,publications of the ,anthropological ,society of ,london4 ,,the ,,plurality ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,race4 ,,pouchet4 ,,the ,,plurality ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,race3 ,,by ,,georges ,,pouchet1 ,,doctor ,,of ,,medicine1 ,,licentiate ,,of ,,natural ,,science1 ,,aide-,,naturaliste ,,in ,,the ,,museum ,,of ,,rouen1 ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,anthropological ,,society ,,of ,,paris1 ,,corresponding ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,anthropological ,,society ,,of ,,london1 ,,etc4 ,,translated ,,and ,,edited1 7,from the ,second ,edition71 ,,by ,,hugh ,j4 ,c4 ,,beavan1 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 ,f4,a4,s4,l41 ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,temple1 ,,barrister-,,at-,,law4 ,,london3 ,,published ,,for ,,the ,,anthropological ,,society1 ,,by ,,longman1 ,,green1 ,,longman1 ,,and ,,roberts1 ,,paternoster ,,row4 #ahfd4 ,,dedicated ,,to ,,the ,,right ,,honourable ,,sir ,,edward ,g4 ,e4 ,l4 ,,bulwer-,,lytton1 ,,bart41 ,m4,p41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,etc4 ,with all the respect ,,due ,,to ,a ,,great ,,writer ,,and ,,learned ,,man1 ,,by ,,hugh ,j4 ,c4 ,,beavan4 ,,editor',s ,,preface4 ,a few words by way of preface to a book on the ,plurality of the ,human ,race are necessary as well as advisable4 ,they are especially so when the ,author and ,editor differ considerably in their opinions1 as in this case2 and although it is by no means a sine qu non that they should always agree1 there are certain points on which a few lines may be required4 ,the ,publishing ,committee of the ,anthropological ,society of ,london honoured me by committing the translation and editing of this book to my care1 and ,i set about the task with some diffidence1 as this is probably the first work of the kind which has ever been given to the ,english literary world in a convenient and popular form4 ,such being the case1 there will sometimes be found expressions which may be thought foreign2 but ,i have preferred on these occasions giving the more literal translation1 instead of one which possibly might fail to convey the ,author's real meaning4 ,in books containing such very peculiar ideas as those of ,m4 ,pouchet1 it is requisite to be especially careful on this head4 ,of the clever nature and terse expression of the work there can be little doubt1 but ,i am sorry to find in it opinions with which ,i cannot at all agree1 and in order to prove which1 or rather endeavour to do so1 science is strained in an unnatural manner4 ,the theory of spontaneous generation is by no means a new one2 but ,m4 ,pouchet can throw very little light on the subject1 and leaves it as before--entirely unproved4 ,the extreme sceptical nature of his views is much to be regretted1 and in this especially the ,author and ,editor are in entire disagreement4 ,the former is inclined to go out of his way to bring forward those views1 when they were not required1 and would have been better left unsaid4 ,we have1 however1 a new and extremely interesting field of investigation opened to us2 but the more pains our author takes to explain and illustrate the wonders of our physical and psychological nature1 the more he seems to disprove his own theory of spontaneous generation4 ,blackmore said-- 8,survey ,nature's extended face1 then1 sceptics say1 ,in this wide field of wonders can you find ,no art80 ,but ,m4 ,pouchet does find art in nature2 he tells us that its ways are intricate and manifold1 but still that it all arises from some germ spontaneously generated1 he cannot say how4 ,with this exception1 which some may think no fault at all1 ,i recommend this book heartily to the ,fellows of the ,society and the public generally4 ,the clearness and even brilliancy of ,m4 ,pouchet's very peculiar style are soon discoverable1 and it is not astonishing that his book has had a great success in ,france4 ,that such will be the case in its ,english form is my sincere wish4 ,i must thank my friend ,mr4 ,carter ,blake especially for many kind and valuable hints1 and ,i need scarcely say1 in conclusion1 that as much care as possible has been taken with the translation and editing4 ,i now commit this little work to the kind consideration of the ,society and the world4 ,it is for them to judge how my duties have been performed4 ,h4 ,j4 ,c4 ,b4 ,london1 ,august #cjth1 #ahfd4 ,,to ,,professor ,,richard ,,owen4 ,sir1--,i begged to be allowed to dedicate to you the first edition of this essay1 in remembrance of the kind hospitality ,i formerly received from you in the cottage at ,mortlake1 and of our long conversations1 in which you were so ready with good advice4 ,the debt of hospitality can never be repaid4 ,i am happy to be able once more to express my gratitude to you1 and my admiration of your great works4 ,,georges ,,pouchet4 ,musum de ,rouen1 ,july #ast1 #ahfd4 ,,author',s ,,preface4 ,i now offer to the public the second edition of a book whose success has far surpassed my expectations4 ,received with kindness by some1 it has been violently attacked by others4 ,it was denounced to the highest representatives of the university authority on which ,i depended1 and ,i owed my escape from the trouble which might have been drawn on me1--because ,i brought forward a scientific opinion in disagreement with the books attributed to the prophet ,moses1--to the justice of one of the most honoured members of the ,institute4 ,i owe a large debt of gratitude to my illustrious protector4 ,the mind has advanced during six years1 and the same troubles will not be met with again4 ,a good many alterations will be discovered in this ,second ,edition2 this is always the case with science4 ,in matters of imagination1 when the artist has finished his work1 he can cast it on the world and follow his fancy in some other way4 ,if science were only composed of truths1 its conditions would almost be the same for its disciples2 but the seeker after truth is not a creator like an artist1 he explains and reflects upon a world of facts1 variable at every hour1 according as hypotheses are changed into certainties1 or certainties of yesterday into doubtful cases of to-day4 ,it is1 then1 an incessant work of reparation and alteration1 in order to maintain even the most modest work in harmony with the daily progress of science2 ,i have made this work as perfect as was in my power4 ,i have taken great care with the list of authorities4 ,i have also indicated by their titles all the articles from periodicals1 reviews1 or academic collections1 to which ,i refer the reader4 ,i am sure that those who know what an ungrateful task it is to search such badly catalogued libraries as most of ours are1 will give me credit for this part of my work4 ,we can only see the expression of science at a given moment in ,mmoires4 ,books are1 after all1 merely a summary3 they are behind-hand even on the day they are published4 ,g4 ,p4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,editor',s ,,dedication v ,,editor',s ,,preface vii ,,author',s ,,dedication ix ,,author',s ,,preface xi ,,contents xiii ,,introduction #a ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,human ,,kingdom #aj ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,comparative ,,psychology #bd ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,order ,,of ,,bimana #ch ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,anatomical1 ,,physiological1 ,,and ,,pathological ,,varieties #dc ,,chapter ,v4 ,,intellectual ,,and ,,philological ,,varieties #fb ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,climate #hj ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,hybridity #ie ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,species #ajh ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,system #acd ,,index ,,of ,,subjects #aec ,,index ,,of ,,authors #aef ,,the ,,plurality ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,race4 ,,introduction4 ,for a long period1 in medival days1 science was to most people what it was to ,servetus1 a simple paraphrase or glossary of a revealed text4 ,in this was the truth1 and if observation itself seemed sometimes contradictory1 it was certain that there was some mistake2 it was necessary to re-examine the contested question1 and by dint of inquiring into the facts1 they were altered so wisely1 that in the end they always were found to agree4 ,all over the ,east1 among the ,semitic race1#a that which above all other possesses respect for authority1 science still lives4 ,without the law there is no science1 and the ,korn is what the books of the sons of ,israel and the writings of the apostles were in the middle ages1 the great1 the only authority1 to which everything was referred4#b ,if science has shone with a bright light in the ,east1 this was due solely to the introduction of a more human philosophy1 born among another race1 and conveyed there by the works of ,aristotle and the neo-,platonists4 ,the ,east was inspired for an instant with these foreign doctrines1 which it would have been incapable of originating itself4 ,it revived for a century or two under their influence1 but soon everything reverted to a former state of order2 having shone in the barbarism of a pure theism1 whence it would never have come out without the contact of a world extrinsic and superior to certain considerations1 without the momentary education which it had thus received from it4 ,all the sciences are not in the same intimate relation with the texts called revealed2 the mathesiological order is that in which the sciences have had1 and could have1 the least to suffer from religious influence2 in the first place1 mathematics1 which1 from their nature1 would never have known how to yield2 and1 lastly1 geology and anthropology1 allied by intimate relations to the ,divine tradition of the first chapter of ,genesis4 ,but see how geology1 which we thought for so long a time was in agreement with it1 grows more distant every day as new discoveries are multiplied4 ,the pretended epochs see1 day by day1 that their artificial limits are disappearing1 now that one finds reptiles in coal-fields and mammalia in ,trias4 ,anthropology in ,france seems1 at last1 to desire to free itself from the shameful yoke which has for so long paralysed its flight4 ,in its turn it claims independence4 ,but1 we would declare this1 that the principle of authority1 defeated on so many points1 has concentrated its highest efforts behind this last rampart1 calling to its aid the pretence of morality and propriety4 ,the question of the unity or the plurality of the human race1 so far as relates to species1 is only a scientific one2 but others make of it a question of principle1 as in the time of ,galileo1 when it was a matter of overturning the ideas of the old world1 supported by a testimony which was not allowed to be doubted4 ,so the struggle is a sharp one2#c it is felt that it refers almost to a dogma1 and not merely to an accessory fact4 ,science clashes there with religion1 as is the case with geology1 and as formerly with astronomy2 but in no way is the shock so violent1 in no way can its consequences be as great4 ,anthropology1 more than any other science1 ought to produce immense results4#d ,who does not see that the abyss becomes every day deeper under the belief of the past1 and that science1 at a given moment1 will become the foundation of more perfect morality8 ,this antagonism is the first difficulty which we find at the threshold of anthropology4 ,we should have wished to have entered upon our subject without being obliged1 not absolutely to discuss it1 but merely to show the disputed point in the question4 ,unfortunately1 the example has been given us2 we must follow it4 ,two schools are to be found in anthropology2 one called that of the ,polygenists1 the other that of the ,monogenists1#e two words which came from ,america1 and which we receive because they have the great advantage of being clear and precise1 determining1 by the opposing point of their doctrines1 two distinct schools1 the one recognising but one family in the human race1 of which some members have alone preserved the primitive type--altered everywhere else2 the other school recognising no direct relationship among the races of mankind4 ,the ,polygenistic school is comparatively modern2 the founders of anthropology--the ,blumenbachs and the ,prichards--belonged to the other4 ,now1 if they took their stand on an entirely philosophic or experimental point of view1 we should be very badly received now-a-days if we were to reconsider the question upon a burning soil4 ,it has not been so1 however4 ,most ,monogenists#f have1 up to the present time1 done the universal wrong of invoking1 in proof of their ideas1 an authority which it is not allowable to discuss4 ,science is neither a special attribute of privileged castes1 nor given to certain times in preference to others2 it has never been obliged to wait for a revelation2 it is universal1 and all men1 endowed with the same faculties1 have always been able1 in all countries and at all times1 to carry it as far1 when they have had the same means and the same occasions of observation2 it is thus that psychology1 based upon simple reflection1 has not farther progressed in our days than at ,athens or at ,alexandria2 from ,plato to ,descartes there is only the distance between one system and the other4 8,historians of that which is10 has said the illustrious chief of the philosophical school of ,france1 ,etienne ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 8we cannot fail1 except when we cease to relate the truth40#g ,now1 truth in science cannot be governed except by two means1 reasoning after the manner of mathematics1 and observation1 of which experiment is but a variety4 ,every idea priori1 every hypothesis is only good if we accept it with a strong determination of abandoning it if the facts are no longer explicable by its means4 ,without this1 its influence is disastrous1 let the origin of this previous idea be in ourselves or in others1 whether it is our own or has been imposed upon us4#h ,in starting with a preconceived idea one arrives most often1 in science1 at false allegations1 always at uncertainties4 ,it is upon reasons of this sort that some have not feared to rest the theory of the unity of the human race2#i since this hypothesis being accepted1 they have caused1 willingly or otherwise1 their observed facts to correspond with it4 ,were the generally-admitted principles of classification irksome to them8 ,they passed on2 they shut their eyes to the most profound1 the most positive1 the most evident differences4 ,ought not1 then1 unity to triumph8 ,what did it signify1 besides1 whether the ,negro descended from the white man1 or the contrary--for these two opinions have been defended2 for some1 a few generations have been sufficient to transform the fine ,greek blood1 which gave models to ,phidias and ,praxiteles1 into an ,australian aboriginal4 ,for others1 the ,negroes were the true representation of our first parents1 that perfect work which last of all left the hands of ,god4 ,lieut4-,colonel ,h4 ,smith#aj would admit that in the beginning were created separately certain groups of men1 if revelation were not positive on this point4 ,we notice especially in ,kaempfer a specimen of what we may call orthodox ethnology1 which is curious above all things2 having discovered that the ,japanese have nothing in common with the ,chinese1 he decides1 with a marvellous assurance1 that they are directly descended from the men on the scaffoldings of the ,tower of ,babel4 ,and as their language resembles no other tongue1 he draws the conclusion that their ancestors must have travelled very fast1 so as not to have become acquainted with anybody else6#aa ,and let no one say that it is obsolete matter to treat of science4 ,orthodox physics and chemistry are indeed no myths4 ,m4 ,marcel de ,serres1 who has also occupied himself with anthropology1 speaking of the discussions which have been raised between the partisans of emission and those of luminous undulation1 adds1 that this latter theory has more chances of being exact1 8because the facts related by the legislator of the ,hebrews seem to him to be more favourable to truth40#ab ,the ,congregation of the ,index1 judging ,galileo1 reasoned in the same way4#ac ,we arrive thus at once at the proscription of certain inquiries1 and we ask ourselves1 ,how two men1 so eminent as ,humboldt and ,bonpland1 could have approved of such lines as the following8 8,the general question of the first origin of the inhabitants of a continent is beyond the limits prescribed to history1 perhaps it may not be even a philosophical question40#ad ,it is true that the work in which this singular declaration is to be found is dedicated to his ,catholic ,majesty ,charles ,,iv4 ,thanks to these fatal influences1 thanks to the interdicts with which some would have desired to stifle the natural history of mankind1 as if they were afraid of seeing the spark1 which should accomplish the ruin of the past1 disappear with the full light2 thanks to all these obstacles1 anthropology was for a long time thrown into the background4 ,it is in ,america where we behold it reinstated in its rank1 in that country of every kind of liberty4 ,it is there that our old continent ought to go in order to find masters who have known how to enter into scientific pursuits with this free and independent mind which1 in old times1 according to ,epicurus1 freed mankind from the yoke of superstition1 and gave to intelligence the sceptre of the world4 ,the eighteenth century1 with all its scepticism1 had not done little in this way2 its fault1 indeed1 was in this scepticism1 in this doubting priori4 ,it rejected without examination1 therefore its work was not lasting1 and the few lines of ,voltaire which his good sense had written with a ,polygenistic tendency1 had no influence at all4#ae ,at present ,france and ,england walk entirely in the scientific path opened by the ,american school4 ,it is some years since it was vainly endeavoured to establish in these two countries learned societies for the study of ethnology2 that time has passed4 ,now ,paris and ,london maintain two prosperous anthropological societies4#af ,we do not hesitate in attributing the reason of this success to the profound discredit in which the continued blending of matters of faith with matters of science1 has justly fallen4 ,apart from religious influence1 there is another which may make itself felt as regards anthropology4 ,we mean those very honourable sentiments about equality and confraternity which an honest heart will feel towards all men1 whatever may be their origin1 whatever the colour of their skin1 but of which the searcher#ag after truth must disembarrass himself1 cost what it may to him as a man4 ,such feelings honour those who are animated by them1 but when they interfere with science1 they can only injure it4 ,how many years1 how many centuries1 have anatomy and medicine been obliged to wait until they could take a lasting and an upward flight6 ,respect for the dead is doubtless a human sentiment1 if any2 but it used to paralyse these two branches of our knowledge2 they are only possible to be learnt by profaning mortal remains reverenced by the religions of antiquity4 ,physiology1 rendered so clear by vivisection1 knows no pity2 mankind feels it1 but the physiologist shuts up all knowledge of it from himself2 it is momentarily destroyed1 since it would injure any inquiry into the laws of life4 ,it must be owned that the science which engages our attention has not been able entirely to disembarrass itself among us of that which we may call moral propriety4#ah ,it has a powerful influence on certain minds1 sometimes unwittingly1 sometimes of their free will4#ai ,we have ourselves heard eminent professors make a noble appeal to the fraternity which ought to exist among men1--plead in their chairs the cause of inferior races1 and proclaim the equality of the ,african people with ourselves4 ,such noble theories were received as they ought to be1 with the most ardent applause4 ,there remains only to inquire if this is truly philosophical progress1 and if kindness1 pity1 or compassion1 have any value in the great balance of facts4 ,it was time1 indeed1 that a new method--an independent one--should see the light in anthropology1 as it has already done in astronomy1 as it also has begun to do in geology4 ,it was time to return to the human mind its wings4 ,facts1 reasonings supported by facts1 are the sole basis of every solid work--of every certainty in scientific matters2 it is the only method which can lead us--by a slow path1 perhaps1 but a sure one--to the solution of the most difficult and the most obscure problems4 ,we do not except that of the origin of man4 ,we do not pretend to be first in the path which we here point out1 but we wish to express our regret at not having seen it openly enough followed by all those who are worthy to enter it4 ,as for ourselves1 what we have desired in this essay is1 first1 to hold ourselves apart from all extra-scientific data--from all sentimental science2 we have desired to treat some anthropological questions as they would have done at ,athens1 ,rome1 or at ,alexandria--a task above our powers1 doubtless1 but which we hold ourselves bound in honour to attempt4 ,we shall carefully1 then1 avoid entering into any controversy touching the dogmas of one religion or the other2 we shall not contest the authority of the ,scriptures1 whatever they may be1 ,hebrew1 ,christian1 ,arabic1 or ,buddhist2 we have put them on one side1 and that is all4#bj ,descartes has truly observed that every scientific question ought to be examined1 even those which are most superstitious and most false1 8so as to recognise their just value1 and to guard against being deceived by them40#ba ,one may be free to consider this essay as an attempt of that kind4 ,we shall be praised or blamed3 we have been so already4 ,we have1 for our comfort1 the conscientious feeling of having no other object before our eyes but an inquiry into truth1--the truth1 the common end towards which the power of every man who believes in progress should tend4 8,where truth reigns10 says ,m4 ,chevreul1 8no disputes or discussions are possible40#bb ,the reign of truth is the reign of concord amongst mankind4 ,it is the golden age4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,human ,,kingdom4 ,above inorganic matter1 plants1 and animals1 is placed ,man4 ,here1 without any doubt1 man is indeed the first of the organisms1 when one tries to place in linear series all those which move on our planet4 ,it is1 also1 not his relative position in the living world that it is difficult to discover2 it is what we may call his true place4 ,what is1 in other terms1 the value of the differences which separate man from other mammalia8 and at what distance is he from the animal that immediately follows him in this linear series which we are supposing8 ,to examine what man is with respect to the highest orders of mammalia1 and in a more general manner1 to animals1 is the primordial question which presents itself in anthropology4 ,it seems at first sight that it would suffice1 in order to settle it1 to throw a glance on this complete body1 formed of the same anatomical elements1 absolutely submitted to the same exigences of development1 nutrition1 and reproduction1 as animals4 ,ought not all this to make us think that we were not altogether made of so immaterial a substance as the philosophers have generally been satisfied to believe8 ,this has not been the case4 ,two systems--two theories1 are before us4 ,the one pretends that man is but the first among animals1 that he is similar to them in the clear and precise sense in which this term is taken in geometry1 designing qualities1 which may differ ad infinitum1 but which still may be comparable4 ,another system1 supported by the most illustrious names1 makes of man a sort of special entity1 differing from other organised beings by the distinct and clear nature of his intelligence4 ,it is an opinion adopted and defended to the last by a learned man1 to whose memory we cannot1 en passant1 prevent ourselves from rendering the homage which is his due1 ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire4 ,we find in the second volume of his ,histoire ,naturelle ,gnrale1 almost a return to ,cartesian ideas4 ,according to him animals do not think1 they possess only that sensibility that plants have not4#bc ,and the celebrated naturalist agreed with the adoption of a human kingdom1 appearing as the crowning-point of the organic and inorganic kingdoms1#bd and as distinct from the second as this is from the third4 ,before proceeding further1 we may be permitted to make one preliminary remark4 ,we may thus declare it3-- ,,proposition4--,man nearly approaches the ,anthropomorphous ,apes in his ,physical ,organism4 ,whether one is a partisan or not of the 8,human ,kingdom10 this resemblance is a fact which it will be in no person's ideas to contest4 ,and it is not merely in the external forms2 we find it even greater if1 going to the foundation of the facts1 we give our attention to the essential parts composing the body1--to the anatomical elements1--to those delicate particles visible only in the microscope1 and which always show1 among animals of the same group1 a marvellous uniformity4 ,it is here where1 if not an impossibility1 at least a sort of contradiction presents itself to the defenders of the 8human kingdom20 for there are two organisms1 scarcely different1 at the service of two directing powers1 of two intelligences absolutely and radically dissimilar4 ,doubtless all the forces of organised matter are not known to us1 but does not this resemblance1 though even a superficial one1 surprise us2 and does it not seem that every organism constituted directly by reason of the influences which it is qualified to receive or to transmit1 ought to vary like these influences1 and in the same proportion8 ,it is very easy to admit that there is more distance between the intelligence of man and that of the anthropomorphous apes1 than between the intelligence of these last and that of the smooth-brained squirrel1 and that at the same time the immense distance is only marked in the first case by very superficial variations of the organ of intellectual manifestations1 whilst1 in the second case1 this lesser distance is explained by enormous differences4 ,to admit1 with ,bossuet1#be that this superior intelligence1 the appanage of man1 is not attached to the organs reserved for the manifestations of this inferior intelligence common to man and animals1 is to return to ,descartes1 and this is to fall again into new difficulties4 ,will this superior intelligence1 thus detached from the material world1 be then inaccessible to physical violence8 ,whilst the finger of the physiologist or the surgeon1 pressing the brain1 extinguishes for a moment in the animal1 the faculty of thinking1 will human intelligence1 freed from this servitude1 remain1 in the like case1 undisturbed in a higher sphere8 ,no1 by the compression of the brain man loses consciousness like the animal4 ,it is material substance1 which1 brought into contact with the anatomical elements of the nervous centres1 can excite1#bf trouble1#bg or depress1#bh the intelligence of animals1 and leave no part of the human intellect untouched4 ,let us reconsider these two systems3 viz41 that man is similar to animals as much by his intelligence as by his bodily formation2 or that he differs from them entirely4 ,and now we have two clearly stated theories before us for our consideration4 ,to embrace either one or the other priori1 merely for the sake of propriety or sentiment1 would be an arbitrary proceeding1 essentially faulty1 and contrary to all rule2 as in natural science1 no other assistance is required except facts1 in order to explain the origin of anything4 ,however1 without prejudging the solution of this question1 let us simply examine the results to which1 by its nature1 it may lead us4 ,that man is of himself a special entity1 a kingdom1 a world of his own1 a sort of microcosm1 a whole beyond the pale of universal life1 may be perhaps a flattering unction to our soul2#bi it does little or nothing for science4 ,anthropology may have its special means of inquiry2 perhaps these means are still to be found1 but she will stand alone--without profit to the other branches of human knowledge1 a dead branch which will not grow1 casting all its leaves4 ,if not--if man enters into the common course of life--if he is merely a part of one grand organic whole1 necessarily allied to others by a thousand points of contact and intimate relations1 then anthropology1 fertilised by the principle of universality1 becomes a science by which we may profit2 it gives to her sisters1 the other natural sciences1 that assistance which she herself