #ai degrees south latitude2 but to the 
east1 in ,brazil 7in the capitanias of  
,san ,pablo and ,rio ,grande7 as well as
 in ,paraguay1 on the borders of the    
,parana1 they advance as far as #be     
degrees south47 and occupies an extent  
of near a hundred and twenty thousand   
square leagues4 ,this forest of ,south  
,america1 for in fact there is only one1
 is six times larger than ,france4 ,it  
is known to ,europeans only on the      
shores of a few rivers1 by which it is  
traversed2 and has its openings1 the    
extent of which is in proportion to that
 of the forests4 ,we shall soon skirt   
the marshy savannahs1 between the ,upper
 ,orinoco1 the ,conorichite1 and the    
,cassiquiare1 in the latitude of #c and 
#d degrees4 ,there are other openings1  
or as they are called1 clear            
savannahs199 799 ,savannas limpias1 that
 is to say1 clear of trees47 in the same
 parallel1 between the sources of the   

,mao and the ,rio de ,aguas ,blancas1   
south of the ,sierra de ,pacaraima4     
,these last savannahs1 which are        
inhabited by ,caribs1 and nomad         
,macusis1 lie near the frontiers of     
,dutch and ,french ,guiana4  ,having    
noticed the geological constitution of  
,south ,america1 we shall now mark its  
principal features4 ,the western coasts 
are bordered by an enormous wall of     
mountains1 rich in precious metals      
wherever volcanic fire has not pierced  
through the eternal snow4 ,this is the  
,cordillera of the ,andes4 ,summits of  
trap-porphyry rise beyond three thousand
 three hundred toises1 and the mean     
height of the chain99 is one thousand   
eight hundred and fifty toises4 799 ,in 
,new ,grenada1 ,quito1 and ,peru1       
according to measurements taken by      
,bouguer1 ,la ,condamine1 and myself47  
,it stretches in the direction of a     
meridian1 and sends into each hemisphere
 a lateral branch1 in the latitudes of  
#aj degrees north1 and #af and #ah      

degrees south4 ,the first of these two  
branches1 that of the coast of ,caracas1
 is of considerable length1 and forms in
 fact a chain4 ,the second branch1 the  
,cordillera of ,chiquitos and of the    
sources of the ,guapore1 is very rich in
 gold1 and widens toward the east1 in   
,brazil1 into vast tablelands1 having a 
mild and temperate climate4 ,between    
these two transverse chains1 contiguous 
to the ,andes1 an isolated group of     
granitic mountains is situated1 from #c 
to #g degrees north latitude2 which also
 runs parallel to the ,equator1 but1 not
 passing the meridian of #ga degrees1   
terminates abruptly towards the west1   
and is not united to the ,andes of ,new 
,grenada4 ,these three transverse chains
 have no active volcanoes2 we know not  
whether the most southern1 like the two 
others1 be destitute of trachytes or    
trap-porphyry4 ,none of their summits   
enter the limit of perpetual snow2 and  
the mean height of the ,cordillera of   
,la ,parime1 and of the littoral chain  

of ,caracas1 does not reach six hundred 
toises1 though some of its summits rise 
fourteen hundred toises above the level 
of the sea499 799 ,we do not reckon     
here1 as belonging to the chain of the  
coast1 the ,nevados and ,paramos of     
,merida and of ,truxillo1 which are a   
prolongation of the ,andes of ,new      
,grenada47 ,the three transverse chains 
are separated by plains entirely closed 
towards the west1 and open towards the  
east and south-east4 ,when we reflect on
 their small elevation above the surface
 of the ocean1 we are tempted to        
consider them as gulfs stretching in the
 direction of the current of rotation4  
,if1 from the effect of some peculiar   
attraction1 the waters of the ,atlantic 
were to rise fifty toises at the mouth  
of the ,orinoco1 and two hundred toises 
at the mouth of the ,amazon1 the flood  
would submerge more than the half of    
,south ,america4 ,the eastern declivity1
 or the foot of the ,andes1 now six     
hundred leagues distant from the coast  

of ,brazil1 would become a shore beaten 
by the waves4 ,this consideration is the
 result of a barometric measurement1    
taken in the province of ,jaen de       
,bracamoros1 where the river ,amazon    
issues from the ,cordilleras4 ,i found  
the mean height of this immense river   
only one hundred and ninety-four toises 
above the present level of the          
,atlantic4 ,the intermediate plains1    
however1 covered with forests1 are still
 five times higher than the ,pampas of  
,buenos ,ayres1 and the grass-covered   
,llanos of ,caracas and the ,meta4      
,those ,llanos which form the basin of  
the ,orinoco1 and which we crossed twice
 in one year1 in the months of ,march   
and ,july1 communicate with the basin of
 the ,amazon and the ,rio ,negro1       
bounded on one side by the ,cordillera  
of ,chiquitos1 and on the other by the  
mountains of ,parime4 ,the opening which
 is left between the latter and the     
,andes of ,new ,grenada1 occasions this 
communication4 ,the aspect of the       

country here reminds us1 but on a much  
larger scale1 of the plains of          
,lombardy1 which also are only fifty or 
sixty toises above the level of the     
ocean2 and are directed first from ,la  
,brenta to ,turin1 east and west2 and   
then from ,turin to ,coni1 north and    
south4 ,if we were authorized1 from     
other geological facts1 to regard the   
three great plains of the ,lower        
,orinoco1 the ,amazon1 and the ,rio de  
la ,plata as basins of ancient lakes199 
799 ,in ,siberia1 the great steppes     
between the ,irtish and the ,obi1       
especially that of ,baraba1 full of salt
 lakes 7,tchabakly1 ,tchany1 ,karasouk1 
and ,topolony71 appear to have been1    
according to the ,chinese traditions1   
even within historical times1 an inland 
sea47 we should imagine we perceived in 
the plains of the ,rio ,vichada and the 
,meta1 a channel by which the waters of 
the upper lake 7those of the plains of  
the ,amazon7 forced their way towards   
the lower basin1 7that of the ,llanos of

 ,caracas17 separating the ,cordillera  
of ,la ,parime from that of the ,andes4 
,this channel is a kind of land-strait4 
,the ground1 which is perfectly level   
between the ,guaviare1 the ,meta1 and   
the ,apure1 displays no vestige of a    
violent irruption of the waters2 but on 
the edge of the ,cordillera of ,parime1 
between the latitudes of #d and #g      
degrees1 the ,orinoco1 flowing in a     
westerly direction from its source to   
the mouth of the ,guaviare1 has forced  
its way through the rocks1 directing its
 course from south to north4 ,all the   
great cataracts1 as we shall soon see1  
are within the latitudes just named4    
,when the river has reached the mouth of
 the ,apure in that very low ground     
where the slope towards the north is met
 by the counter-slope towards the       
south-east1 that is to say1 by the      
inclination of the plains which rise    
imperceptibly towards the mountains of  
,caracas1 the river turns anew and flows
 eastward4 ,it appeared to me1 that it  

was proper to fix the attention of the  
reader on these singular inflexions of  
the ,orinoco because1 belonging at once 
to two basins1 its course marks1 in some
 sort1 even on the most imperfect maps1 
the direction of that part of the plains
 intervening between ,new ,grenada and  
the western border of the mountains of  
,la ,parime4  ,the ,llanos or steppes of
 the ,lower ,orinoco and of the ,meta1  
like the deserts of ,africa1 bear       
different names in different parts4     
,from the mouths of the ,dragon the     
,llanos of ,cumana1 of ,barcelona1 and  
of ,caracas or ,venezuela199 follow1    
running from east to west4 799 ,the     
following are subdivisions of these     
three great ,llanos1 as ,i marked them  
down on the spot4 ,the ,llanos of       
,cumana and ,new ,andalusia include     
those of ,maturin and ,terecen1 of      
,amana1 ,guanipa1 ,jonoro1 and ,cari4   
,the ,llanos of ,nueva ,barcelona       
comprise those of ,aragua1 ,pariaguan1  
and ,villa del ,pao4 ,we distinguish in 

the ,llanos of ,caracas those of        
,chaguaramas1 ,uritucu1 ,calabozo or    
,guarico1 ,la ,portuguesa1 ,san ,carlos1
 and ,araure47 ,where the steppes turn  
towards the south and south-south-west1 
from the latitude of #h degrees1 between
 the meridians of #gj and #gc degrees1  
we find from north to south1 the ,llanos
 of ,varinas1 ,casanare1 the ,meta1     
,guaviare1 ,caguau1 and ,caqueta499 799 
,the inhabitants of these plains        
distinguish as subdivisions1 from the   
,rio ,portuguesa to ,caqueta1 the       
,llanos of ,guanare1 ,bocono1 ,nutrius  
or the ,apure1 ,palmerito near          
,quintero1 ,guardalito and ,arauca1 the 
,meta1 ,apiay near the port of          
,pachaquiaro1 ,vichada1 ,guaviare1      
,arriari1 ,inirida1 the ,rio ,hacha1 and
 ,caguan4 ,the limits between the       
savannahs and the forests1 in the plains
 that extend from the sources of the    
,rio ,negro to ,putumayo1 are not       
sufficiently known47 ,the plains of     
,varinas contain some few monuments of  

the industry of a nation that has       
disappeared4 ,between ,mijagual and the 
,cano de la ,hacha1 we find some real   
tumuli1 called in the country the       
,serillos de los ,indios4 ,they are     
hillocks in the shape of cones1         
artificially formed of earth1 and       
probably contain bones1 like the tumuli 
in the steppes of ,asia4 ,a fine road is
 also discovered near ,hato de la       
,calzada1 between ,varinas and ,canagua1
 five leagues long1 made before the     
conquest1 in the most remote times1 by  
the natives4 ,it is a causeway of earth 
fifteen feet high1 crossing a plain     
often overflowed4 ,did nations farther  
advanced in civilization descend from   
the mountains of ,truxillo and ,merido  
to the plains of the ,rio ,apure8 ,the  
,indians whom we now find between this  
river and the ,meta1 are in too rude a  
state to think of making roads or       
raising tumuli4  ,i calculated the area 
of these ,llanos from the ,caqueta to   
the ,apure1 and from the ,apure to the  

,delta of the ,orinoco1 and found it to 
be seventeen thousand square leagues    
twenty to a degree4 ,the part running   
from north to south is almost double    
that which stretches from east to west1 
between the ,lower ,orinoco and the     
littoral chain of ,caracas4 ,the ,pampas
 on the north and north-west of ,buenos 
,ayres1 between this city and ,cordova1 
,jujuy1 and the ,tucuman1 are of nearly 
the same extent as the ,llanos2 but the 
,pampas stretch still farther on to the 
length of #ah degrees southward2 and the
 land they occupy is so vast1 that they 
produce palm-trees at one of their      
extremities1 while the other1 equally   
low and level1 is covered with eternal  
frost4  ,the ,llanos of ,america1 where 
they extend in the direction of a       
parallel of the equator1 are            
three-fourths narrower then the great   
desert of ,africa4 ,this circumstance is
 very important in a region where the   
winds constantly blow from east to west4
 ,the farther the plains stretch in this

 direction1 the more ardent is their    
climate4 ,the great ocean of sand in    
,africa communicates by ,yemen99 with   
,gedrosia and ,beloochistan1 as far as  
the right bank of the ,indus4 799 ,we   
cannot be surprised that the ,arabic    
should be richer than any other language
 of the ,east in words expressing the   
ideas of desert1 uninhabited plains1 and
 plains covered with gramina4 ,i could  
give a list of thirty-five of these     
words1 which the ,arabian authors employ
 without always distinguishing them by  
the shades of meaning which each        
separate word expresses4 ,makadh and    
kaah indicate1 in preference1 plains2   
bakaak1 a table-land2 kafr1 mikfar1     
smlis1 mahk1 and habaucer1 a naked      
desert1 covered with sand and gravel2   
tanufah1 a steppe4 ,zahra means at once 
a naked desert and a savannah4 ,the word
 steppe1 or step1 is ,russian1 and not  
,tartarian4 ,in the ,turco-,tartar      
dialect a heath is called tala or       
tschol4 ,the word gobi1 which ,europeans

 have corrupted into cobi1 signifies in 
the ,mongol tongue a naked desert4 ,it  
is equivalent to the scha-mo or khan-hai
 of the ,chinese4 ,a steppe1 or plain   
covered with herbs1 is in ,mongol1      
kudah2 in ,chinese1 kouana47 ,it is from
 the effect of winds that have passed   
over the deserts situated to the east1  
that the little basin of the ,red ,sea1 
surrounded by plains which send forth   
from all sides radiant caloric1 is one  
of the hottest regions of the globe4    
,the unfortunate captain ,tuckey        
relates199 799 ,expedition to explore   
the river ,zahir1 #ahah47 that the      
centigrade thermometer keeps there      
generally in the night at #cd degrees1  
and by day from #dj to #dd degrees4 ,we 
shall soon see that1 even in the        
westernmost part of the steppes of      
,caracas1 we seldom found the           
temperature of the air1 in the shade1   
above #cg degrees4  ,these physical     
considerations on the steppes of the    
,new ,world are linked with others more 

interesting1 inasmuch as they are       
connected with the history of our       
species4 ,the great sea of sand in      
,africa1 the deserts without water1 are 
frequented only by caravans1 that take  
fifty days to traverse them499 799 ,this
 is the maximum of the time1 according  
to ,major ,rennell1 ,travels of ,mungo  
,park volume #b47 ,separating the ,negro
 race from the ,moors1 and the ,berber  
and ,kabyle tribes1 the ,sahara is      
inhabited only in the oases4 ,it affords
 pasturage only in the eastern part1    
where1 from the effect of the           
trade-winds1 the layer of sand being    
less thick1 the springs appear at the   
surface of the earth4 ,in ,america1 the 
steppes1 less vast1 less scorching1     
fertilized by fine rivers1 present fewer
 obstacles to the intercourse of        
nations4 ,the ,llanos separate the chain
 of the coast of ,caracas and the ,andes
 of ,new ,grenada from the region of    
forests2 from that woody region of the  
,orinoco which1 from the first discovery

 of ,america1 has been inhabited by     
nations more rude1 and farther removed  
from civilization1 than the inhabitants 
of the coast1 and still more than the   
mountaineers of the ,cordilleras4 ,the  
steppes1 however1 were no more          
heretofore the rampart of civilization  
than they are now the rampart of the    
liberty of the hordes that live in the  
forests4 ,they have not hindered the    
nations of the ,lower ,orinoco from     
going up the little rivers and making   
incursions to the north and the west4   
,if1 according to the various           
distribution of animals on the globe1   
the pastoral life could have existed in 
the ,new ,world--if1 before the arrival 
of the ,spaniards1 the ,llanos and the  
,pampas had been filled with those      
numerous herds of cows and horses that  
graze there1 ,columbus would have found 
the human race in a state quite         
different4 ,pastoral nations living on  
milk and cheese1 real nomad races1 would
 have spread themselves over those vast 

plains which communicate with each      
other4 ,they would have been seen at the
 period of great droughts1 and even at  
that of inundations1 fighting for the   
possession of pastures2 subjugating one 
another mutually2 and1 united by the    
common tie of manners1 language1 and    
worship1 they would have risen to that  
state of demi-civilization which we     
observe with surprise in the nations of 
the ,mongol and ,tartar race4 ,america  
would then1 like the centre of ,asia1   
have had its conquerors1 who1 ascending 
from the plains to the tablelands of the
 ,cordilleras1 and abandoning a         
wandering life1 would have subdued the  
civilized nations of ,peru and ,new     
,grenada1 overturned the throne of the  
,incas and of the ,zaque199 and         
substituted for the despotism which is  
the fruit of theocracy1 that despotism  
which arises from the patriarchal       
government of a pastoral people4 799    
,the ,zaque was the secular chief of    
,cundinamarca4 ,his power was shared    

with the high priest 7lama7 of ,iraca47 
,in the ,new ,world the human race has  
not experienced these great moral and   
political changes1 because the steppes1 
though more fertile than those of ,asia1
 have remained without herds2 because   
none of the animals that furnish milk in
 abundance are natives of the plains of 
,south ,america2 and because1 in the    
progressive unfolding of ,american      
civilization1 the intermediate link is  
wanting that connects the hunting with  
the agricultural nations4  ,we have     
thought proper to bring together these  
general notions on the plains of the    
,new ,continent1 and the contrast they  
exhibit to the deserts of ,africa and   
the fertile steppes of ,asia1 in order  
to give some interest to the narrative  
of a journey across lands of so         
monotonous an aspect4 ,having now       
accomplished this task1 ,i shall trace  
the route by which we proceeded from the
 volcanic mountains of ,parapara and the
 northern side of the ,llanos1 to the   

banks of the ,apure1 in the province of 
,varinas4  ,after having passed two     
nights on horseback1 and sought in vain1
 by day1 for some shelter from the heat 
of the sun beneath the tufts of the     
moriche palm-trees1 we arrived before   
night at the little ,hato del ,cayman199
 799 ,the ,farm of the ,alligator47     
called also ,la ,guadaloupe4 ,it was a  
solitary house in the steppes1          
surrounded by a few small huts1 covered 
with reeds and skins4 ,the cattle1 oxen1
 horses1 and mules are not penned1 but  
wander freely over an extent of several 
square leagues4 ,there is nowhere any   
enclosure2 men1 naked to the waist and  
armed with a lance1 ride over the       
savannahs to inspect the animals2       
bringing back those that wander too far 
from the pastures of the farm1 and      
branding all that do not already bear   
the mark of their proprietor4 ,these    
mulattos1 who are known by the name of  
peones llaneros1 are partly freed-men   
and partly slaves4 ,they are constantly 

exposed to the burning heat of the      
tropical sun4 ,their food is meat1 dried
 in the air1 and a little salted2 and of
 this even their horses sometimes       
partake4 ,being always in the saddle1   
they fancy they cannot make the         
slightest excursion on foot4 ,we found  
an old negro slave1 who managed the farm
 in the absence of his master4 ,he told 
us of herds composed of several thousand
 cows1 that were grazing in the steppes2
 yet we asked in vain for a bowl of     
milk4 ,we were offered1 in a calabash1  
some yellow1 muddy1 and fetid water1    
drawn from a neighbouring pool4 ,the    
indolence of the inhabitants of the     
,llanos is such that they do not dig    
wells1 though they know that almost     
everywhere1 at ten feet deep1 fine      
springs are found in a stratum of       
conglomerate1 or red sandstone4 ,after  
suffering during one half of the year   
from the effect of inundations1 they    
quietly resign themselves1 during the   
other half2 to the most distressing     

deprivation of water4 ,the old negro    
advised us to cover the cup with a linen
 cloth1 and drink as through a filter1  
that we might not be incommoded by the  
smell1 and might swallow less of the    
yellowish mud suspended in the water4   
,we did not then think that we should   
afterwards be forced1 during whole      
months1 to have recourse to this        
expedient4 ,the waters of the ,orinoco  
are always loaded with earthy particles2
 they are even putrid1 where dead bodies
 of alligators are found in the creeks1 
lying on banks of sand1 or half-buried  
in the mud4  ,no sooner were our        
instruments unloaded and safely placed1 
than our mules were set at liberty to   
go1 as they say here1 para buscar agua1 
that is1 to search for water4 ,there are
 little pools round the farm1 which the 
animals find1 guided by their instinct1 
by the view of some scattered tufts of  
mauritia1 and by the sensation of humid 
coolness1 caused by little currents of  
air amid an atmosphere which to us      

appears calm and tranquil4 ,when the    
pools of water are far distant1 and the 
people of the farm are too lazy to lead 
the cattle to these natural             
watering-places1 they confine them      
during five or six hours in a very hot  
stable before they let them loose4      
,excess of thirst then augments their   
sagacity1 sharpening as it were their   
senses and their instinct4 ,no sooner is
 the stable opened1 than the horses and 
mules1 especially the latter 7for the   
penetration of these animals exceeds the
 intelligence of the horses71 rush into 
the savannahs4 ,with upraised tails and 
heads thrown back they run against the  
wind1 stopping from time to time as if  
exploring space2 they follow less the   
impressions of sight than of smell2 and 
at length announce1 by prolonged        
neighings1 that there is water in the   
direction of their course4 ,all these   
movements are executed more promptly1   
and with readier success1 by horses born
 in the ,llanos1 and which have long    

enjoyed their liberty1 than by those    
that come from the coast1 and descend   
from domestic horses4 ,in animals1 for  
the most part1 as in man1 the quickness 
of the senses is diminished by long     
subjection1 and by the habits that arise
 from a fixed abode and the progress of 
cultivation4  ,we followed our mules in 
search of one of those pools1 whence the
 muddy water had been drawn1 that so ill
 quenched our thirst4 ,we were covered  
with dust1 and tanned by the sandy wind1
 which burns the skin even more than the
 rays of the sun4 ,we longed impatiently
 to take a bath1 but we found only a    
great pool of feculent water1 surrounded
 with palm-trees4 ,the water was turbid1
 though1 to our great astonishment1 a   
little cooler than the air4 ,accustomed 
during our long journey to bathe        
whenever we had an opportunity1 often   
several times in one day1 we hastened to
 plunge into the pool4 ,we had scarcely 
begun to enjoy the coolness of the bath1
 when a noise which we heard on the     

opposite bank1 made us leave the water  
precipitately4 ,it was an alligator     
plunging into the mud4  ,we were only at
 the distance of a quarter of a league  
from the farm1 yet we continued walking 
more than an hour without reaching it4  
,we perceived too late that we had taken
 a wrong direction4 ,having left it at  
the decline of day1 before the stars    
were visible1 we had gone forward into  
the plain at hazard4 ,we were1 as usual1
 provided with a compass1 and it might  
have been easy for us to steer our      
course from the position of ,canopus and
 the ,southern ,cross2 but unfortunately
 we were uncertain whether1 on leaving  
the farm1 we had gone towards the east  
or the south4 ,we attempted to return to
 the spot where we had bathed1 and we   
again walked three quarters of an hour  
without finding the pool4 ,we sometimes 
thought we saw fire on the horizon2 but 
it was the light of the rising stars    
enlarged by the vapours4 ,after having  
wandered a long time in the savannah1 we

 resolved to seat ourselves beneath the 
trunk of a palm-tree1 in a spot         
perfectly dry1 surrounded by short      
grass2 for the fear of water-snakes is  
always greater than that of jaguars     
among ,europeans recently disembarked4  
,we could not flatter ourselves that our
 guides1 of whom we knew the insuperable
 indolence1 would come in search of us  
in the savannah before they had prepared
 their food and finished their repast4  
,whilst somewhat perplexed by the       
uncertainty of our situation1 we were   
agreeably affected by hearing from afar 
the sound of a horse advancing towards  
us4 ,the rider was an ,indian1 armed    
with a lance1 who had just made the     
rodeo1 or round1 in order to collect the
 cattle within a determinate space of   
ground4 ,the sight of two white men1 who
 said they had lost their way1 led him  
at first to suspect some trick4 ,we     
found it difficult to inspire him with  
confidence2 he at last consented to     
guide us to the farm of the ,cayman1 but

 without slackening the gentle trot of  
his horse4 ,our guides assured us that  
they had already begun to be uneasy     
about us2 and1 to justify this          
inquietude1 they gave a long enumeration
 of persons who1 having lost themselves 
in the ,llanos1 had been found nearly   
exhausted4 ,it may be supposed that the 
danger is imminent only to those who    
lose themselves far from any habitation1
 or who1 having been stripped by        
robbers1 as has happened of late years1 
have been fastened by the body and hands
 to the trunk of a palm-tree4  ,in order
 to escape as much as possible from the 
heat of the day1 we set off at two in   
the morning1 with the hope of reaching  
,calabozo before noon1 a small but busy 
trading-town1 situated in the midst of  
the ,llanos4 ,the aspect of the country 
was still the same4 ,there was no       
moonlight2 but the great masses of      
nebulae that spot the southern sky      
enlighten1 as they set1 a part of the   
terrestrial horizon4 ,the solemn        

spectacle of the starry vault1 seen in  
its immense expanse--the cool breeze    
which blows over the plain during the   
night--the waving motion of the grass1  
wherever it has attained any height2    
everything recalled to our minds the    
surface of the ocean4 ,the illusion was 
augmented when the disk of the sun      
appearing on the horizon1 repeated its  
image by the effects of refraction1 and1
 soon losing its flattened form1        
ascended rapidly and straight towards   
the zenith4  ,sunrise in the plains is  
the coolest moment of the day2 but this 
change of temperature does not make a   
very lively impression on the organs4   
,we did not find the thermometer in     
general sink below #bg4e2 while near    
,acapulco1 at ,mexico1 and in places    
equally low1 the temperature at noon is 
often #cb1 and at sunrise only #ag or   
#ah degrees4 ,the level surface of the  
ground in the ,llanos1 which1 during the
 day1 is never in the shade1 absorbs so 
much heat that1 notwithstanding the     

nocturnal radiation toward a sky without
 clouds1 the earth and air have not time
 to cool very sensibly from midnight to 
sunrise4  ,in proportion as the sun rose
 towards the zenith1 and the earth and  
the strata of superincumbent air took   
different temperatures1 the phenomenon  
of the mirage displayed itself in its   
numerous modifications4 ,this phenomenon
 is so common in every zone1 that ,i    
mention it only because we stopped to   
measure with some precision the breadth 
of the aerial distance between the      
horizon and the suspended object4 ,there
 was a constant suspension1 without     
inversion4 ,the little currents of air  
that swept the surface of the soil had  
so variable a temperature that1 in a    
drove of wild oxen1 one part appeared   
with the legs raised above the surface  
of the ground1 while the other rested on
 it4 ,the aerial distance was1 according
 to the distance of the animal1 from #c 
to #d minutes4 ,where tufts of the      
moriche palm were found growing in long 

ranges1 the extremities of these green  
rows were suspended like the capes which
 were1 for so long a time1 the subject  
of my observations at ,cumana4 ,a       
well-informed person assured us1 that he
 had seen1 between ,calabozo and        
,uritucu1 the image of an animal        
inverted1 without there being any direct
 image4 ,niebuhr made a similar         
observation in ,arabia4 ,we several     
times thought we saw on the horizon the 
figures of tumuli and towers1 which     
disappeared at intervals1 without our   
being able to discern the real shape of 
the objects4 ,they were perhaps         
hillocks1 or small eminences1 situated  
beyond the ordinary visual horizon4 ,i  
need not mention those tracts destitute 
of vegetation1 which appear like large  
lakes with an undulating surface4 ,this 
phenomenon1 observed in very remote     
times1 has occasioned the mirage to     
receive in ,sanscrit the expressive name
 of desire of the antelope4 ,we admire  
the frequent allusions in the ,indian1  

,persian1 and ,arabic poets1 to the     
magical effects of terrestrial          
refraction4 ,it was scarcely known to   
the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,proud of the  
riches of their soil1 and the mild      
temperature of the air1 they would have 
felt no envy of this poetry of the      
desert4 ,it had its birth in ,asia2 and 
the oriental poets found its source in  
the nature of the country they          
inhabited4 ,they were inspired with the 
aspect of those vast solitudes1         
interposed like arms of the sea or      
gulfs1 between lands which nature had   
adorned with her most luxuriant         
fertility4  ,the plain assumes at       
sunrise a more animated aspect4 ,the    
cattle1 which had reposed during the    
night along the pools1 or beneath clumps
 of mauritias and rhopalas1 were now    
collected in herds2 and these solitudes 
became peopled with horses1 mules1 and  
oxen1 that live here free1 rather than  
wild1 without settled habitations1 and  
disdaining the care and protection of   

man4 ,in these hot climates1 the oxen1  
though of ,spanish breed1 like those of 
the cold table-lands of ,quito1 are of a
 gentle disposition4 ,a traveller runs  
no risk of being attacked or pursued1 as
 we often were in our excursions on the 
back of the ,cordilleras1 where the     
climate is rude1 the aspect of the      
country more wild1 and food less        
abundant4 ,as we approached ,calabozo1  
we saw herds of roebucks browsing       
peacefully in the midst of horses and   
oxen4 ,they are called matacani2 their  
flesh is good2 they are a little larger 
than our roes1 and resemble deer with a 
very sleek skin1 of a fawn-colour1      
spotted with white4 ,their horns appear 
to me to have single points4 ,they had  
little fear of the presence of man3 and 
in herds of thirty or forty we observed 
several that were entirely white4 ,this 
variety1 common enough among the large  
stags of the cold climates of the       
,andes1 surprised us in these low and   
burning plains4 ,i have since learned1  

that even the jaguar1 in the hot regions
 of ,paraguay1 sometimes affords albino 
varieties1 the skin of which is of such 
uniform whiteness that the spots or     
rings can be distinguished only in the  
sunshine4 ,the number of matacani1 or   
little deer199 799 ,they are called in  
the country ,venados de tierras         
calientes 7deer of the warm lands477 is 
so considerable in the ,llanos1 that a  
trade might be carried on with their    
skins499 799 ,this trade is carried on1 
but on a very limited scale1 at ,carora 
and at ,barquesimeto47 ,a skilful hunter
 could easily kill more than twenty in a
 day2 but such is the indolence of the  
inhabitants1 that often they will not   
give themselves the trouble of taking   
the skin4 ,the same indifference is     
evinced in the chase of the jaguar1 a   
skin of which fetches only one piastre  
in the steppes of ,varinas1 while at    
,cadiz it costs four or five4  ,the     
steppes that we traversed are           
principally covered with grasses of the 

genera ,killingia1 ,cenchrus1 and       
,paspalum499 799 ,killingia monocephala1
 ,k4 odorata1 ,cenchrus pilosus1 ,vilfa 
tenacissima1 ,andropogon plumosum1      
,panicum micranthum1 ,poa repens1       
,paspalum leptostachyum1 ,p4 conjugatum1
 ,aristida recurvata4 7,nova ,genera et 
,species ,plantarum1 volume #a pages #hd
 to #bdc47 ,at this season1 near        
,calabozo and ,san ,jerome del ,pirital1
 these grasses scarcely attain the      
height of nine or ten inches4 ,near the 
banks of the ,apure and the ,portuguesa 
they rise to four feet in height1 so    
that the jaguar can conceal himself     
among them1 to spring upon the mules and
 horses that cross the plain4 ,mingled  
with these gramina some plants of the   
dicotyledonous class are found2 as      
turneras1 malvaceae1 and1 what is very  
remarkable1 little mimosas with         
irritable leaves199 called by the       
,spaniards dormideras4 799 ,the         
sensitive-plant ,mimosa dormiens47 ,the 
same breed of cows1 which fatten in     

,europe on sainfoin and clover1 find    
excellent nourishment in the herbaceous 
sensitive plants4 ,the pastures where   
these shrubs particularly abound are    
sold at a higher price than others4 ,to 
the east1 in the llanos of ,cari and    
,barcelona1 the cypura and the          
craniolaria199 799 ,cypura graminea1    
,craniolaria annua1 the scorzonera of   
the natives47 the beautiful white flower
 of which is from six to eight inches   
long1 rise solitarily amid the gramina4 
,the pastures are richest not only      
around the rivers subject to            
inundations1 but also wherever the      
trunks of palm-trees are near each      
other4 ,the least fertile spots are     
those destitute of trees2 and attempts  
to cultivate them would be nearly       
fruitless4 ,we cannot attribute this    
difference to the shelter afforded by   
the palm-trees1 in preventing the solar 
rays from drying and burning up the     
soil4 ,i have seen1 it is true1 trees of
 this family1 in the forests of the     

,orinoco1 spreading a tufted foliage2   
but we cannot say much for the shade of 
the palm-tree of the llanos1 the palma  
de cobija199 799 ,the roofing palm-tree 
,corypha tectorum47 which has but a few 
folded and palmate leaves1 like those of
 the chamaerops1 and of which the       
lower-most are constantly withered4 ,we 
were surprised to see that almost all   
these trunks of the corypha were nearly 
of the same size1 namely1 from twenty to
 twenty-four feet high1 and from eight  
to ten inches diameter at the foot4     
,nature has produced few species of     
palm-trees in such prodigious numbers4  
,amidst thousands of trunks loaded with 
olive-shaped fruits we found about one  
hundred without fruit4 ,may we suppose  
that there are some trees with flowers  
purely monoecious1 mingled with others  
furnished with hermaphrodite flowers8   
,the ,llaneros1 or inhabitants of the   
plains1 believe that all these trees1   
though so low1 are many centuries old4  
,their growth is almost imperceptible1  

being scarcely to be noticed in the     
lapse of twenty or thirty years4 ,the   
wood of the palma de cobija is excellent
 for building4 ,it is so hard1 that it  
is difficult to drive a nail into it4   
,the leaves1 folded like a fan1 are     
employed to cover the roofs of the huts 
scattered through the ,llanos2 and these
 roofs last more than twenty years4 ,the
 leaves are fixed by bending the        
extremity of the footstalks1 which have 
been beaten beforehand between two      
stones1 so that they may bend without   
breaking4  ,beside the solitary trunks  
of this palm-tree1 we find dispersed    
here and there in the steppes a few     
clumps1 real groves 7palmares71 in which
 the corypha is intermingled with a tree
 of the proteaceous family1 called      
chaparro by the natives4 ,it is a new   
species of rhopala199 799 ,resembling   
the ,embothrium1 of which we found no   
species in ,south ,america4 ,the        
embothriums are represented in ,american
 vegetation by the genera ,lomatia and  

,oreocallis47 with hard and resonant    
leaves4 ,the little groves of rhopala   
are called chaparales2 and it may be    
supposed that1 in a vast plain1 where   
only two or three species of trees are  
to be found1 the chaparro1 which affords
 shade1 is considered a highly valuable 
plant4 ,the corypha spreads through the 
,llanos of ,caracas from ,mesa de ,peja 
as far as ,guayaval2 farther north and  
north-west1 near ,guanare and ,san      
,carlos1 its place is taken by another  
species of the same genus1 with leaves  
alike palmate but larger4 ,it is called 
the royal palm of the plains 7palma real
 de los ,llanos7499 799 ,this palm-tree 
of the plains must not be confounded    
with the palma real of ,caracas and of  
,curiepe1 with pinnate leaves47 ,other  
palm-trees rise south of ,guayaval1     
especially the piritu with pinnate      
leaves199 799 ,perhaps an ,aiphanes47   
and the moriche 7,mauritia flexuosa71   
celebrated by ,father ,gumilla under the
 name of arbol de la vida1 or tree of   

life4 ,it is the sago-tree of ,america1 
furnishing flour1 wine1 thread for      
weaving hammocks1 baskets1 nets1 and    
clothing4 ,its fruit1 of the form of the
 cones of the pine1 and covered with    
scales1 perfectly resembles that of the 
,calamus rotang4 ,it has somewhat the   
taste of the apple4 ,when arrived at its
 maturity it is yellow within and red   
without4 ,the araguato monkeys eat it   
with avidity2 and the nation of the     
,guaraounos1 whose whole existence1 it  
may be said1 is closely linked with that
 of the moriche palm-tree1 produce from 
it a fermented liquor1 slightly acid1   
and extremely refreshing4 ,this         
palm-tree1 with its large shining       
leaves1 folded like a fan1 preserves a  
beautiful verdure at the period of the  
greatest drought4 ,the mere sight of it 
produces an agreeable sensation of      
coolness1 and when loaded with scaly    
fruit1 it contrasts singularly with the 
mournful aspect of the palma de cobija1 
the foliage of which is always grey and 

covered with dust4 ,the ,llaneros       
believe that the former attracts the    
vapours in the air299 799 ,if the head  
of the moriche were better furnished    
with leaves than it generally is1 we    
might perhaps admit that the soil round 
the tree preserves its humidity through 
the influence of the shade47 and that   
for this reason1 water is constantly    
found at its foot1 when dug for to a    
certain depth4 ,the effect is confounded
 with the cause4 ,the moriche grows best
 in moist places2 and it may rather be  
said that the water attracts the tree4  
,the natives of the ,orinoco1 by        
analogous reasoning1 admit1 that the    
great serpents contribute to preserve   
humidity in a province4 ,you would look 
in vain for water-serpents1 said an old 
,indian of ,javita to us gravely1 where 
there are no marshes2 because the water 
ceases to collect when you imprudently  
kill the serpents that attract it4  ,we 
suffered greatly from the heat in       
crossing the ,mesa de ,calabozo4 ,the   

temperature of the air augmented        
sensibly every time that the wind began 
to blow4 ,the air was loaded with dust2 
and during these gusts the thermometer  
rose to #dj or #da degrees4 ,we went    
slowly forward1 for it would have been  
dangerous to leave the mules that       
carried our instruments4 ,our guides    
advised us to fill our hats with the    
leaves of the rhopala1 to diminish the  
action of the solar rays on the hair and
 the crown of the head4 ,we found relief
 from this expedient1 which was         
particularly agreeable1 when we could   
procure the thick leaves of the pothos  
or some other similar plant4  ,it is    
impossible to cross these burning       
plains1 without inquiring whether they  
have always been in the same state2 or  
whether they have been stripped of their
 vegetation by some revolution of       
nature4 ,the stratum of mould now found 
on them is in fact very thin4 ,the      
natives believe that the palmares and   
the chaparales 7the little groves of    

palm-trees and rhopala7 were more       
frequent and more extensive before the  
arrival of the ,spaniards4 ,since the   
,llanos have been inhabited and peopled 
with cattle become wild1 the savannah is
 often set on fire1 in order to         
ameliorate the pasturage4 ,groups of    
scattered trees are accidentally        
destroyed with the grasses4 ,the plains 
were no doubt less bare in the fifteenth
 century1 than they now are2 yet the    
first ,conquistadores1 who came from    
,coro1 described them then as savannahs1
 where nothing could be perceived but   
the sky and the turf1 generally         
destitute of trees1 and difficult to    
traverse on account of the reverberation
 of heat from the soil4 ,why does not   
the great forest of the ,orinoco extend 
to the north1 on the left bank of that  
river8 ,why does it not fill that vast  
space that reaches as far as the        
,cordillera of the coast1 and which is  
fertilized by numerous rivers8 ,these   
questions are connected with all that   

relates to the history of our planet4   
,if1 indulging in geological reveries1  
we suppose that the steppes of ,america1
 and the desert of ,sahara1 have been   
stripped of their vegetation by an      
irruption of the ocean1 or that they    
formed originally the bottom of an      
inland sea1 we may conceive that        
thousands of years have not sufficed for
 the trees and shrubs to advance from   
the borders of the forests1 from the    
skirts of the plains either naked or    
covered with turf1 toward the centre1   
and darken so vast a space with their   
shade4 ,it is more difficult to explain 
the origin of bare savannahs1 encircled 
by forests1 than to recognize the causes
 that maintain forests and savannahs    
within their ancient limits1 like       
continents and seas4  ,we found the most
 cordial hospitality at ,calabozo1 in   
the house of the superintendent of the  
royal plantations1 ,don ,miguel ,cousin4
 ,the town1 situated between the banks  
of the ,guarico and the ,uritucu1       

contained at this period only five      
thousand inhabitants2 but everything    
denoted increasing prosperity4 ,the     
wealth of most of the inhabitants       
consists in herds1 under the management 
of farmers1 who are called hateros1 from
 the word hato1 which signifies in      
,spanish a house or farm placed in the  
midst of pastures4 ,the scattered       
population of the ,llanos being         
accumulated on certain points1          
principally around towns1 ,calabozo     
reckons already five villages or        
missions in its environs4 ,it is        
computed1 that #ih1jjj head of cattle   
wander in the pastures nearest to the   
town4 ,it is very difficult to form an  
exact idea of the herds contained in the
 ,llanos of ,caracas1 ,barcelona1       
,cumana1 and ,spanish ,guiana4 ,m4      
,depons1 who lived in the town of       
,caracas longer than ,i1 and whose      
statistical statements are generally    
accurate1 reckons in those vast plains1 
from the mouths of the ,orinoco to the  

lake of ,maracaybo1 #a1bjj1jjj oxen1    
#ahj1jjj horses1 and #ij1jjj mules4 ,he 
estimates the produce of these herds at 
#e1jjj1jjj francs2 adding to the value  
of the exportation the price of the     
hides consumed in the country4 ,there   
exist1 it is believed1 in the ,pampas of
 ,buenos ,ayres1 #ab1jjj1jjj cows1 and  
#c1jjj1jjj horses1 without comprising in
 this enumeration the cattle that have  
no acknowledged proprietor4  ,i shall   
not hazard any general estimates1 which 
from their nature are too uncertain2 but
 shall only observe that1 in the ,llanos
 of ,caracas1 the proprietors of the    
great hatos are entirely ignorant of the
 number of the cattle they possess4     
,they only know that of the young       
cattle1 which are branded every year    
with a letter or mark peculiar to each  
herd4 ,the richest proprietors mark as  
many as #ad1jjj head every year2 and    
sell to the number of five or six       
thousand4 ,according to official        
documents1 the exportation of hides from

 the whole capitania-general of ,caracas
 amounted annually to #agd1jjj skins of 
oxen1 and #aa1ejj of goats4 ,when we    
reflect1 that these documents are taken 
from the books of the custom-houses1    
where no mention is made of the         
fraudulent dealings in hides1 we are    
tempted to believe that the estimate of 
#a1bjj1jjj oxen wandering in the        
,llanos1 from the ,rio ,carony and the  
,guarapiche to the lake of ,maracaybo1  
is much underrated4 ,the port of ,la    
,guayra alone exported annually from    
#aghi to #agib1 #gj1jjj or #hj1jjj      
hides1 entered in the custom-house      
books1 scarcely one-fifth of which was  
sent to ,spain4 ,the exportation from   
,buenos ,ayres1 at the end of the       
eighteenth century1 was1 according to   
,don ,felix de ,azara1 #hjj1jjj skins4  
,the hides of ,caracas are preferred in 
the ,peninsula to those of ,buenos      
,ayres2 because the latter1 on account  
of a longer passage1 undergo a loss of  
twelve per cent in the tanning4 ,the    

southern part of the savannahs1 commonly
 called the ,upper ,plains 7,llanos de  
arriba71 is very productive in mules and
 oxen2 but the pasturage being in       
general less good1 these animals are    
obliged to be sent to other plains to be
 fattened before they are sold4 ,the    
,llano de ,monai1 and all the ,lower    
,plains 7,llanos de abaxo71 abound less 
in herds1 but the pastures are so       
fertile1 that they furnish meat of an   
excellent quality for the supply of the 
coast4 ,the mules1 which are not fit for
 labour before the fifth year1 are      
purchased on the spot at the price of   
fourteen or eighteen piastres4 ,the     
horses of the ,llanos1 descending from  
the fine ,spanish breed1 are not very   
large2 they are generally of a uniform  
colour1 brown bay1 like most of the wild
 animals4 ,suffering alternately from   
drought and floods1 tormented by the    
stings of insects and the bites of the  
large bats1 they lead a sorry life4     
,after having enjoyed for some months   

the care of man1 their good qualities   
are developed4 ,here there are no sheep3
 we saw flocks only on the table-land of
 ,quito4  ,the hatos of oxen have       
suffered considerably of late from      
troops of marauders1 who roam over the  
steppes killing the animals merely to   
take their hides4 ,this robbery has     
increased since the trade of the ,lower 
,orinoco has become more flourishing4   
,for half a century1 the banks of that  
great river1 from the mouth of the      
,apure as far as ,angostura1 were known 
only to the missionary-monks4 ,the      
exportation of cattle took place from   
the ports of the northern coast only1   
namely from ,cumana1 ,barcelona1        
,burburata1 and ,porto ,cabello4 ,this  
dependence on the coast is now much     
diminished4 ,the southern part of the   
plains has established an internal      
communication with the ,lower ,orinoco2 
and this trade is the more brisk1 as    
those who devote themselves to it easily
 escape the trammels of the prohibitory 

laws4  ,the greatest herds of cattle in 
the ,llanos of ,caracas are those of the
 hatos of ,merecure1 ,la ,cruz1 ,belen1 
,alta ,gracia1 and ,pavon4 ,the ,spanish
 cattle came from ,coro and ,tocuyo into
 the plains4 ,history has preserved the 
name of the colonist who first conceived
 the idea of peopling these pasturages1 
inhabited only by deer1 and a large     
species of cavy499 799 ,the thick-nosed 
tapir1 or river cavy 7,cavia capybara71 
called chiguire in those countries47    
,christoval ,rodriguez sent the first   
horned cattle into the ,llanos1 about   
the year #aedh4 ,he was an inhabitant of
 the town of ,tocuyo1 and had long      
resided in ,new ,grenada4  ,when we hear
 of the innumerable quantity of oxen1   
horses1 and mules1 that are spread over 
the plains of ,america1 we seem         
generally to forget that in civilized   
,europe1 on lands of much less extent1  
there exist1 in agricultural countries1 
quantities no less prodigious4 ,france1 
according to ,m4 ,peuchet1 feeds        

#f1jjj1jjj large horned cattle1 of which
 #c1ejj1jjj are oxen employed in drawing
 the plough4 ,in the ,austrian monarchy1
 the number of oxen1 cows1 and calves1  
has been estimated at #ac1djj1jjj head4 
,paris alone consumes annually #aee1jjj 
horned cattle4 ,germany receives        
#aej1jjj oxen yearly from ,hungary4     
,domestic animals1 collected in small   
herds1 are considered by agricultural   
nations as a secondary object in the    
riches of the state4 ,accordingly they  
strike the imagination much less than   
those wandering droves of oxen and      
horses which alone fill the uncultivated
 tracts of the ,new ,world4             
,civilization and social order favour   
alike the progress of population1 and   
the multiplication of animals useful to 
man4  ,we found at ,calabozo1 in the    
midst of the ,llanos1 an electrical     
machine with large plates1 electrophori1
 batteries1 electrometers2 an apparatus 
nearly as complete as our first         
scientific men in ,europe possess4 ,all 

these articles had not been purchased in
 the ,united ,states2 they were the work
 of a man who had never seen any        
instrument1 who had no person to        
consult1 and who was acquainted with the
 phenomena of electricity only by       
reading the treatise of ,de ,lafond1 and
 ,franklin's ,memoirs4 ,senor ,carlos   
del ,pozo1 the name of this enlightened 
and ingenious man1 had begun to make    
cylindrical electrical machines1 by     
employing large glass jars1 after having
 cut off the necks4 ,it was only within 
a few years he had been able to procure1
 by way of ,philadelphia1 two plates1 to
 construct a plate machine1 and to      
obtain more considerable effects4 ,it is
 easy to judge what difficulties ,senor 
,pozo had to encounter1 since the first 
works upon electricity had fallen into  
his hands1 and that he had the courage  
to resolve to procure himself1 by his   
own industry1 all that he had seen      
described in his books4 ,till now he had
 enjoyed only the astonishment and      

admiration produced by his experiments  
on persons destitute of all information1
 and who had never quitted the solitude 
of the ,llanos2 our abode at ,calabozo  
gave him a satisfaction altogether new4 
,it may be supposed that he set some    
value on the opinions of two travellers 
who could compare his apparatus with    
those constructed in ,europe4 ,i had    
brought with me electrometers mounted   
with straw1 pith-balls1 and gold-leaf2  
also a small ,leyden jar which could be 
charged by friction according to the    
method of ,ingenhousz1 and which served 
for my physiological experiments4 ,senor
 del ,pozo could not contain his joy on 
seeing for the first time instruments   
which he had not made1 yet which        
appeared to be copied from his own4 ,we 
also showed him the effect of the       
contact of heterogeneous metals on the  
nerves of frogs4 ,the name of ,galvani  
and ,volta had not previously been heard
 in those vast solitudes4  ,next to his 
electrical apparatus1 the work of the   

industry and intelligence of an         
inhabitant of the ,llanos1 nothing at   
,calabozo excited in us so great an     
interest as the gymnoti1 which are      
animated electrical apparatuses4 ,i was 
impatient1 from the time of my arrival  
at ,cumana1 to procure electrical eels4 
,we had been promised them often1 but   
our hopes had always been disappointed4 
,money loses its value as you withdraw  
from the coast2 and how is the          
imperturbable apathy of the ignorant    
people to be vanquished1 when they are  
not excited by the desire of gain8  ,the
 ,spaniards confound all electric fishes
 under the name of tembladores499 799   
,literally tremblers1 or producers of   
trembling47 ,there are some of these in 
the ,caribbean ,sea1 on the coast of    
,cumana4 ,the ,guayquerie ,indians1 who 
are the most skilful and active         
fishermen in those parts1 brought us a  
fish1 which1 they said1 benumbed their  
hands4 ,this fish ascends the little    
river ,manzanares4 ,it is a new species 

of ray1 the lateral spots of which are  
scarcely visible1 and which much        
resembles the torpedo4 ,the torpedos1   
which are furnished with an electric    
organ externally visible1 on account of 
the transparency of the skin1 form a    
genus or subgenus different from the    
rays properly so called499 799 ,cuvier1 
,regne ,animal volume #b4 ,the          
,mediterranean contains1 according to   
,m4 ,risso1 four species of electrical  
torpedos1 all formerly confounded under 
the name of ,raia torpedo2 these are    
,torpedo narke1 ,t4 unimaculata1 ,t4    
galvanii1 and ,t4 marmorata4 ,the       
torpedo of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 the
 subject of the recent experiments of   
,mr4 ,todd1 is1 no doubt1 a nondescript 
species47 ,the torpedo of ,cumana was   
very lively1 very energetic in its      
muscular movements1 and yet the electric
 shocks it gave us were extremely       
feeble4 ,they became stronger on        
galvanizing the animal by the contact of
 zinc and gold4 ,other tembladores1 real

 gymnoti or electric eels1 inhabit the  
,rio ,colorado1 the ,guarapiche1 and    
several little streams which traverse   
the ,missions of the ,chayma ,indians4  
,they abound also in the large rivers of
 ,america1 the ,orinoco1 the ,amazon1   
and the ,meta2 but the force of the     
currents and the depth of the water1    
prevent them from being caught by the   
,indians4 ,they see these fish less     
frequently than they feel shocks from   
them when swimming or bathing in the    
river4 ,in the ,llanos1 particularly in 
the environs of ,calabozo1 between the  
farms of ,morichal and the ,upper and   
,lower ,missions1 the basins of stagnant
 water and the confluents of the        
,orinoco 7the ,rio ,guarico and the     
canos ,rastro1 ,berito1 and ,paloma7 are
 filled with electric eels4 ,we at first
 wished to make our experiments in the  
house we inhabited at ,calabozo2 but the
 dread of the shocks caused by the      
gymnoti is so great1 and so exaggerated 
among the common people1 that during    

three days we could not obtain one1     
though they are easily caught1 and we   
had promised the ,indians two piastres  
for every strong and vigorous fish4     
,this fear of the ,indians is the more  
extraordinary1 as they do not attempt to
 adopt precautions in which they profess
 to have great confidence4 ,when        
interrogated on the effect of the       
tembladores1 they never fail to tell the
 ,whites1 that they may be touched with 
impunity while you are chewing tobacco4 
,this supposed influence of tobacco on  
animal electricity is as general on the 
continent of ,south ,america1 as the    
belief among mariners of the effect of  
garlic and tallow on the magnetic       
needle4  ,impatient of waiting1 and     
having obtained very uncertain results  
from an electric eel which had been     
brought to us alive1 but much enfeebled1
 we repaired to the ,cano de ,bera1 to  
make our experiments in the open air1   
and at the edge of the water4 ,we set   
off on the #aith of ,march1 at a very   

early hour1 for the village of ,rastro2 
thence we were conducted by the ,indians
 to a stream1 which1 in the time of     
drought1 forms a basin of muddy water1  
surrounded by fine trees199 799 ,amyris 
lateriflora1 ,a4 coriacea1 ,laurus      
pichurin4 ,myroxylon secundum1          
,malpighia reticulata47 the clusia1 the 
amyris1 and the mimosa with fragrant    
flowers4 ,to catch the gymnoti with nets
 is very difficult1 on account of the   
extreme agility of the fish1 which bury 
themselves in the mud4 ,we would not    
employ the barbasco1 that is to say1 the
 roots of the ,piscidea erithyrna1 the  
,jacquinia armillaris1 and some species 
of phyllanthus1 which thrown into the   
pool1 intoxicate or benumb the eels4    
,these methods have the effect of       
enfeebling the gymnoti4 ,the ,indians   
therefore told us that they would fish  
with horses1 7embarbascar con           
caballos499 799 ,meaning to excite the  
fish by horses477 ,we found it difficult
 to form an idea of this extraordinary  

manner of fishing2 but we soon saw our  
guides return from the savannah1 which  
they had been scouring for wild horses  
and mules4 ,they brought about thirty   
with them1 which they forced to enter   
the pool4  ,the extraordinary noise     
caused by the horses' hoofs1 makes the  
fish issue from the mud1 and excites    
them to the attack4 ,these yellowish and
 livid eels1 resembling large aquatic   
serpents1 swim on the surface of the    
water1 and crowd under the bellies of   
the horses and mules4 ,a contest between
 animals of so different an organization
 presents a very striking spectacle4    
,the ,indians1 provided with harpoons   
and long slender reeds1 surround the    
pool closely2 and some climb up the     
trees1 the branches of which extend     
horizontally over the surface of the    
water4 ,by their wild cries1 and the    
length of their reeds1 they prevent the 
horses from running away and reaching   
the bank of the pool4 ,the eels1 stunned
 by the noise1 defend themselves by the 

repeated discharge of their electric    
batteries4 ,for a long interval they    
seem likely to prove victorious4        
,several horses sink beneath the        
violence of the invisible strokes which 
they receive from all sides1 in organs  
the most essential to life2 and stunned 
by the force and frequency of the       
shocks1 they disappear under the water4 
,others1 panting1 with mane erect1 and  
haggard eyes expressing anguish and     
dismay1 raise themselves1 and endeavour 
to flee from the storm by which they are
 overtaken4 ,they are driven back by the
 ,indians into the middle of the water2 
but a small number succeed in eluding   
the active vigilance of the fishermen4  
,these regain the shore1 stumbling at   
every step1 and stretch themselves on   
the sand1 exhausted with fatigue1 and   
with limbs benumbed by the electric     
shocks of the gymnoti4  ,in less than   
five minutes two of our horses were     
drowned4 ,the eel being five feet long1 
and pressing itself against the belly of

 the horses1 makes a discharge along the
 whole extent of its electric organ4 ,it
 attacks at once the heart1 the         
intestines1 and the caeliac fold of the 
abdominal nerves4 ,it is natural that   
the effect felt by the horses should be 
more powerful than that produced upon   
man by the touch of the same fish at    
only one of his extremities4 ,the horses
 are probably not killed1 but only      
stunned4 ,they are drowned from the     
impossibility of rising amid the        
prolonged struggle between the other    
horses and the eels4  ,we had little    
doubt that the fishing would terminate  
by killing successively all the animals 
engaged2 but by degrees the impetuosity 
of this unequal combat diminished1 and  
the wearied gymnoti dispersed4 ,they    
require a long rest1 and abundant       
nourishment1 to repair the galvanic     
force which they have lost499 799 ,the  
,indians assured us that when the horses
 are made to run two days successively  
into the same pool1 none are killed the 

second day4 ,see1 on the fishing for    
gymnoti ,views of ,nature ,bohn's       
edition page #ah47 ,the mules and horses
 appear less frightened2 their manes are
 no longer bristled1 and their eyes     
express less dread4 ,the gymnoti        
approach timidly the edge of the marsh1 
where they are taken by means of small  
harpoons fastened to long cords4 ,when  
the cords are very dry the ,indians feel
 no shock in raising the fish into the  
air4 ,in a few minutes we had five large
 eels1 most of which were but slightly  
wounded4 ,some others were taken1 by the
 same means1 towards evening4  ,the     
temperature of the waters in which the  
gymnoti habitually live1 is from #bf to 
#bg degrees4 ,their electric force      
diminishes it is said1 in colder waters2
 and it is remarkable that1 in general1 
animals endowed with electromotive      
organs1 the effects of which are        
sensible to man1 are not found in the   
air1 but in a fluid that is a conductor 
of electricity4 ,the gymnotus is the    

largest of electrical fishes4 ,i        
measured some that were from five feet  
to five feet three inches long2 and the 
,indians assert that they have seen them
 still larger4 ,we found that a fish of 
three feet ten inches long weighed      
twelve pounds4 ,the transverse diameter 
of the body1 without reckoning the anal 
fin1 which is elongated in the form of a
 keel1 was three inches and a half4 ,the
 gymnoti of the ,cano de ,bera are of a 
fine olive-green4 ,the under part of the
 head is yellow mingled with red4 ,two  
rows of small yellow spots are placed   
symmetrically along the back1 from the  
head to the end of the tail4 ,every spot
 contains an excretory aperture4 ,in    
consequence1 the skin of the animal is  
constantly covered with a mucous matter1
 which1 as ,volta has proved1 conducts  
electricity twenty or thirty times      
better than pure water4 ,it is in       
general somewhat remarkable1 that no    
electric fish yet discovered in the     
different parts of the world1 is covered

 with scales499 799 ,we yet know with   
certainty only seven electric fishes2   
,torpedo narke1 ,risso1 ,t4 unimaculata1
 ,t4 marmorata1 ,t4 galvanii1 ,silurus  
electricus1 ,tetraodon electricus1      
,gymnotus electricus4 ,it appears       
uncertain whether the ,trichiurus       
indicus has electrical properties or    
not4 ,see ,cuvier's ,regne ,animal      
volume #b4 ,but the genus ,torpedo1 very
 different from that of the rays        
properly so called1 has numerous species
 in the equatorial seas2 and it is      
probable that there exist several       
gymnoti specifically different4 ,the    
,indians mentioned to us a black and    
very powerful species1 inhabiting the   
marshes of the ,apure1 which never      
attains a length of more than two feet1 
but which we were not able to procure4  
,the raton of the ,rio de la ,magdalena1
 which ,i have described under the name 
of ,gymnotus aequilabiatus              
7,observations de ,zoologie volume #a7  
forms a particular sub-genus4 ,this is a

 ,carapa1 not scaly1 and without an     
electric organ4 ,this organ is also     
entirely wanting in the ,brazilian      
,carapo1 and in all the rays which were 
carefully examined by ,cuvier47  ,the   
gymnoti1 like our eels1 are fond of     
swallowing and breathing air on the     
surface of the water2 but we must not   
thence conclude that the fish would     
perish if it could not come up to       
breathe the air4 ,the ,european eel will
 creep during the night upon the grass2 
but ,i have seen a very vigorous        
gymnotus that had sprung out of the     
water1 die on the ground4 ,m4 ,provencal
 and myself have proved by our          
researches on the respiration of fishes1
 that their humid bronchiae perform the 
double function of decomposing the      
atmospheric air1 and of appropriating   
the oxygen contained in water4 ,they do 
not suspend their respiration in the    
air2 but they absorb the oxygen like a  
reptile furnished with lungs4 ,it is    
known that carp may be fattened by being

 fed1 out of the water1 if their gills  
are wet from time to time with humid    
moss1 to prevent them from becoming dry4
 ,fish separate their gill-covers wider 
in oxygen gas than in water4 ,their     
temperature however1 does not rise2 and 
they live the same length of time in    
pure vital air1 and in a mixture of     
ninety parts nitrogen and ten oxygen4   
,we found that tench placed under       
inverted jars filled with air1 absorb   
half a cubic centimetre of oxygen in an 
hour4 ,this action takes place in the   
gills only2 for fishes on which a collar
 of cork has been fastened1 and leaving 
their head out of the jar filled with   
air1 do not act upon the oxygen by the  
rest of their body4  ,the               
swimming-bladder of the gymnotus is two 
feet five inches long in a fish of three
 feet ten inches499 799 ,cuvier has     
shown that in the ,gymnotus electricus  
there exists1 besides the large         
swimming-bladder1 another situated      
before it1 and much smaller4 ,it looks  

like the bifurcated swimming-bladder in 
the ,gymnotus aequilabiatus47 ,it is    
separated by a mass of fat from the     
external skin2 and rests upon the       
electric organs1 which occupy more than 
two-thirds of the animal's body4 ,the   
same vessels which penetrate between the
 plates or leaves of these organs1 and  
which cover them with blood when they   
are cut transversely1 also send out     
numerous branches to the exterior       
surface of the air-bladder4 ,i found in 
a hundred parts of the air of the       
swimming-bladder four of oxygen and     
ninety-six of nitrogen4 ,the medullary  
substance of the brain displays but a   
feeble analogy with the albuminous and  
gelatinous matter of the electric       
organs4 ,but these two substances have  
in common the great quantity of arterial
 blood which they receive1 and which is 
deoxidated in them4 ,we may again       
remark1 on this occasion1 that an       
extreme activity in the functions of the
 brain causes the blood to flow more    

abundantly towards the head1 as the     
energy of the movement of the muscles   
accelerates the deoxidation of the      
arterial blood4 ,what a contrast between
 the multitude and the diameter of the  
blood-vessels of the gymnotus1 and the  
small space occupied by its muscular    
system6 ,this contrast reminds the      
observer1 that three functions of animal
 life1 which appear in other respects   
sufficiently distinct--the functions of 
the brain1 those of the electrical      
organ1 and those of the muscles1 all    
require the afflux and concourse of     
arterial or oxygenated blood4  ,it would
 be temerity to expose ourselves to the 
first shocks of a very large and        
strongly irritated gymnotus4 ,if by     
chance a stroke be received before the  
fish is wounded or wearied by long      
pursuit1 the pain and numbness are so   
violent that it is impossible to        
describe the nature of the feeling they 
excite4 ,i do not remember having ever  
received from the discharge of a large  

,leyden jar1 a more dreadful shock than 
that which ,i experienced by imprudently
 placing both my feet on a gymnotus just
 taken out of the water4 ,i was affected
 during the rest of the day with a      
violent pain in the knees1 and in almost
 every joint4 ,to be aware of the       
difference that exists between the      
sensation produced by the ,voltaic      
battery and an electric fish1 the latter
 should be touched when they are in a   
state of extreme weakness4 ,the gymnoti 
and the torpedos then cause a twitching 
of the muscles1 which is propagated from
 the part that rests on the electric    
organs1 as far as the elbow4 ,we seem to
 feel1 at every stroke1 an internal     
vibration1 which lasts two or three     
seconds1 and is followed by a painful   
numbness4 ,accordingly1 the ,tamanac    
,indians call the gymnotus1 in their    
expressive language1 arimna1 which means
 something that deprives of motion4     
,the sensation caused by the feeble     
shocks of an electric eel appeared to me

 analogous to that painful twitching    
with which ,i have been seized at each  
contact of two heterogeneous metals     
applied to wounds which ,i had made on  
my back by means of cantharides4 ,this  
difference of sensation between the     
effects of electric fishes and those of 
a ,voltaic battery or a ,leyden jar     
feebly charged has struck every         
observer2 there is1 however1 nothing in 
this contrary to the supposition of the 
identity of electricity and the galvanic
 action of fishes4 ,the electricity may 
be the same2 but its effects will be    
variously modified by the disposition of
 the electrical apparatus1 by the       
intensity of the fluid1 by the rapidity 
of the current1 and by the particular   
mode of action4  ,in ,dutch ,guiana1 at 
,demerara for instance1 electric eels   
were formerly employed to cure paralytic
 affections4 ,at a time when the        
physicians of ,europe had great         
confidence in the effects of            
electricity1 a surgeon of ,essequibo1   

named ,van der ,lott1 published in      
,holland a treatise on the medical      
properties of the gymnotus4 ,these      
electric remedies are practised among   
the savages of ,america1 as they were   
among the ,greeks4 ,we are told by      
,scribonius ,largus1 ,galen1 and        
,dioscorides1 that torpedos cure the    
headache and the gout4 ,i did not hear  
of this mode of treatment in the        
,spanish colonies which ,i visited2 and 
,i can assert that1 after having made   
experiments during four hours           
successively with gymnoti1 ,m4 ,bonpland
 and myself felt1 till the next day1 a  
debility in the muscles1 a pain in the  
joints1 and a general uneasiness1 the   
effect of a strong irritation of the    
nervous system4  ,the gymnotus is       
neither a charged conductor1 nor a      
battery1 nor an electromotive apparatus1
 the shock of which is received every   
time they are touched with one hand1 or 
when both hands are applied to form a   
conducting circle between the opposite  

poles4 ,the electric action of the fish 
depends entirely on its will2 because it
 does not keep its electric organs      
always charged1 or whether by the       
secretion of some fluid1 or by any other
 means alike mysterious to us1 it be    
capable of directing the action of its  
organs to an external object4 ,we often 
tried1 both insulated and otherwise1 to 
touch the fish1 without feeling the     
least shock4 ,when ,m4 ,bonpland held it
 by the head1 or by the middle of the   
body1 while ,i held it by the tail1 and1
 standing on the moist ground1 did not  
take each other's hand1 one of us       
received shocks1 which the other did not
 feel4 ,it depends upon the gymnotus to 
direct its action towards the point     
where it finds itself most strongly     
irritated4 ,the discharge is then made  
at one point only1 and not at the       
neighbouring points4 ,if two persons    
touch the belly of the fish with their  
fingers1 at an inch distance1 and press 
it simultaneously1 sometimes one1       

sometimes the other1 will receive the   
shock4 ,in the same manner1 when one    
insulated person holds the tail of a    
vigorous gymnotus1 and another pinches  
the gills or pectoral fin1 it is often  
the first only by whom the shock is     
received4 ,it did not appear to us that 
these differences could be attributed to
 the dryness or moisture of our hands1  
or to their unequal conducting power4   
,the gymnotus seemed to direct its      
strokes sometimes from the whole surface
 of its body1 sometimes from one point  
only4 ,this effect indicates less a     
partial discharge of the organ composed 
of an innumerable quantity of layers1   
than the faculty which the animal       
possesses1 7perhaps by the instantaneous
 secretion of a fluid spread through the
 cellular membrane17 of establishing the
 communication between its organs and   
the skin only1 in a very limited space4 
,nothing proves more strongly the       
faculty1 which the gymnotus possesses1  
of darting and directing its stroke at  

will1 than the observations made at     
,philadelphia and ,stockholm199 on      
gymnoti rendered extremely tame4 799 ,by
 ,,mm4 ,williamson and ,fahlberg4 ,the  
following account is given by the latter
 gentleman4 ,the gymnotus sent from     
,surinam to ,m4 ,norderling1 at         
,stockholm1 lived more than four months 
in a state of perfect health4 ,it was   
twenty-seven inches long2 and the shocks
 it gave were so violent1 especially in 
the open air1 that ,i found scarcely any
 means of protecting myself by          
non-conductors1 in transporting the fish
 from one place to another4 ,its stomach
 being very small1 it ate little at a   
time1 but fed often4 ,it approached     
living fish1 first sending them from    
afar a shock1 the energy of which was   
proportionate to the size of the prey4  
,the gymnotus seldom failed in its aim2 
one single stroke was almost always     
sufficient to overcome the resistance   
which the strata of water1 more or less 
thick according to the distance1 opposed

 to the electrical current4 ,when very  
much pressed by hunger1 it sometimes    
directed the shocks against the person  
who daily brought its food of boiled    
meat4 ,persons afflicted with rheumatism
 came to touch it in hopes of being     
cured4 ,they took it at once by the neck
 and tail the shocks were in this case  
stronger than when touched with one hand
 only4 ,it almost entirely lost its     
electrical power a short time before its
 death47 ,when they had been made to    
fast a long time1 they killed small     
fishes put into the tub4 ,they acted    
from a distance2 that is to say1 their  
electrical shock passed through a very  
thick stratum of water4 ,we need not be 
surprised that what was observed in     
,sweden1 on a single gymnotus only1 we  
could not perceive in a great number of 
individuals in their native country4    
,the electric action of animals being a 
vital action1 and subject to their will1
 it does not depend solely on their     
state of health and vigour4 ,a gymnotus 

that has been kept a long time in       
captivity1 accustoms itself to the      
imprisonment to which it is reduced2 it 
resumes by degrees the same habits in   
the tub1 which it had in the rivers and 
marshes4 ,an electrical eel was brought 
to me at ,calabozo3 it had been taken in
 a net1 and consequently having no      
wound4 ,it ate meat1 and terribly       
frightened the little tortoises and     
frogs which1 not aware of their danger1 
placed themselves on its back4 ,the     
frogs did not receive the stroke till   
the moment when they touched the body of
 the gymnotus4 ,when they recovered1    
they leaped out of the tub2 and when    
replaced near the fish1 they were       
frightened at the mere sight of it4 ,we 
then observed nothing that indicated an 
action at a distance2 but our gymnotus1 
recently taken1 was not yet sufficiently
 tame to attack and devour frogs4 ,on   
approaching the finger1 or the metallic 
points1 very close to the electric      
organs1 no shock was felt4 ,perhaps the 

animal did not perceive the proximity of
 a foreign body2 or1 if it did1 we must 
suppose that in the commencement of its 
captivity1 timidity prevented it from   
darting forth its energetic strokes     
except when strongly irritated by an    
immediate contact4 ,the gymnotus being  
immersed in water1 ,i placed my hand1   
both armed and unarmed with metal1      
within a very small distance from the   
electric organs2 yet the strata of water
 transmitted no shock1 while ,m4        
,bonpland irritated the animal strongly 
by an immediate contact1 and received   
some very violent shocks4 ,had we placed
 a very delicate electroscope in the    
contiguous strata of water1 it might    
possibly have been influenced at the    
moment when the gymnotus seemed to      
direct its stroke elsewhere4 ,prepared  
frogs1 placed immediately on the body of
 a torpedo1 experience1 according to    
,galvani1 a strong contraction at every 
discharge of the fish4  ,the electrical 
organ of the gymnoti acts only under the

 immediate influence of the brain and   
the heart4 ,on cutting a very vigorous  
fish through the middle of the body1 the
 fore part alone gave shocks4 ,these are
 equally strong in whatever part of the 
body the fish is touched2 it is most    
disposed1 however1 to emit them when the
 pectoral fin1 the electrical organ1 the
 lips1 the eyes1 or the gills1 are      
pinched4 ,sometimes the animal struggles
 violently with a person holding it by  
the tail1 without communicating the     
least shock4 ,nor did ,i feel any when  
,i made a slight incision near the      
pectoral fin of the fish1 and galvanized
 the wound by the contact of two pieces 
of zinc and silver4 ,the gymnotus bent  
itself convulsively1 and raised its head
 out of the water1 as if terrified by a 
sensation altogether new2 but ,i felt no
 vibration in the hands which held the  
two metals4 ,the most violent muscular  
movements are not always accompanied by 
electric discharges4  ,the action of the
 fish on the human organs is transmitted

 and intercepted by the same bodies that
 transmit and intercept the electrical  
current of a conductor charged by a     
,leyden jar1 or ,voltaic battery4 ,some 
anomalies1 which we thought we observed1
 are easily explained1 when we recollect
 that even metals 7as is proved from    
their ignition when exposed to the      
action of the battery7 present a slight 
obstacle to the passage of electricity2 
and that a bad conductor annihilates the
 effect1 on our organs1 of a feeble     
electric charge1 whilst it transmits to 
us the effect of a very strong one4 ,the
 repulsive force which zinc and silver  
exercise together being far superior to 
that of gold and silver1 ,i have found  
that when a frog1 prepared and armed    
with silver1 is galvanized under water1 
the conducting arc of zinc produces     
contraction as soon as one of its       
extremities approaches the muscles      
within three lines distance2 while an   
arc of gold does not excite the organs1 
when the stratum of water between the   

gold and the muscles is more than half a
 line thick4 ,in the same manner1 by    
employing a conducting arc composed of  
two pieces of zinc and silver soldered  
together endways2 and resting1 as       
before1 one of the extremities of the   
metallic circuit on the femoral nerve1  
it is necessary1 in order to produce    
contractions1 to bring the other        
extremity of the conductor nearer and   
nearer to the muscles1 in proportion as 
the irritability of the organs          
diminishes4 ,toward the end of the      
experiment the slightest stratum of     
water prevents the passage of the       
electrical current1 and it is only by   
the immediate contact of the arc with   
the muscles1 that the contractions take 
place4 ,these effects are1 however1     
dependent on three variable             
circumstances2 the energy of the        
electromotive apparatus1 the            
conductibility of the medium1 and the   
irritability of the organs which receive
 the impressions3 it is because         

experiments have not been sufficiently  
multiplied with a view to these three   
variable elements1 that1 in the action  
of electric eels and torpedos1          
accidental circumstances have been taken
 for absolute conditions1 without which 
the electric shocks are not felt4  ,in  
wounded gymnoti1 which give feeble but  
very equal shocks1 these shocks appeared
 to us constantly stronger on touching  
the body of the fish with a hand armed  
with metal1 than with the naked hand4   
,they are stronger also1 when1 instead  
of touching the fish with one hand1     
naked1 or armed with metal1 we press it 
at once with both hands1 either naked or
 armed4 ,these differences become       
sensible only when one has gymnoti      
enough at disposal to be able to choose 
the weakest2 and when the extreme       
equality of the electric discharges     
admits of distinguishing between the    
sensations felt alternately by the hand 
naked or armed with a metal1 by one or  
both hands naked1 and by one or both    

hands armed with metal4 ,it is also in  
the case only of small shocks1 feeble   
and uniform1 that they are more sensible
 on touching the gymnotus with one hand 
7without forming a chain7 with zinc1    
than with copper or iron4  ,resinous    
substances1 glass1 very dry wood1 horn1 
and even bones1 which are generally     
believed to be good conductors1 prevent 
the action of the gymnoti from being    
transmitted to man4 ,i was surprised at 
not feeling the least shock on pressing 
wet sticks of sealing-wax against the   
organs of the fish1 while the same      
animal gave me the most violent strokes1
 when excited by means of a metallic    
rod4 ,m4 ,bonpland received shocks1 when
 carrying a gymnotus on two cords of the
 fibres of the palm-tree1 which appeared
 to us extremely dry4 ,a strong         
discharge makes its way through very    
imperfect conductors4 ,perhaps also the 
obstacle which the conductor presents   
renders the discharge more painful4 ,i  
touched the gymnotus with a wet pot of  

brown clay1 without effect2 yet ,i      
received violent shocks when ,i carried 
the gymnotus in the same pot1 because   
the contact was greater4  ,when two     
persons1 insulated or otherwise1 hold   
each other's hands1 and only one of     
these persons touches the fish with the 
hand1 either naked or armed with metal1 
the shock is most commonly felt by both 
at once4 ,however1 it sometimes happens 
that1 in the most severe shocks1 the    
person who comes into immediate contact 
with the fish alone feels them4 ,when   
the gymnotus is exhausted1 or in a very 
reduced state of excitability1 and will 
no longer emit strokes on being         
irritated with one hand1 the shocks are 
felt in a very vivid manner1 on forming 
the chain1 and employing both hands4    
,even then1 however1 the electric shock 
takes place only at the will of the     
animal4 ,two persons1 one of whom holds 
the tail1 and the other the head1       
cannot1 by joining hands and forming a  
chain1 force the gymnotus to dart his   

stroke4  ,though employing the most     
delicate electrometers in various ways1 
insulating them on a plate of glass1 and
 receiving very strong shocks which     
passed through the electrometer1 ,i     
could never discover any phenomenon of  
attraction or repulsion4 ,the same      
observation was made by ,m4 ,fahlberg at
 ,stockholm4 ,that philosopher1 however1
 has seen an electric spark1 as ,walsh  
and ,ingenhousz had before him1 in      
,london1 by placing the gymnotus in the 
air1 and interrupting the conducting    
chain by two gold leaves pasted upon    
glass1 and a line distant from each     
other4 ,no person1 on the contrary1 has 
ever perceived a spark issue from the   
body of the fish itself4 ,we irritated  
it for a long time during the night1 at 
,calabozo1 in perfect darkness1 without 
observing any luminous appearance4      
,having placed four gymnoti1 of unequal 
strength1 in such a manner as to receive
 the shocks of the most vigorous fish by
 contact1 that is to say1 by touching   

only one of the other fishes1 ,i did not
 observe that these last were agitated  
at the moment when the current passed   
their bodies4 ,perhaps the current did  
not penetrate below the humid surface of
 the skin4 ,we will not1 however1       
conclude from this1 that the gymnoti are
 insensible to electricity2 and that    
they cannot fight with each other at the
 bottom of the pools4 ,their nervous    
system must be subject to the same      
agents as the nerves of other animals4  
,i have indeed seen1 that1 on laying    
open their nerves1 they undergo muscular
 contractions at the mere contact of two
 opposite metals2 and ,m4 ,fahlberg1 of 
,stockholm1 found that his gymnotus was 
convulsively agitated when placed in a  
copper vessel1 and feeble discharges    
from a ,leyden jar passed through its   
skin4  ,after the experiments ,i had    
made on gymnoti1 it became highly       
interesting to me1 on my return to      
,europe1 to ascertain with precision the
 various circumstances in which another 

electric fish1 the torpedo of our seas1 
gives or does not give shocks4 ,though  
this fish had been examined by numerous 
men of science1 ,i found all that had   
been published on its electrical effects
 extremely vague4 ,it has been very     
arbitrarily supposed1 that this fish    
acts like a ,leyden jar1 which may be   
discharged at will1 by touching it with 
both hands2 and this supposition appears
 to have led into error observers who   
have devoted themselves to researches of
 this kind4 ,m4 ,gay-,lussac and myself1
 during our journey to ,italy1 made a   
great number of experiments on torpedos 
taken in the gulf of ,naples4 ,these    
experiments furnish many results        
somewhat different from those ,i        
collected on the gymnoti4 ,it is        
probable that the cause of these        
anomalies is owing rather to the        
inequality of electric power in the two 
fishes1 than to the different           
disposition of their organs4  ,though   
the power of the torpedo cannot be      

compared with that of the gymnotus1 it  
is sufficient to cause very painful     
sensations4 ,a person accustomed to     
electric shocks can with difficulty hold
 in his hands a torpedo of twelve or    
fourteen inches1 and in possession of   
all its vigour4 ,when the torpedo gives 
only very feeble strokes under water1   
they become more sensible if the animal 
be raised above the surface4 ,i have    
often observed the same phenomenon in   
experimenting on frogs4  ,the torpedo   
moves the pectoral fins convulsively    
every time it emits a stroke2 and this  
stroke is more or less painful1         
according as the immediate contact takes
 place by a greater or less surface4 ,we
 observed that the gymnotus gives the   
strongest shocks without making any     
movement with the eyes1 head1 or fins499
 799 ,the anal fin of the gymnoti only  
has a sensible motion when these fishes 
are excited under the belly1 where the  
electric organ is placed47 ,is this     
difference caused by the position of the

 electric organ1 which is not double in 
the gymnoti8 or does the movement of the
 pectoral fins of the torpedo directly  
prove that the fish restores the        
electrical equilibrium by its own skin1 
discharges itself by its own body1 and  
that we generally feel only the effect  
of a lateral shock8  ,we cannot         
discharge at will either a torpedo or a 
gymnotus1 as we discharge at will a     
,leyden jar or a ,voltaic battery4 ,a   
shock is not always felt1 even on       
touching the electric fish with both    
hands4 ,we must irritate it to make it  
give the shock4 ,this action in the     
torpedos1 as well as in the gymnoti1 is 
a vital action2 it depends on the will  
only of the animal1 which perhaps does  
not always keep its electric organs     
charged1 or does not always employ the  
action of its nerves to establish the   
chain between the positive and negative 
poles4 ,it is certain that the torpedo  
gives a long series of shocks with      
astonishing celerity2 whether it is that

 the plates or laminae of its organs are
 not wholly exhausted1 or that the fish 
recharges them instantaneously4  ,the   
electric stroke is felt1 when the animal
 is disposed to give it1 whether we     
touch with a single finger only one of  
the surfaces of the organs1 or apply    
both hands to the two surfaces1 the     
superior and inferior1 at once4 ,in     
either case it is altogether indifferent
 whether the person who touches the fish
 with one finger or both hands be       
insulated or not4 ,all that has been    
said on the necessity of a communication
 with the damp ground to establish a    
circuit1 is founded on inaccurate       
observations4  ,m4 ,gay-,lussac made the
 important observation that when an     
insulated person touches the torpedo    
with one finger1 it is indispensible    
that the contact be direct4 ,the fish   
may with impunity be touched with a key1
 or any other metallic instrument2 no   
shock is felt when a conducting or      
non-conducting body is interposed       

between the finger and the electrical   
organ of the torpedo4 ,this circumstance
 proves a great difference between the  
torpedo and the gymnotus1 the latter    
giving his strokes through an iron rod  
several feet long4  ,when the torpedo is
 placed on a metallic plate of very     
little thickness1 so that the plate     
touches the inferior surface of the     
organs1 the hand that supports the plate
 never feels any shock1 though another  
insulated person may excite the animal1 
and the convulsive movement of the      
pectoral fins may denote the strongest  
and most reiterated discharges4  ,if1 on
 the contrary1 a person support the     
torpedo placed upon a metallic plate1   
with the left hand1 as in the foregoing 
experiment1 and the same person touch   
the superior surface of the electrical  
organ with the right hand1 a strong     
shock is then felt in both arms4 ,the   
sensation is the same when the fish is  
placed between two metallic plates1 the 
edges of which do not touch1 and the    

person applies both hands at once to    
these plates4 ,the interposition of one 
metallic plate prevents the             
communication if that plate be touched  
with one hand only1 while the           
interposition of two metallic plates    
does not prevent the shock when both    
hands are applied4 ,in the latter case  
it cannot be doubted that the           
circulation of the fluid is established 
by the two arms4  ,if1 in this situation
 of the fish between two plates1 there  
exist any immediate communication       
between the edges of these two plates1  
no shock takes place4 ,the chain between
 the two surfaces of the electric organ 
is then formed by the plates1 and the   
new communication1 established by the   
contact of the two hands with the two   
plates1 remains without effect4 ,we     
carried the torpedo with impunity       
between two plates of metal1 and felt   
the strokes it gave only at the instant 
when they ceased to touch each other at 
the edges4  ,nothing in the torpedo or  

in the gymnotus indicates that the      
animal modifies the electrical state of 
the bodies by which it is surrounded4   
,the most delicate electrometer is no   
way affected in whatever manner it is   
employed1 whether bringing it near the  
organs or insulating the fish1 covering 
it with a metallic plate1 and causing   
the plate to communicate by a conducting
 wire with the condenser of ,volta4 ,we 
were at great pains to vary the         
experiments by which we sought to render
 the electrical tension of the torpedo  
sensible2 but they were constantly      
without effect1 and perfectly confirmed 
what ,m4 ,bonpland and myself had       
observed respecting the gymnoti1 during 
our abode in ,south ,america4           
,electrical fishes1 when very vigorous1 
act with equal energy under water and in
 the air4 ,this observation led us to   
examine the conducting property of      
water2 and we found that1 when several  
persons form the chain between the      
superior and inferior surface of the    

organs of the torpedo1 the shock is felt
 only when these persons join hands4    
,the action is not intercepted if two   
persons1 who support the torpedo with   
their right hands1 instead of taking one
 another by the left hand1 plunge each a
 metallic point into a drop of water    
placed on an insulating substance4 ,on  
substituting flame for the drop of      
water1 the communication is interrupted1
 and is only re-established1 as in the  
gymnotus1 when the two points           
immediately touch each other in the     
interior of the flame4  ,we are1        
doubtless1 very far from having         
discovered all the secrets of the       
electrical action of fishes which is    
modified by the influence of the brain  
and the nerves2 but the experiments we  
have just described are sufficient to   
prove that these fishes act by a        
concealed electricity1 and by           
electromotive organs of a peculiar      
construction1 which are recharged with  
extreme rapidity4 ,volta admits that the

 discharges of the opposite             
electricities in the torpedos and the   
gymnoti are made by their own skin1 and 
that when we touch them with one hand   
only1 or by means of a metallic point1  
we feel the effect of a lateral shock1  
the electrical current not being        
directed solely the shortest way4 ,when 
a ,leyden jar is placed on a wet woollen
 cloth 7which is a bad conductor71 and  
the jar is discharged in such a manner  
that the cloth makes part of the chain1 
prepared frogs1 placed at different     
distances1 indicate by their            
contractions that the current spreads   
itself over the whole cloth in a        
thousand different ways4 ,according to  
this analogy1 the most violent shock    
given by the gymnotus at a distance     
would be but a feeble part of the stroke
 which re-establishes the equilibrium in
 the interior of the fish499 799 ,the   
heterogeneous poles of the double       
electrical organs must exist in each    
organ4 ,mr4 ,todd has recently proved1  

by experiments made on torpedos at the  
,cape of ,good ,hope1 that the animal   
continues to give violent shocks when   
one of these organs is extirpated4 ,on  
the contrary1 all electrical action is  
stopped 7and this point1 as elucidated  
by ,galvani1 is of the greatest         
importance7 if injury be inflicted on   
the brain1 or if the nerves which supply
 the plates of the electrical organs be 
divided4 ,in the latter case1 the nerves
 being cut1 and the brain left          
untouched1 the torpedo continues to     
live1 and perform every muscular        
movement4 ,a fish1 exhausted by too     
numerous electrical discharges1 suffered
 much more than another fish deprived1  
by dividing the nerves1 of any          
communication between the brain and the 
electromotive apparatus4 ,philosophical 
,transactions #ahaf47 ,as the gymnotus  
directs its stroke wherever it pleases1 
it must also be admitted that the       
discharge is not made by the whole skin 
at once1 but that the animal1 excited   

perhaps by the motion of a fluid poured 
into one part of the cellular membrane1 
establishes at will the communication   
between its organs and some particular  
part of the skin4 ,it may be conceived  
that a lateral stroke1 out of the direct
 current1 must become imperceptible     
under the two conditions of a very weak 
discharge1 or a very great obstacle     
presented by the nature and length of   
the conductor4 ,notwithstanding these   
considerations1 it appears to me very   
surprising that shocks of the torpedo1  
strong in appearance1 are not propagated
 to the hand when a very thin plate of  
metal is interposed between it and the  
fish4  ,schilling declared that the     
gymnotus approached the magnet          
involuntarily4 ,we tried in a thousand  
ways this supposed influence of the     
magnet on the electrical organs1 without
 having ever observed any sensible      
effect4 ,the fish no more approached the
 magnet1 than a bar of iron not         
magnetic4 ,iron-filings1 thrown on its  

back1 remained motionless4  ,the        
gymnoti1 which are objects of curiosity 
and of the deepest interest to the      
philosophers of ,europe1 are at once    
dreaded and detested by the natives4    
,they furnish1 indeed1 in their muscular
 flesh1 pretty good aliment2 but the    
electric organ fills the greater part of
 their body1 and this organ is slimy1   
and disagreeable to the taste2 it is    
accordingly separated with care from the
 rest of the eel4 ,the presence of      
gymnoti is also considered as the       
principal cause of the want of fish in  
the ponds and pools of the ,llanos4     
,they1 however1 kill many more than they
 devour3 and the ,indians told us1 that 
when young alligators and gymnoti are   
caught at the same time in very strong  
nets1 the latter never show the         
slightest trace of a wound1 because they
 disable the young alligators before    
they are attacked by them4 ,all the     
inhabitants of the waters dread the     
society of the gymnoti4 ,lizards1       

tortoises1 and frogs1 seek pools where  
they are secure from the electric       
action4 ,it became necessary to change  
the direction of a road near ,uritucu1  
because the electric eels were so       
numerous in one river1 that they every  
year killed a great number of mules1 as 
they forded the water with their        
burdens4  ,though in the present state  
of our knowledge we may flatter         
ourselves with having thrown some light 
on the extraordinary effects of electric
 fishes1 yet a vast number of physical  
and physiological researches still      
remain to be made4 ,the brilliant       
results which chemistry has obtained by 
means of the ,voltaic battery1 have     
occupied all observers1 and turned      
attention for some time from the        
examinations of the phenomena of        
vitality4 ,let us hope that these       
phenomena1 the most awful and the most  
mysterious of all1 will in their turn   
occupy the earnest attention of natural 
philosophers4 ,this hope will be easily 

realized if they succeed in procuring   
anew living gymnoti in some one of the  
great capitals of ,europe4 ,the         
discoveries that will be made on the    
electromotive apparatus of these fish1  
much more energetic1 and more easy of   
preservation1 than the torpedos199 will 
extend to all the phenomena of muscular 
motion subject to volition4 799 ,in     
order to investigate the phenomena of   
the living electromotive apparatus in   
its greatest simplicity1 and not to     
mistake for general conditions          
circumstances which depend on the degree
 of energy of the electric organs1 it is
 necessary to perform the experiments on
 those electrical fishes most easily    
tamed4 ,if the gymnoti were not known1  
we might suppose1 from the observations 
made on torpedos1 that fishes cannot    
give their shocks from a distance       
through very thick strata of water1 or  
through a bar of iron1 without forming a
 circuit4 ,mr4 ,williamson has felt     
strong shocks when he held only one hand

 in the water1 and this hand1 without   
touching the gymnotus1 was placed       
between it and the small fish towards   
which the stroke was directed from ten  
or fifteen inches distance4             
,philosophical ,transactions volume #fe 
pages #ii and #ajh4 ,when the gymnotus  
was enfeebled by bad health1 the lateral
 shock was imperceptible2 and in order  
to feel the shock1 it was necessary to  
form a chain1 and touch the fish with   
both hands at once4 ,cavendish1 in his  
ingenious experiments on an artificial  
torpedo1 had well remarked these        
differences1 depending on the greater or
 less energy of the charge4             
,philosophical ,transactions #aggf page 
#bab47 ,it will perhaps be found that1  
in most animals1 every contraction of   
the muscular fibre is preceded by a     
discharge from the nerve into the       
muscle2 and that the mere simple contact
 of heterogeneous substances is a source
 of movement and of life in all         
organized beings4 ,did an ingenious and 

lively people1 the ,arabians1 guess from
 remote antiquity1 that the same force  
which inflames the vault of ,heaven in  
storms1 is the living and invisible     
weapon of inhabitants of the waters8 ,it
 is said1 that the electric fish of the 
,nile bears a name in ,egypt1 that      
signifies thunder499 799 ,it appears1   
however1 that a distinction is to be    
made between rahd1 thunder1 and rahadh1 
the electrical fish2 and that this      
latter word means simply that which     
causes trembling47  ,we left the town of
 ,calabozo on the #bdth of ,march1      
highly satisfied with our stay1 and the 
experiments we had made on an object so 
worthy of the attention of              
physiologists4 ,i had besides obtained  
some good observations of the stars2 and
 discovered with surprise1 that the     
errors of maps amounted here also to a  
quarter of a degree of latitude4 ,no    
person had taken an observation before  
me on this spot2 and geographers1       
magnifying as usual the distance from   

the coast to the islands1 have carried  
back beyond measure all the localities  
towards the south4  ,as we advanced into
 the southern part of the ,llanos1 we   
found the ground more dusty1 more       
destitute of herbage1 and more cracked  
by the effect of long drought4 ,the     
palm-trees disappeared by degrees4 ,the 
thermometer kept1 from eleven in the    
morning till sunset1 at #cd or #ce      
degrees4 ,the calmer the air appeared at
 eight or ten feet high1 the more we    
were enveloped in those whirlwinds of   
dust1 caused by the little currents of  
air that sweep the ground4 ,about four  
o'clock in the afternoon1 we found a    
young ,indian girl stretched upon the   
savannah4 ,she was almost in a state of 
nudity1 and appeared to be about twelve 
or thirteen years of age4 ,exhausted    
with fatigue and thirst1 her eyes1      
nostrils1 and mouth filled with dust1   
she breathed with a rattling in her     
throat1 and was unable to answer our    
questions4 ,a pitcher1 overturned1 and  

half filled with sand1 was lying at her 
side4 ,happily one of our mules was     
laden with water2 and we roused the girl
 from her lethargic state by bathing her
 face1 and forcing her to drink a few   
drops of wine4 ,she was at first alarmed
 on seeing herself surrounded by so many
 persons2 but by degrees she took       
courage1 and conversed with our guides4 
,she judged1 from the position of the   
sun1 that she must have remained during 
several hours in that state of lethargy4
 ,we could not prevail on her to mount  
one of our beasts of burden1 and she    
would not return to ,uritucu4 ,she had  
been in service at a neighbouring farm2 
and she had been discharged1 because at 
the end of a long sickness she was less 
able to work than before4 ,our menaces  
and prayers were alike fruitless2       
insensible to suffering1 like the rest  
of her race1 she persisted in her       
resolution of going to one of the       
,indian ,missions near the city of      
,calabozo4 ,we removed the sand from her

 pitcher1 and filled it with water4 ,she
 resumed her way along the steppe1      
before we had remounted our horses1 and 
was soon separated from us by a cloud of
 dust4 ,during the night we forded the  
,rio ,uritucu1 which abounds with a     
breed of crocodiles remarkable for their
 ferocity4 ,we were advised to prevent  
our dogs from going to drink in the     
rivers1 for it often happens that the   
crocodiles of ,uritucu come out of the  
water1 and pursue dogs upon the shore4  
,this intrepidity is so much the more   
striking1 as at eight leagues distance1 
the crocodiles of the ,rio ,tisnao are  
extremely timid1 and little dangerous4  
,the manners of animals vary in the same
 species according to local             
circumstances difficult to be           
determined4 ,we were shown a hut1 or    
rather a kind of shed1 in which our host
 of ,calabozo1 ,don ,miguel ,cousin1 had
 witnessed a very extraordinary scene4  
,sleeping with one of his friends on a  
bench or couch covered with leather1    

,don ,miguel was awakened early in the  
morning by a violent shaking and a      
horrible noise4 ,clods of earth were    
thrown into the middle of the hut4      
,presently a young crocodile two or     
three feet long issued from under the   
bed1 darted at a dog which lay on the   
threshold of the door1 and1 missing him 
in the impetuosity of his spring1 ran   
towards the beach to gain the river4 ,on
 examining the spot where the barbacoa1 
or couch1 was placed1 the cause of this 
strange adventure was easily discovered4
 ,the ground was disturbed to a         
considerable depth4 ,it was dried mud1  
which had covered the crocodile in that 
state of lethargy1 or summer-sleep1 in  
which many of the species lie during the
 absence of the rains in the ,llanos4   
,the noise of men and horses1 perhaps   
the smell of the dog1 had aroused the   
crocodile4 ,the hut being built at the  
edge of the pool1 and inundated during  
part of the year1 the crocodile had no  
doubt entered1 at the time of the       

inundation of the savannahs1 by the same
 opening at which it was seen to go out4
 ,the ,indians often find enormous boas1
 which they call uji1 or                
water-serpents199 in the same lethargic 
state4 799 ,culebra de agua1 named by   
the common people traga-venado1 the     
swallower of stags4 ,the word uji       
belongs to the ,tamanac language47 ,to  
reanimate them1 they must be irritated1 
or wetted with water4 ,boas are killed1 
and immersed in the streams1 to obtain1 
by means of putrefaction1 the tendinous 
parts of the dorsal muscles1 of which   
excellent guitar-strings are made at    
,calabozo1 preferable to those furnished
 by the intestines of the alouate       
monkeys4  ,the drought and heat of the  
,llanos act like cold upon animals and  
plants4 ,beyond the tropics the trees   
lose their leaves in a very dry air4    
,reptiles1 particularly crocodiles and  
boas1 having very indolent habits1 leave
 with reluctance the basins in which    
they have found water at the period of  

great inundations4 ,in proportion as the
 pools become dry1 these animals        
penetrate into the mud1 to seek that    
degree of humidity which gives          
flexibility to their skin and           
integuments4 ,in this state of repose   
they are seized with stupefaction2 but  
possibly they preserve a communication  
with the external air2 and1 however     
little that communication may be1 it    
possibly suffices to keep up the        
respiration of an animal of the saurian 
family1 provided with enormous pulmonary
 sacs1 exerting no muscular motion1 and 
in which almost all the vital functions 
are suspended4 ,it is probable that the 
mean temperature of the dried mud1      
exposed to the solar rays1 is more than 
#dj degrees4 ,when the north of ,egypt1 
where the coolest month does not fall   
below #ac4d degrees1 was inhabited by   
crocodiles1 they were often found torpid
 with cold4 ,they were subject to a     
winter-sleep1 like the ,european frog1  
lizard1 sand-martin1 and marmot4 ,if the

 hibernal lethargy be observed1 both in 
cold-blooded and in hot-blooded animals1
 we shall be less surprised to learn1   
that these two classes furnish alike    
examples of a summer-sleep4 ,in the same
 manner as the crocodiles of ,south     
,america1 the tanrecs1 or ,madagascar   
hedgehogs1 in the midst of the torrid   
zone1 pass three months of the year in  
lethargy4  ,on the #beth of ,march we   
traversed the smoothest part of the     
steppes of ,caracas1 the ,mesa de       
,pavones4 ,it is entirely destitute of  
the corypha and moriche palm-trees4 ,as 
far as the eye can reach1 not a single  
object fifteen inches high can be       
discovered4 ,the air was clear1 and the 
sky of a very deep blue2 but the horizon
 reflected a livid and yellowish light1 
caused no doubt by the quantity of sand 
suspended in the atmosphere4 ,we met    
some large herds of cattle1 and with    
them flocks of birds of a black colour  
with an olive shade4 ,they are of the   
genus ,crotophaga199 and follow the     

cattle4 799 ,the ,spanish colonists call
 the ,crotophaga ani1 zamurito 7little  
carrion vulture--,vultur aura minuta71  
or garapatero1 the eater of garaparas1  
insects of the ,acarus family47 ,we had 
often seen them perched on the backs of 
cows1 seeking for gadflies and other    
insects4 ,like many birds of these      
desert places1 they fear so little the  
approach of man1 that children often    
catch them in their hands4 ,in the      
valleys of ,aragua1 where they are very 
common1 we have seen them perch upon the
 hammocks on which we were reposing1 in 
open day4  ,we discover1 between        
,calabozo1 ,uritucu1 and the ,mesa de   
,pavones1 wherever there are excavations
 of some feet deep1 the geological      
constitution of the ,llanos4 ,a         
formation of red sandstone 7ancient     
conglomerate7 covers an extent of       
several thousand square leagues4 ,we    
shall find it again in the vast plains  
of the ,amazon1 on the eastern boundary 
of the province of ,jaen de ,bracamoros4

 ,this prodigious extension of red      
sandstone in the low grounds stretching 
along the east of the ,andes1 is one of 
the most striking phenomena ,i observed 
during my examination of rocks in the   
equinoctial regions4  ,the red sandstone
 of the ,llanos of ,caracas lies in a   
concave position1 between the primitive 
mountains of the shore and of ,parime4  
,on the north it is backed by the       
transition-slates199 799 ,at ,malpaso   
and ,piedras ,azules47 and on the south 
it rests immediately on the granites of 
the ,orinoco4 ,we observed in it rounded
 fragments of quartz 7kieselschiefer71  
and ,lydian stone1 cemented by an       
olive-brown ferruginous clay4 ,the      
cement is sometimes of so bright a red  
that the people of the country take it  
for cinnabar4 ,we met a ,capuchin monk  
at ,calabozo1 who was in vain attempting
 to extract mercury from this red       
sandstone4 ,in the ,mesa de ,paja this  
rock contains strata of another         
quartzose sandstone1 very fine-grained2 

more to the south it contains masses of 
brown iron1 and fragments of petrified  
trees of the monocotyledonous family1   
but we did not see in it any shells4    
,the red sandstone1 called by the       
,llaneros1 the stone of the reefs       
7piedra de arrecifes71 is everywhere    
covered with a stratum of clay4 ,this   
clay1 dried and hardened in the sun1    
splits into separate prismatic pieces   
with five or six sides4 ,does it belong 
to the trap-formation of ,parapara8 ,it 
becomes thicker1 and mixed with sand1 as
 we approach the ,rio ,apure2 for near  
,calabozo it is one toise thick1 near   
the mission of ,guayaval five toises1   
which may lead to the belief that the   
strata of red sandstone dips towards the
 south4 ,we gathered in the ,mesa de    
,pavones little nodules of blue iron-ore
 disseminated in the clay4  ,a dense    
whitish-gray limestone1 with a smooth   
fracture1 somewhat analogous to that of 
,caripe1 and consequently to that of    
,jura1 lies on the red sandstone between

 ,tisnao and ,calabozo499 799 ,does this
 formation of secondary limestone of the
 ,llanos contain galena8 ,it has been   
found in strata of black marl1 at       
,barbacoa1 between ,truxillo and        
,barquesimeto1 north-west of the        
,llanos47 ,in several other places1 for 
instance in the ,mesa de ,san ,diego1   
and between ,ortiz and the ,mesa de     
,paja199 799 ,also near ,cachipe and    
,san ,joacquim1 in the ,llanos of       
,barcelona47 we find above the limestone
 lamellar gypsum alternating with strata
 of marl4 ,considerable quantities of   
this gypsum are sent to the city of     
,caracas199 which is situated amidst    
primitive mountains4 799 ,this trade is 
carried on at ,parapara4 ,a load of     
eight arrobas sells at ,caracas for     
twenty-four piastres47  ,this gypsum    
generally forms only small beds1 and is 
mixed with a great deal of fibrous      
gypsum4 ,is it of the same formation as 
that of ,guire1 on the coast of ,paria1 
which contains sulphur8 or do the masses

 of this latter substance1 found in the 
valley of ,buen ,pastor and on the banks
 of the ,orinoco1 belong1 with the      
argillaceous gypsum of the ,llanos1 to a
 secondary formation much more recent4  
,these questions are very interesting in
 the study of the relative antiquity of 
rocks1 which is the principal basis of  
geology4 ,i know not of any             
salt-deposits in the ,llanos4 ,horned   
cattle prosper here without those famous
 bareros1 or muriatiferous lands1 which 
abound in the ,pampas of ,buenos        
,ayres499 799 ,known in ,north ,america 
under the name of salt-licks47  ,after  
having wandered for a long time1 and    
without any traces of a road1 in the    
desert savannahs of the ,mesa de        
,pavones1 we were agreeably surprised   
when we came to a solitary farm1 the    
,hato de ,alta ,gracia1 surrounded with 
gardens and basins of limpid water4     
,hedges of bead-trees encircled groups  
of icacoes laden with fruit4 ,farther on
 we passed the night near the small     

village of ,san ,geronymo del ,guayaval1
 founded by ,capuchin missionaries4 ,it 
is situated near the banks of the ,rio  
,guarico1 which falls into the ,apure4  
,i visited the missionary1 who had no   
other habitation than his church1 not   
having yet built a house4 ,he was a     
young man1 and he received us in the    
most obliging manner1 giving us all the 
information we desired4 ,his village1 or
 to use the word established among the  
monks1 his ,mission1 was not easy to    
govern4 ,the founder1 who had not       
hesitated to establish for his own      
profit a pulperia1 in other words1 to   
sell bananas and guarapo in the church  
itself1 had shown himself to be not very
 nice in the choice of the new          
colonists4 ,many marauders of the       
,llanos had settled at ,guayaval1       
because the inhabitants of a ,mission   
are exempt from the authority of secular
 law4 ,here1 as in ,australia1 it cannot
 be expected that good colonists will be
 formed before the second or third      

generation4  ,we passed the ,guarico1   
and encamped in the savannahs south of  
,guayaval4 ,enormous bats1 no doubt of  
the tribe of ,phyllostomas1 hovered as  
usual over our hammocks during a great  
part of the night4 ,every moment they   
seemed to be about to fasten on our     
faces4 ,early in the morning we pursued 
our way over low grounds1 often         
inundated4 ,in the season of rains1 a   
boat may be navigated1 as on a lake1    
between the ,guarico and the ,apure4 ,we
 arrived on the #bgth of ,march at the  
,villa de ,san ,fernando1 the capital of
 the ,mission of the ,capuchins in the  
province of ,varinas4 ,this was the     
termination of our journey over the     
,llanos2 for we passed the three months 
of ,april1 ,may1 and ,june on the       
rivers4   ,,chapter #b4ah4  ,,san       
,,fernando ,,de ,,apure4 ,,intertwinings
 ,,and ,,bifurcations ,,of ,,the        
,,rivers ,,apure ,,and ,,arauca4        
,,navigation ,,on ,,the ,,rio ,,apure4  
,till the second half of the eighteenth 

century the names of the great rivers   
,apure1 ,arauca1 and ,meta were scarcely
 known in ,europe3 certainly less than  
they had been in the two preceding      
centuries1 when the valiant ,felipe de  
,urre and the conquerors of ,tocuyo     
traversed the ,llanos1 to seek1 beyond  
the ,apure1 the great legendary city of 
,el ,dorado1 and the rich country of the
 ,omeguas1 the ,timbuctoo of the ,new   
,continent4 ,such daring expeditions    
could not be carried out without all the
 apparatus of war2 and the weapons1     
which had been destined for the defence 
of the new colonists1 were employed     
without intermission against the unhappy
 natives4 ,when more peaceful times     
succeeded to those of violence and      
public calamity1 two powerful ,indian   
tribes1 the ,cabres and the ,caribs of  
the ,orinoco1 made themselves masters of
 the country which the ,conquistadores  
had ceased to ravage4 ,none but poor    
monks were then permitted to advance to 
the south of the steppes4 ,beyond the   

,uritucu an unknown world opened to the 
,spanish colonists2 and the descendants 
of those intrepid warriors who had      
extended their conquests from ,peru to  
the coasts of ,new ,grenada and the     
mouth of the ,amazon1 knew not the roads
 that lead from ,coro to the ,rio ,meta4
 ,the shore of ,venezuela remained a    
separate country2 and the slow conquests
 of the ,jesuit missionaries were       
successful only by skirting the banks of
 the ,orinoco4 ,these fathers had       
already penetrated beyond the great     
cataracts of ,atures and ,maypures1 when
 the ,andalusian ,capuchins had scarcely
 reached the plains of ,calabozo1 from  
the coast and the valleys of ,aragua4   
,it would be difficult to explain these 
contrasts by the system according to    
which the different monastic orders are 
governed2 for the aspect of the country 
contributes powerfully to the more or   
less rapid progress of the ,missions4   
,they extend but slowly into the        
interior of the land1 over mountains1 or

 in steppes1 wherever they do not follow
 the course of a particular river4 ,it  
will scarcely be believed1 that the     
,villa de ,fernando de ,apure1 only     
fifty leagues distant in a direct line  
from that part of the coast of ,caracas 
which has been longest inhabited1 was   
founded at no earlier a date than #aghi4
 ,we were shown a parchment1 full of    
fine paintings1 containing the          
privileges of this little town4 ,the    
parchment was sent from ,madrid at the  
solicitation of the monks1 whilst yet   
only a few huts of reeds were to be seen
 around a great cross raised in the     
centre of the hamlet4 ,the missionaries 
and the secular governments being alike 
interested in exaggerating in ,europe   
what they have done to augment the      
culture and population of the provinces 
beyond the sea1 it often happens that   
names of towns and villages are placed  
on the list of new conquests1 long      
before their foundation4  ,the situation
 of ,san ,fernando1 on a large navigable

 river1 near the mouth of another river 
which traverses the whole province of   
,varinas1 is extremely advantageous for 
trade4 ,every production of that        
province1 hides1 cacao1 cotton1 and the 
indigo of ,mijagual1 which is of the    
first quality1 passes through this town 
towards the mouths of the ,orinoco4     
,during the season of rains large       
vessels go from ,angostura as far as    
,san ,fernando de ,apure1 and by the    
,rio ,santo ,domingo as far as ,torunos1
 the port of the town of ,varinas4 ,at  
that period the inundations of the      
rivers1 which form a labyrinth of       
branches between the ,apure1 the        
,arauca1 the ,capanaparo1 and the       
,sinaruco1 cover a country of nearly    
four hundred square leagues4 ,at this   
point1 the ,orinoco1 turned aside from  
its course1 not by neighbouring         
mountains1 but by the rising of         
counterslopes1 runs eastward instead of 
following its previous direction in the 
line of the meridian4 ,considering the  

surface of the globe as a polyhedron1   
formed of planes variously inclined1 we 
may conceive by the mere inspection of  
the maps1 that the intersection of these
 slopes1 rising towards the north1 the  
west1 and south199 between ,san         
,fernando de ,apure1 ,caycara1 and the  
mouth of the ,meta1 must cause a        
considerable depression4 799 ,the       
risings towards the north and west are  
connected with two lines of ridges1 the 
mountains of ,villa de ,cura and of     
,merida4 ,the third slope1 running from 
north to south1 is that of the          
land-strait between the ,andes and the  
chain of ,parime4 ,it determines the    
general inclination of the ,orinoco1    
from the mouth of the ,guaviare to that 
of the ,apure47 ,the savannahs in this  
basin are covered with twelve or        
fourteen feet of water1 and present1 at 
the period of rains1 the aspect of a    
great lake4 ,the farms and villages     
which seem as if situated on shoals1    
scarcely rise two or three feet above   

the surface of the water4 ,everything   
here calls to mind the inundations of   
,lower ,egypt1 and the lake of ,xarayes1
 heretofore so celebrated among         
geographers1 though it exists only      
during some months of the year4 ,the    
swellings of the rivers ,apure1 ,meta1  
and ,orinoco1 are also periodical4 ,in  
the rainy season1 the horses that wander
 in the savannah1 and have not time to  
reach the rising grounds of the ,llanos1
 perish by hundreds4 ,the mares are     
seen1 followed by their colts199        
swimming during a part of the day to    
feed upon the grass1 the tops of which  
alone wave above the waters4 7,the colts
 are drowned everywhere in large        
numbers1 because they are sooner tired  
of swimming1 and strive to follow the   
mares in places where the latter alone  
can touch the ground47 ,in this state   
they are pursued by the crocodiles1 and 
it is by no means uncommon to find the  
prints of the teeth of these carnivorous
 reptiles on their thighs4 ,the carcases

 of horses1 mules1 and cows1 attract an 
innumerable quantity of vultures4 ,the  
zamuros are the ibisis of this country1 
and they render the same service to the 
inhabitants of the ,llanos as the       
,vultur percnopterus to the inhabitants 
of ,egypt4  ,we cannot reflect on the   
effects of these inundations without    
admiring the prodigious pliability of   
the organization of the animals which   
man has subjected to his sway4 ,in      
,greenland the dog eats the refuse of   
the fisheries2 and when fish are        
wanting1 feeds on seaweed4 ,the ass and 
the horse1 originally natives of the    
cold and barren plains of ,upper ,asia1 
follow man to the ,new ,world1 return to
 the wild state1 and lead a restless and
 weary life in the burning climates of  
the tropics4 ,pressed alternately by    
excess of drought and of humidity1 they 
sometimes seek a pool in the midst of a 
bare and dusty plain1 to quench their   
thirst2 and at other times flee from    
water1 and the overflowing rivers1 as   

menaced by an enemy that threatens them 
on all sides4 ,tormented during the day 
by gadflies and mosquitos1 the horses1  
mules1 and cows find themselves attacked
 at night by enormous bats1 which fasten
 on their backs1 and cause wounds that  
become dangerous1 because they are      
filled with acaridae and other hurtful  
insects4 ,in the time of great drought  
the mules gnaw even the thorny cactus99 
in order to imbibe its cooling juice1   
and draw it forth as from a vegetable   
fountain4 799 ,the asses are            
particularly adroit in extracting the   
moisture contained in the ,cactus       
melocatus4 ,they push aside the thorns  
with their hoofs2 but sometimes lame    
themselves in performing this feat47    
,during the great inundations these same
 animals lead an amphibious life1       
surrounded by crocodiles1               
water-serpents1 and manatees4 ,yet1 such
 are the immutable laws of nature1 that 
their races are preserved in the        
struggle with the elements1 and amid so 

many sufferings and dangers4 ,when the  
waters retire1 and the rivers return    
again into their beds1 the savannah is  
overspread with a beautiful scented     
grass2 and the animals of ,europe and   
,upper ,asia seem to enjoy1 as in their 
native climes1 the renewed vegetation of
 spring4  ,during the time of great     
floods1 the inhabitants of these        
countries1 to avoid the force of the    
currents1 and the danger arising from   
the trunks of trees which these currents
 bring down1 instead of ascending the   
beds of rivers in their boats1 cross the
 savannahs4 ,to go from ,san ,fernando  
to the villages of ,san ,juan de        
,payara1 ,san ,raphael de ,atamaica1 or 
,san ,francisco de ,capanaparo1 they    
direct their course due south1 as if    
they were crossing a single river of    
twenty leagues broad4 ,the junctions of 
the ,guarico1 the ,apure1 the           
,cabullare1 and the ,arauca with the    
,orinoco1 form1 at a hundred and sixty  
leagues from the coast of ,guiana1 a    

kind of interior ,delta1 of which       
hydrography furnishes few examples in   
the ,old ,world4 ,according to the      
height of the mercury in the barometer1 
the waters of the ,apure have only a    
fall of thirty-four toises from ,san    
,fernando to the sea4 ,the fall from the
 mouths of the ,osage and the ,missouri 
to the bar of the ,mississippi is not   
more considerable4 ,the savannahs of    
,lower ,louisiana everywhere remind us  
of the savannahs of the ,lower ,orinoco4
  ,during our stay of three days in the 
little town of ,san ,fernando1 we lodged
 with the ,capuchin missionary1 who     
lived much at his ease4 ,we were        
recommended to him by the bishop of     
,caracas1 and he showed us the most     
obliging attention4 ,he consulted me on 
the works that had been undertaken to   
prevent the flood from undermining the  
shore on which the town was built4 ,the 
flowing of the ,portuguesa into the     
,apure gives the latter an impulse      
towards south-east2 and1 instead of     

procuring a freer course for the river1 
attempts were made to confine it by     
dykes and piers4 ,it was easy to predict
 that these would be rapidly destroyed  
by the swell of the waters1 the shore   
having been weakened by taking away the 
earth from behind the dyke to employ it 
in these hydraulic constructions4  ,san 
,fernando is celebrated for the         
excessive heat which prevails there the 
greater part of the year2 and before ,i 
begin the recital of our long navigation
 on the rivers1 ,i shall relate some    
facts calculated to throw light on the  
meteorology of the tropics4 ,we went1   
provided with thermometers1 to the flat 
shores covered with white sand which    
border the river ,apure4 ,at two in the 
afternoon ,i found the sand1 wherever it
 was exposed to the sun1 at #eb4e       
degrees4 ,the instrument1 raised        
eighteen inches above the sand1 marked  
#db4h degrees1 and at six feet high     
#ch4g degrees4 ,the temperature of the  
air under the shade of a ceiba was #cf4b

 degrees4 ,these observations were made 
during a dead calm4 ,as soon as the wind
 began to blow1 the temperature of the  
air rose #c degrees higher1 yet we were 
not enveloped by a wind of sand1 but the
 strata of air had been in contact with 
a soil more strongly heated1 or through 
which whirlwinds of sand had passed4    
,this western part of the ,llanos is the
 hottest1 because it receives air that  
has already crossed the rest of the     
barren steppe4 ,the same difference has 
been observed between the eastern and   
western parts of the deserts of ,africa1
 where the trade-winds blow4  ,the heat 
augments sensibly in the ,llanos during 
the rainy season1 particularly in the   
month of ,july1 when the sky is cloudy1 
and reflects the radiant heat toward the
 earth4 ,during this season the breeze  
entirely ceases2 and1 according to good 
thermometrical observations made by ,m4 
,pozo1 the thermometer rises in the     
shade to #ci and #ci4e degrees1 though  
kept at the distance of more than       

fifteen feet from the ground4 ,as we    
approached the banks of the ,portuguesa1
 the ,apure1 and the ,apurito1 the air  
became cooler from the evaporation of so
 considerable a mass of water4 ,this    
effect is more especially perceptible at
 sunset4 ,during the day the shores of  
the rivers1 covered with white sand1    
reflect the heat in an insupportable    
degree1 even more than the yellowish    
brown clayey grounds of ,calabozo and   
,tisnao4  ,on the #bhth of ,march ,i was
 on the shore at sunrise to measure the 
breadth of the ,apure1 which is two     
hundred and six toises4 ,the thunder    
rolled in all directions around4 ,it was
 the first storm and the first rain of  
the season4 ,the river was swelled by   
the easterly wind2 but it soon became   
calm1 and then some great cetacea1 much 
resembling the porpoises of our seas1   
began to play in long files on the      
surface of the water4 ,the slow and     
indolent crocodiles seem to dread the   
neighbourhood of these animals1 so noisy

 and impetuous in their evolutions1 for 
we saw them dive whenever they          
approached4 ,it is a very extraordinary 
phenomenon to find cetacea at such a    
distance from the coast4 ,the ,spaniards
 of the ,missions designate them1 as    
they do the porpoises of the ocean1 by  
the name of toninas4 ,the ,tamanacs call
 them orinucna4 ,they are three or four 
feet long2 and bending their back1 and  
pressing with their tail on the inferior
 strata of the water1 they expose to    
view a part of the back and of the      
dorsal fin4 ,i did not succeed in       
obtaining any1 though ,i often engaged  
,indians to shoot at them with their    
arrows4 ,father ,gili asserts that the  
,gumanos eat their flesh4 ,are these    
cetacea peculiar to the great rivers of 
,south ,america1 like the manatee1      
which1 according to ,cuvier1 is also a  
fresh water cetaceous animal8 or must we
 admit that they go up from the sea     
against the current1 as the beluga      
sometimes does in the rivers of ,asia8  

,what would lead me to doubt this last  
supposition is1 that we saw toninas     
above the great cataracts of the        
,orinoco1 in the ,rio ,atabapo4 ,did    
they penetrate into the centre of       
equinoctial ,america from the mouth of  
the ,amazon1 by the communication of    
that river with the ,rio ,negro1 the    
,cassiquiare1 and the ,orinoco8 ,they   
are found here at all seasons1 and      
nothing seems to denote that they make  
periodical migrations like salmon4      
,while the thunder rolled around us1 the
 sky displayed only scattered clouds1   
that advanced slowly toward the zenith1 
and in an opposite direction4 ,the      
hygrometer of ,deluc was at #ec degrees1
 the centigrade thermometer #bc4g       
degrees1 and ,saussure's hygrometer     
#hg4e degrees4 ,the electrometer gave no
 sign of electricity4 ,as the storm     
gathered1 the blue of the sky changed at
 first to deep azure and then to grey4  
,the vesicular vapour became visible1   
and the thermometer rose three degrees1 

as is almost always the case1 within the
 tropics1 from a cloudy sky which       
reflects the radiant heat of the soil4  
,a heavy rain fell4 ,being sufficiently 
habituated to the climate not to fear   
the effect of tropical rains1 we        
remained on the shore to observe the    
electrometer4 ,i held it more than      
twenty minutes in my hand1 six feet     
above the ground1 and observed that in  
general the pith-balls separated only a 
few seconds before the lightning was    
seen4 ,the separation was four lines4   
,the electric charge remained the same  
during several minutes2 and having time 
to determine the nature of the          
electricity1 by approaching a stick of  
sealing-wax1 ,i saw here what ,i had    
often observed on the ridge of the      
,andes during a storm1 that the         
electricity of the atmosphere was first 
positive1 then nil1 and then negative4  
,these oscillations from positive to    
negative were often repeated4 ,yet the  
electrometer constantly denoted1 a      

little before the lightning1 only ,e41  
or positive ,e41 and never negative ,e4 
,towards the end of the storm the west  
wind blew very strongly4 ,the clouds    
dispersed1 and the thermometer sunk to  
#bb degrees on account of the           
evaporation from the soil1 and the freer
 radiation towards the sky4  ,i have    
entered into these details on the       
electric charge of the atmosphere       
because travellers in general confine   
themselves to the description of the    
impressions produced on a ,european     
newly arrived by the solemn spectacle of
 a tropical storm4 ,in a country where  
the year is divided into great seasons  
of drought and wet1 or1 as the ,indians 
say in their expressive language1 of    
sun99 799 ,in the ,maypure dialect      
camoti1 properly the heat of the sun4   
,the ,tamanacs call the season of       
drought uamu1 the time of grasshoppers47
 and rain99 799 ,in the ,tamanac        
language canepo4 ,the year is           
designated1 among several nations1 by   

the name of one of the two seasons4 ,the
 ,maypures say1 so many suns1 7or rather
 so many heats27 the ,tamanacs1 so many 
rains471 it is highly interesting to    
follow the progress of meteorological   
phenomena in the transition from one    
season to another4 ,we had already      
observed1 in the valleys of ,aragua from
 the #ahth and #aith of ,february1      
clouds forming at the commencement of   
the night4 ,in the beginning of the     
month of ,march the accumulation of the 
vesicular vapours1 visible to the eye1  
and with them signs of atmospheric      
electricity1 augmented daily4 ,we saw   
flashes of heat-lightning to the south2 
and the electrometer of ,volta          
constantly displayed1 at sunset1        
positive electricity4 ,the pith balls1  
unexcited during the day1 separated to  
the width of three or four lines at the 
commencement of the night1 which is     
triple what ,i generally observed in    
,europe1 with the same instrument1 in   
calm weather4 ,upon the whole1 from the 

#bfth of ,may1 the electrical           
equilibrium of the atmosphere seemed    
disturbed4 ,during whole hours the      
electricity was nil1 then it became very
 strong1 and soon after was again       
imperceptible4 ,the hygrometer of ,deluc
 continued to indicate great dryness    
7from #cc to #ce degrees71 and yet the  
atmosphere appeared no longer the same4 
,amidst these perpetual variations of   
the electric state of the air1 the      
trees1 divested of their foliage1       
already began to unfold new leaves1 and 
seemed to feel the approach of spring4  
,the variations which we have just      
described are not peculiar to one year4 
,everything in the equinoctial zone has 
a wonderful uniformity of succession1   
because the active powers of nature     
limit and balance each other1 according 
to laws that are easily recognized4 ,i  
shall here note the progress of         
atmospherical phenomena in the islands  
to the east of the ,cordilleras of      
,merida and of ,new ,grenada1 in the    

