,this e,book was produced by ,karl ,hagen1 ,charles ,franks1 and the ,online ,distributed ,proofreading ,team4 9999 ,transcriber's ,notes 9999 ,underscores mark italics2 words enclosed in pluses represent boldface2 words enclosed in _/slashes_/ represent underlined words4 ,words enclosed in tildes represent a wavy underline4 ,to represent the sentence diagrams in ,,ascii1 the following conventions are used3 - ,the heavy horizontal line 7for the main clause7 is formed with equals signs 774 - ,other solid vertical lines are formed with minus signs 7--74 - ,diagonal lines are formed with backslashes 774 - ,words printed on a diagonal line are preceded by a backslash1 with no horizontal line under them4 - ,dotted horizontal lines are formed with periods 7447 - ,dotted vertical lines are formed with straight apostrophes 7'7 - ,dotted diagonal lines are formed with slanted apostrophes 77 - ,words printed over a horizontally broken line are shown like this3 ----1 helping '--------- - ,words printed bending around a diagonal-horizontal line are broken like this3 wai ting --------- 9999 ,end ,transcriber's ,notes 9999 ,,graded ,,lessons ,,in ,,english4 ,,an ,,elementary ,,english ,,grammar1 ,,consisting ,,of ,,one ,,hundred ,,practical ,,lessons1 ,,carefully ,,graded ,,and ,,adapted ,,to ,,the ,,class-,,room1 ,,by ,,alonzo ,,reed1 ,a4,m41 ,,formerly ,,instructor ,,of ,,english ,,grammar ,,in ,,the ,,polytechnic ,,institute1 ,,brooklyn ,,and ,,brainerd ,,kellogg1 ,,ll4,d41 ,,professor ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,language ,,and ,,literature ,,in ,,the ,,polytechnic ,,institute1 ,,brooklyn ,,revised ,,edition1 #ahif4 ,a ,,complete ,,course ,,in ,,english4 ,,by ,,alonzo ,,reed1 ,a4,m41 ,,and ,,brainerd ,,kellogg1 ,,ll4,d4 ,,reed',s ,,word ,,lessons1 ,a ,,complete ,,speller4 ,designed to teach the correct spelling1 pronunciation1 and use of such words only as are most common in current literature1 and as are most likely to be misspelled1 mispronounced1 or misused1 and to awaken new interest in the study of synonyms and of word-analysis4 #ahh pages1 #abmo4 ,,reed',s ,,introductory ,,language ,,work4 ,a simple1 varied1 and pleasing1 but methodical series of exercises in ,english to precede the study of technical grammar4 #bec pages1 #afmo1 linen4 ,,reed ,,kellogg',s ,,graded ,,lessons ,,in ,,english4 ,an elementary ,english grammar1 consisting of one hundred practical lessons1 carefully graded and adapted1 to the class-room4 #bae pages1 #afmo1 linen4 ,,reed ,,kellogg',s ,,higher ,,lessons ,,in ,,english4 ,a work on ,english grammar and composition1 in which the science of the language is made tributary to the art of expression4 ,a course of practical lessons carefully graded1 and adapted to every-day use in the school-room4 #chf pages1 #afmo1 cloth4 ,,reed ,,kellogg',s ,,one-,,book ,,course ,,in ,,english4 ,a carefully graded and complete series of lessons in ,english grammar and composition based on the natural development of the sentence4 ,for schools that have not time to complete more than one book on grammar4 #cbh pages1 #afmo1 cloth4 ,,kellogg ,,reed',s ,,word-,,building4 ,fifty lessons1 combining ,latin1 ,greek1 and ,anglo-,saxon roots1 prefixes1 and suffixes1 into about fifty-five hundred common derivative words in ,english2 with a brief history of the ,english language4 #abb pages1 #afmo1 cloth4 ,,kellogg ,,reed',s ,,the ,,english ,,language4 ,a brief history of the grammatical changes of the language and its vocabulary1 with exercises on synonyms1 prefixes1 suffixes1 word-analysis1 and word-building4 ,a text-book for high schools and colleges4 #bbf pages1 #afmo1 cloth4 ,,kellogg',s ,,text-,,book ,,on ,,rhetoric4 ,revised and enlarged edition4 ,supplementing the development of the science with exhaustive practice in composition4 ,a course of practical lessons adapted for use in high schools1 academies1 and lower classes of colleges4 #cde pages1 #abmo1 cloth4 ,,kellogg',s ,,text-,,book ,,on ,,english ,,literature4 with copious extracts from the leading authors1 ,english and ,american1 and full instructions as to the method in which these books are to be studied4 #dhe pages1 #abmo1 cloth4 ,,preface4 ,the plan of ,graded and ,higher ,lessons in ,english will perhaps be better understood if we first speak of two classes of text-books with which this course is brought into competition4 ,method of ,one ,class of ,text-books4--,in one class are those that aim chiefly to present a course of technical grammar in the order of ,orthography1 ,etymology1 ,syntax1 and ,prosody4 ,these books give large space to grammatical ,etymology1 and demand much memorizing of definitions1 rules1 declensions1 and conjugations1 and much formal word parsing1--work of which a considerable portion is merely the invention of grammarians1 and has little value in determining the pupil's use of language or in developing his reasoning faculties4 ,this is a revival of the long-endured1 unfruitful1 old-time method4 ,method of ,another ,class of ,text-books4--,in another class are those that present a miscellaneous collection of lessons in ,composition1 ,spelling1 ,pronunciation1 ,sentence-analysis1 ,technical ,grammar1 and ,general ,information1 without unity or continuity4 ,the pupil who completes these books will have gained something by practice and will have picked up some scraps of knowledge2 but his information will be vague and disconnected1 and he will have missed that mental training which it is the aim of a good text-book to afford4 ,a text-book is of value just so far as it presents a clear1 logical development of its subject4 ,it must present its science or its art as a natural growth1 otherwise there is no apology for its being4 ,the ,study of the ,sentence for the ,proper ,use of ,words4--,it is the plan of this course to trace with easy steps the natural development of the sentence1 to consider the leading facts first and then to descend to the details4 ,to begin with the parts of speech is to begin with details and to disregard the higher unities1 without which the details are scarcely intelligible4 ,the part of speech to which a word belongs is determined only by its function in the sentence1 and inflections simply mark the offices and relations of words4 ,unless the pupil has been systematically trained to discover the functions and relations of words as elements of an organic whole1 his knowledge of the parts of speech is of little value4 ,it is not because he cannot conjugate the verb or decline the pronoun that he falls into such errors as ,how many sounds have each of the vowels8 ,five years' interest are due4 ,she is older than me4 ,he probably would not say each have1 interest are1 me am4 ,one thoroughly familiar with the structure of the sentence will find little trouble in using correctly the few inflectional forms in ,english4 ,the ,study of the ,sentence for the ,laws of ,discourse4--,through the study of the sentence we not only arrive at an intelligent knowledge of the parts of speech and a correct use of grammatical forms1 but we discover the laws of discourse in general4 ,in the sentence the student should find the law of unity1 of continuity1 of proportion1 of order4 ,all good writing consists of good sentences properly joined4 ,since the sentence is the foundation or unit of discourse1 it is all-important that the pupil should know the sentence4 ,he should be able to put the principal and the subordinate parts in their proper relation2 he should know the exact function of every element1 its relation to other elements and its relation to the whole4 ,he should know the sentence as the skillful engineer knows his engine1 that1 when there is a disorganization of parts1 he may at once find the difficulty and the remedy for it4 ,the ,study of the ,sentence for the ,sake of ,translation4--,the laws of thought being the same for all nations1 the logical analysis of the sentence is the same for all languages4 ,when a student who has acquired a knowledge of the ,english sentence comes to the translation of a foreign language1 he finds his work greatly simplified4 ,if in a sentence of his own language he sees only a mass of unorganized words1 how much greater must be his confusion when this mass of words is in a foreign tongue6 ,a study of the parts of speech is a far less important preparation for translation1 since the declensions and conjugations in ,english do not conform to those of other languages4 ,teachers of the classics and of modern languages are beginning to appreciate these facts4 ,the ,study of the ,sentence for ,discipline4--,as a means of discipline nothing can compare with a training in the logical analysis of the sentence4 ,to study thought through its outward form1 the sentence1 and to discover the fitness of the different parts of the expression to the parts of the thought1 is to learn to think4 ,it has been noticed that pupils thoroughly trained in the analysis and the construction of sentences come to their other studies with a decided advantage in mental power4 ,these results can be obtained only by systematic and persistent work4 ,experienced teachers understand that a few weak lessons on the sentence at the beginning of a course and a few at the end can afford little discipline and little knowledge that will endure1 nor can a knowledge of the sentence be gained by memorizing complicated rules and labored forms of analysis4 ,to compel a pupil to wade through a page or two of such bewildering terms as complex adverbial element of the second class and compound prepositional adjective phrase1 in order to comprehend a few simple functions1 is grossly unjust2 it is a substitution of form for content1 of words for ideas4 ,subdivisions and ,modifications after the ,sentence4--,teachers familiar with text books that group all grammatical instruction around the eight parts of speech1 making eight independent units1 will not1 in the following lessons1 find everything in its accustomed place4 ,but1 when it is remembered that the thread of connection unifying this work is the sentence1 it will be seen that the lessons fall into their natural order of sequence4 ,when1 through the development of the sentence1 all the offices of the different parts of speech are mastered1 the most natural thing is to continue the work of classification and subdivide the parts of speech4 ,the inflection of words1 being distinct from their classification1 makes a separate division of the work4 ,if the chief end of grammar were to enable one to parse1 we should not here depart from long-established precedent4 ,sentences in ,groups--,paragraphs4--,in tracing the growth of the sentence from the simplest to the most complex form1 each element1 as it is introduced1 is illustrated by a large number of detached sentences1 chosen with the utmost care as to thought and expression4 ,these compel the pupil to confine his attention to one thing till he gets it well in hand4 ,paragraphs from literature are then selected to be used at intervals1 with questions and suggestions to enforce principles already presented1 and to prepare the way informally for the regular lessons that follow4 ,the lessons on these selections are1 however1 made to take a much wider scope4 ,they lead the pupil to discover how and why sentences are grouped into paragraphs1 and how paragraphs are related to each other2 they also lead him on to discover whatever is most worthy of imitation in the style of the several models presented4 ,the ,use of the ,diagram4--,in written analysis1 the simple map1 or diagram1 found in the following lessons1 will enable the pupil to present directly and vividly to the eye the exact function of every clause in the sentence1 of every phrase in the clause1 and of every word in the phrase--to picture the complete analysis of the sentence1 with principal and subordinate parts in their proper relations4 ,it is only by the aid of such a map1 or picture1 that the pupil can1 at a single view1 see the sentence as an organic whole made up of many parts performing various functions and standing in various relations4 ,without such map he must labor under the disadvantage of seeing all these things by piecemeal or in succession4 ,but1 if for any reason the teacher prefers not to use these diagrams1 they may be omitted without causing the slightest break in the work4 ,the plan of this book is in no way dependent on the use of the diagrams4 ,the ,objections to the ,diagram4--,the fact that the pictorial diagram groups the parts of a sentence according to their offices and relations1 and not in the order of speech1 has been spoken of as a fault4 ,it is on the contrary1 a merit1 for it teaches the pupil to look through the literary order and discover the logical order4 ,he thus learns what the literary order really is1 and sees that this may be varied indefinitely1 so long as the logical relations are kept clear4 ,the assertion that correct diagrams can be made mechanically is not borne out by the facts4 ,it is easier to avoid precision in oral analysis than in written4 ,the diagram drives the pupil to a most searching examination of the sentence1 brings him face to face with every difficulty1 and compels a decision on every point4 ,the ,abuse of the ,diagram4--,analysis by diagram often becomes so interesting and so helpful that1 like other good things1 it is liable to be overdone4 ,there is danger of requiring too much written analysis4 ,when the ordinary constructions have been made clear1 diagrams should be used only for the more difficult sentences1 or1 if the sentences are long1 only for the more difficult parts of them4 ,in both oral and written analysis there is danger of repeating what needs no repetition4 ,when the diagram has served its purpose1 it should be dropped4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,composition ,,exercises ,the exercises in composition found in the numbered ,lessons of this book are generally confined to the illustration and the practical application of the principles of the science as these principles are developed step by step4 ,to break up the continuity of the text by thrusting unrelated composition work between lessons closely related and mutually dependent is exceedingly unwise4 ,the ,composition ,exercises suggested in this revision of ,graded ,lessons are designed to review the regular ,lessons and to prepare in a broad1 informal way for text work that follows4 ,but since these ,exercises go much farther1 and teach the pupil how to construct paragraphs and how to observe and imitate what is good in different authors1 they are placed in a supplement1 and not between consecutive ,lessons of the text4 ,to let such general composition work take the place of the regular grammar lesson1 say once a week1 will be profitable4 ,we suggest that the sentence work on the selections in the ,supplement be made to follow ,lessons #cj1 #dj1 #ej1 #fj1 #gj1 #gg2 but each teacher must determine for himself when these and the other outlined lessons can best be used4 ,we advise that other selections from literature be made and these exercises continued with the treatment of the parts of speech4 ,for composition work to precede ,lesson #cj we suggest that the teacher break up a short story of one or two paragraphs into simple sentences1 making some of these transposed1 some interrogative1 and some exclamatory4 ,the pupils may be required to copy these1 to underline the subject and the predicate1 and to tell1 in answer to suggestive questions1 what some of the other words and groups of words do 7the questions on the selections in the ,supplement may aid the teacher74 ,the pupils may then write out the story in full form4 ,to vary the exercise1 the teacher might read the story and let the pupils write out the short sentences4 ,a ,,talk ,,on ,,language4 ,the teacher is recommended1 before assigning any lesson1 to occupy the time of at least two or three recitations1 in talking with his pupils about language1 always remembering that1 in order to secure the interest of his class1 he must allow his pupils to take an active part in the exercise4 ,the teacher should guide the thought of his class2 but1 if he attempt to do all the talking1 he will find1 when he concludes1 that he has been left to do all the thinking4 ,we give below a few hints in conducting this talk on language1 but the teacher is not expected to confine himself to them4 ,he will1 of course1 be compelled1 in some instances1 to resort to various devices in order to obtain from the pupils answers equivalent to those here suggested4 ,,lesson #a4 ,teacher4--,i will pronounce these three sounds very slowly and distinctly1 thus3 b-u-d4 ,notice1 it is the power1 or sound1 of the letter1 and not its name1 that ,i give4 ,what did you hear8 ,pupil4--,i heard three sounds4 ,t4--,give them4 ,i will write on the board1 so that you can see them1 three letters--b-u-d4 ,are these letters1 taken separately1 signs to you of anything8 ,p4--,yes1 they are signs to me of the three sounds that ,i have just heard4 ,t4--,what then do these letters1 taken separately1 picture to your eye8 ,p4--,they picture the sounds that came to my ear4 ,t4--,letters then are the signs of what8 ,p4--,letters are the signs of sounds4 ,t4--,i will pronounce the same three sounds more rapidly1 uniting them more closely--bud4 ,these sounds1 so united1 form a spoken word4 ,of what do you think when you hear the word bud8 ,p4--,i think of a little round thing that grows to be a leafy branch or a flower4 ,t4--,did you see the thing when you were thinking of it8 ,p4--,no4 ,t4--,then you must have had a picture of it in your mind4 ,we call this mental picture an idea4 ,what called up this idea8 ,p4--,it was called up by the word bud1 which ,i heard4 ,t4--,a spoken word then is the sign of what8 ,p4--,a spoken word is the sign of an idea4 ,t4--,i will call up the same idea in another way4 ,i will write three letters and unite them thus3 bud4 ,what do you see8 ,p4--,i see the word bud4 ,t4--,if we call the other word bud a spoken word1 what shall we call this8 ,p4--,this is a written word4 ,t4--,if they stand for the same idea1 how do they differ8 ,p4--,i see this1 and ,i heard that4 ,t4--,you will observe that we have called attention to four different things2 viz41 the real bud2 your mental picture of the bud1 which we have called an idea2 and the two words1 which we have called signs of this idea1 the one addressed to the ear1 and the other to the eye4 ,if the pupil be brought to see these distinctions1 it may aid him to observe more closely and express himself more clearly4 ,,lesson #b4 ,teacher4--,what did you learn in the previous ,lesson8 ,pupil4--,i learned that a spoken word is composed of certain sounds1 and that letters are signs of sounds1 and that spoken and written words are the signs of ideas4 ,this question should be passed from one pupil to another till all of these answers are elicited4 ,all the written words in all the ,english books ever made1 are formed of twenty-six letters1 representing about forty sounds4 ,these letters and these sounds make up what is called artificial language4 ,of these twenty-six letters1 a1 e1 i1 o1 u1 and sometimes w and y1 are called vowels1 and the remainder are called consonants4 ,in order that you may understand what kind of sounds the vowels stand for1 and what kinds the consonants represent1 ,i will tell you something about the human voice4 ,the air breathed out from your lungs beats against two flat muscles1 stretched like strings across the top of the windpipe1 and causes them to vibrate4 ,this vibrating makes sound4 ,take a thread1 put one end between your teeth1 hold the other in your fingers1 draw it tight and strike it1 and you will understand how voice is made4 ,if the voice thus produced comes out through the mouth held well open1 a class of sounds is formed which we call vowel sounds4 ,but1 if the voice is held back by your palate1 tongue1 teeth1 or lips1 one kind of consonant sounds is made4 ,if the breath is driven out without voice1 and is held back by these same parts of the mouth1 the other kind of consonant sounds is formed4 ,ex4 of both3 b1 d1 g2 p1 t1 k4 ,the teacher and pupils should practice on these sounds till the three kinds can easily be distinguished4 ,you are now prepared to understand what ,i mean when ,i say that the vowels are the letters which stand for the open sounds of the voice1 and that the consonants are the letters which stand for the sounds made by the obstructed voice and the obstructed breath4 ,the teacher can here profitably spend a few minutes in showing how ideas may be communicated by ,natural ,language1 the language of sighs1 groans1 gestures of the hands1 attitudes of the body1 expressions of the face1 tones of the voice1 etc4 ,he can show that1 in conversation1 we sometimes couple this ,natural ,language of tone and gesture with our language of words1 in order to make a stronger impression4 ,let the pupil be told that1 if the passage contain feeling1 he should do the same in ,reading and ,declaiming4 ,let the following definitions be learned1 and given at the next recitation4 ,,definition4--,artificial ,language1 or ,language ,proper1 consists of the spoken and written words used to communicate ideas and thoughts4 ,,definition4--,english ,grammar is the science which teaches the forms1 uses1 and relations of the words of the ,english ,language4 ,,lesson #c ,let the pupils be required to tell what they learned in the previous lessons4 ,teacher4--,when ,i pronounce the two words star and bud thus3 star bud1 how many ideas1 or mental pictures1 do ,i call up to you8 ,pupil4--,two4 ,t4--,do you see any connection between these ideas8 ,p4--,no4 ,t4--,when ,i utter the two words bud and swelling1 thus3 bud swelling1 do you see any connection in the ideas they stand for8 ,p4--,yes1 ,i imagine that ,i see a bud expanding1 or growing larger4 ,t4--,i will connect two words more closely1 so as to express a thought3 ,buds swell4 ,a thought has been formed in my mind when ,i say1 ,buds swell2 and these two words1 in which something is said of something else1 express that thought1 and make what we call a sentence4 ,in the former expression1 bud swelling it is assumed1 or taken for granted1 that buds perform the act2 in the latter1 the swelling is asserted as a fact4 ,leaves falling4 ,do these two words express two ideas merely associated1 or do they express a thought8 ,p4--,they express ideas merely associated4 ,t4--,leaves fall4 ,same question4 ,p4--,a thought4 ,t4--,why8 ,p4--,because1 in these words1 there is something said or asserted of leaves4 ,t4--,when ,i say1 ,falling leaves rustle1 does falling tell what is thought of leaves8 ,p4--,no4 ,t4--,what does falling do8 ,p4--,it tells the kind of leaves you are thinking and speaking of4 ,t4--,what word does tell what is thought of leaves8 ,p4--,rustle4 ,t4--,you see then that in the thought there are two parts2 something of which we think1 and that which we think about it4 ,let the pupils give other examples4 ,,lesson #d4 ,commit to memory all definitions4 ,,definition4--,a ,sentence is the expression of a thought in words4 ,which of the following expressions contain words that have no connection1 which contain words merely associated1 and which are sentences8 #a4 ,flowers bloom4 #b4 ,ice melts4 #c4 ,bloom ice4 #d4 ,grass grows4 #e4 ,brooks babble4 #f4 ,babbling brooks4 #g4 ,grass soar4 #h4 ,doors open4 #i4 ,open doors4 #aj4 ,cows graze4 #aa4 ,curling smoke4 #ab4 ,sugar graze4 #ac4 ,dew sparkles4 #ad4 ,hissing serpents4 #ae4 ,smoke curls4 #af4 ,serpents hiss4 #ag4 ,smoke curling4 #ah4 ,serpents sparkles4 #ai4 ,melting babble4 #bj4 ,eagles soar4 #ba4 ,birds chirping4 #bb4 ,birds are chirping4 #bc4 ,birds chirp4 #bd4 ,gentle cows4 #be4 ,eagles are soaring4 #bf4 ,bees ice4 #bg4 ,working bees4 #bh4 ,bees work4 #bi4 ,crawling serpents4 #cj4 ,landscape piano4 #ca4 ,serpents crawl4 #cb4 ,eagles clock4 #cc4 ,serpents crawling4 ,,lesson #e4 ,,review ,,questions4 ,illustrate1 by the use of a1 b1 and p1 the difference between the sounds of letters and their names4 ,letters are the signs of what8 ,what is an idea8 ,a spoken word is the sign of what8 ,a written word is the sign of what8 ,how do they differ8 ,to what four different things did we call attention in ,lesson #a8 ,how are vowel sounds made8 ,how are the two kinds of consonant sounds made8 ,what are vowels8 ,name them4 ,what are consonants8 ,what is artificial language1 or language proper8 ,what do you understand by natural language8 ,what is ,english grammar8 ,what three kinds of expressions are spoken of in ,lessons #c and #d8 ,give examples of each4 ,what is a sentence8 ,,lesson #f4 ,,analysis4 ,on the following sentences1 let the pupils be exercised according to the model4 ,model4--,intemperance degrades4 ,why is this a sentence8 ,ans4--,because it expresses a thought4 ,of what is something thought8 ,ans4--,intemperance4 ,which word tells what is thought8 ,ans4--,degrades4 #a4 ,magnets attract4 #b4 ,horses neigh4 #c4 ,frogs leap4 #d4 ,cold contracts4 #e4 ,sunbeams dance4 #f4 ,heat expands4 #g4 ,sunlight gleams4 #h4 ,banners wave4 #i4 ,grass withers4 #aj4 ,sailors climb4 #aa4 ,rabbits burrow4 #ab4 ,spring advances4 ,you see that in these sentences there are two parts4 ,the parts are the ,subject and the ,predicate4 ,,definition4--,the ,subject of a sentence names that of which something is thought4 ,,definition4--,the ,predicate of a sentence tells what is thought4 ,,definition4--,the ,analysis of a sentence is the separation of it into its parts4 ,analyze1 according to the model1 the following sentences4 ,model4--,stars twinkle4 ,this is a sentence1 because it expresses a thought4 ,stars is the subject1 because it names that of which something is thought2 twinkle is the predicate1 because it tells what is thought4 ,to the ,teacher4--,after the pupils become familiar with the definitions1 the ,models may be varied1 and some of the reasons maybe made specific2 as1 ,plants names the things we tell about2 droop tells what plants do1 etc4 ,guard against needless repetition4 #a4 ,plants droop4 #b4 ,books help4 #c4 ,clouds float4 #d4 ,exercise strengthens4 #e4 ,rain falls4 #f4 ,time flies4 #g4 ,rowdies fight4 #h4 ,bread nourishes4 #i4 ,boats capsize4 #aj4 ,water flows4 #aa4 ,students learn4 #ab4 ,horses gallop4 ,,lesson #g4 ,,analysis ,,and ,,the ,,diagram4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,i will draw on the board a heavy1 or shaded1 line1 and divide it into two parts1 thus3 ,we will consider the first part as the sign of the subject of a sentence1 and the second part as the sign of the predicate of a sentence4 ,now1 if ,i write a word over the first line1 thus--7doing it7--you will understand that that word is the subject of a sentence4 ,if ,i write a word over the second line1 thus--you will understand that that word is the predicate of a sentence4 ,planets revolve ,the class can see by this picture that ,planets revolve is a sentence1 that planets is the subject1 and that revolve is the predicate4 ,these signs1 or illustrations1 made up of straight lines1 we call ,diagrams4 ,,definition4--,a ,diagram is a picture of the offices and relations of the different parts of a sentence4 ,analyze and diagram the following sentences4 #a4 ,waves dash4 #b4 ,kings reign4 #c4 ,fruit ripens4 #d4 ,stars shine4 #e4 ,steel tarnishes4 #f4 ,insects buzz4 #g4 ,paul preached4 #h4 ,poets sing4 #i4 ,nero fiddled4 #aj4 ,larks sing4 #aa4 ,water ripples4 #ab4 ,lambs frisk4 #ac4 ,lions roar4 #ad4 ,tigers growl4 #ae4 ,breezes sigh4 #af4 ,carthage fell4 #ag4 ,morning dawns4 #ah4 ,showers descended4 #ai4 ,diamonds sparkle4 #bj4 ,alexander conquered4 #ba4 ,jupiter thunders4 #bb4 ,columbus sailed1 #bc4 ,grammarians differ4 #bd4 ,cornwallis surrendered4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #h4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,you have now learned to analyze sentences1 that is1 to separate them into their parts4 ,you must next learn to put these parts together1 that is1 to build sentences4 ,we will find one part1 and you must find the other and do the building4 ,to the ,teacher4--,let some of the pupils write their sentences on the board1 while others are reading theirs4 ,then let the work on the board be corrected4 ,correct any expression that does not make good sense1 or that asserts something not strictly true2 for the pupil should early be taught to think accurately1 as well as to write and speak grammatically4 ,correct all mistakes in spelling1 and in the use of capital letters and the period4 ,call attention to the agreement in form of the predicate with the subject4 ,see ,notes1 p4 #afc4 ,insist on neatness4 ,collect the papers before the recitation closes4 ,,capital ,,letter-,,rule4--,the first word of every sentence must begin with a capital letter4 ,,period--,,rule4--,a period must be placed after every sentence that simply affirms1 denies1 or expresses a command4 ,construct sentences by supplying a subject to each of the following predicates4 ,ask yourself the question1 ,what swim1 sink1 hunt1 etc48 #a4 ---- swim4 #b4 ---- sinks4 #c4 ---- hunt4 #d4 ---- skate4 #e4 ---- jingle4 #f4 ---- decay4 #g4 ---- climb4 #h4 ---- creep4 #i4 ---- run4 #aj4 ---- walk4 #aa4 ---- snort4 #ab4 ---- kick4 #ac4 ---- flashes4 #ad4 ---- flutters4 #ae4 ---- paddle4 #af4 ---- toil4 #ag4 ---- terrifies4 #ah4 ---- rages4 #ai4 ---- expand4 #bj4 ---- jump4 #ba4 ---- hop4 #bb4 ---- bellow4 #bc4 ---- burns4 #bd4 ---- evaporates4 ,this exercise may profitably be extended by requiring the pupils to supply several subjects to each predicate4 ,,lesson #i4 ,,sentence-,,building--,continued4 ,construct sentences by supplying a predicate to each of the following subjects4 ,ask yourself the question1 ,artists do what8 #a4 ,artists ----4 #b4 ,sailors ----4 #c4 ,tides ----4 #d4 ,whales ----4 #e4 ,gentlemen ----4 #f4 ,swine ----4 #g4 ,clouds ----4 #h4 ,girls ----4 #i4 ,fruit ----4 #aj4 ,powder ----4 #aa4 ,hail ----4 #ab4 ,foxes ----4 #ac4 ,water ----4 #ad4 ,frost ----4 #ae4 ,man ----4 #af4 ,blood ----4 #ag4 ,kings ----4 #ah4 ,lilies ----4 #ai4 ,roses ----4 #bj4 ,wheels ----4 #ba4 ,waves ----4 #bb4 ,dew ----4 #bc4 ,boys ----4 #bd4 ,volcanoes ----4 #be4 ,storms ----4 #bf4 ,politicians ----4 #bg4 ,serpents ----4 #bh4 ,chimneys ----4 #bi4 ,owls ----4 #cj4 ,rivers ----4 #ca4 ,nations ----4 #cb4 ,indians ----4 #cc4 ,grain ----4 #cd4 ,rogues ----4 #cd4 ,volcanoes ----4 #ce4 ,rome ----4 #cf4 ,briars ----4 ,this exercise may be extended by requiring the pupils to supply several predicates to each subject4 ,,lesson #aj4 ,,review ,,questions4 ,of what two parts does a sentence consist8 ,what is the subject of a sentence8 ,what is the predicate of a sentence8 ,what is the analysis of a sentence8 ,what is a diagram8 ,what rule for the use of capital letters have you learned8 ,what rule for the period8 ,impromptu ,exercise4 ,let the pupils choose sides1 as in a spelling match4 ,let the teacher select predicates from ,lesson #h1 and give them alternately to the pupils thus arranged4 ,the first pupil prefixes to his word whatever suitable subjects he can think of1 the teacher judging of their fitness and keeping the count4 ,this pupil now rises and remains standing until some one else1 on his side or the other1 shall have prefixed to his word a greater number of apt subjects4 ,the strife is to see who shall be standing at the close of the match1 and which side shall have furnished the greater number of subjects4 ,the exercise may be continued with the subjects of ,lesson #i4 ,each pupil is to be limited to the same time--one or two minutes4 ,,lesson #aa4 ,,analysis4 ,the predicate sometimes contains more than one word4 ,analyze and diagram according to the model4 ,model4--,socrates was poisoned4 ,socrates was poisoned ,this is a sentence1 because it expresses a thought4 ,socrates is the subject1 because ----2 was poisoned is the predicate1 because ----4 ,footnote3 ,the word because--suggesting a reason--should be dropped from these ,models whenever it may lead to mere mechanical repetition4 #a4 ,napoleon was banished4 #b4 ,andre was captured4 #c4 ,money is circulated4 #d4 ,columbus was imprisoned4 #e4 ,acorns are sprouting4 #f4 ,bells are tolled4 #g4 ,summer has come4 #h4 ,sentences may be analyzed4 #i4 ,clouds are reddening4 #aj4 ,air may be weighed4 #aa4 ,jehovah shall reign4 #ab4 ,corn is planted4 #ac4 ,grammarians will differ4 #ad4 ,snow is falling4 #ae4 ,leaves are rustling4 #af4 ,children will prattle4 #ag4 ,crickets are chirping4 #ah4 ,eclipses have been foretold4 #ai4 ,storms may abate4 #bj4 ,deception may have been practiced4 #ba4 ,esau was hated4 #bb4 ,treason should have been punished4 #bc4 ,bees are humming4 #bd4 ,sodom might have been spared4 ,,lesson #ab4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,to the ,teacher4--,continue oral and written exercises in agreement4 ,see ,notes1 pp4 #afc1afd4 ,prefix the little helping words in the second column to such of the more important words in the third column as with them will make complete predicates1 and join these predicates to all subjects in the first column with which they will unite to make good sense4 #a #b #c ---------------------------------------- -- ,burgoyne are woven4 ,henry ,hudson was defeated4 ,sparrows can be condensed4 ,comets is inhaled4 ,time have been worn4 ,turbans may be slacked4 ,lime has been wasted4 ,steam could have been seen4 ,air must have been deceived4 ,carpets were quarreling4 ,,lesson #ac4 ,point out the subject and the predicate of each sentence in ,lessons #bh1 #ca1 #cd4 ,look first for the word that asserts1 and then1 by putting who or what before this predicate1 the subject may easily be found4 ,to the ,teacher4--,most violations of the rules of concord come from a failure to recognize the relation of subject and predicate when these parts are transposed or are separated by other words4 ,such constructions should therefore receive special attention4 ,see ,notes1 pp4 #afd1 #afe4 ,introduce the class to the ,parts of ,speech before the close of this recitation4 ,see ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4 ,see ,suggestions for ,,composition ,,exercises1 p4 #h1 last paragraph4 ,,lesson #ad4 ,,classes ,,of ,,words4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,by the assistance of the few hints here given1 the ingenious teacher may render this usually dry subject interesting and highly attractive4 ,by questioning the pupil as to what he has seen and heard1 his interest may be excited and his curiosity awakened4 ,suppose that we make an imaginary excursion to some pleasant field or grove1 where we may study the habits1 the plumage1 and the songs of the little birds4 ,if we attempt to make the acquaintance of every little feathered singer we meet1 we shall never get to the end of our pleasant task3 but we find that some resemble one another in size1 shape1 color1 habits1 and song4 ,these we associate together and call them sparrows4 ,we find others differing essentially from the sparrows1 but resembling one another4 ,these we call robins4 ,we thus find that1 although we were unable to become acquainted with each individual bird1 they all belong to a few classes1 with which we may soon become familiar4 ,it is so with the words of our language4 ,there are many thousand words1 all of which belong to eight classes4 ,these classes of words are called ,parts of ,speech4 ,we classify birds according to their form1 color1 etc41 but we group words into classes1 called ,parts of ,speech1 with respect to their use in the sentence4 ,we find that many words are names4 ,these we put in one class and call them ,nouns4 ,each pupil may give the name of something in the room2 the name of a distinguished person2 a name that may be applied to a class of persons2 the name of an animal2 the name of a place3 the name of a river2 the name of a mountain2 the name of something which we cannot see or touch1 but of which we can think2 as1 beauty1 mind4 ,remind the pupils frequently that these names are all nouns4 ,,nouns4 ,,definition4--,a ,noun is the name of anything4 ,write in columns1 headed nouns1 the names of domestic animals1 of garden vegetables1 of flowers1 of trees1 of articles sold in a dry goods store1 and of things that cannot be seen or touched2 as1 virtue1 time1 life4 ,write and arrange1 according to the following model1 the names of things that can float1 fly1 walk1 work1 sit1 or sing4 ,nouns4 ,cork ,clouds ,model4--,wood floats or float4 ,ships ,boys ,such expressions as ,cork floats are sentences1 and the nouns cork1 ship1 etc41 are the subjects4 ,you will find that every subject is a noun or some word or words used for a noun4 ,be prepared to analyze and parse the sentences which you have made4 ,naming the class to which a word belongs is the first step in parsing4 ,model for ,analysis4--,this is a sentence1 because -----2 cork is the subject1 because -----2 floats is the predicate1 because -----4 ,parsing4--,cork is a noun1 because it is the name of a thing--the bark of a tree4 ,,lesson #ae4 ,select and write all the nouns in the sentences given in ,lessons #bh1 #ca1 #cd4 ,tell why they are nouns4 ,in writing the nouns1 observe the following rule4 ,,capital ,,letter--,,rule4--,every proper or individual name must begin with a capital letter4 ,to the ,teacher4--,see ,notes1 pp4 #afg-afi4 ,,review ,,questions4 ,with respect to what1 do we classify words 7,lesson #ad78 ,what are such classes called8 ,can you illustrate this classification8 ,what are all names8 ,what is a noun8 ,what is the first step in parsing8 ,what is the rule for writing individual names8 ,,lesson #af4 ,,verbs4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,we propose to introduce you now to another class of words4 7,the teacher may here refer to the talk about birds47 ,you have learned that one very large class of words consists of names of things4 ,there is another very important class of words used to tell what these things do1 or used to express their existence4 ,when ,i say1 ,plants grow1 is grow the name of anything8 ,p4--,no4 ,t4--,what does it do8 ,p4--,it tells what plants do4 ,it expresses action4 ,t4--,when ,i say1 ,god is1 what does is express8 ,p4--,it expresses existence1 or being4 ,t4--,when ,i say1 ,george sleeps1 sleeps expresses being and something more2 it tells the condition1 or state in which ,george is1 or exists1 that is1 it expresses state of being4 ,all the words that assert action1 being1 or state of being1 we call ,verbs4 ,let the teacher write nouns on the board1 and require the pupils to give all the words of which they can think1 telling what the things named can do4 ,they may be arranged thus3-- ,noun4 ,verbs4 grow1 droop1 ,plants decay1 flourish1 revive4 ,each pupil may give a verb that expresses an action of the body2 as weep1 sing2 an action of the mind2 as1 study1 love2 one that expresses being or state of being4 ,,definition4--,a ,verb is a word that asserts action1 being1 or state of being4 ,the office of the verb in all its forms1 except two 7the participle and the infinitive1 see ,lessons #dh and #di71 is to assert4 ,this it does whether the sentence affirms1 denies1 or asks a question4 ,to the ,teacher4--,in the exercises of this and the next two ,lessons1 let the pupils note the agreement of the verb with its subject4 ,see ,notes1 pp4 #afc-afe4 ,supply1 to each of the following nouns1 as many appropriate verbs as you can think of4 ,let some express being or state of being4 ,water ----4 ,wind ----4 ,pens ----4 ,parrots ----4 ,vines ----4 ,farmers ----4 ,trees ----4 ,ministers ----4 ,one verb may consist of two1 three1 or four words2 as1 is singing1 will be sung1 might have been sung4 ,form verbs by combining the words in columns #b and #c1 and add these verbs to all the nouns in column #a with which they appropriately combine4 #a #b #c ------------------------------------- ,laws has been published4 ,clouds have been paid4 ,food will be restored4 ,health should have been preserved4 ,taxes may be collected4 ,books are obeyed4 ,the examples you have written are sentences2 the nouns are subjects1 and the verbs are predicates4 ,as verbs are the only words that assert1 every predicate must be a verb1 or must contain a verb4 ,be prepared to analyze and parse five of the sentences that you have written4 ,model4--,laws are obeyed4 ,diagram and analyze as in ,lesson #aa4 ,parsing4--,laws is a noun1 because----2 are obeyed is a verb1 because it asserts action4 ,,lesson #ag4 ,select and write all the verbs in the sentences given in ,lessons #bh1 #ca1 #cd1 and tell why they are verbs4 ,,lesson #ah4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,from the following nouns and verbs1 build as many sentences as possible1 