receives from them2 the paths widen2 the science of organisation becomes easier1 more certain1 and more enlarged2 synthesis1 displaying its powerful energies1 opens to us the path of the unknown2 the mind1 overleaping this obstacle1 pointed out by ,montaigne1 8of not understanding0 animals1 will study their intelligence1 and will search their inmost thoughts4 ,as for ourselves1 we are learning to know them1 like ,galen the inspired1 who obtained a knowledge of human anatomy by dissecting a monkey4 ,let us endeavour to obtain an exact idea of this barrier1 apparently impossible to be overcome1 which separates man from the brute creation4 ,whether we compare him to the highest order of primates living on trees--this genius which is the glory of humanity1 which has raised to such a height both science and art--or only to the last from among us1 members of the great family rejoicing in a white skin1 then the transition is brutish1 and it seems that an abyss separates us from the famous wild man of the woods1 so celebrated in the travels of the last century4 ,it is thus that the human kingdom has been established1 comparing the two extremes1 without taking account of the intermediate terms4 ,let us put on one side1 for an instant1 the question of origin4 ,a race1 or a family1 endowed with a characteristic and united activity1 by the form of mind peculiar to itself1 with a prepossession for reuniting in a cluster the work of every individual intelligence1 forms out of it a sort of thought common to all1 and transmits this inheritance from generation to generation4 ,one can understand that1 as time goes on1 this family1 or this race1 will arrive at a degree of civilisation very different to that which it showed at the time of its origin4 ,the concurrence of so many intelligent modes of action will gently1 but naturally1 lead it to purely metaphysical ideas--to the intricate idea of a divinity1 etc4 ,but1 in such an arrangement1 each one is1 after all1 but the representative of a secular intellectual work1 accustomed since the cradle1 without any self-knowledge of the fact1 to natural habits and language4 ,we ask if it is right to compare a being thus raised and exalted by his own means with an animal which has no more remote past than its own birth8#cj ,let us take1 then1 for the sake of comparing them with animals1 those people in whom life is in some sort individual1 among whom no person adds anything to transmitted inheritance1--among whom even this inheritance has originally come from outside1 and who1 we know not why1 having arrived at the lowest ebb of civilisation1 have not been able to improve or perfect it4 ,some may say that they simply copy everything4 ,some may say that the huge weapons used by the inhabitants of ,central ,africa and ,australia have only become known by importation2 that the savage is civilised at a given moment by contact with some foreign nation--by imitation1 a faculty which is possessed1 within well marked limits1 by the highest order of apes2 and then1 that progress has been stopped when these people return to their own homes4 ,how can we explain otherwise1 for example1 that the ,northern ,esquimaux1 living on the ice by the borders of creeks and bays1 can make dresses and arms1 and have never been able to construct a machine capable of bearing them upon the waters8#ca ,if we break up one continuous series1 and compare together the two first terms with two of the fragments of the series1 they will in reality appear entirely distinct2 in fact1 almost impossible to be connected with one common type4 ,but1 if we compare the last term of one of these partial series with the first term of the following1 then the differences are blended1 because the transformations do not happen to hide the parts so much that one cannot recognise their fundamental unity4 ,we discover1 for example1 that in the animal series1 such a crustacean is almost a mollusk1 such a reptile1 such a mammal1 almost a bird4#cb ,differences are extinguished2 those beings which were said to be most distant have become almost allied one to the other4 ,we can only perceive one continuous series2 so much so1 indeed1 that even where there are any unfilled spaces1 or missing links1 we consider ourselves almost justified in declaring the past existence 7or the future one87 of some intermediate animal4 ,as for ourselves1 the series of beings given by ,bonnet and ,leibnitz1 so far as regards any ulterior phenomenon1 resulting from the observation of beings who have not been of necessity created in this order1 is true not only of the physical1 but also of the intellectual world4 ,shall we desire to know what man has in common with the ape--what distance there is between the one and the other1--let us no longer put ourselves on the stage1 we who are privileged so to do2 let us descend boldly the steps of the human ladder1 and let us see what we shall find as we do so4 ,examples are not wanting of races placed so low1 that they have quite naturally appeared to resemble the ape tribe4 ,these people1 much nearer than ourselves to a state of nature1 deserve on that account every attention on the part of the anthropologist and the linguist1 who may both discover1 by their means1 problems otherwise difficult or impossible to be solved4 ,it is because we have not studied the psychological characters of these races1 that we have fallen into such strange mistakes4 ,what will become of all those superb theories concerning this superior intelligence of man1 so entirely independent and disengaged from the world1 on which so much praise is conferred8 ,what will become of the unity of the human species1 if we can prove that certain races are not a whit more intelligent than certain animals1 and have no more idea of a moral world or of religion than they themselves have8 ,the most commonly quoted example is that of the aborigines of ,australia4 8,they have always shown complete ignorance10 say both ,lesson and ,garnot1#cc 8a sort of moral brutality4444 ,a kind of highly developed instinct for discovering the food which is always difficult for them to obtain seems1 among them1 to have taken the place of most of the moral faculties of mankind40 ,if the ,english police did not watch very strictly1 they would set at defiance every day1 at least in the towns of their colonies1 all the laws of public decency without any more thought than the monkeys in a menagerie4 ,in the account given of the ,american ,expedition in #ahch1 ,mr4 ,hale writes that they almost possess the stupidity of the brute1 that they can only count up to four1 and some tribes only so far as three4 8,the power of reasoning10 he says1 8seems but imperfectly developed among them4 ,the arguments used by the colonists to convince or persuade them are often such as they would use towards children or persons who are almost idiotic40#cd ,,mm4 ,quoy and ,gaimard1 whom no one will accuse of polygenist tendencies1 give the following account of their interview with these miserable people4 8,our presence seemed to cause them a sort of pleasure2 and they endeavoured to explain their sensations on the subject with a loquacity to which we could not respond1 seeing we did not understand their language4 ,after this meeting they used to come to us1 gesticulating and talking rapidly2 they gave shrill screams1 and if we answered in the same way1 their delight was immense4 ,soon there was a change1 and they did not hesitate to ask for something to eat1 by the simple mode of hitting themselves on the belly40#ce ,the spectacle these travellers had before them is so sad and touching that they afterwards add1 as if to satisfy their own consciences1 8however1 they are not stupid40 ,doubtless1 they are not2 but they do not seem to deserve the epithet which the world gives to these beings1 who appear so completely inferior to others4 8,malicious as a monkey40 ,they are not stupid1 and that is all4#cf ,the ,australians are not exceptional in this2 ,bory de ,saint ,vincent has drawn for us a picture of the inhabitants of ,south ,africa1 a beautiful and fertile land1 which is almost as sad4 ,at the other end of the world1 upon that ice-continent which surrounds the north pole1 we find the same abjection4 ,sir ,john ,ross1 lost among the ice1 found himself among a race of people who had never seen an ,european2 this ,english sailor1 a strictly religious man1 was peculiarly adapted to behold with indulgence the only beings who were near him1 but although he was an attentive and scrupulous observer1 and above all1 a truly sincere man1 he seemed to despair of finding in their minds the living spark for which he was searching4 8,the ,esquimaux10 he says1 8is an animal of prey1 with no other enjoyment than eating3 and1 guided by no principle and no reason1 he devours as long as he can1 and all that he can procure1 like the vulture and the tiger40#cg ,and1 farther on1 8,the ,esquimaux eats but to sleep1 and sleeps but to eat again as soon as he can40#ch ,we shall descend still lower1 in order to find out men who are so degraded1 that those who have seen them have stated1 that if they were in thick bushes or the shadows of the forest1 they would hardly have known whether they were apes or men4 ,and1 let attention be paid to this1--these wretched beings1 almost deprived of human form1 do not inhabit a poor or secluded country1 but the continent of ,asia1 to the south of the ,himalaya chain1 in the centre of ,hindoostan1 in those regions which have been the cradle of several huge species of apes1 at that epoch1 doubtless1 when the islands of the ,indian ,archipelago were joined to ,asia1 and formed one immense continent1--the land of the ,malay race4#ci ,in #ahbd1 an ,english colonist1 ,mr4 ,piddington1 a settler in the centre of ,hindoostan 7towards ,palmow1 ,subhulpore1 and the upper basin of the ,nerbudda71 relates#dj that he saw amongst a party of ,dhangour workmen1--who came every year to work on his plantation1--a man and a woman who were extremely strange and uncouth1 and whom the ,dhangours themselves called monkey-people4 ,they had a language of their own4 ,from so much as could be understood by signs1 it was discovered that they lived far beyond the country of the ,dhangours1 in the forests and in the mountains1 and possessed few villages4 ,it would seem that the man had fled with the woman in consequence of some misfortune1 perhaps a murder4 ,but at all events1 they were found by the ,dhangours lost in the woods1 exhausted1 and almost dead from hunger4 ,they disappeared suddenly one night1 just as ,mr4 ,piddington had made arrangements to send them to ,calcutta4 ,it would seem from other information that a ,mr4 ,trail1 for many years ,commissioner at ,kuman1 had also seen these extraordinary beings1 and had even been so fortunate as to procure one of them1 whose appearance fully justified the traditional name given to them by the natives4 ,in fact1 other evidence--some of it historical--may be added to this in order to prove the existence of such an inferior race in different parts of the ,indian peninsula4 ,mr4 ,piddington thus describes him3--8,he was short1 flat-nosed1 had pouch-like wrinkles in semicircles round the corners of the mouth and cheeks2 his arms were disproportionately long1 and there was a portion of reddish hair to be seen on the rusty-black skin4 ,altogether1 if crouched in a dark corner or on a tree1 he might have been mistaken for a large orang-utan40 ,it must be noticed that ,mr4 ,piddington had travelled a great deal1 and that he had acquired1 even without his own knowledge1 some experience in anthropology4 ,he takes care to tell us that he had seen in their turn the ,bosjesmen1 the ,hottentots1 the ,papous1 the ,alfourous1 the aborigines of ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 and the ,sandwich ,islands1 which1 indeed1 gives great authority to the facts which he relates4#da ,what1 we may indeed exclaim1 are these really men8 ,after journeying over the beaten track1 see how far we are from that ,aryan family1 the mistress of arts and science2 how much we approach the brute1 even if we have not already reached that point8 ,we have descended2 let us now raise the other mammalia to man1 and in the highest degree to which we can attain1 let us endeavour to measure the distance to the point we have just left4 ,let it be well understood1 we shall only consider in this place the highest mammalia2 for the question becomes more complicated on every side as soon as the difference in the organisms becomes more apparent4 ,in regard to this1 facts have often spoken for a long time1 and the savant1 whose testimony in such a case possesses most value1 ,professor ,r4 ,owen1 has not feared to say1 that the distinction between man and certain primates is the great difficulty felt by all anatomists4#db ,let us pass on to intellect4 ,all animals feel1 understand1 and think 7,m4 ,flourens and ,m4 de ,quatrefages71 they dream1 are capable of feeling distrust1 fear1 joy1#dc sorrow1 jealousy1 etc42 in fact1 the entire list of human passions4#dd ,all this is amply proved by a thousand examples2 who does not remember the accounts of seals1 elephants1 dogs1 which have become celebrated1 and which men who have lived a short time with animals may see repeated every day8 ,only read the admirable account given by ,buffon of the intelligence of the dog2 again1 the detailed and valuable history which ,f4 ,cuvier has left us concerning the orang-outang in the ,museum1 without forgetting that this history could be neither complete nor perfect on account of the various circumstances in which the animal was placed1 far from his own country1 and under an ungenial sky4 ,dr4 ,yvan1 attached to the expedition which the ,french government sent to ,china in #ahdc1de has given us an account of an orang-outang at ,borneo1 which is1 perhaps1 the best plea in favour of the connexion between primates and mankind4 ,tun1 as this animal was called1 began to dress himself directly a bit of any stuff1 or cloth1 got in his way4#df ,on one occasion1 when his master had taken a mangrove from him1 8he uttered plaintive cries like a child when it is sulky4 ,this conduct not having been so successful as he expected1 he threw himself on his face upon the ground1 struck the earth with his fist1 screamed1 cried1 and howled1 for more than half-an-hour40 ,when the mangrove was given back to him1 he threw it at the head of his master4#dg ,it is a curious fact1 but the particular friend of ,tun was a negro from ,manilla4 ,at ,manilla1 he accustomed himself to ,tagal#dh manners1 and played with the children4 8,one day1 when ,tun was rolling on some matting with a little girl1 about four or five years old1 he stopped all of a sudden1 and examined the child in a most minute and anatomical manner4 ,the results of his investigations seemed to astonish him profoundly2 he retired on one side1 and repeated upon himself the same examination which he had made on his little playmate40 ,we may all remember the eloquent pages in ,buffon1 where1 admitting the ,adamic legend1 he recounts the impressions of our first parents4 ,has not nature been here1 we ask1 a better historian than our naturalist1 even with all his genius8 ,over and above these facts1 as their crowning-point1 we must invoke as a witness the man who has carried farthest the spirit of philosophy in the natural sciences in ,france1 ,etienne ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire4 ,a cautious and profound observer1 he mingled with the crowd which the orang drew to the ,museum in #ahcf4 ,mistrusting his own judgment1 he gathered the opinions of all those who surrounded him1--of all the visitors who1 as he said1 8came to observe as unprejudiced spectators1 without any preconceived ideas1 and without being hindered by those deplorable trammels which we call our rules of classification40#di ,the result surprised even ,etienne ,geoffroy himself4 ,these visitors1 so different one from the other1 all united in this idea1 8that the animal from ,sumatra was neither a man nor an ape3 neither one nor the other1 that was what the mind of each person at once acknowledged40 ,we might quote whole pages from this naturalist philosopher in which the elevation of his style strives with the grandeur of his ideas4 8,i never used my self-love10 he says1 8in bringing forward other opinions against those of the visitors to the orang-outang 444 ,i never drove back the torrent of information which ,i had the happiness of receiving from each separate mind4444 ,i have faith in the soundness of popular opinions1 the masses rejoicing in an instinctive good sense which makes them clear-headed1 and renders them peculiarly able to seize the salient point of any question40 ,this was an excellent method1 and showed the power of ,etienne ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire4 ,it is curious to compare with him another writer who1 from within his study1 invoked upon these questions1 at least1 that which we may call universal acquiescence1--it is ,maupertuis4 ,speaking of the characteristics which make man different from animals1 he says1 8,simple good sense seizes these differences2 they have always been felt1 and there we behold one of those convictions which the universality and uniformity of all men characterise as the truth40#ej ,maupertuis did not certainly know that the orang-outang1--a word which means wild-man1--is no metaphor for the inhabitants of the ,indian ,archipelago1 and that in the country inhabited by the 8long-nosed0 ,guenon1#ea the popular belief is that1 being sharper than the others1 he only keeps silent in order to preserve his liberty4 ,nothing can be more fallacious than these pretended truths1 sustained merely by universal acquiescence4 ,at first it was invoked as a proof1 at a time when scarcely one-tenth of the inhabited world was known3#eb but let us proceed4 ,in our own day1 we know a little better what to make of this kind of proof1 which science has abandoned to theologians4 ,experience has proved1 day by day1 what will become of this pretended universality among mankind1 of certain thoughts1 certain sentiments1 and certain aspirations4#ec ,we shall see1 farther on1 that the community of some of those intellectual manifestations1 which many have wished to regard as general1 is often restricted to one race alone amongst mankind1 and limited in space by the boundaries of the continent occupied by this race4 ,and now we see how anthropology in her turn1 can1 in all these points1 assist even philosophy itself4 ,for example1 do we not feel that1 from henceforward1 the words beautiful and right can mean nothing absolute2 since whatever is beautiful and right upon a hemisphere1 for any given intelligence1 cannot be so in an opposite hemisphere1--cannot possibly be so in a mind otherwise formed and belonging to another race4 ,to these two words we must1 by means of anthropology1 restore an exclusively relative value4#ed ,the ,true alone is absolute1 unchangeable in both time and space4 ,that alone reigns universally1 and let us not forget this1 it flourishes in science alone1--it is only to be found there4#ee ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,comparative ,,psychology4 ,on one occasion1 two monkeys were brought into the presence of the orang described by ,grant1 about which we spoke in the last chapter4 ,they were led by a chain up to the animal1 and were threatened with a stick4 8,during the whole interview10 says our informant1 8the grave commanding attitude and bearing of the orang1 compared to the levity and apparent sense of inferiority of the monkeys1 was very striking1 and it was impossible not to feel that he was a creature of a much more elevated order and capacity40#ef 8,the animal from ,sumatra is neither a man nor an ape10 said the crowd before the orang at the ,museum4 ,the communications which were then made to the ,institute by ,etienne ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire may be1 one of these days1 a new triumph for him1 the forerunner of a science which is not yet in existence1--the study of intellect in animals1 based upon observation and experience2 as for instance1 in the passage where he proposes to submit the orang to a methodical education1 in order to study the modifications which would be caused by such an alteration of method4#eg ,he who has discovered organic unity1 will have placed us in the way of a discovery not less important1 that of psychological unity4#eh ,a new science1 which would only date from the time of the reaction against ,cartesian ideas1--a science still without a name1 merely touched upon even by great minds which have the inestimable privilege of understanding everything2 it has never been studied1--never thoroughly investigated1--never submitted to all our means of information4#ei ,we should call it ,comparative ,psychology4 ,we should1 then1 re-enter into one great ,unity4 ,the intellect of vertebrate animals would be identical1 as their organism is identical2 thus gradually descending1 passing through the orang1 from man himself to all the mammalia4 ,it may be said that these propositions are not yet proved1--at least it will be allowed1 seeing what has passed during a very few years1 that the last word has not yet been said concerning the intellect of animals4 ,has this question1 then1 made so much progress1 either to the profit of animals or the detriment of mankind1 that we should wish to stop it1 when it has started already on so straight a path8 ,saint ,chrysostom reproached the ,gentile philosopher1 it is said1 with having always been inclined to assimilate that which they called the soul of animals with that of man himself4#fj ,the opinion of these ,gentiles1 nevertheless1 is worth the trouble of being noticed4 ,they were as well able to observe animals as ourselves4 ,since then1 the means of study1 as applied to intellect1 have made little or no progress2 observation and reflection are still the same2 we have found no new process1 no new method1 by which we can more profoundly examine into this subject2 we have1 then1 no reason to think that the solutions given by ourselves upon this point are at all preferable to those of the ancients4 ,it may be rather the contrary4 ,for their opinion has this much in its favour1 that it was born free1 in minds which did not restrain1 even unwittingly1 any new influence or theory which might be brought forward4#fa ,the idea of the intellectual gradation from man to animals must have been necessarily offensive to ,christianity1 which promised a future existence2 it was not so for these ,gentiles1 who were much more occupied with matters of the world4#fb ,the principles which we are endeavouring to revive are not1 however1 completely those of ,aristotle4 ,in his treatise on the soul he admits this gradation1 but as presenting in each degree a new manifestation beyond the manifestations existing in the inferior degrees4 ,the principle of the soul is unity2 but as we reascend the series1 from plants to man1 it invests itself with a greatly increased number of faculties4 ,porphyrius1 resuming the ideas of the ,stagyrite1 seems to go even further1 and to approach nearer the truth2 it is not faculties joined one to another that he recognises in man and animals1 but the same in all1 only more or less developed4#fc ,at the present day1 if we have not returned to the ideas of ,pythagoras and the ,stoics1 at least we are very far from ,pereira and ,descartes1 with their animal machines1 hydraulic-pneumatic machines1 as one of the partisans of the ,brton philosopher 7,j4 ,h4 ,crocius7 calls them4#fd ,we are really astonished at the infatuation for the opinions of ,descartes which took possession of ,germany during the latter half of the seventeenth century4 ,they were pushed to the extreme point1--soul1 reason1 and intellect were denied to all animals4 ,a person named ,stahl1#fe who had at least the merit of being consistent to the last1 brings forward a principle1 that animals do not feel1 bruta non sentire4 ,this announcement is the conclusion of a very learned syllogism1 and which one ,gaspard ,laugenhert had added to the ,compendium ,physic of ,arnold ,geulinx4 ,it is with much trouble that some strong minds have dared to raise their voices in this ,cartesian concert1 having taken good care to strengthen themselves by plenty of quotations gathered from the ,old and ,new ,testaments4#ff ,these were then proofs positive1 and at times it was prudent to use them4 ,the side of the animals has been successively strengthened by ,buffon1 and indeed by everybody4 ,at the present day1 ,m4 ,flourens refuses them thought alone1 8this supreme faculty which the mind of man possesses1 so that it may rely upon itself1 and study its own mind4#fg ,there is here10 says the physiologist of whom we are speaking1 8a strong line of demarcation2 this thought which can reason about itself1--this intellect which beholds and studies itself1--this knowledge which is acquainted with itself1--evidently forms an order of determined phenomena of a clearly defined nature1 and to which no animal would know how to attain4 ,there is a purely intellectual world1 if we may say so1 and this world belongs only to man4 ,in one word1 animals feel1 understand1 think2 but man is the only one among all created beings to whom the power has been given of feeling that he feels1 of knowing that he understands1 and of thinking that he has the power of thinking40#fh ,such is the only difference4 ,the question is now reduced to a more limited field than it has ever been before1 and infinitely less vast4 ,the thing which would be wanting in animals is a kind of internal knowledge2 not the knowledge of oneself 7they know this since they feel7 but the scientific knowledge of oneself1 which can bring reflecting and reasoning study to bear on all the interior phenomena which may occur to each4 ,we desire fully that this may be a distinction1 but solely a secondary one1 and able at most to make certain races of men differ one from the other4 ,in fact1 if we form an absolute and fundamental character of humanity out of this faculty1 this power of investigation into an interior world1 we ought to find it in a powerful manner among all men4 ,it will resist every other influence1 it will be permanent1 since1 this being destroyed1 man would be no longer a man1 and would be lowered by this fact to the rank whence he is said to have come4 ,and do we consider that it may possibly be so8 ,does this reflected knowledge of oneself exist among inferior races1 if it does not exist among animals8 ,certainly we shall never maintain that these last enjoy such a faculty1 the source of all our legislation1 and that which has made us what we are4 ,but we ask if it is well proved whether all human races possess it4 ,if we do not allow innate ideas to the orang1 as ,f4 ,cuvier#fi would do1 be it so1 but let it be remembered that certain philosophers have refused them to man himself4 ,we ourselves agree that an animal has no abstract notion of right or duty1 or any idea of a divinity1#gj but it must also be remembered that certain people have not even a word for the purpose of expressing these things1 and it is ,m4 de ,quatrefages himself who avows it4#ga ,we refer these persons to the following account of animal economy1 and we think that they will not deny their application to various ,african and ,oceanic tribes4 8,ideas1 abstract ideas1 arise from their own domain2 the past1 that which preceded their birth2 the future1 that which will follow their death1 does not occupy their attention2 the present is their only business in life4 ,they do not demand #8,whence do ,i come8 ,what am ,i8 ,where am ,i going8' ,and they have no idea whatsoever of a ,divinity40#gb ,bayle1 ,maupertuis1#gc and ,m4 ,flourens have1 one after another1 declared how difficult it is to fix a limit1 to say where the intellect of animals ceases1 and where that of man commences4 ,that limit escapes even ourselves2 whilst separating two terms specifically distinct we only see one continued line from the other vertebrate animals to mankind1 without any clearly defined demarcation1--the organism only of one mammifer as separated by an unbroken limit from the organism of another4 ,it is a chain of which the links1 if we wish1 may go on increasing from one extremity to the other1 following a given progression1 but without ceasing to be like1 and consequently comparable amongst themselves4 ,a certain number of links may be wanting1 but the mind re-establishes them1 and the continuity1 although an abstraction1 is not the less real4 ,it is even1 if we may say so1 the track of a hyperbolic curve1 interrupted here and there1 of which only the arcs remain1 quite different1 and all1 however1 reducible by the mind to one and the same system4 ,unity of composition is the condition of all harmony1 the necessary rule of nature4 ,as to ourselves1 we only see everywhere the same faculties1 extended and developed among the superior vertebrate animals2 having even acquired