,llanos of ,venezuela and the ,rio      
,meta1 from four to ten degrees of north
 latitude1 wherever the rains are       
constant from ,may to ,october1 and     
comprehending consequently the periods  
of the greatest heats1 which occur in   
,july and ,august499 799 ,the maximum of
 the heat is not felt on the coast1 at  
,cumana1 at ,la ,guayra1 and in the     
neighbouring island of ,margareta1      
before the month of ,september2 and the 
rains1 if the name can be given to a few
 drops that fall at intervals1 are      
observed only in the months of ,october 
and ,november47  ,nothing can equal the 
clearness of the atmosphere from the    
month of ,december to that of ,february4
 ,the sky is then constantly without    
clouds2 and if one should appear1 it is 
a phenomenon that engages the whole     
attention of the inhabitants4 ,a breeze 
from the east1 and from east-north-east1
 blows with violence4 ,as it brings with
 it air always of the same temperature1 
the vapours cannot become visible by    

cooling4  ,about the end of ,february   
and the beginning of ,march1 the blue of
 the sky is less intense1 the hygrometer
 indicates by degrees greater humidity1 
the stars are sometimes veiled by a     
slight stratum of vapour1 and their     
light is no longer steady and planetary2
 they are seen twinkling from time to   
time when at #bj degrees above the      
horizon4 ,the breeze at this period     
becomes less strong1 less regular1 and  
is often interrupted by dead calms4 ,the
 clouds accumulate towards              
south-south-east1 appearing like distant
 mountains1 with outlines strongly      
marked4 ,from time to time they detach  
themselves from the horizon1 and        
traverse the vault of the sky with a    
rapidity which little corresponds with  
the feeble wind prevailing in the lower 
strata of the air4 ,at the end of       
,march1 the southern region of the      
atmosphere is illumined by small        
electric explosions4 ,they are like     
phosphorescent gleams1 circumscribed by 

vapour4 ,the breeze then shifts from    
time to time1 and for several hours     
together1 to the west and south-west4   
,this is a certain sign of the approach 
of the rainy season1 which begins at the
 ,orinoco about the end of ,april4 ,the 
blue sky disappears1 and a grey tint    
spreads uniformly over it4 ,at the same 
time the heat of the atmosphere         
progressively increases2 and soon the   
heavens are no longer obscured by       
clouds1 but by condensed vapours4 ,the  
plaintive cry of the howling apes begins
 to be heard before sunrise4 ,the       
atmospheric electricity1 which1 during  
the season of drought1 from ,december to
 ,march1 had been constantly1 in the    
day-time1 from #a4g to #b lines1 becomes
 extremely variable from the month of   
,march4 ,it appears nil during whole    
days2 and then for some hours the       
pith-balls diverge three or four lines4 
,the atmosphere1 which is generally1 in 
the torrid as well as in the temperate  
zone1 in a state of positive            

electricity1 passes alternately1 for    
eight or ten minutes1 to the negative   
state4 ,the season of rains is that of  
storms2 and yet a great number of       
experiments made during three years1    
prove to me that it is precisely in this
 season of storms we find the smallest  
degree of electric tension in the lower 
regions of the atmosphere4 ,are storms  
the effect of this unequal charge of the
 different superincumbent strata of air8
 ,what prevents the electricity from    
descending towards the earth1 in air    
which becomes more humid after the month
 of ,march8 ,the electricity at this    
period1 instead of being diffused       
throughout the whole atmosphere1 appears
 accumulated on the exterior envelope1  
at the surface of the clouds4 ,according
 to ,m4 ,gay-,lussac it is the formation
 of the cloud itself that carries the   
fluid toward its surface4 ,the storm    
rises in the plains two hours after the 
sun has passed the meridian2            
consequently a short time after the     

moment of the maximum of diurnal heat   
within the tropics4 ,it is extremely    
rare in the islands to hear thunder     
during the night1 or in the morning4    
,storms at night are peculiar to certain
 valleys of rivers1 having a peculiar   
climate4  ,what then are the causes of  
this rupture of the equilibrium in the  
electric tension of the air8 of this    
continual condensation of the vapours   
into water8 of this interruption of the 
breezes8 of this commencement and       
duration of the rainy seasons8 ,i doubt 
whether electricity has any influence on
 the formation of vapours4 ,it is rather
 the formation of these vapours that    
augments and modifies the electrical    
tension4 ,north and south of the        
equator1 storms or great explosions take
 place at the same time in the temperate
 and in the equinoctial zone4 ,is there 
an action propagated through the great  
aerial ocean from the temperate zone    
towards the tropics8 ,how can it be     
conceived1 that in that zone where the  

sun rises constantly to so great a      
height above the horizon1 its passage   
through the zenith can have so powerful 
an influence on the meteorological      
variations8 ,i am of opinion that no    
local cause determines the commencement 
of the rains within the tropics2 and    
that a more intimate knowledge of the   
higher currents of air will elucidate   
these problems1 so complicated in       
appearance4 ,we can observe only what   
passes in the lower strata of the       
atmosphere4 ,the ,andes are scarcely    
inhabited beyond the height of two      
thousand toises2 and at that height the 
proximity of the soil1 and the masses of
 mountains1 which form the shoals of the
 aerial ocean1 have a sensible influence
 on the ambient air4 ,what we observe on
 the table-land of ,antisana is not what
 we should find at the same height in a 
balloon1 hovering over the ,llanos or   
the surface of the ocean4  ,we have just
 seen that the season of rains and      
storms in the northern equinoctial zone 

coincides with the passage of the sun   
through the zenith of the place199 799  
,these passages take place1 in the fifth
 and tenth degrees of north latitude    
between the #crd and the #afth of       
,april1 and between the #bgth of ,august
 and the #hth of ,september47 with the  
cessation of the north-east breezes1 and
 with the frequency of calms and        
bendavales1 which are stormy winds from 
south-east and south-west1 accompanied  
by a cloudy sky4 ,i believe that1 in    
reflecting on the general laws of the   
equilibrium of the gaseous masses       
constituting our atmosphere1 we may     
find1 in the interruption of the current
 that blows from an homonymous pole1 in 
the want of the renewal of air in the   
torrid zone1 and in the continued action
 of an ascending humid current1 a very  
simple cause of the coincidence of these
 phenomena4 ,while the north-easterly   
breeze blows with all its violence north
 of the equator1 it prevents the        
atmosphere which covers the equinoctial 

lands and seas from saturating itself   
with moisture4 ,the hot and moist air of
 the torrid zone rises aloft1 and flows 
off again towards the poles2 while      
inferior polar currents1 bringing drier 
and colder strata1 are every instant    
taking the place of the columns of      
ascending air4 ,by this constant action 
of two opposite currents1 the humidity1 
far from being accumulated in the       
equatorial region1 is carried towards   
the cold and temperate regions4 ,during 
this season of breezes1 which is that   
when the sun is in the southern signs1  
the sky in the northern equinoctial zone
 is constantly serene4 ,the vesicular   
vapours are not condensed1 because the  
air1 unceasingly renewed1 is far from   
the point of saturation4 ,in proportion 
as the sun1 entering the northern signs1
 rises towards the zenith1 the breeze   
from the north-east moderates1 and by   
degrees entirely ceases4 ,the difference
 of temperature between the tropics and 
the temperate northern zone is then the 

least possible4 ,it is the summer of the
 boreal pole2 and1 if the mean          
temperature of the winter1 between #db  
and #eb degrees of north latitude1 be   
from #bj to #bf degrees of the          
centigrade thermometer less than the    
equatorial heat1 the difference in      
summer is scarcely from #d to #f        
degrees4 ,the sun being in the zenith1  
and the breeze having ceased1 the causes
 which produce humidity1 and accumulate 
it in the northern equinoctial zone1    
become at once more active4 ,the column 
of air reposing on this zone1 is        
saturated with vapours1 because it is no
 longer renewed by the polar current4   
,clouds form in this air saturated and  
cooled by the combined effects of       
radiation and the dilatation of the     
ascending air4 ,this air augments its   
capacity for heat in proportion as it   
rarefies4 ,with the formation and       
collection of the vesicular vapours1    
electricity accumulates in the higher   
regions of the atmosphere4 ,the         

precipitation of the vapours is         
continual during the day2 but it        
generally ceases at night1 and          
frequently even before sunset4 ,the     
showers are regularly more violent1 and 
accompanied with electric explosions1 a 
short time after the maximum of the     
diurnal heat4 ,this state of things     
remains unchanged1 till the sun enters  
into the southern signs4 ,this is the   
commencement of cold in the northern    
temperate zone4 ,the current from the   
north-pole is then re-established1      
because the difference between the heat 
of the equinoctial and temperate regions
 augments daily4 ,the north-east breeze 
blows with violence1 the air of the     
tropics is renewed1 and can no longer   
attain the degree of saturation4 ,the   
rains consequently cease1 the vesicular 
vapour is dissolved1 and the sky resumes
 its clearness and its azure tint4      
,electrical explosions are no longer    
heard1 doubtless because electricity no 
longer comes in contact with the groups 

of vesicular vapours in the high regions
 of the air1 ,i had almost said the     
coating of clouds1 on which the fluid   
can accumulate4  ,we have here          
considered the cessation of the breezes 
as the principal cause of the equatorial
 rains4 ,these rains in each hemisphere 
last only as long as the sun has its    
declination in that hemisphere4 ,it is  
necessary to observe1 that the absence  
of the breeze is not always succeeded by
 a dead calm2 but that the calm is often
 interrupted1 particularly along the    
western coast of ,america1 by           
bendavales1 or south-west and south-east
 winds4 ,this phenomenon seems to       
demonstrate that the columns of humid   
air which rise in the northern          
equatorial zone1 sometimes flow off     
toward the south pole4 ,in fact1 the    
countries situated in the torrid zone1  
both north and south of the equator1    
furnish1 during their summer1 while the 
sun is passing through their zenith1 the
 maximum of difference of temperature   

with the air of the opposite pole4 ,the 
southern temperate zone has its winter1 
while it rains on the north of the      
equator2 and while a mean heat prevails 
from #e to #f degrees greater than in   
the time of drought1 when the sun is    
lower499 799 ,from the equator to #aj   
degrees of north latitude the mean      
temperatures of the summer and winter   
months scarcely differ #b or #c degrees2
 but at the limits of the torrid zone1  
toward the tropic of ,cancer1 the       
difference amounts to #h or #i degrees47
 ,the continuation of the rains1 while  
the bendavales blow1 proves that the    
currents from the remoter pole do not   
act in the northern equinoctial zone    
like the currents of the nearer pole1 on
 account of the greater humidity of the 
southern polar current4 ,the air1 wafted
 by this current1 comes from a          
hemisphere consisting almost entirely of
 water4 ,it traverses all the southern  
equatorial zone to reach the parallel of
 #h degrees north latitude2 and is      

consequently less dry1 less cold1 less  
adapted to act as a counter-current to  
renew the equinoctial air and prevent   
its saturation1 than the northern polar 
current1 or the breeze from the         
north-east499 799 ,in the two temperate 
zones the air loses its transparency    
every time that the wind blows from the 
opposite pole1 that is to say1 from the 
pole that has not the same denomination 
as the hemisphere in which the wind     
blows47 ,we may suppose that the        
bendavales are impetuous winds which1 on
 some coasts1 for instance on that of   
,guatimala1 7because they are not the   
effect of a regular and progressive     
descent of the air of the tropics       
towards the south pole1 but they        
alternate with calms71 are accompanied  
by electrical explosions1 and are in    
fact squalls1 that indicate a reflux1 an
 abrupt and instantaneous rupture1 of   
equilibrium in the aerial ocean4  ,we   
have here discussed one of the most     
important phenomena of the meteorology  

of the tropics1 considered in its most  
general view4 ,in the same manner as the
 limits of the trade-winds do not form  
circles parallel with the equator1 the  
action of the polar currents is         
variously felt in different meridians4  
,the chains of mountains and the coasts 
in the same hemisphere have often       
opposite seasons4 ,there are several    
examples of these anomalies2 but1 in    
order to discover the laws of nature1 we
 must know1 before we examine into the  
causes of local perturbations1 the      
average state of the atmosphere1 and the
 constant type of its variations4  ,the 
aspect of the sky1 the progress of the  
electricity1 and the shower of the #bhth
 of ,march1 announced the commencement  
of the rainy season2 we were still      
advised1 however1 to go from ,san       
,fernando de ,apure by ,san ,francisco  
de ,capanaparo1 the ,rio ,sinaruco1 and 
the ,hato de ,san ,antonio1 to the      
village of the ,ottomacs1 recently      
founded near the banks of the ,meta1 and

 to embark on the ,orinoco a little     
above ,carichana4 ,this way by land lies
 across an unhealthy and feverish       
country4 ,an old farmer named ,francisco
 ,sanchez obligingly offered to conduct 
us4 ,his dress denoted the great        
simplicity of manners prevailing in     
those distant countries4 ,he had        
acquired a fortune of more than #ajj1jjj
 piastres1 and yet he mounted on        
horseback with his feet bare1 and       
wearing large silver spurs4 ,we knew by 
the experience of several weeks the dull
 uniformity of the vegetation of the    
,llanos1 and preferred the longer road1 
which leads by the ,rio ,apure to the   
,orinoco4 ,we chose one of those very   
large canoes called lanchas by the      
,spaniards4 ,a pilot and four ,indians  
were sufficient to manage it4 ,they     
constructed1 near the stern1 in the     
space of a few hours1 a cabin covered   
with palm-leaves1 sufficiently spacious 
to contain a table and benches4 ,these  
were made of ox-hides1 strained tight1  

and nailed to frames of brazil-wood4 ,i 
mention these minute circumstances1 to  
prove that our accommodations on the    
,rio ,apure were far different from     
those to which we were afterwards       
reduced in the narrow boats of the      
,orinoco4 ,we loaded the canoe with     
provision for a month4 ,fowls1 eggs1    
plantains1 cassava1 and cacao1 are found
 in abundance at ,san ,fernando4 ,the   
good ,capuchin1 ,fray ,jose ,maria de   
,malaga1 gave us sherry wine1 oranges1  
and tamarinds1 to make cooling          
beverages4 ,we could easily foresee that
 a roof constructed of palm-tree leaves 
would become excessively hot on a large 
river1 where we were almost always      
exposed to the perpendicular rays of the
 sun4 ,the ,indians relied less on the  
provision we had purchased1 than on     
their hooks and nets4 ,we took also some
 fire-arms1 which we found in general   
use as far as the cataracts2 but farther
 south the great humidity of the air    
prevents the missionaries from using    

them4 ,the ,rio ,apure abounds in fish1 
manatees1 and turtles1 the eggs of which
 afford an aliment more nutritious than 
agreeable to the taste4 ,its banks are  
inhabited by an innumerable quantity of 
birds1 among which the pauxi and the    
guacharaca1 which may be called the     
turkeys and pheasants of those          
countries1 are found to be the most     
useful4 ,their flesh appeared to be     
harder and less white than that of the  
gallinaceous tribe in ,europe1 because  
they use much more muscular exercise4   
,we did not forget to add to our        
provision1 fishing-tackle1 fire-arms1   
and a few casks of brandy1 to serve as a
 medium of barter with the ,indians of  
the ,orinoco4  ,we departed from ,san   
,fernando on the #cjth of ,march1 at    
four in the afternoon4 ,the weather was 
extremely hot2 the thermometer rising in
 the shade to #cd degrees1 though the   
breeze blew very strongly from the      
south-east4 ,owing to this contrary wind
 we could not set our sails4 ,we were   

accompanied1 in the whole of this voyage
 on the ,apure1 the ,orinoco1 and the   
,rio ,negro1 by the brother-in-law of   
the governor of the province of         
,varinas1 ,don ,nicolas ,soto1 who had  
recently arrived from ,cadiz4 ,desirous 
of visiting countries so calculated to  
excite the curiosity of a ,european1 he 
did not hesitate to confine himself with
 us during seventy-four days in a narrow
 boat infested with mosquitos4 ,his     
amiable disposition and gay temper often
 helped to make us forget the sufferings
 of a voyage which was not wholly exempt
 from danger4 ,we passed the mouth of   
the ,apurito1 and coasted the island of 
the same name1 formed by the ,apure and 
the ,guarico4 ,this island is in fact   
only a very low spot of ground1 bordered
 by two great rivers1 both of which1 at 
a little distance from each other1 fall 
into the ,orinoco1 after having formed a
 junction below ,san ,fernando by the   
first bifurcation of the ,apure4 ,the   
,isla del ,apurito is twenty-two leagues

 in length1 and two or three leagues in 
breadth4 ,it is divided by the ,cano de 
la ,tigrera and the ,cano del ,manati   
into three parts1 the two extremes of   
which bear the names of ,isla de ,blanco
 and ,isla de los ,garzitas4 ,the right 
bank of the ,apure1 below the ,apurito1 
is somewhat better cultivated than the  
left bank1 where the ,yaruros1 or       
,japuin ,indians1 have constructed a few
 huts with reeds and stalks of          
palm-leaves4 ,these people1 who live by 
hunting and fishing1 are very skilful in
 killing jaguars4 ,it is they who       
principally carry the skins1 known in   
,europe by the name of tiger-skins1 to  
the ,spanish villages4 ,some of these   
,indians have been baptized1 but they   
never visit the ,christian churches4    
,they are considered as savages because 
they choose to remain independent4      
,other tribes of ,yaruros live under the
 rule of the missionaries1 in the       
village of ,achaguas1 situated south of 
the ,rio ,payara4 ,the individuals of   

this nation1 whom ,i had an opportunity 
of seeing at the ,orinoco1 have a stern 
expression of countenance2 and some     
features in their physiognomy1          
erroneously called ,tartarian1 belong to
 branches of the ,mongol race1 the eye  
very long1 the cheekbones high1 but the 
nose prominent throughout its whole     
length4 ,they are taller1 browner1 and  
less thick-set than the ,chayma         
,indians4 ,the missionaries praise the  
intellectual character of the ,yaruros1 
who were formerly a powerful and        
numerous nation on the banks of the     
,orinoco1 especially in the environs of 
,cuycara1 below the mouth of the        
,guarico4 ,we passed the night at       
,diamante1 a small sugar-plantation     
formed opposite the island of the same  
name4  ,during the whole of my voyage   
from ,san ,fernando to ,san ,carlos del 
,rio ,negro1 and thence to the town of  
,angostura1 ,i noted down day by day1   
either in the boat or where we          
disembarked at night1 all that appeared 

to me worthy of observation4 ,violent   
rains1 and the prodigious quantity of   
mosquitos with which the air is filled  
on the banks of the ,orinoco and the    
,cassiquiare1 necessarily occasioned    
some interruptions2 but ,i supplied the 
omission by notes taken a few days      
after4 ,i here subjoin some extracts    
from my journal4 ,whatever is written   
while the objects we describe are before
 our eyes bears a character of truth and
 individuality which gives attraction to
 things the least important4  ,on the   
#cast ,march a contrary wind obliged us 
to remain on shore till noon4 ,we saw a 
part of some cane-fields laid waste by  
the effect of a conflagration which had 
spread from a neighbouring forest4 ,the 
wandering ,indians everywhere set fire  
to the forest where they have encamped  
at night2 and during the season of      
drought1 vast provinces would be the    
prey of these conflagrations if the     
extreme hardness of the wood did not    
prevent the trees from being entirely   

consumed4 ,we found trunks of desmanthus
 and mahogany which were scarcely       
charred two inches deep4  ,having passed
 the ,diamante we entered a land        
inhabited only by tigers1 crocodiles1   
and chiguires2 the latter are a large   
species of the genus ,cavia of          
,linnaeus4 ,we saw flocks of birds1     
crowded so closely together as to appear
 against the sky like a dark cloud which
 every instant changed its form4 ,the   
river widens by degrees4 ,one of its    
banks is generally barren and sandy from
 the effect of inundations2 the other is
 higher1 and covered with lofty trees4  
,in some parts the river is bordered by 
forests on each side1 and forms a       
straight canal a hundred and fifty      
toises broad4 ,the manner in which the  
trees are disposed is very remarkable4  
,we first find bushes of sauso199 799   
,hermesia castaneifolia4 ,this is a new 
genus1 approaching the alchornea of     
,swartz47 forming a kind of hedge four  
feet high1 and appearing as if they had 

been clipped by the hand of man4 ,a     
copse of cedar1 brazilletto1 and        
lignum-vitae1 rises behind this hedge4  
,palm-trees are rare2 we saw only a few 
scattered trunks of the thorny piritu   
and corozo4 ,the large quadrupeds of    
those regions1 the jaguars1 tapirs1 and 
peccaries1 have made openings in the    
hedge of sauso which we have just       
described4 ,through these the wild      
animals pass when they come to drink at 
the river4 ,as they fear but little the 
approach of a boat1 we had the pleasure 
of viewing them as they paced slowly    
along the shore till they disappeared in
 the forest1 which they entered by one  
of the narrow passes left at intervals  
between the bushes4 ,these scenes1 which
 were often repeated1 had ever for me a 
peculiar attraction4 ,the pleasure they 
excite is not owing solely to the       
interest which the naturalist takes in  
the objects of his study1 it is         
connected with a feeling common to all  
men who have been brought up in the     

habits of civilization4 ,you find       
yourself in a new world1 in the midst of
 untamed and savage nature4 ,now the    
jaguar--the beautiful panther of        
,america--appears upon the shore2 and   
now the hocco199 799 ,ceyx alector1 the 
peacock-pheasant2 ,c4 pauxi1 the        
cashew-bird47 with its black plumage and
 tufted head1 moves slowly along the    
sausos4 ,animals of the most different  
classes succeed each other4 ,esse como  
en el ,paradiso1 ,it is just as it was  
in ,paradise1 said our pilot1 an old    
,indian of the ,missions4 ,everything1  
indeed1 in these regions recalls to mind
 the state of the primitive world with  
its innocence and felicity4 ,but in     
carefully observing the manners of      
animals among themselves1 we see that   
they mutually avoid and fear each other4
 ,the golden age has ceased2 and in this
 ,paradise of the ,american forests1 as 
well as everywhere else1 sad and long   
experience has taught all beings that   
benignity is seldom found in alliance   

with strength4  ,when the shore is of   
considerable breadth1 the hedge of sauso
 remains at a distance from the river4  
,in the intermediate space we see       
crocodiles1 sometimes to the number of  
eight or ten1 stretched on the sand4    
,motionless1 with their jaws wide open1 
they repose by each other1 without      
displaying any of those marks of        
affection observed in other animals     
living in society4 ,the troop separates 
as soon as they quit the shore4 ,it is1 
however1 probably composed of one male  
only1 and many females2 for as ,m4      
,descourtils1 who has so much studied   
the crocodiles of ,st4 ,domingo1        
observed to me1 the males are rare1     
because they kill one another in        
fighting during the season of their     
loves4 ,these monstrous creatures are so
 numerous1 that throughout the whole    
course of the river we had almost at    
every instant five or six in view4 ,yet 
at this period the swelling of the ,rio 
,apure was scarcely perceived2 and      

consequently hundreds of crocodiles were
 still buried in the mud of the         
savannahs4 ,about four in the afternoon 
we stopped to measure a dead crocodile  
which had been cast ashore4 ,it was only
 sixteen feet eight inches long2 some   
days after ,m4 ,bonpland found another1 
a male1 twenty-two feet three inches    
long4 ,in every zone1 in ,america as in 
,egypt1 this animal attains the same    
size4 ,the species so abundant in the   
,apure1 the ,orinoco199 799 ,it is the  
arua of the ,tamanac ,indians1 the amana
 of the ,maypure ,indians1 the          
,crocodilus acutus of ,cuvier47 and the 
,rio de la ,magdalena1 is not a cayman1 
but a real crocodile1 analogous to that 
of the ,nile1 having feet dentated at   
the external edges4 ,when it is         
recollected that the male enters the age
 of puberty only at ten years1 and that 
its length is then eight feet1 we may   
presume that the crocodile measured by  
,m4 ,bonpland was at least twenty-eight 
years old4 ,the ,indians told us1 that  

at ,san ,fernando scarcely a year       
passes1 without two or three grown-up   
persons1 particularly women who fetch   
water from the river1 being drowned by  
these carnivorous reptiles4 ,they       
related to us the history of a young    
girl of ,uritucu1 who by singular       
intrepidity and presence of mind1 saved 
herself from the jaws of a crocodile4   
,when she felt herself seized1 she      
sought the eyes of the animal1 and      
plunged her fingers into them with such 
violence1 that the pain forced the      
crocodile to let her go1 after having   
bitten off the lower part of her left   
arm4 ,the girl1 notwithstanding the     
enormous quantity of blood she lost1    
reached the shore1 swimming with the    
hand that still remained to her4 ,in    
those desert countries1 where man is    
ever wrestling with nature1 discourse   
daily turns on the best means that may  
be employed to escape from a tiger1 a   
boa1 or a crocodile2 every one prepares 
himself in some sort for the dangers    

that may await him4 ,i knew1 said the   
young girl of ,uritucu coolly1 that the 
cayman lets go his hold1 if you push    
your fingers into his eyes4 ,long after 
my return to ,europe1 ,i learned that in
 the interior of ,africa the negroes    
know and practise the same means of     
defence4 ,who does not recollect1 with  
lively interest1 ,isaac1 the guide of   
the unfortunate ,mungo ,park1 who was   
seized twice by a crocodile1 and twice  
escaped from the jaws of the monster1   
having succeeded in thrusting his       
fingers into the creature's eyes while  
under water4 ,the ,african ,isaac1 and  
the young ,american girl1 owed their    
safety to the same presence of mind1 and
 the same combination of ideas4  ,the   
movements of the crocodile of the ,apure
 are sudden and rapid when it attacks   
any object2 but it moves with the       
slowness of a salamander1 when not      
excited by rage or hunger4 ,the animal  
in running makes a rustling noise1 which
 seems to proceed from the rubbing of   

the scales of its skin one against      
another4 ,in this movement it bends its 
back1 and appears higher on its legs    
than when at rest4 ,we often heard this 
rattling of the scales very near us on  
the shore2 but it is not true1 as the   
,indians pretend1 that1 like the        
armadillo1 the old crocodiles can erect 
their scales1 and every part of their   
armour4 ,the motion of these animals is 
no doubt generally in a straight line1  
or rather like that of an arrow1        
supposing it to change its direction at 
certain distances4 ,however1            
notwithstanding the little apparatus of 
false ribs1 which connects the vertebrae
 of the neck1 and seems to impede the   
lateral movement1 crocodiles can turn   
easily when they please4 ,i often saw   
young ones biting their tails2 and other
 observers have seen the same action in 
crocodiles at their full growth4 ,if    
their movements almost always appear to 
be straight forward1 it is because1 like
 our small lizards1 they move by starts4

 ,crocodiles are excellent swimmers2    
they go with facility against the most  
rapid current4 ,it appeared to me1      
however1 that in descending the river1  
they had some difficulty in turning     
quickly about4 ,a large dog1 which had  
accompanied us in our journey from      
,caracas to the ,rio ,negro1 was one day
 pursued in swimming by an enormous     
crocodile4 ,the latter had nearly       
reached its prey1 when the dog escaped  
by turning round suddenly and swimming  
against the current4 ,the crocodile     
performed the same movement1 but much   
more slowly than the dog1 which         
succeeded in gaining the shore4  ,the   
crocodiles of the ,apure find abundant  
food in the chiguires 7thick-nosed      
tapirs7199 which live fifty or sixty    
together in troops on the banks of the  
river4 799 ,cavia capybara1 ,linn4 ,the 
word chiguire belongs to the language of
 the ,palenkas and the ,cumanagotos4    
,the ,spaniards call this animal        
guardatinaja2 the ,caribs1 capigua2 the 

,tamanacs1 cappiva2 and the ,maypures1  
chiato4 ,according to ,azara1 it is     
known at ,buenos ,ayres by the ,indian  
names of capiygua and capiguara4 ,these 
various denominations show a striking   
analogy between the languages of the    
,orinoco and those of the ,rio de la    
,plata47 ,these animals1 as large as our
 pigs1 have no weapons of defence2 they 
swim somewhat better than they run3 yet 
they become the prey of the crocodiles  
in the water1 and of the tigers on land4
 ,it is difficult to conceive1 how1     
being thus persecuted by two powerful   
enemies1 they become so numerous2 but   
they breed with the same rapidity as the
 little cavies or guinea-pigs1 which    
come to us from ,brazil4  ,we stopped   
below the mouth of the ,cano de la      
,tigrera1 in a sinuosity called la      
,vuelta del ,joval1 to measure the      
velocity of the water at its surface4   
,it was not more than #c4b feet99 in a  
second1 which gives #b4ef feet for the  
mean velocity4 799 ,in order to measure 

the velocity of the surface of a river1 
,i generally measured on the beach a    
base of #bej feet1 and observed with the
 chronometer the time that a floating   
body1 abandoned to the current1 required
 to reach this distance47 ,the height of
 the barometer indicated barely a slope 
of seventeen inches in a mile of nine   
hundred and fifty toises4 ,the velocity 
is the simultaneous effect of the slope 
of the ground1 and the accumulation of  
the waters by the swelling of the upper 
parts of the river4 ,we were again      
surrounded by chiguires1 which swim like
 dogs1 raising their heads and necks    
above the water4 ,we saw with surprise a
 large crocodile on the opposite shore1 
motionless1 and sleeping in the midst of
 these nibbling animals4 ,it awoke at   
the approach of our canoe1 and went into
 the water slowly1 without frightening  
the chiguires4 ,our ,indians accounted  
for this indifference by the stupidity  
of the animals1 but it is more probable 
that the chiguires know by long         

experience1 that the crocodile of the   
,apure and the ,orinoco does not attack 
upon land1 unless he finds the object he
 would seize immediately in his way1 at 
the instant when he throws himself into 
the water4  ,near the ,joval nature     
assumes an awful and extremely wild     
aspect4 ,we there saw the largest jaguar
 we had ever met with4 ,the natives     
themselves were astonished at its       
prodigious length1 which surpassed that 
of any ,bengal tiger ,i had ever seen in
 the museums of ,europe4 ,the animal lay
 stretched beneath the shade of a large 
zamang499 799 ,a species of mimosa47 ,it
 had just killed a chiguire1 but had not
 yet touched its prey1 on which it kept 
one of its paws4 ,the zamuro vultures   
were assembled in great numbers to      
devour the remains of the jaguar's      
repast4 ,they presented the most curious
 spectacle1 by a singular mixture of    
boldness and timidity4 ,they advanced   
within the distance of two feet from the
 animal1 but at the least movement he   

made they drew back4 ,in order to       
observe more nearly the manners of these
 creatures1 we went into the little     
skiff that accompanied our canoe4       
,tigers very rarely attack boats by     
swimming to them2 and never but when    
their ferocity is heightened by a long  
privation of food4 ,the noise of our    
oars led the animal to rise slowly1 and 
hide itself behind the sauso bushes that
 bordered the shore4 ,the vultures tried
 to profit by this moment of absence to 
devour the chiguire2 but the tiger1     
notwithstanding the proximity of our    
boat1 leaped into the midst of them1 and
 in a fit of rage1 expressed by his gait
 and the movement of his tail1 carried  
off his prey to the forest4 ,the        
,indians regretted that they were not   
provided with their lances1 in order to 
go on shore and attack the tiger4 ,they 
are accustomed to this weapon1 and were 
right in not trusting to our fire-arms4 
,in so excessively damp an atmosphere   
muskets often miss fire4  ,continuing to

 descend the river1 we met with the     
great herd of chiguires which the tiger 
had put to flight1 and from which he had
 selected his prey4 ,these animals saw  
us land very unconcernedly2 some of them
 were seated1 and gazed upon us1 moving 
the upper lip like rabbits4 ,they seemed
 not to be afraid of man1 but the sight 
of our dog put them to flight4 ,their   
hind legs being longer than their fore  
legs1 their pace is a slight gallop1 but
 with so little swiftness that we       
succeeded in catching two of them4 ,the 
chiguire1 which swims with the greatest 
agility1 utters a short moan in running1
 as if its respiration were impeded4 ,it
 is the largest of the family of        
rodentia or gnawing animals4 ,it defends
 itself only at the last extremity1 when
 it is surrounded and wounded4 ,having  
great strength in its grinding teeth199 
particularly the hinder ones1 which are 
pretty long1 it can tear the paw of a   
tiger1 or the leg of a horse1 with its  
bite4 799 ,we counted eighteen on each  

side4 ,on the hind feet1 at the upper   
end of the metatarsus1 there is a       
callosity three inches long and three   
quarters of an inch broad1 destitute of 
hair4 ,the animal1 when seated1 rests   
upon this part4 ,no tail is visible     
externally2 but on putting aside the    
hair we discover a tubercle1 a mass of  
naked and wrinkled flesh1 of a conical  
figure1 and half an inch long47 ,its    
flesh has a musky smell somewhat        
disagreeable2 yet hams are made of it in
 this country1 a circumstance which     
almost justifies the name of water-hog1 
given to the chiguire by some of the    
older naturalists4 ,the missionary monks
 do not hesitate to eat these hams      
during ,lent4 ,according to their       
zoological classification they place the
 armadillo1 the thick-nosed tapir1 and  
the manatee1 near the tortoises2 the    
first1 because it is covered with a hard
 armour like a sort of shell2 and the   
others because they are amphibious4 ,the
 chiguires are found in such numbers on 

the banks of the rivers ,santo ,domingo1
 ,apure1 and ,arauca1 in the marshes and
 in the inundated savannahs99 of the    
,llanos1 that the pasturages suffer from
 them4 799 ,near ,uritucu1 in the ,cano 
del ,ravanal1 we saw a flock of eighty  
or one hundred of these animals47 ,they 
browze the grass which fattens the      
horses best1 and which bears the name of
 chiguirero1 or chiguire-grass4 ,they   
feed also upon fish2 and we saw with    
surprise1 that1 when scared by the      
approach of a boat1 the animal in diving
 remains eight or ten minutes under     
water4  ,we passed the night as usual1  
in the open air1 though in a plantation1
 the proprietor of which employed       
himself in hunting tigers4 ,he wore     
scarcely any clothing1 and was of a dark
 brown complexion like a ,zambo4 ,this  
did not prevent his classing himself    
amongst the ,whites4 ,he called his wife
 and his daughter1 who were as naked as 
himself1 ,dona ,isabella and ,dona      
,manuela4 ,without having ever quitted  

the banks of the ,apure1 he took a      
lively interest in the news of          
,madrid--enquiring eagerly respecting   
those never-ending wars1 and everything 
down yonder 7todas las cosas de alla74  
,he knew1 he said1 that the king was    
soon to come and visit the grandees of  
the country of ,caracas1 but he added   
with some pleasantry1 as the people of  
the court can eat only wheaten bread1   
they will never pass beyond the town of 
,victoria1 and we shall not see them    
here4 ,i had brought with me a chiguire1
 which ,i had intended to have roasted2 
but our host assured us1 that such      
,indian game was not food fit for nos   
otros caballeros blancos1 7white        
gentlemen like ourselves and him74      
,accordingly he offered us some venison1
 which he had killed the day before with
 an arrow1 for he had neither powder nor
 fire-arms4  ,we supposed that a small  
wood of plantain-trees concealed from us
 the hut of the farm2 but this man1 so  
proud of his nobility and the colour of 

his skin1 had not taken the trouble of  
constructing even an ajoupa1 or hut of  
palm-leaves4 ,he invited us to have our 
hammocks hung near his own1 between two 
trees2 and he assured us1 with an air of
 complacency1 that1 if we came up the   
river in the rainy season1 we should    
find him beneath a roof 7baxo techo74   
,we soon had reason to complain of a    
system of philosophy which is indulgent 
to indolence1 and renders a man         
indifferent to the conveniences of life4
 ,a furious wind arose after midnight1  
lightnings flashed over the horizon1    
thunder rolled1 and we were wet to the  
skin4 ,during this storm a whimsical    
incident served to amuse us for a       
moment4 ,dona ,isabella's cat had       
perched upon the tamarind-tree1 at the  
foot of which we lay4 ,it fell into the 
hammock of one of our companions1 who1  
being hurt by the claws of the cat1 and 
suddenly aroused from a profound sleep1 
imagined he was attacked by some wild   
beast of the forest4 ,we ran to him on  

hearing his cries1 and had some trouble 
to convince him of his error4 ,while it 
rained in torrents on our hammocks and  
on our instruments which we had brought 
ashore1 ,don ,ignacio congratulated us  
on our good fortune in not sleeping on  
the strand1 but finding ourselves in his
 domain1 among whites and persons of    
respectability 7entre gente blanca y de 
trato74 ,wet as we were1 we could not   
easily persuade ourselves of the        
advantages of our situation1 and we     
listened with some impatience to the    
long narrative our host gave us of his  
pretended expedition to the ,rio ,meta1 
of the valour he had displayed in a     
sanguinary combat with the ,guahibo     
,indians1 and the services that he had  
rendered to ,god and his king1 in       
carrying away ,indian children 7los     
,indiecitos7 from their parents1 to     
distribute them in the ,missions4 ,we   
were struck with the singularity of     
finding in that vast solitude a man     
believing himself to be of ,european    

race and knowing no other shelter than  
the shade of a tree1 and yet having all 
the vain pretensions1 hereditary        
prejudices1 and errors of long-standing 
civilization6  ,on the #ast of ,april1  
at sunrise1 we quitted ,senor ,don      
,ignacio and ,senora ,dona ,isabella his
 wife4 ,the weather was cooler1 for the 
thermometer 7which generally kept up in 
the daytime to #cj or #ce degrees7 had  
sunk to #bd degrees4 ,the temperature of
 the river was little changed3 it       
continued constantly at #bf or #bg      
degrees4 ,the current carried with it an
 enormous number of trunks of trees4 ,it
 might be imagined that on ground       
entirely smooth1 and where the eye      
cannot distinguish the least hill1 the  
river would have formed by the force of 
its current a channel in a straight     
line2 but a glance at the map1 which ,i 
traced by the compass1 will prove the   
contrary4 ,the two banks1 worn by the   
waters1 do not furnish an equal         
resistance2 and almost imperceptible    

inequalities of the level suffice to    
produce great sinuosities4 ,yet below   
the ,joval1 where the bed of the river  
enlarges a little1 it forms a channel   
that appears perfectly straight1 and is 
shaded on each side by very tall trees4 
,this part of the river is called ,cano 
,rico4 ,i found it to be one hundred and
 thirty-six toises broad4 ,we passed a  
low island1 inhabited by thousands of   
flamingos1 rose-coloured spoonbills1    
herons1 and moorhens1 which displayed   
plumage of the most various colours4    
,these birds were so close together that
 they seemed to be unable to stir4 ,the 
island they frequent is called ,isla de 
,aves1 or ,bird ,island4 ,lower down we 
passed the point where the ,rio         
,arichuna1 an arm of the ,apure1        
branches off to the ,cabulare1 carrying 
away a considerable body of its waters4 
,we stopped1 on the right bank1 at a    
little ,indian mission1 inhabited by the
 tribe of the ,guamos1 called the       
village of ,santa ,barbara de ,arichuna4

  ,the ,guamos99 are a race of ,indians 
very difficult to fix on a settled spot4
 799 ,father ,gili observes that their  
,indian name is ,uamu and ,pau1 and that
 they originally dwelt on the ,upper    
,apure47 ,they have great similarity of 
manners with the ,achaguas1 the         
,guajibos199 799 ,their ,indian name is 
,guahiva47 and the ,ottomacs1 partaking 
their disregard of cleanliness1 their   
spirit of vengeance1 and their taste for
 wandering2 but their language differs  
essentially4 ,the greater part of these 
four tribes live by fishing and hunting1
 in plains often inundated1 situated    
between the ,apure1 the ,meta1 and the  
,guaviare4 ,the nature of these regions 
seems to invite the natives to a        
wandering life4 ,on entering the        
mountains of the ,cataracts of the      
,orinoco1 we shall soon find1 among the 
,piraoas1 the ,macos1 and the           
,maquiritaras1 milder manners1 a love of
 agriculture1 and great cleanliness in  
the interior of their huts4 ,on mountain

 ridges1 in the midst of impenetrable   
forests1 man is compelled to fix        
himself2 and cultivate a small spot of  
land4 ,this cultivation requires little 
care2 while1 in a country where there   
are no other roads than rivers1 the life
 of the hunter is laborious and         
difficult4 ,the ,guamos of the mission  
of ,santa ,barbara could not furnish us 
with the provision we wanted4 ,they     
cultivate only a little cassava4 ,they  
appeared hospitable2 and when we entered
 their huts1 they offered us dried fish1
 and water cooled in porous vessels4    
,beyond the ,vuelta del ,cochino ,roto1 
in a spot where the river has scooped   
itself a new bed1 we passed the night on
 a bare and very extensive strand4 ,the 
forest being impenetrable1 we had the   
greatest difficulty to find dry wood to 
light fires1 near which the ,indians    
believe themselves in safety from the   
nocturnal attacks of the tiger4 ,our own
 experience seems to bear testimony in  
favour of this opinion2 but ,azara      

asserts that1 in his time1 a tiger in   
,paraguay carried off a man who was     
seated near a fire lighted in the       
savannah4  ,the night was calm and      
serene1 and there was a beautiful       
moonlight4 ,the crocodiles1 stretched   
along the shore1 placed themselves in   
such a manner as to be able to see the  
fire4 ,we thought we observed that its  
blaze attracted them1 as it attracts    
fishes1 crayfish1 and other inhabitants 
of the water4 ,the ,indians showed us   
the tracks of three tigers in the sand1 
two of which were very young4 ,a female 
had no doubt conducted her little ones  
to drink at the river4 ,finding no tree 
on the strand1 we stuck our oars in the 
ground1 and to these we fastened our    
hammocks4 ,everything passed tranquilly 
till eleven at night2 and then a noise  
so terrific arose in the neighbouring   
forest1 that it was almost impossible to
 close our eyes4 ,amid the cries of so  
many wild beasts howling at once1 the   
,indians discriminated such only as were

 at intervals heard separately4 ,these  
were the little soft cries of the       
sapajous1 the moans of the alouate apes1
 the howlings of the jaguar and couguar1
 the peccary1 and the sloth1 and the    
cries of the curassao1 the parraka1 and 
other gallinaceous birds4 ,when the     
jaguars approached the skirt of the     
forest1 our dog1 which till then had    
never ceased barking1 began to howl and 
seek for shelter beneath our hammocks4  
,sometimes1 after a long silence1 the   
cry of the tiger came from the tops of  
the trees2 and then it was followed by  
the sharp and long whistling of the     
monkeys1 which appeared to flee from the
 danger that threatened them4 ,we heard 
the same noises repeated1 during the    
course of whole months1 whenever the    
forest approached the bed of the river4 
,the security evinced by the ,indians   
inspires confidence in the minds of     
travellers1 who readily persuade        
themselves that the tigers are afraid of
 fire1 and that they do not attack a man

 lying in his hammock4 ,these attacks   
are in fact extremely rare2 and1 during 
a long abode in ,south ,america1 ,i     
remember only one example1 of a llanero1
 who was found mutilated in his hammock 
opposite the island of ,achaguas4  ,when
 the natives are interrogated on the    
causes of the tremendous noise made by  
the beasts of the forest at certain     
hours of the night1 the answer is1 ,they
 are keeping the feast of the full moon4
  ,i believe this agitation is most     
frequently the effect of some conflict  
that has arisen in the depths of the    
forest4 ,the jaguars1 for instance1     
pursue the peccaries and the tapirs1    
which1 having no defence but in their   
numbers1 flee in close troops1 and break
 down the bushes they find in their way4
 ,terrified at this struggle1 the timid 
and mistrustful monkeys answer1 from the
 tops of the trees1 the cries of the    
large animals4 ,they awaken the birds   
that live in society1 and by degrees the
 whole assembly is in commotion4 ,it is 

not always in a fine moonlight1 but more
 particularly at the time of a storm and
 violent showers1 that this tumult takes
 place among the wild beasts4 ,may      
,heaven grant them a quiet night and    
repose1 and us also6 said the monk who  
accompanied us to the ,rio ,negro1 when1
 sinking with fatigue1 he assisted in   
arranging our accommodations for the    
night4 ,it was indeed strange1 to find  
no silence in the solitude of woods4 ,in
 the inns of ,spain we dread the sound  
of guitars from the next apartment2 on  
the ,orinoco1 where the traveller's     
resting-place is the open beach1 or     
beneath the shelter of a solitary tree1 
his slumbers are disturbed by a serenade
 from the forest4  ,we set sail before  
sunrise1 on the #bnd of ,april4 ,the    
morning was beautiful and cool1         
according to the feelings of those who  
are accustomed to the heat of these     
climates4 ,the thermometer rose only to 
#bh degrees in the air1 but the dry and 
white sand of the beach1 notwithstanding

 its radiation towards a cloudless sky1 
retained a temperature of #cf degrees4  
,the porpoises 7toninas7 ploughed the   
river in long files4 ,the shore was     
covered with fishing-birds4 ,some of    
these perched on the floating wood as it
 passed down the river1 and surprised   
the fish that preferred the middle of   
the stream4 ,our canoe was aground      
several times during the morning4 ,these
 shocks are sufficiently violent to     
split a light bark4 ,we struck on the   
points of several large trees1 which    
remain for years in an oblique position1
 sunk in the mud4 ,these trees descend  
from ,sarare1 at the period of great    
inundations1 and they so fill the bed of
 the river1 that canoes in going up find
 it difficult sometimes to make their   
way over the shoals1 or wherever there  
are eddies4 ,we reached a spot near the 
island of ,carizales1 where we saw      
trunks of the locust-tree1 of an        
enormous size1 above the surface of the 
water4 ,they were covered with a species

 of plotus1 nearly resembling the       
anhinga1 or white bellied darter4 ,these
 birds perch in files1 like pheasants   
and parrakas1 and they remain for hours 
entirely motionless1 with their beaks   
raised toward the sky4  ,below the      
island of ,carizales we observed a      
diminution of the waters of the river1  
at which we were the more surprised1 as1
 after the bifurcation at la ,boca de   
,arichuna1 there is no branch1 no       
natural drain1 which takes away water   
from the ,apure4 ,the loss is solely the
 effect of evaporation1 and of          
filtration on a sandy and wet shore4    
,some idea of the magnitude of these    
effects may be formed1 from the fact    
that we found the heat of the dry sands1
 at different hours of the day1 from #cf
 to #eb degrees1 and that of sands      
covered with three or four inches of    
water #cb degrees4 ,the beds of rivers  
are heated as far as the depth to which 
the solar rays can penetrate without    
undergoing too great an extinction in   

their passage through the superincumbent
 strata of water4 ,besides1 filtration  
extends in a lateral direction far      
beyond the bed of the river4 ,the shore1
 which appears dry to us1 imbibes water 
as far up as to the level of the surface
 of the river4 ,we saw water gush out at
 the distance of fifty toises from the  
shore1 every time that the ,indians     
struck their oars into the ground4 ,now 
these sands1 wet below1 but dry above1  
and exposed to the solar rays1 act like 
sponges1 and lose the infiltrated water 
every instant by evaporation4 ,the      
vapour that is emitted1 traverses the   
upper stratum of sand strongly heated1  
and becomes sensible to the eye when the
 air cools towards evening4 ,as the     
beach dries1 it draws from the river new
 portions of water2 and it may be easily
 conceived that this continual          
alternation of vaporization and lateral 
absorption must cause an immense loss1  
difficult to submit to exact            
calculation4 ,the increase of these     

losses would be in proportion to the    
length of the course of the rivers1 if  
from their source to their mouth they   
were equally surrounded by a flat shore2
 but these shores being formed by       
deposits from the water1 and the water  
having less velocity in proportion as it
 is more remote from its source1        
throwing down more sediment in the lower
 than in the upper part of its course1  
many rivers in hot climates undergo a   
diminution in the quantity of their     
water1 as they approach their outlets4  
,mr4 ,barrow observed these curious     
effects of sands in the southern part of
 ,africa1 on the banks of the ,orange   
,river4 ,they have also become the      
subject of a very important discussion1 
in the various hypotheses that have been
 formed respecting the course of the    
,niger499 799 ,geographers supposed1 for
 a long period1 that the ,niger was     
entirely absorbed by the sands1 and     
evaporated by the heat of the tropical  
sun1 as no embouchure could be found on 

the western coast of ,africa to meet the
 requirements of so enormous a river4   
,it was discovered1 however1 by the     
,landers1 in #ahcj1 that it does really 
flow into the ,atlantic2 yet the cause  
mentioned above is so powerful1 that of 
all the numerous branches into which it 
separates at its mouth1 only one 7the   
,nun ,river7 is navigable even for light
 ships1 and for half the year even those
 are unable to enter47  ,near the       
,vuelta de ,basilio1 where we landed to 
collect plants1 we saw on the top of a  
tree two beautiful little monkeys1 black
 as jet1 of the size of the sai1 with   
prehensile tails4 ,their physiognomy and
 their movements sufficiently showed    
that they were neither the quato 7,simia
 beelzebub7 nor the chamek1 nor any of  
the ,ateles4 ,our ,indians themselves   
had never seen any that resembled them4 
,monkeys1 especially those living in    
troops1 make long emigrations at certain
 periods1 and consequently it happens   
that at the beginning of the rainy      

seasons the natives discover round their
 huts different kinds which they have   
not before observed4 ,on this same bank 
our guides showed us a nest of young    
iguanas only four inches long4 ,it was  
difficult to distinguish them from      
common lizards4 ,there was no           
distinguishing mark yet formed but the  
dewlap below the throat4 ,the dorsal    
spines1 the large erect scales1 all     
those appendages that render the iguana 
so remarkable when it attains its full  
growth1 were scarcely traceable4  ,the  
flesh of this animal of the saurian     
family appeared to us to have an        
agreeable taste in every country where  
the climate is very dry2 we even found  
it so at periods when we were not in    
want of other food4 ,it is extremely    
white1 and next to the flesh of the     
armadillo1 one of the best kinds of food
 to be found in the huts of the natives4
  ,it rained toward evening1 and before 
the rain fell1 swallows1 exactly        
resembling our own1 skimmed over the    

surface of the water4 ,we saw also a    
flock of paroquets pursued by little    
goshawks without crests4 ,the piercing  
cries of these paroquets contrasted     
singularly with the whistling of the    
birds of prey4 ,we passed the night in  
the open air1 upon the beach1 near the  
island of ,carizales4 ,there were       
several ,indian huts in the             
neighbourhood1 surrounded with          
plantations4 ,our pilot assured us      
beforehand that we should not hear the  
cries of the jaguar1 which1 when not    
extremely pressed by hunger1 withdraws  
from places where he does not reign     
unmolested4 ,men put him out of humour  
7los hombres lo enfadan71 say the people
 in the ,missions4 ,a pleasant and      
simple expression1 that marks a         
well-observed fact4  ,since our         
departure from ,san ,fernando we had not
 met a single boat on this fine river4  
,everything denoted the most profound   
solitude4 ,on the morning of the #crd of
 ,april our ,indians caught with a hook 

the fish known in the country by the    
name of caribe199 799 ,caribe in the    
,spanish language signifies cannibal47  
or caribito1 because no other fish has  
such a thirst for blood4 ,it attacks    
bathers and swimmers1 from whom it often
 bites away considerable pieces of      
flesh4 ,the ,indians dread extremely    
these caribes2 and several of them      
showed us the scars of deep wounds in   
the calf of the leg and in the thigh1   
made by these little animals4 ,they swim
 at the bottom of rivers2 but if a few  
drops of blood be shed on the water1    
they rise by thousands to the surface1  
so that if a person be only slightly    
bitten1 it is difficult for him to get  
out of the water without receiving a    
severer wound4 ,when we reflect on the  
numbers of these fish1 the largest and  
most voracious of which are only four or
 five inches long1 on the triangular    
form of their sharp and cutting teeth1  
and on the amplitude of their retractile
 mouths1 we need not be surprised at the

 fear which the caribe excites in the   
inhabitants of the banks of the ,apure  
and the ,orinoco4 ,in places where the  
river was very limpid1 where not a fish 
appeared1 we threw into the water little
 morsels of raw flesh1 and in a few     
minutes a perfect cloud of caribes had  
come to dispute their prey4 ,the belly  
of this fish has a cutting edge1        
indented like a saw1 a characteristic   
which may be also traced in the         
serra-salmes1 the myletes1 and the      
pristigastres4 ,the presence of a second
 adipous dorsal fin1 and the form of the
 teeth1 covered by lips distant from    
each other1 and largest in the lower    
jaw1 place the caribe among the         
serra-salmes4 ,its mouth is much wider  
than that of the myletes of ,cuvier4    
,its body1 toward the back1 is          
ash-coloured with a tint of green1 but  
the belly1 the gill-covers1 and the     
pectoral1 anal1 and ventral fins1 are of
 a fine orange hue4 ,three species are  
known in the ,orinoco1 and are          

distinguished by their size4 ,the       
intermediate appears to be identical    
with the medium species of the piraya1  
or piranha1 of ,marcgrav499 799 ,salmo  
rhombeus1 ,linn47 ,the caribito has a   
very agreeable flavour4 ,as no one dares
 to bathe where it is found1 it may be  
considered as one of the greatest       
scourges of those climates1 in which the
 sting of the mosquitos and the general 
irritation of the skin render the use of
 baths so necessary4  ,we stopped at    
noon in a desert spot called ,algodonal4
 ,i left my companions while they drew  
the boat ashore and were occupied in    
preparing our dinner4 ,i went along the 
beach to get a near view of a group of  
crocodiles sleeping in the sun1 and     
lying in such a manner as to have their 
tails1 which were furnished with broad  
plates1 resting on one another4 ,some   
little herons199 white as snow1 walked  
along their backs1 and even upon their  
heads1 as if passing over trunks of     
trees4 799 ,garzon chico4 ,it is        

believed1 in ,upper ,egypt1 that herons 
have an affection for crocodiles1       
because they take advantage in fishing  
of the terror that monstrous animal     
causes among the fishes1 which he drives
 from the bottom to the surface of the  
water2 but on the banks of the ,nile1   
the heron keeps prudently at some       
distance from the crocodile47 ,the      
crocodiles were of a greenish grey1 half
 covered with dried mud2 from their     
colour and immobility they might have   
been taken for statues of bronze4 ,this 
excursion had nearly proved fatal to me4
 ,i had kept my eyes constantly turned  
towards the river2 but1 whilst picking  
up some spangles of mica agglomerated   
together in the sand1 ,i discovered the 
recent footsteps of a tiger1 easily     
distinguishable from their form and     
size4 ,the animal had gone towards the  
forest1 and turning my eyes on that     
side1 ,i found myself within eighty     
paces of a jaguar that was lying under  
the thick foliage of a ceiba4 ,no tiger 

had ever appeared to me so large4       
,there are accidents in life against    
which we may seek in vain to fortify our
 reason4 ,i was extremely alarmed1 yet  
sufficiently master of myself and of my 
motions to enable me to follow the      
advice which the ,indians had so often  
given us as to how we ought to act in   
such cases4 ,i continued to walk on     
without running1 avoided moving my arms1
 and ,i thought ,i observed that the    
jaguar's attention was fixed on a herd  
of capybaras which was crossing the     
river4 ,i then began to return1 making a
 large circuit toward the edge of the   
water4 ,as the distance increased1 ,i   
thought ,i might accelerate my pace4    
,how often was ,i tempted to look back  
in order to assure myself that ,i was   
not pursued6 ,happily ,i yielded very   
tardily to this desire4 ,the jaguar had 
remained motionless4 ,these enormous    
cats with spotted robes are so well fed 
in countries abounding in capybaras1    
pecaries1 and deer1 that they rarely    

attack men4 ,i arrived at the boat out  
of breath1 and related my adventure to  
the ,indians4 ,they appeared very little
 interested by my story2 yet1 after     
having loaded our guns1 they accompanied
 us to the ceiba beneath which the      
jaguar had lain4 ,he was there no       
longer1 and it would have been imprudent
 to have pursued him into the forest1   
where we must have dispersed1 or        
advanced in single file1 amidst the     
intertwining lianas4  ,in the evening we
 passed the mouth of the ,cano del      
,manati1 thus named on account of the   
immense quantity of manatees caught     
there every year4 ,this herbivorous     
animal of the cetaceous family1 is      
called by the ,indians apcia and avia199
 and it attains here generally ten or   
twelve feet in length4 799 ,the first of
 these words belongs to the ,tamanac    
language1 and the second to the         
,ottomac4 ,father ,gili proves1 in      
opposition to ,oviedo1 that manati 7fish
 with hands7 is not ,spanish1 but       

belongs to the languages of ,hayti 7,st4
 ,domingo7 and the ,maypures4 ,i believe
 also that1 according to the genius of  
the ,spanish tongue1 the animal would   
have been called manudo or manon1 but   
not manati47 ,it usually weighs from    
five hundred to eight hundred pounds1   
but it is asserted that one has been    
taken of eight thousand pounds weight4  
,the manatee abounds in the ,orinoco    
below the cataracts1 in the ,rio ,meta1 
and in the ,apure1 between the two      
islands of ,carizales and ,conserva4 ,we
 found no vestiges of nails on the      
external surface or the edges of the    
fins1 which are quite smooth2 but little
 rudiments of nails appear at the third 
phalanx1 when the skin of the fins is   
taken off4 ,we dissected one of these   
animals1 which was nine feet long1 at   
,carichana1 a ,mission of the ,orinoco4 
,the upper lip was four inches longer   
than the lower one4 ,it was covered with
 a very fine skin1 and served as a      
proboscis4 ,the inside of the mouth1    

which has a sensible warmth in an animal
 newly killed1 presented a very singular
 conformation4 ,the tongue was almost   
motionless2 but in front of the tongue  
there was a fleshy excrescence in each  
jaw1 and a cavity lined with a very hard
 skin1 into which the excrescence       
fitted4 ,the manatee eats such          
quantities of grass1 that we have found 
its stomach1 which is divided into      
several cavities1 and its intestines1   
7one hundred and eight feet long17      
filled with it4 ,on opening the animal  
at the back1 we were struck with the    
magnitude1 form1 and situation of its   
lungs4 ,they have very large cells1 and 
resemble immense swimming-bladders4     
,they are three feet long4 ,filled with 
air1 they have a bulk of more than a    
thousand cubic inches4 ,i was surprised 
to see that1 possessing such            
considerable receptacles for air1 the   
manatee comes so often to the surface of
 the water to breathe4 ,its flesh is    
very savoury1 though1 from what         

prejudice ,i know not1 it is considered 
unwholesome and apt to produce fever4   
,it appeared to me to resemble pork     
rather than beef4 ,it is most esteemed  
by the ,guamos and the ,ottomacs2 and   
these two nations are particularly      
expert in catching the manatee4 ,its    
flesh1 when salted and dried in the sun1
 can be preserved a whole year2 and1 as 
the clergy regard this mammiferous      
animal as a fish1 it is much sought     
during ,lent4 ,the vital principal is   
singularly strong in the manatee2 it is 
tied after being harpooned1 but is not  
killed till it has been taken into the  
canoe4 ,this is effected1 when the      
animal is very large1 in the middle of  
the river1 by filling the canoe         
two-thirds with water1 sliding it under 
the animal1 and then baling out the     
water by means of a calabash4 ,this     
fishery is most easy after great        
inundations1 when the manatee has passed
 from the great rivers into the lakes   
and surrounding marshes1 and the waters 

diminish rapidly4 ,at the period when   
the ,jesuits governed the ,missions of  
the ,lower ,orinoco1 they assembled     
every year at ,cabruta1 below the mouth 
of the ,apure1 to have a grand fishing  
for manatees1 with the ,indians of their
 ,missions1 at the foot of the mountain 
now called ,el ,capuchino4 ,the fat of  
the animal1 known by the name of        
manatee-butter 7manteca de manati17 is  
used for lamps in the churches2 and is  
also employed in preparing food4 ,it has
 not the fetid smell of whale-oil1 or   
that of the other cetaceous animals     
which spout water4 ,the hide of the     
manati1 which is more than an inch and a
 half thick1 is cut into slips1 and     
serves1 like thongs of ox-leather1 to   
supply the place of cordage in the      
,llanos4 ,when immersed in water1 it has
 the defect of undergoing a slight      
degree of putrefaction4 ,whips are made 
of it in the ,spanish colonies4 ,hence  
the words latigo and manati are         
synonymous4 ,these whips of             

manatee-leather are a cruel instrument  
of punishment for the unhappy slaves1   
and even for the ,indians of the        
,missions1 though1 according to the     
laws1 the latter ought to be treated    
like freemen4  ,we passed the night     
opposite the island of ,conserva4 ,in   
skirting the forest we were surprised by
 the sight of an enormous trunk of a    
tree seventy feet high1 and thickly set 
with branching thorns4 ,it is called by 
the natives barba de tigre4 ,it was     
perhaps a tree of the berberideous      
family499 799 ,we found1 on the banks of
 the ,apure1 ,ammania apurensis1 ,cordia
 cordifolia1 ,c4 grandiflora1 ,mollugo  
sperguloides1 ,myosotis lithospermoides1
 ,spermacocce diffusa1 ,coronilla       
occidentalis1 ,bignonia apurensis1      
,pisonia pubescens1 ,ruellia viscosa1   
some new species of ,jussieua1 and a new
 genus of the composite family1         
approximating to ,rolandra1 the         
,trichospira menthoides of ,m4 ,kunth47 
,the ,indians had kindled fires at the  

edge of the water4 ,we again perceived  
that their light attracted the          
crocodiles1 and even the porpoises      
7toninas71 the noise of which           
interrupted our sleep1 till the fire was
 extinguished4 ,a female jaguar         
approached our station whilst taking her
 young one to drink at the river4 ,the  
,indians succeeded in chasing her away1 
but we heard for a long time the cries  
of the little jaguar1 which mewed like a
 young cat4 ,soon after1 our great dog  
was bitten1 or1 as the ,indians say1    
stung1 at the point of the nose1 by some
 enormous bats that hovered around our  
hammocks4 ,these bats had long tails1   
like the ,molosses3 ,i believe1 however1
 that they were ,phyllostomes1 the      
tongue of which1 furnished with         
papillae1 is an organ of suction1 and is
 capable of being considerably          
elongated4 ,the dog's wound was very    
small and round2 and though he uttered a
 plaintive cry when he felt himself     
bitten1 it was not from pain1 but       

because he was frightened at the sight  
of the bats1 which came out from beneath
 our hammocks4 ,these accidents are much
 more rare than is believed even in the 
country itself4 ,in the course of       
several years1 notwithstanding we slept 
so often in the open air1 in climates   
where vampire-bats199 799 ,verspertilio 
spectrum47 and other analogous species  
are so common1 we were never wounded4   
,besides1 the puncture is no-way        
dangerous1 and in general causes so     
little pain1 that it often does not     
awaken the person till after the bat has
 withdrawn4  ,the #dth of ,april was the
 last day we passed on the ,rio ,apure4 
,the vegetation of its banks became more
 and more uniform4 ,during several days1
 and particularly since we had left the 
,mission of ,arichuna1 we had suffered  
cruelly from the stings of insects1     
which covered our faces and hands4 ,they
 were not mosquitos1 which have the     
appearance of little flies1 or of the   
genus ,simulium1 but zancudos1 which are

 really gnats1 though very different    
from our ,european species499 799 ,m4   
,latreille has discovered that the      
mosquitos of ,south ,carolina are of the
 genus ,simulium 7,atractocera meigen47 
,these insects appear only after sunset4
 ,their proboscis is so long that1 when 
they fix on the lower surface of a      
hammock1 they pierce through it and the 
thickest garments with their sting4  ,we
 had intended to pass the night at the  
,vuelta del ,palmito1 but the number of 
jaguars at that part of the ,apure is so
 great1 that our ,indians found two     
hidden behind the trunk of a            
locust-tree1 at the moment when they    
were going to sling our hammocks4 ,we   
were advised to re-embark1 and take our 
station in the island of ,apurito1 near 
its junction with the ,orinoco4 ,that   
portion of the island belongs to the    
province of ,caracas1 while the right   
banks of the ,apure and the ,orinoco    
form a part1 the one of the province of 
,varinas1 the other of ,spanish ,guiana4

 ,we found no trees to which we could   
suspend our hammocks1 and were obliged  
to sleep on ox-hides spread on the      
ground4 ,the boats were too narrow and  
too full of zancudos to permit us to    
pass the night in them4  ,in the place  
where we had landed our instruments1 the
 banks being steep1 we saw new proofs of
 the indolence of the gallinaceous birds
 of the tropics4 ,the curassaos and     
cashew-birds99 have the habit of going  
down several times a day to the river to
 allay their thirst4 799 ,the latter    
7,crax pauxi7 is less common than the   
former47 ,they drink a great deal1 and  
at short intervals4 ,a vast number of   
these birds had joined1 near our        
station1 a flock of parraka pheasants4  
,they had great difficulty in climbing  
up the steep banks2 they attempted it   
several times without using their wings4
 ,we drove them before us1 as if we had 
been driving sheep4 ,the zamuro vultures
 raise themselves from the ground with  
great reluctance4  ,we were singularly  

struck at the small quantity of water   
which the ,rio ,apure furnishes at this 
season to the ,orinoco4 ,the ,apure1    
which1 according to my measurements1 was
 still one hundred and thirty-six toises
 broad at the ,cano ,rico1 was only     
sixty or eighty at its mouth499 799 ,not
 quite so broad as the ,seine at the    
,pont ,royal1 opposite the palace of the
 ,tuileries1 and a little more than half
 the width of the ,thames at            
,westminster ,bridge47 ,its depth here  
was only three or four toises4 ,it      
loses1 no doubt1 a part of its waters by
 the ,rio ,arichuna and the ,cano del   
,manati1 two branches of the ,apure that
 flow into the ,payara and the ,guarico2
 but its greatest loss appears to be    
caused by filtrations on the beach1 of  
which we have before spoken4 ,the       
velocity of the ,apure near its mouth   
was only #c4b feet per second2 so that  
,i could easily have calculated the     
whole quantity of the water if ,i had   
taken1 by a series of proximate         

soundings1 the whole dimensions of the  
transverse section4  ,we touched several
 times on shoals before we entered the  
,orinoco4 ,the ground gained from the   
water is immense towards the confluence 
of the two rivers4 ,we were obliged to  
be towed along by the bank4 ,what a     
contrast between this state of the river
 immediately before the entrance of the 
rainy season1 when all the effects of   
dryness of the air and of evaporation   
have attained their maximum1 and that   
autumnal state when the ,apure1 like an 
arm of the sea1 covers the savannahs as 
far as the eye can reach6 ,we discerned 
towards the south the lonely hills of   
,coruato2 while to the east the granite 
rocks of ,curiquima1 the ,sugar ,loaf of
 ,caycara1 and the mountains of the     
,tyrant99 7,cerros del ,tirano7 began to
 rise on the horizon4 799 ,this name    
alludes1 no doubt1 to the expedition of 
,antonio ,sedeno4 ,the port of ,caycara1
 opposite ,cabruta1 still bears the name
 of that ,conquistador47 ,it was not    

without emotion that we beheld for the  
first time1 after long expectation1 the 
waters of the ,orinoco1 at a point so   
distant from the coast4   ,,chapter     
#b4ai4  ,,junction ,,of ,,the ,,apure   
,,and ,,the ,,orinoco4 ,,mountains ,,of 
,,encaramada4 ,,uruana4 ,,baraguan4     
,,carichana4 ,,mouth ,,of ,,the ,,meta4 
,,island ,,of ,,panumana4  ,on leaving  
the ,rio ,apure we found ourselves in a 
country presenting a totally different  
aspect4 ,an immense plain of water      
stretched before us like a lake1 as far 
as we could see4 ,white-topped waves    
rose to the height of several feet1 from
 the conflict of the breeze and the     
current4 ,the air resounded no longer   
with the piercing cries of herons1      
flamingos1 and spoonbills1 crossing in  
long files from one shore to the other4 
,our eyes sought in vain those          
waterfowls1 the habits of which vary in 
each tribe4 ,all nature appeared less   
animated4 ,scarcely could we discover in
 the hollows of the waves a few large   

crocodiles1 cutting obliquely1 by the   
help of their long tails1 the surface of
 the agitated waters4 ,the horizon was  
bounded by a zone of forests1 which     
nowhere reached so far as the bed of the
 river4 ,a vast beach1 constantly       
parched by the heat of the sun1 desert  
and bare as the shores of the sea1      
resembled at a distance1 from the effect
 of the mirage1 pools of stagnant water4
 ,these sandy shores1 far from fixing   
the limits of the river1 render them    
uncertain1 by enlarging or contracting  
them alternately1 according to the      
variable action of the solar rays4  ,in 
these scattered features of the         
landscape1 in this character of solitude
 and of greatness1 we recognize the     
course of the ,orinoco1 one of the most 
majestic rivers of the ,new ,world4 ,the
 water1 like the land1 displays         
everywhere a characteristic and peculiar
 aspect4 ,the bed of the ,orinoco       
resembles not the bed of the ,meta1 the 
,guaviare1 the ,rio ,negro1 or the      

,amazon4 ,these differences do not      
depend altogether on the breadth or the 
velocity of the current2 they are       
connected with a multitude of           
impressions which it is easier to       
perceive upon the spot than to define   
with precision4 ,thus1 the mere form of 
the waves1 the tint of the waters1 the  
aspect of the sky and the clouds1 would 
lead an experienced navigator to guess  
whether he were in the ,atlantic1 in the
 ,mediterranean1 or in the equinoctial  
part of the ,pacific4  ,the wind blew   
fresh from east-north-east4 ,its        
direction was favourable for sailing up 
the ,orinoco1 towards the ,mission of   
,encaramada2 but our canoes were so ill 
calculated to resist the shocks of the  
waves1 that1 from the violence of the   
motion1 those who suffered habitually at
 sea were equally incommoded on the     
river4 ,the short1 broken waves are     
caused by the conflict of the waters at 
the junction of the two rivers4 ,this   
conflict is very violent1 but far from  

being so dangerous as ,father ,gumilla  
describes4 ,we passed the ,punta        
,curiquima1 which is an isolated mass of
 quartzose granite1 a small promontory  
composed of rounded blocks4 ,there1 on  
the right bank of the ,orinoco1 ,father 
,rotella founded1 in the time of the    
,jesuits1 a ,mission of the ,palenka and
 ,viriviri or ,guire ,indians4 ,but     
during inundations1 the rock ,curiquima 
and the village at its foot were        
entirely surrounded by water2 and this  
serious inconvenience1 together with the
 sufferings of the missionaries and     
,indians from the innumerable quantity  
of mosquitos and niguas199 led them to  
forsake this humid spot4 799 ,the chego 
7,pulex penetrans7 which penetrates     
under the nails of the toe in men and   
monkeys1 and there deposits its eggs47  
,it is now entirely deserted1 while     
opposite to it1 on the right bank of the
 river1 the little mountains of ,coruato
 are the retreat of wandering ,indians1 
expelled either from the ,missions1 or  

from tribes that are not subject to the 
government of the monks4  ,struck with  
the extreme breadth of the ,orinoco1    
between the mouth of the ,apure and the 
rock ,curiquima1 ,i ascertained it by   
means of a base measured twice on the   
western beach4 ,the bed of the ,orinoco1
 at low water1 was #aijf toises broad2  
but this breadth increases to #eeag     
toises1 when1 in the rainy season1 the  
rock ,curiquima1 and the farm of        
,capuchino near the hill of ,pocopocori1
 become islands4 ,the swelling of the   
,orinoco is augmented by the impulse of 
the waters of the ,apure1 which1 far    
from forming1 like other rivers1 an     
acute angle with the upper part of that 
into which it flows1 meets it at right  
angles4  ,we first proceeded south-west1
 as far as the shore inhabited by the   
,guaricoto ,indians on the left bank of 
the ,orinoco1 and then we advanced      
straight toward the south4 ,the river is
 so broad that the mountains of         
,encaramada appear to rise from the     

water1 as if seen above the horizon of  
the sea4 ,they form a continued chain   
from east to west4 ,these mountains are 
composed of enormous blocks of granite1 
cleft and piled one upon another4 ,their
 division into blocks is the effect of  
decomposition4 ,what contributes above  
all to embellish the scene at           
,encaramada is the luxuriance of        
vegetation that covers the sides of the 
rocks1 leaving bare only their rounded  
summits4 ,they look like ancient ruins  
rising in the midst of a forest4 ,the   
mountain immediately at the back of the 
,mission1 the ,tepupano99 of the        
,tamanac ,indians is terminated by three
 enormous granitic cylinders1 two of    
which are inclined1 while the third1    
though worn at its base1 and more than  
eighty feet high1 has preserved a       
vertical position4 799 ,tepu-pano1 place
 of stones1 in which we recognize tepu  
stone1 rock1 as in tepu-iri1 mountain4  
,we here perceive that ,lesgian         
,oigour-,tartar root tep1 stone 7found  

in ,america among the ,americans1 in    
teptl2 among the ,caribs1 in tebou2     
among the ,tamanacs1 in tepuiri72 a     
striking analogy between the languages  
of ,caucasus and ,upper ,asia and those 
of the banks of the ,orinoco47 ,this    
rock1 which calls to mind the form of   
the ,schnarcher in the ,hartz mountains1
 or that of the ,organs of ,actopan in  
,mexico199 composed formerly a part of  
the rounded summit of the mountain4 799 
,in ,captain ,tuckey's ,voyage on the   
river ,congo1 we find represented a     
granitic rock1 ,taddi ,enzazi1 which    
bears a striking resemblance to the     
mountain of ,encaramada47 ,in every     
climate1 unstratified granite separates 
by decomposition into blocks of         
prismatic1 cylindric1 or columnar       
figures4  ,opposite the shore of the    
,guaricotos1 we drew near another heap  
of rocks1 which is very low1 and three  
or four toises long4 ,it rises in the   
midst of the plain1 and has less        
resemblance to a tumulus than to those  

masses of granitic stone1 which in      
,north ,holland and ,germany bear the   
name of hunenbette1 beds 7or tombs7 of  
heroes4 ,the shore1 at this part of the 
,orinoco1 is no longer of pure and      
quartzose sand2 but is composed of clay 
and spangles of mica1 deposited in very 
thin strata1 and generally at an        
inclination of forty or fifty degrees4  
,it looks like decomposed mica-slate4   
,this change in the geological          
configuration of the shore extends far  
beyond the mouth of the ,apure4 ,we had 
begun to observe it in this latter river
 as far off as ,algodonal and the ,cano 
del ,manati4 ,the spangles of mica come1
 no doubt1 from the granite mountains of
 ,curiquima and ,encaramada2 since      
further north-east we find only         
quartzose sand1 sandstone1 compact      
limestone1 and gypsum4 ,alluvial earth  
carried successively from south to north
 need not surprise us in the ,orinoco2  
but to what shall we attribute the same 
phenomenon in the bed of the ,apure1    

seven leagues west of its mouth8 ,in the
 present state of things1               
notwithstanding the swellings of the    
,orinoco1 the waters of the ,apure never
 retrograde so far2 and1 to explain this
 phenomenon1 we are forced to admit that
 the micaceous strata were deposited at 
a time when the whole of the very low   
country lying between ,caycara1         
,algodonal1 and the mountains of        
,encaramada1 formed the basin of an     
inland lake4  ,we stopped some time at  
the port of ,encaramada1 which is a sort
 of embarcadero1 a place where boats    
assemble4 ,a rock of forty or fifty feet
 high forms the shore4 ,it is composed  
of blocks of granite1 heaped one upon   
another1 as at the ,schneeberg in       
,franconia1 and in almost all the       
granitic mountains of ,europe4 ,some of 
these detached masses have a spheroidal 
form2 they are not balls with concentric
 layers1 but merely rounded blocks1     
nuclei separated from their envelopes by
 the effect of decomposition4 ,this     

granite is of a greyish lead-colour1    
often black1 as if covered with oxide of
 manganese2 but this colour does not    
penetrate one fifth of a line into the  
rock1 which is of a reddish white colour
 within1 coarse-grained1 and destitute  
of hornblende4  ,the ,indian names of   
the ,mission of ,san ,luis del          
,encaramada1 are ,guaja and ,caramana499
 799 ,all the ,missions of ,south       
,america have names composed of two     
words1 the first of which is necessarily
 the name of a saint1 the patron of the 
church1 and the second an ,indian name1 
that of the nation1 or the spot where   
the establishment is placed4 ,thus we   
say1 ,san ,jose de ,maypures1 ,santa    
,cruz de ,cachipo1 ,san ,juan           
,nepomuceno de los ,atures1 etc4 ,these 
compound names appear only in official  
documents2 the ,inhabitants adopt but   
one of the two names1 and generally1    
provided it be sonorous1 the ,indian4   
,as the names of saints are several     
times repeated in neighbouring places1  

great confusion in geography arises from
 these repetitions4 ,the names of ,san  
,juan1 ,san ,diego1 and ,san ,pedro1 are
 scattered in our maps as if by chance4 
,it is pretended that the ,mission of   
,guaja affords a very rare example of   
the composition of two ,spanish words4  
,the word ,encaramada means things      
raised one upon another1 from encaramar1
 to raise up4 ,it is derived from the   
figure of ,tepupano and the neighbouring
 rocks3 perhaps it is only an ,indian   
word caramana1 in which1 as in manati1 a
 ,spanish signification was believed to 
be discovered47 ,this small village was 
founded in #agdi by ,father ,gili1 the  
,jesuit1 author of the ,storia dell'    
,orinoco1 published at ,rome4 ,this     
missionary1 learned in the ,indian      
tongues1 lived in these solitudes during
 eighteen years1 till the expulsion of  
the ,jesuits4 ,to form a precise idea of
 the savage state of these countries it 
must be recollected that ,father ,gili  
speaks of ,carichana199 which is forty  

leagues from ,encaramada1 as of a spot  
far distant2 and that he never advanced 
so far as the first cataract in the     
river of which he ventured to undertake 
the description4 799 ,saggio di ,storia 
,americana volume #a page #abb47  ,in   
the port of ,encaramada we met with some
 ,caribs of ,panapana4 ,a cacique was   
going up the ,orinoco in his canoe1 to  
join in the famous fishing of turtles'  
eggs4 ,his canoe was rounded toward the 
bottom like a bongo1 and followed by a  
smaller boat called a curiara4 ,he was  
seated beneath a sort of tent1          
constructed1 like the sail1 of          
palm-leaves4 ,his cold and silent       
gravity1 the respect with which he was  
treated by his attendants1 everything   
denoted him to be a person of           
importance4 ,he was equipped1 however1  
in the same manner as his ,indians4     
,they were all equally naked1 armed with
 bows and arrows1 and painted with      
onoto1 which is the colouring fecula of 
the ,bixa orellana4 ,the chief1 the     

domestics1 the furniture1 the boat1 and 
the sail1 were all painted red4 ,these  
,caribs are men of an almost athletic   
stature2 they appeared to us much taller
 than any ,indians we had hitherto seen4
 ,their smooth and thick hair1 cut short
 on the forehead like that of           
choristers1 their eyebrows painted      
black1 their look at once gloomy and    
animated1 gave a singular expression to 
their countenances4 ,having till then   
seen only the skulls of some ,caribs of 
the ,west ,india ,islands preserved in  
the collections of ,europe1 we were     
surprised to find that these ,indians1  
who were of pure race1 had foreheads    
much more rounded than they are         
described4 ,the women1 who were very    
tall1 and disgusting from their want of 
cleanliness1 carried their infants on   
their backs4 ,the thighs and legs of the
 infants were bound at certain distances
 by broad strips of cotton cloth1 and   
the flesh1 strongly compressed beneath  
the ligatures1 was swelled in the       

interstices4 ,it is generally to be     
observed1 that the ,caribs are as       
attentive to their exterior and their   
ornaments1 as it is possible for men to 
be1 who are naked and painted red4 ,they
 attach great importance to certain     
configurations of the body2 and a mother
 would be accused of culpable           
indifference toward her children1 if she
 did not employ artificial means to     
shape the calf of the leg after the     
fashion of the country4 ,as none of our 
,indians of ,apure understood the       
,caribbee language1 we could obtain no  
information from the cacique of ,panama 
respecting the encampments that are made
 at this season in several islands of   
the ,orinoco for collecting turtles'    
eggs4  ,near ,encaramada a very long    
island divides the river into two       
branches4 ,we passed the night in a     
rocky creek1 opposite the mouth of the  
,rio ,cabullare1 which is formed by the 
,payara and the ,atamaica1 and is       
sometimes considered as one of the      

branches of the ,apure1 because it      
communicates with that river by the ,rio
 ,arichuna4 ,the evening was beautiful4 
,the moon illumined the tops of the     
granite rocks4 ,the heat was so         
uniformly distributed1 that1            
notwithstanding the humidity of the air1
 no twinkling of the stars was          
observable1 even at four or five degrees
 above the horizon4 ,the light of the   
planets was singularly dimmed2 and if1  
on account of the smallness of the      
apparent diameter of ,jupiter1 ,i had   
not suspected some error in the         
observation1 ,i should say1 that here1  
for the first time1 we thought we       
distinguished the disk of ,jupiter with 
the naked eye4 ,towards midnight1 the   
north-east wind became extremely        
violent4 ,it brought no clouds1 but the 
vault of the sky was covered more and   
more with vapours4 ,strong gusts were   
felt1 and made us fear for the safety of
 our canoe4 ,during this whole day we   
had seen very few crocodiles1 but all of

 an extraordinary size1 from twenty to  
twenty-four feet4 ,the ,indians assured 
us that the young crocodiles prefer the 
marshes1 and the rivers that are less   
broad1 and less deep4 ,they crowd       
together particularly in the ,canos1 and
 we may say of them1 what ,abdallatif   
says of the crocodiles of the ,nile199  
that they swarm like worms in the       
shallow waters of the river1 and in the 
shelter of uninhabited islands4 799     
,description de l',egypte translated by 
,de ,sacy47  ,on the #fth of ,april1    
whilst continuing to ascend the         
,orinoco1 first southward and then to   
south-west1 we perceived the southern   
side of the ,serrania1 or chain of the  
mountains of ,encaramada4 ,the part     
nearest the river is only one hundred   
and forty or one hundred and sixty      
toises high2 but from its abrupt        
declivities1 its situation in the midst 
of a savannah1 and its rocky summits1   
cut into shapeless prisms1 the ,serrania
 appears singularly elevated4 ,its      

greatest breadth is only three leagues4 
,according to information given me by   
the ,indians of the ,pareka nation1 it  
is considerably wider toward the east4  
,the summits of ,encaramada form the    
northernmost link of a group of         
mountains which border the right bank of
 the ,orinoco1 between the latitudes of 
#e degrees and #g degrees #cj minutes   
from the mouth of the ,rio ,zama to that
 of the ,cabullare4 ,the different links
 into which this group is divided are   
separated by little grassy plains4 ,they
 do not preserve a direction perfectly  
parallel to each other2 for the most    
northern stretch from west to east1 and 
the most southern from north-west to    
south-east4 ,this change of direction   
sufficiently explains the increase of   
breadth observed in the ,cordillera of  
,parime towards the east1 between the   
sources of the ,orinoco and of the ,rio 
,paruspa4 ,on penetrating beyond the    
great cataracts of ,atures and of       
,maypures1 we shall see seven principal 

links1 those of ,encaramada or ,sacuina1
 of ,chaviripa1 of ,baraguan1 of        
,carichana1 of ,uniama1 of ,calitamini1 
and of ,sipapo1 successively appear4    
,this sketch may serve to give a general
 idea of the geological configuration of
 the ground4 ,we recognize everywhere on
 the globe a tendency toward regular    
forms1 in those mountains that appear   
the most irregularly grouped4 ,every    
link appears1 in a transverse section1  
like a distinct summit1 to those who    
navigate the ,orinoco2 but this division
 is merely in appearance4 ,the          
regularity in the direction and         
separation of the links seems to        
diminish in proportion as we advance    
towards the east4 ,the mountains of     
,encaramada join those of ,mato1 which  
give birth to the ,rio ,asiveru or      
,cuchivero2 those of ,chaviripe are     
prolonged by the granite chain of the   
,corosal1 of ,amoco1 and of ,murcielago1
 towards the sources of the ,erevato and
 the ,ventuari4  ,it was across these   

mountains1 which are inhabited by       
,indians of gentle character1 employed  
in agriculture199 799 ,the ,mapoyes1    
,parecas1 ,javaranas1 and ,curacicanas1 
who possess fine plantations 7conucos7  
in the savannahs by which these forests 
are bounded47 that1 at the time of the  
expedition for settling boundaries1     
,general ,iturriaga took some horned    
cattle for the supply of the new town of
 ,san ,fernando de ,atabapo4 ,the       
inhabitants of ,encaramada then showed  
the ,spanish soldiers the way by the    
,rio ,manapiari199 which falls into the 
,ventuari4 799 ,between ,encaramada and 
the ,rio ,manapiare1 ,don ,miguel       
,sanchez1 chief of this little          
expedition1 crossed the ,rio ,guainaima1
 which flows into the ,cuchivero4       
,sanchez died1 from the fatigue of this 
journey1 on the borders of the          
,ventuari47 ,by descending these two    
rivers1 the ,orinoco and the ,atabapo   
may be reached without passing the great
 cataracts1 which present almost        

insurmountable obstacles to the         
conveyance of cattle4 ,the spirit of    
enterprise which had so eminently       
distinguished the ,castilians at the    
period of the discovery of ,america1 was
 again roused for a time in the middle  
of the eighteenth century1 when         
,ferdinand ,,vi was desirous of knowing 
the true limits of his vast possessions2
 and in the forests of ,guiana1 that    
land of fiction and fabulous tradition1 
the wily ,indians revived the chimerical
 idea of the wealth of ,el ,dorado1     
which had so much occupied the          
imagination of the first conquerors4    
,amidst the mountains of ,encaramada1   
which1 like most coarse-grained granite 
rocks1 are destitute of metallic veins1 
we cannot help inquiring whence came    
those grains of gold which ,juan        
,martinez99 799 ,the companion of ,diego
 ,ordaz47 and ,raleigh profess to have  
seen in such abundance in the hands of  
the ,indians of the ,orinoco4 ,from what
 ,i observed in that part of ,america1  

,i am led to think that gold1 like      
tin199 is sometimes disseminated in an  
almost imperceptible manner in the very 
mass of granite rocks1 without our being
 able to perceive that there is a       
ramification and an intertwining of     
small veins4 799 ,thus tin is found in  
granite of recent formation1 at ,geyer2 
in hyalomicte or graisen1 at ,zinnwald2 
and in syenitic porphyry1 at ,altenberg1
 in ,saxony1 as well as near ,naila1 in 
the ,fichtelgebirge4 ,i have also seen1 
in the ,upper ,palatinate1 micaceous    
iron1 and black earthy cobalt1 far from 
any kind of vein1 disseminated in a     
granite destitute of mica1 as magnetic  
iron-sand is in volcanic rocks47 ,not   
long ago the ,indians of ,encaramada    
found in the ,quebrada del ,tigre99 799 
,the ,tiger-ravine47 a piece of native  
gold two lines in diameter4 ,it was     
rounded1 and appeared to have been      
washed along by the waters4 ,this       
discovery excited the attention of the  
missionaries much more than of the      

natives2 it was followed by no other of 
the same kind4  ,i cannot quit this     
first link of the mountains of          
,encaramada without recalling to mind a 
fact that was not unknown to ,father    
,gili1 and which was often mentioned to 
me during our abode in the ,missions of 
the ,orinoco4 ,the natives of those     
countries have retained the belief that1
 at the time of the great waters1 when  
their fathers were forced to have       
recourse to boats1 to escape the general
 inundation1 the waves of the sea beat  
against the rocks of ,encaramada4 ,this 
belief is not confined to one nation    
singly1 the ,tamanacs2 it makes part of 
a system of historical tradition1 of    
which we find scattered notions among   
the ,maypures of the great cataracts2   
among the ,indians of the ,rio ,erevato1
 which runs into the ,caura2 and among  
almost all the tribes of the ,upper     
,orinoco4 ,when the ,tamanacs are asked 
how the human race survived this great  
deluge1 the age of water1 of the        

,mexicans1 they say1 a man and a woman  
saved themselves on a high mountain1    
called ,tamanacu1 situated on the banks 
of the ,asiveru2 and casting behind     
them1 over their heads1 the fruits of   
the mauritia palm-tree1 they saw the    
seeds contained in those fruits produce 
men and women1 who repeopled the earth4 
,thus we find in all its simplicity1    
among nations now in a savage state1 a  
tradition which the ,greeks embellished 
with all the charms of imagination6 ,a  
few leagues from ,encaramada1 a rock1   
called ,tepu-mereme1 or the painted     
rock1 rises in the midst of the         
savannah4 ,upon it are traced           
representations of animals1 and symbolic
 figures resembling those we saw in     
going down the ,orinoco1 at a small     
distance below ,encaramada1 near the    
town ,caycara4 ,similar rocks in ,africa
 are called by travellers fetish stones4
 ,i shall not make use of this term1    
because fetishism does not prevail among
 the natives of the ,orinoco2 and the   

figures of stars1 of the sun1 of tigers1
 and of crocodiles1 which we found      
traced upon the rocks in spots now      
uninhabited1 appeared to me in no way to
 denote the objects of worship of those 
nations4 ,between the banks of the      
,cassiquiare and the ,orinoco1 between  
,encaramada1 the ,capuchino1 and        
,caycara1 these hieroglyphic figures are
 often seen at great heights1 on rocky  
cliffs which could be accessible only by
 constructing very lofty scaffolds4     
,when the natives are asked how those   
figures could have been sculptured1 they
 answer with a smile1 as if relating a  
fact of which only a white man could be 
ignorant1 that at the period of the     
great waters1 their fathers went to that
 height in boats4  ,these ancient       
traditions of the human race1 which we  
find dispersed over the whole surface of
 the globe1 like the relics of a vast   
shipwreck1 are highly interesting in the
 philosophical study of our own species4
 ,like certain families of the vegetable

 kingdom1 which1 notwithstanding the    
diversity of climates and the influence 
of heights1 retain the impression of a  
common type1 the traditions of nations  
respecting the origin of the world1     
display everywhere the same physiognomy1
 and preserve features of resemblance   
that fill us with astonishment4 ,how    
many different tongues1 belonging to    
branches that appear totally distinct1  
transmit to us the same facts6 ,the     
traditions concerning races that have   
been destroyed1 and the renewal of      
nature1 scarcely vary in reality1 though
 every nation gives them a local        
colouring4 ,in the great continents1 as 
in the smallest islands of the ,pacific 
,ocean1 it is always on the loftiest and
 nearest mountain that the remains of   
the human race have been saved2 and this
 event appears the more recent1 in      
proportion as the nations are           
uncultivated1 and as the knowledge they 
have of their own existence has no very 
remote date4 ,after having studied with 

attention the ,mexican monuments        
anterior to the discovery of the ,new   
,world2 after having penetrated into the
 forests of the ,orinoco1 and observed  
the diminutive size of the ,european    
establishments1 their solitude1 and the 
state of the tribes that have remained  
independent2 we cannot allow ourselves  
to attribute the analogies just cited to
 the influence exercised by the         
missionaries1 and by ,christianity1 on  
the national traditions4 ,nor is it more
 probable1 that the discovery of        
sea-shells on the summit of mountains   
gave birth1 among the nations of the    
,orinoco1 to the tradition of some great
 inundation which extinguished for a    
time the germs of organic life on our   
globe4 ,the country that extends from   
the right bank of the ,orinoco to the   
,cassiquiare and the ,rio ,negro1 is a  
country of primitive rocks4 ,i saw there
 one small formation of sandstone or    
conglomerate2 but no secondary          
limestone1 and no trace of              

petrifactions4  ,a fresh north-east     
breeze carried us full-sail towards the 
,boca de la ,tortuga4 ,we landed1 at    
eleven in the morning1 on an island     
which the ,indians of the ,missions of  
,uruana considered as their property1   
and which lies in the middle of the     
river4 ,this island is celebrated for   
the turtle fishery1 or1 as they say     
here1 the cosecha1 the harvest of eggs1 
that takes place annually4 ,we here     
found an assemblage of ,indians1        
encamped under huts made of palm-leaves4
 ,this encampment contained more than   
three hundred persons4 ,accustomed1     
since we had left ,san ,fernando de     
,apure1 to see only desert shores1 we   
were singularly struck by the bustle    
that prevailed here4 ,we found1 besides 
the ,guamos and the ,ottomacs of        
,uruana1 who are both considered as     
savage races1 ,caribs and other ,indians
 of the ,lower ,orinoco4 ,every tribe   
was separately encamped1 and was        
distinguished by the pigments with which

 their skins were painted4 ,some white  
men were seen amidst this tumultuous    
assemblage1 chiefly pulperos1 or little 
traders of ,angostura1 who had come up  
the river to purchase turtle oil from   
the natives4 ,the missionary of ,uruana1
 a native of ,alcala1 came to meet us1  
and he was extremely astonished at      
seeing us4 ,after having admired our    
instruments1 he gave us an exaggerated  
picture of the sufferings to which we   
should be necessarily exposed in        
ascending the ,orinoco beyond the       
cataracts4 ,the object of our journey   
appeared to him very mysterious4 ,how is
 it possible to believe1 said he1 that  
you have left your country1 to come and 
be devoured by mosquitos on this river1 
and to measure lands that are not your  
own8 ,we were happily furnished with    
recommendations from the ,superior of   
the ,franciscan ,missions1 and the      
brother-in-law of the governor of       
,varinas1 who accompanied us1 soon      
dissipated the doubts to which our      

dress1 our accent1 and our arrival in   
this sandy island1 had given rise among 
the ,whites4 ,the missionary invited us 
to partake a frugal repast of fish and  
plantains4 ,he told us that he had come 
to encamp with the ,indians during the  
time of the harvest of eggs1 to         
celebrate mass every morning in the open
 air1 to procure the oil necessary for  
the church-lamps1 and especially to     
govern this mixed republic 7republica de
 ,indios y ,castellanos7 in which every 
one wished to profit singly by what ,god
 had granted to all4  ,we made the tour 
of the island1 accompanied by the       
missionary and by a pulpero1 who boasted
 of having1 for ten successive years1   
visited the camp of the ,indians1 and   
attended the turtle-fishery4 ,we were on
 a plain of sand perfectly smooth2 and  
were told that1 as far as we could see  
along the beach1 turtles' eggs were     
concealed under a layer of earth4 ,the  
missionary carried a long pole in his   
hand4 ,he showed us1 that by means of   

this pole1 the extent of the stratum of 
eggs could be determined as accurately  
as the miner determines the limits of a 
bed of marl1 of bog iron-ore1 or of     
coal4 ,on thrusting the rod             
perpendicularly into the ground1 the    
sudden want of resistance shows that the
 cavity or layer of loose earth         
containing the eggs1 has been reached4  
,we saw that the stratum is generally   
spread with so much uniformity1 that the
 pole finds it everywhere in a radius of
 ten toises around any given spot4 ,here
 they talk continually of square perches
 of eggs2 it is like a mining-country1  
divided into lots1 and worked with the  
greatest regularity4 ,the stratum of    
eggs1 however1 is far from covering the 
whole island3 they are not found        
wherever the ground rises abruptly1     
because the turtle cannot mount heights4
 ,i related to my guides the emphatic   
description of ,father ,gumilla1 who    
asserts1 that the shores of the ,orinoco
 contain fewer grains of sand than the  

river contains turtles2 and that these  
animals would prevent vessels from      
advancing1 if men and tigers did not    
annually destroy so great a number499   
799 ,it would be as difficult to count  
the grains of sand on the shores of the 
,orinoco1 as to count the immense number
 of tortoises which inhabit its margins 
and waters4 ,were it not for the vast   
consumption of tortoises and their eggs1
 the river ,orinoco1 despite its great  
magnitude1 would be unnavigable1 for    
vessels would be impeded by the enormous
 multitude of the tortoises4 ,gumilla1  
,orinoco ,illustrata volume #a pages    
#cca to #ccf47 ,son cuentos de frailes1 
they are monkish legends1 said the      
pulpero of ,angostura1 in a low voice2  
for the only travellers in this country 
being the missionaries1 they here call  
monks' stories1 what we call travellers'
 tales1 in ,europe4  ,the ,indians      
assured us that1 in going up the        
,orinoco from its mouth to its junction 
with the ,apure1 not one island or one  

beach is to be found1 where eggs can be 
collected in abundance4 ,the great      
turtle 7arrau99 799 ,this word belongs  
to the ,maypure language1 and must not  
be confounded with arua1 which means a  
crocodile1 among the ,tamanacs1         
neighbours of the ,maypures4 ,the       
,ottomacs call the turtle of ,uruana1   
achea2 the ,tamanacs1 peje477 dreads    
places inhabited by men1 or much        
frequented by boats4 ,it is a timid and 
mistrustful animal1 raising only its    
head above the water1 and hiding itself 
at the least noise4 ,the shores where   
almost all the turtles of the ,orinoco  
appear to assemble annually1 are        
situated between the junction of the    
,orinoco with the ,apure1 and the great 
cataracts2 that is to say1 between      
,cabruta and the ,mission of ,atures4   
,there are found the three famous       
fisheries2 those of ,encaramada1 or     
,boca del ,cabullare2 of ,cucuruparu1 or
 ,boca de la ,tortuga2 and of ,pararuma1
 a little below ,carichana4 ,it seems   

that the arrau does not pass beyond the 
cataracts2 and we were assured1 that    
only the turtles called terekay1 7in    
,spanish terecayas17 are found above    
,atures and ,maypures4  ,the arrau1     
called by the ,spaniards of the         
,missions simply tortuga1 is an animal  
whose existence is of great importance  
to the nations on the ,lower ,orinoco4  
,it is a large freshwater tortoise1 with
 palmate and membraneous feet2 the head 
very flat1 with two fleshy and          
acutely-pointed appendages under the    
chin2 five claws to the fore feet1 and  
four to the hind feet1 which are        
furrowed underneath4 ,the upper shell   
has five central1 eight lateral1 and    
twenty-four marginal plates4 ,the colour
 is darkish grey above1 and orange      
beneath4 ,the feet are yellow1 and very 
long4 ,there is a deep furrow between   
the eyes4 ,the claws are very strong and
 crooked4 ,the anus is placed at the    
distance of one-fifth from the extremity
 of the tail4 ,the full-grown animal    

weighs from forty to fifty pounds4 ,its 
eggs are much larger than those of      
pigeons1 and less elongated than the    
eggs of the terekay4 ,they are covered  
with a calcareous crust1 and1 it is     
said1 they have sufficient firmness for 
the children of the ,ottomac ,indians1  
who are great players at ball1 to throw 
them into the air from one to another4  
,if the arrau inhabited the bed of the  
river above the cataracts1 the ,indians 
of the ,upper ,orinoco would not travel 
so far to procure the flesh and the eggs
 of this tortoise4 ,yet1 formerly1 whole
 tribes from the ,atabapo and the       
,cassiquiare have been known to pass the
 cataracts1 in order to take part in the
 fishery at ,uruana4  ,the terekay is   
less than the arrau4 ,it is in general  
only fourteen inches in diameter4 ,the  
number of plates in the upper shell is  
the same1 but they are somewhat         
differently arranged4 ,i counted three  
in the centre of the disk1 and five     
hexagonal on each side4 ,the margins    

contain twenty-four1 all quadrangular1  
and much curved4 ,the upper shell is of 
a black colour inclining to green2 the  
feet and claws are like those of the    
arrau4 ,the whole animal is of an       
olive-green1 but it has two spots of red
 mixed with yellow on the top of the    
head4 ,the throat is also yellow1 and   
furnished with a prickly appendage4 ,the
 terekays do not assemble in numerous   
societies like the arraus1 to lay their 
eggs in common1 and deposit them upon   
the same shore4 ,the eggs of the terekay
 have an agreeable taste1 and are much  
sought after by the inhabitants of      
,spanish ,guiana4 ,they are found in the
 ,upper ,orinoco1 as well as below the  
cataracts1 and even in the ,apure1 the  
,uritucu1 the ,guarico1 and the small   
rivers that traverse the ,llanos of     
,caracas4 ,the form of the feet and     
head1 the appendages of the chin and    
throat1 and the position of the anus1   
seem to indicate that the arrau1 and    
probably the terekay also1 belong to a  

new subdivision of the tortoises1 that  
may be separated from the emydes4 ,the  
period at which the large arrau tortoise
 lays its eggs coincides with the period
 of the lowest waters4 ,the ,orinoco    
beginning to increase from the vernal   
equinox1 the lowest flats are found     
uncovered from the end of ,january till 
the #bjth or #beth of ,march4 ,the arrau
 tortoises collect in troops in the     
month of ,january1 then issue from the  
water1 and warm themselves in the sun1  
reposing on the sands4 ,the ,indians    
believe that great heat is indispensable
 to the health of the animal1 and that  
its exposure to the sun favours the     
laying of the eggs4 ,the arraus are     
found on the beach a great part of the  
day during the whole month of ,february4
 ,at the beginning of ,march the        
straggling troops assemble1 and swim    
towards the small number of islands on  
which they habitually deposit their     
eggs4 ,it is probable that the same     
tortoise returns every year to the same 

locality4 ,at this period1 a few days   
before they lay their eggs1 thousands of
 these animals may be seen ranged in    
long files1 on the borders of the       
islands of ,cucuruparu1 ,uruana1 and    
,pararuma1 stretching out their necks   
and holding their heads above water1 to 
see whether they have anything to dread4
 ,the ,indians1 who are anxious that the
 bands when assembled should not        
separate1 that the tortoises should not 
disperse1 and that the laying of the    
eggs should be performed tranquilly1    
place sentinels at certain distances    
along the shore4 ,the people who pass in
 boats are told to keep in the middle of
 the river1 and not frighten the        
tortoises by cries4 ,the laying of the  
eggs takes place always during the      
night1 and it begins soon after sunset4 
,with its hind feet1 which are very     
long1 and furnished with crooked claws1 
the animal digs a hole of three feet in 
diameter and two in depth4 ,these       
tortoises feel so pressing a desire to  

lay their eggs1 that some of them       
descend into holes that have been dug by
 others1 but which are not yet covered  
with earth4 ,there they deposit a new   
layer of eggs on that which has been    
recently laid4 ,in this tumultuous      
movement an immense number of eggs are  
broken4 ,the missionary showed us1 by   
removing the sand in several places1    
that this loss probably amounts to a    
fifth of the whole quantity4 ,the yolk  
of the broken eggs contributes1 in      
drying1 to cement the sand2 and we found
 very large concretions of grains of    
quartz and broken shells4 ,the number of
 animals working on the beach during the
 night is so considerable1 that day     
surprises many of them before the laying
 of their eggs is terminated4 ,they are 
then urged on by the double necessity of
 depositing their eggs1 and closing the 
holes they have dug1 that they may not  
be perceived by the jaguars4 ,the       
tortoises that thus remain too late are 
insensible to their own danger4 ,they   

work in the presence of the ,indians1   
who visit the beach at a very early     
hour1 and who call them mad tortoises4  
,notwithstanding the rapidity of their  
movements1 they are then easily caught  
with the hand4  ,the three encampments  
formed by the ,indians1 in the places   
indicated above1 begin about the end of 
,march or commencement of ,april4 ,the  
gathering of the eggs is conducted in a 
uniform manner1 and with that regularity
 which characterises all monastic       
institutions4 ,before the arrival of the
 missionaries on the banks of the river1
 the ,indians profited much less from a 
production which nature has supplied in 
such abundance4 ,every tribe searched   
the beach in its own way2 and an immense
 number of eggs were uselessly broken1  
because they were not dug up with       
precaution1 and more eggs were uncovered
 than could be carried away4 ,it was    
like a mine worked by unskilful hands4  
,the ,jesuits have the merit of having  
reduced this operation to regularity2   

and though the ,franciscan monks1 who   
succeeded the ,jesuits in the ,missions 
of the ,orinoco1 boast of having        
followed the example of their           
predecessors1 they unhappily do not     
effect all that prudence requires4 ,the 
,jesuits did not suffer the whole beach 
to be searched2 they left a part        
untouched1 from the fear of seeing the  
breed of tortoises1 if not destroyed1 at
 least considerably diminished4 ,the    
whole beach is now dug up without       
reserve2 and accordingly it seems to be 
perceived that the gathering is less    
productive from year to year4  ,when the
 camp is formed1 the missionary of      
,uruana names his lieutenant1 or        
commissary1 who divides the ground where
 the eggs are found into different      
portions1 according to the number of the
 ,indian tribes who take part in the    
gathering4 ,they are all ,indians of    
,missions1 as naked and rude as the     
,indians of the woods2 though they are  
called reducidos and neofitos1 because  

they go to church at the sound of the   
bell1 and have learned to kneel down    
during the consecration of the host4    
,the lieutenant 7commissionado del      
,padre7 begins his operations by        
sounding4 ,he examines by means of a    
long wooden pole or a cane of bamboo1   
how far the stratum of eggs extends4    
,this stratum1 according to our         
measurements1 extended to the distance  
of one hundred and twenty feet from the 
shore4 ,its average depth is three feet4
 ,the commissionado places marks to     
indicate the point where each tribe     
should stop in its labours4 ,we were    
surprised to hear this harvest of eggs  
estimated like the produce of a         
well-cultivated field4 ,an area         
accurately measured of one hundred and  
twenty feet long1 and thirty feet wide1 
has been known to yield one hundred jars
 of oil1 valued at about forty pounds   
sterling4 ,the ,indians remove the earth
 with their hands2 they place the eggs  
they have collected in small baskets1   

carry them to their encampment1 and     
throw them into long troughs of wood    
filled with water4 ,in these troughs the
 eggs1 broken and stirred with shovels1 
remain exposed to the sun till the oily 
part1 which swims on the surface1 has   
time to inspissate4 ,as fast as this    
collects on the surface of the water1 it
 is taken off and boiled over a quick   
fire4 ,this animal oil1 called tortoise 
butter 7manteca de tortugas99 799 ,the  
,tamanac ,indians give it the name of   
carapa2 the ,maypures call it timi477   
keeps the better1 it is said1 in        
proportion as it has undergone a strong 
ebullition4 ,when well prepared1 it is  
limpid1 inodorous1 and scarcely yellow4 
,the missionaries compare it to the best
 olive oil1 and it is used not merely   
for burning in lamps1 but for cooking4  
,it is not easy1 however1 to procure oil
 of turtles' eggs quite pure4 ,it has   
generally a putrid smell1 owing to the  
mixture of eggs in which the young are  
already formed4  ,i acquired some       

general statistical notions on the spot1
 by consulting the missionary of        
,uruana1 his lieutenant1 and the traders
 of ,angostura4 ,the shore of ,uruana   
furnishes one thousand botijas1 or jars 
of oil1 annually4 ,the price of each jar
 at ,angostura varies from two piastres 
to two and a half4 ,we may admit that   
the total produce of the three shores1  
where the cosecha1 or gathering of eggs1
 is annually made1 is five thousand     
botijas4 ,now as two hundred eggs yield 
oil enough to fill a bottle 7limeta71 it
 requires five thousand eggs for a jar  
or botija of oil4 ,estimating at one    
hundred1 or one hundred and sixteen1 the
 number of eggs that one tortoise       
produces1 and reckoning that one third  
of these is broken at the time of       
laying1 particularly by the mad         
tortoises1 we may presume that1 to      
obtain annually five thousand jars of   
oil1 three hundred and thirty thousand  
arrau tortoises1 the weight of which    
amounts to one hundred and sixty-five   

thousand quintals1 must lay thirty-three
 millions of eggs on the three shores   
where this harvest is gathered4 ,the    
results of these calculations are much  
below the truth4 ,many tortoises lay    
only sixty or seventy eggs2 and a great 
number of these animals are devoured by 
jaguars at the moment they emerge from  
the water4 ,the ,indians bring away a   
great number of eggs to eat them dried  
in the sun2 and they break a            
considerable number through carelessness
 during the gathering4 ,the number of   
eggs that are hatched before the people 
can dig them up is so prodigious1 that  
near the encampment of ,uruana ,i saw   
the whole shore of the ,orinoco swarming
 with little tortoises an inch in       
diameter1 escaping with difficulty from 
the pursuit of the ,indian children4 ,if
 to these considerations be added1 that 
all the arraus do not assemble on the   
three shores of the encampments2 and    
that there are many which lay their eggs
 in solitude1 and some weeks later199   

between the mouth of the ,orinoco and   
the confluence of the ,apure2 we must   
admit that the number of turtles which  
annually deposit their eggs on the banks
 of the ,lower ,orinoco1 is near a      
million4 799 ,the arraus1 which lay     
their eggs before the beginning of      
,march1 7for in the same species the    
more or less frequent basking in the    
sun1 the food1 and the peculiar         
organization of each individual1        
occasion differences17 come out of the  
water with the terekays1 which lay in   
,january and ,february4 ,father ,gumilla
 believes them to be arraus that were   
not able to lay their eggs the preceding
 year4 ,it is difficult to find the eggs
 of the terekays1 because these animals1
 far from collecting in thousands on the
 same beach1 deposit their eggs as they 
are scattered about47 ,this number is   
very great for so large an animal4 ,in  
general large animals multiply less     
considerably than the smaller ones4     
,the labour of collecting the eggs1 and 

preparing the oil1 occupies three weeks4
 ,it is at this period only that the    
missionaries have any communication with
 the coast and the civilized            
neighbouring countries4 ,the ,franciscan
 monks who live south of the cataracts1 
come to the harvest of eggs less to     
procure oil1 than to see1 as they say1  
white faces2 and to learn whether the   
king inhabits the ,escurial or ,san     
,ildefonso1 whether convents are still  
suppressed in ,france1 and above all1   
whether the ,turks continue to keep     
quiet4 ,on these subjects1 7the only    
ones interesting to a monk of the       
,orinoco71 the small traders of         
,angostura1 who visit the encampments1  
can give1 unfortunately1 no very exact  
information4 ,but in these distant      
countries no doubt is ever entertained  
of the news brought by a white man from 
the capital4 ,the profit of the traders 
in oil amounts to seventy or eighty per 
cent2 for the ,indians sell it them at  
the price of a piastre a jar or botija1 

and the expense of carriage is not more 
than two-fifths of a piastre per jar4   
,the ,indians bring away also a         
considerable quantity of eggs dried in  
the sun1 or slightly boiled4 ,our rowers
 had baskets or little bags of          
cotton-cloth filled with these eggs4    
,their taste is not disagreeable1 when  
well preserved4 ,we were shown large    
shells of turtles1 which had been       
destroyed by the jaguars4 ,these animals
 follow the arraus towards those places 
on the beach where the eggs are laid4   
,they surprise the arraus on the sand2  
and1 in order to devour them at their   
ease1 turn them in such a manner that   
the under shell is uppermost4 ,in this  
situation the turtles cannot rise2 and  
as the jaguar turns many more than he   
can eat in one night1 the ,indians often
 avail themselves of his cunning and    
avidity4  ,when we reflect on the       
difficulty experienced by the naturalist
 in getting out the body of the turtle  
without separating the upper and under  

shells1 we cannot sufficiently wonder at
 the suppleness of the tiger's paw1     
which is able to remove the double      
armour of the arrau1 as if the adhering 
parts of the muscles had been cut by a  
surgical instrument4 ,the jaguar pursues
 the turtle into the water when it is   
not very deep4 ,it even digs up the     
eggs2 and together with the crocodile1  
the heron1 and the galinazo vulture1 is 
the most cruel enemy of the little      
turtles recently hatched4 ,the island of
 ,pararuma had been so much infested    
with crocodiles the preceding year1     
during the egg-harvest1 that the        
,indians in one night caught eighteen1  
of twelve or fifteen feet long1 by means
 of curved pieces of iron1 baited with  
the flesh of the manatee4 ,besides the  
beasts of the forests we have just      
named1 the wild ,indians also very much 
diminish the quantity of the oil4       
,warned by the first slight rains1 which
 they call turtle-rains 7peje canepori99
 799 ,in the ,tamanac language1 from    

peje1 a tortoise1 and canepo1 rain4771  
they hasten to the banks of the         
,orinoco1 and kill the turtles with     
poisoned arrows1 whilst1 with upraised  
heads and paws extended1 the animals are
 warming themselves in the sun4  ,though
 the little turtles 7tortuguillos7 may  
have burst the shells of their eggs     
during the day1 they are never seen to  
come out of the ground but at night4    
,the ,indians assert that the young     
animal fears the heat of the sun4 ,they 
tried also to show us1 that when the    
tortuguillo is carried in a bag to a    
distance from the shore1 and placed in  
such a manner that its tail is turned to
 the river1 it takes without hesitation 
the shortest way to the water4 ,i       
confess1 that this experiment1 of which 
,father ,gumilla speaks1 does not always
 succeed equally well3 yet in general it
 does appear that at great distances    
from the shore1 and even in an island1  
these little animals feel with extreme  
delicacy in what direction the most     

humid air prevails4  ,reflecting on the 
almost uninterrupted layer of eggs that 
extends along the beach1 and on the     
thousands of little turtles that seek   
the water as soon as they are hatched1  
it is difficult to admit that the many  
turtles which have made their nests in  
the same spot1 can distinguish their own
 young1 and lead them1 like the         
crocodiles1 to the lakes in the vicinity
 of the ,orinoco4 ,it is certain1       
however1 that the animal passes the     
first years of its life in pools where  
the water is shallow1 and does not      
return to the bed of the great river    
till it is full-grown4 ,how then do the 
tortuguillos find these pools8 ,are they
 led thither by female turtles1 which   
adopt the young as by chance8 ,the      
crocodiles1 less numerous1 deposit their
 eggs in separate holes2 and1 in this   
family of saurians1 the female returns  
about the time when the incubation is   
terminated1 calls her young1 which      
answer to her voice1 and often assists  

them to get out of the ground4 ,the     
arrau tortoise1 no doubt1 like the      
crocodile1 knows the spot where she has 
made her nest2 but1 not daring to return
 to the beach on which the ,indians have
 formed their encampment1 how can she   
distinguish her own young from those    
which do not belong to her8 ,on the     
other hand1 the ,ottomac ,indians       
declare that1 at the period of          
inundation1 they have met with female   
turtles followed by a great number of   
young ones4 ,these were perhaps arraus  
whose eggs had been deposited on a      
desert beach to which they could return4
 ,males are extremely rare among these  
animals4 ,scarcely is one male found    
among several hundred females4 ,the     
cause of this disparity cannot be the   
same as with the crocodiles1 which fight
 in the coupling season4  ,our pilot had
 anchored at the ,playa de huevos1 to   
purchase some provisions1 our store     
having begun to run short4 ,we found    
there fresh meat1 ,angostura rice1 and  

even biscuit made of wheat-flour4 ,our  
,indians filled the boat with little    
live turtles1 and eggs dried in the sun1
 for their own use4 ,having taken leave 
of the missionary of ,uruana1 who had   
treated us with great kindness1 we set  
sail about four in the afternoon4 ,the  
wind was fresh1 and blew in squalls4    
,since we had entered the mountainous   
part of the country1 we had discovered  
that our canoe carried sail very badly2 
but the master was desirous of showing  
the ,indians who were assembled on the  
beach1 that1 by going close to the wind1
 he could reach1 at one single tack1 the
 middle of the river4 ,at the very      
moment when he was boasting of his      
dexterity1 and the boldness of his      
manoeuvre1 the force of the wind upon   
the sail became so great that we were on
 the point of going down4 ,one side of  
the boat was under water1 which rushed  
in with such violence that it was soon  
up to our knees4 ,it washed over a      
little table at which ,i was writing at 

the stern of the boat4 ,i had some      
difficulty to save my journal1 and in an
 instant we saw our books1 papers1 and  
dried plants1 all afloat4 ,m4 ,bonpland 
was lying asleep in the middle of the   
canoe4 ,awakened by the entrance of the 
water and the cries of the ,indians1 he 
understood the danger of our situation1 
whilst he maintained that coolness which
 he always displayed in the most        
difficult circumstances4 ,the lee-side  
righting itself from time to time during
 the squall1 he did not consider the    
boat as lost4 ,he thought that1 were we 
even forced to abandon it1 we might save
 ourselves by swimming1 since there was 
no crocodile in sight4 ,amidst this     
uncertainty the cordage of the sail     
suddenly gave way4 ,the same gust of    
wind1 that had thrown us on our beam1   
served also to right us4 ,we laboured to
 bale the water out of the boat with    
calabashes1 the sail was again set1 and 
in less than half an hour we were in a  
state to proceed4 ,the wind now abated a

 little4 ,squalls alternating with dead 
calms are common in that part of the    
,orinoco which is bordered by mountains4
 ,they are very dangerous for boats     
deeply laden1 and without decks4 ,we had
 escaped as if by miracle4 ,to the      
reproaches that were heaped on our pilot
 for having kept too near the wind1 he  
replied with the phlegmatic coolness    
peculiar to the ,indians1 observing that
 the whites would find sun enough on    
those banks to dry their papers4 ,we    
lost only one book--the first volume of 
the ,genera ,plantarum of               
,schreber--which had fallen overboard4  
,at nightfall we landed on a barren     
island in the middle of the river1 near 
the ,mission of ,uruana4 ,we supped in a
 clear moonlight1 seating ourselves on  
some large turtle-shells that were found
 scattered about the beach4 ,what       
satisfaction we felt on finding         
ourselves thus comfortably landed6 ,we  
figured to ourselves the situation of a 
man who had been saved alone from       

shipwreck1 wandering on these desert    
shores1 meeting at every step with other
 rivers which fall into the ,orinoco1   
and which it is dangerous to pass by    
swimming1 on account of the multitude of
 crocodiles and caribe fishes4 ,we      
pictured to ourselves such a man1 alive 
to the most tender affections of the    
soul1 ignorant of the fate of his       
companions1 and thinking more of them   
than of himself4 ,if we love to indulge 
such melancholy meditations1 it is      
because1 when just escaped from danger1 
we seem to feel as it were the necessity
 of strong emotions4 ,our minds were    
full of what we had just witnessed4     
,there are periods in life when1 without
 being discouraged1 the future appears  
more uncertain4 ,it was only three days 
since we had entered the ,orinoco1 and  
there yet remained three months for us  
to navigate rivers encumbered with      
rocks1 and in boats smaller than that in
 which we had so nearly perished4  ,the 
night was intensely hot4 ,we lay upon   

skins spread on the ground1 there being 
no trees to which we could fasten our   
hammocks4 ,the torments of the mosquitos
 increased every day2 and we were       
surprised to find that on this spot our 
fires did not prevent the approach of   
the jaguars4 ,they swam across the arm  
of the river that separated us from the 
mainland4 ,towards morning we heard     
their cries very near4 ,they had come to
 the island where we passed the night4  
,the ,indians told us that1 during the  
collecting of the turtles' eggs1 tigers 
are always more frequent in those       
regions1 and display at that period the 
greatest intrepidity4  ,on the following
 day1 the #gth1 we passed1 on our right1
 the mouth of the great ,rio ,arauca1   
celebrated for the immense number of    
birds that frequent it2 and1 on our     
left1 the ,mission of ,uruana1 commonly 
called ,la ,concepcion de ,urbana4 ,this
 small village1 which contains five     
hundred souls1 was founded by the       
,jesuits1 about the year #agdh1 by the  

union of the ,ottomac and ,cavere       
,indians4 ,it lies at the foot of a     
mountain composed of detached blocks of 
granite1 which1 ,i believe1 bears the   
name of ,saraguaca4 ,masses of rock1    
separated one from the other by the     
effect of decomposition1 form caverns1  
in which we find indubitable proofs of  
the ancient civilization of the natives4
 ,hieroglyphic figures1 and even        
characters in regular lines1 are seen   
sculptured on their sides2 though ,i    
doubt whether they bear any analogy to  
alphabetic writing4 ,we visited the     
,mission of ,uruana on our return from  
the ,rio ,negro1 and saw with our own   
eyes those heaps of earth which the     
,ottomacs eat1 and which have become the
 subject of such lively discussion in   
,europe499 799 ,this earth is a greasy  
kind of clay1 which1 in seasons of      
scarcity1 the natives use to assuage the
 cravings of hunger2 it having been     
proved by their experience as well as by
 physiological researches1 that want of 

food can be more easily borne by filling
 the cavity of the stomach with some    
substance1 even although it may be in   
itself very nearly or totally           
innutritious4 ,the ,indian hunters of   
,north ,america1 for the same purpose1  
tie boards tightly across the abdomen2  
and most savage races are found to have 
recourse to expedients that answer the  
same end47  ,on measuring the breadth of
 the ,orinoco between the islands called
 ,isla de ,uruana and ,isla de la       
,manteca1 we found it1 during the high  
waters1 #bfgd toises1 which make nearly 
four nautical miles4 ,this is eight     
times the breadth of the ,nile at       
,manfalout and ,syout1 yet we were at   
the distance of a hundred and           
ninety-four leagues from the mouth of   
the ,orinoco4  ,the temperature of the  
water at its surface was #bg4h degrees  
of the centigrade thermometer1 near     
,uruana4 ,that of the river ,zaire1 or  
,congo1 in ,africa1 at an equal distance
 from the equator1 was found by ,captain

 ,tuckey1 in the months of ,july and    
,august1 to be only from #bc4i to #be4f 
degrees4  ,the western bank of the      
,orinoco remains low farther than the   
mouth of the ,meta2 while from the      
,mission of ,uruana the mountains       
approach the eastern bank more and more4
 ,as the strength of the current        
increases in proportion as the river    
grows narrower1 the progress of our boat
 became much slower4 ,we continued to   
ascend the ,orinoco under sail1 but the 
high and woody grounds deprived us of   
the wind4 ,at other times the narrow    
passes between the mountains by which we
 sailed1 sent us violent gusts1 but of  
short duration4 ,the number of          
crocodiles increased below the junction 
of the ,rio ,arauca1 particularly       
opposite the great lake of ,capanaparo1 
which communicates with the ,orinoco1 as
 the ,laguna de ,cabullarito            
communicates at the same time with the  
,orinoco and the ,rio ,arauca4 ,the     
,indians told us that the crocodiles    

came from the inlands1 where they had   
been buried in the dried mud of the     
savannahs4 ,as soon as the first showers
 arouse them from their lethargy1 they  
crowd together in troops1 and hasten    
toward the river1 there to disperse     
again4 ,here1 in the equinoctial zone1  
it is the increase of humidity that     
recalls them to life2 while in ,georgia 
and ,florida1 in the temperate zone1 it 
is the augmentation of heat that rouses 
these animals from a state of nervous   
and muscular debility1 during which the 
active powers of respiration are        
suspended or singularly diminished4 ,the
 season of great drought1 improperly    
called the summer of the torrid zone1   
corresponds with the winter of the      
temperate zone2 and it is a curious     
physiological phenomenon to observe the 
alligators of ,north ,america plunged   
into a winter-sleep by excess of cold1  
at the same period when the crocodiles  
of the ,llanos begin their siesta or    
summer-sleep4 ,if it were probable that 

these animals of the same family had    
heretofore inhabited the same northern  
country1 we might suppose that1 in      
advancing towards the equator1 they feel
 the want of repose after having        
exercised their muscles for seven or    
eight months1 and that they retain under
 a new sky the habits which appear to be
 essentially linked with their          
organization4  ,having passed the mouths
 of the channels communicating with the 
lake of ,capanaparo1 we entered a part  
of the ,orinoco1 where the bed of the   
river is narrowed by the mountains of   
,baraguan4 ,it is a kind of strait1     
reaching nearly to the confluence of the
 ,rio ,suapure4 ,from these granite     
mountains the natives heretofore gave   
the name of ,baraguan to that part of   
the ,orinoco comprised between the      
mouths of the ,arauca and the ,atabapo4 
,among savage nations great rivers bear 
different denominations in the different
 portions of their course4 ,the ,passage
 of ,baraguan presents a picturesque    

scene4 ,the granite rocks are           
perpendicular4 ,they form a range of    
mountains lying north-west and          
south-east2 and the river cutting this  
dyke nearly at a right angle1 the       
summits of the mountains appear like    
separate peaks4 ,their elevation in     
general does not surpass one hundred and
 twenty toises2 but their situation in  
the midst of a small plain1 their steep 
declivities1 and their flanks destitute 
of vegetation1 give them a majestic     
character4 ,they are composed of        
enormous masses of granite of a         
parallelopipedal figure1 but rounded at 
the edges1 and heaped one upon another4 
,the blocks are often eighty feet long1 
and twenty or thirty broad4 ,they would 
seem to have been piled up by some      
external force1 if the proximity of a   
rock identical in its composition1 not  
separated into blocks but filled with   
veins1 did not prove that the           
parallelopipedal form is owing solely to
 the action of the atmosphere4 ,these   

veins1 two or three inches thick1 are   
distinguished by a fine-grained         
quartz-granite crossing a coarse-grained
 granite almost porphyritic1 and        
abounding in fine crystals of red       
feldspar4 ,i sought in vain1 in the     
,cordillera of ,baraguan1 for           
hornblende1 and those steatitic masses  
that characterise several granites of   
the ,higher ,alps in ,switzerland4  ,we 
landed in the middle of the strait of   
,baraguan to measure its breadth4 ,the  
rocks project so much towards the river 
that ,i measured with difficulty a base 
of eighty toises4 ,i found the river    
eight hundred and eighty-nine toises    
broad4 ,in order to conceive how this   
passage bears the name of a strait1 we  
must recollect that the breadth of the  
river from ,uruana to the junction of   
the ,meta is in general from #aejj to   
#bejj toises4 ,in this place1 which is  
extremely hot and barren1 ,i measured   
two granite summits1 much rounded3 one  
was only a hundred and ten1 and the     

other eighty-five1 toises4 ,there are   
higher summits in the interior of the   
group1 but in general these mountains1  
of so wild an aspect1 have not the      
elevation that is assigned to them by   
the missionaries4  ,we looked in vain   
for plants in the clefts of the rocks1  
which are as steep as walls1 and furnish
 some traces of stratification4 ,we     
found only an old trunk of aubletia99   
799 ,aubletia tiburba471 with large     
apple-shaped fruit1 and a new species of
 the family of the apocyneae499 799     
,allamanda salicifolia47 ,all the stones
 were covered with an innumerable       
quantity of iguanas and geckos with     
spreading and membranous fingers4 ,these
 lizards1 motionless1 with heads raised1
 and mouths open1 seemed to suck in the 
heated air4 ,the thermometer placed     
against the rock rose to #ej4b degrees4 
,the soil appeared to undulate1 from the
 effect of mirage1 without a breath of  
wind being felt4 ,the sun was near the  
zenith1 and its dazzling light1         

reflected from the surface of the river1
 contrasted with the reddish vapours    
that enveloped every surrounding object4
 ,how vivid is the impression produced  
by the calm of nature1 at noon1 in these
 burning climates6 ,the beasts of the   
forests retire to the thickets2 the     
birds hide themselves beneath the       
foliage of the trees1 or in the crevices
 of the rocks4 ,yet1 amidst this        
apparent silence1 when we lend an       
attentive ear to the most feeble sounds 
transmitted through the air1 we hear a  
dull vibration1 a continual murmur1 a   
hum of insects1 filling1 if we may use  
the expression1 all the lower strata of 
the air4 ,nothing is better fitted to   
make man feel the extent and power of   
organic life4 ,myriads of insects creep 
upon the soil1 and flutter round the    
plants parched by the heat of the sun4  
,a confused noise issues from every     
bush1 from the decayed trunks of trees1 
from the clefts of the rocks1 and from  
the ground undermined by lizards1       

millepedes1 and cecilias4 ,these are so 
many voices proclaiming to us that all  
nature breathes2 and that1 under a      
thousand different forms1 life is       
diffused throughout the cracked and     
dusty soil1 as well as in the bosom of  
the waters1 and in the air that         
circulates around us4  ,the sensations  
which ,i here recall to mind are not    
unknown to those who1 without having    
advanced to the equator1 have visited   
,italy1 ,spain1 or ,egypt4 ,that        
contrast of motion and silence1 that    
aspect of nature at once calm and       
animated1 strikes the imagination of the
 traveller when he enters the basin of  
the ,mediterranean1 within the zone of  
olives1 dwarf palms1 and date-trees4    
,we passed the night on the eastern bank
 of the ,orinoco1 at the foot of a      
granitic hill4 ,near this desert spot   
was formerly seated the ,mission of ,san
 ,regis4 ,we could have wished to find a
 spring in the ,baraguan1 for the water 
of the river had a smell of musk1 and a 

sweetish taste extremely disagreeable4  
,in the ,orinoco1 as well as in the     
,apure1 we are struck with the          
difference observable in the various    
parts of the river near the most barren 
shore4 ,the water is sometimes very     
drinkable1 and sometimes seems to be    
loaded with a slimy matter4 ,it is the  
bark 7meaning the coriaceous covering7  
of the putrefied cayman that is the     
cause1 say the natives4 ,the more aged  
the cayman1 the more bitter is his bark4
 ,i have no doubt that the carcasses of 
these large reptiles1 those of the      
manatees1 which weigh five hundred      
pounds1 and the presence of the         
porpoises 7toninas7 with their          
mucilaginous skin1 may contaminate the  
water1 especially in the creeks1 where  
the river has little velocity4 ,yet the 
spots where we found the most fetid     
water1 were not always those where dead 
animals were accumulated on the beach4  
,when1 in such burning climates1 where  
we are constantly tormented by thirst1  

we are reduced to drink the water of a  
river at the temperature of #bg or #bh  
degrees1 we cannot help wishing at least
 that water so hot1 and so loaded with  
sand1 should be free from smell4  ,on   
the #hth of ,april we passed the mouths 
of the ,suapure or ,sivapuri1 and the   
,caripo1 on the east1 and the outlet of 
the ,sinaruco on the west4 ,this last   
river is1 next to the ,rio ,arauca1 the 
most considerable between the ,apure and
 the ,meta4 ,the ,suapure1 full of      
little cascades1 is celebrated among the
 ,indians for the quantity of wild honey
 obtained from the forests in its       
neighbourhood4 ,the melipones there     
suspend their enormous hives to the     
branches of trees4 ,father ,gili1 in    
#agff1 made an excursion on the         
,suapure1 and on the ,turiva1 which     
falls into it4 ,he there found tribes of
 the nation of ,areverians4 ,we passed  
the night a little below the island     
,macapina4  ,early on the following     
morning we arrived at the beach of      

,pararuma1 where we found an encampment 
of ,indians similar to that we had seen 
at the ,boca de la ,tortuga4 ,they had  
assembled to search the sands1 for      
collecting the turtles' eggs1 and       
extracting the oil2 but they had        
unfortunately made a mistake of several 
days4 ,the young turtles had come out of
 their shells before the ,indians had   
formed their camp2 and consequently the 
crocodiles and the garzes1 a species of 
large white herons1 availed themselves  
of the delay4 ,these animals1 alike fond
 of the flesh of the young turtles1     
devour an innumerable quantity4 ,they   
fish during the night1 for the          
tortuguillos do not come out of the     
earth to gain the neighbouring river    
till after the evening twilight4 ,the   
zamuro vultures are too indolent to hunt
 after sunset4 ,they stalk along the    
shores in the daytime1 and alight in the
 midst of the ,indian encampment to     
steal provisions2 but they often find no
 other means of satisfying their        

voracity than by attacking young        
crocodiles of seven or eight inches     
long1 either on land or in water of     
little depth4 ,it is curious to see the 
address with which these little animals 
defend themselves for a time against the
 vultures4 ,as soon as they perceive the
 enemy1 they raise themselves on their  
fore paws1 bend their backs1 and lift up
 their heads1 opening their wide jaws4  
,they turn continually1 though slowly1  
toward their assailant to show him their
 teeth1 which1 even when the animal has 
but recently issued from the egg1 are   
very long and sharp4 ,often while the   
attention of a young crocodile is wholly
 engaged by one of the zamuros1 another 
seizes the favourable opportunity for an
 unforeseen attack4 ,he pounces on the  
crocodile1 grasps him by the neck1 and  
bears him off to the higher regions of  
the air4 ,we had an opportunity of      
observing this manoeuvre during several 
mornings1 at ,mompex1 on the banks of   
the ,magdalena1 where we had collected  

more than forty very young crocodiles1  
in a spacious court surrounded by a     
wall4  ,we found among the ,indians     
assembled at ,pararuma some white men1  
who had come from ,angostura to purchase
 the tortoise-butter4 ,after having     
wearied us for a long time with their   
complaints of the bad harvest1 and the  
mischief done by the tigers among the   
turtles1 at the time of laying their    
eggs1 they conducted us beneath an      
ajoupa1 that rose in the centre of the  
,indian camp4 ,we here found the        
missionary-monks of ,carichana and the  
,cataracts seated on the ground1 playing
 at cards1 and smoking tobacco in long  
pipes4 ,their ample blue garments1 their
 shaven heads1 and their long beards1   
might have led us to mistake them for   
natives of the ,east4 ,these poor       
priests received us in the kindest      
manner1 giving us every information     
necessary for the continuation of our   
voyage4 ,they had suffered from tertian 
fever for some months2 and their pale   

and emaciated aspect easily convinced us
 that the countries we were about to    
visit were not without danger to the    
health of travellers4  ,the ,indian     
pilot1 who had brought us from ,san     
,fernando de ,apure as far as the shore 
of ,pararuma1 was unacquainted with the 
passage of the rapids99 799 ,little     
cascades1 chorros raudalitos47 of the   
,orinoco1 and would not undertake to    
conduct our bark any farther4 ,we were  
obliged to conform to his will4 ,happily
 for us1 the missionary of ,carichana   
consented to sell us a fine canoe at a  
very moderate price3 and ,father        
,bernardo ,zea1 missionary of the       
,atures and ,maypures near the great    
cataracts1 offered1 though still unwell1
 to accompany us as far as the frontiers
 of ,brazil4 ,the number of natives who 
can assist in guiding boats through the 
,raudales is so inconsiderable that1 but
 for the presence of the monk1 we should
 have risked spending whole weeks in    
these humid and unhealthy regions4 ,on  

the banks of the ,orinoco1 the forests  
of the ,rio ,negro are considered as    
delicious spots4 ,the air is indeed     
cooler and more healthful4 ,the river is
 free from crocodiles2 one may bathe    
without apprehension1 and by night as   
well as by day there is less torment    
from the sting of insects than on the   
,orinoco4 ,father ,zea hoped to         
reestablish his health by visiting the  
,missions of ,rio ,negro4 ,he talked of 
those places with that enthusiasm which 
is felt in all the colonies of ,south   
,america for everything far off4  ,the  
assemblage of ,indians at ,pararuma     
again excited in us that interest1 which
 everywhere attaches man in a cultivated
 state to the study of man in a savage  
condition1 and the successive           
development of his intellectual         
faculties4 ,how difficult to recognize  
in this infancy of society1 in this     
assemblage of dull1 silent1 inanimate   
,indians1 the primitive character of our
 species6 ,human nature does not here   

manifest those features of artless      
simplicity1 of which poets in every     
language have drawn such enchanting     
pictures4 ,the savage of the ,orinoco   
appeared to us to be as hideous as the  
savage of the ,mississippi1 described by
 that philosophical traveller ,volney1  
who so well knew how to paint man in    
different climates4 ,we are eager to    
persuade ourselves that these natives1  
crouching before the fire1 or seated on 
large turtle-shells1 their bodies       
covered with earth and grease1 their    
eyes stupidly fixed for whole hours on  
the beverage they are preparing1 far    
from being the primitive type of our    
species1 are a degenerate race1 the     
feeble remains of nations who1 after    
having been long dispersed in the       
forests1 are replunged into barbarism4  
,red paint being in some sort the only  
clothing of the ,indians1 two kinds may 
be distinguished among them1 according  
as they are more or less affluent4 ,the 
common decoration of the ,caribs1 the   