taking care that every one makes good sense4 ,poems1 was conquered1 lambs1 rebellion1 stars1 forests1 shone1 were seen1 were written1 treason1 patriots1 meteors1 fought1 were discovered1 frisk1 ,cain1 have fallen1 fled1 stream1 have crumbled1 day1 ages1 deer1 are flickering1 are bounding1 gleamed1 voices1 lamps1 rays1 were heard1 are gathering1 time1 death1 friends1 is coming1 will come4 ,to the ,teacher4--,before this recitation closes1 let the teacher open up the subject of ,lesson #ai4 ,see ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4 ,,lesson #ai4 ,,pronouns4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,we propose to introduce you now to the third part of speech4 ,t4--,if ,i should ask who whispered1 and some boy should promptly confess1 what would he say8 ,p4--,i whispered4 ,t4--,would he mention his own name8 ,p4--,no4 ,t4--,what word would he use instead8 ,p4--,i4 ,t4--,suppose that ,i had spoken to that boy and had accused him of whispering1 how should ,i have addressed him without mentioning his name8 ,p4--,you whispered4 ,t4--,what word would be used instead of the name of the boy to whom ,i spoke8 ,p4--,you4 ,t4--,suppose that1 without using his name1 ,i had told you what he did1 what should ,i have said8 ,p4--,he whispered4 ,t4--,what word would have been used instead of the name of the boy of whom ,i spoke8 ,p4--,he4 7,repeat these questions and suppose the pupil to be a girl47 ,t4--,if ,i should tell that boy to close his book1 when his book was already closed1 what would he say without mentioning the word book8 ,p4--,it is closed4 ,t4--,if ,i should accuse several of you of whispering1 and one should speak for himself and for the others whispering with him1 what would he say8 ,we whispered4 ,t--,suppose that a boy should inform me that all of the boys on that seat had whispered1 what would he say8 ,p4--,they whispered4 ,i1 you1 he1 she1 it1 we1 and they are not names1 but they are used instead of names4 ,we call such words ,pronouns4 ,,definition4--,a ,pronoun is a word used for a noun4 ,,capital ,,letters--,,rule4--,the words ,i and ,o should be written in capital letters4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 ,model4--,you will be rewarded4 ,oral ,analysis--,this is a sentence1 because----2 you is the subject1 because----2 will be rewarded is the predicate1 because----4 ,parsing4--,you is a pronoun1 because it stands for the name of the person spoken to2 will be rewarded is a verb1 because----4 #a4 ,we think4 #b4 ,she prattles4 #c4 ,we have recited4 #d4 ,i study4 #e4 ,you have been seen4 #f4 ,it has been decided4 #g4 ,he was punished4 #h4 ,they are conquered4 #i4 ,thou art adored4 ,compose nine similar sentences1 using a pronoun for the subject of each1 and diagram them4 ,to the ,teacher4--,call special attention to the agreement of the verb with ,i and you4 ,see ,notes1 p4 #afd4 ,before this recitation closes1 explain ,modified ,subject4 ,see ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4 ,,lesson #bj4 ,,modified ,,subject4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,the ,subject and the ,predicate may be considered as the foundation on which every sentence is built4 ,no sentence can be constructed without them4 ,you have already learned that these parts alone1 sometimes make a complete structure2 but we are about to show you that they are often used as the foundation of a structure1 which is completed by adding other parts4 ,i hold in my hand several pieces of metal1 with letters and other characters stamped on them4 ,what do you say ,i have in my hand8 ,p4--,money4 ,t4--,yes4 ,what other word can you use8 ,p4--,coin4 ,t4--,yes4 ,i will write on the board this sentence3 ,coin is stamped4 ,the subject coin is a general name for all such pieces of metal4 ,i will write the word the before this sentence4 ,the coin is stamped4 ,i have now made an assertion about one particular coin1 so the meaning of the subject is limited by joining the word the4 ,i can again limit the meaning of the subject by putting the word a before it4 ,the assertion is now about one coin1 but no particular one4 ,i point to the piece near me and say1 ,this coin is stamped4 ,i point to the one farther from me and say1 ,that coin is stamped4 ,when words are joined to the subject to limit its meaning1 we say that the subject is modified4 ,the words the1 a1 this1 and that modify the subject by limiting the word to one coin1 or to one particular coin4 ,we can modify the subject by joining some word which will tell what kind of coin is meant4 ,here is a coin dated #ah--4 ,we can say1 ,the new coin is stamped4 ,here the word new tells what kind of coin is meant4 ,what other words can ,i use to modify coin8 ,p4--,beautiful1 bright1 new1 round1 silver4 ,t4--,these words beautiful1 bright1 new1 round1 and silver modify the subject by telling the qualities of the coin4 ,we call the words the1 beautiful1 etc41 ,modifiers4 ,,definition4--,a ,modifier is a word or group of words joined to some part of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning4 ,the ,subject with its ,modifiers is called the ,modified ,subject4 ,,analysis4 ,analyze and diagram the following sentences4 ,model4--,the genial summer days have come4 days have come ,the genial summer ,explanation of the ,diagram4--,the lighter lines1 joined to the subject line1 stand for the modifiers1 the less important parts4 ,oral ,analysis4--,this is a sentence1 because----2 days is the subject1 because----2 have come is the predicate1 because----2 ,the1 genial1 and summer are modifiers of the subject1 because they are words joined to the subject to modify its meaning4 ,the genial summer days is the modified subject4 ,to the ,teacher4--,to excite thought and guard against mere routine1 pupils may1 so far as they are able1 make the reasons specific4 ,for example1 ,the points out some particular clouds1 dark tells their color1 etc4 ,here and elsewhere the teacher must determine how far it is profitable to follow ,models4 ,there is great danger of wasting time in repeating forms that require no mental effort4 #a4 ,the angry wind is howling4 #b4 ,the dead leaves fall4 #c4 ,the dark clouds lower4 #d4 ,the tall elm bends4 #e4 ,all men must die4 #f4 ,the lusty bellows roared4 #g4 ,a boding silence reigned4 #h4 ,little ,arthur was murdered4 #i4 ,the mighty oak was uprooted4 #aj4 ,the fragile violet was crushed4 #aa4 ,the beautiful marble statue was carved4 #ab4 ,the turbid torrent roared4 #ac4 ,the affrighted shepherds fled4 #ad4 ,the vivid lightning flashes4 #ae4 ,those elegant ,etruscan vases are broken4 ,,review ,,questions4 ,what is a verb8 ,give examples of verbs of action4 ,of being4 ,of state of being4 ,may a verb consist of more than one word8 ,illustrate4 ,verbs are the only words that do what8 ,what must every predicate contain8 ,what parts of speech are explained in the preceding ,lessons8 ,what is a pronoun8 ,give the rule for writing the words ,i and #j4 ,what is the foundation on which every sentence is built8 ,may the subject be modified8 ,what is a modifier8 ,what is the modified subject8 ,,lesson #ba4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,we have here prepared the foundations of sentences which you are to complete by writing two or more suitable modifiers to each subject4 ,be careful to choose and arrange your material so as to make a neat and appropriate structure4 ,model4---------- eminence was reached4 ,that lofty eminence was reached4 #a4 ---- speaker was applauded4 #b4 ---- difficulties were overcome4 #c4 ---- leaf trembles4 #d4 ---- accident happened4 #e4 ---- books should be read4 #f4 ---- houses are built4 #g4 ---- soldiers perished4 #h4 ---- opinions prevailed4 #i4 ---- leader fell4 #aj4 ---- task is completed4 ,for other subjects and predicates1 the teacher is referred to ,lessons #g and #aa4 ,build sentences by prefixing modified subjects to the following predicates4 #a4 ---- frolic4 #b4 ---- crawl4 #c4 ---- are dashing4 #d4 ---- was caught4 #e4 ---- escaped4 #f4 ---- chatter4 #g4 ---- flourished4 #h4 ---- whistles4 ,build1 on each of the following subjects1 three sentences similar to those in the model4 ,model ------------- sun --------------- ,the bright sun is shining4 ,the glorious sun has risen4 ,the unclouded sun is sinking4 #a4 ---- snow ----4 #b4 ---- dew ----4 #c4 ---- wind ----4 #d4 ---- landscape ----4 ,to the ,teacher4--,please take notice that the next ,lesson begins with ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4 ,,lesson #bb4 ,,adjectives4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,you are now prepared to consider the fourth part of speech4 ,those words that are added to the subject to modify its meaning are called ,adjectives4 ,some grammarians have formed a separate class of the little words the1 and an or a1 calling them articles4 ,i will write the word boys on the board1 and you may name adjectives that will appropriately modify it4 ,as you give them1 ,i will write these adjectives in a column4 ,adjectives4 small large white black straight boys4 crooked five some all ,what words here modify boys by adding the idea of size8 ,what by adding the idea of color8 ,what by adding the idea of form8 ,what by adding the idea of number8 ,what are such words called8 ,why8 ,let the teacher name familiar objects and require the pupils to join appropriate adjectives to the names till their stock is exhausted4 ,,definition4--,an ,adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 ,model4--,a fearful storm was raging4 ,diagram and analyze as in ,lesson #bj4 ,written ,parsing4 ,nouns4 ,pronouns4 ,adjectives4 ,verbs4 storm ---- ,a fearful was raging4 ,oral ,parsing4--,a is an adjective1 because it is joined to the noun storm1 to modify its meaning2 fearful is an adjective1 because ------2 storm is a noun1 because ------2 was raging is a verb1 because -----4 #a4 ,the rosy morn advances4 #b4 ,the humble boon was obtained4 #c4 ,an unyielding firmness was displayed4 #d4 ,the whole earth smiles4 #e4 ,several subsequent voyages were made4 #f4 ,that burly mastiff must be secured4 #g4 ,the slender greyhound was released4 #h4 ,the cold ,november rain is falling4 #i4 ,that valuable ,english watch has been sold4 #aj4 ,i alone have escaped4 #aa4 ,both positions can be defended4 #ab4 ,all such discussions should have been avoided4 #ac4 ,that dilapidated old wooden building has fallen4 ,to the ,teacher4--,see ,notes1 pp4 #afi1 #agj4 ,,lesson #bc4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,prefix five adjectives to each of the following nouns4 ,shrubs1 wilderness1 beggar1 cattle1 cloud4 ,write ten sentences with modified subjects1 using in each two or more of the following adjectives4 ,a1 an1 the1 heroic1 one1 all1 many1 every1 either1 first1 tenth1 frugal1 great1 good1 wise1 honest1 immense1 square1 circular1 oblong1 oval1 mild1 virtuous1 universal1 sweet1 careless1 fragrant4 ,write five sentences with modified subjects1 each of which shall contain one of the following words as a subject4 ,chimney1 hay1 coach1 robber1 horizon4 ,an and a are forms of the same word1 once spelled an1 and meaning one4 ,after losing something of this force1 an was still used before vowels and consonants alike2 as1 an eagle1 an ball1 an hair1 an use4 ,still later1 and for the sake of ease in speaking1 the word came to have the two forms mentioned above2 and an was retained before letters having vowel sounds1 but it dropped its n and became a before letters having consonant sounds4 ,this is the present usage4 ,,correct ,,these ,,errors4 ,a apple2 a obedient child2 an brickbat2 an busy boy4 ,,correct ,,these ,,errors4 ,a heir2 a hour2 a honor4 ,notice1 the first letter of these words is silent4 ,,correct ,,these ,,errors4 ,an unit2 an utensil2 an university2 an ewe2 an ewer2 an union2 an use2 an history2 an one4 ,unit begins with the sound of the consonant y2 and one1 with that of w4 ,to the ,teacher4--,see ,suggestions for ,,composition ,,exercises1 p4 #h1 last paragraph4 ,,lesson #bd4 ,,modified ,,predicates4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,i will now show you how the predicate of a sentence may be modified4 ,the ship sails gracefully4 ,what word is here joined to sails to tell the manner of sailing8 ,p4--,gracefully4 ,t4--,the ship sails immediately4 ,what word is here joined to sails to tell the time of sailing8 ,p4--,immediately4 ,t4--,the1 ship sails homeward4 ,what word is here joined to sails to tell the direction of sailing8 ,p4--,homeward4 ,t4--,these words gracefully1 immediately1 and homeward are modifiers of the predicate4 ,in the first sentence1 sails gracefully is the ,modified ,predicate4 ,let the following modifiers be written on the board as the pupil suggests them4 instantly4 soon4 daily4 hither4 ,the ship sails hence4 there4 rapidly4 smoothly4 well4 ,which words indicate the time of sailing8 ,which1 the place8 ,which1 the manner8 ,the teacher may suggest predicates1 and require the pupils to find as many appropriate modifiers as they can4 ,the ,predicate with its modifiers is called the ,modified ,predicate4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 ,analyze and diagram the following sentences1 and parse the nouns1 pronouns1 verbs1 and adjectives4 ,model4--,the letters were rudely carved4 letters were carved ,the rudely ,written ,parsing4--,see ,model1 ,lesson #bb4 ,oral ,analysis4--,this is a sentence1 because----2 letters is the subject1 because----2 were carved is the predicate1 because----2 ,the is a modifier of the subject1 because----2 rudely is a modifier of the predicate1 because----2 ,the letters is the modified subject1 were rudely carved is the modified predicate4 #a4 ,he spoke eloquently4 #b4 ,she chattered incessantly4 #c4 ,they searched everywhere4 #d4 ,i shall know presently4 #e4 ,the bobolink sings joyously4 #f4 ,the crowd cheered heartily4 #g4 ,a great victory was finally won4 #h4 ,threatening clouds are moving slowly4 #i4 ,the deafening waves dash angrily4 #aj4 ,these questions may be settled peaceably4 #aa4 ,the wounded soldier fought bravely4 #ab4 ,the ranks were quickly broken4 #ac4 ,the south wind blows softly4 #ad4 ,times will surely change4 #ae4 ,an hour stole on4 ,,lesson #be4 ,,analysis ,,and ,,parsing4 ,,one ,,modifier ,,joined ,,to ,,another4 ,analyze and diagram the following sentences1 and parse the nouns1 pronouns1 adjectives1 and verbs4 ,model4--,the frightened animal fled still more rapidly4 animal fled ,the frightened rapidly more still ,explanation of the ,diagram4--,notice that the three lines forming this group all slant the same way to show that each stands for a modifying word4 ,the line standing for the principal word of the group is joined to the predicate line4 ,the end of each of the other two lines is broken1 and turned to touch its principal at an angle4 ,oral ,analysis4--,this is a sentence1 because----2 animal is the subject1 because----2 fled is the predicate1 because----2 ,the and frightened are modifiers of the subject1 because----2 still more rapidly is a modifier of the predicate1 because it is a group of words joined to it to limit its meaning2 rapidly is the principal word of the group2 more modifies rapidly1 and still modifies more1 ,the frightened animal is the modified subject2 fled still more rapidly is the modified predicate4 #a4 ,the crocus flowers very early4 #b4 ,a violet bed is budding near4 #c4 ,the ,quakers were most shamefully persecuted4 #d4 ,perhaps he will return4 #e4 ,we laughed very heartily4 #f4 ,the yellow poplar leaves floated down4 #g4 ,the wind sighs so mournfully4 #h4 ,few men have ever fought so stubbornly4 #i4 ,the debt will probably be paid4 #aj4 ,the visitor will soon be here4 #aa4 ,that humane project was quite generously sustained4 #ab4 ,a perfectly innocent man was very cruelly persecuted4 ,,review ,,questions4 ,what is an adjective8 ,what are the words an or a1 and the called by some grammarians8 ,when is a used1 and when an8 ,give examples of their misuse4 ,what is the modified predicate8 ,give an example4 ,give an example of one modifier joined to another4 ,,lesson #bf4 ,select your subjects from ,lesson #i1 and construct twenty sentences having modified subjects and modified predicates4 ,impromptu ,exercise4 ,select sentences from ,lessons #f1 #g1 and #aa1 and conduct the exercise as directed in ,lesson #aj4 ,let the strife be to see who can supply the greatest number of modifiers to the subject and to the predicate4 ,the teacher can vary this exercise4 ,,lesson #bg4 ,,adverbs4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,you have learned1 in the preceding ,lessons1 that the meaning of the predicate may be limited by modifiers1 and that one modifier may be joined to another4 ,words used to modify the predicate of a sentence and those used to modify modifiers belong to one class1 or one part of speech1 and are called ,adverbs4 ,t4--,she decided too hastily4 ,what word tells how she decided8 ,p4---,hastily4 ,t4--,what word tells how hastily8 ,p4--,too4 ,t4--,what then are the words too and hastily8 ,p4--,adverbs4 ,t4--,too much time has been wasted4 ,what word modifies much by telling how much8 ,p4--,too4 ,t4--,what part of speech is much8 ,p4--,an adjective4 ,t4--,what then is too8 ,p4--,an adverb4 ,t4--,why is too in the first sentence an adverb8 ,why is too in the second sentence an adverb8 ,why is hastily an adverb8 ,let the teacher use the following and similar examples1 and continue the questions4 ,he thinks so4 ,so much time has been wasted4 ,let the teacher give verbs1 adjectives1 and adverbs1 and require the pupils to modify them by appropriate adverbs4 ,,definition4--,an ,adverb is a word used to modify a verb1 an adjective1 or an adverb4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 ,analyze1 diagram1 and parse the following sentences4 ,model4--,we have been very agreeably disappointed4 ,diagram as in4 ,lesson #be4 ,for ,written ,parsing1 use ,model1 ,lesson #bb1 adding a column for adverbs4 ,oral ,parsing4--,we is a pronoun1 because----2 have been disappointed is a verb1 because----2 very is an adverb1 because it is joined to the adverb agreeably to tell how agreeably2 agreeably is an adverb1 because it is joined to the verb have been disappointed to indicate manner4 #a4 ,the plough-boy plods homeward4 #b4 ,the water gushed forth4 #c4 ,too much time was wasted4 #d4 ,she decided too hastily4 #e4 ,you should listen more attentively4 #f4 ,more difficult sentences must be built4 #g4 ,an intensely painful operation was performed4 #h4 ,the patient suffered intensely4 #i4 ,that story was peculiarly told4 #aj4 ,a peculiarly interesting story was told4 #aa4 ,an extravagantly high price was paid4 #ab4 ,that lady dresses extravagantly4 ,the pupil will notice that1 in some of the examples above1 the same adverb modifies an adjective in one sentence and an adverb in another1 and that1 in other examples1 an adjective and a verb are modified by the same word4 ,you may learn from this why such modifiers are grouped into one class4 ,,lesson #bh4 ,,analysis ,,and ,,parsing4 ,,miscellaneous ,,examples ,,for ,,review4 #a4 ,you must diagram neatly4 #b4 ,the sheaves are nearly gathered4 #c4 ,the wheat is duly garnered4 #d4 ,the fairies were called together4 #e4 ,the birds chirp merrily4 #f4 ,this reckless adventurer has returned4 #g4 ,the wild woods rang4 #h4 ,white fleecy clouds are floating above4 #i4 ,those severe laws have been repealed4 #aj4 ,a republican government was established4 #aa4 ,an unusually large crop had just been harvested4 #ab4 ,she had been waiting quite patiently4 #ac4 ,a season so extremely warm had never before been known4 #ad4 ,so brave a deed ,footnote3 ,can be commended is the verb1 and not is an adverb4 cannot be too warmly commended4 ,,lesson #bi4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,,miscellaneous ,,exercises ,,for ,,review4 ,build sentences containing the following adverbs4 ,hurriedly1 solemnly1 lightly1 well1 how1 somewhere1 abroad1 forever1 seldom1 exceedingly4 ,using the following subjects and predicates as foundations1 build six sentences having modified subjects and modified predicates1 two of which shall contain adverbs modifying adjectives2 two1 adverbs modifying adverbs2 and two1 adverbs modifying verbs4 #a4 ------- boat glides -----4 #b4 ------- cloud is rising -----4 #c4 ------- breezes are blowing -----4 #d4 ------- elephant was captured -----4 #e4 ------- streams flow -----4 #f4 ------- spring has opened -----4 ,we here give you1 in classes1 the material out of which you are to build five sentences with modified subjects and modified predicates4 ,select the subject and the predicate first4 ,nouns and ,pronouns4 ,verbs4 ,adjectives4 ,adverbs4 branch was running large1 that lustily coach were played both1 the downward they cried all1 an very we is growing several1 a rapidly games cheered amusing not1 loudly1 then ,,lesson #cj4 ,,errors ,,for ,,correction4 ,to the ,teacher4--,we here suggest additional work in composition1 with particular reference to the choice and position of adjectives4 ,see ,notes1 pp4 #aga1agb4 ,caution4--,when two or more adjectives are used with a noun1 care must be taken in their arrangement4 ,if there is any difference in their relative importance1 place nearest the noun the one that is most intimately connected with it4 ,to the ,teacher4--,we have in mind here those numerous cases where one adjective modifies the noun1 and the second modifies the noun as limited by the first4 ,all ripe apples are picked4 ,here ripe modifies apples1 but all modifies apples limited by ripe4 ,not all apples are picked1 but only all that are ripe4 ,,correct ,,the ,,following ,,errors ,,of ,,position4 ,a wooden pretty bowl stood on the table4 ,the blue beautiful sky is cloudless4 ,a young industrious man was hired4 ,the new marble large house was sold4 ,caution4--,when the adjectives are of the same rank1 place them where they will sound the best4 ,this will usually be in the order of their length--the longest last4 ,,correct ,,these ,,errors4 ,an entertaining and fluent speaker followed4 ,an enthusiastic1 noisy1 large crowd was addressed4 ,caution4--,do not use the pronoun them for the adjective those4 ,,correct ,,these ,,errors4 ,them books are nicely bound4 ,them two sentences should be corrected4 ,,correct ,,the ,,following ,,miscellaneous ,,errors4 arouse1 o romans hear1 o israel it is i i may be ,mistaken you ,have frequently been warned some ,very savage beasts have been ,tamed ,,review ,,questions4 ,what is an adverb8 ,give an example of an adverb modifying an adjective2 one modifying a verb2 one modifying an adverb4 ,why are such expressions as a wooden pretty bowl faulty8 ,why is an enthusiastic1 noisy1 large crowd faulty8 ,why is them books wrong8 ,why is i may be ,mistaken wrong8 ,why is hear1 o israel1 wrong8 ,study the ,review ,questions given in previous ,lessons4 ,to the ,teacher4--,see ,,composition ,,exercises in the ,supplement--,selection from ,darwin4 ,,lesson #ca4 ,,phrases ,,introduced ,,by ,,prepositions4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,in the preceding ,lessons1 you have learned that several words may be grouped together and used as one modifier4 ,in the examples given1 the principal word is joined directly to the subject or to the predicate1 and this word is modified by another word4 ,in this ,lesson also groups of words are used as modifiers1 but these words are not united with one another1 or with the word which the group modifies1 just as they are in the preceding ,lessons4 ,i will write on the board this sentence3 ,de ,soto marched into ,florida4 ,t4--,what tells where ,de ,soto marched8 ,p4--,into ,florida4 ,t4--,what is the principal word of the group8 ,p4--,florida4 ,t4--,is ,florida joined directly to the predicate1 as rapidly was in ,lesson #be8 ,p4--,no4 ,t4--,what little word comes in to unite the modifier to marched8 ,p4--,into4 ,t4--,does ,florida alone1 tell where he marched8 ,p4--,no4 ,t4--,does into alone1 tell where he marched8 ,p4--,no4 ,t4--,these groups of related words are called ,phrases4 ,let the teacher draw on the board the diagram of the sentence above4 ,phrases of the form illustrated in this diagram are the most common1 and they perform a very important function in our language4 ,let the teacher frequently call attention to the fact that all the words of a phrase are taken together to perform one distinct office4 ,a phrase modifying the subject is equivalent to an adjective1 and1 frequently1 may be changed into one4 ,the dew of the morning has passed away4 ,what word may be used for the phrase of the morning8 ,p4--,morning4 ,t4--,yes4 ,the morning dew has passed away4 ,a phrase modifying the predicate is equivalent to an adverb1 and1 frequently1 may be changed into one4 ,we shall go to that place4 ,what word may be used for the phrase1 to that place8 ,p4--,there4 ,t4--,yes4 ,we shall go there4 ,change the phrases in these sentences3--- ,a citizen of ,america was insulted4 ,we walked toward home4 ,let the teacher write on the board the following words1 and require the pupils to add to each1 one or more words to complete a phrase1 and then to construct a sentence in which the phrase may be properly employed3 ,to1 from1 by1 at1 on1 with1 in1 into1 over4 ,,definition4--,a ,phrase is a group of words denoting related ideas but not expressing a thought4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 ,analyze the following sentences1 and parse the nouns1 pronouns1 adjectives1 verbs1 and adverbs4 ,model4--,the finest trout in the lake are generally caught in the deepest water4 trout are caught ,the finest in generally in lake water ------ ---------- the the deepest ,explanation of the ,diagram4--,you will notice that the diagram of the phrase is made up of a slanting line1 standing for the introductory and connecting word1 and a horizontal line1 representing the principal word4 ,under the latter1 are placed the little slanting lines standing for the modifiers of the principal word4 ,here and elsewhere all modifiers are joined to their principal words by slanting lines4 ,oral ,analysis4--,this is a sentence1 because ------2 trout is the subject1 because -----2 are caught is the predicate1 because ------2 the words ,the and finest1 and the phrase1 in the lake1 are modifiers of the subject1 because -----2 the word generally and the phrase1 in the deepest water1 are modifiers of the predicate1 because ------2 in introduces the first phrase1 and lake is the principal word2 in introduces the second phrase1 and water is the principal word2 the and deepest are modifiers of water2 ,the finest trout in the lake is the modified subject1 and are generally caught in the deepest water is the modified predicate4 #a4 ,the gorilla lives in ,africa4 #b4 ,it seldom rains in ,egypt4 #c4 ,the ,pilgrims landed at ,plymouth4 #d4 ,the wet grass sparkled in the light4 #e4 ,the little brook ran swiftly under the bridge4 #f4 ,burgoyne surrendered at ,saratoga4 #g4 ,the steeples of the village pierced through the dense fog4 #h4 ,the gloom of winter settled down on everything4 #i4 ,a gentle breeze blows from the south4 #aj4 ,the temple of ,solomon was destroyed4 #aa4 ,the top of the mountain is covered with snow4 #ab4 ,the second ,continental ,congress convened at ,philadelphia4 ,,lesson #cb4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,build sentences1 employing the following phrases as modifiers4 ,to ,europe1 of oak1 from ,albany1 at the station1 through the fields1 for vacation1 among the ,indians1 of the ,united ,states4 ,supply to the following predicates subjects modified by phrases4 ---- is situated on the ,thames4 ---- has arrived4 ---- was destroyed by an earthquake4 ---- was received4 ---- has just been completed4 ---- may be enjoyed4 ,supply to the following subjects predicates modified by phrases4 ,iron ----4 ,the trees ----4 ,squirrels ----4 ,the ,bible ----4 ,sugar ----4 ,cheese ----4 ,paul ----4 ,strawberries ----4 ,the mountain ----4 ,write five sentences1 each of which shall contain one or more phrases used as modifiers4 ,,lesson #cc4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,re-write the following sentences1 changing the italicized words into equivalent phrases4 ,model4--,a golden image was made4 ,an image of gold was made4 ,you will notice that the adjective golden was placed before the subject1 but1 when changed to a phrase1 it followed the subject4 #a4 ,the book was carefully read4 #b4 ,the old soldiers fought courageously4 #c4 ,a group of children were strolling homeward4 #d4 ,no season of life should be spent idly4 #e4 ,the ,english ambassador has just arrived4 #f4 ,that generous act was liberally rewarded4 ,change the following adjectives and adverbs into equivalent phrases1 and employ the phrases in sentences of your own building4 ,wooden1 penniless1 eastward1 somewhere1 here1 evening1 everywhere1 yonder1 joyfully1 wintry4 ,make a sentence out of the words in each line below4 ,boat1 waves1 glides1 the1 the1 over4 ,he1 ,sunday1 church1 goes1 the1 on1 to4 ,year1 night1 is dying1 the1 the1 in4 ,qualities1 ,charlemagne1 vices1 were alloyed1 the1 great1 of1 with4 ,indians1 ,america1 intemperance1 are thinned1 the1 out1 of1 by4 ,,lesson #cd4 ,,prepositions4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,in the preceding ,lessons1 the little words that were placed before nouns1 thus forming phrases1 belong to a1 class of words called ,prepositions4 ,you noticed that these words1 which you have now learned to call prepositions1 served to introduce phrases4 ,the preposition shows the relation of the idea expressed by the principal word of the phrase to that of the word which the phrase modifies4 ,it serves also to connect these words4 ,in the sentence1 ,the squirrel ran up a tree1 what word shows the relation of the act of running1 to the tree8 ,ans4 ,up4 ,other words may be used to express different relations4 ,repeat1 nine times1 the sentence above given1 supplying1 in the place of up1 each of the following prepositions3 ,around1 behind1 down1 into1 over1 through1 to1 under1 from4 ,let this exercise be continued1 using such sentences as1 ,the man went into the house2 ,the ship sailed toward the bay4 ,,definition4--,a ,preposition is a word that introduces a phrase modifier1 and shows the relation1 in sense1 of its principal word to the word modified4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 ,model4--,flowers preach to us4 ,for ,analysis and ,diagram1 see ,lesson #ca4 ,for ,written ,parsing1 see ,lesson #bb4 ,add the needed columns4 ,oral ,parsing4--,flowers is a noun1 because----2 preach is a verb1 because----2 to is a preposition1 because it shows the relation1 in sense1 between us and preach2 us is a pronoun1 because it is used instead of the name of the speaker and the names of those for whom he speaks4 #a4 ,the golden lines of sunset glow4 #b4 ,a smiling landscape lay before us4 #c4 ,columbus was born at ,genoa4 #d4 ,the forces of ,hannibal were routed by ,scipio4 #e4 ,the capital of ,new ,york is on the ,hudson4 #f4 ,the ships sail over the boisterous sea4 #g4 ,all names of the ,deity should begin with capital letters4 #h4 ,air is composed chiefly of two invisible gases4 #i4 ,the greater portion of ,south ,america lies between the tropics4 #aj4 ,the laurels of the warrior must at all times be dyed in blood4 #aa4 ,the first word of every entire sentence should begin with a capital letter4 #ab4 ,the subject of a sentence is generally placed before the predicate4 ,impromptu ,exercise4 7,the teacher may find it profitable to make a separate lesson of this exercise47 ,let the teacher write on the board a subject and a predicate that will admit of many modifiers4 ,the pupils are to expand the sentence into as many separate sentences as possible1 each containing one apt phrase modifier4 ,the competition is to see who can build the most and the best sentences in a given time4 ,the teacher gathers up the slates and reads the work aloud1 or has the pupils exchange slates and read it themselves4 ,,lesson #ce4 ,,compound ,,subject ,,and ,,compound ,,predicate4 ,when two or more subjects united by a connecting word have the same predicate1 they form a ,compound ,subject2 and1 when two or more predicates connected in like manner have the same subject1 they form a ,compound ,predicate4 ,in the sentence1 ,birds and bees can fly1 the two words birds and bees1 connected by and1 have the same predicate2 the same action is asserted of both birds and bees4 ,in the sentence1 ,leaves fade and fall1 two assertions are made of the same things4 ,in the first sentence1 birds and bees form the compound subject2 and1 in the second1 fade and fall form the compound predicate4 ,analyze and parse the following sentences4 ,models4--,napoleon rose1 reigned1 and fell4 ,frogs1 antelopes1 and kangaroos can jump4 rose ,frogs 11 44 _/ ' ' ,napoleon _/ ,x ' reigned antelopes ' ,x can jump ' ' and' 'and_/ ' fell kangaroos ' _/ -' '' ,explanation of the ,diagram4--,the short line following the subject line represents the entire predicate1 and is supposed to be continued in the three horizontal lines that follow1 each of which represents one of the parts of the compound predicate4 ,these three lines are united by dotted lines1 which stand for the connecting words4 ,the ,x denotes that an and is understood4 ,study this explanation carefully1 and you will understand the other diagram4 ,oral ,analysis of the first sentence4 ,this is a sentence1 because ----2 ,napoleon is the subject1 because ----2 rose1 reigned1 and fell form the compound predicate1 because they belong in common to the same subject1 and say something about ,napoleon4 ,and connects reigned and fell4 #a4 ,the ,rhine and the ,rhone rise in ,switzerland4 #b4 ,time and tide wait for no man4 #c4 ,washington and ,lafayette fought for ,american ,independence4 #d4 ,wild birds shrieked1 and fluttered on the ground4 #e4 ,the mob raged and roared4 #f4 ,the seasons came and went4 #g4 ,pride1 poverty1 and fashion cannot live in the same house4 #h4 ,the tables of stone were cast to the ground and broken4 #i4 ,silver or gold will be received in payment4 #aj4 ,days1 months1 years1 and ages will circle away4 ,,review ,,questions4 ,what is a phrase8 ,a phrase modifying a subject is equivalent to what8 ,illustrate4 ,a phrase modifying a predicate is equivalent to what8 ,illustrate4 ,what are prepositions8 ,what do you understand by a compound subject8 ,illustrate4 ,what do you understand by a compound predicate8 ,illustrate4 ,,lesson #cf4 ,,conjunctions ,,and ,,interjections4 ,the words and and or1 used in the preceding ,lesson to connect the nouns and the verbs1 belong to a class of words called ,conjunctions4 ,conjunctions may also connect words used as modifiers2 as1 ,a daring but foolish feat was performed4 ,they may connect phrases2 as1 ,we shall go to ,saratoga and to ,niagara4 ,they may connect clauses1 that is1 expressions that1 standing alone1 would be sentences2 as1 ,he must increase1 but ,i must decrease4 ,,definition4--,a ,conjunction1 is a word used to connect words1 phrases1 or clauses4 ,the ,interjection is the eighth and last part of speech4 ,interjections are mere exclamations1 and are without grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence4 ,,definition4--,an ,interjection is a word used to express strong or sudden feeling4 ,examples3-- ,bravo6 hurrah6 pish6 hush6 ha1 ha6 alas6 hail6 lo6 pshaw6 ,analyze and parse the following sentences4 ,model4--,hurrah6 that cool and fearless fireman has rushed into the house and up the burning stairs4 ,hurrah ------ fireman has rushed ,that and and 44444 44444444 up cool fearless into stairs ---------- house the burning ------ the ,explanation of the ,diagram4--,the line representing the interjection is not connected with the diagram4 ,notice the dotted lines1 one standing for the and which connects the two word modifiers2 the other1 for the and connecting the two phrase modifiers4 ,written ,parsing4 ,n4 ,pro4 ,adj4 ,vb4 ,adv4 ,prep4 ,conj4 ,int4 fireman the has rushed into and hurrah house that up and stairs cool fearless burning ,oral ,parsing of the conjunction and the interjection4 ,the two ands are conjunctions1 because they connect4 ,the first connects two word modifiers2 the second1 two phrase modifiers4 ,hurrah is an interjection1 because it expresses a burst of sudden feeling4 #a4 ,the small but courageous band was finally overpowered4 #b4 ,lightning and electricity were identified by ,franklin4 #c4 ,a complete success or an entire failure was anticipated4 #d4 ,good men and bad men are found in all communities4 #e4 ,vapors rise from the ocean and fall upon the land4 #f4 ,the ,revolutionary war began at ,lexington and ended at ,yorktown4 #g4 ,alas6 all hope has fled4 #h4 ,ah6 ,i am surprised at the news4 #i4 ,oh6 we shall certainly drown4 #aj4 ,pshaw6 you are dreaming4 #aa4 ,hurrah6 the field is won4 ,,lesson #cg4 ,,punctuation ,,and ,,capital ,,letters4 ,,comma--,,rule4--,phrases that are placed out of their natural order ,footnote3 ,a phrase in its natural order follows the word it modifies4 and made emphatic1 or that are loosely connected with the rest of the sentence1 should be set off by the comma4 ,,punctuate ,,the ,,following ,,sentences4 ,model4--,the cable1 after many failures1 was successfully laid4 ,upon the platform 'twixt eleven and twelve ,i'll visit you4 ,to me this place is endeared by many associations4 ,your answers with few exceptions have been correctly given4 ,in ,english much depends on the placing of phrases4 ,,comma--,,rule4--,words or phrases connected by conjunctions are separated from each other by the comma unless all the conjunctions are expressed4 ,,punctuate ,,the ,,following ,,sentences4 ,model4--,caesar came1 saw1 and conquered4 ,caesar came and saw and conquered4 ,he travelled in ,england1 in ,scotland1 and in ,ireland4 7,the comma is used in the first sentence1 because a conjunction is omitted2 but not in the second1 as all the conjunctions are expressed47 ,a brave prudent and honorable man was chosen4 ,augustus ,tiberius ,nero and ,vespasian were ,roman emperors4 ,through rainy weather across a wild country over muddy roads after a long ride we came to the end of our journey4 ,,period and ,,capital ,,letter--,,rule4--,abbreviations generally begin with capital letters and are always followed by the period4 ,,correct ,,the ,,following ,,errors4 ,model4--,mr41 ,esq41 ,n4 ,y41 ,p4 ,m4 gen1 a m1 mrs1 no1 u s a1 n e1 eng1 p o1 rev1 prof1 dr1 gram1 capt1 coi1 co1 va1 conn4 ,,exclamation ,,point--,,rule4--,all exclamatory expressions must be followed by the exclamation point4 ,,punctuate ,,the ,,following ,,expressions4 ,model4--,ah6 ,oh6 ,zounds6 ,stop pinching6 ,pshaw1 whew1 alas1 ho ,tom1 halloo ,sir1 good-bye1 welcome4 ,,lesson #ch4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,to the ,teacher4--,call attention to the agreement of verbs with compound subjects4 ,require the pupils to justify the verb-forms in ,lesson #cf and elsewhere4 ,see ,notes1 pp4 #afe-afg4 ,write predicates for the following compound subjects4 ,snow and hail2 leaves and branches2 a soldier or a sailor2 ,london and ,paris4 ,write compound predicates for the following subjects4 ,the sun2 water2 fish2 steamboats2 soap2 farmers2 fences2 clothes4 ,write subjects for the following compound predicates4 ,live1 feel1 and grow2 judges and rewards2 owes and pays2 inhale and exhale2 expand and contract2 flutters and alights2 fly1 buzz1 and sting2 restrain or punish4 ,write compound subjects before the following predicates4 ,may be seen2 roar2 will be appointed2 have flown2 has been recommended4 ,write compound predicates after the following compound subjects4 ,boys1 frogs1 and horses2 wood1 coal1 and peat2 ,maine and ,new ,hampshire2 ,concord1 ,lexington1 and ,bunker ,hill2 pins1 tacks1 and needles4 ,write compound subjects before the following compound predicates4 ,throb and ache2 were tried1 condemned1 and hanged2 eat1 sleep1 and dress4 ,choose your own material and write five sentences1 each having a compound subject and a compound predicate4 ,,lesson #ci4 ,,complements4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,when we say1 ,the sun gives1 we express no complete thought4 ,the subject sun is complete1 but the predicate gives does not make a complete assertion4 ,when we say1 ,the sun gives light1 we do utter a complete thought4 ,the predicate gives is completed by the word light4 ,whatever fills out1 or completes1 we call a ,complement4 ,we will therefore call light the complement of the predicate4 ,as light completes the predicate by naming the thing acted upon1 we call it the ,object ,complement4 ,expressions like the following may be written on the board1 and by a series of questions