among mankind the singular property of aggrandising itself almost ad infinitum1 confined among other vertebrata1 enclosed in a small circle1 where they can even escape our own means of knowledge4 ,but there is everywhere the same nature1 everywhere things are alike4 ,life is unity2 we do not share it one with another2 both the life of the body and the life of intellect1 both matter and the mind1 and the organism and the faculties1#gd belong to each one separately4 ,terms correlative one to the other1 never independent4 ,there is an immense space between the intellect of animals and that of a civilised ,european2 we willingly recognise this1 but encumbered by mean terms and numerous transitions2 that these latter exist1 or that they have finished their time upon our planet1 we also allow4 ,the question of language1 so confused1 and so full of obscurity1 still remains4 8,whatever resemblance there may be between the ,hottentot and the monkey10 says ,buffon1 8the distance which separates them is immense1 since internally it is filled by thought and outwardly by speech40#ge ,we know how to consider the first of these appreciations4 ,as to the second1 let us see if we shall not there perceive a sort of gradation which would insensibly lead us from our own complicated languages to others of a much greater simplicity1 so much so that they can scarcely be called by that name4 ,speech and language are two words often confounded1 but in science we must give to each of them its own value4 ,speech is a language articulated by the respiratory channels4 ,language may be defined as 8everything spoken by well known and understood means between two intellects40 ,it may be seen that we give the fullest acceptation possible to this word4 ,it is a language that the ,abb de l',epe invented for the deaf and dumb4 ,the writing of this language is another4 ,a phonetic telegram is1 as regards a stranger1 merely a succession of sounds1 like the song of a nightingale2 a naval telegram is only an assemblage and a combination of colours like an arabesque1 united the moment when the necessary arrangement forms these sounds or these colours into language4#gf ,speech alone being the habitual and natural language of mankind1 endowed otherwise with special organic specifications in order to produce it1 we have been generally led to confound these two distinct things in speaking of mankind1 viz41 speech and language4 ,this being allowed1 the first question which we have to examine is this1 8,has man always possessed the faculty of speech804 ,a difficult question1 but one which we have no right to proclaim as impossible to be solved1 which is1 perhaps1 not the case1 and of which the difficulty belongs principally to the very imperfect knowledge which we possess concerning the distant epoch which saw mankind in his cradle4#gg ,let us first of all remember that man has1 in common with animals1 voice1 cries1 natural inflections 7,m4 ,flourens71 that which we otherwise call natural language4 8,like a simple animal10 says ,herder1#gh 8man possesses the faculty of speech4 ,all the most violent and painful sensations of his body1 as well as the strong passions of his mind1 are manifested immediately by cries or inflections of the voice1 by natural and inarticulate sounds4 ,the animal which suffers--as well as the hero ,philoctetes--when it feels sorrow will moan and sigh1 even when abandoned in a desert island1 far from the sight of any friendly creature1 without any hope of succour40 ,this language is intelligible between all animals1 between animals and ourselves1 and between ourselves and animals4 ,we may affirm that man possesses it always1 from the first hour of his birth4 ,as to articulated language1 as artificial language has been called in opposition to the preceding1 the question is much more confused and much less clearly defined4 ,we think with ,steinthal1 with ,jacob ,grimm1#gi and with ,m4 ,renan1#hj that language is not innate in man1 that is to say1 it is not1 as the ,buddhist philosophy has already declared1 a necessary consequence of active intelligence4#ha ,further1 it has not been revealed--this theory does not even deserve the honour of having been opposed by ,jacob ,grimm4#hb ,but we may admit that language is1 if not a necessity1 a least a direct consequence of an intellect such as existed amongst mankind at the time1 whether long or short we know not1 which preceded the appearance of language4 8,the moment10 says ,m4 ,renan1 stating the theories of ,steinthal1#hc 8that language arises from the human soul and appears in the light of day and constitutes an epoch in the development of the life of the mind1 is the moment when intuition is changed into idea4 ,things appear first to the mind in the complexity of the real1 abstraction is unknown to the primitive man40 ,here1 then1 are two well-characterised modes1 two ways of being1 entirely different from the intellect of man4 ,the one1 where this intellect only possesses intuition1 the other where analysis sees the light1 where the mind is abstracted1 and where1 by a mechanism more or less complicated1 but at the same time by a real work1#hd it ends by calling every abstraction of mind by a name2 then he speaks4 ,but before the time when this revolution is accomplished1 the state of man is completely comparable to that in which animals are placed4 ,they have caught at certain relations by means of their intelligence1 without usually feeling any necessity for explaining them1 a relation of a much more elevated order of beings1 for it has been truly remarked1#he and it must not be forgotten1 that the capital act of language is to 8wish to speak40 ,we have seen that certain abstract ideas1 by reason of their nature1 were so entirely foreign to certain races of men1 that their intellects had never wished for a word in order to express them4 ,well1 if other ideas1 expressing much more simple relations1 have escaped animals1 there is only1 in fact1 a gradation corresponding to what we have just said concerning intellectual phenomena among the human race4 ,as for the specific difference which some have tried to establish under this head between man and animals1 if it were correct it must be shown that language is completely unattainable by any mammalia1 even within the most restricted limits4 ,and is it so8 ,will it be mooted that certain animals have not even a rudiment of language1 whether articulated or not it does not much signify1 in their state of nature8 ,will it be mooted that they never make any sort of sign in order to communicate anything to one another1 to call them1 or give an alarm1 or express some peculiar sensation8#hf ,experience would entirely deny any such assertion4 ,and this not only with reference to the superior animals1 for this faculty appears to be extended even to the invertebrata4 ,the well-known experiments of ,p4 ,huber seem to have proved in the most decisive manner that ants1#hg like bees1 are able to transmit certain signs or indications from one to the other2 even if the mere act of living in a republic1 of joining together in one common work1 did not offer the strongest presumption of a language peculiar to these creatures4 ,if anyone dares to deny to animals the spontaneous exercise of a restricted language1 limited in whatever way that may be desired1 at least it cannot be denied that many of the vertebrate animals are not capable of receiving from it an equal education1 of understanding the signification of certain sounds1 of certain signs1 and of producing in their turn such as may be understood by us1 of communicating to us any of their thoughts1 or any of their appreciations4 ,we are not speaking here of animals who can reproduce certain sounds belonging to the vocal organs of man2 that is a fact of an entirely material character1 and which has no reference to the question of language4 ,it is evident that the animal which articulates any word whatsoever does not understand it a whit more than the man who imitates the cry of an animal1 and1 in a general way1 neither comprehends its sense nor its signification4 ,maupertuis alleges#hh that if animals were capable of understanding we could teach them to make themselves understood by other signs in default of a voice4 ,a strange aberration of intellect for such a studious and learned man4 ,this is the man who makes an impossibility out of an everyday occurrence2 for1 first of all1 most animals have some sort of voice1 and if they had it not1 there are few persons who are ignorant of the way in which certain mute dogs make themselves understood when they particularly desire it4 ,what would really be absurd would be the hope of imparting ideas to animals1 matters relating1 indeed1 to a higher order1 since we see that even all men are not capable of grasping them4 ,man has been able to train animals1 and to train implies precisely the idea of communicating a thought from man to an animal1 and from the animal to man4 8,jump10 says the shepherd to his dog1 and the dog knows that this vocal articulation orders him to make a given muscular effort4 ,the man has spoken to the dog4 ,during the night some one opens the gate of the farm-yard1 and the watch-dog barks2 he thus tells his master that something unusual is happening4#hi ,that which proves besides that the barking of the dog is merely a conventional sign1 an artificial language1 so to say1 is the fact1 that in certain countries the dogs do not bark2 jackals and wolves learn how to bark when in company with the dogs who can talk in this manner1 and that the same dogs lose the power1 or rather the habit of barking1 if they return to a savage state4#ij ,we have already spoken of those inferior races which seem to have borrowed from their better endowed neighbours a rudiment of civilisation1 which1 for a long time they did not know how to develope in any way4 ,does it not seem that there is here some comparison with what has just been stated8 that under a civilising influence1 in contact with a superior being1 the dog has learnt a language2 but that not understanding its general application 7a more complex1 and more highly elevated idea71 he has not known how to transmit the use of it to his own race1 or has himself forgotten it1 from not having any occasion to exercise this power8#ia ,the language of animals is still a question full of obscurity1 but which may eventually1 we believe1 become fruitful in new facts4#ib ,if ,apollonius of ,tyana and the ancient philosophers did not understand the language of animals so well as has sometimes been believed1 at least they did not do wrong in directing their inquiries towards this matter4 ,we have no doubt but that in carefully studying animals1 we shall arrive at a scientific explanation of this well-known truth1 recognised by all those who live with them2 which is that they can understand us1 that they make themselves understood by us1 and that they understood one another within certain limits4#ic ,for a long time it was believed that intellect and thought belong to man alone1 and that he had only organic instinct in common with animals4#id ,this opinion tends each day towards a change2 we hope that we have proved so much4 ,something of the same sort will take place1 we think1 for the best studied language4 ,there1 as with intellect1 as with organism1 we shall doubtless be able to prove a unity which may be regarded by analogy as necessary1 offering alone degrees of gradation in reference to organism and intellect4 ,every living being 7we are only speaking here of vertebrate animals7 will appear to be composed of the same constituent parts1 but unequally developed1 and of which some have only been taken by us for dissimilarities or new parts1 on account of our own want of sufficiently deep study4 ,as they formerly tried to discover new bones in the heads of fishes1 until the time when their relations1 connexions1 and development were better studied2 so unity of composition has been there recognised and proved where it was least suspected4 ,we cannot do better1 in order to sum up our ideas on this subject1 than quote a passage from the works of a learned man1 who in our days has gone most deeply into the study of organic homology1 ,professor ,richard ,owen2 it is the last step which has been taken1 and indeed the most decisive one1 in the momentous question concerning man's place in nature4 8,not being able to appreciate or conceive of the distinction between the psychical phenomena of a chimpanzee and of a ,bosjesman1 or of an ,aztec with arrested brain-growth1 as being of a nature so essential as to preclude a comparison between them1 or as being other than a difference of degree1 ,i cannot shut my eyes to the significance of that all-pervading similitude of structure--every tooth1 every bone1 strictly homologous--which makes the determination of the difference between ,homo and ,pithecus the anatomist's difficulty4 ,and therefore1 with every respect for the author of the ,records of ,creation1#ie ,i follow ,linnus#if and ,cuvier in regarding mankind as a legitimate subject of zoological comparison and classification4#ig0 ,is not the admission of gradation the means of binding more firmly together the great chain of human beings1 a thing quite impossible1 which could not exist1 or rather1 which would only be a caprice1--an artificial method or system1--if the classified beings were only thus classified by creatures of their own description8 ,does it not confirm1 even more strongly1 the continuous series in which ,aristotle1 ,leibnitz1 ,bonnet1 ,linnus1 and de ,blainville have believed8 ,we shall proclaim1 then1 the law1 shaped by ,m4 ,flourens1 who1 however1 does not receive it1 as we do1 without reservation3-- ,,law4--,from animals to man everything is but a chain of uninterrupted gradation2 therefore1 there is no human kingdom4 ,then comes this other conclusion1--one and the same method is applicable both to mankind and animals4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,order ,,of ,,bimana4 ,the naturalist who has in our time most interested himself in the classification of vertebrata1 ,prince ,charles ,bonaparte1 gives his own opinion as follows3--8,man may be considered1 in one point of view1 as constituting one single family2 in another1 as constituting an entire kingdom40 ,but he also adds that in this second case1 8the characteristics are no longer in harmony with the rest of the system40 ,in fact1 we can hardly at the same time admit both the general principles of classification1 as followed at the present day1 and also the human kingdom4 ,one out of these two things must fall to the ground4 ,the system of classifying mammalia1--adopted in all its uniformity by the two ,geoffroys1 the ,cuviers1 ,de ,blainville1 and ,owen1--cannot be maintained without involving mankind4 ,if man were a kingdom by himself1 this classification would be a false one2 for ought we not then1 at least1 to create a cetaceous kingdom1 a bird kingdom1 etc48 ,as for ourselves1 the problem has been already solved1 and we hesitated to come into collision with this new inconsistency4 ,harmony is the necessary condition of every really natural system4 ,we cannot arbitrarily give a different value to the same characteristics2 and1 reciprocally1 the divisions of the same order ought necessarily to agree with characteristics of the same value4 ,it has been thought necessary1 at least1 to create for mankind one of those great divisions into which the mammalia are divided4 ,an ,order of ,bimana has been created4 ,we do not hesitate to say that this was a purely theoretical creation2 and we will go even farther1 we declare it could only be produced in a country where coverings for the feet are in daily and universal wear4 ,we must not go into the midst of our great cities if we wish to study the zoological characteristics of man4 ,is there any reason for the ,order of ,bimana when we consider man in his state of nature8 is it 8the immediate and necessary results of natural analogies1 respectively valued according to their degree80 8,no60 was the answer of tienne ,geoffroy1 in his eloquent pages1 8this ,order must be abolished40#ih 4 ,geoffroy saw workmen in the bazaars at ,cairo employ their great toe for numberless prehensile uses4 ,a ,nubian1 or a negro on horseback1 generally takes the stirrup-leather between his great toe and the others2 all the ,abyssinian cavalry ride in this manner4#ii ,if the fact reported by ,bory de ,saint-,vincent about the rosin-makers of the ,landes is not confirmed1#ajj we have at least seen the ,barabras ,nubians ascend the great yard of the ,nile dahabiehs by seizing with the great toe the rope underneath them#aja which supports the sail4 ,when the action of the foot is not paralysed by the size of the shoe1 which is elsewhere the exception1 it is pre-eminently adapted for laying hold of anything4 ,and if certain kinds of men seem to us very fit for the kind of existence led by the ,quadrumana1--if they seem to us constituted in order to live in trees1 there is nothing there which ought to surprise us1 nothing but what is quite natural and quite consistent4 ,it has been truly said1 that man is frugivorous4 ,all the details of his intestinal canal1 and above all1 his dentition1 prove it in the most decided manner4 ,he ought1 therefore1 from his origin1 to have all his organism modified in harmony with this alimentation4 ,like the apes1 he ought to possess such means of locomotion as would enable him to procure the food specially adapted to his wants4 ,and therefore1 what is there astonishing in the fact that among certain races1 which are scarcely removed from a state of nature1 we find the remains of a mode of life which was general at their origin4 ,modera1 quoted by ,mr4 ,crawfurd1 relates that one day1 three naturalists1 travelling on the northern coast of ,new ,guinea for scientific purposes1 found the trees full of natives1 of both sexes1 who leaped from branch to branch like monkeys1 with their weapons fastened on their backs1 gesticulating1 shouting1 and laughing4#ajb ,this singular race1 of which we have before spoken1 and which has been noticed in ,hindoostan by many eye-witnesses1 seems to live half its time in trees4 ,we have the right to ask1 if the confused remembrance of such a race and such habits was not the origin of the tradition which served as a foundation for the poem of ,valmki4 ,rama goes to the rescue of his wife1 ,sita1 who had been carried off by the evil genius1 ,rvana2 he is assisted in this enterprise by a valiant army of monkeys1 and at every moment expressions are used in the account which recall the monkey-like and quadrumanous nature of the combatants#ajc4 ,in casting our eyes over the first groups composing the mammalian series1 we find some apes who walk upon the sole of the feet and upon the palm of the hand2 others1 who walk upon the sole of the foot and the joints of the folded hands1--a very peculiar method of progression1--of a strange and unexpected nature1 and which alone would serve to characterise a group2 these are the anthropomorphous apes3 lastly1 another mammal who walks only on the soles of the feet1 the form of the body and legs rendering the anterior members quite unfit to be used in walking2 this is man4 ,the first apes of which we are going to speak1 walking upon the sole of the feet and the palms of their hands are1 then1 unreservedly quadrupeds4 ,in this particularity they resemble other mammalia1 among whom the pectoral1 as well as the abdominal1 members are chiefly organs of locomotion2 only these apes also use their four extremities for another purpose1 which appears to be entirely secondary and derived1--that of prehension4 ,and it is precisely because the organisation of their members is purposely modified by reason of a new1 special1 and uncommon function1 that they have been able to furnish us with a sufficiently defined characteristic1 so that we may specify an order1--that of the quadrumana4 ,among the anthropomorphous apes1 the folded or bent hand seems an organ especially adapted for prehension1#ajd serving1 in a secondary manner1 for locomotion2 whilst the foot1 the especial organ of locomotion1 preserves the faculty of seizing anything by means of an opposing thumb4 ,in man1 the superior member is not at all fit for walking2 and the inferior1 used for locomotion1 as in the two preceding groups1 also preserves its faculty of prehension3 observation proves this as well as anatomy4 ,we see that there again2 as everywhere else in an organic point of view1 the anthropomorphous quadrumana are a veritable transition from man to the other families of apes4 ,it has been proposed to extend the signification of the word hand1 and to apply it to every terminal extremity of a member capable of seizing anything1 including the paw of the lemur and the claws of the parrot4 ,we are inclined to restrict the name1 like ,linnus1 ,de ,blainville1 and ,cuvier1 to an extremity formed of fingers1 and with an opposing thumb4 ,but even in confining the definition to such a narrow compass1 we think we have shown that man1 in reality1 is quadrumanous1 this definition applying equally to the foot1 where the great toe serves--among half the people1 at least1 on the earth--for the purpose of prehension1 and remains1 as 4 ,geoffroy has remarked1 quite separate from the other toes1 when the foot is not deformed by boots or shoes3#aje therefore1 nothing more can be said in favour of an ,order of ,bimana1 or a human kingdom4 ,we must return to the subdivision proposed by ,charles ,bonaparte1--a family4 ,man constitutes a simple family in the ,order of ,quadrumana1 distinguished by characteristics precisely equal in importance to those which make a difference between other similar groups in the class of mammalia1 that which even comes to the assistance of the adversaries of the human kingdom1 and the partisans of the zoological system4 ,for want of positive characteristics taken from the extremities1 which could never1--in the eyes of true naturalists1 as we have just said1--favour a serious distinction between man and other quadrumana1 a characteristic in dentition has been discovered1 remarkable for its constancy even in the most degraded and animal-like races1 and which1 first and foremost1 distinguishes man from the group which immediately follows him in the zoological series4 ,this characteristic1 upon which ,professor ,owen has1 in many places1 insisted1--like the two ,cuviers1--but with an entirely new vigour1#ajf is the contiguity of the teeth and the continuity of their crowns1 not one of which ever extends beyond the level of the others4#ajg ,thus it is for man1 like the rest of the mammalia2 it is the dental system which gives us the best characteristic4 ,a new proof that the study of mankind and that of animals ought to be conducted in one and the same manner2 a proof1 indeed1 that these two studies are two parallel branches1 intimately united1 of one and the same science4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,anatomical1 ,,physiological1 ,,and ,,pathological ,,varieties4 ,we have endeavoured to prove in the preceding pages the specific unity of the biological phenomena in each ,order1 which are to be found among the superior animals and man4 ,this unity has led us necessarily to another1 that of method2 and we have just seen that man forms simply a family1 that is to say1 a very secondary division in the zoological series4 ,but we have only taken the first step of the path in which we have to travel4 ,the genus homo shows many varieties1 and many dissimilarities4 ,we must try to estimate their value1 and to find out what the divisions to be established between what we commonly call races of men may be worth4 ,now1 the only rule to be followed here is naturally that which is applied by all zoologists to the other individuals composing the animal series4 ,the only way to arrive at such a goal will be1 first of all1 the study of the physical differences1 the necessary basis of a rational classification4 ,thus we shall1 at least1 have important1 and what is more1 comparable results4 ,the anatomy of races has been largely written about1 and yet we may even now offer this subject to the serious study of anthropologists2 perhaps1 also1 in carrying their attention farther than the skin1 the encephalic mass and the skeleton1 which have been nearly the sole objects of study up to the present time1 they will find in all systems dissimilarities of the same order1 and as clearly defined4#ajh ,these differences and varieties are such that they are obvious1 and at once appreciated even by ignorant persons1#aji--they are such that the most eminent monogenists agree in regarding them as everywhere sufficient to make a difference in species1 or even in genus itself4 ,they refer to every point of organisation1 and we shall see farther on that they are found to be as decided and as palpable both in the mind and in the natural constitution4 ,we do not pretend to speak of all of them in this place1 not even to enumerate them2 we shall merely quote the principal points1 or those which appear to deserve some special remark4 ,the number of those which exist1 or which are believed to exist1--for this is a necessary restriction1--is immense2 in fact1 if we are the first to admit that there is an infinite variety of differences1 considerable in themselves1 between the various kinds of men1 we also wish to avoid falling into the errors which are so often committed1 and which happen from the small number of facts which have been observed1 the investigators having often given the value of general facts to individual observation4 ,we find more than one example of these hasty opinions in the history of anthropological studies4 ,towards the end of the last century1 when the colour of the ,negro had already been for a hundred years the dominant study of the scientific world of ,europe1#aaj a certain ,kluegel affirmed 7in the ,encyclopdie de ,berlin1 #aghb7 that the lips of the ,ethiopian were of a fine red colour4 ,a great commotion arose2 ,smmering himself was roused2 he wrote everywhere1 sought for information1 and demanded fresh intelligence1 which1 quite naturally1 was found to be contrary to the opinion expressed by ,kluegel4 ,in fact1 we know that in the ,negro the colouring matter extends to most of the mucous membranes whose structure resembles that of the skin4 ,the lips are generally black1 and we usually find upon the gums1 and even upon the palate1 a non-continuous coloured membrane1 which forms spots of a deep violet colour4 ,kluegel had concluded too hastily from some particular fact2 he had in his mind1 very probably1 some ,negro with lips1 gums1 and tongue of a fine rose colour1 contrasting as much as possible with the black of his skin4 ,we have had occasion ourselves to observe a similar case as regards a native of ,soudan1 who was also affected with a sort of partial albinoism of the buccal mucous membrane4 ,in anthropology1 as in all science requiring observation1 it is the averages which ought to be admitted as evidence2 they alone have an absolute value1 and can alone lead to positive results4 ,every isolated phenomenon has its individual value as regards its simple truth1 but we are exposed to the greatest errors when we begin to generalise from it4 ,the osseous system has been most studied4#aaa ,in the osseous system1 the head1 and particularly the skull4 ,we shall be obliged1 later on1 to refer to the value of cranioscopic proceedings1 and the classifications resting on this base4 ,the face1 as well as the skull1 has been the object of attentive inquiry2 the smallest differences have been noticed1 and almost all have been formed by some one or other into distinct characteristics4 ,we may quote here ,brard's classification1 as resumed and developed by ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire4 ,he divided the genus homo into four groups3-- #a4 ,the orthognathi1 or men with a flat face and oval countenance4 #b4 ,the eurygnathi1 or men with a large face and projecting cheek bones4 #c4 ,the prognathi1 or men with a protuberant countenance4 #d4 ,lastly1 these races1 which are both eurygnathi and prognathi1 like the ,hottentots1 the development of whose face offers an example of a manifest step towards the exaggeration of this same development in the anthropomorphous ape in infancy4#aab ,it has been endeavoured to establish1 by means of averages1 an appreciable difference between the pelvis of various races4 ,weber has considered that the form of the superior division is not the same with all of them4 ,according to him it would be-- #a4 ,oval1 among ,europeans4 #b4 ,round1 among ,americans4 #c4 ,square1 among the ,mongols4 #d4 ,cuneiform or oblong1 among the ,africans4 ,the same ideas have been resumed and defended by ,french anthropologists2#aac it is right1 however1 to remark1 that ,weber himself adds that varieties of every description of pelvis may be met with among the same race4 ,that which appears certain is the fact1 that in the ,negro race the pelvis is1 in general1 sensibly smaller4 ,this is1 at least1 the opinion of ,camper1#aad ,vrolik1 ,smmering1 ,white1#aae and ,brard1#aaf who have measured a great number of them4 ,the facility in parturition1 so remarkable among the inferior races1 has therefore1 as a cause1 a relative smallness in the head of the ftus1 even more remarkable4 ,for we must admit that1 among these people1 everything happens naturally1 as among animals2 it is the laborious childbirth among ourselves which is exceptional and anomalous1 and which requires to be explained4 ,this difficult and painful parturition1 which we so continually see1 is1 doubtless1 the consequence of civilisation2 only it is difficult to decide what may be its immediate cause1 and if this cause resides in the mother or in the ftus4 ,is it the pelvis which has been made narrower in the ,european by some custom in our manners--by some habit of education8 or must we admit--and it is a serious question--that the development of such an organ as the brain in the ftus1 is subordinate to the exercise of the functions of the same organ in the progenitors8 ,with the osseous system we may connect the differences of height which are so apparent4 ,who does not recognise that in ,europe1 for instance1 the ,anglo-,saxons1 the ,germans1 the ,norwegians1 and the ,albanians1 are of great stature2 whilst the inhabitants of the south of ,france1 the ,irish1 the ,spaniards1#aag and the ,maltese1 represent a shorter variety of the human race4 ,the members show the most marked differences among the various races of mankind1 by reason of the law which causes the modifications of organism to become more and more decided1 and more and more clear from the centre to the periphery4 ,naturalists seek for characteristics of families and individuals in the fingers and in the teeth3 it is in the extremes of an individual1 in the colour of the hair or the skin1 that we generally find the characteristics of species4 ,we shall only quote in this place facts which may be the object of some particular remark4 ,it has been said continually that the ,tartars have bowed legs1 and monogenists have not failed to discover from this fact a new proof of the influences of their mode of life1 so necessary in order to maintain their thesis4 ,they discovered at first sight1 in this general infirmity1 a consequence of the habit of riding on horseback1 without considering that the ,arabs rode on horseback quite as often1 and that1 nevertheless1 their noble bearing and straightness of limb did not suffer from it in the slightest4 ,in tracing the source of this error1 we perceive that it is a singular exaggeration of the facts stated by ,pallas1 who lived for so long a time amongst the ,tartars4 ,he simply says1 8,the sole fault in conformation which is rather frequent among them1 is a bend in the arms and legs1 resulting from a kind of spoon1 or saddle1 upon which they are always placed in their cradle1 as if they were on horseback1 and therefore1 as soon as they learn to walk1 they are obliged at every movement to accustom themselves to the position of riding40#aah ,this is what ,pallas says2 but it is very clear that he is here speaking merely of exceptional cases1 for he says higher up1 8,i do not remember to have ever seen a child who was a cripple4 ,their education1 which is entirely left to nature1 can only form bodies which are healthy and without a blemish40#aai ,if occasionally the accounts of travellers have been exaggerated1 it is not less the rule1 that certain races show a conformation of the extremities very different to what it is among ourselves4 ,albrecht ,durer has already made this remark4 ,in the ,negro1 for instance1 the length of the forearm is much greater than in the ,european4 ,it is proportional to the height in these two races 33 #ajg 3 #ajj4abj ,the thumb of the ,negro's hand is also generally much less opposed to the other fingers4 ,in certain races of mankind1 the hand itself is of an extraordinary small size4 ,this is the case among the ,bosjesmans1 the ,chinese1 the ,esquimaux1#aba and the ,cingalese4#abb ,it was the same among the races who built the grand ,american temples1 where we find upon the stones the imprint in red of their hands4#abc ,the same thing has been said about the ancient population of northern ,europe1 who were ignorant of the use of iron1 and only used weapons made of bronze4#abd ,but the study of the magnificent collection of ,scandinavian antiquities in the ,berlin ,museum1 has not proved to ourselves that the hilts of all these arms were as small as has been pretended4 ,the foot varies not less4 ,the ,negro races of the ,oceanic ,islands1 and of ,africa1 appear to show an exaggerated development of the heel-bone4 ,,mm4 ,quoy and ,gaimard have especially remarked it among the inhabitants of ,vanikoro4 ,in fact1 there is hardly anybody who will forget1 when once he has seen it1 the special aspect of the instep in the ,negro1 ridged with numerous folds commencing from beneath the ankle4 ,this is1 besides1 a particular mark1 which is far from showing itself1 as may be well believed1 among all people who walk without foot-covering4 ,the foot of the ,nubians1 and especially that of the females1 shows quite different characteristics4 ,the five metatarsi seem to rest their whole length upon the ground1 without being shaped by the instep2 their anterior extremities are slightly diverted1 the toes having the same spaces between them1 so that the foot is flat1 but otherwise than by the faulty conformation to which we give this name among ourselves4 ,this structure is1 besides1 perfectly represented in all ,egyptian statues without exception1 and more sensibly1 indeed1 if we compare with those which are in the galleries of the ,british ,museum1 a fragment of a colossal foot1#abe found also in ,egypt1 at ,alexandria1 but evidently of ,greek or ,roman origin2 the toes are close together1 the great toe alone being separated1 the upper part of the foot being arched1 as among ,europeans4 ,this resemblance between all the ,egyptian statues and the foot of the inhabitants of ,upper ,egypt1 or ,nubia1 cannot be an accidental circumstance4 ,it is1 besides1 a veritable problem in anthropology1 to determine its value in accordance with the monumental iconography of the ancient ,egyptians4 ,m4 ,a4 ,maury has determined with precision the authority of the portraits--almost all alike--which cover the walls of the temples4 ,we ourselves1 when visiting the famous cavern of ,abou-,simbel1 were far from finding all that the writings of certain anthropologists and partisans of ,egyptian art1 such as ,gliddon1 ,nott1 etc41 had promised us4 ,doubtless1 one can perfectly distinguish certain types1#abf that is indisputable2#abg but to desire to find a people in each portrait1--,scythians1 ,arabs1 ,philistines1 ,lydians1 ,kurds1 ,hindoos1 ,jews1 ,chinese1 ,tyrians1 ,pelasgians1 ,ionians1 etc41--is it not to give too great an influence to the ,egyptian artists1 who were copyists without skill1 and but clumsy inventors8 ,egyptian art1 whatever may have been said of it1 has always been very much farther from being a copy of nature than ,grecian art2 the one tended to the ideal1 the other tended to transform it4 ,certain trees which we see thrown down in the bas-relief of the great temple of ,karnak1 are assuredly pure imagination4 ,it may have been the same with many other subjects to which a scientific value has been given4 ,let us return to anatomical differences1 and to that which has1 since antiquity1 most vividly struck the masses1 as well as serious investigators4 ,we are going to speak about those colours in the skin of man which run through almost the whole of the chromatic scale1 from dead white to the deepest brown4#abh ,there is no system which has not been thought of in order to explain these differences1 even up to the influence of ,noah's curse4#abi ,unfortunately1 we are wanting in those histological and chemical researches which are necessary in order to form the bases of a complete history of the colours of the skin in the human race4#acj ,we can merely say1 that the recent works upon certain morbid states1 such as ,addison's disease1 and others which may approach it1 by making us acquainted with the pathological circumstances under which the ,european with a white skin becomes almost as black as a ,negro1 and by identical anatomical modifications1 have nearly proved that atmospheric phenomena have not the influence which monogenists give to them1 and that the first origin of the colour of the epidermis in the human race resides rather in the depths of the organism1 inaccessible to celestial radiation4#aca ,the varieties which the pilous system presents is the chief point1 and equal at least in importance to those of the cutaneous system4 ,if we think that a classification of races1 based simply upon the characteristics of the hair1 as has been proposed1#acb would leave much to be desired1 and would be far too artificial1 we do not doubt1 however1 but that the pilous system can furnish indications of great value when they have been combined in a wise manner with other characteristics1 as ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire has done4#acc ,doubtless1 the colours of the hair1 from flaxen to black1 and from brown to red1 are innumerable in ,france1 and as generally so in countries where the mixture of races has been carried as far as possible2 but it must be remembered that among a purer population1 less mixed with foreign blood1 the constancy of characteristics taken from the hair is remarkably great4#acd ,besides1 the differences which present themselves do not relate merely to colour2 the hair of a race of men may be either smooth1 or woolly1 or crisped1 for in general these two latter terms are wrongly and indifferently used1 when they ought really to point out two particular and distinct states4 ,it is thus that the inhabitants of ,lower ,nubia1 for instance1 who have a very deep shade of colour1 possess curled hair1 truly woolly1 and quite different to that of the ,negro1 whose hair is really crisped4#ace ,other characteristics may be demanded from the length of the hair1 from its transverse section1--the figure of which may vary considerably1--from its flexibility or its quantity2 in fact1 even from its manner of being placed in the head1 the arrangement of which upon the scalp has never been properly studied1 and which may1 perhaps1 vary with the different races of mankind4 ,in fact1 human hairs1 like that of many mammalia1 are not placed at equal distances the one from the other2 they approach each other in little groups4 ,this is especially seen in the nape of the neck1 and among the ,negro race much more so than among the ,europeans4 ,this fact1 joined to the irregularly prismatic form of the hair in the ,negro1 is doubtless the origin of the following peculiarity3 when the head of a ,negro has been shaved1 and the hair begins to grow afresh1 one is especially struck with its strange appearance4 ,it is arranged in little tufts about the size of a pea1 so that the head1 it has been remarked1#acf resembles nothing more closely than an old worn-out brush4 ,this peculiarity is special to the ,negro1 and is not found in the north-east of ,africa1 where the neighbouring population have woolly hair4 ,among the enumeration of the numberless perfections which a dogmatic ,hind requires from ,buddha1 and which akhya-,mouni possessed1 it is said1 8,the hair of ,buddha shoots forth in little ringlets40#acg ,it is impossible to describe better what happens with the ,negro4 ,all this ,hindoo tradition is1 besides1 a veritable enigma for the anthropologist4 ,why is ,buddha depicted with the palms of the hands descending to the knees8#ach ,why is the mendicant son of a king1 born on the banks of the ,ganges1 always represented with the features or characteristics of a ,negro1 with black skin1 and crisped hair8 ,nevertheless1 akhya-,mouni did not belong to these inferior varieties of the human race1 of whose existence in the ,indian ,peninsula we have already spoken2 in that case1 he would have been unfit to formulate any doctrine1 either moral or philosophic4 ,the rest of the pilous system1 not less than that of the hair1 merits the attention of the anthropologist4 ,thus1 a very especial fact1 and to which1 in our opinion1 sufficient importance has never been attached1 is1 on the one hand1 the relative abundance of the beard among the various races of mankind2 and on the other1 the time of its development4 ,the ,chinese1 for example1 is for a long time beardless1 and it is only about his fortieth year that a few stiff hairs begin to appear upon his face4 ,among the ,negroes1 the ,americans1 and the ,polar race1 the hair is1 in the same way1 very slightly developed on the face4 8,the length of our beards 7of thirty days growth71 which had not been shaved since we left the ,victory10 said ,sir ,john ,ross1#aci 8was1 among other things1 a source of great amusement1 while one of them1 a stranger1 whose beard was of unusual length among this tribe1 claimed consanguinity with us on that ground40 ,the thick and close beard seems1 in regarding the matter closely1 the exclusive appanage of that race which1 sprung from the ,imas1 spread over the whole of ,europe1 and whose finest representatives still inhabit the table-lands of ,iran4#adj ,our neighbours1 the ,semites1 are far from being so well provided2 and ,lieut4-,colonel ,h4 ,smith has#ada not1 perhaps1 done wrong in proposing to make an abundant pilous system the characteristic of one race1 just as the crisped state of the hair would become the characteristic of another4 ,the systems of animal life1 doubtless1 show as many varieties among different races of men as the systems of the life of relationship2 only these varieties are much less known4 ,it will be sufficient for us to remember in this place the darker colour of the blood and the sperma among the ,negro race1 as already remarked by ,aristotle and verified by ,jacquinot1 and the equally dark tint of the nervous centres2 so that the whole conomy of the ,negro is1 even in the most hidden parts 7and those most distant from solar or atmospheric influence71 impregnated with colouring matter4 ,let us notice1 also1 the development of the small labia among the ,hottentot women1 that of the prepuce and the clitoris among the ,semitic race1 and even the size of the penis among the ,ethiopians--such a size that it would almost impede the union of a black man with a white woman1 whilst the union of a white man with a ,negress would occur without any impediment4 ,this remark1 quite in agreement with the theories of ,m4 d',eichthal1 has been made by a monogenist2#adb we have merely the right to wonder at it4 ,how can we reconcile this impossibility1 were it even a shade of a real one1 with the notion of indefinite and universal reproduction1 which all monogenists--wrongly1 as we shall see--make one of their strongest arguments in favour of the specific unity of man8 ,,ii4 ,what we call physiological differences are certain functional forms of the same organ1 particular to certain races4 ,this is1 as may be seen1 an entirely artificial distinction1 since these differences must necessarily and forcibly refer to material1 that is1 to anatomical differences4 ,these alone1 either from their small value1 or from some other cause1 have been hitherto unknown2 whilst their effects1 being more sensible1 have not failed to escape our observation4 ,if an ,esquimaux1 for instance1 eats in one day the food of six ,english sailors1#adc it is evident that the intestines1 the stomach1 and the glands which border on them1 present special modifications with reference to this kind of nourishment1 so different from the frugivorous diet for which man's organism is adapted4 ,when a ,tartar sees further than a ,european who is using a telescope1#add it is certain that such a functional superiority depends only on the material quality of the organ1--from a more perfect arrangement of the visual apparatus1--from the more perfect nature of the medium refractive powers of the eye4 ,it has often been desired to refer these kind of modifications to the education of the race or the individual4 ,the education of the race by itself1 independently of the ordinary course1 seems to us difficult to admit1 since education1 in this case1 would suppose a triumphant struggle against the ordinary course of things4 ,every animal comes into the world as its parents came1 or1 at least1 apparently so4 ,if he brings with him1 by inheritance1 certain particular characteristics1 they must necessarily in time become obliterated either by their own means1 or by destroying all those who possess them 7the case of hereditary degeneracy74 ,in fact1 if perfection in a race were possible by means of an individual1 the consequence would be that very soon our descendants would be no longer in relationship with the circumambient medium1 which would be an absurdity4#ade ,as to individual education1 it has an undeniable influence2 but this does not suffice to explain such important differences4 ,we never find that ,europeans1 who happen to be thrown among savages1 attain to these peculiarly fine and delicate perceptions so special to many aborigines4 ,and1 moreover1 the ,american residing in boundless forests1 where the view is always restricted1 has as piercing a glance as the ,kalmuc upon his plain4 ,the question of the education of an organ or a system by the individual himself will be cleared up1 doubtless1 one of these days1 by attentive anatomy4 ,and since we are upon the subject1 let us remember that an important study still remains1 hitherto merely glanced at1--that of the influence which1 for instance1 the milk of an animal or a female of another race may have upon the development or the health of a white child4 ,the differences which we call physiological are very numerous2 we shall1 however1 only quote two or three from among the most striking4 ,the principal point1 perhaps1 is the peculiar smell of the ,negro4 ,this is so strong1 that it even impregnates for some time a place where a ,negro may only have remained for a few hours1 and it is so characteristic1 that it alone constitutes a grave presumption in matters of slave-trading2 for ,humboldt has stated concerning the ,peruvians what ,le ,cat and ,haller said about the savages of the ,antilles1 that they could perfectly trace a ,negro by scent1 thanks to this odour2 and it is1 at the same time1 a new proof of the sensitive perfection of the ,american race4 ,this odour is quite independent of age1 and sometimes is almost insupportable in young children2 it is also independent of sweat1 and1 in fact1 of all the means of cleanliness of which a ,negro can make use4#adf ,it is due1 according to all appearance1 to a secretion from the same glands which1 in the white man1 give such a peculiar odour to the arm-pits2 but this latter is absolutely different from that of the ,negro4#adg ,with regard to this1 we must not lose the occasion of noticing one of those contradictions into which monogenists have so often fallen1 and1 indeed1 it could not be otherwise4 8,the dog does not come from the jackal10 says ,m4 ,flourens1#adh 8for the jackal has such a peculiar smell1 that it does not seem possible that1 in this case1 the dog should not have preserved some traces of it at least40 ,shall we reason in the same manner in order to make a special race of the ,negro1 and would this monogenist accept it8 ,another very remarkable physiological peculiarity1 and one quite as worthy of being noticed1 since it has a certain effect upon physiognomy1 upon the facies of a race1 is a special mode of standing1 consisting in holding oneself in a squatting position1 the sole of the foot on the ground1 and the thighs bent up against the hams1 without the ischia touching the ground4 ,this effect is what ,cook called 8a monkey countenance40#adi ,we find nowhere that the ,greeks1--the inhabitants of the ancient continent generally1--the ,arabs1 or even the ancient ,egyptians themselves1 have ever been accustomed to this position1 which necessarily implies some anatomical modification1 whether it be in the separation of the pelvis1 the direction of the neck of the thigh-bone1 or the torsion of the bones1 etc4#aej ,this position seems1 on the contrary1 to have been always the peculiarity of the ,melanesian races2 it is the ordinary mode of standing among the inhabitants in the upper course of the ,nile1 and the ,negroes of ,africa and the ,oceanic ,islands4 ,they place themselves thus in order to look at anything1 to chat together1 or to deliberate4 ,the magnificent drawings which illustrate the account of the travels of the ,english ,embassy to the ,emperor of ,abyssinia1#aea represent this monarch as reviewing an entire army of infantry drawn up in order of battle1 and all squatting in this manner4 ,the ancient ,egyptians generally kept themselves either on their knees or seated on the ground1 the legs brought together1 and the knees touching in front of the chest1 as thousands of statues1 figures1 and pictures show us4 ,but their artists have just revealed to us that the people of ,central ,africa have always been as they are at the present day4 ,the great painting of ,bet-,oually1 in ,nubia1#aeb represents ,rameses the ,great as charging a troop of ,negroes from ,soudan2 on one side1 farther off1 we see a ,negro near a saucepan1 preparing1 doubtless1 some food2 he is squatting in the manner of which we have just spoken4 ,in this place1 as is often the case1 the ,egyptian artist has been clever in seizing a profile by its most significant characteristic4#aec ,gricault wished at one time to make a drawing of an episode in the 8,shipwreck of the ,medusa10 ,corard making signs to an ,african chief who was seated on the sand2 he placed in his composition a ,negro squatting1 but he drew him with one foot resting entirely on the ground1 and the other bearing only on the extremity of the metatarsi4 ,at that time ,gricault had only a white man as a model2 a ,negro would have placed himself differently1 with both his feet flat on the ground4 ,we might pursue the history of these physiological varieties ad infinitum1--it is a large field for the enquirer2 and to mention one fact alone1 the compared history of development among the different races of mankind has still to be accomplished1 especially the history of the intra-uterine development of the ,negro1 and even partly the history of the first months of his arial life4 ,,iii4 ,if organism1 operating normally among different races1 presents such varieties1 why can we not suppose that it would hence show correlative differences in its morbid changes8 should there not be1 also1 an ethnic pathology8 ,this contains a large question1 and yet it was scarcely thought of a few years ago4 ,it seems to have been first proposed and studied by ,f4 ,schnurrer in his treatise on ,geographical ,pathology1#aed in #ahac1 in which the author seems to have perceived imperfectly1 in all its vastness1 the matter which now occupies our attention4 ,the book is divided into three parts2 the first is entirely geographical1 the second entirely anthropological1 and the third is given up to a description of maladies1 commencing with two introductory chapters2 the first describing the diseases of each zone1 and the second1 containing eleven pages1 is a 8,glance at the general ,characteristics of ,disease in each ,race40 8,in fact10 says ,dr4 ,boudin1#aee in pointing out the novelty of these enquiries1 8there are some races who show themselves completely rebellious to certain pathological forms1 for which others1 on the contrary1 show a remarkable pre-disposition40 ,two particular maladies have been pointed out in this point of view1--marsh-poisoning in all its forms1 and yellow fever4 ,africans are evidently1 at least in parts1 exempt from these two diseases1 which only attack them with a very minor force4 ,it has been said that the question of marsh-poisoning is still very doubtful2 it was allowed that the ,negroes were less exposed to its attacks than other men1 but it was desired to enter the question of acclimatisation#aef into the calculation of facts4 ,all the countries we know that are inhabited by blacks1 being nearly all subject to the noxious influence of marshes1 it was pretended that even stranger ,negroes had acquired from infancy1 in their own country1 an immunity by which they benefited later in life1 and even had the power of handing it down to their descendants4#aeg ,it is thus that some have explained1 for instance1 the unhappy results of the ,english expedition to the ,niger in #ahda4 ,out of #ade whites belonging to the crews1 the three vessels1 after a navigation of about forty-nine days on the river1 had lost #dj men 7#acj were attacked74 ,out of the twenty-five coloured men embarked in ,england1 and who were mostly born in ,america1 eleven were seized with illness1 but not one of them died4#aeh ,this individual acclimatisation can only be either a fiction1 or a proof in support of the ideas which we defend4 ,in the presence of a morbid influence which shows itself and continues1 two things alone can happen1--either destruction1 or permanent 7that is to say1 specific7 modifications of conomy1 in harmony with the ordinary manner in which this animal population continues to exist4 ,the yellow fever1 exercising its ravages upon shores equally distant from whites and negroes1 has brought very decisive arguments into the question4 ,we know1 in fact1 that the whites suffer in ,america from the black vomit in all its violence2 whilst the ,negroes are not attacked by it1 or if they are1 its effects are insignificant4#aei ,a ferocious maxim1 one worthy of the conquerors1 has explained--since the sixteenth century--this prerogative1 which the ,spaniards had so much reason to envy1 8,if we did not hang a ,negro1 he would never die40#afj ,if some authors have timidly advanced the theory of a former acclimatisation#afa with regard to marsh-poisoning1 the greater number of observers1 ,fenner1 ,nott1 and ,bryant1 ought to admit that there was1 even in the constitution of the black man1 an obstacle--otherwise absolutely unknown in his nature--to the manifestation of the yellow fever2#afb and that the black blood appeared to carry on this resisting force to the mixed breed1 even if they were born far away4#afc ,an extremely interesting experiment relating to this immunity of the ,negro from the yellow fever1 was tried largely during the disastrous ,mexican expedition1 and the conditions of this experience ought to give it a capital value4 ,at first1 our soldiers paid a terrible tribute to this scourge1 and then the ,french ,government took up the excellent idea of profiting by the resistance of the ,negro race to the black vomit4 ,it asked for a battalion of blacks from the viceroy of ,egypt1 consisting of men recruited from the limits of ,soudan1 from ,berber to ,khartoum4 ,it was not without anxiety that the issue of this physiological experiment was watched1 since it did not happen1 as in our laboratories1 in anima vili4 ,some had confidence in the functional uniformity of the ,negro race1 as being beyond all local action2 others believing wrongly1 as we said1 in a former acclimatisation of the only inhabitants of the western coast of ,africa1 expected to find that all these ,negroes from the other side of the continent would perish4 ,however1 in spite of what they had at first said1 they could very soon verify the almost complete immunity of the ,negro battalion at ,vera-,cruz4#afd ,it was the first time1 if we are not mistaken1 that anthropology has been directly applied in the ,old ,world to social science4 ,some time ago anthropologists were consulted by the government of the ,northern ,states of ,america upon certain questions of slavery1 at the time when terrible dissensions were budding in the shadows of the distance4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,intellectual ,,and ,,philological ,,varieties4 ,from time immemorial1 common sense has enlightened mankind upon the intellectual differences which make one nation differ from another1 and one race from another4 ,almost all nations1 in admitting that they are superior to their neighbours1 acknowledge thereby a characteristic difference between themselves and those whom they thus place below their own level4 ,an overweening sense of vanity may possibly cause deception in this case2 but this belief is1 at least1 based on a veritable fact1--intellectual inequality4 ,there are1 indeed1 sensible and manifest differences1 which no one will deny1 especially those who seek in the literary monuments of a race for the history of its ideas and its tendencies1 and those who have mingled with other nations1 and who have examined their manners1 their customs and their religion4 8,it is sufficient to have seen the blacks10 says their most enthusiastic defender1#afe 8to have lived some time with them1 to feel