,ottomacs1 and the ,jaruros1 is onoto199
 799 ,properly anoto4 ,this word belongs
 to the ,tamanac ,indians4 ,the         
,maypures call it majepa4 ,the ,spanish 
missionaries say onotarse1 to rub the   
skin with anato47 called by the         
,spaniards achote1 and by the planters  
of ,cayenne1 rocou4 ,it is the colouring
 matter extracted from the pulp of the  
,bixa orellana499 799 ,the word bixa1   
adopted by botanists1 is derived from   
the ancient language of ,haiti 7the     
island of ,st4 ,domingo74 ,rocou1 the   
term commonly used by the ,french1 is   
derived from the ,brazilian word1       
urucu47 ,the ,indian women prepare the  
anato by throwing the seeds of the plant
 into a tub filled with water4 ,they    
beat this water for an hour1 and then   
leave it to deposit the colouring       
fecula1 which is of an intense          
brick-red4 ,after having separated the  
water1 they take out the fecula1 dry it 
between their hands1 knead it with oil  
of turtles' eggs1 and form it into round

 cakes of three or four ounces weight4  
,when turtle oil is wanting1 some tribes
 mix with the anato the fat of the      
crocodile4  ,another pigment1 much more 
valuable1 is extracted from a plant of  
the family of the bignoniae1 which ,m4  
,bonpland has made known by the name of 
,bignonia chica4 ,it climbs up and      
clings to the tallest trees by the aid  
of tendrils4 ,its bilabiate flowers are 
an inch long1 of a fine violet colour1  
and disposed by twos or threes4 ,the    
bipinnate leaves become reddish in      
drying4 ,the fruit is a pod1 filled with
 winged seeds1 and is two feet long4    
,this plant grows spontaneously1 and in 
great abundance1 near ,maypures2 and in 
going up the ,orinoco1 beyond the mouth 
of the ,guaviare1 from ,santa ,barbara  
to the lofty mountain of ,duida1        
particularly near ,esmeralda4 ,we also  
found it on the banks of the            
,cassiquiare4 ,the red pigment of chica 
is not obtained from the fruit1 like the
 onoto1 but from the leaves macerated in

 water4 ,the colouring matter separates 
in the form of a light powder4 ,it is   
collected1 without being mixed with     
turtle-oil1 into little lumps eight or  
nine inches long1 and from two to three 
high1 rounded at the edges4 ,these      
lumps1 when heated1 emit an agreeable   
smell of benzoin4 ,when the chica is    
subjected to distillation1 it yields no 
sensible traces of ammonia4 ,it is not1 
like indigo1 a substance combined with  
azote4 ,it dissolves slightly in        
sulphuric and muriatic acids1 and even  
in alkalis4 ,ground with oil1 the chica 
furnishes a red colour that has a tint  
of lake4 ,applied to wool1 it might be  
confounded with madder-red4 ,there is no
 doubt but that the chica1 unknown in   
,europe before our travels1 may be      
employed usefully in the arts4 ,the     
nations on the ,orinoco1 by whom this   
pigment is best prepared1 are the       
,salivas1 the ,guipunaves199 799 ,or    
,guaypunaves2 they call themselves      
,uipunavi47 the ,caveres1 and the       

,piraoas4 ,the processes of infusion and
 maceration are in general very common  
among all the nations on the ,orinoco4  
,thus the ,maypures carry on a trade of 
barter with the little loaves of puruma1
 which is a vegetable fecula1 dried in  
the manner of indigo1 and yielding a    
very permanent yellow colour4 ,the      
chemistry of the savage is reduced to   
the preparation of pigments1 that of    
poisons1 and the dulcification of the   
amylaceous roots1 which the aroides and 
the euphorbiaceous plants afford4  ,most
 of the missionaries of the ,upper and  
,lower ,orinoco permit the ,indians of  
their ,missions to paint their skins4   
,it is painful to add1 that some of them
 speculate on this barbarous practice of
 the natives4 ,in their huts1 pompously 
called conventos199 799 ,in the         
,missions1 the priest's house bears the 
name of the convent47 ,i have often seen
 stores of chica1 which they sold as    
high as four francs the cake4 ,to form a
 just idea of the extravagance of the   

decoration of these naked ,indians1 ,i  
must observe1 that a man of large       
stature gains with difficulty enough by 
the labour of a fortnight1 to procure in
 exchange the chica necessary to paint  
himself red4 ,thus as we say1 in        
temperate climates1 of a poor man1 he   
has not enough to clothe himself1 you   
hear the ,indians of the ,orinoco say1  
that man is so poor1 that he has not    
enough to paint half his body4 ,the     
little trade in chica is carried on     
chiefly with the tribes of the ,lower   
,orinoco1 whose country does not produce
 the plant which furnishes this         
much-valued substance4 ,the ,caribs and 
the ,ottomacs paint only the head and   
the hair with chica1 but the ,salives   
possess this pigment in sufficient      
abundance to cover their whole bodies4  
,when the missionaries send on their own
 account small cargoes of cacao1        
tobacco1 and chiquichiqui99 799 ,ropes  
made with the petioles of a palm-tree   
with pinnate leaves47 from the ,rio     

,negro to ,angostura1 they always add   
some cakes of chica1 as being articles  
of merchandise in great request4  ,the  
custom of painting is not equally       
ancient among all the tribes of the     
,orinoco4 ,it has increased since the   
time when the powerful nation of the    
,caribs made frequent incursions into   
those countries4 ,the victors and the   
vanquished were alike naked2 and to     
please the conqueror it was necessary to
 paint like him1 and to assume his      
colour4 ,the influence of the ,caribs   
has now ceased1 and they remain         
circumscribed between the rivers        
,carony1 ,cuyuni1 and ,paraguamuzi2 but 
the ,caribbean fashion of painting the  
whole body is still preserved4 ,the     
custom has survived the conquest4  ,does
 the use of the anato and chica derive  
its origin from the desire of pleasing1 
and the taste for ornament1 so common   
among the most savage nations8 or must  
we suppose it to be founded on the      
observation1 that these colouring and   

oily matters with which the skin is     
plastered1 preserve it from the sting of
 the mosquitos8 ,i have often heard this
 question discussed in ,europe2 but in  
the ,missions of the ,orinoco1 and      
wherever1 within the tropics1 the air is
 filled with venomous insects1 the      
inquiry would appear absurd4 ,the ,carib
 and the ,salive1 who are painted red1  
are not less cruelly tormented by the   
mosquitos and the zancudos1 than the    
,indians whose bodies are plastered with
 no colour4 ,the sting of the insect    
causes no swelling in either2 and       
scarcely ever produces those little     
pustules which occasion such smarting   
and itching to ,europeans recently      
arrived4 ,but the native and the ,white 
suffer equally from the sting1 till the 
insect has withdrawn its sucker from the
 skin4 ,after a thousand useless essays1
 ,m4 ,bonpland and myself tried the     
expedient of rubbing our hands and arms 
with the fat of the crocodile1 and the  
oil of turtle-eggs1 but we never felt   

the least relief1 and were stung as     
before4 ,i know that the ,laplanders    
boast of oil and fat as the most useful 
preservatives2 but the insects of       
,scandinavia are not of the same species
 as those of the ,orinoco4 ,the smoke of
 tobacco drives away our gnats1 while it
 is employed in vain against the        
zancudos4 ,if the application of fat and
 astringent99 substances preserved the  
inhabitants of these countries from the 
torment of insects1 as ,father ,gumilla 
alleges1 why has not the custom of      
painting the skin become general on     
these shores8 799 ,the pulp of the      
anato1 and even the chica1 are          
astringent and slightly purgative47 ,why
 do so many naked natives paint only the
 face1 though living in the             
neighbourhood of those who paint the    
whole body899 799 ,the ,caribs1 the     
,salives1 the ,tamanacs1 and the        
,maypures47  ,we are struck with the    
observation1 that the ,indians of the   
,orinoco1 like the natives of ,north    

,america1 prefer the substances that    
yield a red colour to every other4 ,is  
this predilection founded on the        
facility with which the savage procures 
ochreous earths1 or the colouring fecula
 of anato and of chica8 ,i doubt this   
much4 ,indigo grows wild in a great part
 of equinoctial ,america4 ,this plant1  
like so many other leguminous plants1   
would have furnished the natives        
abundantly with pigments to colour      
themselves blue like the ancient        
,britons499 799 ,the half-clad nations  
of the temperate zone often paint their 
skin of the same colour as that with    
which their clothes are dyed47 ,yet we  
see no ,american tribe painted with     
indigo4 ,it appears to me probable1 as  
,i have already hinted above1 that the  
preference given by the ,americans to   
the red colour is generally founded on  
the tendency which nations feel to      
attribute the idea of beauty to whatever
 characterises their national           
physiognomy4 ,men whose skin is         

naturally of a brownish red1 love a red 
colour4 ,if they be born with a forehead
 little raised1 and the head flat1 they 
endeavour to depress the foreheads of   
their children4 ,if they be             
distinguished from other nations by a   
thin beard1 they try to eradicate the   
few hairs that nature has given them4   
,they think themselves embellished in   
proportion as they heighten the         
characteristic marks of their race1 or  
of their national conformation4  ,we    
were surprised to see1 that1 in the camp
 of ,pararuma1 the women far advanced in
 years were more occupied with their    
ornaments than the youngest women4 ,we  
saw an ,indian female of the nation of  
the ,ottomacs employing two of her      
daughters in the operation of rubbing   
her hair with the oil of turtles' eggs1 
and painting her back with anato and    
caruto4 ,the ornament consisted of a    
sort of lattice-work formed of black    
lines crossing each other on a red      
ground4 ,each little square had a black 

dot in the centre4 ,it was a work of    
incredible patience4 ,we returned from a
 very long herborization1 and the       
painting was not half finished4 ,this   
research of ornament seems the more     
singular when we reflect that the       
figures and marks are not produced by   
the process of tattooing1 but that      
paintings executed with so much care are
 effaced199 if the ,indian exposes      
himself imprudently to a heavy shower4  
799 ,the black and caustic pigment of   
the caruto 7,genipa americana7 however1 
resists a long time the action of water1
 as we found with regret1 having one    
day1 in sport with the ,indians1 caused 
our faces to be marked with spots and   
strokes of caruto4 ,when we returned to 
,angostura1 in the midst of ,europeans1 
these marks were still visible47 ,there 
are some nations who paint only to      
celebrate festivals2 others are covered 
with colour during the whole year3 and  
the latter consider the use of anato as 
so indispensable1 that both men and     

women would perhaps be less ashamed to  
present themselves without a guayaco99  
than destitute of paint4 799 ,a word of 
the ,caribbean language4 ,the perizoma  
of the ,indians of the ,orinoco is      
rather a band than an apron47 ,these    
guayucos of the ,orinoco are partly bark
 of trees1 and partly cotton-cloth4     
,those of the men are broader than those
 worn by the women1 who1 the            
missionaries say1 have in general a less
 lively feeling of modesty4 ,a similar  
observation was made by ,christopher    
,columbus4 ,may we not attribute this in
 difference1 this want of delicacy in   
women belonging to nations of which the 
manners are not much depraved1 to that  
rude state of slavery to which the sex  
is reduced in ,south ,america by male   
injustice and tyranny8  ,when we speak  
in ,europe of a native of ,guiana1 we   
figure to ourselves a man whose head and
 waist are decorated with the fine      
feathers of the macaw1 the toucan1 and  
the humming-bird4 ,our painters and     

sculptors have long since regarded these
 ornaments as the characteristic marks  
of an ,american4 ,we were surprised at  
not finding in the ,chayma ,missions1 in
 the encampments of ,uruana and of      
,pararuma 7,i might almost say on all   
the shores of the ,orinoco and the      
,cassiquiare7 those fine plumes1 those  
feathered aprons1 which are so often    
brought by travellers from ,cayenne and 
,demerara4 ,these tribes for the most   
part1 even those whose intellectual     
faculties are most expanded1 who        
cultivate alimentary plants1 and know   
how to weave cotton1 are altogether as  
naked199 as poor1 and as destitute of   
ornaments as the natives of ,new        
,holland4 799 ,for instance1 the ,macos 
and the ,piraoas4 ,the ,caribs must be  
excepted1 whose perizoma is a cotton    
cloth1 so broad that it might cover the 
shoulders47 ,the excessive heat of the  
air1 the profuse perspiration in which  
the body is bathed at every hour of the 
day and a great part of the night1      

render the use of clothes insupportable4
 ,their objects of ornament1 and        
particularly their plumes of feathers1  
are reserved for dances and solemn      
festivals4 ,the plumes worn by the      
,guipunaves99 are the most celebrated2  
being composed of the fine feathers of  
manakins and parrots4 799 ,these came   
originally from the banks of the        
,inirida1 one of the rivers that fall   
into the ,guaviare47  ,the ,indians are 
not always satisfied with one colour    
uniformly spread2 they sometimes        
imitate1 in the most whimsical manner1  
in painting their skin1 the form of     
,european garments4 ,we saw some at     
,pararuma1 who were painted with blue   
jackets and black buttons4 ,the         
missionaries related to us that the     
,guaynaves of the ,rio ,caura are       
accustomed to stain themselves red with 
anato1 and to make broad transverse     
stripes on the body1 on which they stick
 spangles of silvery mica4 ,seen at a   
distance1 these naked men appear to be  

dressed in laced clothes4 ,if painted   
nations had been examined with the same 
attention as those who are clothed1 it  
would have been perceived that the most 
fertile imagination1 and the most       
mutable caprice1 have created the       
fashions of painting1 as well as those  
of garments4  ,painting and tattooing   
are not restrained1 in either the ,new  
or the ,old ,world1 to one race or one  
zone only4 ,these ornaments are most    
common among the ,malays and ,american  
races2 but in the time of the ,romans   
they were also employed by the white    
race in the north of ,europe4 ,as the   
most picturesque garments and modes of  
dress are found in the ,grecian         
,archipelago and western ,asia1 so the  
type of beauty in painting and tattooing
 is displayed by the islanders of the   
,pacific4 ,some clothed nations still   
paint their hands1 their nails1 and     
their faces4 ,it would seem that        
painting is then confined to those parts
 of the body that remain uncovered2 and 

while rouge1 which recalls to mind the  
savage state of man1 is disappearing by 
degrees in ,europe1 in some towns of the
 province of ,peru the ladies think they
 embellish their delicate skins by      
covering them with colouring vegetable  
matter1 starch1 white-of-egg1 and flour4
 ,after having lived a long time among  
men painted with anato and chica1 we are
 singularly struck with these remains of
 ancient barbarism retained amidst all  
the usages of civilization4  ,the       
encampment at ,pararuma afforded us an  
opportunity of examining several animals
 in their natural state1 which1 till    
then1 we had seen only in the           
collections of ,europe4 ,these little   
animals form a branch of commerce for   
the missionaries4 ,they exchange        
tobacco1 the resin called mani1 the     
pigment of chica1 gallitos              
7rock-manakins71 orange monkeys1        
capuchin monkeys1 and other species of  
monkeys in great request on the coast1  
for cloth1 nails1 hatchets1 fishhooks1  

and pins4 ,the productions of the       
,orinoco are bought at a low price from 
the ,indians1 who live in dependence on 
the monks2 and these same ,indians      
purchase fishing and gardening          
implements from the monks at a very high
 price1 with the money they have gained 
at the egg-harvest4 ,we ourselves bought
 several animals1 which we kept with us 
throughout the rest of our passage on   
the river1 and studied their manners4   
,the gallitos1 or rock-manakins1 are    
sold at ,pararuma in pretty little cages
 made of the footstalks of palm-leaves4 
,these birds are infinitely more rare on
 the banks of the ,orinoco1 and in the  
north and west of equinoctial ,america1 
than in ,french ,guiana4 ,they have     
hitherto been found only near the       
,mission of ,encaramada1 and in the     
,raudales or cataracts of ,maypures4 ,i 
say expressly ,,in the cataracts1       
because the gallitos choose for their   
habitual dwelling the hollows of the    
little granitic rocks that cross the    

,orinoco and form such numerous         
cascades4 ,we sometimes saw them appear 
in the morning in the midst of the foam 
of the river1 calling their females1 and
 fighting in the manner of our cocks1   
folding the double moveable crest that  
decorates the crown of the head4 ,as the
 ,indians very rarely take the          
full-grown gallitos1 and those males    
only are valued in ,europe1 which from  
the third year have beautiful           
saffron-coloured plumage1 purchasers    
should be on their guard not to confound
 young females with young males4 ,both  
the male and female gallitos are of an  
olive-brown2 but the pollo1 or young    
male1 is distinguishable at the earliest
 age1 by its size and its yellow feet4  
,after the third year the plumage of the
 males assumes a beautiful saffron tint2
 but the female remains always of a dull
 dusky brown colour1 with yellow only on
 the wing-coverts and tips of the       
wings499 799 ,especially the part which 
ornithologists call the carpus47 ,to    

preserve in our collections the fine    
tint of the plumage of a male and       
full-grown rock-manakin1 it must not be 
exposed to the light4 ,this tint grows  
pale more easy than in the other genera 
of the passerine order4 ,the young      
males1 as in most other birds1 have the 
plumage or livery of their mother4 ,i am
 surprised to see that so skilful a     
naturalist as ,le ,vaillant can doubt   
whether the females always remain of a  
dusky olive tint499 799 ,oiseaux de     
,paradis volume #b page #fa47 ,the      
,indians of the ,raudales all assured me
 that they had never seen a             
saffron-coloured female4  ,among the    
monkeys1 brought by the ,indians to the 
fair of ,pararuma1 we distinguished     
several varieties of the sai199 799     
,simia capucina the capuchin monkey47   
belonging to the little groups of       
creeping monkeys called matchi in the   
,spanish colonies2 marimondes99 799     
,simia belzebuth471 or ateles with a red
 belly2 titis1 and viuditas4 ,the last  

two species particularly attracted our  
attention1 and we purchased them to send
 to ,europe4  ,the titi of the ,orinoco 
7,simia sciurea71 well-known in our     
collections1 is called bititeni by the  
,maypure ,indians4 ,it is very common on
 the south of the cataracts4 ,its face  
is white2 and a little spot of          
bluish-black covers the mouth and the   
point of the nose4 ,the titis of the    
most elegant form1 and the most         
beautiful colour 7with hair of a golden 
yellow71 come from the banks of the     
,cassiquiare4 ,those that are taken on  
the shores of the ,guaviare are large   
and difficult to tame4 ,no other monkey 
has so much the physiognomy of a child  
as the titi2 there is the same          
expression of innocence1 the same       
playful smile1 the same rapidity in the 
transition from joy to sorrow4 ,its     
large eyes are instantly filled with    
tears1 when it is seized with fear4 ,it 
is extremely fond of insects1           
particularly of spiders4 ,the sagacity  

of this little animal is so great1 that 
one of those we brought in our boat to  
,angostura distinguished perfectly the  
different plates annexed to ,cuvier's   
,tableau elementaire d',histoire        
naturelle4 ,the engravings of this work 
are not coloured2 yet the titi advanced 
rapidly its little hand in the hope of  
catching a grasshopper or a wasp1 every 
time that we showed it the eleventh     
plate1 on which these insects are       
represented4 ,it remained perfectly     
indifferent when it was shown engravings
 of skeletons or heads of mammiferous   
animals499 799 ,i may observe1 that ,i  
have never heard of an instance in which
 a picture1 representing1 in the        
greatest perfection1 hares or deer of   
their natural size1 has made the least  
impression even on sporting dogs1 the   
intelligence of which appears the most  
improved4 ,is there any authenticated   
instance of a dog having recognized a   
full length picture of his master8 ,in  
all these cases1 the sight is not       

assisted by the smell47 ,when several of
 these little monkeys1 shut up in the   
same cage1 are exposed to the rain1 and 
the habitual temperature of the air     
sinks suddenly two or three degrees1    
they twist their tail 7which1 however1  
is not prehensile7 round their neck1 and
 intertwine their arms and legs to warm 
one another4 ,the ,indian hunters told  
us1 that in the forests they often met  
groups of ten or twelve of these        
animals1 whilst others sent forth       
lamentable cries1 because they wished to
 enter amid the group to find warmth and
 shelter4 ,by shooting arrows dipped in 
weak poison at one of these groups1 a   
great number of young monkeys are taken 
alive at once4 ,the titi in falling     
remains clinging to its mother1 and if  
it be not wounded by the fall1 it does  
not quit the shoulder or the neck of the
 dead animal4 ,most of those that are   
found alive in the huts of the ,indians 
have been thus taken from the dead      
bodies of their mothers4 ,those that are

 full grown1 when cured of a slight     
wound1 commonly die before they can     
accustom themselves to a domestic state4
 ,the titis are in general delicate and 
timid little animals4 ,it is very       
difficult to convey them from the       
,missions of the ,orinoco to the coast  
of ,caracas1 or of ,cumana4 ,they become
 melancholy and dejected in proportion  
as they quit the region of the forests1 
and enter the ,llanos4 ,this change     
cannot be attributed to the slight      
elevation of the temperature2 it seems  
rather to depend on a greater intensity 
of light1 a less degree of humidity1 and
 some chemical property of the air of   
the coast4  ,the saimiri1 or titi of the
 ,orinoco1 the atele1 the sajou1 and    
other quadrumanous animals long known in
 ,europe1 form a striking contrast1 both
 in their gait and habits1 with the     
macavahu1 called by the missionaries    
viudita1 or widow in mourning4 ,the hair
 of this little animal is soft1 glossy1 
and of a fine black4 ,its face is       

covered with a mask of a square form and
 a whitish colour tinged with blue4     
,this mask contains the eyes1 nose1 and 
mouth4 ,the ears have a rim3 they are   
small1 very pretty1 and almost bare4    
,the neck of the widow presents in front
 a white band1 an inch broad1 and       
forming a semicircle4 ,the feet1 or     
rather the hinder hands1 are black like 
the rest of the body2 but the fore paws 
are white without1 and of a glossy black
 within4 ,in these marks1 or white      
spots1 the missionaries think they      
recognize the veil1 the neckerchief1 and
 the gloves of a widow in mourning4 ,the
 character of this little monkey1 which 
sits up on its hinder extremities only  
when eating1 is but little indicated in 
its appearance4 ,it has a wild and timid
 air2 it often refuses the food offered 
to it1 even when tormented by a ravenous
 appetite4 ,it has little inclination   
for the society of other monkeys4 ,the  
sight of the smallest saimiri puts it to
 flight4 ,its eye denotes great         

vivacity4 ,we have seen it remain whole 
hours motionless without sleeping1 and  
attentive to everything that was passing
 around4 ,but this wildness and timidity
 are merely apparent4 ,the viudita1 when
 alone1 and left to itself1 becomes     
furious at the sight of a bird4 ,it then
 climbs and runs with astonishing       
rapidity2 darts upon its prey like a    
cat2 and kills whatever it can seize4   
,this rare and delicate monkey is found 
on the right bank of the ,orinoco1 in   
the granite mountains which rise behind 
the ,mission of ,santa ,barbara4 ,it    
inhabits also the banks of the          
,guaviare1 near ,san ,fernando de       
,atabapo4  ,the viudita accompanied us  
on our whole voyage on the ,cassiquiare 
and the ,rio ,negro1 passing the        
cataracts twice4 ,in studying the       
manners of animals1 it is a great       
advantage to observe them during several
 months in the open air1 and not in     
houses1 where they lose all their       
natural vivacity4  ,the new canoe       

intended for us was1 like all ,indian   
boats1 a trunk of a tree hollowed out   
partly by the hatchet and partly by     
fire4 ,it was forty feet long1 and three
 broad4 ,three persons could not sit in 
it side by side4 ,these canoes are so   
crank1 and they require1 from their     
instability1 a cargo so equally         
distributed1 that when you want to rise 
for an instant1 you must warn the rowers
 to lean to the opposite side4 ,without 
this precaution the water would         
necessarily enter the side pressed down4
 ,it is difficult to form an idea of the
 inconveniences that are suffered in    
such wretched vessels4  ,the missionary 
from the cataracts made the preparations
 for our voyage with greater energy than
 we wished4 ,lest there might not be a  
sufficient number of the ,maco and      
,guahibe ,indians1 who are acquainted   
with the labyrinth of small channels and
 cascades of which the ,raudales or     
cataracts are composed1 two ,indians    
were1 during the night1 placed in the   

cepo--a sort of stocks in which they    
were made to lie with their legs between
 two pieces of wood1 notched and        
fastened together by a chain with a     
padlock4 ,early in the morning we were  
awakened by the cries of a young man1   
mercilessly beaten with a whip of       
manatee skin4 ,his name was ,zerepe1 a  
very intelligent young ,indian1 who     
proved highly useful to us in the       
sequel1 but who now refused to accompany
 us4 ,he was born in the ,mission of    
,atures2 but his father was a ,maco1 and
 his mother a native of the nation of   
the ,maypures4 ,he had returned to the  
woods 7al monte71 and having lived some 
years with the unsubdued ,indians1 he   
had thus acquired the knowledge of      
several languages1 and the missionary   
employed him as an interpreter4 ,we     
obtained with difficulty the pardon of  
this young man4 ,without these acts of  
severity1 we were told1 you would want  
for everything4 ,the ,indians of the    
,raudales and the ,upper ,orinoco are a 

stronger and more laborious race than   
the inhabitants of the ,lower ,orinoco4 
,they know that they are much sought    
after at ,angostura4 ,if left to their  
own will1 they would all go down the    
river to sell their productions1 and    
live in full liberty among the whites4  
,the ,missions would be totally         
deserted4  ,these reasons1 ,i confess1  
appeared to me more specious than sound4
 ,man1 in order to enjoy the advantages 
of a social state1 must no doubt        
sacrifice a part of his natural rights1 
and his original independence2 but1 if  
the sacrifice imposed on him be not     
compensated by the benefits of          
civilization1 the savage1 wise in his   
simplicity1 retains the wish of         
returning to the forests that gave him  
birth4 ,it is because the ,indian of the
 woods is treated like a person in a    
state of villanage in the greater part  
of the ,missions1 because he enjoys not 
the fruit of his labours1 that the      
,christian establishments on the        

,orinoco remain deserts4 ,a government  
founded on the ruins of the liberty of  
the natives extinguishes the            
intellectual faculties1 or stops their  
progress4  ,to say that the savage1 like
 the child1 can be governed only by     
force1 is merely to establish false     
analogies4 ,the ,indians of the ,orinoco
 have something infantine in the        
expression of their joy1 and the quick  
succession of their emotions1 but they  
are not great children2 they are as     
little so as the poor labourers in the  
east of ,europe1 whom the barbarism of  
our feudal institutions has held in the 
rudest state4 ,to consider the          
employment of force as the first and    
sole means of the civilization of the   
savage1 is a principle as far from being
 true in the education of nations as in 
the education of youth4 ,whatever may be
 the state of weakness or degradation in
 our species1 no faculty is entirely    
annihilated4 ,the human understanding   
exhibits only different degrees of      

strength and development4 ,the savage1  
like the child1 compares the present    
with the past2 he directs his actions1  
not according to blind instinct1 but    
motives of interest4 ,reason can        
everywhere enlighten reason2 and its    
progress will be retarded in proportion 
as the men who are called upon to bring 
up youth1 or govern nations1 substitute 
constraint and force for that moral     
influence which can alone unfold the    
rising faculties1 calm the irritated    
passions1 and give stability to social  
order4  ,we could not set sail before   
ten on the morning of the #ajth4 ,to    
gain something in breadth in our new    
canoe1 a sort of lattice-work had been  
constructed on the stern with branches  
of trees1 that extended on each side    
beyond the gunwale4 ,unfortunately1 the 
toldo or roof of leaves1 that covered   
this lattice-work1 was so low that we   
were obliged to lie down1 without seeing
 anything1 or1 if seated1 to sit nearly 
double4 ,the necessity of carrying the  

canoe across the rapids1 and even from  
one river to another2 and the fear of   
giving too much hold to the wind1 by    
making the toldo higher1 render this    
construction necessary for vessels that 
go up towards the ,rio ,negro4 ,the     
toldo was intended to cover four        
persons1 lying on the deck or           
lattice-work of brush-wood2 but our legs
 reached far beyond it1 and when it     
rained half our bodies were wet4 ,our   
couches consisted of ox-hides or        
tiger-skins1 spread upon branches of    
trees1 which were painfully felt through
 so thin a covering4 ,the fore part of  
the boat was filled with ,indian rowers1
 furnished with paddles1 three feet     
long1 in the form of spoons4 ,they were 
all naked1 seated two by two1 and they  
kept time in rowing with a surprising   
uniformity1 singing songs of a sad and  
monotonous character4 ,the small cages  
containing our birds and our monkeys1   
the number of which augmented as we     
advanced1 were hung some to the toldo   

and others to the bow of the boat4 ,this
 was our travelling menagerie4          
,notwithstanding the frequent losses    
occasioned by accidents1 and above all  
by the fatal effects of exposure to the 
sun1 we had fourteen of these little    
animals alive at our return from the    
,cassiquiare4 ,naturalists1 who wish to 
collect and bring living animals to     
,europe1 might cause boats to be        
constructed expressly for this purpose  
at ,angostura1 or at ,grand ,para1 the  
two capitals situated on the banks of   
the ,orinoco and the ,amazon1 the       
fore-deck of which boats might be fitted
 up with two rows of cages sheltered    
from the rays of the sun4 ,every night1 
when we established our watch1 our      
collection of animals and our           
instruments occupied the centre2 around 
these were placed first our hammocks1   
then the hammocks of the ,indians2 and  
on the outside were the fires which are 
thought indispensable against the       
attacks of the jaguar4 ,about sunrise   

the monkeys in our cages answered the   
cries of the monkeys of the forest4     
,these communications between animals of
 the same species sympathizing with one 
another1 though unseen1 one party       
enjoying that liberty which the other   
regrets1 have something melancholy and  
affecting4  ,in a canoe not three feet  
wide1 and so incumbered1 there remained 
no other place for the dried plants1    
trunks1 a sextant1 a dipping-needle1 and
 the meteorological instruments1 than   
the space below the lattice-work of     
branches1 on which we were compelled to 
remain stretched the greater part of the
 day4 ,if we wished to take the least   
object out of a trunk1 or to use an     
instrument1 it was necessary to row     
ashore and land4 ,to these              
inconveniences were joined the torment  
of the mosquitos which swarmed under the
 toldo1 and the heat radiated from the  
leaves of the palm-trees1 the upper     
surface of which was continually exposed
 to the solar rays4 ,we attempted every 

instant1 but always without success1 to 
amend our situation4 ,while one of us   
hid himself under a sheet to ward off   
the insects1 the other insisted on      
having green wood lighted beneath the   
toldo1 in the hope of driving away the  
mosquitos by the smoke4 ,the painful    
sensations of the eyes1 and the increase
 of heat1 already stifling1 rendered    
both these contrivances alike           
impracticable4 ,with some gaiety of     
temper1 with feelings of mutual         
good-will1 and with a vivid taste for   
the majestic grandeur of these vast     
valleys of rivers1 travellers easily    
support evils that become habitual4     
,our ,indians showed us1 on the right   
bank of the river1 the place which was  
formerly the site of the ,mission of    
,pararuma1 founded by the ,jesuits about
 the year #agcc4 ,the mortality         
occasioned by the smallpox among the    
,salive ,indians was the principal cause
 of the dissolution of the mission4 ,the
 few inhabitants who survived this cruel

 epidemic1 removed to the village of    
,carichana4 ,it was at ,pararuma1 that1 
according to the testimony of ,father   
,roman1 hail was seen to fall during a  
great storm1 about the middle of the    
last century4 ,this is almost the only  
instance of it ,i know in a plain that  
is nearly on a level with the sea2 for  
hail falls generally1 between the       
tropics1 only at three hundred toises of
 elevation4 ,if it form at an equal     
height over plains and table-lands1 we  
must suppose that it melts as it falls1 
in passing through the lowest strata of 
the atmosphere1 the mean temperature of 
which is from #bg4e to #bd degrees of   
the centigrade thermometer4 ,i          
acknowledge it is very difficult to     
explain1 in the present state of        
meteorology1 why it hails at            
,philadelphia1 at ,rome1 and at         
,montpelier1 during the hottest months1 
the mean temperature of which attains   
#be or #bf degrees2 while the same      
phenomenon is not observed at ,cumana1  

at ,la ,guayra1 and in general1 in the  
equatorial plains4 ,in the ,united      
,states1 and in the south of ,europe1   
the heat of the plains 7from #dj to #dc 
degrees latitude7 is nearly the same as 
within the tropics2 and according to my 
researches the decrement of caloric     
equally varies but little4 ,if then the 
absence of hail within the torrid zone1 
at the level of the sea1 be produced by 
the melting of the hailstones in        
crossing the lower strata of the air1 we
 must suppose that these hail-stones1 at
 the moment of their formation1 are     
larger in the temperate than in the     
torrid zone4 ,we yet know so little of  
the conditions under which water        
congeals in a stormy cloud in our       
climates1 that we cannot judge whether  
the same conditions be fulfilled on the 
equator above the plains4 ,the clouds in
 which we hear the rattling of the      
hailstones against one another before   
they fall1 and which move horizontally1 
have always appeared to me of little    

elevation2 and at these small heights we
 may conceive that extraordinary        
refrigerations are caused by the        
dilatation of the ascending air1 of     
which the capacity for caloric augments2
 by currents of cold air coming from a  
higher latitude1 and above all1         
according to ,m4 ,gay ,lussac1 by the   
radiation from the upper surface of the 
clouds4 ,i shall have occasion to return
 to this subject when speaking of the   
different forms under which hail and    
hoar-frost appear on the ,andes1 at two 
thousand and two thousand six hundred   
toises of height2 and when examining the
 question whether we may consider the   
stratum of clouds that envelops the     
mountains as a horizontal continuation  
of the stratum which we see immediately 
above us in the plains4  ,the ,orinoco1 
full of islands1 begins to divide itself
 into several branches1 of which the    
most western remain dry during the      
months of ,january and ,february4 ,the  
total breadth of the river exceeds two  

thousand five hundred or three thousand 
toises4 ,we perceived to the ,east1     
opposite the island of ,javanavo1 the   
mouth of the ,cano ,aujacoa4 ,between   
this ,cano and the ,rio ,paruasi or     
,paruati1 the country becomes more and  
more woody4 ,a solitary rock1 of        
extremely picturesque aspect1 rises in  
the midst of a forest of palm-trees1 not
 far from the ,orinoco4 ,it is a pillar 
of granite1 a prismatic mass1 the bare  
and steep sides of which attain nearly  
two hundred feet in height4 ,its point1 
which overtops the highest trees of the 
forest1 is terminated by a shelf of rock
 with a horizontal and smooth surface4  
,other trees crown this summit1 which   
the missionaries call the peak1 or      
,mogote de ,cocuyza4 ,this monument of  
nature1 in its simple grandeur recalls  
to mind the ,cyclopean remains of       
antiquity4 ,its strongly-marked         
outlines1 and the group of trees and    
shrubs by which it is crowned1 stand out
 from the azure of the sky4 ,it seems a 

forest rising above a forest4  ,further 
on1 near the mouth of the ,paruasi1 the 
,orinoco narrows4 ,on the east is       
perceived a mountain with a bare top1   
projecting like a promontory4 ,it is    
nearly three hundred feet high1 and     
served as a fortress for the ,jesuits4  
,they had constructed there a small     
fort1 with three batteries of cannon1   
and it was constantly occupied by a     
military detachment4 ,we saw the cannon 
dismounted1 and half-buried in the sand1
 at ,carichana and at ,atures4 ,this    
fort of the ,jesuits has been destroyed 
since the dissolution of their society2 
but the place is still called ,el       
,castillo4 ,i find it set down1 in a    
manuscript map1 lately completed at     
,caracas by a member of the secular     
clergy1 under the denomination of       
,trinchera del despotismo monacal499 799
 ,intrenchmnent of monachal despotism47 
,the garrison which the ,jesuits        
maintained on this rock1 was not        
intended merely to protect the ,missions

 against the incursions of the ,caribs3 
it was employed also in an offensive    
war1 or1 as they say here1 in the       
conquest of souls 7conquista de almas74 
,the soldiers1 excited by the allurement
 of gain1 made military incursions      
7entradas7 into the lands of the        
independent ,indians4 ,they killed all  
those who dared to make any resistance1 
burnt their huts1 destroyed their       
plantations1 and carried away the women1
 children1 and old men1 as prisoners4   
,these prisoners were divided among the 
,missions of the ,meta1 the ,rio ,negro1
 and the ,upper ,orinoco4 ,the most     
distant places were chosen1 that they   
might not be tempted to return to their 
native country4 ,this violent manner of 
conquering souls1 though prohibited by  
the ,spanish laws1 was tolerated by the 
civil governors1 and vaunted by the     
superiors of the society1 as beneficial 
to religion1 and the aggrandizement of  
the ,missions4 ,the voice of the ,gospel
 is heard only1 said a ,jesuit of the   

,orinoco1 very candidly1 in the ,cartas 
,edifiantes1 where the ,indians have    
heard also the sound of fire-arms 7el   
eco de la polvora74 ,mildness is a very 
slow measure4 ,by chastising the        
natives1 we facilitate their conversion4
 ,these principles1 which degrade       
humanity1 were certainly not common to  
all the members of a society which1 in  
the ,new ,world1 and wherever education 
has remained exclusively in the hands of
 monks1 has rendered service to letters 
and civilization4 ,but the entradas1 the
 spiritual conquests with the assistance
 of bayonets1 was an inherent vice in a 
system1 that tended to the rapid        
aggrandizement of the ,missions4 ,it is 
pleasing to find that the same system is
 not followed by the ,franciscan1       
,dominican1 and ,augustinian monks who  
now govern a vast portion of ,south     
,america2 and who1 by the mildness or   
harshness of their manners1 exert a     
powerful influence over the fate of so  
many thousands of natives4 ,military    

incursions are almost entirely          
abolished2 and when they do take place1 
they are disavowed by the superiors of  
the orders4 ,we will not decide at      
present1 whether this amelioration of   
the monachal system be owing to want of 
activity and cold indolence2 or whether 
it must be attributed1 as we would wish 
to believe1 to the progress of          
knowledge1 and to feelings more         
elevated1 and more conformable to the   
true spirit of ,christianity4  ,beyond  
the mouth of the ,rio ,paruasi1 the     
,orinoco again narrows4 ,full of little 
islands and masses of granite rock1 it  
presents rapids1 or small cascades      
7remolinos71 which at first sight may   
alarm the traveller by the continual    
eddies of the water1 but which at no    
season of the year are dangerous for    
boats4 ,a range of shoals1 that crosses 
almost the whole river1 bears the name  
of the ,raudal de ,marimara4 ,we passed 
it without difficulty by a narrow       
channel1 in which the water seems to    

boil up as it issues out impetuously99  
799 ,these places are called chorreros  
in the ,spanish colonies47 below the    
,piedra de ,marimara1 a compact mass of 
granite eighty feet high1 and three     
hundred feet in circumference1 without  
fissures1 or any trace of               
stratification4 ,the river penetrates   
far into the land1 and forms spacious   
bays in the rocks4 ,one of these bays1  
inclosed between two promontories       
destitute of vegetation1 is called the  
,port of ,carichana499 799 ,piedra y    
puerto de ,carichana47 ,the spot has a  
very wild aspect4 ,in the evening the   
rocky coasts project their vast shadows 
over the surface of the river4 ,the     
waters appear black from reflecting the 
image of these granitic masses1 which1  
in the colour of their external surface1
 sometimes resemble coal1 and sometimes 
lead-ore4 ,we passed the night in the   
small village of ,carichana1 where we   
were received at the priest's house1 or 
convento4 ,it was nearly a fortnight    

since we had slept under a roof4  ,to   
avoid the effects of the inundations1   
often so fatal to health1 the ,mission  
of ,carichana has been established at   
three quarters of a league from the     
river4 ,the ,indians in this ,mission   
are of the nation of the ,salives1 and  
they have a disagreeable and nasal      
pronunciation4 ,their language1 of which
 the ,jesuit ,anisson has composed a    
grammar still in manuscript1 is1 with   
the ,caribbean1 the ,tamanac1 the       
,maypure1 the ,ottomac1 the ,guahive1   
and the ,jaruro1 one of the             
mother-tongues most general on the      
,orinoco4 ,father ,gili thinks that the 
,ature1 the ,piraoa1 and the ,quaqua or 
,mapoye1 are only dialects of the       
,salive4 ,my journey was much too rapid 
to enable me to judge of the accuracy of
 this opinion2 but we shall soon see    
that1 in the village of ,ature1         
celebrated on account of its situation  
near the great cataracts1 neither the   
,salive nor the ,ature is now spoken1   

but the language of the ,maypures4 ,in  
the ,salive of ,carichana1 man is called
 cocco2 woman1 gnacu2 water1 cagua2     
fire1 eyussa2 the earth1 seke2 the sky1 
mumeseke 7earth on high72 the jaguar1   
impii2 the crocodile1 cuipoo2 maize1    
giomu2 the plantain1 paratuna2 cassava1 
peibe4 ,i may here mention one of those 
descriptive compounds that seem to      
characterise the infancy of language1   
though they are retained in some very   
perfect idioms499 7,see volume #a       
chapter #a4i47 ,thus1 as in the         
,biscayan1 thunder is called the noise  
of the cloud 7odotsa72 the sun bears the
 name1 in the ,salive dialect1 of       
mume-seke-cocco1 the man 7cocco7 of the 
earth 7seke7 above 7mume74  ,the most   
ancient abode of the ,salive nation     
appears to have been on the western     
banks of the ,orinoco1 between the ,rio 
,vichada99 and the ,guaviare1 and also  
between the ,meta and the ,rio ,paute4  
799 ,the ,salive mission1 on the ,rio   
,vichada1 was destroyed by the ,caribs47

 ,salives are now found not only at     
,carichana1 but in the ,missions of the 
province of ,casanre1 at ,cabapuna1     
,guanapalo1 ,cabiuna1 and ,macuco4 ,they
 are a social1 mild1 almost timid       
people2 and more easy1 ,i will not say  
to civilize1 but to subdue1 than the    
other tribes on the ,orinoco4 ,to escape
 from the dominion of the ,caribs1 the  
,salives willingly joined the first     
,missions of the ,jesuits4 ,accordingly 
these fathers everywhere in their       
writings praise the docility and        
intelligence of that people4 ,the       
,salives have a great taste for music3  
in the most remote times they had       
trumpets of baked earth1 four or five   
feet long1 with several large globular  
cavities communicating with one another 
by narrow pipes4 ,these trumpets send   
forth most dismal sounds4 ,the ,jesuits 
have cultivated with success the natural
 taste of the ,salives for instrumental 
music2 and even since the destruction of
 the society1 the missionaries of ,rio  

,meta have continued at ,san ,miguel de 
,macuco a fine church choir1 and musical
 instruction for the ,indian youth4     
,very lately a traveller was surprised  
to see the natives playing on the       
violin1 the violoncello1 the triangle1  
the guitar1 and the flute4  ,we found   
among these ,salive ,indians1 at        
,carichana1 a white woman1 the sister of
 a ,jesuit of ,new ,grenada4 ,it is     
difficult to define the satisfaction    
that is felt when1 in the midst of      
nations of whose language we are        
ignorant1 we meet with a being with whom
 we can converse without an interpreter4
 ,every mission has at least two        
interpreters 7lenguarazes74 ,they are   
,indians1 a little less stupid than the 
rest1 through whose medium the          
missionaries of the ,orinoco1 who now   
very rarely give themselves the trouble 
of studying the idioms of the country1  
communicate with the neophytes4 ,these  
interpreters attended us in all our     
herborizations2 but they rather         

understand than speak ,castilian4 ,with 
their indolent indifference1 they answer
 us by chance1 but always with an       
officious smile1 ,yes1 ,father2 no1     
,father1 to every question addressed to 
them4  ,the vexation that arises from   
such a style of conversation continued  
for months may easily be conceived1 when
 you wish to be enlightened upon objects
 in which you take the most lively      
interest4 ,we were often forced to      
employ several interpreters at a time1  
and several successive translators1 in  
order to communicate with the natives499
 799 ,to form a just idea of the        
perplexity of these communications by   
interpreters1 we may recollect that1 in 
the expedition of ,lewis and ,clarke to 
the river ,columbia1 in order to        
converse with the ,chopunnish ,indians1 
,captain ,lewis addressed one of his men
 in ,english2 that man translated the   
question into ,french to ,chaboneau2    
,chaboneau translated it to his ,indian 
wife in ,minnetaree2 the woman          

translated it into ,shoshonee to a      
prisoner2 and the prisoner translated it
 into ,chopunnish4 ,it may be feared    
that the sense of the question was a    
little altered by these successive      
translations47  ,after leaving my       
,mission1 said the good monk of ,uruana1
 you will travel like mutes4 ,this      
prediction was nearly accomplished2 and1
 not to lose the advantage we might     
derive from intercourse even with the   
rudest ,indians1 we sometimes preferred 
the language of signs4 ,when a native   
perceives that you will not employ an   
interpreter2 when you interrogate him   
directly1 showing him the objects2 he   
rouses himself from his habitual apathy1
 and manifests an extraordinary capacity
 to make himself comprehended4 ,he      
varies his signs1 pronounces his words  
slowly1 and repeats them without being  
desired4 ,the consequence conferred upon
 him1 in suffering yourself to be       
instructed by him1 flatters his         
self-love4 ,this facility in making     

himself comprehended is particularly    
remarkable in the independent ,indian4  
,it cannot be doubted that direct       
intercourse with the natives is more    
instructive and more certain than the   
communication by interpreters1 provided 
the questions be simplified1 and        
repeated to several individuals under   
different forms4 ,the variety of idioms 
spoken on the banks of the ,meta1 the   
,orinoco1 the ,cassiquiare1 and the ,rio
 ,negro1 is so prodigious1 that a       
traveller1 however great may be his     
talent for languages1 can never hope to 
learn enough to make himself understood 
along the navigable rivers1 from        
,angostura to the small fort of ,san    
,carlos del ,rio ,negro4 ,in ,peru and  
,quito it is sufficient to know the     
,quichua1 or the ,inca language2 in     
,chile1 the ,araucan2 and in ,paraguay1 
the ,guarany2 in order to be understood 
by most of the population4 ,but it is   
different in the ,missions of ,spanish  
,guiana1 where nations of various races 

are mingled in the village4 ,it is not  
even sufficient to have learned the     
,caribee or ,carina1 the ,guamo1 the    
,guahive1 the ,jaruro1 the ,ottomac1 the
 ,maypure1 the ,salive1 the ,marivitan1 
the ,maquiritare1 and the ,guaica1 ten  
dialects1 of which there exist only     
imperfect grammars1 and which have less 
affinity with each other than the       
,greek1 ,german1 and ,persian languages4
  ,the environs of the ,mission of      
,carichana appeared to us to be         
delightful4 ,the little village is      
situated in one of those plains covered 
with grass that separate all the links  
of the granitic mountains1 from         
,encaramada to beyond the ,cataracts of 
,maypures4 ,the line of the forests is  
seen only in the distance4 ,the horizon 
is everywhere bounded by mountains1     
partly wooded and of a dark tint1 partly
 bare1 with rocky summits gilded by the 
beams of the setting sun4 ,what gives a 
peculiar character to the scenery of    
this country are banks of rock 7laxas7  

nearly destitute of vegetation1 and     
often more than eight hundred feet in   
circumference1 yet scarcely rising a few
 inches above the surrounding savannahs4
 ,they now make a part of the plain4 ,we
 ask ourselves with surprise1 whether   
some extraordinary revolutions may have 
carried away the earth and plants2 or   
whether the granite nucleus of our      
planet shows itself bare1 because the   
germs of life are not yet developed on  
all its points4 ,the same phenomenon    
seems to be found also in the desert of 
,shamo1 which separates ,mongolia from  
,china4 ,those banks of solitary rock in
 the desert are called tsy4 ,i think    
they would be real table-lands1 if the  
surrounding plains were stripped of the 
sand and mould that cover them1 and     
which the waters have accumulated in the
 lowest places4 ,on these stony flats of
 ,carichana we observed with interest   
the rising vegetation in the different  
degrees of its development4 ,we there   
found lichens cleaving the rock1 and    

collected in crusts more or less thick2 
little portions of sand nourishing      
succulent plants2 and lastly layers of  
black mould deposited in the hollows1   
formed from the decay of roots and      
leaves1 and shaded by tufts of evergreen
 shrubs4  ,at the distance of two or    
three leagues from the ,mission1 we     
find1 in these plains intersected by    
granitic hills1 a vegetation no less    
rich than varied4 ,on comparing the site
 of ,carichana with that of all the     
villages above the ,great ,cataracts1 we
 are surprised at the facility with     
which we traverse the country1 without  
following the banks of the rivers1 or   
being stopped by the thickness of the   
forests4 ,m4 ,bonpland made several     
excursions on horseback1 which furnished
 him with a rich harvest of plants4 ,i  
shall mention only the paraguatan1 a    
magnificent species of the macrocnemum1 
the bark of which yields a red dye299   
799 ,macrocnemum tinctorium47 the       
guaricamo1 with a poisonous root299 799 

,ityania coccidea47 the ,jacaranda      
obtusifolia2 and the serrape1 or jape99 
799 ,dipterix odorata1 ,willd4 or       
,baryosma tongo of ,gaertner4 ,the jape 
furnishes ,carichana with excellent     
timber47 of the ,salive ,indians1 which 
is the ,coumarouna of ,aublet1 so       
celebrated throughout ,terra ,firma for 
its aromatic fruit4 ,this fruit1 which  
at ,caracas is placed among linen1 as in
 ,europe it is in snuff1 under the name 
of tonca1 or ,tonquin bean1 is regarded 
as poisonous4 ,it is a false notion1    
very general in the province of ,cumana1
 that the excellent liqueur fabricated  
at ,martinique owes its peculiar flavour
 to the jape4 ,in the ,missions it is   
called simaruba2 a name that may        
occasion serious mistakes1 the true     
simaruba being a febrifuge species of   
the ,quassia genus1 found in ,spanish   
,guiana only in the valley of ,rio      
,caura1 where the ,paudacot ,indians    
give it the name of achecchari4  ,i     
found the dip of the magnetic needle1 in

 the great square at ,carichana1 #cc4g  
degrees 7new division74 ,the intensity  
of the magnetic action was expressed by 
two hundred and twenty-seven            
oscillations in ten minutes of time2 an 
increase of force that would seem to    
indicate some local attraction4 ,yet the
 blocks of the granite1 blackened by the
 waters of the ,orinoco1 have no        
perceptible action upon the needle4     
,the river had risen several inches     
during the day on the #ajth of ,april2  
this phenomenon surprised the natives so
 much the more1 as the first swellings  
are almost imperceptible1 and are       
usually followed in the month of ,april 
by a fall for some days4 ,the ,orinoco  
was already three feet higher than the  
level of the lowest waters4 ,the natives
 showed us on a granite wall the traces 
of the great rise of the waters of late 
years4 ,we found them to be forty-two   
feet high1 which is double the mean rise
 of the ,nile4 ,but this measure was    
taken in a place where the bed of the   

,orinoco is singularly hemmed in by     
rocks1 and ,i could only notice the     
marks shown me by the natives4 ,it may  
easily be conceived that the effect and 
the height of the increase differs      
according to the profile of the river1  
the nature of the banks more or less    
elevated1 the number of rivers flowing  
in that collect the pluvial waters1 and 
the length of ground passed over4 ,it is
 an unquestionable fact that at         
,carichana1 at ,san ,borja1 at ,atures1 
and at ,maypures1 wherever the river has
 forced its way through the mountains1  
you see at a hundred1 sometimes at a    
hundred and thirty feet1 above the      
highest present swell of the river1     
black bands and erosions1 that indicate 
the ancient levels of the waters4 ,is   
then this river1 which appears to us so 
grand and so majestic1 only the feeble  
remains of those immense currents of    
fresh water which heretofore traversed  
the country at the east of the ,andes1  
like arms of inland seas8 ,what must    

have been the state of those low        
countries of ,guiana that now undergo   
the effects of annual inundations8 ,what
 immense numbers of crocodiles1         
manatees1 and boas must have inhabited  
these vast spaces of land1 converted    
alternately into marshes of stagnant    
water1 and into barren and fissured     
plains6 ,the more peaceful world which  
we inhabit has then succeeded to a world
 of tumult4 ,the bones of mastodons and 
,american elephants are found dispersed 
on the table-lands of the ,andes4 ,the  
megatherium inhabited the plains of     
,uruguay4 ,on digging deep into the     
ground1 in high valleys1 where neither  
palm-trees nor arborescent ferns can    
grow1 strata of coal are discovered1    
that still show vestiges of gigantic    
monocotyledonous plants4  ,there was a  
remote period then1 in which the classes
 of plants were otherwise distributed1  
when the animals were larger1 and the   
rivers broader and of greater depth4    
,there end those records of nature1 that

 it is in our power to consult4 ,we are 
ignorant whether the human race1 which  
at the time of the discovery of ,america
 scarcely formed a few feeble tribes on 
the east of the ,cordilleras1 had       
already descended into the plains2 or   
whether the ancient tradition of the    
great waters1 which is found among the  
nations of the ,orinoco1 the ,erevato1  
and the ,caura1 belong to other         
climates1 whence it has been propagated 
to this part of the ,new ,continent4    
,on the #aath of ,april1 we left        
,carichana at two in the afternoon1 and 
found the course of the river more and  
more encumbered by blocks of granite    
rocks4 ,we passed on the west the ,cano 
,orupe1 and then the great rock known by
 the name of ,piedra del ,tigre4 ,the   
river is there so deep1 that no bottom  
can be found with a line of twenty-two  
fathoms4 ,towards evening the weather   
became cloudy and gloomy4 ,the proximity
 of the storm was marked by squalls     
alternating with dead calms4 ,the rain  

was violent1 and the roof of foliage1   
under which we lay1 afforded but little 
shelter4 ,happily these showers drove   
away the mosquitos1 at least for some   
time4 ,we found ourselves before the    
cataract of ,cariven1 and the impulse of
 the waters was so strong1 that we had  
great difficulty in gaining the land4   
,we were continually driven back to the 
middle of the current4 ,at length two   
,salive ,indians1 excellent swimmers1   
leaped into the water1 and having drawn 
the boat to shore by means of a rope1   
made it fast to the ,piedra de          
,carichana ,vieja1 a shelf of bare rock1
 on which we passed the night4 ,the     
thunder continued to roll during a part 
of the night2 the swell of the river    
became considerable2 and we were several
 times afraid that our frail bark would 
be driven from the shore by the         
impetuosity of the waves4  ,the granitic
 rock on which we lay is one of those1  
where travellers on the ,orinoco have   
heard from time to time1 towards        

sunrise1 subterraneous sounds1          
resembling those of the organ4 ,the     
missionaries call these stones laxas de 
musica4 ,it is witchcraft 7cosa de      
bruxas71 said our young ,indian pilot1  
who could speak ,spanish4 ,we never     
ourselves heard these mysterious sounds1
 either at ,carichana ,vieja1 or in the 
,upper ,orinoco2 but from information   
given us by witnesses worthy of belief1 
the existence of a phenomenon that seems
 to depend on a certain state of the    
atmosphere1 cannot be denied4 ,the      
shelves of rock are full of very narrow 
and deep crevices4 ,they are heated     
during the day to #dh or #ej degrees4 ,i
 several times found their temperature  
at the surface1 during the night1 at #ci
 degrees1 the surrounding atmosphere    
being at #bh degrees4 ,it may easily be 
conceived1 that the difference of       
temperature between the subterranean and
 the external air attains its maximum   
about sunrise1 or at that moment which  
is at the same time farthest from the   

period of the maximum of the heat of the
 preceding day4 ,may not these          
organ-like sounds1 which are heard when 
a person lays his ear in contact with   
the stone1 be the effect of a current of
 air that issues out through the        
crevices8 ,does not the impulse of the  
air against the elastic spangles of mica
 that intercept the crevices1 contribute
 to modify the sounds8 ,may we not admit
 that the ancient inhabitants of ,egypt1
 in passing incessantly up and down the 
,nile1 had made the same observation on 
some rock of the ,thebaid2 and that the 
music of the rocks there led to the     
jugglery of the priests in the statue of
 ,memnon8 ,perhaps1 when1 the           
rosy-fingered ,aurora rendered her son1 
the glorious ,memnon1 vocal199 799      
,these are the words of an inscription1 
which attests that sounds were heard on 
the #acth of the month ,pachon1 in the  
tenth year of the reign of ,antoninus4  
,see ,monuments de l',egypte ,ancienne47
 the voice was that of a man hidden     

beneath the pedestal of the statue2 but 
the observation of the natives of the   
,orinoco1 which we relate1 seems to     
explain in a natural manner what gave   
rise to the ,egyptian belief of a stone 
that poured forth sounds at sunrise4    
,almost at the same period at which ,i  
communicated these conjectures to some  
of the learned of ,europe1 three ,french
 travellers1 ,,mm4 ,jomard1 ,jollois1   
and ,devilliers1 were led to analogous  
ideas4 ,they heard1 at sunrise1 in a    
monument of granite1 at the centre of   
the spot on which stands the palace of  
,karnak1 a noise resembling that of a   
string breaking4 ,now this comparison is
 precisely that which the ancients      
employed in speaking of the voice of    
,memnon4 ,the ,french travellers        
thought1 like me1 that the passage of   
rarefied air through the fissures of a  
sonorous stone might have suggested to  
the ,egyptian priests the invention of  
the juggleries of the ,memnomium4  ,we  
left the rock at four in the morning4   

,the missionary had told us that we     
should have great difficulty in passing 
the rapids and the mouth of the ,meta4  
,the ,indians rowed twelve hours and a  
half without intermission1 and during   
all that time1 they took no other       
nourishment than cassava and plantains4 
,when we consider the difficulty of     
overcoming the force of the current1 and
 of passing the cataracts2 when we      
reflect on the constant employment of   
the muscular powers during a navigation 
of two months2 we are equally surprised 
at the constitutional vigour and the    
abstinence of the ,indians of the       
,orinoco and the ,amazon4 ,amylaceous   
and saccharine substances1 sometimes    
fish and the fat of turtles' eggs1      
supply the place of food drawn from the 
first two classes of the animal kingdom1
 those of quadrupeds and birds4  ,we    
found the bed of the river1 to the      
length of six hundred toises1 full of   
granite rocks4 ,here is what is called  
the ,raudal de ,cariven4 ,we passed     

through channels that were not five feet
 broad4 ,our canoe was sometimes jammed 
between two blocks of granite4 ,we      
sought to avoid these passages1 into    
which the waters rushed with a fearful  
noise2 but there is really little       
danger1 in a canoe steered by a good    
,indian pilot4 ,when the current is too 
violent to be resisted the rowers leap  
into the water1 and fasten a rope to the
 point of a rock1 to warp the boat      
along4 ,this manoeuvre is very tedious2 
and we sometimes availed ourselves of   
it1 to climb the rocks among which we   
were entangled4 ,they are of all        
dimensions1 rounded1 very black1 glossy 
like lead1 and destitute of vegetation4 
,it is an extraordinary phenomenon to   
see the waters of one of the largest    
rivers on the globe in some sort        
disappear4 ,we perceived1 even far from 
the shore1 those immense blocks of      
granite1 rising from the ground1 and    
leaning one against another4 ,the       
intervening channels in the rapids are  

more than twenty-five fathoms deep2 and 
are the more difficult to be observed1  
as the rocks are often narrow toward    
their bases1 and form vaults suspended  
over the surface of the river4 ,we      
perceived no crocodiles in the raudal2  
these animals seem to shun the noise of 
cataracts4  ,from ,cabruta to the mouth 
of the ,rio ,sinaruco1 a distance of    
nearly two degrees of latitude1 the left
 bank of the ,orinoco is entirely       
uninhabited2 but to the west of the     
,raudal de ,cariven an enterprising man1
 ,don ,felix ,relinchon1 had assembled  
some ,jaruro and ,ottomac ,indians in a 
small village4 ,it is an attempt at     
civilization1 on which the monks have   
had no direct influence4 ,it is         
superfluous to add1 that ,don ,felix    
lives at open war with the missionaries 
on the right bank of the ,orinoco4      
,proceeding up the river we arrived1 at 
nine in the morning1 before the mouth of
 the ,meta1 opposite the spot where the 
,mission of ,santa ,teresa1 founded by  

the ,jesuits1 was heretofore situated4  
,next to the ,guaviare1 the ,meta is the
 most considerable river that flows into
 the ,orinoco4 ,it may be compared to   
the ,danube1 not for the length of its  
course1 but for the volume of its       
waters4 ,its mean depth is thirty-six   
feet1 and it sometimes reaches          
eighty-four4 ,the union of these two    
rivers presents a very impressive       
spectacle4 ,lonely rocks rise on the    
eastern bank4 ,blocks of granite1 piled 
upon one another1 appear from afar like 
castles in ruins4 ,vast sandy shores    
keep the skirting of the forest at a    
distance from the river2 but we discover
 amid them1 in the horizon1 solitary    
palm-trees1 backed by the sky1 and      
crowning the tops of the mountains4 ,we 
passed two hours on a large rock1       
standing in the middle of the ,orinoco1 
and called the ,piedra de la ,paciencia1
 or the ,stone of ,patience1 because the
 canoes1 in going up1 are sometimes     
detained there two days1 to extricate   

themselves from the whirlpool caused by 
this rock4  ,the ,rio ,meta1 which      
traverses the vast plains of ,casanare1 
and which is navigable as far as the    
foot of the ,andes of ,new ,grenada1    
will one day be of great political      
importance to the inhabitants of ,guiana
 and ,venezuela4 ,from the ,golfo       
,triste and the ,boca del ,drago a small
 fleet may go up the ,orinoco and the   
,meta to within fifteen or twenty       
leagues of ,santa ,fe de ,bogota4 ,the  
flour of ,new ,grenada may be conveyed  
the same way4 ,the ,meta is like a canal
 of communication between countries     
placed in the same latitude1 but        
differing in their productions as much  
as ,france and ,senegal4 ,the ,meta has 
its source in the union of two rivers   
which descend from the paramos of       
,chingasa and ,suma ,paz4 ,the first is 
the ,rio ,negro1 which1 lower down1     
receives the ,pachaquiaro2 the second is
 the ,rio de ,aguas ,blancas1 or        
,umadea4 ,the junction takes place near 

the port of ,marayal4 ,it is only eight 
or ten leagues from the ,passo de la    
,cabulla1 where you quit the ,rio       
,negro1 to the capital of ,santa ,fe4   
,from the villages of ,xiramena and     
,cabullaro to those of ,guanapalo and   
,santa ,rosalia de ,cabapuna1 a distance
 of sixty leagues1 the banks of the     
,meta are more inhabited than those of  
the ,orinoco4 ,we find in this space    
fourteen ,christian settlements1 in part
 very populous2 but from the mouths of  
the rivers ,pauto and ,casanare1 for a  
space of more than fifty leagues1 the   
,meta is infested by the ,guahibos1 a   
race of savages499 799 ,i find the word 
written ,guajibos1 ,guahivos1 and       
,guagivos4 ,they call themselves        
,gua-iva47  ,the navigation of this     
river was much more active in the time  
of the ,jesuits1 and particularly during
 the expedition of ,iturriaga1 in #agef1
 than it is at present4 ,missionaries of
 the same order then governed the banks 
of the ,meta and of the ,orinoco4 ,the  

villages of ,macuco1 ,zurimena1 and     
,casimena1 were founded by the ,jesuits1
 as well as those of ,uruana1           
,encaramada1 and ,carichana4  ,these    
,fathers had conceived the project of   
forming a series of ,missions from the  
junction of the ,casanare with the ,meta
 to that of the ,meta with the ,orinoco4
 ,a narrow zone of cultivated land would
 have crossed the vast steppes that     
separate the forests of ,guiana from the
 ,andes of ,new ,grenada4  ,at the      
period of the harvest of turtles' eggs1 
not only the flour of ,santa ,fe        
descended the river1 but the salt of    
,chita199 799 ,east of ,labranza        
,grande1 and the north-west of ,pore1   
now the capital of the province of      
,casanare47 the cotton cloth of ,san    
,gil1 and the printed counterpanes of   
,socorro4 ,to give some security to the 
little traders who devoted themselves to
 this inland commerce1 attacks were made
 from time to time from the castillo or 
fort of ,carichana1 on the ,guahibos4   

,to keep these ,guahibos in awe1 the    
,capuchin missionaries1 who succeeded   
the ,jesuits in the government of the   
,missions of the ,orinoco1 formed the   
project of founding a city at the mouth 
of the ,meta1 under the name of the     
,villa de ,san ,carlos4 ,indolence1 and 
the dread of tertian fevers1 have       
prevented the execution of this project2
 and all that has ever existed of the   
city of ,san ,carlos1 is a coat of arms 
painted on fine parchment1 with an      
enormous cross erected on the bank of   
the ,meta4 ,the ,guahibos1 who1 it is   
said1 are some thousands in number1 have
 become so insolent1 that1 at the time  
of our passage by ,carichana1 they sent 
word to the missionary that they would  
come on rafts1 and burn his village4    
,these rafts 7valzas71 which we had an  
opportunity of seeing1 are scarcely     
three feet broad1 and twelve feet long4 
,they carry only two or three ,indians2 
but fifteen or sixteen of these rafts   
are fastened to each other with the     

stems of the paullinia1 the dolichos1   
and other creeping plants4 ,it is       
difficult to conceive how these small   
craft remain tied together in passing   
the rapids4 ,many fugitives from the    
villages of the ,casanare and the ,apure
 have joined the ,guahibos1 and taught  
them the practice of eating beef1 and   
preparing hides4 ,the farms of ,san     
,vicente1 ,rubio1 and ,san ,antonio1    
have lost great numbers of their horned 
cattle by the incursions of the         
,indians1 who also prevent travellers1  
as far as the junction of the ,casanare1
 from sleeping on the shore in going up 
the ,meta4 ,it often happens1 while the 
waters are low1 that the traders of ,new
 ,grenada1 some of whom still visit the 
encampment of ,pararuma1 are killed by  
the poisoned arrows of the ,guahibos4   
,from the mouth of the ,meta1 the       
,orinoco appeared to us to be freer of  
shoals and rocks4 ,we navigated in a    
channel five hundred toises broad4 ,the 
,indians remained rowing in the boat1   

without towing or pushing it forward    
with their arms1 and wearying us with   
their wild cries4 ,we passed the ,canos 
of ,uita and ,endava on the west4 ,it   
was night when we reached the ,raudal de
 ,tabaje4 ,the ,indians would not hazard
 passing the cataract2 and we slept on a
 very incommodious spot1 on the shelf of
 a rock1 with a slope of more than      
eighteen degrees1 and of which the      
crevices sheltered a swarm of bats4 ,we 
heard the cries of the jaguar very near 
us during the whole night4 ,they were   
answered by our great dog in lengthened 
howlings4 ,i waited the appearance of   
the stars in vain3 the sky was          
exceedingly black2 and the hoarse sounds
 of the cascades of the ,orinoco mingled
 with the rolling of the distant        
thunder4  ,early in the morning of the  
#acth ,april we passed the rapids of    
,tabaje1 and again disembarked4 ,father 
,zea1 who accompanied us1 desired to    
perform mass in the new ,mission of ,san
 ,borja1 established two years before4  

,we there found six houses inhabited by 
uncatechised ,guahibos4 ,they differ in 
nothing from the wild ,indians4 ,their  
eyes1 which are large and black1 have   
more vivacity than those of the ,indians
 who inhabit the ancient missions4 ,we  
in vain offered them brandy2 they would 
not even taste it4 ,the faces of all the
 young girls were marked with round     
black spots2 like the patches by which  
the ladies of ,europe formerly imagined 
they set off the whiteness of their     
skins4 ,the bodies of the ,guahibos were
 not painted4 ,several of them had      
beards1 of which they seemed proud2 and1
 taking us by the chin1 showed us by    
signs1 that they were made like us4     
,their shape was in general slender4 ,i 
was again struck1 as ,i had been among  
the ,salives and the ,macos1 with the   
little uniformity of features to be     
found among the ,indians of the         
,orinoco4 ,their look is sad and gloomy2
 but neither stern nor ferocious4       
,without having any notion of the       

practices of the ,christian religion1   
they behaved with the utmost decency at 
church4 ,the ,indians love to exhibit   
themselves2 and will submit temporarily 
to any restraint or subjection1 provided
 they are sure of drawing attention4 ,at
 the moment of the consecration1 they   
made signs to one another1 to indicate  
beforehand that the priest was going to 
raise the chalice to his lips4 ,with the
 exception of this gesture1 they        
remained motionless and in imperturbable
 apathy4  ,the interest with which we   
examined these poor savages became      
perhaps the cause of the destruction of 
the mission4 ,some among them1 who      
preferred a wandering life to the       
labours of agriculture1 persuaded the   
rest to return to the plains of the     
,meta4 ,they told them1 that the white  
men would come back to ,san ,borja1 to  
take them away in the boats1 and sell   
them as poitos1 or slaves1 at           
,angostura4 ,the ,guahibos awaited the  
news of our return from the ,rio ,negro 

by the ,cassiquiare2 and when they heard
 that we were arrived at the first great
 cataract1 that of ,atures1 they all    
deserted1 and fled to the savannahs that
 border the ,orinoco on the west4 ,the  
,jesuit ,fathers had already formed a   
mission on this spot1 and bearing the   
same name4 ,no tribe is more difficult  
to fix to the soil than the ,guahibos4  
,they would rather feed on stale fish1  
scolopendras1 and worms1 than cultivate 
a little spot of ground4 ,the other     
,indians say1 that a ,guahibo eats      
everything that exists1 both on and     
under the ground4  ,in ascending the    
,orinoco more to the south1 the heat1   
far from increasing1 became more        
bearable4 ,the air in the day was at #bf
 or #bg4e degrees2 and at night1 at     
#bc4g4 ,the water of the ,orinoco       
retained its habitual temperature of    
#bg4g degrees4 ,the torment of the      
mosquitos augmented severely1           
notwithstanding the decrease of heat4   
,we never suffered so much from them as 

at ,san ,borja4 ,we could neither speak 
nor uncover our faces without having our
 mouths and noses filled with insects4  
,we were surprised not to find the      
thermometer at #ce or #cf degrees2 the  
extreme irritation of the skin made us  
believe that the air was scorching4 ,we 
passed the night on the beach of        
,guaripo4 ,the fear of the little caribe
 fish prevented us from bathing4 ,the   
crocodiles we had met with this day were
 all of an extraordinary size1 from     
twenty-two to twenty-four feet4  ,our   
sufferings from the zancudos made us    
depart at five o'clock on the morning of
 the #adth4 ,there are fewer insects in 
the strata of air lying immediately on  
the river1 than near the edge of the    
forests4 ,we stopped to breakfast at the
 island of ,guachaco1 or ,vachaco1 where
 the granite is immediately covered by a
 formation of sandstone1 or             
conglomerate4 ,this sandstone contains  
fragments of quartz1 and even of        
feldspar1 cemented by indurated clay4   

,it exhibits little veins of brown      
iron-ore1 which separate in laminae1 or 
plates1 of one line in thickness4 ,we   
had already found these plates on the   
shores between ,encaramada and          
,baraguan1 where the missionaries had   
sometimes taken them for an ore of gold1
 and sometimes for tin4 ,it is probable1
 that this secondary formation occupied 
formerly a larger space4 ,having passed 
the mouth of the ,rio ,parueni1 beyond  
which the ,maco ,indians dwell1 we spent
 the night on the island of ,panumana4  
,i could with difficulty take the       
altitudes of ,canopus1 in order to fix  
the longitude of the point1 near which  
the river suddenly turns towards the    
west4 ,the island of ,panumana is rich  
in plants4 ,we there again found those  
shelves of bare rock1 those tufts of    
melastomas1 those thickets of small     
shrubs1 the blended scenery of which had
 charmed us in the plains of ,carichana4
 ,the mountains of the ,great ,cataracts
 bounded the horizon towards the        

south-east4 ,in proportion as we        
advanced1 the shores of the ,orinoco    
exhibited a more imposing and           
picturesque aspect4   ,,chapter #b4bj4  
,,the ,,mouth ,,of ,,the ,,rio          
,,anaveni4 ,,peak ,,of ,,uniana4        
,,mission ,,of ,,atures4 ,,cataract1    
,,or ,,raudal ,,of ,,mapara4 ,,islets   
,,of ,,surupamana ,,and ,,uirapuri4     
,the river of the ,orinoco1 in running  
from south to north1 is crossed by a    
chain of granitic mountains4 ,twice     
confined in its course1 it turbulently  
breaks on the rocks1 that form steps and
 transverse dykes4 ,nothing can be      
grander than the aspect of this spot4   
,neither the fall of the ,tequendama1   
near ,santa ,fe de ,bogota1 nor the     
magnificent scenes of the ,cordilleras1 
could weaken the impression produced    
upon my mind by the first view of the   
rapids of ,atures and of ,maypures4     
,when the spectator is so stationed that
 the eye can at once take in the long   
succession of cataracts1 the immense    

sheet of foam and vapours illumined by  
the rays of the setting sun1 the whole  
river seems as it were suspended over   
its bed4  ,scenes so astonishing must   
for ages have fixed the attention of the
 inhabitants of the ,new ,world4 ,when  
,diego de ,todaz1 ,alfonzo de ,herrera1 
and the intrepid ,raleigh1 anchored at  
the mouth of the ,orinoco1 they were    
informed by the ,indians of the ,great  
,cataracts1 which they themselves had   
never visited1 and which they even      
confounded with cascades farther to the 
east4 ,whatever obstacles the force of  
vegetation under the torrid zone may    
throw in the way of intercourse among   
nations1 all that relates to the course 
of great rivers acquires a celebrity    
which extends to vast distances4 ,the   
,orinoco1 the ,amazon1 and the ,uruguay1
 traverse1 like inland arms of seas1 in 
different directions1 a land covered    
with forests1 and inhabited by tribes1  
part of whom are cannibals4 ,it is not  
yet two hundred years since civilization

 and the light of a more humane religion
 have pursued their way along the banks 
of these ancient canals traced by the   
hand of nature2 long1 however1 before   
the introduction of agriculture1 before 
communications for the purposes of      
barter were established among these     
scattered and often hostile tribes1 the 
knowledge of extraordinary phenomena1 of
 falls of water1 of volcanic fires1 and 
of snows resisting all the ardent heat  
of summer1 was propagated by a thousand 
fortuitous circumstances4 ,three hundred
 leagues from the coast1 in the centre  
of ,south ,america1 among nations whose 
excursions do not extend to three days' 
journey1 we find an idea of the ocean1  
and words that denote a mass of salt    
water extending as far as the eye can   
discern4 ,various events1 which         
repeatedly occur in savage life1        
contribute to enlarge these conceptions4
 ,in consequence of the petty wars      
between neighbouring tribes1 a prisoner 
is brought into a strange country1 and  

treated as a poito or mero1 that is to  
say1 as a slave4 ,after being often     
sold1 he is dragged to new wars1        
escapes1 and returns home2 he relates   
what he has seen1 and what he has heard 
from those whose tongue he has been     
compelled to learn4 ,as on discovering a
 coast1 we hear of great inland animals1
 so1 on entering the valley of a vast   
river1 we are surprised to find that    
savages1 who are strangers to           
navigation1 have acquired a knowledge of
 distant things4 ,in the infant state of
 society1 the exchange of ideas         
precedes1 to a certain point1 the       
exchange of productions4  ,the two great
 cataracts of the ,orinoco1 the         
celebrity of which is so far-spread and 
so ancient1 are formed by the passage of
 the river across the mountains of      
,parima4 ,they are called by the natives
 ,mapara and ,quittuna2 but the         
missionaries have substituted for these 
names those of ,atures and ,maypures1   
after the names of the tribes which were

 first assembled together in the nearest
 villages4 ,on the coast of ,caracas1   
the two ,great ,cataracts are denoted by
 the simple appellation of the two      
,raudales1 or rapids2 a denomination    
which implies that the other falls of   
water1 even the rapids of ,camiseta and 
of ,carichana1 are not considered as    
worthy of attention when compared with  
the cataracts of ,atures and ,maypures4 
,these last1 situated between five and  
six degrees of north latitude1 and a    
hundred leagues west of the ,cordilleras
 of ,new ,grenada1 in the meridian of   
,porto ,cabello1 are only twelve leagues
 distant from each other4 ,it is        
surprising that their existence was not 
known to ,d',anville1 who1 in his fine  
map of ,south ,america1 marks the       
inconsiderable cascades of ,marimara and
 ,san ,borja1 by the names of the rapids
 of ,carichana and ,tabaje4 ,the ,great 
,cataracts divide the ,christian        
establishments of ,spanish ,guiana into 
two unequal parts4 ,those situated      

between the ,raudal of ,atures and the  
mouth of the river are called the       
,missions of the ,lower ,orinoco2 the   
,missions of the ,upper ,orinoco        
comprehend the villages between the     
,raudal of ,maypures and the mountains  
of ,duida4 ,the course of the ,lower    
,orinoco1 if we estimate the sinuosities
 at one-third of the distance in a      
direct line1 is two hundred and sixty   
nautical leagues3 the course of the     
,upper ,orinoco1 supposing its sources  
to be three degrees east of ,duida1     
includes one hundred and sixty-seven    
leagues4  ,beyond the ,great ,cataracts 
an unknown land begins4 ,the country is 
partly mountainous and partly flat1     
receiving at once the confluents of the 
,amazon and the ,orinoco4 ,from the     
facility of its communications with the 
,rio ,negro and ,grand ,para1 it appears
 to belong still more to ,brazil than to
 the ,spanish colonies4 ,none of the    
missionaries who have described the     
,orinoco before me1 neither ,father     

,gumilla1 ,gili1 nor ,caulin1 had passed
 the ,raudal of ,maypures4 ,we found but
 three ,christian establishments above  
the ,great ,cataracts1 along the shores 
of the ,orinoco1 in an extent of more   
than a hundred leagues2 and these three 
establishments contained scarcely six or
 eight white persons1 that is to say1   
persons of ,european race4 ,we cannot be
 surprised that such a desert region    
should have been at all times the land  
of fable and fairy visions4 ,there1     
according to the statements of certain  
missionaries1 are found races of men1   
some of whom have an eye in the centre  
of the forehead1 whilst others have     
dogs' heads1 and mouths below their     
stomachs4 ,there they pretend to have   
found all that the ancients relate of   
the ,garamantes1 of the ,arimaspes1 and 
of the ,hyperboreans4 ,it would be an   
error to suppose that these simple and  
often rustic missionaries had themselves
 invented all these exaggerated         
fictions2 they derived them in great    

part from the recitals of the ,indians4 
,a fondness for narration prevails in   
the ,missions1 as it does at sea1 in the
 ,east1 and in every place where the    
mind seeks amusement4 ,a missionary1    
from his vocation1 is not inclined to   
scepticism2 he imprints on his memory   
what the natives have so often repeated 
to him2 and1 when returned to ,europe1  
and restored to the civilized world1 he 
finds a pleasure in creating            
astonishment by a recital of facts which
 he thinks he has collected1 and by an  
animated description of remote things4  
,these stories1 which the ,spanish      
colonists call tales of travellers and  
of monks 7cuentos de viageros y         
frailes71 increase in improbability in  
proportion as you increase your distance
 from the forests of the ,orinoco1 and  
approach the coasts inhabited by the    
whites4 ,when1 at ,cumana1 ,nueva       
,barcelona1 and other seaports which    
have frequent communication with the    
,missions1 you betray any sign of       

incredulity1 you are reduced to silence 
by these few words3 ,the fathers have   
seen it1 but far above the ,great       
,cataracts 7mas arriba de los           
,raudales74  ,on the #aeth of ,april1 we
 left the island of ,panumana at four in
 the morning1 two hours before sunrise4 
,the sky was in great part obscured1 and
 lightnings flashed over dense clouds at
 more than forty degrees of elevation4  
,we were surprised at not hearing       
thunder2 but possibly this was owing to 
the prodigious height of the storm8 ,it 
appears to us1 that in ,europe the      
electric flashes without thunder1       
vaguely called heat-lightning1 are seen 
generally nearer the horizon4 ,under a  
cloudy sky1 that sent back the radiant  
caloric of the soil1 the heat was       
stifling2 not a breath of wind agitated 
the foliage of the trees4 ,the jaguars1 
as usual1 had crossed the arm of the    
,orinoco by which we were separated from
 the shore1 and we heard their cries    
extremely near4 ,during the night the   

,indians had advised us to quit our     
station in the open air1 and retire to a
 deserted hut belonging to the conucos  
of the inhabitants of ,atures4 ,they had
 taken care to barricade the opening    
with planks1 a precaution which seemed  
to us superfluous2 but near the         
,cataracts tigers are very numerous1 and
 two years before1 in these very conucos
 of ,panumana1 an ,indian returning to  
his hut1 towards the close of the rainy 
season1 found a tigress settled in it   
with her two young4 ,these animals had  
inhabited the dwelling for several      
months2 they were dislodged from it with
 difficulty1 and it was only after an   
obstinate combat that the former master 
regained possession of his dwelling4    
,the jaguars are fond of retiring to    
deserted ruins1 and ,i believe it is    
more prudent in general for a solitary  
traveller to encamp in the open air1    
between two fires1 than to seek shelter 
in uninhabited huts4  ,on quitting the  
island of ,panumana1 we perceived on the

 western bank of the river the fires of 
an encampment of ,guahibo savages4 ,the 
missionary who accompanied us caused a  
few musket-shots to be fired in the air1
 which he said would intimidate them1   
and shew that we were in a state to     
defend ourselves4 ,the savages most     
likely had no canoes1 and were not      
desirous of troubling us in the middle  
of the river4 ,we passed at sunrise the 
mouth of the ,rio ,anaveni1 which       
descends from the eastern mountains4 ,on
 its banks1 now deserted1 ,father ,olmos
 had established1 in the time of the    
,jesuits1 a small village of ,japuins or
 ,jaruros4 ,the heat was so excessive   
that we rested a long time in a woody   
spot1 to fish with a hook and line1 and 
it was not without some trouble that we 
carried away all the fish we had caught4
 ,we did not arrive till very late at   
the foot of the ,great ,cataract1 in a  
bay called the lower harbour 7puerto de 
abaxo72 and we followed1 not without    
difficulty1 in a dark night1 the narrow 

path that leads to the ,mission of      
,atures1 a league distant from the      
river4 ,we crossed a plain covered with 
large blocks of granite4  ,the little   
village of ,san ,juan ,nepomuceno de los
 ,atures was founded by the ,jesuit     
,francisco ,gonzales1 in #agdh4 ,in     
going up the river this is the last of  
the ,christian missions that owe their  
origin to the order of ,st4 ,ignatius4  
,the more southern establishments1 those
 of ,atabapo1 of ,cassiquiare1 and of   
,rio ,negro1 were formed by the fathers 
of the ,observance of ,st4 ,francis4    
,the ,orinoco appears to have flowed    
heretofore where the village of ,atures 
now stands1 and the flat savannah that  
surrounds the village no doubt formed   
part of the river4 ,i saw to the east of
 the mission a succession of rocks1     
which seemed to have been the ancient   
shore of the ,orinoco4 ,in the lapse of 
ages the river has been impelled        
westward1 in consequence of the         
accumulations of earth1 which occur more

 frequently on the side of the eastern  
mountains1 that are furrowed by         
torrents4 ,the cataract bears the name  
of ,mapara199 as we have mentioned above
 799 ,i am ignorant of the etymology of 
this word1 which ,i believe means only a
 fall of water4 ,gili translates into   
,maypure a small cascade 7raudalito7 by 
uccamatisi mapara canacapatirri4 ,should
 we not spell this word matpara8 mat    
being a radical of the ,maypure tongue1 
and meaning bad 7,hervas1 ,saggio ,n4   
#bi74 ,the radical par 7para7 is found  
among ,american tribes more than five   
hundred leagues distant from each other1
 the ,caribs1 ,maypures1 ,brazilians1   
and ,peruvians1 in the words sea1 rain1 
water1 lake4 ,we must not confound      
mapara with mapaja2 this last word      
signifies1 in ,maypure and ,tamanac1 the
 papaw or melon-tree1 no doubt on       
account of the sweetness of its fruit1  
for mapa means in the ,maypure1 as well 
as in the ,peruvian and ,omagua tongues1
 the honey of bees4 ,the ,tamanacs call 

a cascade1 or raudal1 in general        
uatapurutpe2 the ,maypures1 uca472 while
 the name of the village is derived from
 that of the nation of ,atures1 now     
believed to be extinct4 ,i find on the  
maps of the seventeenth century1 ,island
 and ,cataract of ,athule2 which is the 
word ,atures written according to the   
pronunciation of the ,tamanacs1 who     
confound1 like so many other people1 the
 consonants l and r4 ,this mountainous  
region was so little known in ,europe1  
even in the middle of the eighteenth    
century1 that ,d',anville1 in the first 
edition of his ,south ,america1 makes a 
branch issue from the ,orinoco1 near    
,salto de los ,atures1 and fall into the
 ,amazon1 to which branch he gives the  
name of ,rio ,negro4  ,early maps1 as   
well as ,father ,gumilla's work1 place  
the ,mission in latitude #a degree #cj  
minutes4 ,abbe ,gili gives it #c degrees
 #ej minutes4 ,i found1 by meridian     
altitudes of ,canopus and a of the      
,southern ,cross1 #e degrees #ch minutes

 #d seconds for the latitude2 and by the
 chronometer #d hours #da minutes #ag   
seconds of longitude west of the        
meridian of ,paris4  ,we found this     
small ,mission in the most deplorable   
state4 ,it contained1 even at the time  
of the expedition of ,solano1 commonly  
called the expedition of the boundaries1
 three hundred and twenty ,indians4     
,this number had diminished1 at the time
 of our passage by the ,cataracts1 to   
forty-seven2 and the missionary assured 
us that this diminution became from year
 to year more sensible4 ,he showed us1  
that in the space of thirty-two months  
only one marriage had been entered in   
the registers of the parish church4 ,two
 others had been contracted by          
uncatechised natives1 and celebrated    
before the ,indian ,gobernador4 ,at the 
first foundation of the ,mission1 the   
,atures1 ,maypures1 ,meyepures1 ,abanis1
 and ,quirupas1 had been assembled      
together4 ,instead of these tribes we   
found only ,guahibos1 and a few families

 of the nation of ,macos4 ,the ,atures  
have almost entirely disappeared2 they  
are no longer known1 except by the tombs
 in the cavern of ,ataruipe1 which      
recall to mind the sepulchres of the    
,guanches at ,teneriffe4 ,we learned on 
the spot1 that the ,atures1 as well as  
the ,quaquas1 and the ,macos or         
,piaroas1 belong to the great stock of  
the ,salive nations2 while the          
,maypures1 the ,abanis1 the ,parenis1   
and the ,guaypunaves1 are of the same   
race as the ,cabres or ,caveres1        
celebrated for their long wars with the 
,caribs4 ,in this labyrinth of petty    
nations1 divided from one another as the
 nations of ,latium1 ,asia ,minor1 and  
,sogdiana1 formerly were1 we can trace  
no general relations but by following   
the analogy of tongues4 ,these are the  
only monuments that have reached us from
 the early ages of the world2 the only  
monuments1 which1 not being fixed to the
 soil1 are at once moveable and lasting1
 and have as it were traversed time and 

space4 ,they owe their duration1 and the
 extent they occupy1 much less to       
conquering and polished nations1 than to
 those wandering and half-savage tribes1
 who1 fleeing before a powerful enemy1  
carried along with them in their extreme
 wretchedness only their wives1 their   
children1 and the languages of their    
fathers4  ,between the latitudes of #d  
and #h degrees1 the ,orinoco not only   
separates the great forest of the       
,parime from the bare savannahs of the  
,apure1 ,meta1 and ,guaviare1 but also  
forms the boundary between tribes of    
very different manners4 ,to the         
westward1 over treeless plains1 wander  
the ,guahibos1 the ,chiricoas1 and the  
,guamos2 nations1 proud of their savage 
independence1 whom it is difficult to   
fix to the soil1 or habituate to regular
 labour4 ,the ,spanish missionaries     
characterise them well by the name of   
,indios andantes 7errant or vagabond    
,indians71 because they are perpetually 
moving from place to place4 ,to the east

 of the ,orinoco1 between the           
neighbouring sources of the ,caura1     
,cataniapo1 and ,ventuari1 live the     
,macos1 the ,salives1 the ,curacicanas1 
,parecas1 and ,maquiritares1 mild1      
tranquil tribes1 addicted to            
agriculture1 and easily subjected to the
 discipline of the ,missions4 ,the      
,indian of the plains differs from the  
,indian of the forests in language as   
well as manners and mental disposition2 
both have an idiom abounding in spirited
 and bold terms2 but the language of the
 former is harsher1 more concise1 and   
more impassioned2 that of the latter1   
softer1 more diffuse1 and fuller of     
ambiguous expressions4  ,the ,mission of
 ,atures1 like most of the ,missions of 
the ,orinoco1 situated between the      
mouths of the ,apure and the ,atabapo1  
is composed of both the classes of      
tribes we have just described4 ,we there
 find the ,indians of the forests1 and  
the ,indians heretofore nomadic99       
7,indios monteros and ,indios llaneros1 

or andantes74 799 ,i employ the word    
nomadic as synonymous with wandering1   
and not in its primitive signification4 
,the wandering nations of ,america      
7those of the indigenous tribes1 it is  
to be understood7 are never shepherds2  
they live by fishing and hunting1 on the
 fruit of a few trees1 the farinaceous  
pith of palm-trees1 etc47 ,we visited   
with the missionary the huts of ,macos1 
whom the ,spaniards call ,piraoas1 and  
those of the ,guahibos4 ,the first      
indicated more love of order1           
cleanliness1 and ease4 ,the independent 
,macos 7,i do not designate them by the 
name of savages7 have their rochelas1 or
 fixed dwellings1 two or three days'    
journey east of ,atures1 toward the     
sources of the little river ,cataniapo4 
,they are very numerous4 ,like most of  
the natives of the woods1 they          
cultivate1 not maize1 but cassava2 and  
they live in great harmony with the     
,christian ,indians of the mission4 ,the
 harmony was established and wisely     

cultivated by the ,franciscan monk1     
,bernardo ,zea4 ,this alcalde of the    
reduced ,macos quitted the village of   
,atures for a few months every year1 to 
live in the plantations which he        
possessed in the midst of the forests   
near the hamlet of the independent      
,macos4 ,in consequence of this peaceful
 intercourse1 many of the ,indios       
monteros came and established themselves
 some time ago in the mission4 ,they    
asked eagerly for knives1 fishing hooks1
 and those coloured glass beads1 which1 
notwithstanding the positive prohibition
 of the priests1 were employed not as   
necklaces1 but as ornaments of the      
guayuco 7perizoma74 ,having obtained    
what they sought1 they returned to the  
woods1 weary of the regulations of the  
mission4 ,epidemic fevers1 which        
prevailed with violence at the entrance 
of the rainy season1 contributed greatly
 to this unexpected flight4 ,in #agii   
the mortality was very considerable at  
,carichana1 on the banks of the ,meta1  

and at the ,raudal of ,atures4 ,the     
,indian of the forest conceives a horror
 of the life of the civilized man1 when1
 ,i will not say any misfortune befalls 
his family settled in the mission1 but  
merely any disagreeable or unforeseen   
accident4 ,natives1 who were neophytes1 
have been known to desert for ever the  
,christian establishments1 on account of
 a great drought2 as if this calamity   
would not have reached them equally in  
their plantations1 had they remained in 
their primitive independence4  ,the     
fevers which prevail during a great part
 of the year in the villages of ,atures 
and ,maypures1 around the two ,great    
,cataracts of the ,orinoco1 render these
 spots highly dangerous to ,european    
travellers4 ,they are caused by violent 
heats1 in combination with the excessive
 humidity of the air1 bad nutriment1    
and1 if we may believe the natives1 the 
pestilent exhalations rising from the   
bare rocks of the ,raudales4 ,these     
fevers of the ,orinoco appeared to us to

 resemble those which prevail every year
 between ,new ,barcelona1 ,la ,guayra1  
and ,porto ,cabello1 in the vicinity of 
the sea2 and which often degenerate into
 adynamic fevers4 ,i have had my little 
fever 7mi calenturita7 only eight       
months1 said the good missionary of the 
,atures1 who accompanied us to the ,rio 
,negro2 speaking of it as of an habitual
 evil1 easy to be borne4 ,the fits were 
violent1 but of short duration4 ,he was 
sometimes seized with them when lying   
along in the boat under a shelter of    
branches of trees1 sometimes when       
exposed to the burning rays of the sun  
on an open beach4 ,these tertian agues  
are attended with great debility of the 
muscular system2 yet we find poor       
ecclesiastics on the ,orinoco1 who      
endure for several years these          
calenturitas1 or tercianas3 their       
effects are not so fatal as those which 
are experienced from fevers of much     
shorter duration in temperate climates4 
,i have just alluded to the noxious     

influence on the salubrity of the       
atmosphere1 which is attributed by the  
natives1 and even the missionaries1 to  
the bare rocks4 ,this opinion is the    
more worthy of attention1 as it is      
connected with a physical phenomenon    
lately observed in different parts of   
the globe1 and not yet sufficiently     
explained4 ,among the cataracts1 and    
wherever the ,orinoco1 between the      
,missions of ,carichana and of ,santa   
,barbara1 periodically washes the       
granitic rocks1 they become smooth1     
black1 and as if coated with plumbago4  
,the colouring matter does not penetrate
 the stone1 which is coarse-grained     
granite1 containing a few solitary      
crystals of hornblende4 ,taking a       
general view of the primitive formation 
of ,atures1 we perceive1 that1 like the 
granite of ,syene in ,egypt1 it is a    
granite with hornblende1 and not a real 
syenite formation4 ,many of the layers  
are entirely destitute of hornblende4   
,the black crust is #j4c of a line in   

thickness2 it is found chiefly on the   
quartzose parts4 ,the crystals of       
feldspar sometimes preserve externally  
their reddish-white colour1 and rise    
above the black crust4 ,on breaking the 
stone with a hammer1 the inside is found
 to be white1 and without any trace of  
decomposition4 ,these enormous stony    
masses appear sometimes in rhombs1      
sometimes under those hemispheric forms1
 peculiar to granitic rocks when they   
separate in blocks4 ,they give the      
landscape a singularly gloomy aspect2   
their colour being in strong contrast   
with that of the foam of the river which
 covers them1 and of the vegetation by  
which they are surrounded4 ,the ,indians
 say1 that the rocks are burnt 7or      
carbonized7 by the rays of the sun4 ,we 
saw them not only in the bed of the     
,orinoco1 but in some spots as far as   
five hundred toises from its present    
shore1 on heights which the waters now  
never reach even in their greatest      
swellings4  ,what is this brownish black

 crust1 which gives these rocks1 when   
they have a globular form1 the          
appearance of meteoric stones8 ,what    
idea can we form of the action of the   
water1 which produces a deposit1 or a   
change of colour1 so extraordinary8 ,we 
must observe1 in the first place1 that  
this phenomenon does not belong to the  
cataracts of the ,orinoco alone1 but is 
found in both hemispheres4 ,at my return
 from ,mexico in #ahjg1 when ,i showed  
the granites of ,atures and ,maypures to
 ,m4 ,roziere1 who had travelled over   
the valley of ,egypt1 the coasts of the 
,red ,sea1 and ,mount ,sinai1 this      
learned geologist pointed out to me that
 the primitive rocks of the little      
cataracts of ,syene display1 like the   
rocks of the ,orinoco1 a glossy surface1
 of a blackish-grey1 or almost leaden   
colour1 and of which some of the        
fragments seem coated with tar4         
,recently1 in the unfortunate expedition
 of ,captain ,tuckey1 the ,english      
naturalists were struck with the same   

appearance in the yellalas 7rapids and  
shoals7 that obstruct the river ,congo  
or ,zaire4 ,dr4 ,koenig has placed in   
the ,british ,museum1 beside the        
syenites of the ,congo1 the granites of 
,atures1 taken from a series of rocks   
which were presented by ,m4 ,bonpland   
and myself to the illustrious president 
of the ,royal ,society of ,london4      
,these fragments1 says ,mr4 ,koenig1    
alike resemble meteoric stones2 in both 
rocks1 those of the ,orinoco and of     
,africa1 the black crust is composed1   
according to the analysis of ,mr4       
,children1 of the oxide of iron and     
manganese4 ,some experiments made at    
,mexico1 conjointly with ,senor del     
,rio1 led me to think that the rocks of 
,atures1 which blacken the paper in     
which they are wrapped199 contain1      
besides oxide of manganese1 carbon1 and 
supercarburetted iron4 799 ,i remarked  
the same phenomenon from spongy grains  
of platina one or two lines in length1  
collected at the stream-works of ,taddo1

 in the province of ,choco4 ,having been
 wrapped up in white paper during a     
journey of several months1 they left a  
black stain1 like that of plumbago or   
supercarburetted iron47 ,at the         
,orinoco1 granitic masses of forty or   
fifty feet thick are uniformly coated   
with these oxides2 and1 however thin    
these crusts may appear1 they must      
nevertheless contain pretty considerable
 quantities of iron and manganese1 since
 they occupy a space of above a league  
square4  ,it must be observed that all  
these phenomena of coloration have      
hitherto appeared in the torrid zone    
only1 in rivers that have periodical    
overflowings1 of which the habitual     
temperature is from twenty-four to      
twenty-eight centesimal degrees1 and    
which flow1 not over gritstone or       
calcareous rocks1 but over granite1     
gneiss1 and hornblende rocks4 ,quartz   
and feldspar scarcely contain five or   
six thousandths of oxide of iron and of 
manganese2 but in mica and hornblende   

these oxides1 and particularly that of  
iron1 amount1 according to ,klaproth and
 ,herrmann1 to fifteen or twenty parts  
in a hundred4 ,the hornblende contains  
also some carbon1 like the ,lydian stone
 and kieselschiefer4 ,now1 if these     
black crusts were formed by a slow      
decomposition of the granitic rock1     
under the double influence of humidity  
and the tropical sun1 how is it to be   
conceived that these oxides are spread  
so uniformly over the whole surface of  
the stony masses1 and are not more      
abundant round a crystal of mica or     
hornblende than on the feldspar and     
milky quartz8 ,the ferruginous          
sandstones1 granites1 and marbles1 that 
become cinereous and sometimes brown in 
damp air1 have an aspect altogether     
different4 ,in reflecting upon the      
lustre and equal thickness of the       
crusts1 we are rather inclined to think 
that this matter is deposited by the    
,orinoco1 and that the water has        
penetrated even into the clefts of the  

rocks4 ,adopting this hypothesis1 it may
 be asked whether the river holds the   
oxides suspended like sand and other    
earthy substances1 or whether they are  
found in a state of chemical solution4  
,the first supposition is less          
admissible1 on account of the           
homogeneity of the crusts1 which contain
 neither grains of sand1 nor spangles of
 mica1 mixed with the oxides4 ,we must  
then recur to the idea of a chemical    
solution2 and this idea is no way at    
variance with the phenomena daily       
observable in our laboratories4 ,the    
waters of great rivers contain carbonic 
acid2 and1 were they even entirely pure1
 they would still be capable1 in very   
great volumes1 of dissolving some       
portions of oxide1 or those metallic    
hydrates which are regarded as the least
 soluble4 ,the mud of the ,nile1 which  
is the sediment of the matters which the
 river holds suspended1 is destitute of 
manganese2 but it contains1 according to
 the analysis of ,m4 ,regnault1 six     

parts in a hundred of oxide of iron2 and
 its colour1 at first black1 changes to 
yellowish brown by desiccation and the  
contact of air4 ,the mud consequently is
 not the cause of the black crusts on   
the rocks of ,syene4 ,berzelius1 who1 at
 my request1 examined these crusts1     
recognized in them1 as in those of the  
granites of the ,orinoco and ,river     
,congo1 the union of iron and manganese4
 ,that celebrated chemist was of opinion
 that the rivers do not take up these   
oxides from the soil over which they    
flow1 but that they derive them from    
their subterranean sources1 and deposit 
them on the rocks in the manner of      
cementation1 by the action of particular
 affinities1 perhaps by that of the     
potash of the feldspar4 ,a long         
residence at the cataracts of the       
,orinoco1 the ,nile1 and the ,rio       
,congo1 and an examination of the       
circumstances attendant on this         
phenomenon of coloration1 could alone   
lead to the complete solution of the    

problem we have discussed4 ,is this     
phenomenon independent of the nature of 
the rocks8 ,i shall content myself with 
observing1 in general1 that neither the 
granitic masses remote from the ancient 
bed of the ,orinoco1 but exposed during 
the rainy season to the alternations of 
heat and moisture1 nor the granitic     
rocks bathed by the brownish waters of  
the ,rio ,negro1 assume the appearance  
of meteoric stones4 ,the ,indians say1  
that the rocks are black only where the 
waters are white4 ,they ought1 perhaps1 
to add1 where the waters acquire great  
swiftness1 and strike with force against
 the rocks of the banks4 ,cementation   
seems to explain why the crusts augment 
so little in thickness4  ,i know not    
whether it be an error1 but in the      
,missions of the ,orinoco1 the          
neighbourhood of bare rocks1 and        
especially of the masses that have      
crusts of carbon1 oxide of iron1 and    
manganese1 are considered injurious to  
health4 ,in the torrid zone1 still more 

than in others1 the people multiply     
pathogenic causes at will4 ,they are    
afraid to sleep in the open air1 if     
forced to expose the face to the rays of
 the full moon4 ,they also think it     
dangerous to sleep on granite near the  
river2 and many examples are cited of   
persons1 who1 after having passed the   
night on these black and naked rocks1   
have awakened in the morning with a     
strong paroxysm of fever4 ,without      
entirely lending faith to the assertions
 of the missionaries and natives1 we    
generally avoided the laxas negras1 and 
stretched ourselves on the beach covered
 with white sand1 when we found no tree 
from which to suspend our hammocks4 ,at 
,carichana1 the village is intended to  
be destroyed1 and its place changed1    
merely to remove it from the black      
rocks1 or from a site where1 for a space
 of more than ten thousand square       
toises1 banks of bare granite form the  
surface4 ,from similar motives1 which   
must appear very chimerical to the      

naturalists of ,europe1 the ,jesuits    
,olmo1 ,forneri1 and ,mellis1 removed a 
village of ,jaruros to three different  
spots1 between the ,raudal of ,tabaje   
and the ,rio ,anaveni4 ,i merely state  
these facts as they were related to me1 
because we are almost wholly ignorant of
 the nature of the gaseous mixtures     
which cause the insalubrity of the      
atmosphere4 ,can it be admitted that1   
under the influence of excessive heat   
and of constant humidity1 the black     
crusts of the granitic rocks are capable
 of acting upon the ambient air1 and    
producing miasmata with a triple basis  
of carbon1 azote1 and hydrogen8 ,this ,i
 doubt4 ,the granites of the ,orinoco1  
it is true1 often contain hornblende2   
and those who are accustomed to         
practical labour in mines are not       
ignorant that the most noxious          
exhalations rise from galleries wrought 
in syenitic and hornblende rocks3 but in
 an atmosphere renewed every instant by 
the action of little currents of air1   

the effect cannot be the same as in a   
mine4  ,it is probably dangerous to     
sleep on the laxas negras1 only because 
these rocks retain a very elevated      
temperature during the night4 ,i have   
found their temperature in the day at   
#dh degrees1 the air in the shade being 
at #bi4g degrees2 during the night the  
thermometer on the rock indicated #cf   
degrees1 the air being at #bf degrees4  
,when the accumulation of heat in the   
stony masses has reached a stationary   
degree1 these masses become at the same 
hours nearly of the same temperature4   
,what they have acquired more in the day
 they lose at night by radiation1 the   
force of which depends on the state of  
the surface of the radiating body1 the  
interior arrangement of its particles1  
and1 above all1 on the clearness of the 
sky1 that is1 on the transparency of the
 atmosphere and the absence of clouds4  
,when the declination of the sun varies 
very little1 this luminary adds daily   
nearly the same quantities of heat1 and 

the rocks are not hotter at the end than
 in the middle of summer4 ,there is a   
certain maximum which they cannot pass1 
because they do not change the state of 
their surface1 their density1 or their  
capacity for caloric4 ,on the shores of 
the ,orinoco1 on getting out of one's   
hammock during the night1 and touching  
with the bare feet the rocky surface of 
the ground1 the sensation of heat       
experienced is very remarkable4 ,i      
observed pretty constantly1 in putting  
the bulb of the thermometer in contact  
with the ledges of bare rocks1 that the 
laxas negras are hotter during the day  
than the reddish-white granites at a    
distance from the river2 but the latter 
cool during the night less rapidly than 
the former4 ,it may be easily conceived 
that the emission and loss of caloric is
 more rapid in masses with black crusts 
than in those which abound in laminae of
 silvery mica4 ,when walking between the
 hours of one and three in the          
afternoon1 at ,carichana1 ,atures1 or   

,maypures1 among those blocks of stone  
destitute of vegetable mould1 and piled 
up to great heights1 one feels a        
sensation of suffocation1 as if standing
 before the opening of a furnace4 ,the  
winds1 if ever felt in those woody      
regions1 far from bringing coolness1    
appear more heated when they have passed
 over beds of stone1 and heaps of       
rounded blocks of granite4 ,this        
augmentation of heat adds to the        
insalubrity of the climate4  ,among the 
causes of the depopulation of the       
,raudales1 ,i have not reckoned the     
small-pox1 that malady which in other   
parts of ,america makes such cruel      
ravages that the natives1 seized with   
dismay1 burn their huts1 kill their     
children1 and renounce every kind of    
society4 ,this scourge is almost unknown
 on the banks of the ,orinoco1 and      
should it penetrate thither1 it is to be
 hoped that its effects may be          
immediately counteracted by vaccination1
 the blessings of which are daily felt  

along the coasts of ,terra ,firma4 ,the 
causes which depopulate the ,christian  
settlements are1 the repugnance of the  
,indians for the regulations of the     
missions1 insalubrity of climate1 bad   
nourishment1 want of care in the        
diseases of children1 and the guilty    
practice of preventing pregnancy by the 
use of deleterious herbs4 ,among the    
barbarous people of ,guiana1 as well as 
those of the half-civilized islands of  
the ,south ,sea1 young wives are fearful
 of becoming mothers4 ,if they have     
children1 their offspring are exposed   
not only to the dangers of savage life1 
but also to other dangers arising from  
the strangest popular prejudices4 ,when 
twins are born1 false notions of        
propriety and family honour require that
 one of them should be destroyed4 ,to   
bring twins into the world1 say the     
,indians1 is to be exposed to public    
scorn2 it is to resemble rats1 opossums1
 and the vilest animals1 which bring    
forth a great number of young at a time4

 ,nay1 more1 they affirm that two       
children born at the same time cannot   
belong to the same father4 ,this is an  
axiom of physiology among the ,salives2 
and in every zone1 and in different     
states of society1 when the vulgar seize
 upon an axiom1 they adhere to it with  
more stedfastness than the              
better-informed men by whom it was first
 hazarded4 ,to avoid the disturbance of 
conjugal tranquillity1 the old female   
relations of the mother take care1 that 
when twins are born one of them shall   
disappear4 ,if a new-born infant1 though
 not a twin1 have any physical          
deformity1 the father instantly puts it 
to death4 ,they will have none but      
robust and well-made children1 for      
deformities indicate some influence of  
the evil spirit ,ioloquiamo1 or the bird
 ,tikitiki1 the enemy of the human race4
 ,sometimes children of a feeble        
constitution undergo the same fate4     
,when the father is asked what is become
 of one of his sons1 he will pretend    

that he has lost him by a natural death4
 ,he will disavow an action that appears
 to him blameable1 but not criminal4    
,the poor boy1 he will tell you1 could  
not follow us2 we must have waited for  
him every moment2 he has not been seen  
again2 he did not come to sleep where we
 passed the night4 ,such is the candour 
and simplicity of manners--such the     
boasted happiness--of man in the state  
of nature6 ,he kills his son to escape  
the ridicule of having twins1 or to     
avoid journeying more slowly2 in fact1  
to avoid a little inconvenience4  ,these
 acts of cruelty1 ,i confess1 are less  
frequent than they are believed to be2  
yet they occur even in the ,missions1   
during the time when the ,indians leave 
the village1 to retire to the conucos of
 the neighbouring forests4 ,it would be 
erroneous to attribute these actions to 
the state of polygamy in which the      
uncatechized ,indians live4 ,polygamy no
 doubt diminishes the domestic happiness
 and internal union of families2 but    

this practice1 sanctioned by ,ismaelism1
 does not prevent the people of the east
 from loving their children with        
tenderness4 ,among the ,indians of the  
,orinoco1 the father returns home only  
to eat1 or to sleep in his hammock2 he  
lavishes no caresses on his infants1 or 
on his wives1 whose office it is to     
serve him4 ,parental affection begins to
 display itself only when the son has   
become strong enough to take a part in  
hunting1 fishing1 and the agricultural  
labours of the plantations4  ,while our 
boat was unloading1 we examined closely1
 wherever the shore could be approached1
 the terrific spectacle of a great river
 narrowed and reduced as it were to     
foam4 ,i shall endeavour to paint1 not  
the sensations we felt1 but the aspect  
of a spot so celebrated among the scenes
 of the ,new ,world4 ,the more imposing 
and majestic the objects we describe1   
the more essential it becomes to seize  
them in their smallest details1 to fix  
the outline of the picture we would     

present to the imagination of the       
reader1 and to describe with simplicity 
what characterises the great and        
imperishable monuments of nature4  ,the 
navigation of the ,orinoco from its     
mouth as far as the confluence of the   
,anaveni1 an extent of #bfj leagues1 is 
not impeded4 ,there are shoals and      
eddies near ,muitaco1 in a cove that    
bears the name of the ,mouth of ,hell   
7,boca del ,infierno72 and there are    
rapids 7raudalitos7 near ,carichana and 
,san ,borja2 but in all these places the
 river is never entirely barred1 as a   
channel is left by which boats can pass 
up and down4  ,in all this navigation of
 the ,lower ,orinoco travellers         
experience no other danger than that of 
the natural rafts formed by trees1 which
 are uprooted by the river1 and swept   
along in its great floods4 ,woe to the  
canoes that during the night strike     
against these rafts of wood interwoven  
with lianas6 ,covered with aquatic      
plants1 they resemble here1 as in the   

,mississippi1 floating meadows1 the     
chinampas or floating gardens of the    
,mexican lakes4 ,the ,indians1 when they
 wish to surprise a tribe of their      
enemies1 bring together several canoes1 
fasten them to each other with cords1   
and cover them with grass and branches1 
to imitate this assemblage of trunks of 
trees1 which the ,orinoco sweeps along  
in its middle current4 ,the ,caribs are 
accused of having heretofore excelled in
 the use of this artifice2 at present   
the ,spanish smugglers in the           
neighbourhood of ,angostura have        
recourse to the same expedient to escape
 the vigilance of the custom-house      
officers4  ,after proceeding up the     
,orinoco beyond the ,rio ,anaveni1 we   
find1 between the mountains of ,uniana  
and ,sipapu1 the ,great ,cataracts of   
,mapara and ,quittuna1 or1 as they are  
more commonly called by the             
missionaries1 the ,raudales of ,atures  
and ,maypures4 ,these bars1 which extend
 from one bank to the other1 present in 

general a similar aspect3 they are      
composed of innumerable islands1 dikes  
of rock1 and blocks of granite piled on 
one another and covered with palm-trees4
 ,but1 notwithstanding a uniformity of  
aspect1 each of these cataracts         
preserves an individual character4 ,the 
first1 the ,atures1 is most easily      
passable when the waters are low4 ,the  
,indians prefer crossing the second1 the
 ,maypures1 at the time of great floods4
 ,beyond the ,maypures and the mouth of 
the ,cano ,cameji1 the ,orinoco is again
 unobstructed for the length of more    
than one hundred and sixty-seven        
leagues1 or nearly to its source2 that  
is to say1 as far as the ,raudalito of  
,guaharibos1 east of the ,cano ,chiguire
 and the lofty mountains of ,yumariquin4
  ,having visited the basins of the two 
rivers ,orinoco and ,amazon1 ,i was     
singularly struck by the differences    
they display in their course of unequal 
extent4 ,the falls of the ,amazon1 which
 is nearly nine hundred and eighty      

nautical leagues 7twenty to a degree7 in
 length1 are pretty near its source in  
the first sixth of its total length1 and
 five-sixths of its course are entirely 
free4 ,we find the great falls of the   
,orinoco on a point far more            
unfavourable to navigation2 if not at   
the half1 at least much beyond the first
 third of its length4 ,in both rivers it
 is neither the mountains1 nor the      
different stages of flat lands lying    
over one another1 whence they take their
 origin1 that cause the cataracts2 they 
are produced by other mountains1 other  
ledges which1 after a long and tranquil 
course1 the rivers have to pass over1   
precipitating themselves from step to   
step4  ,the ,amazon does not pierce its 
way through the principal chain of the  
,andes1 as was affirmed at a period when
 it was gratuitously supposed that1     
wherever mountains are divided into     
parallel chains1 the intermedial or     
central ridge must be more elevated than
 the others4 ,this great river rises    

7and this is a point of some importance 
to geology7 eastward of the western     
chain1 which alone in this latitude     
merits the denomination of the high     
chain of the ,andes4 ,it is formed by   
the junction of the river ,aguamiros    
with the ,rio ,chavinillo1 which issues 
from the lake ,llauricocha in a         
longitudinal valley bounded by the      
western and the intermedial chain of the
 ,andes4 ,to form an accurate idea of   
these hydrographical relations1 it must 
be borne in mind that a division into   
three chains takes place in the colossal
 group or knot of the mountains of      
,pasco and ,huanuco4 ,the western chain1
 which is the loftiest1 and takes the   
name of the ,cordillera ,real de ,nieve1
 directs its course 7between ,huary and 
,caxatamba1 ,guamachuco and ,luema1     
,micuipampa and ,guangamarca7 by the    
,nevados of ,viuda1 ,pelagatos1         
,moyopata1 and ,huaylillas1 and by the  
,paramos of ,guamani and ,guaringa1     
towards the town of ,loxa4 ,the         

intermedial chain separates the waters  
of the ,upper ,maranon from those of the
 ,guallaga1 and over a long space       
reaches only the small elevation of a   
thousand toises2 it enters the region of
 perpetual snow to the south of ,huanuco
 in the ,cordillera of ,sasaguanca4 ,it 
stretches at first northward by         
,huacrachuco1 ,chachapoyas1 ,moyobamba1 
and the ,paramo of ,piscoguannuna2 then 
it progressively lowers toward ,peca1   
,copallin1 and the ,mission of          
,santiago1 at the eastern extremity of  
the province of ,jaen de ,bracamoros4   
,the third1 or easternmost chain1 skirts
 the right bank of the ,rio ,guallaga1  
and loses itself in the seventh degree  
of latitude4 ,so long as the ,amazon    
flows from south to north in the        
longitudinal valley1 between two chains 
of unequal height 7that is1 from the    
farms of ,quivilla and ,guancaybamba1   
where the river is crossed on wooden    
bridges1 as far as the confluence of the
 ,rio ,chinchipe71 there are neither    

bars1 nor any obstacle whatever to the  
navigation of boats4 ,the falls of water
 begin only where the ,amazon turns     
toward the east1 crossing the           
intermedial chain of the ,andes1 which  
widens considerably toward the north4   
,it meets with the first rocks of red   
sandstone1 or ancient conglomerate1     
between ,tambillo and the ,pongo of     
,rentema 7near which ,i measured the    
breadth1 depth1 and swiftness of the    
waters71 and it leaves the rocks of red 
sandstone east of the famous strait of  
,manseriche1 near the ,pongo of         
,tayuchuc1 where the hills rise no      
higher than forty or fifty toises above 
the level of its waters4 ,the river does
 not reach the most easterly chain1     
which bounds the ,pampas del            
,sacramento4 ,from the hills of         
,tayuchuc as far as ,grand ,para1 during
 a course of more than seven hundred and
 fifty leagues1 the navigation is free  
from obstacles4 ,it results from this   
rapid sketch1 that1 if the ,maranon had 

not to pass over the hilly country      
between ,santiago and ,tomependa 7which 
belongs to the central chain of the     
,andes7 it would be navigable from its  
mouth as far as ,pumpo1 near ,piscobamba
 in the province of ,conchucos1         
forty-three leagues north of its source4
  ,we have just seen that1 in the       
,orinoco1 as in the ,amazon1 the great  
cataracts are not found near the sources
 of the rivers4 ,after a tranquil course
 of more than one hundred and sixty     
leagues from the little ,raudal of      
,guaharibos1 east of ,esmeralda1 as far 
as the mountains of ,sipapu1 the river1 
augmented by the waters of the ,jao1 the
 ,ventuari1 the ,atabapo1 and the       
,guaviare1 suddenly changes its         
primitive direction from east to west1  
and runs from south to north3 then1 in  
crossing the land-strait99 in the plains
 of ,meta1 799 ,this strait1 which ,i   
have several times mentioned1 is formed 
by the ,cordilleras of the ,andes of    
,new ,granada1 and the ,cordillera of   

