#ajfb ,,the ,,tusayan ,,ritual3 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,environment ,,on ,,aboriginal ,,cults4 ,,by ,j4 ,,walter ,,fewkes4 ,,from ,,the ,,smithsonian ,,report ,,for #ahie1 ,,pages #fhc-gjj 7,,with ,,plates ,,lxx-,,lxxiii74 ,,washington3 ,,government ,,printing ,,office4 #ahif4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,the ,,tusayan ,,ritual3 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,environment ,,on ,,aboriginal ,,cults4#a ,by ,j4 ,,walter ,,fewkes4 ,footnote #a3 ,saturday lecture in the ,assembly ,hall of the ,united ,states ,national ,museum1 ,may #af1 #ahif4 ,the science called ethnology claims as its field of research the study of all racial characteristics of man4 ,it deals not only with his physical features1 social grouping1 and geographical distribution1 but also with the products of his hand and mind1 his thoughts and feelings4 ,no race or individual is so low in the scale of being as to be utterly devoid of some idea of the supernatural1 and as this is a universal human characteristic it is naturally one of the subjects which presents itself for study by the ethnologist4 ,the study of the evolution of supernatural ideas1 like that of all other human characters1 ought not to be limited to a few favored races1 nor should the term 8religion10 in its scientific use1 be restricted to any group or race of man4 ,it must be broad enough to embrace the supernatural conceptions of all men1 low and high in the scale4 ,no poor or insignificant grouping of men and women should be regarded too wretched to be studied1 and the scientific man can not overlook any if he is loyal to scientific methods4 ,a generalization which is built on limited knowledge of the religious characteristics of a few men or those of gifted races will as surely fail as a general law of linguistics based on the language of any one of the great races to the neglect of others4 ,there was a time when naturalists overlooked the lowest animals in their studies of the evolution of organic life1 but now it is universally recognized by biologists that we must look to the most inferior animals for a solution of many problems connected with the highest4 ,in studies of the development of the supernatural in the mind of man the same thing is true4 ,the laws of the evolution of religious thought can not be scientifically studied if the culture of primitive man is neglected4 ,unless ,i am greatly mistaken1 the roots of some of the purest spiritual conceptions reach far down into savage and barbarous stages of culture4 ,we are accustomed to designate the crude supernatural ideas of savage and barbarous peoples as cults1 and every cult will be found on examination to be composed of two complemental parts1 known as mythology and ritual4 ,around the former group themselves the various beliefs regarding the supernatural1 and about the latter the processes by which man approaches and influences these supernal conceptions4 ,this bifid strand runs through all supernatural ideas1 from those of the savage to the civilized man4 ,as nature has thus united them1 they must always be considered together in scientific studies4 ,we have seen in one of the previous lectures of this course how certain arts of man are affected by environment4 ,i shall endeavor to show a connection between ceremonial practices and climatic conditions1 which are1 ,i take it1 essential factors of environment4 ,for an illustration1 ,i have chosen the influence of an arid climate upon the ritual of one cluster of ,american ,indians4 ,there are certain common components of all cults which are as widely spread as the races of man and exist independently of surroundings1 while there are others which are profoundly affected by environment4 ,our subject especially deals with the latter1 and as the ritual is capable of more exact scientific analysis1 ,i have in mind to discuss the modifications in it which can be traced to purely climatic causes4 ,to simplify the elements of the problem we must choose not only a primitive form of ritual1 but also as far as possible one which has been but slightly modified by the introduction of foreign influences1 and hence other environments4 ,we must avoid as much as possible complexity due to composition4 ,it is a very difficult task to determine the aboriginal cults of any primitive people1 for modifications resulting from contact with other races are present almost everywhere we turn4 ,every cluster or grouping of men known to me is composite in its character4 ,yet the task is not wholly hopeless or beyond our powers4 ,the work before the ,american student is facilitated by the fact that we have still living in our country surviving members of the ,american race who1 on account of isolation1 have been slightly modified by foreign influences4 ,i wish this afternoon to call your attention to one of these1 and to discuss the influences which environment has exerted on their ritual4 ,the people concerning whom ,i shall speak are commonly called the ,mokis1 although they prefer to be known as the ,hopi4 ,they live in a region of ,arizona1 which from its discovery in the middle of the sixteenth century1 has been designated ,tusayan4 ,the ,hopi or ,tusayan ,indians belong to the so-called village or pueblo people--the peculiar culture of prehistoric ,arizona1 ,new ,mexico1 ,colorado1 and ,utah4 ,while what ,i shall say especially concerns one group1 it may in a general way be applied to the culture of a wide territory called the pueblo area of the southwestern part of the ,united ,states4 ,in a natural sequence a discussion of the effect of environment would follow a statement of the distinctive characters of the physical features which characterize surroundings2 and in order that you may have an idea of the climatic conditions of ,tusayan1 let us take a few moments to consider these peculiarities of the environment4 ,in physical features this province is a part of the great arid zone of the ,rocky ,mountains1 to which in former times was given the name of ,great ,american ,desert4 ,it lies in the northeastern part of ,arizona1 about #ij miles from the nearest village of white men on the south and about the same distance east of the ,grand ,canyon of the ,colorado4 ,on all sides it is isolated by dry deserts1 a dreary extent of mountains1 mesas1 and arid plains about #f1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,no permanent streams of water refresh these parched canyons or fields1 and the surroundings of this isolated tribe1 organic and inorganic1 belong to those characteristic of desert environment4 ,the rains are limited in quantity--liable to fail at planting times1 although later in the summer pouring down in copious torrents1 that fill the depression by which the water is rapidly carried away from the thirsty fields4 ,springs of permanent water are small and weak1 and when abundant1 poor and hardly potable4 ,in this unpromising land a few less than #b1jjj ,indians