that there is in them a humanity quite different to that of the white man40#aff ,some persons have wished to deceive themselves2 they have wished to raise the ,negro race to our own level1 in the name of some sort of sentimental feeling1 which1 moreover1 has always turned out to be a mistake4 ,many persons have been engaged upon them4 ,not being able to give them plastic equality1 they had recourse to intelligence1--they wished to deceive themselves1 like ,desdemona1 when she said1-- 8,i saw ,othello's visage in his mind40#afg ,the ,negro was declared to be our equal by the moral law1 only with certain shades of distinction depending on some particular and transient circumstances which would soon disappear4 ,it was announced that1 in their turn1 they would advance ideas1 and would work at what is called progress1 that is to say1 8the increase of good on the earth40#afh 8,in proportion as work makes vital energy to predominate in the head10 said ,m4 ,marcel de ,serres in #ahdd1 8these deeply coloured men1#afi with crisped1 woolly1 or short hair1 will tend in a manifest manner towards the white race1--will march with them in the path of progress40#agj ,and farther on1 8,this experiment has scarcely commenced1 but it already shows sensible effects40 ,unfortunately1 the twenty years which have passed since these words were written1 have not shown that they are true2 and the challenge offered by an ,american has never yet been accepted1 8,let anyone quote to me one single line written by a ,negro which is worthy of being remembered40#aga ,they are not more advanced now than at the time when ,mohammed refused them the gift of prophecy4#agb ,and1 as ,dr4 ,hunt remarks1 there is certainly no means of civilising those who have been uncivilised for three thousand years1 during which time they have been connected with the ,egyptians1 the ,carthaginians1 the ,arabs1 the ,portuguese1 the ,dutch and the ,english4#agc ,if it be objected that they have always been slaves1 we may say our ,gallic and ,german ancestors were so also2 but we ask1 ,why do they continue to be slaves8 ,the merit of first endeavouring to distinguish races of men by characteristics taken from without the physical world1 by the quality of the manifestations of their intelligence1 is1 perhaps1 due to ,linnus4 ,with this spirit of laconism1 which led him to group in one simple and easy formula the characteristic facts which he desired to impress on the mind of the reader as being important1 he endeavoured to determine1 in a few words1 the various tendencies of different races1 and it must be acknowledged that he has at times been happy in this kind of synoptic classification4#agd ,in proportion as modern knowledge has made us penetrate more deeply into the minds of races1--since we are no longer contented with studying them superficially in the ordinary manifestations of life1 which we may call 8common-place10 and which belong to nearly all countries1--we perceive that insuperable limits separate one set of men from another with regard to intellectual affinity1 so that here1 as in the case of physical characteristics1 each race is almost to be distinguished from its neighbours4 8,profound and unchangeable differences10 said ,m4 ,paul de ,remusat1#age in #ahed1 8which would1 perhaps1 suffice of themselves to found definite and thoroughly limited classifications40 ,it was in order to point out a new branch of anthropology1 a new and fruitful branch1--that a work appeared which was destined to throw a bright light on the subject4 ,it was necessary to explain these distinctions1 and not merely to enunciate them4 ,the merit in this matter belongs to ,m4 ,renan1 who1 in his treatise on the languages of the great ,semitic family1 has painted1 from the most favourable characteristics1 this humanity which is1 morally1 so different from our own1 however like it may be in external form4 ,the intellectual disparity of races is henceforward an undeniable fact4 ,the religious or moral system of a people being the highest manifestations of its intellectual tendencies1 we see that the study of religions enters quite naturally into anthropology2 it is a part of this comparable study of the human mind1 unfortunately too much neglected1 but which begins to take a place worthy of its importance in the world of science4#agf ,we do not wish to discuss theological or religious questions1 the anthropologist ought to leave them to others4 ,his duty is to endeavour to put himself outside the narrow circle in which nature has placed him2 to forget1 as much as possible1 his inclinations and personal sentiments2 to look around him2 to put the world in one view1 and to endeavour to be the sole spectator of the same4 ,then a curious phenomenon will strike his gaze1--the chains of mountains and the rivers which separate the various races of mankind1 will also separate different religions4 ,like the sea which breaks on the shore1 every belief has seen its disciples1 armed with the sword1 or with the pacific weapons of persuasion1 stop at certain limits1 over which they are not permitted to pass4 ,of course1 we only speak here of true proselytism1 of real progress in religion in its form and spirit4 ,humboldt and ,bonpland saw1 one day1 in the ,cordilleras1 a savage crowd dancing and brandishing the war-hatchet round an altar where a ,franciscan was elevating the ,host4 ,such neophytes are only called ,christians in the ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1--they are not converts in the opinion of the anthropologist4 ,pure monotheism seems always to have been the religion of the ,semitic race4 ,most ,european nations1 on the contrary1 have professed from antiquity1 a polytheism or a pantheism1 more or less disguised1 more or less acknowledged4 ,in fact1 by the side of those nations of ,asia and ,europe1 where civilisation and religious ideas appear to have simultaneously been developed1 although in different directions1 we find other people who have neither religious ideas1 nor gods1 nor any kind of worship4#agg ,three vast regions of the earth1 inhabited by people still in a savage state1 appear to have remained1 up to the present day1 free from religious beliefs2 these are ,central ,africa1 ,australia1 and the country around the ,north ,pole1--that is to say1 the three parts of the world which are most difficult to explore1--the only parts which have even not yet been thoroughly examined4 ,and this is one consequence of this want of exploration2 it supposes a sort of sequestration from the rest of the world1 which has not even succumbed to civilisation by this contact and imitation of which we have already spoken4 ,let us admit that relations were established by these people with their neighbours2 they would soon have imported from the foreigner conceptions which would even then have never taken a form1 on account of the small portion of intellect which nature had given to them4 ,referring to the inhabitants of ,australia1 ,latham acknowledges that the general opinion is1 in fact1 that they have not yet commenced to shape the rudest elements of a religion1#agh 8an opinion10 he says1 8which causes the idea that their intellects are too sluggish even for the maintenance of superstition40 ,it is certainly true that1 in the ,american expedition under ,captain ,gray1 it was thought that some religious ideas could be perceived among them2 but it appears from the same account that the song which constituted all this apparent religion1 had been brought from far by strangers1 and adopted by the natives1--doubtless1 by other ,australians1 who had already been influenced by the ,christian ideas of the white men1 or the ,buddhist principles of the ,malays4 ,to relate the history of the introduction of an idea among a people is1 in reality1 to declare and prove that this idea did not exist there before1 which is sufficient for us if we can be assured of the fact4 ,the testimony of missionaries#agi is1 besides1 consonant with that which we have just said2 and we may remark on the importance of assertions coming from men whose whole study is to discover1 in the people whom they desire to convert1 ideas analogous to those which they endeavour to propagate4 8,they have no idea of a ,divine ,being10 says one of these men2 8they appear to have no comprehension of the things they commit to memory1--,i mean especially as regards religious subjects40 8,what can we do10 says another1 8with a nation whose language possesses no terms corresponding to justice or sin1 and to whose mind the ideas expressed by these words are completely strange and inexplicable80 ,as to ,central ,africa1 we confine ourselves to relating a few facts relative to this want of religious belief1 gathered from different points in the periphery of the vast triangle1 almost unexplored and unknown1 which is described by lines joining together ,senegal1 ,zanzibar1 and the ,cape4 ,an ,american missionary1#ahj who lived four years amongst the ,mpongwes1 one of the most important nations of ,central ,africa1 the ,mandingos1 and the ,grebos1 and who knew their language perfectly1 declares that they had neither religion1 nor priests1 nor idolatry1 nor any religious assemblies whatsoever4 ,dr4 ,livingstone says the same thing concerning the ,bechuanas4#aha ,the ,austrian missionaries1 established upon the distant banks of the ,white ,nile1 have met with the same want of religion1 the same void#ahb in the mind4 ,in fact1 among the ,caffres1 the name which they give to the ,divine ,being1 as among the ,hottentots1 is undeniable evidence that they formerly had no idea of anything similar4 ,this name is ,tixo1 and its history is too curious not to be related2 it is composed of two words which1 together1 signify the 8wounded knee40 ,it was1 they say1 the name of a doctor or sorcerer1 well known among the ,hottentots and ,namaquas1 on account of some wound which he had received on his knee4 ,having been held in great estimation for his extraordinary power during his life1 the ,wounded ,knee continued to be invoked even after his death1 as being able to comfort and protect2 and consequently his name became the term which best represented1 to the minds of his countrymen1 their confused idea of the missionaries' ,god6 ,as to the ,esquimaux1 since #afab1 ,whitebourne wrote that they had no knowledge of ,god1 and lived without any form of civil government4 ,and we can add to this distant testimony the following lines from the journal of ,sir ,john ,ross1 who lived for a long time in the midst of them4 8,did they comprehend anything of all that ,i attempted to explain1 explaining the simplest things in the simplest manner that ,i could devise8 ,i could not conjecture4 ,should ,i have gained more had ,i better understood their language8 ,i have much reason to doubt4 ,that they have a moral law of some extent #8written in the heart1' ,i could not doubt1 as numerous traits of their conduct show1 but beyond this1 ,i could satisfy myself of nothing2 nor did these efforts1 and many more1 enable me to conjecture aught worth recording4 ,respecting their opinions on the essential points from which ,i might have presumed on a religion1 ,i was obliged at present to abandon the attempt1 and ,i was inclined to despair40#ahc ,this extract is so much the more important for our thesis1 since we perceive in every word the chagrin of a man who did not find in the hearts of others a fraternal echo to his dearest sentiments4 ,it is1 in truth1 a difficulty peculiar to the study of questions of this nature4 ,we must1 therefore1 be very careful in discussing the value of any testimony which may be brought forward1 and to distrust those minds which begin by declaring priori the universality of beliefs1 hopes1 and fears among mankind1 as a natural consequence of the primitive unity of the human species4 ,we must always examine most minutely the accounts of travellers to which we are obliged to refer4 ,thus1 for example1 it is evident that the older the evidence1 the better it is2 but at the same time1 the farther it goes back1 the less chance there is that it emanates from an independent and impartial mind1 free from all prejudice4 ,happily1 the exaggeration of these ideas must often suffice to put us on our guard against them1 like the candid ,jesuit1 whose zealous but hazy faith thought it had discovered traces of ,st4 ,thomas's preaching in ,brazil4#ahd ,in an otherwise good notice of the ,esquimaux1#ahe ,dr4 ,king says1 8that these people have preserved1 like many other uncivilised races1 a vague remembrance of the creation and of the deluge1 and that they believe in future rewards and punishments40 ,in his religious zeal1 ,dr4 ,king forgets that if the ,esquimaux had been able to bring a confused tradition of even the deluge and the creation from the valley of the ,euphrates1 it was impossible it could have been the same with a belief in future rewards and punishments1 seeing that the ,jews themselves never possessed this belief before their contact with ,assyrian civilisation4 ,we may read in ,dr4 ,brecher's excellent work#ahf the whole history of the development of this belief in the immortality of the soul4 ,if the ,german doctor wishes piously to prove that the ,jews ought1 morally1 to have always believed in this immortality1 at all events1 his zeal has been able to invent real proofs1 which in fact1 are wanting4 ,the famous scheol1 which is mentioned so often in old ,hebrew books1 appears to be merely the kingdom of the dead1 and not that of souls1 like hell1 ,tartarus1 the ,elysian fields1 and ,paradise2 the scheol is but an ideal representation of the tomb4 ,even at the time when the ,jews had generally adopted the ideas of their neighbours1 during the ,talmudic period1 the belief in the immortality of the soul1 if it existed1 was neither completely clear nor well reasoned1 since they refused all participation in a future life to those who denied the resurrection and the last judgment1 8which was equivalent to entire annihilation40#ahg ,to believe this1 is certainly not to believe in the immortality of the soul1 since they regarded eternal life not as a necessary consequence1 but as a recompense for good principles1 and having faith in them4 ,such an inconsistency is the clearest possible proof that1 even at this period1 these ideas had not undergone the change which brought them to the actual point of clearness4 ,they were also not yet completely freed from the ancient belief which the ,sadducees1 besides1 had not abandoned2 they were the faithful preservers of the ancient faith1 and the pure tradition of the sons of ,israel4 8,they have the theory that the soul dies with the body10 wrote ,josephus1#ahh 8and consider that they ought to keep nothing but the law40 ,we must be pardoned for insisting so much upon this point2 but it is of importance as regards our thesis to show that the belief in the immortality of the soul1 and in a divinity1 is not universal on the globe1 that one general characteristic of humanity could not be formed from it1 and that we ought even less to rely upon the existence of such ideas in order to establish a human kingdom4 ,we have only spoken of people who are either entirely savage1 or of ,jewish opinions1 which have long been lost in the past4 ,even in our own time1 there are two hundred million ,buddhists on the earth1 who have reached a marvellous point of civilisation1 who ignore1 in the most absolute manner1 the notion of another life and that of a divinity4 ,eugne ,burnouf1 whose ability no one will deny1 has already said it2 ,m4 ,barthlemy ,saint-,hilaire1 after much hesitation1 which will remain as the seal of a firmly established conviction1 has decided in the same way1 in the last edition of ,bouddha et sa ,religion4#ahi ,we quote his own words3--8,there is not the slightest trace of a belief in ,god in all ,buddhism2 and to suppose that it admits the absorption of the human soul into a divine or infinite soul1 is a gratuitous supposition which cannot even enter into the ideas of the ,buddhist4 ,in order to believe that man can lose himself in the ,god to which he is reunited1 this ,god must first be believed in as a necessary commencement4 ,but we can scarcely say that the ,buddhist does not believe in ,him4 ,he ignores ,god in such a complete manner1 that he does not even care about denying ,his existence2 he does not care about trying to abolish ,him2 he neither mentions such a being in order to explain the origin or the anterior existence of man1 his present life1 nor for the purpose of conjecturing his future state1 and his eventual freedom4 ,the ,buddhist has no acquaintance whatsoever with a ,god1 and1 quite given up to his own heroic sorrows and sympathies1 he has never cast his eyes so far or so high40 ,and the author adds the following lines1 which have a direct bearing on anthropology1 and which are like the sum of all we have just brought forward3--8,the human mind has scarcely been observed but in the races to which we ourselves belong4 ,these races deserve1 certainly1 a high place in our studies2 but if they are the most important1 they do not stand alone4 ,ought not the others to be noticed1 although they are said to be so inferior8 ,if they do not enter into the hastily drawn outline1 must they be disfigured by submitting them to over-strict theories8 ,is it not a better plan to acknowledge that old systems are faulty1 and that they are not comprehensive enough in everything which they undertake to explain80#aij ,the question of intellectual differences1 like1 indeed1 all the other points in anthropological study1 has largely exercised the inventive genius of monogenists1 for it must be owned that all the efforts of imagination proceed from them4 ,it is not more difficult to admit the development of one or twenty human species upon our planet1 than the development of a single moss or sea-weed2 they are phenomena of the same order1 and equally beyond the actual limits of our knowledge2 but this first step taken1 anthropology opens itself to the polygenist as simple and easy2 he follows1 without any trouble1 all phenomena1 from cause to effect1--everything enters into one general order1--everything is marvellously simple1 in spite of apparent complication4 ,it is not the same with the monogenist2 ruled continually by his theory1 he goes on almost painfully1 and at every step some new obstacle is raised to impede his progress4 ,if he thinks he has conquered physical differences1 psychological varieties start up2 then will arise families of different tongues1 quite as radically distinct and as difficult to explain2 and yet it is in vain that the obstacle seems so great and insurmountable1 it must be overcome1 it must be passed in the name of an admitted principle1 cost what it may so to do4 ,thus it is that monogenists have sometimes arrived at the most curious1 but at the same time most unfortunate1 results4 ,and if we wished to form sentiment from science1 we should ask1 which is the most reasonable1 the most worthy1 and the most consoling1--whether to believe that we alone are perfect1 and that nine-tenths of our brethren who cover the globe are disinherited2 or to consider all these varied existences which we see around us as forming equal1 if not similar1 species1 pursuing1 each in its own way1 a destiny1 different1 indeed1 but not degraded1--not degenerated1--in certain points even better arranged than our own4 8,god10 said ,niebuhr1 8has marked on each race of men their destination with the characteristic which best suits them0 and the philosopher had already learnt by history that when civilisation has been suddenly introduced from without among a savage nation1#aia the consequence is an immediate physical degeneracy1 that is to say1 the destruction of the people which has wandered from its usual mode of life4 ,the historian thus proclaimed a physiological law1 which most monogenists are glad to forget1--that all degeneracy ends necessarily in death2 it kills itself1 and always at the tenth generation1 if not at the first4 ,no group of human beings1 after two or three generations of unmixed existence1 can be considered as degraded or degenerated1 not more than we should admit that a young girl1 attacked with cretinism in its greatest degree1 had the characteristics of the ,esquimaux or the ,mongolian race4#aib ,we can see1 even in a humanitarian point of view1--the point of view in which we refuse to place ourselves1--that the polygenists have the advantage4 ,the mind is not offended1 and cannot be so1 to see certain creatures possess some particular faculty to the exclusion of others4 ,does not harmony obtain an absolute value from a necessary inequality of parts1 whilst she herself restores to each part an equal value1 in making them all co-operate towards the same end1 the same action1 in which are distributed great and minor parts1--some brilliant1 some humble1 some concealed8#aic ,that fine ,north ,american race1 which is so much admired by all who have lived among them1 will be no longer1 according to ,dr4 ,martius1#aid the worthy descendant of the first murderer1 a collection of maniacs and insane folks1 brought to that state by misery and the reprobation of ,god4 ,we only see in them men endowed like ourselves1 but more in harmony with the nature which animates them1 having1 of course1 their imperfections like ourselves1 but giving us also an example of great qualities1 firmness1 courage1 patience1 and an intense love of liberty4 ,whites and blacks may be slaves1 but the ,american has never served a master4#aie ,the ,negro himself has his advantages2 and we could not1 perhaps1 struggle with him about affective or hateful faculties4 ,m4 de ,gobineau seems to us to be strangely mistaken in the portrait which he has attempted to draw of the black man2 he has made his race hideous2 it is only inferior in relation to ourselves2 it is equal to some1 and superior to others1 not partaking1 indeed1 of all the advantages of the ,iranian or ,semitic races1 but able to display other qualities which belong particularly to itself4 ,in the place of this spectacle1 which is thus presented to our view1 of degraded beings covering half the earth1 we simply see1 for our part1 intelligence developing itself in each race1 following certain directions and tendencies at the expense of others4 ,these special tendencies are sometimes very remarkable4 ,in his intercourse with the ,esquimaux1 ,sir ,john ,ross1 whose observing mind we have several times had occasion to notice1 found that they were nearly all good geographers4 ,he put into their hands a pencil and paper 7of the use of which they were certainly ignorant71 and they drew with great correctness the bays1 rivers1 islands1 and lakes of their country1 as well as the exact spots where they had encamped at some former emigration4 ,this is a curious contrast with most of the ,african and ,arab peoples1 who seem to have but a very vague idea of distance or time2 indeed1 the difficulty of finding out routes among the inhabitants of ,soudan1 which we have ourselves experienced1 has become almost proverbial4#aif ,without going so far as all that1 our neighbours1 the ,semites1 differ from ourselves in the manner and quality of their mind to an extraordinary degree2 on the one side is the ,aryan1 an analyst1 a pantheist1 given to the plastic or perspective reproduction of everything which surrounds him2 on the other1 the ,semite1 a sensualist1 a monotheist1 an iconoclast4 ,if it is radically impossible for the ,semite to follow us in the depths of metaphysics1 his language even being opposed to all philosophic demonstration2 in our turn1 perhaps1 we are less religious1--that is to say1 less solemnly struck by the universe4 ,the thought of demonstrating ,god1 and proving this thought1 will never come to the ,semite as it did to ,bossuet1 ,fnlon1 and ,newton4#aig ,the ,semite feels ,god1 if we may so express it2 and1 as if absorbed and astounded by this personified creative force1 whose shadow presses on him1 he does not understand the arts of reproduction1 although among all the people who excel in it4 ,in fact1 history itself will teach us that these tendencies are so much accused and so general1 that they are found everywhere2 in one place rising even above conquest1 in another1 modifying itself to imported religions4 ,when a religion1 in accordance with the genius of the men to whom it has been addressed from the cradle1 passes from this race to another1 it is necessarily modified4 ,pure monotheism1 born in the east1 has only conquered the west and the ,iranian race by transforming itself to their pleasure4 ,the ,persians accepted ,islam2 but they have not been able to renounce this necessity for plastic reproduction1 which is one of the characteristics of the ,iranian family3 a schism became formed1 which authorised all the arts1 and left in entire freedom that natural tendency which could not be smothered4 ,far more than the monsters in ,isaiah's dream1 the lions of the ,alhambra were a terrible prophesy4 ,those who see them may read in their huge figures the vitality of a conquered nation1 whose love of the living form invaded even the palace of the conquerors1 and which were soon to make them fly4 ,the race which flourished at ,athens and at ,rome only accepted ,christianity1 which also came from the east1 by despoiling it of its original character2 and this religion would1 at the present day1 be incapable of making proselytes in that east where it first took its rise4 ,the preaching of ,mohammed was1 as ,m4 ,renan has remarked1 but a reaction of pure monotheism against degenerated ,christianity1 concealing but badly its polytheistic tendencies4 ,in truth1 the psychological study of the human race is a new science1 which has been examined into on some points1 but not in all4 ,to desire to sketch it would be to fall into the alternative either of doing what others have done perfectly1 or to fall into error for want of necessary materials4 ,we can only quote1 as having been well studied1--first1 the ,iranian race1 by all our moralists and philosophers2 secondly1 the ,semitic race1 by ,m4 ,renan2 and thirdly1 the ,american race1 by ,humboldt and ,bonpland1#aih by d',orbigny1#aii ,morton1#bjj and ,coombe4#bja ,,ii4 ,the study of languages is connected1 on the one hand1 to the physiology of the human race1 but more immediately still to the study of the varieties of the human mind1 of which they are in some measure the organ4 ,they can by this means assist also in classifying mankind into natural groups4 ,but where the study of languages affects more especially the anthropologist1#bjb is when it touches on the origin of the varieties of language1 and of the primitive state 7either intellectual or social7 of the speaking man3 when it endeavours to fathom the past each day farther back1--each day nearer to the origin4 ,thus bound together1 the two sciences ought to have the same destiny2 philology has had its monogenists and its polygenists4 ,the first have been obliged to give way1 overpowered by the number and the superiority of their opponents4 ,they are done for2 and the field remains free to the latter1 who affirm1 through their studies1 the multiplied origin of human language1 leaving the consequences to be deduced1 or deducing them themselves4#bjc ,one sole declaration will suffice us1 that of the history of ,semitic idioms4 8,if the planets1 whose physical nature seems to be analogous to that of the earth10 says ,m4 ,renan1#bjd 8are peopled with beings organised like ourselves1 we may presume that the history and the language of those planets does not differ more from our own than does the history and language of the ,chinese40 ,it is impossible to establish by a clearer and more striking image the individuality of the different families of language1 not one of which owes its origin to its neighbours1 and which have1 probably1 never been in one another's presence1 except when they had already been formed1 bringing with them their own characteristics1 their fundamental and profound type1 as unalterable by contact as is the physical type of the men who spoke them4 ,these1 in presence of others1 may have been able to alter their traditions1 their remembrances1 their words1 but these were never more than simple loans2 we may be certain that these men were strangers one to the other on the day when they uttered their first words in their cradles4 ,we must limit ourselves merely to recording the result1 which is1 that each system of language is absolutely irreducible to others1 both by its basis and its form2 all born in human thought1 it is true1 but this thought following at each point a particular path1 so that each of these systems1 as ,m4 ,renan has said1 only abuts on the others by the community of the aim it is intended to reach4 ,certain families of languages do not differ solely by their constitution1 they show special phonetic or physiological qualities2#bje that is to say1 we can observe1 in two different languages1 varieties of the same order which