,parima47 meets the advanced buttresses 
of the ,cordillera of ,parima4 ,this    
obstacle causes cataracts far more      
considerable1 and presents greater      
impediments to navigation1 than all the 
,pongos of the ,upper ,maranon1 because 
they are proportionally nearer to the   
mouth of the river4 ,these geographical 
details serve to prove1 in the instances
 of the two greatest rivers of the ,new 
,world1 first1 that it cannot be        
ascertained in an absolute manner that1 
beyond a certain number of toises1 or a 
certain height above the level of the   
sea1 rivers are not navigable2 secondly1
 that the rapids are not always         
occasioned1 as several treatises of     
general topography affirm1 by the height
 of the first obstacles1 by the first   
lines of ridges which the waters have to
 surmount near their sources4  ,the most
 northern of the great cataracts of the 
,orinoco is the only one bounded on each
 side by lofty mountains4 ,the left bank
 of the river is generally lower1 but it

 makes part of a plane which rises again
 west of ,atures1 towards the ,peak of  
,uniana1 a pyramid nearly three thousand
 feet high1 and placed on a wall of rock
 with steep slopes4 ,the situation of   
this solitary peak in the plain         
contributes to render its aspect more   
imposing and majestic4 ,near the        
,mission1 in the country which surrounds
 the cataract1 the aspect of the        
landscape varies at every step4 ,within 
a small space we find all that is most  
rude and gloomy in nature1 united with  
an open country and lovely pastoral     
scenery4 ,in the physical1 as in the    
moral world1 the contrast of effects1   
the comparison of what is powerful and  
menacing with what is soft and peaceful1
 is a never-failing source of our       
pleasures and our emotions4  ,i shall   
here repeat some scattered features of a
 picture which ,i traced in another work
 shortly after my return to ,europe499  
799 ,views of ,nature page #aec ,bohn's 
edition47 ,the savannahs of ,atures1    

covered with slender plants and grasses1
 are really meadows resembling those of 
,europe4 ,they are never inundated by   
the rivers1 and seem as if waiting to be
 ploughed by the hand of man4           
,notwithstanding their extent1 these    
savannahs do not exhibit the monotony of
 our plains2 they surround groups of    
rocks and blocks of granite piled on one
 another4 ,on the very borders of these 
plains and this open country1 glens are 
seen scarcely lighted by the rays of the
 setting sun1 and hollows where the     
humid soil1 loaded with arums1          
heliconias1 and lianas1 manifests at    
every step the wild fecundity of nature4
 ,everywhere1 just rising above the     
earth1 appear those shelves of granite  
completely bare1 which we saw at        
,carichana1 and which ,i have already   
described4 ,where springs gush from the 
bosom of these rocks1 verrucarias1      
psoras1 and lichens are fixed on the    
decomposed granite1 and have there      
accumulated mould4 ,little euphorbias1  

peperomias1 and other succulent plants1 
have taken the place of the cryptogamous
 tribes2 and evergreen shrubs1 rhexias1 
and purple-flowered melastomas1 form    
verdant isles amid desert and rocky     
plains4 ,the distribution of these      
spots1 the clusters of small trees with 
coriaceous and shining leaves scattered 
in the savannahs1 the limpid rills that 
dig channels across the rocks1 and wind 
alternately through fertile places and  
over bare shelves of granite1 all call  
to mind the most lovely and picturesque 
plantations and pleasure-grounds of     
,europe4 ,we seem to recognise the      
industry of man1 and the traces of      
cultivation1 amid this wild scenery4    
,the lofty mountains that bound the     
horizon on every side1 contribute also1 
by their forms and the nature of their  
vegetation1 to give an extraordinary    
character to the landscape4 ,the average
 height of these mountains is not more  
than seven or eight hundred feet above  
the surrounding plains4 ,their summits  

are rounded1 as for the most part in    
granitic mountains1 and covered with    
thick forests of the laurel-tribe4      
,clusters of palm-trees199 799 ,el      
cucurito47 the leaves of which1 curled  
like feathers1 rise majestically at an  
angle of seventy degrees1 are dispersed 
amid trees with horizontal branches2 and
 their bare trunks1 like columns of a   
hundred or a hundred and twenty feet    
high1 shoot up into the air1 and when   
seen in distinct relief against the     
azure vault of the sky1 they resemble a 
forest planted upon another forest4     
,when1 as the moon was going down behind
 the mountains of ,uniana1 her reddish  
disc was hidden behind the pinnated     
foliage of the palm-trees1 and again    
appeared in the aerial zone that        
separates the two forests1 ,i thought   
myself transported for a few moments to 
the hermitage which ,bernardin de       
,saint-,pierre has described as one of  
the most delicious scenes of the ,isle  
of ,bourbon1 and ,i felt how much the   

aspect of the plants and their groupings
 resembled each other in the two worlds4
 ,in describing a small spot of land in 
an island of the ,indian ,ocean1 the    
inimitable author of ,paul and ,virginia
 has sketched the vast picture of the   
landscape of the tropics4 ,he knew how  
to paint nature1 not because he had     
studied it scientifically1 but because  
he felt it in all its harmonious        
analogies of forms1 colours1 and        
interior powers4  ,east of the ,atures1 
near these rounded mountains crowned1 as
 it were1 by two superimposed forests of
 laurels and palms1 other mountains of a
 very different aspect arise4 ,their    
ridge is bristled with pointed rocks1   
towering like pillars above the summits 
of the trees and shrubs4 ,these effects 
are common to all granitic table-lands1 
at the ,harz1 in the metalliferous      
mountains of ,bohemia1 in ,galicia1 on  
the limit of the two ,castiles1 or      
wherever a granite of new formation     
appears above the ground4 ,the rocks1   

which are at distances from each other1 
are composed of blocks piled together1  
or divided into regular and horizontal  
beds4 ,on the summits of those situated 
near the ,orinoco1 flamingos1           
soldados199 799 ,the soldado 7soldier7  
is a large species of heron47 and other 
fishing-birds perch1 and look like men  
posted as sentinels4 ,this resemblance  
is so striking1 that the inhabitants of 
,angostura1 soon after the foundation of
 their city1 were one day alarmed by the
 sudden appearance of soldados and      
garzas1 on a mountain towards the south4
 ,they believed they were menaced with  
an attack of ,indios monteros 7wild     
,indians called mountaineers72 and the  
people were not perfectly tranquilized1 
till they saw the birds soaring in the  
air1 and continuing their migration     
towards the mouths of the ,orinoco4     
,the fine vegetation of the mountains   
spreads over the plains1 wherever the   
rock is covered with mould1 ,we         
generally find that this black mould1   

mixed with fibrous vegetable matter1 is 
separated from the granitic rock by a   
layer of white sand4 ,the missionary    
assured us that verdure of perpetual    
freshness prevails in the vicinity of   
the cataracts1 produced by the quantity 
of vapour which the river1 broken into  
torrents and cascades for the length of 
three or four thousand toises1 diffuses 
in the air4  ,we had not heard thunder  
more than once or twice at ,atures1 and 
the vegetation everywhere displayed that
 vigorous aspect1 that brilliancy of    
colour1 seen on the coast only at the   
end of the rainy season4 ,the old trees 
were decorated with beautiful           
orchideas199 799 ,cymbidium violaceum1  
,habenaria angustifolia1 etc47 yellow   
bannisterias1 blue-flowered bignonias1  
peperomias1 arums1 and pothoses4 ,a     
single trunk displays a greater variety 
of vegetable forms than are contained   
within an extensive space of ground in  
our countries4 ,close to the parasite   
plants peculiar to very hot climates we 

observed1 not without surprise1 in the  
centre of the torrid zone1 and near the 
level of the sea1 mosses resembling in  
every respect those of ,europe4 ,we     
gathered1 near the ,great ,cataract of  
,atures1 that fine specimen of          
,grimmia99 with fontinalis leaves1 which
 has so much fixed the attention of     
botanists4 799 ,grimmia fontinaloides4  
,see ,hooker's ,musci ,exotici1 #ahah   
tab4 #b4 ,the learned author of the     
,monography of the ,jungermanniae 7,mr4 
,jackson ,hooker71 with noble           
disinterestedness1 published at his own 
expense1 in ,london1 the whole          
collection of cryptogamous plants1      
brought by ,bonpland and ,humboldt from 
the equinoctial regions of ,america47   
,it is suspended to the branches of the 
loftiest trees4 ,of the phaenerogamous  
plants1 those which prevail in the woody
 spots are the mimosa1 ficus1 and       
laurinea4 ,this fact is the more        
characteristic as1 according to the     
observations of ,mr4 ,brown1 the        

laurineae appear to be almost entirely  
wanting on the opposite continent1 in   
the equinoctial part of ,africa4 ,plants
 that love humidity adorn the scenery   
surrounding the cataracts4 ,we there    
find in the plains groups of heliconias 
and other scitamineae with large and    
glossy leaves1 bamboos1 and the three   
palm-trees1 the murichi1 jagua1 and     
vadgiai1 each of which forms a separate 
group4 ,the murichi1 or mauritia with   
scaly fruits1 is the celebrated         
sago-tree of the ,guaraon ,indians4 ,it 
has palmate leaves1 and has no relation 
to the palm-trees with pinnate and      
curled leaves2 to the jagua1 which      
appears to be a species of the          
cocoa-tree2 or to the vadgiai or        
cucurito1 which may be assimilated to   
the fine species ,oreodoxa4 ,the        
cucurito1 which is the palm most        
prevalent around the cataracts of the   
,atures and ,maypures1 is remarkable for
 its stateliness4 ,its leaves1 or rather
 its palms1 crown a trunk of eighty or  

one hundred feet high2 their direction  
is almost perpendicular when young1 as  
well as at their full growth1 the points
 only being incurvated4 ,they look like 
plumes of the most soft and verdant     
green4 ,the cucurito1 the pirijao1 the  
fruit of which resembles the apricot1   
the ,oreodoxa regia or palma real of the
 island of ,cuba1 and the ceroxylon of  
the high ,andes1 are the most majestic  
of all the palm-trees we saw in the ,new
 ,world4 ,as we advance toward the      
temperate zone1 the plants of this      
family decrease in size and beauty4     
,what a difference between the species  
we have just mentioned1 and the         
date-tree of the ,east1 which           
unfortunately has become to the         
landscape painters of ,europe the type  
of a group of palm-trees6  ,it is not   
suprising that persons who have         
travelled only in the north of ,africa1 
in ,sicily1 or in ,spain1 cannot        
conceive that1 of all large trees1 the  
palm is the most grand and beautiful in 

form4 ,incomplete analogies prevent     
,europeans from having a just idea of   
the aspect of the torrid zone4 ,all the 
world knows1 for instance1 that this    
zone is embellished by the contrasts    
exhibited in the foliage of the trees1  
and particularly by the great number of 
those with pinnate leaves4 ,the ash1 the
 service-tree1 the inga1 the acacia of  
the ,united ,states1 the gleditsia1 the 
tamarind1 the mimosa1 the desmanthus1   
have all pinnate leaves1 with foliolae  
more or less long1 slender1 tough1 and  
shining4 ,but can a group of ash-trees1 
of service-trees1 or of sumach1 recall  
the picturesque effect of tamarinds or  
mimosas1 when the azure of the sky      
appears through their small1 slender1   
and delicately pinnated leaves8 ,these  
considerations are more important than  
they may at first seem4 ,the forms of   
plants determine the physiognomy of     
nature2 and this physiognomy influences 
the moral dispositions of nations4      
,every type comprehends species1 which1 

while exhibiting the same general       
appearance1 differ in the varied        
development of the similar organs4 ,the 
palm-trees1 the scitamineae1 the        
malvaceae1 the trees with pinnate       
leaves1 do not all display the same     
picturesque beauties2 and generally the 
most beautiful species of each type1 in 
plants as in animals1 belong to the     
equinoctial zone4  ,the proteaceae199   
799 ,rhopalas1 which characterise the   
vegetation of the ,llanos47 crotons1    
agaves1 and the great tribe of the      
cactuses1 which inhabit exclusively the 
,new ,world1 disappear gradually1 as we 
ascend the ,orinoco above the ,apure and
 the ,meta4 ,it is1 however1 the shade  
and humidity1 rather than the distance  
from the coast1 which oppose the        
migration of the cactuses southward4 ,we
 found forests of them mingled with     
crotons1 covering a great space of arid 
land to the east of the ,andes1 in the  
province of ,bracamoros1 towards the    
,upper ,maranon4 ,the arborescent ferns 

seem to fail entirely near the cataracts
 of the ,orinoco2 we found no species as
 far as ,san ,fernando de ,atabapo1 that
 is1 to the confluence of the ,orinoco  
and the ,guaviare4  ,having now examined
 the vicinity of the ,atures1 it remains
 for me to speak of the rapids          
themselves1 which occur in a part of the
 valley where the bed of the river1     
deeply ingulfed1 has almost inaccessible
 banks4 ,it was only in a very few spots
 that we could enter the ,orinoco to    
bathe1 between the two cataracts1 in    
coves where the waters have eddies of   
little velocity4 ,persons who have dwelt
 in the ,alps1 the ,pyrenees1 or even   
the ,cordilleras1 so celebrated for the 
fractures and the vestiges of           
destruction which they display at every 
step1 can scarcely picture to           
themselves1 from a mere narration1 the  
state of the bed of the river4 ,it is   
traversed1 in an extent of more than    
five miles1 by innumerable dikes of     
rock1 forming so many natural dams1 so  

many barriers resembling those of the   
,dnieper1 which the ancients designated 
by the name of phragmoi4 ,the space     
between the rocky dikes of the ,orinoco 
is filled with islands of different     
dimensions2 some hilly1 divided into    
several peaks1 and two or three hundred 
toises in length1 others small1 low1 and
 like mere shoals4 ,these islands divide
 the river into a number of torrents1   
which boil up as they break against the 
rocks4 ,the jaguas and cucuritos with   
plumy leaves1 with which all the islands
 are covered1 seem like groves of       
palm-trees rising from the foamy surface
 of the waters4 ,the ,indians1 whose    
task it is to pass the boats empty over 
the raudales1 distinguish every shelf1  
and every rock1 by a particular name4   
,on entering from the south you find    
first the ,leap of the ,toucan 7,salto  
del ,piapoco72 and between the islands  
of ,avaguri and ,javariveni is the      
,raudal of ,javariveni1 where1 on our   
return from ,rio ,negro1 we passed some 

hours amid the rapids1 waiting for our  
boat4 ,a great part of the river        
appeared dry4 ,blocks of granite are    
heaped together1 as in the moraines     
which the glaciers of ,switzerland drive
 before them4 ,the river is ingulfed in 
caverns2 and in one of these caverns we 
heard the water roll at once over our   
heads and beneath our feet4 ,the        
,orinoco seems divided into a multitude 
of arms or torrents1 each of which seeks
 to force a passage through the rocks4  
,we were struck with the little water to
 be seen in the bed of the river1 the   
frequency of subterraneous falls1 and   
the tumult of the waters breaking on the
 rocks in foam4  ,cuncta fremunt undis2 
ac multo murmure montis ,spumeus        
invictis canescit fluctibus amnis499 799
 ,lucan1 ,pharsalia lib #aj v #acb47    
,having passed the ,raudal of           
,javariveni 7,i name here only the      
principal falls7 we come to the ,raudal 
of ,canucari1 formed by a ledge of rocks
 uniting the islands of ,surupamana and 

,uirapuri4 ,when the dikes1 or natural  
dams1 are only two or three feet high1  
the ,indians venture to descend them in 
boats4 ,in going up the river1 they swim
 on before1 and if1 after many vain     
efforts1 they succeed in fixing a rope  
to one of the points of rock that crown 
the dike1 they then1 by means of that   
rope1 draw the bark to the top of the   
raudal4 ,the bark1 during this arduous  
task1 often fills with water2 at other  
times it is stove against the rocks1 and
 the ,indians1 their bodies bruised and 
bleeding1 extricate themselves with     
difficulty from the whirlpools1 and     
reach1 by swimming1 the nearest island4 
,when the steps or rocky barriers are   
very high1 and entirely bar the river1  
light boats are carried on shore1 and   
with the help of branches of trees      
placed under them to serve as rollers1  
they are drawn as far as the place where
 the river again becomes navigable4     
,this operation is seldom necessary when
 the water is high4 ,we cannot speak of 

the cataracts of the ,orinoco without   
recalling to mind the manner heretofore 
employed for descending the cataracts of
 the ,nile1 of which ,seneca has left us
 a description probably more poetical   
than accurate4 ,i shall cite the        
passage1 which traces with fidelity what
 may be seen every day at ,atures1      
,maypures1 and in some pongos of the    
,amazon4 ,two men embark in a small     
boat2 one steers1 and the other empties 
it as it fills with water4 ,long        
buffeted by the rapids1 the whirlpools1 
and the contrary currents1 they pass    
through the narrowest channels1 avoid   
the shoals1 and rush down the whole     
river1 guiding the course of the boat in
 its accelerated fall4 7,nat4 ,quaest4  
lib #d cap #b edit4 ,elzev4 tome #b page
 #fji47  ,in hydrographic descriptions  
of countries1 the vague names of        
cataracts1 cascades1 falls1 and         
rapids199 799 ,the corresponding terms  
in use among the people of ,south       
,america1 are saltos1 chorros1 pongos1  

cachoeiras1 and raudales47 denoting     
those tumultuous movements of water     
which arise from very different         
circumstances1 are generally confounded 
with one another4 ,sometimes a whole    
river precipitating itself from a great 
height1 and by one single fall1 renders 
navigation impossible4 ,such is the     
majestic fall of the ,rio ,tequendama1  
which ,i have represented in my ,views  
of the ,cordilleras2 such are the falls 
of ,niagara and of the ,rhine1 much less
 remarkable for their elevation1 than   
for the mass of water they contain4     
,sometimes stony dikes of small height  
succeed each other at great distances1  
and form distinct falls2 such are the   
cachoeiras of the ,rio ,negro and the   
,rio ,madeira1 the saltos of the ,rio   
,cauca1 and the greater part of the     
pongos that are found in the ,upper     
,maranon1 from the confluence of the    
,chinchipe to the village of ,san       
,borja4 ,the highest and most formidable
 of these pongos1 which are descended on

 rafts1 that of ,mayasi1 is however only
 three feet in height4 ,sometimes small 
rocky dikes are so near each other that 
they form for several miles an          
uninterrupted succession of cascades and
 whirlpools 7chorros and remolinos72    
these are properly what are called      
rapids 7raudales74 ,such are the        
yellalas1 or rapids of the ,river       
,zaire199 or ,congo1 which ,captain     
,tuckey has recently made known to us   
799 ,voyage to explore the ,river       
,zaire1 #ahah1 pages #aeb1 #cbg1 #cdj4  
,what the inhabitants of ,upper ,egypt  
and ,nubia call chellal in the ,nile1 is
 called yellala in the ,river ,congo4   
,this analogy between words signifying  
rapids is remarkable1 on account of the 
enormous distance of the yellalas of the
 ,congo from the chellal and djenadel of
 the ,nile4 ,did the word chellal       
penetrate with the ,moors into the west 
of ,africa8 ,if1 with ,burckhardt1 we   
consider the origin of this word as     
,arabic 7,travels in ,nubia1 #ahai71 it 

must be derived from the root challa1 to
 disperse1 which forms chelil1 water    
falling through a narrow channel472 the 
rapids of the ,orange ,river in ,africa1
 above ,pella2 and the falls of the     
,missouri1 which are four leagues in    
length1 where the river issues from the 
,rocky ,mountains4 ,such also are the   
cataracts of ,atures and ,maypures2 the 
only cataracts which1 situated in the   
equinoctial region of the ,new ,world1  
are adorned with the noble growth of    
palm-trees4 ,at all seasons they exhibit
 the aspect of cascades1 and present the
 greatest obstacles to the navigation of
 the ,orinoco1 while the rapids of the  
,ohio and of ,upper ,egypt are scarcely 
visible at the period of floods4 ,a     
solitary cataract1 like ,niagara1 or the
 cascade of ,terni1 affords a grand but 
single picture1 varying only as the     
observer changes his place4 ,rapids1 on 
the contrary1 especially when adorned   
with large trees1 embellish a landscape 
during a length of several leagues4     

,sometimes the tumultuous movement of   
the waters is caused only by            
extraordinary contractions of the beds  
of the rivers4 ,such is the angostura of
 ,carare1 in the river ,magdalena1 a    
strait that impedes communication       
between ,santa ,fe de ,bogota and the   
coast of ,carthagena2 and such is the   
pongo of ,manseriche1 in the ,upper     
,maranon4  ,the ,orinoco1 the ,rio      
,negro1 and almost all the confluents of
 the ,amazon and the ,maranon1 have     
falls or rapids1 either because they    
cross the mountains where they take     
rise1 or because they meet other        
mountains in their course4 ,if the      
,amazon1 from the pongo of ,manseriche  
7or1 to speak with more precision1 from 
the pongo of ,tayuchuc7 as far as its   
mouth1 a space of more than seven       
hundred and fifty leagues1 exhibit no   
tumultuous movement of the waters1 the  
river owes this advantage to the uniform
 direction of its course4 ,it flows from
 west to east in a vast plain1 forming a

 longitudinal valley between the        
mountains of ,parima and the great mass 
of the mountains of ,brazil4  ,i was    
surprised to find by actual measurement 
that the rapids of the ,orinoco1 the    
roar of which is heard at the distance  
of more than a league1 and which are so 
eminently picturesque from the varied   
appearance of the waters1 the palm-trees
 and the rocks1 have not probably1 on   
their whole length1 a height of more    
than twenty-eight feet perpendicular4   
,in reflecting on this1 we find that it 
is a great deal for rapids1 while it    
would be very little for a single       
cataract4 ,the ,yellalas of the ,rio    
,congo1 in the contracted part of the   
river from ,banza ,noki as far as ,banza
 ,inga1 furnish1 between the upper and  
lower levels1 a much more considerable  
difference2 but ,mr4 ,barrow observes1  
that among the great number of these    
rapids there is one fall1 which alone is
 thirty feet high4 ,on the other hand1  
the famous pongos of the river ,amazon1 

so dangerous to go up1 the falls of     
,rentema1 of ,escurrebragas1 and of     
,mayasi1 are but a few feet in          
perpendicular height4 ,those who are    
engaged in hydraulic works know the     
effect that a bar of eighteen or twenty 
inches' height produces in a great      
river4 ,the whirling and tumultuous     
movement of the water does not depend   
solely on the greatness of partial      
falls2 what determines the force and    
impetuosity is the nearness of these    
falls1 the steepness of the rocky       
ledges1 the returning sheets of water   
which strike against and surmount each  
other1 the form of the islands and      
shoals1 the direction of the            
counter-currents1 and the contraction   
and sinuosity of the channels through   
which the waters force a passage between
 two adjacent levels4 ,in two rivers    
equally large1 that of which the falls  
have least height may sometimes present 
the greatest dangers and the most       
impetuous movements4  ,it is probable   

that the river ,orinoco loses part of   
its waters in the cataracts1 not only by
 increased evaporation1 caused by the   
dispersion of minute drops in the       
atmosphere1 but still more by           
filtrations into the subterraneous      
cavities4 ,these losses1 however1 are   
not very perceptible when we compare the
 mass of waters entering into the raudal
 with that which issues out near the    
mouth of the ,rio ,anaveni4 ,it was by a
 similar comparison that the existence  
of subterraneous cavities in the        
yellalas or rapids of the river ,congo  
was discovered4 ,the pongo of           
,manseriche1 which ought rather to be   
called a strait than a fall1 ingulfs1 in
 a manner not yet sufficiently explored1
 a part of the waters and all the       
floating wood of the ,upper ,maranon4   
,the spectator1 seated on the bank of   
the ,orinoco1 with his eyes fixed on    
those rocky dikes1 is naturally led to  
inquire whether1 in the lapse of ages1  
the falls change their form or height4  

,i am not much inclined to believe in   
such effects of the shock of water      
against blocks of granite1 and in the   
erosion of siliceous matter4 ,the holes 
narrowed toward the bottom1 the funnels 
that are discovered in the raudales1 as 
well as near so many other cascades in  
,europe1 are owing only to the friction 
of the sand1 and the movement of quartz 
pebbles4 ,we saw many such1 whirled     
perpetually by the current at the bottom
 of the funnels1 and contributing to    
enlarge them in every direction4 ,the   
pongos of the river ,amazon are easily  
destroyed1 because the rocky dikes are  
not granite1 but a conglomerate1 or red 
sandstone with large fragments4 ,a part 
of the pongo of ,rentama was broken down
 eighty years ago1 and the course of the
 waters being interrupted by a new bar1 
the bed of the river remained dry for   
some hours1 to the great astonishment of
 the inhabitants of the village of      
,payaya1 seven leagues below the pongo4 
,the ,indians of ,atures assert 7and in 

this their testimony is contrary to the 
opinion of ,caulin7 that the rocks of   
the raudal preserve the same aspect2 but
 that the partial torrents into which   
the great river divides itself as it    
passes through the heaped blocks of     
granite1 change their direction1 and    
carry sometimes more1 sometimes less    
water towards one or the other bank2 but
 the causes of these changes may be very
 remote from the cataracts1 for in the  
rivers that spread life over the surface
 of the globe1 as in the arteries by    
which it is diffused through organized  
bodies1 all the movements are propagated
 to great distances4 ,oscillations1 that
 at first seem partial1 react on the    
whole liquid mass contained in the trunk
 as well as in its numerous             
ramifications4  ,some of the            
,missionaries in their writings have    
alleged that the inhabitants of ,atures 
and ,maypures have been struck with     
deafness by the noise of the ,great     
,cataracts1 but this is untrue4 ,when   

the noise is heard in the plain that    
surrounds the mission1 at the distance  
of more than a league1 you seem to be   
near a coast skirted by reefs and       
breakers4 ,the noise is three times as  
loud by night as by day1 and gives an   
inexpressible charm to these solitary   
scenes4 ,what can be the cause of this  
increased intensity of sound1 in a      
desert where nothing seems to interrupt 
the silence of nature8 ,the velocity of 
the propagation of sound1 far from      
augmenting1 decreases with the lowering 
of the temperature4 ,the intensity      
diminishes in air agitated by a wind    
which is contrary to the direction of   
the sound2 it diminishes also by        
dilatation of the air1 and is weaker in 
the higher than in the lower regions of 
the atmosphere1 where the number of     
particles of air in motion is greater in
 the same radius4 ,the intensity is the 
same in dry air1 and in air mingled with
 vapours2 but it is feebler in carbonic 
acid gas than in mixtures of azote and  

oxygen4 ,from these facts1 which are all
 we know with any certainty1 it is      
difficult to explain a phenomenon       
observed near every cascade in ,europe1 
and which1 long before our arrival in   
the village of ,atures1 had struck the  
missionary and the ,indians4  ,it may be
 thought that1 even in places not       
inhabited by man1 the hum of insects1   
the song of birds1 the rustling of      
leaves agitated by the feeblest winds1  
occasion during the day a confused      
noise1 which we perceive the less       
because it is uniform1 and constantly   
strikes the ear4 ,now this noise1       
however slightly perceptible it may be1 
may diminish the intensity of a louder  
noise2 and this diminution may cease if 
during the calm of the night the song of
 birds1 the hum of insects1 and the     
action of the wind upon the leaves be   
interrupted4 ,but this reasoning1 even  
admitting its justness1 can scarcely be 
applied to the forests of the ,orinoco1 
where the air is constantly filled by an

 innumerable quantity of mosquitos1     
where the hum of insects is much louder 
by night than by day1 and where the     
breeze1 if ever it be felt1 blows only  
after sunset4  ,i rather think that the 
presence of the sun acts upon the       
propagation and intensity of sound by   
the obstacles met in currents of air of 
different density1 and by the partial   
undulations of the atmosphere arising   
from the unequal heating of different   
parts of the soil4 ,in calm air1 whether
 dry or mingled with vesicular vapours  
equally distributed1 sound-waves are    
propagated without difficulty4 ,but when
 the air is crossed in every direction  
by small currents of hotter air1 the    
sonorous undulation is divided into two 
undulations where the density of the    
medium changes abruptly2 partial echoes 
are formed that weaken the sound1       
because one of the streams comes back   
upon itself2 and those divisions of     
undulations take place of which ,m4     
,poisson has developed the theory with  

great sagacity499 799 ,annales de       
,chimie tome #g page #bic47 ,it is not  
therefore the movement of the particles 
of air from below to above in the       
ascending current1 or the small oblique 
currents that we consider as opposing by
 a shock the propagation of the sonorous
 undulations4 ,a shock given to the     
surface of a liquid will form circles   
around the centre of percussion1 even   
when the liquid is agitated4 ,several   
kinds of undulations may cross each     
other in water1 as in air1 without being
 disturbed in their propagation3 little 
movements may1 as it were1 ride over    
each other1 and the real cause of the   
less intensity of sound during the day  
appears to be the interpretation of     
homogeneity in the elastic medium4      
,during the day there is a sudden       
interruption of density wherever small  
streamlets of air of a high temperature 
rise over parts of the soil unequally   
heated4 ,the sonorous undulations are   
divided1 as the rays of light are       

refracted and form the mirage wherever  
strata of air of unequal density are    
contiguous4 ,the propagation of sound is
 altered when a stratum of hydrogen gas 
is made to rise in a tube closed at one 
end above a stratum of atmospheric air2 
and ,m4 ,biot has well explained1 by the
 interposition of bubbles of carbonic   
acid gas1 why a glass filled with       
champagne is not sonorous so long as    
that gas is evolved1 and passing through
 the strata of the liquid4  ,in support 
of these ideas1 ,i might almost rest on 
the authority of an ancient philosopher1
 whom the moderns do not esteem in      
proportion to his merits1 though the    
most distinguished zoologists have long 
rendered ample justice to the sagacity  
of his observations4 ,why1 says         
,aristotle in his curious book of       
,problems1 why is sound better heard    
during the night8 ,because there is more
 calmness on account of the absence of  
caloric 7of the hottest7499 799 ,i have 
placed in a parenthesis1 a literal      

version of the term employed by         
,aristotle1 to express in reality what  
we now term the matter of heat4         
,theodore of ,gaza1 in his ,latin       
translation1 expresses in the shape of a
 doubt what ,aristotle positively       
asserts4 ,i may here remark1 that1      
notwithstanding the imperfect state of  
science among the ancients1 the works of
 the ,stagirite contain more ingenious  
observations than those of many later   
philosophers4 ,it is in vain we look in 
,aristoxenes 7,de ,musica71 in          
,theophylactus ,simocatta 7,de          
,quaestionibus physicis71 or in the #eth
 ,book of the ,quest4 ,nat4 of ,seneca1 
for an explanation of the nocturnal     
augmentation of sound47 ,this absence   
renders every thing calmer1 for the sun 
is the principle of all movement4       
,aristotle had no doubt a vague         
presentiment of the cause of the        
phenomenon2 but he attributes to the    
motion of the atmosphere1 and the shock 
of the particles of air1 that which     

seems to be rather owing to abrupt      
changes of density in the contiguous    
strata of air4  ,on the #afth of ,april1
 towards evening1 we received tidings   
that in less than six hours our boat had
 passed the rapids1 and had arrived in  
good condition in a cove called el      
,puerto de arriba1 or the ,port of the  
,expedition4 ,we were shown in the      
little church of ,atures some remains of
 the ancient wealth of the ,jesuits4 ,a 
silver lamp of considerable weight lay  
on the ground half-buried in the sand4  
,such an object1 it is true1 would      
nowhere tempt the cupidity of a savage2 
yet ,i may here remark1 to the honor of 
the natives of the ,orinoco1 that they  
are not addicted to stealing1 like the  
less savage tribes of the islands in the
 ,pacific4 ,the former have a great     
respect for property2 they do not even  
attempt to steal provision1 hooks1 or   
hatchets4 ,at ,maypures and ,atures1    
locks on doors are unknown3 they will be
 introduced only when whites and men of 

mixed race establish themselves in the  
missions4  ,the ,indians of ,atures are 
mild and moderate1 and accustomed1 from 
the effects of their idleness1 to the   
greatest privations4 ,formerly1 being   
excited to labour by the ,jesuits1 they 
did not want for food4 ,the fathers     
cultivated maize1 ,french beans         
7frijoles71 and other ,european         
vegetables2 they even planted sweet     
oranges and tamarinds round the         
villages2 and they possessed twenty or  
thirty thousand head of cows and horses1
 in the savannahs of ,atures and        
,carichana4 ,they had at their service a
 great number of slaves and servants    
7peones71 to tend their herds4 ,nothing 
is now cultivated but a little cassava1 
and a few plantains4 ,such however is   
the fertility of the soil1 that at      
,atures ,i counted on a single branch of
 a musa one hundred and eight fruits1   
four or five of which would almost have 
sufficed for a man's daily food4 ,the   
culture of maize is entirely neglected1 

and the horses and cows have entirely   
disappeared4 ,near the raudal1 a part of
 the village still bears the name of    
,passo del ganado 7ford of the cattle71 
while the descendants of those very     
,indians whom the ,jesuits had assembled
 in a mission1 speak of horned cattle as
 of animals of a race now lost4 ,in     
going up the ,orinoco1 toward ,san      
,carlos del ,rio ,negro1 we saw the last
 cow at ,carichana4 ,the ,fathers of the
 ,observance1 who now govern these vast 
countries1 did not immediately succeed  
the ,jesuits4 ,during an interregnum of 
eighteen years1 the missions were       
visited only from time to time1 and by  
,capuchin monks4 ,the agents of the     
secular government1 under the title of  
,royal ,commissioners1 managed the hatos
 or farms of the ,jesuits with culpable 
negligence4 ,they killed the cattle for 
the sake of selling the hides4 ,many    
heifers were devoured by the jaguars1   
and a great number perished in          
consequence of wounds made by the bats  

of the raudales1 which1 though smaller1 
are far bolder than the bats of the     
,llanos4 ,at the time of the expedition 
of the boundaries1 horses from          
,encaramada1 ,carichana1 and ,atures1   
were conveyed as far as ,san ,jose de   
,maravitanos1 where1 on the banks of the
 ,rio ,negro1 the ,portuguese could only
 procure them1 after a long passage1 and
 of a very inferior quality1 by the     
rivers ,amazon and ,grand ,para4 ,since 
the year #agie1 the cattle of the       
,jesuits have entirely disappeared4     
,there now remain as monuments of the   
ancient cultivation of these countries1 
and the active industry of the first    
missionaries1 only a few trunks of the  
orange and tamarind1 in the savannahs1  
surrounded by wild trees4  ,the tigers1 
or jaguars1 which are less dangerous for
 the cattle than the bats1 come into the
 village at ,atures1 and devour the     
swine of the poor ,indians4 ,the        
missionary related to us a striking     
instance of the familiarity of these    

animals1 usually so ferocious4 ,some    
months before our arrival1 a jaguar1    
which was thought to be young1 though of
 a large size1 had wounded a child in   
playing with him4 ,the facts of this    
case1 which were verified to us on the  
spot1 are not without interest in the   
history of the manners of animals4 ,two 
,indian children1 a boy and a girl1     
about eight and nine years of age1 were 
seated on the grass near the village of 
,atures1 in the middle of a savannah1   
which we several times traversed4 ,at   
two o'clock in the afternoon1 a jaguar  
issued from the forest1 and approached  
the children1 bounding around them2     
sometimes he hid himself in the high    
grass1 sometimes he sprang forward1 his 
back bent1 his head hung down1 in the   
manner of our cats4 ,the little boy1    
ignorant of his danger1 seemed to be    
sensible of it only when the jaguar with
 one of his paws gave him some blows on 
the head4 ,these blows1 at first slight1
 became ruder and ruder2 the claws of   

the jaguar wounded the child1 and the   
blood flowed freely4 ,the little girl   
then took a branch of a tree1 struck the
 animal1 and it fled from her4 ,the     
,indians ran up at the cries of the     
children1 and saw the jaguar1 which then
 bounded off without making the least   
show of resistance4  ,the little boy was
 brought to us1 who appeared lively and 
intelligent4 ,the claw of the jaguar had
 torn away the skin from the lower part 
of the forehead1 and there was a second 
scar at the top of the head4 ,this was a
 singular fit of playfulness in an      
animal which1 though not difficult to be
 tamed in our menageries1 nevertheless  
shows itself always wild and ferocious  
in its natural state4 ,if we admit that1
 being sure of its prey1 it played with 
the little ,indian as our cats play with
 birds whose wings have been clipped1   
how shall we explain the patience of a  
jaguar of large size1 which finds itself
 attacked by a girl8 ,if the jaguar were
 not pressed by hunger1 why did it      

approach the children at all8 ,there is 
something mysterious in the affections  
and hatreds of animals4 ,we have known  
lions kill three or four dogs that were 
put into their den1 and instantly caress
 a fifth1 which1 less timid1 took the   
king of animals by the mane4 ,these are 
instincts of which we know not the      
secret4  ,we have mentioned that        
domestic pigs are attacked by the       
jaguars4 ,there are in these countries1 
besides the common swine of ,european   
race1 several species of peccaries1 or  
pigs with lumbar glands1 two of which   
only are known to the naturalists of    
,europe4 ,the ,indians call the little  
peccary 7,dicotiles torquatus1 ,cuv471  
in the ,maypure tongue1 chacharo2 while 
they give the name of apida to a species
 of pig which they say has no pouch1 is 
larger1 and of a dark brown colour1 with
 the belly and lower jaw white4 ,the    
chacharo1 reared in the houses1 becomes 
tame like our sheep and goats4 ,it      
reminds us1 by the gentleness of its    

manners1 of the curious analogies which 
anatomists have observed between the    
peccaries and the ruminating animals4   
,the apida1 which is domesticated like  
our swine in ,europe1 wanders in large  
herds composed of several hundreds4 ,the
 presence of these herds is announced   
from afar1 not only by their hoarse     
gruntings1 but above all by the         
impetuosity with which they break down  
the shrubs in their way4 ,m4 ,bonpland1 
in an herborizing excursion1 warned by  
his ,indian guide to hide himself behind
 the trunk of a tree1 saw a number of   
these peccaries 7cochinos or puercos del
 monte7 pass close by him4 ,the herd    
marched in a close body1 the males      
proceeding first2 and each sow was      
accompanied by her young4 ,the flesh of 
the chacharo is flabby1 and not very    
agreeable2 it affords1 however1 a       
plentiful nourishment to the natives1   
who kill these animals with small lances
 tied to cords4 ,we were assured at     
,atures1 that the tiger dreads being    

surrounded in the forests by these herds
 of wild pigs2 and that1 to avoid being 
stifled1 he tries to save himself by    
climbing up a tree4 ,is this a hunter's 
tale1 or a fact that has really been    
observed8 ,in several parts of ,america 
the hunters believe in the existence of 
a javali1 or native boar with tusks     
curved outwardly4 ,i never saw one1 but 
this animal is mentioned in the works of
 the ,spanish missionaries1 a source too
 much neglected by zoologists2 for      
amidst much incorrectness and           
extravagance1 they contain many curious 
local observations4  ,among the monkeys 
which we saw at the mission of the      
,atures1 we found one new species1 of   
the tribe of sais and sajous1 which the 
,creoles vulgarly call machis4 ,it is   
the ,guvapavi with grey hair and a      
bluish face4 ,it has the orbits of the  
eyes and the forehead as white as snow1 
a peculiarity which at first sight      
distinguishes it from the ,simia        
capucina1 the ,simia apella1 the ,simia 

trepida1 and the other weeping monkeys  
hitherto so confusedly described4 ,this 
little animal is as gentle as it is     
ugly4 ,a monkey of this species1 which  
was kept in the courtyard of the        
missionary1 would frequently mount on   
the back of a pig1 and in this manner   
traverse the savannahs4 ,we have also   
seen it upon the back of a large cat1   
which had been brought up with it in    
,father ,zea's house4  ,it was among the
 cataracts that we began to hear of the 
hairy man of the woods1 called salvaje1 
that carries off women1 constructs huts1
 and sometimes eats human flesh4 ,the   
,tamanacs call it achi1 and the         
,maypures vasitri1 or great devil4 ,the 
natives and the missionaries have no    
doubt of the existence of this          
man-shaped monkey1 of which they        
entertain a singular dread4 ,father     
,gili gravely relates the history of a  
lady in the town of ,san ,carlos1 in the
 ,llanos of ,venezuela1 who much praised
 the gentle character and attentions of 

the man of the woods4 ,she is stated to 
have lived several years with one in    
great domestic harmony1 and only        
requested some hunters to take her back1
 because she and her children 7a little 
hairy also7 were weary of living far    
from the church and the sacraments4 ,the
 same author1 notwithstanding his       
credulity1 acknowledges that he never   
knew an ,indian who asserted positively 
that he had seen the salvaje with his   
own eyes4 ,this wild legend1 which the  
missionaries1 the ,european planters1   
and the negroes of ,africa1 have no     
doubt embellished with many features    
taken from the description of the       
manners of the orang-otang199 the       
gibbon1 the jocko or chimpanzee1 and the
 pongo1 followed us1 during five years1 
from the northern to the southern       
hemisphere4 799 ,simia satyrus4 ,we must
 not believe1 notwithstanding the       
assertions of almost all zoological     
writers1 that the word orang-otang is   
applied exclusively in the ,malay       

language to the ,simia satyrus of       
,borneo4 ,this expression1 on the       
contrary1 means any very large monkey1  
that resembles man in figure4 ,marsden's
 ,history of ,sumatra #crd edition page 
#aag4 ,modern zoologists have           
arbitrarily appropriated provincial     
names to certain species2 and by        
continuing to prefer these names1       
strangely disfigured in their           
orthography1 to the ,latin systematic   
names1 the confusion of the nomenclature
 has been increased47 ,we were          
everywhere blamed1 in the most          
cultivated class of society1 for being  
the only persons to doubt the existence 
of the great anthropomorphous monkey of 
,america4 ,there are certain regions    
where this belief is particularly       
prevalent among the people2 such are the
 banks of the ,upper ,orinoco1 the      
valley of ,upar near the lake of        
,maracaybo1 the mountains of ,santa     
,martha and of ,merida1 the provinces of
 ,quixos1 and the banks of the ,amazon  

near ,tomependa4 ,in all these places1  
so distant one from the other1 it is    
asserted that the salvaje is easily     
recognized by the traces of its feet1   
the toes of which are turned backward4  
,but if there exist a monkey of a large 
size in the ,new ,continent1 how has it 
happened that for three centuries no man
 worthy of belief has been able to      
procure the skin of one8 ,several       
hypotheses present themselves to the    
mind1 in order to explain the source of 
so ancient an error or belief4 ,has the 
famous capuchin monkey of ,esmeralda    
7,simia chiropotes71 with its long      
canine teeth1 and physiognomy much more 
like man's99 799 ,the whole of the      
features--the expression of the         
physiognomy2 but not the forehead47 than
 that of the orang-otang1 given rise to 
the fable of the salvaje8 ,it is not so 
large indeed as the coaita 7,simia      
paniscus72 but when seen at the top of a
 tree1 and the head only visible1 it    
might easily be taken for a human being4

 ,it may be also 7and this opinion      
appears to me the most probable7 that   
the man of the woods was one of those   
large bears1 the footsteps of which     
resemble those of a man1 and which are  
believed in every country to attack     
women4 ,the animal killed in my time at 
the foot of the mountains of ,merida1   
and sent1 by the name of salvaje1 to    
,colonel ,ungaro1 the governor of the   
province of ,varinas1 was in fact a bear
 with black and smooth fur4 ,our        
fellow-traveller1 ,don ,nicolas ,soto1  
had examined it closely4 ,did the       
strange idea of a plantigrade animal1   
the toes of which are placed as if it   
walked backward1 take its origin from   
the habit of the real savages of the    
woods1 the ,indians of the weakest and  
most timid tribes1 of deceiving their   
enemies1 when they enter a forest1 or   
cross a sandy shore1 by covering the    
traces of their feet with sand1 or      
walking backward8  ,though ,i have      
expressed my doubts of the existence of 

an unknown species of large monkey in a 
continent which appears entirely        
destitute of quadrumanous animals of the
 family of the orangs1 cynocephali1     
mandrils1 and pongos2 yet it should be  
remembered that almost all matters of   
popular belief1 even those most absurd  
in appearance1 rest on real facts1 but  
facts ill observed4 ,in treating them   
with disdain1 the traces of a discovery 
may often be lost1 in natural philosophy
 as well as in zoology4 ,we will not    
then admit1 with a ,spanish author1 that
 the fable of the man of the woods was  
invented by the artifice of ,indian     
women1 who pretended to have been       
carried off1 when they had been long    
absent unknown to their husbands4       
,travellers who may hereafter visit the 
missions of the ,orinoco will do well to
 follow up our researches on the salvaje
 or great devil of the woods2 and       
examine whether it be some unknown      
species of bear1 or some very rare      
monkey analogous to the ,simia          

chiropotes1 or ,simia satanas1 which may
 have given rise to such singular tales4
  ,after having spent two days near the 
cataract of ,atures1 we were not sorry  
when our boat was reladen1 and we were  
enabled to leave a spot where the       
temperature of the air is generally by  
day twenty-nine degrees1 and by night   
twenty-six degrees1 of the centigrade   
thermometer4 ,this temperature seemed to
 us to be still much more elevated1 from
 the feeling of heat which we           
experienced4 ,the want of concordance   
between the instruments and the         
sensations must be attributed to the    
continual irritation of the skin excited
 by the mosquitos4 ,an atmosphere filled
 with venomous insects always appears to
 be more heated than it is in reality4  
,we were horribly tormented in the day  
by mosquitos and the jejen1 a small     
venomous fly 7simulium71 and at night by
 the zancudos1 a large species of gnat1 
dreaded even by the natives4 ,our hands 
began to swell considerably1 and this   

swelling increased daily till our       
arrival on the banks of the ,temi4 ,the 
means that are employed to escape from  
these little plagues are very           
extraordinary4 ,the good missionary     
,bernardo ,zea1 who passed his life     
tormented by mosquitos1 had constructed 
near the church1 on a scaffolding of    
trunks of palm-trees1 a small apartment1
 in which we breathed more freely4 ,to  
this we went up in the evening1 by means
 of a ladder1 to dry our plants and     
write our journal4 ,the missionary had  
justly observed1 that the insects       
abounded more particularly in the lowest
 strata of the atmosphere1 that which   
reaches from the ground to the height of
 twelve or fifteen feet4 ,at ,maypures  
the ,indians quit the village at night1 
to go and sleep on the little islets in 
the midst of the cataracts4 ,there they 
enjoy some rest2 the mosquitoes         
appearing to shun air loaded with       
vapours4 ,we found everywhere fewer in  
the middle of the river than near its   

banks2 and thus less is suffered in     
descending the ,orinoco than in going up
 in a boat4  ,persons who have not      
navigated the great rivers of           
equinoctial ,america1 for instance1 the 
,orinoco and the ,magdalena1 can        
scarcely conceive how1 at every instant1
 without intermission1 you may be       
tormented by insects flying in the air2 
and how the multitude of these little   
animals may render vast regions almost  
uninhabitable4 ,whatever fortitude be   
exercised to endure pain without        
complaint1 whatever interest may be felt
 in the objects of scientific research1 
it is impossible not to be constantly   
disturbed by the mosquitos1 zancudos1   
jejens1 and tempraneros1 that cover the 
face and hands1 pierce the clothes with 
their long needle-formed suckers1 and   
getting into the mouth and nostrils1    
occasion coughing and sneezing whenever 
any attempt is made to speak in the open
 air4 ,in the missions of the ,orinoco1 
in the villages on the banks of the     

river1 surrounded by immense forests1   
the plaga de las moscas1 or the plague  
of the mosquitos1 affords an            
inexhaustible subject of conversation4  
,when two persons meet in the morning1  
the first questions they address to each
 other are3 ,how did you find the       
zancudos during the night8 ,how are we  
to-day for the mosquitos899 799 ,que le 
han parecido los zancudos de noche8     
,como stamos hoy de mosquitos87 ,these  
questions remind us of a ,chinese form  
of politeness1 which indicates the      
ancient state of the country where it   
took birth4 ,salutations were made      
heretofore in the ,celestial empire in  
the following words1 vou-to-hou1 ,have  
you been incommoded in the night by the 
serpents8  ,the geographical            
distribution of the insects of the      
family of tipulae presents very         
remarkable phenomena4 ,it does not      
appear to depend solely on heat of      
climate1 excess of humidity1 or the     
thickness of forests1 but on local      

circumstances that are difficult to     
characterise4 ,it may be observed that  
the plague of mosquitos and zancudos is 
not so general in the torrid zone as is 
commonly believed4 ,on the table-lands  
elevated more than four hundred toises  
above the level of the ocean1 in the    
very dry plains remote from the beds of 
great rivers 7for instance1 at ,cumana  
and ,calabozo71 there are not sensibly  
more gnats than in the most populous    
parts of ,europe4 ,they are perceived to
 augment enormously at ,nueva           
,barcelona1 and more to the west1 on the
 coast that extends towards ,cape       
,codera4 ,between the little harbour of 
,higuerote and the mouth of the ,rio    
,unare1 the wretched inhabitants are    
accustomed to stretch themselves on the 
ground1 and pass the night buried in the
 sand three or four inches deep1 leaving
 out the head only1 which they cover    
with a handkerchief4 ,you suffer from   
the sting of insects1 but in a manner   
easy to bear1 in descending the ,orinoco

 from ,cabruta towards ,angostura1 and  
in going up from ,cabruta towards       
,uruana1 between the latitudes of #g and
 #h degrees4 ,but beyond the mouth of   
the ,rio ,arauca1 after having passed   
the strait of ,baraguan1 the scene      
suddenly changes4 ,from this spot the   
traveller may bid farewell to repose4   
,if he have any poetical remembrance of 
,dante1 he may easily imagine he has    
entered the citta dolente1 and he will  
seem to read on the granite rocks of    
,baraguan these lines of the ,inferno3  
,noi sem venuti al luogo1 ov' i' t'ho   
detto ,che tu vedrai le genti dolorose4 
,the lower strata of air1 from the      
surface of the ground to the height of  
fifteen or twenty feet1 are absolutely  
filled with venomous insects4 ,if in an 
obscure spot1 for instance in the       
grottos of the cataracts formed by      
superincumbent blocks of granite1 you   
direct your eyes toward the opening     
enlightened by the sun1 you see clouds  
of mosquitos more or less thick4 ,at the

 mission of ,san ,borja1 the suffering  
from mosquitos is greater than at       
,carichana2 but in the ,raudales1 at    
,atures1 and above all at ,maypures1    
this suffering may be said to attain its
 maximum4 ,i doubt whether there be a   
country upon earth where man is exposed 
to more cruel torments in the rainy     
season4 ,having passed the fifth degree 
of latitude1 you are somewhat less      
stung2 but on the ,upper ,orinoco the   
stings are more painful1 because the    
heat and the absolute want of wind      
render the air more burning and more    
irritating in its contact with the skin4
  ,how comfortable must people be in the
 moon6 said a ,salive ,indian to ,father
 ,gumilla2 she looks so beautiful and so
 clear1 that she must be free from      
mosquitos4 ,these words1 which denote   
the infancy of a people1 are very       
remarkable4 ,the satellite of the earth 
appears to all savage nations the abode 
of the blessed1 the country of          
abundance4 ,the ,esquimaux1 who counts  

among his riches a plank or trunk of a  
tree1 thrown by the currents on a coast 
destitute of vegetation1 sees in the    
moon plains covered with forests2 the   
,indian of the forests of ,orinoco there
 beholds open savannahs1 where the      
inhabitants are never stung by          
mosquitos4  ,after proceeding further to
 the south1 where the system of         
yellowish-brown waters commences199 799 
,generally called black waters1 aguas   
negras47 on the banks of the ,atabapo1  
the ,tuni1 the ,tuamini1 and the ,rio   
,negro1 we enjoyed an unexpected repose4
 ,these rivers1 like the ,orinoco1 cross
 thick forests1 but the tipulary        
insects1 as well as the crocodiles1 shun
 the proximity of the black waters4     
,possibly these waters1 which are a     
little colder1 and chemically different 
from the white waters1 are adverse to   
the larvae of tipulary insects and      
gnats1 which may be considered as real  
aquatic animals4 ,some small rivers1 the
 colour of which is deep blue1 or       

yellowish-brown 7as the ,toparo1 the    
,mataveni1 and the ,zama71 are          
exceptions to the almost general rule of
 the absence of mosquitos over the black
 waters4 ,these three rivers swarm with 
them2 and the ,indians themselves fixed 
our attention on the problematic causes 
of this phenomenon4 ,in going down the  
,rio ,negro1 we breathed freely at      
,maroa1 ,daripe1 and ,san ,carlos1      
villages situated on the boundaries of  
,brazil4 ,but this improvement of our   
situation was of short continuance2 our 
sufferings recommenced as soon as we    
entered the ,cassiquiare4 ,at           
,esmeralda1 at the eastern extremity of 
the ,upper ,orinoco1 where ends the     
known world of the ,spaniards1 the      
clouds of mosquitos are almost as thick 
as at the ,great ,cataracts4 ,at        
,mandavaca we found an old missionary1  
who told us with an air of sadness1 that
 he had had his twenty years of         
mosquitos in ,america994 799 ,yo tengo  
mis veinte anos de mosquitos47 ,he      

desired us to look at his legs1 that we 
might be able to tell one day1 beyond   
sea 7por alla71 what the poor monks     
suffer in the forests of ,cassiquiare4  
,every sting leaving a small darkish    
brown point1 his legs were so speckled  
that it was difficult to recognize the  
whiteness of his skin through the spots 
of coagulated blood4 ,if the insects of 
the genus ,simulium abound in the       
,cassiquiare1 which has white waters1   
the culices or zancudos are so much the 
more rare2 you scarcely find any there2 
while on the rivers of black waters1 in 
the ,atabapo and the ,rio1 there are    
generally some zancudos and no          
mosquitos4  ,i have just shown1 from my 
own observations1 how much the          
geographical distribution of venomous   
insects varies in this labyrinth of     
rivers with white and black waters4 ,it 
were to be wished that a learned        
entomologist could study on the spot the
 specific differences of these noxious  
insects199 which in the torrid zone1 in 

spite of their minute size1 act an      
important point in the economy of       
nature4 799 ,the mosquito bovo or       
tenbiguai2 the melero1 which always     
settles upon the eyes2 the tempranero1  
or putchiki2 the jejen2 the gnat rivau1 
the great zancudo1 or matchaki2 the     
cafafi1 etc47 ,what appeared to us very 
remarkable1 and is a fact known to all  
the missionaries1 is1 that the different
 species do not associate together1 and 
that at different hours of the day you  
are stung by distinct species4 ,every   
time that the scene changes1 and1 to use
 the simple expression of the           
missionaries1 other insects mount guard1
 you have a few minutes1 often a quarter
 of an hour1 of repose4 ,the insects    
that disappear have not their places    
instantly supplied by their successors4 
,from half-past-six in the morning till 
five in the afternoon1 the air is filled
 with mosquitos2 which have not1 as some
 travellers have stated1 the form of our
 gnats199 799 ,culex pipiens4 ,this     

difference between mosquito 7little fly1
 simulium7 and zancudo 7gnat1 culex7    
exists in all the ,spanish colonies4    
,the word zancudo signifies long legs1  
qui tiene las zancas largas4 ,the       
mosquitos of the ,orinoco are the       
moustiques2 the zancudos are the        
maringouins of ,french travellers47 but 
that of a small fly4 ,they are simuliums
 of the family ,nemocera of the system  
of ,latreille4 ,their sting is as       
painful as that of the genus ,stomox4   
,it leaves a little reddish brown spot1 
which is extravased and coagulated      
blood1 where their proboscis has pierced
 the skin4 ,an hour before sunset a     
species of small gnats1 called          
tempraneros199 because they appear also 
at sunrise1 take the place of the       
mosquitos4 799 ,which appear at an early
 hour 7temprano74 ,some persons say1    
that the zancudo is the same as the     
tempranero1 which returns at night1     
after hiding itself for some time4 ,i   
have doubts of this identity of the     

species2 the pain caused by the sting of
 the two insects appeared to me         
different47 ,their presence scarcely    
lasts an hour and a half2 they disappear
 between six and seven in the evening1  
or1 as they say here1 after the ,angelus
 7a la oracion74 ,after a few minutes'  
repose1 you feel yourself stung by      
zancudos1 another species of gnat with  
very long legs4 ,the zancudo1 the       
proboscis of which contains a           
sharp-pointed sucker1 causes the most   
acute pain1 and a swelling that remains 
several weeks4 ,its hum resembles that  
of the ,european gnat1 but is louder and
 more prolonged4 ,the ,indians pretend  
to distinguish the zancudos and the     
tempraneros by their song2 the latter   
are real twilight insects1 while the    
zancudos are most frequently nocturnal  
insects1 and disappear toward sunrise4  
,in our way from ,carthagena to ,santa  
,fe de ,bogota1 we observed that between
 ,mompox and ,honda1 in the valley of   
the ,rio ,magdalena1 the zancudos       

darkened the air from eight in the      
evening till midnight2 that towards     
midnight they diminished in number1 and 
were hidden for three or four hours2 and
 lastly that they returned in crowds1   
about four in the morning4 ,what is the 
cause of these alternations of motion   
and rest8 ,are these animals fatigued by
 long flight8 ,it is rare on the        
,orinoco to see real gnats by day2 while
 at the ,rio ,magdalena we were stung   
night and day1 except from noon till    
about two o'clock4 ,the zancudos of the 
two rivers are no doubt of different    
species4  ,we have seen that the insects
 of the tropics everywhere follow a     
certain standard in the periods at which
 they alternately arrive and disappear4 
,at fixed and invariable hours1 in the  
same season1 and the same latitude1 the 
air is peopled with new inhabitants1 and
 in a zone where the barometer becomes a
 clock199 799 ,by the extreme regularity
 of the horary variations of the        
atmospheric pressure47 where everything 

proceeds with such admirable regularity1
 we might guess blindfold the hour of   
the day or night1 by the hum of the     
insects1 and by their stings1 the pain  
of which differs according to the nature
 of the poison that each species        
deposits in the wound4  ,at a period    
when the geography of animals and of    
plants had not yet been studied1 the    
analogous species of different climates 
were often confounded4 ,it was believed 
that the pines and ranunculuses1 the    
stags1 the rats1 and the tipulary       
insects of the north of ,europe1 were to
 be found in ,japan1 on the ridge of the
 ,andes1 and at the ,straits of         
,magellan4 ,justly celebrated           
naturalists have thought that the       
zancudo of the torrid zone was the gnat 
of our marshes1 become more vigorous1   
more voracious1 and more noxious1 under 
the influence of a burning climate4     
,this is a very erroneous opinion4 ,i   
carefully examined and described upon   
the spot those zancudos1 the stings of  

which are most tormenting4 ,in the      
rivers ,magdalena and ,guayaquil alone  
there are five distinct species4  ,the  
culices of ,south ,america have         
generally the wings1 corslet1 and legs  
of an azure colour1 ringed and          
variegated with a mixture of spots of   
metallic lustre4 ,here as in ,europe1   
the males1 which are distinguished by   
their feathered antennae1 are extremely 
rare2 you are seldom stung except by    
females4 ,the preponderance of this sex 
explains the immense increase of the    
species1 each female laying several     
hundred eggs4 ,in going up one of the   
great rivers of ,america1 it is         
observed1 that the appearance of a new  
species of culex denotes the proximity  
of a new stream flowing in4 ,i shall    
mention an instance of this curious     
phenomenon4 ,the ,culex lineatus1 which 
belongs to the ,cano ,tamalamec1 is only
 perceived in the valley of the ,rio    
,grande de la ,magdalena1 at a league   
north of the junction of the two rivers2

 it goes up1 but scarcely ever descends 
the ,rio ,grande4 ,it is thus1 that1 on 
a principal vein1 the appearance of a   
new substance in the gangue indicates to
 the miner the neighbourhood of a       
secondary vein that joins the first4    
,on recapitulating the observations here
 recorded1 we see1 that within the      
tropics1 the mosquitos and zancudos do  
not rise on the slope of the            
,cordilleras99 toward the temperate     
region1 where the mean heat is below #ai
 or #bj degrees 799 ,the culex pipiens  
of ,europe does not1 like the culex of  
the torrid zone1 shun mountainous       
places4 ,giesecke suffered from these   
insects in ,greenland1 at ,disco1 in    
latitude #gj degrees4 ,they are found in
 ,lapland in summer1 at three or four   
hundred toises high1 and at a           
temperature of #aa or #ab degrees472 and
 that1 with few exceptions1 they shun   
the black waters1 and dry and unwooded  
spots499 799 ,trifling modifications in 
the waters1 or in the air1 often appear 

to prevent the development of the       
mosquitos4 ,mr4 ,bowdich remarks that   
there are none at ,coomassie1 in the    
kingdom of the ,ashantees1 though the   
town is surrounded by marshes1 and      
though the thermometer keeps up between 
seventeen and twenty-eight centesimal   
degrees1 day and night47 ,the atmosphere
 swarms with them much more in the      
,upper than in the ,lower ,orinoco1     
because in the former the river is      
surrounded with thick forests on its    
banks1 and the skirts of the forests are
 not separated from the river by a      
barren and extensive beach4 ,the        
mosquitos diminish on the ,new          
,continent with the diminution of the   
water1 and the destruction of the woods2
 but the effects of these changes are as
 slow as the progress of cultivation4   
,the towns of ,angostura1 ,nueva        
,barcelona1 and ,mompox1 where from the 
want of police1 the streets1 the great  
squares1 and the interior of court-yards
 are overgrown with brushwood1 are sadly

 celebrated for the abundance of        
zancudos4  ,people born in the country1 
whether whites1 mulattoes1 negroes1 or  
,indians1 all suffer from the sting of  
these insects4 ,but as cold does not    
render the north of ,europe             
uninhabitable1 so the mosquitos do not  
prevent men from dwelling in the        
countries where they abound1 provided   
that1 by their situation and government1
 they afford resources for agriculture  
and industry4 ,the inhabitants pass     
their lives in complaining of the       
insufferable torment of the mosquitos1  
yet1 notwithstanding these continual    
complaints1 they seek1 and even with a  
sort of predilection1 the commercial    
towns of ,mompox1 ,santa ,marta1 and    
,rio de la ,hacha4 ,such is the force of
 habit in evils which we suffer every   
hour of the day1 that the three missions
 of ,san ,borja1 ,atures1 and           
,esmeralda1 where1 to make use of an    
hyperbolical expression of the monks1   
there are more mosquitos than air199 799

 ,mas moscas que aire47 would no doubt  
become flourishing towns1 if the        
,orinoco afforded planters the same     
advantages for the exchange of produce1 
as the ,ohio and the ,lower             
,mississippi4  ,it is a curious fact1   
that the whites born in the torrid zone 
may walk barefoot with impunity1 in the 
same apartment where a ,european        
recently landed is exposed to the attack
 of the nigua or chegoe 7,pulex         
penetrans74 ,this animal1 almost        
invisible to the eye1 gets under the    
toe-nails1 and there acquires the size  
of a small pea1 by the quick increase of
 its eggs1 which are placed in a bag    
under the belly of the insect4 ,the     
nigua therefore distinguishes what the  
most delicate chemical analysis could   
not distinguish1 the cellular membrane  
and blood of a ,european from those of a
 creole white4 ,the mosquitos1 on the   
contrary1 attack equally the natives and
 the ,europeans2 but the effects of the 
sting are different in the two races of 

men4 ,the same venomous liquid1         
deposited in the skin of a              
copper-coloured man of ,indian race1 and
 in that of a white man newly landed1   
causes no swelling in the former1 while 
in the latter it produces hard blisters1
 greatly inflamed1 and painful for      
several days2 so different is the action
 on the epidermis1 according to the     
degree of irritability of the organs in 
different races and different           
individuals6  ,i shall here recite      
several facts1 which prove that the     
,indians1 and in general all the people 
of colour1 at the moment of being stung1
 suffer like the whites1 although       
perhaps with less intensity of pain4 ,in
 the day-time1 and even when labouring  
at the oar1 the natives1 in order to    
chase the insects1 are continually      
giving one another smart slaps with the 
palm of the hand4 ,they even strike     
themselves and their comrades           
mechanically during their sleep4 ,the   
violence of their blows reminds one of  

the ,persian tale of the bear that tried
 to kill with his paw the insects on the
 forehead of his sleeping master4 ,near 
,maypures we saw some young ,indians    
seated in a circle and rubbing cruelly  
each others' backs with the bark of     
trees dried at the fire4 ,indian women  
were occupied1 with a degree of patience
 of which the copper-coloured race alone
 are capable1 in extracting1 by means of
 a sharp bone1 the little mass of       
coagulated blood that forms the centre  
of every sting1 and gives the skin a    
speckled appearance4 ,one of the most   
barbarous nations of the ,orinoco1 that 
of the ,ottomacs1 is acquainted with the
 use of mosquito-curtains 7mosquiteros7 
woven from the fibres of the moriche    
palm-tree4 ,at ,higuerote1 on the coast 
of ,caracas1 the copper-coloured people 
sleep buried in the sand4 ,in the       
villages of the ,rio ,magdalena the     
,indians often invited us to stretch    
ourselves as they did on ox-skins1 near 
the church1 in the middle of the plaza  

grande1 where they had assembled all the
 cows in the neighbourhood4 ,the        
proximity of cattle gives some repose to
 man4 ,the ,indians of the ,upper       
,orinoco and the ,cassiquiare1 seeing   
that ,m4 ,bonpland could not prepare his
 herbal1 owing to the continual torment 
of the mosquitos1 invited him to enter  
their ovens 7hornitos74 ,thus they call 
little chambers1 without doors or       
windows1 into which they creep          
horizontally through a very low opening4
 ,when they have driven away the insects
 by means of a fire of wet brushwood1   
which emits a great deal of smoke1 they 
close the opening of the oven4 ,the     
absence of the mosquitos is purchased   
dearly enough by the excessive heat of  
the stagnated air1 and the smoke of a   
torch of copal1 which lights the oven   
during your stay in it4 ,m4 ,bonpland1  
with courage and patience well worthy of
 praise1 dried hundreds of plants1 shut 
up in these hornitos of the ,indians4   
,these precautions of the ,indians      

sufficiently prove that1 notwithstanding
 the different organization of the      
epidermis1 the copper-coloured man1 like
 the white man1 suffers from the stings 
of insects2 but the former seems to feel
 less pain1 and the sting is not        
followed by those swellings which1      
during several weeks1 heighten the      
irritability of the skin1 and throw     
persons of a delicate constitution into 
that feverish state which always        
accompanies eruptive maladies4 ,whites  
born in equinoctial ,america1 and       
,europeans who have long sojourned in   
the ,missions1 on the borders of forests
 and great rivers1 suffer much more than
 the ,indians1 but infinitely less than 
,europeans newly arrived4 ,it is not1   
therefore1 as some travellers assert1   
the thickness of the skin that renders  
the sting more or less painful at the   
moment when it is received2 nor is it   
owing to the particular organization of 
the integuments1 that in the ,indians   
the sting is followed by less of        

swelling and inflammatory symptoms2 it  
is on the nervous irritability of the   
epidermis that the acuteness and        
duration of the pain depend4 ,this      
irritability is augmented by very warm  
clothing1 by the use of alcoholic       
liquors1 by the habit of scratching the 
wounds1 and lastly1 7and this           
physiological observation is the result 
of my own experience17 that of baths    
repeated at too short intervals4 ,in    
places where the absence of crocodiles  
permits people to enter a river1 ,m4    
,bonpland and myself observed that the  
immoderate use of baths1 while it       
moderated the pain of old stings of     
zancudos1 rendered us more sensible to  
new stings4 ,by bathing more than twice 
a day1 the skin is brought into a state 
of nervous irritability1 of which no    
idea can be formed in ,europe4 ,it would
 seem as if all feeling were carried    
toward the integuments4  ,as the        
mosquitos and gnats pass two-thirds of  
their lives in the water1 it is not     

surprising that these noxious insects   
become less numerous in proportion as   
you recede from the banks of the great  
rivers which intersect the forests4     
,they seem to prefer the spots where    
their metamorphosis took place1 and     
where they go to deposit their eggs4 ,in
 fact the wild ,indians 7,indios        
monteros7 experience the greater        
difficulty in accustoming themselves to 
the life of the missions1 as they suffer
 in the ,christian establishments a     
torment which they scarcely know in     
their own inland dwellings4 ,the natives
 at ,maypures1 ,atures1 and ,esmeralda1 
have been seen fleeing to the woods1 or1
 as they say1 al monte1 solely from the 
dread of mosquitos4 ,unfortunately1 all 
the ,missions of the ,orinoco have been 
established too near the banks of the   
river4 ,at ,esmeralda the inhabitants   
assured us that if the village were     
situated in one of the five plains      
surrounding the high mountains of ,duida
 and ,maraguaca1 they should breathe    

freely1 and enjoy some repose4 ,the     
great cloud of mosquitos 7la nube de    
moscas7 to use the expression of the    
monks1 is suspended only over the       
,orinoco and its tributary streams1 and 
is dissipated in proportion as you      
remove from the rivers4 ,we should form 
a very inaccurate idea of ,guiana and   
,brazil1 were we to judge of that great 
forest four hundred leagues wide1 lying 
between the sources of the ,madeira and 
the ,lower ,orinoco1 from the valleys of
 the rivers by which it is crossed4  ,i 
learned that the little insects of the  
family of the nemocerae migrate from    
time to time like the alouate monkeys1  
which live in society4 ,in certain      
spots1 at the commencement of the rainy 
season1 different species appear1 the   
sting of which has not yet been felt4   
,we were informed at the ,rio           
,magdalena1 that at ,simiti no other    
culex than the jejen was formerly known2
 and it was then possible to enjoy a    
tranquil night's rest1 for the jejen is 

not a nocturnal insect4 ,since the year 
#ahja1 the great blue-winged gnat       
7,culex cyanopterus7 has appeared in    
such numbers1 that the poor inhabitants 
of ,simiti know not how to procure an   
undisturbed sleep4 ,in the marshy       
channels 7esteros7 of the isle of ,baru1
 near ,carthagena1 is found a little    
white fly called cafafi4 ,it is scarcely
 visible to the naked eye1 and causes   
very painful swellings4 ,the toldos or  
cottons used for mosquito-curtains1 are 
wetted to prevent the cafafi penetrating
 through the interstices left by the    
crossing threads4 ,this insect1 happily 
rare elsewhere1 goes up in ,january1 by 
the channel 7dique7 of ,mahates1 as far 
as ,morales4 ,when we went to this      
village in the month of ,may1 we found  
there cimuliae and zancudos1 but no     
jejens4  ,the insects most troublesome  
at ,orinoco1 or as the ,creoles say1 the
 most ferocious 7los mas feroces71 are  
those of the great cataracts of         
,esmeralda and ,mandavaca4 ,on the ,rio 

,magdalena the ,culex cyanopterus is    
dreaded1 particularly at ,mompox1       
,chiloa1 and ,tamalameca4 ,at these     
places this insect is larger and        
stronger1 and its legs blacker4 ,it is  
difficult to avoid smiling on hearing   
the missionaries dispute about the size 
and voracity of the mosquitos at        
different parts of the same river4 ,in a
 region the inhabitants of which are    
ignorant of all that is passing in the  
rest of the world1 this is the favourite
 subject of conversation4 ,how ,i pity  
your situation6 said the missionary of  
the ,raudales to the missionary of      
,cassiquiare1 at our departure2 you are 
alone1 like me1 in this country of      
tigers and monkeys2 with you fish is    
still more rare1 and the heat more      
violent2 but as for my mosquitos 7mias  
moscas7 ,i can boast that with one of   
mine ,i would beat three of yours4      
,this voracity of insects in certain    
spots1 the fury with which they attack  
man199 799 ,this voracity1 this appetite

 for blood1 seems surprising in little  
insects1 that live on vegetable juices1 
and in a country almost entirely        
uninhabited4 ,what would these animals  
eat1 if we did not pass this way8 say   
the ,creoles1 in going through countries
 where there are only crocodiles covered
 with a scaly skin1 and hairy monkeys47 
the activity of the venom varying in the
 same species1 are very remarkable      
facts2 which find their analogy1        
however1 in the classes of large        
animals4 ,the crocodile of ,angostura   
pursues men1 while at ,nueva ,barcelona 
you may bathe tranquilly in the ,rio    
,neveri amidst these carnivorous        
reptiles4 ,the jaguars of ,maturin1     
,cumanacoa1 and the isthmus of ,panama1 
are timid in comparison of those of the 
,upper ,orinoco4 ,the ,indians well know
 that the monkeys of some valleys are   
easily tamed1 while others of the same  
species1 caught elsewhere1 will rather  
die of hunger than submit to slavery499 
799 ,i might have added the example of  

the scorpion of ,cumana1 which it is    
very difficult to distinguish from that 
of the island of ,trinidad1 ,jamaica1   
,carthagena1 and ,guayaquil2 yet the    
former is not more to be feared than the
 ,scorpio europaeus 7of the south of    
,france71 while the latter produces     
consequences far more alarming than the 
,scorpio occitanus 7of ,spain and       
,barbary74 ,at ,carthagena and          
,guayaquil1 the sting of the scorpion   
7alacran7 instantly causes the loss of  
speech4 ,sometimes a singular torpor of 
the tongue is observed for fifteen or   
sixteen hours4 ,the patient1 when stung 
in the legs1 stammers as if he had been 
struck with apoplexy47  ,the common     
people in ,america have framed systems  
respecting the salubrity of climates and
 pathological phenomena1 as well as the 
learned of ,europe2 and their systems1  
like ours1 are diametrically opposed to 
each other1 according to the provinces  
into which the ,new ,continent is       
divided4 ,at the ,rio ,magdalena the    

frequency of mosquitos is regarded as   
troublesome1 but salutary4 ,these       
animals1 say the inhabitants1 give us   
slight bleedings1 and preserve us1 in a 
country excessively hot1 from the       
scarlet fever1 and other inflammatory   
diseases4 ,but at the ,orinoco1 the     
banks of which are very insalubrious1   
the sick blame the mosquitos for all    
their sufferings4 ,it is unnecessary to 
refute the fallacy of the popular belief
 that the action of the mosquitos is    
salutary by its local bleedings4 ,in    
,europe the inhabitants of marshy       
countries are not ignorant that the     
insects irritate the epidermis1 and     
stimulate its functions by the venom    
which they deposit in the wounds they   
make4 ,far from diminishing the         
inflammatory state of the skin1 the     
stings increase it4  ,the frequency of  
gnats and mosquitos characterises       
unhealthy climates only so far as the   
development and multiplication of these 
insects depend on the same causes that  

give rise to miasmata4 ,these noxious   
animals love a fertile soil covered with
 plants1 stagnant waters1 and a humid   
air never agitated by the wind2 they    
prefer to an open country those shades1 
that softened day1 that tempered degree 
of light1 heat1 and moisture which1     
while it favours the action of chemical 
affinities1 accelerates the putrefaction
 of organised substances4 ,may not the  
mosquitos themselves increase the       
insalubrity of the atmosphere8 ,when we 
reflect that to the height of three or  
four toises a cubic foot of air is often
 peopled by a million of winged         
insects199 799 ,it is sufficient to     
mention1 that the cubic foot contains   
#b1ihe1ihd cubic lines47 which contain a
 caustic and venomous liquid2 when we   
recollect that several species of culex 
are #a4h lines long from the head to the
 extremity of the corslet 7without      
reckoning the legs72 lastly1 when we    
consider that in this swarm of mosquitos
 and gnats1 diffused in the atmosphere  

like smoke1 there is a great number of  
dead insects raised by the force of the 
ascending air1 or by that of the lateral
 currents which are caused by the       
unequal heating of the soil1 we are led 
to inquire whether the presence of so   
many animal substances in the air must  
not occasion particular miasmata4 ,i    
think that these substances act on the  
atmosphere differently from sand and    
dust2 but it will be prudent to affirm  
nothing positively on this subject4     
,chemistry has not yet unveiled the     
numerous mysteries of the insalubrity of
 the air2 it has only taught us that we 
are ignorant of many things with which a
 few years ago we believed we were      
acquainted4  ,daily experience appears  
in a certain degree to prove the fact   
that at the ,orinoco1 ,cassiquiare1 ,rio
 ,caura1 and wherever the air is very   
unhealthy1 the sting of the mosquito    
augments the disposition of the organs  
to receive the impression of miasmata4  
,when you are exposed day and night1    

during whole months1 to the torment of  
insects1 the continual irritation of the
 skin causes febrile commotions2 and1   
from the sympathy existing between the  
dermoid and the gastric systems1 injures
 the functions of the stomach4          
,digestion first becomes difficult1 the 
cutaneous inflammation excites profuse  
perspirations1 an unquenchable thirst   
succeeds1 and1 in persons of a feeble   
constitution1 increasing impatience is  
succeeded by depression of mind1 during 
which all the pathogenic causes act with
 increased violence4 ,it is neither the 
dangers of navigating in small boats1   
the savage ,indians1 nor the serpents1  
crocodiles1 or jaguars1 that make       
,spaniards dread a voyage on the        
,orinoco2 it is1 as they say with       
simplicity1 el sudar y las moscas1 7the 
perspiration and the flies74 ,we have   
reason to believe that mankind1 as they 
change the surface of the soil1 will    
succeed in altering by degrees the      
constitution of the atmosphere4 ,the    

insects will diminish when the old trees
 of the forest have disappeared2 when1  
in those countries now desert1 the      
rivers are seen bordered with cottages1 
and the plains covered with pastures and
 harvests4  ,whoever has lived long in  
countries infested by mosquitos will be 
convinced1 as we were1 that there exists
 no remedy for the torment of these     
insects4 ,the ,indians1 covered with    
anoto1 bolar earth1 or turtle oil1 are  
not protected from their attacks4 ,it is
 doubtful whether the painting even     
relieves3 it certainly does not prevent 
the evil4 ,europeans1 recently arrived  
at the ,orinoco1 the ,rio ,magdalena1   
the river ,guayaquil1 or ,rio ,chagres  
7,i mention the four rivers where the   
insects are most to be dreaded7 at first
 obtain some relief by covering their   
faces and hands1 but they soon feel it  
difficult to endure the heat1 are weary 
of being condemned to complete          
inactivity1 and finish with leaving the 
face and hands uncovered4 ,persons who  

would renounce all kind of occupation   
during the navigation of these rivers1  
might bring some particular garment from
 ,europe in the form of a bag1 under    
which they could remain covered1 opening
 it only every half-hour4 ,this bag     
should be distended by whalebone hoops1 
for a close mask and gloves would be    
perfectly insupportable4 ,sleeping on   
the ground1 on skins1 or in hammocks1 we
 could not make use of mosquito-curtains
 7toldos7 while on the ,orinoco4 ,the   
toldo is useful only where it forms a   
tent so well closed around the bed that 
there is not the smallest opening by    
which a gnat can pass4 ,this is         
difficult to accomplish2 and often when 
you succeed 7for instance1 in going up  
the ,rio ,magdalena1 where you travel   
with some degree of convenience71 you   
are forced1 in order to avoid being     
suffocated by the heat1 to come out from
 beneath your toldo1 and walk about in  
the open air4 ,a feeble wind1 smoke1 and
 powerful smells1 scarcely afford any   

relief in places where the insects are  
very numerous and very voracious4 ,it is
 erroneously affirmed that these little 
animals fly from the peculiar smell     
emitted by the crocodile4 ,we were fear 
fully stung at ,bataillez1 in the road  
from ,carthagena to ,honda1 while we    
were dissecting a crocodile eleven feet 
long1 the smell of which infested all   
the surrounding atmosphere4 ,the        
,indians much commend the fumes of burnt
 cow-dung4 ,when the wind is very       
strong1 and accompanied by rain1 the    
mosquitos disappear for some time3 they 
sting most cruelly at the approach of a 
storm1 particularly when the electric   
explosions are not followed by heavy    
showers4  ,anything waved about the head
 and the hands contributes to chase away
 the insects4 ,the more you stir        
yourself1 the less you will be stung1   
say the missionaries4 ,the zancudo makes
 a buzzing before it settles2 but1 when 
it has assumed confidence1 when it has  
once begun to fix its sucker1 and       

distend itself1 you may touch its wings 
without its being frightened4 ,it       
remains the whole time with its two hind
 legs raised2 and1 if left to suck to   
satiety1 no swelling takes place1 and no
 pain is left behind4 ,we often repeated
 this experiment on ourselves in the    
valley of the ,rio ,magdalena4 ,it may  
be asked whether the insect deposits the
 stimulating liquid only at the moment  
of its flight1 when it is driven away1  
or whether it draws the liquid up again 
when left to suck undisturbed4 ,i       
incline to this latter opinion2 for on  
quietly presenting the back of my hand  
to the ,culex cyanopterus1 ,i observed  
that the pain1 though violent in the    
beginning1 diminishes in proportion as  
the insect continues to suck1 and ceases
 altogether when it voluntarily flies   
away4 ,i also wounded my skin with a    
pin1 and rubbed the pricks with bruised 
mosquitos1 and no swelling ensued4 ,the 
irritating liquid1 in which chemists    
have not yet recognized any acid        

properties1 is contained1 as in the ant 
and other hymenopterous insects1 in     
particular glands2 and is probably too  
much diluted1 and consequently too much 
weakened1 if the skin be rubbed with the
 whole of the bruised insect4  ,i have  
thrown together at the close of this    
chapter all we learned during the course
 of our travels on phenomena which      
naturalists have hitherto singularly    
neglected1 though they exercise a great 
influence on the welfare of the         
inhabitants1 the salubrity of the       
climate1 and the establishment of new   
colonies on the rivers of equinoctial   
,america4 ,i might justly have incurred 
the charge of having treated this       
subject too much in detail1 were it not 
connected with general physiological    
views4 ,our imagination is struck only  
by what is great2 but the lover of      
natural philosophy should reflect       
equally on little things4 ,we have just 
seen that winged insects1 collected in  
society1 and concealing in their sucker 

a liquid that irritates the skin1 are   
capable of rendering vast countries     
almost uninhabitable4 ,other insects    
equally small1 the termites 7comejen7199
 799 ,literally1 the eaters or the      
devourers47 create obstacles to the     
progress of civilization1 in several hot
 and temperate parts of the equinoctial 
zone1 that are difficult to be          
surmounted4 ,they devour paper1         
pasteboard1 and parchment with frightful
 rapidity1 utterly destroying records   
and libraries4 ,whole provinces of      
,spanish ,america do not possess one    
written document that dates a hundred   
years back4 ,what improvement can the   
civilization of nations acquire if      
nothing link the present with the past2 
if the depositories of human knowledge  
must be repeatedly renewed2 if the      
records of genius and reason cannot be  
transmitted to posterity8  ,in          
proportion as you ascend the table-land 
of the ,andes these evils disappear4    
,man breathes a fresh and pure air4     

,insects no more disturb the labours of 
the day or the slumbers of the night4   
,documents can be collected in archives 
without our having to complain of the   
voracity of the termites4 ,mosquitos are
 no longer feared at a height of two    
hundred toises2 and the termites1 still 
very frequent at three hundred toises of
 elevation199 799 ,there are some at    
,popayan 7height #iaj toises2 mean      
temperature #ah4g degrees71 but they are
 species that gnaw wood only47 become   
very rare at ,mexico1 ,santa ,fe de     
,bogota1 and ,quito4 ,in these great    
capitals1 situated on the back of the   
,cordilleras1 we find libraries and     
archives1 augmented from day to day by  
the enlightened zeal of the inhabitants4
 ,these circumstances1 combined with    
others1 insure a moral preponderance to 
the ,alpine region over the lower       
regions of the torrid zone4 ,if we      
admit1 agreeably to the ancient         
traditions collected in both the old and
 new worlds1 that at the time of the    

catastrophe which preceded the renewal  
of our species1 man descended from the  
mountains into the plains1 we may admit1
 with still greater confidence1 that    
these mountains1 the cradle of so many  
various nations1 will for ever remain   
the centre of human civilization in the 
torrid zone4 ,from these fertile and    
temperate table-lands1 from these islets
 scattered in the aerial ocean1         
knowledge and the blessings of social   
institutions will be spread over those  
vast forests extending along the foot of
 the ,andes1 now inhabited only by      
savage tribes whom the very wealth of   
nature has retained in indolence and    
barbarism4   ,,chapter #b4ba4  ,,raudal 
,,of ,,garcita4 ,,maypures4 ,,cataracts 
,,of ,,quituna4 ,,mouth ,,of ,,the      
,,vichada ,,and ,,the ,,zama4 ,,rock    
,,of ,,aricagua4 ,,siquita4  ,we        
directed our course to the ,puerto de   
arriba1 above the cataract of ,atures1  
opposite the mouth of the ,rio          
,cataniapo1 where our boat was to be    

ready for us4 ,in the narrow path that  
leads to the embarcadero we beheld for  
the last time the peak of ,uniana4 ,it  
appeared like a cloud rising above the  
horizon of the plains4 ,the ,guahibos   
wander at the foot of the mountains1 and
 extend their course as far as the banks
 of the ,vichada4 ,we were shown at a   
distance1 on the right of the river1 the
 rocks that surround the cavern of      
,ataruipe2 but we had not time to visit 
that cemetery of the destroyed tribe of 
the ,atures4 ,father ,zea had repeatedly
 described to us this extraordinary     
cavern1 the skeletons painted with      
anoto1 the large vases of baked earth1  
in which the bones of separate families 
appear to be collected2 and many other  
curious objects1 which we proposed to   
examine on our return from the ,rio     
,negro4 ,you will scarcely believe1 said
 the missionaries1 that these skeletons1
 these painted vases1 things which we   
believed were unknown to the rest of the
 world1 have brought trouble upon me and

 my neighbour1 the missionary of        
,carichana4 ,you have seen the misery in
 which ,i live in the raudales4 ,though 
devoured by mosquitos1 and often in want
 of plantains and cassava1 yet ,i have  
found envious people even in this       
country6 ,a white man1 who inhabits the 
pastures between the ,meta and the      
,apure1 denounced me recently in the    
,audencia of ,caracas1 as concealing a  
treasure ,i had discovered1 jointly with
 the missionary of ,carichana1 amid the 
tombs of the ,indians4 ,it is asserted  
that the ,jesuits of ,santa ,fe de      
,bogota were apprised beforehand of the 
destruction of their company2 and that1 
in order to save the riches they        
possessed in money and precious vases1  
they sent them1 either by the ,rio ,meta
 or the ,vichada1 to the ,orinoco1 with 
orders to have them hidden in the islets
 amid the raudales4 ,these treasures ,i 
am supposed to have appropriated unknown
 to my superiors4 ,the ,audencia of     
,caracas brought a complaint before the 

governor of ,guiana1 and we were ordered
 to appear in person4 ,we uselessly     
performed a journey of one hundred and  
fifty leagues2 and1 although we declared
 that we had found in the cavern only   
human bones1 and dried bats and         
polecats1 commissioners were gravely    
nominated to come hither and search on  
the spot for the supposed treasures of  
the ,jesuits4 ,we shall wait long for   
these commissioners4 ,when they have    
gone up the ,orinoco as far as ,san     
,borja1 the fear of the mosquitos will  
prevent them from going farther4 ,the   
cloud of flies which envelopes us in the
 raudales is a good defence4  ,the      
account given by the missionary was     
entirely conformable to what we         
afterwards learned at ,angostura from   
the governor himself4 ,fortuitous       
circumstances had given rise to the     
strangest suspicions4 ,in the caverns   
where the mummies and skeletons of the  
nation of the ,atures are found1 even in
 the midst of the cataracts1 and in the 

most inaccessible islets1 the ,indians  
long ago discovered boxes bound with    
iron1 containing various ,european      
tools1 remnants of clothes1 rosaries1   
and glass trinkets4 ,these objects are  
thought to have belonged to ,portuguese 
traders of the ,rio ,negro and ,grand   
,para1 who1 before the establishment of 
the ,jesuits on the banks of the        
,orinoco1 went up to ,atures by the     
portages and interior communications of 
rivers1 to trade with the natives4 ,it  
is supposed that these men sunk beneath 
the epidemic maladies so common in the  
raudales1 and that their chests became  
the property of the ,indians1 the       
wealthiest of whom were usually buried  
with all they possessed most valuable   
during their lives4 ,from these very    
uncertain traditions the tale of hidden 
treasures has been fabricated4 ,as in   
the ,andes of ,quito every ruined       
building1 not excepting the foundations 
of the pyramids erected by the ,french  
savans for the measurement of the       

meridian1 is regarded as ,inga pilca199 
that is1 the work of the ,inca 799      
,pilca 7properly in ,quichua pirca71    
wall of the ,inca472 so on the ,orinoco 
every hidden treasure can belong only to
 the ,jesuits1 an order which1 no doubt1
 governed the missions better than the  
,capuchins and the monks of the         
,observance1 but whose riches and       
success in the civilization of the      
,indians have been much exaggerated4    
,when the ,jesuits of ,santa ,fe were   
arrested1 those heaps of piastres1 those
 emeralds of ,muzo1 those bars of gold  
of ,choco1 which the enemies of the     
company supposed they possessed1 were   
not found in their dwellings4 ,i can    
cite a respectable testimony1 which     
proves incontestibly1 that the viceroy  
of ,new ,granada had not warned the     
,jesuits of ,santa ,fe of the danger    
with which they were menaced4 ,don      
,vicente ,orosco1 an engineer officer in
 the ,spanish army1 related to me that1 
being arrived at ,angostura1 with ,don  

,manuel ,centurion1 to arrest the       
missionaries of ,carichana1 he met an   
,indian boat that was going down the    
,rio ,meta4 ,the boat being manned with 
,indians who could speak none of the    
tongues of the country1 gave rise to    
suspicions4 ,after useless researches1 a
 bottle was at length discovered1       
containing a letter1 in which the       
,superior of the company residing at    
,santa ,fe informed the missionaries of 
the ,orinoco of the persecutions to     
which the ,jesuits were exposed in ,new 
,grenada4 ,this letter recommended no   
measure of precaution2 it was short1    
without ambiguity1 and respectful       
towards the government1 whose orders    
were executed with useless and          
unreasonable severity4  ,eight ,indians 
of ,atures had conducted our boat       
through the raudales1 and seemed well   
satisfied with the slight recompence we 
gave them4 ,they gain little by this    
employment2 and in order to give a just 
idea of the poverty and want of commerce

 in the missions of the ,orinoco1 ,i    
shall observe that during three years1  
with the exception of the boats sent    
annually to ,angostura by the commander 
of ,san ,carlos de ,rio ,negro1 to fetch
 the pay of the soldiers1 the missionary
 had seen but five canoes of the ,upper 
,orinoco pass the cataract1 which were  
bound for the harvest of turtles' eggs1 
and eight boats laden with merchandize4 
,about eleven on the morning of the     
#agth of ,april we reached our boat4    
,father ,zea caused to be embarked1 with
 our instruments1 the small store of    
provisions he had been able to procure  
for the voyage1 on which he was to      
accompany us2 these provisions consisted
 of a few bunches of plantains1 some    
cassava1 and fowls4 ,leaving the        
embarcadero1 we immediately passed the  
mouth of the ,cataniapo1 a small river1 
the banks of which are inhabited by the 
,macos1 or ,piaroas1 who belong to the  
great family of the ,salive nations4    
,besides the ,piaroas of ,cataniapo1 who

 pierce their ears1 and wear as         
ear-ornaments the teeth of caymans and  
peccaries1 three other tribes of ,macos 
are known3 one1 on the ,ventuari1 above 
the ,rio ,mariata2 the second1 on the   
,padamo1 north of the mountains of      
,maraguaca2 and the third1 near the     
,guaharibos1 towards the sources of the 
,orinoco1 above the ,rio ,gehette4 ,this
 last tribe bears the name of           
,macos-,macos4 ,i collected the         
following words from a young ,maco of   
the banks of the ,cataniapo1 whom we met
 near the embarcadero1 and who wore in  
his ears1 instead of a tusk of the      
peccary1 a large wooden cylinder499 799 
,this custom is observed among the      
,cabres1 the ,maypures1 and the ,pevas  
of the ,amazon4 ,these last1 described  
by ,la ,condamine1 stretch their ears by
 weights of a considerable size47       
,plantain1 ,paruru 7in ,tamanac also1   
paruru74 ,cassava1 ,elente 7in ,maco1   
cahig74 ,maize1 ,niarne4 ,the sun1 ,jama
 7in ,salive1 mume-seke-cocco74 ,the    

moon1 ,jama 7in ,salive1 vexio74 ,water1
 ,ahia 7in ,salive1 cagua74 ,one1       
,nianti4 ,two1 ,tajus4 ,three1          
,percotahuja4 ,four1 ,imontegroa4  ,the 
young man could not reckon as far as    
five1 which certainly is no proof that  
the word five does not exist in the     
,maco tongue4 ,i know not whether this  
tongue be a dialect of the ,salive1 as  
is pretty generally asserted2 for idioms
 derived from one another1 sometimes    
furnish words utterly different for the 
most common and most important things499
 799 ,the great family of the ,esthonian
 7or ,tschoudi7 languages1 and of the   
,samoiede languages1 affords numerous   
examples of these differences47 ,but in 
discussions on mother-tongues and       
derivative languages1 it is not the     
sounds1 the roots only1 that are        
decisive2 but rather the interior       
structure and grammatical forms4 ,in the
 ,american idioms1 which are            
notwithstanding rich1 the moon is       
commonly enough called the sun of night 

or even the sun of sleep2 but the moon  
and sun very rarely bear the same name1 
as among the ,macos4 ,i know only a few 
examples in the most northerly part of  
,america1 among the ,woccons1 the       
,ojibbeways1 the ,muskogulges1 and the  
,mohawks499 799 ,nipia-kisathwa in the  
,shawanese 7the idiom of ,canada71 from 
nippi1 to sleep1 and kisathwa1 the sun47
 ,our missionary asserted that jama1 in 
,maco1 indicated at the same time the   
,supreme ,being1 and the great orbs of  
night and day2 while many other         
,american tongues1 for instance the     
,tamanac1 and the ,caribbee1 have       
distinct words to denote ,god1 the      
,moon1 and the ,sun4 ,we shall soon see 
how anxious the missionaries of the     
,orinoco are not to employ1 in their    
translations of the prayers of the      
church1 the native words which denote   
the ,divinity1 the ,creator 7,amanene71 
the ,great ,spirit who animates all     
nature4 ,they choose rather to          
,indianize the ,spanish word ,dios1     

converting it1 according to the         
differences of pronunciation1 and the   
genius of the different dialects1 into  
,dioso1 ,tiosu1 or ,piosu4  ,when we    
again embarked on the ,orinoco1 we found
 the river free from shoals4 ,after a   
few hours we passed the ,raudal of      
,garcita1 the rapids of which are easy  
of ascent1 when the waters are high4 ,to
 the eastward is seen a small chain of  
mountains called the chain of           
,cumadaminari1 consisting of gneiss1 and
 not of stratified granite4 ,we were    
struck with a succession of great holes 
at more than one hundred and eighty feet
 above the present level of the         
,orinoco1 yet which1 notwithstanding1   
appear to be the effects of the erosion 
of the waters4 ,we shall see hereafter1 
that this phenomenon occurs again nearly
 at the same height1 both in the rocks  
that border the cataracts of ,maypures1 
and fifty leagues to the east1 near the 
mouth of the ,rio ,jao4 ,we slept in the
 open air1 on the left bank of the      

river1 below the island of ,tomo4 ,the  
night was beautiful and serene1 but the 
torment of the mosquitos was so great   
near the ground1 that ,i could not      
succeed in levelling the artificial     
horizon2 consequently ,i lost the       
opportunity of making an observation4   
,on the #ahth we set out at three in the
 morning1 to be more sure of arriving   
before the close of the day at the      
cataract known by the name of the       
,raudal de los ,guahibos4 ,we stopped at
 the mouth of the ,rio ,tomo4 ,the      
,indians went on shore1 to prepare their
 food1 and take some repose4 ,when we   
reached the foot of the raudal1 it was  
near five in the afternoon4 ,it was     
extremely difficult to go up the current
 against a mass of water1 precipitated  
from a bank of gneiss several feet high4
 ,an ,indian threw himself into the     
water1 to reach1 by swimming1 the rock  
that divides the cataract into two      
parts4 ,a rope was fastened to the point
 of this rock1 and when the canoe was   

hauled near enough1 our instruments1 our
 dry plants1 and the provision we had   
collected at ,atures1 were landed in the
 raudal itself4 ,we remarked with       
surprise1 that the natural damn over    
which the river is precipitated1        
presents a dry space of considerable    
extent2 where we stopped to see the boat
 go up4  ,the rock of gneiss exhibits   
circular holes1 the largest of which are
 four feet deep1 and eighteen inches    
wide4 ,these funnels contain quartz     
pebbles1 and appear to have been formed 
by the friction of masses rolled along  
by the impulse of the waters4 ,our      
situation1 in the midst of the cataract1
 was singular enough1 but unattended by 
the smallest danger4 ,the missionary1   
who accompanied us1 had his fever-fit on
 him4 ,in order to quench the thirst by 
which he was tormented1 the idea        
suggested itself to us of preparing a   
refreshing beverage for him in one of   
the excavations of the rock4 ,we had    
taken on board at ,atures an ,indian    

basket called a mapire1 filled with     
sugar1 limes1 and those grenadillas1 or 
fruits of the passion-flower1 to which  
the ,spaniards give the name of parchas4
 ,as we were absolutely destitute of    
large vessels for holding and mixing    
liquids1 we poured the water of the     
river1 by means of a calabash1 into one 
of the holes of the rock3 to this we    
added sugar and lime-juice4 ,in a few   
minutes we had an excellent beverage1   
which is almost a refinement of luxury1 
in that wild spot2 but our wants        
rendered us every day more and more     
ingenious4  ,after an hour of           
expectation1 we saw the boat arrive     
above the raudal1 and we were soon ready
 to depart4 ,after quitting the rock1   
our passage was not exempt from danger4 
,the river is eight hundred toises      
broad1 and must be crossed obliquely1   
above the cataract1 at the point where  
the waters1 impelled by the slope of    
their bed1 rush with extreme violence   
toward the ledge from which they are    

precipitated4 ,we were overtaken by a   
storm1 accompanied happily by no wind1  
but the rain fell in torrents4 ,after   
rowing for twenty minutes1 the pilot    
declared that1 far from gaining upon the
 current1 we were again approaching the 
raudal4 ,these moments of uncertainty   
appeared to us very long3 the ,indians  
spoke only in whispers1 as they do      
always when they think their situation  
perilous4 ,they redoubled their efforts1
 and we arrived at nightfall1 without   
any accident1 in the port of ,maypures4 
,storms within the tropics are as short 
as they are violent4 ,the lightning had 
fallen twice near our boat1 and had no  
doubt struck the surface of the water4  
,i mention this phenomenon1 because it  
is pretty generally believed in those   
countries that the clouds1 the surface  
of which is charged with electricity1   
are at so great a height that the       
lightning reaches the ground more rarely
 than in ,europe4 ,the night was        
extremely dark1 and we could not in less

 than two hours reach the village of    
,maypures4 ,we were wet to the skin4 ,in
 proportion as the rain ceased1 the     
zancudos reappeared1 with that voracity 
which tipulary insects always display   
immediately after a storm4 ,my          
fellow-travellers were uncertain whether
 it would be best to stop in the port or
 proceed on our way on foot1 in spite of
 the darkness of the night4 ,father ,zea
 was determined to reach his home4 ,he  
had given directions for the            
construction of a large house of two    
stories1 which was to be begun by the   
,indians of the mission4 ,you will there
 find1 said he gravely1 the same        
conveniences as in the open air2 ,i have
 neither a bench nor a table1 but you   
will not suffer so much from the flies1 
which are less troublesome in the       
mission than on the banks of the river4 
,we followed the counsel if the         
missionary1 who caused torches of copal 
to be lighted4 ,these torches are tubes 
made of bark1 three inches in diameter1 

and filled with copal resin4 ,we walked 
at first over beds of rock1 which were  
bare and slippery1 and then we entered a
 thick grove of palm trees4 ,we were    
twice obliged to pass a stream on trunks
 of trees hewn down4 ,the torches had   
already ceased to give light4 ,being    
formed on a strange principle1 the woody
 substance which resembles the wick     
surrounding the resin1 they emit more   
smoke than light1 and are easily        
extinguished4 ,the ,indian pilot1 who   
expressed himself with some facility in 
,spanish1 told us of snakes1            
water-serpents1 and tigers1 by which we 
might be attacked4 ,such conversations  
may be expected as matters of course1 by
 persons who travel at night with the   
natives4 ,by intimidating the ,european 
traveller1 the ,indians imagine they    
render themselves more necessary1 and   
gain the confidence of the stranger4    
,the rudest inhabitant of the missions  
fully understands the deceptions which  
everywhere arise from the relations     

between men of unequal fortune and      
civilization4 ,under the absolute and   
sometimes vexatious government of the   
monks1 the ,indian seeks to ameliorate  
his condition by those little artifices 
which are the weapons of physical and   
intellectual weakness4  ,having arrived 
during the night at ,san ,jose de       
,maypures we were forcibly struck by the
 solitude of the place2 the ,indians    
were plunged in profound sleep1 and     
nothing was heard but the cries of      
nocturnal birds1 and the distant sound  
of the cataract4 ,in the calm of the    
night1 amid the deep repose of nature1  
the monotonous sound of a fall of water 
has in it something sad and solemn4 ,we 
remained three days at ,maypures1 a     
small village founded by ,don ,jose     
,solano at the time of the expedition of
 the boundaries1 the situation of which 
is more picturesque1 it might be said   
still more admirable1 than that of      
,atures4  ,the raudal of ,maypures1     
called by the ,indians ,quituna1 is     

formed1 as all cataracts are1 by the    
resistance which the river encounters in
 its way across a ridge of rocks1 or a  
chain of mountains4 ,the lofty mountains
 of ,cunavami and ,calitamini1 between  
the sources of the rivers ,cataniapo and
 ,ventuari1 stretch toward the west in a
 chain of granitic hills4 ,from this    
chain flow three small rivers1 which    
embrace in some sort the cataract of    
,maypures4 ,there are1 on the eastern   
bank1 the ,sanariapo1 and on the        
western1 the ,cameji and the ,toparo4   
,opposite the village of ,maypures1 the 
mountains fall back in an arch1 and1    
like a rocky coast1 form a gulf open to 
the south-east4 ,the irruption of the   
river is effected between the mouths of 
the ,toparo and the ,sanariapo1 at the  
western extremity of this majestic      
amphitheatre4  ,the waters of the       
,orinoco now roll at the foot of the    
eastern chain of the mountains1 and have
 receded from the west1 where1 in a deep
 valley1 the ancient shore is easily    

recognized4 ,a savannah1 scarcely raised
 thirty feet above the mean level of the
 river1 extends from this valley as far 
as the cataracts4 ,there the small      
church of ,maypures has been            
constructed4 ,it is built of trunks of  
palm-trees1 and is surrounded by seven  
or eight huts4 ,the dry valley1 which   
runs in a straight line from south to   
north1 from the ,cameji to the ,toparo1 
is filled with granitic and solitary    
mounds1 all resembling those found in   
the shape of islands and shoals in the  
present bed of the river4 ,i was struck 
with this analogy of form1 on comparing 
the rocks of ,keri and ,oco1 situated in
 the deserted bed of the river1 west of 
,maypures1 with the islets of ,ouivitari
 and ,caminitamini1 which rise like old 
castles amid the cataracts to the east  
of the mission4 ,the geological aspect  
of these scenes1 the insular form of the
 elevations farthest from the present   
shore of the ,orinoco1 the cavities     
which the waves appear to have hollowed 

in the rock ,oco1 and which are         
precisely on the same level 7twenty-five
 or thirty toises high7 as the          
excavations perceived opposite to them  
in the isle of ,ouivitari2 all these    
appearances prove that the whole of this
 bay1 now dry1 was formerly covered by  
water4 ,those waters probably formed a  
lake1 the northern dike preventing their
 running out3 but1 when this dike was   
broken down1 the savannah that surrounds
 the mission appeared at first like a   
very low island1 bounded by two arms of 
the same river4 ,it may be supposed that
 the ,orinoco continued for some time to
 fill the ravine1 which we shall call   
the valley of ,keri1 because it contains
 the rock of that name2 and that the    
waters retired wholly toward the eastern
 chain1 leaving dry the western arm of  
the river1 only as they gradually       
diminished4 ,coloured stripes1 which no 
doubt owe their black tint to the oxides
 of iron and manganese1 seem to justify 
this conjecture4 ,they are found on all 

the stones1 far from the mission1 and   
indicate the former abode of the waters4
 ,in going up the river1 all merchandise
 is discharged at the confluence of the 
,rio ,toparo and the ,orinoco4 ,the     
boats are entrusted to the natives1 who 
have so perfect a knowledge of the      
raudal1 that they have a particular name
 for every step4 ,they conduct the boats
 as far as the mouth of the ,cameji1    
where the danger is considered as past4 
,i will here describe the cataract of   
,quituna or ,maypures as it appeared at 
the two periods when ,i examined it1 in 
going down and up the river4 ,it is     
formed1 like that of ,mapara or ,atures1
 by an archipelago of islands1 which1 to
 the length of three thousand toises1   
fill the bed of the river1 and by rocky 
dikes1 which join the islands together4 
,the most remarkable of these dikes1 or 
natural dams1 are ,purimarimi1 ,manimi1 
and the ,leap of the ,sardine 7,salto de
 la ,sardina74 ,i name them in the order
 in which ,i saw them in succession from

 south to north4 ,the last of these     
three stages is near nine feet high1 and
 forms by its breadth a magnificent     
cascade4 ,i must here repeat1 however1  
that the turbulent shock of the         
precipitated and broken waters depends  
not so much on the absolute height of   
each step or dike1 as upon the multitude
 of counter-currents1 the grouping of   
the islands and shoals1 that lie at the 
foot of the raudalitos or partial       
cascades1 and the contraction of the    
channels1 which often do not leave a    
free navigable passage of twenty or     
thirty feet4 ,the eastern part of the   
cataract of ,maypures is much more      
dangerous than the western2 and         
therefore the ,indian pilots prefer the 
left bank of the river to conduct the   
boats down or up4 ,unfortunately1 in the
 season of low waters1 this bank remains
 partly dry1 and recourse must be had to
 the process of portage2 that is1 the   
boats are obliged to be dragged on      
cylinders1 or round logs4  ,to command a

 comprehensive view of these stupendous 
scenes1 the spectator must be stationed 
on the little mountain of ,manimi1 a    
granitic ridge1 which rises from the    
savannah1 north of the church of the    
mission1 and is itself only a           
continuation of the ridges of which the 
raudalito of ,manimi is composed4 ,we   
often visited this mountain1 for we were
 never weary of gazing on this          
astonishing spectacle4 ,from the summit 
of the rock is descried a sheet of foam1
 extending the length of a whole mile4  
,enormous masses of stone1 black as     
iron1 issue from its bosom4 ,some are   
paps grouped in pairs1 like basaltic    
hills2 others resemble towers1 fortified
 castles1 and ruined buildings4 ,their  
gloomy tint contrasts with the silvery  
splendour of the foam4 ,every rock1     
every islet is covered with vigorous    
trees1 collected in clusters4 ,at the   
foot of those paps1 far as the eye can  
reach1 a thick vapour is suspended over 
the river1 and through this whitish fog 

the tops of the lofty palm-trees shoot  
up4 ,what name shall we give to these   
majestic plants8 ,i suppose them to be  
the vadgiai1 a new species of the genus 
,oreodoxa1 the trunk of which is more   
than eighty feet high4 ,the feathery    
leaves of this palm-tree have a         
brilliant lustre1 and rise almost       
straight toward the sky4 ,at every hour 
of the day the sheet of foam displays   
different aspects4 ,sometimes the hilly 
islands and the palm-trees project their
 broad shadows2 sometimes the rays of   
the setting sun are refracted in the    
cloud that hangs over the cataract1 and 
coloured arcs are formed which vanish   
and appear alternately4  ,such is the   
character of the landscape discovered   
from the top of the mountain of ,manimi1
 which no traveller has yet described4  
,i do not hesitate to repeat1 that      
neither time1 nor the view of the       
,cordilleras1 nor any abode in the      
temperate valleys of ,mexico1 has       
effaced from my mind the powerful       

impression of the aspect of the         
cataracts4 ,when ,i read a description  
of those places in ,india that are      
embellished by running waters and a     
vigorous vegetation1 my imagination     
retraces a sea of foam and palm-trees1  
the tops of which rise above a stratum  
of vapour4 ,the majestic scenes of      
nature1 like the sublime works of poetry
 and the arts1 leave remembrances that  
are incessantly awakening1 and which1   
through the whole of life1 mingle with  
all our feelings of what is grand and   
beautiful4  ,the calm of the atmosphere1
 and the tumultuous movement of the     
waters1 produce a contrast peculiar to  
this zone4 ,here no breath of wind ever 
agitates the foliage1 no cloud veils the
 splendour of the azure vault of heaven2
 a great mass of light is diffused in   
the air1 on the earth strewn with plants
 with glossy leaves1 and on the bed of  
the river1 which extends as far as the  
eye can reach4 ,this appearance         
surprises the traveller born in the     

north of ,europe4 ,the idea of wild     
scenery1 of a torrent rushing from rock 
to rock1 is linked in his imagination   
with that of a climate where the noise  
of the tempest is mingled with the sound
 of the cataract2 and where1 in a gloomy
 and misty day1 sweeping clouds seem to 
descend into the valley1 and to rest    
upon the tops of the pines4 ,the        
landscape of the tropics in the low     
regions of the continents has a peculiar
 physiognomy1 something of greatness and
 repose1 which it preserves even where  
one of the elements is struggling with  
invincible obstacles4 ,near the equator1
 hurricanes and tempests belong to      
islands only1 to deserts destitute of   
plants1 and to those spots where parts  
of the atmosphere repose upon surfaces  
from which the radiation of heat is very
 unequal4  ,the mountain of ,manimi     
forms the eastern limit of a plain which
 furnishes for the history of           
vegetation1 that is1 for its progressive
 development in bare and desert places1 

the same phenomena which we have        
described above in speaking of the      
raudal of ,atures4 ,during the rainy    
season1 the waters heap vegetable earth 
upon the granitic rock1 the bare shelves
 of which extend horizontally4 ,these   
islands of mould1 decorated with        
beautiful and odoriferous plants1       
resemble the blocks of granite covered  
with flowers1 which the inhabitants of  
the ,alps call gardens or courtils1 and 
which pierce the glaciers of            
,switzerland4  ,in a place where we had 
bathed the day before1 at the foot of   
the rock of ,manimi1 the ,indians killed
 a serpent seven feet and a half long4  
,the ,macos called it a camudu4 ,its    
back displayed1 upon a yellow ground1   
transverse bands1 partly black1 and     
partly inclining to a brown green3 under
 the belly the bands were blue1 and     
united in rhombic spots4 ,this animal1  
which is not venomous1 is said by the   
natives to attain more than fifteen feet
 in length4 ,i thought at first1 that   

the camudu was a boa2 but ,i saw with   
surprise1 that the scales beneath the   
tail were divided into two rows4 ,it was
 therefore a viper 7coluber72 perhaps a 
python of the ,new ,continent3 ,i say   
perhaps1 for great naturalists appear to
 admit that all the pythons belong to   
the ,old1 and all the boas to the ,new  
,world4 ,as the boa of ,pliny was a     
serpent of ,africa and of the south of  
,europe1 it would have been well if the 
boas of ,america had been named pythons1
 and the pythons of ,india been called  
boas4 ,the first notions of an enormous 
reptile capable of seizing man1 and even
 the great quadrupeds1 came to us from  
,india and the coast of ,guinea4        
,however indifferent names may be1 we   
can scarcely admit the idea1 that the   
hemisphere in which ,virgil described   
the agonies of ,laocoon 7a fable which  
the ,greeks of ,asia borrowed from much 
more southern nations7 does not possess 
the boa-constrictor4 ,i will not augment
 the confusion of zoological            

nomenclature by proposing new changes1  
and shall confine myself to observing   
that at least the missionaries and the  
latinized ,indians of the missions1 if  
not the planters of ,guiana1 clearly    
distinguish the traga-venados 7real     
boas1 with simple anal plates7 from the 
culebras de agua1 or water-snakes1 like 
the camudu 7pythons with double anal    
scales74 ,the traga-venados have no     
transverse bands on the back1 but a     
chain of rhombic or hexagonal spots4    
,some species prefer the driest places2 
others love the water1 as the pythons1  
or culebras de agua4  ,advancing towards
 the west1 we find the hills or islets  
in the deserted branch of the ,orinoco  
crowned with the same palm-trees that   
rise on the rocks of the cataracts4 ,one
 of these hills1 called ,keri1 is       
celebrated in the country on account of 
a white spot which shines from afar1 and
 in which the natives profess to see the
 image of the full moon4 ,i could not   
climb this steep rock1 but ,i believe   

the white spot to be a large nodule of  
quartz1 formed by the union of several  
of those veins so common in granites    
passing into gneiss4 ,opposite ,keri1 or
 the ,rock of the ,moon1 on the twin    
mountain ,ouivitari1 which is an islet  
in the midst of the cataracts1 the      
,indians point out with mysterious awe a
 similar white spot4 ,it has the form of
 a disc2 and they say this is the image 
of the sun 7,camosi74 ,perhaps the      
geographical situation of these two     
objects has contributed to their having 
received these names4 ,keri is on the   
side of the setting1 ,camosi on that of 
the rising sun4 ,languages being the    
most ancient historical monuments of    
nations1 some learned men have been     
singularly struck by the analogy between
 the ,american word camosi and camosch1 
which seems to have signified           
originally1 the sun1 in one of the      
,semitic dialects4 ,this analogy has    
given rise to hypotheses which appear to
 me at least very problematical4 ,the   

god of the ,moabites1 ,chemosh1 or      
,camosch1 who has so wearied the        
patience of the learned2 ,apollo        
,chomens1 cited by ,strabo and by       
,ammianus ,marcellinus2 ,belphegor2     
,amun or ,hamon2 and ,adonis3 all1      
without doubt1 represent the sun in the 
winter solstice2 but what can we        
conclude from a solitary and fortuitous 
resemblance of sounds in languages that 
have nothing besides in common8  ,the   
,maypure tongue is still spoken at      
,atures1 although the mission is        
inhabited only by ,guahibos and ,macos4 
,at ,maypures the ,guareken and ,pareni 
tongues only are now spoken4 ,from the  
,rio ,anaveni1 which falls into the     
,orinoco north of ,atures1 as far as    
beyond ,jao1 and to the mouth of the    
,guaviare 7between the fourth and sixth 
degrees of latitude71 we everywhere find
 rivers1 the termination of which1      
veni199 799 ,anaveni1 ,mataveni1        
,maraveni1 etc47 recalls to mind the    
extent to which the ,maypure tongue     

heretofore prevailed4 ,veni1 or weni1   
signifies water1 or a river4 ,the words 
camosi and keri1 which we have just     
cited1 are of the idiom of the ,pareni  
,indians199 799 ,or ,parenas1 who must  
not be confounded either with the       
,paravenes of the ,rio ,caura 7,caulin  
page #fi71 or with the ,parecas1 whose  
language belongs to the great family of 
the ,tamanac tongues4 ,a young ,indian  
of ,maypures1 who called himself a      
,paragini1 answered my questions almost 
in the same words that ,m4 ,bonpland    
heard from a ,pareni4 ,i have indicated 
the differences in the table1 see       
below47 who1 ,i think ,i have heard from
 the natives1 lived originally on the   
banks of the ,mataveni499 799 ,south of 
the ,rio ,zama4 ,we slept in the open   
air near the mouth of the ,mataveni on  
the #bhth day of ,may1 in our return    
from the ,rio ,negro47 ,the ,abbe ,gili 
considers the ,pareni as a simple       
dialect of the ,maypure4 ,this question 
cannot be solved by a comparison of the 

roots merely4 ,being totally ignorant of
 the grammatical structure of the       
,pareni1 ,i can raise but feeble doubts 
against the opinion of the ,italian     
missionary4 ,the ,pareni is perhaps a   
mixture of two tongues that belong to   
different families2 like the            
,maquiritari1 which is composed of the  
,maypure and the ,caribbee2 or1 to cite 
an example better known1 the modern     
,persian1 which is allied at the same   
time to the ,sanscrit and to the        
,semitic tongues4 ,the following are    
,pareni words1 which ,i carefully       
compared with ,maypure words499  ,,table
 ,,of ,,pareni ,,and ,,maypure ,,words  
,,compared4  ,,column #a 3 ,,word4      
,,column #b 3 ,,pareni ,,word4  ,,column
 #c 3 ,,maypure ,,word4 799 ,the words  
of the ,maypure language have been taken
 from the works of ,gili and ,hervas4 ,i
 collected the words placed between     
parentheses from a young ,maco ,indian1 
who understood the ,maypure language47  
,the sun 3 ,camosi 3 ,kie 7,kiepurig74  

,the moon 3 ,keri 3 ,kejapi 7,cagijapi74
 ,a star 3 ,ouipo 3 ,urrupu4 ,the devil 
3 ,amethami 3 ,vasuri4 ,water 3 ,oneui  
7ut7 3 ,oueni4 ,fire 3 ,casi 3 ,catti4  
,lightning 3 ,eno 3 ,eno-ima499 799 ,i  
am ignorant of what ima signifies in    
this compound word4 ,eno means in       
,maypure the sky and thunder4 ,ina      
signifies mother47 ,the head 3 ,ossipo 3
 ,nuchibucu499 799 ,the syllables no and
 nu1 joined to the words that designate 
parts of the body1 might have been      
suppressed2 they answer to the          
possessive pronoun my47 ,the hair 3     
,nomao4 ,the eyes 3 ,nopurizi 3         
,nupuriki4 ,the nose 3 ,nosivi 3        
,nukirri4 ,the mouth 3 ,nonoma 3        
,nunumacu4 ,the teeth 3 ,nasi 3 ,nati4  
,the tongue 3 ,notate 3 ,nuare4 ,the ear
 3 ,notasine 3 ,nuakini4 ,the cheek 3   
,nocaco4 ,the neck 3 ,nono 3 ,noinu4    
,the arm 3 ,nocano 3 ,nuana4 ,the hand 3
 ,nucavi 3 ,nucapi4 ,the breast 3       
,notoroni4 ,the back 3 ,notoli4 ,the    
thigh 3 ,nocazo4 ,the nipples 3 ,nocini4

 ,the foot 3 ,nocizi 3 ,nukii4 ,the toes
 3 ,nociziriani4 ,the calf of the leg 3 
,nocavua4 ,a crocodile 3 ,cazuiti 3     
,amana4 ,a fish 3 ,cimasi 3 ,timaki4    
,maize 3 ,cana 3 ,jomuki4 ,plantain 3   
,paratana 7,teot799 3 ,arata4 799 ,we   
may be surprised to find the word teot  
denote the eminently nutritive substance
 that supplies the place of corn 7the   
gift of a beneficent divinity71 and on  
which the subsistence of man within the 
tropics depends4 ,i may here mention1   
that the word ,teo1 or ,teot1 which in  
,aztec signifies ,god 7,teotl1 properly 
,teo1 for tl is only a termination71 is 
found in the language of the ,betoi of  
the ,rio ,meta4 ,the name of the moon1  
in this language so remarkable for the  
complication of its grammatical         
structure1 is ,teo-ro4 ,the name of the 
sun is ,teo-umasoi4 ,the particle ro    
designates a woman1 umasoi a man4 ,among
 the ,betoi1 the ,maypures1 and so many 
other nations of both continents1 the   
moon is believed to be the wife of the  

sun4 ,but what is this root ,teo8 ,it   
appears to me very doubtful1 that       
,teo-ro should signify ,god-woman1 for  
,memelu is the name of the ,all-powerful
 ,being in the ,betoi langnage47 ,cacao 
3 ,cacavua99 799 ,has this word been    
introduced from a communication with    
,europeans8 ,it is almost identical with
 the ,mexican 7,aztec7 word cacava474   
,tobacco 3 ,jema 3 ,jema4 ,pimento 3    
7,pumake74 ,mimosa inga 3 7,caraba74    
,cecropia peltata 3 7,jocovi74 ,agaric 3
 7,cajuli74 ,agaric 3 ,puziana          
7,pagiana7 3 ,papeta 7,popetas74 ,agaric
 3 ,sinapa 7,achinafe7 3 ,avanume       
7,avanome74 ,agaric 3 ,meteuba          
7,meuteufafa7 3 ,apekiva 7,pejiiveji74  
,agaric 3 ,puriana vacavi 3 7,jaliva74  
,agaric 3 ,puriana vacavi uschanite4    
,agaric 3 ,puriassima vacavi 3          
7,javiji74  ,this comparison seems to   
prove that the analogies observed in the
 roots of the ,pareni and the ,maypure  
tongues are not to be neglected2 they   
are1 however1 scarcely more frequent    

than those that have been observed      
between the ,maypure of the ,upper      
,orinoco and the language of the ,moxos1
 which is spoken on the banks of the    
,marmora1 from #ae to #bj degrees of    
south latitude4 ,the ,parenis have in   
their pronunciation the ,english th1 or 
tsa of the ,arabians1 as ,i clearly     
heard in the word ,amethami 7devil1 evil
 spirit74 ,i need not again notice the  
origin of the word camosi4 ,solitary    
resemblances of sounds are as little    
proof of communication between nations  
as the dissimilitude of a few roots     
furnishes evidence against the          
affiliation of the ,german from the     
,persian and the ,greek4 ,it is         
remarkable1 however1 that the names of  
the sun and moon are sometimes found to 
be identical in languages1 the          
grammatical construction of which is    
entirely different2 ,i may cite as      
examples the ,guarany and the ,omagua199
 languages of nations formerly very     
powerful4 799 ,sun and ,moon1 in        

,guarany1 ,quarasi and ,jasi2 in        
,omagua1 ,huarassi and ,jase4 ,i shall  
give1 farther on1 these same words in   
the principal languages of the old and  
new worlds4 ,see note below47 ,it may be
 conceived that1 with the worship of the
 stars and of the powers of nature1     
words which have a relation to these    
objects might pass from one idiom to    
another4 ,i showed the constellation of 
the ,southern ,cross to a ,pareni       
,indian1 who covered the lantern while  
,i was taking the circum-meridian       
heights of the stars2 and he called it  
,bahumehi1 a name which the caribe fish1
 or serra salme1 also bears in ,pareni4 
,he was ignorant of the name of the belt
 of ,orion2 but a ,poignave ,indian199  
who knew the constellations better1     
assured me that in his tongue the belt  
of ,orion bore the name of ,fuebot2 he  
called the moon ,zenquerot4 799 ,at the 
,orinoco the ,puignaves1 or ,poignaves1 
are distinguished from the ,guipunaves  
7,uipunavi74 ,the latter1 on account of 

their language1 are considered as       
belonging to the ,maypure and ,cabre    
nations2 yet water is called in         
,poignave1 as well as in ,maypure1      
oueni47 ,these two words have a very    
peculiar character for words of         
,american origin4 ,as the names of the  
constellations may have been transmitted
 to immense distances from one nation to
 another1 these ,poignave words have    
fixed the attention of the learned1 who 
have imagined they recognize the        
,phoenician and ,moabite tongues in the 
word camosi of the ,pareni4 ,fuebot and 
zenquerot seem to remind us of the      
,phoenician words mot 7clay71 ardod     
7oak-tree71 ephod1 etc4 ,but what can we
 conclude from simple terminations which
 are most frequently foreign to the     
roots8 ,in ,hebrew the feminine plurals 
terminate also in oth4 ,i noted entire  
phrases in ,poignave2 but the young man 
whom ,i interrogated spoke so quick that
 ,i could not seize the division of the 
words1 and should have mixed them       

confusedly together had ,i attempted to 
write them down499 799 ,for a curious   
example of this1 see the speech of      
,artabanes in ,aristophanes 7,acharn4   
act #a scene #c7 where a ,greek has     
attempted to give a ,persian oration4   
,see also ,gibbon's ,roman ,empire      
chapter #ec note #ed1 for a curious     
example of the way in which foreign     
languages have been disfigured when it  
has been attempted to represent them in 
a totally different tongue47  ,the      
,mission near the raudal of ,maypures   
was very considerable in the time of the
 ,jesuits1 when it reckoned six hundred 
inhabitants1 among whom were several    
families of whites4 ,under the          
government of the ,fathers of the       
,observance the population was reduced  
to less than sixty4 ,it must be observed
 that in this part of ,south ,america   
cultivation has been diminishing for    
half a century1 while beyond the        
forests1 in the provinces near the sea1 
we find villages that contain from two  

or three thousand ,indians4 ,the        
inhabitants of ,maypures are a mild1    
temperate people1 and distinguished by  
great cleanliness4 ,the savages of the  
,orinoco for the most part have not that
 inordinate fondness for strong liquors 
which prevails in ,north ,america4 ,it  
is true that the ,ottomacs1 the         
,jaruros1 the ,achaguas1 and the        
,caribs1 are often intoxicated by the   
immoderate use of chiza and many other  
fermented liquors1 which they know how  
to prepare with cassava1 maize1 and the 
saccharine fruit of the palm-tree2 but  
travellers have as usual generalized    
what belongs only to the manners of some
 tribes4 ,we were frequently unable to  
prevail upon the ,guahibos1 or the      
,maco-,piroas1 to taste brandy while    
they were labouring for us1 and seemed  
exhausted by fatigue4 ,it will require a
 longer residence of ,europeans in these
 countries to spread there the vices    
that are already common among the       
,indians on the coast4 ,in the huts of  

the natives of ,maypures we found an    
appearance of order and neatness1 rarely
 met with in the houses of the          
missionaries4  ,these natives cultivate 
plantains and cassava1 but no maize4    
,cassava1 made into thin cakes1 is the  
bread of the country4 ,like the greater 
part of the ,indians of the ,orinoco1   
the inhabitants of ,maypures have       
beverages which may be considered       
nourishing2 one of these1 much          
celebrated in that country1 is furnished
 by a palm-tree which grows wild in the 
vicinity of the mission on the banks of 
the ,auvana4 ,this tree is the seje3 ,i 
estimated the number of flowers on one  
cluster at forty-four thousand2 and that
 of the fruit1 of which the greater part
 fall without ripening1 at eight        
thousand4 ,the fruit is a small fleshy  
drupe4 ,it is immersed for a few minutes
 in boiling water1 to separate the      
kernel from the parenchymatous part of  
the sarcocarp1 which has a sweet taste1 
and is pounded and bruised in a large   

vessel filled with water4 ,the infusion 
yields a yellowish liquor1 which tastes 
like milk of almonds4 ,sometimes papelon
 7unrefined sugar7 is added4 ,the       
missionary told us that the natives     
become visibly fatter during the two or 
three months in which they drink this   
seje1 into which they dip their cakes of
 cassava4 ,the piaches1 or ,indian      
jugglers1 go into the forests1 and sound
 the botuto 7the sacred trumpet7 under  
the seje palm-trees1 to force the tree1 
they say1 to yield an ample produce the 
following year4 ,the people pay for this
 operation1 as the ,mongols1 the ,arabs1
 and nations still nearer to us1 pay the
 chamans1 the marabouts1 and other      
classes of priests1 to drive away the   
white ants and the locusts by mystic    
words or prayers1 or to procure a       
cessation of continued rain1 and invert 
the order of the seasons4  ,i have a    
manufacture of pottery in my village1   
said ,father ,zea1 when accompanying us 
on a visit to an ,indian family1 who    

were occupied in baking1 by a fire of   
brushwood1 in the open air1 large       
earthen vessels1 two feet and a half    
high4 ,this branch of manufacture is    
peculiar to the various tribes of the   
great family of ,maypures1 and they     
appear to have followed it from time    
immemorial4 ,in every part of the       
forests1 far from any human habitation1 
on digging the earth1 fragments of      
pottery and delf are found4 ,the taste  
for this kind of manufacture seems to   
have been common heretofore to the      
natives of both ,north and ,south       
,america4 ,to the north of ,mexico1 on  
the banks of the ,rio ,gila1 among the  
ruins of an ,aztec city2 in the ,united 
,states1 near the tumuli of the ,miamis2
 in ,florida1 and in every place where  
any traces of ancient civilization are  
found1 the soil covers fragments of     
painted pottery2 and the extreme        
resemblance of the ornaments they       
display is striking4 ,savage nations1   
and those civilized people99 799 ,the   

,hindoos1 the ,tibetians1 the ,chinese1 
the ancient ,egyptians1 the ,aztecs1 the
 ,peruvians2 with whom the tendency     
toward civilization in a body has       
prevented the free development of the   
faculties of individuals47 who are      
condemned by their political and        
religious institutions always to imitate
 themselves1 strive1 as if by instinct1 
to perpetuate the same forms1 to        
preserve a peculiar type or style1 and  
to follow the methods and processes     
which were employed by their ancestors4 
,in ,north ,america1 fragments of delf  
ware have been discovered in places     
where there exist lines of              
fortification1 and the walls of towns   
constructed by some unknown nation1 now 
entirely extinct4 ,the paintings on     
these fragments have a great similitude 
to those which are executed in our days 
on earthenware by the natives of        
,louisiana and ,florida4 ,thus too1 the 
,indians of ,maypures often painted     
before our eyes the same ornaments as   

those we had observed in the cavern of  
,ataruipe1 on the vases containing human
 bones4 ,they were grecques1 meanders1  
and figures of crocodiles1 of monkeys1  
and of a large quadruped which ,i could 
not recognize1 though it had always the 
same squat form4 ,i might hazard the    
hypothesis that it belongs to another   
country1 and that the type had been     
brought thither in the great migration  
of the ,american nations from the       
north-west to the south and south-east2 
but ,i am rather inclined to believe    
that the figure is intended to represent
 a tapir1 and that the deformed image of
 a native animal has become by degrees  
one of the types that has been          
preserved4  ,the ,maypures execute with 
the greatest skill grecques1 or         
ornaments formed by straight lines      
variously combined1 similar to those    
that we find on the vases of ,magna     
,grecia1 on the ,mexican edifices at    
,mitla1 and in the works of so many     
nations who1 without communication with 

each other1 find alike a sensible       
pleasure in the symmetric repetition of 
the same forms4 ,arabesques1 meanders1  
and grecques1 please our eyes1 because  
the elements of which their series is   
composed1 follow in rhythmic order4 ,the
 eye finds in this order1 in the        
periodical return of the same forms1    
what the ear distinguishes in the       
cadenced succession of sounds and       
concords4 ,can we then admit a doubt    
that the feeling of rhythm manifests    
itself in man at the first dawn of      
civilization1 and in the rudest essays  
of poetry and song8  ,among the natives 
of ,maypures1 the making of pottery is  
an occupation principally confined to   
the women4 ,they purify the clay by     
repeated washings1 form it into         
cylinders1 and mould the largest vases  
with their hands4 ,the ,american ,indian
 is unacquainted with the potter's      
wheel1 which was familiar to the nations
 of the east in the remotest antiquity4 
,we may be surprised that the           

missionaries have not introduced this   
simple and useful machine among the     
natives of the ,orinoco1 yet we must    
recollect that three centuries have not 
sufficed to make it known among the     
,indians of the peninsula of ,araya1    
opposite the port of ,cumana4 ,the      
colours used by the ,maypures are the   
oxides of iron and manganese1 and       
particularly the yellow and red ochres  
that are found in the hollows of        
sandstone4 ,sometimes the fecula of the 
,bignonia chica is employed1 after the  
pottery has been exposed to a feeble    
fire4 ,this painting is covered with a  
varnish of algarobo1 which is the       
transparent resin of the ,hymenaea      
courbaril4 ,the large vessels in which  
the chiza is preserved are called       
ciamacu1 the smallest bear the name of  
mucra1 from which word the ,spaniards of
 the coast have framed murcura4 ,not    
only the ,maypures1 but also the        
,guaypunaves1 the ,caribs1 the          
,ottomacs1 and even the ,guamos1 are    

distinguished at the ,orinoco as makers 
of painted pottery1 and this manufacture
 extended formerly towards the banks of 
the ,amazon4 ,orellana was struck with  
the painted ornaments on the ware of the
 ,omaguas1 who in his time were a       
populous commercial nation4  ,the       
following facts throw some light on the 
history of ,american civilization4 ,in  
the ,united ,states1 west of the        
,allegheny mountains1 particularly      
between the ,ohio and the great lakes of
 ,canada1 on digging the earth1         
fragments of painted pottery1 mingled   
with brass tools1 are constantly found4 
,this mixture may well surprise us in a 
country where1 on the first arrival of  
,europeans1 the natives were ignorant of
 the use of metals4 ,in the forests of  
,south ,america1 which extend from the  
equator as far as the eighth degree of  
north latitude1 from the foot of the    
,andes to the ,atlantic1 this painted   
pottery is discovered in the most desert
 places1 but it is found accompanied by 

hatchets of jade and other hard stones1 
skilfully perforated4 ,no metallic tools
 or ornaments have ever been discovered2
 though in the mountains on the shore1  
and at the back of the ,cordilleras1 the
 art of melting gold and copper1 and of 
mixing the latter metal with tin to make
 cutting instruments1 was known4 ,how   
can we account for these contrasts      
between the temperate and the torrid    
zone8 ,the ,incas of ,peru had pushed   
their conquests and their religious wars
 as far as the banks of the ,napo and   
the ,amazon1 where their language       
extended over a small space of land2 but
 the civilization of the ,peruvians1 of 
the inhabitants of ,quito1 and of the   
,muyscas of ,new ,grenada1 never appears
 to have had any sensible influence on  
the moral state of the nations of       
,guiana4 ,it must be observed further1  
that in ,north ,america1 between the    
,ohio1 ,miami1 and the ,lakes1 an       
unknown people1 whom systematic authors 
would make the descendants of the       