the pupils may be made to dwell upon these facts till they are thoroughly understood4 ,the officer arrested -----2 the boy found -----2 ,charles saw -----2 coopers make -----4 ,besides these verbs requiring object complements1 there are others that do not make complete sense without the aid of a complement of another kind4 ,a complete predicate does the asserting and expresses what is asserted4 ,in the sentence1 ,armies march1 march is a complete predicate1 for it does the asserting and expresses what is asserted2 viz41 marching4 ,in the phrase1 armies marching1 marching expresses the same act as that denoted by march1 but it asserts nothing4 ,in the sentence1 ,chalk is white1 is does the asserting1 but it does not express what is asserted4 ,we do not wish to assert merely that chalk is or exists4 ,what we wish to assert of chalk1 is the quality expressed by the adjective white4 ,as white expresses a quality or attribute1 we may call it an ,attribute ,complement4 ,using expressions like the following1 let the facts given above be drawn from the class by means of questions4 ,grass growing2 grass grows2 green grass2 grass is green4 ,,definition4--,the ,object ,complement of a sentence completes the predicate1 and names that which receives the act4 ,,definition4--,the ,attribute ,complement of a sentence completes the predicate and belongs to the subject4 ,the complement with all its modifiers is called the ,modified ,complement4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 ,model4--,fulton invented the first steamboat4 ,fulton invented steamboat the first ,explanation of the ,diagram4--,you will see that the line standing for the object complement is a continuation of the predicate line1 and that the little vertical line only touches this without cutting it4 ,oral ,analysis4--,fulton and invented1 as before4 ,steamboat is the object complement1 because it completes the predicate1 and names that which receives the act4 ,the and first1 as before4 ,the first steamboat is the modified complement4 #a4 ,caesar crossed the ,rubicon4 #b4 ,morse invented the telegraph4 #c4 ,ericsson built the ,monitor4 #d4 ,hume wrote a history4 #e4 ,morn purples the east1 #f4 ,antony beheaded ,cicero4 ,model4--,gold is malleable4 ,gold is malleable ,in this diagram1 the line standing for the attribute complement1 like the object line1 is a continuation of the predicate line2 but notice the difference in the little mark separating the incomplete,footnote3 ,hereafter we shall call the verb the predicate1 but1 when followed by a complement1 it must be regarded as an incomplete predicate4 predicate from the complement4 ,oral ,analysis4---,gold and is1 as before4 ,malleable is the attribute complement1 because it completes the predicate1 and expresses a quality belonging to gold4 #g4 ,pure water is tasteless4 #h4 ,the hare is timid4 #i4 ,fawns are graceful4 #aj4 ,this peach is delicious4 #aa4 ,he was extremely prodigal4 #ab4 ,the valley of the ,mississippi is very fertile4 ,to the ,teacher--,see ,notes1 pp4 #ahc1ahd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #dj4 ,,errors ,,in ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,modifiers4 ,caution4--,place adverbs where there can be no doubt as to the words they modify4 ,,errors ,,to ,,be ,,corrected4 ,i only bring forward a few things4 ,hath the ,lord only ,footnote3 ,adverbs sometimes modify phrases4spoken by ,moses8 ,we merely speak of numbers4 ,the ,chinese chiefly live upon rice4 ,caution4--,in placing the adverb1 regard must be had to the sound of the sentence4 ,,errors ,,to ,,be ,,corrected4 ,we always should do our duty4 ,the times have changed surely4 ,the work will be never finished4 ,he must have certainly been sick4 ,caution4--,adverbs must not be used for adjectives4 ,,errors ,,to ,,be ,,corrected4 ,i feel badly4 ,marble feels coldly4 ,she looks nicely4 ,it was sold cheaply4 ,it appears still more plainly4 ,that sounds harshly4 ,i arrived at home safely4 ,caution4--,adjectives must not be used for adverbs4 ,,errors ,,to ,,be ,,corrected4 ,the bells ring merry4 ,the curtain hangs graceful4 ,that is a decided weak point4 ,speak no coarser than usual4 ,these are the words nearest connected4 ,talk slow and distinct4 ,she is a remarkable pretty girl4 ,to the ,teacher4--,for additional exercises in distinguishing adjectives from adverbs1 see ,notes1 p4 #aha4 ,,review ,,questions4 ,what is a conjunction8 ,what is an interjection8 ,give two rules for the use of the comma 7,lesson #cg74 ,what is the rule for writing abbreviations8 ,what is the rule for the exclamation point8 ,what is an object complement8 ,what is an attribute complement8 ,illustrate both4 ,what are the cautions for the position of the adverb8 ,what are the cautions for the use of the adverb and the adjective8 ,to the ,teacher4--,see ,,composition ,,exercises in the ,supplement-,selection from ,habberton4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #da4 ,,errors ,,in ,,the ,,position ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,modifiers4 ,caution4--,phrase modifiers should be placed as near as may be to the words they modify4 ,to the ,teacher4--,for composition exercises with particular reference to arrangement1 see ,notes1 pp4 #agb-agf4 ,,errors ,,to ,,be ,,corrected4 ,a fellow was arrested with short hair4 ,i saw a man digging a well with a ,roman nose4 ,he died and went to his rest in ,new ,york4 ,wanted--,a room by two gentlemen thirty feet long and twenty feet wide4 ,some garments were made for the family of thick material4 ,the vessel was beautifully painted with a tall mast4 ,i perceived that it had been scoured with half an eye4 ,a house was built by a mason of brown stone4 ,a pearl was found by a sailor in a shell4 ,punctuate these sentences when corrected4 ,caution4--,care must be taken to select the right preposition4 ,to the ,teacher4--,for the preposition to be used1 consult the ,unabridged ,dictionaries4 ,,errors ,,to ,,be ,,corrected4 ,they halted with the river on their backs4 ,the cat jumped on the chair4 ,he fell onto the floor4 ,he went in the house4 ,he divides his property between his four sons4 ,he died for thirst4 ,this is different to that4 ,two thieves divided the booty among themselves4 ,i am angry at him4 ,caution4--,do not use two negative1 or denying1 words so that one shall contradict the other1 unless you wish to affirm4 ,,errors ,,to ,,be ,,corrected4 ,i haven't no umbrella4 ,correct by dropping either the adjective no or the adverb not2 as1 ,i have no umbrella1 or ,i have not an umbrella4 ,i didn't say nothing4 ,i can't do this in no way4 ,no other emperor was so wise nor powerful4 ,nothing can never be annihilated4 ,,lesson #db4 ,,analysis ,,and ,,parsing4 #a4 ,brutus stabbed ,caesar4 #b4 ,man is an animal4 #c4 ,washington captured ,cornwallis4 #d4 ,wellington defeated ,napoleon at ,waterloo4 #e4 ,balboa discovered the ,pacific ocean4 #f4 ,vulcan was a blacksmith4 #g4 ,the summer has been very rainy4 #h4 ,columbus made four voyages to the ,new ,world4 #i4 ,the moon reflects the light of the sun4 #aj4 ,the first vice-president of the ,united ,states was ,john ,adams4 #aa4 ,roger ,williams was the founder of ,rhode ,island4 #ab4 ,harvey discovered the circulation of blood4 #ac4 ,diamonds are combustible4 #ad4 ,napoleon died a prisoner1 at ,st44 ,helena4 #ae4 ,in #afai the first ship-load of slaves was landed at ,jamestown4 ,the pupil will notice that animal1 in sentence ,no4 #b1 is an attribute complement1 though it is not an adjective expressing a quality belonging to man1 but a noun denoting his class4 ,nouns then may be attribute compliments4 ,the pupil will notice also that some of the object and attribute complements above have phrase modifiers4 ,,lesson #dc4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,using the following predicates1 build sentences having subjects1 predicates1 and object complements with or without modifiers4 ---- climb ----2 ---- hunt ----2 ---- command ----2 ---- attacked ----2 ---- pursued ----2 ---- shall receive ----2 ---- have seen ----2 ---- love ----4 ,change the following expressions into sentences by asserting the qualities here assumed4 ,use these verbs for predicates3 ,is1 were1 appears1 may be1 became1 was1 have been1 should have been1 is becoming1 are4 ,model4--,heavy gold4 ,gold is heavy4 ,green fields2 sweet oranges2 interesting story2 brilliant sunrise2 severe punishment2 playful kittens2 warm weather2 pitiful sight2 sour grapes2 amusing anecdote4 ,prefix to the following nouns several adjectives expressing qualities1 and then make complete sentences by asserting the same qualities4 white ,chalk is white4 ,model4--brittle chalk4 ,chalk is brittle4 soft ,chalk is soft4 ,gold1 pears1 pens1 lead1 water1 moon1 vase1 rock1 lakes1 summer1 ocean1 valley4 ,find your own material1 and build two sentences having object complements1 and two having attribute complements4 ,,lesson #dd4 ,,analysis ,,and ,,parsing4 ,,miscellaneous4 ,models4-- expands _/ ,learning _/ ' mind and' ' elevates _/ the ran _/ ' forward ,he _/ ' and' ' ' kissed him ,in the second diagram1 one of the predicate lines is followed by a complement line2 but the two predicate lines are not united1 for the two verbs have not a common object4 #a4 ,learning expands and elevates the mind4 #b4 ,he ran forward and kissed him4 #c4 ,the earth and the moon are planets4 #d4 ,the ,swiss scenery is picturesque4 #e4 ,jefferson was chosen the third president of the ,united ,states4 #f4 ,nathan ,hale died a martyr to liberty4 #g4 ,the man stood speechless4 #h4 ,labor disgraces no man4 #i4 ,aristotle and ,plato were the most distinguished philosophers of antiquity4 #aj4 ,josephus wrote a history of the ,jews4 #aa4 ,this man seems the leader of the whole party4 #ab4 ,the attribute complement completes the predicate and belongs to the subject4 #ac4 ,lord ,cornwallis became governor of ,bengal after his disastrous defeat4 #ad4 ,the multitude ran before him and strewed branches in the way4 #ae4 ,peter ,minuits traded with the ,indians1 and bought the whole island of ,manhattan for twenty-four dollars4 ,,lesson #de4 ,,analysis ,,and ,,parsing4 ,,miscellaneous4 ,model4-- wise _/ _/ ' in _/ ,x' council _/ ' --------- ,henry ,,iv4 was _/ ' simple ' of very and' in ,house ' manners -------- ' --------- the of ' chivalric ,burbon ------- in field ------- the ,the line standing for the word-modifier is joined to that part of the complement line which represents the entire attribute complement4 #a4 ,henry ,,iv41 of the ,house of ,bourbon1 was very wise in council1 simple in manners1 and chivalric in the field4 #b4 ,caesar defeated ,pompey at ,pharsalia4 #c4 ,the diamond is the most valuable gem4 #d4 ,the ,greeks took ,troy by stratagem4 #e4 ,the submarine cable unites the continent of ,america and the ,old ,world4 #f4 ,the ,gauls joined the army of ,hannibal4 #g4 ,columbus crossed the ,atlantic with ninety men1 and landed at ,san ,salvador4 #h4 ,vulcan made arms for ,achilles4 #i4 ,cromwell gained at ,naseby a most decisive victory over the ,royalists4 #aj4 ,columbus was a native of ,genoa4 #aa4 ,god tempers the wind to the shorn lamb4 #ab4 ,the morning hour has gold in its mouth4 #ac4 ,the mill of the gods grinds late1 but grinds to powder4 #ad4 ,a young farmer recently bought a yoke of oxen1 six cows1 and a horse4 #ae4 ,america has furnished to the world tobacco1 the potato1 and ,indian corn4 ,,lesson #df4 ,,analysis ,,and ,,parsing4 ,,miscellaneous4 ,cotton is raised ,egypt _/'------- in _/ ' _/ ,x' _/ ' ,india --_/ '-------- ' and' ' ' ,united ,states --------------- the ,explanation of the ,diagram4--,in this diagram the line representing the principal part of the phrase separates into three lines4 ,this shows that the principal part of the phrase is compound4 ,egypt1 ,india1 and ,united ,states are all introduced by the same preposition in1 and have the same relation to is raised4 #a4 ,cotton is raised in ,egypt1 ,india1 and the ,united ,states4 #b4 ,the navy of ,hiram brought gold from ,ophir4 #c4 ,the career of ,cromwell was short4 #d4 ,most mountain ranges run parallel with the coast4 #e4 ,now swiftly glides the bonny boat4 #f4 ,an able but dishonest judge presided4 #g4 ,the queen bee lays eggs in cells of three different sizes4 #h4 ,umbrellas were introduced into ,england from ,china4 #i4 ,the first permanent ,english settlement in ,america was made at ,jamestown1 in #afjg4 #aj4 ,the spirit of true religion is social1 kind1 and cheerful4 #aa4 ,the summits of the ,alps are covered with perpetual snow4 #ab4 ,the months of ,july and ,august were named after ,julius ,caesar and ,augustus ,caesar4 #ac4 ,all the kings of ,egypt are called1 in ,scripture1 ,pharaoh4 #ad4 ,the bamboo furnishes to the natives of ,china1 shade1 food1 houses1 weapons1 and clothing4 ,,lesson #dg4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,supply attribute complements to the following expressions4 7,see ,caution1 ,lesson #dj47 ,the marble feels ----4 ,mary looks ----4 ,the weather continues ----4 ,the apple tastes ----4 ,that lady appears ----4 ,the sky grows ----4 ,the leaves of roses are ----4 ,the undertaking was pronounced ----4 ,write a subject and a predicate to each of the following nouns taken as attribute complements4 ,model4--,soldier4--,that old man has been a soldier4 ,plant1 insect1 mineral1 vegetable1 liquid1 gas1 solid1 historian1 poet1 artist1 traveler1 emperor4 ,using the following nouns as subjects1 build sentences each having a simple predicate and two or more object complements4 ,congress1 storm1 education1 king1 tiger1 hunter1 ,arnold1 shoemakers1 lawyers1 merchant4 ,build three sentences on each of the following subjects1 two of which shall contain object complements1 and the third1 an attribute complement4 ,model4--,sun4-- ,the sun gives light4 ,the sun warms the earth4 ,the sun is a luminous body4 ,moon1 oak1 fire1 whiskey4 ,,lesson #dh4 ,,subject ,,or ,,complement ,,modified ,,by ,a ,,participle4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,you have learned1 in the preceding ,lessons1 that a quality may be assumed as belonging to a thing2 as1 white chalk1 or that it may be asserted of it2 as1 ,chalk is white4 ,an action1 also1 may be assumed as belonging to something2 as1 ,peter turning1 or it may be asserted2 as1 ,peter turned4 ,in the expression1 ,peter1 turning1 said1 what word expresses an action as assumed1 and which asserts an action8 ,each pupil may give an example of an action asserted and of an action assumed2 as1 ,corn grows1 corn growing2 geese gabble2 geese gabbling4 ,this form of the verb1 which merely assumes the act1 being1 or state1 is called the ,participle4 ,when the words growing and gabbling are placed before the nouns1 thus3 growing corn1 gabbling geese1 they tell simply the kind of corn and the kind of geese1 and are therefore adjectives4 ,when the or some other adjective is placed before these words1 and a preposition after them1 thus3 ,the growing of the corn1 the gabbling of the geese1 they are simply the names of actions1 and are therefore nouns4 ,let each pupil give an example of a verb asserting an action1 and change it to express3-- #ast1 ,an assumed action2 #b;d1 ,a permanent quality2 #c;d1 ,the name of an action4 ,participles may be completed by objects and attributes4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 ,model4--,truth1 crushed to earth1 will rise again4 ,truth will rise cru again shed -------- to earth ------- ,explanation of the ,diagram4--,in this diagram1 the line standing for the principal word of the participial phrase is broken2 one part slants1 and the other is horizontal4 ,this shows that the participle crushed is used like an adjective to modify ,truth1 and yet retains the nature of a verb1 expressing an action received by truth4 ,oral ,analysis4--,this is a sentence1 because ----2 ,truth is the subject1 because ----2 will rise is the predicate1 because ----2 the phrase1 crushed to earth1 is a modifier of the ,subj41 because ----2 crushed introduces the phrase and is the principal word in it2 the phrase to earth is a modifier of crushed2 to introduces it1 and earth is the principal word in it2 again is a modifier of the ,pred41 because ----4 ,truth crushed to earth is the modified subject1 will rise again is the modified predicate4 ,parsing--,crushed is the form of the verb called participle4 ,the action expressed by it is merely assumed4 #a4 ,the mirth of ,addison is genial1 imparting a mild glow of thought4 #b4 ,the general1 riding to the front1 led the attack4 #c4 ,the balloon1 shooting swiftly into the clouds1 was soon lost to sight4 #d4 ,wealth acquired dishonestly will prove a curse4 #e4 ,the sun1 rising1 dispelled the mists4 #f4 ,the thief1 being detected1 surrendered to the officer4 #g4 ,they boarded the vessel lying in the harbor4 #h4 ,the territory claimed by the ,dutch was called ,new ,netherlands4 #i4 ,washington1 having crossed the ,delaware1 attacked the ,hessians stationed at ,trenton4 #aj4 ,burgoyne1 having been surrounded at ,saratoga1 surrendered to ,gen4 ,gates4 #aa4 ,pocahontas was married to a young ,englishman named ,john ,rolfe4 #ab4 ,a shrug of the shoulders1 translated into words1 loses much force4 #ac4 ,the armies of ,england1 mustered for the battles of ,europe1 do not awaken sincere admiration4 7,note that the participle1 like the predicate verb1 may consist of two or more words47 7,note1 too1 that the participle1 like the adjective1 may belong to a noun complement47 ,,lesson #di4 ,,the ,,infinitive ,,phrase4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,there is another form of the verb which1 like the participle1 cannot be the predicate of a sentence1 for it cannot assert2 as1 ,she went out to see a friend2 ,to lie is a disgrace4 ,as this form of the verb expresses the action1 being1 or state in a general manner1 without limiting it directly to a subject1 it is called an ,infinitive1 which means without limit4 ,the infinitive generally follows to2 as1 to walk1 to sleep4 ,let each pupil give an infinitive4 ,the infinitive and the preposition to constitute a phrase1 which may be employed in several ways4 ,t4--,i have a duty to perform4 ,the infinitive phrase modifies what8 ,p4--,the noun duty4 ,t4--,it then performs the office of what8 ,p4--,of an adjective modifier4 ,t4--,i come to hear4 ,the infinitive phrase modifies what8 ,p4--,the verb come4 ,t4--,what office then does it perform8 ,p4--,of an adverb modifier4 ,t4--,to lie is base4 ,what is base8 ,p4--,to lie4 ,t4--,he attempted to speak4 ,what did he attempt8 ,p4--,to speak4 ,t4--,to lie is a subject1 and to speak is an object4 ,what part of speech is used as subject and object8 ,p4--,the noun4 ,t4--,the ,infinitive phrase is used as an adjective1 an adverb1 and a noun4 ,infinitives may be completed by objects and attributes4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 ,model4--,david hasted to meet ,goliath4 ,david hasted to meet ,goliath ---------------- ,analysis of the ,infinitive ,phrase4--,to introduces the phrase2 meet1 completed by the object ,goliath1 is the principal part4 ,parsing of the ,phrase4--,to is a preposition1 because ----2 meet is a verb1 because ----2 ,goliath is a noun1 because ----4 #a4 ,i come not here to talk4 #b4 ,i rejoice to hear it4 #c4 ,a desire to excel leads to eminence4 #d4 ,dr4 ,franklin was sent to ,france to solicit aid for the colonies4 #e4 ,to retreat was impossible4 7,to is here used merely to introduce the infinitive phrase47 to retreat --------- _/ was impossible ,explanation of the ,diagram4--,as this phrase subject cannot1 in its proper form1 be written on the subject line1 it is placed above1 and1 by means of a support1 the phrase diagram is made to rest on the subject line4 ,the phrase complement may be diagramed in a similar way1 and made to rest on the complement line4 #f4 ,the hands refuse to labor4 #g4 ,to live is not all of life4 #h4 ,the ,puritans desired to obtain religious freedom4 #i4 ,the ,romans1 having conquered the world1 were unable to conquer themselves4 #aj4 ,narvaez sailed from ,cuba to conquer ,florida4 #aa4 ,some savages of ,america and ,africa love to wear rings in the nose4 #ab4 ,andrew ,jackson1 elected to succeed ,j4 ,q4 ,adams1 was inaugurated in #ahbi4 ,,lesson #ej4 ,,position ,,and ,,punctuation ,,of ,,the ,,participial ,,phrase4 ,,errors ,,to ,,be ,,corrected4 7,see ,caution #a1 ,lesson #da47 ,punctuate as you correct4 7,see ,lesson #cg47 ,a house was built for a clergyman having seven gables4 ,the old man struck the saucy boy raising a gold-headed cane4 ,we saw a marble bust of ,sir ,w4 ,scott entering the vestibule4 ,here is news from a neighbor boiled down4 ,i found a cent walking over the bridge4 ,balboa discovered the ,pacific ocean climbing to the top of a mountain4 ,punctuate the following exercises4 ,cradled in the camp ,napoleon was the darling of the army4 ,having approved of the plan the king put it into execution4 ,satan incensed with indignation stood unterrified4 ,my friend seeing me in need offered his services4 ,james being weary with his journey sat down on the wall4 ,the owl hid in the tree hooted through the night4 ,,review ,,questions4 ,give the caution relating to the position of the phrase modifier2 that relating to the choice of prepositions2 that relating to the double negative 7,lesson #da74 ,give examples of errors4 ,can a noun be an attribute complement8 ,illustrate4 ,what do you understand by a participle8 ,into what may some participles be changed8 ,illustrate4 ,what offices does the infinitive phrase perform8 ,illustrate them4 ,to the ,teacher4--,see ,,composition ,,exercises in the ,supplement--,selection from ,george ,eliot4 ,,lesson #ea4 ,,review4 ,,miscellaneous ,,errors ,,for ,,correction4 7,see ,cautions in ,lessons #cj1 #dj1 and #da47 ,there never was such another man4 ,he was an old venerable patriarch4 ,john has a cadaverous1 hungry1 and lean look4 ,he was a well-proportioned1 fine fellow4 ,pass me them potatoes4 ,put your trust not in money4 ,we have often occasion for thanksgiving1 ,now this is to be done how8 ,nothing can justify ever profanity4 ,to continually study is impossible4 7,an adverb is seldom placed between the preposition to and the infinitive47 ,mary likes to tastefully dress4 ,learn to carefully choose your words4 ,she looks queerly4 ,give me a soon and direct answer4 ,the post stood firmly4 ,the eagle flies highly4 ,the orange tastes sweetly4 ,i feel tolerable well4 ,the branch breaks easy4 ,thistles grow rapid4 ,the eagle flies swift4 ,this is a miserable poor pen4 ,a wealthy gentleman will adopt a little boy with a small family4 ,a gentleman called from ,africa to pay his compliments4 ,water consists in oxygen and hydrogen4 ,he went out attended with a servant4 ,i have a dislike to such tricksters4 ,we have no prejudice to foreigners4 ,she don't know nothing about it4 ,father wouldn't give me none4 ,he hasn't been sick neither4 ,i won't have no more nohow4 ,to the ,teacher4--,let the reason be given for every correction4 ,,lesson #eb4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,build sentences in which the following participles shall be used as modifiers4 ,being fatigued2 laughing2 being amused2 having been elected2 running2 having been running4 ,expand each of the following sentences into three sentences1 using the participial form of the verb as a participle1 in the first2 the same form as an adjective1 in the second2 and as a noun1 in the third4 ,model4--,the stream flows4 ,the stream1 flowing gently1 crept through the meadow4 ,the flowing stream slipped away to the sea4 ,the flowing of the stream caused a low murmur4 ,the stream flows4 ,the sun rises4 ,insects hum4 ,the birds sing4 ,the wind whistles4 ,the bells are ringing4 ,the tide ebbs4 ,form infinitive phrases from the following verbs1 and use these phrases as adjectives1 adverbs1 and nouns1 in sentences of your own building4 ,smoke1 dance1 burn1 eat1 lie1 try4 ,to the ,teacher4--,for exercises to distinguish the participle from the predicate verb1 see ,notes1 pp4 #aha1 #ahb4 ,,lesson #ec4 ,,nouns ,,and ,,pronouns ,,as ,,modifiers4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,in the sentence1 ,the robin's eggs are blue1 the noun robin's does what8 ,p4--,it tells what or whose eggs are blue4 ,t4--,what word names the things owned or possessed8 ,p4--,eggs4 ,t4--,what word names the owner or possessor8 ,p4--,robin's4 ,t4--,the noun robin's is here used as a modifier4 ,you see that this word1 which ,i have written on the board1 is the word robin with a little mark 7'7 called an apostrophe1 and the letter s added4 ,these are added to denote possession4 ,in the sentence1 ,webster1 the statesman1 was born in ,new ,hampshire1 the noun statesman modifies the subject ,webster by explaining what or which ,webster is meant4 ,both words name the same person4 ,let the pupils give examples of each of these two kinds of ,noun ,modifiers--the ,possessive and the ,explanatory4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 ,model4--,julia's sister ,mary has lost her diamond ring4 sister 7,mary7 has lost ring ' ,julia's her diamond ,explanation of the ,diagram4--,mary is written on the subject line1 because ,mary and sister both name the same person1 but the word ,mary is inclosed within marks of parenthesis to show that sister is the proper grammatical subject4 ,in oral analysis1 call ,julia's and ,mary modifiers of the subject1 sister1 because ,julia's tells whose sister1 and ,mary explains sister by adding another name of the same person4 ,her is a modifier of the object1 because it tells whose ring is meant4 ,julia's sister ,mary is the modified subject1 the predicate is unmodified1 and her diamond ring is the modified object complement4 #a4 ,the planet ,jupiter has four moons4 #b4 ,the ,emperor ,nero was a cruel tyrant4 #c4 ,peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever4 mother wife's ,peter's #d4 ,an ostrich outruns an ,arab's horse4 #e4 ,his pretty little nephew ,arthur had the best claim to the throne4 #f4 ,milton1 the great ,english poet1 became blind4 #g4 ,caesar gave his daughter ,julia in marriage to ,pompey4 #h4 ,london1 the capital of ,england1 is the largest and richest city in the world4 #i4 ,joseph1 ,jacob's favorite son1 was sold by his brethren to the ,ishmaelites4 #aj4 ,alexander the ,great ,footnote3 ,alexander the ,great may be taken as one name1 or ,great may be called an explanatory modifier of ,alexander4 was educated under the celebrated philosopher ,aristotle4 #aa4 ,friends tie their purses with a spider's thread4 #ab4 ,caesar married ,cornelia1 the daughter of ,cinna4 #ac4 ,his fate1 alas6 was deplorable4 #ad4 ,love rules his kingdom without a sword4 ,,lesson #ed4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,nouns and pronouns denoting possession may generally be changed to equivalent phrases2 as1 ,arnold's treason the treason of ,arnold4 ,here the preposition of indicates possession1 the same relation expressed by the apostrophe 7'7 and s4 ,change the following possessive nouns to equivalent phrases1 and the phrases indicating possession to possessive nouns1 and then expand the expressions into complete sentences4 ,model4--,the earth's surface4 ,the surface of the earth is made up of land and water4 ,the earth's surface3 ,solomon's temple2 ,england's ,queen2 ,washington's ,farewell ,address2 ,dr4 ,kane's ,explorations2 ,peter's wife's mother2 ,george's friend's father2 ,shakespeare's plays2 ,noah's dove2 the diameter of the earth2 the daughter of ,jephthah2 the invasion of ,burgoyne2 the voyage of ,cabot2 the ,armada of ,philip2 the attraction of the earth2 the light of the moon4 ,find for the things mentioned below1 other names which shall describe or explain them4 ,add such names to these nouns1 and then expand the expressions into complete sentences4 ,model4--,ink4--,ink1 a dark fluid1 is used in writing4 ,observe the following rule4 ,,comma-,,rule4--,an ,explanatory ,modifier1 when it does not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it1 is set off by the comma4 ,to the ,teacher4--,see ,notes1 pp4 #agf1 #agg4 ,new ,york1 rain1 paper1 the monkey1 the robin1 tea1 ,abraham ,lincoln1 ,alexander ,hamilton1 world1 peninsula1 ,cuba1 ,shakespeare4 ,write three sentences1 each of which shall contain a noun or pronoun denoting possession1 and a noun or pronoun used to explain4 ,to the ,teacher4--,for additional exercises in the use of possessive modifiers1 see ,notes1 pp4 #ahb1 #ahc4 ,,lesson #ee4 ,,analysis ,,and ,,parsing4 ,,miscellaneous ,,examples ,,in ,,review4 #a4 ,the toad spends the winter in a dormant state4 #b4 ,pride in dress or in beauty betrays a weak mind4 #c4 ,the city of ,london is situated on the river ,thames4 #d4 ,napoleon ,bonaparte was born in #agfi1 on an island in the ,mediterranean4 #e4 ,men's opinions vary with their interests4 #f4 ,ammonia is found in the sap of trees1 and in the juices of all vegetables4 #g4 ,earth sends up her perpetual hymn of praise to the ,creator4 #h4 ,having once been deceived by him1 ,i never trusted him again4 #i4 ,aesop1 the author of ,aesop's ,fables1 was a slave4 #aj4 ,hope comes with smiles to cheer the hour of pain4 #aa4 ,clouds are collections of vapors in the air4 #ab4 ,to relieve the wretched was his pride4 #ac4 ,greece1 the most noted country of antiquity1 scarcely exceeded in size the half of the state of ,new ,york4 ,,lesson #ef4 ,,analysis ,,and ,,parsing4 ,,miscellaneous ,,examples ,,in ,,review--,,continued4 #a4 ,we are never too old to learn4 #b4 ,civility is the result of good nature and good sense4 #c4 ,the right of the people to instruct their representatives is generally admitted4 #d4 ,the immense quantity of matter in the ,universe presents a most striking display of ,almighty power4 #e4 ,virtue1 diligence1 and industry1 joined with good temper and prudence1 must ever be the surest means of prosperity4 #f4 ,the people called ,quakers were a source of much trouble to the ,puritans4 #g4 ,the ,mayflower brought to ,america ,footnote3 ,one hundred and one may be taken as one adjective4 one hundred and one men1 women1 and children4 #h4 ,edward ,wingfield1 an avaricious and unprincipled man1 was the first president of the ,jamestown colony4 #i4 ,john ,cabot and his son ,sebastian1 sailing under a commission from ,henry ,,vii4 of ,england1 discovered the continent of ,america4 #aj4 ,true worth is modest and retiring4 #aa4 ,jonah1 the prophet1 preached to the inhabitants of ,nineveh4 ,,lesson #eg4 ,,complex ,,sentences4 ,,the ,,adjective ,,clause4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,a word-modifier may sometimes be expanded into a phrase or into an expression that asserts4 ,t4--,a wise man will be honored4 ,expand wise into a phrase1 and give me the sentence4 ,p4--,a man of wisdom will be honored4 ,t4--,expand wise into an expression that asserts1 join this to man1 as a modifier1 and then give me the entire sentence4 ,p4--,a man who is wise will be honored4 ,t4--,you see that the same quality may be expressed in three ways--,a wise man1 ,a man of wisdom1 ,a man who is wise4 ,let the pupils give similar examples4 ,t4--,in the sentence1 ,a man who is wise will be honored1 the word who stands for what8 ,p4--,for the noun man4 ,t4--,then what part of speech is it8 ,p4--,a pronoun4 ,t4--,put the noun man in the place of the pronoun who1 and then give me the sentence4 ,p4--,a man1 man is wise1 will be honored4 ,t4--,i will repeat your sentence1 changing the order of the words--,a man will be honored4 ,man is wise4 ,is the last sentence now joined to the first as a modifier1 or are they two separate sentences8 ,p4--,they are two separate sentences4 ,t4--,then you see that the pronoun who not only stands for the noun man1 but it connects the modifying expression1 who is wise1 to man1 the subject of the sentence1 ,a man will be honored1 and thus there is formed what we call a ,complex ,sentence4 ,these two parts we call ,clauses4 ,a man will be honored is the ,independent ,clause2 who is wise is the ,dependent ,clause4 ,clauses that modify nouns or pronouns are called ,adjective ,clauses4 ,,definition4--,a ,clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and its predicate4 ,,definition4--,a ,dependent ,clause is one used as an adjective1 an adverb1 or a noun4 ,,definition4--,an ,independent ,clause is one not dependent on another clause4 ,,definition4--,a ,simple ,sentence is one that contains but one subject and one predicate1 either or both of which may be compound4 ,,definition4--,a ,complex ,sentence is one composed of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 ,model4-- man will be honored ,a who is wise ------------------- ,explanation of the ,diagram4--,you will notice that the lines standing for the subject and predicate of the independent clause are heavier than those of the dependent clause4 ,this pictures to you the relative importance of the two clauses4 ,you will see that the pronoun who is written on the subject line of the dependent clause4 ,but this word performs the office of a conjunction also1 and this office is expressed in the diagram by a dotted line4 ,as all modifiers are joined by slanting lines1 to the words they modify1 you learn from this diagram that who is wise is a modifier of man4 ,oral ,analysis4--,this is a complex sentence1 because it consists of an independent clause and a dependent clause4 ,a man will be honored is the independent clause2 who is wise is the dependent clause4 ,man is the subject of the independent clause2 will be honored is the predicate4 ,the word ,a and the clause1 who is wise1 are modifiers of the subject4 ,a points out man1 and who is wise tells the kind of man4 ,a man who is wise is the modified subject2 the predicate is unmodified4 ,who is the subject of the dependent clause1 is is the predicate1 and wise is the attribute complement4 ,who connects the two clauses4 #a4 ,he that runs may read4 #b4 ,man is the only animal that laughs and weeps4 #c4 ,henry ,hudson discovered the river which bears his name4 #d4 ,he necessarily remains weak who never tries exertion4 #e4 ,the meridians are those lines that extend from pole to pole4 #f4 ,he who will not be ruled by the rudder must be ruled by the rock4 #g4 ,animals that have a backbone are called vertebrates4 #h4 ,uneasy lies the head that wears a crown4 #i4 ,the thick mists which prevail in the neighborhood of ,newfoundland are caused by the warm waters of the ,gulf ,stream4 #aj4 ,the power which brings a pin to the ground holds the earth in its orbit4 #aa4 ,death is the black camel which kneels at every man's gate4 #ab4 ,our best friends are they who tell us of our faults1 and help us to mend them4 ,the pupil will notice that1 in some of these sentences1 the dependent clause modifies the subject1 and that1 in others1 it modifies the noun complement4 ,,comma--,,rule4--,the adjective or the adverb clause1 when it does not closely follow and restrict the word modified1 is generally set off by the comma4 ,,lesson #eh4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,,adjective ,,clauses4 ,expand each of the following adjectives into #a4 ,a phrase2 #b4 ,a clause2 and then use these three modifiers in three separate sentences of your own construction4 who has energy1 ,model4--,energetic2 of energy2 or who is energetic4 ,an energetic man will succeed4 ,a man of energy will succeed4 ,a man who has energy 7or who is energetic7 will succeed4 ,honest1 long-eared1 beautiful1 wealthy4 ,expand each of the following possessive nouns into #a4 ,a phrase2 #b4 ,a clause2 and then use these three modifiers in three separate sentences4 ,model4--,saturn's rings2 the rings of ,saturn2 the rings which surround ,saturn4 ,saturn's rings can be seen with a telescope4 ,the rings of ,saturn can be seen with a telescope4 ,the rings which surround ,saturn can be seen1 with a telescope4 ,absalom's hair2 the hen's eggs2 the elephant's tusks4 ,change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding the participial phrases into clauses4 ,the vessels carrying the blood from the heart are called arteries4 ,the book prized above all other books is the ,bible4 ,rivers rising west of the ,rocky ,mts4 flow into the ,pacific ocean4 ,the guns fired at ,concord were heard around the world4 ,to the ,teacher4--,for additional composition exercises with particular reference to adjective clauses1 see ,notes1 p4 #agg4 ,,lesson #ei4 ,,complex ,,sentences4 ,,the ,,adverb ,,clause4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,you learned in ,lesson #hc that an adverb can be expanded into an equivalent phrase2 as1 ,the book was carefully read ,the book was read with care4 ,we shall now learn that a phrase used as an adverb may be expanded into an ,adverb clause4 ,in the sentence1 ,we started at sunrise1 what phrase is used like an adverb8 ,p4--,at sunrise4 ,t4--,expand this phrase into an equivalent clause1 and give me the entire sentence4 ,p4--,we started when the sun rose4 ,t4--,you see that the phrase1 at sunrise1 and the clause1 when the sun rose1 both modify started1 telling the time of starting1 and are therefore equivalent to adverbs4 ,we will then call such clauses ,adverb ,clauses4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 ,model4-- ,we started when sun rose the ,explanation of the ,diagram4--,the line which connects the two predicate lines pictures three things4 ,it is made up of three parts4 ,the upper part shows that when modifies started2 the lower part1 that it modifies rose2 and the dotted part shows that it connects4 ,oral ,analysis4--,this is a complex sentence1 because ----2 ,we started is the independent clause1 and when the sun rose is the dependent clause4 ,we is the subject of the independent clause1 and started is the predicate4 ,the clause1 when the sun rose1 is a modifier of the predicate1 because it tells when we started4 ,started when the sun rose is the modified predicate4 ,sun is the subject of the dependent clause1 and rose is the predicate1 and the is a modifier of sun2 the sun is the modified subject4 ,when modifies rose and started1 and connects the clause-modifier to the predicate started4 ,parsing of when4--,when is an adverb modifying the two verbs started and rose1 thus connecting the two clauses4 ,it modifies these verbs by showing that the two actions took place at the same time4 #a4 ,the dew glitters when the sun shines4 #b4 ,printing was unknown when ,homer wrote the ,iliad4 #c4 ,where the bee sucks honey1 the spider sucks poison4 #d4 ,ah6 few shall part where many meet4 #e4 ,where the devil cannot come1 he will send4 #f4 ,while the bridegroom tarried1 they all slumbered and slept4 #g4 ,fools rush in where angels fear to tread4 #h4 ,when the tale of bricks is doubled1 ,moses comes4 #i4 ,when ,i look upon the tombs of the great1 every emotion of envy dies within me4 #aj4 ,the upright man speaks as he thinks4 #aa4 ,he died as the fool dieth4 #ab4 ,the scepter shall not depart from ,judah until ,shiloh come4 ,,lesson #fj4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,,adverb ,,clauses4 ,expand each of the following phrases into an adverb clause1 and fit this clause into a sentence of your own building4 ,model4--,at sunset2 when the sun set4 ,we returned when the sun set4 ,at the hour2 on the playground2 by moonlight2 in youth2 among icebergs2 after school2 at the forks of the road2 during the day2 before church2 with my friend4 ,to each of the following independent clauses1 join an adverb clause1 and so make complex sentences4 ---- ,peter began to sink4 ,the man dies ----4 ,grass grows ----4 ,iron ---- can easily be shaped4 ,the rattlesnake shakes his rattle ----4 ---- a nation mourns4 ,pittsburg stands ----4 ,he dared to lead ----4 ,to the ,teacher4--,for additional composition exercises with particular reference to adverb clauses1 see ,notes1 p4 #agg4 ,see ,,composition ,,exercises in the ,supplement--,selection from the ,brothers ,grimm4 ,,review ,,questions4 ,in what two ways may nouns be used as modifiers8 ,illustrate4 ,nouns and pronouns denoting possession may sometimes be changed into what8 ,illustrate4 ,give the rule for the punctuation of explanatory modifiers4 ,into what may an adjective be expanded8 ,into what may a participial phrase be expanded8 ,give illustrations4 ,give an example of a complex sentence4 ,of a clause4 ,of an independent clause4 ,of a dependent clause4 ,into what may a phrase used as an adverb be expanded8 ,illustrate4 ,,lesson #fa4 ,,the ,,noun ,,clause4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,that stars are suns is taught by astronomers4 ,what is taught by astronomers8 ,p4--,that stars are suns4 ,t4--,what then is the subject of is taught8 ,p4--,the clause1 ,that stars are suns4 ,t4--,this clause then performs the office of what part of speech8 ,p4--,of a noun4 ,t4--,astronomers teach that stars are suns4 ,what do astronomers teach8 ,p4--,that stars are suns4 ,t4--,what is the object complement of teach8 ,p4--,the clause1 that stars are suns4 ,t4--,what office then does this clause perform8 ,p4--,that of a noun4 ,t4--,the teaching of astronomers is1 that stars are suns4 ,what does is assert of teaching8 ,p4--,that stars are suns4 ,t4--,what then is the attribute complement8 ,p4--,that stars are suns4 ,t4--,does this complement express the quality of the subject1 or does it name the same thing that the subject names8 ,p4--,it names the same thing that the subject names4 ,t4--,it is equivalent then to what part of speech8 ,p4--,to a noun4 ,t4--,you see then that a clause1 like a noun1 may be used as the subject or the complement of a sentence4 ,analysis and ,parsing4 ,model4-- ,that ------ ' stars are 'suns _/ is taught by astronomers -------------- ,you will understand this diagram from the explanation of the second diagram in ,lesson #di4 ,oral ,analysis4--,this is a complex sentence1 in which the whole sentence takes the place of the independent clause4 ,that stars are suns is the dependent clause4 ,that stars are suns is the subject of the whole sentence1 etc4 ----4 ,that simply introduces the dependent clause4 ,in parsing1 call that a conjunction4 #a4 ,that the ,scotch are an intelligent people is generally acknowledged4 #b4 ,that the moon is made of green cheese is believed by some boys and girls4 #c4 ,that ,julius ,caesar invaded ,britain is a historic fact4 #d4 ,that children should obey their parents is a divine precept4 #e4 ,i know that my ,redeemer liveth4 #f4 ,plato taught that the soul is immortal4 #g4 ,peter denied that he knew his ,lord4 #h4 ,mahomet found that the mountain would not move4 #i4 ,the principle maintained by the colonies was1 that taxation without representation is unjust4 #aj4 ,our intention is1 that this work shall be well done4 #aa4 ,our hearts' desire and prayer is1 that you may be saved4 #ab4 ,the belief of the ,sadducees was1 that there is no resurrection of the dead4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lesson #fb4 ,,compound ,,sentences4 ,,analysis ,,and ,,parsing4 ,,definition4--,a ,compound ,sentence is one composed of two or more independent clauses4 ,model4--,war has ceased1 and peace has come4 ,war has ceased ' ' and '44444 ' peace has ' come ,explanation of the ,diagram4--,these two clause diagrams are shaded alike to show that the two clauses are of the same rank4 ,the connecting line is not slanting1 for one clause is not a modifier of the other4 ,as one entire clause is connected with the other1 the connecting line is drawn between the predicates simply for convenience4 ,oral ,analysis4--,this is a compound sentence1 because it is made up of two independent clauses4 ,the first clause1 etc4 ----4 #a4 ,morning dawns1 and the clouds disperse4 #b4 ,prayer leads the heart to ,god1 and he always listens4 #c4 ,a soft answer turneth away wrath1 but grievous words stir up anger4 #d4 ,power works easily1 but fretting is a perpetual confession of weakness4 #e4 ,many meet the gods1 but few salute them4 #f4 ,we eat to live1 but we do not live to eat4 #g4 ,the satellites revolve in orbits around the planets1 and the planets move in orbits around the sun4 #h4 ,a wise son maketh a glad father1 but a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother4 #i4 ,every man desires to live long1 but no man would be old4 #aj4 ,footnote3 ,a verb is to be supplied in each of the last three sentences4 ,pride goeth before destruction1 and a haughty spirit before a fall4 #aa4 ,towers are measured by their shadows1 and great men1 by their calumniators4 #ab4 ,worth makes the man1 and want of it1 the fellow4 ,,lesson #fc4 ,,sentences ,,classified ,,with ,,respect ,,to ,,their ,,meaning4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,you have already become acquainted with three kinds of sentences4 ,can you name them8 ,p4--,the ,simple sentence1 the ,complex1 and the ,compound4 ,t4--,these classes have been made with regard to the form of the sentence4 ,we will now arrange sentences in classes with regard to their meaning4 ,mary sings4 ,does ,mary sing8 ,sing1 ,mary4 ,how ,mary sings6 ,here are four simple sentences4 ,do they all mean the same thing8 ,p4--,they do not4 ,t4--,well1 you see they differ4 ,let me tell you wherein4 ,the first one tells a fact1 the second asks a question1 the third expresses a command1 and the fourth expresses sudden thought or strong feeling4 ,we call the first a ,declarative sentence1 the second an ,interrogative sentence1 the third an ,imperative sentence1 and the fourth an ,exclamatory sentence4 ,,definition4--,a ,declarative ,sentence is one that is used to affirm or to deny4 ,,definition4--,an ,interrogative ,sentence is one that expresses a question4 ,,definition4--,an ,imperative ,sentence is one that expresses a command or an entreaty4 ,,definition4--,an ,exclamatory ,sentence is one that expresses sudden thought or strong feeling4 ,,interrogation ,,point--,,rule4--,every direct interrogative sentence should be followed by an interrogation point4 ,footnote3 ,to ,the ,teacher4--,see ,notes1 pp4 #agh1 #agi4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,change each of the following declarative sentences into three interrogative sentences1 and tell how the change was made4 ,model4--,girls can skate4 ,can girls skate8 ,how can girls skate8 ,what girls can skate8 ,you are happy4 ,parrots can talk4 ,low houses were built4 ,change each of the following into an imperative sentence4 ,notice that independent words are set off by the comma4 ,model4--,carlo eats his dinner4 ,eat your dinner1 ,carlo4 ,george plays the flute4 ,birdie stands on one leg4 ,change each of the following into exclamatory sentences4 ,model4--,you are happy4 ,how happy you are6 ,what a happy child you are6 ,you are so happy6 ,time flies swiftly4 ,i am glad to see you4 ,a refreshing shower fell4 ,lapland is a cold country4 ,it is hot between the tropics4 ,write a declarative1 an interrogative1 an imperative1 and an exclamatory sentence on each of the following topics4 ,weather1 lightning1 a stage coach4 ,,lesson #fd4 ,,analysis ,,and ,,parsing4 ,,miscellaneous ,,exercises ,,in ,,review4 ,in the analysis1 classify these sentences first with reference to their form1 and then with reference to their meaning4 #a4 ,wickedness is often made a substitute for wit4 #b4 ,alfred was a brave1 pious1 and patriotic prince4 #c4 ,the throne of ,philip trembles while ,demosthenes speaks4 #d4 ,that the whole is equal to the sum of its parts is an axiom4 #e4 ,the lion belongs to the cat tribe1 but he cannot climb a tree4 #f4 ,pride is a flower that grows in the devil's garden4 #g4 ,of all forms of habitation1 the simplest is the burrow4 #h4 ,when the righteous are in authority1 the people rejoice4 #i4 ,when the wicked beareth rule1 the people mourn4 #aj4 ,cassius1 be not deceived4 ,footnote3 ,cassius is independent1 and may be diagramed like an interjection4 ,the subject of be deceived is thou1 or you1 understood4 #aa4 ,how poor1 how rich1 how abject1 how august1 how wonderful is man6 #ab4 ,which is the largest city in the world8 ,,lesson #fe4 ,,analysis ,,and ,,parsing4 ,,miscellaneous ,,exercises ,,in ,,review--,,continued1 #a4 ,politeness is the oil which lubricates the wheels of society4 #b4 #j liberty6 liberty6 how many crimes are committed in thy name6 #c4 ,the mind is a goodly field1 and to sow it with trifles is the worst husbandry in the world4 #d4 ,every day in thy life is a leaf in thy history4 #e4 ,make hay while the sun shines4 #f4 ,columbus did not know that he had discovered a new continent4 #g4 ,the subject of inquiry was1 ,who invented printing8 #h4 ,the cat's tongue is covered with thousands of little sharp cones1 pointing towards the throat4 #i4 ,the fly sat upon the axle of a chariot-wheel and said1 ,what a dust do ,i raise6 #aj4 ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert1 attempting to recross the ,atlantic in his little vessel1 the ,squirrel1 went down in mid-ocean4 #aa4 ,charity begins at home1 but it should not stay there4 #ab4 ,the morn1 in russet mantle clad1 walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill4 ,,lesson #ff4 ,,miscellaneous ,,errors ,,in ,,review4 ,i haven't near so much4 ,i only want one4 ,draw the string tightly4 ,he writes good4 ,i will prosecute him who sticks bills upon this church or any other nuisance4 ,noah for his godliness and his family were saved from the flood4 ,we were at ,europe this summer4 ,you may rely in that4 ,she lives to home4 ,i can't do no work4 ,he will never be no better4 ,they seemed to be nearly dressed alike4 ,i won't never do so no more4 ,a ivory ball4 ,an hundred head of cattle4 george washington1 gen dix of n y4 o sarah i ,saw ,a pretty ,bonnet4 are ,you going home8 ,a young man wrote these verses who has long lain in his grave for his own amusement4 ,this house will be kept by the widow of ,mr4 ,b4 who died recently on an improved plan4 ,in correcting the position of the adjective clauses in the two examples above1 observe the caution for the phrase modifiers1 ,lesson #da4 ,he was an independent small farmer4 ,the mind knows feels and thinks4 ,the urchin was ragged barefooted dirty homeless and friendless4 ,i am some tired4 ,this here road is rough4 ,that there man is homely4 pshaw i am so ,disgusted4 ,whoa can't you stand still4 ,james the gardener gave me a white lily4 ,irving the genial writer lived on the hudson4 ,,lesson #fg4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,build one sentence out of each group of the sentences which follow4 ,model4--,an able man was chosen4 ,a prudent man was chosen4 ,an honorable man was chosen4 ,an able1 prudent1 and honorable man was chosen4 ,pure water is destitute of color4 ,pure water is destitute of taste4 ,pure water is destitute of smell4 ,cicero was the greatest orator of his age4 ,demosthenes was the greatest orator of his age4 ,daisies peeped up here4 ,daisies peeped up there4 ,daisies peeped up everywhere4 ,expand each of the following sentences into three4 ,the ,english language is spoken in ,england1 ,canada1 and the ,united ,states4 ,the ,missouri1 ,ohio1 and ,arkansas rivers are branches of the ,mississippi4 ,out of the four following sentences1 build one sentence having three explanatory modifiers4 ,model4--,elizabeth was the daughter of ,henry ,,viii4 ,elizabeth was sister of ,queen ,mary4 ,elizabeth was the patron of literature4 ,elizabeth defeated the ,armada4 ,elizabeth1 the daughter of ,henry ,,viii41 sister of ,queen ,mary1 and the patron of literature1 defeated the ,armada4 ,boston is the capital of ,massachusetts4 ,boston is the ,athens of ,america4 ,boston is the ,hub of the ,universe4 ,boston has crooked streets4 ,expand the following sentence into four sentences4 ,daniel ,webster1 the great jurist1 the expounder of the ,constitution1 and the chief of the ,american ,triumvirate1 died with the words1 ,i still live1 on his lips4 ,,lesson #fh4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,to the ,teacher4--,for additional exercises in composition1 see ,notes1 pp4 #agf-ahj4 ,change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding the phrases into adjective clauses4 ,model4--,people living in glass houses shouldn't throw stones4 ,people who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones4 ,those living in the ,arctic regions need much oily food4 ,a house built upon the rock will stand4 ,the boy of studious habits will always have his lesson4 ,wellington was a man of iron will4 ,change the following complex sentences into simple sentences by contracting the adjective clauses into phrases4 ,much of the cotton which is raised in the ,gulf ,states is exported4 ,the house which was built upon the sand fell4 ,a thing which is beautiful is a joy forever4 ,aaron ,burr was a man who had fascinating manners4 ,change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding the phrases into adverb clauses4 ,model4--,birds return in the spring4 ,when spring comes1 the birds return4 ,the dog came at call4 ,in old age our senses fail4 ,change the following complex sentences into simple sentences by contracting the adverb clauses into phrases4 ,the ship started when the tide was at flood4 ,when he reached the middle of his speech1 he stopped4 ,by supplying noun clauses1 make complete sentences out of the following expressions4 ---- is a well-known fact4 ,the fact was ----4 ,ben4 ,franklin said ----4 ,,lesson #fi4 ,,general ,,review4 ,what is a letter8 ,give the name and the sound of each of the letters in the three following words3 letters1 name1 sound4 ,into what classes are letters divided8 ,define each class4 ,name the vowels4 ,what is a word8 ,what is artificial language8 ,what is ,english ,grammar8 ,what is a sentence8 ,what is the difference between the two expressions1 ripe apples and apples are ripe8 ,what two parts must every sentence have8 ,define each4 ,what is the analysis of a sentence8 ,what is a diagram8 ,what are parts of speech8 ,how many parts of speech are there8 ,give an example of each4 ,what is a noun8 ,what is a verb8 ,what must every predicate contain8 ,what is a pronoun8 ,what is a modifier8 ,what is an adjective8 ,what adjectives are sometimes called articles8 ,when is a used8 ,when is an used8 ,illustrate4 ,give an example of one modifier joined to another4 ,what is an adverb8 ,what is a phrase8 ,what is a preposition8 ,what is a conjunction8 ,what is an interjection8 ,give four rules for the use of capital letters 7,lessons #h1 #ae1 #ai1 #hg74 ,give two rules for the use of the period1 one for the exclamation point1 and one for the interrogation point 7,lessons #h1 #cg1 #fc74 ,,lesson #gj4 ,,general ,,review4 ,what is an object complement8 ,what is an attribute complement8 ,how does a participle differ from a predicate verb8 ,illustrate4 ,what offices does an infinitive phrase perform8 ,illustrate4 ,how are sentences classified with respect to form8 ,give an example of each class4 ,what is a simple sentence8 ,what is a clause8 ,what is a dependent clause8 ,what is an independent clause8 ,what is a complex sentence8 ,what is a compound sentence8 ,how are sentences classified with respect to meaning8 ,give an example of each class4 ,what is a declarative sentence8 ,what is an interrogative sentence8 ,what is an imperative sentence8 ,what is an exclamatory sentence8 ,what different offices may a noun perform8 ,ans4--,a noun may be used as a subject1 as an object complement1 as an attribute complement1 as a possessive modifier1 as an explanatory modifier1 as the principal word in a prepositional phrase1 and it may be used independently4 ,illustrate each use4 ,what are sometimes substituted for nouns8 ,ans4--,pronouns1 phrases1 and clauses4 ,illustrate4 ,what is the principal office of a verb8 ,what offices may be performed by a phrase8 ,what1 by a clause8 ,what1 different offices may an adjective perform8 ,what parts of speech may connect clauses8 ,ans4--,conjunctions1 adverbs1 and pronouns4 7,see ,lessons #fb1 #ei1 and #eg47 ,give rules for the use of the comma 7,lessons #cg1 #ed1 #eg74 ,give and illustrate the directions for using adjectives and adverbs1 for placing phrases1 for using prepositions1 and for using negatives 7,lessons #dj1 #da74 ,to the ,teacher4--,for additional review1 see ,scheme1 p4 #ahe4 ,if the early presentation of an outline of technical grammar is not compelled by a prescribed course of study1 we should here introduce a series of lessons in the construction of sentences1 paragraphs1 letters1 and general compositions4 ,the pages following ,lesson #ajj will furnish matter4 ,see especially ,,composition ,,exercises in the ,supplement--,selection from ,beecher4 ,,parts ,,of ,,speech ,,subdivided4 ,,lesson #ga4 ,,classes ,,of ,,nouns4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,hereafter1 in the ,hints1 we shall drop the dialogue form1 but we expect the teacher to continue it4 ,a poor teacher does all the talking1 a good teacher makes the pupils talk4 ,the teacher may here refer to his talk about the classification of birds1 and show that1 after birds have been arranged in great classes1 such as robins1 sparrows1 etc41 these classes will need to be subdivided1 if the pupil is to be made thoroughly acquainted with this department of the animal kingdom4 ,so1 after grouping words into the eight great classes1 called ,parts of ,speech1 these classes may be divided into other classes4 ,for instance1 take the two nouns city and ,brooklyn4 ,the word city is the common name of all places of a certain class1 but the word ,brooklyn is the proper or particular name of an individual of this class4 ,we have here1 then1 two kinds of nouns which we call ,common and ,proper4 ,let the teacher write a number of nouns on the board1 and require the pupil to classify them and give the reasons for the classification4 ,to prepare the pupil thoroughly for this work1 the teacher will find it necessary to explain why such words as music1 mathematics1 knowledge1 etc41 are common nouns4 ,music1 e4 g41 is not a proper noun1 for it is not a name given to an individual thing to distinguish it from other things of the same class4 ,there are no other things of the same class--it forms a class by itself4 ,so we call the noun music a common noun4 ,,classes ,,of ,,pronouns4 ,the speaker seldom refers to himself by name1 but uses the pronoun ,i instead4 ,in speaking to a person1 we often use the pronoun you instead of his name4 ,in speaking of a person or thing that has been mentioned before1 we say he or she or it4 ,these words that by their form indicate the speaker1 the hearer1 or the person or thing spoken of1 are called ,personal ,pronouns4 ,see ,lesson #ai1 ,hints4 ,give sentences containing nouns repeated1 and require the pupils to improve these sentences by substituting pronouns4 ,when we wish to refer to an object that has been mentioned in another clause1 and at the same time to connect the clauses1 we use a class of pronouns called ,relative ,pronouns4 ,let the teacher illustrate by using the pronouns who1 which1 and that4 ,see ,lesson #eg1 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4 ,when we wish to ask about anything whose name is unknown1 we use a class of pronouns called ,interrogative ,pronouns4 ,the interrogative pronoun stands for the unknown name1 and asks for it2 as1 ,who comes here8 ,what is this8 ,both men were wrong4 ,let us omit men and say1 ,both were wrong4 ,you see the meaning is not changed--both is here equivalent to both men1 that is1 it performs the office of an adjective and that of a noun4 ,it is therefore an ,adjective ,pronoun4 ,let the teacher further illustrate the office of the adjective pronoun by using the words each1 all1 many1 some1 such1 etc4 ,,definitions4 ,,classes ,,of ,,nouns4 ,a ,common ,noun is a name which belongs to all things of a class4 ,a ,proper ,noun is the particular name of an individual4 ,,classes ,,of ,,pronouns4 ,a ,personal ,pronoun is a pronoun that by its form denotes the speaker1 the one spoken to1 or the one spoken of4 ,a ,relative ,pronoun is one that relates to some preceding word or words1 and connects clauses4 ,an ,interrogative ,pronoun is one with which a question is asked4 ,an ,adjective ,pronoun is one that performs the offices of both an adjective and a noun4 ,,lesson #gb4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,build each of the following groups of nouns into a sentence4 ,see ,rule1 ,lesson #ae4 webster cares office washington repose home marshfleld4 george washington commander army revolution president united states westmoreland state virginia month february4 san francisco city port pacific trade united states lines steamships sandwich islands japan china australia4 ,write five simple sentences1 each containing one of the five personal pronouns3 ,i1 thou or you1 he1 she1 and it4 ,write four complex sentences1 each containing one of the four relative pronouns3 who1 which1 that1 and what4 ,what is used as a relative pronoun when the antecedent is omitted4 ,the word for which a pronoun stands is called its antecedent4 ,when we express the antecedent1 we use which or that4 ,i shall do what is required2 ,i shall do the thing which is required1 or that is required4 ,build three interrogative sentences1 each containing one of the three interrogative pronouns3 who1 which1 and what4 ,build eight sentences1 each containing one of the following adjective pronouns3 few1 many1 much1 some1 this1 these1 that1 those4 ,,lesson #gc4 ,,classes ,,of ,,adjectives4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,when ,i say large1 round1 sweet1 yellow oranges1 the words large1 round1 sweet1 and yellow modify the word oranges by telling the kind1 and limit the application of the word to oranges of that kind4 ,when ,i say this orange1 yonder orange1 one orange1 the words this1 yonder1 and one do not tell the kind1 but simply point out or number the orange1 and limit the application of the word to the orange pointed out or numbered4 ,adjectives of the first class describe by giving a quality1 and so are called ,descriptive adjectives4 ,adjectives of the second class define by pointing out or numbering1 and so are called ,definitive adjectives4 ,let the teacher write nouns on the board1 and require the pupils to modify them by appropriate descriptive and definitive adjectives4 ,,definitions4 ,a ,descriptive ,adjective is one that modifies by expressing quality4 ,a ,definitive ,adjective is one that modifies by pointing out1 numbering1 or denoting quantity4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,place the following adjectives in two columns1 one headed descriptive1 and the other definitive1 then build simple sentences in which they shall be employed as modifiers4 ,find out the meaning of each word before you use it4 ,round1 frolicsome1 first1 industrious1 jolly1 idle1 skillful1 each1 the1 faithful1 an1 kind1 one1 tall1 ancient1 modern1 dancing1 mischievous1 stationary1 nimble1 several1 slanting1 parallel1 oval1 every4 ,build simple sentences in which the following descriptive adjectives shall be employed as attribute complements4 ,let some of these attributes be compound4 ,restless1 impulsive1 dense1 rare1 gritty1 sluggish1 dingy1 selfish1 clear1 cold1 sparkling1 slender1 graceful1 hungry1 friendless4 ,build simple sentences in which the following descriptive adjectives shall be employed4 ,some of these adjectives have the form of participles1 and some are derived from proper nouns4 ,,capital ,,letter--,,rule4--,an ,adjective derived from a proper noun must begin with a capital letter4 ,shining1 moving1 swaying1 bubbling1 ,american1 ,german1 ,french1 ,swiss1 ,irish1 ,chinese4 ,,lesson #gd4 ,,classes ,,of ,,verbs4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,the man caught makes no complete assertion1 and is not a sentence4 ,if ,i add the object complement fish1 ,i complete the assertion and form a sentence--,the man caught fish4 ,the action expressed by caught passes over from the man to the fish4 ,transitive means passing over1 and so all those verbs that express an action that passes over from a doer to something which receives1 are called ,transitive verbs4 ,fish swim4 ,the verb swim does not require an object to complete the sentence4 ,no action passes from a doer to a receiver4 ,these verbs which express action that does not pass over to a receiver1 and all those which do not express action at all1 but simply being or state of being1 are called ,intransitive verbs4 ,let the teacher write transitive and intransitive verbs on the board1 and require the pupils to distinguish them4 ,when ,i say1 ,i crush the worm1 ,i express an action that is going on now1 or in present time4 ,i crushed the worm1 expresses an action that took place in past time4 ,as tense means time1 we call the form crush the present tense of the verb1 and crushed the past tense4 ,in the sentence1 ,the worm crushed under my foot died1 crushed1 expressing the action as assumed1 is1 as you have already learned1 a participle2 and1 as the action is completed1 we call it a past participle4 ,now notice that ed was added to crush1 the verb in the present tense1 to form the verb in the past tense1 and to form the past participle4 ,most verbs form their past tense and their past participle by adding ed1 and so we call such ,regular verbs4 ,i see the man2 ,i saw the man2 ,the man seen by me ran away4 ,i catch fish in the brook2 ,i caught fish in the brook2 ,the fish caught in the brook tasted good4 ,here the verbs see and catch do not form their past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present1 and so we call them ,irregular verbs4 ,let the teacher write on the board verbs of both classes1 and require the pupils to distinguish them4 ,,definitions4 ,,classes ,,of ,,verbs ,,with ,,respect ,,to ,,meaning4 ,a ,transitive ,verb is one that requires an object4 ,footnote3 ,the object of a transitive verb1 that is1 the name of the receiver of the action1 may be the object complement1 or it may be the subject2 as1 ,brutus stabbed ,caesar1 ,caesar was stabbed by ,brutus4 ,an ,intransitive ,verb is one that does not require an object4 ,,classes ,,of ,,verbs ,,with ,,respect ,,to ,,form4 ,a ,regular ,verb is one that forms its past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present4 ,footnote3 ,if the present ends in e1 the e is dropped when ed is added2 as1 love1 loved2 believe1 believed4 ,an ,irregular ,verb is one that does not form its past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,place the following verbs in two columns1 one headed transitive and the other1 intransitive4 ,place the same verbs in two other columns1 one headed regular and the other1 irregular4 ,build these verbs into sentences by supplying a subject to each intransitive verb1 and a subject and an object to each transitive verb4 ,vanish1 gallop1 bite1 promote1 contain1 produce1 provide1 veto1 secure1 scramble1 rattle1 draw4 ,arrange the following verbs as before1 and then build them into sentences by supplying a subject and a noun attribute to each intransitive verb1 and a subject and an object to each transitive verb4 ,degrade1 gather1 know1 was1 became1 is4 ,a verb may be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another4 ,use the following verbs both ways4 ,model4--,the wren sings sweetly4 ,the wren sings a pretty little song4 ,bend1 ring1 break1 dash1 move4 ,,lesson #ge4 ,,classes ,,of ,,adverbs4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,when ,i say1 ,he will come soon1 or presently1 or often1 or early1 ,i am using1 to modify will come1 words which express the time of coming4 ,these and all such adverbs we call ,adverbs of ,time4 ,he will come up1 or hither1 or here1 or back4 ,here ,i use1 to modify will come1 words which express place4 ,these and all such adverbs we call ,adverbs of ,place4 ,when ,i say1 ,the weather is so cold1 or very cold1 or intensely cold1 the words so1 very1 and intensely modify the adjective cold by expressing the degree of coldness4 ,these and all such adverbs we call ,adverbs of ,degree4 ,when ,i say1 ,he spoke freely1 wisely1 and well1 the words freely1 wisely1 and well tell how or in what manner he spoke4 ,all such adverbs we call ,adverbs of ,manner4 ,let the teacher place adverbs on the board1 and require the pupil to classify them4 ,,definitions4 ,adverbs of ,time are those that generally answer the question1 ,when8 ,adverbs of ,place are those that generally answer the question1 ,where8 ,adverbs of ,degree are those that generally answer the question1 ,to what extent8 ,adverbs of ,manner are those that generally answer the question1 ,in what way8 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,place the following adverbs in the four classes we have made--if the classification be perfect1 there will be five words in each column--then build each adverb into a simple sentence4 ,partly1 only1 too1 wisely1 now1 here1 when1 very1 well1 where1 nobly1 already1 seldom1 more1 ably1 away1 always1 not1 there1 out4 ,some adverbs1 as you have already learned1 modify two verbs1 and thus connect the two clauses in which these verbs occur4 ,such adverbs are called ,conjunctive ,adverbs4 ,the following dependent clauses are introduced by conjunctive adverbs4 ,build them into complex sentences by supplying independent clauses4 ------ when the ice is smooth2 ------ while we sleep2 ------ before winter comes2 ------ where the reindeer lives2 ------ wherever you go4 ,,lesson #gf4 ,,classes ,,of ,,conjunctions4 ,footnote3 ,for classified lists1 see pp4 #aij1aia4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,frogs1 antelopes1 and kangaroos can jump4 ,here the three nouns are of the same rank in the sentence4 ,all are subjects of can jump4 ,war has ceased1 and peace has come4 ,in this compound sentence1 there are two clauses of the same rank4 ,the word and connects the subjects of can jump1 in the first sentence3 and the two clauses1 in the second4 ,all words that connect words1 phrases1 or clauses of the same rank are called ,co-ordinate ,conjunctions4 ,if you have tears1 prepare to shed them now4 ,i will go1 because you need me4 ,here if joins the clause1 you have tears1 as a modifier1 expressing condition1 to the independent clause1 prepare to shed them now2 and because connects you need me1 as a modifier1 expressing reason or cause1 to the independent clause1 ,i will go4 ,these and all such conjunctions as connect dependent clauses to clauses of a higher rank are called ,subordinate ,conjunctions4 ,let the teacher illustrate the meaning and use of the words subordinate and co-ordinate4 ,,definitions4 ,co-ordinate ,conjunctions are such as connect words1 phrases1 or clauses of the same rank4 ,subordinate ,conjunctions are such as connect clauses of different rank4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,build four short sentences for each of the three co-ordinate conjunctions that follow4 ,in the first1 let the conjunction be used to connect principal parts of a sentence2 in the second1 to connect word modifiers2 in the third1 to connect phrase modifiers2 and in the fourth1 to connect independent clauses4 ,and1 or1 but4 ,write four short complex sentences containing the four subordinate conjunctions that follow4 ,let the first be used to introduce a noun clause1 and the other three to connect adverb clauses to independent clauses4 ,that1 for1 if1 because4 ,,lesson #gg4 ,,review ,,questions4 ,what new subject begins with page #ie8 ,name and define the different classes of nouns4 ,illustrate by examples the difference between common nouns and proper nouns4 ,name and define the different classes of pronouns4 ,can the pronoun ,i be used to stand for the one spoken to8--the one spoken of8 ,does the relative pronoun distinguish by its form the speaker1 the one spoken to1 and the one spoken of8 ,illustrate4 ,can any other class of pronouns be used to connect clauses8 ,for what do interrogative pronouns stand8 ,illustrate4 ,where may the antecedent of an interrogative pronoun generally be found8 ,ans4--,the antecedent of an interrogative pronoun may generally lie found in the answer to the question4 ,name and define the different classes of adjectives4 ,give an example of each class4 ,name and define the different classes of verbs1 made with respect to their meaning4 ,give an example of each class4 ,name and define the different classes of verbs1 made with respect to their form4 ,give an example of each class4 ,name and define the different classes of adverbs4 ,give examples of each kind4 ,name and define the different classes of conjunctions4 ,illustrate by examples4 ,are prepositions and interjections subdivided8 7,see ,schemes for the conjunction1 the preposition1 and the interjection1 p4 #ahh47 ,to the ,teacher4--,see ,,composition ,,exercises in the ,supplement-- ,selection from ,dr4 ,john ,brown4 ,we suggest that other selections from literature be made and these exercises continued4 ,,modifications ,,of ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,,speech4 ,,lesson #gh4 ,,nouns ,,and ,,pronouns4 ,you have learned that two words may express a thought1 and that the thought may be varied by adding modifying words4 ,you are now to learn that the meaning or use of a word may sometimes be changed by simply changing its form4 ,the ,english language has lost many of its inflections1 or forms1 so that frequently changes in the meaning and use of words are not marked by changes in form4 ,these changes in the form1 meaning1 and use of the parts of speech1 we call their ,modifications4 ,the boy shouts4 ,the boys shout4 ,i have changed the form of the subject boy by adding an s to it4 ,the meaning has changed4 ,boy denotes one lad2 boys1 two or more lads4 ,this change in the form and meaning of nouns is called ,number4 ,the word boy1 denoting one thing1 is in the ,singular ,number2 and boys1 denoting more than one thing1 is in the ,plural ,number4 ,let the teacher write other nouns on the board1 and require the pupils to form the plural of them4 ,,definitions4 ,modifications of the ,parts of ,speech are changes in their form1 meaning1 and use4 ,,number4 ,number is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thing or more than one4 ,the ,singular ,number denotes one thing4 ,the ,plural ,number denotes more than one thing4 ,,rule4--,the plural of nouns is regularly formed by adding s to the singular4 ,write the plural of the following nouns4 ,tree1 bird1 insect1 cricket1 grasshopper1 wing1 stick1 stone1 flower1 meadow1 pasture1 grove1 worm1 bug1 cow1 eagle1 hawk1 wren1 plough1 shovel4 ,when a singular noun ends in the sound of s1 x1 z1 sh1 or ch1 it is not easy to add the sound of s1 so es is added to make another syllable4 ,write the plural of the following nouns4 ,guess1 box1 topaz1 lash1 birch1 compass1 fox1 waltz1 sash1 bench1 gas1 tax1 adz1 brush1 arch4 ,many nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant form the plural by adding es without increasing the number of syllables4 ,write the plural of the following nouns4 ,hero1 cargo1 negro1 potato1 echo1 volcano1 mosquito1 motto4 ,common nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant form the plural by changing y into i and adding es without increasing the number of syllables4 ,write the plural of the following nouns4 ,lady1 balcony1 family1 city1 country1 daisy1 fairy1 cherry1 study1 sky4 ,some nouns ending in f and fe form the plural by changing f or fe into ves without increasing the number of syllables4 ,write the plural of the following nouns4 ,sheaf1 loaf1 beef1 thief1 calf1 half1 elf1 shelf1 self1 wolf1 life1 knife1 wife4 ,,lesson #gi4 ,,number4 ,from the following list of nouns1 select1 and write in separate columns3 #ast4 ,those that have no plural2 #b;d4 ,those that have no singular2 #c;d4 ,those that are alike in both numbers4 ,pride1 wages1 trousers1 cider1 suds1 victuals1 milk1 riches1 flax1 courage1 sheep1 deer1 flour1 idleness1 tidings1 thanks1 ashes1 scissors1 swine1 heathen4 ,the following nouns have very irregular plurals4 ,learn to spell the plurals4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,man1 men4 ,foot1 feet4 ,woman1 women4 ,ox1 oxen4 ,child1 children4 ,tooth1 teeth4 ,mouse1 mice4 ,goose1 geese4 ,learn the following plurals and compare them with the groups in the preceding ,lesson4 ,moneys1 flies1 chimneys1 valleys1 stories1 berries1 lilies1 turkeys1 monkeys1 cuckoos1 pianos1 vetoes1 solos1 folios1 gulfs1 chiefs1 leaves1 roofs1 scarfs1 inches4 ,,lesson #hj4 ,,nouns ,,and ,,pronouns4--,,gender4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,the lion was caged4 ,the lioness was caged4 ,in the first sentence1 something was said about a male lion2 and in the second1 something was said about a female lion4 ,modifications of the noun to denote the sex of the object1 we call ,gender4 ,knowing the sex of the object1 you know the gender of its name4 ,the word lion1 denoting a male animal1 is in the ,masculine ,gender2 and lioness1 denoting a female lion1 is in the ,feminine ,gender4 ,the names of things without sex are in the ,neuter ,gender4 ,such words as cousin1 child1 friend1 neighbor1 may be either masculine or feminine4 ,,definitions4 ,gender is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes sex4 ,the ,masculine ,gender denotes the male sex4 ,the ,feminine ,gender denotes the female sex4 ,the ,neuter ,gender denotes want of sex4 ,the masculine is distinguished from the feminine in three ways3-- #ast4 ,by a difference in the ending of the nouns4 #b;d4 ,by different words in the compound names4 #c;d4 ,by words wholly or radically different4 ,arrange the following pairs in separate columns with reference to these ways4 ,abbot1 abbess2 actor1 actress2 ,francis1 ,frances2 ,jesse1 ,jessie2 bachelor1 maid2 beau1 belle2 monk1 nun2 gander1 goose2 administrator1 administratrix2 baron1 baroness2 count1 countess2 czar1 czarina2 don1 donna2 boy1 girl2 drake1 duck2 lord1 lady2 nephew1 niece2 landlord1 landlady2 gentleman1 gentlewoman2 peacock1 peahen2 duke1 duchess2 hero1 heroine2 host1 hostess2 ,jew1 ,jewess2 man-servant1 maid-servant2 sir1 madam2 wizard1 witch2 marquis1 marchioness2 widow1 widower2 heir1 heiress2 ,paul1 ,pauline2 ,augustus1 ,augusta4 ,,review ,,questions4 ,what new way of varying the meaning of words is introduced in ,lesson #gh8 ,illustrate4 ,what are modifications of the parts of speech8 ,what is number8 ,how many numbers are there8 ,name and define each4 ,give the rule for forming the plural of nouns4 ,illustrate the variations of this rule4 ,what is gender8 ,how many genders are there8 ,name and define each4 ,in how many ways are the genders distinguished8 ,illustrate4 ,,lesson #ha4 ,,nouns ,,and ,,pronouns4--,,person ,,and ,,case4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,number and gender1 as you have already learned1 are modifications affecting the meaning of nouns and pronouns4 ,number is almost always indicated by the ending2 gender1 sometimes4 ,there are two other modifications which refer not to changes in the meaning of nouns and pronouns1 but to their different uses and relations4 ,in the ,english language1 these changes are not often indicated by a change of form4 ,i ,paul have written4 ,paul1 thou art beside thyself4 ,he brought ,paul before ,agrippa4 ,in these three sentences the word ,paul has three different uses4 ,in the first1 it is used as the name of the speaker2 in the second1 as the name of one spoken to2 in the third1 as the name of one spoken of4 ,you will notice that the form of the noun was not changed4 ,this change in the use of nouns and pronouns is called ,person4 ,the word ,i in the first sentence1 the word thou in the second1 and the word he in the third have each a different use4 ,i1 thou1 and he are personal pronouns1 and1 as you have learned1 distinguish person by their form4 ,i1 denoting the speaker1 is in the ,first ,person2 thou1 denoting the one spoken to1 is in the ,second ,person2 and he1 denoting the one spoken of1 is in the ,third ,person4 ,personal pronouns and verbs are the only words that distinguish person by their form4 ,the bear killed the man4 ,the man killed the bear4 ,the bear's grease was made into hair oil4 ,in the first sentence1 the bear is represented as performing an action2 in the second1 as receiving an action2 in the third1 as possessing something4 ,so the word bear in these sentences has three different uses4 ,these uses of nouns are called ,cases4 ,the use of a noun as subject is called the ,nominative ,case2 its use as object is called the ,objective ,case2 and its use to denote possession is called the ,possessive ,case4 ,the possessive is the only case of nouns that is indicated by a change in form4 ,a noun or pronoun used as an attribute complement is in the nominative case4 ,a noun or pronoun following a preposition as the principal word of a phrase is in the objective case4 ,i and he are nominative forms4 ,me and him are objective forms4 ,the following sentences are therefore incorrect3 ,it is me2 ,it is him2 ,me gave the pen to he4 ,,definitions4 ,person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the speaker1 the one spoken to1 or the one spoken of4 ,the ,first ,person denotes the one speaking4 ,the ,second ,person denotes the one spoken to4 ,the ,third ,person denotes the one spoken of4 ,case is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes its office in the sentence4 ,the ,nominative ,case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office as subject or as attribute complement4 ,the ,possessive ,case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office as possessive modifier4 ,the ,objective ,case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office as object complement1 or as principal word in a prepositional phrase4 ,,lesson #hb4 ,,nouns ,,and ,,pronouns4--,,person ,,and ,,case4 ,tell the person and case of each of the following nouns and pronouns4 ,remember that a noun or pronoun used as an explanatory modifier is in the same case as the word which it explains1 and that a noun or pronoun used independently is in the nominative case4 ,we ,americans do things in a hurry4 ,you ,englishmen take more time to think4 ,the ,germans do their work with the most patience and deliberation4 ,we boys desire a holiday4 ,come on1 my men2 ,i will lead you4 ,i1 your teacher1 desire your success4 ,you1 my pupils1 are attentive4 ,i called on ,tom1 the tinker4 ,friends1 countrymen1 and lovers1 hear me for my cause4 ,write simple sentences in which each of the following nouns shall be used in the three persons and in the three cases4 ,andrew ,jackson1 ,alexander1 ,yankees4 ,write a sentence containing a noun in the nominative case1 used as an attribute2 one in the nominative1 used as an explanatory modifier2 one in the nominative1 used independently4 ,write a sentence containing a noun in the objective case1 used to complete two predicate verbs2 one used to complete a participle2 one used to complete an infinitive2 one used with a preposition to make a phrase2 one used as an explanatory modifier4 ,to the ,teacher4--,see pp4 #ahc1 #ahd4 ,,lesson #hc4 ,,nouns ,,and ,,pronouns4--,,declension4 ,,definition4--,declension is the arrangement of the cases of nouns and pronouns in the two numbers4 ,declension of ,nouns4 ,,lady4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,nom4 lady1 ladies1 ,pos4 lady's1 ladies'1 ,obj4 lady2 ladies4 ,,child4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,nom4 child1 children1 ,pos4 child's1 children's1 ,obj4 child2 children4 ,declension of ,pronouns4 ,,personal ,,pronouns4 ,,first ,,person4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,nom4 ,i1 we1 ,pos4 my or mine1 our or ours1 ,obj4 me2 us4 ,,second ,,person--common form4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,nom4 you1 you1 ,pos4 your or yours1 your or yours1 ,obj4 you2 you4 ,,second ,,person--old form4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,nom4 thou1 ye or you1 ,pos4 thy or thine1 your or yours1 ,obj4 thee2 you4 ,,third ,,person--masculine4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,nom4 he1 they1 ,pos4 his1 their or theirs1 ,obj4 him2 them4 ,,third ,,person--feminine4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,nom4 she1 they1 ,pos4 her or hers1 their or theirs1 ,obj4 her2 them4 ,,third ,,person----neuter4 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,nom4 it1 they1 ,pos4 its1 their or theirs1 ,obj4 it2 them4 ,mine1 ours1 yours1 thine1 hers1 and theirs are used when the name of the thing possessed is omitted2 as1 ,this rose is yours ,this rose is your rose4 ,,compound ,,personal ,,pronouns4 ,by joining the word self to the possessive forms my1 thy1 your1 and to the objective forms him1 her1 it1 the ,compound ,personal ,pronouns are formed4 ,they have no possessive case1 and are alike in the nominative and the objective4 ,their plurals are ourselves1 yourselves1 and themselves4 ,form the compound personal pronouns1 and write their declension4 ,,relative ,,and ,,interrogative ,,pronouns4 ,sing4 and ,plu4 ,nom4 who1 ,pos4 whose1 ,obj4 whom4 ,sing4 and ,plu4 ,nom4 which1 ,pos4 whose1 ,obj4 which4 ,of which is often used instead of the possessive form of the latter pronoun4 ,sing4 and ,plu4 ,nom4 that1 ,pos4 ----1 ,obj4 that4 ,sing4 and ,plu4 ,nom4 what1 ,pos4 ----1 ,obj4 what4 ,ever and soever are added to who1 which1 and what to form the ,compound ,relative ,pronouns4 ,they are used when the antecedent is omitted4 ,for declension1 see above4 ,,lesson #hd4 ,,possessive ,,forms4 ,,rule4--,the possessive case of nouns is formed in the singular by adding to the nominative the apostrophe and the letter s 7's72 in the plural1 by adding 7'7 only4 ,if the plural does not end in s1 the apostrophe and the s are both added4 ,write the possessive singular and the possessive plural of the following nouns1 and place an appropriate noun after each4 ,robin1 friend1 fly1 hero1 woman1 bee1 mouse1 cuckoo1 fox1 ox1 man1 thief1 fairy1 mosquito1 wolf1 shepherd1 farmer1 child1 neighbor1 cow4 ,possession may be expressed also by the preposition of and the objective2 as1 the mosquito's bill the bill of the mosquito4 ,the possessive sign 7's7 is confined chiefly to the names of persons and animals4 ,we do not say the chair's legs1 but the legs of the chair4 ,regard must be had also to the sound4 ,,improve ,,the ,,following ,,expressions1 and expand each into a simple sentence4 ,the sky's color2 the cloud's brilliancy2 the rose's leaves2 my uncle's partner's house2 ,george's father's friend's farm2 the mane of the horse of my brother2 my brother's horse's mane4 ,when there are several possessive nouns1 all belonging to one word1 the possessive sign is added to the last only4 ,if they modify different words1 the sign is added to each4 ,,correct ,,the ,,following ,,expressions1 and expand each into a simple sentence4 ,model4--,webster and ,worcester's dictionary may be bought at ,ticknor's and ,field's book-store4 ,the possessive sign should be added to ,webster1 for the word dictionary is understood immediately after4 ,webster and ,worcester do not together possess the same dictionary4 ,the sign should not be added to ,ticknor1 for the two men1 ,tieknor and ,field1 possess the same store4 ,adam's and ,eve's garden2 ,jacob's and ,esau's father2 ,shakespeare and ,milton's works2 ,maud1 ,kate1 and ,clara's gloves2 ,maud's1 ,kate's1 and ,clara's teacher was ----4 ,when one possessive noun is explanatory of another1 the possessive sign is added to the last only4 ,,correct ,,the ,,following ,,errors4 ,i called at ,tom's the tinker's4 ,they listened to ,peter's the ,hermit's eloquence4 ,this was the ,apostle's ,paul's advice4 ,,correct ,,the ,,following ,,errors4 ,our's1 your's1 hi's1 their's1 her's1 it's1 hisn1 yourn1 hern4 ,,lesson #he4 ,,forms ,,of ,,the ,,pronoun4 ,remember that ,i1 we1 thou1 ye1 he1 she1 they1 and who are nominative forms1 and must not be used in the objective case4 ,remember that me1 us1 thee1 him1 her1 them1 and whom are objective forms1 and must not be used in the nominative case4 ,to the ,teacher4--,the eight nominative forms and the seven objective forms given above are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms in the ,english language4 ,let the pupils become familiar with them4 ,,correct ,,the ,,following ,,errors4 ,him and me are good friends4 ,the two persons were her and me4 ,us girls had a jolly time4 ,it is them1 surely4 ,who will catch this8 ,me4 ,them that despise me shall be lightly esteemed4 ,who is there8 ,me4 ,it was not us1 it was him4 ,who did you see8 ,who did you ask for8 ,remember that pronouns must agree with their antecedents in number1 gender1 and person4 ,,correct ,,the ,,following ,,errors4 ,every boy must read their own sentences4 ,i gave the horse oats1 but he would not eat it4 ,every one must read it for themselves4 ,i took up the little boy1 and set it on my knee4 ,remember that the relative who represents persons2 which1 animals and things2 that1 persons1 animals1 and things2 and what1 things4 ,,correct ,,the ,,following ,,errors4 ,i have a dog who runs to meet me4 ,the boy which ,i met was quite lame4 ,those which live in glass houses must not throw stones4 ,,review ,,questions4 ,to the ,teacher4--,for ,schemes1 see p4 #ahf4 ,how many modifications have nouns and pronouns8 ,name and define each4 ,how many persons are there8 ,define each4 ,how many cases are there8 ,define each4 ,how do you determine the case of an explanatory noun or pronoun8 ,what is declension8 ,how are the forms mine1 yours1 etc41 now used8 ,what is the rule for forming the possessive case8 ,what words are used only in the nominative case8 ,what words are used only in the objective case8 ,footnote3 ,her is used in the possessive case also4 ,how do you determine the number1 gender1 and person of pronouns8 ,,lesson #hf4 ,,nouns ,,and ,,pronouns--,,parsing4 ,to the ,teacher4--,for general ,scheme for parsing1 see p4 #ahi4 ,select and parse all the nouns and pronouns in ,lesson #ec4 ,model for ,written ,parsing4--,elizabeth's favorite1 ,raleigh1 was beheaded by ,james ,i4 ,elizabeth's ,,classification4 ,nouns4 ,kind4 ,prop4 ,,modifications4 ,person4 #c;d ,number4 ,sing4 ,gender4 ,fem4 ,case4 ,pos4 ,,syntax4 ,pos4 ,mod4 of favorite4 favorite ,,classification4 ,nouns4 ,kind4 ,com4 ,,modifications4 ,person4 #c;d ,number4 ,sing4 ,gender4 ,mas4 ,case4 ,nom4 ,,syntax4 ,sub4 of was beheaded4 ,raleigh ,,classification4 ,nouns4 ,kind4 ,prop4 ,,modifications4 ,person4 #c;d ,number4 ,sing4 ,gender4 ,mas4 ,case4 ,nom4 ,,syntax4 ,exp4 ,mod4 of favorite4 ,james ,i4 ,,classification4 ,nouns4 ,kind4 ,prop4 ,,modifications4 ,person4 #c;d ,number4 ,sing4 ,gender4 ,mas4 ,case4 ,obj4 ,,syntax4 ,prin4 word after by4 ,to the ,teacher4--,select other exercises1 and continue this work as long as it may be profitable4 ,see ,lessons #ef1 #eg1 #fa1 #fd1 and #fe4 ,,lesson #hg4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,adjectives4 ,adjectives have one modification2 viz41 ,comparison4 ,,definitions4 ,comparison is a modification of the adjective to express the relative degree of the quality in the things compared4 ,the ,positive degree expresses the simple quality4 ,the ,comparative degree expresses a greater or a less degree of the quality4 ,the ,superlative degree expresses the greatest or the least degree of the quality4 ,,rule4--,adjectives are regularly compared by adding er to the positive to form the comparative1 and est to the positive to form the superlative4 ,adjectives of one syllable are generally compared regularly2 adjectives of two or more syllables are often compared by prefixing more and most4 ,when there are two correct forms1 choose the one that can be more easily pronounced4 ,compare the following adjectives4 ,for the spelling1 consult your dictionaries4 ,model4--,positive4 ,comparative4 ,superlative4 ,lovely1 lovelier1 loveliest2 or lovely1 more lovely1 most lovely4 ,tame1 warm1 beautiful1 brilliant1 amiable1 high1 mad1 greedy1 pretty1 hot4 ,some adjectives are compared irregularly4 ,learn the following forms4 ,positive4 ,comparative4 ,superlative4 ,good1 better1 best4 ,bad1 ,evil1 worse1 worst4 ,ill1 ,little1 less1 least4 ,much1 ,many1 more1 most4 ,,lesson #hh4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,adjectives ,,and ,,adverbs4 ,remember that1 when two things or groups of things are compared1 the comparative degree is commonly used2 when more than two1 the superlative is employed4 ,caution4--,adjectives should not be doubly compared4 ,,correct ,,the ,,following ,,errors4 ,of all the boys1 ,george is the more industrious4 ,peter was older than the twelve apostles4 ,which is the longer of the rivers of ,america8 ,this was the most unkindest cut of all4 ,he chose a more humbler part4 ,my hat is more handsomer than yours4 ,the younger of those three boys is the smarter4 ,which is the more northerly1 ,maine1 ,oregon1 or ,minnesota8 ,caution4--,do not use adjectives and adverbs extravagantly4 ,,correct ,,the ,,following ,,errors4 ,the weather is horrid4 ,that dress is perfectly awful4 ,your coat sits frightfully4 ,we had an awfully good time4 ,this is a tremendously hard lesson4 ,harry is a mighty nice boy4 ,remember that adjectives whose meaning does not admit of different degrees cannot be compared2 as1 every1 universal4 ,use in the three different degrees such of the following adjectives as admit of comparison4 ,all1 serene1 excellent1 immortal1 first1 two1 total1 infinite1 three-legged1 bright4 ,adverbs are compared in the same manner as adjectives4 ,the following are compared regularly4 ,compare them4 ,fast1 often1 soon1 late1 early4 ,in the preceding and in the following list1 find words that may be used as adjectives4 ,the following are compared irregularly4 ,learn them4 ,pos4 ,comp4 ,sup4 ----------- ---------- -------- ,badly1 ,ill1 worse1 worst4 ,well1 better1 best4 ,little1 less1 least4 ,much1 more1 most4 ,far1 farther1 farthest4 ,adverbs ending in ly are generally compared by prefixing more and most4 ,compare the following4 ,firmly1 gracefully1 actively1 easily4 ,to the ,teacher4--,let the pupils select and parse all the adjectives and adverbs in ,lesson #bg4 ,for forms1 see p4 #ahi4 ,select other exercises1 and continue the work as long as it is profitable4 ,see ,schemes for review1 p4 #ahh4 ,,review ,,questions4 ,how is a noun parsed8 ,what modification have adjectives8 ,what is comparison8 ,how many degrees of comparison are there8 ,define each4 ,how are adjectives regularly compared8 ,distinguish the uses of the comparative and the superlative degree4 ,give the directions for using adjectives and adverbs 7,lesson #hh74 ,illustrate4 ,what adjectives cannot be compared8 ,how are adverbs compared8 ,,lesson #hi4 ,,modification ,,of ,,verbs4 ,,voice4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,i picked the rose4 ,i will tell the same thing in another way4 ,the rose was picked by me4 ,the first verb picked shows that the subject ,i represents the actor1 and the second form of the verb1 was picked1 shows that the subject names the thing acted upon4 ,this change in the form of the verb is called ,voice4 ,the first form is called the ,active ,voice2 and the second1 the ,passive ,voice4 ,the passive form is very convenient when we wish to assert an action without naming any actor4 ,money is coined is better than somebody coins money4 ,,definitions4 ,voice is that modification of the transitive verb which shows whether the subject names the actor or the thing acted upon4 ,the ,active ,voice shows that the subject names the actor4 ,the ,passive ,voice shows that the subject names the thing acted upon4 ,in each of the following sentences1 change the voice of the verb without changing the meaning of the sentence4 ,note the other changes that occur in the sentence4 ,the industrious bees gather honey from the flowers4 ,the storm drove the vessel against the rock4 ,our words should be carefully chosen4 ,death separates the dearest friends4 ,his vices have weakened his mind and destroyed his health4 ,true valor protects the feeble and humbles the oppressor4 ,the ,duke of ,wellington1 who commanded the ,english armies in the ,peninsula1 never lost a battle4 ,moses led the ,israelites out of ,egypt4 ,dr4 ,livingstone explored a large part of ,africa4 ,the ,english were conquered by the ,normans4 ,name all the transitive verbs in ,lessons #bj and #bb1 and give1 their voice4 ,,lesson #ij4 ,,mode1 ,,tense1 ,,number1 ,,and ,,person4 ,hints for ,oral ,instruction4--,when ,i say1 ,james walks1 ,i assert the walking as a fact4 ,when ,i say1 ,james may walk1 ,i do not assert the action as a fact1 but as a possible action4 ,when ,i say1 ,if ,james walk out1 he will improve1 ,i assert the action1 not as an actual fact1 but as a condition of ,james's1 improving4 ,when ,i say to ,james1 ,walk out1 ,i do not assert that ,james actually does the act1 ,i assert the action as a command4 ,the action expressed by the verb walk has been asserted in four different ways1 or modes4 ,the first way is called the ,indicative ,mode2 the second1 the ,potential ,mode2 the third1 the ,subjunctive ,mode2 the fourth1 the ,imperative ,mode4 ,let the teacher give other examples and require the pupils to repeat this instruction4 ,for the two forms of the verb called the ,infinitive and the ,participle1 see ,hints1 ,lessons #dh and #di4 ,i walk4 ,i walked4 ,i shall walk4 ,in each of these three sentences1 the manner of asserting the action is the same4 ,i walk expresses the action as present4 ,i walked expresses the action as past1 and ,i shall walk expresses the action as future4 ,as ,tense means time1 the first form is called the ,present ,tense2 the second1 the ,past ,tense2 and the third1 the ,future ,tense4 ,we have three other forms of the verb1 expressing the action as completed in the present1 the past1 or the future4 ,i have walked out to-day4 ,i had walked out when he called4 ,i shall have walked out by to-morrow4 ,the form1 have walked1 expressing the action as completed in the present1 is called the ,present ,perfect ,tense4 ,the form1 had walked1 expressing the action as completed in the past1 is called the ,past ,perfect ,tense4 ,the form1 shall have walked1 expressing an action to be completed in the future1 is called the ,future ,perfect ,tense4 ,let the teacher give other verbs1 and require the pupils to name and explain the different tenses4 ,i walk4 ,thou walkest4 ,he walks4 ,they walk4 ,in the second sentence1 the verb walk was changed by adding est2 and in the third1 it was changed by adding s4 ,these changes are for the sake of agreement with the person of the subject4 ,the verb ending in est agrees with the subject thou in the second person1 and the verb ending in s agrees with he in the third person4 ,in the fourth sentence1 the subject is in the third person2 but it is plural1 and so the verb drops the s to agree with they in the plural4 ,verbs are said to agree in ,person and ,number with their subjects4 ,the person and number forms will be found in ,lessons #ic1 #id4 ,,definitions4 ,mode is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of asserting the action or being4 ,the ,indicative ,mode asserts the action or being as a fact4 ,the ,potential ,mode asserts the power1 liberty1 possibility1 or necessity of acting or being4 ,the ,subjunctive ,mode asserts the action or being as a mere condition1 supposition1 or wish4 ,the ,imperative ,mode asserts the action or being as a command or an entreaty4 ,the ,infinitive is a form of the verb which names the action or being in a general way1 without asserting it of anything4 ,the ,participle is a form of the verb partaking of the nature of an adjective or of a noun1 and expressing the action or being as assumed4 ,the ,present ,participle denotes action or being as continuing at the time indicated by the predicate4 ,the ,past ,participle denotes action or being as past or completed at the time indicated by the predicate4 ,the ,past ,perfect ,participle denotes action or being as completed at a time previous to that indicated by the predicate4 ,tense is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the action or being4 ,the ,present ,tense expresses action or being as present4 ,the ,past ,tense expresses action or being as past4 ,the ,future ,tense expresses action or being as yet to come4 ,the ,present ,perfect ,tense expresses action or being as completed at the present time4 ,the ,past ,perfect ,tense expresses action or being as completed at some past time4 ,the ,future ,perfect ,tense expresses action or being to be completed at some future time4 ,number and ,person of a verb are those modifications that show its agreement with the number and person of its subject4 ,,lesson #ia4 ,,conjugation ,,of ,,the ,,verb4 ,,definitions4 ,conjugation is the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb4 ,synopsis is the regular arrangement of the forms of one number and person in all the modes and tenses4 ,auxiliary ,verbs are those that help in the conjugation of other verbs4 ,the auxiliaries are do1 be1 have1 shall1 will1 may1 can1 and must4 ,the ,principal ,parts of a verb are the present indicative or the present infinitive1 the past indicative1 and the past participle4 ,these are called principal parts1 because all the other forms of the verb are derived from them4 ,we give1 below1 the principal parts of some of the most important irregular verbs4 ,learn them4 ,present4 ,past4 ,past4 ,par4 ,be or am1 was1 been4 ,begin1 began1 begun4 ,blow1 blew1 blown4 ,break1 broke1 broken4 ,choose1 chose1 chosen4 ,come1 came1 come4 ,do1 did1 done4 ,draw1 drew1 drawn4 ,drink1 drank1 drunk4 ,drive1 drove1 driven4 ,eat1 ate1 eaten4 ,fall1 fell1 fallen4 ,fly1 flew1 flown4 ,freeze1 froze1 frozen4 ,go1 went1 gone4 ,get1 got1 got or gotten4 ,give1 gave1 given4 ,grow1 grew1 grown4 ,have1 had1 had4 ,know1 knew1 known4 ,lay1 laid1 laid4 ,lie1 7to rest7 lay1 lain4 ,ride1 rode1 ridden4 ,ring1 rang or rung1 rung4 ,rise1 rose1 risen4 ,run1 ran1 run4 ,see1 saw1 seen4 ,set1 set1 set4 ,sit1 sat1 sat4 ,shake1 shook1 shaken4 ,sing1 sang or sung1 sung4 ,slay1 slew1 slain4 ,speak1 spoke1 spoken4 ,steal1 stole1 stolen4 ,swim1 swam or swum1 swum4 ,take1 took1 taken4 ,tear1 tore1 torn4 ,throw1 threw1 thrown4 ,wear1 wore1 worn4 ,write1 wrote1 written4 ,the following irregular verbs are called ,defective1 because some of their parts are wanting4 ,present4 ,past4 ,present4 ,past4 ---------------------------------------- - ,can1 could4 ,will1 would4 ,may1 might4 ,must1 ---- ,shall1 should4 ,ought1 ---- ,,lesson #ib4 ,,conjugation ,,of ,,the ,,verb ,,see ,,in ,,the ,,simple ,,form4 ,,principal ,,parts4 ,pres4 ,past4 ,past ,par4 ,see1 saw1 seen4 ,,indicative ,,mode4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i see1 #a4 ,we see1 #b4 ,you see1 or #b4 ,you see1 ,thou seest1 #c4 ,he sees2 #c4 ,they see4 ,,past ,,tense4 #a4 ,i saw1 #a4 ,we saw1 #b4 ,you saw1 or #b4 ,you saw1 ,thou sawest1 #c4 ,he saw2 #c4 ,they saw4 ,,future ,,tense4 #a4 ,i shall see1 #a4 ,we shall see1 #b4 ,you will see1 or #b4 ,you will see1 ,thou wilt see1 #c4 ,he will see2 #c4 ,they will see4 ,,present ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 ,i have seen1 #a4 ,we have seen1 #b4 ,you have seen1 or #b4 ,you have seen1 ,thou hast seen #c4 ,he has seen2 #c4 ,they have seen4 ,,past ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 ,i had seen1 #a4 ,we had seen1 #b4 ,you had seen1 or #b4 ,you had seen1 ,thou hadst seen1 #c4 ,he had seen2 #c4 ,they had seen4 ,,future ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 ,i shall have seen1 #a4 ,we shall have seen1 #b4 ,you will have seen1 or #b4 ,you will have seen1 ,thou wilt have seen1 #c4 ,he will have seen2 #c4 ,they will have seen4 ,,potential ,,mode4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i may see1 #a4 ,we may see1 #b4 ,you may see1 or #b4 ,you may see1 ,thou mayst see1 #c4 ,he may see2 #c4 ,they may see4 ,,past ,,tense4 #a4 ,i might see1 #a4 ,we might see1 #b4 ,you might see1 or ,thou mightst see1 #b4 ,you might see1 #c4 ,he might see2 #c4 ,they might see4 ,,present ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 ,i may have seen1 #a4 ,we may have seen1 #b4 ,you may have seen1 or #b4 ,you may have seen ,thou mayst have seen1 #c4 ,he may have seen2 #c4 ,they may have seen4 ,,past ,,perfect ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i might have seen1 #a4 ,we might have seen1 #b4 ,you might have seen1 or #b4 ,you might have seen1 ,thou mightst have seen1 #c4 ,he might have seen2 #c4 ,they might have seen4 ,,subjunctive ,,mode4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,if ,i see1 #a4 ,if we see1 #b4 ,if you see1 or #b4 ,if you see1 ,if thou see1 #c4 ,if he see2 #c4 ,if they see4 ,,imperative ,,mode4 ,,present ,,tense4 #b4 ,see 7you or thou72 #b4 ,see 7you74 ,,infinitives4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,to see4 ,,present ,,perfect ,,tense4 ,to have seen4 ,,participles4 ,,present4 ,,past4 ,,past ,,perfect4 ,seeing1 ,seen1 ,having seen4 ,to the ,teacher4--,let the pupils prefix do and did to the simple present see1 and thus make the emphatic form of the present and the past tense4 ,let can and must be used in place of may2 and could1 would1 and should1 in place of might4 ,require the pupils to tell how each tense is formed1 and to note all changes for agreement in number and person4 ,a majority of modern writers use the indicative forms instead of the subjunctive1 in all of the tenses1 unless it may be the present4 ,the subjunctive forms of the verb to be are retained in the present and the past tense4 ,let the pupils understand that the mode and tense forms do not always correspond with the actual meaning4 ,the ship sails next week4 ,i may go to-morrow4 ,the verbs sails and may go are present in form but future in meaning4 ,if it rains by noon1 he may not come4 ,the verb rains is indicative in form but subjunctive in meaning4 ,the plural forms1 ,you saw1 ,you were1 etc41 are used in the singular also4 ,,lesson #ic4 ,,conjugation ,,of ,,the ,,verb--,,simple ,,form4 ,fill out the following forms1 using the principal parts of the verb walk4 ,pres41 walk2 ,past1 walked2 ,past ,par41 walked4 ,,indicative ,,mode4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i _/ ,pres _/1 #a4 ,we _/ ,pres _/1 #b4 ,you _/ ,pres _/1 #b4 ,you _/ ,pres _/1 ,thou _/ ,pres _/est1 #c4 ,he _/ ,pres _/s2 #c4 ,they _/ ,pres _/4 ,,past ,,tense #a4 ,i _/ ,past _/1 #a4 ,we _/ ,past _/1 #b4 ,you _/ ,past _/1 #b4 ,you _/ ,past _/1 ,thou _/ ,past _/st1 #c4 ,he _/ ,past _/2 #c4 ,they _/ ,past _/4 ,,future ,,tense4 #a4 ,i shall _/ ,pres _/1 #a4 ,we will _/ ,pres _/1 #b4 ,you will _/ ,pres _/1 #b4 ,you will _/ ,pres _/1 ,thou wil-t _/ ,pres _/1 #c4 ,he will _/ ,pres _/2 #c4 ,they will _/ ,pres _/4 ,,present ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 ,i have _/,past ,par4_/1 #a4 ,we have _/,past ,par4_/1 #b4 ,you have _/,past ,par4_/1 #b4 ,you have _/,past ,par4_/1 ,thou ha-st _/,past ,par4_/1 #c4 ,he ha-s _/,past ,par4_/2 #c4 ,they have _/,past ,par4_/4 ,,past ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 ,i had _/,past ,par4_/1 #a4 ,we had _/,past ,par4_/1 #b4 ,you had _/,past ,par4_/1 #b4 ,you had _/,past ,par4_/1 ,thou had-st _/,past ,par4_/1 #c4 ,he had _/,past ,par4_/2 #c4 ,they had _/,past ,par4_/4 ,,future ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 ,i shall have _/,past ,par4_/1 #a4 ,we will have ,past ,par41 #b4 ,you will have _/,past ,par4_/1 #b4 ,you will have ,past ,par41 ,thou wil-t have _/,past ,par4_/1 #c4 ,he will have _/,past ,par4_/2 #c4 ,they will have ,past ,par44 ,,potential ,,mode4 ,,present ,,tense4 #a4 ,i may _/ ,pres4 _/1 #a4 ,we may _/ ,pres4 _/1 #b4 ,you may _/ ,pres4 _/1 #b4 ,you may _/ ,pres4 _/1 ,thou may-st _/ ,pres4 _/1 #c4 ,he may _/ ,pres4 _/2 #c4 ,they may _/ ,pres4 _/4 ,,past ,,tense4 #a4 ,i might _/ ,pres4 _/1 #a4 ,we might _/ ,pres4 _/1 #b4 ,you might _/ ,pres4 _/1 #b4 ,you might _/ ,pres4 _/1 ,thou might-st _/ ,pres4 _/1 #c4 ,he might _/ ,pres4 _/2 #c4 ,they might _/ ,pres4 _/4 ,,present ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 ,i may have _/,past ,par4_/1 #a4 ,we may have _/,past ,par4_/1 #b4 ,you may have _/,past ,par4_/1 #b4 ,you may have _/,past ,par4_/1 ,thou may-st have _/,past ,par4_/1 #c4 ,he may have _/,past ,par4_/2 #c4 ,they may have _/,past ,par4_/4 ,,past ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 ,i might have _/,past ,par4_/1 #a4 ,we might have _/,past ,par4_/1 #b4 ,you might have _/,past ,par4_/1 #b4 ,you might have _/,past ,par4_/1 ,thou might-st have _/,past ,par4_/1 #c4 ,he might have _/,past ,par4_/2 #c4 ,they might have _/,past ,par4_/4 ,,subjunctive ,,mode4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,if ,i _/ ,pres4 _/1 #a4 ,if we _/ ,pres4 _/1 #b4 ,if you _/ ,pres4 _/1 #b4 ,if you _/ ,pres4 _/1 ,if thou _/ ,pres4 _/1 #c4 ,if he _/ ,pres4 _/2 #c4 ,if they _/ ,pres4 _/4 ,,imperative ,,mode4 ,,present ,,tense4 #b4 _/ ,pres4 _/ 7you or thou72 #b4 _/ ,pres4 _/ 7you74 ,,infinitives4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,to _/ ,pres4 _/4 ,,present ,,perfect ,,tense4 ,to have _/,past ,par4_/4 ,,participles4 ,,present4 ,,past4 ,,past ,,perfect4 _/,pres4_/ing4 _/,past ,par4_/ ,having _/,past ,par4_/ ,to the ,teacher4--,let the pupils fill out these forms with other verbs4 ,in the indicative1 present1 third1 singular1 es is sometimes added instead of s2 and in the second person1 old style1 st is sometimes added instead of est4 ,,lesson #id4 ,,conjugation ,,of ,,the ,,verb ,,be4 ,in studying this ,lesson1 pay no attention to the line at the right of each verb4 ,,indicative ,,mode4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i am ----1 #a4 ,we are ----1 #b4 ,you are ---- or #b4 ,you are ----1 ,thou art ----1 #c4 ,he is ----2 #c4 ,they are ----4 ,,past ,,tense4 #a4 ,i was ----1 #a4 ,we were ----1 #b4 ,you were ----1 or #b4 ,you were ----1 ,thou wast ----1 #c4 ,he was ----2 #c4 ,they were ----4 ,,future ,,tense4 #a4 ,i shall be ----1 #a4 ,we shall be ----1 #b4 ,you will be ----1 or #b4 ,you will be ----1 ,thou wilt be ----1 #c4 ,he will be ----2 #c4 ,they will be ----4 ,,present ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 ,i have been ----1 #a4 ,we have been ----1 #b4 ,you have been ---- or #b4 ,you have been ----1 ,thou hast been ----1 #c4 ,he has been ----2 #c4 ,they have been ----4 ,,past ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 ,i had been ----1 #a4 ,we had been ----1 #b4 ,you had been ---- or #b4 ,you had been ----1 ,thou hadst been ----1 #c4 ,he had been ----2 #c4 ,they had been ----4 ,,future ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 ,i shall have been ----1 #a4 ,we shall have been ----1 #b4 ,you will have been ---- or #b4 ,you will have been ----1 ,thou wilt have been ----1 #c4 ,he will has been ----2 #c4 ,they will have been ----4 ,,potential ,,mode4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i may be ----1 #a4 ,we may be ----1 #b4 ,you may be ---- or #b4 ,you may be ----1 ,thou mayst be ----1 #c4 ,he may be ----2 #c4 ,they may be ----4 ,,past ,,tense4 #a4 ,i might be ----1 #a4 ,we might be ----1 #b4 ,you might be ---- or #b4 ,you might be ----1 ,thou mightst be ----1 #c4 ,he might be ----2 #c4 ,they might be ----4 ,,present ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 ,i may have been ----1 #a4 ,we may have been ----1 #b4 ,you may have been ---- or #b4 ,you may have been ----1 ,thou mayst have been ----1 #c4 ,he may have been ----2 #c4 ,they may have been ----4 ,,past ,,perfect ,,tense4 #a4 ,i might have been ----1 #a4 ,we might have been ----1 #b4 ,you might have been ---- or #b4 ,you might have been ----1 ,thou mightst have been ----1 #c4 ,he might have been ----2 #c4 ,they might have been ----4 ,,subjunctive ,,mode4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,if ,i be ----1 #a4 ,if we be ----1 #b4 ,if you be ---- or #b4 ,if you be ----1 ,if thou be ----1 #c4 ,if he be ----2 #c4 ,if they be ----4 ,,past ,,tense4 #a4 ,if ,i were ----1 #a4 ,if we were ----1 #b4 ,if you were ---- or #b4 ,if you were ----1 ,if thou wert ----1 #c4 ,if he were ----2 #c4 ,if they were ----4 ,,imperative ,,mode4 ,,present ,,tense4 #b4 ,be 7you or them7 ----2 #b4 ,be 7you7------4 ,,infinitives4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,to be ----4 ,,present ,,perfect ,,tense4 ,to have been ----4 ,,participles4 ,,present4 ,,past4 ,,past ,,perfect4 ,being ----4 ,been4 ,having been ----4 ,to the ,teacher4--,after the pupils have become thoroughly familiar with the verb be as a principal verb1 teach them to use it as an auxiliary in making the ,progressive ,form and the ,passive ,form4 ,the progressive form may be made by filling all the blanks with the present participle of some verb4 ,the passive form may be made by filling all the blanks with the past participle of a transitive verb4 ,notice that1 after the past participle1 no blank is left4 ,in the progressive form1 this participle is wanting2 and1 in the passive form1 it is the same as in the simple4 ,,lesson #ie4 ,,agreement ,,of ,,the ,,verb4 ,to the ,teacher4--,for additional matter1 see pp4 #afc-afg4 ,remember that the verb must agree with its subject in number and person4 ,give the person and number of each of the following verbs1 and write sentences in which each form shall be used correctly4 ,common forms4--,does1 hasha7ve7s1 is1 am1 are1 was1 were4 ,old forms4--,seest1 sawest1 hastha7ve7st1 wilt1 mayst1 mightst1 art1 wast4 ,when a verb has two or more subjects connected by and1 it must agree with them in the plural4 ,a similar rule applies to the agreement of the pronoun4 ,,correct ,,the ,,following ,,errors4 ,model4--,poverty and obscurity oppresses him who thinks that it is oppressive4 ,wrong3 the verb oppresses should be changed to oppress to agree with its two subjects1 connected by and4 ,the pronoun it should be changed to they to agree with its two antecedents1 and the verb is should be changed to are to agree with they4 ,industry1 energy1 and good sense is essential to success4 ,time and tide waits for no man4 ,the tall sunflower and the little violet is turning its face to the sun4 ,the mule and the horse was harnessed together4 ,every green leaf and every blade of grass seem grateful4 ,model4--,the preceding sentence is wrong4 ,the verb seem is plural1 and it should be singular2 for1 when several singular subjects are preceded by each1 every1 or no1 they are taken separately4 ,each day and each hour bring their portion of duty4 ,every book and every paper were found in their place4 ,when a verb has two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor1 it must agree with them in the singular4 ,a similar rule applies to the agreement of the pronoun4 ,,correct ,,the ,,following ,,errors4 ,one or the other have made a mistake in their statement4 ,neither the aster nor the dahlia are cultivated for their fragrance4 ,either the president or his secretary were responsible4 ,neither ,ann1 ,jane1 nor ,sarah are at home4 ,to foretell1 or to express future time simply1 the auxiliary shall is used in the first person1 and will in the second and third2 but when a speaker determines or promises1 he uses will in the first person and shall in the second and third4 ,,correct ,,the ,,following ,,errors4 ,i will freeze1 if ,i do not move about4 ,you shall feel better soon1 ,i think4 ,she shall be fifteen years old to-morrow4 ,i shall find it for you1 if you shall bring the book to me4 ,you will have it1 if ,i can get it for you4 ,he will have it1 if he shall take the trouble to ask for it4 ,he will not do it1 if ,i can prevent him4 ,i will drown1 nobody shall help me4 ,i will be obliged to you1 if you shall attend to it4 ,we will have gone by to-morrow morning4 ,you shall disappoint your father1 if you do not return4 ,i do not think ,i will like the change4 ,next ,tuesday shall be your birthday4 ,you shall be late1 if you do not hurry4 ,,lesson #if4 ,,errors ,,in ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,verb4 ,,correct ,,the ,,following ,,errors4 ,model4--,those things have not came to-day4 ,wrong1 because the past came is here used for the past participle come4 ,the present perfect tense is formed by prefixing have to the past participle4 ,i done all my work before breakfast4 ,i come in a little late yesterday4 ,he has went to my desk without permission4 ,that stupid fellow set down on my new hat4 ,set is generally transitive1 and sit is intransitive4 ,lay is transitive1 and lie is intransitive4 ,he sat the chair in the corner4 ,sit that plate on the table1 and let it set4 ,i have set in this position a long time4 ,that child will not lay still or set still a minute4 ,i laid down under the tree1 and enjoyed the scenery4 ,lie that stick on the table1 and let it lay4 ,those boys were drove out of the fort three times4 ,i have rode through the park4 ,i done what ,i could4 ,he has not spoke to-day4 ,the leaves have fell from the trees4 ,this sentence is wrote badly4 ,he throwed his pen down1 and said that the point was broke4 ,he teached me grammar4 ,i seen him when he done it4 ,my hat was took off my head1 and throwed out of the window4 ,the bird has flew into that tall tree4 ,i was chose leader4 ,i have began to do better4 ,i begun this morning4 ,my breakfast was ate in a hurry4 ,your dress sets well4 ,that foolish old hen is setting on a wooden egg4 ,he has tore it up and throwed it away4 ,william has took my knife1 and ,i am afraid he has stole it4 ,this should be well shook4 ,i begun to sing1 before ,i knowed what ,i was doing4 ,we drunk from a pure spring4 ,i thought you had forsook us4 ,his pencil is nearly wore up4 ,he come1 and tell me all he knowed about it4 ,,lesson #ig4 ,,review ,,questions4 ,to the ,teacher4--,see ,scheme1 p4 #ahg4 ,how many modifications have verbs8 ,ans4--,five2 viz41 voice1 mode1 tense1 number1 and person4 ,define voice4 ,how many voices are there8 ,define each4 ,illustrate4 ,what is mode8 ,how many modes are there8 ,define each4 ,what is an infinitive8 ,what is a participle8 ,how many different kinds of participles are there8 ,define each4 ,illustrate4 ,what is tense8 ,how many tenses are there8 ,define each4 ,illustrate4 ,what are the number and the person of a verb8 ,illustrate4 ,what is conjugation8 ,what is synopsis8 ,what are auxiliaries8 ,name the auxiliaries4 ,what are the principal parts of a verb8 ,why are they so called8 ,how does a verb agree with its subject8 ,when a verb has two or more subjects1 how does it agree8 ,illustrate the uses of shall and will4 ,to the ,teacher4--,select some of the preceding exercises1 and require the pupils to write the parsing of all the verbs4 ,see ,lessons #cd1 #ce1 #dh1 #di1 and #ef4 ,model for ,written ,parsing--,verbs4--,the ,yankee1 selling his farm1 wanders away to seek new lands4 ,,classification4 ,,modifications4 ,,syntax4 ,verbs4 ,kind4 ,voice4 ,mode4 ,tense4 ,num4 ,per4 99selling ,pr4 ,par41 ,ir41 ,tr4 ,ac4 --- --- --- --- ,mod4 of ,yankee4 wanders ,reg41 ,int4 --- ,ind4 ,pres4 ,sing4 #c;d4 ,pred4 of 99seek ,inf1 ,ir41 ,tt1 ,ac4 --- --- --- ,prin4 word in phrase ,mod4 of wanders4 ,footnote 993 ,participles and ,infinitives have no person or number4 ,,lesson #ih4 ,,sentence-,,building4 ,participles sometimes partake of the nature of the noun1 while they retain the nature of the verb4 ,build each of the following phrases into a sentence1 and explain the nature of the participle4 ,model4-- ----in building a snow fort4 ,they were engaged in building a snow fort4 ,the participle building1 like a noun1 follows the preposition in1 as the principal word in the phrase2 and1 like a verb1 it takes the object complement fort4 ---- by foretelling storms4 ---- by helping others4 ---- on approaching the house4 ----- in catching fish4 ,use the following phrases as subjects4 ,walking in the garden ----4 ,his writing that letter ----4 ,breaking a promise ----4 ,use each of the following phrases in a complex sentence4 ,let some of the dependent clauses be used as adjectives1 and some1 as adverbs4 ---- in sledges4 ---- up the ,hudson4 ---- down the ,rhine4 ---- through the ,alps4 ---- with snow and ice4 ---- into ,new ,york ,bay4 ---- on the prairie4 ---- at ,saratoga4 ,build a short sentence containing all the parts of speech4 ,expand the following simple sentence into twelve sentences4 ,astronomy teaches the size1 form1 nature1 and motions of the sun1 moon1 and stars4 ,contract the following awkward compound sentence into a neat simple sentence1 ,hannibal passed through ,gaul1 and then he crossed the ,alps1 and then came down into ,italy1 and then he defeated several ,roman generals4 ,change the following complex sentences to compound sentences4 ,when he asked me the question1 ,i answered him courteously4 ,morse1 the man who invented the telegraph1 was a public benefactor4 ,when spring comes1 the birds will return4 ,contract the following complex sentences into simple sentences by changing the verb in the dependent clause to a participle4 ,notice all the other changes4 ,a ship which was gliding along the horizon attracted our attention4 ,i saw a man who was plowing a field4 ,when the shower had passed1 we went on our way4 ,i heard that he wrote that article4 ,that he was a foreigner was well known4 ,i am not sure that he did it4 ,every pupil who has an interest in this work will prepare for it4 ,change the following compound sentences to complex sentences4 ,model4--,morning dawns1 and the clouds disperse4 ,when morning dawns1 the clouds disperse4 ,avoid swearing2 it is a wicked habit4 ,pearls are valuable1 and they are found in oyster shells4 ,dickens wrote ,david ,copperfield1 and he died in #ahgj4 ,some animals are vertebrates1 and they have a backbone4 ,expand each of the following sentences as much as you can4 ,indians dance4 ,the clock struck4 ,the world moves4 ,,lesson #ii4 ,,miscellaneous ,,errors4 ,,correct ,,the ,,following ,,errors4 ,i have got that book at home4 ,model4--,wrong1 because have1 alone1 asserts possession4 ,got1 used in the sense of obtained1 is correct2 as1 ,i have just got the book4 ,have you got time to help me8 ,there is many mistakes in my composition4 ,model4--,wrong1 because is should agree with its plural subject mistakes4 ,the adverb there is often used to introduce a sentence1 that the subject may follow the predicate4 ,this