is explained among animals1 by the words barking1 braying1 cooing1 etc4 ,this is particularly the case with the strange language spoken by the clear-complexioned race of ,south ,africa1 probably much more widely diffused in former times than at present4 ,it resembles no other known language1 and consists in a clucking which has1 they say1 nothing analogous to it among any other nation on the earth4 ,the ,english have characterised it by the names of sighing1 or clucking1 and also especially click language4#bjf ,here is a new difference1--a radical difference in relation to so many others1 which decidedly forms1 from these ,bosjesmans1 a people whom it is impossible to ally1 it does not signify how1 or under what aspect1 to any other of the divisions of the great human family4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,climate4 ,monogenists--starting from unity of origin as a fact1 if not proved1 at least accepted and unquestionable1--were necessarily led to discover a physiological explanation of the profound differences which we find at the present day among mankind1 and which would have led them1 according to monogenists1 from one extreme state to the other1 or from a medium state to the two extremes4 ,now1 it is necessary to remember that every question concerning influence implies a previous historic notion4 ,we cannot establish that a modification is not produced in a body 7here is humanity71 except by comparing it with itself at two distinct moments of duration1 more or less distant4 ,when a monogenist admits as an origin one uniform human race1 he places a term of comparison in the past1 he gives an historical date more or less definite to this uniform human species4 ,and it is because religious cosmogonies alone dare1 at the present day1 to arrogate to themselves the power of making history dart back to the commencement of humanity1 that we shall always be much troubled by not seeing a theological influence as the basis of monogenist ideas2 now1 they say1 however1 that they have discovered the trace of this human uniformity upon which they rely1 in order to prove this great historical fact4 ,in our own opinion1 history is very far from commencing with mankind2 it only goes back two or three ages before the invention of figurative language1--a more important and difficult language for man than articulated language1 which was discovered long before1 and at many different points4 ,it is writing which makes the ,asiatics and the lost people of ,central ,america better than savages2 and if we were asked for a specific distinction with regard to intelligence between mankind and animals1 we should only be able to find it there4 ,it will be seen later that we are far from denying the influence of a middle course2 but we maintain that every term of comparison is wanting at the present day to show that man1 since the most distant historic periods1 has ever shown less dissimilarities than now4 ,most monogenists1 disagreeing about the whole system of modifying causes1 agree generally in acknowledging that climates and hybridity have a decisive creative influence as regards races of men4 ,these two kinds of influence alone deserve our consideration4 ,we shall commence by climate1 putting on one side1 for the present1 the study of the specious question of hybridity1 whose part is so badly understood by those who believe that it creates varieties1 when it can only weaken differences4 ,an important part in the means of alteration from one race to another has been given1 by ,hippocrates1 to external influences4 ,he seems to have been the first to point this out1 in his ,treatise on ,air1 ,water1 and ,places4#bjg 8,the form1 colour1 and manners of nations10 says ,polybius1 8depend solely on the diversity of climates40#bjh ,in general1 the ancients believed in the immediate and sudden influence of climate1 so much so that a stranger1 at the end of a few years1 would be completely changed and altered to the type of the inhabitants of the same place4 ,in our days1 ,cabanis alone has dared to go so far as this4#bji ,some monogenists have simply enlarged ,grecian theories1 and explained everything by the prolonged duration of the same influences4 ,others have supposed that local changes in the atmospheric conditions of the world1 anterior to the actual epoch1 were the cause4 ,this is a sort of progress beyond the preceding hypothesis1 in the sense that at least we must recognise the insufficiency of actually existing causes1 in order to explain the great differences observed at the present day between men4 ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire has agreed with his father upon the great question of the influence of the surrounding medium2 but death seized him before he could apply these theories to mankind4 ,however1 the high position that his ,histoire ,naturelle ,gnrale has taken in science obliges us to pause a moment on the subject of his opinions1 which have1 besides1 easily triumphed over the ruins of ,cuvier's school4 ,and if we do not agree with all the doctrines propounded by the second ,geoffroy1 we are all the more satisfied1 since1 differing from the son1 we incline more to the theories of the father4 ,isidore ,geoffroy believed in a decisive influence of the medium1 but only under certain conditions4 ,he believed that these influences are limited1 as he himself calls it1 every time that it relates to anything beyond the action of man1 that is to say1 on savage or free animals4 ,in this case1 the action of the medium1 according to him1 would be confined exclusively to the producing of varieties in form and in the colour of the skin1#baj--;a form we never see varied in the same class of men2 the colour of the skin1--which is sensibly the same among men1 among whom the fair type is itself exceptional1 and spread over a very small portion of the ancient north-west continent4 ,in every case1 ,isidore ,geoffroy acknowledged that these variations are sometimes very inconsiderable2#baa and although they have in no way approached those which separate human races1 we may be allowed to believe that the differences observed among savage species were1 in his eyes1 much less important4 ,he has endeavoured1 on the contrary1 to compare insignificant differences among free animals with varieties much more marked1 and much clearer than those shown by domestic animals1 and therefore1 doubtless1 he wished to make a step towards the fundamental question of anthropology1 which was evidently at the bottom of his thoughts1 and which he had for a long time resolved in a monogenist sense4 ,but domestic animals have quite special conditions1 which do not allow the assimilation of these varieties with those which have been simply produced by natural forces4 ,cuvier#bab had already pointed out this difference1 and rejected all assimilation between them and free animals4 ,without taking too much account of the reasons which impelled him towards such opinions1 we believe that upon this point1 at least1 he was entirely in the right2 as to the rest1 ,isidore ,geoffroy himself furnishes us with weapons against his own theories4 8,since nature1 left to herself10 he says1 8does not give us witnesses of the great changes in the conditions of existence1 it is clear that there only remains one means of seeing such changes1 and of deducing therefrom the effects upon organisation1--it is to force nature to do what she would not do voluntarily40#bac ,all the condemnation of this system of ,isidore ,geoffroy is contained1 in our opinion1 in these last words4 ,as for ourselves1 we reject1 in the most absolute and formal manner1 the connexion which some have desired to make between man and the domestic animals4 ,man is a sociable animal1 like many others2 but he only becomes exceptionally a domestic animal when he falls into slavery4 ,the domestic animal is a being drawn from the normal state1 and constrained by man4 ,he is constrained by nature to obey the influence of his master alone1--an influence infinitely variable4 ,it resembles itself no longer2 the habit of obedience does not even leave it its will2 it ceases to be a personality1 and becomes a mere machine1 producing for the benefit of another person4 ,domesticity has certain characteristics of degeneracy2 the animal loses its activity1 it becomes less eager1 and assimilates itself more2 it becomes almost incapable of subsisting alone2 it vegetates2 together with its personality it has lost this resistance to the ambient medium1 which is the necessary characteristic of the species1 the condition of the nisus formativus2 it modifies itself to everybody's will4 ,its organism may be considered as being in a state of unstable equilibrium1 so that the least influence causes this organism to vary1 and with the least possible delay1 to a considerable degree4#bad ,but when man ceases for an instant to be attentive in directing these modifications1 when he forgets himself for a moment1 nature--always vigilant and ready to seize upon her rights--destroys all this human edifice1 and recalls the animal to a type which may be called normal1 but which is not the type of the stock1 since nature1 acting on an organism endowed1 as we have just said1 with the wonderful malleability and ductility acquired by domesticity1 immediately and naturally modifies the animal1 which is restored to liberty1 by the power of the new medium into which it is cast4 ,nothing of the same sort takes place with mankind4 ,this does not mean1 however1 that he cannot also be reduced to a state of domesticity4#bae ,slaves1 indeed1 are nothing else2 and all that is wanting in order to place them in comparison with animal domesticity1 would be the history of a race of ,ilotes1 which has always been free from any mixture1 and has continued so during a time equal to that which separates us from the first conquest of the dog1 the sheep1 and the ox1 upon the high table-lands of ,asia4 ,let us1 then1 leave all comparison#baf between man1 free to come1 to go1 and to choose his own food1--and domestic animals4 ,let us return to those who live free1 and say1 once for all1 that if we stop our progress with so many details concerning these comparisons1 it is from a kind of respect for the character of certain learned men who have thus treated anthropological science4 ,we believe very little in biology1 or in demonstrations by similarities4 ,every animal1 every organ1 every anatomical element1 has its own life1 its own laws of birth1 development1 nutrition1 and reproduction4 ,at the commencement of science1 everything is clear and easy1 like the cellular theory1 for instance1 in the elements of anatomy2 but every day the laws of life 7we might say1 the laws of nature7 are multiplied and complicated2 every morning the searcher after truth must expect to discover some phenomenon which will disturb the scientific belief of the night before4 8,every evening10 said one of the masters of science1 8our best prayer is to form afresh a synthesis of the sciences40#bag ,well1 if modern anatomy has taught us that the initial phase of the development of the egg differs according to the animal1#bah even as nothing resembles less the development of certain bones of the face than that of their neighbours1 how shall we dare to compare any animal with man8#bai ,having said this1 let us return to the influence of climate upon wild or free animals4 ,isidore ,geoffroy quotes1 with complacency1 the instance of the ,corsican and ,african stag taken from ,europe to these two countries scarcely twenty centuries ago1 which form at the present day two clearly distinct varieties4 ,from that the author of the ,histoire ,naturelle ,gnrale argues rapid and sensible modifications1 caused by the action of the medium4 ,but1 first of all1 the evidence of this fact is simply negative2 the old authors1 who denied the existence of the stag in ,corsica and ,africa1 were perhaps simply ignorant of it4 ,then1 this introduction1 if it did take place1 was perhaps performed by means of animals which had been kept in domesticity or captivity for many generations1 and consequently1 were easily able to change their mode of life directly they recovered their liberty1 as we have already said4 ,however this may be1 it is simply man himself whom it is necessary to examine1 without comparing him to any animal1 and without misleading ourselves with the connexion of climates1 generally compared too hastily1 and with regard to mere equality of temperature4 ,it is sufficient to run over1 in ,humboldt's ,cosmos1 the lengthy enumeration of circumstances which make up a climate1 in order to understand that all the comparisons which our minds may make between any two regions of the world are1 at least1 rash4 ,the analogy of two climates is rather a sort of experimental notion1 which can only be reasonably deduced by the similarity of the biological as well as the meteorological phenomena of every kind in the two regions to be compared4 ,and when climates shall have been able to change a white man into a black 7a fact we energetically deny71 must we also lay to the charge of meteorological influence the clear moral aptitude and profound differences of the various species of mankind8 ,shall we admit that a little more cold or heat will alter the intellect8 and why not language8 ,but we are not the first to doubt all these marvels4 ,bacon#bbj and ,albin#bba fairly doubted the effect of the sun on the colour of the skin4 ,camper1 who admitted that all varieties come from external influences1 acknowledged1 and with good faith1 that the influences which we can appreciate are not sufficient to explain fully either the prominent jaw-bone in the ,negro1 the cheek-bone in the ,kalmuc1 or the obliquity of the eyes in the ,chinese and the ,malay1 etc4 ,we can declare the same about all the other peculiarities of the same order1--the flattening of the nose1 the crisped state of the hair1 the colouring matter which we find even in the arch of the palate in the ,negro1 etc4 ,we owe a very good observation to ,camper3 8,the black colour which is noticed in the natural parts of both sexes1 and even in white individuals1 clearly proves that our reticular membrane has its colour only from the blood40#bbb ,this fact alone should have long ago given a more rational impulse to researches on this subject4 ,if--putting all these hypotheses on one side1 for all that we can bring forward has no other value--if we wish to study in a positive manner the influence of the sky upon man1 we have only in reality one resource1--it is to shut ourselves up in the limits of history1 to study the effect of the migrations of which it tells us1 and to see whether man1 transported far away1 does become modified1 and how this modification takes place4 ,then we shall find two answers to these questions1 which form together a kind of anthropological law4 ,,law4--,in historical times1 either man 7we mean a society of men7 who is taken far from his medium does not alter his type1 or he entirely disappears4 ,what nation has been transformed8 ,we cannot answer1 even with history in our hand2 we know not of any4 ,and yet1 the short period of time embraced by the records of mankind would be quite sufficient if it were true1 as ,isidore ,geoffroy thought1 that we could conclude from animals to men1 and that two thousand years would have been sufficient to alter fundamentally the genus stag4#bbc ,it is a well-known fact1 that the inhabitants of the ,island of ,bourbon1 who were colonists established in the high lands for two centuries1 have preserved intact the purity of their blood4#bbd ,the ,spanish and ,portuguese families established in ,brazil1 and who have carefully avoided foreign marriages1 have lost nothing1 it is said1 of their original characteristics4#bbe ,the ,icelanders have not become ,laplanders in their own island1 and they have now been established there eight hundred years2 they are as fair and ,german-looking as at first4#bbf ,the ,dutch have prospered at the ,cape under the name of ,boers4 ,they say that at ,cochin and ,malabar there exists a ,jewish tribe1 which has been established there for a long time1 and which traces back its origin to the captivity2 it has remained pure1#bbg and as similar to the inhabitants of the ,jewish quarter at ,cairo1 as to the ,jews in ,leonardo da ,vinci's ,last ,supper1 and in the pictures of the ,flemish school4 ,indeed1 among ourselves in ,europe1 have not the ,irish preserved1 under their foggy and cold sky1 that southern nature which is revealed in their taste for certain arts1 their small height1 their black hair1 the vivacity of the women1 and the indolence of the men8 ,now1 here is another order of facts1--man is not altered by emigration4 ,perhaps these facts are not very conclusive to all people1 either on account of the difficulty of observation1 or the short period which they embrace4 ,they must be taken just as science offers them to us1 and we must give our attention solely to reckoning the conclusion from the value of the premises4 ,we now arrive at the second term of the law which we have laid down1--that man1 transported to another country1 eventually disappears4 ,the theory which we thus form is of considerable importance4 ,it has even received a particular name1 it has been called the ,theory of the non-,cosmopolitanism of ,man4 ,it is at the present day defended in ,france by ,dr4 ,boudin1 with as much energy as talent4 ,in this matter1 facts are abundant enough1 and they at once take a considerable significance2 and this is determined by figures1 so that we must acknowledge that in most cases each race is by its nature attached to the ground which supports it1 and that it is not with impunity that it oversteps its limits4 ,it is because a foreign climate has in general a really destructive influence1 producing degeneracy among emigrants1 that is to say1 a parallel morbid alteration of both the intellect and the body1 that we always see the same races moving about in the same areas1 and disappear when they pass them4#bbh ,if the ,semite1 who has left ,yemen1 has come to pasture his camels near the shores of the ocean1 opposite the ,fortunate ,islands1 it is because he and his animals find in the ,riff the same conditions of life that they did by the ,nile and the ,isthmus of ,suez4 ,whatever has been said about the ,jews and some other races1 not one of them seems to be really cosmopolitan4 ,to admit that a ,jewish tribe1 thrown into the midst of a black population1 has become black by the sole action of the climate1 is to admit that there were no conversions1 no adoptions1 and no sexual unions contrary to the law of ,moses2 and in this way the philosophic editors of the ,code ,napolon1 as well as daily medical practice1 teach us what to think4 ,for our part1 we only see in these transformations of ,jewish families1 established far away1 the result of the absorption of the type of a small group of emigrants by a population which outnumbers them4 ,the ,jew has disappeared2 the language has been transmitted like the belief1 and also the name4 ,the acclimatisation of man1 as well as of the wild animal1 takes place only when he finds the conditions of existence sensibly identical with those in which he has been created4 ,beyond that1 nature punishes him for having overstepped the limits which she had assigned to him1 and within which he ought to continue to move his organism in relation to this defined medium4 ,the domestic animal1 on the contrary1 by reason of this malleability of which we have before spoken1 accommodates itself in general very conveniently4 ,and the varieties which it shows on recovering its liberty1 are of themselves a proof that it has been under a different sky to that of its original country4 ,such is1 in our opinion1 the sole manner of explaining at the present day1 in a serious and general point of view1 all climateric influences4 ,we must render justice to some monogenists1 that they have perfectly understood the real part taken by these influences4 ,blumenbach calls them caus degenerationis2 and here the ,german anatomist1 in defending1 like ,prichard1 the specific unity of the human race1 raises himself above the ,english anthropologist1 without1 however1 reaching what we believe to be the truth4 ,prichard1 inclining to the belief that humanity is entirely descended from the ,negroes1#bbi acknowledged1 consequently1 a kind of caus perfectionis1 that is to say1 an ascending march of phenomena1 where his predecessor had only seen an inverse march4 ,now1 this ascending march of phenomena is difficult to reconcile with the notion of the specific unity of man4 ,every species1 in fact1 is necessarily constituted by reason of the defined space in which it ought to move4 ,it is unreasonable to suppose that elsewhere the same organism and the same species can meet with more favourable conditions of existence4 ,in ,blumenbach's opinion1 all races are unhealthy deviations from a primitive type1 of which we are the representatives2#bcj so that nine-tenths of the human kind are1 according to him1 composed of degenerate individuals4 ,blumenbach did not know that one of the essential characters of degeneracy is the limited development of its produce1 that is to say1 the disappearance of the race at a more or less distant period4#bca ,we ask ourselves only how monogenists1 who all partake more or less of ,blumenbach's opinions1 and who nearly all pride themselves on moral and humanitarian sentiments1 can consent to lower in this manner the number of human beings who are worthy of this name8 ,is not the best part1 if there could be one in the case of science1 played by the polygenists1 who consider that other races are special entities1 pursuing an end1 which is their own and not ours1 and dividing with us the planet1 inaccessible in all its extent to the ,iranian2 just as certain kinds of animals1 likewise1 cover the globe with different species8 ,climate1 we have said1 has a decisive influence upon a man taken to another country2 it must only be understood in the sense of this influence1 and we have seen that it is generally a pernicious one4#bcb ,it makes itself felt in the physical and moral nature of man1 both deeply and superficially4 ,we may point out among the most simple and the most profound climateric influences1 the sun-burn1 the study of which is so interesting in anthropological study4 ,we know1 at the present day1 that the sun is far from being always the cause of it2 that a bivouac at night has as powerful an action in the same manner1 and that the north-pole explorers found that their hands and faces were browned under a northern sky4#bcc ,are these not facts which will diminish the decisive part which has so long been given to solar heat in the production of colouring matter in the ,negro8#bcd ,the colour of sun-burn does not even seem to remain in the layers of the epidermis1 in which the normal colour is found4 ,indeed1 we must remember1 that it is always easy to distinguish a sun-burnt nation1 since individuals who1 for some reason or other1 are but seldom exposed to external influences1 like the women1 are infinitely whiter2 children are quite white when born1 but as soon as they go much into the air1 they become brown4 ,unfortunately1 the action of climate upon a man taken from his own country is not merely a case of sun-burn4 ,and medical statistics have shown1 in treating on the different races of mankind1 the dangers of changing one's position on the surface of the globe1 even if it takes place in the sense of isothermal lines4 ,we find from the results of careful inquiries made in the ,english colonies at the ,antilles for about forty years1 that the black population is continually diminishing1 the number of deaths being to that of births 33 #bh 3 #bd4 ,under the tropics1 northern organisations are much disquieted1 life changes its aspect1 and its course is much more rapid4 ,the glandular system governs2#bce man becomes 8more sensible to pleasure1 and less disposed to activity10#bcf his mind loses its vivacity4 ,those noble faculties1 which have made the white man the monarch of creation1 become weakened1 and that especially in some colonies where government is obliged to entrust everything to ,europeans4#bcg ,dr4 ,barnard ,davis lately announced to the ,paris ,anthropological ,society1#bch that one of his friends1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,wise1 after thirty years residence in ,india1 had never been able1 after numerous inquiries1 to find any descendants of a ,european in the third generation4 ,our temperate regions are to the ,negro what the tropical zone is to the ,european4 ,even at ,gibraltar1#bci the ,negro contingent that was employed in the ,english army paid a heavy tribute to death4#bdj ,on the contrary1 official documents for #ahfa tell us that1 at ,sierra ,leone1#bda the respective mortality of ,english and ,negro soldiers was as follows3-- ,deaths per #ajjj4 ,english4 ,negroes4 ,marsh fevers #dajb #bd ,dysentery #dac #ec ,liver disease #fj #aa ,it is an indubitable fact that1 in general1 the mortality of an emigrated population is in an inverse ratio to the distance they are taken4#bdb ,during many years the island of ,ceylon was occupied by ,hind troops 7from ,madras and ,bengal71 ,malays1 ,negroes and ,english4 ,the mortality of these races respectively was1 #ab1 #bd1 #ej1 and #fi4 ,this is so clearly a biological law1 that we again meet with its application even in certain particular cases4 ,concerning the yellow fever1 for instance1 ,townsend has thus laid down a rule1--8,the mortality to the new-comer from the cooler latitudes may be said to be in an exact ratio to the distance from the equator of his place of nativity40#bdc ,daniel ,blair#bdd has given the following statistics1 according to his observations of the same disease1 made in ,british ,guiana1 from #ahbg to #ahce3-- ,natives 7,west ,indian ,islanders7 #fi ,french and ,italians #aga ,english1 ,scotch1 and ,irish #aic ,germans and ,dutch #bjb ,scandinavians and ,russians #bgg ,the epidemic of #ahec1 at ,new ,orleans1 allowed ,barton to make a scale of mortality on the same principle1 and absolutely comparable1 and which would take away all doubt in this respect1 if any existed4#bde ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,hybridity4 ,we must regard hybridity in a double point of view1 as being able or unable to give an indication of the real value of different human races1 as compared with the acknowledged natural groups in the greater number of zoological classifications2 and on the other hand1 we must study hybridity1 belonging1 as has been asserted1 to the creation of new races4 ,it has been said1 we repeat1 that all men being able to reproduce one with another1 the genus homo only constitutes one single family4 ,that this argument should hold good1 it was necessary to be proved that among animals 7for thence it was that it was borrowed7 two well acknowledged species1 more different even than two human races1 should never be prolific one with the other4 ,now1 this is far from being the case4 ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 who has treated this subject in a masterly manner in his ,histoire ,naturelle ,gnrale1 acknowledges that animals belonging to two different genera can1 by a union1 produce a mixed breed1 which1 consequently he calls bigenerate hybrids4 ,so we will not give ourselves the trouble of contesting1 as some polygenists have done1 the universality of reproduction between all races of mankind2 we will not ask if every degree of combination has been observed1--the union1 for instance1 of an ,esquimaux with a ,negro1 an ,american with an ,australian1 a ,tartar with a ,bosjesman4 ,let us admit1 what is1 perhaps1 hardly the truth1 that all races produce one with another1--we will admit all this2 and yet it will prove nothing in favour of the monogenists who have brought forward this fact1 since we henceforth know that there is no basis in this universality of reproduction for a serious argument1--since we know that two distinct species1 two genera1 in fact1 can produce cross-breeds4 ,this faculty of reproduction has had too much importance given to it1--it is only a function1 that is to say1 a physiological character quite improper for classification2 the existence of bigenerate hybrids shows this sufficiently4 ,it is a bad characteristic1 because it is not a constant one2 because either the man or the animal does not bear it in him1 and that a given uniformity of circumstances is necessary in order to reveal this characteristic to an observer4 ,it is the same with animal forms1 which do not countenance in any manner such an observation2 it is sufficient to recall the alternating generations of the invertebrata4 ,where shall we place all these agamous animals8 how shall we class these proscolex and scolex1 which have no sex1 and which will never have one8 ,instead of the idea of fecundity1 which is insufficient to characterise a species1 we must substitute another1 that of the