,toltecs and ,aztecs1 constructed walls 
of earth and sometimes of stone without 
mortar199 from ten to fifteen feet high1
 and seven or eight thousand feet long4 
799 ,of siliceous limestone1 at ,pique1 
on the ,great ,miami2 of sandstone at   
,creek ,point1 ten leagues from         
,chillakothe1 where the wall is fifteen 
hundred toises long47 ,these singular   
circumvallations sometimes enclosed a   
hundred and fifty acres of ground4 ,in  
the plains of the ,orinoco1 as in those 
of ,marietta1 the ,miami1 and the ,ohio1
 the centre of an ancient civilization  
is found in the west on the back of the 
mountains2 but the ,orinoco1 and the    
countries lying between that great river
 and the ,amazon1 appear never to have  
been inhabited by nations whose         
constructions have resisted the ravages 
of time4 ,though symbolical figures are 
found engraved on the hardest rocks1 yet
 further south than eight degrees of    
latitude1 no tumulus1 no                
circumvallation1 no dike of earth       

similar to those that exist farther     
north in the plains of ,varinas and     
,canagua1 has been found4 ,such is the  
contrast that may be observed between   
the eastern parts of ,north and ,south  
,america1 those parts which extend from 
the table-land of ,cundinamarca99 799   
,this is the ancient name of the empire 
of the ,zaques1 founded by ,bochica or  
,idacanzas1 the high priest of ,iraca1  
in ,new ,grenada47 and the mountains of 
,cayenne towards the ,atlantic1 and     
those which stretch from the ,andes of  
,new ,spain towards the ,alleghenies4   
,nations advanced in civilization1 of   
which we discover traces on the banks of
 lake ,teguyo and in the ,casas grandes 
of the ,rio ,gila1 might have sent some 
tribes eastward into the open countries 
of the ,missouri and the ,ohio1 where   
the climate differs little from that of 
,new ,mexico2 but in ,south ,america1   
where the great flux of nations has     
continued from north to south1 those who
 had long enjoyed the mild temperature  

of the back of the equinoctial          
,cordilleras no doubt dreaded a descent 
into burning plains bristled with       
forests1 and inundated by the periodical
 swellings of rivers4 ,it is easy to    
conceive how much the force of          
vegetation1 and the nature of the soil  
and climate1 within the torrid zone1    
embarrassed the natives in regard to    
migration in numerous bodies1 prevented 
settlements requiring an extensive      
space1 and perpetuated the misery and   
barbarism of solitary hordes4  ,the     
feeble civilization introduced in our   
days by the ,spanish monks pursues a    
retrograde course4 ,father ,gili relates
 that1 at the time of the expedition to 
the boundaries1 agriculture began to    
make some progress on the banks of the  
,orinoco2 and that cattle1 especially   
goats1 had multiplied considerably at   
,maypures4 ,we found no goats1 either in
 the mission or in any other village of 
the ,orinoco2 they had all been devoured
 by the tigers4 ,the black and white    

breeds of pigs only1 the latter of which
 are called ,french pigs 7puercos       
franceses71 because they are believed to
 have come from the ,caribbee ,islands1 
have resisted the pursuit of wild       
beasts4 ,we saw with much pleasure      
guacamayas1 or tame macaws1 round the   
huts of the ,indians1 and flying to the 
fields like our pigeons4 ,this bird is  
the largest and most majestic species of
 parrot with naked cheeks that we found 
in our travels4 ,it is called in        
,marativitan1 cahuei4 ,including the    
tail1 it is two feet three inches long4 
,we had observed it also on the banks of
 the ,atabapo1 the ,temi1 and the ,rio  
,negro4 ,the flesh of the cahuei1 which 
is frequently eaten1 is black and       
somewhat tough4 ,these macaws1 whose    
plumage glows with vivid tints of       
purple1 blue1 and yellow1 are a great   
ornament to the ,indian farm-yards2 they
 do not yield in beauty to the peacock1 
the golden pheasant1 the pauxi1 or the  
alector4 ,the practice of rearing       

parrots1 birds of a family so different 
from the gallinaceous tribes1 was       
remarked by ,columbus4 ,when he         
discovered ,america he saw macaws1 or   
large parrots1 which served as food to  
the natives of the ,caribbee ,islands1  
instead of fowls4  ,a majestic tree1    
more than sixty feet high1 which the    
planters call fruta de burro1 grows in  
the vicinity of the little village of   
,maypures4 ,it is a new species of the  
unona1 and has the stateliness of the   
,uvaria zeylanica of ,aublet4 ,its      
branches are straight1 and rise in a    
pyramid1 nearly like the poplar of the  
,mississippi1 erroneously called the    
,lombardy poplar4 ,the tree is          
celebrated for its aromatic fruit1 the  
infusion of which is a powerful         
febrifuge4 ,the poor missionaries of the
 ,orinoco1 who are afflicted with       
tertian fevers during a great part of   
the year1 seldom travel without a little
 bag filled with frutas de burro4 ,i    
have already observed that between the  

tropics1 the use of aromatics1 for      
instance very strong coffee1 the ,croton
 cascarilla1 or the pericarp of the     
,unona xylopioides1 is generally        
preferred to that of the astringent bark
 of cinchona1 or of ,bonplandia         
trifolatia1 which is the ,angostura     
bark4 ,the people of ,america have the  
most inveterate prejudice against the   
employment of different kinds of        
cinchona2 and in the very countries     
where this valuable remedy grows1 they  
try 7to use their own phrase7 to cut off
 the fever1 by infusions of ,scoparia   
dulcis1 and hot lemonade prepared with  
sugar and the small wild lime1 the rind 
of which is equally oily and aromatic4  
,the weather was unfavourable for       
astronomical observations4 ,i obtained1 
however1 on the #bjth of ,april1 a good 
series of corresponding altitudes of the
 sun1 according to which the chronometer
 gave #gj degrees #cg minutes #cc       
seconds for the longitude of the mission
 of ,maypures2 the latitude was found1  

by a star observed towards the north1 to
 be #e degrees #ac minutes #eg seconds2 
and by a star observed towards the      
south1 #e degrees #ac minutes #g        
seconds4 ,the error of the most recent  
maps is half a degree of longitude and  
half a degree of latitude4 ,it would be 
difficult to relate the trouble and     
torments which these nocturnal          
observations cost us4 ,nowhere is a     
denser cloud of mosquitos to be found4  
,it formed1 as it were1 a particular    
stratum some feet above the ground1 and 
it thickened as we brought lights to    
illumine our artificial horizon4 ,the   
inhabitants of ,maypures1 for the most  
part1 quit the village to sleep in the  
islets amid the cataracts1 where the    
number of insects is less2 others make a
 fire of brushwood in their huts1 and   
suspend their hammocks in the midst of  
the smoke4  ,we spent two days and a    
half in the little village of ,maypures1
 on the banks of the great ,upper       
,cataract1 and on the #bast ,april we   

embarked in the canoe we had obtained   
from the missionary of ,carichana4 ,it  
was much damaged by the shoals it had   
struck against1 and the carelessness of 
the ,indians2 but still greater dangers 
awaited it4 ,it was to be dragged over  
land1 across an isthmus of thirty-six   
thousand feet2 from the ,rio ,tuamini to
 the ,rio ,negro1 to go up by the       
,cassiquiare to the ,orinoco1 and to    
repass the two raudales4  ,when the     
traveller has passed the ,great         
,cataracts1 he feels as if he were in a 
new world1 and had overstepped the      
barriers which nature seems to have     
raised between the civilized countries  
of the coast and the savage and unknown 
interior4 ,towards the east1 in the     
bluish distance1 we saw for the last    
time the high chain of the ,cunavami    
mountains4 ,its long1 horizontal ridge  
reminded us of the ,mesa of the         
,brigantine1 near ,cumana2 but it       
terminates by a truncated summit4 ,the  
,peak of ,calitamini 7the name given to 

this summit7 glows at sunset as with a  
reddish fire4 ,this appearance is every 
day the same4 ,no one ever approached   
this mountain1 the height of which does 
not exceed six hundred toises4 ,i       
believe this splendour1 commonly reddish
 but sometimes silvery1 to be a         
reflection produced by large plates of  
talc1 or by gneiss passing into         
mica-slate4 ,the whole of this country  
contains granitic rocks1 on which here  
and there1 in little plains1 an         
argillaceous grit-stone immediately     
reposes1 containing fragments of quartz 
and of brown iron-ore4  ,in going to the
 embarcadero1 we caught on the trunk of 
a hevea99 799 ,one of those trees whose 
milk yields caoutchouc47 a new species  
of tree-frog1 remarkable for its        
beautiful colours2 it had a yellow      
belly1 the back and head of a fine      
velvety purple1 and a very narrow stripe
 of white from the point of the nose to 
the hinder extremities4 ,this frog was  
two inches long1 and allied to the ,rana

 tinctoria1 the blood of which1 it is   
asserted1 introduced into the skin of a 
parrot1 in places where the feathers    
have been plucked out1 occasions the    
growth of frizzled feathers of a yellow 
or red colour4 ,the ,indians showed us  
on the way1 what is no doubt very       
curious in that country1 traces of      
cartwheels in the rock4 ,they spoke1 as 
of an unknown animal1 of those beasts   
with large horns1 which1 at the time of 
the expedition to the boundaries1 drew  
the boats through the valley of ,keri1  
from the ,rio ,toparo to the ,rio       
,cameji1 to avoid the cataracts1 and    
save the trouble of unloading the       
merchandize4 ,i believe these poor      
inhabitants of ,maypures would now be as
 much astonished at the sight of an ox  
of the ,spanish breed1 as the ,romans   
were at the sight of the ,lucanian oxen1
 as they called the elephants of the    
army of ,pyrrhus4  ,we embarked at      
,puerto de ,arriba1 and passed the      
,raudal de ,cameji with some difficulty4

 ,this passage is reputed to be         
dangerous when the water is very high2  
but we found the surface of the river   
beyond the raudal as smooth as glass4   
,we passed the night in a rocky island  
called ,piedra ,raton1 which is         
three-quarters of a league long1 and    
displays that singular aspect of rising 
vegetation1 those clusters of shrubs1   
scattered over a bare and rocky soil1 of
 which we have often spoken4  ,on the   
#bbnd of ,april we departed an hour and 
a half before sunrise4 ,the morning was 
humid but delicious2 not a breath of    
wind was felt2 for south of ,atures and 
,maypures a perpetual calm prevails4 ,on
 the banks of the ,rio ,negro and the   
,cassiquiare1 at the foot of ,cerro     
,duida1 and at the mission of ,santa    
,barbara1 we never heard that rustling  
of the leaves which has such a peculiar 
charm in very hot climates4 ,the        
windings of rivers1 the shelter of      
mountains1 the thickness of the forests1
 and the almost continual rains1 at one 

or two degrees of latitude north of the 
equator1 contribute no doubt to this    
phenomenon1 which is peculiar to the    
missions of the ,orinoco4  ,in that part
 of the valley of the ,amazon which is  
south of the equator1 but at the same   
distance from it1 as the places just    
mentioned1 a strong wind always rises   
two hours after mid-day4 ,this wind     
blows constantly against the stream1 and
 is felt only in the bed of the river4  
,below ,san ,borja it is an easterly    
wind2 at ,tomependa ,i found it between 
north and north-north-east2 it is still 
the same breeze1 the wind of the        
rotation of the globe1 but modified by  
slight local circumstances4 ,by favour  
of this general breeze you may go up the
 ,amazon under sail1 from ,grand ,para  
as far as ,tefe1 a distance of seven    
hundred and fifty leagues4 ,in the      
province of ,jaen de ,bracamoros1 at the
 foot of the western declivity of the   
,cordilleras1 this ,atlantic breeze     
rises sometimes to a tempest4  ,it is   

highly probable that the great salubrity
 of the ,amazon is owing to this        
constant breeze4 ,in the stagnant air of
 the ,upper ,orinoco the chemical       
affinities act more powerfully1 and more
 deleterious miasmata are formed4 ,the  
insalubrity of the climate would be the 
same on the woody banks of the ,amazon1 
if that river1 running like the ,niger  
from west to east1 did not follow in its
 immense length the same direction1     
which is that of the trade-winds4 ,the  
valley of the ,amazon is closed only at 
its western extremity1 where it         
approaches the ,cordilleras of the      
,andes4 ,towards the east1 where the    
sea-breeze strikes the ,new ,continent1 
the shore is raised but a few feet above
 the level of the ,atlantic4 ,the ,upper
 ,orinoco first runs from east to west1 
and then from north to south4 ,where its
 course is nearly parallel to that of   
the ,amazon1 a very hilly country 7the  
group of the mountains of ,parima and of
 ,dutch and ,french ,guiana7 separates  

it from the ,atlantic1 and prevents the 
wind of rotation from reaching          
,esmeralda4 ,this wind begins to be     
powerfully felt only from the confluence
 of the ,apure1 where the ,lower        
,orinoco runs from west to east in a    
vast plain open towards the ,atlantic1  
and therefore the climate of this part  
of the river is less noxious than that  
of the ,upper ,orinoco4  ,in order to   
add a third point of comparison1 ,i may 
mention the valley of the ,rio          
,magdalena1 which1 like the ,amazon1 has
 one direction only1 but unfortunately1 
instead of being that of the breeze1 it 
is from south to north4 ,situated in the
 region of the trade-winds1 the ,rio    
,magdalena has the stagnant air of the  
,upper ,orinoco4 ,from the canal of     
,mahates as far as ,honda1 particularly 
south of the town of ,mompox1 we never  
felt the wind blow but at the approach  
of the evening storms4 ,when1 on the    
contrary1 you proceed up the river      
beyond ,honda1 you find the atmosphere  

often agitated4 ,the strong winds that  
are ingulfed in the valley of ,neiva are
 noted for their excessive heat4 ,we may
 be at first surprised to perceive that 
the calm ceases as we approach the lofty
 mountains in the upper course of the   
river1 but this astonishment ends when  
we recollect that the dry and burning   
winds of the ,llanos de ,neiva are the  
effect of descending currents4 ,the     
columns of cold air rush from the top of
 the ,nevados of ,quindiu and of        
,guanacas into the valley1 driving      
before them the lower strata of the     
atmosphere4 ,everywhere the unequal     
heating of the soil1 and the proximity  
of mountains covered with perpetual     
snow1 cause partial currents within the 
tropics1 as well as in the temperate    
zone4 ,the violent winds of ,neiva are  
not the effect of a repercussion of the 
trade-winds2 they rise where those winds
 cannot penetrate2 and if the mountains 
of the ,upper ,orinoco1 the tops of     
which are generally crowned with trees1 

were more elevated1 they would produce  
the same impetuous movements in the     
atmosphere as we observe in the         
,cordilleras of ,peru1 of ,abyssinia1   
and of ,thibet4 ,the intimate connection
 that exists between the direction of   
rivers1 the height and disposition of   
the adjacent mountains1 the movements of
 the atmosphere1 and the salubrity of   
the climate1 are subjects well worthy of
 attention4 ,the study of the surface   
and the inequalities of the soil would  
indeed be irksome and useless were it   
not connected with more general         
considerations4  ,at the distance of six
 miles from the island of ,piedra ,raton
 we passed1 first1 on the east1 the     
mouth of the ,rio ,sipapo1 called       
,tipapu by the ,indians2 and then1 on   
the west1 the mouth of the ,rio         
,vichada4 ,near the latter are some     
rocks covered by the water1 that form a 
small cascade or raudalito4 ,the ,rio   
,sipapo1 which ,father ,gili went up in 
#ageg1 and which he says is twice as    

broad as the ,tiber1 comes from a       
considerable chain of mountains1 which  
in its southern part bears the name of  
the river1 and joins the group of       
,calitamini and of ,cunavami4 ,next to  
the ,peak of ,duida1 which rises above  
the mission of ,esmeralda1 the ,cerros  
of ,sipapo appeared to me the most lofty
 of the whole ,cordillera of ,parima4   
,they form an immense wall of rocks1    
shooting up abruptly from the plain1 its
 craggy ridge of running from           
south-south-east to north-north-west4 ,i
 believe these crags1 these             
indentations1 which equally occur in the
 sandstone of ,montserrat in            
,catalonia199 799 ,from them the name of
 ,montserrat is derived1 ,monte ,serrato
 signifying a mountain ridged or jagged 
like a saw47 are owing to blocks of     
granite heaped together4 ,the ,cerros de
 ,sipapo wear a different aspect every  
hour of the day4 ,at sunrise the thick  
vegetation with which these mountains   
are clothed is tinged with that dark    

green inclining to brown1 which is      
peculiar to a region where trees with   
coriaceous leaves prevail4 ,broad and   
strong shadows are projected on the     
neighbouring plain1 and form a contrast 
with the vivid light diffused over the  
ground1 in the air1 and on the surface  
of the waters4 ,but towards noon1 when  
the sun reaches its zenith1 these strong
 shadows gradually disappear1 and the   
whole group is veiled by an aerial      
vapour of a much deeper azure than that 
of the lower regions of the celestial   
vault4 ,these vapours1 circulating      
around the rocky ridge1 soften its      
outline1 temper the effects of the      
light1 and give the landscape that      
aspect of calmness and repose which in  
nature1 as in the works of ,claude      
,lorraine and ,poussin1 arises from the 
harmony of forms and colours4  ,cruzero1
 the powerful chief of the ,guaypunaves1
 long resided behind the mountains of   
,sipapo1 after having quitted with his  
warlike horde the plains between the    

,rio ,inirida and the ,chamochiquini4   
,the ,indians told us that the forests  
which cover the ,sipapo abound in the   
climbing plant called vehuco de maimure4
 ,this species of liana is celebrated   
among the ,indians1 and serves for      
making baskets and weaving mats4 ,the   
forests of ,sipapo are altogether       
unknown1 and there the missionaries     
place the nation of the ,rayas199 whose 
mouths are believed to be in their      
navels4  799 ,rays1 on account of the   
pretended analogy with the fish of this 
name1 the mouth of which seems as if    
forced downwards below the body4 ,this  
singular legend has been spread far and 
wide over the earth4 ,shakespeare has   
described ,othello as recounting        
marvellous tales3  of cannibals that do 
each other eat3 ,of ,anthropophagi1 and 
men whose heads ,do grow beneath their  
shoulders47  ,an old ,indian1 whom we   
met at ,carichana1 and who boasted of   
having often eaten human flesh1 had seen
 these acephali with his own eyes4      

,these absurd fables are spread as far  
as the ,llanos1 where you are not always
 permitted to doubt the existence of the
 ,raya ,indians4 ,in every zone         
intolerance accompanies credulity2 and  
it might be said that the fictions of   
ancient geographers had passed from one 
hemisphere to the other1 did we not know
 that the most fantastic productions of 
the imagination1 like the works of      
nature1 furnish everywhere a certain    
analogy of aspect and of form4  ,we     
landed at the mouth of the ,rio ,vichada
 or ,visata to examine the plants of    
that part of the country4 ,the scenery  
is very singular4 ,the forest is thin1  
and an innumerable quantity of small    
rocks rise from the plain4 ,these form  
massy prisms1 ruined pillars1 and       
solitary towers fifteen or twenty feet  
high4 ,some are shaded by the trees of  
the forest1 others have their summits   
crowned with palms4 ,these rocks are of 
granite passing into gneiss4 ,at the    
confluence of the ,vichada the rocks of 

granite1 and what is still more         
remarkable1 the soil itself1 are covered
 with moss and lichens4 ,these latter   
resemble the ,cladonia pyxidata and the 
,lichen rangiferinus1 so common in the  
north of ,europe4 ,we could scarcely    
persuade ourselves that we were elevated
 less than one hundred toises above the 
level of the sea1 in the fifth degree of
 latitude1 in the centre of the torrid  
zone1 which has so long been thought to 
be destitute of cryptogamous plants4    
,the mean temperature of this shady and 
humid spot probably exceeds twenty-six  
degrees of the centigrade thermometer4  
,reflecting on the small quantity of    
rain which had hitherto fallen1 we were 
surprised at the beautiful verdure of   
the forests4 ,this peculiarity          
characterises the valley of the ,upper  
,orinoco2 on the coast of ,caracas1 and 
in the ,llanos1 the trees in winter 7in 
the season called summer in ,south      
,america1 north of the equator7 are     
stripped of their leaves1 and the ground

 is covered only with yellow and        
withered grass4 ,between the solitary   
rocks just described arise some high    
plants of columnar cactus 7,cactus      
septemangularis71 a very rare appearance
 south of the cataracts of ,atures and  
,maypures4  ,amid this picturesque scene
 ,m4 ,bonpland was fortunate enough to  
find several specimens of ,laurus       
cinnamomoides1 a very aromatic species  
of cinnamon1 known at the ,orinoco by   
the names of varimacu and of            
canelilla499 799 ,the diminutive of the 
,spanish word canela1 which signifies   
cinnamon47 ,this valuable production is 
found also in the valley of the ,rio    
,caura1 as well as near ,esmeralda1 and 
eastward of the ,great ,cataracts4 ,the 
,jesuit ,francisco de ,olmo appears to  
have been the first who discovered the  
canelilla1 which he did in the country  
of the ,piaroas1 near the sources of the
 ,cataniapo4 ,the missionary ,gili1 who 
did not advance so far as the regions ,i
 am now describing1 seems to confound   

the varimacu1 or guarimacu1 with the    
myristica1 or nutmeg-tree of ,america4  
,these barks and aromatic fruits1 the   
cinnamon1 the nutmeg1 the ,myrtus       
pimenta1 and the ,laurus pucheri1 would 
have become important objects of trade1 
if ,europe1 at the period of the        
discovery of the ,new ,world1 had not   
already been accustomed to the spices   
and aromatics of ,india4 ,the cinnamon  
of the ,orinoco1 and that of the        
,andaquies missions1 are1 however1 less 
aromatic than the cinnamon of ,ceylon1  
and would still be so even if dried and 
prepared by similar processes4  ,every  
hemisphere produces plants of a         
different species2 and it is not by the 
diversity of climates that we can       
attempt to explain why equinoctial      
,africa has no laurels1 and the ,new    
,world no heaths2 why calceolariae are  
found wild only in the southern         
hemisphere2 why the birds of the ,east  
,indies glow with colours less splendid 
than those of the hot parts of ,america2

 finally1 why the tiger is peculiar to  
,asia1 and the ornithorynchus to        
,australia4 ,in the vegetable as well as
 in the animal kingdom1 the causes of   
the distribution of the species are     
among the mysteries which natural       
philosophy cannot solve4 ,the attempts  
made to explain the distribution of     
various species on the globe by the sole
 influence of climate1 take their date  
from a period when physical geography   
was still in its infancy2 when1         
recurring incessantly to pretended      
contrasts between the two worlds1 it was
 imagined that the whole of ,africa and 
of ,america resembled the deserts of    
,egypt and the marshes of ,cayenne4 ,at 
present1 when men judge of the state of 
things not from one type arbitrarily    
chosen1 but from positive knowledge1 it 
is ascertained that the two continents1 
in their immense extent1 contain        
countries that are altogether analogous4
 ,there are regions of ,america as      
barren and burning as the interior of   

,africa4 ,those islands which produce   
the spices of ,india are scarcely       
remarkable for their dryness2 and it is 
not on account of the humidity of the   
climate1 as has been affirmed in recent 
works1 that the ,new ,continent is      
deprived of those fine species of       
lauriniae and myristicae1 which are     
found united in one little corner of the
 earth in the archipelago of ,india4    
,for some years past cinnamon has been  
cultivated with success in several parts
 of the ,new ,continent2 and a zone that
 produces the coumarouna1 the vanilla1  
the pucheri1 the pine-apple1 the        
pimento1 the balsam of tolu1 the        
,myroxylon peruvianum1 the croton1 the  
citroma1 the pejoa1 the incienso of the 
,silla of ,caracas1 the quereme1 the    
pancratium1 and so many majestic        
liliaceous plants1 cannot be considered 
as destitute of aromatics4 ,besides1 a  
dry air favours the development of the  
aromatic or exciting properties1 only in
 certain species of plants4 ,the most   

inveterate poisons are produced in the  
most humid zone of ,america2 and it is  
precisely under the influence of the    
long rains of the tropics that the      
,american pimento 7,capsicum baccatum71 
the fruit of which is often as caustic  
and fiery as ,indian pepper1 vegetates  
best4 ,from all these considerations it 
follows1 first1 that the ,new ,continent
 possesses spices1 aromatics1 and very  
active vegetable poisons1 peculiar to   
itself1 and differing specifically from 
those of the ,old ,world2 secondly1 that
 the primitive distribution of species  
in the torrid zone cannot be explained  
by the influence of climate solely1 or  
by the distribution of temperature1     
which we observe in the present state of
 our planet2 but that this difference of
 climates leads us to perceive why a    
given type of organization develops     
itself more vigorously in such or such  
local circumstances4 ,we can conceive   
that a small number of the families of  
plants1 for instance the musaceae and   

the palms1 cannot belong to very cold   
regions1 on account of their internal   
structure1 and the importance of certain
 organs2 but we cannot explain why no   
one of the family of the ,melastomaceae 
vegetates north of the parallel of the  
thirtieth degree of latitude1 or why no 
rose-tree belongs to the southern       
hemisphere4 ,analogy of climates is     
often found in the two continents1      
without identity of productions4  ,the  
,rio ,vichada1 which has a small raudal 
at its confluence with the ,orinoco1    
appeared to me1 next to the ,meta and   
the ,guaviare1 to be the most           
considerable river coming from the west4
 ,during the last forty years no        
,european has navigated the ,vichada4 ,i
 could learn nothing of its sources2    
they rise1 ,i believe1 with those of the
 ,tomo1 in the plains that extend to the
 south of ,casimena4 ,fugitive ,indians 
of ,santa ,rosalia de ,cabapuna1 a      
village situate on the banks of the     
,meta1 have arrived even recently1 by   

the ,rio ,vichada1 at the cataract of   
,maypures2 which sufficiently proves    
that the sources of this river are not  
very distant from the ,meta4 ,father    
,gumilla has preserved the names of     
several ,german and ,spanish ,jesuits1  
who in #agcd fell victims to their zeal 
for religion1 by the hands of the       
,caribs on the now desert banks of the  
,vichada4  ,having passed the ,cano     
,pirajavi on the east1 and then a small 
river on the west1 which issues1 as the 
,indians say1 from a lake called ,nao1  
we rested for the night on the shore of 
the ,orinoco1 at the mouth of the ,zama1
 a very considerable river1 but as      
little known as the ,vichada4           
,notwithstanding the black waters of the
 ,zama1 we suffered greatly from        
insects4 ,the night was beautiful1      
without a breath of wind in the lower   
regions of the atmosphere1 but towards  
two in the morning we saw thick clouds  
crossing the zenith rapidly from east to
 west4 ,when1 declining toward the      

horizon1 they traversed the great       
nebulae of ,sagittarius and the ,ship1  
they appeared of a dark blue4 ,the light
 of the nebulae is never more splendid  
than when they are in part covered by   
sweeping clouds4 ,we observe the same   
phenomenon in ,europe in the ,milky     
,way1 in the aurora borealis when it    
beams with a silvery light2 and at the  
rising and setting of the sun in that   
part of the sky that is whitened99 from 
causes which philosophers have not yet  
sufficiently explained4 799 ,the dawn3  
in ,french aube 7alba1 albente coelo477 
,the vast tract of country lying between
 the ,meta1 the ,vichada1 and the       
,guaviare1 is altogether unknown a      
league from the banks2 but it is        
believed to be inhabited by wild        
,indians of the tribe of ,chiricoas1 who
 fortunately build no boats4 ,formerly1 
when the ,caribs1 and their enemies the 
,cabres1 traversed these regions with   
their little fleets of rafts and canoes1
 it would have been imprudent to have   

passed the night near the mouth of a    
river running from the west4 ,the little
 settlements of the ,europeans having   
now caused the independent ,indians to  
retire from the banks of the ,upper     
,orinoco1 the solitude of these regions 
is such1 that from ,carichana to        
,javita1 and from ,esmeralda to ,san    
,fernando de ,atabapo1 during a course  
of one hundred and eighty leagues1 we   
did not meet a single boat4  ,at the    
mouth of the ,rio ,zama we approach a   
class of rivers1 that merits great      
attention4 ,the ,zama1 the ,mataveni1   
the ,atabapo1 the ,tuamini1 the ,temi1  
and the ,guainia1 are aguas negras1 that
 is1 their waters1 seen in a large body1
 appear brown like coffee1 or of a      
greenish black4 ,these waters1          
notwithstanding1 are most beautiful1    
clear1 and agreeable to the taste4 ,i   
have observed above1 that the           
crocodiles1 and1 if not the zancudos1 at
 least the mosquitos1 generally shun the
 black waters4 ,the people assert too1  

that these waters do not colour the     
rocks2 and that the white rivers have   
black borders1 while the black rivers   
have white4 ,in fact1 the shores of the 
,guainia1 known to ,europeans by the    
name of the ,rio ,negro1 frequently     
exhibit masses of quartz issuing from   
granite1 and of a dazzling whiteness4   
,the waters of the ,mataveni1 when      
examined in a glass1 are pretty white2  
those of the ,atabapo retain a slight   
tinge of yellowish-brown4 ,when the     
least breath of wind agitates the       
surface of these black rivers they      
appear of a fine grass-green1 like the  
lakes of ,switzerland4 ,in the shade1   
the ,zama1 the ,atabapo1 and the        
,guainia1 are as dark as coffee-grounds4
 ,these phenomena are so striking1 that 
the ,indians everywhere distinguish the 
waters by the terms black and white4    
,the former have often served me for an 
artificial horizon2 they reflect the    
image of the stars with admirable       
clearness4  ,the colour of the waters of

 springs1 rivers1 and lakes1 ranks among
 those physical problems which it is    
difficult1 if not impossible1 to solve  
by direct experiments4 ,the tints of    
reflected light are generally very      
different from the tints of transmitted 
light2 particularly when the            
transmission takes place through a great
 portion of fluid4 ,if there were no    
absorption of rays1 the transmitted     
light would be of a colour corresponding
 with that of the reflected light2 and  
in general we judge imperfectly of      
transmitted light1 by filling with water
 a shallow glass with a narrow aperture4
 ,in a river1 the colour of the         
reflected light comes to us always from 
the interior strata of the fluid1 and   
not from the upper stratum4  ,some      
celebrated naturalists1 who have        
examined the purest waters of the       
glaciers1 and those which flow from     
mountains covered with perpetual snow1  
where the earth is destitute of the     
relics of vegetation1 have thought that 

the proper colour of water might be     
blue1 or green4 ,nothing1 in fact1      
proves1 that water is by nature white2  
and we must always admit the presence of
 a colouring principle1 when water      
viewed by reflection is coloured4 ,in   
the rivers that contain a colouring     
principle1 that principle is generally  
so little in quantity1 that it eludes   
all chemical research4 ,the tints of the
 ocean seem often to depend neither on  
the nature of the bottom1 nor on the    
reflection of the sky on the clouds4    
,sir ,humphrey ,davy was of opinion that
 the tints of different seas may very   
likely be owing to different proportions
 of iodine4  ,on consulting the         
geographers of antiquity1 we find that  
the ,greeks had noticed the blue waters 
of ,thermopylae1 the red waters of      
,joppa1 and the black waters of the     
hot-baths of ,astyra1 opposite ,lesbos4 
,some rivers1 the ,rhone for instance1  
near ,geneva1 have a decidedly blue     
colour4 ,it is said1 that the           

snow-waters of the ,alps are sometimes  
of a dark emerald green4 ,several lakes 
of ,savoy and of ,peru have a brown     
colour approaching black4 ,most of these
 phenomena of coloration are observed in
 waters that are believed to be the     
purest2 and it is rather from reasonings
 founded on analogy1 than from any      
direct analysis1 that we may throw any  
light on so uncertain a matter4 ,in the 
vast system of rivers near the mouth of 
the ,rio ,zama1 a fact which appears to 
me remarkable is1 that the black waters 
are principally restricted to the       
equatorial regions4 ,they begin about   
five degrees of north latitude2 and     
abound thence to beyond the equator as  
far as about two degrees of south       
latitude4 ,the mouth of the ,rio ,negro 
is indeed in the latitude of #c degrees 
#i minutes2 but in this interval the    
black and white waters are so singularly
 mingled in the forests and the         
savannahs1 that we know not to what     
cause the coloration must be attributed4

 ,the waters of the ,cassiquiare1 which 
fall into the ,rio ,negro1 are as white 
as those of the ,orinoco1 from which it 
issues4 ,of two tributary streams of the
 ,cassiquiare very near each other1 the 
,siapa and the ,pacimony1 one is white1 
the other black4  ,when the ,indians are
 interrogated respecting the causes of  
these strange colorations1 they answer1 
as questions in natural philosophy or   
physiology are sometimes answered in    
,europe1 by repeating the fact in other 
terms4 ,if you address yourself to the  
missionaries1 they reply1 as if they had
 the most convincing proofs of the fact1
 that the waters are coloured by washing
 the roots of the sarsaparilla4 ,the    
,smilaceae no doubt abound on the banks 
of the ,rio ,negro1 the ,pacimony1 and  
the ,cababury2 their roots1 macerated in
 the water1 yield an extractive matter1 
that is brown1 bitter1 and mucilaginous2
 but how many tufts of smilax have we   
seen in places1 where the waters were   
entirely white4 ,in the marshy forest   

which we traversed1 to convey our canoe 
from the ,rio ,tuamini to the ,cano     
,pimichin and the ,rio ,negro1 why1 in  
the same soil1 did we ford alternately  
rivulets of black and white water8 ,why 
did we find no river white near its     
springs1 and black in the lower part of 
its course8 ,i know not whether the ,rio
 ,negro preserves its yellowish brown   
colour as far as its mouth1             
notwithstanding the great quantity of   
white water it receives from the        
,cassiquiare and the ,rio ,blanco4      
,although1 on account of the abundance  
of rain1 vegetation is more vigorous    
close to the equator than eight or ten  
degrees north or south1 it cannot be    
affirmed1 that the rivers with black    
waters rise principally in the most     
shady and thickest forests4 ,on the     
contrary1 a great number of the aguas   
negras come from the open savannahs that
 extend from the ,meta beyond the       
,guaviare towards the ,caqueta4 ,in a   
journey which ,i made with ,senor       

,montufar from the port of ,guayaquil to
 the ,bodegas de ,babaojo1 at the period
 of the great inundations1 ,i was struck
 by the analogy of colour displayed by  
the vast savannahs of the ,invernadero  
del ,garzal and of the ,lagartero1 as   
well as by the ,rio ,negro and the      
,atabapo4 ,these savannahs1 partly      
inundated during three months1 are      
composed of paspalum1 eriochloa1 and    
several species of cyperaceae4 ,we      
sailed on waters that were from four to 
five feet deep2 their temperature was by
 day from #cc to #cd degrees of the     
centigrade thermometer2 they exhaled a  
strong smell of sulphuretted hydrogen1  
to which no doubt some rotten plants of 
arum and heliconia1 that swam on the    
surface of the pools1 contributed4 ,the 
waters of the ,lagartero were of a      
golden yellow by transmitted1 and       
coffee-brown by reflected light4 ,they  
are no doubt coloured by a carburet of  
hydrogen4 ,an analogous phenomenon is   
observed in the dunghill-waters prepared

 by our gardeners1 and in the waters    
that issue from bogs4 ,may we not also  
admit1 that it is a mixture of carbon   
and hydrogen1 an extractive vegetable   
matter1 that colours the black rivers1  
the ,atabapo1 the ,zama1 the ,mataveni1 
and the ,guainia8 ,the frequency of the 
equatorial rains contributes no doubt to
 this coloration by filtration through a
 thick mass of grasses4 ,i suggest these
 ideas only in the form of a doubt4 ,the
 colouring principle seems to be in     
little abundance2 for ,i observed that  
the waters of the ,guainia or ,rio      
,negro1 when subjected to ebullition1 do
 not become brown like other fluids     
charged with carburets of hydrogen4  ,it
 is also very remarkable1 that this     
phenomenon of black waters1 which might 
be supposed to belong only to the low   
regions of the torrid zone1 is found    
also1 though rarely1 on the table-lands 
of the ,andes4 ,the town of ,cuenca in  
the kingdom of ,quito1 is surrounded by 
three small rivers1 the ,machangara1 the

 ,rio del ,matadero1 and the ,yanuncai2 
of which the two former are white1 and  
the waters of the last are black 7aguas 
negras74 ,these waters1 like those of   
the ,atabapo1 are of a coffee-colour by 
reflection1 and pale yellow by          
transmission4 ,they are very clear1 and 
the inhabitants of ,cuenca1 who drink   
them in preference to any other1        
attribute their colour to the           
sarsaparilla1 which it is said grows    
abundantly on the banks of the ,rio     
,yanuncai4  ,we left the mouth of the   
,zama at five in the morning of the     
#bcrd of ,april4 ,the river continued to
 be skirted on both sides by a thick    
forest4 ,the mountains on the east      
seemed gradually to retire farther back4
 ,we passed first the mouth of the ,rio 
,mataveni1 and afterward an islet of a  
very singular form2 a square granitic   
rock that rises in the middle of the    
water4 ,it is called by the missionaries
 ,el ,castillito1 or the ,little        
,castle4 ,black bands seem to indicate1 

that the highest swellings of the       
,orinoco do not rise at this place above
 eight feet2 and that the great         
swellings observed lower down are owing 
to the tributary streams which flow into
 it north of the raudales of ,atures and
 ,maypures4 ,we passed the night on the 
right bank opposite the mouth of the    
,rio ,siucurivapu1 near a rock called   
,aricagua4 ,during the night an         
innumerable quantity of bats issued from
 the clefts of the rock1 and hovered    
around our hammocks4  ,on the #bdth a   
violent rain obliged us early to return 
to our boat4 ,we departed at two        
o'clock1 after having lost some books1  
which we could not find in the darkness 
of the night1 on the rock of ,aricagua4 
,the river runs straight from south to  
north2 its banks are low1 and shaded on 
both sides by thick forests4 ,we passed 
the mouths of the ,ucata1 the ,arapa1   
and the ,caranaveni4 ,about four in the 
afternoon we landed at the ,conucos de  
,siquita1 the ,indian plantations of the

 mission of ,san ,fernando4 ,the good   
people wished to detain us among them1  
but we continued to go up against the   
current1 which ran at the rate of five  
feet a second1 according to a           
measurement ,i made by observing the    
time that a floating body took to go    
down a given distance4 ,we entered the  
mouth of the ,guaviare on a dark night1 
passed the point where the ,rio ,atabapo
 joins the ,guaviare1 and arrived at the
 mission after midnight4 ,we were lodged
 as usual at the ,convent1 that is1 in  
the house of the missionary1 who1 though
 much surprised at our unexpected visit1
 nevertheless received us with the      
kindest hospitality4  ,,note4  ,if1 in  
the philosophical study of the structure
 of languages1 the analogy of a few     
roots acquires value only when they can 
be geographically connected together1   
neither is the want of resemblance in   
roots any very strong proof against the 
common origin of nations4 ,in the       
different dialects of the ,totonac      

language 7that of one of the most       
ancient tribes of ,mexico7 the sun and  
the moon have names which custom has    
rendered entirely different4 ,this      
difference is found among the ,caribs   
between the language of men and women2 a
 phenomenon that probably arises from   
the circumstance that1 among prisoners1 
men were oftener put to death than      
women4 ,females introduced by degrees   
words of a foreign language into the    
,caribbee2 and1 as the girls followed   
the occupations of the women much more  
than the boys1 a language was formed    
peculiar to the women4 ,i shall record  
in this note the names of the sun and   
moon in a great number of ,american and 
,asiatic idioms1 again reminding the    
reader of the uncertainty of all        
judgments founded merely on the         
comparison of solitary words4  ,,table  
,,of ,,names ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,,and     
,,the ,,moon4  ,,column #a 3 ,,language4
  ,,column #b 3 ,,name ,,of ,,the ,,sun4
  ,,column #c 3 ,,name ,,of ,,the       

,,moon4  ,,in ,,the ,,new ,,world3      
,eastern ,esquimaux 7,greenland7 3      
,ajut1 kaumat1 sakanach 3 ,anningat1    
kaumei1 tatcok4  ,western ,esquimaux    
7,kadjak7 3 ,tschingugak1 madschak 3    
,igaluk1 tangeik4  ,ojibbeway 3 ,kissis 
3 ,debicot4  ,delaware 3 ,natatane 3    
,keyshocof4  ,nootka 3 ,opulszthl 3     
,omulszthl4  ,otomi 3 ,hindi 3 ,zana4   
,aztec or ,mexican 3 ,tonatiuh 3        
,meztli4  ,cora 3 ,taica 3 ,maitsaca4   
,huasteca 3 ,aquicha 3 ,aytz4  ,muysca 3
 ,zuhe 7sua7 3 ,chia4  ,yaruro 3 ditto 3
 ,goppe4  ,caribbee and ,tamanac 3      
,veiou 7hueiou7 3 ,nouno 7nonum74       
,maypure 3 ,kie 3 ,kejapi4  ,lule 3     
,inni 3 ,allit4  ,vilela 3 ,olo 3 ,copi4
  ,moxo 3 ,sachi 3 ,cohe4  ,chiquito 3  
,suus 3 ,copi4  ,guarani 3 ,quarasi 3   
,jasi4  ,tupi 7,brasil7 3 ,coaracy 3    
,iacy4  ,peruvian 7,quichua7 3 ,inti 3  
,quilla4  ,araucan 7,chili7 3 ,antu 3   
,cuyen4  ,,in ,,the ,,old ,,world3      
,mongol 3 ,nara 7naran7 3 ,sara 7saran74
  ,mantchou 3 ,choun 3 ,bia4            

,tschaghatai 3 ,koun 3 ,ay4  ,ossete 7of
 ,caucasus7 3 ,khourr 3 ,mai4  ,tibetan 
3 ,niyma 3 ,rdjawa4  ,chinese 3 ,jy 3   
,yue4  ,japanese 3 ,fi 3 ,tsouki4       
,sanscrit 3 ,surya1 aryama1 mitra1      
aditya1 arka1 hamsa 3 ,tschandra1       
tschandrama1 soma1 masi4  ,persian 3    
,chor1 chorschid1 afitab 3 ,mah4  ,zend 
3 ,houere4  ,pehlvi 3 ,schemschia1      
zabzoba1 kokma 3 ,kokma4  ,phoenician 3 
,schemesih4  ,hebrew 3 ,schemesch 3     
,yarea4  ,aramean or ,chaldean 3        
,schimscha 3 ,yarha4  ,syrian 3         
,schemscho 3 ,yarho4  ,arabic 3 ,schams 
3 ,kamar4  ,ethiopian 3 ,tzabay 3       
,warha4  ,the ,american words are       
written according to the ,spanish       
orthography4 ,i would not change the    
orthography of the ,nootka word         
onulszth1 taken from ,cook's ,voyages1  
to show how much ,volney's idea of      
introducing an uniform notation of      
sounds is worthy of attention1 if not   
applied to the languages of the ,east   
written without vowels4 ,in onulszth    

there are four signs for one single     
consonant4 ,we have already seen that   
,american nations1 speaking languages of
 a very different structure1 call the   
sun by the same name2 that the moon is  
sometimes called sleeping sun1 sun of   
night1 light of night2 and that         
sometimes the two orbs have the same    
denomination4 ,these examples are taken 
from the ,guarany1 the ,omagua1         
,shawanese1 ,miami1 ,maco1 and          
,ojibbeway idioms4 ,thus in the ,old    
,world1 the sun and moon are denoted in 
,arabic by niryn1 the luminaries2 thus1 
in ,persian1 the most common words1     
afitab and chorschid1 are compounds4 ,by
 the migration of tribes from ,asia to  
,america1 and from ,america to ,asia1 a 
certain number of roots have passed from
 one language into others2 and these    
roots have been transported1 like the   
fragments of a shipwreck1 far from the  
coast1 into the islands4 7,sun1 in ,new 
,england1 kone2 in ,tschagatai1 koun2 in
 ,yakout1 kouini4 ,star1 in ,huastec1   

ot2 in ,mongol1 oddon2 in ,aztec1       
citlal1 citl2 in ,persian1 sitareh4     
,house1 in ,aztec1 calli2 in ,wogoul1   
kualla or kolla4 ,water1 in ,aztec1 atel
 7itels1 a river1 in ,vilela72 in       
,mongol1 ,tscheremiss1 and ,tschouvass1 
atl1 atelch1 etel1 or idel4 ,stone1 in  
,caribbee1 tebou2 in the ,lesgian of    
,caucasus1 teb2 in ,aztec1 tepetl2 in   
,turkish1 tepe4 ,food1 in ,quichua1     
micunnan2 in ,malay1 macannon4 ,boat1 in
 ,haitian1 canoa2 in ,ayno1 cahani2 in  
,greenlandish1 kayak2 in ,turkish1      
kayik2 in ,samoyiede1 kayouk2 in the    
,germanic tongues1 kahn47 ,but we must  
distinguish from these foreign elements 
what belongs fundamentally to the       
,american idioms themselves4 ,such is   
the effect of time1 and communication   
among nations1 that the mixture with an 
heterogenous language has not only an   
influence upon roots1 but most          
frequently ends by modifying and        
denaturalizing grammatical forms4 ,when 
a language resists a regular analysis1  

observes ,william von ,humboldt1 in his 
considerations on the ,mexican1 ,cora1  
,totonac1 and ,tarahumar tongues1 we may
 suspect some mixture1 some foreign     
influence2 for the faculties of man1    
which are1 as we may say1 reflected in  
the structure of languages1 and in their
 grammatical forms1 act constantly in a 
regular and uniform manner4   ,,chapter 
#b4bb4  ,,san ,,fernando ,,de ,,atabapo4
 ,,san ,,balthasar4 ,,the ,,rivers      
,,temi ,,and ,,tuamini4 ,,javita4       
,,portage ,,from ,,the ,,tuamini ,,to   
,,the ,,rio ,,negro4  ,during the night1
 we had left1 almost unperceived1 the   
waters of the ,orinoco2 and at sunrise  
found ourselves as if transported to a  
new country1 on the banks of a river the
 name of which we had scarcely ever     
heard pronounced1 and which was to      
conduct us1 by the portage of ,pimichin1
 to the ,rio ,negro1 on the frontiers of
 ,brazil4 ,you will go up1 said the     
president of the missions1 who resides  
at ,san ,fernando1 first the ,atabapo1  

then the ,temi1 and finally1 the        
,tuamini4 ,when the force of the current
 of black waters hinders you from       
advancing1 you will be conducted out of 
the bed of the river through forests1   
which you will find inundated4 ,two     
monks only are settled in those desert  
places1 between the ,orinoco and the    
,rio ,negro2 but at ,javita you will be 
furnished with the means of having your 
canoe drawn over land in the course of  
four days to ,cano ,pimichin4 ,if it be 
not broken to pieces you will descend   
the ,rio ,negro without any obstacle    
7from north-west to south-east7 as far  
as the little fort of ,san ,carlos2 you 
will go up the ,cassiquiare 7from south 
to north71 and then return to ,san      
,fernando in a month1 descending the    
,upper ,orinoco from east to west4 ,such
 was the plan traced for our passage1   
and we carried it into effect without   
danger1 though not without some         
suffering1 in the space of thirty-three 
days4 ,the ,orinoco runs from its       

source1 or at least from ,esmeralda1 as 
far as ,san ,fernando de ,atabapo1 from 
east to west2 from ,san ,fernando1      
7where the junction of the ,guaviare and
 the ,atabapo takes place17 as far as   
the mouth of the ,rio ,apure1 it flows  
from south to north1 forming the ,great 
,cataracts2 and from the mouth of the   
,apure as far as ,angostura and the     
coast of the ,atlantic its direction is 
from west to east4 ,in the first part of
 its course1 where the river flows from 
east to west1 it forms that celebrated  
bifurcation so often disputed by        
geographers1 of which ,i was the first  
enabled to determine the situation by   
astronomical observations4 ,one arm of  
the ,orinoco1 7the ,cassiquiare17       
running from north to south1 falls into 
the ,guainia1 or ,rio ,negro1 which1 in 
its turn1 joins the ,maranon1 or river  
,amazon4 ,the most natural way1         
therefore1 to go from ,angostura to     
,grand ,para1 would be to ascend the    
,orinoco as far as ,esmeralda1 and then 

to go down the ,cassiquiare1 the ,rio   
,negro1 and the ,amazon2 but1 as the    
,rio ,negro in the upper part of its    
course approaches very near the sources 
of some rivers that fall into the       
,orinoco near ,san ,fernando de ,atabapo
 7where the ,orinoco abruptly changes   
its direction from east to west to take 
that from south to north71 the passage  
up that part of the river between ,san  
,fernando and ,esmeralda1 in order to   
reach the ,rio ,negro1 may be avoided4  
,leaving the ,orinoco near the mission  
of ,san ,fernando1 the traveller        
proceeds up the little black rivers 7the
 ,atabapo1 the ,temi1 and the ,tuamini71
 and the boats are carried across an    
isthmus six thousand toises broad1 to   
the banks of a stream 7the ,cano        
,pimichin7 which flows into the ,rio    
,negro4 ,this was the course which we   
took4  ,the road from ,san ,carlos to   
,san ,fernando de ,atabapo is far more  
disagreeable1 and is half as long again 
by the ,cassiquiare as by ,javita and   

the ,cano ,pimichin4 ,in this region ,i 
determined1 by means of a chronometer by
 ,berthoud1 and by the meridional       
heights of stars1 the situation of ,san 
,balthasar de ,atabapo1 ,javita1 ,san   
,carlos del ,rio ,negro1 the rock       
,culimacavi1 and ,esmeralda4 ,when no   
roads exist save tortuous and           
intertwining rivers1 when little        
villages are hidden amid thick forests1 
and when1 in a country entirely flat1 no
 mountain1 no elevated object is visible
 from two points at once1 it is only in 
the sky that we can read where we are   
upon the earth4  ,san ,fernando de      
,atabapo stands near the confluence of  
three great rivers2 the ,orinoco1 the   
,guaviare1 and the ,atabapo4 ,its       
situation is similar to that of ,saint  
,louis or of ,new ,madrid1 at the       
junction of the ,mississippi with the   
,missouri and the ,ohio4 ,in proportion 
as the activity of commerce increases in
 these countries traversed by immense   
rivers1 the towns situated at their     

confluence will necessarily become      
bustling ports1 depots of merchandise1  
and centre points of civilization4      
,father ,gumilla confesses1 that in his 
time no person had any knowledge of the 
course of the ,orinoco above the mouth  
of the ,guaviare4  ,d',anville1 in the  
first edition of his great map of ,south
 ,america1 laid down the ,rio ,negro as 
an arm of the ,orinoco1 that branched   
off from the principal body of the river
 between the mouths of the ,meta and the
 ,vichada1 near the cataract of ,atures4
 ,that great geographer was entirely    
ignorant of the existence of the        
,cassiquiare and the ,atabapo2 and he   
makes the ,orinoco or ,rio ,paragua1 the
 ,japura1 and the ,putumayo1 take their 
rise from three branchings of the       
,caqueta4 ,the expedition of the        
boundaries1 commanded by ,iturriaga and 
,solano1 corrected these errors4        
,solano1 who was the geographical       
engineer of this expedition1 advanced in
 #agef as far as the mouth of the       

,guaviare1 after having passed the      
,great ,cataracts4 ,he found that1 to   
continue to go up the ,orinoco1 he must 
direct his course towards the east2 and 
that the river received1 at the point of
 its great inflection1 in latitude #d   
degrees #d minutes1 the waters of the   
,guaviare1 which two miles higher had   
received those of the ,atabapo4         
,interested in approaching the          
,portuguese possessions as near as      
possible1 ,solano resolved to proceed   
onward to the south4 ,at the confluence 
of the ,atabapo and the ,guaviare he    
found an ,indian settlement of the      
warlike nation of the ,guaypunaves4 ,he 
gained their favour by presents1 and    
with their aid founded the mission of   
,san ,fernando1 to which he gave the    
appellation of villa1 or town4  ,to make
 known the political importance of this 
,mission1 we must recollect what was at 
that period the balance of power between
 the petty ,indian tribes of ,guiana4   
,the banks of the ,lower ,orinoco had   

been long ensanguined by the obstinate  
struggle between two powerful nations1  
the ,cabres and the ,caribs4 ,the       
latter1 whose principal abode since the 
close of the seventeenth century has    
been between the sources of the ,carony1
 the ,essequibo1 the ,orinoco1 and the  
,rio ,parima1 once not only held sway as
 far as the ,great ,cataracts1 but made 
incursions also into the ,upper         
,orinoco1 employing portages between the
 ,paruspa99 799 ,the ,rio ,paruspa falls
 into the ,rio ,paragua1 and the latter 
into the ,rio ,carony1 which is one of  
the tributary streams of the ,lower     
,orinoco4 ,there is also an ancient     
portage of the ,caribs between the      
,paruspa and the ,rio ,chavaro1 which   
flows into the ,rio ,caura above the    
mouth of the ,erevato4 ,in going up the 
,erevato you reach the savannahs that   
are traversed by the ,rio ,manipiare    
above the tributary streams of the      
,ventuari4 ,the ,caribs in their distant
 excursions sometimes passed from the   

,rio ,caura to the ,ventuari1 thence to 
the ,padamo1 and then by the ,upper     
,orinoco to the ,atacavi1 which1        
westward of ,manuteso1 takes the name of
 the ,atabapo47 and the ,caura1 the     
,erevato and the ,ventuari1 the         
,conorichite and the ,atacavi4 ,none    
knew better than the ,caribs the        
intertwinings of the rivers1 the        
proximity of the tributary streams1 and 
the roads by which distances might be   
diminished4 ,the ,caribs had vanquished 
and almost exterminated the ,cabres4    
,having made themselves masters of the  
,lower ,orinoco1 they met with          
resistance from the ,guaypunaves1 who   
had founded their dominion on the ,upper
 ,orinoco2 and who1 together with the   
,cabres1 the ,manitivitanos1 and the    
,parenis1 are the greatest cannibals of 
these countries4 ,they originally       
inhabited the banks of the great river  
,inirida1 at its confluence with the    
,chamochiquini1 and the hilly country of
 ,mabicore4 ,about the year #agdd1 their

 chief1 or as the natives call him1     
their king 7apoto71 was named ,macapu4  
,he was a man no less distinguished by  
his intelligence than his valour2 had   
led a part of the nation to the banks of
 the ,atabapo2 and when the ,jesuit     
,roman made his memorable expedition    
from the ,orinoco to the ,rio ,negro1   
,macapu suffered that missionary to take
 with him some families of the          
,guaypunaves to settle them at ,uruana1 
and near the cataract of ,maypures4     
,this people are connected by their     
language with the great branch of the   
,maypure nations4 ,they are more        
industrious1 we might also say more     
civilized1 than the other nations of the
 ,upper ,orinoco4 ,the missionaries     
relate1 that the ,guaypunaves1 at the   
time of their sway in those countries1  
were generally clothed1 and had         
considerable villages4 ,after the death 
of ,macapu1 the command devolved on     
another warrior1 ,cuseru1 called by the 
,spaniards ,el capitan ,cusero4 ,he     

established lines of defence on the     
banks of the ,inirida1 with a kind of   
little fort1 constructed of earth and   
timber4 ,the piles were more than       
sixteen feet high1 and surrounded both  
the house of the apoto and a magazine of
 bows and arrows4 ,these structures1    
remarkable in a country in other        
respects so wild1 have been described by
 ,father ,forneri4  ,the ,marepizanas   
and the ,manitivitanos were the         
preponderant nations on the banks of the
 ,rio ,negro4 ,the former had for its   
chiefs1 about the year #agej1 two       
warriors called ,imu and ,cajamu4 ,the  
king of the ,manitivitanos was ,cocuy1  
famous for his cruelty4 ,the chiefs of  
the ,guaypunaves and the ,manitivitanos 
fought with small bodies of two or three
 hundred men2 but in their protracted   
struggles they destroyed the missions1  
in some of which the poor monks had only
 fifteen or twenty ,spanish soldiers at 
their disposal4 ,when the expedition of 
,iturriaga and ,solano arrived at the   

,orinoco1 the missions had no longer to 
fear the incursions of the ,caribs4     
,cuseru1 the chief of the ,guaypunaves1 
had fixed his dwelling behind the       
granitic mountains of ,sipapo4 ,he was  
the friend of the ,jesuits2 but other   
nations of the ,upper ,orinoco and the  
,rio ,negro1 led by ,imu1 ,cajamu1 and  
,cocuy1 penetrated from time to time to 
the north of the ,great ,cataracts4     
,they had other motives for fighting    
than that of hatred2 they hunted men1 as
 was formerly the custom of the ,caribs1
 and is still the practice in ,africa4  
,sometimes they furnished slaves        
7poitos7 to the ,dutch 7in their        
language1 ,paranaquiri--inhabitants of  
the sea72 sometimes they sold them to   
the ,portuguese 7,iaranavi--sons of     
musicians7499 799 ,the savage tribes    
designate every commercial nation of    
,europe by surnames1 the origin of which
 appears altogether accidental4 ,the    
,spaniards were called clothed men1     
,pongheme or ,uavemi1 by way of         

distinction47 ,in ,america1 as in       
,africa1 the cupidity of the ,europeans 
has produced the same evils1 by exciting
 the natives to make war1 in order to   
procure slaves4 ,everywhere the contact 
of nations1 widely different from each  
other in the scale of civilization1     
leads to the abuse of physical strength1
 and of intellectual preponderance4 ,the
 ,phoenicians and ,carthaginians        
formerly sought slaves in ,europe4      
,europe now presses in her turn both on 
the countries whence she gathered the   
first germs of science1 and on those    
where she now almost involuntarily      
spreads them by carrying thither the    
produce of her industry4  ,i have       
faithfully recorded what ,i could       
collect on the state of these countries1
 where the vanquished nations have      
become gradually extinct1 leaving no    
other signs of their existence than a   
few words of their language1 mixed with 
that of the conquerors4 ,in the north1  
beyond the cataracts1 the preponderant  

nations were at first the ,caribs and   
the ,cabres2 towards the south1 on the  
,upper ,orinoco1 the ,guaypunaves2 and  
on the ,rio ,negro1 the ,marepizanos and
 the ,manitivitanos4 ,the long          
resistance which the ,cabres1 united    
under a valiant chief1 had made to the  
,caribs1 became fatal to the latter     
subsequently to the year #agbj4 ,they at
 first vanquished their enemies near the
 mouth of the ,rio ,caura2 and a great  
number of ,caribs perished in a         
precipitate flight1 between the rapids  
of ,torno and the ,isla del ,infierno4  
,the prisoners were devoured2 and1 by   
one of those refinements of cunning and 
cruelty which are common to the savage  
nations of both ,north and ,south       
,america1 the ,cabres spared the life of
 one ,carib1 whom they forced to climb  
up a tree to witness this barbarous     
spectacle1 and carry back the tidings to
 the vanquished4 ,the triumph of ,tep1  
the chief of the ,cabres1 was but of    
short duration4 ,the ,caribs returned in

 such great numbers that only a feeble  
remnant of the ,cabres was left on the  
banks of the ,cuchivero4  ,cocuy and    
,cuseru were carrying on a war of       
extermination on the ,upper ,orinoco    
when ,solano arrived at the mouth of the
 ,guaviare4 ,the former had embraced the
 cause of the ,portuguese2 the latter   
was a friend of the ,jesuits1 and gave  
them warning whenever the ,manitivitanos
 were marching against the christian    
establishments of ,atures and           
,carichana4 ,cuseru became a christian  
only a few days before his death2 but in
 battle he had for some time worn on his
 left hip a crucifix1 given him by the  
missionaries1 and which he believed     
rendered him invulnerable4 ,we were told
 an anecdote that paints the violence of
 his character4 ,he had married the     
daughter of an ,indian chief of the ,rio
 ,temi4 ,in a paroxysm of rage against  
his father-in-law1 he declared to his   
wife that he was going to fight against 
him4 ,she reminded him of the courage   

and singular strength of her father2    
when ,cuseru1 without uttering a single 
word1 took a poisoned arrow1 and plunged
 it into her bosom4 ,the arrival of a   
small body of ,spaniards in #agef1 under
 the order of ,solano1 awakened         
suspicion in this chief of the          
,guaypunaves4 ,he was on the point of   
attempting a contest with them1 when the
 ,jesuits made him sensible that it     
would be his interest to remain at peace
 with the ,christians4 ,whilst dining at
 the table of the ,spanish general1     
,cuseru was allured by promises1 and the
 prediction of the approaching fall of  
his enemies4 ,from being a king he      
became the mayor of a village2 and      
consented to settle with his people at  
the new mission of ,san ,fernando de    
,atabapo4 ,such is most frequently the  
end of those chiefs whom travellers and 
missionaries style ,indian princes4 ,in 
my mission1 says the honest father ,gili
 ,i had five reyecillos1 or petty kings1
 those of the ,tamanacs1 the            

,avarigotes1 the ,parecas1 the ,quaquas1
 and the ,maypures4 ,at church ,i placed
 them in file on the same bench2 but ,i 
took care to give the first place to    
,monaiti1 king of the ,tamanacs1 because
 he had helped me to found the village2 
and he seemed quite proud of this       
precedency4  ,when ,cuseru1 the chief of
 the ,guaypunaves1 saw the ,spanish     
troops pass the cataracts1 he advised   
,don ,jose ,solano to wait a whole year 
before he formed a settlement on the    
,atabapo2 predicting the misfortunes    
which were not slow to arrive4 ,let me  
labour with my people in clearing the   
ground1 said ,cuseru to the ,jesuits2 ,i
 will plant cassava1 and you will find  
hereafter wherewith to feed all these   
men4 ,solano1 impatient to advance1     
refused to listen to the counsel of the 
,indian chief1 and the new inhabitants  
of ,san ,fernando had to suffer all the 
evils of scarcity4 ,canoes were sent at 
a great expense to ,new ,grenada1 by the
 ,meta and the ,vichada1 in search of   

flour4 ,the provision arrived too late1 
and many ,spaniards and ,indians        
perished of those diseases which are    
produced in every climate by want and   
moral dejection4  ,some traces of       
cultivation are still found at ,san     
,fernando4 ,every ,indian has a small   
plantation of cacao-trees1 which produce
 abundantly in the fifth year2 but they 
cease to bear fruit sooner than in the  
valleys of ,aragua4 ,there are some     
savannahs and good pasturage round ,san 
,fernando1 but hardly seven or eight    
cows are to be found1 the remains of a  
considerable herd which was brought into
 these countries at the expedition for  
settling the boundaries4 ,the ,indians  
are a little more civilized here than in
 the rest of the missions1 and we found 
to our surprise a blacksmith of the     
native race4  ,in the mission of ,san   
,fernando1 a tree which gives a peculiar
 physiognomy to the landscape1 is the   
piritu or pirijao palm4 ,its trunk1     
armed with thorns1 is more than sixty   

feet high2 its leaves are pinnated1 very
 thin1 undulated1 and frizzled towards  
the points4 ,the fruits of this tree are
 very extraordinary2 every cluster      
contains from fifty to eighty2 they are 
yellow like apples1 grow purple in      
proportion as they ripen1 two or three  
inches thick1 and generally1 from       
abortion1 without a kernel4 ,among the  
eighty or ninety species of palm-trees  
peculiar to the ,new ,continent1 which  
,i have enumerated in the ,nova ,genera 
,plantarum ,aequinoctialum1 there are   
none in which the sarcocarp is developed
 in a manner so extraordinary4 ,the     
fruit of the pirijao furnishes a        
farinaceous substance1 as yellow as the 
yolk of an egg1 slightly saccharine1 and
 extremely nutritious4 ,it is eaten like
 plantains or potatoes1 boiled or       
roasted in the ashes1 and affords a     
wholesome and agreeable aliment4 ,the   
,indians and the missionaries are       
unwearied in their praises of this noble
 palm-tree1 which might be called the   

peach-palm4 ,we found it cultivated in  
abundance at ,san ,fernando1 ,san       
,balthasar1 ,santa ,barbara1 and        
wherever we advanced towards the south  
or the east along the banks of the      
,atabapo and the ,upper ,orinoco4 ,in   
those wild regions we are involuntarily 
reminded of the assertion of ,linnaeus1 
that the country of palm-trees was the  
first abode of our species1 and that man
 is essentially palmivorous499 799 ,homo
 ,,habitat intra tropicos1 vescitur     
palmis1 lotophagus2 ,,hospitatur extra  
tropicos sub novercante ,cerere1        
carnivorus4 ,man ,,dwells ,,naturally   
within the tropics1 and lives on the    
fruits of the palm-tree2 he ,,exists in 
other parts of the world1 and there     
makes shift to feed on corn and flesh4  
,syst4 ,nat4 volume #a page #bd47 ,on   
examining the provision accumulated in  
the huts of the ,indians1 we perceive   
that their subsistence during several   
months of the year depends as much on   
the farinaceous fruit of the pirijao1 as

 on the cassava and plantain4 ,the tree 
bears fruit but once a year1 but to the 
amount of three clusters1 consequently  
from one hundred and fifty to two       
hundred fruits4  ,san ,fernando de      
,atabapo1 ,san ,carlos1 and ,san        
,francisco ,solano1 are the most        
considerable settlements among the      
missions of the ,upper ,orinoco4 ,at    
,san ,fernando1 as well as in the       
neighbouring villages of ,san ,balthasar
 and ,javita1 the abodes of the priests 
are neatly-built houses1 covered by     
lianas1 and surrounded by gardens4 ,the 
tall trunks of the pirijao palms were   
the most beautiful ornaments of these   
plantations4 ,in our walks1 the         
president of the mission gave us an     
animated account of his incursions on   
the ,rio ,guaviare4 ,he related to us   
how much these journeys1 undertaken for 
the conquest of souls2 are desired by   
the ,indians of the missions4 ,all1 even
 women and old men1 take part in them4  
,under the pretext of recovering        

neophytes who have deserted the village1
 children above eight or ten years of   
age are carried off1 and distributed    
among the ,indians of the missions as   
serfs1 or poitos4 ,according to the     
astronomical observations ,i took on the
 banks of the ,atabapo1 and on the      
western declivity of the ,cordillera of 
the ,andes1 near the ,paramo de la suma 
,paz1 the distance is one hundred and   
seven leagues only from ,san ,fernando  
to the first villages of the provinces  
of ,caguan and ,san ,juan de los        
,llanos4 ,i was assured also by some    
,indians1 who dwelt formerly to the west
 of the island of ,amanaveni1 beyond the
 confluence of the ,rio ,supavi1 that   
going in a boat on the ,guaviare 7in the
 manner of the savages7 beyond the      
strait 7angostura7 and the principal    
cataract1 they met1 at three days'      
distance1 bearded and clothed men1 who  
came in search of the eggs of the       
terekay turtle4 ,this meeting alarmed   
the ,indians so much1 that they fled    

precipitately1 redescending the         
,guaviare4 ,it is probable1 that these  
bearded white men came from the villages
 of ,aroma and ,san ,martin1 the ,rio   
,guaviare being formed by the union of  
the rivers ,ariari and ,guayavero4 ,we  
must not be surprised that the          
missionaries of the ,orinoco and the    
,atabapo little suspect how near they   
live to the missionaries of ,mocoa1 ,rio
 ,fragua1 and ,caguan4 ,in these desert 
countries1 the real distances can be    
known only by observations of the       
longitude4 ,it was in consequence of    
astronomical data1 and the information  
,i gathered in the convents of ,popayan 
and of ,pasto1 to the west of the       
,cordillera of the ,andes1 that ,i      
formed an accurate idea of the          
respective situations of the christian  
settlements on the ,atabapo1 the        
,guayavero1 and the ,caqueta499 799 ,the
 ,caqueta bears1 lower down1 the name of
 the ,yupura47  ,everything changes on  
entering the ,rio ,atabapo2 the         

constitution of the atmosphere1 the     
colour of the waters1 and the form of   
the trees that cover the shore4 ,you no 
longer suffer during the day the torment
 of mosquitos2 and the long-legged gnats
 7zancudos7 become rare during the      
night4 ,beyond the mission of ,san      
,fernando these nocturnal insects       
disappear altogether4 ,the water of the 
,orinoco is turbid1 and loaded with     
earthy matter2 and in the coves1 from   
the accumulation of dead crocodiles and 
other putrescent substances1 it diffuses
 a musky and faint smell4 ,we were      
sometimes obliged to strain this water  
through a linen cloth before we drank   
it4 ,the water of the ,atabapo1 on the  
contrary1 is pure1 agreeable to the     
taste1 without any trace of smell1      
brownish by reflected1 and of a pale    
yellow by transmitted light4 ,the people
 call it light1 in opposition to the    
heavy and turbid waters of the ,orinoco4
 ,its temperature is generally two      
degrees1 and when you approach the mouth

 of the ,rio ,temi1 three degrees1      
cooler than the temperature of the      
,upper ,orinoco4 ,after having been     
compelled during a whole year to drink  
water at #bg or #bh degrees1 a lowering 
of a few degrees in the temperature     
produces a very agreeable sensation4 ,i 
think this lowering of the temperature  
may be attributed to the river being    
less broad1 and without the sandy beach1
 the heat of which1 at the ,orinoco1 is 
by day more than #ej degrees1 and also  
to the thick shade of the forests which 
are traversed by the ,atabapo1 the      
,temi1 the ,tuamini1 and the ,guainia1  
or ,rio ,negro4  ,the extreme purity of 
the black waters is proved by their     
limpidity1 their transparency1 and the  
clearness with which they reflect the   
images and colours of surrounding       
objects4 ,the smallest fish are visible 
in them at a depth of twenty or thirty  
feet2 and most commonly the bottom of   
the river may be distinguished1 which is
 not a yellowish or brownish mud1 like  

the colour of the water1 but a quartzose
 and granitic sand of dazzling          
whiteness4 ,nothing can be compared to  
the beauty of the banks of the ,atabapo4
 ,loaded with plants1 among which rise  
the palms with feathery leaves2 the     
banks are reflected in the waters1 and  
this reflex verdure seems to have the   
same vivid hue as that which clothes the
 real vegetation4 ,the surface of the   
fluid is homogeneous1 smooth1 and       
destitute of that mixture of suspended  
sand and decomposed organic matter1     
which roughens and streaks the surface  
of less limpid rivers4  ,on quitting the
 ,orinoco1 several small rapids must be 
passed1 but without any appearance of   
danger4 ,amid these raudalitos1         
according to the opinion of the         
missionaries1 the ,rio ,atabapo falls   
into the ,orinoco4 ,i am however        
disposed to think that the ,atabapo     
falls into the ,guaviare4 ,the ,rio     
,guaviare1 which is much wider than the 
,atabapo1 has white waters1 and in the  

aspect of its banks1 its fishing-birds1 
its fish1 and the great crocodiles which
 live in it1 resembles the ,orinoco much
 more than that part of the ,atabapo    
which comes from the ,esmeralda4 ,when a
 river springs from the junction of two 
other rivers1 nearly alike in size1 it  
is difficult to judge which of the two  
confluent streams must be regarded as   
its source4 ,the ,indians of ,san       
,fernando affirm that the ,orinoco rises
 from two rivers1 the ,guaviare and the 
,rio ,paragua4 ,they give this latter   
name to the ,upper ,orinoco1 from ,san  
,fernando and ,santa ,barbara to beyond 
the ,esmeralda1 and they say that the   
,cassiquiare is not an arm of the       
,orinoco1 but of the ,rio ,paragua4 ,it 
matters but little whether or not the   
name of ,orinoco be given to the ,rio   
,paragua1 provided we trace the course  
of these rivers as it is in nature1 and 
do not separate by a chain of mountains1
 7as was done previously to my travels17
 rivers that communicate together1 and  

form one system4 ,when we would give the
 name of a large river to one of the two
 branches by which it is formed1 it     
should be applied to that branch which  
furnishes most water4 ,now1 at the two  
seasons of the year when ,i saw the     
,guaviare and the ,upper ,orinoco or    
,rio ,paragua 7between the ,esmeralda   
and ,san ,fernando71 it appeared to me  
that the latter was not so large as the 
,guaviare4 ,similar doubts have been    
entertained by geographers respecting   
the junction of the ,upper ,mississippi 
with the ,missouri and the ,ohio1 the   
junction of the ,maranon with the       
,guallaga and the ,ucayale1 and the     
junction of the ,indus with the ,chunab 
7,hydaspes of ,cashmere7 and the ,gurra1
 or ,sutlej499 799 ,the ,hydaspes is    
properly a tributary stream of the      
,chunab or ,acesines4 ,the ,sutlej or   
,hysudrus forms1 together with the      
,beyah or 999999 ,gurra4 ,these are the 
beautiful regions of the 999999         
celebrated from the time of ,alexander  

to the 9999997 ,to avoid embroiling     
farther a nomenclature of rivers so     
arbitrarily fixed1 ,i will not propose  
new denominations4 ,i shall continue1   
with ,father ,caulin and the ,spanish   
geographers1 to call the river          
,esmeralda the ,orinoco1 or ,upper      
,orinoco2 but ,i must observe that if   
the ,orinoco1 from ,san ,fernando de    
,atabapo as far as the delta which it   
forms opposite the island of ,trinidad1 
were regarded as the continuance of the 
,rio ,guaviare1 and if that part of the 
,upper ,orinoco between the ,esmeralda  
and the mission of ,san ,fernando were  
considered a tributary stream1 the      
,orinoco would preserve1 from the       
savannahs of ,san ,juan de los ,llanos  
and the eastern declivity of the ,andes 
to its mouth1 a more uniform and natural
 direction1 that from south-west to     
north-east4  ,the ,rio ,paragua1 or that
 part of the ,orinoco east of the mouth 
of the ,guaviare1 has clearer1 more     
transparent1 and purer water than the   

part of the ,orinoco below ,san         
,fernando4 ,the waters of the ,guaviare1
 on the contrary1 are white and turbid2 
they have the same taste1 according to  
the ,indians 7whose organs of sense are 
extremely delicate and well practised71 
as the waters of the ,orinoco near the  
,great ,cataracts4 ,bring me the waters 
of three or four great rivers of these  
countries1 an old ,indian of the mission
 of ,javita said to us2 on tasting each 
of them ,i will tell you1 without fear  
of mistake1 whence it was taken2 whether
 it comes from a white or black river2  
the ,orinoco or the ,atabapo1 the       
,paragua or the ,guaviare4 ,the great   
crocodiles and porpoises 7toninas7 which
 are alike common in the ,rio ,guaviare 
and the ,lower ,orinoco1 are entirely   
wanting1 as we were told1 in the ,rio   
,paragua 7or ,upper ,orinoco1 between   
,san ,fernando and the ,esmeralda74     
,these are very remarkable differences  
in the nature of the waters1 and the    
distribution of animals4 ,the ,indians  

do not fail to mention them1 when they  
would prove to travellers that the      
,upper ,orinoco1 to the east of ,san    
,fernando1 is a distinct river which    
falls into the ,orinoco1 and that the   
real origin of the latter must be sought
 in the sources of the ,guaviare4  ,the 
astronomical observations made in the   
night of the #beth of ,april did not    
give me the latitude with satisfactory  
precision4 ,the latitude of the mission 
of ,san ,fernando appeared to me to be  
#d degrees #b minutes #dh seconds4 ,in  
,father ,caulin's map1 founded on the   
observations of ,solano made in #agef1  
it is #d degrees #a minute4 ,this       
agreement proves the justness of a      
result which1 however1 ,i could only    
deduce from altitudes considerably      
distant from the meridian4 ,a good      
observation of the stars at ,guapasoso  
gave me #d degrees #b minutes for ,san  
,fernando de ,atabapo4 ,i was able to   
fix the longitude with much more        
precision in my way to the ,rio ,negro1 

and in returning from that river4 ,it is
 #gj degrees #cj minutes #df seconds 7or
 #d degrees #j minutes west of the      
meridian of ,cumana74  ,on the #bfth of 
,april we advanced only two or three    
leagues1 and passed the night on a rock 
near the ,indian plantations or conucos 
of ,guapasoso4 ,the river losing itself 
by its inundations in the forests1 and  
its real banks being unseen1 the        
traveller can venture to land only where
 a rock or a small table-land rises     
above the water4 ,the granite of those  
countries1 owing to the position of the 
thin laminae of black mica1 sometimes   
resembles graphic granite2 but most     
frequently 7and this determines the age 
of its formation7 it passes into a real 
gneiss4 ,its beds1 very regularly       
stratified1 run from south-west to      
north-east1 as in the ,cordillera on the
 shore of ,caracas4 ,the dip of the     
granite-gneiss is #gj degrees           
north-west4 ,it is traversed by an      
infinite number of veins of quartz1     

which are singularly transparent1 and   
three or four1 and sometimes fifteen    
inches thick4 ,i found no cavity        
7druse71 no crystallized substance1 not 
even rock-crystal2 and no trace of      
pyrites1 or any other metallic          
substance4 ,i enter into these          
particulars on account of the chimerical
 ideas that have been spread ever since 
the sixteenth century1 after the voyages
 of ,berreo and ,raleigh199 on the      
immense riches of the great and fine    
empire of ,guiana4 799 ,raleigh's work  
bears the high sounding title of ,the   
,discovery of the large1 rich1 and      
beautiful ,empire of ,guiana1 ,london   
#aeif4 ,see also ,raleghi admiranda     
,descriptio ,regni ,guianae1 auri       
abundantissimi1 ,hondius ,noribergae    
#aeii47  ,the river ,atabapo presents   
throughout a peculiar aspect2 you see   
nothing of its real banks formed by flat
 lands eight or ten feet high2 they are 
concealed by a row of palms1 and small  
trees with slender trunks1 the roots of 

which are bathed by the waters4 ,there  
are many crocodiles from the point where
 you quit the ,orinoco to the mission of
 ,san ,fernando1 and their presence     
indicates that this part of the river   
belongs to the ,rio ,guaviare and not to
 the ,atabapo4 ,in the real bed of the  
latter river1 above the mission of ,san 
,fernando1 there are no crocodiles3 we  
find there some bavas1 a great many     
fresh-water dolphins1 but no manatees4  
,we also seek in vain on these banks for
 the thick-nosed tapir1 the araguato1 or
 great howling monkey1 the zamuro1 or   
,vultur aura1 and the crested pheasant1 
known by the name of guacharaca4        
,enormous water-snakes1 in shape        
resembling the boa1 are unfortunately   
very common1 and are dangerous to       
,indians who bathe4 ,we saw them almost 
from the first day we embarked1 swimming
 by the side of our canoe2 they were at 
most twelve or fourteen feet long4 ,the 
jaguars of the banks of the ,atabapo and
 the ,temi are large and well fed2 they 

are said1 however1 to be less daring    
than the jaguars of the ,orinoco4  ,the 
night of the #bgth was beautiful2 dark  
clouds passed from time to time over the
 zenith with extreme rapidity4 ,not a   
breath of wind was felt in the lower    
strata of the atmosphere2 the breeze was
 at the height of a thousand toises4 ,i 
dwell upon this peculiarity2 for the    
movement we saw was not produced by the 
counter-currents 7from west to east7    
which are sometimes thought to be       
observed in the torrid zone on the      
loftiest mountains of the ,cordilleras2 
it was the effect of a real breeze1 an  
east wind4 ,we left the conucos of      
,guapasoso at two o'clock2 and continued
 to ascend the river toward the south1  
finding it 7or rather that part of its  
bed which is free from trees7 growing   
more and more narrow4 ,it began to rain 
toward sunrise4 ,in these forests1 which
 are less inhabited by animals than     
those of the ,orinoco1 we no longer     
heard the howlings of the monkeys4 ,the 

dolphins1 or toninas1 sported by the    
side of our boat4 ,according to the     
relation of ,mr4 ,colebrooke1 the       
,delphinus gangeticus1 which is the     
fresh-water porpoise of the ,old ,world1
 in like manner accompanies the boats   
that go up towards ,benares2 but from   
,benares to the point where the ,ganges 
receives the salt waters is only two    
hundred leagues1 while from the ,atabapo
 to the mouth of the ,orinoco is more   
than three hundred and twenty4  ,about  
noon we passed the mouth of the little  
river ,ipurichapano on the east1 and    
afterwards the granitic rock1 known by  
the name of ,piedra del ,tigre4 ,between
 the fourth and fifth degrees of        
latitude1 a little to the south of the  
mountains of ,sipapo1 we reach the      
southern extremity of that chain of     
cataracts1 which ,i proposed1 in a      
memoir published in #ahjj1 to call the  
,chain of ,parima4 ,at #d degrees #bj   
minutes it stretches from the right bank
 of the ,orinoco toward the east and    

east-south-east4 ,the whole of the land 
extending from the mountains of the     
,parima towards the river ,amazon1 which
 is traversed by the ,atabapo1 the      
,cassiquiare1 and the ,rio ,negro1 is an
 immense plain1 covered partly with     
forests1 and partly with grass4 ,small  
rocks rise here and there like castles4 
,we regretted that we had not stopped to
 rest near the ,piedra del ,tigre2 for  
on going up the ,atabapo we had great   
difficulty to find a spot of dry ground1
 open and spacious enough to light a    
fire1 and place our instrument and our  
hammocks4  ,on the #bhth of ,april1 it  
rained hard after sunset1 and we were   
afraid that our collections would be    
damaged4 ,the poor missionary had his   
fit of tertian fever1 and besought us to
 re-embark immediately after midnight4  
,we passed at day-break the ,piedra and 
the ,raudalitos99 799 ,the rock and     
little cascades47 of ,guarinuma4 ,the   
rock is on the east bank2 it is a shelf 
of granite1 covered with psora1         

cladonia1 and other lichens4 ,i could   
have fancied myself transported to the  
north of ,europe1 to the ridge of the   
mountains of gneiss and granite between 
,freiberg and ,marienberg in ,saxony4   
,the cladonias appeared to me to be     
identical with the ,lichen rangiferinus1
 the ,l4 pixidatus1 and the ,l4         
polymorphus of ,linnaeus4 ,after having 
passed the rapids of ,guarinuma1 the    
,indians showed us in the middle of the 
forest1 on our right1 the ruins of the  
mission of ,mendaxari1 which has been   
long abandoned4 ,on the east bank of the
 river1 near the little rock of         
,kemarumo1 in the midst of ,indian      
plantations1 a gigantic bombax99 799    
,bombax ceiba47 attracted our curiosity4
 ,we landed to measure it2 the height   
was nearly one hundred and twenty feet1 
and the diameter between fourteen and   
fifteen4 ,this enormous specimen of     
vegetation surprised us the more1 as we 
had till then seen on the banks of the  
,atabapo only small trees with slender  

trunks1 which from afar resembled young 
cherry-trees4 ,the ,indians assured that
 these small trees do not form a very   
extensive group4 ,they are checked in   
their growth by the inundations of the  
river2 while the dry grounds near the   
,atabapo1 the ,temi1 and the ,tuamini1  
furnish excellent timber for building4  
,these forests do not stretch           
indefinitely to the east and west1      
toward the ,cassiquiare and the         
,guaviare2 they are bounded by the open 
savannahs of ,manuteso1 and the ,rio    
,inirida4 ,we found it difficult in the 
evening to stem the current1 and we     
passed the night in a wood a little     
above ,mendaxari2 which is another      
granitic rock traversed by a stratum of 
quartz4 ,we found in it a group of fine 
crystals of black schorl4  ,on the      
#bith1 the air was cooler4 ,we had no   
zancudos1 but the sky was constantly    
clouded1 and without stars4 ,i began to 
regret the ,lower ,orinoco4 ,we still   
advanced but slowly from the force of   

the current1 and we stopped a great part
 of the day to seek for plants4 ,it was 
night when we arrived at the mission of 
,san ,balthasar1 or1 as the monks style 
it1 the mission of la divina ,pastora de
 ,balthasar de ,atabapo4 ,we were lodged
 with a ,catalonian missionary1 a lively
 and agreeable man1 who displayed in    
these wild countries the activity that  
characterises his nation4 ,he had       
planted a garden1 where the fig-tree of 
,europe was found in company with the   
persea1 and the lemon-tree with the     
mammee4 ,the village was built with that
 regularity which1 in the north of      
,germany1 and in protestant ,america1 we
 find in the hamlets of the ,moravian   
brethren2 and the ,indian plantations   
seemed better cultivated than elsewhere4
 ,here we saw for the first time that   
white and fungous substance which ,i    
have made known by the name of dapicho  
and zapis499 799 ,these two words belong
 to the ,poimisano and ,paragini        
tongues47 ,we immediately perceived that

 it was analogous to india-rubber2 but1 
as the ,indians made us understand by   
signs1 that it was found underground1 we
 were inclined to think1 till we arrived
 at the mission of ,javita1 that the    
dapicho was a fossil caoutchouc1 though 
different from the elastic bitumen of   
,derbyshire4 ,a ,pomisano ,indian1      
seated by the fire in the hut of the    
missionary1 was employed in reducing the
 dapicho into black caoutchouc4 ,he had 
spitted several bits on a slender stick1
 and was roasting them like meat4 ,the  
dapicho blackens in proportion as it    
grows soft1 and becomes elastic4 ,the   
resinous and aromatic smell which filled
 the hut1 seemed to indicate that this  
coloration is the effect of the         
decomposition of a carburet of hydrogen1
 and that the carbon appears in         
proportion as the hydrogen burns at a   
low heat4 ,the ,indian beat the softened
 and blackened mass with a piece of     
brazil-wood1 formed at one end like a   
club2 he then kneaded the dapicho into  

balls of three or four inches in        
diameter1 and let it cool4 ,these balls 
exactly resemble the caoutchouc of the  
shops1 but their surface remains in     
general slightly viscous4 ,they are used
 at ,san ,balthasar in the ,indian game 
of tennis1 which is celebrated among the
 inhabitants of ,uruana and ,encaramada2
 they are also cut into cylinders1 to be
 used as corks1 and are far preferable  
to those made of the bark of the        
cork-tree4  ,this use of caoutchouc     
appeared to us the more worthy notice1  
as we had been often embarrassed by the 
want of ,european corks4 ,the great     
utility of cork is fully understood in  
countries where trade has not supplied  
this bark in plenty4 ,equinoctial       
,america nowhere produces1 not even on  
the back of the ,andes1 an oak          
resembling the ,quercus suber2 and      
neither the light wood of the bombax1   
the ochroma1 and other malvaceous       
plants1 nor the rhachis of maize1 of    
which the natives make use1 can well    

supply the place of our corks4 ,the     
missionary showed us1 before the ,casa  
de los ,solteros 7the house where the   
young unmarried men reside71 a drum1    
which was a hollow cylinder of wood1 two
 feet long and eighteen inches thick4   
,this drum was beaten with great masses 
of dapicho1 which served as drumsticks2 
it had openings which could be stopped  
by the hand at will1 to vary the sounds1
 and was fixed on two light supports4   
,savage notions love noisy music2 the   
drum and the botuto1 or trumpet of baked
 earth1 in which a tube of three or four
 feet long communicates with several    
barrels1 are indispensable instruments  
among the ,indians for their grand      
pieces of music4  ,the night of the     
#cjth of ,april was sufficiently fine   
for observing the meridian heights of x 
of the ,southern ,cross1 and the two    
large stars in the feet of the ,centaur4
 ,i found the latitude of ,san          
,balthasar #c degrees #ad minutes #bc   
seconds4 ,horary angles of the sun gave 

#gj degrees #ad minutes #ba seconds for 
the longitude by the chronometer4 ,the  
dip of the magnetic needle was #bg4h    
degrees 7cent div74 ,we left the mission
 at a late hour in the morning1 and     
continued to go up the ,atabapo for five
 miles2 then1 instead of following that 
river to its source in the east1 where  
it bears the name of ,atacavi1 we       
entered the ,rio ,temi4 ,before we      
reached its confluence1 a granitic      
eminence on the western bank1 near the  
mouth of the ,guasacavi1 fixed our      
attention3 it is called ,piedra de la   
,guahiba 7,rock of the ,guahiba woman71 
or the ,piedra de la ,madre 7,mother's  
,rock47 ,we inquired the cause of so    
singular a denomination4 ,father ,zea   
could not satisfy our curiosity2 but    
some weeks after1 another missionary1   
one of the predecessors of that         
ecclesiastic1 whom we found settled at  
,san ,fernando as president of the      
missions1 related to us an event which  
excited in our minds the most painful   

feelings4 ,if1 in these solitary scenes1
 man scarcely leaves behind him any     
trace of his existence1 it is doubly    
humiliating for a ,european to see      
perpetuated by so imperishable a        
monument of nature as a rock1 the       
remembrance of the moral degradation of 
our species1 and the contrast between   
the virtue of a savage1 and the         
barbarism of civilized man6  ,in #agig  
the missionary of ,san ,fernando had led
 his ,indians to the banks of the ,rio  
,guaviare1 on one of those hostile      
incursions which are prohibited alike by
 religion and the ,spanish laws4 ,they  
found in an ,indian hut a ,guahiba woman
 with her three children 7two of whom   
were still infants71 occupied in        
preparing the flour of cassava4         
,resistance was impossible2 the father  
was gone to fish1 and the mother tried  
in vain to flee with her children4      
,scarcely had she reached the savannah  
when she was seized by the ,indians of  
the mission1 who hunt human beings1 like

 the ,whites and the ,negroes in        
,africa4 ,the mother and her children   
were bound1 and dragged to the bank of  
the river4 ,the monk1 seated in his     
boat1 waited the issue of an expedition 
of which he shared not the danger4 ,had 
the mother made too violent a resistance
 the ,indians would have killed her1 for
 everything is permitted for the sake of
 the conquest of souls 7la conquista    
espirituel71 and it is particularly     
desirable to capture children1 who may  
be treated in the ,mission as poitos1 or
 slaves of the ,christians4 ,the        
prisoners were carried to ,san          
,fernando1 in the hope that the mother  
would be unable to find her way back to 
her home by land4 ,separated from her   
other children who had accompanied their
 father on the day in which she had been
 carried off1 the unhappy woman showed  
signs of the deepest despair4 ,she      
attempted to take back to her home the  
children who had been seized by the     
missionary2 and she fled with them      

repeatedly from the village of ,san     
,fernando4 ,but the ,indians never      
failed to recapture her2 and the        
missionary1 after having caused her to  
be mercilessly beaten1 took the cruel   
resolution of separating the mother from
 the two children who had been carried  
off with her4 ,she was conveyed alone to
 the missions of the ,rio ,negro1 going 
up the ,atabapo4 ,slightly bound1 she   
was seated at the bow of the boat1      
ignorant of the fate that awaited her2  
but she judged by the direction of the  
sun1 that she was removing farther and  
farther from her hut and her native     
country4 ,she succeeded in breaking her 
bonds1 threw herself into the water1 and
 swam to the left bank of the ,atabapo4 
,the current carried her to a shelf of  
rock1 which bears her name to this day4 
,she landed and took shelter in the     
woods1 but the president of the missions
 ordered the ,indians to row to the     
shore1 and follow the traces of the     
,guahiba4 ,in the evening she was       

brought back4 ,stretched upon the rock  
7la ,piedra de la ,madre7 a cruel       
punishment was inflicted on her with    
those straps of manatee leather1 which  
serve for whips in that country1 and    
with which the alcaldes are always      
furnished4 ,this unhappy woman1 her     
hands tied behind her back with strong  
stalks of mavacure1 was then dragged to 
the mission of ,javita4  ,she was there 
thrown into one of the caravanserais1   
called las ,casas del ,rey4 ,it was the 
rainy season1 and the night was         
profoundly dark4 ,forests till then     
believed to be impenetrable separated   
the mission of ,javita from that of ,san
 ,fernando1 which was twenty-five       
leagues distant in a straight line4 ,no 
other route is known than that by the   
rivers2 no man ever attempted to go by  
land from one village to another4 ,but  
such difficulties could not deter a     
mother1 separated from her children4    
,the ,guahiba was carelessly guarded in 
the caravanserai4 ,her arms being       

wounded1 the ,indians of ,javita had    
loosened her bonds1 unknown to the      
missionary and the alcaldes4 ,having    
succeeded by the help of her teeth in   
breaking them entirely1 she disappeared 
during the night2 and at the fourth     
sunrise was seen at the mission of ,san 
,fernando1 hovering around the hut where
 her children were confined4 ,what that 
woman performed1 added the missionary1  
who gave us this sad narrative1 the most
 robust ,indian would not have ventured 
to undertake6 ,she traversed the woods  
at a season when the sky is constantly  
covered with clouds1 and the sun during 
whole days appears but for a few        
minutes4 ,did the course of the waters  
direct her way8 ,the inundations of the 
rivers forced her to go far from the    
banks of the main stream1 through the   
midst of woods where the movement of the
 water is almost imperceptible4 ,how    
often must she have been stopped by the 
thorny lianas1 that form a network      
around the trunks they entwine6 ,how    

often must she have swum across the     
rivulets that run into the ,atabapo6    
,this unfortunate woman was asked how   
she had sustained herself during four   
days4 ,she said that1 exhausted with    
fatigue1 she could find no other        
nourishment than those great black ants 
called vachacos1 which climb the trees  
in long bands1 to suspend on them their 
resinous nests4 ,we pressed the         
missionary to tell us whether the       
,guahiba had peacefully enjoyed the     
happiness of remaining with her         
children2 and if any repentance had     
followed this excess of cruelty4 ,he    
would not satisfy our curiosity2 but at 
our return from the ,rio ,negro we      
learned that the ,indian mother was     
again separated from her children1 and  
sent to one of the missions of the      
,upper ,orinoco4 ,there she died1       
refusing all kind of nourishment1 as    
savages frequently do in great          
calamities4  ,such is the remembrance   
annexed to this fatal rock1 the ,piedra 

de la ,madre4 ,in this relation of my   
travels ,i feel no desire to dwell on   
pictures of individual suffering--evils 
which are frequent wherever there are   
masters and slaves1 civilized ,europeans
 living with people in a state of       
barbarism1 and priests exercising the   
plenitude of arbitrary power over men   
ignorant and without defence4 ,in       
describing the countries through which  
,i passed1 ,i generally confine myself  
to pointing out what is imperfect1 or   
fatal to humanity1 in their civil or    
religious institutions4 ,if ,i have     
dwelt longer on the ,rock of the        
,guahiba1 it was to record an affecting 
instance of maternal tenderness in a    
race of people so long calumniated2 and 
because ,i thought some benefit might   
accrue from publishing a fact1 which ,i 
had from the monks of ,san ,francisco1  
and which proves how much the system of 
the missions calls for the care of the  
legislator4  ,above the mouth of the    
,guasucavi we entered the ,rio ,temi1   

the course of which is from south to    
north4 ,had we continued to ascend the  
,atabapo1 we should have turned to      
east-south-east1 going farther from the 
banks of the ,guainia or ,rio ,negro4   
,the ,temi is only eighty or ninety     
toises broad1 but in any other country  
than ,guiana it would be a considerable 
river4 ,the country exhibits the uniform
 aspect of forests covering ground      
perfectly flat4 ,the fine pirijao palm1 
with its fruit like peaches1 and a new  
species of bache1 or mauritia1 its trunk
 bristled with thorns1 rise amid smaller
 trees1 the vegetation of which appears 
to be retarded by the continuance of the
 inundations4 ,the ,mauritia aculeata is
 called by the ,indians juria or        
cauvaja2 its leaves are in the form of a
 fan1 and they bend towards the ground4 
,at the centre of every leaf1 no doubt  
from the effect of some disease of the  
parenchyma1 concentric circles of       
alternate blue and yellow appear1 the   
yellow prevailing towards the middle4   

,we were singularly struck by this      
appearance2 the leaves1 coloured like   
the peacock's tail1 are supported by    
short and very thick trunks4 ,the thorns
 are not slender and long like those of 
the corozo and other thorny palm-trees2 
but on the contrary1 very woody1 short1 
and broad at the base1 like the thorns  
of the ,hura crepitans4 ,on the banks of
 the ,atabapo and the ,temi1 this       
palm-tree is distributed in groups of   
twelve or fifteen stems1 close together1
 and looking as if they rose from the   
same root4 ,these trees resemble in     
their appearance1 form1 and scarcity of 
leaves1 the fan-palms and palmettos of  
the ,old ,world4 ,we remarked that some 
plants of the juria were entirely       
destitute of fruit1 and others exhibited
 a considerable quantity2 this          
circumstance seems to indicate a        
palm-tree of separate sexes4  ,wherever 
the ,rio ,temi forms coves1 the forest  
is inundated to the extent of more than 
half a square league4 ,to avoid the     

sinuosities of the river and shorten the
 passage1 the navigation is here        
performed in a very extraordinary       
manner4 ,the ,indians made us leave the 
bed of the river2 and we proceeded      
southward across the forest1 through    
paths 7sendas71 that is1 through open   
channels of four or five feet broad4    
,the depth of the water seldom exceeds  
half a fathom4 ,these sendas are formed 
in the inundated forest like paths on   
dry ground4 ,the ,indians1 in going from
 one mission to another1 pass with their
 boats as much as possible by the same  
way2 but the communications not being   
frequent1 the force of vegetation       
sometimes produces unexpected obstacles4
 ,an ,indian1 furnished with a machete  
7a great knife1 the blade of which is   
fourteen inches long71 stood at the head
 of our boat1 employed continually in   
chopping off the branches that crossed  
each other from the two sides of the    
channel4 ,in the thickest part of the   
forest we were astonished by an         

extraordinary noise4 ,on beating the    
bushes1 a shoal of toninas 7fresh-water 
dolphins7 four feet long1 surrounded our
 boat4 ,these animals had concealed     
themselves beneath the branches of a    
fromager1 or ,bombax ceiba4 ,they fled  
across the forest1 throwing out those   
spouts of compressed air and water which
 have given them in every language the  
name of blowers4 ,how singular was this 
spectacle in an inland spot1 three or   
four hundred leagues from the mouths of 
the ,orinoco and the ,amazon6 ,i am     
aware that the pleuronectes 7dabs7 of   
the ,atlantic go up the ,loire as far as
 ,orleans2 but ,i am1 nevertheless1 of  
opinion that the dolphins of the ,temi1 
like those of the ,ganges1 and like the 
skate 7raia7 of the ,orinoco1 are of a  
species essentially different from the  
dolphins and skates of the ocean4 ,in   
the immense rivers of ,south ,america1  
and the great lakes of ,north ,america1 
nature seems to repeat several pelagic  
forms4 ,the ,nile has no porpoises399   

those of the sea go up the ,delta no    
farther than ,biana and ,metonbis       
towards ,selamoun4 799 ,those dolphins  
that enter the mouth of the ,nile1 did  
not escape the observation of the       
ancients4 ,in a bust in syenite1        
preserved in the museum at ,paris1 the  
sculptor has represented them half      
concealed in the undulatory beard of the
 god of the river47  ,at five in the    
evening we regained with some difficulty
 the bed of the river4 ,our canoe       
remained fast for some minutes between  
two trunks of trees2 and it was no      
sooner disengaged than we reached a spot
 where several paths1 or small channels1
 crossed each other1 so that the pilot  
was puzzled to distinguish the most open
 path4 ,we navigated through a forest so
 thick that we could guide ourselves    
neither by the sun nor by the stars4 ,we
 were again struck during this day by   
the want of arborescent ferns in that   
country2 they diminish visibly from the 
sixth degree of north latitude1 while   

the palm-trees augment prodigiously     
towards the equator4 ,fern-trees belong 
to a climate less hot1 and a soil but   
little mountainous4 ,it is only where   
there are mountains that these majestic 
plants descend towards the plains2 they 
seem to avoid perfectly flat grounds1 as
 those through which run the            
,cassiquiare1 the ,temi1 ,inirida1 and  
the ,rio ,negro4 ,we passed in the night
 near a rock1 called the ,piedra de     
,astor by the missionaries4 ,the ground 
from the mouth of the ,guaviare         
constantly displays the same geological 
formation4 ,it is a vast granitic plain1
 in which from league to league the rock
 pierces the soil1 and forms1 not       
hillocks1 but small masses1 that        
resemble pillars or ruined buildings4   
,on the #ast of ,may the ,indians chose 
to depart long before sunrise4 ,we were 
stirring before them1 however1 because  
,i waited 7though vainly7 for a star    
ready to pass the meridian4 ,in those   
humid regions covered with forests1 the 

nights became more obscure in proportion
 as we drew nearer to the ,rio ,negro   
and the interior of ,brazil4 ,we        
remained in the bed of the river till   
daybreak1 being afraid of losing        
ourselves among the trees4 ,at sunrise  
we again entered the inundated forest1  
to avoid the force of the current4 ,on  
reaching the junction of the ,temi with 
another little river1 the ,tuamini1 the 
waters of which are equally black1 we   
proceeded along the latter to the       
south-west4 ,this direction led us near 
the mission of ,javita1 which is founded
 on the banks of the ,tuamini2 and at   
this christian settlement we were to    
find the aid necessary for transporting 
our canoe by land to the ,rio ,negro4   
,we did not arrive at ,san ,antonio de  
,javita till near eleven in the morning4
 ,an accident1 unimportant in itself1   
but which shows the excessive timidity  
of the little sagoins detained us some  
time at the mouth of the ,tuamini4 ,the 
noise of the blowers had frightened our 

monkeys1 and one of them fell into the  
water4 ,animals of this species1 perhaps
 on account of their extreme meagreness1
 swim badly2 and consequently it was    
saved with some difficulty4  ,at ,javita
 we had the pleasure of finding a very  
intelligent and obliging monk1 at whose 
mission we were forced to remain four or
 five days1 the time required for       
transporting our boat across the portage
 of ,pimichin4 ,this delay enabled us to
 visit the surrounding country1 as also 
to relieve ourselves from an annoyance  
which we had suffered for two days4 ,we 
felt an extraordinary irritation on the 
joints of our fingers1 and on the backs 
of our hands4 ,the missionary told us it
 was caused by the aradores199 799      
,literally the ploughers47 which get    
under the skin4 ,we could distinguish   
with a lens nothing but streaks1 or     
parallel and whitish furrows4 ,it is the
 form of these furrows1 that has        
obtained for the insect the name of     
ploughman4 ,a mulatto woman was sent    

for1 who professed to be thoroughly     
acquainted with all the little insects  
that burrow in the human skin2 the      
chego1 the nuche1 the coya1 and the     
arador2 she was the curandera1 or       
surgeon of the place4 ,she promised to  
extirpate1 one by one1 the insects which
 caused this smarting irritation4       
,having heated at a lamp the point a    
little bit of hard wood1 she dug with it
 into the furrows that marked the skin4 
,after long examination1 she announced  
with the pedantic gravity peculiar to   
the mulatto race1 that an arador was    
found4 ,i saw a little round bag1 which 
,i suspected to be the egg of an acarus4
 ,i was to find relief when the mulatto 
woman had succeeded in taking out three 
or four of these aradores4 ,having the  
skin of both hands filled with acari1 ,i
 had not the patience to wait the end of
 an operation1 which had already lasted 
till late at night4 ,the next day an    
,indian of ,javita cured us radically1  
and with surprising promptitude4 ,he    

brought us the branch of a shrub1 called
 uzao1 with small leaves like those of  
cassia1 very coriaceous and glossy4 ,he 
made a cold infusion of the bark of this
 shrub1 which had a bluish colour1 and  
the taste of liquorice4 ,when beaten1 it
 yields a great deal of froth4 ,the     
irritation of the aradores ceased by    
using simple lotions of this uzao-water4
 ,we could not find this shrub in       
flower1 or bearing fruit2 it appears to 
belong to the family of the leguminous  
plants1 the chemical properties of which
 are singularly varied4 ,we dreaded so  
much the sufferings to which we had been
 exposed1 that we constantly kept some  
branches of the uzao in our boat1 till  
we reached ,san ,carlos4 ,this shrub    
grows in abundance on the banks of the  
,pimichin4 ,why has no remedy been      
discovered for the irritation produced  
by the sting of the zancudos1 as well as
 for that occasioned by the aradores or 
microscopic acari8  ,in #agee1 before   
the expedition for fixing the           

boundaries1 better known by the name of 
the expedition of ,solano1 the whole    
country between the missions of ,javita 
and ,san ,balthasar was regarded as     
dependent on ,brazil4 ,the ,portuguese  
had advanced from the ,rio ,negro1 by   
the portage of the ,cano ,pimichin1 as  
far as the banks of the ,temi4 ,an      
,indian chief of the name of ,javita1   
celebrated for his courage and his      
spirit of enterprise1 was the ally of   
the ,portuguese4 ,he pushed his hostile 
incursions from the ,rio ,jupura1 or    
,caqueta1 one of the great tributary    
streams of the ,amazon1 by the rivers   
,uaupe and ,xie1 as far as the black    
waters of the ,temi and the ,tuamini1 a 
distance of more than a hundred leagues4
 ,he was furnished with letters patent1 
which authorised him to bring the       
,indians from the forest1 for the       
conquest of souls4 ,he availed himself  
amply of this permission2 but his       
incursions had an object which was not  
altogether spiritual1 that of making    

slaves to sell to the ,portuguese4 ,when
 ,solano1 the second chief of the       
expedition of the boundaries1 arrived at
 ,san ,fernando de ,atabapo1 he had     
,javita seized1 in one of his incursions
 to the banks of the ,temi4 ,he treated 
him with gentleness1 and succeeded in   
gaining him over to the interests of the
 ,spanish government by promises that   
were not fulfilled4 ,the ,portuguese1   
who had already formed some stable      
settlements in these countries1 were    
driven back as far as the lower part of 
the ,rio ,negro2 and the mission of ,san
 ,antonio1 of which the more usual name 
is ,javita1 so called after its ,indian 
founder1 was removed farther north of   
the sources of the ,tuamini1 to the spot
 where it is now established4 ,this     
captain1 ,javita1 was still living1 at  
an advanced age1 when we proceeded to   
the ,rio ,negro4 ,he was an ,indian of  
great vigour of mind and body4 ,he spoke
 ,spanish with facility1 and preserved a
 certain influence over the neighbouring

 nations4 ,as he attended us in all our 
herborizations1 we obtained from his own
 mouth information so much the more     
useful1 as the missionaries have great  
confidence in his veracity4 ,he assured 
us that in his youth he had seen almost 
all the ,indian tribes that inhabit the 
vast regions between the ,upper         
,orinoco1 the ,rio ,negro1 the ,inirida1
 and the ,jupura1 eat human flesh4 ,the 
,daricavanas1 the ,puchirinavis1 and the
 ,manitivitanos1 appeared to him to be  
the greatest cannibals among them4 ,he  
believes that this abominable practice  
is with them the effect of a system of  
vengeance2 they eat only enemies who are
 made prisoners in battle4 ,the         
instances where1 by a refinement of     
cruelty1 the ,indian eats his nearest   
relations1 his wife1 or an unfaithful   
mistress1 are extremely rare4 ,the      
strange custom of the ,scythians and    
,massagetes1 the ,capanaguas of the ,rio
 ,ucayale1 and the ancient inhabitants  
of the ,west ,indian ,islands1 of       

honouring the dead by eating a part of  
their remains1 is unknown on the banks  
of the ,orinoco4 ,in both continents    
this trait of manners belongs only to   
nations that hold in horror the flesh of
 a prisoner4 ,the ,indian of ,hayti     
7,saint ,domingo7 would think himself   
wanting in regard to the memory of a    
relation1 if he did not throw into his  
drink a small portion of the body of the
 deceased1 after having dried it like   
one of the mummies of the ,guanches1 and
 reduced it to powder4 ,this gives us   
just occasion to repeat with an eastern 
poet1 of all animals man is the most    
fantastic in his manners1 and the most  
disorderly in his propensities4  ,the   
climate of the mission of ,san ,antonio 
de ,javita is extremely rainy4 ,when you
 have passed the latitude of three      
degrees north1 and approach the equator1
 you have seldom an opportunity of      
observing the sun or the stars4 ,it     
rains almost the whole year1 and the sky
 is constantly cloudy4 ,as the breeze is

 not felt in these immense forests of   
,guiana1 and the refluent polar currents
 do not penetrate them1 the column of   
air which reposes on this wooded zone is
 not renewed by dryer strata4 ,it is    
saturated with vapours which are        
condensed into equatorial rains4 ,the   
missionary assured us that it often     
rains here four or five months without  
cessation4  ,the temperature of ,javita 
is cooler than that of ,maypures1 but   
considerably hotter than that of the    
,guainia or ,rio ,negro4 ,the centigrade
 thermometer kept up in the day to      
twenty-six or twenty-seven degrees2 and 
in the night to twenty-one degrees4     
,from the #cjth of ,april to the #aath  
of ,may1 ,i had not been able to see any
 star in the meridian so as to determine
 the latitude of places4 ,i watched     
whole nights in order to make use of the
 method of double altitudes2 but all my 
efforts were useless4 ,the fogs of the  
north of ,europe are not more constant  
than those of the equatorial regions of 

,guiana4 ,on the #dth of ,may1 ,i saw   
the sun for some minutes2 and found by  
the chronometer and the horary angles   
the longitude of ,javita to be #gj      
degrees #bb minutes1 or #a degree #ae   
minutes farther west than the longitude 
of the junction of the ,apure with the  
,orinoco4 ,this result is interesting   
for laying down on our maps the unknown 
country lying between the ,xie and the  
sources of the ,issana1 situated on the 
same meridian with the mission of       
,javita4  ,the ,indians of ,javita1     
whose number amounts to one hundred and 
sixty1 now belong for the most part to  
the nations of the ,poimisanos1 the     
,echinavis1 and the ,paraganis4 ,they   
are employed in the construction of     
boats1 formed of the trunks of          
sassafras1 a large species of laurel1   
hollowed by means of fire and the       
hatchet4 ,these trees are more than one 
hundred feet high2 the wood is yellow1  
resinous1 almost incorruptible in water1
 and has a very agreeable smell4 ,we saw

 them at ,san ,fernando1 at ,javita1 and
 more particularly at ,esmeralda1 where 
most of the canoes of the ,orinoco are  
constructed1 because the adjacent       
forests furnish the largest trunks of   
sassafras4  ,the forest between ,javita 
and the ,cano ,pimichin1 contains an    
immense quantity of gigantic trees1     
ocoteas1 and laurels1 the ,amasonia     
arborea199 799 ,this is a new species of
 the genus taligalea of ,aublet4 ,on the
 same spot grow the ,bignonia           
magnoliaefolia1 ,b4 jasminifolia1       
,solanum topiro1 ,justicia pectoralis1  
,faramea cymosa1 ,piper javitense1      
,scleria hirtella1 ,echites javitensis1 
,lindsea javitensis1 and that curious   
plant of the family of the verbenaceae1 
which ,i have dedicated to the          
illustrious ,leopold von ,buch1 in whose
 early labours ,i participated47 the    
,retiniphyllum secundiflorum1 the       
curvana1 the jacio1 the iacifate1 of    
which the wood is red like the          
brazilletto1 the guamufate1 with its    

fine leaves of calophyllum from seven to
 eight inches long1 the ,amyris carana1 
and the mani4 ,all these trees 7with the
 exception of our new genus             
,retiniphyllum7 were more than one      
hundred or one hundred and ten feet     
high4 ,as their trunks throw out        
branches only toward the summit1 we had 
some trouble in procuring both leaves   
and flowers4 ,the latter were frequently
 strewed upon the ground at the foot of 
the trees2 but1 the plants of different 
families being grouped together in these
 forests1 and every tree being covered  
with lianas1 we could not1 with any     
degree of confidence1 rely on the       
authority of the natives1 when they     
assured us that a flower belonged to    
such or such a tree4 ,amid these riches 
of nature heborizations caused us more  
chagrin than satisfaction4 ,what we     
could gather appeared to us of little   
interest1 compared to what we could not 
reach4 ,it rained unceasingly during    
several months1 and ,m4 ,bonpland lost  

the greater part of the specimens which 
he had been compelled to dry by         
artificial heat4 ,our ,indians          
distinguished the leaves better than the
 corollae or the fruit4 ,occupied in    
seeking timber for canoes1 they are     
inattentive to flowers4 ,all those great
 trees bear neither flowers nor fruits1 
they repeated unceasingly4 ,like the    
botanists of antiquity1 they denied what
 they had not taken the trouble to      
observe4 ,they were tired with our      
questions1 and exhausted our patience in
 return4  ,we have already mentioned    
that the same chemical properties being 
sometimes found in the same organs of   
different families of plants1 these     
families supply each other's places in  
various climates4 ,several species of   
palms99 furnish the inhabitants of      
equinoctial ,america and ,africa with   
the oil which we derive from the olive4 
799 ,in ,africa1 the elais or maba2 in  
,america the cocoa-tree4 ,in the        
cocoa-tree it is the perisperm2 and in  

the elais 7as in the olive1 and the     
oleineae in general7 it is the          
sarcocarp1 or the pulp of the pericarp1 
that yields oil4 ,this difference1      
observed in the same family1 appears to 
me very remarkable1 though it is in no  
way contradictory to the results        
obtained by ,de ,candolle in his        
ingenious researches on the chemical    
properties of plants4 ,if our ,alfonsia 
oleifera belong to the genus ,elais 7as 
,brown1 with great reason believes71 it 
follows1 that in the same genus the oil 
is found in the sarcocarp and in the    
perisperm47 ,what the coniferae are to  
the temperate zone1 the terebinthaceae  
and the guttiferae are to the torrid4   
,in the forests of those burning        
climates1 7where there is neither pine1 
thuya1 taxodium1 nor even a podocarpus17
 resins1 balsams1 and aromatic gums1 are
 furnished by the maronobea1 the icica1 
and the amyris4 ,the collecting of these
 gummy and resinous substances is a     
trade in the village of ,javita4 ,the   

most celebrated resin bears the name of 
mani2 and of this we saw masses of      
several hundred-weight1 resembling      
colophony and mastic4 ,the tree called  
mani by the ,paraginis1 which ,m4       
,bonpland believes to be the ,moronobaea
 coccinea1 furnishes but a small        
quantity of the substance employed in   
the trade with ,angostura4 ,the greatest
 part comes from the mararo or caragna1 
which is an amyris4 ,it is remarkable   
enough1 that the name mani1 which       
,aublet heard among the ,galibis99 of   
,cayenne1 was again heard by us at      
,javita1 three hundred leagues distant  
from ,french ,guiana4 799 ,the ,galibis 
or ,caribis 7the r has been changed into
 l1 as often happens7 are of the great  
stock of the ,carib nations4 ,the       
products useful in commerce and in      
domestic life have received the same    
denomination in every part of ,america  
which this warlike and commercial people
 have overrun47 ,the moronobaea or      
symphonia of ,javita yields a yellow    

resin2 the caragna1 a resin strongly    
odoriferous1 and white as snow2 the     
latter becomes yellow where it is       
adherent to the internal part of old    
bark4  ,we went every day to see how our
 canoe advanced on the portages4        
,twenty-three ,indians were employed in 
dragging it by land1 placing branches of
 trees to serve as rollers4 ,in this    
manner a small boat proceeds in a day or
 a day and a half1 from the waters of   
the ,tuamini to those of the ,cano      
,pimichin1 which flow into the ,rio     
,negro4 ,our canoe being very large1 and
 having to pass the cataracts a second  
time1 it was necessary to avoid with    
particular care any friction on the     
bottom2 consequently the passage        
occupied more than four days4 ,it is    
only since #agie that a road has been   
traced through the forest4 ,by          
substituting a canal for this portage1  
as ,i proposed to the ministry of king  
,charles ,,iv1 the communication between
 the ,rio ,negro and ,angostura1 between

 the ,spanish ,orinoco and the          
,portuguese possessions on the ,amazon1 
would be singularly facilitated4  ,in   
this forest we at length obtained       
precise information respecting the      
pretended fossil caoutchouc1 called     
dapicho by the ,indians4 ,the old chief 
,javita led us to the brink of a rivulet
 which runs into the ,tuamini2 and      
showed us that1 after digging two or    
three feet deep1 in a marshy soil1 this 
substance was found between the roots of
 two trees known by the name of the     
jacio and the curvana4 ,the first is the
 hevea of ,aublet1 or siphonia of the   
modern botanists1 known to furnish the  
caoutchouc of commerce in ,cayenne and  
,grand ,para2 the second has pinnate    
leaves1 and its juice is milky1 but very
 thin1 and almost destitute of          
viscosity4 ,the dapicho appears to be   
the result of an extravasation of the   
sap from the roots4 ,this extravasation 
takes place more especially when the    
trees have attained a great age1 and the

 interior of the trunk begins to decay4 
,the bark and alburnum crack2 and thus  
is effected naturally1 what the art of  
man performs for the purpose of         
collecting the milky juices of the      
hevea1 the castilloa1 and the caoutchouc
 fig-tree4 ,aublet relates1 that the    
,galibis and the ,garipons of ,cayenne  
begin by making a deep incision at the  
foot of the trunk1 so as to penetrate   
into the wood2 soon after they join with
 this horizontal notch others both      
perpendicular and oblique1 reaching from
 the top of the trunk nearly to the     
roots4 ,all these incisions conduct the 
milky juice towards one point1 where the
 vase of clay is placed1 in which the   
caoutchouc is to be deposited4 ,we saw  
the ,indians of ,carichana operate      
nearly in the same manner4  ,if1 as ,i  
suppose1 the accumulation and           
overflowing of the milk in the jacio and
 the curvana be a pathological          
phenomenon1 it must sometimes take place
 at the extremity of the longest roots1 

for we found masses of dapicho two feet 
in diameter and four inches thick1 eight
 feet distant from the trunks4          
,sometimes the ,indians dig in vain at  
the foot of dead trees2 at other times  
the dapicho is found beneath the hevea  
or jacio still green4 ,the substance is 
white1 corky1 fragile1 and resembles by 
its laminated structure and undulating  
edge1 the ,boletus ignarius4 ,the       
dapicho perhaps takes a long time to    
form2 it is probably a juice thickened  
by a particular disposition of the      
vegetable organs1 diffused and          
coagulated in a humid soil secluded from
 the contact of light2 it is caoutchouc 
in a particular state1 ,i may almost say
 an etiolated caoutchouc4 ,the humidity 
of the soil seems to account for the    
undulating form of the edges of the     
dapicho1 and its division into layers4  
,i often observed in ,peru1 that on     
pouring slowly the milky juice of the   
hevea1 or the sap of the carica1 into a 
large quantity of water1 the coagulum   

forms undulating outlines4 ,the dapicho 
is certainly not peculiar to the forest 
that extends from ,javita to ,pimichin1 
although that is the only spot where it 
has hitherto been found4 ,i have no     
doubt1 that on digging in ,french       
,guiana beneath the roots and the old   
trunks of the hevea1 those enormous     
masses of corky caoutchouc199 which ,i  
have just described1 would from time to 
time be found4 799 ,thus1 at five or six
 inches depth1 between the roots of the 
,hymenea courbaril1 masses of the resin 
anime 7erroneously called copal7 are    
discovered1 and are sometimes mistaken  
for amber in inland places4 ,this       
phenomenon seems to throw some light on 
the origin of those large masses of     
amber which are picked up from time to  
time on the coast of ,prussia47 ,as it  
is observed in ,europe1 that at the fall
 of the leaf the sap is conveyed towards
 the root1 it would be curious to       
examine whether1 within the tropics1 the
 milky juices of the urticeae1 the      

euphorbiaceae1 and the apocyneae1       
descend also at certain seasons4        
,notwithstanding a great equality of    
temperature1 the trees of the torrid    
zone follow a cycle of vegetation2 they 
undergo changes periodically returning4 
,the existence of the dapicho is more   
interesting to physiology than to       
vegetable chemistry4 ,a yellowish-white 
caoutchouc is now to be found in the    
shops1 which may be easily distinguished
 from the dapicho1 because it is neither
 dry like cork1 nor friable1 but        
extremely elastic1 glossy1 and soapy4 ,i
 lately saw considerable quantities of  
it in ,london4 ,this caoutchouc1 white1 
and greasy to the touch1 is prepared in 
the ,east ,indies4 ,it exhales that     
animal and fetid smell which ,i have    
attributed in another place to a mixture
 of caseum and albumen499 799 ,the      
pellicles deposited by the milk of      
hevea1 in contact with the atmospheric  
oxygen1 become brown on exposure to the 
sun4 ,if the dapicho grow black as it is

 softened before the fire1 it is owing  
to a slight combustion1 to a change in  
the proportion of its elements4 ,i am   
surprised that some chemists consider   
the black caoutchouc of commerce1 as    
being mixed with soot1 blackened by the 
smoke to which it has been exposed47    
,when we reflect on the immense variety 
of plants in the equinoctial regions    
that are capable of furnishing          
caoutchouc1 it is to be regretted that  
this substance1 so eminently useful1 is 
not found among us at a lower price4    
,without cultivating trees with a milky 
sap1 a sufficient quantity of caoutchouc
 might be collected in the missions of  
the ,orinoco alone for the consumption  
of civilized ,europe499 799 ,we saw in  
,guiana1 besides the jacio and the      
curvana1 two other trees that yield     
caoutchouc in abundance2 on the banks of
 the ,atabapo the guamaqui with jatropha
 leaves1 and at ,maypures the cime47 ,in
 the kingdom of ,new ,grenada some      
successful attempts have been made to   

make boots and shoes of this substance  
without a seam4 ,among the ,american    
nations1 the ,omaguas of the ,amazon    
best understand how to manufacture      
caoutchouc4  ,four days had passed1 and 
our canoe had not yet arrived at the    
landing-place of the ,rio ,pimichin4    
,you want for nothing in my mission1    
said ,father ,cereso2 you have plantains
 and fish2 at night you are not stung by
 mosquitos2 and the longer you stay1 the
 better chance you will have of seeing  
the stars of my country4 ,if your boat  
be destroyed in the portage1 we will    
give you another2 and ,i shall have had 
the satisfaction of passing some weeks  
con gente blanca y de razon4 7,with     
white and rational people4 ,european    
self-love usually opposes the gente de  
razon to the gente parda1 or coloured   
people47 ,notwithstanding our           
impatience1 we listened with interest to
 the information given us by the worthy 
missionary4 ,it confirmed all we had    
already heard of the moral state of the 

natives of those countries4 ,they live1 
distributed in hordes of forty or fifty1
 under a family government2 and they    
recognise a common chief 7apoto1        
sibierene7 only at times when they make 
war against their neighbours4 ,the      
mistrust of these hordes towards one    
another is increased by the circumstance
 that those who live in the nearest     
neighbourhood speak languages altogether
 different4 ,in the open plains1 in the 
countries with savannahs1 the tribes are
 fond of choosing their habitations from
 an affinity of origin1 and a           
resemblance of manners and idioms4 ,on  
the table-land of ,tartary1 as in ,north
 ,america1 great families of nations    
have been seen1 formed into several     
columns1 extending their migrations     
across countries thinly-wooded1 and     
easily traversed4 ,such were the        
journeys of the ,toltec and ,aztec race 
in the high plains of ,mexico1 from the 
sixth to the eleventh century of our    
era2 such probably was also the movement

 of nations by which the petty tribes of
 ,canada were grouped together4 ,as the 
immense country between the equator and 
the eighth degree of north latitude     
forms one continuous forest1 the hordes 
were there dispersed by following the   
branchings of the rivers1 and the nature
 of the land compelled them to become   
more or less agriculturists4 ,such is   
the labyrinth of these rivers1 that     
families settled themselves without     
knowing what race of men lived nearest  
the spot4 ,in ,spanish ,guiana a        
mountain1 or a forest half a league     
broad1 sometimes separates hordes who   
could not meet in less than two days by 
navigating rivers4 ,in open countries1  
or in a state of advanced civilization1 
communication by rivers contributes     
powerfully to generalize languages1     
manners1 and political institutions2 but
 in the impenetrable forests of the     
torrid zone1 as in the first rude       
condition of our species1 rivers        
increase the dismemberment of great     

nations1 favour the transition of       
dialects into languages that appear to  
us radically distinct1 and keep up      
national hatred and mistrust4 ,between  
the banks of the ,caura and the ,padamo 
everything bears the stamp of disunion  
and weakness4 ,men avoid1 because they  
do not understand1 each other2 they     
mutually hate1 because they mutually    
fear4  ,when we examine attentively this
 wild part of ,america1 we fancy        
ourselves transported to those primitive
 times when the earth was peopled by    
degrees1 and we seem to be present at   
the birth of human societies4 ,in the   
old world we see that pastoral life has 
prepared the hunting nations for        
agriculture4 ,in the ,new ,world we seek
 in vain these progressive developments 
of civilization1 these intervals of     
repose1 these stages in the life of     
nations4 ,the luxury of vegetation      
embarrasses the ,indians in the chase2  
and in their rivers1 resembling arms of 
the sea1 the depth of the waters        

prevents fishing during whole months4   
,those species of ruminating animals1   
that constitute the wealth of the       
nations of the ,old ,world1 are wanting 
in the ,new4 ,the bison and the musk-ox 
have never been reduced to a domestic   
state2 the breeding of llamas and       
guanacos has not created the habits of  
pastoral life4 ,in the temperate zone1  
on the banks of the ,missouri1 as well  
as on the tableland of ,new ,mexico1 the
 ,american is a hunter2 but in the      
torrid zone1 in the forests of ,guiana1 
he cultivates cassava1 plantains1 and   
sometimes maize4 ,such is the admirable 
fertility of nature1 that the field of  
the native is a little spot of land1 to 
clear which requires only setting fire  
to the brambles2 and putting a few seeds
 or slips into the ground is all the    
husbandry it demands4 ,if we go back in 
thought to the most remote ages1 in     
these thick forests we must always      
figure to ourselves nations deriving the
 greater part of their nourishment from 

the earth2 but1 as this earth produces  
abundance in a small space1 and almost  
without toil1 we may also imagine these 
nations often changing their dwellings  
along the banks of the same river4 ,even
 now the native of the ,orinoco travels 
with his seeds2 and transports his farm 
7conuco7 as the ,arab transports his    
tent1 and changes his pasturage4 ,the   
number of cultivated plants found wild  
amid the woods1 proves the nomad habits 
of an agricultural people4 ,can we be   
surprised1 that by these habits they    
lose almost all the advantages that     
result in the temperate zone from       
stationary culture1 from the growth of  
corn1 which requires extensive lands and
 the most assiduous labour8  ,the       
nations of the ,upper ,orinoco1 the     
,atabapo1 and the ,inirida1 like the    
ancient ,germans and the ,persians1 have
 no other worship than that of the      
powers of nature4 ,they call the good   
principle ,cachimana2 it is the         
,manitou1 the ,great ,spirit1 that      

regulates the seasons1 and favours the  
harvests4 ,along with ,cachimana there  
is an evil principle1 ,iolokiamo1 less  
powerful1 but more artful1 and in       
particular more active4 ,the ,indians of
 the forest1 when they occasionally     
visit the missions1 conceive with       
difficulty the idea of a temple or an   
image4 ,these good people1 said the     
missionary1 like only processions in the
 open air4 ,when ,i last celebrated the 
festival of ,san ,antonio1 the patron of
 my village1 the ,indians of ,inirida   
were present at mass4 ',your ,god1' said
 they to me1 'keeps himself shut up in a
 house1 as if he were old and infirm2   
ours is in the forest1 in the fields1   
and on the mountains of ,sipapu1 whence 
the rains come4' ,among the more        
numerous1 and on this account less      
barbarous tribes1 religious societies of
 a singular kind are formed4 ,some old  
,indians pretend to be better instructed
 than others on points regarding        
divinity2 and to them is confided the   

famous botuto1 of which ,i have spoken1 
and which is sounded under the          
palm-trees that they may bear abundance 
of fruit4 ,on the banks of the ,orinoco 
there exists no idol1 as among all the  
nations who have remained faithful to   
the first worship of nature1 but the    
botuto1 the sacred trumpet1 is an object
 of veneration4 ,to be initiated into   
the mysteries of the botuto1 it is      
requisite to be of pure morals1 and to  
have lived single4 ,the initiated are   
subjected to flagellations1 fastings1   
and other painful exercises4 ,there are 
but a small number of these sacred      
trumpets4 ,the most anciently celebrated
 is that upon a hill near the confluence
 of the ,tomo and the ,guainia4 ,it is  
pretended1 that it is heard at once on  
the banks of the ,tuamini1 and at the   
mission of ,san ,miguel de ,davipe1 a   
distance of ten leagues4 ,father ,cereso
 assured us1 that the ,indians speak of 
the botuto of ,tomo as an object of     
worship common to many surrounding      

tribes4 ,fruit and intoxicating liquors 
are placed beside the sacred trumpet4   
,sometimes the ,great ,spirit himself   
makes the botuto resound2 sometimes he  
is content to manifest his will through 
him to whom the keeping of the          
instrument is entrusted4 ,these         
juggleries being very ancient 7from the 
fathers of our fathers1 say the         
,indians71 we must not be surprised that
 some unbelievers are already to be     
found2 but they express their disbelief 
of the mysteries of the botuto only in  
whispers4 ,women are not permitted to   
see this marvellous instrument2 and are 
excluded from all the ceremonies of this
 worship4 ,if a woman have the          
misfortune to see the trumpet1 she is   
put to death without mercy4 ,the        
missionary related to us1 that in #agih 
he was happy enough to save a young     
girl1 whom a jealous and vindictive     
lover accused of having followed1 from a
 motive of curiosity1 the ,indians who  
sounded the botuto in the plantations4  