strive to maintain themselves by agriculture from a barren sandy soil which a white farmer would despise4 ,nor is the unremunerative soil the only hostile environment with which this industrious race of aboriginal farmers has had to contend4 ,incoming marauders1 in the form of nomadic enemies1 have from prehistoric times harassed them1 preyed on their farms1 and forced them to adopt inaccessible mesa tops1 high above their fields1 for protection4 ,perched on these rocky eminences they have erected seven stone villages in so clever a way that they seem to be a part of the cliffs4 ,animals in desert surroundings as a protective device have taken on the color of the soil1 but these men have built their towns in the cliffs so deftly that they seem to be parts of the mesas themselves4 ,they have succeeded well in this protective device1 due to environment1 for at a distance the pueblos are indistinguishable from the cliffs on which they stand4 ,i need not dwell on the forbidding aspect of the mesa tops on which these villages are built4 ,not a sprig of verdure1 drop of water1 or fragment of fuel is to be found upon them4 ,if there is one physical feature which may be said to characterize ,tusayan1 it is the paucity of water1 or rather its unequal distribution in different seasons of the year4 ,the character of animal life is also significant1 for it is of such a nature as to exert a profound influence4 ,a race dependent on animal food alone would have starved for game4 ,the great ruminants1 as the bison1 which more than any other animal influenced the culture of the ,indians of the great plains of the ,mississippi1 never visited this region4 ,no domesticated animals made pastoral culture possible4 ,there were small rodents1 many rabbits and hares1 and a scanty supply of antelope in distant mountains4 ,unpromising as was the soil for agriculture1 the resources of the hunter were much less1 and in this region man was forced to become an agriculturist4 ,it is1 therefore1 clear that the sedentary agricultural life of the ,tusayan ,indian is the direct result of organic and inorganic surroundings4 ,forced from some reason unknown to me to live in a land where animals were so few that he could not subsist from the products of the chase1 he found a possible food supply in plant life1 and he accepted the inevitable4 ,he adopted the life which environment dictated1#b and accepting things as they were1 worked out his culture on the only possible lines of development4 ,he raised crops of maize1 melons1 and beans1 cultivated and harvested various grains1 but at times when other things failed found food in cacti and the meal of pion nuts4 ,accepting the inevitable1 man's ritual became a mirror of that part of his environment which most intimately affected his necessities4 ,the irregularity of the rains1 and the possibility that the corn may not grow1 developed the ritual in the direction indicated4 ,as long as the processes of nature go on without change1 no special rain or growth ceremonials would develop4 ,in a bountiful soil which never fails the farmer1 where the seed dropped in the ground is sure to germinate1 and the rains are constant1 no ritual would originate to bring about what was sure to come4 ,but let natural processes be capricious1 awake in a primitive mind the fear that these processes may not recur1 let him become conscious that the rains may not come1 and he evolves a ritual to prevent its failure4 ,he is absolutely driven to devise ceremonials by which to affect those supernatural beings whom he believes cause the rain and the growth of his crops4 ,the cults of a primitive people are products of their necessities1 and they become complicated as the probability of their needs not being met are uncertain4 ,the two needs which sorely pressed the ,hopi farmer were rain to water his crops and the growth and maturity of his corn4 ,my problem1 therefore1 is to show by illustrations that the two components1 rain making and growth ceremonials1 characterize the ,tusayan ritual1 as aridity is the epitome of the distinctive climatic features of the region in which it has been developed4 ,footnote #b3 ,for a discussion of the relations between highest stages of culture in aboriginal ,america and arid climate1 see my article on ,summer ,ceremonials at ,zui and ,moqui ,pueblos1 ,bulletin ,essex ,institute1 ,vol4 ,,xxii1 ,nos4 #g1 #h1 #i4 ,salem1 ,mass4 ,there are1 as before stated1 certain elemental components of all cults which are as widespread as man1 and apparently exist independently of climatic conditions4 ,these elements are psychical1 subjective1 and occur wherever man lives in deserts1 islands1 forests1 plains1 under every degree of latitude and temperature4 ,a more profound philosophical analysis than ,i can make may resolve even these into effects of environment1 but their universality would seem to show that they are not due to the special climatic condition of aridity characteristic of ,tusayan4 ,i do not regard it pertinent to my discussion to attempt to explain their origin1 but we can better appreciate the ,tusayan ritual4 ,the genus ,homo1 emerging from genera of animals1 most of which were timorous and bodily weak1 inherited from them a wonder and fear at anything unusual or uncanny4 ,this dawning intelligence1 influenced by such sentiments as wonder1 fear1 hope1 and love1 reached that mental condition when1 as pointed out by ,king1 it ascribed all happenings about itself to luck4#c ,his heritage was a mind unable to separate the normal from the abnormal1 and everything to such a mind is mysterious1 and all nature is regarded as living1 but we can hardly suppose that in that condition it deified or saw gods in everything4 ,man understood the causes of few of the mysteries about him1 and felt himself at the caprice of chance4 ,he was a consistent fatalist1 overlooking good1 for that was normal1 but associating the bad with chance4 ,in this early condition a stage of supernaturalism called fetishism1 or the use of charms1 spells1 amulets1 mascots of various kinds to control chance1 arose4 ,as far as ,i know1 no race has wholly outgrown this condition1 and the lower we descend in the scale of humanity1 either historically in our own race1 or ethnographically among savages1 the relative predominance of fetishism increases4 ,there is no more constant element1 none following the same law of increase2 the present forms of monotheism have the least1 the lowest savage the most4 ,while at present there survives no people so degraded that fetishism is the only cult1 those nearest that stage are the lowest in mental1 moral1 and social attainments4 ,i need not remind you that at that early stage a fetish was not an idol1 it may or may not have had a regular form2 a stone1 a root1 an amulet may serve as a fetish4 ,in this stage of development every individual came to believe that he had a certain protective charm4 ,we can hardly believe he had a system of gods or that he recognized such4 ,later in its evolution fetishism became incorporated with other higher elements1 especially symbolism1 but in its archaic conception this was impossible4 ,footnote #c3 ,i find myself in accord with ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,king1 who has discussed this subject at length in his work1 ,the ,supernatural2 its ,origin1 ,nature1 and ,evolution4 ,while there are several points in his discussion where ,i can not see my way clear to accept his interpretations1 ,i have in others found my views almost coinciding with his4 ,he has discussed the subject in so scholarly a manner that the small space ,i can give to this great subject might have been better occupied with quotations from his volumes4 ,his work should be thoughtfully studied by everyone interested in this subject4 ,the highest outgrowth of pure fetishism was the shaman or medicine man4 ,it was recognized that certain men were gifted with occult powers beyond their fellows1 and were more potent to control happenings4 ,but this medicine man made use of impersonal amulets1 not personal spirits4 ,the second stage in the growth of the supernatural was a belief in a spirit#d or double of man1 the concept of animism4 ,when through dreams and other psychical phenomena man recognized his soul1 he immediately extended his concept to animals1 plants1 stones1 all things1 and thus everything was thought to have an intangible double1 soul4 ,man sought to ally himself with some one of these souls2 if a hunter1 some animal spirit1 for instance1 as an aid4 ,this became his totem1 and everything came to be a totem of power depending on needs of man4 ,as fetishism was the archaic condition in the groping of the human mind1 totemism was the following1 and both evolved together1 mutually reacting on each other and interdigitating in their development4 ,footnote #d3 ,the recognition of spirit was of very early date1 and is regarded by ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock1 ,dr4 ,tylor1 and ,herbert ,spencer as characteristic of all supernaturalism4 ,mr4 ,king1 however1 seems to me to have advanced strong reasons to show that fetishism may have antedated animism4 ,although ,i have adopted his view1 ,i am sure there is much to be said on the other side4 ,as the inevitable outgrowth of animism and its twin brother totemism came ancestor worship4 ,totemism and animism are sometimes limited to animal worship1 from the fact that zoomorphic totems naturally were chosen by hunters1 but especially among agricultural people totems of corn1 rain1 and the like replaced zoomorphic forms4 ,the forces of nature thus became totems--sun1 moon1 earth--some with animal1 others with human personalities4 ,a totem of a family became a tutelary god1 and groups of tutelary gods with a regal head became a council of gods as among the old ,greeks4 ,political and religious conceptions kept pace1 a patriarchal head of the family was reflected in the mythology4 ,a king suggested a monotheism4 ,isolated phratries living in groups like the prehistoric pueblos recognized no supreme political chief2 their system was feudal2 they were too low for monotheism4 ,i believe there is no good evidence to prove that they ever advanced higher in the evolution of mythology than a form of totemism1 in which powers of nature under anthropomorphic or animal disguises were worshiped4 ,i have said that the ritual of man can not be separated from his beliefs2 it is incomprehensible alone4 ,let us1 therefore1 glance at the mythology of the ,tusayan ,indians4 ,these people had never1 when unmodified by ,european influences1 advanced higher than the worship of anthropomorphic powers of nature1 although all lower forms of worship1 as of animals1 ancestors1 and fetishism1 were prevalent4 ,as far as ,i have studied the beliefs of the ,tusayan ,indians1 ,i find no evidence that they recognized monotheism or the existence of a ,great ,spirit1 creator of all things4 ,with them as elsewhere among ,american ,indians whenever we find a knowledge of a ,great ,spirit we see1 as pointed out by ,mr4 ,r4 ,dorman1#e 8,nothing more than a figure of ,european origin reflected and transformed almost beyond recognition in the mirror of the ,indian mind40 ,it is suggestive that the ,indian knows only the name1 he has no stories pertaining to him1 but when you inquire about creation you elicit myths of the works of a spider woman or the birth of men from the caverns of the earth4 ,a conception of a ,great ,spirit1 wherever reported from savage people of ,north ,america1 is the work of missionaries1 soldiers1 or traders4#f ,footnote #e3 ,anthropological ,institute1 ,journal1 ,vol4 ,,xi1 page #cfa4 ,footnote #f3 ,considerable evidence has been adduced1 mainly from documentary sources1 that the more civilized people of ,central ,america attained in ,precolombian times the monotheistic stage of supernatural concepts1 and if that evidence is unimpeachable it would not be improbable that traces of the same should be found among pueblos4 ,unfortunately1 however1 the evidences on this point are none too strong1 the probabilities that the writers and the documents did not eliminate their own interpretation too great4 ,the pueblos at present have an idea of a supreme spirit1 but there is every reason to believe it is of exotic derivation in the time since ,coronado4 ,however honest may be the modern priest who may say that he learned from his grandfather certain current beliefs1 the crucial test of their prehistoric character must come from proof that the grandfather's testimony is correct4 ,the sources of error in stories passed down by word of mouth through many generations are too many to permit us to pin much faith to traditions reputed to be of great age4 ,all cosmogony begins with a created earth and that earth is mother of gods and men4 ,from the under world1 a cavern in the earth1 men crawled to the surface through an opening called the sipap4 ,races1 like individuals1 grew or were born2 there is no hint as to how mother earth was created4 ,the highest supernatural beings were deified forces of nature endowed with human or animal forms4 ,among these were sky gods1 earth gods1 and their offspring in the early times when the race of man was young4 ,the pueblos deified the sun and called him father of all1 and so important is the place that he plays in their beliefs that they are ordinarily called sun worshipers4 ,they endow him with human form1 speaking of the disk as his mask4 ,each day he is thought to rise from his home in the under world and at night sinks into a western house4 ,the pueblo ,indians live in houses4 ,their chief supernatural has a house1 as indicated by their use of this word for his place of rising and setting4 ,the sun is a beneficent being all powerful to bring the rains4 ,in other parts of ,america among warriors he is appealed to to destroy enemies4 ,among those people whose environment necessitates rain he is regarded as all powerful for that purpose4 ,like ancient ,aryans1 the ,tusayan ,indians pray to the rising sun for blessings1 but the meaning of the word 8blessing0 is always rain1 that the farms may be watered and the crops grow to maturity4 ,the worship of the sun1 therefore1 is of great importance2 it pervades all the ritual1 but it is always with one intent--the over-powering need of the agriculturist for rain in a desert environment4 ,as ,i have used the word 8prayer10 it may be well for me to point out the signification of this word among these people4 ,we are dealing with a race in that stage of culture where the symbolism is all-important4 ,their word for prayer is1 8scatter10 that is1 to scatter sacred meal4 ,when a ,tusayan priest addresses a supernatural being of his mythology he believes he must do so through the medium of some object as a prayer bearer2 he breathes his wish on meal and throws this meal to the god4 ,the prayer bearer is thought to have a spiritual double or breath body which carries his wishes4 ,it is an old idea with him1 reaching back to fetishism1 for his breath with the talismanic words is the spell which brings the desired results4 ,it must be mentioned1 however1 that oftentimes ethical ideas are associated with ,tusayan prayers for rain1 and ,i have frequently heard the priests at the close of their songs for rain exclaim1 8,whose heart is bad1 whose thoughts are leaving the straight path10 and as they bewailed that the rains were delayed1 sorrowfully resumed their songs and incantations4 ,an individual intrusts his prayer to sacred meal1 but a society of priests has a more powerful charm4 ,in the formal worship by a society of priests this prayer bearer becomes more complicated by appendages4 ,it is furnished with accessories1 all of which are symbolic4 ,the meal is placed in a corn-husk packet surrounded with symbolic charms1 feathers of birds which love water1 herbs which grow in damp places4 ,such a prayer bearer with symbolic attachments is called a paho1 and as if to betray its meaning in its name1 the exact translation of this word is the water-wood1 the wood which brings the water4 ,these prayer sticks have many different forms1 but are always called by the generic name1 water-sticks4 ,as their form becomes complicated by reason of symbolic accessories1 their manufacture is an act which takes time1 and as the prescribed symbols are known only to the initiated1 their construction gives rise to a complex series of secret rites4 ,the paho itself is a sacred object1 consequently whittlings from it1 fragments of string1 corn husks1 or feathers1 used in its construction1 are also sacred and must not be profaned4 ,they are1 therefore1 carefully gathered up and deposited with a prayer in some sacred place4 ,the simple act of breathing a prayer on a pinch of meal is all sufficient in an individual's use of prayer meal1 but in the complicated paho this simple act is insufficient in their belief4 ,the prayer bearer intrusted with the prayers of a community of priests must be laid on an altar1 smoked upon1 prayed over1 and consecrated by song before it is deemed efficacious4 ,the production of this altar1 the fetishes which stand upon it1 the formal rites attending the ceremonial smoke1 and the character of the songs thus develop each its own complex series of rites4 ,lastly1 even the casting of the meal has led to complications4 ,the paho must be offered to the god addressed in a dignified manner worthy of its object and the care used in its consecration4 ,a special courier carries it to a special shrine4 ,he is commissioned to his task with formal words1 and he places his burden in the shrine with prescribed prayers4 ,it has thus been brought about that the manufacture1 consecration1 and final deposition of the elaborate paho or stick to bring the rain occupies several hours1 and when repeated1 as it is in all great ceremonies for several consecutive days1 makes a complicated series of rites4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxx4 ,a ,,tusayan ,,paho4 ,the ritual of the ,tusayan ,indians is composite as their blood kinship4 ,peoples from other parts of the arid region have joined the original nucleus1 each bringing its rites and its names of the sun god4 ,each of these components clung to their own ceremonials1 and thus several series of rites developed side by side1 adding new names to supernatural beings already worshiped4 ,this state of things is not peculiar to ,tusayan4 ,ra1 the ,egyptian sun god1 has not more aliases than ,tawa1 the solar deity of the ,mokis4 ,so receptive is the ,pueblo system in point of fact that they are quite willing to ingraft the ,christian ritual on their own1 and in some of the modified pueblos of the ,rio ,grande we find the two coexisting4 ,the sun especially has many names among these people1 attributal or incorporated1 derived from colonists among them4 ,while it oftentimes puzzles the student to identify them1 it causes no trouble to the primitive mind1 who gladly accepts the medicine of all people1 friends or enemies4 ,of synonyms of the sun1 one of the most potent is called the ,heart of the ,sky4 ,in the mythology of the ,american ,indians the worship of a mythic serpent is widely associated with that of the sun4 ,among the ,pueblos this serpent appears as the ,great ,plumed ,snake4 ,this personage was a marked one in the ,mexican and ,central ,american mythologies4 ,he is found carved in stone on the stately ruins of ,chiapas and ,yucatan1 painted in fresco on the necropolis of ,mitla1 and represented in stucco on the faades of other high temples of ,mexico4 ,as the most powerful of all the divinities of the ,nahuatl and ,aztec peoples1 he has crept into all the mythologies where traces of ,nahuatl words can be detected4 ,in ,tusayan the ,great ,plumed ,serpent is a powerful deity to bring the rain1 and is associated with lightning1 his symbol4 ,by simple observation the untutored mind recognizes that rain follows lightning1 and what more natural than that it should be looked upon as the effect4 ,he therefore worships lightning because of this power4 ,the course of the lightning in the sky is zigzag as that of the snake1 both kill when they strike4 ,the lightning comes from the sky1 the abode of the sun and rain god1 and the simple reasoning of the ,tusayan ,indian supposes some connection between the lightning1 snake1 and rain4 ,the sustenance of the primitive agriculturist comes from the earth1 and if the soil is nonproductive the sun and rain are of no avail4 ,the ,tusayan ,indian thus recognizes the potency of the earth and symbolically deifies it as the mother4 ,consequently earth goddesses play important roles in his mythology1 and here likewise the composition of the tribe shows itself in the many names by which the earth mother is designated4 ,we find her called 8,mother of ,germs10 8,old ,woman10 8,spider ,woman10 8,corn ,maid10 8,growth ,goddess40 ,strangely enough to us1 but by no means strange to a primitive mind1 