development of the produce4 ,if everything shows us that zoosperms1 proceeding from very different animals1 can equally fecundate any given ovum1--if we even admit that we have no good reason for rejecting the theory that each ovum can be impregnated by different kinds of zoosperms1 it is very easy1 on the contrary1 to account for the fact that offspring will have no chance of life1 except so far as the two parents show a sufficient identity1 but which we cannot regard as fit to characterise species4 ,as the produce of two organisms1 a descendant ought always to be considered as the result of two united halves fitted together1 and combined one with the other4 ,if the two halves are identical1 the animal is like its progenitors in everything4 ,if the two beings1 who have endeavoured to unite themselves1 are too dissimilar1 the two forces cannot combine1 and there is either no produce1 or it is arrested in its development from the first moment of its embryo life4 ,if the two forces1 or the sum of the two forces1 have a certain amount of common direction1 they can produce a new being1 but an imperfect one1 and which will not have all the conditions of existence like its parents2 it will not have genital power1 and consequently will not be fitted to become the founder of a series of individuals similar to itself1 succeeding it through time1 8naturally1 regularly1 and indefinitely40#bdf ,putting on one side the power of reproduction1 we must attend solely to the union of different human races with regard to vitality of produce1 and let us see what observation will teach us on this subject4 ,jacquinot states1 that 8one can scarcely quote any cross between ,australians and ,europeans40 ,when the ancient inhabitants of ,van ,diemen's ,land1 reduced to the number of two hundred and ten1 were taken from ,flinder's ,island1 not only had the union of the women with the unscrupulous convicts been unable to form a distinct race1 but only two adults were found who were the produce of these unions4#bdg 8,the ,mulattoes10 says ,nott1 8are the shortest-lived of any of the branch races2 when they unite amongst themselves1 they are less prolific than if united to one or other of the branches4#bdh0 ,this assertion is especially true concerning the cross-breeds born of ,negroes and inhabitants of the north of ,europe4 ,at ,java1 crosses between ,malays and ,dutch appear not to be able to reproduce beyond the third generation4#bdi 8,the half-caste of ,india10 says ,warren1 8comes to a premature end1 generally without reproduction2 and if there are any offspring1 they are always wretched and miserable40#bej ,we must say another word about ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire's opinion on the important question of cross-breeding in mankind4 ,after having reproached ,cuvier1 and with reason1 with having often1 in the interest of particular views1 admitted1 as regards mankind1 a flagrant contravention of the biological laws which his genius proclaimed for other animals1 ,isidore ,geoffroy seems to us to have1 in his turn1 fallen into a contradiction of the same kind4 ,he especially calls hybrids the crosses which occur from the cross of two different species1 and he remarks1 besides1 that hybrids have generally tolerably decided characteristics1 which are partly those of the father and partly those of the mother2 so that the offspring1 he adds1 can resemble one more than the other1 but not exclusively either of them3 the cross is always to be found in it4 ,on the contrary1 it is not always so with the cross between two varieties of the same species2 the produce has often the characteristics of both its parents1 but very frequently1 also1 it resembles one of them exclusively4 ,for these beings who are the offspring of two varieties of the same species1 and who very frequently reproduce entire the type of one of their parents to the exclusion of the other1 ,isidore ,geoffroy reserved the name of homodes4 ,well1 we ask him this1--in taking1 as an example1 the offspring of a union between a white and a black1 shall we find in it the characteristics of a homod cross8 ,will it never resemble exclusively one of the two founders8 ,are not the characteristics of the ,mulatto perfectly represented1 perfectly defined1 and always medium8 ,are not exceptions1 if any can be quoted1 of extreme rarity8#bea ,in the name of this consistency1 ought not ,isidore ,geoffroy to have seen in a ,mulatto something besides a homod mongrel1 and to doubt even more that the different races of mankind constituted only varieties of the same species8 ,however1 let us examine into hybridity so far as it may serve to produce new1 or modify existing races1 as ,blumenbach and ,flourens have admitted4#beb ,let us only remark that these two authors1 like most monogenists1 in placing hybridity1 as the modifying cause1 in the same rank as climate or medium1 commit a great error4 ,hybridity1 even in giving it the creative power which some have desired1 goes entirely into the second rank1 for it supposes a pre-existing plurality4 ,it can only act1 in the end1 by weakening differences1 by creating a middle term to two extremes4 ,it cannot of itself produce variety of origin1 it is the consequence of it1 and we shall see that the part it takes on this matter is extremely restricted4 ,white#bec supposes a colony composed of an equal number of blacks and whites2 then he tries to find out what will happen in the course of time1 by supposing that a thirtieth part of them die and are born each year4 ,he arrives1 by his calculations1 at the following results3 in sixty-five years the number of blacks1 whites1 and mulattos will be equal2 in ninety-one years the whites will only form one-tenth of the total population1 and the blacks one-tenth2 in three centuries1 there would not remain one hundredth part of them1 either black or white4 ,this proposition is true1 theoretically speaking2 it is practically false3 it rests upon what we may call an unstable equilibrium4 ,in the physical world we may1 by care1 happen to put an ellipsoid in a state of equilibrium on the extremity of its greater axis1 or a cone on its apex2 these are also unstable equilibria1 but the least cause intervening1 the smallest movement1 and the balance is instantly destroyed4 ,if we admit into ,white's theory a birth which does not take place1 or an unproductive union1 the conclusions are overturned at once2 a part of the new generation will preserve the primitive type1#bed and this portion will be much more considerable than ,white imagined4 ,when the facts of arrest of development1 quoted above1 are not sufficient to prove that a mongrel breed cannot subsist by itself1 can we anywhere find one8 ,do we find a people preserving for centuries a medium type between two other types which gave it birth8 ,we see them nowhere1--just as little as we see a race of mules4 ,the fact is that such a hybrid race1 intermediate to two defined types1 can only have a subjective and ephemeral existence4 ,the definition of the word type1 both in natural history and in the particular case in which we are engaged1 is rather a difficult matter1 and which we can feel much better than we can express it in writing4 ,when we have seen a certain number of men belonging to one race1 the mind1 without any particular study1 takes from each a number of general characteristics1 and forms from them a sort of ideal being1 to which it refers the real beings which it may henceforth see1 and with which it identifies those who have a sufficient amount of similarity with this being4#bee ,we have seen in the preceding chapter that1 as regards historic times at least1 a type invariably reproduces itself through time and space1 when it does not succumb to the new climate in which it is about to live4 ,if we admit1 however1 that two types may have met with a harmony of influences1 a medium in which they can both live1 we say that--even with all the care that may be taken to mix them--we shall always find1 whatever ,white may say1 black people and white people1 if these races were black and white originally2 and this by reason of laws which we think we can shape1 and whose demonstration will be as positive as that of the domain of history4 ,,law ,i4--,a medium type cannot exist by itself1 except on the condition of being supported by the two creating types4 ,,law ,,ii4--,when two types become united1 two phenomena may arise3 #a4 ,either one of them will absorb the other2 or1 #b4 ,they may subsist simultaneously in the midst of a greater or less number of hybrids4 ,these two laws are only1 in fact1 the formula of the principles which ,prichard#bef himself laid down long ago1 and which are held also by the editor of the ,ethnological ,journal1#beg by ,knox1#beh and by ,william ,edwards4#bei ,by reason of these laws1 we find that nowhere can a medium race either establish itself on the ruins of two creating races1 or replace them1 and live by itself with an independent existence1 formed entirely of hybrids which propagate among themselves4 ,in fact we have laid down a rule that conditions of development are very much restricted among hybrids1 and that they can only go on decreasing in their descendants1 if they are capable of producing any4 ,the crossed race will only exist in the condition of being supported by the two creating types remaining in the midst of it4 ,if the value of this law is only deduced from a negative fact1--that is to say1 from the absence on the surface of the globe of any real hybrid race existing by itself on a certain extent of territory1--we shall find1 as regards the second1 a great number of positive facts4 ,when two types unite1 we said1 a double phenomenon may be observed2 either of these two types will absorb the other1 or they may subsist simultaneously1 one near the other4 ,the first case ought to be the most frequent2 but it is the least appreciable1 because it does not leave sensible traces4 ,we must endeavour to discover in history the remains of a people who formerly existed1 and who have since disappeared4 ,thus1 the colony of ,nubians1 taken to the banks of the ,phasis by ,rmases1 have left no trace of their sojourn among the inhabitants of the land4 ,it is the same with the ,greek colonies of the ,mediterranean coasts4#bfj ,the ,normans have only left1 on the coasts of ,labrador1 their engraved stel2#bfa their race has not remained4 ,the primitive ,turkish and ,asiatic type has likewise disappeared from ,europe4 ,this has been attributed to the introduction of ,georgian women into the seraglios1 and it is1 perhaps1 a reason only too readily accepted4 ,it is1 indeed1 very natural that the repeated introduction of ,georgian and ,circassian women into the hrems should deprive the descendants of the conquerors of their original characteristics2 but if this were the case1 the ,turks of our days would1 from continued unions with the same race1 have become real ,georgians and ,circassians themselves4 ,it has not been so1 however1 because the harems are recruited in ,europe as well as in ,asia1 and even then the fact would only be applicable to families of high position4 ,the truth seems to be that the real ,turkish blood has nearly disappeared1 and has been encroached upon and replaced by the old blood of the country1 either ,macedonian or ,thracian4 ,we are ignorant of the laws which govern the disappearance of one race in the sight of another4 ,sometimes it happens very rapidly2 sometimes it does not show itself4 ,the complex conditions which rule it enter into the great order of facts which ,darwin has so ingeniously classed under the name of the struggle for existence4 ,they have always seemed to us to present a complete analogy with the disappearance of certain animal species before others1 the steps of which disappearance history sometimes allows us to measure2 so that there seems to be a curious similarity between the great fluctuations of nations and of animals upon continents4 ,we are almost tempted to say that the invasion of the ,west by the ,barbarians1 the black rat1 and the field mouse1 is the triple expression of one and the same biological law4 ,the ,american population retrogrades1 like certain animals2#bfb that of the ,australian coasts has disappeared2 and we believe that the ,negroes of ,africa themselves will be called1 at some distant period1 to give up their place in their turn4 ,we do not know any more about the conditions which allow two types to subsist indefinitely one near the other3 must we attribute this resistance to the country1 or the races which are always before them8 ,why1 if the ,normans have disappeared in ,america1 ,italy1 and ,asia1 should they still remain in ,normandy1 few in number1 it is true1 but always the same1 and perfectly described by ,linnus1 when he said of the ,goths in the ,scandinavian peninsula1 8,they have smooth1 fair hair1 and the iris of the eye is of a bluish colour40#bfc ,even when cross-breedings take place between more than two races1--even when these various influences are mixed together1 struggled with1 and assisted in a thousand ways1 so that the question has become almost inextricable to the anthropologist1 in the midst of the varied produce resulting from all these combinations1 we are astonished to see here and there individuals who have the absolute and complete character of one of the original stock4 ,whilst there remains among a people a considerable amount of mixed blood1 we may always expect to see some one appear who will have the pure characteristics of the race which was believed to be extinguished1 and mingled for ever with the blood of others4#bfd ,the most remarkable instance which can be quoted about these crosses1 and at the same time the easiest to notice1 is that presented by ,england1 where two races live side by side1 mixed together1 without one having absorbed the other since the time of ,strabo1 ,tacitus1 and ,julius ,csar4 ,england1 isolated from ,europe1 ought necessarily to be a fertile field for the anthropologist1 and it will be there where the history of historic and pre-historic races will soonest be made4 ,eminent men work at it with ardour2 and the certainty of remounting1 through archology and palontology1 to the first races which invaded ,england1 at a time when the use of metals was unknown in the west1 makes this study one of the most interesting of the present day4 ,two distinct races divide ,great ,britain1 or1 at least1 representatives of two races are found there2 and in the midst of an immense number of intermediate individualities1 the least accustomed eye will not fail to distinguish these two fundamental types1 as different as two men with white skins can be4 ,one of these races is composed of tall1 strong1 powerful men1 with transparent skin1 and blue eyes2#bfe the other1 with a more tawny complexion1 has black1 curling hair4#bff ,the first were formerly called ,caledonians1 the second ,silurians1 very like the ,iberians of the ,spanish peninsula3 the first1 of ,germanic1 or northern origin2 the second1 of ,celtic1 or southern origin4 ,nobody denies1 at the present day1 that these two races are well characterised1 and every day one can meet perfect specimens of them in ,england4 ,we may quote certain districts where the ,silurian1 ,iberian1 or ,celtic race1 as tradition wills it1 are dominant2#bfg for example1 in the north-west of ,glamorganshire1 in the outskirts of ,merthyr1 and in the ,vale of ,neath4#bfh ,mr4 ,john ,philips finds them equally abundant in the ,danelag#bfi district1 between ,leicester1 ,nottingham1 and ,derby1 with the same characteristics1 8black eyes and hair1 uniform1 or rather1 dark complexion40#bgj ,among these two races there are of necessity a considerable number of cross-breeds who1 allying themselves among one another1 or to the pure types1 produce varied results1 and in this manner unite the two groups by a multitude of inappreciable shades of difference4 ,such is also the case in ,france4 ,edwards#bga has divined it almost by inspiration2 and ,m4 ,prier#bgb has powerfully added to his presumptions1 by examining more attentively all ancient documents which treat on the inhabitants of ,gaul4 ,m4 ,broca1 in the ,mmoire which inaugurated the proceedings of the ,paris ,anthropological ,society1#bgc has proved in the clearest possible manner1 that if we draw a line passing by ,cherbourg and ,nice1#bgd we shall divide ,france into two distinct zones as regards the appearance and height of the inhabitants4 ,in the south-west1 the ancient ,celtic population is of small height1 as is proved by the great number of military exemptions4#bge ,in the north-west1 in the region which was always encroached upon by the fair and powerful races of the north1 the result is quite the contrary4 ,here1 then1 are two distinct races3 the one1 formerly mistress of the west1 and then pushed to the extremity of the continent2 the other1 leaving its forests and encroaching on the rest1--both differing as much as possible by physical aspect and by moral aptitudes1 but now filling up their numbers1 so to speak1 by each other's help1 and working together for the glory and prosperity of their common land4 ,we must not1 however1 give a general meaning to these last words1 and thus extend their meaning to all cases of ethnic cross-breeding4 ,the two united terms must not be too dissimilar1 so that the two branches may reunite as regards progress4 ,this is essential2 and if we have endeavoured to prove that the hybrids of distant races do not possess all the necessary conditions of animal life and of propagation1 it would be easy to find numerous proofs in order to show that1 generally1 the intellectual conditions of hybrids are not much more satisfactory than their physical condition1 since the two intelligent organisms which are there combined do not show a decided similarity4 ,doctor ,tschudi#bgf says1 in speaking of the ,zambos 7hybrids from aborigines and ,negroes at ,lima71 8,as men1 they are greatly inferior to the pure races2 and as members of society1 they are the worst class of citizens30 they alone furnish four-fifths of the criminals in the prisons of ,lima4 ,mr4 ,e4 ,g4 ,squier#bgg has made almost the same observation about the ,zambos of ,nicaragua4 ,in his part of the country1 the union of ,spaniards with these same ,americans1 seems to have only produced degenerate men1 who show no capability whatsoever for perfection or improvement4 ,in fact1 it is on account of these same principles that ,m4 de ,gobineau#bgh has set himself to prove at length that the mixture of races necessarily conducts mankind to degradation and universal debasement4 ,cabanis had the same ideas on the subject4#bgi ,the supposition which ,cabanis and ,m4 de ,gobineau have taken up will1 doubtless1 never be realised4 ,to admit that all human races can reach a complete hybridity1 would be to admit that each race is cosmopolite1 which it is not4 ,but at least it remains true1 that when two very different races are united1 we must not hope for anything good or durable from their union4 ,the same phenomenon happens1 with the simple difference of intensity1 when two different species of animals are united4 ,so the monogenists are astonished at such a result in man1 8a result quite contrary10 says one of them1#bhj 8to what one generally expects in crossing a race40#bha ,the astonishment of the learned man1 of whom we speak1 is explained easily enough by the ideas which he holds of human races1 where he only sees degenerated varieties of the original type1 preserved by the ,european in its primitive purity4 ,it is evident that in this monogenic hypothesis1 which we shall not touch on again1 the union of one of these degenerated races with the pure stock would be a sort of hygid#bhb consanguinity1 and therefore favourable to the offspring4 ,here there would happen something analogous to the practice of the peasants in the crtin districts1 who try to struggle against the scourge by seeking for marriages in the plains1 in order to give purer blood to each generation4 ,in a more general manner it is evident that if we suppose two sets of people born of the same stock1 and that one of them1 after various fortunes1 after having undergone fatal influences1 should unite itself with the other1 which had remained unaltered1 it is evident that the produce of such a union ought to tend to reproduce in its purity the primitive type4#bhc ,if it is not so with the union of different races of men1 the reason is simply that they do not directly descend the one from the other2 and from this debasement of produce there results a new proof in favour of the ideas which we are defending4 ,it remains for us to speak of hybridity1 as applied to the propagation of a deformity or a monstrosity4 ,we know that when we experimentally unite one of this class to the other1 two individuals whose organism has equally deviated from the usual type1 8nothing is more difficult than to prevent these mischances from being done away with40#bhd ,a stronger reason1 then1 for the same when one of these individuals alone is deformed1 which happens always in a state of nature4 ,the races which we can thus produce are a kind of experiment which exist1 but which it would be illogical to deduce can exist naturally4 ,because we make in a laboratory oxygenated water1 or mixtures of hydrogen and chlorine1 must we admit that these bodies are to be found united in nature8 ,quite the contrary2 we deduce from their instability that they do not1 and cannot thus exist in a natural state4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,species4 ,we have now arrived at the limits of the task which we proposed to attempt1 and we hope1 after what has gone before1 that we shall be able to arrive at some scientific conclusion4 ,after having endeavoured to establish in the introduction the route we had to follow in anthropological studies1 we gave an account of the system of purely philosophic researches1 putting every foreign or prejudicial idea on one side1 and1 resting on facts and on mathematical reasoning1 we have endeavoured to apply these principles4 ,we endeavoured at first to prove that man was not a being as foreign and superior to the rest of animal nature1 as certain naturalists have thought1 taking themselves1 the first from among men1 as the point of comparison4 ,we have considered the inferior races1 and we have shown that between these and the first animals the distance was neither absolute nor well-defined2 that man came into the zoological series1 and that he only forms definitively a separate family4 ,changing our direction1 we abandoned this acquired knowledge1 and we passed on to the study of varieties among men2 we found them profound1 indeed1 and of every description4 ,then came the study of the influences to which man may be subjected4 ,we saw that hybridity did not play any serious part in this1 since it could only weaken pre-existing differences4 ,on the other hand1 we have acknowledged that in the limits of time accessible to our knowledge1 nothing justified the hypothesis1 that climate had such an extensive influence in changing man so as to make the differences which we may observe between ancestors and descendants such as would suffice1 in any other zoological group1 to characterise distinct species4 ,in regarding man as a separate kingdom1 we are1 by this fact1 exempted from applying the same rules as in zoology2 but1 by proving that he comes into the zoological series1 we have implicitly proved that he must be submitted to the same laws4 ,science cannot have two different modes of proceeding3 it must follow the same paths in the same subjects in order to arrive at comparable results4 ,it is the only truly philosophic road3 nature is one1 and the work of the modern sciences is precisely to tend towards unity4 ,the most diverse phenomena in the hands of analysts compare and assimilate themselves to the rays of a spirit of synthesis2 magnetism1 electricity1 light1 heat1 motion1 everything is mingled and linked together so well1 that we know not how to make a distinction any more4 ,the pure and simple adoption of the law of organic unity brings us to the following proposition3-- ,,proposition4--,either we must admit different species in the genus ,homo1 or we must entirely reform zoological classification4 ,this last hypothesis will mean1 then1 that the works of ,linnus1 ,cuvier1 ,de ,blainville1 and the two ,geoffroys1 will be of no value1 and that we must commence anew the great work of classification upon the same basis which we wish to adopt in anthropology4 ,of the two terms of the preceding proposition1 the second merits particular consideration4 ,zoological classification has been created and established by the greatest thinkers of which humanity can boast2 even more1 independent by its nature from all religious influence1 it has been freely done1 and without prejudice1 as every scientific question ought to be1 by means of facts and reasoning4 ,it has not always been so with the works of those who desire that man should be an exception to universal nature1 and beyond the limits of the animal kingdom4 ,zoological classification need not be reformed1--it is that of the genus ,homo4 ,we touch now on the much discussed and controverted question of species1 and at the same time on the question of the origin of man4 ,we do not believe1 as many eminent men have done1 that this origin must eternally be concealed1 that man will never be permitted to tear the veil from this statue of ,isis4 ,let it suffice us to say that we are about to enter on slippery ground1 where we shall only find as few resting places as the stones of a ford half destroyed by a torrent4 ,and since we shall only find here and there the fragile aid of one hypothesis against so many others1 in order to assist the consequents of our reasonings1 is it a reason for drawing back8 ,we do not think so4 ,every period of a science has its own tendency2 at given moments the efforts of all tend involuntarily towards one sole end1--one question absorbs all1 and all partial solutions tend to the same general solution4 ,at the present day1 the great question in natural history is that of species2 inquiries are ardently pursued1 and materials are produced from every side1--opinions are mooted1 and objections raised4 ,we have only to call attention on this point to the works of ,isidore ,geoffroy1 ,morton1 ,nott1 ,godron1 ,broca1#bhe ,darwin1 ,fe1 etc4 ,the question of spontaneous generation is but a phase of the same discussion1 an episode in the work of the birth of time4 ,some people have made a sort of bugbear out of this word spontaneous generation1 or rather1 spontaneous genesis4#bhf ,and yet1 here is one of these truths to which1 we think1 we shall be led by the observation of facts and by reasoning4 ,the great harm of examining into the question is to be strangely mistaken as to its bearing1 and inclined to restrict its limits4 ,it has1 in fact1 been said1 that every day genital organs are discovered in beings whom it was thought were reproduced spontaneously4 ,this is a specious argument to which ,plutarch has long ago done justice4 ,a person1 whom he brings forward in one of his books1 asks1 8,which had the first existence1 the egg or the hen80 and concludes that 8it was evidently the hen40 ,even in treating lightly on this subject1--in making it a familiar conversation1 the ,greek physician was1 however1 not mistaken about the importance of the matter4 8,so that10 answers one of the guests1 8with this little question of the egg and the hen1 we raise1 as with a lever1 the great and dark question of the generation of the world40#bhg ,that the animals which we know all reproduce by eggs1 is possible1 although it has not been proved1 but this is not an important point2 we want to know if all the animals which we are able to observe do not remount necessarily1 in a more or less direct manner1 and at a more or less distant period1 to a spontaneous beginning4#bhh ,the difficulty is everywhere the same1--everywhere we arrive at that immense obscurity which envelopes the origin of life on the surface of our planet2 but it is essential in every case not to give to the phenomenon of spontaneous beginning any other signification than it ought to have4 ,we must not believe1 for instance1 that matter is formed by the agglomeration of parts which do not yet live in a perfect being1 having already all its organs distributed and proportionate1 uniting in one living whole4 ,this would be to cast ourselves on the field of an absolutely improbable hypothesis4 ,histology teaches us that each animal1 its instincts and intellect included1 is at a given moment merely a mass of amorphous matter1 which1 at a later period1 will form itself1 or in the midst of which will be spontaneously developed an anatomical element1 that is to say1 an organised body4 ,to admit spontaneous genesis1 then1 is simply to admit the formation of organic amorphous primitive matter apart from an already living body1 at the cost of and in the heart