,they would not have murdered her       
publicly1 said father ,cesero1 but how  
was she to be protected from the        
fanaticism of the natives1 in a country 
where it is so easy to give poison8 ,the
 young girl told me of her fears1 and ,i
 sent her to one of the missions of the 
,lower ,orinoco4 ,if the people of      
,guiana had remained masters of that    
vast country2 if1 without having been   
impeded by ,christian settlements1 they 
could follow freely the development of  
their barbarous institutions2 the       
worship of the botuto would no doubt    
become of some political importance4    
,that mysterious society of the         
initiated1 those guardians of the sacred
 trumpet1 would be transformed into a   
ruling caste of priests1 and the oracle 
of ,tomo would gradually form a link    
between the bordering nations4  ,in the 
evening of the #dth of ,may we were     
informed1 that an ,indian1 who had      
assisted in dragging our bark over the  
portage of ,pimichin1 had been stung by 

a viper4 ,he was a tall strong man1 and 
was brought to the mission in a very    
alarming state4 ,he had dropped down    
senseless2 and nausea1 vertigo1 and     
congestions in the head1 had succeeded  
the fainting4 ,the liana called vejeco  
de guaco199 which ,m4 ,mutis has        
rendered so celebrated1 and which is the
 most certain remedy for the bite of    
venomous serpents1 is yet unknown in    
these countries4 799 ,this is a mikania1
 which was confounded for some time in  
,europe with the ayapana4 ,de ,candolle 
thinks that the guaco may be the        
,eupatorium satureiaefolium of ,lamarck2
 but this ,eupatorium differs by its    
lineary leaves1 while the ,mikania guaco
 has triangular1 oval1 and very large   
leaves47 ,a number of ,indians hastened 
to the hut of the sick man1 and he was  
cured by an infusion of raiz de mato4   
,we cannot indicate with certainty what 
plant furnishes this antidote2 but ,i am
 inclined to think1 that the raiz de    
mato is an apocynea1 perhaps the        

,cerbera thevetia1 called by the        
inhabitants of ,cumana lingua de mato or
 contra-culebra1 and which they also use
 against the bite of serpents4 ,a genus 
nearly allied to the cerbera99 799      
,ophioxylon serpentinum47 is employed in
 ,india for the same purpose4 ,it is    
common enough to find in the same family
 of plants vegetable poisons1 and       
antidotes against the venom of reptiles4
 ,many tonics and narcotics are         
antidotes more or less active2 and we   
find these in families very different99 
from each other1 in the aristolochiae1  
the apocyneae1 the gentianae1 the       
polygalae1 the solaneae1 the compositae1
 the malvaceae1 the drymyrhizeae1 and1  
which is still more surprising1 even in 
the palm-trees4 799 ,i shall mention as 
examples of these nine families2        
,aristolochia anguicida1 ,cerbera       
thevetia1 ,ophoiorhiza mungos1 ,polygala
 senega1 ,nicotiana tabacum1 7,one of   
the remedies most used in ,spanish      
,america74 ,mikanua guaco1 ,hibiscus    

abelmoschus 7the seeds of which are very
 active71 ,lanpujum rumphii1 and        
,kunthia montana 7,cana de la ,vibora747
  ,in the hut of the ,indian who had    
been so dangerously bitten by the viper1
 we found balls two or three inches in  
diameter1 of an earthy and impure salt  
called chivi1 which is prepared with    
great care by the natives4 ,at ,maypures
 a conferva is burnt1 which is left by  
the ,orinoco on the neighbouring rocks1 
when1 after high swellings1 it again    
enters its bed4 ,at ,javita a salt is   
fabricated by the incineration of the   
spadix and fruit of the palm-tree seje  
or chimu4 ,this fine palm-tree1 which   
abounds on the banks of the ,auvana1    
near the cataract of ,guarinumo1 and    
between ,javita and the ,cano ,pimichin1
 appears to be a new species of         
cocoa-tree4 ,it may be recollected1 that
 the fluid contained in the fruit of the
 common cocoa-tree is often saline1 even
 when the tree grows far from the sea   
shore4 ,at ,madagascar salt is extracted

 from the sap of a palm-tree called     
ciro4 ,besides the spadix and the fruit 
of the seje palm1 the ,indians of       
,javita lixiviate also the ashes of the 
famous liana called cupana1 which is a  
new species of the genus paullinia1     
consequently a very different plant from
 the cupania of ,linnaeus4 ,i may here  
mention1 that a missionary seldom       
travels without being provided with some
 prepared seeds of the cupana4 ,this    
preparation requires great care4 ,the   
,indians scrape the seeds1 mix them with
 flour of cassava1 envelope the mass in 
plantain leaves1 and set it to ferment  
in water1 till it acquires a            
saffron-yellow colour4 ,this yellow     
paste dried in the sun1 and diluted in  
water1 is taken in the morning as a kind
 of tea4 ,the beverage is bitter and    
stomachic1 but it appeared to me to have
 a very disagreeable taste4  ,on the    
banks of the ,niger1 and in a great part
 of the interior of ,africa1 where salt 
is extremely rare1 it is said of a rich 

man1 he is so fortunate as to eat salt  
at his meals4 ,this good fortune is not 
too common in the interior of ,guiana4  
,the whites only1 particularly the      
soldiers of the little fort of ,san     
,carlos1 know how to procure pure salt1 
either from the coast of ,caracas1 or   
from ,chita99 by the ,rio ,meta4 799    
,north of ,morocote1 at the eastern     
declivity of the ,cordillera of ,new    
,grenada4 ,the salt of the coasts1 which
 the ,indians call yuquira1 costs two   
piastres the almuda at ,san ,carlos47   
,here1 as throughout ,america1 the      
,indians eat little meat1 and consume   
scarcely any salt4 ,the chivi of ,javita
 is a mixture of muriate of potash and  
of soda1 of caustic lime1 and of several
 other earthy salts4 ,the ,indians      
dissolve a few particles in water1 fill 
with this solution a leaf of heliconia  
folded in a conical form1 and let drop a
 little1 as from the extremity of a     
filter1 on their food4  ,on the #eth of 
,may we set off1 to follow on foot our  

canoe1 which had at length arrived1 by  
the portage1 at the ,cano ,pimichin4 ,we
 had to ford a great number of streams2 
and these passages require some caution 
on account of the vipers with which the 
marshes abound4 ,the ,indians pointed   
out to us on the moist clay the traces  
of the little black bears so common on  
the banks of the ,temi4 ,they differ at 
least in size from the ,ursus           
americanus4 ,the missionaries call them 
osso carnicero1 to distinguish them from
 the osso palmero or tamanoir           
7,myrmecophaga jubata71 and from the    
osso hormigero1 or anteater 7tamandua74 
,the flesh of these animals is good to  
eat2 the first two defend themselves by 
rising on their hind feet4 ,the tamanoir
 of ,buffon is called uaraca by the     
,indians2 it is irascible and           
courageous1 which is extraordinary in an
 animal without teeth4 ,we found1 as we 
advanced1 some vistas in the forest1    
which appeared to us the richer1 as it  
became more accessible4 ,we here        

gathered some new species of coffee 7the
 ,american tribe1 with flowers in       
panicles1 forms probably a particular   
genus72 the ,galega piscatorum1 of which
 the ,indians make use1 as they do of   
jacquinia1 and of a composite plant of  
the ,rio ,temi1 as a kind of barbasco1  
to intoxicate fish2 and finally1 the    
liana1 known in those countries by the  
name of vejuco de mavacure1 which yields
 the famous curare poison4 ,it is       
neither a phyllanthus1 nor a coriaria1  
as ,m4 ,willdenouw conjectured1 but1 as 
,m4 ,kunth's researches show1 very      
probably a strychnos4 ,we shall have    
occasion1 farther on1 to speak of this  
venomous substance1 which is an         
important object of trade among the     
savages4  ,the trees of the forest of   
,pimichin have the gigantic height of   
from eighty to a hundred and twenty     
feet4 ,in these burning climates the    
laurineae and amyris99 799 ,the great   
white and red cedars of these countries 
are not the ,cedrela odorata1 but the   

,amyris altissima1 which is an icica of 
,aublet47 furnish that fine timber for  
building1 which1 on the north-west coast
 of ,america1 on mountains where the    
thermometer falls in winter to #bj      
degrees centigrade below zero1 we find  
in the family of the coniferae4 ,such1  
in every zone1 and in all the families  
of ,american plants1 is the prodigious  
force of vegetation1 that1 in the       
latitude of fifty-seven degrees north1  
on the same isothermal line with ,st4   
,petersburgh and the ,orkneys1 the      
,pinus canadensis displays trunks one   
hundred and fifty feet high1 and six    
feet in diameter499 799 ,langsdorf      
informs us that the inhabitants of      
,norfolk ,sound make boats of a single  
trunk1 fifty feet long1 four feet and a 
half broad1 and three high at the sides4
 ,they contain thirty persons4 ,these   
boats remind us of the canoes of the    
,rio ,chagres in the isthmus of ,panama1
 in the torrid zone4 ,the ,populus      
balsamifera also attains an immense     

height1 on the mountains that border    
,norfolk ,sound47 ,towards night we     
arrived at a small farm1 in the puerto  
or landing place of ,pimichin4 ,we were 
shown a cross near the road1 which      
marked the spot where a poor capuchin   
missionary had been killed by wasps4 ,i 
state this on the authority of the monks
 of ,javita and the ,indians4 ,they talk
 much in these countries of wasps and   
venomous ants1 but we saw neither one   
nor the other of these insects4 ,it is  
well known that in the torrid zone      
slight stings often cause fits of fever 
almost as violent as those that with us 
accompany severe organic injuries4 ,the 
death of this poor monk was probably the
 effect of fatigue and damp1 rather than
 of the venom contained in the stings of
 wasps1 which the ,indians dread        
extremely4 ,we must not confound the    
wasps of ,javita with the melipones     
bees1 called by the ,spaniards angelitos
 7little angels7 which covered our faces
 and hands on the summit of the ,silla  

de ,caracas4  ,the landing place of     
,pimichin is surrounded by a small      
plantation of cacao-trees2 they are very
 vigorous1 and here1 as on the banks of 
the ,atabapo and the ,guainia1 they are 
loaded with flowers and fruits at all   
seasons4 ,they begin to bear from the   
fourth year2 on the coast of ,caracas   
they do not bear till the sixth or      
eighth year4 ,the soil of these         
countries is sandy1 wherever it is not  
marshy2 but the light lands of the      
,tuamini and ,pimichin are extremely    
productive499 799 ,at ,javita1 an extent
 of fifty feet square1 planted with     
,jatropha manihot 7yucca7 yields in two 
years1 in the worst soil1 a harvest of  
six tortas of cassava3 the same extent  
on a middling soil yields in fourteen   
months a produce of nine tortas4 ,in an 
excellent soil1 around clumps of        
mauritia1 there is every year from fifty
 feet square a produce of thirteen or   
fourteen tortas4 ,a torta weighs three  
quarters of a pound1 and three tortas   

cost generally in the province of       
,caracas one silver rial1 or one-eighth 
of a piastre4 ,these statements appear  
to me to be of some importance1 when we 
wish to compare the nutritive matter    
which man can obtain from the same      
extent of soil1 by covering it1 in      
different climates1 with bread-trees1   
plantains1 jatropha1 maize1 potatoes1   
rice1 and corn4 ,the tardiness of the   
harvest of jatropha has1 ,i believe1 a  
beneficial influence on the manners of  
the natives1 by fixing them to the soil1
 and compelling them to sojourn long on 
the same spot47 ,around the conucos of  
,pimichin grows1 in its wild state1 the 
igua1 a tree resembling the ,caryocar   
nuciferum which is cultivated in ,dutch 
and ,french ,guiana1 and which1 with the
 almendron of ,mariquita 7,caryocar     
amygdaliferum71 the juvia of the        
,esmeralda 7,bertholletia excelsa71 and 
the ,geoffroea of the ,amazon1 yields   
the finest almonds of all ,south        
,america4 ,no commercial advantage is   

here made of the igua2 but ,i saw       
vessels arrive on the coast of ,terra   
,firma1 that came from ,demerara laden  
with the fruit of the ,caryocar         
tomentosum1 which is the ,pekea         
tuberculosa of ,aublet4 ,these trees    
reach a hundred feet in height1 and     
present1 by the beauty of their corolla1
 and the multitude of their stamens1 a  
magnificent appearance4 ,i should weary 
the reader by continuing the enumeration
 of the vegetable wonders which these   
vast forests contain4 ,their variety    
depends on the coexistence of such a    
great number of families in a small     
space of ground1 on the stimulating     
power of light and heat1 and on the     
perfect elaboration of the juices that  
circulate in these gigantic plants4  ,we
 passed the night in a hut lately       
abandoned by an ,indian family1 who had 
left behind them their fishing-tackle1  
pottery1 nets made of the petioles of   
palm-trees2 in short1 all that composes 
the household furniture of that careless

 race of men1 little attached to        
property4 ,a great store of mani 7a     
mixture of the resin of the moronoboea  
and the ,amyris carana7 was accumulated 
round the house4 ,this is used by the   
,indians here1 as at ,cayenne1 to pitch 
their canoes1 and fix the bony spines of
 the ray at the points of their arrows4 
,we found in the same place jars filled 
with a vegetable milk1 which serves as a
 varnish1 and is celebrated in the      
missions by the name of leche para      
pintar 7milk for painting74 ,they coat  
with this viscous juice those articles  
of furniture to which they wish to give 
a fine white colour4 ,it thickens by the
 contact of the air1 without growing    
yellow1 and it appears singularly       
glossy4 ,we have already mentioned that 
the caoutchouc is the oily part1 the    
butter of all vegetable milk4 ,it is1 no
 doubt1 a particular modification of    
caoutchouc that forms this coagulum1    
this white and glossy skin1 that seems  
as if covered with copal varnish4 ,if   

different colours could be given to this
 milky varnish1 a very expeditious      
method would be found of painting and   
varnishing our carriages by one process4
 ,the more we study vegetable chemistry 
in the torrid zone1 the more we shall   
discover1 in remote spots1 and          
half-prepared in the organs of plants1  
products which we believe belong only to
 the animal kingdom1 or which we obtain 
by processes which are often tedious and
 difficult4 ,already we have found the  
wax that coats the palm-tree of the     
,andes of ,quindiu1 the silk of the     
palm-tree of ,mocoa1 the nourishing milk
 of the palo de vaca1 the butter-tree of
 ,africa1 and the caseous substances    
obtained from the almost animalized sap 
of the ,carica papaya4 ,these           
discoveries will be multiplied1 when1 as
 the political state of the world seems 
now to indicate1 ,european civilization 
shall flow in a great measure toward the
 equinoctial regions of the ,new        
,continent4  ,the marshy tract between  

,javita and the embarcadero of ,pimichin
 is infested with great numbers of      
vipers4 ,before we took possession of   
the deserted hut1 the ,indians killed   
two great mapanare serpents499 799 ,this
 name is given in the ,spanish colonies 
to very different species4 ,the ,coluber
 mapanare of the province of ,caracas   
has one hundred and forty-two ventral   
plates1 and thirty-eight double caudal  
scales4 ,the ,coluber mapanare of the   
,rio ,magdalena has two hundred and     
eight ventral plates1 and sixty-four    
double caudal scales47 ,these grow to   
four or five feet long4 ,they appeared  
to me to be the same species as those ,i
 saw in the ,rio ,magdalena4 ,this      
serpent is a beautiful animal1 but      
extremely venomous1 white on the belly1 
and spotted with brown and red on the   
back4 ,as the inside of the hut was     
filled with grass1 and we were lying on 
the ground1 there being no means of     
suspending our hammocks1 we were not    
without inquietude during the night4 ,in

 the morning a large viper was found on 
lifting the jaguar-skin upon which one  
of our domestics had slept4 ,the        
,indians say that these reptiles1 slow  
in their movements when they are not    
pursued1 creep near a man because they  
are fond of heat4 ,in fact1 on the banks
 of the ,magdalena a serpent entered the
 bed of one of our fellow-travellers1   
and remained there a part of the night1 
without injuring him4 ,without wishing  
to take up the defence of vipers and    
rattlesnakes1 ,i believe it may be      
affirmed that1 if these venomous animals
 had such a disposition for offence as  
is supposed1 the human species would    
certainly not have withstood their      
numbers in some parts of ,america2 for  
instance1 on the banks of the ,orinoco  
and the humid mountains of ,choco4  ,we 
embarked on the #hth of ,may at sunrise1
 after having carefully examined the    
bottom of our canoe4 ,it had become     
thinner1 but had received no crack in   
the portage4 ,we reckoned that it would 

still bear the voyage of three hundred  
leagues1 which we had yet to perform1 in
 going down the ,rio ,negro1 ascending  
the ,cassiquiare1 and redescending the  
,orinoco as far as ,angostura4 ,the     
,pimichin1 which is called a rivulet    
7cano7 is tolerably broad2 but small    
trees that love the water narrow the bed
 so much that there remains open a      
channel of only fifteen or twenty       
toises4 ,next to the ,rio ,chagres this 
river is one of the most celebrated in  
,america for the number of its windings3
 it is said to have eighty-five1 which  
greatly lengthen it4 ,they often form   
right angles1 and occur every two or    
three leagues4 ,to determine the        
difference of longitude between the     
landing-place and the point where we    
were to enter the ,rio ,negro1 ,i took  
by the compass the course of the ,cano  
,pimichin1 and noted the time during    
which we followed the same direction4   
,the velocity of the current was only   
#b4d feet in a second2 but our canoe    

made by rowing #d4f feet4 ,the          
embarcadero of the ,pimichin appeared to
 me to be eleven thousand toises west of
 its mouth1 and #j degrees #b minutes   
west of the mission of ,javita4 ,this   
,cano is navigable during the whole     
year1 and has but one raudal1 which is  
somewhat difficult to go up2 its banks  
are low1 but rocky4 ,after having       
followed the windings of the ,pimichin  
for four hours and a half we at length  
entered the ,rio ,negro4  ,the morning  
was cool and beautiful4 ,we had now been
 confined thirty-six days in a narrow   
boat1 so unsteady that it would have    
been overset by any person rising       
imprudently from his seat1 without      
warning the rowers4 ,we had suffered    
severely from the sting of insects1 but 
we had withstood the insalubrity of the 
climate2 we had passed without accident 
the great number of waterfalls and bars1
 which impede the navigation of the     
rivers1 and often render it more        
dangerous than long voyages by sea4     

,after all we had endured1 it may be    
conceived that we felt no little        
satisfaction in having reached the      
tributary streams of the ,amazon1 having
 passed the isthmus that separates two  
great systems of rivers1 and in being   
sure of having fulfilled the most       
important object of our journey1 namely1
 to determine astronomically the course 
of that arm of the ,orinoco which falls 
into the ,rio ,negro1 and of which the  
existence has been alternately proved   
and denied during half a century4 ,in   
proportion as we draw near to an object 
we have long had in view1 its interest  
seems to augment4 ,the uninhabited banks
 of the ,cassiquiare1 covered with      
forests1 without memorials of times     
past1 then occupied my imagination1 as  
do now the banks of the ,euphrates1 or  
the ,oxus1 celebrated in the annals of  
civilized nations4 ,in that interior    
part of the ,new ,continent one may     
almost accustom oneself to regard men as
 not being essential to the order of    

nature4 ,the earth is loaded with       
plants1 and nothing impedes their free  
development4 ,an immense layer of mould 
manifests the uninterrupted action of   
organic powers4 ,crocodiles and boas are
 masters of the river2 the jaguar1 the  
peccary1 the dante1 and the monkeys     
traverse the forest without fear and    
without danger2 there they dwell as in  
an ancient inheritance4 ,this aspect of 
animated nature1 in which man is        
nothing1 has something in it strange and
 sad4 ,to this we reconcile ourselves   
with difficulty on the ocean1 and amid  
the sands of ,africa2 though in scenes  
where nothing recalls to mind our       
fields1 our woods1 and our streams1 we  
are less astonished at the vast solitude
 through which we pass4 ,here1 in a     
fertile country1 adorned with eternal   
verdure1 we seek in vain the traces of  
the power of man2 we seem to be         
transported into a world different from 
that which gave us birth4 ,these        
impressions are the more powerful in    

proportion as they are of long duration4
 ,a soldier1 who had spent his whole    
life in the missions of the ,upper      
,orinoco1 slept with us on the bank of  
the river4 ,he was an intelligent man1  
who1 during a calm and serene night1    
pressed me with questions on the        
magnitude of the stars1 on the          
inhabitants of the moon1 on a thousand  
subjects of which ,i was as ignorant as 
himself4 ,being unable by my answers to 
satisfy his curiosity1 he said to me in 
a firm tone of the most positive        
conviction3 with respect to men1 ,i     
believe there are no more up there than 
you would have found if you had gone by 
land from ,javita to ,cassiquiare4 ,i   
think ,i see in the stars1 as here1 a   
plain covered with grass1 and a forest  
7mucho monte7 traversed by a river4 ,in 
citing these words ,i paint the         
impression produced by the monotonous   
aspect of those solitary regions4 ,may  
this monotony not be found to extend to 
the journal of our navigation1 and weary

 the reader accustomed to the           
description of the scenes and historical
 memorials of the old continent6        
,,chapter #b4bc4  ,,the ,,rio ,,negro4  
,,boundaries ,,of ,,brazil4 ,,the       
,,cassiquiare4 ,,bifurcation ,,of ,,the 
,,orinoco4  ,the ,rio ,negro1 compared  
to the ,amazon1 the ,rio de la ,plata1  
or the ,orinoco1 is but a river of the  
second order4 ,its possession has been  
for ages of great political importance  
to the ,spanish ,government1 because it 
is capable of furnishing a rival power1 
,portugal1 with an easy passage into the
 missions of ,guiana1 and thereby       
disturbing the ,capitania general of    
,caracas in its southern limits4 ,three 
hundred years have been spent in vain   
territorial disputes4 ,according to the 
difference of times1 and the degree of  
civilization among the natives1 resource
 has been had sometimes to the authority
 of the ,pope1 and sometimes the support
 of astronomy2 and the disputants being 
generally more interested in prolonging 

than in terminating the struggle1 the   
nautical sciences and the geography of  
the ,new ,continent1 have alone gained  
by this interminable litigation4 ,when  
the affairs of ,paraguay1 and the       
possession of the colony of ,del        
,sacramento1 became of great importance 
to the courts of ,madrid and ,lisbon1   
commissioners of the boundaries were    
sent to the ,orinoco1 the ,amazon1 and  
the ,rio ,plata4  ,the little that was  
known1 up to the end of the last        
century1 of the astronomical geography  
of the interior of the ,new ,continent1 
was owing to these estimable and        
laborious men1 the ,french and ,spanish 
academicians1 who measured a meridian   
line at ,quito1 and to officers who went
 from ,valparaiso to ,buenos ,ayres to  
join the expedition of ,malaspina4      
,those persons who know the inaccuracy  
of the maps of ,south ,america1 and have
 seen those uncultivated lands between  
the ,jupura and the ,rio ,negro1 the    
,madeira and the ,ucayale1 the ,rio     

,branco and the coasts of ,cayenne1     
which up to our own days have been      
gravely disputed in ,europe1 can be not 
a little surprised at the perseverance  
with which the possession of a few      
square leagues is litigated4 ,these     
disputed grounds are generally separated
 from the cultivated part of the        
colonies by deserts1 the extent of which
 is unknown4 ,in the celebrated         
conferences of ,puente de ,caya the     
question was agitated1 whether1 in      
fixing the line of demarcation three    
hundred and seventy ,spanish leagues to 
the west of the ,cape ,verde ,islands1  
the pope meant that the first meridian  
should be reckoned from the centre of   
the island of ,st4 ,nicholas1 or 7as the
 court of ,portugal asserted7 from the  
western extremity of the little island  
of ,st4 ,antonio4 ,in the year #aged1   
the time of the expedition of ,iturriaga
 and ,solano1 negociations were entered 
into respecting the possession of the   
then desert banks of the ,tuamini1 and  

of a marshy tract which we crossed in   
one evening going from ,javita to ,cano 
,pimichin4 ,the ,spanish commissioners  
very recently would have placed the     
divisional line at the point where the  
,apoporis falls into the ,jupura1 while 
the ,portuguese astronomers carried it  
back as far as ,salto ,grande4  ,the    
,rio ,negro and the ,jupuro are two     
tributary streams of the ,amazon1 and   
may be compared in length to the        
,danube4 ,the upper parts belong to the 
,spaniards1 while the lower are occupied
 by the ,portuguese4 ,the ,christian    
settlements are very numerous from      
,mocoa to the mouth of the ,caguan2     
while on the ,lower ,jupura the         
,portuguese have founded only a few     
villages4 ,on the ,rio ,negro1 on the   
contrary1 the ,spaniards have not been  
able to rival their neighbours4 ,steppes
 and forests nearly desert separate1 at 
a distance of one hundred and sixty     
leagues1 the cultivated part of the     
coast from the four missions of ,marsa1 

,tomo1 ,davipe1 and ,san ,carlos1 which 
are all that the ,spanish ,franciscans  
could establish along the ,rio ,negro4  
,among the ,portuguese of ,brazil the   
military system1 that of presides and   
capitanes pobladores1 has prevailed over
 the government of the missionaries4    
,grand ,para is no doubt far distant    
from the mouth of the ,rio ,negro3 but  
the facility of navigation on the       
,amazon1 which runs like an immense     
canal in one direction from west to     
east1 has enabled the ,portuguese       
population to extend itself rapidly     
along the river4 ,the banks of the      
,lower ,maranon1 from ,vistoza as far as
 ,serpa1 as well as those of the ,rio   
,negro from ,fort da ,bara to ,san ,jose
 da ,maravitanos1 are embellished by    
rich cultivation1 and by a great number 
of large villages and towns4  ,these    
local considerations are combined with  
others1 suggested by the moral position 
of nations4 ,the north-west coast of    
,america furnishes to this day no other 

stable settlements but ,russian and     
,spanish colonies4 ,before the          
inhabitants of the ,united ,states1 in  
their progressive movement from east to 
west1 could reach the shore between the 
latitude #da and #ej degrees1 which long
 separated the ,spanish monks and the   
,siberian hunters199 the latter had     
established themselves south of the     
,columbia ,river4 799 ,the hunters      
connected with military posts1 and      
dependent on the ,russian ,company1 of  
which the principal shareholders live at
 ,irkutsk4 ,in #ahjd the little fortress
 7krepost7 at the bay of ,jakutal was   
still six hundred leagues distant from  
the most northern ,mexican possessions47
 ,thus in ,new ,california the          
,franciscan missionaries1 men estimable 
for their morals1 and their agricultural
 activity1 learnt with astonishment1    
that ,greek priests had arrived in their
 neighbourhood2 and that two nations1   
who inhabit the eastern and western     
extremities of ,europe1 were become     

neighbours on a coast of ,america       
opposite to ,china4 ,in ,guiana         
circumstances were very different3 the  
,spaniards found on their frontiers     
those very ,portuguese1 who1 by their   
language1 and their municipal           
institutions1 form with them one of the 
most noble remains of ,roman ,europe2   
but whom mistrust1 founded on unequal   
strength1 and too great proximity1 has  
converted into an often hostile1 and    
always rival power4  ,if two nations    
adjacent to each other in ,europe1 the  
,spaniards and the ,portuguese1 have    
alike become neighbours in the ,new     
,continent1 they are indebted for that  
circumstance to the spirit of enterprise
 and active courage which both displayed
 at the period of their military glory  
and political greatness4 ,the ,castilian
 language is now spoken in ,north and   
,south ,america throughout an extent of 
more than one thousand nine hundred     
leagues in length2 if1 however1 we      
consider ,south ,america apart1 we there

 find the ,portuguese language spread   
over a larger space of ground1 and      
spoken by a smaller number of           
individuals than the ,castilian4 ,it    
would seem as if the bond that so       
closely connects the fine languages of  
,camoens and ,lope de ,vega1 had served 
only to separate two nations1 who have  
become neighbours against their will4   
,national hatred is not modified solely 
by a diversity of origin1 of manners1   
and of progress in civilization2        
whenever it is powerful1 it must be     
considered as the effect of geographical
 situation1 and the conflicting         
interests thence resulting4 ,nations    
detest each other the less1 in          
proportion as they are distant2 and     
when1 their languages being radically   
different1 they do not even attempt to  
combine together4 ,travellers who have  
passed through ,new ,california1 the    
interior provinces of ,mexico1 and the  
northern frontiers of ,brazil1 have been
 struck by these shades in the moral    

dispositions of bordering nations4      
,when ,i was in the ,spanish ,rio       
,negro1 the divergent politics of the   
courts of ,lisbon and ,madrid had       
augmented that system of mistrust which1
 even in calmer times1 the commanders of
 petty neighbouring forts love to       
encourage4 ,boats went up from ,barcelos
 as far as the ,spanish missions1 but   
the communications were of rare         
occurrence4 ,a commandant with sixteen  
or eighteen soldiers wearied the        
garrison by measures of safety1 which   
were dictated by the important state of 
affairs2 if he were attacked1 he hoped  
to surround the enemy4 ,when we spoke of
 the indifference with which the        
,portuguese government doubtless        
regarded the four little villages       
founded by the monks of ,saint          
,francisco1 on the ,upper ,guainia1 the 
inhabitants were hurt by the motives    
which we alleged with the view to give  
them confidence4 ,a people who have     
preserved in vigour1 through the        

revolutions of ages1 a national hatred1 
like occasions of giving it vent4 ,the  
mind delights in everything impassioned1
 in the consciousness of an energetic   
feeling1 in the affections1 and in rival
 hatreds that are founded on antiquated 
prejudices4 ,whatever constitutes the   
individuality of nations flows from the 
mother-country to the most remote       
colonies2 and national antipathies are  
not effaced where the influence of the  
same languages ceases4 ,we know1 from   
the interesting narrative of            
,krusenstern's voyage1 that the hatred  
of two fugitive sailors1 one a          
,frenchman and the other an ,englishman1
 was the cause of a long war between the
 inhabitants of the ,marquesas ,islands4
 ,on the banks of the ,amazon and the   
,rio ,negro1 the ,indians of the        
neighbouring ,portuguese and ,spanish   
villages detest each other4 ,these poor 
people speak only the native tongues2   
they are ignorant of what passes on the 
other bank of the ocean1 beyond the     

great salt-pool2 but the gowns of their 
missionaries are of a different colour1 
and this displeases them extremely4  ,i 
have stopped to paint the effects of    
national animosities1 which wise        
statesmen have endeavoured to calm1 but 
have been unable entirely to set at     
rest4 ,this rivalry has contributed to  
the imperfection of the geographical    
knowledge hitherto obtained respecting  
the tributary rivers of the ,amazon4    
,when the communications of the natives 
are impeded1 and one nation is          
established near the mouth1 and another 
in the upper part of the same river1 it 
is difficult for persons who attempt to 
construct maps to acquire precise       
information4 ,the periodical            
inundations1 and still more the         
portages1 by which boats are passed from
 one stream to another1 the sources of  
which are in the same neighbourhood1    
have led to erroneous ideas of the      
bifurcations and branchings of rivers4  
,the ,indians of the ,portuguese        

missions1 for instance1 enter 7as ,i was
 informed upon the spot7 the ,spanish   
,rio ,negro on one side by the ,rio     
,guainia and the ,rio ,tomo2 and the    
,upper ,orinoco on the other1 by the    
portages between the ,cababuri1 the     
,pacimoni1 the ,idapa1 and the ,macava1 
to gather the aromatic seeds of the     
puchero laurel beyond the ,esmeralda4   
,the ,indians1 ,i repeat1 are excellent 
geographers2 they outflank the enemy1   
notwithstanding the limits traced upon  
the maps1 in spite of the forts and the 
estacamentos2 and when the missionaries 
see them arrive from such distances1 and
 in different seasons1 they begin to    
frame hypotheses of supposed            
communications of rivers4 ,each party   
has an interest in concealing what it   
knows with certainty2 and that love of  
the mysterious1 so general among the    
ignorant1 contributes to perpetuate the 
doubt4 ,it may also be observed that the
 various ,indian nations1 who frequent  
this labyrinth of rivers1 give them     

names entirely different2 and that these
 names are disguised and lengthened by  
terminations that signify water1 great  
water1 and current4 ,how often have ,i  
been perplexed by the necessity of      
settling the synonyms of rivers1 when ,i
 have sent for the most intelligent     
natives1 to interrogate them1 through an
 interpreter1 respecting the number of  
tributary streams1 the sources of the   
rivers1 and the portages4 ,three or four
 languages being spoken in the same     
mission1 it is difficult to make the    
witnesses agree4 ,our maps are loaded   
with names arbitrarily shortened or     
perverted4 ,to examine how far they may 
be accurate1 we must be guided by the   
geographical situation of the confluent 
rivers1 ,i might almost say by a certain
 etymological tact4 ,the ,rio ,uaupe1 or
 ,uapes of the ,portuguese maps1 is the 
,guapue of the ,spanish maps1 and the   
,ucayari of the natives4 ,the ,anava of 
the old geographers is the ,anauahu of  
,arrowsmith1 and the ,uanauhau or       

,guanauhu of the ,indians4 ,the desire  
of leaving no void in the maps1 in order
 to give them an appearance of accuracy1
 has caused rivers to be created1 to    
which names have been applied that have 
not been recognized as synonymous4 ,it  
is only lately that travellers in       
,america1 in ,persia1 and in the        
,indies1 have felt the importance of    
being correct in the denomination of    
places4 ,when we read the travels of    
,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 it is difficult  
indeed to recognise in the lake of      
,mrecabo1 the laguna of ,maracaybo1 and 
in the ,marquis ,paraco the name of     
,pizarro1 the destroyer of the empire of
 the ,incas4  ,the great tributary      
streams of the ,amazon are designated by
 the missionaries by different names in 
their upper and lower course4 ,the ,iza 
is called1 higher up1 ,putumayo1 the    
,jupura towards its source bears the    
name of ,caqueta4 ,the researches made  
in the missions of the ,andaquies on the
 real origin of the ,rio ,negro have    

been the more fruitless because the     
,indian name of the river was unknown4  
,i heard it called ,guainia at ,javita1 
,maroa1 and ,san ,carlos4 ,southey1 in  
his history of ,brazil1 says expressly  
that the ,rio ,negro1 in the lower part 
of its course1 is called ,guiani1 or    
,curana1 by the natives2 in the upper   
part1 ,ueneya4 ,it is the word ,gueneya1
 instead of ,guainia2 for the ,indians  
of those countries say indifferently    
,guaranacua or ,ouaranacua1 ,guarapo or 
,uarapo4  ,the sources of the ,rio      
,negro have long been an object of      
contention among geographers4 ,the      
interest we feel in this question is not
 merely that which attaches to the      
origin of all great rivers1 but is      
connected with a crowd of other         
questions1 that comprehend the supposed 
bifurcations of the ,caqueta1 the       
communications between the ,rio ,negro  
and the ,orinoco1 and the local fable of
 ,el ,dorado1 formerly called ,enim1 or 
the empire of the ,grand ,paytiti4 ,when

 we study with care the ancient maps of 
these countries1 and the history of     
their geographical errors1 we see how by
 degrees the fable of ,el ,dorado has   
been transported towards the west with  
the sources of the ,orinoco4 ,it was at 
first fixed on the eastern declivity of 
the ,andes1 to the south-west of the    
,rio ,negro4 ,the valiant ,philip de    
,urre sought for the great city of      
,manoa by traversing the ,guaviare4     
,even now the ,indians of ,san ,jose de 
,maravitanos relate that1 on sailing to 
the north-east for fifteen days1 on the 
,guape or ,uaupe1 you reach a famous    
laguna de oro1 surrounded by mountains1 
and so large that the opposite shore    
cannot be discerned4 ,a ferocious       
nation1 the ,guanes1 do not permit the  
collecting of the gold of a sandy plain 
that surrounds the lake4 ,father ,acunha
 places the lake ,manoa1 or ,yenefiti1  
between the ,jupura and the ,rio ,negro4
 ,some ,manoa ,indians brought ,father  
,fritz1 in #afhg1 several slips of      

beaten gold4 ,this nation1 the name of  
which is still known on the banks of the
 ,urarira1 between ,lamalongo and       
,moreira1 dwelt on the ,yurubesh4 ,la   
,condamine is right in saying that this 
,mesopotamia1 between the ,caqueta1 the 
,rio ,negro1 the ,yurubesh1 and the     
,iquiare1 was the first scene of ,el    
,dorado4 ,but where shall we find the   
names of ,yurubesh and ,iquiare1 given  
by the ,fathers ,acunha and ,fritz8 ,i  
think ,i recognise them in the rivers   
,urubaxi and ,iguari199 on some         
manuscript ,portuguese maps which ,i    
possess4 799 ,it may be written         
,urubaji4 ,the j and the x were the same
 as the ,german ch to ,father ,fritz4   
,the ,urubaxi1 or ,hyurubaxi            
7,yurubesh71 falls into the ,rio ,negro 
near ,santa ,isabella2 the ,iguari      
7,iquiare87 runs into the ,issana1 which
 is also a tributary of the ,rio        
,negro47 ,i have long and assiduously   
studied the geography of ,south         
,america1 north of the ,amazon1 from    

ancient maps and unpublished materials4 
,desirous that my work should preserve  
the character of a scientific           
performance1 ,i ought not to hesitate   
about treating of subjects on which ,i  
flatter myself that ,i can throw some   
light2 namely1 on the questions         
respecting the sources of the ,rio      
,negro and the ,orinoco1 the            
communication between these rivers and  
the ,amazon1 and the problem of the     
auriferous soil1 which has cost the     
inhabitants of the ,new ,world so much  
suffering and so much blood4  ,in the   
distribution of the waters circulating  
on the surface of the globe1 as well as 
in the structure of organic bodies1     
nature has pursued a much less          
complicated plan than has been believed 
by those who have suffered themselves to
 be guided by vague conceptions and a   
taste for the marvellous4 ,we find1 too1
 that all anomalies1 all the exceptions 
to the laws of hydrography1 which the   
interior of ,america displays1 are      

merely apparent2 that the course of     
running waters furnishes phenomena      
equally extraordinary in the old world1 
but that these phenomena1 from their    
littleness1 have less struck the        
imagination of travellers4 ,when immense
 rivers may be considered as composed of
 several parallel furrows of unequal    
depth2 when these rivers are not        
enclosed in valleys2 and when the       
interior of the great continent is as   
flat as the shores of the sea with us2  
the ramifications1 the bifurcations1 and
 the interlacings in the form of        
net-work1 must be infinitely multiplied4
 ,from what we know of the equilibrium  
of the seas1 ,i cannot think that the   
,new ,world issued from the waters later
 than the ,old1 and that organic life is
 there younger1 or more recent2 but     
without admitting oppositions between   
the two hemispheres of the same planet1 
we may conceive that in the hemisphere  
most abundant in waters the different   
systems of rivers required more time to 

separate themselves from one another1   
and establish their complete            
independence4 ,the deposits of mud1     
which are formed wherever the running   
waters lose somewhat of their swiftness1
 contribute1 no doubt1 to raise the beds
 of the great confluent streams1 and    
augment their inundations2 but at length
 these deposits entirely obstruct the   
branches of the rivers and the narrow   
channels that connect the neighbouring  
streams4 ,the substances washed down by 
rain-waters form by their accumulation  
new bars1 isthmuses of deposited earth1 
and points of division that did not     
before exist4 ,it hence results that    
these natural channels of communication 
are by degrees divided into two         
tributary streams1 and from the effect  
of a transverse rising1 acquire two     
opposite slopes2 a part of their waters 
is turned back towards the principal    
recipient1 and a buttress rises between 
the two parallel basins1 which occasions
 all traces of their ancient            

communication to disappear4 ,from this  
period the bifurcations no longer       
connect different systems of rivers2    
and1 where they continue to take place  
at the time of great inundations1 we see
 that the waters diverge from the       
principal recipient only to enter it    
again after a longer or shorter circuit4
 ,the limits1 which at first appeared   
vague and uncertain1 begin to be fixed2 
and in the lapse of ages1 from the      
action of whatever is moveable on the   
surface of the globe1 from that of the  
waters1 the deposits1 and the sands1 the
 basins of rivers separate1 as great    
lakes are subdivided1 and as inland seas
 lose their ancient communications499   
799 ,the geological constitution of the 
soil seems to indicate that1            
notwithstanding the actual difference of
 level in their waters1 the ,black ,sea1
 the ,caspian1 and lake ,aral1          
communicated with each other in an era  
anterior to historic times4 ,the        
overflowing of the ,aral into the       

,caspian ,sea seems even to be partly of
 a more recent date1 and independent of 
the bifurcation of the ,gihon 7,oxus71  
on which one of the most learned        
geographers of our day1 ,m4 ,ritter1 has
 thrown new light47  ,the certainty     
acquired by geographers since the       
sixteenth century1 of the existence of  
several bifurcations1 and the mutual    
dependence of various systems of rivers 
in ,south ,america1 have led them to    
admit an intimate connection between the
 five great tributary streams of the    
,orinoco and the ,amazon2 the ,guaviare1
 the ,inirida1 the ,rio ,negro1 the     
,caqueta or ,hyapura1 and the ,putumayo 
or ,iza4  ,the ,meta1 the ,guaviare1 the
 ,caqueta1 and the ,putumayo1 are the   
only great rivers that rise immediately 
from the eastern declivity of the ,andes
 of ,santa ,fe1 ,popayan1 and ,pasto4   
,the ,vichada1 the ,zama1 the ,inirida1 
the ,rio ,negro1 the ,uaupe1 and the    
,apoporis1 which are marked in our maps 
as extending westward as far as the     

mountains1 take rise at a great distance
 from them1 either in the savannahs     
between the ,meta and the ,guaviare1 or 
in the mountainous country which1       
according to the information given me by
 the natives1 begins at four or five    
days' journey westward of the missions  
of ,javita and ,maroa1 and extends      
through the ,sierra ,tuhuny1 beyond the 
,xie1 towards the banks of the ,issana4 
,it is remarkable that this ridge of the
 ,cordilleras1 which contains the       
sources of so many majestic rivers 7the 
,meta1 the ,guaviare1 the ,caqueta1 and 
the ,putumayo71 is as little covered    
with snow as the mountains of ,abyssinia
 from which flow the waters of the ,blue
 ,nile2 but1 on the contrary1 on going  
up the tributary streams which furrow   
the plains1 a volcano as found still in 
activity1 before you reach the          
,cordillera of the ,andes4 ,this        
phenomenon was discovered by the        
,franciscan monks1 who go down from     
,ceja by the ,rio ,fragua to ,caqueta4  

,a solitary hill1 emitting smoke night  
and day1 is found on the north-east of  
the mission of ,santa ,rosa1 and west of
 the ,puerto del ,pescado4 ,this is the 
effect of a lateral action of the       
volcanoes of ,popayan and ,pasto2 as    
,guacamayo and ,sangay1 situated also at
 the foot of the eastern declivity of   
the ,andes1 are the effect of a lateral 
action produced by the system of the    
volcanoes of ,quito4 ,after having      
closely inspected the banks of the      
,orinoco and the ,rio ,negro1 where the 
granite everywhere pierces the soil2    
when we reflect on the total absence of 
volcanoes in ,brazil1 ,guiana1 on the   
coast of ,venezuela1 and perhaps in all 
that part of the continent lying        
eastward of the ,andes2 we contemplate  
with interest the three burning         
volcanoes situated near the sources of  
the ,caqueta1 the ,napo1 and the ,rio de
 ,macas or ,morona4  ,the little group  
of mountains with which we became       
acquainted at the sources of the        

,guainia1 is remarkable from its being  
isolated in the plain that extends to   
the south-west of the ,orinoco4 ,its    
situation with regard to longitude might
 lead to the belief that it stretches   
into a ridge1 which forms first the     
strait 7angostura7 of the ,guaviare1 and
 then the great cataracts 7saltos1      
cachoeiras7 of the ,uaupe and the       
,jupura4 ,does this ground1 composed    
probably of primitive rocks1 like that  
which ,i examined more to the east1     
contain disseminated gold8 ,are there   
any gold-washings more to the south1    
toward the ,uaupe1 on the ,iquiare      
7,iguiari1 ,iguari71 and on the         
,yurubesh 7,yurubach1 ,urubaxi78 ,it was
 there that ,philip von ,huten first    
sought ,el ,dorado1 and with a handful  
of men fought the battle of ,omaguas1 so
 celebrated in the sixteenth century4   
,in separating what is fabulous from the
 narratives of the ,conquistadores1 we  
cannot fail to recognize in the names   
preserved on the same spots a certain   

basis of historic truth4 ,we follow the 
expedition of ,huten beyond the         
,guaviare and the ,caqeta2 we find in   
the ,guaypes1 governed by the cacique of
 ,macatoa1 the inhabitants of the river 
of ,uaupe1 which also bears the name of 
,guape1 or ,guapue2 we call to mind1    
that ,father ,acunha calls the ,iquiari 
7,quiquiare7 a gold river2 and that     
fifty years later ,father ,fritz1 a     
missionary of great veracity1 received1 
in the mission of ,yurimaguas1 the      
,manaos 7,manoas71 adorned with plates  
of beaten gold1 coming from the country 
between the ,uaupe and the ,caqueta1 or 
,jupura4 ,the rivers that rise on the   
eastern declivity of the ,andes 7for    
instance the ,napo7 carry along with    
them a great deal of gold1 even when    
their sources are found in trachytic    
soils4 ,why may there not be an alluvial
 auriferous soil to the east of the     
,cordilleras1 as there is to the west1  
in the ,sonoro1 at ,choco1 and at       
,barbacoas8 ,i am far from wishing to   

exaggerate the riches of this soil2 but 
,i do not think myself authorized to    
deny the existence of precious metals in
 the primitive mountains of ,guiana1    
merely because in our journey through   
that country we saw no metallic veins4  
,it is somewhat remarkable that the     
natives of the ,orinoco have a name in  
their languages for gold 7carucuru in   
,caribbee1 caricuri in ,tamanac1 cavitta
 in ,maypure71 while the word they use  
to denote silver1 prata1 is manifestly  
borrowed from the ,spanish499 799 ,the  
,parecas say1 instead of prata1 rata4   
,it is the ,castilian word plata        
ill-pronounced4 ,near the ,yurubesh     
there is another inconsiderable         
tributary stream of the ,rio ,negro1 the
 ,curicur-iari4 ,it is easy to recognize
 in this name the ,caribbee word        
carucur1 gold4 ,the ,caribs extended    
their incursions from the mouth of the  
,orinoco south-west toward the ,rio     
,negro2 and it was this restless people 
who carried the fable of ,el ,dorado1 by

 the same way1 but in an opposite       
direction 7from south-west to           
north-east71 from the ,mesopotamia      
between the ,rio ,negro and the ,jupura 
to the sources of the ,rio ,branco47    
,the notions collected by ,acunha1      
,father ,fritz1 and ,la ,condamine1 on  
the gold-washings south and north of the
 river ,uaupe1 agree with what ,i learnt
 of the auriferous soil of those        
countries4 ,however great we may suppose
 the communications that took place     
between the nations of the ,orinoco     
before the arrival of ,europeans1 they  
certainly did not draw their gold from  
the eastern declivity of the            
,cordilleras4 ,this declivity is poor in
 mines1 particularly in mines anciently 
worked2 it is almost entirely composed  
of volcanic rocks in the provinces of   
,popayan1 ,pasto1 and ,quito4 ,the gold 
of ,guiana probably came from the       
country east of the ,andes4 ,in our days
 a lump of gold has been found in a     
ravine near the mission of ,encaramada1 

and we must not be surprised if1 since  
,europeans settled in these wild spots1 
we hear less of the plates of gold1     
gold-dust1 and amulets of jade-stone1   
which could heretofore be obtained from 
the ,caribs and other wandering nations 
by barter4 ,the precious metals1 never  
very abundant on the banks of the       
,orinoco1 the ,rio ,negro1 and the      
,amazon1 disappeared almost entirely    
when the system of the missions caused  
the distant communications between the  
natives to cease4  ,the banks of the    
,upper ,guainia in general abound much  
less in fishing-birds than those of     
,cassiquiare1 the ,meta1 and the        
,arauca1 where ornithologists would find
 sufficient to enrich immensely the     
collections of ,europe4 ,this scarcity  
of animals arises1 no doubt1 from the   
want of shoals and flat shores1 as well 
as from the quality of the black waters1
 which 7on account of their very purity7
 furnish less aliment to aquatic insects
 and fish4 ,however1 the ,indians of    

these countries1 during two periods of  
the year1 feed on birds of passage1     
which repose in their long migrations on
 the waters of the ,rio ,negro4 ,when   
the ,orinoco begins to swell99 after the
 vernal equinox1 an innumerable quantity
 of ducks 7patos careteros7 remove from 
the eighth to the third degree of north 
latitude1 to the first and fourth degree
 of south latitude1 towards the         
south-south-east4 799 ,the swellings of 
the ,nile take place much later than    
those of the ,orinoco2 after the summer 
solstice1 below ,syene2 and at ,cairo in
 the beginning of ,july4 ,the ,nile     
begins to sink near that city generally 
about the #aeth of ,october1 and        
continues sinking till the #bjth of     
,may47 ,these animals then abandon the  
valley of the ,orinoco1 no doubt because
 the increasing depth of waters1 and the
 inundations of the shores1 prevent them
 from catching fish1 insects1 and       
aquatic worms4 ,they are killed by      
thousands in their passage across the   

,rio ,negro4 ,when they go towards the  
equator they are very fat and savoury2  
but in the month of ,september1 when the
 ,orinoco decreases and returns into its
 bed1 the ducks1 warned either by the   
voices of the most experienced birds of 
passage1 or by that internal feeling    
which1 not knowing how to define1 we    
call instinct1 return from the ,amazon  
and the ,rio ,branco towards the north4 
,at this period they are too lean to    
tempt the appetite of the ,indians of   
the ,rio ,negro1 and escape pursuit more
 easily from being accompanied by a     
species of herons 7gavanes7 which are   
excellent eating4 ,thus the ,indians eat
 ducks in ,march1 and herons in         
,september4 ,we could not learn what    
becomes of the gavanes during the       
swellings of the ,orinoco1 and why they 
do not accompany the patos careteros in 
their migration from the ,orinoco to the
 ,rio ,branco4 ,these regular migrations
 of birds from one part of the tropics  
towards another1 in a zone which is     

during the whole year of the same       
temperature1 are very extraordinary     
phenomena4 ,the southern coasts of the  
,west ,india ,islands receive also every
 year1 at the period of the inundations 
of the great rivers of ,terra ,firma1   
numerous flights of the fishing-birds of
 the ,orinoco1 and of its tributary     
streams4 ,we must presume that the      
variations of drought and humidity in   
the equinoctial zone have the same      
influence as the great changes of       
temperature in our climates1 on the     
habits of animals4 ,the heat of summer1 
and the pursuit of insects1 call the    
humming-birds into the northern parts of
 the ,united ,states1 and into ,canada  
as far as the parallels of ,paris and   
,berlin3 in the same manner a greater   
facility for fishing draws the          
web-footed and long-legged birds from   
the north to the south1 from the        
,orinoco towards the ,amazon4 ,nothing  
is more marvellous1 and nothing is yet  
known less clearly in a geographical    

point of view1 than the direction1      
extent1 and term of the migrations of   
birds4  ,after having entered the ,rio  
,negro by the ,pimichin1 and passed the 
small cataract at the confluence of the 
two rivers1 we discovered1 at the       
distance of a quarter of a league1 the  
mission of ,maroa4 ,this village1       
containing one hundred and fifty        
,indians1 presented an appearance of    
ease and prosperity4 ,we purchased some 
fine specimens of the toucan alive2 a   
courageous bird1 the intelligence of    
which is developed like that of our     
domestic ravens4 ,we passed on the      
right1 above ,maroa1 first the mouth of 
the ,aquio99 7,aqui1 ,aaqui1 ,ake1 of   
the most recent maps471 then that of the
 ,tomo499 799 ,tomui1 ,temujo1 ,tomon47 
,on the banks of the latter river dwell 
the ,cheruvichahenas1 some families of  
whom ,i have seen at ,san ,francisco    
,solano4 ,the ,tomo lies near the ,rio  
,guaicia 7,xie71 and the mission of     
,tomo receives by that way fugitive     

,indians from the ,lower ,guainia4 ,we  
did not enter the mission1 but ,father  
,zea related to us with a smile1 that   
the ,indians of ,tomo and ,maroa had    
been one day in full insurrection1      
because an attempt was made to force    
them to dance the famous dance of the   
devils4 ,the missionary had taken a     
fancy to have the ceremonies by which   
the piaches 7who are at once priests1   
physicians1 and conjurors7 evoke the    
evil spirit ,iolokiamo1 represented in a
 burlesque manner4 ,he thought that the 
dance of the devils would be an         
excellent means of proving to the       
neophytes that ,iolokiamo had no longer 
any power over them4 ,some young        
,indians1 confiding in the promises of  
the missionary1 consented to act the    
devils1 and were already decorated with 
black and yellow plumes1 and            
jaguar-skins with long sweeping tails4  
,the place where the church stands was  
surrounded by the soldiers who are      
distributed in the missions1 in order to

 add more effect to the counsels of the 
monks2 and those ,indians who were not  
entirely satisfied with respect to the  
consequences of the dance1 and the      
impotency of the evil spirit1 were      
brought to the festivity4 ,the oldest   
and most timid of the ,indians1 however1
 imbued all the rest with a             
superstitious dread2 all resolved to    
flee al monte1 and the missionary       
adjourned his project of turning into   
derision the demon of the natives4 ,what
 extravagant ideas may sometimes enter  
the imagination of an idle monk1 who    
passes his life in the forests1 far from
 everything that can recall human       
civilization to his mind4 ,the violence 
with which the attempt was made to      
execute in public at ,tomo the          
mysterious dance of the devils is the   
more strange1 as all the books written  
by the missionaries relate the efforts  
they have used to prevent the funereal  
dances1 the dances of the sacred        
trumpet1 and that ancient dance of      

serpents1 the ,queti1 in which these    
wily animals are represented as issuing 
from the forests1 and coming to drink   
with the men in order to deceive them1  
and carry off the women4  ,after two    
hours' navigation from the mouth of the 
,tomo we arrived at the little mission  
of ,san ,miguel de ,davipe1 founded in  
#agge1 not by monks1 but by a lieutenant
 of militia1 ,don ,francisco ,bobadilla4
 ,the missionary of the place1 ,father  
,morillo1 with whom we spent some hours1
 received us with great hospitality4 ,he
 even offered us ,madeira wine1 but1 as 
an object of luxury1 we should have     
preferred wheaten bread4 ,the want of   
bread becomes more sensibly felt in     
length of time than that of a strong    
liquor4 ,the ,portuguese of the ,amazon 
carry small quantities of ,madeira wine1
 from time to time1 to the ,rio ,negro2 
and the word madera1 signifying wood in 
the ,castilian language1 the monks1 who 
are not much versed in the study of     
geography1 had a scruple of celebrating 

mass with ,madeira wine1 which they took
 for a fermented liquor extracted from  
the trunk of some tree1 like palm-wine2 
and requested the guardian of the       
missions to decide1 whether the vino de 
madera were wine from grapes1 or the    
juice of a tree4 ,at the beginning of   
the conquest1 the question was agitated1
 whether it were allowable for the      
priests1 in celebrating mass1 to use any
 fermented liquor analogous to          
grape-wine4 ,the question1 as might have
 been foreseen1 was decided in the      
negative4  ,at ,davipe we bought some   
provisions1 among which were fowls and a
 pig4 ,this purchase greatly interested 
our ,indians1 who had been a long while 
deprived of meat4 ,they pressed us to   
depart1 in order to reach the island of 
,dapa1 where the pig was to be killed   
and roasted during the night4 ,we had   
scarcely time to examine in the convent 
7convento7 the great stores of mani     
resin1 and cordage of the chiquichiqui  
palm1 which deserves to be more known in

 ,europe4 ,this cordage is extremely    
light2 it floats upon the water1 and is 
more durable in the navigation of rivers
 than ropes of hemp4 ,it must be        
preserved at sea by being often wetted1 
and little exposed to the heat of the   
tropical sun4 ,don ,antonio ,santos1    
celebrated in the country for his       
journey in search of lake ,parima1      
taught the ,indians of the ,spanish ,rio
 ,negro to make use of the petioles of  
the chiquichiqui1 a palm-tree with      
pinnate leaves1 of which we saw neither 
the flowers nor the fruit4 ,this officer
 is the only white man who ever came    
from ,angostura to ,grand ,para1 passing
 by land from the sources of the ,rio   
,carony to those of the ,rio ,branco4   
,he had studied the mode of fabricating 
ropes from the chiquichiqui in the      
,portuguese colonies2 and1 on his return
 from the ,amazon1 he introduced this   
branch of industry into the missions of 
,guiana4 ,it were to be wished that     
extensive rope-walks could be           

established on the banks of the ,rio    
,negro and the ,cassiquiare1 in order to
 make these cables an article of trade  
with ,europe4 ,a small quantity is      
already exported from ,angostura to the 
,west ,indies2 and it costs from fifty  
to sixty per cent less than cordage of  
hemp4 ,young palm-trees only being      
employed1 they must be planted and      
carefully cultivated4  ,a little above  
the mission of ,davipe1 the ,rio ,negro 
receives a branch of the ,cassiquiare1  
the existence of which is a very        
remarkable phenomenon in the history of 
the branchings of rivers4 ,this branch  
issues from the ,cassiquiare1 north of  
,vasiva1 bearing the name of the        
,itinivini2 and1 after flowing for the  
length of twenty-five leagues through a 
flat and almost uninhabited country1 it 
falls into the ,rio ,negro under the    
name of the ,rio ,conorichite4 ,it      
appeared to me to be more than one      
hundred and twenty toises broad near its
 mouth4 ,although the current of the    

,conorichite is very rapid1 this natural
 canal abridges by three days the       
passage from ,davipe to ,esmeralda4 ,we 
cannot be surprised at a double         
communication between the ,cassiquiare  
and the ,rio ,negro when we recollect   
that so many of the rivers of ,america  
form1 as it were1 deltas at their       
confluence with other rivers4 ,thus the 
,rio ,branco and the ,rio ,jupura enter 
by a great number of branches into the  
,rio ,negro and the ,amazon4 ,at the    
confluence of the ,jupura there is a    
much more extraordinary phenomenon4     
,before this river joins the ,amazon1   
the latter1 which is the principal      
recipient1 sends off three branches     
called ,uaranapu1 ,manhama1 and         
,avateparana1 to the ,jupura1 which is  
but a tributary stream4 ,the ,portuguese
 astronomer1 ,ribeiro1 has proved this  
important fact4 ,the ,amazon gives      
waters to the ,jupura itself1 before it 
receives that tributary stream4  ,the   
,rio ,conorichite1 or ,itinivini1       

formerly facilitated the trade in slaves
 carried on by the ,portuguese in the   
,spanish territory4 ,the slave-traders  
went up by the ,cassiquiare and the     
,cano ,mee to ,conorichite2 and thence  
dragged their canoes by a portage to the
 rochelas of ,manuteso1 in order to     
enter the ,atabapo4 ,this abominable    
trade lasted till about the year #agef2 
when the expedition of ,solano1 and the 
establishment of the missions on the    
banks of the ,rio ,negro1 put an end to 
it4 ,old laws of ,charles ,v and ,philip
 ,,iii99 799 #bf ,january #aebc and #aj 
,october #afah47 had forbidden under the
 most severe penalties 7such as the     
being rendered incapable of civil       
employment1 and a fine of two thousand  
piastres71 the conversion of the natives
 to the faith by violent means1 and     
sending armed men against them2 but     
notwithstanding these wise and humane   
laws1 the ,rio ,negro1 in the middle of 
the last century1 was no further        
interesting in ,european politics1 than 

as it facilitated the entradas1 or      
hostile incursions1 and favoured the    
purchase of slaves4 ,the ,caribs1 a     
trading and warlike people1 received    
from the ,portuguese and the ,dutch1    
knives1 fish-hooks1 small mirrors1 and  
all sorts of glass beads4 ,they excited 
the ,indian chiefs to make war against  
each other1 bought their prisoners1 and 
carried off1 themselves1 by stratagem or
 force1 all whom they found in their    
way4 ,these incursions of the ,caribs   
comprehended an immense extent of land2 
they went from the banks of the         
,essequibo and the ,carony1 by the      
,rupunuri and the ,paraguamuzi on one   
side1 directly south towards the ,rio   
,branco2 and on the other1 to the       
south-west1 following the portages      
between the ,rio ,paragua1 the ,caura1  
and the ,ventuario4 ,the ,caribs1 when  
they arrived amid the numerous tribes of
 the ,upper ,orinoco1 divided themselves
 into several bands1 in order to reach1 
by the ,cassiquiare1 the ,cababury1 the 

,itinivini1 and the ,atabapo1 on a great
 many points at once1 the banks of the  
,guiainia or ,rio ,negro1 and carry on  
the slave-trade with the ,portuguese4   
,thus the unhappy natives1 before they  
came into immediate contact with the    
,europeans1 suffered from their         
proximity4 ,the same causes produce     
everywhere the same effects4 ,the       
barbarous trade which civilized nations 
have carried on1 and still partially    
continue1 on the coast of ,africa1      
extends its fatal influence even to     
regions where the existence of white men
 is unknown4  ,having quitted the mouth 
of the ,conorichite and the mission of  
,davipe1 we reached at sunset the island
 of ,dapa1 lying in the middle of the   
river1 and very picturesquely situated4 
,we were astonished to find on this spot
 some cultivated ground1 and on the top 
of a small hill an ,indian hut4 ,four   
natives were seated round a fire of     
brushwood1 and they were eating a sort  
of white paste with black spots1 which  

much excited our curiosity4 ,these black
 spots proved to be vachacos1 large     
ants1 the hinder parts of which resemble
 a lump of grease4 ,they had been dried1
 and blackened by smoke4 ,we saw several
 bags of them suspended above the fire4 
,these good people paid but little      
attention to us2 yet there were more    
than fourteen persons in this confined  
hut1 lying naked in hammocks hung one   
above another4 ,when ,father ,zea       
arrived1 he was received with great     
demonstrations of joy4 ,the military are
 in greater numbers on the banks of the 
,rio ,negro than on those of the        
,orinoco1 owing to the necessity of     
guarding the frontiers2 and wherever    
soldiers and monks dispute for power    
over the ,indians1 the latter are most  
attached to the monks4 ,two young women 
came down from their hammocks1 to       
prepare for us cakes of cassava4 ,in    
answer to some enquiries which we put to
 them through an interpreter1 they      
answered that cassava grew poorly on the

 island1 but that it was a good land for
 ants1 and food was not wanting4 ,in    
fact1 these vachacos furnish subsistence
 to the ,indians of the ,rio ,negro and 
the ,guainia4 ,they do not eat the ants 
as a luxury1 but because1 according to  
the expression of the missionaries1 the 
fat of ants 7the white part of the      
abdomen7 is a very substantial food4    
,when the cakes of cassava were         
prepared1 ,father ,zea1 whose fever     
seemed rather to sharpen than to        
enfeeble his appetite1 ordered a little 
bag to be brought to him filled with    
smoked vachacos4 ,he mixed these bruised
 insects with flour of cassava1 which he
 pressed us to taste4 ,it somewhat      
resembled rancid butter mixed with crumb
 of bread4 ,the cassava had not an acid 
taste1 but some remains of ,european    
prejudices prevented our joining in the 
praises bestowed by the good missionary 
on what he called an excellent ant      
paste4  ,the violence of the rain       
obliged us to sleep in this crowded hut4

 ,the ,indians slept only from eight    
till two in the morning2 the rest of the
 time they employed in conversing in    
their hammocks1 and preparing their     
bitter beverage of cupana4 ,they threw  
fresh fuel on the fire1 and complained  
of cold1 although the temperature of the
 air was at #ba degrees4 ,this custom of
 being awake1 and even on foot1 four or 
five hours before sunrise1 is general   
among the ,indians of ,guiana4 ,when1 in
 the entradas1 an attempt is made to    
surprise the natives1 the hours chosen  
are those of the first sleep1 from nine 
till midnight4  ,we left the island of  
,dapa long before daybreak2 and         
notwithstanding the rapidity of the     
current1 and the activity of our rowers1
 our passage to the fort of ,san ,carlos
 del ,rio ,negro occupied twelve hours4 
,we passed1 on the left1 the mouth of   
the ,cassiquiare1 and1 on the right1 the
 small island of ,cumarai4 ,the fort is 
believed in the country to be on the    
equatorial line2 but1 according to the  

observations which ,i made at the rocks 
of ,culimacari1 it is in #a degree #ed  
minutes #aa seconds4  ,we lodged at ,san
 ,carlos with the commander of the fort1
 a lieutenant of militia4 ,from a       
gallery in the upper part of the house  
we enjoyed a delightful view of three   
islands of great length1 and covered    
with thick vegetation4 ,the river runs  
in a straight line from north to south1 
as if its bed had been dug by the hand  
of man4 ,the sky being constantly cloudy
 gives these countries a solemn and     
gloomy character4 ,we found in the      
village a few juvia-trees which furnish 
the triangular nuts called in ,europe   
the almonds of the ,amazon1 or          
,brazil-nuts4 ,we have made it known by 
the name of ,bertholletia excelsa4 ,the 
trees attain after eight years' growth  
the height of thirty feet4  ,the        
military establishment of this frontier 
consisted of seventeen soldiers1 ten of 
whom were detached for the security of  
the neighbouring missions4 ,owing to the

 extreme humidity of the air there are  
not four muskets in a condition to be   
fired4 ,the ,portuguese have from       
twenty-five to thirty men1 better       
clothed and armed1 at the little fort of
 ,san ,jose de ,maravitanos4 ,we found  
in the mission of ,san ,carlos but one  
garita199 a square house1 constructed   
with unbaked bricks1 and containing six 
field-pieces4 799 ,this word literally  
signifies a sentry-box2 but it is here  
employed in the sense of store-house or 
arsenal47 ,the little fort1 or1 as they 
think proper to call it here1 the       
,castillo de ,san ,felipe1 is situated  
opposite ,san ,carlos1 on the western   
bank of the ,rio ,negro4  ,the banks of 
the ,upper ,guainia will be more        
productive when1 by the destruction of  
the forests1 the excessive humidity of  
the air and the soil shall be           
diminished4 ,in their present state of  
culture maize scarcely grows1 and the   
tobacco1 which is of the finest quality1
 and much celebrated on the coast of    

,caracas1 is well cultivated only on    
spots amid old ruins1 remains of the    
huts of the pueblo viejo 7old town74    
,indigo grows wild near the villages of 
,maroa1 ,davipe1 and ,tomo4 ,under a    
different system from that which we     
found existing in these countries1 the  
,rio ,negro will produce indigo1 coffee1
 cacao1 maize1 and rice1 in abundance4  
,the passage from the mouth of the ,rio 
,negro to ,grand ,para occupying only   
twenty or twenty-five days1 it would not
 have taken us much more time to have   
gone down the ,amazon as far as the     
coast of ,brazil1 than to return by the 
,cassiquiare and the ,orinoco to the    
northern coast of ,caracas4 ,we were    
informed at ,san ,carlos that1 on       
account of political circumstances1 it  
was difficult at that moment to pass    
from the ,spanish to the ,portuguese    
settlements2 but we did not know till   
after our return to ,europe the extent  
of the danger to which we should have   
been exposed in proceeding as far as    

,barcellos4 ,it was known at ,brazil1   
possibly through the medium of the      
newspapers1 that ,i was going to visit  
the missions of the ,rio ,negro1 and    
examine the natural canal which unites  
two great systems of rivers4 ,in those  
desert forests instruments had been seen
 only in the hands of the commissioners 
of the boundaries2 and at that time the 
subaltern agents of the ,portuguese     
government could not conceive how a man 
of sense could expose himself to the    
fatigues of a long journey1 to measure  
lands that did not belong to him4       
,orders had been issued to seize my     
person1 my instruments1 and1 above all1 
those registers of astronomical         
observations1 so dangerous to the safety
 of states4 ,we were to be conducted by 
way of the ,amazon to ,grand ,para1 and 
thence sent back to ,lisbon4 ,but       
fortunately for me1 the government at   
,lisbon1 on being informed of the zeal  
of its subaltern agents1 instantly gave 
orders that ,i should not be disturbed  

in my operations2 but that on the       
contrary they should be encouraged1 if  
,i traversed any part of the ,portuguese
 possessions4  ,in going down the       
,guainia1 or ,rio ,negro1 you pass on   
the right the ,cano ,maliapo1 and on the
 left the ,canos ,dariba and ,eny4 ,at  
five leagues distance1 nearly in #a     
degree #ch minutes of north latitude1 is
 the island of ,san ,josef4 ,a little   
below that island1 in a spot where there
 are a great number of orange-trees now 
growing wild1 the traveller is shown a  
small rock1 two hundred feet high1 with 
a cavern called by the missionaries the 
,glorieta de ,cocuy4 ,this summer-house 
7for such is the signification of the   
word glorieta in ,spanish7 recalls      
remembrances that are not the most      
agreeable4 ,it was here that ,cocuy1 the
 chief of the ,manitivitanos199 had his 
harem of women1 and where he devoured   
the finest and fattest4 799 ,at ,san    
,carlos there is still preserved an     
instrument of music1 a kind of large    

drum1 ornamented with very rude ,indian 
paintings1 which relate to the exploits 
of ,cocuy47 ,the tradition of the harem 
and the orgies of ,cocuy is more current
 in the ,lower ,orinoco than on the     
banks of the ,guainia4 ,at ,san ,carlos 
the very idea that the chief of the     
,manitivitanos could be guilty of       
cannibalism is indignantly rejected4    
,the ,portuguese government has         
established many settlements even in    
this remote part of ,brazil4 ,below the 
,glorieta1 in the ,portuguese territory1
 there are eleven villages in an extent 
of twenty-five leagues4 ,i know of      
nineteen more as far as the mouth of the
 ,rio ,negro1 beside the six towns of   
,thomare1 ,moreira 7near the ,rio       
,demenene1 or ,uaraca1 where dwelt      
anciently the ,guiana ,indians71        
,barcellos1 ,san ,miguel del ,rio       
,branco1 near the river of the same name
 7so well known in the fictions of ,el  
,dorado71 ,moura1 and ,villa de ,rio    
,negro4 ,the banks of this tributary    

stream of the ,amazon alone are         
consequently ten times more thickly     
peopled than all the shores of the      
,upper and ,lower ,orinoco1 the         
,cassiquiare1 the ,atabapo1 and the     
,spanish ,rio ,negro4  ,among the       
tributary streams which the ,rio ,negro 
receives from the north1 three are      
particularly deserving of attention1    
because on account of their branchings1 
their portages1 and the situation of    
their sources1 they are connected with  
the often-discussed problem of the      
origin of the ,orinoco4 ,the most       
southern of these tributary streams are 
the ,rio ,branco199 which was long      
believed to issue conjointly with the   
,orinoco from lake ,parime 799 ,the     
,portuguese name1 ,rio ,branco1         
signifies ,white ,water4 ,rio ,parime is
 a ,caribbean name1 signifying ,great   
,water4 ,these names having also been   
applied to different tributary streams1 
have caused many errors in geography4   
,the great ,rio ,branco1 or ,parime1    

often mentioned in this work1 is formed 
by the ,urariquera and the ,tacutu1 and 
flows1 between ,carvoeyro and ,villa de 
,moura1 into the ,rio ,negro4 ,it is the
 ,quecuene of the natives2 and forms at 
its confluence with the ,rio ,negro a   
very narrow delta1 between the principal
 trunk and the ,amayauhau1 which is a   
little branch more to the west471 and   
the ,rio ,padaviri1 which communicates  
by a portage with the ,mavaca1 and      
consequently with the ,upper ,orinoco1  
to the east of the mission of           
,esmeralda4 ,we shall have occasion to  
speak of the ,rio ,branco and the       
,padaviri1 when we arrive in that       
mission2 it suffices here to pause at   
the third tributary stream of the ,rio  
,negro1 the ,cababury1 the              
interbranchings of which with the       
,cassiquiare are alike important in     
their connexion with hydrography1 and   
with the trade in sarsaparilla4  ,the   
lofty mountains of the ,parime1 which   
border the northern bank of the ,orinoco

 in the upper part of its course above  
,esmeralda1 send off a chain towards the
 south1 of which the ,cerro de ,unturan 
forms one of the principal summits4     
,this mountainous country1 of small     
extent but rich in vegetable            
productions1 above all1 in the mavacure 
liana1 employed in preparing the wourali
 poison1 in almond-trees 7the juvia1 or 
,bertholletia excelsa71 in aromatic     
pucheries1 and in wild cacao-trees1     
forms a point of division between the   
waters that flow to the ,orinoco1 the   
,cassiquiare1 and the ,rio ,negro4 ,the 
tributary streams on the north1 or those
 of the ,orinoco1 are the ,mavaca and   
the ,daracapo2 those on the west1 or of 
the ,cassiquiare1 are the ,idapa and the
 ,pacimoni2 and those on the south1 or  
of the ,rio ,negro1 are the ,padaviri   
and the ,cababuri4 ,the latter is       
divided near its source into two        
branches1 the westernmost of which is   
known by the name of ,baria4 ,the       
,indians of the mission of ,san         

,francisco ,solano gave us the most     
minute description of its course4 ,it   
affords the very rare example of a      
branch by which an inferior tributary   
stream1 instead of receiving the waters 
of the superior stream1 sends to it a   
part of its own waters in a direction   
opposite to that of the principal       
recipient4  ,the ,cababuri runs into the
 ,rio ,negro near the mission of ,nossa 
,senhora das ,caldas2 but the rivers ,ya
 and ,dimity1 which are higher tributary
 streams1 communicate also with the     
,cababuri2 so that1 from the little fort
 of ,san ,gabriel de ,cachoeiras as far 
as ,san ,antonio de ,castanheira the    
,indians of the ,portuguese possessions 
can enter the territory of the ,spanish 
missions by the ,baria and the          
,pacimoni4  ,the chief object of these  
incursions is the collection of         
sarsaparilla and the aromatic seeds of  
the puchery-laurel 7,laurus pichurim74  
,the sarsaparilla of these countries is 
celebrated at ,grand ,para1 ,angostura1 

,cumana1 ,nueva ,barcelona1 and in other
 parts of ,terra ,firma1 by the name of 
zarza del ,rio ,negro4 ,it is much      
preferred to the zarza of the ,province 
of ,caracas1 or of the mountains of     
,merida2 it is dried with great care1   
and exposed purposely to smoke1 in order
 that it may become blacker4 ,this liana
 grows in profusion on the humid        
declivities of the mountains of ,unturan
 and ,achivaquery4 ,decandolle is right 
in suspecting that different species of 
smilax are gathered under the name of   
sarsaparilla4 ,we found twelve new      
species1 among which the ,smilax        
siphylitica of the ,cassiquaire1 and the
 ,smilax officinalis of the river       
,magdalena1 are most esteemed on account
 of their diuretic properties4 ,the     
quantity of sarsaparilla employed in the
 ,spanish colonies as a domestic        
medicine is very considerable4 ,we see  
by the works of ,clusius1 that at the   
beginning of the ,conquista1 ,europe    
obtained this salutary medicament from  

the ,mexican coast of ,honduras and the 
port of ,guayaquil4 ,the trade in zarza 
is now more active in those ports which 
have interior communications with the   
,orinoco1 the ,rio ,negro1 and the      
,amazon4  ,the trials made in several   
botanical gardens of ,europe prove that 
the ,smilax glauca of ,virginia1 which  
it is pretended is the ,s4 sarsaparilla 
of ,linnaeus1 may be cultivated in the  
open air1 wherever the mean winter      
temperature rises above six or seven    
degrees of the centigrade thermometer993
 but those species that possess the most
 active virtues belong exclusively to   
the torrid zone1 and require a much     
higher degree of heat4 799 ,the winter  
temperature at ,london and ,paris is    
#d4b and #c4g2 at ,montpelier1 #f4g2 at 
,rome1 #g4g degrees4 ,in that part of   
,mexico1 and the ,terra ,firma1 where we
 saw the most active species of the     
sarsaparilla growing 7that which        
supplies the trade of the ,spanish and  
,portuguese colonies71 the temperature  

is from twenty to twenty-six degrees4   
,the roots of another family of         
monocotyledons 7of some cyperaceae7     
possess also diaphoretic and resolvent  
properties4 ,the ,carex arenaria1 the   
,c4 hirta1 etc4 furnish the ,german     
sarsaparilla of druggists4 ,according to
 ,clusius1 ,europe received the first   
sarsaparilla from ,yucatan1 and the     
island of ,puna1 opposite ,guayaquil47  
,in reading the works of ,clusius1 it   
can scarcely be conceived why our       
writers on the ,materia ,medica persist 
in considering a plant of the ,united   
,states as the most ancient type of the 
officinal species of the genus smilax4  
,we found in the possession of the      
,indians of the ,rio ,negro some of     
those green stones1 known by the name of
 ,amazon stones1 because the natives    
pretend1 according to an ancient        
tradition1 that they come from the      
country of the women without husbands   
7,cougnantainsecouima71 or women living 
alone 7,aikeambenano9974 799 ,this word 

is of the ,tamanac language2 these women
 are the sole ,donne of the ,italian    
missionaries47 ,we were told at ,san    
,carlos1 and in the neighbouring        
villages1 that the sources of the       
,orinoco1 which we found east of the    
,esmeralda1 and in the missions of the  
,carony and at ,angostura1 that the     
sources of the ,rio ,branco are the     
native spots of the green stones4 ,these
 statements confirm the report of an old
 soldier of the garrison of ,cayenne    
7mentioned by ,la ,condamine71 who      
affirmed that those mineral substances  
were obtained from the country of women1
 west of the rapids of the ,oyapoc4 ,the
 ,indians who inhabit the fort of       
,topayos on the ,amazon five degrees    
east of the mouth of the ,rio ,negro1   
possessed formerly a great number of    
these stones4 ,had they received them   
from the north1 that is1 from the       
country pointed out by the ,indians of  
the ,rio ,negro1 which extends from the 
mountains of ,cayenne towards the       

sources of the ,essequibo1 the ,carony1 
the ,orinoco1 the ,parime1 and the ,rio 
,trombetas8 or did they come from the   
south by the ,rio ,topayos1 which       
descends from the vast table-land of the
 ,campos ,parecis8 ,superstition        
attaches great importance to these      
mineral substances3 they are worn       
suspended from the neck as amulets1     
because1 according to popular belief1   
they preserve the wearer from nervous   
complaints1 fevers1 and the stings of   
venomous serpents4 ,they have           
consequently been for ages an article of
 trade among the natives1 both north and
 south of the ,orinoco4 ,the ,caribs1   
who may be considered as the ,bucharians
 of the ,new ,world1 made them known    
along the coasts of ,guiana2 and the    
same stones1 like money in circulation1 
passed successively from nation to      
nation in opposite directions3 their    
quantity is perhaps not augmented1 and  
the spot which produces them is probably
 unknown rather than concealed4 ,in the 

midst of enlightened ,europe1 on        
occasion of a warm contest respecting   
native bark1 a few years ago1 the green 
stones of the ,orinoco were gravely     
proposed as a powerful febrifuge4 ,after
 this appeal to the credulity of        
,europeans1 we cannot be surprised to   
learn that the ,spanish planters share  
the predilection of the ,indians for    
these amulets1 and that they are sold at
 a very considerable price4 ,the form   
given to them most frequently is that of
 the ,babylonian cylinders199           
longitudinally perforated1 and loaded   
with inscriptions and figures4 7,the    
price of a cylinder two inches long is  
from twelve to fifteen piastres47 ,but  
this is not the work of the ,indians of 
our days1 the natives of the ,orinoco   
and the ,amazon1 whom we find in the    
last degree of barbarism4 ,the ,amazon  
stones1 like the perforated and         
sculptured emeralds1 found in the       
,cordilleras of ,new ,grenada and       
,quito1 are vestiges of anterior        

civilization4 ,the present inhabitants  
of those countries1 particularly in the 
hot region1 so little comprehend the    
possibility of cutting hard stones 7the 
emerald1 jade1 compact feldspar and     
rock-crystal71 that they imagine the    
green stone is soft when taken out of   
the earth1 and that it hardens after    
having been moulded by the hand4  ,the  
natural soil of the ,amazon-stone is not
 in the valley of the river ,amazon4 ,it
 does not derive its name from the      
river1 but like the river itself1 the   
stone has been named after a nation of  
warlike women1 whom ,father ,acunha1 and
 ,oviedo1 in his letter to cardinal     
,bembo1 compare to the ,amazons of the  
ancient world4 ,what we see in our      
cabinets under the false denomination of
 ,amazon-stone1 is neither jade1 nor    
compact feldspar1 but a common feldspar 
of an apple-green colour1 that comes    
from the ,ural mountains and on lake    
,onega in ,russia1 but which ,i never   
saw in the granitic mountains of        

,guiana4 ,sometimes also this very rare 
and hard ,amazon-stone is confounded    
with the hatchet-nephrite 7beilstein799 
of ,werner1 which has much less         
tenacity4 799 ,punamustein 7jade        
axinien74 ,the stone hatchets found in  
,america1 for instance in ,mexico1 are  
not of beilstein1 but of compact        
feldspar47 ,the substance which ,i      
obtained from the hands of the ,indians1
 belongs to the saussurite199 799 ,jade 
of ,saussure1 according to the system of
 ,brongniart2 tenacious jade1 and       
compact tenacious feldspar of ,hauy2    
some varieties of the variolithe of     
,werner47 to the real jade1 which       
resembles compact feldspar1 and which   
forms one of the constituent parts of   
the verde de ,corsica1 or gabbro499 799 
,euphotide of ,hauy1 or schillerfels1 of
 ,raumer47 ,it takes a fine polish1 and 
passes from apple-green to              
emerald-green2 it is translucent at the 
edges1 extremely tenacious1 and in a    
high degree sonorous4 ,these ,amazon    

stones were formerly cut by the natives 
into very thin plates1 perforated at the
 centre1 and suspended by a thread1 and 
these plates yield an almost metallic   
sound if struck by another hard body499 
799 ,m4 ,brongniart1 to whom ,i showed  
these plates on my return to ,europe1   
very justly compared these jades of     
,parime to the sonorous stones employed 
by the ,chinese in their musical        
instruments called king47 ,this fact    
confirms the connection which we find1  
notwithstanding the difference of       
fracture and of specific gravity between
 the saussurite and the siliceous basis 
of the porphyrschiefer1 which is the    
phonolite 7klingstein74 ,i have already 
observed1 that1 as it is very rare to   
find in ,america nephrite1 jade1 or     
compact feldspar1 in its native place1  
we may well be astonished at the        
quantity of hatchets which are          
everywhere discovered in digging the    
earth1 from the banks of the ,ohio as   
far as ,chile4 ,we saw in the mountains 

of ,upper ,orinoco1 or of ,parime1 only 
granular granites containing a little   
hornblende1 granites passing into       
gneiss1 and schistoid hornblendes4 ,has 
nature repeated on the east of          
,esmeralda1 between the sources of the  
,carony1 the ,essequibo1 the ,orinoco1  
and the ,rio ,branco1 the               
transition-formation of ,tucutunemo     
reposing on mica-schist8 ,does the      
,amazon-stone come from the rocks of    
euphotide1 which form the last member of
 the series of primitive rocks8  ,we    
find among the inhabitants of both      
hemispheres1 at the first dawn of       
civilization1 a peculiar predilection   
for certain stones2 not only those      
which1 from their hardness1 may be      
useful to man as cutting instruments1   
but also for mineral substances1 which1 
on account of their colour and their    
natural form1 are believed to bear some 
relation to the organic functions1 and  
even to the propensities of the soul4   
,this ancient worship of stones1 these  

benign virtues attributed to jade and   
haematite1 belong to the savages of     
,america as well as to the inhabitants  
of the forests of ,thrace4 ,the human   
race1 when in an uncultivated state1    
believes itself to have sprung from the 
ground2 and feels as if it were         
enchained to the earth1 and the         
substances contained in her bosom4 ,the 
powers of nature1 and still more those  
which destroy than those which preserve1
 are the first objects of its worship4  
,it is not solely in the tempest1 in the
 sound that precedes the earthquake1 in 
the fire that feeds the volcano1 that   
these powers are manifested2 the        
inanimate rock2 stones1 by their lustre 
and hardness2 mountains1 by their mass  
and their solitude2 act upon the        
untaught mind with a force which1 in a  
state of advanced civilization1 can no  
longer be conceived4 ,this worship of   
stones1 when once established1 is       
preserved amidst more modern forms of   
worship2 and what was at first the      

object of religious homage1 becomes a   
source of superstitious confidence4     
,divine stones are transformed into     
amulets1 which are believed to preserve 
the wearer from every ill1 mental and   
corporeal4 ,although a distance of five 
hundred leagues separates the banks of  
the ,amazon and the ,orinoco from the   
,mexican table-land2 although history   
records no fact that connects the savage
 nations of ,guiana with the civilized  
nations of ,anahuac1 the monk ,bernard  
de ,sahagun1 at the beginning of the    
conquest1 found preserved as relics at  
,cholula1 certain green stones which had
 belonged to ,quetzalcohuatl4 ,this     
mysterious personage is the ,mexican    
,buddha2 he appeared in the time of the 
,toltecs1 founded the first religious   
associations1 and established a         
government similar to that of ,meroe and
 of ,japan4  ,the history of the jade1  
or the green stones of ,guiana1 is      
intimately connected with that of the   
warlike women whom the travellers of the

 sixteenth century named the ,amazons of
 the ,new ,world4 ,la ,condamine has    
produced many testimonies in favour of  
this tradition4 ,since my return from   
the ,orinoco and the river ,amazon1 ,i  
have often been asked1 at ,paris1       
whether ,i embraced the opinion of that 
learned man1 or believed1 like several  
of his contemporaries1 that he undertook
 the defence of the ,cougnantainsecouima
 7the independent women who received men
 into their society only in the month of
 ,april71 merely to fix1 in a public    
sitting of the ,academy1 the attention  
of an audience somewhat eager for       
novelties4 ,i may take this opportunity 
of expressing my opinion on a tradition 
which has so romantic an appearance2 and
 ,i am farther led to do this as ,la    
,condamine asserts that the ,amazons of 
the ,rio ,cayame99 crossed the ,maranon 
to establish themselves on the ,rio     
,negro4 799 ,orellana1 arriving at the  
,maranon by the ,rio ,coca and the      
,napo1 fought with the ,amazons1 as it  

appears1 between the mouth of the ,rio  
,negro and that of the ,xingu4 ,la      
,condamine asserts that in the          
seventeenth century they passed the     
,maranon between ,tefe and the mouth of 
the ,rio ,puruz1 near the ,cano         
,cuchivara1 which is a western branch of
 the ,puruz4 ,these women therefore came
 from the banks of the ,rio ,cayame1 or 
,cayambe1 consequently from the unknown 
country which extends south of the      
,maranon1 between the ,ucayale and the  
,madeira4 ,raleigh also places them on  
the south of the ,maranon1 but in the   
province of ,topayos1 and on the river  
of the same name4 ,he says they were    
rich in golden vessels1 which they had  
acquired in exchange for the famous     
green stones1 or piedras hijadas4       
7,raleigh means1 no doubt1 piedros del  
higado1 stones that cure diseases of the
 liver47 ,it is remarkable enough that1 
one hundred and forty-eight years after1
 ,la ,condamine still found those green 
stones 7divine stones71 which differ    

neither in colour nor in hardness from  
oriental jade1 in greater numbers among 
the ,indians who live near the mouth of 
the ,rio ,topayos1 than elsewhere4 ,the 
,indians said that they inherited these 
stones1 which cure the nephritic colic  
and epilepsy1 from their fathers1 who   
received them from the women without    
husbands47 ,a taste for the marvellous1 
and a wish to invest the descriptions of
 the ,new ,continent with some of the   
colouring of classic antiquity1 no doubt
 contributed to give great importance to
 the first narratives of ,orellana4 ,in 
perusing the works of ,vespucci1        
,fernando ,columbus1 ,geraldini1        
,oviedo1 and ,pietro ,martyr1 we        
recognize this tendency of the writers  
of the sixteenth century to find among  
the newly discovered nations all that   
the ,greeks have related to us of the   
first age of the world1 and of the      
manners of the barbarous ,scythians and 
,africans4 ,but if ,oviedo1 in          
addressing his letters to cardinal      

,bembo1 thought fit to flatter the taste
 of a man so familiar with the study of 
antiquity1 ,sir ,walter ,raleigh had a  
less poetic aim4 ,he sought to fix the  
attention of ,queen ,elizabeth on the   
great empire of ,guiana1 the conquest of
 which he proposed4 ,he gave a          
description of the rising of that gilded
 king 7el dorado7199 whose chamberlains1
 furnished with long tubes1 blew        
powdered gold every morning over his    
body1 after having rubbed it over with  
aromatic oils3 but nothing could be     
better adapted to strike the imagination
 of queen ,elizabeth1 than the warlike  
republic of women without husbands1 who 
resisted the ,castilian heroes4 799 ,the
 term el dorado1 which signifies the    
gilded1 was not originally the name of  
the country4 ,the territory subsequently
 distinguished by that appellation was  
at first known as the country of el ,rey
 ,dorado1 the ,gilded ,king47 ,such were
 the motives which prompted exaggeration
 on the part of those writers who have  

given most reputation to the ,amazons of
 ,america2 but these motives do not1 ,i 
think1 suffice for entirely rejecting a 
tradition1 which is spread among various
 nations having no communications one   
with another4  ,thirty years after ,la  
,condamine visited ,quito1 a ,portuguese
 astronomer1 ,ribeiro1 who has traversed
 the ,amazon1 and the tributary streams 
which run into that river on the        
northern side1 has confirmed on the spot
 all that the learned ,frenchman had    
advanced4 ,he found the same traditions 
among the ,indians2 and he collected    
them with the greater impartiality as he
 did not himself believe that the       
,amazons formed a separate horde4 ,not  
knowing any of the tongues spoken on the
 ,orinoco and the ,rio ,negro1 ,i could 
learn nothing certain respecting the    
popular traditions of the women without 
husbands1 or the origin of the green    
stones1 which are believed to be        
intimately connected with them4 ,i      
shall1 however1 quote a modern testimony

 of some weight1 that of ,father ,gili4 
,upon inquiring1 says this well-informed
 missionary1 of a ,quaqua ,indian1 what 
nations inhabited the ,rio ,cuchivero1  
he named to me the ,achirigotos1 the    
,pajuros1 and the ,aikeambenanos499 799 
,in ,italian1 ,acchirecolti1 ,pajuri1   
and ,aicheam-benano47 ,being well       
acquainted1 pursues he1 with the        
,tamanac tongue1 ,i instantly           
comprehended the sense of this last     
word1 which is a compound1 and signifies
 women living alone4 ,the ,indian       
confirmed my observation1 and related   
that the ,aikeambenanos were a community
 of women1 who manufactured blow-tubes99
 799 ,long tubes made from a hollow     
cane1 which the natives use to propel   
their poisoned arrows471 and other      
weapons of war4 ,they admit1 once a     
year1 the men of the neighbouring nation
 of ,vokearos into their society1 and   
send them back with presents4 ,all the  
male children born in this horde of     
women are killed in their infancy4 ,this

 history seems framed on the traditions 
which circulate among the ,indians of   
the ,maranon1 and among the ,caribs2 yet
 the ,quaqua ,indian1 of whom ,father   
,gili speaks1 was ignorant of the       
,castilian language2 he had never had   
any communication with white men2 and   
certainly knew not1 that south of the   
,orinoco there existed another river1   
called the river of the ,aikeambenanos1 
or ,amazons4  ,what must we conclude    
from this narration of the old          
missionary of ,encaramada8 ,not that    
there are ,amazons on the banks of the  
,cuchivero1 but that women in different 
parts of ,america1 wearied of the state 
of slavery in which they were held by   
the men1 united themselves together2    
that the desire of preserving their     
independence rendered them warriors2 and
 that they received visits from a       
neighbouring and friendly horde4 ,this  
society of women may have acquired some 
power in one part of ,guiana4 ,the      
,caribs of the continent held           

intercourse with those of the islands2  
and no doubt in this way the traditions 
of the ,maranon and the ,orinoco were   
propagated toward the north4 ,before the
 voyage of ,orellana1 ,christopher      
,columbus imagined he had found the     
,amazons in the ,caribbee ,islands4     
,this great man was told1 that the small
 island of ,madanino 7,montserrat7 was  
inhabited by warlike women1 who lived   
the greater part of the year separate   
from men4 ,at other times also1 the     
conquistadores imagined that the women1 
who defended their huts in the absence  
of their husbands1 were republics of    
,amazons2 and1 by an error less         
excusable1 formed a like supposition    
respecting the religious congregations1 
the convents of ,mexican virgins1 who1  
far from admitting men at any season of 
the year into their society1 lived      
according to the austere rule of        
,quetzalcohuatl4 ,such was the          
disposition of men's minds1 that in the 
long succession of travellers1 who      

crowded on each other in their          
discoveries and in narrations of the    
marvels of the ,new ,world1 every one   
readily declared he had seen what his   
predecessors had announced4  ,we passed 
three nights at ,san ,carlos del ,rio   
,negro4 ,i count the nights1 because ,i 
watched during the greater part of them1
 in the hope of seizing the moment of   
the passage of some star over the       
meridian4 ,that ,i might have nothing to
 reproach myself with1 ,i kept the      
instruments always ready for an         
observation4 ,i could not even obtain   
double altitudes1 to calculate the      
latitude by the method of ,douwes4 ,what
 a contrast between two parts of the    
same zone2 between the sky of ,cumana1  
where the air is constantly pure as in  
,persia and ,arabia1 and the sky of the 
,rio ,negro1 veiled like that of the    
,feroe islands1 without sun1 or moon or 
stars6  ,on the #ajth of ,may1 our canoe
 being ready before sunrise1 we embarked
 to go up the ,rio ,negro as far as the 

mouth of the ,cassiquiare1 and to devote
 ourselves to researches on the real    
course of that river1 which unites the  
,orinoco to the ,amazon4 ,the morning   
was fine2 but1 in proportion as the heat
 augmented1 the sky became obscured4    
,the air is so saturated by water in    
these forests1 that the vesicular       
vapours become visible on the least     
increase of evaporation at the surface  
of the earth4 ,the breeze being never   
felt1 the humid strata are not displaced
 and renewed by dryer air4 ,we were     
every day more grieved at the aspect of 
the cloudy sky4 ,m4 ,bonpland was losing
 by this excessive humidity the plants  
he had collected2 and ,i1 for my part1  
was afraid lest ,i should again find the
 fogs of the ,rio ,negro in the valley  
of the ,cassiquiare4 ,no one in these   
missions for half a century past had    
doubted the existence of communication  
between two great systems of rivers2 the
 important point of our voyage was      
confined therefore to fixing by         

astronomical observations the course of 
the ,cassiquiare1 and particularly the  
point of its entrance into the ,rio     
,negro1 and that of the bifurcation of  
the ,orinoco4 ,without a sight of the   
sun and the stars this object would be  
frustrated1 and we should have exposed  
ourselves in vain to long and painful   
privations4 ,our fellow travellers would
 have returned by the shortest way1 that
 of the ,pimichin and the small rivers2 
but ,m4 ,bonpland preferred1 like me1   
persisting in the plan of the voyage1   
which we had traced for ourselves in    
passing the ,great ,cataracts4 ,we had  
already travelled one hundred and eighty
 leagues in a boat from ,san ,fernando  
de ,apure to ,san ,carlos1 on the ,rio  
,apure1 the ,orinoco1 the ,atabapo1 the 
,temi1 the ,tuamini1 and the ,rio       
,negro4 ,in again entering the ,orinoco 
by the ,cassiquiare we had to navigate  
three hundred and twenty leagues1 from  
,san ,carlos to ,angostura4 ,by this way
 we had to struggle against the currents

 during ten days2 the rest was to be    
performed by going down the stream of   
the ,orinoco4 ,it would have been       
blamable to have suffered ourselves to  
be discouraged by the fear of a cloudy  
sky1 and by the mosquitos of the        
,cassiquiare4 ,our ,indian pilot1 who   
had been recently at ,mandavaca1        
promised us the sun1 and those great    
stars that eat the clouds1 as soon as we
 should have left the black waters of   
the ,guaviare4 ,we therefore carried out
 our first project of returning to ,san 
,fernando de ,atabapo by the            
,cassiquiare2 and1 fortunately for our  
researches1 the prediction of the       
,indian was verified4 ,the white waters 
brought us by degrees a more serene sky1
 stars1 mosquitos1 and crocodiles4  ,we 
passed between the islands of ,zaruma   
and ,mini1 or ,mibita1 covered with     
thick vegetation2 and1 after having     
ascended the rapids of the ,piedra de   
,uinumane1 we entered the ,rio          
,cassiquiare at the distance of eight   

miles from the small fort of ,san       
,carlos4 ,the ,piedra1 or granitic rock 
which forms the little cataract1        
attracted our attention on account of   
the numerous veins of quartz by which it
 is traversed4 ,these veins are several 
inches broad1 and their masses proved   
that their date and formation are very  
different4 ,i saw distinctly that1      
wherever they crossed each other1 the   
veins containing mica and black schorl  
traversed and drove out of their        
direction those which contained only    
white quartz and feldspar4 ,according to
 the theory of ,werner1 the black veins 
were consequently of a more recent      
formation than the white4 ,being a      
disciple of the school of ,freyberg1 ,i 
could not but pause with satisfaction at
 the rock of ,uinumane1 to observe the  
same phenomena near the equator1 which  
,i had so often seen in the mountains of
 my own country4 ,i confess that the    
theory which considers veins as clefts  
filled from above with various          

substances1 pleases me somewhat less now
 than it did at that period2 but these  
modes of intersection and driving aside1
 observed in the stony and metallic     
veins1 do not the less merit the        
attention of travellers as being one of 
the most general and constant of        
geological phenomena4 ,on the east of   
,javita1 all along the ,cassiquiare1 and
 particularly in the mountains of       
,duida1 the number of veins in the      
granite increases4 ,these veins are full
 of holes and druses2 and their         
frequency seems to indicate that the    
granite of these countries is not of    
very ancient formation4  ,we found some 
lichens on the rock ,uinumane1 opposite 
the island of ,chamanare1 at the edge of
 the rapids2 and as the ,cassiquiare    
near its mouth turns abruptly from east 
to south-west1 we saw for the first time
 this majestic branch of the ,orinoco in
 all its breadth4 ,it much resembles the
 ,rio ,negro in the general aspect of   
the landscape4 ,the trees of the forest1

 as in the basin of the latter river1   
advance as far as the beach1 and there  
form a thick coppice2 but the           
,cassiquiare has white waters1 and more 
frequently changes its direction4 ,its  
breadth1 near the rapids of ,uinumane1  
almost surpasses that of the ,rio       
,negro4 ,i found it everywhere from two 
hundred and fifty to two hundred and    
eighty toises1 as far as above ,vasiva4 
,before we passed the island of         
,garigave1 we perceived to the          
north-east1 almost at the horizon1 a    
little hill with a hemispheric summit2  
the form which in every zone            
characterises mountains of granite4     
,continually surrounded by vast plains1 
the solitary rocks and hills excite the 
attention of the traveller4 ,contiguous 
mountains are only found more to the    
east1 towards the sources of the        
,pacimoni1 ,siapa1 and ,mavaca4 ,having 
arrived on the south of the ,raudal of  
,caravine1 we perceived that the        
,cassiquiare1 by the windings of its    

course1 again approached ,san ,carlos4  
,the distance from this fort to the     
mission of ,san ,francisco ,solano1     
where we slept1 is only two leagues and 
a half by land1 but it is reckoned seven
 or eight by the river4 ,i passed a part
 of the night in the open air1 waiting  
vainly for stars4 ,the air was misty1   
notwithstanding the aguas blancas1 which
 were to lead us beneath an ever-starry 
sky4  ,the mission of ,san ,francisco   
,solano1 situated on the left bank of   
the ,cassiquiare1 was founded1 as were  
most of the ,christian settlements south
 of the ,great ,cataracts of the        
,orinoco1 not by monks1 but by military 
authority4 ,at the time of the          
expedition of the boundaries1 villages  
were built in proportion as a           
subteniente1 or a corporal1 advanced    
with his troops4 ,part of the natives1  
in order to preserve their independence1
 retired without a struggle2 others1 of 
whom the most powerful chiefs had been  
gained1 joined the missions4 ,where     

there was no church1 they contented     
themselves with erecting a great cross  
of red wood1 close to which they        
constructed a casa fuerte1 or           
block-house1 the walls of which were    
formed of large beams resting           
horizontally upon each other4 ,this     
house had two stories2 in the upper     
story two cannon of small calibre were  
placed2 and two soldiers lived on the   
ground-floor1 and were served by an     
,indian family4 ,those of the natives   
with whom they were at peace cultivated 
spots of land round the casa fuerte4    
,the soldiers called them together by   
the sound of the horn1 or a botuto of   
baked earth1 whenever any hostile attack
 was dreaded4 ,such were the pretended  
nineteen ,christian settlements founded 
by ,don ,antonio ,santos in the way from
 ,esmeralda to the ,erevato4 ,military  
posts1 which had no influence on the    
civilization of the natives1 figured on 
the maps1 and in the works of the       
missionaries1 as villages 7pueblos7 and 

reducciones apostolicas499 799          
,signifying apostolic conquests or      
conversions47 ,the preponderance of the 
military was maintained on the banks of 
the ,orinoco till #aghe1 when the system
 of the monks of ,san ,francisco began4 
,the small number of missions founded1  
or rather re-established1 since that    
period1 owe their existence to the      
,fathers of the ,observance2 for the    
soldiers now distributed among the      
missions are dependent on the           
missionaries1 or at least are reputed to
 be so1 according to the pretensions of 
the ecclesiastical hierarchy4  ,the     
,indians whom we found at ,san          
,francisco ,solano were of two nations2 
,pacimonales and ,cheruvichahenas4 ,the 
latter being descended from a           
considerable tribe settled on the ,rio  
,tomo1 near the ,manivas of the ,upper  
,guainia1 ,i tried to gather from them  
some ideas respecting the upper course  
and the sources of the ,rio ,negro2 but 
the interpreter whom ,i employed could  

not make them comprehend my questions4  
,their continually-repeated answer was1 
that the sources of the ,rio ,negro and 
the ,inirida were as near to each other 
as two fingers of the hand4 ,in one of  
the huts of the ,pacimonales we         
purchased two fine large birds1 a toucan
 7piapoco7 and an ana1 a species of     
macaw1 seventeen inches long1 having the
 whole body of a purple colour4 ,we had 
already in our canoe seven parrots1 two 
manakins 7pipa71 a motmot1 two guans1 or
 pavas de monte1 two manaviris          
7cercoleptes or ,viverra caudivolvula71 
and eight monkeys1 namely1 two ateles199
 799 ,marimonda of the ,great           
,cataracts1 ,simia belzebuth1 ,brisson47
 two titis199 799 ,simia sciurea1 the   
saimiri of ,buffon47 one viudita199 799 
,simia lugens47 two douroucoulis or     
nocturnal monkeys199 799 ,cusiensi1 or  
,simia trivirgata47 and a short-tailed  
cacajao4 799 ,simia melanocephala1 mono 
feo4 ,these last three species are new47
 ,father ,zea whispered some complaints 

at the daily augmentation of this       
ambulatory collection4 ,the toucan      
resembles the raven in manners and      
intelligence4 ,it is a courageous       
animal1 but easily tamed4 ,its long and 
stout beak serves to defend it at a     
distance4 ,it makes itself master of the
 house1 steals whatever it can come at1 
and loves to bathe often and fish on the
 banks of the river4 ,the toucan we had 
bought was very young2 yet it took      
delight1 during the whole voyage1 in    
teasing the cusicusis1 or nocturnal     
monkeys1 which are melancholy and       
irritable4 ,i did not observe what has  
been related in some works of natural   
history1 that the toucan is forced1 from
 the structure of its beak1 to swallow  
its food by throwing it up into the air4
 ,it raises it indeed with some         
difficulty from the ground1 but1 having 
once seized it with the point of its    
enormous beak1 it has only to lift it up
 by throwing back its head1 and holding 
it perpendicularly whilst in the act of 

swallowing4 ,this bird makes            
extraordinary gestures when preparing to
 drink4 ,the monks say that it makes the
 sign of the cross upon the water2 and  
this popular belief has obtained for the
 toucan1 from the creoles1 the singular 
name of diostede499 799 ,dios te de1    
,god gives it thee47  ,most of our      
animals were confined in small wicker   
cages2 others ran at full liberty in all
 parts of the boat4 ,at the approach of 
rain the macaws sent forth noisy cries1 
the toucan wanted to reach the shore to 
fish1 and the little monkeys 7the titis7
 went in search of ,father ,zea1 to take
 shelter in the large sleeves of his    
,franciscan habit4 ,these incidents     
sometimes amused us so much that we     
forgot the torment of the mosquitos4 ,at
 night we placed a leather case         
7petaca71 containing our provisions1 in 
the centre2 then our instruments1 and   
the cages of our animals2 our hammocks  
were suspended around the cages1 and    
beyond were those of the ,indians4 ,the 

exterior circle was formed by the fires 
which are lighted to keep off the       
jaguars4 ,such was the order of our     
encampment on the banks of the          
,cassiquiare4 ,the ,indians often spoke 
to us of a little nocturnal animal1 with
 a long nose1 which surprises the young 
parrots in their nests1 and in eating   
makes use of its hands like the monkeys 
and the maniveris1 or kinkajous4 ,they  
call it the guachi2 it is1 no doubt1 a  
coati1 perhaps the ,viverra nasua1 which
 ,i saw wild in ,mexico4 ,the           
missionaries gravely prohibit the       
natives from eating the flesh of the    
guachi1 to which1 according to          
far-spread superstitious ideas1 they    
attribute the same stimulating qualities
 which the people of the ,east believe  
to exist in the skink1 and the          
,americans in the flesh of the          
alligator4  ,on the #aath of ,may1 we   
left the mission of ,san ,francisco     
,solano at a late hour1 to make but a   
short day's journey4 ,the uniform       

stratum of vapours began to be divided  
into clouds with distinct outlines3 and 
there was a light east wind in the upper
 regions of the air4 ,we recognized in  
these signs an approaching change of the
 weather2 and were unwilling to go far  
from the mouth of the ,cassiquiare1 in  
the hope of observing during the        
following night the passage of some star
 over the meridian4 ,we descried the    
,cano ,daquiapo to the south1 the       
,guachaparu to the north1 and a few     
miles further1 the rapids of            
,cananivacari4 ,the velocity of the     
current being #f4c feet in a second1 we 
had to struggle against the turbulent   
waves of the ,raudal4 ,we went on shore1
 and ,m4 ,bonpland discovered within a  
few steps of the beach a majestic       
almendron1 or ,bertholletia excelsa4    
,the ,indians assured us1 that the      
existence of this valuable plant of the 
banks of the ,cassiquiare was unknown at
 ,san ,francisco ,solano1 ,vasiva1 and  
,esmeralda4 ,they did not think that the

 tree we saw1 which was more than sixty 
feet high1 had been sown by some passing
 traveller4 ,experiments made at ,san   
,carlos have shown how rare it is to    
succeed in causing the bertholletia to  
germinate1 on account of its ligneous   
pericarp1 and the oil contained in its  
nut which so readily becomes rancid4    
,perhaps this tree denoted the existence
 of a forest of bertholletia in the     
inland country on the east and          
north-east4 ,we know1 at least1 with    
certainty1 that this fine tree grows    
wild in the third degree of latitude1 in
 the ,cerro de ,guanaya4 ,the plants    
that live in society have seldom marked 
limits1 and it happens1 that before we  
reach a palmar or a pinar199 799 ,two   
,spanish words1 which1 according to a   
,latin form1 denote a forest of         
palm-trees1 palmetum1 and of pines1     
pinetum47 we find solitary palm-trees   
and pines4 ,they are somewhat like      
colonists that have advanced in the     
midst of a country peopled with         

different vegetable productions4  ,four 
miles distant from the rapids of        
,cunanivacari1 rocks of the strangest   
form rise in the plains4 ,first appears 
a narrow wall eighty feet high1 and     
perpendicular2 and at the southern      
extremity of this wall are two turrets1 
the courses of which are of granite1 and
 nearly horizontal4 ,the grouping of the
 rocks of ,guanari is so symmetrical    
that they might be taken for the ruins  
of an ancient edifice4 ,are they the    
remains of islets in the midst of an    
inland sea1 that covered the flat ground
 between the ,sierra ,parime and the    
,parecis mountains899 799 ,the ,sierra  
de la ,parime1 or of the ,upper         
,orinoco1 and the ,sierra 7or ,campos7  
dos ,parecis1 are part of the mountains 
of ,matto ,grosso1 and form the northern
 back of the ,sierra de ,chiquitos4 ,i  
here name the two chains of mountains   
running from east to west1 and bordering
 the plains or basins of the            
,cassiquiare1 the ,rio ,negro1 and the  

,amazon1 between #e degrees #cj minutes 
north1 and #ad degrees south latitude47 
or have these walls of rock1 these      
turrets of granite1 been upheaved by the
 elastic forces that still act in the   
interior of our planet8 ,we may be      
permitted to meditate a little on the   
origin of mountains1 after having seen  
the position of the ,mexican volcanoes1 
and of trachyte summits on an elongated 
crevice2 having found in the ,andes of  
,south ,america primitive and volcanic  
rocks in a straight line in the same    
chain2 and when we recollect the island1
 three miles in circumference1 and of a 
great height1 which in modern times     
issued from the depths of the ocean near
 ,oonalaska4  ,the banks of the         
,cassiquiare are adorned with the       
chiriva palm-tree with pinnate leaves1  
silvery on the under part4 ,the rest of 
the forest furnishes only trees with    
large1 coriaceous1 glossy leaves1 that  
have plain edges4 ,this peculiar        
physiognomy99 of the vegetation of the  

,guainia1 the ,tuamini1 and the         
,cassiquiare1 is owing to the           
preponderance of the families of the    
guttiferae1 the sapotae1 and the        
laurineae1 in the equatorial regions4   
799 ,this physiognomy struck us         
forcibly1 in the vast forests of        
,spanish ,guiana1 only between the      
second and third degrees of north       
latitude47 ,the serenity of the sky     
promising us a fine night1 we resolved1 
at five in the evening1 to rest near the
 ,piedra de ,culimacari1 a solitary     
granite rock1 like all those which ,i   
have described between the ,atabapo and 
the ,cassiquiare4 ,we found by the      
bearings of the sinuosities of the      
river1 that this rock is nearly in the  
latitude of the mission of ,san         
,francisco ,solano4 ,in those desert    
countries1 where man has hitherto left  
only fugitive traces of his existence1  
,i constantly endeavoured to make my    
observations near the mouth of a river1 
or at the foot of a rock distinguishable

 by its form4 ,such points only as are  
immutable by their nature can serve for 
the basis of geographical maps4 ,i      
obtained1 in the night of the #ajth of  
,may1 a good observation of latitude by 
alpha of the ,southern ,cross2 the      
longitude was determined1 but with less 
precision1 by the chronometer1 taking   
the altitudes of the two beautiful stars
 which shine in the feet of the         
,centaur4 ,this observation made known  
to us at the same time1 with sufficient 
precision for the purposes of geography1
 the positions of the mouth of the      
,pacimoni1 of the fortress of ,san      
,carlos1 and of the junction of the     
,cassiquiare with the ,rio ,negro4 ,the 
rock of ,culimacari is precisely in     
latitude #b degrees #j minutes #db      
seconds1 and probably in longitude #fi  
degrees #cc minutes #ej seconds4        
,satisfied with our observations1 we    
left the rock of ,culimacari at half    
past one on the morning of the #abth4   
,the torment of mosquitos1 to which we  

were exposed1 augmented in proportion as
 we withdrew from the ,rio ,negro4      
,there are no zancudos in the valley of 
,cassiquiare1 but the simulia1 and all  
the other insects of the tipulary       
family1 are the more numerous and       
venomous4 ,having still eight nights to 
pass in the open air in this damp and   
unhealthy climate1 before we could reach
 the mission of ,esmeralda1 our pilot   
sought to arrange our passage in such a 
manner as might enable us to enjoy the  
hospitality of the missionary of        
,mandavaca1 and some shelter in the     
village of ,vasiva4 ,we went up with    
difficulty against the current1 which   
was nine feet1 and in some places 7where
 ,i measured it with precision7 eleven  
feet eight inches in a second1 that is1 
almost eight miles an hour4 ,our        
resting-place was probably not farther  
than three leagues in a right line from 
the mission of ,mandavaca2 yet1 though  
we had no reason to complain of         
inactivity on the part of our rowers1 we

 were fourteen hours in making this     
short passage4  ,towards sunrise we     
passed the mouth of the ,rio ,pacimoni1 
a river which ,i mentioned when speaking
 of the trade in sarsaparilla1 and which
 7by means of the ,baria7 intertwines in
 so remarkable a way with the ,cababuri4
 ,the ,pacimoni rises in a hilly ground1
 from the confluence of three small     
rivers199 not marked on the maps of the 
missionaries4 799 ,the ,rios ,guajavaca1
 ,moreje1 and ,cachevaynery47 ,its      
waters are black1 but less so than those
 of the lake of ,vasiva1 which also     
communicates with the ,cassiquiare4     
,between those two tributary streams    
coming from the east1 lies the mouth of 
the ,rio ,idapa1 the waters of which are
 white4 ,i shall not recur again to the 
difficulty of explaining this           
coexistence of rivers differently       
coloured1 within a small extent of      
territory1 but shall merely observe1    
that at the mouth of the ,pacimoni1 and 
on the borders of the lake ,vasiva1 we  

were again struck with the purity and   
extreme transparency of the brown       
waters4 ,ancient ,arabian travellers    
have observed1 that the ,alpine branch  
of the ,nile1 which joins the ,bahr el  
,abiad near ,halfaja1 has green waters1 
which are so transparent1 that the fish 
may be seen at the bottom of the river4 
,we passed some turbulent rapids before 
we reached the mission of ,mandavaca4   
,the village1 which bears also the name 
of ,quirabuena1 contains only sixty     
natives4 ,the state of the ,christian   
settlements is in general so miserable  
that1 in the whole course of the        
,cassiquiare1 on a length of fifty      
leagues1 not two hundred inhabitants are
 found4 ,the banks of this river were   
indeed more peopled before the arrival  
of the missionaries2 the ,indians have  
withdrawn into the woods1 toward the    
east2 for the western plains are almost 
deserted4 ,the natives subsist during a 
part of the year on those large ants of 
which ,i have spoken above4 ,these      

insects are much esteemed here1 as      
spiders are in the southern hemisphere1 
where the savages of ,australia deem    
them delicious4 ,we found at ,mandavaca 
the good old missionary1 who had already
 spent twenty years of mosquitos in the 
bosques del ,cassiquiare1 and whose legs
 were so spotted by the stings of       
insects1 that the colour of the skin    
could scarcely be perceived4 ,he talked 
to us of his solitude1 and of the sad   
necessity which often compelled him to  
leave the most atrocious crimes         
unpunished in the two missions of       
,mandavaca and ,vasiva4 ,in the latter  
place1 an ,indian alcalde had1 a few    
years before1 eaten one of his wives1   
after having taken her to his conuco199 
799 ,a hut surrounded with cultivated   
ground2 a sort of country-house1 which  
the natives prefer to residing in the   
missions47 and fattened her by good     
feeding4 ,the cannibalism of the nations
 of ,guiana is never caused by the want 
of subsistence1 or by the superstitions 

of their religion1 as in the islands of 
the ,south ,sea2 but is generally the   
effect of the vengeance of a conqueror1 
and 7as the missionaries say7 of a      
vitiated appetite4 ,victory over a      
hostile tribe is celebrated by a repast1
 in which some parts of the body of a   
prisoner are devoured4 ,sometimes a     
defenceless family is surprised in the  
night2 or an enemy1 who is met with by  
chance in the woods1 is killed by a     
poisoned arrow4 ,the body is cut to     
pieces1 and carried as a trophy to the  
hut4 ,it is civilization only1 that has 
made man feel the unity of the human    
race2 which has revealed to him1 as we  
may say1 the ties of consanguinity1 by  
which he is linked to beings to whose   
language and manners he is a stranger4  
,savages know only their own family2 and
 a tribe appears to them but a more     
numerous assemblage of relations4 ,when 
those who inhabit the missions see      
,indians of the forest1 who are unknown 
to them1 arrive1 they make use of an    

expression1 which has struck us by its  
simple candour3 they are1 no doubt1 my  
relations2 ,i understand them when they 
speak to me4 ,but these very savages    
detest all who are not of their family1 
or their tribe2 and hunt the ,indians of
 a neighbouring tribe1 who live at war  
with their own1 as we hunt game4 ,they  
know the duties of family ties and of   
relationship1 but not those of humanity1
 which require the feeling of a common  
tie with beings framed like ourselves4  
,no emotion of pity prompts them to     
spare the wives or children of a hostile
 race2 and the latter are devoured in   
preference1 at the repast given at the  
conclusion of a battle or warlike       
incursion4  ,the hatred which savages   
for the most part feel for men who speak
 another idiom1 and appear to them to be
 of an inferior race1 is sometimes      
rekindled in the missions1 after having 
long slumbered4 ,a short time before our
 arrival at ,esmeralda1 an ,indian1 born
 in the forest99 behind the ,duida1     

travelled alone with another ,indian1   
who1 after having been made prisoner by 
the ,spaniards on the banks of the      
,ventuario1 lived peaceably in the      
village1 or1 as it is expressed here1   
within the sound of the bell 7debaxo de 
la campana47 799 ,en el monte4 ,the     
,indians born in the missions are       
distinguished from those born in the    
woods4 ,the word monte signifies more   
frequently1 in the colonies1 a forest   
7bosque7 than a mountain1 and this      
circumstance has led to great errors in 
our maps1 on which chains of mountains  
7sierras7 are figured1 where there are  
only thick forests1 7monte espeso477    
,the latter could only walk slowly1     
because he was suffering from one of    
those fevers to which the natives are   
subject1 when they arrive in the        
missions1 and abruptly change their     
diet4 ,wearied by his delay1 his        
fellow-traveller killed him1 and hid the
 body behind a copse of thick trees1    
near ,esmeralda4 ,this crime1 like many 

others among the ,indians1 would have   
remained unknown1 if the murderer had   
not made preparations for a feast on the
 following day4 ,he tried to induce his 
children1 born in the mission and become
 ,christians1 to go with him for some   
parts of the dead body4 ,they had much  
difficulty in persuading him to desist  
from his purpose2 and the soldier who   
was posted at ,esmeralda1 learned from  
the domestic squabble caused by this    
event1 what the ,indians would have     
concealed from his knowledge4  ,it is   
known that cannibalism and the practice 
of human sacrifices1 with which it is   
often connected1 are found to exist in  
all parts of the globe1 and among people
 of very different races299 but what    
strikes us more in the study of history 
is to see human sacrifices retained in a
 state of civilization somewhat         
advanced2 and that the nations who hold 
it a point of honour to devour their    
prisoners are not always the rudest and 
most ferocious4 799 ,some casual        

instances of children carried off by the
 negroes in the island of ,cuba have led
 to the belief1 in the ,spanish         
colonies1 that there are tribes of      
cannibals in ,africa4 ,this opinion1    
though supported by some travellers1 is 
not borne out by the researches of ,mr4 
,barrow on the interior of that country4
 ,superstitious practices may have given
 rise to imputations perhaps as unjust  
as those of which ,jewish families were 
the victims in the ages of intolerance  
and persecution47 ,the painful facts    
have not escaped the observation of     
those missionaries who are sufficiently 
enlightened to reflect on the manners of
 the surrounding tribes4 ,the ,cabres1  
the ,guipunaves1 and the ,caribs1 have  
always been more powerful and more      
civilized than the other hordes of the  
,orinoco2 and yet the two former are as 
much addicted to anthropophagy as the   
latter are repugnant to it4 ,we must    
carefully distinguish the different     
branches into which the great family of 

the ,caribbee nations is divided4 ,these
 branches are as numerous as those of   
the ,mongols1 and the western ,tartars1 
or ,turcomans4 ,the ,caribs of the      
continent1 those who inhabit the plains 
between the ,lower ,orinoco1 the ,rio   
,branco1 the ,essequibo1 and the sources
 of the ,oyapoc1 hold in horror the     
practice of devouring their enemies4    
,this barbarous custom199 at the first  
discovery of ,america1 existed only     
among the ,caribs of the ,west ,indies4 
799 ,see ,geraldini ,itinerarium page   
#ahf and the eloquent tract of cardinal 
,bembo on the discoveries of ,columbus4 
,insularum partem homines incolebant    
feri trucesque1 qui puerorum et virorum 
carnibus1 quos aliis in insulus bello   
aut latrociniis cepissent1 vescebantur2 
a feminis abstinebant2 ,canibales       
appellati4 ,some of the islands are     
inhabited by a cruel and savage race1   
called cannibals1 who eat the flesh of  
men and boys1 and captives and slaves of
 the male sex1 abstaining from that of  

females4 ,hist4 ,venet4 #aeea4 ,the     
custom of sparing the lives of female   
prisoners confirms what ,i have         
previously said of the language of the  
women4 ,does the word cannibal1 applied 
to the ,caribs of the ,west ,india      
,islands1 belong to the language of this
 archipelago 7that of ,haiti78 or must  
we seek for it in an idiom of ,florida1 
which some traditions indicate as the   
first country of the ,caribs87 ,it is   
they who have rendered the names of     
cannibals1 ,caribbees1 and              
anthropophagi1 synonymous2 it was their 
cruelties that prompted the law         
promulgated in #aejd1 by which the      
,spaniards were permitted to make a     
slave of every individual of an         
,american nation which could be proved  
to be of ,caribbee origin4 ,i believe1  
however1 that the anthropophagy of the  
inhabitants of the ,west ,india ,islands
 was much exaggerated by early          
travellers1 whose stories ,herrera1 a   
grave and judicious historian1 has not  

disdained to repeat in his ,decades     
historicas4 ,he has even credited that  
extraordinary event which led the       
,caribs to renounce this barbarous      
custom4 ,the natives of a little island 
devoured a ,dominican monk whom they had
 carried off from the coast of ,porto   
,rico2 they all fell sick1 and would    
never again eat monk or layman4  ,if the
 ,caribs of the ,orinoco1 since the     
commencement of the sixteenth century1  
have differed in their manners from     
those of the ,west ,india ,islands2 if  
they are unjustly accused of            
anthropophagy2 it is difficult to       
attribute this difference to any        
superiority of their social state4 ,the 
strangest contrasts are found blended in
 this mixture of nations1 some of whom  
live only upon fish1 monkeys1 and ants2 
while others are more or less           
cultivators of the ground1 more or less 
occupied in making and painting pottery1
 or weaving hammocks or cotton cloth4   
,several of the latter tribes have      

preserved inhuman customs altogether    
unknown to the former4 ,you cannot      
imagine1 said the old missionary of     
,mandavaca1 the perversity of this      
,indian race 7familia de ,indios74 ,you 
receive men of a new tribe into the     
village2 they appear to be mild1 good1  
and laborious2 but suffer them to take  
part in an incursion 7entrada7 to bring 
in the natives1 and you can scarcely    
prevent them from murdering all they    
meet1 and hiding some portions of the   
dead bodies4 ,in reflecting on the      
manners of these ,indians1 we are almost
 horrified at that combination of       
sentiments which seem to exclude each   
other2 that faculty of nations to become
 but partially humanized2 that          
preponderance of customs1 prejudices1   
and traditions1 over the natural        
affections of the heart4 ,we had a      
fugitive ,indian from the ,guaisia in   
our canoe1 who had become sufficiently  
civilized in a few weeks to be useful to
 us in placing the instruments necessary

 for our observations at night4 ,he was 
no less mild than intelligent1 and we   
had some desire of taking him into our  
service4 ,what was our horror when1     
talking to him by means of an           
interpreter1 we learned1 that the flesh 
of the marimonde monkeys1 though        
blacker1 appeared to him to have the    
taste of human flesh4 ,he told us that  
his relations 7that is1 the people of   
his tribe7 preferred the inside of the  
hands in man1 as in bears4 ,this        
assertion was accompanied with gestures 
of savage gratification4 ,we inquired of
 this young man1 so calm and so         
affectionate in the little services     
which he rendered us1 whether he still  
felt sometimes a desire to eat of a     
,cheruvichahena4 ,he answered1 without  
discomposure1 that1 living in the       
mission1 he would only eat what he saw  
was eaten by the ,padres4 ,reproaches   
addressed to the natives on the         
abominable practice which we here       
discuss1 produce no effect2 it is as if 

a ,brahmin1 travelling in ,europe1 were 
to reproach us with the habit of feeding
 on the flesh of animals4 ,in the eyes  
of the ,indian of the ,guaisia1 the     
,cheruvichahena was a being entirely    
different from himself2 and one whom he 
thought it was no more unjust to kill   
than the jaguars of the forest4 ,it was 
merely from a sense of propriety that1  
whilst he remained in the mission1 he   
would only eat the same food as the     
,fathers4 ,the natives1 if they return  
to their tribe 7al monte71 or find      
themselves pressed by hunger1 soon      
resume their old habits of              
anthropophagy4 ,and why should we be so 
much astonished at this inconstancy in  
the tribes of the ,orinoco1 when we are 
reminded1 by terrible and               
well-ascertained examples1 of what has  
passed among civilized nations in times 
of great scarcity8 ,in ,egypt1 in the   
thirteenth century1 the habit of eating 
human flesh pervaded all classes of     
society2 extraordinary snares were      

spread for physicians in particular4    
,they were called to attend persons who 
pretended to be sick1 but who were only 
hungry2 and it was not in order to be   
consulted1 but devoured4 ,an historian  
of great veracity1 ,abd-allatif1 has    
related how a practice1 which at first  
inspired dread and horror1 soon         
occasioned not even the slightest       
surprise499 799 ,when the poor began to 
eat human flesh1 the horror and         
astonishment caused by repasts so       
dreadful were such that these crimes    
furnished the never-ceasing subject of  
every conversation4 ,but at length the  
people became so accustomed to it1 and  
conceived such a taste for this         
detestable food1 that people of wealth  
and respectability were found to use it 
as their ordinary food1 to eat it by way
 of a treat1 and even to lay in a stock 
of it4 ,this flesh was prepared in      
different ways1 and the practice being  
once introduced1 spread into the        
provinces1 so that instances of it were 

found in every part of ,egypt4 ,it then 
no longer caused any surprise2 the      
horror it had at first inspired         
vanished2 and it was mentioned as an    
indifferent and ordinary thing4 ,this   
mania of devouring one another became so
 common among the poor1 that the greater
 part perished in this manner4 ,these   
wretches employed all sorts of          
artifices1 to seize men by surprise1 or 
decoy them into their houses under false
 pretences4 ,this happened to three     
physicians among those who visited me2  
and a bookseller who sold me books1 an  
old and very corpulent man1 fell into   
their snares1 and escaped with great    
difficulty4 ,all the facts which we     
relate as eye-witnesses fell under our  
observation accidentally1 for we        
generally avoided witnessing spectacles 
which inspired us with so much horror4  
,account of ,egypt by ,abd-allatif1     
physician of ,bagdad1 translated into   
,french by ,de ,sacy pages #cfj to      
#cgd47  ,although the ,indians of the   