this latter is associated with fire2 for in the ,indian conception fire itself is a living being1 and what is more natural than association of fire and growth8 ,before we pass to a consideration of the lesser gods of ,tusayan there remains to be considered1 among those of primary importance1 a strange collection of concepts1 the direct outgrowth of sun worship4 ,i refer to what are known as the gods of the world quarters or cardinal directions4 ,the constant observation of the sun has led to an intimate study of the position of this luminary in different seasons1 especially in his variation in places of rising and setting4 ,as is well known1 the sun1 on account of the obliquity of the ecliptic1 rises and sets at different points on the horizon at different dates1 varying with latitude1 between certain distances north and south4 ,the intervals on the horizon between extreme northern and southern azimuth is mapped out by a society of sun priests1 who note the tree1 hillock1 or depression in the horizon from which the sun rises or into which he seems to sink at each interval1 and thus determine the time for ceremonials with surprising accuracy year by year4 ,the solstitial points of the sun on the horizon thus came to be cardinal points1 two of which are called sun houses4#g ,footnote #g3 ,the horizontal positions of the sun at the solstices were probably recognized as cardinal by other peoples of agricultural life4 ,the reader who is interested to follow this subject further is referred to various works on the orientation of ,egyptian temples4 ,as the four solstices are marked epochs in the sun worship of an agricultural people1 the points of rising and setting at these times1 or their cardinal points1 are associated with minor deities1 offspring of sun and earth4 ,these are the positions of the sun houses4 ,naturally1 his children live in these four world quarters1 and from that primitive idea is evolved the worship of the so-called world-quarter deities which play such a prominent part in the ,tusayan ritual4 ,ancestor worship has developed into an elaborate system of minor supernaturals called ,katcinas1 most powerful1 in their conception1 to bring blessings1 another name in their vocabulary for rain4 ,it would be instructive to trace the origin and define the character of these beings if time permitted4 ,their name is legion1 their ceremonials complicated4 ,in addition to the deification of the forces of nature1 totems of animals1 and ancestral personages1 ,tusayan supernal concepts are almost infinite in variety and number1 many of which are simply modified fetishes1 the heritage of archaic conditions4 ,to define the character of a tithe of these concepts would be a task too technical for general discussion4 ,among a people where gods are so numerous1 every hostile one must be appeased1 no beneficent personage forgotten4 ,from one end of the year to another there is almost a constant round of ceremonials1 to describe which in detail would tax your patience4 ,fortunately1 however1 these ceremonials admit of a classification4 ,in one way we may say that the ritual of a people is the sum of all ceremonials which recur with precision in successive cycles4 ,the time commonly adopted by primitive people is a natural epoch1 the year determined by the course of the seasons4 ,minor divisions of this year1 or months1 are characterized each by a special ceremonial1 so that roughly speaking we may say that each ceremonial year at ,tusayan is composed of thirteen great ceremonial events1 one for each lunar revolution4 ,in the most elaborate of these monthly ceremonials occur rites lasting sixteen days1 with four additional days for purifications4 ,in the celebration of many the time is curtailed1 but no moon shines over ,tusayan without witnessing a religious festival of great complexity and prescribed precision1 which is repeated every year at the same time4#h ,footnote #h3 ,for analysis of the ,tusayan calendar1 see ,provisional ,list of ,annual ,ceremonies at ,walpi4 ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 ,bd4 ,,viii1 ,heft4 ,v and ,,vi4 ,leyden1 ,holland4 ,from this complicated series ,i will choose two great ceremonials to illustrate the two most important phases of the influence of aridity4 ,these two occur in consecutive months1 ,august and ,september1 are both celebrated in extenso1 and will for that reason give a fair idea of the nature of the elaborate components4 ,both are characteristic of ,tusayan1 although represented in a somewhat modified form in other pueblos4 ,the first is called the ,snake ,dance1 the second the ,lalakonti4 ,the one is performed by male priests1 the other by female2 the former an elaborate prayer for rain1 the latter for growth and an abundant harvest of maize4 ,both in their respective way illustrate the modifications developed by the climatic conditions4 ,so complicated are they1 however1 that ,i must limit myself to the barest sketch of some of their more striking features4 ,no better ceremony could be chosen to illustrate the effect of the arid environment than the well-known ,snake ,dance1 the most weird rite in the ,tusayan calendar4 ,this dance occurs every summer on alternate years in five of the ,tusayan villages1 and although a dramatization of an elaborate sun-serpent myth is so permeated by rain ceremonials that it has come to be an elaborate prayer for rain4 ,the worship of the serpent occupies a most prominent place in the ritual of all barbarous people where each environment has stamped it with special significance4 ,among the ,tusayan ,indians there are most complicated rites of ophiolatry1 in ,march1#i where six effigies of the ,great ,plumed-headed ,snake are exhibited in the secret rooms in connection with symbols of the sun1 in a strange dramatization4 ,these ceremonials1 however1 have to do with the fertilization of maize and might well be chosen to illustrate rites which pertain to the necessities of agricultural people4 ,footnote #i3 ,the ,pallkonti2 ,a ,tusayan ceremony4 ,journal of ,american ,folk ,lore1 ,october-,december1 #ahic4 ,it is to that ceremony#aj where reptiles are carried fearlessly by the snake priests1 their younger brothers1 as they believe1 to which ,i especially refer1 and to which ,i wish to call your attention4 ,it is impossible for me in the limited time at my disposal to give even a sketch of this complicated rite1 so weird and startling in its character as to rival the most heathen ceremony in the wilds of ,africa4 ,yet this uncanny dance in all human probability will be performed in ,august of the present year in our own country in a ,territory which justly aspires to be a ,state4 ,the participants in it by treaty obligations are citizens of the ,united ,states and their children pupils of the public schools4 ,footnote #aj3 ,for an account of the ,snake ,dance at ,walpi1 see ,journal of ,american ,ethnology and ,archology1 ,vol4 ,,iv2 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co41 ,boston4 ,i have elsewhere pointed out the small part which the ,great ,plumed ,serpent plays in this ceremony1 and the absence of fetishes or idols of this personage in the secret portions of the ceremony4 ,the only symbol of the plumed snake which is found is on the kilts of the snake priest4 ,as nearly as ,i can judge of its place in the components of primitive supernatural concepts1 it seems to be an example of animal totemism and ancestor worship in which special powers to bring the rains are believed to belong to the reptiles1 descendants1 like the living participants1 of a snake mother4 ,the conditions are so often paralleled in the beliefs of other primitive people that there seems to be no exception among the ,hopi4 ,cf4 ,king1 op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,i1 pages #afe-bjg4 ,there is little doubt1 however1 that this survival of aboriginal ceremonials will soon become extinct1 although up to the present time it has been but little modified by the new environment which the white men are bringing to the ,tusayan ,indians4 ,the ceremony is not a haphazard or temporary invention of priests to entertain1 but a part of a serious1 precise ritual which has survived from prehistoric times to our day4 ,fifteen years ago the existence of this dance was practically unknown1 and to-day1 after searching study1 comparatively little has been discovered4 ,it may be wholly abandoned before the scientific man is able to collect material enough to make out what it all means4 ,in order to consider some of the elements of rain-making rites in the ,snake ,dance and accompanying secret ceremonials1 let us first turn to the altars used in this dramatization4 ,the celebration of this uncanny rite is performed by two religious societies or brotherhoods1 which are known as the ,antelope and ,snake priests4 ,the secret ceremonials of each of these priesthoods are very complicated and are performed in subterranean rooms called kivas into which uninitiated are debarred entrance4 ,each of these societies has in its own kiva an altar of complicated nature about which the ceremonials of a secret character are performed4 ,the altar of the ,antelope priests is of especial interest to us in considering the rain-making motives of the ritual4 ,it consists of an elaborate mosaic or picture made of six different colored sands spread on the floor and surrounded by a border of the same material4 ,the picture represents sixteen semicircular figures of four different colors1 the symbols of rain clouds of the four cardinal directions4 ,from one side of this composite picture are drawn parallel lines representing falling rain4 ,this sand picture1 with accompanying fetishes1 is known as the rain-cloud altar1 the home of the rain clouds4 ,illustration3 ,,altar ,,of ,,the ,,antelope ,,priests ,,in ,,the ,,snake ,,dance4 ,,plate ,,lxxi4 ,seated about this altar for seven consecutive days the ,antelope priests daily sing sixteen songs to consecrate prayer sticks1 which are later deposited in shrines to the rain gods4 ,these prayer bearers consist of two sticks painted green and tied together midway in their length4 ,at the point where they are bound is fastened a small packet of sacred meal1 while to the same is also bound a feather of the wild turkey4 ,this feather is aptly chosen1 for the turkey is associated in their mythology with a time or place when the surface of the earth was muddy1 and as they say the black tip of the feather was colored by the turkey dragging his tail in the black mud4 ,to this prayer bearer is likewise attached two herbs--one male1 the other female--plants which love the water4 ,there are many other prescribed details in the manufacture of this prayer stick with which ,i will not weary you1 but there is one point which may be of interest4 ,the prayer bearers or prayer sticks of the first day are made as long as the longest finger of the left hand1 and are carried to four shrines of the cardinal points1 each of which is about #g miles from the pueblo4 ,the length of these prayer sticks diminish each day1 and in the same ratio the distance of the shrines decreases4 ,on the last of the seven days the prayer stick is the length of the ultimate joint of the middle finger1 and the shrines in which they are placed are just outside the town4 ,the intent of the prayers and songs intrusted to these prayer sticks is for rain4 ,the courier who carries them each day is an important priest1 and his explanation of why he proceeds in certain ways in his duty may interest you4 ,he runs swiftly through the whole circuit except when kneeling at the shrines1 and is barefooted and naked1 that the rain gods may notice him and respond with equal haste to the prayers which he bears4 ,he loosens his hair and lets it hang down his back1 symbolic of the way in which he believes the rain gods carry the falling rain which his hair symbolizes4 ,he makes the far circuit on the first day because rain gods dwell far away beyond all cultivated fields4 ,he runs in a circle that all the rain gods may see him4 ,the priests hope the rain deities may notice their courier who bears their offerings to the shrines1 and that each day they may come nearer4 ,hence1 on each succeeding day the courier travels on a shorter circumference4 ,it is thus they wish the rain clouds to approach nearer and nearer and pour down their contents on their houses and fields1 that the dry river beds may be swollen with water and all farmers hear the pattering rain4 ,consider one of the many episodes about the altar in the consecration of the prayer offering4 ,smoking1 as is well known1 was in ,precolumbian times a ceremonial custom among the aborigines of the ,southwest1 and in the ritual of the present pueblos every great rite opens and closes with a formal smoke4 ,the pipe lighter is an important functionary1 next in rank to the chief1 and in passing the pipe certain prescribed usages are always followed and terms of relationship exchanged4 ,the sixteen songs of which ,i have spoken are divided into two groups of eight each by a unique observance--the smoking of the great cloud pipe4 ,in this ceremony four different kinds of herbs are loaded into a conical pipe1 and at a signal the pipe lighter passes a live coal to the chief1 who places it in the larger end1 kneels down behind the altar1 places the larger end of the bowl in his mouth and blows four long whiffs through the pipe upon the sand picture of the altar4 ,the smoke thus formed is called the rain cloud1 which it symbolizes1 and the act a prayer to bring the rain4 ,let us consider the final public event of the ,snake ,dance1 that so often described1 when the snake priests handle venomous reptiles1 apparently without fear1 in the presence of spectators4 ,this uncanny proceeding has the same intent as the secret rites of which we have spoken--a ceremony for rain4 ,the reptiles are believed to be elder brothers of the priests1 and they are gathered from the fields on