often makes the sentence sound smooth1 and gives variety4 ,there goes my mother and sister4 ,here comes the soldiers4 ,there was many friends to greet him4 ,it ain't there4 ,model4--,ain't is a vulgar contraction4 ,correction--,it is not there4 ,i have made up my mind that it ain't no use4 ',tain't so bad as you think4 ,two years' interest were due4 ,every one of his acts were criticised4 ,i1 ,henry1 and you have been chosen4 ,model4--,wrong1 for politeness requires that you should mention the one spoken to1 first2 the one spoken of1 next2 and yourself1 last4 ,he invited you and ,i and ,mary4 ,me and ,jane are going to the fair4 ,i only want a little piece4 ,he is a handsome1 tall man4 ,did you sleep good8 ,how much trouble one has1 don't they8 ,he inquired for some tinted ladies' note-paper4 ,you needn't ask me nothing about it1 for ,i haven't got no time to answer4 ,him that is diligent will succeed4 ,he found the place sooner than me4 ,who was that8 ,it was me and him4 ,if ,i was her1 ,i would say less4 ,bring me them tongs4 ,us boys have a base-ball club4 ,whom did you say that it was8 ,who did you speak to just now8 ,who did you mean1 when you said that8 ,where was you when ,i called8 ,there's twenty of us going4 ,circumstances alters cases4 ,tell them to set still4 ,he laid down by the fire4 ,she has lain her book aside4 ,it takes him everlastingly4 ,that was an elegant old rock4 ,,lesson #ajj4 ,,analysis ,,and ,,parsing4 #a4 ,thou shalt not take the name of the ,lord thy ,god in vain4 #b4 ,strike6 till the last armed foe expires6 #c4 ,you wrong me1 ,brutus4 #d4 ,shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction8 #e4 ,why stand we here idle8 #f4 ,give me liberty1 or give me death6 #g4 ,thy mercy1 ,o ,lord1 is in the heavens1 and thy faithfulness reacheth unto the clouds4 #h4 ,the clouds poured out water1 the skies sent out a sound1 the voice of thy thunder was in the heaven4 #i4 ,the heavens declare his righteousness1 and all the people see his glory4 #aj4 ,the verdant lawn1 the shady grove1 the variegated landscape1 the boundless ocean1 and the starry firmament are beautiful and magnificent objects4 #aa4 ,when you grind your corn1 give not the flour to the devil and the bran to ,god4 #ab4 ,that which the fool does in the end1 the wise man does at the beginning4 #ac4 ,xerxes commanded the largest army that was ever brought into the field4 #ad4 ,without oxygen1 fires would cease to burn1 and all animals would immediately die4 #ae4 ,liquids1 when acted upon by gravity1 press downward1 upward1 and sideways4 #af4 ,matter exists in three states--the solid state1 the liquid state1 and the gaseous state4 #ag4 ,the blending of the seven prismatic colors produces white light4 #ah4 ,soap-bubbles1 when they are exposed to light1 exhibit colored rings4 #ai4 ,he who yields to temptation debases himself with a debasement from which he can never arise4 #bj4 ,young eyes that last year smiled in ours ,now point the rifle's barrel2 ,and hands then stained with fruits and flowers ,bear redder stains of quarrel4 ,,capital ,,letters ,,and ,,punctuation4 ,capital ,letters4--,the first word of 7#a7 a sentence1 7#b7 a line of poetry1 7#c7 a direct quotation making complete sense or a direct question introduced into a sentence1 and 7#d7 phrases or clauses separately numbered or paragraphed should begin with a capital letter4 ,begin with a capital letter 7#e7 proper names and words derived from them1 7#f7 names of things personified1 and 7#g7 most abbreviations4 ,write in capital letters 7#h7 the words ,i and ,o1 and 7#i7 numbers in the ,roman notation4 ,footnote3 ,small letters are preferred where numerous references to chapters1 etc41 are made4 ,examples4--#a4 ,the judicious are always a minority4 #b4 ,honor and shame from no condition rise2 ,act well your part1 there all the honor lies4 #c4 ,the question is1 ,can law make people honest8 #d4 ,paintings are useful for these reasons3 #a4 ,they please2 #b4 ,they instruct4 #e4 ,the heroic ,nelson destroyed the ,french fleet in ,aboukir ,bay4 #f4 ,next1 ,anger rushed1 his eyes on fire4 #g4 ,the ,atlantic ocean beat ,mrs4 ,partington4 #h4 ,the use of ,o and oh ,i am now to explain4 #i4 ,napoleon ,,ii4 never came to the throne4 ,period4--,place a period after 7#a7 a declarative or an imperative sentence1 7#b7 an abbreviation1 and 7#c7 a number written in the ,roman notation4 ,for examples see #a1 #g1 and #i in the sentences above4 ,interrogation ,point4--,every direct interrogative sentence or clause should be followed by an interrogation point4 ,example4--,king ,agrippa1 believest thou the prophets8 ,exclamation ,point4--,all exclamatory expressions must be followed by the exclamation point4 ,example4--,oh6 bloodiest picture in the book of time6 ,comma4--,set off by the comma 7#a7 a phrase out of its natural order or not closely connected with the word it modifies2 7#b7 an explanatory modifier that does not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it2 7#c7 a participle used as an adjective modifier1 with the words belonging to it1 unless restrictive2 7#d7 the adjective clause1 when not restrictive2 7#e7 the adverb clause1 unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies2 7#f7 a word or phrase independent or nearly so2 7#g7 a direct quotation introduced into a sentence1 unless formally introduced2 7#h7 a noun clause used as an attribute complement2 and 7#i7 a term connected to another by or and having the same meaning4 ,separate by the comma 7#aj7 connected words and phrases1 unless all the conjunctions are expressed2 7#aa7 independent clauses1 when short and closely connected2 and 7#ab7 the parts of a compound predicate and of other phrases1 when long or differently modified4 ,examples4--l4 ,in the distance1 icebergs look like masses of burnished metal4 #b4 ,alexandria1 the capital of ,lower ,egypt1 is an ill-looking city4 #c4 ,labor1 diving deep into the earth1 brings up long-hidden stores of coal4 #d4 ,the sun1 which is the center of our system1 is millions of miles from us4 #e4 ,when beggars die1 there are no comets seen4 #f4 ,gentlemen1 this1 then1 is your verdict4 #g4 ,god said1 ,let there be light4 #h4 ,nelson's signal was1 ,england expects every man to do his duty4 #i4 ,rubbers1 or overshoes1 are worn to keep the feet dry4 #aj4 ,the sable1 the seal1 and the otter furnish us rich furs4 #aa4 ,his dark eye flashed1 his proud breast heaved1 his cheek's hue came and went4 #ab4 ,flights of birds darken the air1 and tempt the traveler with the promise of abundant provisions4 ,semicolon4--,independent clauses 7#a7 when slightly connected1 or 7#b7 when themselves divided by the comma1 must be separated by the semicolon4 ,use the semicolon 7#c7 between serial phrases or clauses having a common dependence on something that precedes or follows2 and 7#d7 before as1 viz41 to wit41 namely1 i4 e41 and that is1 when they introduce examples or illustrations4 ,examples4--#a4 ,the furnace blazes2 the anvil rings2 the busy wheels whirl round4 #b4 ,as ,caesar loved me1 ,i weep for him2 as he was fortunate1 ,i rejoice at it2 as he was valiant1 ,i honor him2 but1 as he was ambitious1 ,i slew him4 #c4 ,he drew a picture of the sufferings of our ,saviour2 his trial before ,pilate2 his ascent of ,calvary2 his crucifixion and death4 #d4 ,gibbon writes1 ,i have been sorely afflicted with gout in the hand2 to wit1 laziness4 ,colon4--,use the colon 7#a7 between the parts of a sentence when these parts are themselves divided by the semicolon2 and 7#b7 before a quotation or an enumeration of particulars when formally introduced4 ,examples4--l4 ,canning's features were handsome2 his eye1 though deeply ensconced under his eyebrows1 was full of sparkle and gayety3 the features of ,brougham were harsh in the extreme4 #b4 ,to ,lentullus and ,gellius bear this message3 ,their graves are measured4 ,dash4--,use the dash where there is an omission 7#a7 of letters or figures1 and 7#b7 of such words as as1 namely1 or that is1 introducing illustrations or equivalent expressions4 ,use the dash 7#c7 where the sentence breaks off abruptly1 and the same thought is resumed after a slight suspension1 or another takes its place2 and 7#d7 before a word or phrase repeated at intervals for emphasis4 ,the dash may be used 7#e7 instead of marks of parenthesis1 and may 7#f7 follow other marks1 adding to their force4 ,examples4--#a4 ,in ,m------w1 v4 #c-aa1 you may find the beatitudes4 #b4 ,there are two things certain in this world--taxes and death4 #c4 ,i said--,i know not what4 #d4 ,i never would lay down my arms--never-- ,,never--,,never4 #e4 ,fulton started a steamboat----he called it the ,clermont--on the ,hudson in #ahjg4 #f4 ,my dear ,sir1--,i write this letter for information4 ,marks of ,parenthesis4--,marks of parenthesis may be used to enclose what has no essential connection with the rest of the sentence4 ,example4--,the noun 7,lat4 nomen1 a name7 is the first part of speech4 ,apostrophe4--,use the apostrophe 7#a7 to mark the omission of letters1 7#b7 in the pluralizing of letters1 figures1 and characters1 and 7#c7 to distinguish the possessive from other cases4 ,examples4--#a4 ,bo't of ,john ,jones #aj lbs4 of butter4 #b4 ,what word is there one-half of which is p's8 #c4 ,he washed the disciples' feet4 ,hyphen4--,use the hyphen 7-7 7#a7 between the parts of compound words that have not become consolidated1 and 7#b7 between syllables when a word is divided4 ,examples4--#a4 ,work-baskets are convenient4 #b4 ,divide basket thus3 bas-ket4 ,quotation ,marks--,use quotation marks to enclose a copied word or passage4 ,if the quotation contains a quotation1 the latter is enclosed within single marks4 ,example---,the sermon closed with this sentence3 ,god said1 ',let there be light4' ,brackets4--,use brackets to enclose what1 in quoting another's words1 you insert by way of explanation or correction4 ,example4--,the ,psalmist says1 ,i prevented anticipated the dawning of the morning4 ,,sentences ,,and ,,paragraphs4 ,to the ,teacher4--,it is very profitable to exercise pupils in combining simple statements into complex and compound sentences1 and in resolving complex and compound sentences into simple statements4 ,in combining statements1 it is an excellent practice for the pupil to contract1 expand1 transpose1 and to substitute different words4 ,they thus learn to express the same thought in a variety of ways4 ,any reading-book or history will furnish good material for such practice4 ,a few examples are given below4 ,direction4--,combine in as many ways as possible each of the following groups of sentences3-- ,example4--,this man is to be pitied4 ,he has no friends4 #a4 ,this man has no friends1 and he is to be pitied4 #b4 ,this man is to be pitied1 because he has no friends4 #c4 ,because this man has no friends1 he is to be pitied4 #d4 ,this man1 who has no friends1 is to be pitied4 #e4 ,this man1 having no friends1 is to be pitied4 #f4 ,this man1 without friends1 is to be pitied4 #g4 ,this friendless man deserves our pity4 #a4 ,the ostrich is unable to fly4 ,it has not wings in proportion to its body4 #b4 ,egypt is a fertile country4 ,it is annually inundated by the ,nile4 #c4 ,the nerves are little threads1 or fibers4 ,they extend1 from the brain4 ,they spread over the whole body4 #d4 ,john ,gutenberg published a book4 ,it was the first book known to have been printed on a printing-press4 ,he was aided by the patronage of ,john ,paust4 ,he published it in #adee4 ,he published it in the city of ,mentz4 #e4 ,the human body is a machine4 ,a watch is delicately constructed4 ,this machine is more delicately constructed4 ,a steam-engine is complicated4 ,this machine is more complicated4 ,a steam-engine is wonderful4 ,this machine is more wonderful4 ,you see that short statements closely related in meaning may be improved by being combined4 ,but young writers frequently use too many ands and other connectives1 and make their sentences too long4 ,long sentences should be broken up into short ones when the relations of the parts are not clear4 ,as clauses may be joined to form sentences1 so sentences may be united to make paragraphs4 ,a paragraph is a sentence or a group of related sentences developing one point or one division of a general subject4 ,the first word of a paragraph should begin a new line1 and should be written a little farther to the right than the first words of other lines4 ,direction4--,combine the following statements into sentences and paragraphs1 and make of them a complete composition3-- ,water is a liquid4 ,it is composed of oxygen and hydrogen4 ,it covers about three-fourths of the surface of the earth4 ,it takes the form of ice4 ,it takes the form of snow4 ,it takes the form of vapor4 ,the air is constantly taking up water from rivers1 lakes1 oceans1 and from damp ground4 ,cool air contains moisture4 ,heated air contains more moisture4 ,heated air becomes lighter4 ,it rises4 ,it becomes cool4 ,the moisture is condensed into fine particles4 ,clouds are formed4 ,they float across the sky4 ,the little particles unite and form rain-drops4 ,they sprinkle the dry fields4 ,at night the grass and flowers become cool4 ,the air is not so cool4 ,the warm air touches the grass and flowers4 ,it is chilled4 ,it loses a part of its moisture4 ,drops of dew are formed4 ,water has many uses4 ,men and animals drink it4 ,trees and plants drink it4 ,they drink it by means of their leaves and roots4 ,water is a great purifier4 ,it cleanses our bodies4 ,it washes our clothes4 ,it washes the dust from the leaves and the flowers4 ,water is a great worker4 ,it floats vessels4 ,it turns the wheels of mills4 ,it is converted into steam4 ,it is harnessed to mighty engines4 ,it does the work of thousands of men and horses4 ,to the ,teacher4--,condensed statements of facts1 taken from some book not in the hands of your pupils1 may be read to them1 and they may be required to expand and combine these and group them into paragraphs4 ,,letter-,,writing4 ,in writing a letter there are six things to consider--the ,heading1 the ,introduction1 the ,body of the ,letter1 the ,conclusion1 the ,folding1 and the ,superscription4 ,,the ,,heading4 ,parts4--,the ,heading consists of the name of the ,place at which the letter is written1 and the ,date4 ,if you write from a city1 give the door-number1 the name of the street1 the name of the city1 and the name of the state4 ,if you are at a hotel or a school1 or any other well-known institution1 its name may take the place of the door-number and the name of the street4 ,if you write from a village or other country place1 give your post-office address1 the name of the county1 and that of the state4 ,the ,date consists of the month1 the day of the month1 and the year4 ,how ,written4--,begin the ,heading about an inch and a half from the top of the page--on the first ruled line of commercial note--and a little to the left of the middle of the page4 ,if the ,heading is very short1 it may stand on one line4 ,if it occupies more than one line1 the second line should begin farther to the right than the first1 and the third farther to the right than the second4 ,the ,date stands upon a line by itself if the ,heading occupies two or more lines4 ,the door-number1 the day of month1 and the year are written in figures1 the rest in words4 ,each important word begins with a capital letter1 each item is set off by the comma1 and the whole closes with a period4 ,direction4--,study what has been said1 and write the following headings according to these models3--- #a4 ,hull1 ,mass41 ,nov4 #a1 #ahfj4 #b4 #adff ,colorado ,ave41 ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 ,apr4 #c1 #ahgj4 #c4 ,newburyport1 ,mass41 ,june #cj1 #ahbf4 #d4 ,starkville1 ,herkimer ,co41 ,n4 ,y41 ,dec4 #ai1 #ahga4 #a4 n y rondout #aa #ahdi oct4 #b4 staten island port richmond #ahgg #be january4 #c4 brooklyn march #ahga mansion house #bi4 #d4 executive chamber vt february montpelier #ahfi #bg4 #e4 washington franklin como nov #af #ahgd4 #f4 fifth ave may new york #dfj #i #ahfc4 #g4 washington d c march #ahdg #ebj pennsylvania ave #af4 ,,the ,,introduction4 ,parts4--,the ,introduction consists of the ,address--the ,name1 the ,title1 and the ,place of ,business or the ,residence of the one addressed--and the ,salutation4 ,titles of respect and courtesy should appear in the ,address4 ,prefix ,mr4 7plural1 ,messrs47 to a man's name2 ,master to a boy's name2 ,miss to the name of a girl or an unmarried lady2 ,mrs4 to the name of a married lady4 ,prefix ,dr4 to the name of a physician1 or write ,m4,d4 after his name4 ,prefix ,rev4 7or ,the ,rev47 to the name of a clergyman2 if he is a ,doctor of ,divinity1 prefix ,rev4 ,dr41 or write ,rev4 before his name and ,d4,d4 after it2 if you do not know his ,christian name1 prefix ,rev4 ,mr4 or ,rev4 ,dr4 to his surname1 but never ,rev4 alone4 ,esq4 is added to the name of a lawyer1 and to the names of other prominent men4 ,avoid such combinations as the following3 ,mr4 ,john ,smith1 ,esq41 ,dr4 ,john ,smith1 ,m4,d41 ,mr4 ,john ,smith1 ,m4,d41 etc4 ,salutations vary with the station of the one addressed1 or the writer's degree of intimacy with him4 ,strangers may be addressed as ,sir1 ,rev4 ,sir1 ,general1 ,madam1 ,miss ,brown1 etc42 acquaintances as ,dear ,sir1 ,dear ,madam1 etc42 friends as ,my dear ,sir1 ,my dear ,madam1 ,my dear ,mr4 ,brown1 etc42 and near relatives and other dear friends as ,my dear ,wife1 ,my dear ,boy1 ,dearest ,ellen1 etc4 ,how ,written4--,the ,address may follow the ,heading1 beginning on the next line1 or the next but one1 and standing on the left side of the page2 or it may stand in corresponding position after the ,body of the ,letter and the ,conclusion4 ,if the letter is written to a very intimate friend1 the ,address may appropriately be placed at the bottom of the letter2 but in other letters1 especially those on ordinary business1 it should be placed at the top and as directed above4 ,there should always be a narrow margin on the left-hand side of the page1 and the ,address should always begin on the marginal line4 ,if the ,address occupies more than one line1 the initial words of these lines should slope to the right1 as in the ,heading4 ,begin the ,salutation on the marginal line or a little to the right of it1 when the ,address occupies three lines2 on the marginal line or farther to the right than the second line of the ,address begins1 when this occupies two lines2 a little to the right of the marginal lime1 when the ,address occupies one line2 on the marginal line1 when the ,address stands below4 ,every important word in the ,address should begin with a capital letter4 ,all the items of it should be set off by the comma1 and1 as it is an abbreviated sentence1 it should close with a period4 ,every important word in the ,salutation should begin with a capital letter1 and the whole should be followed by a comma4 ,direction4--,study what has been said1 and write the following introductions according to these models3-- #a4 ,dear ,father1 ,i write1 etc4 #b4 ,the ,rev4 ,m4 ,h4 ,buckham1 ,d4,d41 ,president of ,u4 ,v4 ,m41 ,burlington1 ,vt4 ,my dear ,sir1 #c4 ,messrs4 ,clark ,brown1 ,quogue1 ,n4 ,y4 ,gentlemen1 #d4 ,messrs4 ,tiffany ,co41 #b ,milk ,st41 ,boston4 ,dear ,sirs1 #a4 david h cochran lld president of polytechnic institute brooklyn my dear sir4 #b4 dr ,john h hobart burge #fd livingston st brooklyn n y sir4 #c4 prof geo n boardman ,chicago ill dear teacher4 #d4 to the president executive mansion ,washington d c mr president4 #e4 rev t k beecher elmira n y sir4 #f4 messrs gilbert sons gentlemen mass boston4 #g4 mr george r curtis minn rochester my friend dear4 #h4 to the honorable wm m evarts secretary of state ,washington d c sir4 ,,the ,,body ,,of ,,the ,,letter4 ,the ,beginning4--,begin the ,body of the ,letter at the end of the ,salutation1 and on the same line1 if the ,introduction consists of four lines--in which case the comma after the ,salutation should be followed by a dash2--otherwise1 on the line below4 ,style4--,be perspicuous4 ,paragraph and punctuate as in other kinds of writing4 ,spell correctly2 write legibly1 neatly1 and with care4 ,letters of friendship should be colloquial1 natural1 and familiar4 ,whatever is interesting to you will be interesting to your friends4 ,business letters should be brief1 and the sentences should be short1 concise1 and to the point4 ,in formal notes the third person is generally used instead of the first and the second2 there is no ,introduction1 no ,conclusion1 no ,signature1 only the name of the ,place and the ,date at the bottom1 on the left side of the page4 ,,the ,,conclusion4 ,parts4--,the ,conclusion consists of the ,complimentary ,close and the ,signature4 ,the forms of the ,complimentary ,close are many1 and are determined by the relations of the writer to the one addressed4 ,in letters of friendship you may use ,your sincere friend2 ,yours affectionately 2 ,your loving son or daughter1 etc4 ,in business letters1 you may use ,yours2 ,yours truly2 ,truly yours2 ,yours respectfully2 ,very respectfully yours1 etc4 ,in official letters use ,i have the honor to be1 ,sir1 your obedient servant2 ,very respectfully1 your most obedient servant4 ,the ,signature consists of your ,christian name and your surname4 ,in addressing a stranger write your ,christian name in full4 ,a lady addressing a stranger should prefix her title--,miss or ,mrs4--to her own name1 enclosing it within marks of parenthesis1 if she prefers4 ,how ,written4--,the ,conclusion should begin near the middle of the first line below the ,body of the ,letter1 and should slope to the right like the ,heading and the ,address4 ,begin each line of it with a capital letter1 and punctuate as in other writing1 following the whole with a period4 ,the ,signature should be very plain4 ,,the ,,folding4 ,the ,folding is a simple matter when1 as now1 the envelope used is adapted in length to the width of the sheet4 ,take the letter as it lies before you1 with its first page uppermost1 turn up the bottom of it about one-third the length of the sheet1 bring the top down over this1 taking care that the sides are even1 and press the parts together4 ,taking the envelope with its back toward you1 insert the letter1 putting in first the edge last folded4 ,the form of the envelope may require the letter to be folded in the middle4 ,other conditions may require other ways of folding4 ,,the ,,superscription4 ,parts4--,the ,superscription is what is written on the outside of the envelope4 ,it is the same as the ,address1 consisting of the ,name1 the ,title1 and the full ,directions of the one addressed4 ,how ,written4--,the ,superscription should begin near the middle of the envelope and near the left edge-- the envelope lying with its closed side toward you--and should occupy three or four lines4 ,these lines should slope to the right as in the ,heading and the ,address1 the spaces between the lines should be the same1 and the last line should end near the lower right-hand corner4 ,on the first line the ,name and the ,title should stand4 ,if the one addressed is in a city1 the door-number and name of the street should be on the second line1 the name of the city on the third1 and the name of the state on the fourth4 ,if he is in the country1 the name of the post-office should be on the second line1 the name of the county on the third--7or by itself near the lower left-hand corner71 and the name of the state on the fourth4 ,the titles following the name should be separated from it and from each other by the comma1 and every line should end with a comma1 except the last1 which should be followed by a period4 ,the lines should be straight1 and every part of the ,superscription should be legible4 ,place the stamp at the upper right-hand corner4 ,,letter1 ,,ordering ,,merchandise4 ,cursive3 ,newburgh1 ,n4 ,y4 ,jan4 #g4 #ahhh ,messrs4 ,hyde ,co41 #bej ,broadway4 ,n4 ,y4 ,gentlemen1 ,please send me by ,adams ,express the articles mentioned in the enclosed list4 ,be careful in the selection of the goods1 as ,i desire them for a special class of customers4 ,when they are forwarded1 please inform me by letter and enclose the invoice4 ,yours truly1 ,thomas ,dodds4 ,,answer1 ,,enclosing ,,invoice4 ,cursive3 #bej ,broadway1 ,n4 ,y4 ,jan #i1 #ahhh4 ,mr4 ,thomas ,dodds1 ,newburgh1 ,n4 ,y4 ,dear ,sir1 ,we have to-day sent you by ,adams ,express the goods ordered in your letter of the #gth inst4 ,enclosed you will find the invoice4 ,we hope that everything will reach you in good condition and will prove satisfactory in quality and in price4 ,very truly yours1 ,peter ,hyde ,co4 ,,invoice4 ,thomas ,dodds1 ,bought of ,peter ,hyde ,co4 #c boxes ,sperm ,candles4 #adj lbs41 #cc;c4 #df4bj #g do4 ,adamantine ,extra ,candles1 #ahb lbs41 #bf;c4 #dg4cb #abj lbs4 ,crushed ,sugar1 #ab-a_/b;c4 #ae4jj #fj do4 ,coffee do41 #aa-a_/d;c4 #f4ge ----- #aae4bg ,,letter ,,of ,,application4 ,cursive3 #agf ,clinton ,st4 ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 ,dec4 #ab1 #ahhg ,messrs4 ,fisk ,hatch1 #e ,nassau ,st41 ,n4 ,y4 ,gentlemen1 ,learning by advertisement that a clerkship in your house is vacant1 ,i beg leave to offer myself as a candidate for the place4 ,i am sixteen years old1 and am strong and in excellent health4 ,i have just graduated with honor from the seventh grade of the ,polytechnic ,institute1 ,brooklyn1 and ,i enclose testimonials of my character and standing from the ,president of that ,institution4 ,if you desire a personal interview1 ,i shall be glad to present myself at such time and place as you may name4 ,very respectfully yours1 ,charles ,hastings4 ,,notes ,,of ,,invitation ,,and ,,acceptance 7in the third person74 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,brooks request the pleasure of ,mr4 ,churchill's company at a social gathering1 next ,tuesday evening1 at #h o'clock4 #cb ,w4 #cast ,street1 ,oct4 #e4 ,mr4 ,churchill has much pleasure in accepting ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,brooks's kind invitation to a social gathering next ,tuesday evening4 #afj ,fifth ,ave41 ,oct4 #e4 ,,letter ,,of ,,introduction4 ,cursive3 ,concord1 ,n4 ,h4 ,jan4 #aj1 #ahhh4 ,george ,chapman1 ,esq41 ,portland1 ,conn4 ,my dear ,friend1 ,it gives me great pleasure to introduce to you my friend1 ,mr4 ,alpheus ,crane4 ,any attention you may be able to show him ,i shall esteem as a personal favor4 ,sincerely yours1 ,peter ,cooper4 ,a ,,letter ,,of ,,friendship4 ,cursive3 #ba ,dean ,st41 ,toledo1 ,ohio4 ,dec4 #af1 #ahhg4 ,my dear ,mother1 ,i cannot tell you how ,i long to be at home again and in my old place4 ,in my dreams and in my waking hours1 ,i am often back at the old homestead2 my thoughts play truant while ,i pore over my books1 and even while ,i listen to my teacher in the class-room4 ,i would give so much to know what you are all doing--so much to feel that now and then ,i am in your thoughts1 and that you do indeed miss me at home4 ,everything here is as pleasant as it need be or can be1 ,i suppose4 ,i am sure ,i shall enjoy it all by and by1 when ,i get over this fit of homesickness4 ,my studies are not too hard1 and my teachers are kind and faithful4 ,do write me a long letter as soon as you get this and tell me everything4 ,much love to each of the dear ones at home4 ,your affectionate son1 ,henry ,james4 ,footnote3 ,in familiar 7and official7 letters1 the ,address may stand1 you will remember1 at the bottom4 ,mrs4 ,alexander ,james1 ,tallmadge1 ,ohio4 ,illustration of ,envelope3 ,mrs4 ,alexander ,james1 ,tallmadge1 ,summit ,co4 ,ohio4 ,to the ,teacher4--,have your pupils write complete letters and notes of all kinds4 ,you can name the persons to whom these are to be addressed4 ,attend minutely to al#a the points4 ,letters of introduction should have the word ,introducing 7followed by the name of the one introduced7 at the lower left-hand corner of the envelope4 ,this letter should not be sealed4 ,the receiver may seal it before handing it to the one addressed4 ,continue this work of letter-writing until the pupils have mastered all the details1 and are able easily and quickly to write any ordinary letter4 ,a ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,rules ,,of ,,syntax4 ,i4 ,a noun or pronoun used as subject or as attribute complement of a predicate verb1 or used independently1 is in the nominative case4 ,,ii4 ,the attribute complement of a participle or an infinitive is in the same case 7,nom4 or ,obj47 as the word to which it relates4 ,,iii4 ,a noun or pronoun used as possessive modifier is in the possessive case4 ,,iv4 ,a noun or pronoun used as object or objective complement1 or as the principal word of a prepositional phrase1 is in the objective case4 ,v4 ,a noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as the word explained4 ,,vi4 ,a pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person1 number1 and gender4 ,with two or more antecedents connected by and1 the pronoun is plural4 ,with two or more singular antecedents connected by or or nor1 the pronoun is singular4 ,,vii4 ,a verb agrees with its subject in person and number4 ,with two or more subjects connected by and1 the verb is plural4 ,with two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor1 the verb is singular4 ,,viii4 ,a participle assumes the action or being1 and is used like an adjective or a noun4 ,,ix4 ,an infinitive is generally introduced by to1 and with it forms a phrase used as a noun1 an adjective1 or an adverb4 ,x4 ,adjectives modify nouns or pronouns4 ,,xi4 ,adverbs modify verbs1 adjectives1 or adverbs4 ,,xii4 ,a preposition introduces a phrase modifier1 and shows the relation1 in sense1 of its principal word to the word modified4 ,,xiii4 ,conjunctions connect words1 phrases1 or clauses4 ,,xiv4 ,interjections are used independently4 ,,proof-,,marks4 ,remark4--,the following are some of the marks used in correcting proof-sheets for the printer3-- ,symbol3 dele ,de-le ,strike out4 ,ca-ret ,something to be inserted4 _/ ,this calls attention to points or letters placed in the margin as corrections4 ,symbol3 dotted circle ,this calls attention to the period4 tr4 ,transpose4 ,symbol3 para ,begin a new paragraph with the word preceded by 4 ,no ,symbol3 para ,no new paragraph4 ,symbol3 v' ,this calls attention to the apostrophe4 ,to the ,teacher4--,we suggest that the pupils learn to use these marks in correcting compositions4 ,the following exercises are given as illustrations3-- ,illustration3 ,corrected letter ,,notes ,,for ,,teachers4 ,,agreement4 ,before ,lesson #h is assigned1 the pupils may be required to note1 in ,lessons #f and #g1 the subjects that add s to denote more than one1 and then to mark the changes that occur in the predicates when the s is dropped from these subjects4 ,in ,lesson #h1 the predicates may be changed by adding or dropping s1 and other subjects may be found to correspond4 ,in ,lesson #i1 s may be dropped from the plural subjects1 and other predicates may be found to agree4 ,at this stage of the work we should give no formal rules1 and should avoid such technical terms as number1 person1 tense1 etc4 ,the pupils may be led to discover rules for themselves1 and to state them informally4 ,exercises and questions may be so directed that the pupils may draw some such conclusion as the following3-- ,when a simple form of the verb is used to tell what one thing does1 s or es is added 7unless the subject is ,i or you74 ,let the pupils see that the s-form of the verb is used only in telling what one thing does1 not what it did2 as1 ,the boy runs1 ,the boy ran2 and that its subject always stands for the one spoken of2 as1 ,he runs1 ,i run4 ,before ,lesson #ab is assigned1 attention may be called to the use of is1 was1 and has1 in ,lesson #aa and elsewhere4 ,for the predicates introduced by these words let the pupils find subjects which name more than one1 that they may note the change of is to are1 was to were1 and has to have4 ,the forms does and do may also be introduced1 and these exercises continued till the pupils are led to discover some such rule as the following3-- ,is1 was1 has1 and does are used with subjects denoting but one4 ,are1 were1 have1 and do are used with subjects denoting more than one4 ,we suggest that the form of a question and the use of the question mark be introduced after ,lesson #ab1 and that the pupils be allowed to change the sentences in ,lessons #aa and #ab by placing the subject after the first auxiliary4 ,a straight line may be drawn under each subject1 and a waving line under each predicate1 thus3-- ,was _/,napoleon_/ banished8 ,the sentences given for analysis will furnish material for making interrogative sentences1 and for justifying the agreement of verbs4 ,in connection with ,lesson #ai attention may be called to the agreement of verbs with ,i and you4 ,exercises may be given from which the pupils will draw the following conclusions3-- ,i can be used with am1 was1 have1 and do4 ,you may mean one or more than one1 but the verb always agrees as if you meant more than one4 ,exercises may be given requiring the pupils to use such expressions as ,you were1 ,they were1 ,we were1 ,he doesn't1 etc41 and to repeat them aloud till the ear is accustomed to the right form4 ,when predicate verbs immediately follow their subjects1 there is little danger of errors in agreement1 except that was is often used incorrectly for were1 and don't for doesn't4 ,the chief object of introducing these exercises here is to train the pupils' observation so that they will readily and naturally note the agreement of the subject and predicate when these terms are transposed1 or are separated by other words4 ,to determine the correct form of the verb in such cases1 let the pupils see how it sounds when placed immediately after its subject4 ,we suggest exercises like the following3-- #a is are #b was were #c has have #d does do #e comes come #f goes go #g thinks think #h writes write #a4 ,with what kind of letter 7#d7 each of these names begin8 #b4 ,under this rule 7#a7 found important exceptions4 #c4 ,the farm1 with all the cattle and horses1 7#b7 sold4 #d4 ,with what mark 7#d7 imperative sentences end8 #e4 ,every effort of the friends of these measures 7#c7 failed4 #f4 ,there 7#e7 trying times in every man's life4 #g4 ,one of them 7#f7 to ,vassar ,college4 #h4 ,not one in ten 7#g7 about this4 #i4 ,neither of you 7#h7 correctly4 #aj4 ,after this 7#e7 the calisthenic exercises4 #aa4 ,a cargo of ,delaware peaches 7#c7 arrived4 #ab4 ,there 7#f7 the cars4 #ac4 ,there 7#f7 a train of cars4 ,after these blanks have been filled with the verbs above1 as indicated by the numbers1 the sentences may be repeated aloud till the correct form is familiar4 ,let the pupils see that in 7#b71 ,lesson #cf1 were identified is asserted of two things1 and that in 7#c7 was anticipated is asserted of one of two things1 but not of both4 ,let them give other examples of connected subjects with verbs singular in form1 and with verbs plural in form4 ,the meaning of singular and plural may be explained1 and the pupils may form some such rule as the following3-- ,with two or more subjects connected by and the verb agrees in the plural4 ,with two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor the verb agrees in the singular4 ,the pupils may examine such sentences as-- #a4 ,each word and gesture was suited to the thought2 #b4 ,every bud1 leaf1 and blade of grass rejoices after the warm rain2 #c4 ,no dew1 no rain1 no cloud comes to the relief of the parched earth2-- and note that each1 every1 and no show that the things named in the different subjects are taken separately1 and that the verbs are therefore singular4 ,such sentences as-- ,in the death of ,franklin1 a philosopher and statesman was lost to the world-- may be given to show that subjects connected by and may name the same thing1 and so take a verb in the singular4 ,such examples as the following may be given and justified3-- #a4 ,beauty and utility are combined in nature4 #b4 ,either beauty or utility appears in every natural object4 #c4 ,here is neither beauty nor utility4 #d4 ,time and tide wait for no man4 #e4 ,wisdom and prudence dwell with the lowly man4 #f4 ,does either landlord or tenant profit by this bill8 #g4 ,neither landlords nor tenants profit by this bill4 #h4 ,every fly1 bee1 beetle1 and butterfly is provided with six feet4 #i4 ,that desperate robber and murderer was finally secured4 #aj4 ,that desperate robber and that murderer were finally secured4 #aa4 ,the builder and owner of the yacht has sailed from ,liverpool4 #ab4 ,the builder and the owner of the yacht have sailed from ,liverpool4 #ac4 ,a lame and blind man was provided with food and lodging4 #ad4 ,a lame and a blind man were provided with food and lodging4 ,particular attention may be called to examples #i-ad1 that the pupils may note the effect of repeating that1 the1 and a4 ,pupils should early learn that rules in grammar should not be followed rigidly and blindly1 as they generally have variations and exceptions4 ,caution1 however1 should be used in presenting exceptions1 lest the pupils become confused4 ,they may be presented in reviews after the rules and general principles are well understood4 ,they need not be formally stated1 but may be introduced in the way of observation lessons that appeal to the judgment rather than to the memory4 ,in this way such constructions as the following may be introduced3-- #a4 ,neither he nor ,i am going4 7,better--,he is not going1 nor am ,i47 #b4 ,neither ,john nor his sisters were there4 #c4 ,action1 and not words1 is needed4 #d4 ,bread and milk is good food4 #e4 ,the committee are unable to agree on their report4 #f4 ,the committee has made its report4 ,other examples may be given till the pupils are led to discover that in examples like 7#a7 and 7#b7 the verb agrees with its nearest subject1 and that the plural subject is usually placed next to the verb2 that in 7#c7 the verb agrees with the affirmative subject1 another verb being understood with the negative subject2 that in 7#d7 bread and milk represents one article of food2 and that in 7#e7 the individuals of the committee are thought of1 while in 7#f7 the committee as a whole is thought of4 ,in 7#e7 and 7#f7 the agreement of the pronoun may also be noted4 ,pronouns may be introduced into many of the preceding exercises and the pupils led to apply to the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent what has been learned of the agreement of the verb with its subject4 ,let the pupils determine why the following connected subjects are arranged in the proper order3-- #a4 ,you and ,i are invited4 #b4 ,mary and ,i are invited4 #c4 ,you and ,mary are invited4 #d4 ,you and ,mary and ,i are invited4 ,,writing ,,names--,,capitals ,,and ,,abbreviations4 ,footnote3 ,for list of abbreviations see p4 #aia4 ,pupils may copy the following list of names1 and note all peculiarities in form3-- ,texas1 state1 river1 ,red ,river1 city1 ,albany1 ,new ,orleans1 ,kansas ,city1 statesman1 ,thomas ,jefferson1 ,thos4 ,jefferson1 author1 ,charles ,dickens1 ,chas4 ,dickens1 writer1 ,george ,william ,curtis1 ,geo4 ,wm4 ,curtis1 ,geo4 ,w4 ,curtis1 poet1 ,john ,greenleaf ,whittier1 ,john ,g4 ,whittier1 ,j4 ,g4 ,whittier1 gulf1 sea1 ,gulf of ,mexico1 ,caribbean ,sea1 lake1 ,lake ,erie1 general1 ,general ,robert ,edmund ,lee1 ,gen4 ,robt4 ,e4 ,lee1 doctor1 ,doctor ,valentine ,mott1 ,dr4 ,v4 ,mott1 professor1 ,prof4 ,goldwin ,smith4 ,henry ,wadsworth ,longfellow wrote ,the ,song of ,hiawatha4 ,john ,bunyan wrote ,the ,pilgrim's ,progress4 ,the subject for composition was ,a ,day in the ,woods4 ,we give the following questions to illustrate our method of conducting an ,observation ,lesson4--,are city and ,albany both names8 ,what difference can you discover in meaning8 ,what in form8 ,which of the names just written are class names8 ,which are individual names8 ,mention an individual name made up of two names2 one of three names2 one of four4 ,how many capitals do you find in each of the names just mentioned8 ,mention seven words that are written without capitals as class names1 and again with capitals as parts of individual names4 ,mention a word that is shortened1 or abbreviated1 by omitting all but the first1 or initial1 letter4 ,mention an abbreviation containing two letters2 one containing three2 one containing four4 ,what new use of the period have you discovered in this exercise8 ,what three words in this exercise are used together as the title of a book8 ,what four as the title of a poem8 ,what five as the subject of a school composition8 ,each of these groups may be regarded as a kind of individual name4 ,besides the first word1 what words begin with capitals in each of these three groups8 ,notice