,cassiquiare readily return to their    
barbarous habits1 they evince1 whilst in
 the missions1 intelligence1 some love  
of labour1 and1 in particular1 a great  
facility in learning the ,spanish       
language4 ,the villages being1 for the  
most part1 inhabited by three or four   
tribes1 who do not understand each      
other1 a foreign idiom1 which is at the 
same time that of the civil power1 the  
language of the missionary1 affords the 
advantage of more general means of      
communication4 ,i heard a ,poinave      
,indian conversing in ,spanish with a   
,guahibo1 though both had come from     
their forests within three months4 ,they
 uttered a phrase every quarter of an   
hour1 prepared with difficulty1 and in  
which the gerund of the verb1 no doubt  
according to the grammatical turn of    
their own languages1 was constantly     
employed4 ,when ,i seeing ,padre1 ,padre
 to me saying299 799 ,quando io mirando 
,padre1 ,padre me diciendo47 instead of1
 when ,i saw the missionary1 he said to 

me4 ,i have mentioned in another place1 
how wise it appeared to me in the       
,jesuits to generalize one of the       
languages of civilized ,america1 for    
instance that of the ,peruvians199 799  
,the ,quichua or ,inca language1 ,lengua
 del ,inga47 and instruct the ,indians  
in an idiom which is foreign to them in 
its roots1 but not in its structure and 
grammatical forms4 ,this was following  
the system which the ,incas1 or         
king-priests of ,peru had employed for  
ages1 in order to humanize the barbarous
 nations of the ,upper ,maranon1 and    
maintain them under their domination2 a 
system somewhat more reasonable than    
that of making the natives of ,america  
speak ,latin1 as was gravely proposed in
 a provincial concilio at ,mexico4  ,we 
were told that the ,indians of the      
,cassiquiare and the ,rio ,negro are    
preferred on the ,lower ,orinoco1 and   
especially at ,angostura1 to the        
inhabitants of the other missions1 on   
account of their intelligence and       

activity4 ,those of ,mandavaca are      
celebrated among the tribes of their own
 race for the preparation of the curare 
poison1 which does not yield in strength
 to the curare of ,esmeralda4 ,unhappily
 the natives devote themselves to this  
employment more than to agriculture4    
,yet the soil on the banks of the       
,cassiquiare is excellent4 ,we find     
there a granitic sand1 of a             
blackish-brown colour1 which is covered 
in the forests with thick layers of rich
 earth1 and on the banks of the river   
with clay almost impermeable to water4  
,the soil of the ,cassiquiare appears   
more fertile than that of the valley of 
the ,rio ,negro1 where maize does not   
prosper4 ,rice1 beans1 cotton1 sugar1   
and indigo yield rich harvests1 wherever
 their cultivation has been tried499 799
 ,m4 ,bonpland found at ,mandavaca1 in  
the huts of the natives1 a plant with   
tuberous roots1 exactly like cassava    
7yucca74 ,it is called cumapana1 and is 
cooked by being baked on the ashes4 ,it 

grows spontaneously on the banks of the 
,cassiquiare47 ,we saw wild indigo      
around the missions of ,san ,miguel de  
,davipe1 ,san ,carlos1 and ,mandavaca4  
,no doubt can exist that several nations
 of ,america1 particularly the          
,mexicans1 long before the conquest1    
employed real indigo in their           
hieroglyphic paintings2 and that small  
cakes of this substance were sold at the
 great market of ,tenochtitlan4 ,but a  
colouring matter1 chemically identical1 
may be extracted from plants belonging  
to neighbouring genera2 and ,i should   
not at present venture to affirm that   
the native indigoferae of ,america do   
not furnish some generic difference from
 the ,indigofera anil1 and the          
,indigofera argentea of the ,old ,world4
 ,in the coffee-trees of both           
hemispheres this difference has been    
observed4  ,here1 as at the ,rio ,negro1
 the humidity of the air1 and the       
consequent abundance of insects1 are    
obstacles almost invincible to new      

cultivation4 ,everywhere you meet with  
those large ants that march in close    
bands1 and direct their attacks the more
 readily on cultivated plants1 because  
they are herbaceous and succulent1      
whilst the forests of these countries   
afford only plants with woody stalks4   
,if a missionary wishes to cultivate    
salad1 or any culinary plant of ,europe1
 he is compelled as it were to suspend  
his garden in the air4 ,he fills an old 
boat with good mould1 and1 having sown  
the seed1 suspends it four feet above   
the ground with cords of the            
chiquichiqui palm-tree2 but most        
frequently places it on a slight        
scaffolding4 ,this protects the young   
plants from weeds1 worms1 and those ants
 which pursue their migration in a right
 line1 and1 not knowing what vegetates  
above them1 seldom turn from their      
course to climb up stakes that are      
stripped of their bark4 ,i mention this 
circumstance to prove how difficult1    
within the tropics1 on the banks of     

great rivers1 are the first attempts of 
man to appropriate to himself a little  
spot of earth in that vast domain of    
nature1 invaded by animals1 and covered 
by spontaneous plants4  ,during the     
night of the #acth of ,may1 ,i obtained 
some observations of the stars1         
unfortunately the last at the           
,cassiquiare4 ,the latitude of          
,mandavaca is #b degrees #d minutes #g  
seconds2 its longitude1 according to the
 chronometer1 #fi degrees #bg minutes4  
,i found the magnetic dip #be4be degrees
 7cent div71 showing that it had        
increased considerably from the fort of 
,san ,carlos4 ,yet the surrounding rocks
 are of the same granite1 mixed with a  
little hornblende1 which we had found at
 ,javita1 and which assumes a syenitic  
aspect4 ,we left ,mandavaca at half-past
 two in the morning4 ,after six hours'  
voyage1 we passed on the east the mouth 
of the ,idapa1 or ,siapa1 which rises on
 the mountain of ,uuturan1 and furnishes
 near its sources a portage to the ,rio 

,mavaca1 one of the tributary streams of
 the ,orinoco4 ,this river has white    
waters1 and is not more than half as    
broad as the ,pacimoni1 the waters of   
which are black4 ,its upper course has  
been strangely misrepresented on maps4  
,i shall have occasion hereafter to     
mention the hypotheses that have given  
rise to these errors1 in speaking of the
 source of the ,orinoco4  ,we stopped   
near the raudal of ,cunuri4 ,the noise  
of the little cataract augmented        
sensibly during the night1 and our      
,indians asserted that it was a certain 
presage of rain4 ,i recollected that the
 mountaineers of the ,alps have great   
confidence in the same prognostic499 799
 ,it is going to rain1 because we hear  
the murmur of the torrents nearer1 say  
the mountaineers of the ,alps1 like     
those of the ,andes4 ,the cause of the  
phenomenon is a modification of the     
atmosphere1 which has an influence at   
once on the sonorous and on the luminous
 undulations4 ,the prognostic drawn from

 the increase and the intensity of sound
 is intimately connected with the       
prognostic drawn from a less extinction 
of light4 ,the mountaineers predict a   
change of weather1 when1 the air being  
calm1 the ,alps covered with perpetual  
snow seem on a sudden to be nearer the  
observer1 and their outlines are marked 
with great distinctness on the azure    
sky4 ,what is it that causes the want of
 homogeneity in the vertical strata of  
the atmosphere to disappear             
instantaneously87 ,it fell before       
sunrise1 and the araguato monkeys had   
warned us1 by their lengthened howlings1
 of the approaching rain1 long before   
the noise of the cataract increased4    
,on the #adth1 the mosquitos1 and       
especially the ants1 drove us from the  
shore before two in the morning4 ,we had
 hitherto been of opinion that the ants 
did not crawl along the cords by which  
the hammocks are usually suspended3     
whether we were correct in this         
supposition1 or whether the ants fell on

 us from the tops of the trees1 ,i      
cannot say2 but certain it is that we   
had great difficulty to keep ourselves  
free from these troublesome insects4    
,the river became narrower as we        
advanced1 and the banks were so marshy1 
that it was not without much labour ,m4 
,bonpland could get to a ,carolinea     
princeps loaded with large purple       
flowers4 ,this tree is the most         
beautiful ornament of these forests1 and
 of those of the ,rio ,negro4 ,we       
examined repeatedly1 during this day1   
the temperature of the ,cassiquiare4    
,the water at the surface of the river  
was only #bd degrees 7when the air was  
at #be4f degrees47 ,this is nearly the  
temperature of the ,rio ,negro1 but four
 or five degrees below that of the      
,orinoco4 ,after having passed on the   
west the mouth of the ,cano ,caterico1  
which has black waters of extraordinary 
transparency1 we left the bed of the    
river1 to land at an island on which the
 mission of ,vasiva is established4 ,the

 lake which surrounds this mission is a 
league broad1 and communicates by three 
outlets with the ,cassiquiare4 ,the     
surrounding country abounds in marshes  
which generate fever4 ,the lake1 the    
waters of which appear yellow by        
transmitted light1 is dry in the season 
of great heat1 and the ,indians         
themselves are unable to resist the     
miasmata rising from the mud4 ,the      
complete absence of wind contributes to 
render the climate of this country more 
pernicious4  ,from the #adth to the     
#bast of ,may we slept constantly in the
 open air2 but ,i cannot indicate the   
spots where we halted4 ,these regions   
are so wild1 and so little frequented1  
that with the exception of a few rivers1
 the ,indians were ignorant of the names
 of all the objects which ,i set by the 
compass4 ,no observation of a star      
helped me to fix the latitude within the
 space of a degree4 ,after having passed
 the point where the ,itinivini         
separates from the ,cassiquiare1 to take

 its course to the west towards the     
granitic hills of ,daripabo1 we found   
the marshy banks of the river covered   
with bamboos4 ,these arborescent gramina
 rise to the height of twenty feet2     
their stem is constantly arched towards 
the summit4 ,it is a new species of     
,bambusa with very broad leaves4 ,m4    
,bonpland fortunately found one in      
flower2 a circumstance ,i mention1      
because the genera ,nastus and ,bambusa 
had before been very imperfectly        
distinguished1 and nothing is more rare 
in the ,new ,world1 than to see these   
gigantic gramina in flower4 ,n4 ,mutis  
herborised during twenty years in a     
country where the ,bambusa guadua forms 
marshy forests several leagues broad1   
without having ever been able to procure
 the flowers4 ,we sent that learned     
naturalist the first ears of ,bambusa   
from the temperate valleys of ,popayan4 
,it is strange that the parts of        
fructification should develop themselves
 so rarely in a plant which is          

indigenous1 and which vegetates with    
such extraordinary rigour1 from the     
level of the sea to the height of nine  
hundred toises1 that is1 to a subalpine 
region the climate of which1 between the
 tropics1 resembles that of the south of
 ,spain4 ,the ,bambusa latifolia seems  
to be peculiar to the basins of the     
,upper ,orinoco1 the ,cassiquiare1 and  
the ,amazon2 it is a social plant1 like 
all the gramina of the family of the    
nastoides2 but in that part of ,spanish 
,guiana which we traversed it does not  
grow in those large masses which the    
,spanish ,americans call guadales1 or   
forests of bamboos4  ,our first         
resting-place above ,vasiva was easily  
arranged4 ,we found a little nook of dry
 ground1 free from shrubs1 to the south 
of the ,cano ,curamuni1 in a spot where 
we saw some capuchin monkeys499 799     
,simia chiropotes47 ,they were          
recognizable by their black beards and  
their gloomy and sullen air1 and were   
walking slowly on the horizontal        

branches of a genipa4 ,during the five  
following nights our passage was the    
more troublesome in proportion as we    
approached the bifurcation of the       
,orinoco4 ,the luxuriance of the        
vegetation increases in a manner of     
which it is difficult even for those    
acquainted with the aspect of the       
forests between the tropics1 to form an 
idea4 ,there is no longer a bank3 a     
palisade of tufted trees forms the      
margin of the river4 ,you see a canal   
two hundred toises broad1 bordered by   
two enormous walls1 clothed with lianas 
and foliage4 ,we often tried to land1   
but without success4 ,towards sunset we 
sailed along for an hour seeking to     
discover1 not an opening 7since none    
exists71 but a spot less wooded1 where  
our ,indians by means of the hatchet and
 manual labour1 could clear space enough
 for a resting-place for twelve or      
thirteen persons4 ,it was impossible to 
pass the night in the canoe2 the        
mosquitos1 which tormented us during the

 day1 accumulated toward evening beneath
 the toldo covered with palm-leaves1    
which served to shelter us from the     
rain4 ,our hands and faces had never    
before been so much swelled4 ,father    
,zea1 who had till then boasted of      
having in his missions of the cataracts 
the largest and fiercest 7las mas       
feroces7 mosquitos1 at length gradually 
acknowledged that the sting of the      
insects of the ,cassiquiare was the most
 painful he had ever felt4 ,we          
experienced great difficulty1 amid a    
thick forest1 in finding wood to make a 
fire1 the branches of the trees in those
 equatorial regions where it always     
rains1 being so full of sap1 that they  
will scarcely burn4 ,there being no bare
 shore1 it is hardly possible to procure
 old wood1 which the ,indians call wood 
baked in the sun4 ,however1 fire was    
necessary to us only as a defence       
against the beasts of the forest2 for we
 had such a scarcity of provision that  
we had little need of fuel for the      

purpose of preparing our food4  ,on the 
#ahth of ,may1 towards evening1 we      
discovered a spot where wild cacao-trees
 were growing on the bank of the river4 
,the nut of these cacaos is small and   
bitter2 the ,indians of the forest suck 
the pulp1 and throw away the nut1 which 
is picked up by the ,indians of the     
missions1 and sold to persons who are   
not very nice in the preparation of     
their chocolate4 ,this is the ,puerto   
del ,cacao 7,cacao ,port71 said the     
pilot2 it is here our ,padres sleep1    
when they go to ,esmeralda to buy       
sarbacans99 799 ,the bamboo tubes       
furnished by the ,arundinaria1 used for 
projecting the poisoned arrows of the   
natives4 ,see ,views of ,nature page    
#ahj47 and juvias 7 ,brazil nuts74 ,not 
five boats1 however1 pass annually by   
the ,cassiquiare2 and since we left     
,maypures 7a whole month previously71 we
 had not met one living soul on the     
rivers we navigated1 except in the      
immediate neighbourhood of the missions4

 ,to the south of lake ,duractumuni we  
slept in a forest of palm-trees4 ,it    
rained violently1 but the pothoses1     
arums1 and lianas1 furnished so thick a 
natural trellis1 that we were sheltered 
as under a vault of foliage4 ,the       
,indians whose hammocks were placed on  
the edge of the river1 interwove the    
heliconias and other musaceae1 so as to 
form a kind of roof over them4 ,our     
fires lighted up1 to the height of fifty
 or sixty feet1 the palm-trees1 the     
lianas loaded with flowers1 and the     
columns of white smoke1 which ascended  
in a straight line toward the sky4 ,the 
whole exhibited a magnificent spectacle2
 but to have enjoyed it fully1 we should
 have breathed an air clear of insects4 
,the most depressing of all physical    
sufferings are those which are uniform  
in their duration1 and can be combated  
only by long patience4 ,it is probable1 
that in the exhalations of the forests  
of the ,cassiquiare ,m4 ,bonpland       
imbibed the seeds of a severe malady1   

under which he nearly sunk on our       
arrival at ,angostura4 ,happily for him 
and for me1 nothing led us to presage   
the danger with which he was menaced4   
,the view of the river1 and the hum of  
the insects1 were a little monotonous2  
but some remains of our natural         
cheerfulness enabled us to find sources 
of relief during our wearisome passage4 
,we discovered1 that by eating small    
portions of dry cacao ground without    
sugar1 and drinking a large quantity of 
the river water1 we succeeded in        
appeasing our appetite for several      
hours4 ,the ants and the mosquitos      
troubled us more than the humidity and  
the want of food4 ,notwithstanding the  
privations to which we were exposed     
during our excursions in the            
,cordilleras1 the navigation from       
,mandavaca to ,esmeralda has always     
appeared to us the most painful part of 
our travels in ,america4 ,i advise those
 who are not very desirous of seeing the
 great bifurcation of the ,orinoco1 to  

take the way of the ,atabapo in         
preference to that of the ,cassiquiare4 
,above the ,cano ,duractumuni1 the      
,cassiquiare pursues a uniform direction
 from north-east to south-west4 ,we were
 surprised to see how much the high     
steep banks of the ,cassiquiare had been
 undermined on each side by the sudden  
risings of the water4 ,uprooted trees   
formed as it were natural rafts2 and    
being half-buried in the mud1 they were 
extremely dangerous for canoes4 ,we     
passed the night of the #bjth of ,may1  
the last of our passage on the          
,cassiquiare1 near the point of the     
bifurcation of the ,orinoco4 ,we had    
some hope of being able to make an      
astronomical observation1 as            
falling-stars of remarkable magnitude   
were visible through the vapours that   
veiled the sky2 whence we concluded that
 the stratum of vapours must be very    
thin1 since meteors of this kind have   
scarcely ever been seen below a cloud4  
,those we now beheld shot towards the   

north1 and succeeded each other at      
almost equal intervals4 ,the ,indians1  
who seldom ennoble by their expressions 
the wanderings of the imagination1 name 
the falling-stars the urine2 and the dew
 the spittle of the stars4 ,the clouds  
thickened anew1 and we discerned neither
 the meteors1 nor the real stars1 for   
which we had impatiently waited during  
several days4  ,we had been told1 that  
we should find the insects at ,esmeralda
 still more cruel and voracious than in 
the branch of the ,orinoco which we were
 going up2 nevertheless we indulged the 
hope of at length sleeping in a spot    
that was inhabited1 and of taking some  
exercise in herbalizing4 ,this          
anticipation was1 however1 disturbed at 
our last resting-place on the           
,cassiquiare4 ,whilst we were sleeping  
on the edge of the forest1 we were      
warned by the ,indians1 in the middle of
 the night1 that they heard very near us
 the cries of a jaguar4 ,these cries1   
they alleged1 came from the top of some 

neighbouring trees4 ,such is the        
thickness of the forests in these       
regions1 that scarcely any animals are  
to be found there but such as climb     
trees2 as1 for instance1 the monkeys1   
animals of the weasel tribe1 jaguars1   
and other species of the genus ,felis4  
,as our fires burnt brightly1 we paid   
little attention to the cries of the    
jaguars4 ,they had been attracted by the
 smell and noise of our dog4 ,this      
animal 7which was of the mastiff breed7 
began at first to bark2 and when the    
tiger drew nearer1 to howl1 hiding      
himself below our hammocks4 how great   
was our grief1 when in the morning1 at  
the moment of re-embarking1 the ,indians
 informed us that the dog had           
disappeared6 ,there could be no doubt   
that it had been carried off by the     
jaguars499 799 ,see ,views of ,nature   
page #aie47 ,perhaps1 when their cries  
had ceased1 it had wandered from the    
fires on the side of the beach2 and     
possibly we had not heard its moans1 as 

we were in a profound sleep4 ,we have   
often heard the inhabitants of the banks
 of the ,orinoco and the ,rio ,magdalena
 affirm1 that the oldest jaguars will   
carry off animals from the midst of a   
halting-place1 cunningly grasping them  
by the neck so as to prevent their      
cries4 ,we waited part of the morning1  
in the hope that our dog had only       
strayed4 ,three days after we came back 
to the same place2 we heard again the   
cries of the jaguars1 for these animals 
have a predilection for particular      
spots2 but all our search was vain4 ,the
 dog1 which had accompanied us from     
,caracas1 and had so often in swimming  
escaped the pursuit of the crocodiles199
 had been devoured in the forest4 799   
,ibid page #aih47  ,on the #bast ,may1  
we again entered the bed of the         
,orinoco1 three leagues below the       
mission of ,esmeralda4 ,it was now a    
month since we had left that river near 
the mouth of the ,guaviare4 ,we had     
still to proceed seven hundred and fifty

 miles99 799 ,of nine hundred and fifty 
toises each1 or two hundred and fifty   
nautical leagues47 before reaching      
,angostura1 but we should go with the   
stream2 and this consideration lessened 
our discouragement4 ,in descending great
 rivers1 the rowers take the middle of  
the current1 where there are few        
mosquitos2 but in ascending1 they are   
obliged1 in order to avail themselves of
 the dead waters and counter-currents1  
to sail near the shore1 where the       
proximity of the forests1 and the       
remains of organic substances           
accumulated on the beach1 harbour the   
tipulary insects4 ,the point of the     
celebrated bifurcation of the ,orinoco  
has a very imposing aspect4 ,lofty      
granitic mountains rise on the northern 
bank2 and amidst them are discovered at 
a distance the ,maraguaca and the       
,duida4 ,there are no mountains on the  
left bank of the ,orinoco1 west or east 
of the bifurcation1 till opposite the   
mouth of the ,tamatama4 ,on that spot   

stands the rock ,guaraco1 which is said 
to throw out flames from time to time in
 the rainy season4 ,when the ,orinoco is
 no longer bounded by mountains towards 
the south1 and when it reaches the      
opening of a valley1 or rather a        
depression of the ground1 which         
terminates at the ,rio ,negro1 it       
divides itself into two branches4 ,the  
principal branch 7the ,rio ,paragua of  
the ,indians7 continues its course      
west-north-west1 turning round the group
 of the mountains of ,parime2 the other 
branch forming the communication with   
the ,amazon runs into plains1 the       
general slope of which is southward1 but
 of which the partial planes incline1 in
 the ,cassiquiare1 to south-west1 and in
 the basin of the ,rio ,negro1          
south-east4 ,a phenomenon so strange in 
appearance1 which ,i verified on the    
spot1 merits particular attention2 the  
more especially as it may throw some    
light on analogous facts1 which are     
supposed to have been observed in the   

interior of ,africa4  ,the existence of 
a communication of the ,orinoco with the
 ,amazon by the ,rio ,negro1 and a      
bifurcation of the ,caqueta1 was        
believed by ,sanson1 and rejected by    
,father ,fritz and by ,blaeuw3 it was   
marked in the first maps of ,de l',isle1
 but abandoned by that celebrated       
geographer towards the end of his days4 
,those who had mistaken the mode of this
 communication hastened to deny the     
communication itself4 ,it is in fact    
well worthy of remark that1 at the time 
when the ,portuguese went up most       
frequently by the ,amazon1 the ,rio     
,negro1 and the ,cassiquiare1 and when  
,father ,gumilla's letters were carried 
7by the natural interbranching of the   
rivers7 from the lower ,orinoco to      
,grand ,para1 that very missionary made 
every effort to spread the opinion      
through ,europe that the basins of the  
,orinoco and the ,amazon are perfectly  
separate4 ,he asserts that1 having      
several times gone up the former of     

these rivers as far as the ,raudal of   
,tabaje1 situate in the latitude of #a  
degree #d minutes1 he never saw a river 
flow in or out that could be taken for  
the ,rio ,negro4 ,he adds further1 that 
a great ,cordillera1 which stretches    
from east to west1 prevents the mingling
 of the waters1 and renders all         
discussion on the supposed communication
 of the two rivers useless4 ,the errors 
of ,father ,gumilla arose from his firm 
persuasion that he had reached the      
parallel of #a degree #d minutes on the 
,orinoco4 ,he was in error by more than 
#e degrees #aj minutes of latitude2 for 
,i found1 by observation1 at the mission
 of ,atures1 thirteen leagues south of  
the rapids of ,tabaje1 the latitude to  
be #e degrees #cg minutes #cd seconds4  
,gumilla having gone but little above   
the confluence of the ,meta1 it is not  
surprising that he had no knowledge of  
the bifurcation of the ,orinoco1 which  
is found by the sinuosities of the river
 to be one hundred and twenty leagues   

distant from the ,raudal of ,tabaje4    
,la ,condamine1 during his memorable    
navigation on the river ,amazon in      
#agdc1 carefully collected a great      
number of proofs of this communication  
of the rivers1 denied by the ,spanish   
,jesuit4 ,the most decisive proof then  
appeared to him to be the unsuspected   
testimony of a ,cauriacani ,indian woman
 with whom he had conversed1 and who had
 come in a boat from the banks of the   
,orinoco 7from the mission of ,pararuma7
 to ,grand ,para4 ,before the return of 
,la ,condamine to his own country1 the  
voyage of ,father ,manuel ,roman1 and   
the fortuitous meeting of the           
missionaries of the ,orinoco and the    
,amazon1 left no doubt of this fact1 the
 knowledge of which was first obtained  
by ,acunha4  ,the incursions undertaken 
from the middle of the seventeenth      
century1 to procure slaves1 had         
gradually led the ,portuguese from the  
,rio ,negro1 by the ,cassiquiare1 to the
 bed of a great river1 which they did   

not know to be the ,upper ,orinoco4 ,a  
flying camp1 composed of the troop of   
ransomers199 favoured this inhuman      
commerce4 799 ,tropa de rescate2 from   
rescatar1 to redeem47 ,after having     
excited the natives to make war1 they   
ransomed the prisoners2 and1 to give an 
appearance of equity to the traffic1    
monks accompanied the troop of ransomers
 to examine whether those who sold the  
slaves had a right to do so1 by having  
made them prisoners in open war4 ,from  
the year #agcg these visits of the      
,portuguese to the ,upper ,orinoco      
became very frequent4 ,the desire of    
exchanging slaves 7poitos7 for hatchets1
 fish-hooks1 and glass trinkets1 induced
 the ,indian tribes to make war upon one
 another4 ,the ,guipunaves1 led on by   
their valiant and cruel chief ,macapu1  
descended from the banks of the ,inirida
 towards the confluence of the ,atabapo 
and the ,orinoco4 ,they sold1 says the  
missionary ,gili1 the slaves whom they  
did not eat499 799 ,i ,guipunavi        

avventizj abitatori dell' ,alto         
,orinoco1 recavan de' danni incredibili 
alle vicine mansuete nazioni2 altre     
mangiondone1 altre conducendone schiave 
ne' ,portoghesi dominj4 ,the            
,guipunaves1 at their first arrival on  
the ,upper ,orinoco1 inflicted          
incredible injuries on the other        
peaceable tribes who dwelt near them1   
devouring some1 and selling others as   
slaves to the ,portuguese4 ,gili tome #a
 page #ca47 ,the ,jesuits of the ,lower 
,orinoco became uneasy at this state of 
things1 and the superior of the ,spanish
 missions1 ,father ,roman1 the intimate 
friend of ,gumilla1 took the courageous 
resolution of crossing the ,great       
,cataracts1 and visiting the            
,guipunaves1 without being escorted by  
,spanish soldiers4 ,he left ,carichana  
the #dth of ,february1 #agdd2 and having
 arrived at the confluence of the       
,guaviare1 the ,atabapo1 and the        
,orinoco1 where the last mentioned river
 suddenly changes its previous course   

from east to west1 to a direction from  
south to north1 he saw from afar a canoe
 as large as his own1 and filled with   
men in ,european dresses4 ,he caused a  
crucifix to be placed at the bow of his 
boat in sign of peace1 according to the 
custom of the missionaries when they    
navigate in a country unknown to them4  
,the whites1 who were ,portuguese       
slave-traders of the ,rio ,negro1       
recognized with marks of joy the habit  
of the order of ,st4 ,ignatius4 ,they   
heard with astonishment that the river  
on which this meeting took place was the
 ,orinoco2 and they brought ,father     
,roman by the ,cassiquiare to the       
,brazilian settlements on the ,rio      
,negro4 ,the superior of the ,spanish   
missions was forced to remain near the  
flying camp of the troop of ransomers   
till the arrival of the ,portuguese     
,jesuit ,avogadri1 who had gone upon    
business to ,grand ,para4 ,father       
,manuel ,roman returned with his ,salive
 ,indians by the same way1 that of the  

,cassiquiare and the ,upper ,orinoco1 to
 ,pararuma199 a little to the north of  
,carichana1 after an absence of seven   
months4 799 ,on the #aeth of ,october1  
#aggd4 ,la ,condamine quitted the town  
of ,grand ,para ,december the #bith1    
#agdc2 it follows1 from a comparison of 
the dates1 that the ,indian woman of    
,pararuma1 carried off by the           
,portuguese1 and to whom the ,french    
traveller had spoken1 had not come with 
,father ,roman1 as was erroneously      
affirmed4 ,the appearance of this woman 
on the banks of the ,amazon is          
interesting with respect to the         
researches lately made on the mixture of
 races and languages3 it proves the     
enormous distances through which the    
individuals of one tribe are compelled  
to carry on intercourse with those of   
another47 ,he was the first white man   
who went from the ,rio ,negro1          
consequently from the basin of the      
,amazon1 without passing his boats over 
any portage1 to the basin of the ,lower 

,orinoco4  ,the tidings of this         
extraordinary passage spread with such  
rapidity that ,la ,condamine was able to
 announce it99 at a public sitting of   
the ,academy1 seven months after the    
return of ,father ,roman to ,pararuma4  
799 ,the intelligence was communicated  
to him by ,father ,john ,ferreyro1      
rector of the college of ,jesuits at    
,para4 ,voyage a l',amazone page #abj4  
,mem4 de l',acad4 #agde page #dej4      
,caulin page #gi4 ,see also1 in the work
 of ,gili1 the fifth chapter of the     
first book1 published in #aghj1 with the
 title3 ,della scoperta delle           
communicazione dell' ,orinoco col       
,maragnone47 ,the communication between 
the ,orinoco and the ,amazon1 said he1  
recently averred1 may pass so much the  
more for a discovery in geography1 as1  
although the junction of these two      
rivers is marked on the old maps        
7according to the information given by  
,acunha71 it had been suppressed by all 
the modern geographers in their new     

maps1 as if in concert4 ,this is not the
 first time that what is positive fact  
has been thought fabulous1 that the     
spirit of criticism has been pushed too 
far1 and that this communication has    
been treated as chimerical by those who 
ought to have been better informed4     
,since the voyage of ,father ,roman in  
#aggd1 no person in ,spanish ,guiana1 or
 on the coasts of ,cumana and ,caracas1 
has admitted a doubt of the existence of
 the ,cassiquiare and the bifurcation of
 the ,orinoco4 ,father ,gumilla himself2
 whom ,bouguer met at ,carthagena1      
confessed that he had been deceived2 and
 he read to ,father ,gili1 a short time 
before his death1 a supplement to his   
history of the ,orinoco1 intended for a 
new edition1 in which he recounts       
pleasantly the manner in which he had   
been undeceived4 ,the expedition of the 
boundaries1 under ,iturriaga and        
,solano1 completed in detail the        
knowledge of the geography of the ,upper
 ,orinoco1 and the intertwinings of this

 river with the ,rio ,negro4 ,solano    
established himself in #agef at the     
confluence of the ,atabapo2 and from    
that time the ,spanish and ,portuguese  
commissioners often passed in their     
canoes1 by the ,cassiquiare1 from the   
,lower ,orinoco to the ,rio ,negro1 to  
visit each other at their head-quarters 
of ,cabruta99 and ,mariva4 799 ,general 
,iturriaga1 confined by illness1 first  
at ,muitaco1 or ,real ,corona1 and      
afterward at ,cabruta1 received a visit 
in #agfj from the ,portuguese colonel   
,don ,gabriel de ,souza y ,figueira1 who
 came from ,grand ,para1 having made a  
voyage of nearly nine hundred leagues in
 his boat4 ,the ,swedish botanist1      
,loefling1 who was chosen to accompany  
the expedition of the boundaries at the 
expense of the ,spanish government1 so  
greatly multiplied in his ardent        
imagination the branchings of the great 
rivers of ,south ,america1 that he      
appeared well persuaded of being able to
 navigate1 by the ,rio ,negro and the   

,amazon1 to the ,rio de la ,plata4      
7,iter page #aca477 ,since the year     
#agfg1 two or three canoes come annually
 from the fort of ,san ,carlos1 by the  
bifurcation of the ,orinoco to          
,angostura1 to fetch salt and the pay of
 the troops4 ,these passages1 from one  
basin of a river to another1 by the     
natural canal of the ,cassiquiare1      
excite no more attention in the         
colonists at present than the arrival of
 boats that descend the ,loire by the   
canal of ,orleans1 awakens on the banks 
of the ,seine4  ,although1 since the    
journey of ,father ,roman1 in #agdd1    
precise notions have been acquired in   
the ,spanish possessions in ,america1   
both of the direction of the ,upper     
,orinoco from east to west1 and of the  
manner of its communication with the    
,rio ,negro1 this knowledge did not     
reach ,europe till a much later period4 
,in #agej1 ,la ,condamine and           
,d',anville99 were still of opinion that
 the ,orinoco was a branch of the       

,caqueta coming from the south-east1 and
 that the ,rio ,negro issued immediately
 from it4 799 ,see the classical memoir 
of this great geographer in the ,journal
 des ,savans1 ,march #agej page #ahd4   
,one fact1 says ,d',anville1 which      
cannot be considered as equivocal1 after
 the proofs with which we have been     
recently furnished1 is the communication
 of the ,rio ,negro with the ,orinoco2  
but we must not hesitate to admit1 that 
we are not yet sufficiently informed of 
the manner in which this communication  
takes place4 ,i was surprised to see in 
a very rare map1 which ,i found at ,rome
 7,provincia ,quitensis ,soc4 ,jesu in  
,america1 auctore ,carolo ,brentano et  
,nicolao de la ,torre2 ,romae #agde7    
that seven years after the discovery of 
,father ,roman1 the ,jesuits of ,quito  
were ignorant of the existence of the   
,cassiquiare4 ,the ,rio ,negro is       
figured in this map as a branch of the  
,orinoco47 ,it was only in the second   
edition of his ,south ,america1 that    

,d',anville 7without renouncing that    
intercommunication of the ,caqueta1 by  
means of the ,iniricha 7,inirida71 with 
the ,orinoco and the ,rio ,negro7       
describes the ,orinoco as taking its    
rise at the east1 near the sources of   
the ,rio ,branco1 and marks the ,rio    
,cassiquiare as bearing the waters of   
the ,upper ,orinoco to the ,rio ,negro4 
,it is probable that this indefatigable 
and learned writer had obtained         
information on the manner of the        
bifurcation from his frequent           
communications with the missionaries199 
who were then the only geographers of   
the most inland parts of the continents4
 799 ,according to the ,annals of       
,berredo1 it would appear1 that as early
 as the year #agci1 the military        
incursions from the ,rio ,negro to the  
,cassiquiare had confirmed the          
,portuguese ,jesuits in the opinion that
 there was a communication between the  
,amazon and the ,orinoco4 ,southey's    
,brazils volume #a page #feh47  ,had the

 nations of the lower region of         
equinoctial ,america participated in the
 civilization spread over the cold and  
alpine region1 that immense ,mesopotamia
 between the ,orinoco and the ,amazon   
would have favoured the development of  
their industry1 animated their commerce1
 and accelerated the progress of social 
order4 ,we see everywhere in the old    
world the influence of locality on the  
dawning civilization of nations4 ,the   
island of ,meroe between the ,astaboras 
and the ,nile1 the ,punjab of the       
,indus1 the ,douab of the ,ganges1 and  
the ,mesopotamia of the ,euphrates1     
furnish examples that are justly        
celebrated in the annals of the human   
race4 ,but the feeble tribes that wander
 in the savannahs and the woods of      
eastern ,america1 have profited little  
by the advantages of their soil1 and the
 interbranchings of their rivers4 ,the  
distant incursions of the ,caribs1 who  
went up the ,orinoco1 the ,cassiquiare1 
and the ,rio ,negro1 to carry off slaves

 and exercise pillage1 compelled some   
rude tribes to rouse themselves from    
their indolence1 and form associations  
for their common defence2 the little    
good1 however1 which these wars with the
 ,caribs 7the ,bedouins of the rivers of
 ,guiana7 produced1 was but slight      
compensation for the evils that followed
 in their train1 by rendering the tribes
 more ferocious1 and diminishing their  
population4 ,we cannot doubt1 that the  
physical aspect of ,greece1 intersected 
by small chains of mountains1 and       
mediterranean gulfs1 contributed1 at the
 dawn of civilization1 to the           
intellectual development of the ,greeks4
 ,but the operation of this influence of
 climate1 and of the configuration of   
the soil1 is felt in all its force only 
among a race of men who1 endowed with a 
happy organization of the mental        
faculties1 are susceptible of exterior  
impulse4 ,in studying the history of our
 species1 we see1 at certain distances1 
these foci of ancient civilization      

dispersed over the globe like luminous  
points2 and we are struck by the        
inequality of improvement in nations    
inhabiting analogous climates1 and whose
 native soil appears equally favoured by
 the most precious gifts of nature4     
,since my departure from the banks of   
the ,orinoco and the ,amazon1 a new era 
has unfolded itself in the social state 
of the nations of the ,west4 ,the fury  
of civil discussions has been succeeded 
by the blessings of peace1 and a freer  
development of the arts of industry4    
,the bifurcations of the ,orinoco1 the  
isthmus of ,tuamini1 so easy to be made 
passable by an artificial canal1 will   
ere long fix the attention of commercial
 ,europe4 ,the ,cassiquiare1 as broad as
 the ,rhine1 and the course of which is 
one hundred and eighty miles in length1 
will no longer form uselessly a         
navigable canal between two basins of   
rivers which have a surface of one      
hundred and ninety thousand square      
leagues4 ,the grain of ,new ,grenada    

will be carried to the banks of the ,rio
 ,negro2 boats will descend from the    
sources of the ,napo and the ,ucuyabe1  
from the ,andes of ,quito and of ,upper 
,peru1 to the mouths of the ,orinoco1 a 
distance which equals that from         
,timbuctoo to ,marseilles4 ,a country   
nine or ten times larger than ,spain1   
and enriched with the most varied       
productions1 is navigable in every      
direction by the medium of the natural  
canal of the ,cassiquiare1 and the      
bifurcation of the rivers4 ,this        
phenomenon1 which will one day be so    
important for the political connections 
of nations1 unquestionably deserves to  
be carefully examined4   ,,chapter      
#b4bd4  ,,the ,,upper ,,orinoco1 ,,from 
,,the ,,esmeralda ,,to ,,the            
,,confluence ,,of ,,the ,,guaviare4     
,,second ,,passage ,,across ,,the       
,,cataracts ,,of ,,atures ,,and         
,,maypures4 ,,the ,,lower ,,orinoco1    
,,between ,,the ,,mouth ,,of ,,the ,,rio
 ,,apure1 ,,and ,,angostura ,,the       

,,capital ,,of ,,spanish ,,guiana4      
,opposite to the point where the        
,orinoco forms its bifurcation1 the     
granitic group of ,duida rises in an    
amphitheatre on the right bank of the   
river4 ,this mountain1 which the        
missionaries call a volcano1 is nearly  
eight thousand feet high4 ,it is        
perpendicular on the south and west1 and
 has an aspect of solemn grandeur4 ,its 
summit is bare and stony1 but1 wherever 
its less steep declivities are covered  
with mould vast forests appear suspended
 on its flanks4 ,at the foot of ,duida  
is the mission of ,esmeralda1 a little  
hamlet with eighty inhabitants1         
surrounded by a lovely plain1           
intersected by rills of black but limpid
 water4 ,this plain is adorned with     
clumps of the mauritia palm1 the        
sago-tree of ,america4 ,nearer the      
mountain1 the distance of which from the
 cross of the mission ,i found to be    
seven thousand three hundred toises1 the
 marshy plain changes to a savannah1 and

 spends itself along the lower region of
 the ,cordillera4 ,large pine-apples are
 there found of a delicious flavour2    
that species of bromelia always grows   
solitary among the gramina1 like our    
,colchicum autumnale1 while the ,b4     
karatas1 another species of the same    
genus1 is a social plant1 like our      
whortleberries and heaths4 ,the         
pine-apples of ,esmeralda are cultivated
 throughout ,guiana4 ,there are certain 
spots in ,america1 as in ,europe1 where 
different fruits attain their highest   
perfection4 ,the sapota-plum 7achra7    
should be eaten at the ,island of       
,margareta or at ,cumana3 the chirimoya 
7very different from the custard-apple  
and sweet-sop of the ,west ,india       
,islands7 at ,loxa in ,peru2 the        
grenadilla1 or parcha1 at ,caracas2 and 
the pine-apple at ,esmeralda1 or in the 
island of ,cuba4 ,the pine-apple forms  
the ornament of the fields near the     
,havannah1 where it is planted in       
parallel rows2 on the sides of the      

,duida it embellishes the turf of the   
savannahs1 lifting its yellow fruit1    
crowned with a tuft of silvery leaves1  
above the setaria1 the paspalum1 and a  
few cyperaceae4 ,this plant1 which the  
,indians of the ,orinoco call ana-curua1
 has been propagated since the sixteenth
 century in the interior of ,china199   
and some ,english travellers found it   
recently1 together with other plants    
indubitably ,american 7maize1 cassava1  
tobacco1 and pimento71 on the banks of  
the ,river ,congo1 in ,africa4 799 ,no  
doubt remains of the ,american origin of
 the ,bromelia ananas4 ,see ,cayley's   
,life of ,raleigh volume #a page #fa4   
,gili volume #a pages #baj and #ccf4    
,robert ,brown1 ,geogr4 ,observ4 on the 
,plants of the ,river ,congo #ahah page 
#ej47  ,there is no missionary at       
,esmeralda2 the monk appointed to       
celebrate mass in that hamlet is settled
 at ,santa ,barbara1 more than fifty    
leagues distant2 and he visits this spot
 but five or six times in a year4 ,we   

were cordially received by an old       
officer1 who took us for ,catalonian    
shopkeepers1 and who supposed that trade
 had led to the missions4 ,on seeing    
packages of paper intended for drying   
our plants1 he smiled at our simple     
ignorance4 ,you come1 said he1 to a     
country where this kind of merchandise  
has no sale2 we write little here2 and  
the dried leaves of maize1 the platano  
7plantain-tree71 and the vijaho         
7heliconia71 serve us1 like paper in    
,europe1 to wrap up needles1 fish-hooks1
 and other little articles of which we  
are careful4 ,this old officer united in
 his person the civil and ecclesiastical
 authority4 ,he taught the children1 ,i 
will not say the ,catechism1 but the    
,rosary2 he rang the bells to amuse     
himself2 and impelled by ardent zeal for
 the service of the church1 he sometimes
 used his chorister's wand in a manner  
not very agreeable to the natives4      
,notwithstanding the small extent of the
 mission1 three ,indian languages are   

spoken at ,esmeralda2 the ,idapimanare1 
the ,catarapenno1 and the ,maquiritan4  
,the last of these prevails on the      
,upper ,orinoco1 from the confluence of 
the ,ventuari as far as that of the     
,padamo 799 ,the ,arivirianos of the    
banks of the ,ventuari speak a dialect  
of the language of the ,maquiritares4   
,the latter live1 jointly with a tribe  
of the ,macos1 in the savannahs that are
 by the ,padamo4 ,they are so numerous1 
that they have even given their name to 
this tributary stream of the ,orinoco472
 the ,caribbee prevails on the ,lower   
,orinoco2 the ,ottomac1 near the        
confluence of the ,apure1 at the ,great 
,cataracts2 and the ,maravitan1 on the  
banks of the ,rio ,negro4 ,these are the
 five or six languages most generally   
spoken4 ,we were surprised to find at   
,esmeralda many zambos1 mulattos1 and   
copper-coloured people1 who called      
themselves ,spaniards 7,espanoles7 and  
who fancy they are white1 because they  
are not so red as the ,indians4 ,these  

people live in the most absolute misery2
 they have for the most part been sent  
hither in banishment 7desterrados74     
,solano1 in his haste to found colonies 
in the interior of the country1 in order
 to guard its entrance against the      
,portuguese1 assembled in the ,llanos1  
and as far as the island of ,margareta1 
vagabonds and malefactors1 whom justice 
had vainly pursued1 and made them go up 
the ,orinoco to join the unhappy        
,indians who had been carried off from  
the woods4 ,a mineralogical error gave  
celebrity to ,esmeralda4 ,the granites  
of ,duida and ,maraguaca contain in open
 veins fine rock-crystals1 some of them 
of great transparency1 others coloured  
by chlorite or blended with actonite2   
these were mistaken for diamonds and    
emeralds4  ,so near the sources of the  
,orinoco we heard of nothing in these   
mountains but the proximity of ,el      
,dorado1 the lake ,parima1 and the ruins
 of the great city of ,manoa4 ,a man1   
still known in the country for his      

credulity and his love of exaggeration1 
,don ,apollinario ,diez de la ,fuente1  
assumed the pompous title of capitan    
poblador1 and cabo militar 7military    
commander7 of the fort of ,cassiquiare4 
,this fort consisted of a few trunks of 
trees1 joined together by planks2 and to
 complete the deception1 a demand was   
made at ,madrid for the privileges of a 
villa for the mission of ,esmeralda1    
which but a hamlet with twelve or       
fifteen huts4 ,a colony composed of     
elements altogether heterogeneous       
perished by degrees4 ,the vagabonds of  
the ,llanos had as little taste for     
labour as the natives1 who were         
compelled to live within the sound of   
the bell4 ,the former found a motive in 
their pride to justify their indolence4 
,in the missions1 every mulatto who is  
not decidedly black as an ,african1 or  
copper-coloured as an ,indian1 calls    
himself a ,spaniard2 he belongs to the  
gente de razon--the race endued with    
reason2 and that reason 7sometimes1 it  

must be admitted1 arrogant and indolent7
 persuaded the whites1 and those who    
fancy they are so1 that to till the     
ground is a task fit only for slaves    
7poitos7 and the native neophytes4 ,the 
colony of ,esmeralda had been founded on
 the principles of that of ,australia2  
but it was far from being governed with 
the same wisdom4 ,the ,american         
colonists1 being separated from their   
native soil1 not by seas1 but by forests
 and savannahs1 dispersed2 some taking  
the road northward1 towards the ,caura  
and the ,carony2 others proceeding      
southward to the ,portuguese            
possessions4 ,thus the celebrity of this
 villa1 and of the emerald-mines of     
,duida1 vanished in a few years2 and    
,esmeralda1 on account of the immense   
number of insects that obscure the air  
at all seasons of the year1 was regarded
 by the monks as a place of banishment4 
,the superior of the missions1 when he  
would make the lay-brothers mindful of  
their duty1 threatens sometimes to send 

them to ,esmeralda2 that is1 say the    
monks1 to be condemned to the mosquitos2
 to be devoured by those buzzing flies  
7zancudos gritones7 which ,god appears  
to have created for the torment and     
chastisement of man499 799 ,estos       
mosquitos que llaman zancudos gritones  
los parece cria la naturaleza para      
castigo y tormento de los hombres4      
,those mosquitos which are called       
buzzing zancudos1 ,nature seems to have 
created for the especial punishment and 
torture of man4 ,fray ,pedro ,simon47   
,these strange punishments have not     
always been confined to the             
lay-brothers4 ,there happened in #aghh  
one of those monastic revolutions1 of   
which it is difficult to form a         
conception in ,europe1 according to the 
ideas that prevail of the peaceful state
 of the ,christian settlements in the   
,new ,world4 ,for a long period the     
,franciscan monks settled in ,guiana had
 been desirous of forming a separate    
republic1 and rendering themselves      

independent of the college of ,piritu at
 ,nueva ,barcelona4 ,discontented with  
the election of ,fray ,gutierez de      
,aguilera1 chosen by a general chapter1 
and confirmed by the king in the        
important office of president of the    
missions1 five or six monks of the      
,upper ,orinoco1 the ,cassiquiare1 and  
the ,rio ,negro1 assembled together at  
,san ,fernando de ,atabapo2 chose       
hastily a new superior from their own   
body2 and caused the old one1 who1      
unfortunately for himself1 had come to  
visit those parts1 to be arrested4 ,they
 put him in irons1 threw him into a     
boat1 and conducted him to ,esmeralda1  
as to a place of proscription4 ,this    
great distance of the coast from the    
scene of this revolution led the monks  
to hope that their crime would remain   
long unknown beyond the ,great          
,cataracts4 ,they wished to gain time to
 intrigue1 to negotiate1 to frame acts  
of accusation1 and employ the little    
artifices by which1 in every country1   

the invalidity of a first election may  
be proved4 ,fray ,gutierez do ,aguilera 
languished in his prison at ,esmeralda1 
and fell dangerously ill from the double
 influence of the excessive heat1 and   
the continual irritation of the         
mosquitos4 ,happily for the fallen power
 the monks did not remain united4 ,a    
missionary of the ,cassiquiare conceived
 serious alarms respecting the issue of 
this affair2 he dreaded being sent a    
prisoner to ,cadiz1 or1 as they say in  
the colonies1 having his name on the    
list 7baxo partido de registro74 ,fear  
overcame his resolution1 and he suddenly
 disappeared4 ,indians were placed on   
the watch at the mouth of the ,atabapo1 
at the ,great ,cataracts1 and wherever  
the fugitive was likely to pass on his  
way to the ,lower ,orinoco4             
,notwithstanding these precautions1 he  
arrived at ,angostura1 and then reached 
the college of the missions of ,piritu1 
denounced his colleagues1 and was       
appointed1 in recompense of this        

information1 to arrest those with whom  
he had conspired against the president  
of the missions499 799 ,two of the      
missionaries1 considered as the leaders 
of the insurrection1 were embarked at   
,angostura1 in order to be tried in     
,spain4 ,the vessel in which they were  
conveyed became leaky1 and put into     
,spanish ,harbour in the island of      
,trinidad4 ,the governor ,chacon        
intereated himself in the fate of the   
monks2 they were pardoned a violent     
proceeding somewhat inconsistent with   
monastic discipline1 and were again     
employed in the missions4 ,i was        
acquainted with them both during my     
abode in ,south ,america47 ,at          
,esmeralda1 where the political events  
that have agitated ,europe for thirty   
years past have not yet been heard of1  
lively interest is still felt in an     
event which is called the sedition of   
the monks1 7el alboroto de los frailes47
 ,in this country1 as in the ,east1 no  
conception is formed of any other       

revolutions than those that are made by 
rulers themselves2 and we have just seen
 that the effects are not very alarming4
  ,if the villa of ,esmeralda1 with a   
population of twelve or fifteen         
families1 be at present considered as a 
frightful place of abode1 this must be  
attributed to the want of cultivation1  
the distance from every other inhabited 
country1 and the excessive quantity of  
mosquitos4 ,the site of the mission is  
highly picturesque2 the surrounding     
country is lovely1 and of great         
fertility4 ,i never saw plantains of so 
large a size as these3 and indigo1      
sugar1 and cacao might be produced in   
abundance1 if any trouble were taken for
 their cultivation4 ,the ,cerro ,duida  
is surrounded with fine pasturage2 and  
if the ,observantins of the college of  
,piritu partook a little of the industry
 of the ,catalonian ,capuchins settled  
on the banks of the ,carony1 numerous   
herds would be seen wandering between   
the ,cunucunumo and the ,padamo4 ,at    

present1 not a cow or a horse is to be  
found2 and the inhabitants1 victims of  
their own indolence1 are often reduced  
to eat the flesh of alouate monkeys1 and
 flour made from the bones of fish1 of  
which ,i shall have occasion to speak   
hereafter4 ,a little cassava and a few  
plantains only are cultivated2 and when 
the fishery is not abundant1 the natives
 of a country so favoured by nature are 
exposed to the most cruel privations4   
,the pilots of the small number of boats
 that go from the ,rio ,negro to        
,angostura by the ,cassiquiare are      
afraid to ascend as far as ,esmeralda1  
and therefore that mission would have   
been much better placed at the point of 
the bifurcation of the ,orinoco4 ,it is 
probable that this vast country will not
 always be doomed to the desertion in   
which it has hitherto been left1 owing  
to the errors of monkish administration 
and the spirit of monopoly that         
characterises corporations4 ,we may even
 predict on what points of the ,orinoco 

industry and commerce will become most  
active4 ,in every zone1 population is   
concentred at the mouth of tributary    
streams4 ,the ,rio ,apure1 by which the 
productions of the provinces of ,varinas
 and ,merida are exported1 will give    
great importance to the little town of  
,cabruta1 which will then be in         
rivalship with ,san ,fernando de ,apure1
 where all commerce has hitherto        
centred4 ,higher up1 a new settlement   
will be formed at the confluence of the 
,meta1 which communicates with ,new     
,grenada by the ,llanos of ,casanare4   
,the two missions of the ,cataracts will
 increase1 from the activity to which   
the transport of boats at those points  
will give rise2 for an unhealthy and    
damp climate1 and the swarming of       
mosquitos1 will as little impede the    
progress of cultivation at the ,orinoco 
as at the ,rio ,magdalena1 whenever a   
powerful mercantile interest shall call 
new settlers thither4 ,habitual evils   
are those which are least felt2 and men 

born in ,america do not suffer the same 
intensity of pain as ,europeans recently
 arrived4 ,perhaps1 also1 the           
destruction of forests round the        
inhabited places1 although slow1 will   
somewhat tend to diminish the torment of
 the tipulary insects4 ,san ,fernando de
 ,atabapo1 ,javita1 ,san ,carlos1 and   
,esmeralda1 appear 7from their situation
 at the mouth of the ,guaviare1 the     
portage between ,tuamini and the ,rio   
,negro1 the confluence of the           
,cassiquiare1 and the point of          
bifurcation of the ,upper ,orinoco7 to  
promise a considerable increase of      
population and prosperity4 ,the same    
improvement will take place in the      
fertile but uncultivated countries      
through which flow the ,guallaga1 the   
,amazon1 and the ,orinoco2 as well as at
 the isthmus of ,panama1 the lake of    
,nicaragua1 and the ,rio ,huasacualco1  
which furnish a communication between   
the two oceans4 ,the imperfection of    
political institutions may for ages have

 converted into deserts places where the
 commerce of the world should be found  
concentred2 but the time approaches when
 these obstacles shall exist no longer4 
,a vicious administration cannot always 
struggle against the united interest of 
men2 and civilization will be carried   
insensibly into those countries1 the    
great destinies of which nature itself  
proclaims1 by the physical configuration
 of the soil1 the immense windings of   
the rivers1 and the proximity of two    
seas1 that bathe the shores of ,europe  
and of ,india4  ,esmeralda is the most  
celebrated spot on the ,orinoco for the 
preparation of that active poison1 which
 is employed in war1 in the chase1 and1 
singularly enough1 as a remedy for      
gastric derangements4 ,the poison of the
 ticunas of the ,amazon1 the upas-tieute
 of ,java1 and the curare of ,guiana1   
are the most deleterious substances that
 are known4 ,raleigh1 about the end of  
the sixteenth century1 had heard of     
urari99 as being a vegetable substance  

with which arrows were envenomed 799 ,in
 ,tamanac marana1 in ,maypure macuri472 
yet no fixed notions of this poison had 
reached ,europe4 ,the missionaries      
,gumilla and ,gili had not been able to 
penetrate into the country where the    
curare is manufactured4 ,gumilla asserts
 that this preparation was enveloped in 
great mystery2 that its principal       
ingredient was furnished by a           
subterranean plant with a tuberous root1
 which never puts forth leaves1 and     
which is called specially the root 7raiz
 de si misma72 that the venomous        
exhalations which arise from the        
manufacture are fatal to the lives of   
the old women who 7being otherwise      
useless7 are chosen to watch over this  
operation2 finally1 that these vegetable
 juices are never thought to be         
sufficiently concentrated till a few    
drops produce at a distance a repulsive 
action on the blood4 ,an ,indian wounds 
himself slightly2 and a dart dipped in  
the liquid curare is held near the      

wound4 ,if it make the blood return to  
the vessels without having been brought 
into contact with them1 the poison is   
judged to be sufficiently concentrated4 
,when we arrived at ,esmeralda1 the     
greater part of the ,indians were       
returning from an excursion which they  
had made to the east1 beyond the ,rio   
,padamo1 to gather juvias1 or the fruit 
of the bertholletia1 and the liana which
 yields the curare4 ,their return was   
celebrated by a festival1 which is      
called in the mission la fiesta de las  
juvias1 and which resembles our         
harvest-homes and vintage-feasts4 ,the  
women had prepared a quantity of        
fermented liquor2 and during two days   
the ,indians were in a state of         
intoxication4 ,among nations who attach 
great importance to the fruit of the    
palm1 and of some other trees useful for
 the nourishment of man1 the period when
 these fruits are gathered is marked by 
public rejoicings1 and time is divided  
according to these festivals1 which     

succeed one another in a course         
invariably regular4 ,we were fortunate  
enough to find an old ,indian more      
temperate than the rest1 who was        
employed in preparing the curare poison 
from freshly-gathered plants4 ,he was   
the chemist of the place4 ,we found at  
his dwelling large earthen pots for     
boiling the vegetable juice1 shallower  
vessels to favour the evaporation by a  
larger surface1 and leaves of the       
plantain-tree rolled up in the shape of 
our filters1 and used to filtrate the   
liquids1 more or less loaded with       
fibrous matter4 ,the greatest order and 
neatness prevailed in this hut1 which   
was transformed into a chemical         
laboratory4 ,the old ,indian was known  
throughout the mission by the name of   
the poison-master 7amo del curare74 ,he 
had that self-sufficient air and tone of
 pedantry of which the pharmacopolists  
of ,europe were formerly accused4 ,i    
know1 said he1 that the whites have the 
secret of making soap1 and manufacturing

 that black powder which has the defect 
of making a noise when used in killing  
animals4 ,the curare1 which we prepare  
from father to son1 is superior to      
anything you can make down yonder       
7beyond sea74 ,it is the juice of an    
herb which kills silently1 without any  
one knowing whence the stroke comes4    
,this chemical operation1 to which the  
old man attached so much importance1    
appeared to us extremely simple4 ,the   
liana 7bejuco7 used at ,esmeralda for   
the preparation of the poison1 bears the
 same name as in the forests of ,javita4
 ,it is the bejuco de ,mavacure1 which  
is gathered in abundance east of the    
mission1 on the left bank of the        
,orinoco1 beyond the ,rio ,amaguaca1 in 
the mountainous and rocky tracts of     
,guanaya and ,yumariquin4 ,although the 
bundles of bejuco which we found in the 
hut of the ,indian were entirely bare of
 leaves1 we had no doubt of their being 
produced by the same plant of the       
strychnos family 7nearly allied to the  

rouhamon of ,aublet7 which we had       
examined in the forest of ,pimichin499  
799 ,i may here insert the description  
of the curare or bejuco de ,mavacure1   
taken from a manuscript1 yet            
unpublished1 of my learned              
fellow-labourer ,m4 ,kunth1             
corresponding member of the ,institute4 
,ramuli lignosi1 oppositi1 ramulo altero
 abortivo1 teretiusculi1                
fuscescenti-tomentosi1 inter petiolos   
lineola pilosa notati1 gemmula aut      
processu filiformi 7pedunculo87         
terminati4 ,,folia opposita1 bereviter  
petiolata1 ovato-oblonga1 acuminata1    
intergerrima1 reticulato-triplinervia1  
nervo medio subtus prominente1          
membranacea1 ciliata1 utrinque glabra1  
nervo medio fuscescente-tomentoso1 lacte
 viridia1 subtus pallidiora1 #a #a_/b to
 #b #a_/b pollices longa1 #h to #i      
lineas lata4 ,,petioli lineam longi1    
tomentosi1 inarticulati47 ,the mavacure 
is employed fresh or dried indifferently
 during several weeks4 ,the juice of the

 liana1 when it has been recently       
gathered1 is not regarded as poisonous2 
possibly it is so only when strongly    
concentrated4 ,it is the bark and a part
 of the alburnum which contain this     
terrible poison4 ,branches of the       
mavacure four or five lines in diameter 
are scraped with a knife1 and the bark  
that comes off is bruised1 and reduced  
into very thin filaments on the stone   
employed for grinding cassava4 ,the     
venomous juice being yellow1 the whole  
fibrous mass takes that colour4 ,it is  
thrown into a funnel nine inches high1  
with an opening four inches wide4 ,this 
funnel was of all the instruments of the
 ,indian laboratory that of which the   
poison-master seemed to be most proud4  
,he asked us repeatedly if1 por alla    
7out yonder1 meaning in ,europe7 we had 
ever seen anything to be compared to    
this funnel 7embudo74 ,it was a leaf of 
the plantain-tree rolled up in the form 
of a cone1 and placed within another    
stronger cone made of the leaves of the 

palm-tree4 ,the whole of this apparatus 
was supported by slight frame-work made 
of the petioles and ribs of palm-leaves4
 ,a cold infusion is first prepared by  
pouring water on the fibrous matter     
which is the ground bark of the         
mavacure4 ,a yellowish water filters    
during several hours1 drop by drop1     
through the leafy funnel4 ,this filtered
 water is the poisonous liquor1 but it  
acquires strength only when concentrated
 by evaporation1 like molasses1 in a    
large earthen pot4 ,the ,indian from    
time to time invited us to taste the    
liquid2 its taste1 more or less bitter1 
decides when the concentration by fire  
has been carried sufficiently far4      
,there is no danger in tasting it1 the  
curare being deleterious only when it   
comes into immediate contact with the   
blood4 ,the vapours1 therefore1 which   
are disengaged from the pans are not    
hurtful1 notwithstanding all that has   
been asserted on this point by the      
missionaries of the ,orinoco4 ,fontana1 

in his experiments on the poison of the 
ticuna of the ,amazon1 long since proved
 that the vapours arising from this     
poison1 when thrown on burning charcoal1
 may be inhaled without danger and that 
the statement of ,la ,condamine1 that   
,indian women1 when condemned to death1 
have been killed by the vapours of the  
poison of the ticuna1 is incorrect4     
,the most concentrated juice of the     
mavacure is not thick enough to stick to
 the darts2 and therefore1 to give a    
body to the poison1 another vegetable   
juice1 extremely glutinous1 drawn from a
 tree with large leaves1 called         
kiracaguero1 is poured into the         
concentrated infusion4 ,as this tree    
grows at a great distance from          
,esmeralda1 and was at that period as   
destitute of flowers and fruits as the  
bejuco de mavacure1 we could not        
determine it botanically4 ,i have       
several times mentioned that kind of    
fatality which withholds the most       
interesting plants from the examination 

of travellers1 while thousands of       
others1 of the chemical properties of   
which we are ignorant1 are found loaded 
with flowers and fruits4 ,in travelling 
rapidly1 even within the tropics1 where 
the flowering of the ligneous plants is 
of such long duration1 scarcely         
one-eighth of the trees can be seen     
furnishing the essential parts of       
fructification4 ,the chances of being   
able to determine1 ,i do not say the    
family1 but the genus and species1 is   
consequently as one to eight2 and it may
 be conceived that this unfavourable    
chance is felt most powerfully when it  
deprives us of the intimate knowledge of
 objects which afford a higher interest 
than that of descriptive botany4  ,at   
the instant when the glutinous juice of 
the kiracaguero-tree is poured into the 
venomous liquor well concentrated1 and  
kept in a state of ebullition1 it       
blackens1 and coagulates into a mass of 
the consistence of tar1 or of a thick   
syrup4 ,this mass is the curare of      

commerce4 ,when we hear the ,indians say
 that the kiracaguero is as necessary as
 the bejuco do mavacure in the          
manufacture of the poison1 we may be led
 into error by the supposition that the 
former also contains some deleterious   
principle1 while it only serves 7as the 
algarrobo1 or any other gummy substance 
would do7 to give more body to the      
concentrated juice of the curare4 ,the  
change of colour which the mixture      
undergoes is owing to the decomposition 
of a hydruret of carbon2 the hydrogen is
 burned1 and the carbon is set free4    
,the curare is sold in little           
calabashes2 but its preparation being in
 the hands of a few families1 and the   
quantity of poison attached to each dart
 being extremely small1 the best curare1
 that of ,esmeralda and ,mandavaca1 is  
sold at a very high price4 ,this        
substance1 when dried1 resembles opium2 
but it strongly absorbs moisture when   
exposed to the air4 ,its taste is an    
agreeable bitter1 and ,m4 ,bonpland and 

myself have often swallowed small       
portions of it4 ,there is no danger in  
so doing1 if it be certain that neither 
lips nor gums bleed4 ,in experiments    
made by ,mangili on the venom of the    
viper1 one of his assistants swallowed  
all the poison that could be extracted  
from four large vipers of ,italy1       
without being affected by it4 ,the      
,indians consider the curare1 taken     
internally1 as an excellent stomachic4  
,the same poison prepared by the        
,piraoas and ,salives1 though it has    
some celebrity1 is not so much esteemed 
as that of ,esmeralda4 ,the process of  
this preparation appears to be          
everywhere nearly the same2 but there is
 no proof that the different poisons    
sold by the same name at the ,orinoco   
and the ,amazon are identical1 and      
derived from the same plants4 ,orfila1  
therefore1 in his excellent work ,on    
,poisons1 has very judiciously separated
 the wourali of ,dutch ,guiana1 the     
curare of the ,orinoco1 the ticuna of   

the ,amazon1 and all those substances   
which have been too vaguely united under
 the name of ,american poisons4         
,possibly at some future day1 one and   
the same alkaline principle1 similar to 
morphine and strychnia1 will be found in
 poisonous plants belonging to different
 genera4  ,at the ,orinoco the curare de
 raiz 7of the root7 is distinguished    
from the curare de bejuco 7of lianas1 or
 of the bark of branches74 ,we saw only 
the latter prepared2 the former is      
weaker1 and much less esteemed4 ,at the 
river ,amazon we learned to distinguish 
the poisons of the ,ticuna1 ,yagua1     
,peva1 and ,xibaro ,indians1 which being
 all obtained from the same plant1      
perhaps differ only by a more or less   
careful preparation4 ,the ,ticuna       
poison1 to which ,la ,condamine has     
given so much celebrity in ,europe1 and 
which somewhat improperly begins to bear
 the name of ticuna1 is extracted from a
 liana which grows in the island of     
,mormorote1 on the ,upper ,maranon4     

,this poison is employed partly by the  
,ticunas1 who remain independent on the 
,spanish territory near the sources of  
the ,yacarique2 and partly by ,indians  
of the same tribe1 inhabiting the       
,portuguese mission of ,loreto4 ,the    
poisons we have just named differ       
totally from that of ,la ,peca1 and from
 the poison of ,lamas and of ,moyobamba4
 ,i enter into these details because the
 vestiges of plants which we were able  
to examine1 proved to us 7contrary to   
the common opinion7 that the three      
poisons of the ,ticunas1 of ,la ,peca1  
and of ,moyobamba are not obtained from 
the same species1 probably not even from
 congeneric plants4 ,in proportion as   
the preparation of the curare is simple1
 that of the poison of ,moyobamba is a  
long and complicated process4 ,with the 
juice of the bejuco de ambihuasca1 which
 is the principal ingredient1 are mixed 
pimento1 tobacco1 barbasco 7,jacquinia  
armillaris71 sanango 7,tabernae         
montana71 and the milk of some other    

apocyneae4 ,the fresh juice of the      
ambihuasca has a deleterious action when
 in contact with the blood2 the juice of
 the mavacure is a mortal poison only   
when it is concentrated by fire2 and    
ebullition deprives the juice of the    
root of ,jatropha manihot 7the manioc7  
of all its baneful qualities4 ,in       
rubbing a long time between my fingers  
the liana which yields the potent poison
 of ,la ,peca1 when the weather was     
excessively hot1 my hands were benumbed2
 and a person who was employed with me  
felt the same effects from this rapid   
absorption by the uninjured integuments4
  ,i shall not here enter into any      
detail on the physiological properties  
of those poisons of the ,new ,world     
which kill with the same promptitude as 
the strychneae of ,asia199 799 ,the nux 
vomica1 the upas tieute1 and the bean of
 ,st4 ,ignatius1 ,strychnos ,ignatia47  
but without producing vomiting when they
 are received into the stomach1 and     
without denoting the approach of death  

by the violent excitement of the spinal 
marrow4 ,scarcely a fowl is eaten on the
 banks of the ,orinoco which has not    
been killed with a poisoned arrow2 and  
the missionaries allege that the flesh  
of animals is never so good as when this
 method is employed4 ,father ,zea1 who  
accompanied us1 though ill of a tertian 
fever1 every morning had the live fowls 
allotted for our food brought to his    
hammock together with an arrow1 and he  
killed them himself2 for he would not   
confide this operation1 to which he     
attached great importance1 to any other 
person4 ,large birds1 a guan 7pava de   
monte7 for instance1 or a curassao      
7alector71 when wounded in the thigh1   
die in two or three minutes2 but it is  
often ten or twelve minutes before life 
is extinct in a pig or a peccary4 ,m4   
,bonpland found that the same poison1   
bought in different villages1 varied    
much4 ,we had procured at the river     
,amazon some real ,ticuna poison which  
was less potent than any of the         

varieties of the curare of the ,orinoco4
 ,travellers1 on arriving in the        
missions1 frequently testify their      
apprehension on learning that the fowls1
 monkeys1 guanas1 and even the fish     
which they eat1 have been killed with   
poisoned arrows4 ,but these fears are   
groundless4 ,majendie has proved by his 
ingenious experiments on transfusion1   
that the blood of animals on which the  
bitter strychnos of ,india has produced 
a deleterious effect1 has no fatal      
action on other animals4 ,a dog received
 a considerable quantity of poisoned    
blood into his veins without any trace  
of irritation being perceived in the    
spinal marrow4  ,i placed the most      
active curare in contact with the crural
 nerves of a frog1 without perceiving   
any sensible change in measuring the    
degree of irritability of the organs1 by
 means of an arc formed of heterogeneous
 metals4 ,galvanic experiments succeeded
 upon birds1 some minutes after ,i had  
killed them with a poisoned arrow4      

,these observations are not             
uninteresting1 when we recollect that a 
solution of the upas-poison poured upon 
the sciatic nerve1 or insinuated into   
the texture of the nerve1 produces also 
a sensible effect on the irritability of
 the organs by immediate contact with   
the medullary substance4 ,the danger of 
the curare1 as of most of the other     
strychneae 7for we continue to believe  
that the mavacure belongs to a          
neighbouring family71 results only from 
the action of the poison on the vascular
 system4 ,at ,maypures1 a zambo         
descended from an ,indian and a negro1  
prepared for ,m4 ,bonpland some of those
 poisoned arrows1 that are shot from    
blowing-tubes to kill small monkeys or  
birds4 ,he was a man of remarkable      
muscular strength4 ,having had the      
imprudence to rub the curare between his
 fingers after being slightly wounded1  
he fell on the ground seized with a     
vertigo1 that lasted nearly half an     
hour4 ,happily the poison was of that   

diluted kind which is used for very     
small animals1 that is1 for those which 
it is believed can be recalled to life  
by putting muriate of soda into the     
wound4 ,during our passage in returning 
from ,esmeralda to ,atures1 ,i myself   
narrowly escaped an imminent danger4    
,the curare1 having imbibed the humidity
 of the air1 had become fluid1 and was  
spilt from an imperfectly closed jar    
upon our linen4 ,the person who washed  
the linen had neglected to examine the  
inside of a stocking1 which was filled  
with curare2 and it was only on touching
 this glutinous matter with my hand1    
that ,i was warned not to draw on the   
poisoned stocking4 ,the danger was so   
much the greater1 as my feet at that    
time were bleeding from the wounds made 
by chegoes 7,pulex penetrans71 which had
 not been well extirpated4 ,this        
circumstance may warn travellers of the 
caution requisite in the conveyance of  
poisons4  ,an interesting chemical and  
physiological investigation remains to  

be accomplished in ,europe on the       
poisons of the ,new ,world1 when1 by    
more frequent communications1 the curare
 de bejuco1 the curare de raiz1 and the 
various poisons of the ,amazon1         
,guallaga1 and ,brazil1 can be procured1
 without being confounded together1 from
 the places where they are prepared4    
,since the discovery of prussic acid199 
799 ,first obtained by ,scheele in the  
year #aghb4 ,gay-,lussac 7to whom we are
 indebted for the complete analysis of  
this acid7 observes that it can never   
become very dangerous to society1       
because its peculiar smell 7that of     
bitter almonds7 betrays its presence1   
and the facility with which it is       
decomposed makes it difficult to        
preserve47 and many other new substances
 eminently deleterious1 the introduction
 of poisons prepared by savage nations  
is less feared in ,europe2 we cannot    
however appeal too strongly to the      
vigilance of those who keep such noxious
 substances in the midst of populous    

cities1 the centres of civilization1    
misery1 and depravity4 ,our botanical   
knowledge of the plants employed in     
making poison can be but very slowly    
acquired4 ,most of the ,indians who make
 poisoned arrows1 are totally ignorant  
of the nature of the venomous substances
 they use1 and which they obtain from   
other people4 ,a mysterious veil        
everywhere covers the history of poisons
 and of their antidotes4 ,their         
preparation among savages is the        
monopoly of the piaches1 who are at once
 priests1 jugglers1 and physicians2 it  
is only from the natives who are        
transplanted to the missions1 that any  
certain notions can be acquired on      
matters so problematical4 ,ages elapsed 
before ,europeans became acquainted     
through the investigation of ,m4 ,mutis1
 with the bejuco del guaco 7,mikania    
guaco71 which is the most powerful of   
all antidotes against the bite of       
serpents1 and of which we were fortunate
 enough to give the first botanical     

description4  ,the opinion is very      
general in the missions that no cure is 
possible1 if the curare be fresh1 well  
concentrated1 and have stayed long in   
the wound1 to have entered freely into  
the circulation4 ,among the specifics   
employed on the banks of the ,orinoco1  
and in the ,indian ,archipelago1 the    
most celebrated is muriate of soda499   
799 ,oviedo1 ,sommario delle ,indie     
,orientali1 recommends sea-water as an  
antidote against vegetable poisons4 ,the
 people in the missions never fail to   
assure ,european travellers1 that they  
have no more to fear from arrows dipped 
in curare1 if they have a little salt in
 their mouths1 than from the electric   
shocks of the gymnoti1 when chewing     
tobacco4 ,raleigh recommends as an      
antidote to the ourari 7curare7 the     
juice of garlick4 ,but later experiments
 have completely proved that if the     
poison has once fairly entered into     
combination with the blood there is no  
remedy1 either for man or any of the    

inferior animals4 ,the wourali and other
 poisons mentioned by ,humboldt have1   
since the publication of this work1 been
 carefully analysed by the first        
chemists of ,europe1 and experiments    
made on their symptoms and supposed     
remedies4 ,artificial inflation of the  
lungs was found the most successful1 but
 in very few instances was any cure     
effected47 ,the wound is rubbed with    
this salt1 which is also taken          
internally4 ,i had myself no direct and 
sufficiently convincing proof of the    
action of this specific2 and the        
experiments of ,delille and ,majendie   
rather tend to disprove its efficacy4   
,on the banks of the ,amazon1 the       
preference among the antidotes is given 
to sugar2 and muriate of soda being a   
substance almost unknown to the ,indians
 of the forests1 it is probable that the
 honey of bees1 and that farinaceous    
sugar which oozes from plantains dried  
in the sun1 were anciently employed     
throughout ,guiana4 ,in vain have       

ammonia and eau-de-luce been tried      
against the curare2 it is now known that
 these specifics are uncertain1 even    
when applied to wounds caused by the    
bite of serpents4 ,sir ,everard ,home   
has shown that a cure is often          
attributed to a remedy1 when it is owing
 only to the slightness of the wound1   
and to a very circumscribed action of   
the poison4 ,animals may with impunity  
be wounded with poisoned arrows1 if the 
wound be well laid open1 and the point  
imbued with poison be withdrawn         
immediately after the wound is made4 ,if
 salt or sugar be employed in these     
cases1 people are tempted to regard them
 as excellent specifics4 ,indians1 who  
had been wounded in battle by weapons   
dipped in the curare1 described to us   
the symptoms they experienced1 which    
were entirely similar to those observed 
in the bite of serpents4 ,the wounded   
person feels congestion in the head1    
vertigo1 and nausea4 ,he is tormented by
 a raging thirst1 and numbness pervades 

all the parts that are near the wound4  
,the old ,indian1 who was called the    
poison-master1 seemed flattered by the  
interest we took in his chemical        
processes4 ,he found us sufficiently    
intelligent to lead him to the belief   
that we knew how to make soap1 an art   
which1 next to the preparation of       
curare1 appeared to him one of the      
finest of human inventions4 ,when the   
liquid poison had been poured into the  
vessels prepared for their reception1 we
 accompanied the ,indian to the festival
 of the juvias4 ,the harvest of juvias1 
or fruits of the ,bertholletia          
excelsa199 799 ,the ,brazil-nut47 was   
celebrated by dancing1 and by excesses  
of wild intoxication4 ,the hut where the
 natives were assembled1 displayed      
during several days a very singular     
aspect4 ,there was neither table nor    
bench2 but large roasted monkeys1       
blackened by smoke1 were ranged in      
regular order against the wall4 ,these  
were the marimondes 7,ateles belzebuth71

 and those bearded monkeys called       
capuchins1 which must not be confounded 
with the weeper1 or sai 7,simia capucina
 of ,buffon74 ,the manner of roasting   
these anthropomorphous animals          
contributes to render their appearance  
extremely disagreeable in the eyes of   
civilized man4 ,a little grating or     
lattice of very hard wood is formed1 and
 raised one foot from the ground4 ,the  
monkey is skinned1 and bent into a      
sitting posture2 the head generally     
resting on the arms1 which are meagre   
and long2 but sometimes these are       
crossed behind the back4 ,when it is    
tied on the grating1 a very clear fire  
is kindled below4 ,the monkey1 enveloped
 in smoke and flame1 is broiled and     
blackened at the same time4 ,on seeing  
the natives devour the arm or leg of a  
roasted monkey1 it is difficult not to  
believe that this habit of eating       
animals so closely resembling man in    
their physical organization1 has1 to a  
certain degree1 contributed to diminish 

the horror of cannibalism among these   
people4 ,roasted monkeys1 particularly  
those which have very round heads1      
display a hideous resemblance to a      
child2 and consequently ,europeans who  
are obliged to feed on them prefer      
separating the head and the hands1 and  
serve up only the rest of the animal at 
their tables4 ,the flesh of monkeys is  
so lean and dry1 that ,m4 ,bonpland has 
preserved in his collections at ,paris  
an arm and hand1 which had been broiled 
over the fire at ,esmeralda2 and no     
smell has arisen from them after the    
lapse of a great number of years4  ,we  
saw the ,indians dance4 ,the monotony of
 their dancing is increased by the women
 not daring to take part in it4 ,the    
men1 young and old1 form a circle1      
holding each others' hands2 and turn    
sometimes to the right1 sometimes to the
 left1 for whole hours1 with silent     
gravity4 ,most frequently the dancers   
themselves are the musicians4 ,feeble   
sounds1 drawn from a series of reeds of 

different lengths1 form a slow and      
plaintive accompaniment4 ,the first     
dancer1 to mark the time1 bends both    
knees in a kind of cadence4 ,sometimes  
they all make a pause in their places1  
and execute little oscillatory          
movements1 bending the body from one    
side to the other4 ,the reeds ranged in 
a line1 and fastened together1 resemble 
the ,pan's pipes1 as we find them       
represented in the bacchanalian         
processions on ,grecian vases4 ,to unite
 reeds of different lengths1 and make   
them sound in succession by passing them
 before the lips1 is a simple idea1 and 
has naturally presented itself to every 
nation4 ,we were surprised to see with  
what promptitude the young ,indians     
constructed and tuned these pipes1 when 
they found reeds on the bank of the     
river4 ,uncivilized men1 in every zone1 
make great use of these gramina with    
high stalks4 ,the ,greeks1 with truth1  
said that reeds had contributed to      
subjugate nations by furnishing arrows1 

to soften men's manners by the charm of 
music1 and to unfold their understanding
 by affording the first instruments for 
tracing letters4 ,these different uses  
of reeds mark in some sort three        
different periods in the life of        
nations4 ,we must admit that the tribes 
of the ,orinoco are in the first stage  
of dawning civilization4 ,the reed      
serves them only as an instrument of war
 and of hunting2 and the ,pan's pipes1  
of which we have spoken1 have not yet1  
on those distant shores1 yielded sounds 
capable of awakening mild and humane    
feelings4  ,we found in the hut allotted
 for the festival1 several vegetable    
productions which the ,indians had      
brought from the mountains of ,guanaya1 
and which engaged our attention4 ,i     
shall only here mention the fruit of the
 juvia1 reeds of a prodigious length1   
and shirts made of the bark of marima4  
,the almendron1 or juvia1 one of the    
most majestic trees of the forests of   
the ,new ,world1 was almost unknown     

before our visit to the ,rio ,negro4 ,it
 begins to be found after a journey of  
four days east of ,esmeralda1 between   
the ,padamo and ,ocamo1 at the foot of  
the ,cerro ,mapaya1 on the right bank of
 the ,orinoco4 ,it is still more        
abundant on the left bank1 at the ,cerro
 ,guanaja1 between the ,rio ,amaguaca   
and the ,gehette4 ,the inhabitants of   
,esmeralda assured us1 that in advancing
 above the ,gehette and the ,chiguire1  
the juvia and cacao-trees become so     
common that the wild ,indians 7the      
,guaicas and ,guaharibos7 do not disturb
 the ,indians of the missions when      
gathering in their harvests4 ,they do   
not envy them the productions with which
 nature has enriched their own soil4    
,scarcely any attempt has been made to  
propagate the almendrones in the        
settlements of the ,upper ,orinoco4 ,to 
this the indolence of the inhabitants is
 a greater obstacle than the rapidity   
with which the oil becomes rancid in the
 amygdaliform seeds4 ,we found only     

three trees of the kind at the mission  
of ,san ,carlos1 and two at ,esmeralda4 
,these majestic trees were eight or ten 
years old1 and had not yet borne        
flowers4  ,as early as the sixteenth    
century1 the seeds with ligneous and    
triangular teguments 7but not the great 
drupe like a cocoa-nut1 which contains  
the almonds17 were known in ,europe4 ,i 
recognise them in an imperfect engraving
 of ,clusius499 799 ,clusius            
distinguishes very properly the         
almendras del ,peru1 our ,bertholletia  
excelsa1 or juvia1 7fructus             
amygdalae-nucleo1 triangularis1 dorso   
lato1 in bina latera angulosa desinente1
 rugosus1 paululum cuneiformis7 from the
 pekea1 or ,amygdala guayanica4         
,raleigh1 who knew none of the          
productions of the ,upper ,orinoco1 does
 not speak of the juvia2 but it appears 
that he first brought to ,europe the    
fruit of the mauritia palm1 of which we 
have so often spoken4 7,fructus         
elegantissimus1 squamosus1 similis      

palmae-pini47 ,this botanist designates 
them under the name of almendras del    
,peru4 ,they had no doubt been carried1 
as a very rare fruit1 to the ,upper     
,maranon1 and thence1 by the            
,cordilleras1 to ,quito and ,peru4 ,the 
,novus ,orbis of ,laet1 in which ,i     
found the first account of the cow-tree1
 furnishes also a description and a     
figure singularly exact of the fruit of 
the bertholletia4 ,laet calls the tree  
totocke1 and mentions the drupe of the  
size of the human head1 which contains  
the almonds4 ,the weight of these       
fruits1 he says1 is so enormous1 that   
the savages dare not enter the forests  
without covering their heads and        
shoulders with a buckler of very hard   
wood4 ,these bucklers are unknown to the
 natives of ,esmeralda1 but they told us
 of the danger incurred when the fruit  
ripens and falls from a height of fifty 
or sixty feet4 ,the triangular seeds of 
the juvia are sold in ,portugal under   
the vague appellation of chesnuts       

7castanas7 of the ,amazon1 and in       
,england under the name of ,brazil-nuts2
 and it was long believed that1 like the
 fruit of the pekea1 they grew on       
separate stalks4 ,they have furnished an
 article of trade for a century past to 
the inhabitants of ,grand ,para1 by whom
 they are sent either directly to       
,europe1 or to ,cayenne1 where they are 
called touka4 ,the celebrated botanist1 
,correa de ,serra1 told us that this    
tree abounds in the forests in the      
neighbourhood of ,macapa1 at the mouth  
of the ,amazon2 that it there bears the 
name of capucaya1 and that the          
inhabitants gather the almonds1 like    
those of the lecythis1 to express the   
oil4 ,a cargo of almonds of the juvia1  
bought into ,havre1 captured by a       
privateer1 in #ahjg1 was employed for   
the same purpose4  ,the tree that yields
 the ,brazil-nuts is generally not more 
than two or three feet in diameter1 but 
attains one hundred or one hundred and  
twenty feet in height4 ,it does not     

resemble the mammee-tree1 the           
star-apple1 and several other trees of  
the tropics1 the branches of which 7as  
in the laurel-trees of the temperate    
zone7 rise almost straight towards the  
sky4 ,the branches of the bertholletia  
are open1 very long1 almost entirely    
bare towards the base1 and loaded at    
their summits with tufts of very close  
foliage4 ,this disposition of the       
semicoriaceous leaves1 which are a      
little silvery on their under part1 and 
more than two feet long1 makes the      
branches bend down toward the ground1   
like the fronds of the palm-tree4 ,we   
did not see this majestic tree in       
blossom3 it is not loaded with flowers99
 till in its fifteenth year1 and they   
appear about the end of ,march and the  
beginning of ,april4 799 ,according to  
accounts somewhat vague1 they are       
yellow1 very large1 and have some       
similitude to those of the ,bombax      
ceiba4 ,m4 ,bonpland says1 however1 in  
his botanical journal written on the    

banks of the ,rio ,negro1 flos          
violaceus4 ,it was thus the ,indians of 
the river had described to him the      
colour of the corolla47 ,the fruits     
ripen towards the end of ,may1 and some 
trees retain them till the end of       
,august4 ,these fruits1 which are as    
large as the head of a child1 often     
twelve or thirteen inches in diameter1  
make a very loud noise in falling from  
the tops of the trees4 ,nothing is more 
fitted to fill the mind with admiration 
of the force of organic action in the   
equinoctial zone than the aspect of     
those great igneous pericarps1 for      
instance1 the cocoa-tree 7lodoicea7 of  
the ,maldives among the monocotyledons1 
and the bertholletia and the lecythis   
among the dicotyledons4 ,in our climates
 only the cucurbitaceae produce in the  
space of a few months fruits of an      
extraordinary size2 but these fruits are
 pulpy and succulent4 ,within the       
tropics1 the bertholletia forms in less 
than fifty or sixty days a pericarp1 the

 ligneous part of which is half an inch 
thick1 and which it is difficult to saw 
with the sharpest instruments4 ,a great 
naturalist has observed1 that the wood  
of fruits attains in general a hardness 
which is scarcely to be found in the    
wood of the trunks of trees4 ,the       
pericarp of the bertholletia has traces 
of four cells1 and ,i have sometimes    
found even five4 ,the seeds have two    
very distinct coverings1 and this       
circumstance renders the structure of   
the fruit more complicated than in the  
lecythis1 the pekea or caryocar1 and the
 saouvari4 ,the first tegument is       
osseous or ligneous1 triangular1        
tuberculated on its exterior surface1   
and of the colour of cinnamon4 ,four or 
five1 and sometimes eight of these      
triangular nuts1 are attached to a      
central partition4 ,as they are loosened
 in time1 they move freely in the large 
spherical pericarp4 ,the capuchin       
monkeys 7,simia chiropotes7 are         
singularly fond of the ,brazil nuts2 and

 the noise made by the seeds1 when the  
fruit is shaken as it falls from the    
tree1 excites the appetites of these    
animals in the highest degree4 ,i have  
most frequently found only from fifteen 
to twenty-two nuts in each fruit4 ,the  
second tegument of the almonds is       
membranaceous1 and of a brown-yellow4   
,their taste is extremely agreeable when
 they are fresh2 but the oil1 with which
 they abound1 and which is so useful in 
the arts1 becomes easily rancid4        
,although at the ,upper ,orinoco we     
often ate considerable quantities of    
these almonds for want of other food1 we
 never felt any bad effects from so     
doing4 ,the spherical pericarp of the   
bertholletia1 perforated at the summit1 
is not dehiscent2 the upper and swelled 
part of the columella forms 7according  
to ,m4 ,kunth7 a sort of inner cover1 as
 in the fruit of the lecythis1 but it   
seldom opens of itself4 ,many seeds1    
from the decomposition of the oil       
contained in the cotyledons1 lose the   

faculty of germination before the rainy 
season1 in which the ligneous integument
 of the pericarp opens by the effect of 
putrefaction4 ,a tale is very current on
 the banks of the ,lower ,orinoco1 that 
the capuchin and cacajao monkeys 7,simia
 chiropotes1 and ,simia melanocephala7  
place themselves in a circle1 and1 by   
striking the shell with a stone1 succeed
 in opening it1 so as to take out the   
triangular nuts4 ,this operation must1  
however1 be impossible1 on account of   
the extreme hardness and thickness of   
the pericarp4 ,monkeys may have been    
seen rolling along the fruit of the     
bertholletia1 but though this fruit has 
a small hole closed by the upper        
extremity of the columella1 nature has  
not furnished monkeys with the means of 
opening the ligneous pericarp1 as it has
 of opening the covercle of the         
lecythis1 called in the missions the    
covercle of the monkeys' cocoa499 799   
,la tapa del coco de monos47 ,according 
to the report of several ,indians1 only 

the smaller rodentia1 particularly the  
cavies 7the acuri and the lapa71 by the 
structure of their teeth1 and the       
inconceivable perseverance with which   
they pursue their destructive           
operations1 succeed in perforating the  
fruit of the juvia4 ,as soon as the     
triangular nuts are spread on the       
ground1 all the animals of the forest1  
the monkeys1 the manaviris1 the         
squirrels1 the cavies1 the parrots1 and 
the macaws1 hastily assemble to dispute 
the prey4 ,they have all strength enough
 to break the ligneous tegument of the  
seed2 they get out the kernel1 and carry
 it to the tops of the trees4 ,it is    
their festival also1 said the ,indians  
who had returned from the harvest2 and  
on hearing their complaints of the      
animals1 one may perceive that they     
think themselves alone the lawful       
masters of the forest4  ,one of the four
 canoes1 which had taken the ,indians to
 the gathering of the ,juvias1 was      
filled in great part with that species  

of reeds 7carices7 of which the         
blow-tubes are made4 ,these reeds were  
from fifteen to seventeen feet long1 yet
 no trace of a knot for the insertion of
 leaves and branches was perceived4     
,they were quite straight1 smooth       
externally1 and perfectly cylindrical4  
,these carices come from the foot of the
 mountains of ,yumariquin and ,guanaja4 
,they are much sought after1 even beyond
 the ,orinoco1 by the name of reeds of  
,esmeralda4 ,a hunter preserves the same
 blow-tube during his whole life1 and   
boasts of its lightness and precision1  
as we boast of the same qualities in our
 fire-arms4 ,what is the                
monocotyledonous plant99 that furnishes 
these admirable reeds8 799 ,the smooth  
surface of these tubes sufficiently     
proves that they are not furnished by a 
plant of the family of umbelliferae47   
,did we see in fact the internodes      
7parts between the knots7 of a gramen of
 the tribe of nastoides8 or may this    
carex be perhaps a cyperaceous plant99  

destitute of knots8 799 ,the caricillo  
del manati1 which grows abundantly on   
the banks of the ,orinoco1 attains from 
eight to ten feet in height47 ,i cannot 
solve this question1 or determine to    
what genus another plant belongs1 which 
furnishes the shirts of marima4 ,we saw 
on the slope of the ,cerra ,duida       
shirt-trees fifty feet high4 ,the       
,indians cut off cylindrical pieces two 
feet in diameter1 from which they peel  
the red and fibrous bark1 without making
 any longitudinal incision4 ,this bark  
affords them a sort of garment1 which   
resembles sacks of a very coarse        
texture1 and without a seam4 ,the upper 
opening serves for the head2 and two    
lateral holes are cut for the arms to   
pass through4 ,the natives wear these   
shirts of marima in the rainy season3   
they have the form of the ponchos and   
ruanas of cotton1 which are so common in
 ,new ,grenada1 at ,quito1 and in ,peru4
 ,in these climates the riches and      
beneficence of nature being regarded as 

the primary causes of the indolence of  
the inhabitants1 the missionaries say in
 showing the shirts of marima1 in the   
forests of the ,orinoco garments are    
found ready-made on the trees4 ,we may  
also mention the pointed caps1 which the
 spathes of certain palm-trees furnish1 
and which resemble coarse network4  ,at 
the festival of which we were the       
spectators1 the women1 who were excluded
 from the dance1 and every sort of      
public rejoicing1 were daily occupied in
 serving the men with roasted monkey1   
fermented liquors1 and palm-cabbage4    
,this last production has the taste of  
our cauliflowers1 and in no other       
country had we seen specimens of such an
 immense size4 ,the leaves that are not 
unfolded are united with the young stem1
 and we measured cylinders of six feet  
long and five inches in diameter4       
,another substance1 which is much more  
nutritive1 is obtained from the animal  
kingdom3 this is fish-flour 7manioc de  
pescado74 ,the ,indians throughout the  

,upper ,orinoco fry fish1 dry them in   
the sun1 and reduce them to powder      
without separating the bones4 ,i have   
seen masses of fifty or sixty pounds of 
this flour1 which resembles that of     
cassava4 ,when it is wanted for eating1 
it is mixed with water1 and reduced to a
 paste4 ,in every climate the abundance 
of fish has led to the invention of the 
same means of preserving them4 ,pliny   
and ,diodorus ,siculus have described   
the fish-bread of the ichthyophagous    
nations1 that dwelt on the ,persian     
,gulf and the shores of the ,red ,sea499
 799 ,these nations1 in a still ruder   
state than the natives of the ,orinoco1 
contented themselves with drying the raw
 fish in the sun4 ,they made up the     
fish-paste in the form of bricks1 and   
sometimes mixed with it the aromatic    
seed of paliurus 7rhamnus71 as in       
,germany1 and some other countries1     
cummin and fennel-seed are mixed with   
wheaten bread47  ,at ,esmeralda1 as     
everywhere else throughout the missions1

 the ,indians who will not be baptized1 
and who are merely aggregated in the    
community1 live in a state of polygamy4 
,the number of wives differs much in    
different tribes4 ,it is most           
considerable among the ,caribs1 and all 
the nations that have preserved the     
custom of carrying off young girls from 
the neighbouring tribes4 ,how can we    
imagine domestic happiness in so unequal
 an association8 ,the women live in a   
sort of slavery1 as they do in most     
nations which are in a state of         
barbarism4 ,the husbands being in the   
full enjoyment of absolute power1 no    
complaint is heard in their presence4   
,an apparent tranquillity prevails in   
the household2 the women are eager to   
anticipate the wishes of an imperious   
and sullen master2 and they attend      
without distinction to their own        
children and those of their rivals4 ,the
 missionaries assert1 what may easily be
 believed1 that this domestic peace1 the
 effect of fear1 is singularly disturbed

 when the husband is long absent4 ,the  
wife who contracted the first ties then 
applies to the others the names of      
concubines and servants4 ,the quarrels  
continue till the return of the master1 
who knows how to calm their passions by 
the sound of his voice1 by a mere       
gesticulation1 or1 if he thinks it      
necessary1 by means a little more       
violent4 ,a certain inequality in the   
rights of the women is sanctioned by the
 language of the ,tamanacs4 ,the husband
 calls the second and third wife the    
companions of the first2 and the first  
treats these companions as rivals and   
enemies 7ipucjatoje71 a term which truly
 expresses their position4 ,the whole   
weight of labour being supported by     
these unhappy women1 we must not be     
surprised if1 in some nations1 their    
number is extremely small4 ,where this  
happens1 a kind of polyandry is formed1 
which we find more fully displayed in   
,thibet1 and on the lofty mountains at  
the extremity of the ,indian peninsula4 

,among the ,avanos and ,maypures1       
brothers have often but one wife4 ,when 
an ,indian1 who lives in polygamy1      
becomes a christian1 he is compelled by 
the missionaries1 to choose among his   
wives her whom he prefers1 and to reject
 the others4 ,at the moment of          
separation the new convert sometimes    
discovers the most valuable qualities in
 the wives he is obliged to abandon4    
,one understands gardening perfectly2   
another knows how to prepare chiza1 an  
intoxicating beverage extracted from the
 root of cassava2 all appear to him     
alike clever and useful4 ,sometimes the 
desire of preserving his wives overcomes
 in the ,indian his inclination to      
christianity2 but most frequently1 in   
his perplexity1 the husband prefers     
submitting to the choice of the         
missionary1 as to a blind fatality4     
,the ,indians1 who from ,may to ,august 
take journeys to the east of ,esmeralda1
 to gather the vegetable productions of 
the mountains of ,yumariquin1 gave us   

precise notions of the course of the    
,orinoco to the east of the mission4    
,this part of my itinerary may differ   
entirely from the maps that preceded it4
 ,i shall begin the description of this 
country with the granitic group of      
,duida1 at the foot of which we         
sojourned4 ,this group is bounded on the
 west by the ,rio ,tamatama1 and on the 
east by the ,rio ,guapo4 ,between these 
two tributary streams of the ,orinoco1  
amid the morichales1 or clumps of       
mauritia palm-trees1 which surround     
,esmeralda1 the ,rio ,sodomoni flows1   
celebrated for the excellence of the    
pine-apples that grow upon its banks4 ,i
 measured1 on the #bbnd of ,may1 in the 
savannah at the foot of ,duida1 a base  
of four hundred and seventy-five metres 
in length2 the angle1 under which the   
summit of the mountain appeared at the  
distance of thirteen thousand three     
hundred and twenty-seven metres1 was    
still nine degrees4 ,a trigonometric    
measurement1 made with great care1 gave 

me for ,duida 7that is1 for the most    
elevated peak1 which is south-west of   
the ,cerro ,maraguaca7 two thousand one 
hundred and seventy-nine metres1 or one 
thousand one hundred and eighteen       
toises1 above the plain of ,esmeralda4  
,the ,cerro ,duida thus yields but      
little in height 7scarcely eighty or one
 hundred toises7 to the summit of ,st4  
,gothard1 or the ,silla of ,caracas on  
the shore of ,venezuela4 ,it is indeed  
considered as a colossal mountain in    
those countries2 and this celebrity     
gives a precise idea of the mean height 
of ,parima and of all the mountains of  
eastern ,america4 ,to the east of the   
,sierra ,nevada de ,merida1 as well as  
to the south-east of the ,paramo de las 
,rosas1 none of the chains that extend  
in the same parallel line reach the     
height of the central ridge of the      
,pyrenees4  ,the granitic summit of     
,duida is so nearly perpendicular that  
the ,indians have vainly attempted the  
ascent4 ,it is a well-known fact that   

mountains not remarkable for elevation  
are sometimes the most inaccessible4 ,at
 the beginning and end of the rainy     
season1 small flames1 which seem to     
change their place1 are seen on the top 
of ,duida4 ,this phenomenon1 the        
existence of which is borne out by      
concurrent testimony1 has caused this   
mountain to be improperly called a      
volcano4 ,as it stands nearly alone1 it 
might be supposed that lightning from   
time to time sets fire to the brushwood2
 but this supposition loses its         
probability when we reflect on the      
extreme difficulty with which plants are
 ignited in these damp climates4 ,it    
must be observed also that these flames 
are said to appear often where the rock 
seems scarcely covered with turf1 and   
that the same igneous phenomena are     
visible1 on days entirely exempt from   
storms1 on the summit of ,guaraco or    
,murcielago1 a hill opposite the mouth  
of the ,rio ,tamatama1 on the southern  
bank of the ,orinoco4 ,this hill is     

scarcely elevated one hundred toises    
above the neighbouring plains4 ,if the  
statements of the natives be correct1 it
 is probable that some subterraneous    
cause produces these flames on the      
,duida and the ,guaraco2 for they never 
appear on the lofty neighbouring        
mountains of ,jao and ,maraguaca1 so    
often wrapped in electric storms4 ,the  
granite of the ,cerro ,duida is full of 
veins1 partly open1 and partly filled   
with crystals of quartz and pyrites4    
,gaseous and inflammable emanations1    
either of hydrogen or of naphtha1 may   
pass through these veins4 ,of this the  
mountains of ,caramania1 of ,hindookho1 
and of ,himalaya1 furnish frequent      
examples4 ,we saw the appearance of     
flames in many parts of eastern ,america
 subject to earthquakes1 even from      
secondary rocks1 as at ,cuchivero1 near 
,cumanacoa4 ,the fire shows itself when 
the ground1 strongly heated by the sun1 
receives the first rains2 or when1 after
 violent showers1 the earth begins to   

dry4 ,the first cause of these igneous  
phenomena lies at immense depths below  
the secondary rocks1 in the primitive   
formations3 the rains and the           
decomposition of atmospheric water act  
only a secondary part4 ,the hottest     
springs of the globe issue immediately  
from granite4 ,petroleum gushes from    
mica-schist2 and frightful detonations  
are heard at ,encaramada1 between the   
rivers ,arauca and ,cuchivero1 in the   
midst of the granitic soil of the       
,orinoco and the ,sierra ,parima4 ,here1
 as everywhere else on the globe1 the   
focus of volcanoes is in the most       
ancient soils2 and it appears that an   
intimate connection exists between the  
great phenomena that heave up and       
liquify the crust of our planet1 and    
those igneous meteors which are seen    
from time to time on its surface1 and   
which from their littleness we are      
tempted to attribute solely to the      
influence of the atmosphere4  ,duida1   
though lower than the height assigned to

 it by popular belief1 is however the   
most prominent point of the whole group 
of mountains that separate the basin of 
the ,lower ,orinoco from that of the    
,amazon4 ,these mountains lower still   
more rapidly on the north-east1 toward  
the ,purunama1 than on the east1 toward 
the ,padamo and the ,rio ,ocamo4 ,in the
 former direction the most elevated     
summits next to ,duida are ,cuneva1 at  
the sources of the ,rio ,paru 7one of   
the tributary streams of the ,ventuari71
 ,sipapo1 ,calitamini1 which forms one  
group with ,cunavami and the peak of    
,umiana4 ,east of ,duida1 on the right  
bank of the ,orinoco1 ,maravaca1 or     
,sierra ,maraguaca1 is distinguished by 
its elevation1 between the ,rio         
,caurimoni and the ,padamo2 and on the  
left bank of the ,orinoco rise the      
mountains of ,guanaja and ,yumariquin1  
between the ,rios ,amaguaca and         
,gehette4 ,it is almost superfluous to  
repeat that the line which passes       
through these lofty summits 7like those 

of the ,pyrenees1 the ,carpathian       
mountains1 and so many other chains of  
the old continent7 is very distinct from
 the line that marks the partition of   
the waters4 ,this latter line1 which    
separates the tributary streams of the  
,lower and ,upper ,orinoco1 intersects  
the meridian of #fd degrees in latitude 
#d degrees4 ,after having separated the 
sources of the ,rio ,branco and the     
,carony1 it runs north-west1 sending off
 the waters of the ,padamo1 the ,jao1   
and the ,ventuari towards the south1 and
 the waters of the ,arui1 the ,caura1   
and the ,cuchivero towards the north4   
,the ,orinoco may be ascended without   
danger from ,esmeralda as far as the    
cataracts occupied by the ,guaica       
,indians1 who prevent all farther       
progress of the ,spaniards4 ,this is a  
voyage of six days and a half4 ,in the  
first two days you arrive at the mouth  
of the ,rio ,padamo1 or ,patamo1 having 
passed1 on the north1 the little rivers 
of ,tamatama1 ,sodomoni1 ,guapo1        

,caurimoni1 and ,simirimoni2 and on the 
south the ,cuca1 situate between the    
rock of ,guaraco1 which is said to throw
 out flames1 and the ,cerro ,canclilla4 
,throughout this course the ,orinoco    
continues to be three or four hundred   
toises broad4 ,the tributary streams are
 most frequent on the right bank1       
because on that side the river is       
bounded by the lofty cloud-capped       
mountains of ,duida and ,maraguaca1     
while the left bank on the contrary is  
low and contiguous to a plain1 the      
general slope of which inclines to the  
south-west4 ,the northern ,cordilleras  
are covered with fine timber4 ,the      
growth of plants is so enormous in this 
hot and constantly humid climate1 that  
the trunks of the ,bombax ceiba are     
sixteen feet in diameter4 ,from the     
mouth of the ,rio ,padamo1 which is of  
considerable breadth1 the ,indians      
arrive1 in a day and a half1 at the ,rio
 ,mavaca4 ,the latter takes its rise in 
the lofty mountains of ,unturan1 and    

communicates with a lake1 on the banks  
of which the ,portuguese99 of the ,rio  
,negro gather the aromatic seeds of the 
,laurus pucheri1 known in trade by the  
names of the pichurim bean1 and toda    
specie4 799 ,the pichurim bean is the   
puchiri of ,la ,condamine1 which abounds
 at the ,rio ,xingu1 a tributary stream 
of the ,amazon1 and on the banks of the 
,hyurubaxy1 or ,yurubesh1 which runs    
into the ,rio ,negro4 ,the puchery1 or  
pichurim1 which is grated like nutmeg1  
differs from another aromatic fruit 7a  
laurel87 known in trade at ,grand ,para 
by the names of cucheri1 cuchiri1 or    
cravo 7clavus7 do ,maranhao1 and which1 
on account of its odour1 is compared    
with cloves47 ,between the confluence of
 the ,padamo and that of the ,mavaca1   
the ,orinoco receives on the north the  
,ocamo1 into which the ,rio ,matacona   
falls4 ,at the sources of the latter    
live the ,guainares1 who are much less  
copper-coloured1 or tawny1 than the     
other inhabitants of those countries4   

,this is one of the tribes called by the
 missionaries fair ,indians 7,indios    
blancos74 ,near the mouth of the ,ocamo1
 travellers are shown a rock1 which is  
the wonder of the country4 ,it is a     
granite passing into gneiss1 and        
remarkable for the peculiar distribution
 of the black mica1 which forms little  
ramified veins4 ,the ,spaniards call    
this rock ,piedra ,mapaya 7the          
map-stone74 ,the little fragment which  
,i procured indicated a stratified rock1
 rich in white feldspar1 and containing1
 together with spangles of mica1 grouped
 in streaks1 and variously twisted1 some
 crystals of hornblende4 ,it is not a   
syenite1 but probably a granite of new  
formation1 analogous to those to which  
the stanniferous granites 7hyalomictes7 
and the pegmatites1 or graphic granites1
 belong4  ,beyond the confluence of the 
,macava1 the ,orinoco suddenly          
diminishes in breadth and depth1        
becoming extremely sinuous1 like an     
,alpine torrent4 ,its banks are         

surrounded by mountains1 and the number 
of its tributary streams on the south   
augments considerably1 yet the          
,cordillera on the north remains the    
most elevated4 ,it requires two days to 
go from the mouth of the ,macava1 to the
 ,rio ,gehette1 the navigation being    
very difficult1 and the boats1 on       
account of the want of water1 being     
often dragged along the shore4 ,the     
tributary streams along this distance   
are1 on the south1 the ,daracapo and the
 ,amaguaca2 which skirt on the west and 
east the mountains of ,guanaya and      
,yumariquin1 where the bertholletias are
 gathered4 ,the ,rio ,manaviche flows   
down from the mountains on the north1   
the elevation of which diminishes       
progressively from the ,cerro           
,maraguaca4 ,as we advance further up   
the ,orinoco1 the whirlpools and little 
rapids 7chorros y remolinos7 become more
 and more frequent2 on the north lies   
the ,cano ,chiquire1 inhabited by the   
,guaicas1 another tribe of white        

,indians2 and two leagues distant is the
 mouth of the ,gehette1 where there is a
 great cataract4 ,a dyke of granitic    
rocks crosses the ,orinoco these rocks  
are1 as it were1 the columns of         
,hercules1 beyond which no white man has
 been able to penetrate4 ,it appears    
that this point1 known by the name of   
the great ,raudal de ,guaharibos1 is    
three-quarters of a degree west of      
,esmeralda1 consequently in longitude   
#fg degrees #ch minutes4 ,a military    
expedition1 undertaken by the commander 
of the fort of ,san ,carlos1 ,don       
,francisco ,bovadilla1 to discover the  
sources of the ,orinoco1 led to some    
information respecting the cataracts of 
the ,guaharibos4 ,bovadilla had heard   
that some fugitive negroes from ,dutch  
,guiana1 proceeding towards the west    
7beyond the isthmus between the sources 
of the ,rio ,carony and the ,rio        
,branco7 had joined the independent     
,indians4 ,he attempted an entrada      
7hostile incursion7 without having      

obtained the permission of the governor2
 the desire of procuring ,african       
slaves1 better fitted for labour than   
the copper-coloured race1 was a far more
 powerful motive than that of zeal for  
the progress of geography4 ,bovadilla   
arrived without difficulty as far as the
 little ,raudal99 opposite the ,gehette 
799 ,it is called ,raudal de abaxo 7,low
 ,cataract7 in opposition to the great  
,raudal de ,guaharibos1 which is        
situated higher up toward the east472   
but having advanced to the foot of the  
rocky dike that forms the great         
cataract1 he was suddenly attacked1     
while he was breakfasting1 by the       
,guaharibos and ,guaycas1 two warlike   
tribes1 celebrated for the virulence of 
the curare with which their arrows are  
empoisoned4 ,the ,indians occupied the  
rocks that rise in the middle of the    
river1 and seeing the ,spaniards without
 bows1 and having no knowledge of       
firearms1 they provoked the whites1 whom
 they believed to be without defence4   

,several of the latter were dangerously 
wounded1 and ,bovadilla found himself   
forced to give the signal for battle4 ,a
 fearful carnage ensued among the       
natives1 but none of the ,dutch negroes1
 who1 as was believed1 had taken refuge 
in those parts1 were found4             
,notwithstanding a victory so easily    
won1 the ,spaniards did not dare to     
advance eastward in a mountainous       
country1 and along a river inclosed by  
very high banks4  ,these white          
,guaharibos have constructed a bridge of
 lianas above the cataract1 supported on
 rocks that rise1 as generally happens  
in the pongos of the ,upper ,maranon1 in
 the middle of the river4 ,the existence
 of this bridge1 which is known to all  
the inhabitants of ,esmeralda199 seems  
to indicate that the ,orinoco must be   
very narrow at this point4 799 ,the     
,amazon also is crossed twice on bridges
 of wood near its source in the lake    
,lauricocha2 first north of ,chavin1 and
 then below the confluence of the ,rio  

,aguamiras4 ,these1 the only two bridges
 that have been thrown over the largest 
river we yet know1 are called ,puente de
 ,quivilla1 and ,puente de              
,guancaybamba47 ,it is generally        
estimated by the ,indians to be only two
 or three hundred feet broad4 ,they say 
that the ,orinoco1 above the ,raudal of 
the ,guaharibos1 is no longer a river1  
but a brook 7riachuelo72 while a well   
informed ecclesiastic1 ,fray ,juan      
,gonzales1 who had visited those        
countries1 assured me that the ,orinoco1
 in the part where its farther course is
 no longer known1 is two-thirds of the  
breadth of the ,rio ,negro near ,san    
,carlos4 ,this opinion appears to me    
hardly probable2 but ,i relate what ,i  
have collected1 and affirm nothing      
positively4  ,in the rocky dike that    
crosses the ,orinoco1 forming the       
,raudal of the ,guaharibos1 ,spanish    
soldiers pretend to have found the fine 
kind of saussurite 7,amazon-stone71 of  
which we have spoken4 ,this tradition   

however is very uncertain2 and the      
,indians1 whom ,i interrogated on the   
subject1 assured me that the green      
stones1 called piedras de ,macagua99 at 
,esmeralda1 were purchased from the     
,guaicas and ,guaharibos1 who traffic   
with hordes much farther to the east4   
799 ,the etymology of this name1 which  
is unknown to me1 might lead to the     
knowledge of the spot where these stones
 are found4 ,i have sought in vain the  
name of ,macagua among the numerous     
tributary streams of the ,tacutu1 the   
,mahu1 the ,rupunury1 and the ,rio      
,trombetas47 ,the same uncertainty      
prevails respecting these stones1 as    
that which attaches to many other       
valuable productions of the ,indies4 ,on
 the coast1 at the distance of some     
hundred leagues1 the country where they 
are found is positively named2 but when 
the traveller with difficulty penetrates
 into that country1 he discovers that   
the natives are ignorant even of the    
name of the object of his research4 ,it 

might be supposed that the amulets of   
saussurite found in the possession of   
the ,indians of the ,rio ,negro1 come   
from the ,lower ,maranon1 while those   
that are received by the missions of the
 ,upper ,orinoco and the ,rio ,carony   
come from a country situated between the
 sources of the ,essequibo and the ,rio 
,branco4 ,the opinion that this stone is
 taken in a soft state like paste from  
the little lake ,amucu1 though very     
prevalent at ,angostura1 is wholly      
without foundation4 ,a curious          
geognostic discovery remains to be made 
in the eastern part of ,america1 that of
 finding in a primitive soil a rock of  
euphotide containing the piedra de      
,macagua4  ,i shall here proceed to give
 some information respecting the tribes 
of dwarf and fair ,indians1 which       
ancient traditions have placed near the 
sources of the ,orinoco4 ,i had an      
opportunity of seeing some of these     
,indians at ,esmeralda1 and can affirm  
that the short stature of the ,guaicas1 

and the fair complexion of the          
,guaharibos1 whom ,father ,caulin calls 
,guaribos blancos1 have been alike      
exaggerated4 ,the ,guaicas1 whom ,i     
measured1 were in general from four feet
 seven inches to four feet eight inches 
high 7old measure of ,france7499 799    
,about five feet three inches ,english  
measure47 ,we were assured that the     
whole tribe were of this diminutive     
size2 but we must not forget that what  
is called a tribe constitutes1 properly 
speaking1 but one family1 owing to the  
exclusion of all foreign connections4   
,the ,indians of the lowest stature next
 to the ,guaicas are the ,guainares and 
the ,poignaves4 ,it is singular1 that   
all these nations are found in near     
proximity to the ,caribs1 who are       
remarkably tall4 ,they all inhabit the  
same climate1 and subsist on the same   
aliments4 ,they are varieties in the    
race1 which no doubt existed previously 
to the settlement of these tribes 7tall 
and short1 fair and dark brown7 in the  

same country4 ,the four nations of the  
,upper ,orinoco1 which appeared to me to
 be the fairest1 are the ,guaharibos of 
the ,rio ,gehette1 the ,guainares of the
 ,ocamo1 the ,guaicas of ,cano          
,chiguire1 and the ,maquiritares of the 
sources of the ,padamo1 the ,jao1 and   
the ,ventuari4 ,it being very           
extraordinary to see natives with a fair
 skin beneath a burning sky1 and amid   
nations of a very dark hue1 the         
,spaniards have attempted to explain    
this phenomenon by the following        
hypotheses4 ,some assert1 that the      
,dutch of ,surinam and the ,rio         
,essequibo may have intermingled with   
the ,guaharibos and the ,guainares2     
others insist1 from hatred to the       
,capuchins of the ,carony1 and the      
,observantins of the ,orinoco1 that the 
fair ,indians are what are called in    
,dalmatia muso di frate1 children whose 
legitimacy is somewhat doubtful4 ,in    
either case the ,indios blancos would be
 mestizos1 that is to say1 children of  

an ,indian woman and a white man4 ,now1 
having seen thousands of mestizos1 ,i   
can assert that this supposition is     
altogether inaccurate4 ,the individuals 
of the fair tribes whom we examined1    
have the features1 the stature1 and the 
smooth1 straight1 black hair which      
characterises other ,indians4 ,it would 
be impossible to take them for a mixed  
race1 like the descendants of natives   
and ,europeans4 ,some of these people   
are very little1 others are of the      
ordinary stature of the copper-coloured 
,indians4 ,they are neither feeble nor  
sickly1 nor are they albinos2 and they  
differ from the copper-coloured races   
only by a much less tawny skin4 ,it     
would be useless1 after these           
considerations1 to insist on the        
distance of the mountains of the ,upper 
,orinoco from the shores inhabited by   
the ,dutch4 ,i will not deny that       
descendants of fugitive negroes may have
 been seen among the ,caribs1 at the    
sources of the ,essequibo2 but no white 

man ever went from the eastern coast to 
the ,rio ,gehette and the ,ocamo1 in the
 interior of ,guiana4 ,it must also be  
observed1 although we may be struck with
 the singularity of several fair tribes 
being found at one point to the east of 
,esmeralda1 it is no less certain1 that 
tribes have been found in other parts of
 ,america1 distinguished from the       
neighbouring tribes by the less tawny   
colour of their skin4 ,such are the     
,arivirianos and ,maquiritares of the   
,rio ,ventuario and the ,padamo1 the    
,paudacotos and ,paravenas of the       
,erevato1 the ,viras and ,araguas of the
 ,caura1 the ,mologagos of ,brazil1 and 
the ,guayanas of the ,uruguay499 799    
,the ,cumanagotos1 the ,maypures1 the   
,mapojos1 and some hordes of the        
,tamanacs1 are also fair1 but in a less 
degree than the tribes ,i have just     
named4 ,we may add to this list 7which  
the researches of ,sommering1           
,blumenbach1 and ,pritchard1 on the     
varieties of the human species1 have    

rendered so interesting7 the ,ojes of   
the ,cuchivero1 the ,boanes 7now almost 
destroyed7 of the interior of ,brazil1  
and in the north of ,america1 far from  
the north-west coast1 the ,mandans and  
the ,akanas 7,walkenaer1 ,geogr4 page   
#fde4 ,gili volume #b page #cd4 ,vater1 
,amerikan4 ,sprachen page #ha4 ,southey 
volume #a page #fjc47 ,the most tawny1  
we might almost say the blackest of the 
,american race1 are the ,otomacs and the
 ,guamos4 ,these have perhaps given rise
 to the confused notions of ,american   
negroes1 spread through ,europe in the  
early times of the conquest4 7,herrera  
,dec #a lib #c cap #i1 volume #a page   
#gi4 ,garcia1 ,origen de los ,americanos
 page #bei47 ,who are those ,negros de  
,quereca1 placed by ,gomara page #bgg1  
in that very isthmus of ,panama1 whence 
we received the first absurd tales of an
 albino ,american people8 ,in reading   
with attention the authors of the       
beginning of the #afth century1 we see  
that the discovery of ,america and of a 

new race of men1 had singularly awakened
 the interest of travellers respecting  
the varieties of our species4 ,now1 if a
 black race had been mingled with       
copper-colored men1 as in the ,south-sea
 ,islands1 the conquistadores would not 
have failed to speak of it in a precise 
manner4 ,besides1 the religious         
traditions of the ,americans relate the 
appearance1 in the heroic times1 of     
white and bearded men as priests and    
legislators2 but none of these          
traditions make mention of a black      
race47  ,these phenomena are so much the
 more worthy of attention as they are   
observed in that great branch of the    
,american nations generally ranked in a 
class totally opposite to that          
circumpolar branch1 namely the          
,tschougaz-,esquimaux199 whose children 
are fair1 and who acquire the ,mongol or
 yellowish tint only from the influence 
of the air and the humidity4 799 ,the   
,chevalier ,gieseke has recently        
confirmed all that ,krantz related of   

the colour of the skin of the           
,esquimaux4 ,that race 7even in the     
latitude of seventy-five and seventy-six
 degrees1 where the climate is so       
rigorous7 is not in general so          
diminutive as it was long believed to   
be4 ,ross' ,voyage to the ,north47 ,in  
,guiana1 the hordes who live in the     
midst of the thickest forests are       
generally less tawny than those who     
inhabit the shores of the ,orinoco1 and 
are employed in fishing4 ,but this      
slight difference1 which is alike found 
in ,europe between the artisans of towns
 and the cultivators of the fields or   
the fishermen on the coasts1 in no way  
explains the problem of the ,indios     
blancos4 ,they are surrounded by other  
,indians of the woods 7,indios del      
monte7 who are of a reddish-brown1      
although now exposed to the same        
physical influences4 ,the causes of     
these phenomena are very ancient1 and we
 may repeat with ,tacitus1 est durans   
originis vis4  ,the fair-complexioned   

tribes1 which we had an opportunity of  
seeing at the mission of ,esmeralda1    
inhabit part of a mountainous country   
lying between the sources of six        
tributaries of the ,orinoco2 that is to 
say1 between the ,padamo1 the ,jao1 the 
,ventuari1 the ,erevato1 the ,aruy1 and 
the ,paraguay499 799 ,they are six      
tributary streams on the right bank of  
the ,orinoco2 the first three run       
towards the south1 or the ,upper        
,orinoco2 the three others towards the  
north1 or the ,lower ,orinoco47 ,the    
,spanish and ,portuguese missionaries   
are accustomed to designate this country
 more particularly by the name of       
,parima499 799 ,the name ,parima1 which 
signifies water1 great water1 is applied
 sometimes1 and more especially1 to the 
land washed by the ,rio ,parima1 or ,rio
 ,branco 7,rio de ,aguas ,blancas71 a   
stream running into the ,rio ,negro2    
sometimes to the mountains 7,sierra     
,parima71 which divide the ,upper and   
,lower ,orinoco47 ,here1 as in several  

other countries of ,spanish ,america1   
the savages have reconquered what had   
been wrested from them by civilization1 
or rather by its precursors1 the        
missionaries4 ,the expedition of the    
boundaries under ,solano1 and the       
extravagant zeal displayed by a governor
 of ,guiana for the discovery of ,el    
,dorado1 partially revived in the latter
 half of the eighteenth century that    
spirit of enterprise which characterised
 the ,spaniards at the period of the    
discovery of ,america4 ,in going along  
the ,rio ,padamo1 a road was observed   
across the forests and savannahs 7the   
length of ten days' journey71 from      
,esmeralda to the sources of the        
,ventuari2 and in two days more1 from   
those sources1 by the ,erevato1 the     
missions on the ,rio ,caura were        
reached4 ,two intelligent and           
enterprising men1 ,don ,antonio ,santos 
and ,captain ,bareto1 had established1  
with the aid of the ,miquiritares1 a    
chain of military posts on this line    

from ,esmeralda to the ,rio ,erevato4   
,these posts consisted of block-houses  
7casas fuertes71 mounted with swivels1  
such as ,i have already mentioned4 ,the 
soldiers1 left to themselves1 exercised 
all kinds of vexations on the natives   
7,indians of peace71 who had cultivated 
pieces of ground around the casas       
fuertes2 and the consequence was that1  
in #aggf1 several tribes formed a league
 against the ,spaniards4 ,all the       
military posts were attacked on the same
 night1 on a line of nearly fifty       
leagues in length4 ,the houses were     
burnt1 and many soldiers massacred2 a   
very small number only owing their      
preservation to the pity of the ,indian 
women4 ,this nocturnal expedition is    
still mentioned with horror4 ,it was    
concerted in the most profound secrecy1 
and executed with that spirit of unity  
which the natives of ,america1 skilled  
in concealing their hostile passions1   
well know how to practise in whatever   
concerns their common interests4 ,since 

#aggf no attempt has been made to       
re-establish the road which leads by    
land from the ,upper to the ,lower      
,orinoco1 and no white man has been able
 to pass from ,esmeralda to the         
,erevato4 ,it is certain1 however1 that 
in the mountainous lands1 between the   
sources of the ,padamo and the ,ventuari
 7near the sites called by the ,indians 
,aurichapa1 ,ichuana1 and ,irique7 there
 are many spots where the climate is    
temperate1 and where there are          
pasturages capable of feeding numerous  
herds of cattle4 ,the military posts    
were very useful in preventing the      
incursions of the ,caribs1 who1 from    
time to time carried off slaves1 though 
in very small numbers1 between the      
,erevato and the ,padamo4 ,they would   
have resisted the attacks of the        
natives1 if1 instead of leaving them    
isolated and solely to the control of   
the soldiery1 they had been formed into 
communities1 and governed like the      
villages of neophyte ,indians4  ,we left

 the mission of ,esmeralda on the #bcrd 
of ,may4 ,without being positively ill1 
we felt ourselves in a state of languor 
and weakness1 caused by the torment of  
insects1 bad food1 and a long voyage1 in
 narrow and damp boats4 ,we did not go  
up the ,orinoco beyond the mouth of the 
,rio ,guapo1 which we should have done1 
if we could have attempted to reach the 
sources of the river4 ,there remains a  
distance of fifteen leagues from the    
,guapo to the ,raudal of the            
,guaharibos4 ,at this cataract1 which is
 passed on a bridge of lianas1 ,indians 
are posted armed with bows and arrows to
 prevent the whites1 or those who come  
from their territory from advancing     
westward4 ,how could we hope to pass a  
point where the commander of the ,rio   
,negro1 ,don ,francisco ,bovadilla1 was 
stopped when1 accompanied by his        
soldiers1 he tried to penetrate beyond  
the ,gehette899 799 ,see above47 ,the   
carnage then made among the natives has 
rendered them more distrustful1 and more

 averse to the inhabitants of the       
missions4 ,it must be remembered that   
the ,orinoco had hitherto offered to    
geographers two distinct problems1 alike
 important1 the situation of its        
sources1 and the mode of its            
communication with the ,amazon4 ,the    
latter problem formed the object of the 
journey which ,i have described2 with   
respect to the discovery of its sources1
 that remains to be done by the ,spanish
 and ,portuguese governments4  ,our     
canoe was not ready to receive us till  
near three o'clock in the afternoon4 ,it
 had been filled with innumerable swarms
 of ants during the navigation of the   
,cassiquiare2 and the toldo1 or roof of 
palm-leaves1 beneath which we were again
 doomed to remain stretched out during  
twenty-two days1 was with difficulty    
cleared of these insects4 ,we employed  
part of the morning in repeating to the 
inhabitants of ,esmeralda the questions 
we had already put to them1 respecting  
the existence of a lake towards the     

east4 ,we showed copies of the maps of  
,surville and ,la ,cruz to old soldiers1
 who had been posted in the mission ever
 since its first establishment4 ,they   
laughed at the supposed communication of
 the ,orinoco with the ,rio ,idapa1 and 
at the ,white ,sea1 which the former    
river was represented to cross4 ,what we
 politely call geographical fictions    
they termed lies of the old world       
7mentiras de por alla74 ,these good     
people could not comprehend how men1 in 
making the map of a country which they  
had never visited1 could pretend to know
 things in minute detail1 of which      
persons who lived on the spot were      
ignorant4 ,the lake ,parima1 the ,sierra
 ,mey1 and the springs which separate at
 the point where they issue from the    
earth1 were entirely unknown at         
,esmeralda4 ,we were repeatedly assured 
that no one had ever been to the east of
 the ,raudal of the ,guaharibos2 and    
that beyond that point1 according to the
 opinion of some of the natives1 the    