four successive days to participate in the ceremonies4 ,it is believed that these reptiles have more power to influence supernatural beings than man1 and as the acme of the whole series of nine days' observances they are thrown in a heap on the ground in a circle of sacred meals1 and the chief of the antelopes says a prayer to the struggling mass1 after which they are seized by the priests and carried to the fields commissioned to intercede with rain gods to send the desired rains4 ,in fact1 the whole series of rites which make up the snake celebration is one long prayer of nine days' duration1 filled with startling components the details of which would weary rather than instruct you4 ,let us1 therefore1 turn to another component of the ,tusayan ritual which occurs each year in the month following that in which the ,snake ,dance occurs1 the ceremony of the women priests for the maturation of the corn4 ,i refer to the ,september rites called the ,lalakonti1 celebrated by a priesthood of the same name4 ,the ceremony for growth of the crops1 which is practically for the harvest of maize1 is directly the outgrowth of those climatic conditions which have made the ,tusayan people agriculturists4 ,a failure of this crop means starvation1 and maize is far from a spontaneous growth in those desert sands4 ,hence the elaborate nature of the appeals to the supernatural beings which control this function4 ,this great ceremony is naturally of special concern to women1 the providers4 ,the corn is the mother1 the corn goddess the patron deity of women2 the women are chiefs in this their special ceremonial4 ,in turning over the mass of details which have been recorded concerning the festival of the ,lalakonti it has seemed to me that ,i could not better illustrate the points which ,i especially desire to develop than to explain the altar used by these women priests in this ceremony4 ,the altar#aa is erected in a subterranean secret chamber entered by a ladder through the middle of the roof2 and around this altar are performed many rites the intent of which is an appeal to the gods of growth for abundant harvests4 ,footnote #aa3 ,for description of the ,lalakonti altar1 and ceremonials performed about it1 see ,american ,anthropologist1 ,april1 #ahib4 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxii4 ,,the ,,lalakonti ,,altar4 ,illustration3 ,,four ,,effigies ,,of ,,the ,,lalakonti ,,altar4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,lxxiii4 ,,symbolic ,,figures ,,of ,,rain ,,clouds ,,on ,,tile ,,used ,,in ,,snake ,,dance4 ,there are two upright slats1 painted with symbolic designs1 among which the figures of the rain cloud and falling rain and the lightning which accompanies the rainstorm are most prominent4 ,back of the altar are sticks serving as symbols of the lightning1 the zigzag ones representing the forked and the straight the sheet lightning4 ,two coronets1 one on each side of the altar1 are worn by two of the chiefs and they are made in the form of rain-cloud symbols1 semicircles from which parallel lines representing falling rain are drawn4 ,here1 therefore1 we see several rain symbols in prominent places4 ,but the ceremony in which this altar is used is primarily one for the growth of corn2 let us examine the objects in it with that thought in mind4 ,four effigies or idols between the uprights of the reredos represent the following personages3 ,the one to the right is the goddess of growth4 ,she carries in her belt prayer offerings for abundant harvests4 ,at her feet is an effigy of the corn mountain1 colored with different colored corn1 since all kinds of corn are under her control4 ,in her left hand she has a small jar of holy water1 since corn can not grow without moisture4 ,the figure at her left is the patron goddess of the society who celebrate growth ceremonials1 the ancestral deified totem of the fraternity4 ,at her left is the corn goddess1 since corn is the one cereal whose growth is desired4 ,this figurine bears on her head the symbol of the ear of maize4 ,no field of corn may be harvested without the protection of the warrior in a country harassed by enemies1 and the fourth effigy represents the god of war1 whose effigy naturally has a place on this altar4 ,the white meal which is sprinkled on the heads of all the idols represents the prayers of the faithful1 for as each priest approaches the altar she breathes her prayer on sacred meal and scatters it on the heads of the effigies4 ,these prayers are for a good harvest1 a successful crop and abundant rains4 ,there are three objects in front of the images which are the badges of the priests1 called the 8mothers40 ,in advance of these1 spread on the floor1 is an elaborate picture1 made of different colored sands1 representing on one side the ,earth ,goddess1 and on the other the ,watcher1 or little ,war ,god4 ,connected with the altar is a bowl with terraced rim1 used as a medicine bowl1 and a single upright ear of maize with a feather1 a kind of standard1 which is placed at the pathway of the kiva to warn uninitiated persons not to intrude on the mysteries which are performed about the altar4 ,the influence of arid climatic conditions is shown in the character and intent of symbols4 ,the conventional figure of the rain clouds and falling rain is depicted more than any other on various paraphernalia of worship4 ,it is painted on the altars1 drawn in sacred meal on the floor of his sacred rooms1 or kivas1 embroidered on ceremonial kilts4 ,the priest wears it on his marks and paints it on the body4 ,it is an omnipresent symbol4 ,by a natural connection it is often replaced by figures of animals or plants associated with water4 ,the frog and tadpole appear when the rain is abundant1 and for that reason the priest paints the figures of these animals on his medicine bowl1 or places effigies of it on the altar4 ,in certain rites he makes clay balls1 in which he inserts small twigs1 which he believes will change into tadpoles1 and deposits them along dry water courses for the same reason1 that rain may come4 ,so shells from the great ocean are likewise esteemed as bringers of water1 and fragments of water-worn wood are carefully cherished by him for a like purpose4 ,the dragonfly which hovers over the springs1 the cotton-wood which grows near the springs1 the flag which loves the moist places1 becomes a symbol of water4 ,water itself from the ocean or from some distant spring1 in his conception1 are all powerful agents to bring moisture4 ,there can be but one reason for this--the aridity of his surroundings4 ,not alone in pictoral symbols does he seek to bring the needed rains4 ,the clouds from which rain falls are symbolized by the smoke from the pipe in his ceremony1 and he so regards them4 ,he pours water on the heads of participants in certain ceremonials1 hoping that in the same way rain will fall on his parched fields4 ,even in his games he is influenced by the same thought1 and in certain races the young