that these are the principal words4 ,for another exercise the pupils may copy the following sentences1 noting carefully capitals and punctuation marks3-- #a4 ,the city of ,chicago is on ,lake ,michigan4 #b4 ,the steamer ,city of ,chicago sails from ,jersey ,city4 #c4 ,the island of ,cuba is under ,spanish rule4 #d4 ,the ,isle of ,man is in the ,irish ,sea4 #e4 ,the ,hon4 ,wm4 ,e4 ,gladstone is an ,english statesman4 #f4 ,the subject for composition was ,the ,view from my ,window4 #g4 ,in the evening ,aunt ,mary entertained my cousin and me with stories of ,uncle ,remus4 #h4 ,miss ,evans--afterward ,mrs4 ,lewes--was the author of ,the ,mill on the ,floss4 #i4 ,we may call the ,supreme ,being our ,heavenly ,father4 #aj4 ,the ,old ,testament points to the coming of a ,messiah4 #aa4 ,george ,i41 ,george ,,ii41 ,george ,,iii41 ,george ,,iv41 and ,william ,,iv4 preceded ,victoria4 ,the teacher may find the following questions suggestive3-- ,observation ,lesson4--,is ,chicago1 or city of ,chicago the individual name of the place mentioned in 7#a78 ,is ,chicago1 or ,city of ,chicago the name of the steamer mentioned in 7#b78 ,is the town mentioned in 7#b7 named ,jersey1 or ,jersey ,city8 ,is the body of water mentioned in 7#a7 known as ,michigan1 or ,lake ,michigan8 ,what is the name of the island mentioned in 7#c78--;in 7#d78 ,is ,irish1 or ,irish ,sea the name of the body of water mentioned in 7#d78 ,notice that ,spanish1 in 7#c71 and ,english1 in 7#e71 are not names1 or nouns4 ,they begin with capitals1 because they are derived from the individual names ,spain and ,england4 ,what names in 7#g7 usually denote relationship8 ,notice that such words as uncle1 captain1 professor1 etc41 do not necessarily begin with capitals unless prefixed to individual names4 ,what group of words in 7#f7 is treated as an individual name8 ,what in 7#h78 ,which words of these groups are regarded as the most important8 ,in 7#h7 do you find a period after ,miss8--after ,mrs48 ,miss is not written as an abbreviation4 ,what words in 7#i7 and 7#aj7 are used as names of the ,deity8 ,what is ,old ,testament the particular name of8 ,what do you discover in the names found in 7#aa78 ,for other exercises1 pupils may be required to bring in lists of geographical and biographical names1 titles of books1 etc4 ,we earnestly recommend the introduction here of letter-writing to illustrate the use of capitals1 abbreviations1 and punctuation4 7,see pp4 #adf-afa47 ,the writing of headings1 introductions1 conclusions1 and superscriptions will give most excellent practice in capitals1 etc4 ,the body of the letter may be directed to the same end4 ,for instance1 an invitation to a friend may be accompanied by a description of the route to be taken and of the places or objects of interest to be seen on the way4 ,or the writer may mention some of the books he has read1 with the names of the characters and of the places mentioned4 ,,adjectives--,,choice ,,and ,,arrangement4 ,words denoting quality form a very large and important group4 ,our knowledge of things about us is a knowledge of their qualities4 ,a writer's style is1 to a large extent1 determined by his use of adjectives4 ,we therefore recommend special drill in the choice and the use of adjectives4 ,the exercises given below may serve as suggestions to the teacher4 ,groups of adjectives like the following may be presented1 the pupils being required to join them to appropriate nouns3-- ,some ,qualities learned directly through the ,senses4 ,seeing1 scarlet crimson florid sallow opaque dingy vivid gorgeous gaudy variegated verdant transparent ,hearing1 audible stunning thundering deafening purling husky monotonous discordant melodious ,smelling1 fragrant balmy odorous rancid fetid aromatic ,tasting1 acid acrid pungent delicious insipid brackish palatable savory luscious ,feeling4 rough gritty hard keen tepid sultry ,pupils will find little difficulty in largely increasing the lists above4 ,many other groupings may be made2 as1 of qualities learned by comparison1 measurement1 or experiment2 qualities of the mind2 qualities pertaining to right and wrong1 etc4 ,groups of nouns like the following may be made1 and the pupils may be required to mention as many qualities as possible belonging to each of the things named3-- chalk ice brooks clouds water snow ocean music ,pupils may mention animals properly described by the following adjectives3-- timid fleet cunning ferocious gentle graceful sagacious venomous ,careless persons and those that have a meager list of adjectives at command overwork and abuse such words as-- nice1 awful1 horrid1 splendid1 elegant1 lovely4 ,we hear of nice mountains1 awful pens1 horrid ink1 splendid pie1 elegant beef1 lovely cheese1 etc4 ,pupils may study the meaning of the six adjectives last mentioned1 and use them to fill the following blanks3-- distinction ---------- workmanship calculation stillness ---------- chasm rumbling child ---------- features character palace ---------- victory illumination manners ---------- taste furniture deeds ---------- dreams butchery ,this work may very profitable be extended4 ,a word picture is often spoiled by using too many adjectives2 as1 ,a great1 large1 roomy1 spacious hall2 ,superb1 delicious1 magnificent pumpkin-pie2 ,a stingy1 miserly1 close-fisted fellow4 ,the italicized words may be omitted4 ,pupils should be taught to watch for such errors1 and to correct them4 ,pupils may be required to copy choice selections from literature1 and to note carefully capitals1 punctuation1 and the use of adjectives4 ,we offer the following exercise as a specimen3-- ,we piled with care our nightly stack ,of wood against the chimney-back1-- ,the oaken log1 green1 huge1 and thick1 ,and on its top the stout back-stick2 ,the knotty fore-stick laid apart1 ,and filled between with curious art ,the ragged brush2 then1 hovering near1 ,we watched the first red blaze appear1 ,heard the sharp crackle1 caught the gleam ,on whitewashed wall and sagging beam1 ,until the old1 rude-furnished room ,burst1 flower-like1 into rosy bloom4 ,whittier4--,snow-,bound4 ,observation ,lesson4--,of what are the lines above a picture8 ,where1 and in what kind of house1 do you think this picture was seen8 ,what object is pictured by the help of five adjectives8 ,are the adjectives that precede the name of this object of the same rank8 ,are those that follow of the same rank8 ,what noun is modified by three adjectives of different rank8 ,what noun by three adjectives two of which are of the same rank8 ,what difference is found in the punctuation of these several groups8 ,notice how the noun crackle crackles as you pronounce it1 and how the adjective sharp makes it penetrate4 ,notice how strong a picture is made in the two lines immediately before the last4 ,the adjectives here used bring out the most prominent qualities of the room1 and these qualities bring along with them into the imagination all the other qualities4 ,this is what we must try to make our adjectives do4 ,point out all the adjectives in the selection above1 and explain the office of each4 ,what peculiar use of capitals do you discover in these lines of poetry8 ,much that has been suggested above concerning the use of adjectives will apply to adverbs also4 ,,arrangement4 ,the following exercises are given to show how pupils may discover for themselves the natural order of words and phrases3-- 7a7 ,wellington defeated ,napoleon at ,waterloo4 7b7 ,william's sister ,mary is an excellent musician4 7c7 ,everything suddenly appeared so strangely bright4 7d7 ,we saw it distinctly4 7e7 ,we had often been there4 7f7 ,napoleon was defeated at ,waterloo4 ,observation ,lesson4--,the words and the phrases in the sentences above stand in their ,natural ,order4 ,from 7a7 and 7b7 determine the natural order of the subject1 predicate1 and complement4 ,from 7b7 determine the natural order of a possessive modifier1 of an explanatory modifier1 and of an adjective4 ,from 7c71 7d71 and 7e7 determine the several positions of an adverb joined to a verb4 ,determine from 7c7 the position of an adverb modifying an adjective or another adverb4 ,determine from 7a7 and 7f7 the natural order of a phrase4 ,pupils may copy the following1 and note the arrangement and the punctuation of the phrases3-- 7g7 ,this place is endeared to me by many associations4 7h7 ,to me1 this place is endeared by many associations4 7i7 ,your answers1 with few exceptions1 have been correctly given4 7j7 ,he applied for the position1 without a recommendation4 ,observation ,lesson4--,phrases in their natural order follow the words they modify4 ,when two or more phrases belong to the same word1 the one most closely modifying it stands nearest to it4 ,in the first sentence above1 to me tells to whom the place is endeared2 by many associations tells how it is endeared to me1 and is therefore placed after to me4 ,try the effect of placing to me last4 ,phrases1 like adjectives1 may be of different rank4 ,phrases are often transposed1 or placed out of their natural order4 ,notice that to me1 in 7h7 above1 is transposed1 and thus made emphatic1 and that it is set off by the comma4 ,in 7i71 the phrase is loosely thrown in as if it were not essential1 thus making a break in the sentence4 ,to make this apparent to the eye we set the phrase off by the comma4 ,place the phrase of 7i7 in three other positions1 and set it off4 ,when the phrase is at the beginning or at the end of the sentence1 how many commas do you need to set it off8 ,how many1 when it is in the middle8 ,do you find any choice in the four positions of this phrase8 ,after having been told that your answers were correct1 would it be a disappointment to be told that they were not all correct8 ,is the interest in a story best kept up by first telling the important points and then the unimportant particulars8 ,what then do you think of placing this phrase at the end8 ,what does the last phrase of 7j7 modify8 ,take out the comma1 and then see whether there can be any doubt as to what the phrase modifies4 ,in the placing of adverbs and phrases great freedom is often allowable1 and the determining of their best possible position affords an almost unlimited opportunity for the exercise of taste and judgment4 ,such questions as those on 7i7 above may suggest a mode of easy approach to what is usually relegated to the province of rhetoric4 ,let the pupils see that phrases may be transposed for various reasons--for emphasis1 as in 7h7 above2 for the purpose of exciting the reader's curiosity and holding his attention till the complete statement is made1 as in 7i7 above1 or in1 ,in the dead of night1 with a chosen band1 under the cover of a truce1 he approached2 for the sake of balancing the sentence by letting some of the modifying terms precede1 and some follow1 the principal parts1 as1 ,in #ahcg1 on the death of ,william ,,iv41 ,victoria succeeded to the throne2 and for other reasons4 ,other selections maybe made and these exercises continued1 the pupils discussing fully the effects of all possible changes4 ,pupils may note the transposed words and phrases in the following sentences1 explaining their office and the effect of the transposition3-- #a4 ,victories1 indeed1 they were4 #b4 ,down came the masts4 #c4 ,here stands the man4 #d4 ,doubtful seemed the battle4 #e4 ,wide open stood the doors4 #f4 ,a mighty man is he4 #g4 ,that gale ,i well remember4 #h4 ,behind her rode ,lalla ,rookh4 #i4 ,blood-red became the sun4 #aj4 ,louder waxed the applause4 #aa4 ,him the ,almighty ,power hurled headlong4 #ab4 ,slowly and sadly we laid him down4 #ac4 ,into the valley of death rode the six hundred4 #ad4 ,so died the great ,columbus of the skies4 #ae4 ,aeneas did1 from the flames of ,troy1 upon his shoulders1 the old ,anchises bear4 #af4 ,such a heart in the breast of my people beats4 #ag4 ,the great fire up the deep and wide chimney roared4 #ah4 ,ease and grace in writing are1 of all the acquisitions made in school1 the most difficult and valuable4 ,pupils may read or write the following sentences in the transposed order1 and explain the effect of the change3-- #ai4 ,he could not avoid it4 #bj4 ,he would not escape4 #ba4 ,i must go4 #bb4 ,he ended his tale here4 #bc4 ,it stands written so4 #bd4 ,she seemed young and sad4 #be4 ,i will make one more effort to save you4 #bf4 ,my regrets were bitter and unavailing4 #bg4 ,i came into the world helpless4 #bh4 ,a sincere word was never utterly lost4 #bi4 ,catiline shall no longer plot her ruin4 ,,order ,,of ,,interrogative ,,sentences4 #cj4 ,who wrote the ,declaration of ,independence8 #ca4 ,what states border on the ,gulf of ,mexico8 #cb4 ,whom did you see8 #cc4 ,what is poetry8 #cd4 ,which course will you choose8 #ce4 ,why are the days shorter in winter8 #cf4 ,when was ,america discovered8 #cg4 ,were you there8 #ch4 ,has the ,north ,pole been reached8 ,observation ,lesson4--,when the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it1 is the order natural1 or transposed8 ,see 7#cj7 and 7#ca7 above4 ,when the interrogative word is object or attribute complement1 or a modifier of either1 what is the order8 ,see 7#cb71 7#cc71 and 7#cd74 ,when the interrogative word is an adverb1 what is the order8 ,see 7#ce7 and 7#cf74 ,when there is no interrogative word1 what is the order8 ,see 7#cg7 and 7#ch74 ,the sentences above will furnish profitable review lessons in analysis4 ,,review--,,composition4 ,we suggest that1 from two or more paragraphs of some interesting and instructive article1 leading sentences be selected1 and that the pupils be required to explain the office and the punctuation of the easier adjective and adverb phrases1 to vary the arrangement in every possible way1 and to discuss the effects of these changes4 ,then1 after finding the general subject and the heading for each paragraph1 the pupils may arrange these sentences and work them into a composition1 making such additions as may be suggested4 ,,restrictive ,,modifiers--,,punctuation4 ,the chief difficulty in the punctuation of the different kinds of modifiers is in determining whether or not they are restrictive4 ,the following examples may serve as the basis of an observation lesson3-- 7a7 ,the words golden and oriole are pleasant to the ear4 7b7 ,words1 the signs of ideas1 are spoken and written4 7c7 ,use words that are current4 7d7 ,words1 which are the signs of ideas1 are spoken and written4 7e7 ,the country anciently called ,gaul is now called ,france4 7f7 ,france1 anciently called ,gaul1 derived its name from the ,franks4 7g7 ,glass bends easily when it is hot4 7h7 ,i met him in ,paris1 when ,i was last abroad4 ,the following explanations may be drawn from the pupils3-- ,in 7a7 the application of words is limited1 or restricted1 to the two words mentioned2 in 7c7 words is restricted to a certain kind4 ,in 7b7 and 7d7 the modifiers do not restrict4 ,they apply to all words and simply add information4 ,in 7e7 the participial phrase restricts the application of country to one particular country2 but in 7f7 the phrase describes without limiting4 ,the omission of the comma in 7g7 shows that ,glass bends easily is not offered as a general statement1 but that the action is restricted to a certain time or condition4 ,when it is hot is essential to the intended meaning4 ,the punctuation of 7h7 shows that the speaker does not wish to make the time of meeting a prominent or essential part of what he has to say4 ,the adverb clause simply gives additional information4 ,if 7h7 were an answer to the question1 ,when did you meet him8 the comma would be omitted4 ,the sense may be varied by the use or the omission of the comma4 ,let the pupils see how incomplete the statements are when the restrictive modifiers are omitted1 and that the other modifiers are not so necessary to the sense4 ,in such expressions as ,i myself1 we boys1 the explanatory words are not restrictive1 but they combine closely with the modified term4 ,,adjective ,,clauses4 ,adjective clauses allow little change in position4 ,they usually follow closely the word modified4 ,often they may be contracted into adjectives or into adjective phrases4 ,selections from standard writers may be made with special reference to the study of adjective clauses4 ,the position1 punctuation1 and choice of relatives may be noticed1 and1 as far as possible1 the clauses may be changed into equivalent adjectives or into phrases4 ,,adverb ,,clauses4 ,an adverb clause may stand before the independent clause1 between its parts1 or after it2 as1 ,when it is hot1 glass bends easily2 ,glass1 when it is hot1 bends easily2 ,glass bends easily when it is hot4 ,notice the punctuation of these examples4 ,adverb clauses may be contracted in various ways4 ,clauses introduced by the comparatives as and than are usually found in an abbreviated form2 as1 ,you are as old as he 7is old72 ,you are older than ,i 7am old74 ,attention may be called to the danger of mistaking here the nominative for the objective4 ,we suggest making selections for the study of adverb clauses4 ,,noun ,,clauses4 ,noun clauses may be contracted2 as1 ,that we should obey is necessary ,obedience is necessary1 or1 ,to obey is necessary2 ,i can hardly realize that my friend is gone ,i can hardly realize my friend's being gone4 ,by substituting it for the subject clause1 this clause maybe placed last and made explanatory2 as1 ,it is necessary that we should obey4 ,the object clause is sometimes transposed2 as1 ,that my friend is gone1 ,i can hardly realize4 ,the noun clause may be made prominent by introducing the independent clause parenthetically2 as1,his story1 we believe1 is exaggerated4 ,notice the punctuation of the clauses above4 ,the noun clause used as attribute complement is generally set off by the comma4 ,noun clauses that are quotations need special treatment4 ,,noun ,,clauses--,,quotations4 ,we suggest the following observation lesson3-- #a4 ,goldsmith says1 ,learn the luxury of doing good4 #b4 ,goldsmith says that we should learn the luxury of doing good4 #c4 ,the owlet ,atheism1 hooting at the glorious sun in heaven1 cries out1 ',where is it8' #d4 ,coleridge compares atheism to an owlet hooting at the sun1 and asking where it is4 #e4 ,to read without reflecting1 says ,burke1 is like eating without digesting4 #f4 ,may we not find sermons in stones and good in everything8 #g4 ,there is much meaning in the following quotation3 ,books are embalmed minds4 #h4 ,we must ask1 ,what are we living for8 #i4 ,we must ask what we are living for4 ,observation ,lesson4--,notice that the writer of 7#a7 has copied into his sentence 7quoted7 the exact language of ,goldsmith4 ,the two marks like inverted commas and the two marks like apostrophes1 which inclose this copied passage 7quotation71 are called ,quotation ,marks4 ,name all the differences between 7#a7 and 7#b74 ,is the same thought expressed in both8 ,which quotation would you call direct8 ,which1 indirect8 ,notice that the whole of 7#c7 is a quotation1 and that this quotation contains another quotation inclosed within single marks4 ,notice the order of the marks at the end of 7#c74 ,point out the differences between 7#c7 and 7#d74 ,in which is a question quoted just as it would be asked8 ,in which is a question merely referred to8 ,which question would you call direct8 ,which1 indirect8 ,name every difference in the form of these4 ,in which of the above sentences is a quotation interrupted by a parenthetical clause8 ,how are the parts marked8 ,point out a quotation that cannot make complete sense by itself4 ,how does it differ from the others as to punctuation and the first letter8 ,in 7#g7 a ,colon precedes the quotation to show that it is formally introduced4 ,in 7#h7 a question is introduced without quotation marks4 ,questions that1 like this1 are introduced without being referred to any particular person or persons1 are often written without quotation marks4 ,state the differences between 7#h7 and 7#i74 ,in quoting a question1 the interrogation point must stand within the quotation marks2 but1 when a question contains a quotation1 this order is reversed4 ,point out illustrations above4 ,sum up what you have learned4 7,see rules for capitals1 comma1 colon1 and quotation marks1 pp4 #adj-adc47 ,selections written in the colloquial style and containing frequent quotations and questions may be taken from reading-books1 for examination1 discussion1 and copying4 ,noun phrases may be expanded1 and noun clauses contracted1 transposed1 etc4 ,,independent ,,clauses4 ,frequently independent clauses are contracted by using repeated parts but once and uniting the other parts into a compound term1 as in ,lesson #fg4 ,they are also contracted by omitting such words as may be readily understood2 as1 ,is it true1 or not2 ,he is a philosopher1 not a poet4 ,for punctuation1 see rules for the comma and the semicolon1 p4 #ada4 ,,review--,,composition4 ,we recommend that the teacher select some short article containing valuable information and break up each paragraph into short1 disconnected expressions4 ,one paragraph at a time may be put on the board for the pupils to copy4 ,the general subject may be given1 and the pupils may be required to find a proper heading for the paragraph4 ,the different ways of connecting the expressions may be discussed in the class4 ,by contracting1 expanding1 transposing1 and by substituting entirely different words1 a great variety of forms may be had4 7,the forms found in the ,example1 p4 #add1 and the list of connectives1 p4 #aij1 may be helpful47 ,the pupils may then combine the different paragraphs into a composition4 ,for the explanation of paragraph1 see p4 #ade1 and ,exercises for ,composition in the ,supplement4 ,we give below material for one composition3-- ,frog's spawn found in a pond4 ,at first like a mass of jelly4 ,eggs can be distinguished4 ,in a few days curious little fish are hatched4 ,these tadpoles are lively4 ,swim by means of long tails4 ,head very large--out of proportion4 ,appearance of all head and tail4 ,this creature is a true fish4 ,it breathes water-air by means of gills4 ,it has a two-chambered heart4 ,watch it day by day4 ,two little gills seen4 ,these soon disappear4 ,hind legs begin to grow4 ,tail gets smaller4 ,two small arms1 or forelegs1 are seen4 ,remarkable change going on inside4 ,true lungs for breathing air have been forming4 ,another chamber added to the heart4 ,as the gills grow smaller1 it finds difficulty in breathing water-air4 ,one fine day it pokes its nose out of the water4 ,astonished 7possibly7 to find that it can breathe in the air4 ,a new life has come upon it4 ,no particular reason for spending all its time in water2 crawls out upon land2 sits down upon its haunches2 surveys the world4 ,it is no longer a fish2 has entered upon a higher stage of existence2 has become a frog4 ,this work of analyzing a composition to find the leading thoughts under which the other thoughts may be grouped is in many ways a most valuable discipline4 ,it teaches the pupil to compare1 to discriminate1 to weigh1 to systematize1 to read intelligently and profitably4 ,the reading-book will afford excellent practice in finding heads for paragraphs4 ,such work is an essential preparation for the reading-class4 ,this composition work should serve as a constant review of all that has been passed over in the text-book4 ,,adjective ,,complements ,,and ,,adverbs4 ,it is often difficult to distinguish an adjective complement from an adverb modifier4 ,we offer the following explanation3-- ,mary arrived safe4 ,as we here wish to tell the condition of ,mary on her arrival1 and not the manner of her arriving1 we use safe1 not safely4 ,my head feels bad 7is in a bad condition1 as perceived by the sense of feeling74 ,the sun shines bright 7is bright--quality1--as perceived by its shining74 ,you must determine whether you wish to tell the quality of the thing named or the manner of the action4 ,when the idea of being is prominent in the verb1 as in the examples above1 you see that the adjective1 and not the adverb1 follows4 ,let the pupils show that the following adjectives and adverbs are used correctly3-- #a4 ,i feel sad4 #b4 ,i feel deeply4 #c4 ,i feel miserable4 #d4 ,he appeared prompt and willing4 #e4 ,he appeared promptly and willingly4 #f4 ,she looks beautiful4 #g4 ,she sings beautifully4 ,,past ,,participles ,,and ,,predicate ,,verbs ,,distinguished4 ,when the past tense and the past participle differ in form1 they are often confounded in use2 as1 ,i done it2 ,i seen it4 ,pupils may be required to construct short sentences1 oral or written1 using the ,past forms found in ,lesson #ia as predicates1 and the ,past ,participle forms either as modifiers or as completing words in compound verbs4 ,they may be led to some such conclusion as the following3-- ,the ,past is always an asserting1 or predicate1 word2 the ,past ,participle never asserts1 but is used as an adjective modifier or as the completing word of a compound verb2 the ,present may be used as a predicate or as an infinitive4 ,exercises like the following may be copied1 and repeated aloud3-- #a4 ,lay down your pen4 #b4 ,lie down1 ,rover4 #c4 ,i laid down my pen4 #d4 ,the dog then lay down4 #e4 ,i have laid down my pen4 #f4 ,the dog has lain down4 #g4 ,set the pail down4 #h4 ,sit down and rest4 #i4 ,i then set it down4 #aj4 ,i sat down and rested4 #aa4 ,i have set it down4 #ab4 ,i have sat down4 #ac4 ,my work was laid aside4 #ad4 ,i was lying down4 #ae4 ,the trap was set by the river4 #af4 ,i was sitting by the river4 #ag4 ,the garment sits well4 #ah4 ,the hen sits on her eggs4 #ai4 ,he came in and lay down4 #bj4 ,the ,mediterranean lies between ,europe and ,africa4 ,notice that we may speak of laying something or setting something1 or may say that something is laid or is set2 but we cannot speak of lying or sitting something1 or of something being lain or sat4 ,set1 in some of its meanings1 is used without an object2 as1 ,the sun set2 ,he set out on a journey4 ,lay1 the present of the first verb1 and lay1 the past of lie1 may easily be distinguished by the difference in meaning and in the time expressed4 ,,possessive ,,forms4 ,pupils may be required to copy such forms as the following3-- ,the sailor's story2 the farmer's son2 the pony's mane2 the monkey's tail2 a day's work2 ,james's book2 a cent's worth2 a man's wages2 the child's toys2 the woman's hat2 the sailors' stories2 the farmers' sons2 the ponies' manes2 the monkeys' tails2 three days' work2 five cents' worth2 two men's wages2 those children's toys2 women's hats4 ,this may be continued till the pupils are able to form some such statement as the following3-- 7's7 and 7'7 are the possessive signs1 7'7 being used when s has been added to denote more than one1 7's7 in other cases4 ,such expressions as the following may be copied3-- ,dombey and ,son's business2 ,j4 ,j4 ,little ,co4's printing-house2 ,william the ,conqueror's reign2 ,houghton1 ,mifflin1 and ,company's publications4 ,this may be continued till the pupils learn that1 when a group of words may be treated as a compound name1 the possessive sign is added to the last word only4 ,,the ,,objective ,,complement4 ,the treatment of the objective complement may be introduced in a review course1 when the class is sufficiently mature4 ,the following explanation may aid some teachers3-- ,in ,it made him sad1 made does not fully express the action performed upon him--not made him1 but made sad 7saddened7 him4 ,sad helps made to express the action1 and also denotes a quality which as the result of the action belongs to the person represented by the object him4 ,whatever completes the predicate and belongs to the object we call an ,objective ,complement4 ,nouns1 infinitives1 and participles may also be used in the same way2 as1 ,they made ,victoria queen1 ,it made him weep2 ,it kept him laughing4 ,they made _/ queen ,victoria ,explanation4--,the line that separates made from queen slants toward the object complement to show that queen belongs to the object4 ,a noun or pronoun used as objective complement is in the objective case4 ,the teacher may here explain such constructions as1 ,i proved it to be him1 in which it is object complement and to be him is objective complement4 ,him1 the attribute complement of be1 is in the objective case because it1 the assumed subject of be1 is objective4 ,let the pupils compare ,i proved it to be him with ,i proved that it was he2 ,whom did you suppose it to be8 with ,who did you suppose it was8 etc4 ,,nouns ,,as ,,adverb ,,modifiers4 ,the following uses of nouns and pronouns1 not found in the preceding ,lessons1 may be introduced in a review course4 #a4 ,he gave ,john a book4 #b4 ,he bought me a book4 ,john and me1 as here used1 are generally called ,indirect ,objects4 ,the indirect object names the one to or for whom something is done4 ,we treat these words as phrase modifiers without the preposition4 ,if we change the order1 the preposition must be supplied2 as1 ,he gave a book to ,john2 ,he bought a book for me4 ,nouns denoting measure1 quantity1 weight1 time1 value1 distance1 or direction may be used adverbially1 being equivalent to phrase modifiers without the preposition2 as1 #a4 ,we walked four miles an hour4 #b4 ,it weighs one pound4 #c4 ,it is worth a dollar4 #d4 ,the wall is ten feet1 six inches high4 #e4 ,i went home that way4 ,the following diagram will illustrate both the indirect object and the noun of measure3-- ,they offered ,caesar the crown three times4 ,they offered crown the times ------ three ,caesar ------ ,explanation4--,caesar 7the indirect object7 and times 7denoting measure7 stand in the diagram on lines representing the principal words of prepositional phrases4 ,,schemes ,,for ,,review4 ,these schemes will be found very helpful in a general review4 ,the pupils should be able to reproduce them1 omitting the ,lesson numbers4 ,scheme for the ,sentence4 7,the numbers refer to ,lessons47 ,,parts4 ,subject4 ,noun or ,pronoun 7#f1 #ad1 #ai74 ,phrase 7#di74 ,clause 7#fa74 ,predicate4 ,verb 7#f1af74 ,complements4 ,object4 ,noun or ,pronoun 7#ci74 ,phrase 7#di74 ,clause 7#fa74 ,attribute4 ,adjective 7#ci74 ,noun or ,pronoun 7#db74 ,phrase4 ,clause 7#fa74 ,modifiers4 ,adjectives 7#bj1 #bb74 ,adverbs 7#bd1 #bg74 ,participles 7#dh74 ,nouns and ,pronouns 7#ec74 ,phrases 7#ca1 #dh1 #di74 ,clauses 7#eg1 #ei74 ,connectives4 ,conjunctions 7#ce1 #cf1 #fb74 ,pronouns 7#eg74 ,adverbs 7#ei74 ,independent ,parts 7#cf1 #fd74 ,classes--,meaning4--,declarative1 ,interrogative1 ,imperative1 ,exclamatory 7#fc74 ,classes--,form4--,simple1 ,complex1 ,compound 7#eg1 #fb74 ,scheme for the ,noun4 7,the numbers refer to ,lessons47 ,,noun 7#ad74 ,uses4 ,subject 7#f74 ,object ,complement 7#ci74 ,attribute ,complement 7#db74 ,adjective ,modifier 7#ec74 ,prin4 word in ,prep4 ,phrase 7#cd74 ,independent 7#fd74 ,classes4 ,common 7#ga74 ,proper 7#ga74 ,modifications4 ,number ,singular 7#gh1 #gi74 ,plural 7#gh1 #gi74 ,gender4 ,masculine 7#hj74 ,feminine 7#hj74 ,neuter 7#hj74 ,person4 ,first 7#ha-hc74 ,second 7#ha-hc74 ,third 7#ha-hc74 ,case4 ,nominative 7#ha-he74 ,possessive 7#ha-he74 ,objective 7#ha-he74 ,scheme for the ,pronoun4 ,,pronouns4 ,uses4--,same as those of the ,noun4 ,classes4 ,personal 7#ga1 #gb74 ,relative 7#ga1 #gb74 ,interrogative 7#ga1 #gb74 ,adjective 7#ga1 #gb74 ,modifications4--,same as those of the ,noun 7#gh1 #hj1 #ha1 #hb1 #hc1 #he1 #ie74 ,scheme for the ,verb4 7,the numbers refer to ,lessons47 ,,verb4 ,uses ,to assert action1 being1 or state4--,predicate 7#f1 #af74 ,to assume action1 being1 or state4 ,participles 7#dh74 ,infinitives 7#di74 ,classes4 ,form4 ,regular 7#gd74 ,irregular 7#gd1 #ia74 ,meaning4 ,transitive 7#gd71 ,intransitive 7#gd74 ,modifications4 ,voice4 ,active 7#hi74 ,passive 7#hi74 ,mode4 ,indicative 7#ij-id74 ,potential 7#ij-id74 ,subjunctive 7#ij-id74 ,imperative 7#ij-id74 ,tense4 ,present 7#ij-id74 ,past 7#ij-id74 ,future 7#ij-id74 ,present ,perfect 7#ij-id74 ,past ,perfect 7#ij-id74 ,future ,perfect 7#ij-id74 ,number4 ,singular 7#ij1 #ib-ie74 ,plural 7#ij1 #ib-ie74 ,person4 ,first 7#ij1 #ib-ie74 ,second 7#ij1 #ib-ie74 ,third 7#ij1 #ib-ie74 ,participles4-- ,classes4 ,present 7#ij-id1 #if1 #ih74 ,past 7#ij-id1 #if1 #ih74 ,past ,perfect 7#ij-id1 #if1 #ih74 ,infinitives4-- ,tenses4 ,present 7#ij1 #ib-id74 ,present ,perfect 7#ij1 #ib-id74 ,scheme for the ,adjective4 7,the numbers refer to ,lessons47 ,,adjective4 ,uses4 ,modifier 7#bj1 #bc74 ,attribute ,complement 7#ci74 ,classes4 ,descriptive 7#gc74 ,definitive 7#gc74 ,modification4--,comparison4 ,pos4 ,deg4 7#hg1 #hh74 ,comp4 ,deg4 7#hg1 #hh74 ,sup4 ,deg4 7#hg1 #hh74 ,scheme for the ,adverb4 ,,adverb4 ,classes4 ,time 7#ge74 ,place 7#ge74 ,degree 7#ge74 ,manner 7#ge74 ,modification--,comparison4 ,pos4 ,deg4 7#hg1 #hh74 ,comp4 ,deg4 7#hg1 #hh74 ,sup4 ,deg4 7#hg1 #hh74 ,schemes for the ,conj41 ,prep41 and ,int4 ,,the ,,conjunction4-- ,classes4 ,co-ordinate 7#cf1 #gf74 ,no ,modifications4 ,subordinate 7#cf1 #gf74 ,no ,modifications4 ,,the ,,preposition 7#cd1 #da74--,no ,classes4 ,no ,modifications4 ,,the ,,interjection 7#cf74--,no ,classes4 ,no ,modifications4 ,model for ,written ,parsing adapted to all ,parts of ,speech4--,oh6 it has a voice for those who on their sick beds lie and waste away4 ,,classification4 ,,modifications4 ,,syntax4 ,sentence4 ,oh6 ,class3 ,int4 ,voice3 ,independent4 ,sub-,c43 ,mode3 ,tense3 ,per43 ,num43 ,gen43 ,case3 ,deg4 of ,comp43 it ,class3 ,pro4 ,voice3 ,sub4 of has4 ,sub-,c43 ,per4 ,mode3 ,tense3 ,per43 #c;d4 ,num43 ,sing4 ,gen43 ,neut4 ,case3 ,nom4 ,deg4 of ,comp43 ,pred4 of it4 has ,class3 ,vb4 ,voice3 ,act4 ,sub-,c43 ,ir41 ,tr4 ,mode3 ,ind4 ,tense3 ,pres4 ,per43 #c;d4 ,num43 ,sing4 ,gen43 ,case3 ,deg4 of ,comp43 a ,class3 ,adj4 ,voice3 ,mod4 of voice4 ,sub-,c43 ,def4 ,mode3 ,tense3 ,per43 ,num43 ,gen43 ,case3 ,deg4 of ,comp43 ---- voice ,class3 ,n4 ,voice3 ,obj4 ,com4 of has4 ,sub-,c43 ,com4 ,mode3 ,tense3 ,per43 #c;d4 ,num43 ,sing4 ,gen43 ,neut4 ,case3 ,obj4 ,deg4 of ,comp43 for ,class3 ,prep4 ,voice3 ,shows ,rel4 of ,sub-,c43 ,mode3 has to ,tense3 those4 ,per43 ,num43 ,gen43 ,case3 ,deg4 of ,comp43 those ,class3 ,pro4 ,voice3 ,prin4 word after ,sub-,c43 ,adj4 ,mode3 for4 ,tense3 ,per43 #c;d4 ,num43 ,plu4 ,gen43 ,m4or ,f4 ,case3 ,obj4 ,deg4 of ,comp43 who ,class3 ,pro4 ,voice3 ,sub4 of lie and ,sub-,c43 ,rel4 ,mode3 waste4 ,tense3 ,per43 #c;d4 ,num43 ,plu4 ,gen43 ,m4or ,f4 ,case3 ,nom4 ,deg4 of ,comp43 on ,class3 ,prep4 ,voice3 ,shows ,rel4 of lie ,sub-,c43 ,mode3 to beds4 ,tense3 ,per43 ,num43 ,gen43 ,case3 ,deg4 of ,comp43 their ,class3 ,pro4 ,voice3 ,pos4 ,mod4 of ,sub-,c43 ,per4 ,mode3 beds4 ,tense3 ,per43 #c;d4 ,num43 ,plu4 ,gen43 ,m4or ,f4 ,case3 ,pos4 ,deg4 of ,comp43 sick ,class3 ,adj4 ,voice3 ,mod4 of beds4 ,sub-,c43 ,des4 ,mode3 ,tense3 ,per43 ,num43 ,gen43 ,case3 ,deg4 of ,comp43 ,pos4 beds ,class3 ,n4 ,voice3 ,prin4 word after ,sub-,c43 ,com4 ,mode3 on4 ,tense3 ,per43 #c;d4 ,num43 ,plu4 ,gen43 ,neut4 ,case3 ,obj4 ,deg4 of ,comp43 lie ,class3 ,vb4 ,voice3 ---- ,pred4 of who4 ,sub-,c43 ,ir41 ,int4 ,mode3 ,ind4 ,tense3 ,pres4 ,per43 #c;d4 ,num43 ,plu4 ,gen43 ,case3 ,deg4 of ,comp43 and ,class3 ,conj4 ,voice3 ,con4 lie and ,sub-,c43 ,co-or4 ,mode3 waste4 ,tense3 ,per43 ,num43 ,gen43 ,case3 ,deg4 of ,comp43 waste ,class3 ,vb4 ,voice3 ---- ,pred4 of who4 ,sub-,c43 ,reg41 ,int4,mode3 ,ind4 ,tense3 ,pres4 ,per43 #c;d4 ,num43 ,plu4 ,gen43 ,case3 ,deg4 of ,comp43 away4 ,class3 ,adv4 ,voice3 ,mod4 of waste4 ,sub-,c43 ,place ,mode3 ,tense3 ,per43 ,num43 ,gen43 ,case3 ,deg4 of ,comp43 ---- ,for exercises in general parsing1 select from the preceding ,lessons on ,analysis4 ,,list ,,of ,,connectives4 ,remark4--,some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper2 some are relative pronouns2 and some are adverbs or adverb phrases1 which1 in addition to their office as modifiers1 may1 in the absence of the conjunction1 take its office upon themselves1 and connect the clauses4 ,,co-,,ordinate ,,connectives4 ,copulative4--,and1 both444and1 as well as1 ,footnote3 ,the as well as in ,he1 as well as ,i1 went2 and not that in ,he is as well as ,i am4 are conjunctions proper4 ,accordingly1 also1 besides1 consequently1 furthermore1 hence1 likewise1 moreover1 now1 so1 then1 and therefore are conjunctive adverbs4 ,adversative4--,but and whereas are conjunctions proper4 ,however1 nevertheless1 notwithstanding1 on the contrary1 on the other hand1 still1 and yet are conjunctive adverbs4 ,alternative4--,neither1 nor1 or1 either444 or1 and neither444nor are conjunctions proper4 ,else and otherwise are conjunctive adverbs4 ,,subordinate ,,connectives4 ,connectives of ,adjective ,clauses4 ,that1 what1 whatever1 which1 whichever1 who1 and whoever are relative pronouns4 ,when1 where1 whereby1 wherein1 and why are conjunctive adverbs4 ,connectives of ,adverb ,clauses4 ,time4--,after1 as1 before1 ere1 since1 till1 until1 when1 whenever1 while1 and whilst are conjunctive adverbs4 ,place4--,whence1 where1 and wherever are conjunctive adverbs4 ,degree4--,as1 than1 that1 and the are conjunctive adverbs1 correlative1 with adjectives or adverbs4 ,manner4--,as is a conjunctive adverb1 correlative often with an adjective or an adverb4 ,real ,cause4--,as1 because1 for1 since1 and whereas are conjunctions proper4 ,reason4--,because1 for1 and since are conjunctions proper4 ,purpose4--,in order that1 lest 7that not7 that1 and so that are conjunctions proper4 ,condition4--,except1 if1 in case that1 on condition that1 provided1 provided that1 and unless are conjunctions proper4 ,concession4--,although1 if 7even if71 notwithstanding1 though1 and whether are conjunctions proper4 ,however is a conjunctive adverb4 ,whatever1 whichever1 and whoever are relative pronouns used indefinitely4 ,connectives of ,noun ,clauses4 ,if1 lest1 that1 and whether are conjunctions proper4 ,what1 which1 and who are pronouns introducing questions2 how1 when1 whence1 where1 and why are conjunctive adverbs4 ,,abbreviations4 ,remarks4--,few abbreviations are allowable in ordinary composition4 ,they are very convenient in writing lists of articles1 in scientific works1 and wherever certain terms frequently occur4 ,titles prefixed to proper names are generally abbreviated1 except in addressing an officer of high rank4 ,titles that immediately follow names are almost always abbreviated4 ,names of women are not generally abbreviated except by using an initial for one of two ,christian names4 ,abbreviations that shorten only by one letter are unnecessary2 as1 ,jul4 for ,july1 ,jno4 for ,john1 da4 for day1 etc4 #ast1 #b;d1 #c;d1 #dth1 etc41 are not followed by the period4 ,they are not treated as abbreviations4 1 ,at4 ,a4 ,b4 or ,b4 ,a4 7,artium ,baccalaureus71 ,bachelor of ,arts4 ,acct41 acct41 or a_/c1 ,account4 ,a4 ,d4 7,anno ,domini71 ,in the year of our ,lord4 ,adjt41 ,adjutant4 ,aet4 or aet4 7aetatis71 ,of age1 aged4 ,ala41 ,alabama4 ,alex41 ,alexander4 ,a4 ,m4 or ,m4 ,a4 7,artium ,magister71 ,master of ,arts4 ,a4 ,m4 7ante meridiem71 ,before noon4 ,amt41 ,amount4 ,and41 ,andrew4 ,anon41 ,anonymous4 ,ans41 ,answer4 ,anth41 ,anthony4 ,apr41 ,april4 ,arch41 ,archibald4 ,ark41 ,arkansas4 ,arizona or ,ariz41 ,arizona ,territory4 ,atty41 ,attorney4 ,atty4-,gen41 ,attorney-,general4 ,aug41 ,august2 ,augustus4 ,av4 or ,ave41 ,avenue4 ,avoir41 ,avoirdupois4 ,bart41 ,baronet4 bbl41 ,barrels4 ,b4 ,c41 ,before ,christ4 ,benj41 ,benjamin4 ,brig4-,gen41 ,brigadier-,general4 ,b4 ,s41 ,bachelor of ,science4 bu41 ,bushels4 c or ct41 ,cents4 ,cal41 ,california4 ,cap41 ,capital4 ,caps41 ,capitals4 ,capt41 ,captain4 ,c4 ,e41 ,civil ,engineer4 cf4 7confer71 ,compare4 ,chas41 ,charles4 ,chron41 ,chronicles4 ,co41 ,company2 ,county4 c_/o1 ,in care of4 ,c4 ,o4 ,d41 ,collect on delivery4 ,col41 ,colonel2 ,colossians4 ,coll41 ,college2 ,collector4 ,conn41 ,connecticut4 ,colo1 or ,col41 ,colorado4 ,cr41 ,credit2 ,creditor4 cub4 ft41 ,cubic feet4 cub4 in41 ,cubic inches4 cwt41 ,hundred-weight4 d41 ,days2 ,pence4 ,danl4 or ,dan41 ,daniel4 ,d4 ,c41 ,district of ,columbia4 ,d4 ,c4 ,l41 ,doctor of ,civil ,law4 ,d4 ,d4 7,divinitatis ,doctor71 ,doctor of ,divinity4 ,d4 ,d4 ,s41 ,doctor of ,dental ,surgery4 ,dec41 ,december4 ,del41 ,delaware4 ,deut41 ,deuteronomy4 ,d4 ,g4 7,dei gratia71 ,by the grace of ,god4 ,dist4-,atty41 ,district-,attorney4 ,d4 ,m41 ,doctor of ,music4 do4 7ditto71 ,the same4 doz41 ,dozen4 ,dr41 ,doctor2 ,debtor4 ,d4 ,v4 7,deo volente71 ,god willing4 ,e41 ,east4 ,eben41 ,ebenezer4 ,eccl41 ,ecclesiastes4 ,ed41 ,edition2 ,editor4 ,edm41 ,edmund4 ,edw41 ,edward4 e4 g4 7exempli gratia71 ,for example4 ,e4 ,n4 ,e41 ,east-northeast4 ,eng41 ,english2 ,england4 ,eph41 ,ephesians2 ,ephraim4 ,e4 ,s4 ,e41 ,east-southeast4 ,esq41 ,esquire4 et al4 7et alibi71 ,and elsewhere4 et al4 7et alii71 ,and others4 et seq4 7et sequeniia71 ,and following4 etc4 or c4 7et caetera71 ,and others2 ,and so forth4 ,ex41 ,example2 ,exodus4 ,ez41 ,ezra4 ,ezek41 ,ezekiel4 ,fahr4 or ,f41 ,fahrenheit 7thermometer74 ,feb41 ,february4 ,fla41 ,florida4 ,fr41 ,french2 ,france4 ,fran41 ,francis4 ,fred41 ,frederic4 ,fri41 ,friday4 ft41 ,feet4 ,ft41 ,fort4 fur41 ,furlong4 ,ga41 ,georgia4 ,gal41 ,galatians4 gal41 ,gallons4 ,gen41 ,general2 ,genesis4 ,geo41 ,george4 ,gov41 ,governor4 gr41 ,grains4 h41 ,hours4 ,hab41 ,habakkuk4 ,hag41 ,haggai4 ,h4 ,b4 ,m41 ,his 7or ,her7 ,britannic ,majesty4 hdkf41 ,handkerchief4 ,heb41 ,hebrews4 ,h4 ,h41 ,his ,holiness 7the ,pope74 hhd41 ,hogsheads4 ,h4 ,m41 ,his 7or ,her7 ,majesty4 ,hon41 ,honorable4 ,hos41 ,hosea4 ,h4 ,r4 ,h41 ,his 7or ,her7 ,royal ,highness4 ib4 or ibid1 7ibidem71 ,in the same place4 id4 7idem71 ,the same4 ,idaho1 ,idaho4 i4e4 7id est71 ,that is4 ,i4 ,h4 ,s4 7,jesus hominum ,salvator71 ,jesus1 the ,savior of ,men4 ,ill41 ,illinois4 in41 ,inches4 incog4 7incognito71 ,unknown4 ,ind41 ,indiana4 ,ind4 ,t41 ,indian ,territory4 inst41 ,instant1 the present month4 ,iowa or ,io41 ,iowa4 ,i4 ,o4 ,o4 ,f41 ,independent ,order of ,odd ,fellows4 ,isa41 ,isaiah4 ,jac41 ,jacob4 ,jan41 ,january4 ,jas41 ,james4 ,jer41 ,jeremiah4 ,jona41 ,jonathan4 ,jos41 ,joseph4 ,josh41 ,joshua4 ,jr4 or ,jun41 ,junior4 ,judg41 ,judges4 ,kans4 or ,kan41 ,kansas4 ,ky41 ,kentucky4 l41 ,line2 ll41 ,lines4 l4 or lb41 ,pounds sterling4 ,la41 ,louisiana4 ,lam41 ,lamentations4 ,l41 ,latin4 lb4 or lb-4 7libra or librae71 ,pound or pounds in weight4 l4c41 ,lower case 7small letter74 ,lev41 ,leviticus4 ,l4 ,i41 ,long ,island4 ,lieut41 ,lieutenant4 ,,ll4 ,b47,legum ,baccalaureus71 ,bachelor of ,laws4 ,,ll4 ,d4 7,legum ,doctor71 ,doctor of ,laws4 ,m4 or ,mons41 ,monsieur4 ,m4 7meridies71 ,noon4 m41 ,miles2 ,minutes4 ,mad41 ,madam4 ,mme41 ,madame4 ,maj41 ,major4 ,mal41 ,malachi4 ,mar41 ,march4 ,mass41 ,massachusetts4 ,matt41 ,matthew4 ,m4 ,c41 ,member of ,congress4 ,m4 ,d4 7,medicinae ,doctor71 ,doctor of ,medicine4 ,md41 ,maryland4 mdse41 ,merchandise4 ,me41 ,maine4 ,mem41 ,memorandum2 ,memoranda4 ,messrs41 ,messieurs4 ,mic41 ,micah4 ,mgr41 ,monseigneur4 ,mich41 ,michigan2 ,michael4 ,minn41 ,minnesota4 ,miss41 ,mississippi4 ,mlle41 ,mademoiselle4 ,mmes41 ,mesdames4 ,mo41 ,missouri4 mo41 ,months4 ,mon41 ,monday4 ,m4 ,p41 ,member of ,parliament4 ,mont41 ,montana4 ,mr41 ,mister4 ,mrs41 ,mistress 7pronounced ,missis74 ,,ms41 ,manuscript4 ,,mss41 ,manuscripts4 ,mt41 ,mountain4 ,n41 ,north4 ,n4 ,a41 ,north ,america4 ,nath41 ,nathaniel4 ,n4 ,b4 7nota bene71 ,mark well4 ,n4 ,c41 ,north ,carolina4 ,n4 ,dak41 ,north ,dakota4 ,n4 ,e41 ,new ,england4 ,n4 ,e41 ,northeast4 ,nebr4 or ,neb41 ,nebraska4 ,neh41 ,nehemiah4 ,nev41 ,nevada4 ,n4 ,h41 ,new ,hampshire4 ,n4 ,j41 ,new ,jersey4 ,n4 ,mex4 or ,n4 ,m41 ,new ,mexico4 ,n4 ,n4 ,e41 ,north-northeast4 ,n4 ,n4 ,w41 ,north-northwest4 ,n4 ,o41 ,new ,orleans4 ,no4 7numero71 ,number1 ,nov41 ,november4 ,n4 ,w41 ,northwest ,n4 ,y41 ,new ,york4 ,obad41 ,obadiah4 ,oct41 ,october4 ,ohio or ,o41 ,ohio4 ,oreg4 or ,or41 ,oregon4 ,oxon4 7,oxonia71 ,oxford1 oz41 ,ounces4 p41 ,page1 pp41 ,pages4 ,pa4 or ,penn41 ,pennsylvania4 ,payt4 or payt41 ,payment4 per cent1 or per ct4 7per centum7 or 1 ,by the hundred4 ,ph4 ,d4 7,philosophiae ,doctor71 ,doctor of ,philosophy4 ,phil41 ,philip2 ,philippians4 ,phila41 ,philadelphia4 pk41 ,pecks4 ,p4 ,m41 ,postmaster4 ,p4 ,m4 or p4 m4 7post meridiem71 ,afternoon4 ,p4 ,o41 ,post-,office4 ,pres41 ,president4 ,prof41 ,professor4 ,pro tem4 7pro tempore71 ,for the time being4 ,prov41 ,proverbs4 prox4 7proximo71 ,the next month4 ,p4 ,s41 ,postscript4 ,ps41 ,psalms4 pt41 ,pints4 pwt41 ,pennyweights4 qt41 ,quarts4 q4 v4 7quod vide71 ,which see4 ,qy41 ,query4 rd41 ,rods4 ,recd41 ,received4 ,rev41 ,reverend2 ,revelation4 ,r4 ,i41 ,rhode ,island4 ,robt41 ,robert4 ,rom41 ,romans 7,book of72 ,roman letters4 ,r4 ,r41 ,railroad4 ,r4 ,s4 ,v4 ,p4 7,repondez s'il vous plait71 ,answer1 if you please4 ,rt4 ,hon41 ,right ,honorable4 ,rt4 ,rev41 ,right ,reverend4 ,s41 ,south4 s41 ,shillings4 ,s4 ,a41 ,south ,america4 ,saml4 or ,sam41 ,samuel4 ,sat41 ,saturday4 ,s4 ,c41 ,south ,carolina4 ,s4 ,dak41 ,south ,dakota4 ,s4 ,e41 ,southeast4 ,sec41 ,secretary4 sec41 ,seconds4 ,sep4 or ,sept41 ,september4 ,sol41 ,solomon4 sq4 ft41 ,square feet4 sq4 in41 ,square inches4 sq4 m41 ,square miles4 ,s4 ,s4 ,e41 ,south-southeast4 ,s4 ,s4 ,w41 ,south-southwest4 ,st41 ,street2 ,saint4 ,s4 ,t4 ,d4 7,sacrae ,theologiae ,doctor71 ,doctor of ,divinity4 ,sun41 ,sunday4 ,supt41 ,superintendent4 ,s4 ,w41 ,southwest4 ,t41 ,tons2 ,tuns4 ,tenn41 ,tennessee4 ,tex41 ,texas4 ,theo41 ,theodore4 ,theoph41 ,theophilus4 ,thess41 ,thessalonians1 ,thos41 ,thomas4 ,thurs41 ,thursday4 ,tim41 ,timothy4 tr41 ,transpose4 ,treas41 ,treasurer4 ,tues41 ,tuesday4 ult4 7ultimo71 ,last--last month4 ,u4 ,s4 or ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 ,united ,states of ,america2 ,united ,states ,army4 ,u4 ,s4 ,m41 ,united ,states ,mail4 ,u4 ,s4 ,n41 ,united ,states ,navy4 ,utah or ,u4 ,ter41 ,utah ,territory4 ,va41 ,virginia4 ,vice-,pres41 ,vice-,president4 viz4 7videlicet71 ,to wit1 namely4 vol41 ,volume4 vs4 7versus71 ,against4 ,vt41 ,vermont4 ,w41 ,west4 ,wash41 ,washington4 ,wed41 ,wednesday4 ,wis41 ,wisconsin4 wk41 ,weeks4 ,wm41 ,william4 ,w4 ,n4 ,w41 ,west-northwest4 ,w4 ,s4 ,w41 ,west-southwest4 ,w4 ,va41 ,west ,virginia4 ,wyo41 ,wyoming4 ,xmas41 ,christmas4 yd41 ,yards4 y4 or yr41 ,years4 ,zech41 ,zechariah4 ,co41 ,and ,company4 ,,supplement4 ,exercises on the ,composition of the ,sentence and the ,paragraph4 ,,selection ,,from ,,darwin4 ,morren says that angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close beneath the mouths of their burrows4 ,i have occasionally noticed the same fact with worms kept in pots in the house2 so that by looking down into their burrows their heads could just be seen4 ,if the ejected earth or rubbish over the burrows be suddenly removed1 the end of the worm's body may very often be seen rapidly retreating4 ,this habit of lying near the surface leads to their destruction to an immense extent4 ,every morning1 during certain seasons of the year1 the thrushes and blackbirds on all the lawns throughout the country draw out of their holes an astonishing number of worms2 and this they could not do unless they lay close to the surface4 ,it is not probable that worms behave in this manner for the sake of breathing fresh air1 for they can live for a long time under water4 ,i believe that they lie near the surface for the sake of warmth1 especially in the morning2 and we shall hereafter find that they often coat the mouths of their burrows with leaves1 apparently to prevent their bodies from coming into close contact with the cold1 damp earth4 ,the ,uses of ,words and ,groups of ,words4--,we will break up ,mr4 ,darwin's first group of sentences into single sentences or single statements1 each having but one predicate verb4 #a4 ,angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close beneath the mouths of their burrows4 #b4 ,morren says this4 #c4 ,i have occasionally noticed the same fact with worms kept in pots in the house4 #d4 ,by looking down into their burrows their heads could just be seen4 #e4 ,the ejected earth or rubbish over the burrows may suddenly be removed4 #f4 ,the end of the worm's body may then very often be seen rapidly retreating4 ,find the two chief words 7subject and predicate7 in #a4 ,what does often do8 ,what does the group of words for hours do8 ,the group almost motionless describes what things8 ,the group close beneath the mouths of their burrows1 used like a single adverb1 tells what8 ,find the two chief words in #b4 ,this helps out the meaning of says1 but it is not an adverb4 ,this is here a pronoun standing for the thing said4 ,what whole sentence does this take the place of8 ,find the subject and the predicate verb in #c4 ,what noun follows this verb to tell what ,mr4 ,darwin noticed8 ,what does occasionally do8 ,what does same go with8 ,what group of eight words tells in what way ,mr4 ,darwin noticed this fact8 ,find the unmodified subject and predicate in #d4 ,what does the second their go with8 ,what does by looking down into their burrows tell8 ,what does just do8 ,in #e1 put what before may be removed1 and find two words either of which may be used as subject4 ,what is the office of the1 ejected1 and the group over the burrows8 ,what does suddenly do8 ,find the subject and the predicate verb in #f4 ,retreating helps out the meaning of the predicate and at the same time modifies the subject4 ,notice that the end rapidly retreating is not a sentence1 nor is worms kept in pots1 in #c4 ,retreating and kept here express action1 but they are not predicates2 they do not assert4 ,you learned in ,lesson #af that certain forms of the verb do not assert4 ,of the worm's body modifies what8 ,then and very often do what8 ,if you will compare these numbered sentences with ,mr4 ,darwin's1 you will see how two or more sentences are put together to make one longer sentence4 ,you see ,mr4 ,darwin puts our sentence #a after says to tell what ,morren says4 ,what word here helps to bring two sentences together8 ,change this sentence about so as to make says ,morren come last4 ,see how many other changes you can make in the arrangement of the words and groups of words in this sentence4 ,what two words are used to join #c and #d together8 ,notice that these sentences are not joined so closely as #a and #b1 as is shown by the semi-colon4 ,notice that if has much to do in joining #e and #f4 ,these are more closely joined than #c and #d1 but not so closely as #a and #b4 ,how is this shown by the punctuation8 ,put #e and #f together and change their order4 ,find1 if you can1 still another arrangement4 ,to the ,teacher4--,it is very important that pupils should learn to see words in groups and to note their offices4 ,if difficulties and technicalities be avoided1 such exercises as we suggest above may be begun very early4 ,they will lead to an intelligent observation of language and will prepare the way for the more formal lessons of the text-book4 ,if time can be had1 such exercises may profitably be continued through the second and third paragraphs of the selection above4 ,we have said elsewhere that the sentence exercises on this selection from ,darwin may follow ,lesson #cj1 but the teacher must determine4 ,the ,paragraph4--,if we write about only one thing1 or one point1 our sentences will be closely related to each other4 ,if we write on two or more points1 there will be two or more sets of sentences--the sentences of each set closely related to one another1 but the sets themselves not so closely related4 ,a group of sentences expressing what we have to say on a single point1 or division1 of our subject is called a paragraph4 ,how many paragraphs do you find in the selection above8 ,how are they separated on the page8 ,let us examine this selection more carefully to find whether the sentences of each group are all on a single point and closely related1 and whether the groups themselves are related4 ,do the sentences of the first paragraph all help to tell of a certain habit of angleworms8 ,do the sentences of the second paragraph tell what results from this habit8 ,do the sentences of the third paragraph tell what is thought to be the cause of this habit8 ,if you can say yes to these questions1 the sentences in each paragraph must be closely related4 ,are a habit1 a result of it1 and a cause of it related in thought1 or meaning8 ,if so1 the paragraphs are related4 ,you must now see that paragraphing helps both the reader and the writer1 and that we should master it4 ,the ,style4--,we shall not here say much about what we may call the style of the author--his way of putting his thought1 or manner of expressing it4 ,but this you will notice3 his words are few1 plain1 and simple2 the arrangement of them is easy2 and so what is said is said clearly4 ,you are nowhere in doubt about his meaning unless it be in the second paragraph4 ,it may puzzle you to see what their1 they1 and they in the second sentence of this paragraph stand for4 ,let an astonishing number of worms and out of their holes change places1 and substitute birds and worms for they and they1 and see whether the meaning would be clearer4 ,clearness is worth all it costs4 ,you cannot take too much pains to be understood4 ,first-hand ,knowledge4--,as you know1 we get our knowledge in two ways4 ,we get it by seeing and by thinking about what we see2 and we get it by listening to other people and reading what they have written4 ,what we get by seeing1 by observation1 is first-hand knowledge2 what we get from others is second-hand knowledge4 ,both kinds are useful2 we cannot have too much of either4 ,but the kind that it does us most good to get and is worth most to us when got is first-hand knowledge4 ,this especially is the kind which you should make your compositions of4 ,in the first two paragraphs of the selection above1 ,darwin is telling what he saw1 and in the third he is explaining what he saw4 ,that is why what he says is so fresh and interesting4 ,and just one thing more4 ,if such a man as ,charles ,darwin thought it worth his while to spend much time in studying and experimenting upon angleworms and then to write a large book about them1 surely you need not think anything in nature beneath your notice4 ,,original ,,composition4 ,tell in two or three short paragraphs what you have observed of some worm1 insect1 or other creature1 and what you think about it4 ,to the ,teacher4--,we suggest that what is said above be read by the pupils and discussed in the class1 and that the substance of it be reproduced in the pupils' own language4 ,such reproduction will serve as a lesson in oral composition4 ,it may be profitable for the pupils to reproduce the selection from ,darwin4 ,exercises on the ,composition of the ,sentence and the ,paragraph4 ,,selection ,,from ,,habberton--,,helen',s ,,babies4 ,the whistles completed1 ,i was marched with music to the place where the ,jacks grew4 ,it was just such a place as boys delight in--low1 damp1 and boggy1 with a brook hidden away under overhanging ferns and grasses4 #a4 ,the children knew by sight the plant that bore the ,jacks1 and every discovery was announced by a piercing shriek of delight4 #b4 ,at first ,i looked hurriedly toward the brook as each yell clove the air2 but1 as ,i became accustomed to it1 my attention was diverted by some exquisite ferns4 #c4 ,suddenly1 however1 a succession of shrieks announced that something was wrong1 and across a large fern ,i saw a small face in a great deal of agony4 #d4 ,budge was hurrying to the relief of his brother1 and was soon as deeply imbedded as ,toddie was in the rich1 black mud at the bottom of the brook4 #e4 ,i dashed to the rescue1 stood astride the brook1 and offered a hand to each boy1 when a treacherous tuft of grass gave way1 and1 with a glorious splash1 ,i went in myself4 ,this accident turned ,toddie's sorrow to laughter1 but ,i can't say ,i made light of my misfortune on that account4 ,to fall into clear water is not pleasant1 even when one is trout-fishing2 but to be clad in white trousers and suddenly drop nearly knee-deep into the lap of mother earth is quite a different thing4 ,i hastily picked up the children and threw them upon the bank1 and then strode out1 and tried to shake myself1 as ,i have seen a ,newfoundland dog do4 ,the shake was not a success--it caused my trouser's legs to flap dismally about my ankles1 and sent the streams of treacherous ooze trickling down into my shoes4 ,my hat1 of drab felt1 had fallen off by the brookside1 and been plentifully spattered as ,i got out4 ,the ,uses of ,words and ,groups of ,words4--,we will put the first paragraph above into single sentences4 #a4 ,the whistles completed1 we were marched with music to the place4 #b4 ,the ,jacks grew in this place4 #c4 ,it was a place low1 damp1 and boggy1 with a brook hidden away under overhanging ferns and grasses4 #d4 ,boys delight in such a place4 ,find the subject noun 7or pronoun7 and the predicate verb in each of the four sentences above4 ,does the whistles completed make complete sense8 ,you learned in ,lesson #af that some forms of the verb do not assert--cannot be predicates4 ,does brook hidden1 in #c1 contain a predicate8 ,what can you say of hidden8 ,find a noun in #c used to complete the predicate and make the meaning of the subject plainer4 ,what group of adjectives modifies place8 ,tell why these three adjectives are separated by commas4 ,what long phrase describes place8 ,find the first verb in the second paragraph of the selection4 ,what is the object complement of this verb8 ,that bore the ,jacks does what8 ,the pronoun that stands for plant4 ,the plant bore the ,jacks1 standing by itself1 is a complete sentence2 but by using that for plant the whole expression is made to do the work of an adjective4 ,what conjunction joins on another expression that by itself would make a complete sentence8 ,what are the subject and the predicate of this added sentence8 ,by a piercing shriek of delight does what8 ,of what use are the phrases at first and toward the brook in sentence #b8 ,what group of words is joined to looked to tell on what occasion or how often8 ,find in this group a subject1 a predicate1 and an object complement4 ,what connects this group to looked8 ,what two sentences does but here bring together8 ,does the semicolon show that this connection is close8 ,point out what you think to be the leading subject and the leading verb after but4 ,by some exquisite ferns is joined to what8 ,what group of words goes with was diverted to tell when8 ,find in this group a subject1 a predicate1 and an attribute complement4 ,point out in the first part of #c the leading subject and its verb4 ,what does suddenly go with8 ,what does of shrieks modify8 ,however is loosely thrown in to carry the attention back to what goes before4 ,notice the commas4 ,answer the question made by putting what after announced4 ,in this group of words used as object complement can you find a subject1 a predicate1 and a complement8 ,what two sentences does and here bring together8 ,point out the subject1 the predicate1 and the complement in the second of these4 ,across a large fern is joined like an adverb to what8 ,in a great deal of agony modifies what8 ,find a compound predicate in #d4 ,what phrase is joined to was imbedded to tell where8 ,the group of words as deeply as ,toddie was 7imbedded7 is joined to what8 ,find in #e a compound predicate made up of three verbs1 one of which has an object complement4 ,to the ,teacher4--,see suggestions with the preceding selection4 ,if our exercises on the second paragraph above are found too hard1 the compound and complex sentences may be broken up into single statements4 ,we have indicated elsewhere that this sentence work may follow ,lesson #dj4 ,the ,narrative4--,this selection from ,helen's ,babies is a story and therefore a narrative4 ,but there are some descriptive touches in it4 ,all stories must have such touches4 ,perhaps it is not always essential to distinguish between narration and description1 but it is worth your while to do it occasionally4 ,try to point out the descriptive parts in these paragraphs4 ,you certainly can find a descriptive sentence in the first paragraph1 and descriptive words1 phrases1 and clauses throughout the selection4 ,what help to the narrative do these descriptive touches give8 ,the ,paragraphs4--,what have you learned about the sentences that make up one paragraph8 ,are the paragraphs more1 or less1 closely related than the sentences of each paragraph8 ,why8 ,examine these paragraphs and see whether any sentences can be changed from one paragraph to another4 ,if you think they can1 give your reason4 ,is the order of these paragraphs the right one8 ,can the order anywhere be changed without throwing the story out of joint8 ,why8 ,the ,general ,topic and the ,sub-topics4--,we shall find that every composition has its general subject and that each paragraph in the composition bus its own particular subject4 ,let us call the subject of the whole composition the general topic4 ,sub means under1 and so let us call the point which each paragraph develops a sub-topic4 ,in the story above we may find some such outline as the following3-- ,,an ,,excursion ,,in ,,search ,,of ,,jacks4 #a4 ,the ,place where ,jacks ,grow4 #b4 ,the ,mishap to the ,excursionists4 #c4 ,the ,uncle ,takes his ,seriously4 #d4 ,his ,attempt at ,repairs4 ,do you think that such a framework helps a writer to tell his story8 ,do you not think that each sub-topic must suggest some thoughts that the general topic alone would not suggest8 ,if you keep clearly before you the sub-topic of your paragraph1 what effect do you think it will have on the thoughts and the sentences of that paragraph8 ,with a good framework clearly before you1 must not your story move along in an orderly way from a beginning to an end8 ,have you ever heard stories badly told8 ,if so1 what were the faults8 ,,original ,,composition4 ,have you not had some experience that you can work up into a good story8 ,if you have1 tell the story upon paper1 making use of the instruction we have given you in our talk above4 ,to the ,teacher4--,perhaps a reproduction of the story above may be profitable4 ,,exercises ,,on ,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,the ,,sentence ,,and ,,the ,,paragraph4 ,,selection ,,from ,,george ,,eliot4 ,and this is ,dovecote ,mill4 ,i must stand a minute or two here on the bridge and look at it1 though the clouds are threatening and it is far on in the afternoon4 ,even in this leafless time of departing ,february1 it is pleasant to look at it4 ,perhaps the chill1 damp season adds a charm to the trimly-kept building1 as old as the elms and chestnuts that shelter it from the northern blast4 ,the stream is brimful now1 and half drowns the grassy fringe in front of the house4 ,as ,i look at the stream1 the vivid grass1 the delicate1 bright green softening the outline of the great trunks and branches that gleam from under the bare purple boughs1 ,i am in love with moistness1 and envy the white ducks that are dipping their heads far into the water1 unmindful of the awkward appearance in the drier world above4 #a4 ,and now there is the huge covered wagon1 coming home with sacks of grain4 #b4 ,that honest wagoner is thinking of his dinner1 which is getting sadly dry in the oven at this late hour2 but he will not touch it till he has fed his horses--the strong1 submissive beasts1 who1 ,i fancy1 are looking mild reproach at him from between their blinkers1 that he should crack his whip at them in that awful manner1 as if they needed such a hint6 #c4 ,see how they stretch their shoulders up the slope toward the bridge1 with all the more energy because they are so near home4 #d4 ,look at their grand1 shaggy feet1 that seem to grasp the firm earth1 at the patient strength of their necks bowed under the heavy collar1 at the mighty muscles of their struggling haunches4 #e4 ,i should like to see them1 with their moist necks freed from the harness1 dipping their eager nostrils into the pond4 ,the ,uses of ,words and ,groups of ,words4--,notice that in sentence #a1 third paragraph1 the subject is placed after the predicate4 ,tell what now and there do4 ,coming home with sacks of grain does what8 ,does coming express action8 ,does it assert action8 ,what is it8 ,what does home do8 ,put its before home and then read the whole phrase4 ,what other change do you find necessary8 ,a noun is sometimes used alone to do the work of an adverb phrase1 the preposition being omitted4 ,what is the office of minute in the second sentence of the first paragraph8 ,what preposition could be put in8 ,in #b1 third paragraph1 the pronoun which stands for dinner4 ,read the sentence1 using the noun instead of the pronoun4 ,have you now two sentences1 or one8 ,you see that which not only stands for dinner1 but it joins on a sentence so as to make it describe the dinner4 ,what does till he has fed his horses do8 ,omitting till1 would this group of words be a sentence8 ,what1 then1 joins this group1 and makes it do the work of an adverb8 ,notice the dash after horses4 ,the writer here breaks off rather suddenly and begins again1 using beasts instead of horses4 ,to beasts are added many descriptive words4 ,you will learn that this noun beasts added to the noun horses is called an explanatory modifier4 ,notice that ,i fancy is thrown in loosely or independently and is set off by commas4 ,all the other words beginning with who and ending with hint are joined by who to beasts4 ,notice that the writer makes these beasts think like persons1 and so uses who instead of which or that4 ,do we ordinarily speak of looking anything8 ,in who are looking reproach1 what is the object complement of are looking8 ,what long group of words made up of two sentences tells why the beasts are looking reproach8 ,read separately the main divisions of #b4 ,what conjunction connects these8 ,is one of these divisions itself divided into parts by commas8 ,should1 then1 some mark of wider separation be put between the main divisions of #b8 ,to build so long a sentence as #b is venturesome4 ,we advise young writers not to make such attempts4 ,it is hard to write very long sentences and keep the meaning clear4 ,in #c the subject of see is you1 which is generally omitted in a command4 ,you are here told to see what8 ,break this long object complement up into two sentences4 ,what do the horses stretch8 ,where do they stretch their shoulders8 ,how do they stretch8 ,why do they stretch with more energy8 ,what is the subject of look in #d8 ,the phrase beginning with at and ending with earth does what8 ,find two other long phrases introduced by at and tell what they do4 ,that seem to grasp the firm earth goes with what8 ,put the noun feet in place of the pronoun that and make a separate sentence of this group4 ,what word1 then1 makes an adjective modifier of this sentence and joins it to feet8 ,does to grasp assert action8 ,what do you call it8 ,it is here used as attribute complement4 ,bowed under the heavy collar describes what8 ,does bowed assert action8 ,what do you call it8 ,to the ,teacher4--,if time permits1 we believe that such exercises as the above may profitably be continued4 ,this sentence work may perhaps best follow ,lesson #ej4 ,see suggestions with preceding exercises4 ,descriptive ,writing4--,this extract from the novelist who called herself ,george ,eliot we have slightly changed for our purpose4 ,it is purely descriptive4 ,it is a painting in words--a vivid picture of a very pretty scene4 ,how grateful we are to those who can1 as it were1 turn a page of a book into canvas1 and paint on it a rich verbal picture that delights us every time we read it or recall it6 ,how many such pictures there are in our libraries6 ,and how little they cost us when compared with those that we buy and hang upon our walls6 ,some ,features of a ,good ,description4--,does this author mention many features of the mill1 of the stream1 and of the horses pulling their load over the bridge8 ,do those that she does mention suggest to you everything else8 ,name some of the things suggested to you but not mentioned in this description4 ,does not some of the charm of a description lie in the reader's having something left him to supply8 ,if the author had given you every little detail of the mill1 the stream1 and the laboring horses1 would not the description have been dull and tiresome8 ,what things that the author imagined but did not really see are mentioned in the third paragraph8 ,do these touches of fancy or imagination help the picture8 ,do they show that the author was in love with her work8 and do they therefore stimulate your fancy or imagination8 ,the ,framework4--,in making a framework for this description would you take for the general topic ,the ,scene from the ,bridge or ,things ,seen from a ,bridge8 or would you prefer some other wording of it8 ,now write out a framework1 placing the sub-topics under the general topic as you have been taught4 ,,original ,,composition4 ,describe some scene that you greatly enjoy1 or draw your picture from imagination4 ,make a framework and try to profit by all that we have said4 ,,exercises ,,on ,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,the ,,sentence ,,and ,,the ,,paragraph4 ,,selection ,,from ,,the ,,brothers ,,grimm4 ,once upon a time there was a very old man1 whose eyes were dim1 whose ears were dull1 and whose knees trembled4 ,when he sat at table1 he could scarcely hold his spoon2 and often he spilled his food over the tablecloth and sometimes down his clothes4 ,his son and daughter-in-law were much vexed about this1 and at last they made the old man sit behind the oven in a corner1 and gave him his food in an earthen dish1 and not enough of it either2 so that the poor man grew sad1 and his eyes were wet with tears4 ,once his hand trembled so much that he could not hold the dish1 and it fell upon the ground and broke all in pieces1 so that the young wife scolded him2 but he made no reply and only sighed4 ,then they brought him a wooden dish1 and out of that he had to feed4 ,one day1 as he was sitting in his usual place1 he saw his little grandson1 four years old1 fitting together some pieces of wood4 ,what are you making8 asked the old man4 ,i am making a wooden trough1 replied the child1 for father and mother to feed out of when ,i grow big4 ,at these words the father looked at his wife for a moment1 and presently they began to cry4 ,henceforth they let the old grandfather sit at the table with them1 and they did not even say anything if he spilled a little food upon the cloth4 ,the ,uses of ,words and ,groups of ,words4--,what is the order of subject and predicate in the first sentence of this selection8 ,the word there does not tell where2 it is put before was to let the subject follow4 ,there is frequently so used and is then called an independent adverb4 ,find in the first sentence three adjective clauses4 ,what connects each to man8 ,what other office has this connective8 ,how are these adjective clauses connected with one another8 ,what is the office of the dependent clause in the next sentence8 ,if this clause were placed after its principal clause1 would the comma be needed8 ,are the clauses separated by the semicolon as closely connected as those divided by the comma8 ,after made and some other words the to before the infinitive is omitted4 ,find such an instance in the first sentence of the second paragraph4 ,in this same sentence change gave him his food1 making him come last4 ,you have learned that a noun or a pronoun may be used without a preposition to do the work of an adverb phrase4 ,what does one day do in the third paragraph8 ,is a preposition needed before day8 ,in the same sentence years is used adverbially to modify the adjective old4 ,it would be hard to find a preposition to put before years4 ,we might say old to the extent of four years1 but four years answers for the whole phrase4 ,in this same paragraph what words are quoted exactly as the old man uttered them8 ,describe the quotation marks4 ,notice that the next quotation is broken by the words replied the child1 and so each part of the quotation is separately inclosed within quotation marks4 ,to the ,teacher4--,we have here touched a few features of the sentences above4 ,the exercises given with the preceding selections will suggest a fuller examination of the phrases and clauses4 ,suggestions from this ,narrative4--,we see that this beautiful story has a purpose4 ,its purpose is to teach us kindness to our parents4 ,it is well planned4 ,every sentence and every paragraph is adapted to the end in view4 ,no useless item or circumstance is admitted4 ,the story stops when the end is reached4 ,anything added to the fifth paragraph would spoil the story4 ,we certainly can learn much from such a model4 ,paragraphs4--,does every sentence in the first paragraph aid in picturing the helplessness of the old grandfather8 ,is the picture complete8 ,does the second paragraph strongly impress us with the unkindness of the son and daughter-in-law1 who ought to have been moved to pity by the old man's condition8 ,does it contain an unnecessary sentence8 ,in telling how the grandchild unconsciously taught a lesson1 a dialogue is introduced1 and so what really belongs to one sub-topic is put in the form of two paragraphs4 ,it is customary to make a separate paragraph of each single speech in a dialogue4 ,read the last paragraph carefully and see whether one could wish to know anything more about the effect of the lesson taught by the child4 ,make a framework for this story4 ,,original ,,composition4 ,make up a short story from your own experience1 or from your imagination1 and try to profit by the suggestions above4 ,prepare a framework at the beginning4 ,exercises on the ,composition of the ,sentence and the ,paragraph4 ,,selection ,,from ,,beecher4 ,overwork almost always ends in weakening the digestive organs4 ,there are those who overtax their minds through months and years1 forgetful that there is a close connection between overwork and dyspepsia4 ,everyone should remember that there is a point beyond which he cannot urge his brain without harm to his stomach2 and that1 when he loses his stomach1 he loses the very citadel of health4 ,the whole body is renewed from the blood1 and the blood is made from the food taken into the stomach4 ,the power of the blood to renew bone and brain and muscle depends upon a good digestion4 ,too little sleep is fatal to health4 ,perhaps you have to work hard all day2 but that is no reason why you should resolve1 ,if ,i cannot have pleasure by day1 ,i will have it at night4 ,you are taking the very substance of your body when you burn the lamp of pleasure till one or two o'clock in the morning4 ,god has made sleep to be a sponge with which to rub out fatigue4 ,a man's roots are planted in night1 as a tree's are planted in soil1 and out of it he should come1 at waking1 with fresh growth and bloom4 ,as a rule1 you should take eight hours of the twenty-four1 for sleep4 ,the ,uses of ,words and ,groups of ,words4--,in the exercises under the selection from the ,brothers ,grimm what did you learn about there as used twice in the second sentence above8 ,what does those mean8 ,what long adjective clause is joined to those by who8 ,does this clause read so closely as not to need a comma before who8 ,does forgetful describe the persons represented by who8 ,why is a comma used before forgetful8 ,you learned in a preceding exercise that a noun may do the work of an adverb phrase without the help of a preposition4 ,a noun clause may do the same4 ,the adjective forgetful is modified by the noun clause that 444 dyspepsia4 ,if we say forgetful of the fact1 we see that the noun clause means the same as fact and has the same office4 ,what two long noun clauses aroused to complete should remember8 ,what conjunction introduces each of these clauses8 ,what conjunction joins them together8 ,what mark of punctuation between8 ,if one of these noun clauses were not itself divided into clauses by the comma1 would the semicolon be needed8 ,the clause beyond 444 stomach goes with what word8 ,when 444 stomach modifies what verb8 ,classify the sentences of this paragraph as simple1 complex1 or compound4 ,to the ,teacher4--,we have here treated informally some difficult points4 ,perhaps these may be better understood when the book is reviewed4 ,the ,various ,objects ,writers ,have4--,from your study of the preceding selections you learn that a writer may have any one of several objects in writing4 ,he may wish simply to instruct the reader1 as does ,darwin in what he says of earthworms4 ,he may wish merely to amuse the reader1 as does ,mr4 ,habberton in our extract from ,helen's ,babies4 ,he may wish only to put before them a picture which1 like that of ,george ,eliot's1 shall afford delight4 ,or he may wish to get hold of what we call our wills and lead us to do something1 perform some duty4 ,this is what the story from the ,brothers ,grimm aims at4 ,and you saw how it does this--by working on our feelings4 ,there are at least these four objects that a writer may propose to himself4 ,which of these four objects has ,mr4 ,beecher in the paragraphs we quote8 ,does he instruct8 ,does he try to get us to do something8 ,would it help you to have clearly before you from the beginning the object you are seeking to accomplish8 ,figurative ,expressions4--,in these paragraphs ,mr4 ,beecher calls a man's stomach the citadel of health1 and sleep a sponge to rub out fatigue with1 and says a man's roots are planted in night4 ,he does not use these words citadel1 sponge1 and roots in their first or common meaning4 ,he uses them in what we call a figurative sense4 ,he means to say that a man's stomach is to him what a fortress is to soldiers1 a source of strength2 that in sleep fatigue disappears as do figures on a slate or blackboard when a wet sponge is drawn across them2 and that a man gets out of night what a tree's roots draw out of the soil1 nourishment and vigor4 ,such figurative uses of words give strength and beauty to style4 ,,original ,,composition4 ,in the paragraphs quoted above you were told of the effects on health of overwork and of insufficient sleep4 ,perhaps you can write of exercise1 of proper food1 of clothes1 or of some other things on which health may depend4 ,exercises on the ,composition of the ,sentence and the ,paragraph4 ,,adapted ,,from ,,dr4 ,,john ,,brown--,,rab ,,and ,,his ,,friends4 ,rab belonged to a lost tribe--there are no such dogs now4 ,he was old and gray and brindled2 and his hair short1 hard1 and close1 like a lion's4 ,he was as big as a ,highland bull1 and his body was thickset4 ,he must have weighed ninety pounds at least4 ,his large1 blunt head was scarred with the record of old wounds1 a series of battlefields all over it4 ,his muzzle was as black as night1 his mouth blacker than any night1 and a tooth or two1 all he had1 gleamed out of his jaws of darkness4 ,one eye was out1 one ear cropped close4 ,the remaining eye had the power of two2 and above it1 and in constant communication with it1 was a tattered rag of an ear that was for ever unfurling itself1 like an old flag4 ,and then that bud of a tail1 about an inch long1 if it could in any sense be said to be long1 being as broad as it was long6 ,the mobility of it1 its expressive twinklings and winkings1 and the intercommunications between the eye1 the ear1 and it1 were of the oddest and swiftest4 ,rab had the dignity and simplicity of great size4 ,having fought his way all along the road to absolute supremacy1 he was as mighty in his own line as ,julius ,caesar or the ,duke of ,wellington in his1 and he had the gravity of all great fighters4 ,to the ,teacher4--,we suggest exercises on the uses of words similar to those preceding4 ,before attempting this it may be well to let the pupils go over these condensed expressions and supply the words necessary to the analysis4 ,for instance1 in the first paragraph hair may be followed by was and ,highland bull by is big4 ,in the next paragraph wounds may be followed by marking1 as night by is black1 etc4 ,in the third paragraph and then may be followed by there was1 etc4 ,the pupils will determine whether supplying these words makes the description stronger or weaker4 ,pupils may note especially the offices of nouns1 verbs1 and adjectives4 ,this selection abounds in descriptive nouns and verbs that are particularly well chosen4 ,let the pupils point out such4 ,the ,description4--,how does the description above impress you8 ,are only characteristic parts and features selected8 ,are these few features enough to give you a distinct and vivid picture of ,rab8 ,what comparisons do you find8 ,how do they help8 ,pick out some words or phrases that seem to you very expressive4 ,find some words that are used1 not in their first or common sense1 but in a figurative sense4 ,how do they help8 ,paragraphs4--,which paragraph puts before you the dog as a whole8 ,where must this paragraph naturally stand8 ,why8 ,which paragraph describes ,rab's character8 ,what does each of the other paragraphs describe8 ,if you think the arrangement of paragraphs above is the best1 tell why4 ,make a framework for this description4 ,,original ,,composition4 ,write a description of some animal which you have closely observed and in which you are interested4 ,be careful to pick out leading or characteristic features that will bring others into the reader's imagination4 ,first prepare a framework4