,orinoco descends like a small torrent  
from a group of mountains1 inhabited by 
the ,coroto ,indians4 ,father ,gili1 who
 was living on the banks of the ,orinoco
 when the expedition of the boundaries  
arrived1 says expressly that ,don       
,apollinario ,diez was sent in #agfe to 
attempt the discovery of the source of  
the ,orinoco2 that he found the river1  
east of ,esmeralda1 full of shoals2 that
 he returned for want of provision2 and 
that he learned nothing1 absolutely     
nothing1 of the existence of a lake4    
,this statement perfectly accords with  
what ,i heard myself thirty-five years  
later at ,esmeralda4 ,the probability of
 a fact is powerfully shaken when it can
 be proved to be totally unknown on the 
very spot where it ought to be known    
best2 and when those by whom the        
existence of the lake is affirmed       
contradict each other1 not in the least 
essential circumstances1 but in all that
 are the most important4  ,when         
travellers judge only by their own      

sensations they differ from each other  
respecting the abundance of the         
mosquitos as they do respecting the     
progressive increase or diminution of   
the temperature4 ,the state of our      
organs1 the motion of the air1 its      
degree of humidity or dryness1 its      
electric intensity1 a thousand          
circumstances contribute at once to make
 us suffer more or less from the heat   
and the insects4 ,my fellow travellers  
were unanimously of opinion that        
,esmeralda was more tormented by        
mosquitos than the banks of the         
,cassiquiare1 and even more than the two
 missions of the ,great ,cataracts2     
whilst ,i1 less sensible than they of   
the high temperature of the air1 thought
 that the irritation produced by the    
insects was somewhat less at ,esmeralda 
than at the entrance of the ,upper      
,orinoco4 ,on hearing the complaints    
that are made of these tormenting       
insects in hot countries it is difficult
 to believe that their absence1 or      

rather their sudden disappearance1 could
 become a subject of inquietude2 yet    
such is the fact4 ,the inhabitants of   
,esmeralda related to us1 that in the   
year #agie1 an hour before sunset1 when 
the mosquitos usually form a very thick 
cloud1 the air was observed to be       
suddenly free from them4 ,during the    
space of twenty minutes1 not one insect 
was perceived1 although the sky was     
cloudless1 and no wind announced rain4  
,it is necessary to have lived in those 
countries to comprehend the degree of   
surprise which the sudden disappearance 
of the insects must have produced4 ,the 
inhabitants congratulated each other1   
and inquired whether this state of      
happiness1 this relief from pain        
7feicidad y alivio71 could be of any    
duration4 ,but soon1 instead of enjoying
 the present1 they yielded to chimerical
 fears1 and imagined that the order of  
nature was perverted4 ,some old         
,indians1 the sages of the place1       
asserted that the disappearance of the  

insects must be the precursor of a great
 earthquake4 ,warm discussions arose2   
the least noise amid the foliage of the 
trees was listened to with an attentive 
ear2 and when the air was again filled  
with mosquitos they were almost hailed  
with pleasure4 ,we could not guess what 
modification of the atmosphere had      
caused this phenomenon1 which must not  
be confounded with the periodical       
replacing of one species of insects by  
another4  ,after four hours' navigation 
down the ,orinoco we arrived at the     
point of the bifurcation4 ,our resting  
place was on the same beach of the      
,cassiquiare1 where a few days          
previously our great dog had1 as we     
believe1 been carried off by the        
jaguars4 ,all the endeavours of the     
,indians to discover any traces of the  
animal were fruitless4 ,the cries of the
 jaguars were heard during the whole    
night499 799 ,this frequency of large   
jaguars is somewhat remarkable in a     
country destitute of cattle4 ,the tigers

 of the ,upper ,orinoco are far less    
bountifully supplied with prey than     
those of the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres  
and the ,llanos of ,caracas1 which are  
covered with herds of cattle4 ,more than
 four thousand jaguars are killed       
annually in the ,spanish colonies1      
several of them equalling the mean size 
of the royal tiger of ,asia4 ,two       
thousand skins of jaguars were formerly 
exported annually from ,buenos ,ayres   
alone47 ,these animals are very frequent
 in the tracts situated between the     
,cerro ,maraguaca1 the ,unturan1 and the
 banks of the ,pamoni4 ,there also is   
found that black species of tiger99 of  
which ,i saw some fine skins at         
,esmeralda4 799 ,gmelin1 in his         
,synonyma1 seems to confound this       
animal1 under the name of ,felis        
discolor1 with the great ,american lion 
7,felis concolor7 which is very         
different from the puma of the ,andes of
 ,quito47 ,this animal is celebrated for
 its strength and ferocity2 it appears  

to be still larger than the common      
jaguar4 ,the black spots are scarcely   
visible on the dark-brown ground of its 
skin4 ,the ,indians assert1 that these  
tigers are very rare1 that they never   
mingle with the common jaguars1 and that
 they form another race4 ,i believe that
 ,prince ,maximilian of ,neuwied1 who   
has enriched ,american zoology by so    
many important observations1 acquired   
the same information farther to the     
south1 in the hot part of ,brazil4      
,albino varieties of the jaguar have    
been seen in ,paraguay3 for the spots of
 these animals1 which may be called the 
beautiful panthers of ,america1 are     
sometimes so pale as to be scarcely     
distinguishable on a very white ground4 
,in the black jaguars1 on the contrary1 
it is the colour of the ground which    
renders the spots indistinct4 ,it       
requires to reside long in those        
countries1 and to accompany the ,indians
 of ,esmeralda in the perilous chase of 
the tiger1 to decide with certainty upon

 the varieties and the species4 ,in all 
the mammiferae1 and particularly in the 
numerous family of the apes1 we ought1  
,i believe1 to fix our attention less on
 the transition from one colour to      
another in individuals1 than on their   
habit of separating themselves1 and     
forming distinct bands4  ,we left our   
resting place before sunrise on the     
#bdth of ,may4 ,in a rocky cove1 which  
had been the dwelling of some ,durimundi
 ,indians1 the aromatic odour of the    
plants was so powerful1 that although   
sleeping in the open air1 and the       
irritability of our nervous system being
 allayed by the habits of a life of     
fatigue1 we were nevertheless incommoded
 by it4 ,we could not ascertain the     
flowers which diffused this perfume4    
,the forest was impenetrable2 but ,m4   
,bonpland believed that large clumps of 
pancratium and other liliaceous plants  
were concealed in the neighbouring      
marshes4 ,descending the ,orinoco by    
favour of the current1 we passed first  

the mouth of the ,rio ,cunucunumo1 and  
then the ,guanami and the ,puriname4    
,the two banks of the principal river   
are entirely desert2 lofty mountains    
rise on the north1 and on the south a   
vast plain extends far as the eye can   
reach beyond the sources of the         
,atacavi1 which lower down takes the    
name of the ,atabapo4 ,there is         
something gloomy and desolate in this   
aspect of a river1 on which not even a  
fisherman's canoe is seen4 ,some        
independent tribes1 the ,abirianos and  
the ,maquiritares1 dwell in the         
mountainous country2 but in the         
neighbouring savannahs199 bounded by the
 ,cassiquiare1 the ,atabapo1 the        
,orinoco1 and the ,rio ,negro1 there is 
now scarcely any trace of a human       
habitation4 799 ,they form a            
quadrilateral plot of a thousand square 
leagues1 the opposite sides of which    
have contrary slopes1 the ,cassiquiare  
flowing towards the south1 the ,atabapo 
towards the north1 the ,orinoco towards 

the north-west1 and the ,rio ,negro     
towards the south-east47 ,i say now2 for
 here1 as in other parts of ,guiana1    
rude figures representing the sun1 the  
moon1 and different animals1 traced on  
the hardest rocks of granite1 attest the
 anterior existence of a people1 very   
different from those who became known to
 us on the banks of the ,orinoco4       
,according to the accounts of the       
natives1 and of the most intelligent    
missionaries1 these symbolic signs      
resemble perfectly the characters we saw
 a hundred leagues more to the north1   
near ,caycara1 opposite the mouth of the
 ,rio ,apure4 7,see ,chapter #b4ah      
above47  ,in advancing from the plains  
of the ,cassiquiare and the             
,conorichite1 one hundred and forty     
leagues further eastward1 between the   
sources of the ,rio ,blanco and the ,rio
 ,essequibo1 we also meet with rocks and
 symbolical figures4 ,i have lately     
verified this curious fact1 which is    
recorded in the journal of the traveller

 ,hortsman1 who went up the ,rupunuvini1
 one of the tributary streams of the    
,essequibo4 ,where this river1 full of  
small cascades1 winds between the       
mountains of ,macarana1 he found1 before
 he reached lake ,amucu1 rocks covered  
with figures1 or 7as he says in         
,portuguese7 with varias letras4 ,we    
must not take this word letters in its  
real signification4 ,we were also shewn1
 near the rock ,culimacari1 on the banks
 of the ,cassiquiare1 and at the port of
 ,caycara in the ,lower ,orinoco1 traces
 which were believed to be regular      
characters4 ,they were however only     
misshapen figures1 representing the     
heavenly bodies1 together with tigers1  
crocodiles1 boas1 and instruments used  
for making the flour of cassava4 ,it was
 impossible to recognize in these       
painted rocks99 7the name by which the  
natives denote those masses loaded with 
figures7 any symmetrical arrangement1 or
 characters with regular spaces4 799 ,in
 ,tamanac tepumereme4 7,tepu1 a stone1  

rock2 as in ,mexican1 tetl1 a stone1 and
 tepetl1 a mountain2 in                 
,turco-,tatarian1 tepe47 ,the ,spanish  
,americans also call the rock covered   
with sculptured figures1 piedras        
pintadas2 those for instance1 which are 
found on the summit of the ,paramo of   
,guanacas1 in ,new ,grenada1 and which  
recall to mind the tepumereme of the    
,orinoco1 the ,cassiquiare1 and the     
,rupunuvini47 ,the traces discovered in 
the mountains of ,uruana1 by the        
missionary ,fray ,ramon ,bueno1 approach
 nearer to alphabetical writing2 but are
 nevertheless very doubtful4  ,whatever 
may be the meaning of these figures1 and
 with whatever view they were traced    
upon granite1 they merit the examination
 of those who direct their attention to 
the philosophic history of our species4 
,in travelling from the coast of        
,caracas towards the equator1 we are at 
first led to believe that monuments of  
this kind are peculiar to the           
mountain-chain of ,encaramada2 they are 

found at the port of ,sedeno1 near      
,caycara199 799 ,in the ,mountains of   
the ,tyrant1 ,cerros del ,tirano47 at   
,san ,rafael del ,capuchino1 opposite   
,cabruta1 and in almost every place     
where the granitic rock pierces the     
soil1 in the savannah which extends from
 the ,cerro ,curiquima towards the banks
 of the ,caura4 ,the nations of the     
,tamanac race1 the ancient inhabitants  
of those countries1 have a local        
mythology1 and traditions connected with
 these sculptured rocks4 ,amalivaca1 the
 father of the ,tamanacs1 that is1 the  
creator of the human race 7for every    
nation regards itself as the root of all
 other nations71 arrived in a bark1 at  
the time of the great inundation1 which 
is called the age of water199 when the  
billows of the ocean broke against the  
mountains of ,encaramada in the interior
 of the land4 799 ,the ,atonatiuh of the
 ,mexicans1 the fourth age1 the fourth  
regeneration of the world47 ,all        
mankind1 or1 to speak more correctly1   

all the ,tamanacs1 were drowned1 with   
the exception of one man and one woman1 
who saved themselves on a mountain near 
the banks of the ,asiveru1 called       
,cuchivero by the ,spaniards4 ,this     
mountain is the ,ararat of the ,aramean 
or ,semitic nations1 and the ,tlaloc or 
,colhuacan of the ,mexicans4 ,amalivaca1
 sailing in his bark1 engraved the      
figures of the moon and the sun on the  
,painted ,rock 7,tepumereme7 of         
,encaramada4 ,some blocks of granite    
piled upon one another1 and forming a   
kind of cavern1 are still called the    
house or dwelling of the great          
forefather of the ,tamanacs4 ,the       
natives show also a large stone near    
this cavern1 in the plains of ,maita1   
which they say was an instrument of     
music1 the drum of ,amalivaca4 ,we must 
here observe1 that this heroic personage
 had a brother1 ,vochi1 who helped him  
to give the surface of the earth its    
present form4 ,the ,tamanacs relate that
 the two brothers1 in their system of   

perfectibility1 sought1 at first1 to    
arrange the ,orinoco in such a manner1  
that the current of the water could     
always be followed either going down or 
going up the river4 ,they hoped by this 
means to spare men trouble in navigating
 rivers2 but1 however great the power of
 these regenerators of the world1 they  
could never contrive to give a double   
slope to the ,orinoco1 and were         
compelled to relinquish this singular   
plan4 ,amalivaca had daughters1 who had 
a decided taste for travelling4 ,the    
tradition states1 doubtless with a      
figurative meaning1 that he broke their 
legs1 to render them sedentary1 and     
force them to people the land of the    
,tamanacs4 ,after having regulated      
everything in ,america1 on that side of 
the great water1 ,amalivaca again       
embarked1 and returned to the other     
shore1 to the same place from whence he 
came4 ,since the natives have seen the  
missionaries arrive1 they imagine that  
,europe is this other shore2 and one of 

them inquired with great simplicity of  
,father ,gili1 whether he had there seen
 the great ,amalivaca1 the father of the
 ,tamanacs1 who had covered the rocks   
with symbolic figures4  ,these notions  
of a great convulsion of nature2 of two 
human beings saved on the summit of a   
mountain1 and casting behind them the   
fruits of the mauritia palm-tree1 to    
repeople the earth2 of that national    
divinity1 ,amalivaca1 who arrived by    
water from a distant land1 who          
prescribed laws to nature1 and forced   
the nations to renounce their           
migrations2 these various features of a 
very ancient system of belief1 are well 
worthy of attention4 ,what the          
,tamanacs1 and the tribes whose         
languages are analogous to the ,tamanac 
tongue1 now relate to us1 they have no  
doubt learned from other people1 who    
inhabited before them the same regions4 
,the name of ,amalivaca is spread over a
 region of more than five thousand      
square leagues2 he is found designated  

as the father of mankind1 or our great  
grandfather1 as far as to the ,caribbee 
nations1 whose idiom approaches the     
,tamanac only in the same degree as the 
,german approaches the ,greek1 the      
,persian1 and the ,sanscrit4 ,amalivaca 
is not originally the ,great ,spirit1   
the ,aged of ,heaven1 the invisible     
being1 whose worship springs from that  
of the powers of nature1 when nations   
rise insensibly to the consciousness of 
the unity of these powers2 he is rather 
a personage of the heroic times1 a man1 
who1 coming from afar1 lived in the land
 of the ,tamanacs and the ,caribs1      
sculptured symbolic figures upon the    
rocks1 and disappeared by going back to 
the country he had previously inhabited 
beyond the ocean4 ,the anthropomorphism 
of the divinity has two sources         
diametrically opposite2 and this        
opposition seems to arise less from the 
various degrees of intellectual culture1
 than from the different dispositions of
 nations1 some of which are more        

inclined to mysticism1 and others more  
governed by the senses1 and by external 
impressions4 ,sometimes man makes the   
divinities descend upon earth1 charging 
them with the care of ruling nations1   
and giving them laws1 as in the fables  
of the ,east2 sometimes1 as among the   
,greeks and other nations of the ,west1 
they are the first monarchs1            
priest-kings1 who are stripped of what  
is human in their nature1 to be raised  
to the rank of national divinities4     
,amalivaca was a stranger1 like         
,manco-,capac1 ,bochica1 and            
,quetzalcohuatl2 those extraordinary    
men1 who1 in the alpine or civilized    
part of ,america1 on the tablelands of  
,peru1 ,new ,grenada1 and ,anahuac1     
organized civil society1 regulated the  
order of sacrifices1 and founded        
religious congregations4 ,the ,mexican  
,quetzalcohuatl1 whose descendants      
,montezuma99 799 ,the second king of    
this name1 of the race of ,acamapitzin1 
properly called                         

,montezuma-,ilhuicamina47 thought he    
recognized in the companions of ,cortez1
 displays an additional resemblance to  
,amalivaca1 the mythologic personage of 
savage ,america or the plains of the    
torrid zone4 ,when advanced in age1 the 
high-priest of ,tula left the country of
 ,anahuac1 which he had filled with his 
miracles1 to return to an unknown       
region1 called ,tlalpallan4 ,when the   
monk ,bernard de ,sahagun arrived in    
,mexico1 the same questions were put to 
him1 as those which were addressed to   
,father ,gili two hundred years later1  
in the forests of the ,orinoco2 he was  
asked whether he came from the other    
shore 7del otro lado71 from the         
countries to which ,quetzalcohuatl had  
retired4  ,the region of sculptured     
rocks1 or of painted stones1 extends far
 beyond the ,lower ,orinoco1 beyond the 
country 7latitude #g degrees #e minutes 
to #g degrees #dj minutes1 longitude #fh
 degrees #ej minutes to #fi degrees #de 
minutes7 to which belongs what may be   

called the local fables of the          
,tamanacs4 ,we again find these same    
sculptured rocks between the            
,cassiquiare and the ,atabapo 7latitude 
#b degrees #e minutes to #c degrees #bj 
minutes2 longitude #fi to #gj degrees72 
and between the sources of the          
,essequibo and the ,rio ,branco         
7latitude #c degrees #ej minutes2       
longitude #fb degrees #cb minutes74 ,i  
do not assert that these figures prove  
the knowledge of the use of iron1 or    
that they denote a very advanced degree 
of culture2 but even on the supposition 
that1 instead of being symbolical1 they 
are the fruits of the idleness of       
hunting nations1 we must still admit an 
anterior race of men1 very different    
from those who now inhabit the banks of 
the ,orinoco and the ,rupunuri4 ,the    
more a country is destitute of          
remembrances of generations that are    
extinct1 the more important it becomes  
to follow the least traces of what      
appears to be monumental4 ,the eastern  

plains of ,north ,america display only  
those extraordinary circumvallations    
that remind us of the fortified camps   
7the pretended cities of vast extent7 of
 the ancient and modern nomad tribes of 
,asia4 ,in the oriental plains of ,south
 ,america1 the force of vegetation1 the 
heat of the climate1 and the too lavish 
gifts of nature1 have opposed obstacles 
still more powerful to the progress of  
human civilization4 ,between the        
,orinoco and the ,amazon ,i heard no    
mention of any wall of earth1 vestige of
 a dyke1 or sepulchral tumulus2 the     
rocks alone show us 7and this through a 
great extent of country71 rude sketches 
which the hand of man has traced in     
times unknown1 and which are connected  
with religious traditions4  ,before ,i  
quitted the wildest part of the ,upper  
,orinoco1 ,i thought it desirable to    
mention facts which are important only  
when they are considered in their       
connection with each other4 ,all ,i     
could relate of our navigation from     

,esmeralda to the mouth of the ,atabapo 
would be merely an enumeration of rivers
 and uninhabited places4 ,from the #bdth
 to the #bgth of ,may1 we slept but     
twice on land2 our first resting-place  
was at the confluence of the ,rio ,jao1 
and our second below the mission of     
,santa ,barbara1 in the island of       
,minisi4 ,the ,orinoco being free from  
shoals1 the ,indian pilot pursued his   
course all night1 abandoning the boat to
 the current of the river4 ,setting     
apart the time which we spent on the    
shore in preparing the rice and         
plantains that served us for food1 we   
took but thirty-five hours in going from
 ,esmeralda to ,santa ,barbara4 ,the    
chronometer gave me for the longitude of
 the latter mission #gj degrees #c      
minutes2 we had therefore made near four
 miles an hour1 a velocity which was    
partly owing to the current1 and partly 
to the action of the oars4 ,the ,indians
 assert that the crocodiles do not go up
 the ,orinoco above the mouth of the    

,rio ,jao1 and that the manatees are not
 even found above the cataract of       
,maypures4  ,the mission of ,santa      
,barbara is situated a little to the    
west of the mouth of the ,rio ,ventuari1
 or ,venituari1 examined in #ahjj by    
,father ,francisco ,valor4 ,we found in 
this small village of one hundred and   
twenty inhabitants some traces of       
industry2 but the produce of this       
industry is of little profit to the     
natives2 it is reserved for the monks1  
or1 as they say in these countries1 for 
the church and the convent4 ,we were    
assured that a great lamp of massive    
silver1 purchased at the expense of the 
neophytes1 is expected from ,madrid4    
,let us hope that1 after the arrival of 
this treasure1 they will think also of  
clothing the ,indians1 of procuring for 
them some instruments of agriculture1   
and assembling their children in a      
school4 ,although there are a few oxen  
in the savannahs round the mission1 they
 are rarely employed in turning the mill

 7trapiche71 to express the juice of the
 sugar-cane2 this is the occupation of  
the ,indians1 who work without pay here 
as they do everywhere when they are     
understood to work for the church4 ,the 
pasturages at the foot of the mountains 
round ,santa ,barbara are not so rich as
 at ,esmeralda1 but superior to those at
 ,san ,fernando de ,atabapo4 ,the grass 
is short and thick1 yet the upper       
stratum of earth furnishes only a dry   
and parched granitic sand4 ,the         
savannahs 7far from fertile7 of the     
banks of the ,guaviare1 the ,meta1 and  
the ,upper ,orinoco1 are equally        
destitute of the mould which abounds in 
the surrounding forests1 and of the     
thick stratum of clay1 which covers the 
sandstone of the ,llanos1 or steppes of 
,venezuela4 ,the small herbaceous       
mimosas contribute in this zone to      
fatten the cattle1 but are very rare    
between the ,rio ,jao and the mouth of  
the ,guaviare4  ,during the few hours of
 our stay at the mission of ,santa      

,barbara1 we obtained pretty accurate   
ideas respecting the ,rio ,ventuari1    
which1 next to the ,guaviare1 appeared  
to me to be the most considerable       
tributary of the ,orinoco4 ,its banks1  
heretofore occupied by the ,maypures1   
are still peopled by a great number of  
independent nations4 ,on going up by the
 mouth of the ,ventuari1 which forms a  
delta covered with palm-trees1 you find 
in the east1 after three days' journey1 
the ,cumaruita and the ,paru1 two       
streams that rise at the foot of the    
lofty mountains of ,cuneva4 ,higher up1 
on the west1 lie the ,mariata and the   
,manipiare1 inhabited by the ,macos and 
,curacicanas4 ,the latter nation is     
remarkable for their active cultivation 
of cotton4 ,in a hostile incursion      
7entrada7 a large house was found       
containing more than thirty or forty    
hammocks of a very fine texture of spun 
cotton1 cordage1 and fishing implements4
 ,the natives had fled2 and ,father     
,valor informed us1 that the ,indians of

 the mission who accompanied him had set
 fire to the house before he could save 
these productions of the industry of the
 ,curacicanas4 ,the neophytes of ,santa 
,barbara1 who think themselves very     
superior to these supposed savages1     
appeared to me far less industrious4    
,the ,rio ,manipiare1 one of the        
principal branches of the ,ventuari1    
approaches near its source those lofty  
mountains1 the northern ridge of which  
gives birth to the ,cuchivero4 ,it is a 
prolongation of the chain of ,baraguan2 
and there ,father ,gili places the      
table-land of ,siamacu1 of which he     
vaunts the temperate climate4 ,the upper
 course of the ,rio ,ventuari1 beyond   
the confluence of the ,asisi1 and the   
,great ,raudales1 is almost unknown4 ,i 
was informed only that the ,upper       
,ventuari bends so much towards the east
 that the ancient road from ,esmeralda  
to the ,rio ,caura crosses the bed of   
the river4 ,the proximity of the        
tributary streams of the ,carony1 the   

,caura1 and the ,ventuari1 has          
facilitated for ages the access of the  
,caribs to the banks of the ,upper      
,orinoco4 ,bands of this warlike and    
trading people went up from the ,rio    
,carony1 by the ,paragua1 to the sources
 of the ,paruspa4 ,a portage conducted  
them to the ,chavarro1 an eastern       
tributary stream of the ,rio ,caura2    
they descended with their canoes first  
this stream1 and then the ,caura itself 
as far as the mouth of the ,erevato4    
,after having gone up this last river   
south-west1 and traversed vast savannahs
 for three days1 they entered by the    
,manipiare into the great ,rio          
,ventuari4 ,i trace this road with      
precision not only because it was that  
by which the traffic of native slaves   
was carried on1 but also to call the    
attention of those1 who at some future  
day may rule the destiny of ,guiana1 to 
the high importance of this labyrinth of
 rivers4  ,it is by the four largest    
tributary streams1 which the majestic   

river of the ,orinoco receives on the   
right 7the ,carony1 the ,caura1 the     
,padamo1 and the ,ventuari71 that       
,european civilization will one day     
penetrate into this region of forests   
and mountains1 which has a surface of   
ten thousand six hundred square leagues1
 and which is bounded by the ,orinoco on
 the north1 the west1 and the south4    
,the ,capuchins of ,catalonia and the   
,observantins of ,andalusia and         
,valencia1 have already made settlements
 in the valleys of the ,carony and the  
,caura4 ,the tributary streams of the   
,lower ,orinoco1 being the nearest to   
the coast and to the cultivated region  
of ,venezuela1 were naturally the first 
to receive missionaries1 and with them  
some germs of social life4              
,corresponding to the ,carony and the   
,caura1 which flow toward the north1 are
 two great tributary streams of the     
,upper ,orinoco1 that send their waters 
toward the south2 these are the ,padamo 
and the ,ventuari4 ,no village has      

hitherto risen on their banks1 though   
they offer advantages for agriculture   
and pasturage1 which would be sought in 
vain in the valley of the immense river 
to which they are tributary4 ,in the    
centre of these wild countries1 where   
there will long be no other road than   
the rivers1 every project of            
civilization should be founded on an    
intimate knowledge of the hydraulic     
features of the country1 and the        
relative importance of the tributary    
streams4  ,in the morning of the #bfth  
of ,may we left the little village of   
,santa ,barbara1 where we found several 
,indians of ,esmeralda1 who had come    
reluctantly1 by order of the missionary1
 to construct for him a house of two    
stories4 ,during the whole day we       
enjoyed the view of the fine mountains  
of ,sipapo1 which rise at a distance of 
more than eighteen leagues in the       
direction of north-north-west4 ,the     
vegetation of the banks of the ,orinoco 
is singularly varied in this part of the

 country2 the aborescent ferns99 descend
 from the mountains1 and mingle with the
 palm-trees of the plain4 799 ,the      
geographical distribution of these      
plants is extremely singular4 ,scarcely 
any are found on the eastern coast of   
,brazil4 ,see the interesting work of   
,prince ,maximilian of ,neuwied1 ,reise 
nach ,brasilien volume #a page #bgd47   
,we rested that night on the island of  
,minisi2 and1 after having passed the   
mouths of the little rivers ,quejanuma1 
,ubua1 and ,masao1 we arrived1 on the   
#bgth of ,may1 at ,san ,fernando de     
,atabapo4 ,we lodged in the same house  
which we had occupied a month           
previously1 when going up the ,rio      
,negro4 ,we then directed our course    
towards the south1 by the ,atabapo and  
the ,temi2 we were now returning from   
the west1 having made a long circuit by 
the ,cassiquiare and the ,upper         
,orinoco4  ,we remained only one day at 
,san ,fernando de ,atabapo1 although    
that village1 adorned as it was by the  

pirijao palm-tree1 with fruit like      
peaches1 appeared to us a delicious     
abode4 ,tame pauxis99 799 ,not the ourax
 of ,cuvier1 ,crax pauxi ,linn41 but the
 ,crax alector47 surrounded the ,indian 
huts2 in one of which we saw a very rare
 monkey1 which inhabits the banks of the
 ,guaviare4 ,this monkey is the caparro1
 which ,i have made known in my         
,observations on ,zoology and           
comparative ,anatomy2 it forms1 as      
,geoffroy believes1 a new genus         
7,lagothrix7 between the ateles and the 
alouates4 ,the hair of this monkey is   
grey1 like that of the marten1 and      
extremely soft to the touch4 ,the       
caparro is distinguished by a round     
head1 and a mild and agreeable          
expression of countenance4 ,i believe   
the missionary ,gili is the only author 
who has made mention before me of this  
curious animal1 around which zoologists 
begin to group other monkeys of ,brazil4
 ,having quitted ,san ,fernando on the  
#bgth of ,may1 we arrived1 by help of   

the rapid current of the ,orinoco1 in   
seven hours1 at the mouth of the ,rio   
,mataveni4 ,we passed the night in the  
open air1 under the granitic rock ,el   
,castillito1 which rises in the middle  
of the river1 and the form of which     
reminded us of the ruin called the      
,mouse-tower 7,mausethurm71 on the      
,rhine1 opposite ,bingen4 ,here1 as on  
the banks of the ,atabapo1 we were      
struck by the sight of a small species  
of drosera1 having exactly the          
appearance of the drosera of ,europe4   
,the ,orinoco had sensibly swelled      
during the night2 and the current1      
strongly accelerated1 bore us1 in ten   
hours1 from the mouth of the ,mataveni  
to the ,upper ,great ,cataract1 that of 
,maypures1 or ,quituna4 ,the distance   
which we passed over was thirteen       
leagues4 ,we recalled to mind1 with much
 satisfaction1 the scenes where we had  
reposed in going up the river4 ,we again
 found the ,indians who had accompanied 
us in our herborizations2 and we visited

 anew the fine spring that issues from a
 rock of stratified granite behind the  
house of the missionary3 its temperature
 was not changed more than #j4c degrees4
 ,from the mouth of the ,atabapo as far 
as that of the ,apure we seemed to be   
travelling as through a country which we
 had long inhabited4 ,we were reduced to
 the same abstinence2 we were stung by  
the same mosquitos2 but the certainty of
 reaching in a few weeks the term of our
 physical sufferings kept up our        
spirits4  ,the passage of the canoe     
through the ,great ,cataract obliged us 
to stop two days at ,maypures4 ,father  
,bernardo ,zea1 missionary at the       
,raudales1 who had accompanied us to the
 ,rio ,negro1 though ill1 insisted on   
conducting us with his ,indians as far  
as ,atures4 ,one of these ,indians1     
,zerepe1 the interpreter1 who had been  
so unmercifully punished at the beach of
 ,pararuma1 rivetted our attention by   
his appearance of deep sorrow4 ,we      
learned that his grief was caused by the

 loss of a young girl to whom he was    
engaged1 and that he had lost her in    
consequence of false intelligence which 
had been spread respecting the direction
 of our journey4 ,zerepe1 who was a     
native of ,maypures1 had been brought up
 in the woods by his parents1 who were  
of the tribe of the ,macos4 ,he had     
brought with him to the mission a girl  
of twelve years of age1 whom he intended
 to marry at our return from the        
,cataracts4 ,the ,indian girl was little
 pleased with the life of the missions1 
and she was told that the whites would  
go to the country of the ,portuguese    
7,brazil71 and would take ,zerepe with  
them4 ,disappointed in her hopes1 she   
seized a boat1 and with another girl of 
her own age1 crossed the ,great         
,cataract1 and fled al monte4 ,the      
recital of this courageous adventure was
 the great news of the place4 ,the      
affliction of ,zerepe1 however1 was not 
of long duration4 ,born among the       
,christians1 having travelled as far as 

the foot of the ,rio ,negro1            
understanding ,spanish and the language 
of the ,macos1 he thought himself       
superior to the people of his tribe1 and
 he no doubt soon forgot his forest     
love4  ,on the #cast of ,may we passed  
the rapids of ,guahibos and ,garcita4   
,the islands which rise in the middle of
 the waters of the river were overspread
 with the purest verdure4 ,the rains of 
winter had unfolded the spathes of the  
vadgiai palm-tree1 the leaves of which  
rise straight toward the sky4 ,the eye  
is never wearied of the view of those   
scenes1 where the trees and rocks give  
the landscape that grand and severe     
character which we admire in the        
background of the pictures of ,salvator 
,rosa4 ,we landed before sunset on the  
eastern bank of the ,orinoco1 at the    
,puerto de la ,expedicion1 in order to  
visit the cavern of ,ataruipe1 which is 
the place of sepulchre of a whole nation
 destroyed4 ,i shall attempt to describe
 this cavern1 so celebrated among the   

natives4  ,we climbed with difficulty1  
and not without some danger1 a steep    
rock of granite1 entirely bare4 ,it     
would have been almost impossible to fix
 the foot on its smooth and sloping     
surface1 if large crystals of feldspar1 
resisting decomposition1 did not stand  
out from the rock1 and furnish points of
 support4 ,scarcely had we attained the 
summit of the mountain when we beheld   
with astonishment the singular aspect of
 the surrounding country4 ,the foamy bed
 of the waters is filled with an        
archipelago of islands covered with     
palm-trees4 ,westward1 on the left bank 
of the ,orinoco1 the wide-stretching    
savannahs of the ,meta and the ,casanare
 resembled a sea of verdure4 ,the       
setting sun seemed like a globe of fire 
suspended over the plain1 and the       
solitary ,peak of ,uniana1 which        
appeared more lofty from being wrapped  
in vapours which softened its outline1  
all contributed to augment the majesty  
of the scene4 ,immediately below us lay 

a deep valley1 enclosed on every side4  
,birds of prey and goatsuckers winged   
their lonely flight in this inaccessible
 circus4 ,we found a pleasure in        
following with the eye their fleeting   
shadows1 as they glided slowly over the 
flanks of the rock4  ,a narrow ridge led
 us to a neighbouring mountain1 the     
rounded summit of which supported       
immense blocks of granite4 ,these masses
 are more than forty or fifty feet in   
diameter2 and their form is so perfectly
 spherical1 that1 as they appear to     
touch the soil only by a small number of
 points1 it might be supposed1 at the   
least shock of an earthquake1 they would
 roll into the abyss4 ,i do not remember
 to have seen anywhere else a similar   
phenomenon1 amid the decompositions of  
granitic soils4 ,if the balls rested on 
a rock of a different nature1 as in the 
blocks of ,jura1 we might suppose that  
they had been rounded by the action of  
water1 or thrown out by the force of an 
elastic fluid2 but their position on the

 summit of a hill alike granitic1 makes 
it more probable that they owe their    
origin to the progressive decomposition 
of the rock4  ,the most remote part of  
the valley is covered by a thick forest4
 ,in this shady and solitary spot1 on   
the declivity of a steep mountain1 the  
cavern of ,ataruipe opens to the view4  
,it is less a cavern than a jutting rock
 in which the waters have scooped a vast
 hollow when1 in the ancient revolutions
 of our planet1 they attained that      
height499 799 ,i saw no vein1 no hole   
7four7 filled with crystals4 ,the       
decomposition of granitic rocks1 and    
their separation into large masses1     
dispersed in the plains and valleys in  
the form of blocks and balls with       
concentric layers1 appear to favour the 
enlarging of these natural excavations1 
which resemble real caverns47 ,in this  
tomb of a whole extinct tribe we soon   
counted nearly six hundred skeletons    
well preserved1 and regularly placed4   
,every skeleton reposes in a sort of    

basket made of the petioles of the      
palm-tree4 ,these baskets1 which the    
natives call mapires1 have the form of a
 square bag4 ,their size is proportioned
 to the age of the dead2 there are some 
for infants cut off at the moment of    
their birth4 ,we saw them from ten      
inches to three feet four inches long1  
the skeletons in them being bent        
together4 ,they are all ranged near each
 other1 and are so entire that not a rib
 or a phalanx is wanting4 ,the bones    
have been prepared in three different   
manners1 either whitened in the air and 
the sun1 dyed red with anoto1 or1 like  
mummies1 varnished with odoriferous     
resins1 and enveloped in leaves of the  
heliconia or of the plantain-tree4 ,the 
,indians informed us that the fresh     
corpse is placed in damp ground1 that   
the flesh may be consumed by degrees2   
some months afterwards it is taken out1 
and the flesh remaining on the bones is 
scraped off with sharp stones4 ,several 
hordes in ,guiana still observe this    

custom4 ,earthen vases half-baked are   
found near the mapires or baskets4 ,they
 appear to contain the bones of the same
 family4 ,the largest of these vases1 or
 funeral urns1 are five feet high1 and  
three feet three inches long4 ,their    
colour is greenish-grey1 and their oval 
form is pleasing to the eye4 ,the       
handles are made in the shape of        
crocodiles or serpents2 the edges are   
bordered with painted meanders1         
labyrinths1 and grecques1 in rows       
variously combined4 ,such designs are   
found in every zone among nations the   
farthest removed from each other1 either
 with respect to their respective       
positions on the globe1 or to the degree
 of civilization which they have        
attained4 ,they still adorn the common  
pottery made by the inhabitants of the  
little mission of ,maypures2 they       
ornament the bucklers of the            
,otaheitans1 the fishing-implements of  
the ,esquimaux1 the walls of the        
,mexican palace of ,mitla1 and the vases

 of ancient ,greece4  ,we could not     
acquire any precise idea of the period  
to which the origin of the mapires and  
the painted vases1 contained in the     
bone-cavern of ,ataruipe1 can be traced4
 ,the greater part seemed not to be more
 than a century old2 but it may be      
supposed that1 sheltered from all       
humidity under the influence of a       
uniform temperature1 the preservation of
 these articles would be no less perfect
 if their origin dated from a period far
 more remote4 ,a tradition circulates   
among the ,guahibos1 that the warlike   
,atures1 pursued by the ,caribs1 escaped
 to the rocks that rise in the middle of
 the ,great ,cataracts2 and there that  
nation1 heretofore so numerous1 became  
gradually extinct1 as well as its       
language4 ,the last families of the     
,atures still existed in #agfg1 in the  
time of the missionary ,gili4 ,at the   
period of our voyage an old parrot was  
shown at ,maypures1 of which the        
inhabitants said1 and the fact is worthy

 of observation1 that they did not      
understand what it said1 because it     
spoke the language of the ,atures4  ,we 
opened1 to the great concern of our     
guides1 several mapires1 for the purpose
 of examining attentively the form of   
the skulls4 ,they were all marked by the
 characteristics of the ,american race1 
with the exception of two or three1     
which approached indubitably to the     
,caucasian4 ,in the middle of the       
,cataracts1 in the most inaccessible    
spots1 cases are found strengthened with
 iron bands1 and filled with ,european  
tools1 vestiges of clothes1 and glass   
trinkets4 ,these articles1 which have   
given rise to the most absurd reports of
 treasures hidden by the ,jesuits1      
probably belonged to ,portuguese traders
 who had penetrated into these savage   
countries4 ,may we suppose that the     
skulls of ,european race1 which we saw  
mingled with the skeletons of the       
natives1 and preserved with the same    
care1 were the remains of some          

,portuguese travellers who had died of  
sickness1 or had been killed in battle8 
,the aversion evinced by the natives for
 whatever is not of their own race      
renders this hypothesis little probable4
 ,perhaps fugitive mestizos of the      
missions of the ,meta and ,apure may    
have come and settled near the          
,cataracts1 marrying women of the tribe 
of the ,atures4 ,such mixed marriages   
sometimes take place in this zone1      
though they are more rare than in       
,canada1 and in the whole of ,north     
,america1 where hunters of ,european    
origin unite themselves with savages1   
assume their habits1 and sometimes      
acquire great political influence4  ,we 
took several skulls1 the skeleton of a  
child of six or seven years old1 and two
 of full-grown men of the nation of the 
,atures1 from the cavern of ,ataruipe4  
,all these bones1 partly painted red1   
partly varnished with odoriferous       
resins1 were placed in the baskets      
7mapires or canastos7 which we have just

 described4 ,they made almost the whole 
load of a mule2 and as we knew the      
superstitious feelings of the ,indians  
in reference to the remains of the dead 
after burial1 we carefully enveloped the
 canastos in mats recently woven4       
,unfortunately for us1 the penetration  
of the ,indians1 and the extreme        
quickness of their sense of smelling1   
rendered all our precautions useless4   
,wherever we stopped1 in the missions of
 the ,caribbees1 amid the ,llanos1      
between ,angostura and ,nueva           
,barcelona1 the natives assembled round 
our mules to admire the monkeys which we
 had purchased at the ,orinoco4 ,these  
good people had scarcely touched our    
baggage1 when they announced the        
approaching death of the beast of burden
 that carried the dead4 ,in vain we told
 them that they were deceived in their  
conjectures2 and that the baskets       
contained the bones of crocodiles and   
manatees2 they persisted in repeating   
that they smelt the resin that          

surrounded the skeletons1 and that they 
were their old relations4 ,we were      
obliged to request that the monks would 
interpose their authority1 to overcome  
the aversion of the natives1 and procure
 for us a change of mules4  ,one of the 
skulls1 which we took from the cavern of
 ,ataruipe1 has appeared in the fine    
work published by my old master1        
,blumenbach1 on the varieties of the    
human species4 ,the skeletons of the    
,indians were lost on the coast of      
,africa1 together with a considerable   
part of our collections1 in a shipwreck1
 in which perished our friend and       
fellow-traveller1 ,fray ,juan ,gonzales1
 the young monk of the order of ,saint  
,francis4  ,we withdrew in silence from 
the cavern of ,ataruipe4 ,it was one of 
those calm and serene nights which are  
so common in the torrid zone4 ,the stars
 shone with a mild and planetary light4 
,their scintillation was scarcely       
sensible at the horizon1 which seemed   
illumined by the great nebulae of the   

southern hemisphere4 ,an innumerable    
multitude of insects spread a reddish   
light upon the ground1 loaded with      
plants1 and resplendent with these      
living and moving fires1 as if the stars
 of the firmament had sunk down on the  
savannah4 ,on quitting the cavern we    
stopped several times to admire the     
beauty of this singular scene4 ,the     
odoriferous vanilla and festoons of     
bignonia decorated the entrance2 and    
above1 on the summit of the hill1 the   
arrowy branches of the palm-trees waved 
murmuring in the air4 ,we descended     
towards the river1 to take the road to  
the mission1 where we arrived late in   
the night4 ,our imagination was struck  
by all we had just seen4 ,occupied      
continually by the present1 in a country
 where the traveller is tempted to      
regard human society as a new           
institution1 he is more powerfully      
interested by remembrances of times     
past4 ,these remembrances were not      
indeed of a distant date2 but in all    

that is monumental antiquity is a       
relative idea1 and we easily confound   
what is ancient with what is obscure and
 problematic4 ,the ,egyptians considered
 the historical remembrances of the     
,greeks as very recent4 ,if the         
,chinese1 or1 as they prefer calling    
themselves1 the inhabitants of the      
,celestial ,empire1 could have          
communicated with the priests of        
,heliopolis1 they would have smiled at  
those pretensions of the ,egyptians to  
antiquity4 ,contrasts not less striking 
are found in the north of ,europe and of
 ,asia1 in the ,new ,world1 and in every
 region where the human race has not    
preserved a long consciousness of       
itself4 ,the migration of the ,toltecs1 
the most ancient historical event on the
 tableland of ,mexico1 dates only in the
 sixth century of our era4 ,the         
introduction of a good system of        
intercalation1 and the reform of the    
calendars1 the indispensable basis of an
 accurate chronology1 took place in the 

year #ajia4 ,these epochs1 which to us  
appear so modern1 fall on fabulous      
times1 when we reflect on the history of
 our species between the banks of the   
,orinoco and the ,amazon4 ,we there see 
symbolic figures sculptured on the      
rocks1 but no tradition throws light    
upon their origin4 ,in the hot part of  
,guiana we can go back only to the      
period when the ,castilian and          
,portuguese conquerors1 and more        
recently peaceful monks1 penetrated amid
 so many barbarous nations4  ,it appears
 that to the north of the ,cataracts1 in
 the strait of ,baraguan1 there are     
caverns filled with bones1 similar to   
those ,i have just described3 but ,i was
 informed of this fact only after my    
return2 our ,indian pilots did not      
mention it when we landed at the strait4
 ,these tombs no doubt have given rise  
to a fable of the ,ottomacs1 according  
to which the granitic and solitary rocks
 of ,baraguan1 the forms of which are   
very singular1 are regarded as the      

grandfathers1 the ancient chiefs of the 
tribe4 ,the custom of separating the    
flesh from the bones1 very anciently    
practised by the ,massagetes1 is still  
known among several hordes of the       
,orinoco4 ,it is even asserted1 and with
 some probability1 that the ,guaraons   
plunge their dead bodies under water    
enveloped in nets2 and that the small   
caribe-fishes1 of which we saw          
everywhere an innumerable quantity1     
devour in a few days the muscular flesh1
 and thus prepare the skeleton4 ,it may 
be supposed that this operation can be  
practised only in places where          
crocodiles are not common4 ,some tribes1
 for instance the ,tamanacs1 are        
accustomed to lay waste the fields of a 
deceased relative1 and cut down the     
trees which he has planted4 ,they say   
that the sight of objects which belonged
 to their relation makes them           
melancholy4 ,they like better to efface 
than to preserve remembrances4 ,these   
effects of ,indian sensibility are very 

detrimental to agriculture1 and the     
monks oppose with energy these          
superstitious practices1 to which the   
natives converted to ,christianity still
 adhere in the missions4  ,the tombs of 
the ,indians of the ,orinoco have not   
been very closely examined1 because they
 do not contain valuable articles like  
those of ,peru2 and even on the spot no 
faith is now lent to the chimerical     
ideas1 which were heretofore formed of  
the wealth of the ancient inhabitants of
 ,el ,dorado4 ,the thirst of gold       
everywhere precedes the desire of       
instruction1 and a taste for researches 
into antiquity2 in all the mountainous  
part of ,south ,america1 from ,merida   
and ,santa ,martha to the table-lands of
 ,quito and ,upper ,peru1 the labours of
 absolute mining have been undertaken to
 discover tombs1 or1 as the ,creoles    
say1 employing a word altered from the  
,inca language1 guacas4 ,when in ,peru1 
at ,mancichi1 ,i went into the guaca    
from which1 in the sixteenth century1   

masses of gold of great value were      
extracted4 ,no trace of the precious    
metals has been found in the caverns    
which have served the natives of ,guiana
 for ages as sepulchres4 ,this          
circumstance proves that even at the    
period when the ,caribs1 and other      
travelling nations1 made incursions to  
the south-west1 gold had flowed in very 
small quantities from the mountains of  
,peru towards the eastern plains4       
,wherever the granitic rocks do not     
present any of those large cavities     
caused by their decomposition1 or by an 
accumulation of their blocks1 the       
,indians deposit their dead in the      
earth4 ,the hammock 7chinchorro71 a kind
 of net in which the deceased had       
reposed during his life1 serves for a   
coffin4 ,this net is fastened tight     
round the body1 a hole is dug in the    
hut1 and there the body is laid4 ,this  
is the most usual method1 according to  
the account of the missionary ,gili1 and
 it accords with what ,i myself learned 

from ,father ,zea4 ,i do not believe    
that there exists one tumulus in        
,guiana1 not even in the plains of the  
,cassiquiare and the ,essequibo4 ,some1 
however1 are to be met with in the      
savannahs of ,varinas1 as in ,canada1 to
 the west of the ,alleghenies499 799    
,mummies and skeletons contained in     
baskets were recently discovered in a   
cavern in the ,united ,states4 ,it is   
believed they belong to a race of men   
analogous to that of the ,sandwich      
,islands4 ,the description of these     
tombs has some similitude with that of  
the tombs of ,ataruipe47 ,it seems      
remarkable enough that1 notwithstanding 
the extreme abundance of wood in those  
countries1 the natives of the ,orinoco  
were as little accustomed as the ancient
 ,scythians to burn the dead4 ,sometimes
 they formed funeral piles for that     
purpose2 but only after a battle1 when  
the number of the dead was considerable4
 ,in #agdh1 the ,parecas burned not only
 the bodies of their enemies1 the       

,tamanacs1 but also those of their own  
people who fell on the field of battle4 
,the ,indians of ,south ,america1 like  
all nations in a state of nature1 are   
strongly attached to the spots where the
 bones of their fathers repose4 ,this   
feeling1 which a great writer has       
beautifully painted in the episode of   
,atala1 is cherished in all its         
primitive ardour by the ,chinese4 ,these
 people among whom everything is the    
produce of art1 or rather of the most   
ancient civilization1 do not change     
their dwelling without carrying along   
with them the bones of their ancestors4 
,coffins are seen deposited on the banks
 of great rivers1 to be transported1    
with the furniture of the family1 to a  
remote province4 ,these removals of     
bones1 heretofore more common among the 
savages of ,north ,america1 are not     
practised among the tribes of ,guiana2  
but these are not nomad1 like nations   
who live exclusively by hunting4  ,we   
stayed at the mission of ,atures only   

during the time necessary for passing   
the canoe through the ,great ,cataract4 
,the bottom of our frail bark had become
 so thin that it required great care to 
prevent it from splitting4 ,we took     
leave of the missionary1 ,bernardo ,zea1
 who remained at ,atures1 after having  
accompanied us during two months1 and   
shared all our sufferings4 ,this poor   
monk still continued to have fits of    
tertian ague2 they had become to him an 
habitual evil1 to which he paid little  
attention4 ,other fevers of a more fatal
 kind prevailed at ,atures on our second
 visit4 ,the greater part of the        
,indians could not leave their hammocks1
 and we were obliged to send in search  
of cassava-bread1 the most indispensable
 food of the country1 to the independent
 but neighbouring tribe of the ,piraoas4
 ,we had hitherto escaped these         
malignant fevers1 which ,i believe to be
 always contagious4  ,we ventured to    
pass in our canoe through the latter    
half of the ,raudal of ,atures4 ,we     

landed here and there1 to climb upon the
 rocks1 which like narrow dikes joined  
the islands to one another4 ,sometimes  
the waters force their way over the     
dikes1 sometimes they fall within them  
with a hollow noise4 ,a considerable    
portion of the ,orinoco was dry1 because
 the river had found an issue by        
subterraneous caverns4 ,in these        
solitary haunts the rock-manakin with   
gilded plumage 7,pipra rupicola71 one of
 the most beautiful birds of the        
tropics1 builds its nest4 ,the          
,raudalito of ,carucari is caused by an 
accumulation of enormous blocks of      
granite1 several of which are spheroids 
of five or six feet in diameter1 and    
they are piled together in such a       
manner1 as to form spacious caverns4 ,we
 entered one of these caverns to gather 
the confervas that were spread over the 
clefts and humid sides of the rock4     
,this spot displayed one of the most    
extraordinary scenes of nature that we  
had contemplated on the banks of the    

,orinoco4 ,the river rolled its waters  
turbulently over our heads4 ,it seemed  
like the sea dashing against reefs of   
rocks2 but at the entrance of the cavern
 we could remain dry beneath a large    
sheet of water that precipitated itself 
in an arch from above the barrier4 ,in  
other cavities1 deeper1 but less        
spacious1 the rock was pierced by the   
effect of successive filtrations4 ,we   
saw columns of water1 eight or nine     
inches broad1 descending from the top of
 the vault1 and finding an issue by     
clefts1 that seemed to communicate at   
great distances with each other4  ,the  
cascades of ,europe1 forming only one   
fall1 or several falls close to each    
other1 can never produce such variety in
 the shifting landscape4 ,this variety  
is peculiar to rapids1 to a succession  
of small cataracts several miles in     
length1 to rivers that force their way  
across rocky dikes and accumulated      
blocks of granite4 ,we had the          
opportunity of viewing this             

extraordinary sight longer than we      
wished4 ,our boat was to coast the      
eastern bank of a narrow island1 and to 
take us in again after a long circuit4  
,we passed an hour and a half in vain   
expectation of it4 ,night approached1   
and with it a tremendous storm4 ,it     
rained with violence4 ,we began to fear 
that our frail bark had been wrecked    
against the rocks1 and that the         
,indians1 conformably to their habitual 
indifference for the evils of others1   
had returned tranquilly to the mission4 
,there were only three of us3 we were   
completely wet1 and uneasy respecting   
the fate of our boat3 it appeared far   
from agreeable to pass1 without sleep1 a
 long night of the torrid zone amid the 
noise of the ,raudales4 ,m4 ,bonpland   
proposed to leave me in the island with 
,don ,nicolas ,soto1 and to swim across 
the branches of the river that are      
separated by the granitic dikes4 ,he    
hoped to reach the forest1 and seek     
assistance at ,atures from ,father ,zea4

 ,we dissuaded him with difficulty from 
undertaking this hazardous enterprise4  
,he knew little of the labyrinth of     
small channels1 into which the ,orinoco 
is divided4 ,most of them have strong   
whirlpools1 and what passed before our  
eyes while we were deliberating on our  
situation1 proved sufficiently that the 
natives had deceived us respecting the  
absence of crocodiles in the cataracts4 
,the little monkeys which we had carried
 along with us for months were deposited
 on the point of our island4 ,wet by the
 rains and sensible of the least        
lowering of the temperature1 these      
delicate animals sent forth plaintive   
cries1 and attracted to the spot two    
crocodiles1 the size and leaden colour  
of which denoted their great age4 ,their
 unexpected appearance made us reflect  
on the danger we had incurred by        
bathing1 at our first passing by the    
mission of ,atures1 in the middle of the
 ,raudal4 ,after long waiting1 the      
,indians at length arrived at the close 

of day4 ,the natural coffer-dam by which
 they had endeavoured to descend in     
order to make the circuit of the island1
 had become impassable owing to the     
shallowness of the water4 ,the pilot    
sought long for a more accessible       
passage in this labyrinth of rocks and  
islands4 ,happily our canoe was not     
damaged and in less than half an hour   
our instruments1 provision1 and animals1
 were embarked4  ,we pursued our course 
during a part of the night1 to pitch our
 tent again in the island of ,panumana4 
,we recognized with pleasure the spots  
where we had botanized when going up the
 ,orinoco4 ,we examined once more on the
 beach of ,guachaco that small formation
 of sandstone1 which reposes directly on
 granite4 ,its position is the same as  
that of the sandstone which ,burckhardt 
observed at the entrance of ,nubia1     
superimposed on the granite of ,syene4  
,we passed1 without visiting it1 the new
 mission of ,san ,borga1 where 7as we   
learned with regret a few days after7   

the little colony of ,guahibos had fled 
al monte1 from the chimerical fear that 
we should carry them off2 to sell them  
as poitos1 or slaves4 ,after having     
passed the rapids of ,tabaje1 and the   
,raudal of ,cariven1 near the mouth of  
the great ,rio ,meta1 we arrived without
 accident at ,carichana4 ,the missionary
 received us with that kind hospitality 
which he extended to us on our first    
passage4 ,the sky was unfavourable for  
astronomical observations2 we had       
obtained some new ones in the two ,great
 ,cataracts2 but thence1 as far as the  
mouth of the ,apure1 we were obliged to 
renounce the attempt4 ,m4 ,bonpland had 
the satisfaction at ,carichana of       
dissecting a manatee more than nine feet
 long4 ,it was a female1 and the flesh  
appeared to us not unsavoury4 ,i have   
spoken in another place of the manner of
 catching this herbivorous cetacea4 ,the
 ,piraoas1 some families of whom inhabit
 the mission of ,carichana1 detest this 
animal to such a degree1 that they hid  

themselves1 to avoid being obliged to   
touch it1 whilst it was being conveyed  
to our hut4 ,they said that the people  
of their tribe die infallibly when they 
eat of it4 ,this prejudice is the more  
singular1 as the neighbours of the      
,piraoas1 the ,guamos and the ,ottomacs1
 are very fond of the flesh of the      
manatee4 ,the flesh of the crocodile is 
also an object of horror to some tribes1
 and of predilection to others4  ,the   
island of ,cuba furnishes a fact little 
known in the history of the manatee4    
,south of the port of ,xagua1 several   
miles from the coast1 there are springs 
of fresh water in the middle of the sea4
 ,they are supposed to be owing to a    
hydrostatic pressure existing in        
subterraneous channels1 communicating   
with the lofty mountains of ,trinidad4  
,small vessels sometimes take in water  
there2 and1 what is well worthy of      
observation1 large manatees remain      
habitually in those spots4 ,i have      
already called the attention of         

naturalists to the crocodiles which     
advance from the mouth of rivers far    
into the sea4 ,analogous circumstances  
may have caused1 in the ancient         
catastrophes of our planet1 that        
singular mixture of pelagian and        
fluviatile bones and petrifactions1     
which is observed in some rocks of      
recent formation4  ,our stay at         
,carichana was very useful in recruiting
 our strength after our fatigues4 ,m4   
,bonpland bore with him the germs of a  
cruel malady2 he needed repose2 but as  
the delta of the tributary streams      
included between the ,horeda and        
,paruasi is covered with a rich         
vegetation1 he made long herbalizations1
 and was wet through several times in a 
day4 ,we found1 fortunately1 in the     
house of the missionary1 the most       
attentive care2 we were supplied with   
bread made of maize flour1 and even with
 milk4 ,the cows yield milk plentifully 
enough in the lower regions of the      
torrid zone1 wherever good pasturage is 

found4 ,i call attention to this fact1  
because local circumstances have spread 
through the ,indian ,archipelago the    
prejudice of considering hot climates as
 repugnant to the secretion of milk4 ,we
 may conceive the indifference of the   
inhabitants of the ,new ,world for a    
milk diet1 the country having been      
originally destitute of animals capable 
of furnishing it992 799 ,the reindeer   
are not domesticated in ,greenland as   
they are in ,lapland2 and the ,esquimaux
 care little for their milk4 ,the bisons
 taken very young accustom themselves1  
on the west of the ,alleghenies1 to     
graze with herds of ,european cows4 ,the
 females in some districts of ,india    
yield a little milk1 but the natives    
have never thought of milking them4     
,what is the origin of that fabulous    
story related by ,gomara 7chapter #dc   
page #cf7 according to which the first  
,spanish navigators saw1 on the coast of
 ,south ,carolina1 stags led to the     
savannahs by herdsmen8 ,the female      

bisons1 according to ,mr4 ,buchanan and 
the philosophical historian of the      
,indian ,archipelago1 ,mr4 ,crawford1   
yield more milk than common cows47 but  
how can we avoid being astonished at    
this indifference in the immense        
,chinese population1 living in great    
part beyond the tropics1 and in the same
 latitude with the nomad and pastoral   
tribes of central ,asia8 ,if the        
,chinese have ever been a pastoral      
people1 how have they lost the tastes   
and habits so intimately connected with 
that state1 which precedes agricultural 
institutions8 ,these questions are      
interesting with respect both to the    
history of the nations of oriental      
,asia1 and to the ancient communications
 that are supposed to have existed      
between that part of the world and the  
north of ,mexico4  ,we went down the    
,orinoco in two days1 from ,carichana to
 the mission of ,uruana1 after having   
again passed the celebrated strait of   
,baraguan4 ,we stopped several times to 

determine the velocity of the river1 and
 its temperature at the surface1 which  
was #bg4d degrees4 ,the velocity was    
found to be two feet in a second        
7sixty-two toises in #c minutes #f      
seconds7 in places where the bed of the 
,orinoco was more than twelve thousand  
feet broad1 and from ten to twelve      
fathoms deep4 ,the slope of the river is
 in fact extremely gentle from the      
,great ,cataracts to ,angostura2 and1 if
 a barometric measurement were wanting1 
the difference of height might be       
determined by approximation1 by         
measuring from time to time the velocity
 of the stream1 and the extent of the   
section in breadth and depth4 ,we had   
some observations of the stars at       
,uruana4 ,i found the latitude of the   
mission to be #g degrees #h minutes2 but
 the results from different stars left a
 doubt of more than #a minute4 ,the     
stratum of mosquitos1 which hovered over
 the ground1 was so thick that ,i could 
not succeed in rectifying properly the  

artificial horizon4 ,i tormented myself 
in vain2 and regretted that ,i was not  
provided with a mercurial horizon4 ,on  
the #gth of ,june1 good absolute        
altitudes of the sun gave me #fi degrees
 #dj minutes for the longitude4 ,we had 
advanced from ,esmeralda #a degree #ag  
minutes toward the west1 and this       
chronometric determination merits entire
 confidence on account of the double    
observations1 made in going and         
returning1 at the ,great ,cataracts1 and
 at the confluence of the ,atabapo and  
of the ,apure4  ,the situation of the   
mission of ,uruana is extremely         
picturesque4 ,the little ,indian village
 stands at the foot of a lofty granitic 
mountain4 ,rocks everywhere appear in   
the form of pillars above the forest1   
rising higher than the tops of the      
tallest trees4 ,the aspect of the       
,orinoco is nowhere more majestic than  
when viewed from the hut of the         
missionary1 ,fray ,ramon ,bueno4 ,it is 
more than two thousand six hundred      

toises broad1 and it runs without any   
winding1 like a vast canal1 straight    
toward the east4 ,two long and narrow   
islands 7,isla de ,uruana and ,isla     
vieja de la ,manteca7 contribute to give
 extent to the bed of the river2 the two
 banks are parallel1 and we cannot call 
it divided into different branches4 ,the
 mission is inhabited by the ,ottomacs1 
a tribe in the rudest state1 and        
presenting one of the most extraordinary
 physiological phenomena4 ,they eat     
earth2 that is1 they swallow every day1 
during several months1 very considerable
 quantities1 to appease hunger1 and this
 practice does not appear to have any   
injurious effect on their health4       
,though we could stay only one day at   
,uruana1 this short space of time       
sufficed to make us acquainted with the 
preparation of the poya1 or balls of    
earth4 ,i also found some traces of this
 vitiated appetite among the ,guamos2   
and between the confluence of the ,meta 
and the ,apure1 where everybody speaks  

of dirt-eating as of a thing anciently  
known4 ,i shall here confine myself to  
an account of what we ourselves saw or  
heard from the missionary1 who had been 
doomed to live for twelve years among   
the savage and turbulent tribe of the   
,ottomacs4  ,the inhabitants of ,uruana 
belong to those nations of the savannahs
 called wandering ,indians 7,indios     
andantes7 who1 more difficult to        
civilize than the nations of the forest 
7,indios del monte71 have a decided     
aversion to cultivate the land1 and live
 almost exclusively by hunting and      
fishing4 ,they are men of very robust   
constitution2 but ill-looking1 savage1  
vindictive1 and passionately fond of    
fermented liquors4 ,they are omnivorous 
animals in the highest degree2 and      
therefore the other ,indians1 who       
consider them as barbarians1 have a     
common saying1 nothing is so loathsome  
but that an ,ottomac will eat it4 ,while
 the waters of the ,orinoco and its     
tributary streams are low1 the ,ottomacs

 subsist on fish and turtles4 ,the      
former they kill with surprising        
dexterity1 by shooting them with an     
arrow when they appear at the surface of
 the water4 ,when the rivers swell      
fishing almost entirely ceases499 799   
,in ,south ,america1 as in ,egypt and   
,nubia1 the swelling of the rivers1     
which occurs periodically in every part 
of the torrid zone1 is erroneously      
attributed to the melting of the snows47
 ,it is then very difficult to procure  
fish1 which often fails the poor        
missionaries1 on fast-days as well as   
flesh-days1 though all the young        
,indians are under the obligation of    
fishing for the convent4 ,during the    
period of these inundations1 which last 
two or three months1 the ,ottomacs      
swallow a prodigious quantity of earth4 
,we found heaps of earth-balls in their 
huts1 piled up in pyramids three or four
 feet high4 ,these balls were five or   
six inches in diameter4 ,the earth which
 the ,ottomacs eat is a very fine and   

unctuous clay of a yellowish grey       
colour2 and1 when being slightly baked  
at the fire1 the hardened crust has a   
tint inclining to red1 owing to the     
oxide of iron which is mingled with it4 
,we brought away some of this earth1    
which we took from the winter-provision 
of the ,indians2 and it is a mistake to 
suppose that it is steatitic1 and that  
it contains magnesia4 ,vauquelin did not
 discover any traces of that substance  
in it but he found that it contained    
more silex than alumina1 and three or   
four per cent of lime4  ,the ,ottomacs  
do not eat every kind of clay           
indifferently2 they choose the alluvial 
beds or strata1 which contain the most  
unctuous earth1 and the smoothest to the
 touch4 ,i inquired of the missionary   
whether the moistened clay were made to 
undergo that peculiar decomposition     
which is indicated by a disengagement of
 carbonic acid and sulphuretted         
hydrogen1 and which is designated in    
every language by the term of           

putrefaction2 but he assured us that the
 natives neither cause the clay to rot1 
nor do they mingle it with flour of     
maize1 oil of turtle's eggs1 or fat of  
the crocodile4 ,we ourselves examined1  
both at the ,orinoco and after our      
return to ,paris1 the balls of earth    
which we brought away with us1 and found
 no trace of the mixture of any organic 
substance1 whether oily or farinaceous4 
,the savage regards every thing as      
nourishing that appeases hunger3 when1  
therefore1 you inquire of an ,ottomac on
 what he subsists during the two months 
when the river is at its highest flood  
he shows you his balls of clayey earth4 
,this he calls his principal food at the
 period when he can seldom procure a    
lizard1 a root of fern1 or a dead fish  
swimming at the surface of the water4   
,if necessity force the ,indians to eat 
earth during two months 7and from three 
quarters to five quarters of a pound in 
twenty-four hours71 he eats it from     
choice during the rest of the year4     

,every day in the season of drought1    
when fishing is most abundant1 he       
scrapes his balls of poya1 and mingles a
 little clay with his other aliment4 ,it
 is most surprising that the ,ottomacs  
do not become lean by swallowing such   
quantities of earth3 they are1 on the   
contrary1 extremely robust4 ,the        
missionary ,fray ,ramon ,bueno asserts  
that he never remarked any alteration in
 the health of the natives at the period
 of the great risings of the ,orinoco4  
,the ,ottomacs during some months eat   
daily three-quarters of a pound of clay 
slightly hardened by fire1 but which    
they moisten before swallowing it4 ,it  
has not been possible to verify hitherto
 with precision how much nutritious     
vegetable or animal matter they take in 
a week at the same time2 but they       
attribute the sensation of satiety which
 they feel to the clay1 and not to the  
wretched aliments which they take with  
it occasionally4  ,no physiological     
phenomenon being entirely insulated1 it 

may be interesting to examine several   
analogous phenomena1 which ,i have been 
able to collect4 ,i observed everywhere 
within the torrid zone1 in a great      
number of individuals1 children1 women1 
and sometimes even full-grown men1 an   
inordinate and almost irresistible      
desire of swallowing earth2 not an      
alkaline or calcareous earth to         
neutralize 7as it is said7 acid juices1 
but a fat clay1 unctuous1 and exhaling a
 strong smell4 ,it is often found       
necessary to tie the children's hands or
 to confine them to prevent them eating 
earth when the rain ceases to fall4 ,at 
the village of ,banco1 on the bank of   
the river ,magdalena1 ,i saw the ,indian
 women who make pottery continually     
swallowing great pieces of clay4 ,these 
women were not in a state of pregnancy2 
and they affirmed that earth is an      
aliment which they do not find hurtful4 
,in other ,american tribes1 people soon 
fall sick1 and waste away1 when they    
yield too much to this mania of eating  

earth4 ,we found at the mission of ,san 
,borja an ,indian child of the ,guahiba 
nation1 who was as thin as a skeleton4  
,the mother informed us that the little 
girl was reduced to this lamentable     
state of atrophy in consequence of a    
disordered appetite1 she having refused 
during four months to take almost any   
other food than clay4 ,yet ,san ,borja  
is only twenty-five leagues distant from
 the mission of ,uruana1 inhabited by   
that tribe of the ,ottomacs1 who1 from  
the effect no doubt of a habit          
progressively acquired1 swallow the poya
 without experiencing any pernicious    
effects4 ,father ,gumilla asserts that  
the ,ottomacs take as an aperient1 oil1 
or rather the melted fat of the         
crocodile1 when they feel any gastric   
obstructions2 but the missionary whom we
 found among them was little disposed to
 confirm this assertion4 ,it may be     
asked1 why the mania of eating earth is 
much more rare in the frigid and        
temperate than in the torrid zones2 and 

why in ,europe it is found only among   
women in a state of pregnancy1 and      
sickly children4 ,this difference       
between hot and temperate climates      
arises perhaps only from the inert state
 of the functions of the stomach caused 
by strong cutaneous perspiration4 ,it   
has been supposed to be observed that   
the inordinate taste for eating earth   
augments among the ,african slaves1 and 
becomes more pernicious when they are   
restricted to a regimen purely vegetable
 and deprived of spirituous liquors4    
,the negroes on the coast of ,guinea    
delight in eating a yellowish earth1    
which they call caouac4 ,the slaves who 
are taken to ,america endeavour to      
indulge in this habit2 but it proves    
detrimental to their health4 ,they say  
that the earth of the ,west ,indies is  
not so easy of digestion as that of     
their country4 ,thibaut de ,chanvalon1  
in his ,voyage to ,martinico1 expresses 
himself very judiciously on this        
pathological phenomenon4 ,another cause1

 he says1 of this pain in the stomach is
 that several of the negroes1 who come  
from the coast of ,guinea1 eat earth2   
not from a depraved taste1 or in        
consequence of disease1 but from a habit
 contracted at home in ,africa1 where   
they eat1 they say1 a particular earth1 
the taste of which they find agreeable1 
without suffering any inconvenience4    
,they seek in our islands for the earth 
most similar to this1 and prefer a      
yellowish red volcanic tufa4 ,it is sold
 secretly in our public markets2 but    
this is an abuse which the police ought 
to correct4 ,the negroes who have this  
habit are so fond of caouac1 that no    
chastisement will prevent their eating  
it4  ,in the ,indian ,archipelago1 at   
the island of ,java1 ,labillardiere saw1
 between ,surabaya and ,samarang1 little
 square and reddish cakes exposed for   
sale4 ,these cakes called tanaampo1 were
 cakes of clay1 slightly baked1 which   
the natives eat with relish4 ,the       
attention of physiologists1 since my    

return from the ,orinoco1 having been   
powerfully directed to these phenomena  
of geophagy1 ,m4 ,leschenault 7one of   
the naturalists of the expedition to the
 ,antarctic regions under the command of
 captain ,baudin7 has published some    
curious details on the tanaampo1 or     
ampo1 of the ,javanese4 ,the reddish and
 somewhat ferruginous clay1 he says     
which the inhabitants of ,java are fond 
of eating occasionally1 is spread on a  
plate of iron1 and baked1 after having  
been rolled into little cylinders in the
 form of the bark of cinnamon4 ,in this 
state it takes the name of ampo1 and is 
sold in the public markets4 ,this clay  
has a peculiar taste1 which is owing to 
the baking3 it is very absorbent1 and   
adheres to the tongue1 which it dries4  
,in general it is only the ,javanese    
women who eat the ampo1 either in the   
time of pregnancy1 or in order to grow  
thin2 the absence of plumpness being    
there regarded as a kind of beauty4 ,the
 use of this earth is fatal to health2  

the women lose their appetite           
imperceptibly1 and take only with relish
 a very small quantity of food2 but the 
desire of becoming thin1 and of         
preserving a slender shape1 induces them
 to brave these dangers1 and maintains  
the credit of the ampo4 ,the savage     
inhabitants of ,new ,caledonia also1 to 
appease their hunger in times of        
scarcity1 eat great pieces of a friable 
,lapis ollaris4 ,vauquelin analysed this
 stone1 and found in it1 beside magnesia
 and silex in equal portions1 a small   
quantity of oxide of copper4 ,m4        
,goldberry had seen the negroes in      
,africa1 in the islands of ,bunck and   
,los ,idolos1 eat an earth of which he  
had himself eaten1 without being        
incommoded by it1 and which also was a  
white and friable steatite4 ,these      
examples of earth-eating in the torrid  
zone appear very strange4 ,we are struck
 by the anomaly of finding a taste1     
which might seem to belong only to the  
inhabitants of the most sterile regions1

 prevailing among races of rude and     
indolent men1 who live in the finest and
 most fertile countries on the globe4   
,we saw at ,popayan1 and in several     
mountainous parts of ,peru1 lime reduced
 to a very fine powder1 sold in the     
public markets to the natives among     
other articles of food4 ,this powder1   
when eaten1 is mingled with coca1 that  
is1 with the leaves of the ,erythroxylon
 peruvianum4 ,it is well known that     
,indian messengers take no other aliment
 for whole days than lime and coca3 both
 excite the secretion of saliva1 and of 
the gastric juice2 they take away the   
appetite1 without affording any         
nourishment to the body4 ,in other parts
 of ,south ,america1 on the coast of    
,rio de la ,hacha1 the ,guajiros swallow
 lime alone1 without adding any         
vegetable matter to it4 ,they carry with
 them a little box filled with lime1 as 
we do snuff-boxes1 and as in ,asia      
people carry a betel-box4 ,this         
,american custom excited the curiosity  

of the first ,spanish navigators4 ,lime 
blackens the teeth2 and in the ,indian  
,archipelago1 as among several ,american
 hordes1 to blacken the teeth is to     
beautify them4 ,in the cold regions of  
the kingdom of ,quito1 the natives of   
,tigua eat habitually from choice1 and  
without any injurious consequences1 a   
very fine clay1 mixed with quartzose    
sand4 ,this clay1 suspended in water1   
renders it milky4 ,we find in their huts
 large vessels filled with this water1  
which serves as a beverage1 and which   
the ,indians call agua or leche de      
llanka499 799 ,water or milk of clay4   
,llanka is a word of the general        
language of the ,incas1 signifying fine 
clay47  ,when we reflect on these facts1
 we perceive that the appetite for      
clayey1 magnesian1 and calcareous earth 
is most common among the people of the  
torrid zone2 that it is not always a    
cause of disease2 and that some tribes  
eat earth from choice1 whilst others 7as
 the ,ottomacs in ,america1 and the     

inhabitants of ,new ,caledonia in the   
,pacific7 eat it from want and to       
appease hunger4 ,a great number of      
physiological phenomena prove that a    
temporary cessation of hunger may be    
produced though the substances that are 
submitted to the organs of digestion may
 not be1 properly speaking1 nutritive4  
,the earth of the ,ottomacs1 composed of
 alumine and silex1 furnishes probably  
nothing1 or almost nothing1 to the      
composition of the organs of man4 ,these
 organs contain lime and magnesia in the
 bones1 in the lymph of the thoracic    
duct1 in the colouring matter of the    
blood1 and in white hairs2 they afford  
very small quantities of silex in black 
hair2 and1 according to ,vauquelin1 but 
a few atoms of alumine in the bones1    
though this is contained abundantly in  
the greater part of those vegetable     
substances which form part of our       
nourishment4 ,it is not the same with   
man as with animated beings placed lower
 in the scale of organization4 ,in the  

former1 assimilation is exerted only on 
those substances that enter essentially 
into the composition of the bones1 the  
muscles1 and the medullary matter of the
 nerves and the brain4 ,plants1 on the  
contrary1 draw from the soil the salts  
that are found accidentally mixed in it2
 and their fibrous texture varies       
according to the nature of the earths   
that predominate in the spots which they
 inhabit4 ,an object well worthy of     
research1 and which has long fixed my   
attention1 is the small number of simple
 substances 7earthy and metallic7 that  
enter into the composition of animated  
beings1 and which alone appear fitted to
 maintain what we may call the chemical 
movement of vitality4  ,we must not     
confound the sensations of hunger with  
that vague feeling of debility which is 
produced by want of nutrition1 and by   
other pathologic causes4 ,the sensation 
of hunger ceases long before digestion  
takes place1 or the chyme is converted  
into chyle4 ,it ceases either by a      

nervous and tonic impression exerted by 
the aliments on the coats of the        
stomach2 or1 because the digestive      
apparatus is filled with substances that
 excite the mucous membranes to an      
abundant secretion of the gastric juice4
 ,to this tonic impression on the nerves
 of the stomach the prompt and salutary 
effects of what are called nutritive    
medicaments may be attributed1 such as  
chocolate1 and every substance that     
gently stimulates and nourishes at the  
same time4 ,it is the absence of a      
nervous stimulant that renders the      
solitary use of a nutritive substance   
7as starch1 gum1 or sugar7 less         
favourable to assimilation1 and to the  
reparation of the losses which the human
 body undergoes4 ,opium1 which is not   
nutritive1 is employed with success in  
,asia1 in times of great scarcity2 it   
acts as a tonic4 ,but when the matter   
which fills the stomach can be regarded 
neither as an aliment1 that is1 as      
proper to be assimilated1 nor as a tonic

 stimulating the nerves1 the cessation  
of hunger is probably owing only to the 
secretion of the gastric juice4 ,we here
 touch upon a problem of physiology     
which has not been sufficiently         
investigated4 ,hunger is appeased1 the  
painful feeling of inanition ceases1    
when the stomach is filled4 ,it is said 
that this viscus stands in need of      
ballast2 and every language furnishes   
figurative expressions which convey the 
idea that a mechanical distension of the
 stomach causes an agreeable sensation4 
,recent works of physiology still speak 
of the painful contraction which the    
stomach experiences during hunger1 the  
friction of its sides against one       
another1 and the action of the gastric  
juice on the texture of the digestive   
apparatus4 ,the observations of ,bichat1
 and more particularly the fine         
experiments of ,majendie1 are in        
contradiction to these superannuated    
hypotheses4 ,after twenty-four1         
forty-eight1 or even sixty hours of     

abstinence1 no contraction of the       
stomach is observed2 it is only on the  
fourth or fifth day that this organ     
appears to change in a small degree its 
dimensions4 ,the quantity of the gastric
 juice diminishes with the duration of  
abstinence4 ,it is probable that this   
juice1 far from accumulating1 is        
digested as an alimentary substance4 ,if
 a cat or dog be made to swallow a      
substance which is not susceptible of   
being digested1 a pebble for instance1 a
 mucous and acid liquid is formed       
abundantly in the cavity of the stomach1
 somewhat resembling in its composition 
the gastric juice of the human body4 ,it
 appears to me very probable1 that when 
the want of aliments compels the        
,ottomacs and the inhabitants of ,new   
,caledonia to swallow clay and steatite 
during a part of the year1 these earths 
occasion a powerful secretion of the    
gastric and pancreatic juices in the    
digestive apparatus of these people4    
,the observations which ,i made on the  

banks of the ,orinoco1 have been        
recently confirmed by the direct        
experiments of two distinguished young  
physiologists1 ,,mm4 ,cloquet and       
,breschet4 ,after long fasting they ate 
as much as five ounces of a silvery     
green and very flexible laminar talc4   
,their hunger was completely satisfied1 
and they felt no inconvenience from a   
kind of food to which their organs were 
unaccustomed4 ,it is known that great   
use is still made in the ,east of the   
bolar and sigillated earths of ,lemnos1 
which are clay mingled with oxide of    
iron4 ,in ,germany the workmen employed 
in the quarries of sandstone worked at  
the mountain of ,kiffhauser spread a    
very fine clay upon their bread1 instead
 of butter1 which they call             
steinbutter99 7stone-butter74 799 ,this 
steinbutter must not be confounded with 
the mountain butter 7bergbutter7 which  
is a saline substance1 produced by a    
decomposition of aluminous schists47    
,the state of perfect health enjoyed by 

the ,ottomacs during the time when they 
use little muscular exercise1 and are   
subjected to so extraordinary a regimen1
 is a phenomenon difficult to be        
explained4 ,it can be attributed only to
 a habit prolonged from generation to   
generation4 ,the structure of the       
digestive apparatus differs much in     
animals that feed exclusively on flesh  
or on seeds2 it is even probable that   
the gastric juice changes its nature1   
according as it is employed in effecting
 the digestion of animal or vegetable   
substances2 yet we are able gradually to
 change the regimen of herbivorous and  
carnivorous animals1 to feed the former 
with flesh1 and the latter with         
vegetables4 ,man can accustom himself to
 an extraordinary abstinence and find it
 but little painful if he employ tonic  
or stimulating substances 7various      
drugs1 small quantities of opium1 betel1
 tobacco1 or leaves of coca72 or if he  
supply his stomach1 from time to time1  
with earthy insipid substances that are 

not in themselves fit for nutrition4    
,like man in a savage state some        
animals1 when pressed by hunger in      
winter1 swallow clay or friable         
steatites2 such are the wolves in the   
northeast of ,europe1 the reindeer and1 
according to the testimony of ,m4       
,patrin1 the kids in ,siberia4 ,the     
,russian hunters1 on the banks of the   
,yenisei and the ,amour1 use a clayey   
matter which they call rock-butter1 as a
 bait4 ,the animals scent this clay from
 afar1 and are fond of the smell2 as the
 clays of bucaro1 known in ,portugal and
 ,spain by the name of odoriferous      
earths 7tierras olorosas71 have an odour
 agreeable to women499 799 ,bucaro 7vas 
fictile odoriferum74 ,people are fond of
 drinking out of these vessels on       
account of the smell of the clay4 ,the  
women of the province of ,alentejo      
acquire a habit of masticating the      
bucaro earth2 and feel a great privation
 when they cannot indulge this vitiated 
taste47 ,brown relates in his ,history  

of ,jamaica that the crocodiles of      
,south ,america swallow small stones and
 pieces of very hard wood1 when the     
lakes which they inhabit are dry1 or    
when they are in want of food4 ,m4      
,bonpland and ,i observed in a          
crocodile1 eleven feet long1 which we   
dissected at ,batallez1 on the banks of 
the ,rio ,magdalena1 that the stomach of
 this reptile contained half-digested   
fish1 and rounded fragments of granite  
three or four inches in diameter4 ,it is
 difficult to admit that the crocodiles 
swallow these stony masses accidentally1
 for they do not catch fish with their  
lower jaw resting on the ground at the  
bottom of the river4 ,the ,indians have 
framed the absurd hypothesis that these 
indolent animals like to augment their  
weight1 that they may have less trouble 
in diving4 ,i rather think that they    
load their stomach with large pebbles to
 excite an abundant secretion of the    
gastric juice4 ,the experiments of      
,majendie render this explanation       

extremely probable4 ,with respect to the
 habit of the granivorous birds1        
particularly the gallinaceae and        
ostriches1 of swallowing sand and small 
pebbles1 it has been hitherto attributed
 to an instinctive desire of            
accelerating the trituration of the     
aliments in a muscular and thick        
stomach4  ,we have mentioned that tribes
 of ,negroes on the ,gambia mingle clay 
with their rice4 ,some families of      
,ottomacs were perhaps formerly         
accustomed to cause the maize and other 
farinaceous seeds to rot in their poya1 
in order to eat earth and amylaceous    
matter together3 possibly it was a      
preparation of this kind1 that ,father  
,gumilla described indistinctly in the  
first volume of his work when he affirms
 that the ,guamos and the ,ottomacs feed
 upon earth only because it is          
impregnated with the sustancia del maiz 
7substance of maize7 and the fat of the 
cayman4 ,i have already observed that   
neither the present missionary of       

,uruana1 nor ,fray ,juan ,gonzales1 who 
lived long in those countries1 knew     
anything of this mixture of animal and  
vegetable substances with the poya4     
,perhaps ,father ,gumilla has confounded
 the preparation of the earth which the 
natives swallow with the custom they    
still retain 7of which ,m4 ,bonpland    
acquired the certainty on the spot7 of  
burying in the ground the beans of a    
species of mimosacea199 799 ,of the     
genus ,inga47 to cause them to enter    
into decomposition so as to reduce them 
into a white bread1 savoury1 but        
difficult of digestion4 ,i repeat that  
the balls of poya1 which we took from   
the winter stores of the ,indians1      
contained no trace of animal fat1 or of 
amylaceous matter4 ,gumilla being one of
 the most credulous travellers we know1 
it almost perplexes us to credit facts  
which even he has thought fit to reject4
 ,in the second volume of his work he   
however gainsays a great part of what he
 advanced in the first2 he no longer    

doubts that half at least 7a lo menos7  
of the bread of the ,ottomacs and the   
,guamos is clay4 ,he asserts1 that      
children and full grown persons not only
 eat this bread without suffering in    
their health1 but also great pieces of  
pure clay 7muchos terrones de pura      
greda47 ,he adds that those who feel a  
weight on the stomach physic themselves 
with the fat of the crocodile which     
restores their appetite and enables them
 to continue to eat pure earth499 799   
,gumilla volume #b page #bfj47 ,it is   
certain that the ,guamos are very fond1 
if not of the fat1 at least of the flesh
 of the crocodile1 which appeared to us 
white1 and without any smell of musk4   
,in ,sennaar1 according to ,burckhardt1 
it is equally esteemed1 and sold in the 
markets4  ,the little village of ,uruana
 is more difficult to govern than most  
of the other missions4 ,the ,ottomacs   
are a restless1 turbulent people1 with  
unbridled passions4 ,they are not only  
fond to excess of the fermented liquors 

prepared from cassava and maize1 and of 
palm-wine1 but they throw themselves    
into a peculiar state of intoxication1  
we might say of madness1 by the use of  
the powder of niopo4 ,they gather the   
long pods of a mimosacea which we have  
made known by the name of ,acacia       
niopo199 cut them into pieces1 moisten  
them1 and cause them to ferment4 799 ,it
 is an acacia with very delicate leaves1
 and not an ,inga4 ,we brought home     
another species of mimosacea 7the chiga 
of the ,ottomacs and the sepa of the    
,maypures7 that yields seeds1 the flour 
of which is eaten at ,uruana like       
cassava4 ,from this flour the chiga     
bread is prepared1 which is so common at
 ,cunariche1 and on the banks of the    
,lower ,orinoco4 ,the chiga is a species
 of ,inga1 and ,i know of no other      
mimosacea that can supply the place of  
the cerealia47 ,when the softened seeds 
begin to grow black1 they are kneaded   
like a paste2 mixed with some flour of  
cassava and lime procured from the shell

 of a helix1 and the whole mass is      
exposed to a very brisk fire1 on a      
gridiron made of hard wood4 ,the        
hardened paste takes the form of small  
cakes4 ,when it is to be used1 it is    
reduced to a fine powder1 and placed on 
a dish five or six inches wide4 ,the    
,ottomac holds this dish1 which has a   
handle1 in his right hand1 while he     
inhales the niopo by the nose1 through  
the forked bone of a bird1 the two      
extremities of which are applied to the 
nostrils4 ,this bone1 without which the 
,ottomac believes that he could not take
 this kind of snuff1 is seven inches    
long3 it appeared to me to be the       
leg-bone of a large sort of plover4 ,the
 niopo is so stimulating that the       
smallest portions of it produce violent 
sneezing in those who are not accustomed
 to its use4 ,father ,gumilla says this 
diabolical powder of the ,ottomacs1     
furnished by an arborescent             
tobacco-plant1 intoxicates them through 
the nostrils 7emboracha por las         

narices71 deprives them of reason for   
some hours1 and renders them furious in 
battle4 ,however varied may be the      
family of the leguminous plants in the  
chemical and medical properties of their
 seeds1 juices1 and roots1 we cannot    
believe1 from what we know hitherto of  
the group of mimosaceae1 that it is     
principally the pod of the ,acacia niopo
 which imparts the stimulant power to   
the snuff of the ,ottomacs4 ,this power 
is owing1 no doubt1 to the freshly      
calcined lime4 ,we have shown above that
 the mountaineers of the ,andes of      
,popayan1 and the ,guajiros1 who wander 
between the lake of ,maracaybo and the  
,rio la ,hacha1 are also fond of        
swallowing lime as a stimulant1 to      
augment the secretion of the saliva and 
the gastric juice4  ,a custom analogous 
to the use of the niopo just described  
was observed by ,la ,condamine among the
 natives of the ,upper ,maranon4 ,the   
,omaguas1 whose name is rendered        
celebrated by the expeditions attempted 

in search of ,el ,dorado1 have like the 
,ottomacs a dish1 and the hollow bone of
 a bird1 by which they convey to their  
nostrils their powder of curupa4 ,the   
seed that yields this powder is no doubt
 also a mimosacea2 for the ,ottomacs1   
according to ,father ,gili1 designate   
even now1 at the distance of one hundred
 and sixty leagues from the ,amazon1 the
 ,acacia niopo by the name of curupa4   
,since the geographical researches which
 ,i have recently made on the scene of  
the exploits of ,philip von ,huten1 and 
the real situation of the province of   
,papamene1 or of the ,omaguas1 the      
probability of an ancient communication 
between the ,ottomacs of the ,orinoco   
and the ,omaguas of the ,maranon has    
become more interesting and more        
probable4 ,the former came from the     
,meta1 perhaps from the country between 
the ,meta and the ,guaviare2 the latter 
assert that they descended in great     
numbers to the ,maranon by the ,rio     
,jupura1 coming from the eastern        

declivity of the ,andes of ,new         
,grenada4 ,now1 it is precisely between 
the ,guayavero 7which joins the         
,guaviare7 and the ,caqueta 7which takes
 lower down the name of ,japura7 that   
the country of the ,omagua appears to be
 situate1 of which the adventurers of   
,coro and ,tocuyo in vain attempted the 
conquest4 ,there is no doubt a striking 
contrast between the present barbarism  
of the ,ottomacs and the ancient        
civilization of the ,omaguas2 but all   
parts of the latter nation were not     
perhaps alike advanced in civilization1 
and the example of tribes fallen into   
complete barbarism are unhappily but too
 common in the history of our species4  
,another point of resemblance may be    
remarked between the ,ottomacs and the  
,omaguas4 ,both of these nations are    
celebrated among all the tribes of the  
,orinoco and the ,amazon for their      
employment of caoutchouc in the         
manufacture of various articles of      
utility4  ,the real herbaceous tobacco99

 7for the missionaries have the habit of
 calling the niopo or curupa            
tree-tobacco7 has been cultivated from  
time immemorial by all the native people
 of the ,orinoco2 and at the period of  
the conquest the habit of smoking was   
found to be alike spread over both      
,north and ,south ,america4  799 ,the   
word tobacco 7tabacco71 like the words  
savannah1 maize1 cacique1 maguey        
7agave71 and manati1 belongs to the     
ancient language of ,haiti1 or ,st4     
,domingo4 ,it did not properly denote   
the herb but the tube through which the 
smoke was inhaled4 ,it seems surprising 
that a vegetable production so          
universally spread should have different
 names among neighbouring people4 ,the  
pete-ma of the ,omaguas is1 no doubt1   
the pety of the ,guaranos2 but the      
analogy between the ,cabre and ,algonkin
 7or ,lenni-,lenape7 words which denote 
tobacco may be merely accidental4 ,the  
following are the synonyms in thirteen  
languages4  ,north ,america4 ,aztec or  

,mexican2 yetl3 ,algonkin2 sema3 ,huron2
 oyngoua4  ,south ,america4 ,peruvian or
 ,quichua2 sayri3 ,chiquito2 pais4      
,guarany2 pety3 ,vilela2 tusup3 ,mbaja  
7west of the ,paraguay71 nalodagadi3    
,moxo 7between the ,rio ,ucayale and the
 ,rio ,madeira72 sabare4 ,omagua2       
petema4 ,tamanac2 cavas4 ,maypure2 jema4
 ,cabre2 scema47  ,the ,tamanacs and the
 ,maypures of ,guiana wrap maize-leaves 
round their cigars1 as the ,mexicans did
 at the time of the arrival of ,cortes4 
,the ,spaniards have substituted paper  
for the leaves of maize in imitation of 
them4 ,the poor ,indians of the forests 
of the ,orinoco know as well as did the 
great nobles at the court of ,montezuma 
that the smoke of tobacco is an         
excellent narcotic2 and they use it not 
only to procure their afternoon nap1 but
 also to put themselves into that state 
of quiescence1 which they call dreaming 
with the eyes open1 or day-dreaming4    
,the use of tobacco appears to me to be 
now very rare in the missions2 and in   

,new ,spain1 to the great regret of the 
revenue-officers1 the natives1 who are  
almost all descended from the lowest    
class of the ,aztec people1 do not smoke
 at all4 ,father ,gili affirms that the 
practice of chewing tobacco is unknown  
to the ,indians of the ,lower ,orinoco4 
,i rather doubt the truth of this       
assertion1 having been told that the    
,sercucumas of the ,erevato and the     
,caura1 neighbours of the whitish       
,taparitos1 swallow tobacco chopped     
small1 and impregnated with some other  
very stimulant juices1 to prepare       
themselves for battle4 ,of the four     
species of nicotiana cultivated in      
,europe99 799 ,nicotiana tabacum1 ,n4   
rustica1 ,n4 paniculata1 and ,n4        
glutinosa47 we found only two growing   
wild2 but the ,nicotiana loxensis1 and  
the ,nicotiana andicola1 which ,i found 
on the back of the ,andes1 at the height
 of eighteen hundred and fifty toises   
7almost the height of the ,peak of      
,teneriffe71 are very similar to the ,n4

 tabacum and ,n4 rustica4 ,the whole    
genus1 however1 is almost exclusively   
,american1 and the greater number of the
 species appeared to me to belong to the
 mountainous and temperate region of the
 tropics4  ,it was neither from         
,virginia1 nor from ,south ,america1 but
 from the ,mexican province of ,yucatan1
 that ,europe received the first tobacco
 seeds1 about the year #aeei499 799 ,the
 ,spaniards became acquainted with      
tobacco in the ,west ,india ,islands at 
the end of the #aeth century4 ,i have   
already mentioned that the cultivation  
of this narcotic plant preceded the     
cultivation of the potato in ,europe    
more than #abj or #adj years4 ,when     
,raleigh brought tobacco from ,virginia 
to ,england in #aehf1 whole fields of it
 were already cultivated in ,portugal4  
,it was also previously known in        
,france1 where it was brought into      
fashion by ,catherine de ,medicis1 from 
whom it received the name of herbe a la 
reine1 the queen's herb47 ,the          

celebrated ,raleigh contributed most to 
introduce the custom of smoking among   
the nations of the north4 ,as early as  
the end of the sixteenth century bitter 
complaints were made in ,england of this
 imitation of the manners of a savage   
people4 ,it was feared that1 by the     
practice of smoking tobacco1 ,englishmen
 would degenerate into a barbarous      
state499 799 ,this remarkable passage of
 ,camden is as follows1 ,annal4         
,elizabet4 page #adc #aehe2 ex illo sane
 tempore tabacum usu cepit esse         
creberrimo in ,anglia et magno pretio   
dum quamplurimi graveolentem illius     
fumum per tubulum testaceum hauriunt et 
mox e naribus efflant2 adeo ut ,auglornm
 corporum in barbarorum naturam         
degenerasse videantur1 quum iidem ac    
barbari delectentur4 ,we may see from   
this passage that they emitted the smoke
 through the nose2 but at the court of  
,montezuma the pipe was held in one     
hand1 while the nostrils were stopped   
with the other1 in order that the smoke 

might be more easily swallowed4 ,life of
 ,raleigh volume #a page #hb47  ,when   
the ,ottomacs of ,uruana1 by the use of 
niopo 7their arborescent tobacco71 and  
of fermented liquors1 have thrown       
themselves into a state of intoxication1
 which lasts several days1 they kill one
 another without ostensibly fighting4   
,the most vindictive among them poison  
the nail of their thumb with curare2    
and1 according to the testimony of the  
missionary1 the mere impression of this 
poisoned nail may become a mortal wound 
if the curare be very active and        
immediately mingle with the mass of the 
blood4 ,when the ,indians1 after a      
quarrel at night1 commit a murder1 they 
throw the dead body into the river1     
fearing that some indications of the    
violence committed on the deceased may  
be observed4 ,every time1 said ,father  
,bueno1 that ,i see the women fetch     
water from a part of the shore to which 
they are not accustomed to go1 ,i       
suspect that a murder has been committed

 in my mission4  ,we found in the       
,indian huts at ,uruana the vegetable   
substance called touchwood of ants199   
799 ,yesca de hormigas47 with which we  
had become acquainted at the ,great     
,cataracts1 and which is employed to    
stop bleeding4 ,this substance1 which   
might less improperly be called ants'   
nests1 is in much request in a region   
whose inhabitants are of so turbulent a 
character4 ,a new species of ant1 of a  
fine emerald-green 7,formica            
spinicollis71 collects for its          
habitation a cotton-down1 of a          
yellowish-brown colour1 and very soft to
 the touch1 from the leaves of a        
melastomacea4 ,i have no doubt that the 
yesca or touchwood of ants of the ,upper
 ,orinoco 7the animal is found1 we were 
assured1 only south of ,atures7 will one
 day become an article of trade4 ,this  
substance is very superior to the ants' 
nests of ,cayenne1 which are employed in
 the hospitals of ,europe1 but can      
rarely be procured4  ,on the #gth of    

,june we took leave with regret of      
,father ,ramon ,bueno4 ,of the ten      
missionaries whom we had found in       
different parts of the vast extent of   
,guiana1 he alone appeared to me to be  
earnestly attentive to all that regarded
 the natives4 ,he hoped to return in a  
short time to ,madrid1 where he intended
 to publish the result of his researches
 on the figures and characters that     
cover the rocks of ,uruana4  ,in the    
countries we had just passed through1   
between the ,meta1 the ,arauca1 and the 
,apure1 there were found1 at the time of
 the first expeditions to the ,orinoco1 
in #aece1 those mute dogs1 called by the
 natives maios1 and auries4 ,this fact  
is curious in many points of view4 ,we  
cannot doubt that the dog1 whatever     
,father ,gili may assert1 is indigenous 
in ,south ,america4 ,the different      
,indian languages furnish words to      
designate this animal1 which are        
scarcely derived from any ,european     
tongue4 ,to this day the word auri1     

mentioned three hundred years ago by    
,alonzo de ,herrera1 is found in the    
,maypure4 ,the dogs we saw at the       
,orinoco may perhaps have descended from
 those that the ,spaniards carried to   
the coast of ,caracas2 but it is not    
less certain that there existed a race  
of dogs before the conquest1 in ,peru1  
in ,new ,granada1 and in ,guiana1       
resembling our shepherds' dogs4 ,the    
allco of the natives of ,peru1 and in   
general all the dogs that we found in   
the wildest countries of ,south         
,america1 bark frequently4 ,the first   
historians1 however1 all speak of mute  
dogs 7perros mudos74 ,they still exist  
in ,canada2 and1 what appears to me     
worthy of attention1 it was this dumb   
variety that was eaten in preference in 
,mexico199 and at the ,orinoco4 799 ,see
 on the ,mexican techichi and on the    
numerous difficulties that occur in the 
history of mute dogs and dogs destitute 
of hair the ,views of ,nature ,bohn's   
edition page #he47 ,a very well informed

 traveller1 ,m4 ,giesecke1 who resided  
six years in ,greenland1 assured me that
 the dogs of the ,esquimaux1 which pass 
their lives in the open air and bury    
themselves in winter beneath the snow1  
do not bark1 but howl like wolves499 799
 ,they sit down in a circle1 one of them
 begins to howl alone and the others    
follow in the same tone4 ,the groups of 
alouate monkeys howl in the same manner1
 and among them the ,indians distinguish
 the leader of the band4 ,it was the    
practice at ,mexico to castrate the mute
 dogs in order to fatten them4 ,this    
operation must have contributed to alter
 the organ of the voice47  ,the practice
 of eating the flesh of dogs is now     
entirely unknown on the banks of the    
,orinoco2 but as it is a ,tartar custom 
spread through all the eastern part of  
,asia1 it appears to me highly          
interesting for the history of nations  
to have ascertained that it existed     
heretofore in the hot regions of ,guiana
 and on the table-lands of ,mexico4 ,i  

must observe1 also1 that on the confines
 of the province of ,durango1 at the    
northern extremity of ,new ,spain1 the  
,comanches have preserved the habit of  
loading the backs of the great dogs that
 accompany them in their migrations with
 their tents of buffalo-leather4 ,it is 
well known that employing dogs as beasts
 of burthen and of draught is equally   
common near the ,slave ,lake and in     
,siberia4 ,i dwell on these features of 
conformity in the manners of nations1   
which become of some weight when they   
are not solitary1 and are connected with
 the analogies furnished by the         
structure of languages1 the division of 
time1 and religious creeds and          
institutions4  ,we passed the night at  
the island of ,cucuruparu1 called also  
,playa de la ,tortuga1 because the      
,indians of ,uruana go thither to       
collect the turtles' eggs4 ,it is one of
 the best determined points of latitude 
along the banks of the ,orinoco4 ,i was 
there fortunate enough to observe the   

passage of three stars over the         
meridian4 ,to the east of the island is 
the mouth of the ,cano de la ,tortuga1  
which descends from the mountains of    
,cerbatana1 continually wrapped in      
electric clouds4 ,on the southern bank  
of the ,cano1 between the tributary     
streams ,parapara and ,oche1 lies the   
almost ruined mission of ,san ,miguel de
 la ,tortuga4 ,the ,indians assured us  
that the environs of this little mission
 abound in otters with a very fine fur1 
called by the ,portuguese water-dogs    
7perritos de agua72 and what is still   
more remarkable1 in lizards 7lagartos7  
with only two feet4 ,the whole of this  
country1 which is very accessible       
between the ,rio ,cuchivero and the     
strait of ,baraguan1 is worthy of being 
visited by a well-informed zoologist4   
,the lagarto destitute of hinder        
extremities is perhaps a species of     
,siren1 different from the ,siren       
lacertina of ,carolina4 ,if it were a   
saurian1 a real ,bimanis 7,chirotes1    

,cuvier71 the natives would not have    
compared it to a lizard4 ,besides the   
arrau turtles1 of which ,i have in a    
former place given a detailed account1  
an innumerable quantity of land         
tortoises also1 called morocoi1 are     
found on the banks of the ,orinoco1     
between ,uruana and ,encaramada4 ,during
 the great heats of summer1 in the time 
of drought1 these animals remain without
 taking food1 hidden beneath stones1 or 
in the holes they have dug4 ,they issue 
from their shelter and begin to eat1    
only when the humidity of the first     
rains penetrates into the earth4 ,the   
terekay1 or tajelu turtle which lives in
 fresh water1 has the same habits4 ,i   
have already spoken of the summer-sleep 
of some animals of the tropics4 ,as the 
natives know the holes in which the     
tortoises sleep amidst the dried lands1 
they get out a great number at once1 by 
digging fifteen or eighteen inches deep4
 ,father ,gili says that this operation1
 which he had seen1 is not without      

danger1 because serpents often bury     
themselves in summer with the terekays4 
,from the island of ,cucuruparu1 to the 
capital of ,guiana1 commonly called     
,angostura1 we were but nine days on the
 water4 ,the distance is somewhat less  
than ninety-five leagues4 ,we seldom    
slept on shore but the torment of the   
mosquitos diminished in proportion as we
 advanced4 ,we landed on the #hth of    
,june at a farm 7,hato de ,san ,rafael  
del ,capuchino7 opposite the mouth of   
the ,rio ,apure4 ,i obtained some good  
observations of latitude and            
longitude499 799 ,i had found1 on the   
#dth of ,april1 for the ,boca del ,rio  
,apure 7on the western bank of the      
,orinoco71 the latitude #g degrees #cf  
minutes #cj seconds1 the longitude #ei  
degrees #g minutes #cj seconds2 on the  
#hth of ,june ,i found1 for the ,hato   
del ,capuchino 7on the eastern bank of  
the ,orinoco71 the latitude #g degrees  
#cg minutes #de seconds1 the longitude  
#fi degrees #e minutes #cj seconds47    

,having two months before taken horary  
angles on the bank opposite ,capuchino1 
these observations were important for   
determining the rate of my chronometer1 
and connecting the situations on the    
,orinoco with those on the shore of     
,venezuela4 ,the situation of this farm1
 being at the point where the ,orinoco  
changes its course 7which had previously
 been from south to north71 and runs    
from west to east1 is extremely         
picturesque4 ,granite rocks rise like   
islets amidst vast meadows4 ,from their 
tops we discerned towards the north the 
,llanos of ,calabozo bounding the       
horizon4 ,we had been so long accustomed
 to the aspect of forests1 that this    
view made a powerful impression on us4  
,the steppes after sunset assume a tint 
of greenish gray4 ,the visual ray being 
intercepted only by the rotundity of the
 earth1 the stars seemed to rise as from
 the bosom of the ocean1 and the most   
experienced mariner would have fancied  
himself placed on a projecting cape of a

 rocky coast4 ,our host was a ,frenchman
 who lived amidst his numerous herds4   
,though he had forgotten his native     
language1 he seemed pleased to learn    
that we came from his country1 which he 
had left forty years before2 and he     
wished to retain us for some days at his
 farm4 ,the small towns of ,caycara and 
,cabruta were only a few miles distant  
from the farm2 but during part of the   
year our host was in complete solitude4 
,the ,capuchino becomes an island by the
 inundations of the ,apure and the      
,orinoco1 and the communication with the
 neighbouring farms can be kept up only 
by means of a boat4 ,the horned cattle  
then seek the higher grounds which      
extend on the south toward the chain of 
the mountains of ,encaramada4 ,this     
granitic chain is intersected by valleys
 which contain magnetic sands 7granulary
 oxidulated iron71 owing no doubt to the
 decomposition of some amphibolic or    
chloritic strata4  ,on the morning of   
the #ith of ,june we met a great number 

of boats laden with merchandize sailing 
up the ,orinoco1 in order to enter the  
,apure4 ,this is a commercial road much 
frequented between ,angostura and the   
port of ,torunos in the province of     
,varinas4 ,our fellow-traveller1 ,don   
,nicolas ,soto1 brother-in-law of the   
governor of ,varinas1 took the same     
course to return to his family4 ,at the 
period of the high waters1 several      
months are lost in contending with the  
currents of the ,orinoco1 the ,apure1   
and the ,rio de ,santo ,domingo4 ,the   
boatmen are forced to carry out ropes to
 the trunks of trees and thus warp their
 canoes up4 ,in the great sinuosities of
 the river whole days are sometimes     
passed without advancing more than two  
or three hundred toises4 ,since my      
return to ,europe the communications    
between the mouth of the ,orinoco and   
the provinces situated on the eastern   
slope of the mountains of ,merida1      
,pamplona1 and ,santa ,fe de ,bogota1   
have become more active2 and it may be  

hoped that steamboats will facilitate   
these long voyages on the ,lower        
,orinoco1 the ,portuguesa1 the ,rio     
,santo ,domingo1 the ,orivante1 the     
,meta1 and the ,guaviare4 ,magazines of 
cleft wood might be formed1 as on the   
banks of the great rivers of the ,united
 ,states1 sheltering them under sheds4  
,this precaution would be indispensable1
 as1 in the country through which we    
passed1 it is not easy to procure dry   
fuel fit to keep up a fire beneath the  
boiler of a steam-engine4  ,we          
disembarked below ,san ,rafael del      
,capuchino1 on the right1 at the ,villa 
de ,caycara1 near a cove called ,puerto 
,sedeno4 ,the ,villa is merely a few    
houses grouped together4 ,alta ,gracia1 
la ,ciudad de la ,piedra1 ,real ,corona1
 ,borbon1 in short all the towns or     
villas lying between the mouth of the   
,apure and ,angostura1 are equally      
miserable4 ,the presidents of the       
missions1 and the governors of the      
provinces1 were formerly accustomed to  

demand the privileges of villas and     
ciudades at ,madrid1 the moment the     
first foundations of a church were laid4
 ,this was a means of persuading the    
ministry that the colonies were         
augmenting rapidly in population and    
prosperity4 ,sculptured figures of the  
sun and moon1 such as ,i have already   
mentioned1 are found near ,caycara1 at  
the ,cerro del ,tirano499 799 ,the      
tyrant after whom these mountains are   
named is not ,lope de ,aguirre1 but     
probably1 as the name of the            
neighbouring cove seems to prove1 the   
celebrated conquistador ,antonio        
,sedeno1 who1 after the expedition of   
,herrera1 sought to penetrate by the    
,orinoco to the ,rio ,meta4 ,he was in a
 state of rebellion against the         
audiencia of ,santo ,domingo4 ,i know   
not how ,sedeno came to ,caycara2 for   
historians relate that he was poisoned  
on the banks of the ,rio ,tisnado1 one  
of the tributary streams of the         
,portuguesa47 ,it is the work of the old

 people 7that is of our fathers71 say   
the natives4 ,on a rock more distant    
from the shore1 and called ,tecoma1 the 
symbolic figures are found1 it is said1 
at the height of a hundred feet4 ,the   
,indians knew heretofore a road1 that   
led by land from ,caycara to ,demerara  
and ,essequibo4  ,on the northern bank  
of the ,orinoco1 opposite ,caycara1 is  
the mission of ,cabruta1 founded by the 
,jesuit ,rotella1 in #agdj1 as an       
advanced post against the ,caribs4 ,an  
,indian village1 known by the name of   
,cabritu199 had existed on the same spot
 for several ages4 799 ,a cacique of    
,cabritu received ,alonzo de ,herrera at
 his dwelling1 on the expedition        
undertaken by ,herrera for ascending the
 ,orinoco in #aece47 ,at the time when  
this little place became a ,christian   
settlement1 it was believed to be       
situate in #e degrees latitude1 or two  
degrees forty minutes more to the south 
than ,i found it by direct observations 
made at ,san ,rafael1 and at ,la ,boca  

del ,rio ,apure4 ,no idea was then      
conceived of the direction of a road    
that could lead by land to ,nueva       
,valencia and ,caracas1 which were      
supposed to be at an immense distance4  
,the merit of having first crossed the  
,llanos to go to ,cabruta from the      
,villa de ,san ,juan ,baptista del ,pao 
belongs to a woman4 ,father ,gili       
relates that ,dona ,maria ,bargas was so
 devoted to the ,jesuits that she       
attempted herself to discover the way to
 the missions4 ,she was seen with       
astonishment to arrive at ,cabruta from 
the north4 ,she took up her abode near  
the fathers of ,st4 ,ignatius1 and died 
in their settlements on the banks of the
 ,orinoco4 ,since that period the       
northern part of the ,llanos has been   
considerably peopled2 and the road      
leading from the valleys of ,aragua by  
,calabozo to ,san ,fernando de ,apure   
and ,cabruta is much frequented4 ,the   
chief of the famous expedition of the   
boundaries made choice of the latter    

place in #aged to establish dock-yards  
for building the vessels necessary for  
conveying his troops intended for the   
,upper ,orinoco4 ,the little mountain   
that rises northeast of ,cabruta can be 
discerned from afar in the steppes and  
serves as a landmark for travellers4    
,we embarked in the morning at ,caycara2
 and driving with the current of the    
,orinoco1 we soon passed the mouth of   
the ,rio ,cuchivero1 which according to 
ancient tradition is the country of the 
,aikeambenanos1 or women without        
husbands2 and we there reached the      
paltry village of ,alta ,gracia1 which  
is called a ,spanish town4 ,it was near 
this place that ,jose de ,iturriaga     
founded the ,pueblo de ,ciudad ,real1   
which still figures on the most modern  
maps1 though it has not existed for     
fifty years past1 on account of the     
insalubrity of its situation4 ,beyond   
the point where the ,orinoco turns to   
the east1 forests are constantly seen on
 the right bank1 and the llanos or      

steppes of ,venezuela on the left4 ,the 
forests which border the river are not  
however so thick as those of the ,upper 
,orinoco4 ,the population1 which        
augments perceptibly as you advance     
toward the capital1 comprises but few   
,indians1 and is composed chiefly of    
whites1 negroes1 and men of mixed       
descent4 ,the number of the negroes is  
not great2 but here1 as everywhere else1
 the poverty of their masters does not  
tend to procure for them more humane    
treatment4 ,an inhabitant of ,caycara   
had just been condemned to four years'  
imprisonment1 and a fine of one hundred 
piastres for having1 in a paroxysm of   
rage1 tied a negress by the legs to the 
tail of his horse1 and dragged her at   
full gallop through the savannah till   
she expired4 ,it is gratifying to record
 that the ,audiencia was generally      
blamed in the country for not having    
punished more severely so atrocious an  
action4 ,yet some few persons1 who      
pretended to be the most enlightened and

 most sagacious of the community1 deemed
 the punishment of a white contrary to  
sound policy1 at the moment when the    
blacks of ,st4 ,domingo were in complete
 insurrection4 ,since ,i left those     
countries1 civil dissensions have put   
arms into the hands of the slaves2 and  
fatal experience has led the inhabitants
 of ,venezuela to regret that they      
refused to listen to ,don ,domingo      
,tovar1 and other right-thinking men1   
who1 as early as the year #agie1 lifted 
up their voices in the cabildo of       
,caracas1 to prevent the introduction of
 blacks1 and to propose means that might
 ameliorate their condition4  ,after    
having slept on the #ajth of ,june in an
 island in the middle of the river 7,i  
believe that called ,acaru by ,father   
,caulin71 we passed the mouth of the    
,rio ,caura4 ,this1 the ,aruy and the   
,carony1 are the largest tributary      
streams which the ,orinoco receives on  
its right bank4 ,all the ,christian     
settlements are near the mouth of the   

river2 and the villages of ,san ,pedro1 
,aripao1 ,urbani1 and ,guaraguaraico1   
succeed each other at the distance of a 
few leagues4 ,the first and the most    
populous contains only about two hundred
 and fifty souls4 ,san ,luis de         
,guaraguaraico is a colony of negroes1  
some freed and others fugitives from    
,essequibo4 ,this colony merits the     
particular attention of the ,spanish    
,government1 for it can never be        
sufficiently recommended to endeavour to
 attach the slaves to the soil1 and     
suffer them to enjoy as farmers the     
fruits of their agricultural labours4   
,the land on the ,caura1 for the most   
part a virgin soil1 is extremely        
fertile4 ,there are pasturages for more 
than #ae1jjj beasts2 but the poor       
inhabitants have neither horses nor     
horned cattle4 ,more than five-sixths of
 the banks of the ,caura are either     
desert1 or occupied by independent and  
savage tribes4 ,the bed of the river is 
twice choked up by rocks3 these         

obstructions occasion the famous        
,raudales of ,mura and of ,para or      
,paru1 the latter of which has a        
portage1 because it cannot be passed by 
canoes4 ,at the time of the expedition  
of the boundaries1 a small fort was     
erected on the northern cataract1 that  
of ,mura2 and the governor1 ,don ,manuel
 ,centurion1 gave the name of ,ciudad de
 ,san ,carlos to a few houses which some
 families1 consisting of whites and     
mulattos1 had constructed near the fort4
 ,south of the cataract of ,para1 at the
 confluence of the ,caura and the       
,erevato1 the mission of ,san ,luis was 
then situated2 and a road by land led   
thence to ,angostura1 the capital of the
 province4 ,all these attempts at       
civilization have been fruitless4 ,no   
village now exists above the ,raudal of 
,mura2 and here1 as in many other parts 
of the colonies1 the natives may be said
 to have reconquered the country from   
the ,spaniards4 ,the valley of ,caura   
may become one day or other highly      

interesting from the value of its       
productions1 and the communications     
which it affords with the ,rio          
,ventuari1 the ,carony1 and the ,cuyuni4
 ,i have shown above the importance of  
the four tributary streams which the    
,orinoco receives from the mountains of 
,parima4 ,near the mouth of the ,caura1 
between the villages of ,san ,pedro de  
,alcantara and ,san ,francisco de       
,aripao1 a small lake of four hundred   
toises in diameter was formed in #agij1 
by the sinking of the ground1 consequent
 on an earthquake4 ,it was a portion of 
the forest of ,aripao1 which sunk to the
 depth of eighty or a hundred feet below
 the level of the neighbouring land4    
,the trees remained green for several   
months2 and some of them1 it was        
believed1 continued to push forth leaves
 beneath the water4 ,this phenomenon is 
the more worthy of attention as the soil
 of these countries is probably         
granitic4 ,i doubt the secondary        
formations of the ,llanos being         

continued southward as far as the valley
 of ,caura4  ,on the #aath of ,june we  
landed on the right bank of the ,orinoco
 at ,puerto de los ,frailes1 at the     
distance of three leagues above the     
,ciudad de la ,piedra1 to take altitudes
 of the sun4 ,the longitude of this     
point is #fg degrees #bf minutes #bj    
seconds1 or #a degree #da minutes east  
of the mouth of the ,apure4 ,farther on1
 between the towns of ,la ,piedra and   
,muitaco1 or ,real ,corona1 are the     
,torno and ,boca del ,infierno1 two     
points formerly dreaded by travellers4  
,the ,orinoco suddenly changes its      
direction2 it flows first east1 then    
north-north-west1 and then again east4  
,a little above the ,cano ,marapiche1   
which opens on the northern bank1 a very
 long island divides the river into two 
branches4 ,we passed on the south of    
this island without difficulty2         
northward1 a chain of small rocks1 half 
covered at high water1 forms whirlpools 
and rapids4 ,this is ,la ,boca del      

,infierno1 and the ,raudal de ,camiseta4
 ,the first expeditions of ,diego ,ordaz
 7#aeca7 and ,alonzo de ,herrera 7#aece7
 have given celebrity to this bar4 ,the 
,great ,cataracts of the ,atures and    
,maypures were then unknown2 and the    
clumsy vessels 7vergantines71 in which  
travellers persisted in going up the    
river1 rendered the passage through the 
rapids extremely difficult4 ,at present 
no apprehension is felt in ascending or 
descending the ,orinoco1 at any season1 
from its mouth as far as the confluence 
of the ,apure and the ,meta4 ,the only  
falls of water in this space are those  
of ,torno or ,camiseta1 ,marimara1 and  
,cariven or ,carichana ,vieja4 ,neither 
of these three obstacles is to be feared
 with experienced ,indian pilots4 ,i    
dwell on these hydrographic details     
because a great political and commercial
 interest is now connected with the     
communications between ,angostura and   
the banks of the ,meta and the ,apure1  
two rivers that lead to the eastern side

 of the ,cordilleras of ,new ,grenada4  
,the navigation from the mouth of the   
,lower ,orinoco to the province of      
,varinas is difficult only on account of
 the current4 ,the bed of the river     
nowhere presents obstacles more         
difficult to be surmounted than those of
 the ,danube between ,vienna and ,linz4 
,we meet with no great bars1 no real    
cataracts1 until we get above the ,meta4
 ,the ,upper ,orinoco1 therefore1 with  
the ,cassiquiare and the ,rio ,negro1   
forms a particular system of rivers1    
where the active industry of ,angostura 
and the shore of ,caracas will remain   
long unknown4  ,i obtained horary angles
 of the sun in an island in the midst of
 the ,boca del ,infierno1 where we had  
set up our instruments4 ,the longitude  
of this point according to the          
chronometer is #fg degrees #aj minutes  
#ca seconds4 ,i attempted to determine  
the magnetic dip and intensity1 but was 
prevented by a heavy storm of rain4 ,as 
the sky again became serene in the      

afternoon1 we lay down to rest that     
night on a vast beach1 on the southern  
bank of the ,orinoco1 nearly in the     
meridian of the little town of ,muitaco1
 or ,real ,corona4 ,i found the latitude
 by three stars to be #h degrees #j     
minutes #bf seconds1 and the longitude  
#fg degrees #e minutes #ai seconds4     
,when the ,observantin monks in #ageb   
made their first entradas on the        
territory of the ,caribs1 they          
constructed on this spot a small fort4  
,the proximity of the lofty mountains of
 ,araguacais renders ,muitaco one of the
 most healthy places on the ,lower      
,orinoco4 ,there ,iturriaga took up his 
abode in #agef1 to repose after the     
fatigues of the expedition of the       
boundaries2 and as he attributed his    
recovery to this hot rather than humid  
climate1 the town1 or more properly the 
village1 of ,real ,corona took the name 
of ,pueblo del ,puerto sano4 ,going down
 the ,orinoco more to the east1 we left 
the mouth of the ,rio ,pao on the north1

 and that of the ,arui on the south4    
,the latter river1 which is somewhat    
considerable1 is often mentioned by     
,raleigh4 ,the current of the ,orinoco  
diminished in velocity as we advanced4  
,i measured several times a base along  
the beach1 to ascertain the time taken  
by floating bodies in traversing a known
 distance4 ,above ,alta ,gracia1 near   
the mouth of the ,rio ,ujape1 ,i had    
found the velocity of the ,orinoco #b4c 
feet in a second2 between ,muitaco and  
,borbon it was only #a4g foot4 ,the     
barometric observations made in the     
neighbouring steppes prove the small    
slope of the ground from the longitude  
of #fi degrees to the eastern coast of  
,guiana4 ,we found in this country1 on  
the right bank of the ,orinoco1 small   
formations of primitive grunstein1      
superimposed on granite 7perhaps even   
embedded in the rock74 ,we saw between  
,muitaco and the island of ,ceiba a hill
 entirely composed of balls with        
concentric layers1 in which we perceived

 a close mixture of hornblende and      
feldspar1 with some traces of pyrites4  
,the grunstein resembles that in the    
vicinity of ,caracas2 but it was        
impossible to ascertain the position of 
a formation which appeared to me to be  
of the same age as the granite of       
,parima4 ,muitaco was the last spot     
where we slept in the open air on the   
shore of the ,orinoco3 we proceeded     
along the river two nights more before  
we reached ,angostura1 which terminated 
our voyage4  ,it would be difficult for 
me to express the satisfaction we felt  
on landing at ,angostura1 the capital of
 ,spanish ,guiana4 ,the inconveniences  
endured at sea in small vessels are     
trivial in comparison with those that   
are suffered under a burning sky1       
surrounded by swarms of mosquitos1 and  
lying stretched in a canoe1 without the 
possibility of taking the least bodily  
exercise4 ,in seventy-five days we had  
performed a passage of five hundred     
leagues 7twenty to a degree7 on the five

 great rivers1 ,apure1 ,orinoco1        
,atabapo1 ,rio ,negro1 and ,cassiquiare2
 and in this vast extent we had found   
but a very small number of inhabited    
places4 ,after the life we had led in   
the woods1 our dress was not in the very
 best order1 yet nevertheless ,m4       
,bonpland and ,i hastened to present    
ourselves to ,don ,felipe de ,ynciarte1 
the governor of the province of ,guiana4
 ,he received us in the most cordial    
manner1 and lodged us in the house of   
the secretary of the ,intendencia4      
,coming from an almost desert country1  
we were struck with the bustle of the   
town1 though it contained only six      
thousand inhabitants4 ,we admired the   
conveniences which industry and commerce
 furnish to civilized man4 ,humble      
dwellings appeared to us magnificent2   
and every person with whom we conversed 
seemed to be endowed with superior      
intelligence4 ,long privations give a   
value to the smallest enjoyments2 and ,i
 cannot express the pleasure we felt    

when we saw for the first time wheaten  
bread on the governor's table4          
,sensations of this sort are doubtless  
familiar to all who have made distant   
voyages4  ,a painful circumstance       
obliged us to sojourn a whole month in  
the town of ,angostura4 ,we felt        
ourselves on the first days after our   
arrival tired and enfeebled1 but in     
perfect health4 ,m4 ,bonpland began to  
examine the small number of plants which
 he had been able to save from the      
influence of the damp climate2 and ,i   
was occupied in settling by astronomical
 observations the longitude and latitude
 of the capital199 as well as the dip of
 the magnetic needle4 799 ,i found the  
latitude of ,santo ,tomas de la ,nueva  
,guiana1 commonly called ,angostura1 or 
the ,strait1 near the cathedral1 #h     
degrees #h minutes #aa seconds1 the     
longitude #ff degrees #ae minutes #ba   
seconds47 ,these labours were soon      
interrupted4 ,we were both attacked     
almost on the same day by a disorder    

which with my fellow-traveller took the 
character of a debilitating fever4 ,at  
this period the air was in a state of   
the greatest salubrity at ,angostura2   
and as the only mulatto servant we had  
brought from ,cumana felt symptoms of   
the same disorder1 it was suspected that
 we had imbibed the germs of typhus in  
the damp forests of ,cassiquiare4 ,it is
 common enough for travellers to feel no
 effects from miasmata till1 on arriving
 in a purer atmosphere1 they begin to   
enjoy repose4 ,a certain excitement of  
the mental powers may suspend for some  
time the action of pathogenic causes4   
,our mulatto servant having been much   
more exposed to the rains than we were1 
his disorder increased with frightful   
rapidity4 ,his prostration of strength  
was excessive1 and on the ninth day his 
death was announced to us4 ,he was      
however only in a state of swooning1    
which lasted several hours1 and was     
followed by a salutary crisis4 ,i was   
attacked at the same time with a violent

 fit of fever1 during which ,i was made 
to take a mixture of honey and bark 7the
 cortex ,angosturae73 a remedy much     
extolled in the country by the ,capuchin
 missionaries4 ,the intensity of the    
fever augmented but it left me on the   
following day4 ,m4 ,bonpland remained in
 a very alarming state which during     
several weeks caused us the most serious
 inquietude4 ,fortunately he preserved  
sufficient self-possession to prescribe 
for himself2 and he preferred gentler   
remedies better adapted to his          
constitution4 ,the fever was continual  
and1 as almost always happens within the
 tropics1 it was accompanied by         
dysentery4 ,m4 ,bonpland displayed that 
courage and mildness of character which 
never forsook him in the most trying    
situations4 ,i was agitated by sad      
presages for ,i remembered that the     
botanist ,loefling1 a pupil of          
,linnaeus1 died not far from ,angostura1
 near the banks of the ,carony1 a victim
 of his zeal for the progress of natural

 history4 ,we had not yet passed a year 
in the torrid zone and my too faithful  
memory conjured up everything ,i had    
read in ,europe on the dangers of the   
atmosphere inhaled in the forests4      
,instead of going up the ,orinoco we    
might have sojourned some months in the 
temperate and salubrious climate of the 
,sierra ,nevada de ,merida4 ,it was ,i  
who had chosen the path of the rivers2  
and the danger of my fellow-traveller   
presented itself to my mind as the fatal
 consequence of this imprudent choice4  
,after having attained in a few days an 
extraordinary degree of exacerbation the
 fever assumed a less alarming          
character4 ,the inflammation of the     
intestines yielded to the use of        
emollients obtained from malvaceous     
plants4 ,the sidas and the melochias    
have singularly active properties in the
 torrid zone4 ,the recovery of the      
patient however was extremely slow1 as  
it always happens with ,europeans who   
are not thoroughly seasoned to the      

climate4 ,the period of the rains drew  
near2 and in order to return to the     
coast of ,cumana1 it was necessary again
 to cross the ,llanos1 where1 amidst    
half-inundated lands1 it is rare to find
 shelter1 or any other food than meat   
dried in the sun4 ,to avoid exposing ,m4
 ,bonpland to a dangerous relapse1 we   
resolved to stay at ,angostura till the 
#ajth of ,july4 ,we spent part of this  
time at a neighbouring plantation1 where
 mango-trees and bread-fruit trees99    
were cultivated4 799 ,artocarpus incisa4
 ,father ,andujar1 ,capuchin missionary 
of the province of ,caracas1 zealous in 
the pursuit of natural history1 has     
introduced the bread-fruit tree from    
,spanish ,guiana at ,varinas1 and thence
 into the kingdom of ,new ,grenada4     
,thus the western ,coasts of ,america1  
washed by the ,pacific1 receive from the
 ,english ,settlements in the ,west     
,indies a production of the ,friendly   
,islands47 ,the latter had attained in  
the tenth year a height of more than    

forty feet4 ,we measured several leaves 
of the ,artocarpus that were three feet 
long and eighteen inches broad1         
remarkable dimensions in a plant of the 
family of the dicotyledons4    ,,end    
,,of ,,volume #b4