men run along the arroyos1 as they wish the water to go filled to their banks4 ,to our ways of thinking these are absurd ways in which to bring the rain1 but to a primitive mind it is a method consecrated by tradition and venerated from its antiquity4 ,symbolic figures of maize1 the national food of the ,hopi ,indians1 are no less common on ceremonial paraphernalia than those of rain4 ,maize is painted on the masks of sacred dancers and represented by effigies on altars4 ,it gives names to several supernatural beings4 ,every babe1 when #bj days old1 is dedicated to the sun and receives an ear of corn as its symbolic mother4 ,the badges or palladia of religious societies are ears of corn wrapped in buckskin--symbolic1 no doubt1 of the time when seed corn was the most precious heritage and preserved by the chiefs4 ,the foremost supernatural being in the ,tusayan ,olympus is the ,corn ,maid1 who is figured on food bowls1 baskets1 and elsewhere4 ,it can hardly be necessary for me to adduce more facts in support of the hypothesis that these two elements of the ,tusayan ritual which reflect the climatic surroundings are ceremonials for rain and those for the germination1 maturation1 and abundance of agricultural products4 ,the necessities of life have driven man into the agricultural condition1 and the aridity of the climate has forced him to devise all possible means at his control to so influence his gods as to force them to send the rains to aid him4 ,wherever we turn in an intimate study of the ceremonials of the ,tusayan ,indians we see the imprint of the arid deserts by which they are surrounded1 always the prayer for abundant crops1 and rains for his parched fields4 ,when one makes the ,tusayan ritual a special study he finds it wonderfully complicated in the development of details4 ,no ,hopi priest lives who understands the meaning of all these details1 nor does he care for an explanation of them4 ,there are two fundamental factors1 however1 which he can comprehend1 and these are always on his lips when an explanation of the ritual is solicited4 ,we cling to the rites of our ancestors because they have been pronounced good by those who know4 ,we erect our altars1 sing our traditional songs1 and celebrate our sacred dances for rain that our corn may germinate and yield abundant harvest4 ,the town crier calls at dawn from the house top the following announcement1 which is the key to the whole explanation of the ,tusayan ritual3 8,all people awake1 open your eyes1 arise1 ,become ,talahoya 7child of light71 vigorous1 active1 sprightly4 ,hasten clouds from the four world quarters2 ,come snow in plenty1 that water may be abundant when summer comes4 ,come ice and cover the fields1 that after planting they may yield abundantly2 ,let all hearts be glad2 ,the knowing ones will assemble in four days2 ,they will encircle the village dancing and singing their lays 99 99 99 ,that moisture may come in abundance40 ,i have limited myself to showing that the arid climatic conditions are reflected from the rites of one tribe of ,indians1 and it would be instructive to see whether these facts are of importance from the comparative side4 ,there are other equally arid regions of the globe where we might justly look for the same results if this climatic condition is as powerful in the modification of cults as implied4 ,there are marked similarities in the climate of ,arabia1 of ,peru1 and of ,assyria1 and as a consequence startling resemblances in their rituals4 ,but there are many differences2 and we thus detect that our analyses of causes has not been complete or ultimate1 for we have limited it to but one powerful element in the modifications of ceremonials4 ,environment is a complicated nexus of influences1 organic and inorganic1 threads of which we can successfully trace a certain distance1 but which eludes as we go further4 ,there are many effects where causes remain to be discovered1 and many climatic influences on cults have yet to be clearly discerned4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a few words more and ,i have done4 ,theories among civilized men1 like things among savages1 may become fetishes4 ,it would be lamentable if environment should become a word to conjure with1 or if we should use it to cover ignorance of that which we can not explain4 ,i have tried to show that one highly complicated ritual is so plastic that it responds to climatic conditions1 but there are elements in it due to some other unknown cause4 ,because climatic conditions explain certain modifications in human culture the tendency would be to strive to make it do duty in explaining all4 ,such a generalization is premature and unscientific4 ,the theory that differences of species of animals and plants were due to climatic influences may have satisfied the early students of evolution before ,charles ,darwin pointed out the law of natural selection4 ,environment is a factor which profoundly affects animals1 but a struggle for existence in which the fittest survive is a law of evolution4 ,so environment is a potent influence on the culture of man1 but there are laws1 as yet not clearly made out1 back of it which control the evolution of man4 ,when in the struggle for existence the fittest came to be measured by degrees of intelligence1 and no longer by superiority of bodily structure1 climatic conditions were still powerful to modify and stimulate thought4 ,the increase in intelligence due to these agents did not develop a new species1 for1 to whatever heights he rises1 man still remains ,homo sapiens4 ,if1 then1 the specific identity of all individual men on the globe to-day is true1 the superstitions which we have studied are errors of minds like our own1 but imperfectly developed and modified by environment4 ,in her mistakes1 said the great naturalist ,geoffroy ,st4 ,hilaire1 nature betrays her secrets4 ,by a study of erroneous working of the mind and their probable causes we can discover the nature of mind4 ,below all ceremonials among all men1 savage or barbarous1 may be traced aspirations akin to our own since they spring from our common nature4 ,until some philosopher shall arise who can so analyze environment as to demonstrate that the great religious teachers of man1 who1 suddenly appearing1 have stimulated the race to great bounds in progress1 were solely the products of surroundings1 we may believe that there is another most potent influence behind environment controlling the development of culture4 ,throughout all history man1 from his own consciousness1 has recognized that controlling influence to be higher than environment1 and no science nor philosophy has yet succeeded in banishing the thought from his mind4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected4 ,typographical errors were silently corrected4 ,inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only when a predominant form was found in this book4 ,text that3 was in italics is enclosed by underscores 7italics74