of which can be born the initial anatomical element of one of these animals1 very properly called protozoa4 ,we can even ask1 whether this latent primary life1 this atomic life1 has not always been the ruling life on our planet4#bhi ,and since1 when account is taken of everything1 we are almost entirely ignorant of the conditions necessary to the fecundity of any primitive embryo1 excepting certain physical conditions of temperature1 liquidity1 etc42 and as1 on the other hand1 nothing authorises us to believe that the laws existing at the origin of life on our planet have since been abrogated1 we see that1 if we must necessarily conclude a spontaneous primitive genesis1 there is nothing irrational in admitting1 until we know farther on the subject1 the persistence of the phenomenon4 ,let us return to the subject of species1 which1 however1 we did not quite leave in speaking on the subject of spontaneous generation4 ,isidore ,geoffroy wishes to advance slowly in this matter1 and only when facts become patent to all4 ,but he himself has more than once shown1 by a noble example1 the benefits which science obtains by casting itself beyond the limits of fact1 provided that care is taken at first not to give more than a simple hypothetical value to that which we may desire to bring forward4 ,in the question which occupies our attention1 we must embrace at one glance the whole animal kingdom since its commencement1 in order to deduce the truth of facts which have been observed2 only then these relations1 for which science so ardently seeks1 would appear in their proper light4 ,on account of this impossibility1 we must hope for some more enlightenment1 chiefly from geology1 and perhaps from experiments4 8,how many facts would be necessary10 said ,buffon1 8in order to pronounce authoritatively1 or even to conjecture8 ,how many experiments are to be tried in order to discover these facts1 to acknowledge them1 or even to anticipate them by well-founded conjectures80 ,two opinions on the origin of species deserve to be noticed1--those of ,cuvier and ,lamarck4 ,this last held ,buffon's opinions at the end of his career1 and it ought to find in tienne ,geoffroy a defender even more powerful in our eyes than ,isidore ,geoffroy himself2 and especially ,darwin1 to whom belongs the merit1 however1 of having propagated1 in his popular work1 the ideas of ,lamarck4 ,cuvier's theory seems to be still the dominant one2 it is surrounded by that scholastic prestige which is explained by the word classical2 it is only fit for universities4 ,cuvier proclaimed the immutability of species1 and wished that at every revolution of the globe 7the word alone then made his fortune71 a new fauna might come ready made from the hands of ,god1 to animate the burning or icy lands of the old world4 ,but ,cuvier1 in proclaiming organic immutability1 excepted mankind4 ,we must be allowed to doubt whether it was done with good faith4 8,cuvier1 full of good taste regarding political propriety10 said a son of the republic1 his former master1 now his adversary1--8,cuvier1 filling his mind with wise mental reservations concerning the future of society1 declared that it was not fitting that new discoveries1 just dug from the heart of the earth1 should attack and oppose with hostile malignity the venerated and ancient revelations of our holy books40#bij ,this remark1 in which tienne ,geoffroy has concealed his anger and contempt under a guise of perfect urbanity1 will remain to the end1 we are convinced1 as the judgment of posterity upon the naturalist statesman1 and upon that which they call in ,france at the present day official science4 ,species was1 then1 a definite entity in ,cuvier's opinion1 and if he had been consistent1 he would doubtless have become the promoter of the idea which has been taken up by ,agassiz1--that there were several centres of creation on the surface of our planet after the last flood2 in each of these centres would appear a special fauna1 and also one of the species constituting the genus homo4 ,these different species of men and these different fauna would since have continued to occupy the same geographical areas with merely some alteration4 ,an absolute value is given to species in ,cuvier's theory1 as well as in that of ,agassiz2 it is unchangeable2 it may disappear1 but cannot be modified1 so that 8each of them10 as ,buffon said at the commencement of his career1 when he held the same views1 8remains always separated from the others by an interval which nature cannot overstep40#bia ,such has been1 for a long time1 the theory of the origin of species which we have held1 and which we maintained in the first edition of this book4 ,in fact1 the solution which we now offer differs considerably from that which we then gave4 ,but there is evolution rather than contradiction in going from one to the other4 ,the differences which separate mankind are not lessened1 and have not diminished in value in our eyes3 we merely explain these differences in another way4 ,it cannot be called contradiction1 or even inconsistency1 to change one's manner of viewing things with the times2 to regard things otherwise which1 as we said before1 have no absolute basis2 or to change in five years one's opinion concerning the origin of the living beings on the surface of the globe4 ,in ,buffon's last opinion#bib species was not that definite entity in which ,cuvier believed1 commencing at a given geological moment1 in order to terminate at another4 ,buffon says1 in his latest works1 that the idea of species can only be seized upon by man at 8this or that instant of his age10#bic and that it is merely the expression of the ambient medium4 ,let this remain as before1 it will not change2 but when the conditions of the medium become modified1 species will change4 ,we thus arrive at this definition3-- ,,definition4--8,species is a collection or group of individuals characterised by a similarity of distinctive points2 the transmission of which is accomplished naturally1 regularly1 and indefinitely1 in a given order of things40#bid ,it is1 in more scientific terms1 the definition by ,lamarck1 8a collection of similar individuals which generation perpetuates in the same state1 so that the circumstances of their situation do not sufficiently alter so as to make their habits1 their character1 or their form vary40#bie ,lamarck1 to whom ,isidore ,geoffroy has rendered greater justice than any one else before or after him1#bif admitted the unlimited variableness of species4 ,he admitted that we all descend1 just as we are1 from an anatomical element1 developed in a determinate sense1 and that we may have been worms1 insects1#big birds1 and mammals before becoming men1 running through all the phases through which animal organisation has passed during our uterine life4 ,we see that ,lamarck approached frankly and resolutely the problem of the origin of humanity4 ,in taking but superficially certain exaggerations into which ,lamarck fell1 at a time less rich in facts than our own1 it is not difficult to give a certain grotesque turn to his ideas1 and to laugh at them as being unnatural2 but we must not thus judge the work of a man's whole life1 and we must appreciate ,lamarck by the basis of his doctrine more than by the examples he has given us3 8a profound philosopher10 said tienne ,geoffroy1#bih 8able in laying down principles1 less able in the choice of his proofs40 ,we must judge ,lamarck as ,isidore ,geoffroy has done in his ,histoire ,naturelle ,gnrale1 where we find a complete and impartial chronological statement concerning the grave question of species4#bii 8,circumstances have an influence upon form and organisation10 such is the fundamental principle of ,lamarck's doctrine2#cjj he says the same elsewhere3#cja 8,circumstances determine positively what each body may be20 and he concludes1 8among living bodies1 nature only shows individuals who succeed one another4 ,species1 amongst themselves1 are only relative1 and are only temporarily so40#cjb ,if from these general considerations we enter in detail into ,lamarck's theory1 we find room for the objections with which the opponents of the system of variety are engrossed1 with which they have made those weapons of ridicule which act so well on minds which are not forewarned1 and who are ignorant of this master's whole system of ideas4 ,the grandeur of ,lamarck's views1 the majestic simplicity of his theory1 ought to be sufficient to shield him from such attacks4 ,he saw at the beginning organic matter grouping itself under simple forms4 ,these first outlines1 altered by time and circumstances1 have successively given birth to radiated creatures1 to the inferior molluscs1 the articulate animals1 then the lowest fishes1 then man4 ,here is a mistake1 in our opinion2 if there exists 7until we know more7 an immense and impassable difference somewhere in the animal kingdom1 it is between the vertebrate and the invertebrate animals4 ,whilst the first show an admirable unity of organic composition1 the second do not seem to have any at all1 so that they do not admit of serial or linear classification4 ,each of the groups which they form is united by some particularity to all the other groups1 and naturalists have even been able to differ about what must be considered as the highest round in the animal ladder4 ,the organism of the invertebrata possesses a flexibility and immense variety1 which is almost a characteristic special to these beings in which the nervous system ceases to present the profound unity which we see in the vertebrata2 whilst the entire group has only a negative characteristic1 the want of vertebr1 which is sufficient alone to show how unnatural it is4 ,as for the rest1 the vertebrate animal1 even at the first moment of his embryo life1 is absolutely irreducible to any invertebrate type whatsoever1 contrary to ,lamarck's opinion4 ,a vertebrate is to an invertebrate as two first numbers are to one another2 all the vertebrata1 on the contrary1 are one to another as a simple number raised to different powers2 they can all be brought back to their origin1 and both the most complicated and the most elevated of the series are only the most simple ones arrived at a state of considerable perfection4 ,a still weaker side of ,lamarck's theory is certainly the decided influence which he attributes to the actions and habits of organised beings1 so as to modify them by their own means4 ,the pedantic caprice of his enemies has always hit on this point4 8,the habit of exercising an organ10 he says1 8makes it acquire developments and dimensions which insensibly change it1 so that in time it becomes very different4 ,on the contrary1 the faulty continual exercise of an organ impoverishes it gradually1 and ends by destroying it40#cjc ,but it must not be thought that ,lamarck gave an appreciable alteration to the organ1--an alteration sufficiently rapid to be noticed by ourselves4 ,if some passages of his works make the reader think so1 it is plain that they are only the wanderings of a great mind1 always weak on the side of the ideas which he has created1 and which he cherishes4 ,lamarck knew very well that an infinite time is the condition of unlimited variability4#cjd ,darwin is the direct successor of ,lamarck1 and1 in our opinion1 the success of his book both in ,england and ,france is an index of the progress which scientific ideas have made1 since the days of ,cuvier1 in the path of liberty and independence4 ,darwin1 like ,lamarck1 admits unlimited variety2 he thinks that all animals must descend from four or five primitive types1 and plants from about an equal number2 he is almost disposed to admit but one primordial type for all organic nature4#cje ,darwin1 however1 seems to us to have fallen into a grievous exaggeration1 or error of interpretation1 formerly laid to ,lamarck's charge1 while he is at the same time defending an excellent cause4 ,without speaking here of the relationship 7forced1 in our opinion7 which ,darwin makes out between wild and domestic animals 7of which we have before spoken71 the learned ,englishman seems to have accorded too much to individual action in the production of specific modification4 ,he sees a powerful activity1 which he calls natural selection1 where we can only see absolute passiveness4 ,we will explain what we mean3 in the midst of this vital concurrence1 which he has in part so well described1--in the midst of this immense struggle1 where all which has life on our planet is engaged in combat one against the other1 or against all1 on this eternal field of battle1 where the victors become the victims1 ,darwin supposes that an animal brings into the world with him1 by chance1 some psychological modification1 or some anatomical disposition1 which is individually advantageous to him in the great struggle for life2 after this he will have a chance of being among the victors1 of uniting himself to another animal as happily endowed by birth by having also conquered2 they will together leave a numerous posterity1 and there is every chance that some of the descendants of such a couple may inherit either the same instinctive disposition or the same conformation2 definitively1 and by the repeated action of this natural proceeding1 a new variety can be formed1 and may either supplant the parent species or coexist with it4#cjf ,such is1 in a few words1 the theory of natural selection4 ,in our ideas1 there is here a false interpretation of facts2 we do not believe in this chance of a native disposition1 which thus transmits itself in order to become in time a specific characteristic4 ,we have shown1 while speaking of hybridity1 that a native individual disposition ought always to disappear by the mere fact of its being individual2 it quickly disappears through cross-breeding at the tenth generation1 if not at the first1 in the midst of a population which does not possess it4 ,we fully admit1 like ,lamarck1 that species are formed from one another by the appearance of organic modifications1 more or less decided2 but we do not leave anything to chance in this phenomenon1 as ,darwin does1 and we can only see there the application of general laws4 ,it is not one or two animals1 born with some special psychological or anatomical disposition1 who are destined to generalise themselves by generation3 it will be all the individuals of the same species in a certain radius1 who will be born with a scarcely appreciable organic modification1 resulting1 as far as we can tell1 in an action of the medium also nearly inappreciable by ourselves1 but which long ago will have made itself felt by the parents4 ,the new variety will be propagated quite naturally1 since it is general1 and can but increase with each generation as long as the modifying cause continues to act4 tienne ,geoffroy had been the worthy successor of ,lamarck1 with a larger and more philosophical mind4 ,he never fell into his exaggerations1 nor into the restrictive applications of the system1 like ,darwin4 ,let us see how ,isidore ,geoffroy#cjg continues his father's theory3 8,species is variable under the influence of the ambient medium2 differences1 more or less considerable according to the power of the modifying causes1 may in time be produced1 and the present beings may be the descendants of the former being40 ,this doctrine is our own also4 ,as to the idea of limited variety1 propounded by ,isidore ,geoffroy1 we can only see in it an unfortunate restriction of his father's theory1--one of those errors into which even the most judicious minds are liable to fall4 ,limited6 ,does he mean that there is a point where these variations stop1 and consequently a point where they have commenced8 ,does he mean that some neighbouring animal species are derived from a given prototype1 similar to themselves1 and without any antecedents in the organic world8 ,this is to return to ,cuvier6 ,limited6 ,does he mean that the modifications will not be considerable in the present state of things1 on account of this present state being more or less modified8 ,it comes to nothing directly we admit variety as a consequence of the medium4 tienne ,geoffroy was led by this kind of idea1 when1 limiting his view to the short period of historical time1 and thinking he had discovered that our present climates do not sensibly alter existing species1#cjh he asked1 8if there had not been on the earth revolutions and disturbances of so vast a character that their influence may not have been enormous2 whilst in our days1 changes may have been according to the power of their effects1 that is to say1 almost nothing40 ,and he explained everything by this convenient theory of geological floods4 ,before going farther1 let us consider what we ought to think about the disturbances of the terrestrial globe thus invoked by tienne ,geoffroy4 ,now1 to our mind1 we have no authentic proof that the past of our planet has really been marked by such frightful revolutions1 and geology does not make the tradition as clear as some have desired4 ,we think1 although this is not the place to prove it1 that if the changes which have happened to the surface of the globe have been considerable1 they ought to be proportionally weak1 resulting less from sudden and powerful efforts than from those small and continuous actions#cji in which nature puts forth its most formidable energies1 but the progress of which is not to be measured by the memory of man4 ,in general1 our mind seizes but badly the notion of duration beyond certain limits4 ,it is not the same with the notion of force4 ,hence1 the belief in floods4 ,in the presence of gigantic effects1 the mind1 in the appreciation of the movers of this effect1 has done what we have done every day in mechanics4 8,it has changed mind into force40 ,it is certain that weak but continuous forces 7everywhere1 however1 the most powerful7 have been able to play a grander part in the history of our globe1 than these disturbances which we are in the habit of seeing everywhere4 ,we consider that there ought to be an entire revolution in the system of geological research2 it ought to commence at ancient times1 and come down to the present day1 not vice vers2 we ought1 in fact1 to substitute synthetic for analytical geology4 ,after having carefully noticed contemporaneous phenomena1 we should doubtless be in time able to read simply the trace of a feeble revolution in the geological past1 accomplished under the government of the same forces which are daily preparing new lands1 new elevations1 new depressions1 and a new organic world on the surface of the globe1 for the future4 ,if it is probable that the atmosphere has changed within certain limits1 if the nature of the waters has also been altered1--at least all these geological phenomena1 these abysses1 chains of mountains1 and submerged continents1 can only be the result of the forces now at work under our own eyes1--the comparison of animals which formerly existed with those which exist at the present day1 shows1 as we shall see farther on1 that the conditions of life have not sensibly changed on the surface of the globe since the formation of the rocks subjacent to the metamorphous rocks4 ,we deny that the earth is actually passing through a period of repose1 and we do not believe that it has ever formerly been more disturbed4 ,since the age of the first vestiges of the organic life1 which we find in the most ancient rocks1 we think that our planet has not ceased to move in a calm and continuous march of existence2 we think1 in fact1 that geological phenomena of all sorts1 which we hear of now-a-days1 are the exact history of the past1 during which some volcanic phenomena have also taken place1 but in an entirely sporadic manner4 8,the day is1 perhaps1 not very distant10 said ,m4 ,lartet1 at the ,institute1#caj in #aheh1 8when it will be proposed to strike out the word #8flood' from the vocabulary of positive geology40 ,this day approaches still nearer4#caa ,before mooting1 in our turn1 a theory about the vertebrate animal kingdom 7the only one which ought to occupy our attention7 on the surface of the globe1 we simply ask1 what is meant by tienne ,geoffroy by the words some considerable time8 ,this is a difficulty1 we own1 and we have just said so4 ,we wish that the thirty thousand years1#cab the maximum time which we give to the farthest origin of man1 should be considered as being the age which separates us from the first organic matter cast into the bosom of the waters1 in the same proportion as the radius of the earth is to the distance which separates our sun from the most distant star of the most distant nebulous system which the best telescope can observe4 ,the extent alone of the heavens can give us an idea of the extent of the past4 ,this being granted1 let us see how we can represent the history of organic development upon the earth in a few words1 without hiding from ourselves the immense obscurity which covers all origins4 ,we are here expressing merely a hypothesis4 ,it will suffice us to see if this hypothesis will agree in a satisfactory manner with the facts noticed at the present day1 on the surface and in the interior of the globe4 ,at the origin of the vertebrate world1 since we are only examining this1 it seems rational to admit a primordial commencement1 which nothing prevents us from considering as a new and special combination of organic matter1 derived from the invertebrate world1 which we may believe to have formerly existed4 ,in the heart of this embryo will have appeared1 by spontaneous generation1 the first organism connected with the vertebrate type4 ,this was1 doubtless1 a simple anatomical element1 like that which histologists see every day formed in certain granular liquids4 ,we do not imagine that the origin of life can be otherwise represented2 for to admit1 as ,isidore ,geoffroy has done in certain passages of his works1 that the will of a ,god peopled the earth suddenly with perfect beings1 fit for producing other beings like themselves1 would be to admit a miracle1 and science teaches us at the present day what to think of all divine interventions1 either past or present4#cac ,we defy anyone to get out of this alternative1--either that there was an instantaneous and miraculous creation of a certain number of perfect animals2#cad or that there was a successive evolution1 which is ,lamarck's idea1 modified by the sense of the new knowledge which we have at the present day1 arising1 on the one hand1 from geology1 and on the other1 from philosophical anatomy4 ,let us return to this primordial anatomical element which we may call individual-element4 ,it virtually represents a vertebrate animal just as the ovum detached from the ovary of the female represents a man1 who is only waiting for favourable circumstances in order to develope himself4 ,this individual-element1 according to our hypothesis1 is at first simply reproduced2 then1 after some considerable time1 its descendants1 will1 little by little1 in their own sphere of activity1 give birth to other elements in juxtaposition to themselves1 in this manner perfecting it and identifying it more and more with the vertebrate type which it offers for our consideration4 ,after some considerable time vertebrates of as simple an organism as mixin and lampreys will have thus appeared4 ,then1 again1 after another considerable lapse of time--millions of centuries1 rather than thousands--these animals with elementary vertebra will have successively produced1 by transformation1 all the vertebrata which stock the globe at the present day4 ,we must here make an important remark4 ,we have inferred by all which precedes this1 that the vertebrata of the present day and the fossil vertebrata all descend from the same individual-element prototype1 whose existence we have admitted4 ,in one word1 we think that all the vertebrata1 both present and past1 have the same genealogy1 and are all relations4 ,that may doubtless be the case2 but nothing will make us admit that there once existed on our planet conditions fit for the birth of this individual-element prototype1 and that these circumstances have never since been represented2 so that the most simple vertebrata of our time may very well descend from a less ancient spontaneous genesis than the mammalia and man himself4 ,nothing hinders such a supposition4 ,it does not cost us any more to admit that one day or other a simple organic element is formed1 endowed with a life of its own1 and1 even more1 with a latent life1 which it can1 by means of time and circumstances1 diffuse around it2 it does not cost us more to admit this than to admit that similar elements have arisen at different periods of time4 ,this last supposition may even be regarded as so much more probable1 that we must renounce entirely1 in order to explain specific transformations1 the influence of the geological revolutions of which tienne ,geoffroy took so much account4 ,we have seen higher up that these were far from being proved2 we can add1 in support of our assertion1 a fact which we think has not been sufficiently remarked4 ,if these revolutions ever existed1 we have a strong proof that they have only very slightly altered the conditions of life on the surface of the globe1 at least since the ancient periods during which the first alluvium was deposited2 if we dredge some yards deep in the ocean1 the drag brings up terebratul and encrini2 that is to say1 animals identical with those which we find in the most ancient alluvia4 ,is it not remarkable that the lowest placed fossil in the stratigraphic ladder of the beds of the terrestrial surface1 the most ancient fossil which we know1 is precisely this same terebratula1 which still lives in our seas8 ,what must we hence conclude8 ,that there once existed on the globe1 at least to a certain extent1 conditions of aquatic life sensibly identical with those which exist at the present day4 ,whether all the species of vertebrata descend from one original spontaneous beginning1 or from many successive ones1 signifies very little1 since1 in the second case1 the primordial individual-elements which have thus appeared at various times1 would always show a great analogy to one another4 ,now1 after all that we have said1 this is how we may1 in our opinion1 represent by a graphic figure the whole of the vertebrate kingdom1#cae in the present and in the past4 ,let us image a conical figure3 the individual-element of which we have spoken will occupy its summit4 ,from this point a number of straight lines1 few at first1 will start1 branching off and always multiplying themselves with more or less regularity1 but so as to form an immense cone4#caf ,each of these straight lines would represent a specific modification1 accomplished after a certain number of generations under the combined influence of the ambient medium and of some considerable time3 in other terms1 each ramification would represent a species having once existed or now existing on our planet4 ,the length of each line would measure the time which the species in question has existed4 ,these lines would never converge1 because we do not believe in the creation of permanent species by means of hybridity4 ,now the mind must admit here all possible combinations2 certain species have disappeared without producing any others after them3--others exist actually without our having any idea of one of the intermediary species which have been allied to primitive species2--others have subsisted slightly or not at all altered from the remotest antiquity up to our own days1 thus becoming through contemporaneous time the transformed descendants of fossil species1 of which they were also formerly the contemporaries2 it is even not impossible but that certain species succeeding one another may have presented a retrograde evolution1 so that we must not always conclude that because one animal is only inferior to another1 it has therefore preceded it3--without going so far as all this1 the evolution of certain species may have presented a long time of cessation whilst all others were progressing around them1 so that they appear to have retrograded4 ,this is what has made ,m4 ,michelet#cag say1 8,nature has not progressed with a continuous flow1 but with retrograde movements1 and stoppages1 which allow her to harmonise everything40 ,these times of repose in a specific evolution1 as well as the hypothesis of successive geneses which are already admitted1 explain how the stratified beds of the earth's surface1 in showing from low to high what we may call more perfect organic means1 unveil at the same time to our eyes here and there a certain number of species1 inferior in organisation to those in the most ancient rocks4 ,as to explaining how a part of the ancient species has been able to modify itself whilst another has remained stationary1 we must admit that all these influences of medium have always been exclusively local1 so that all the coexisting vertebrata have never been able to submit at once to its influence4 ,we must understand by medium1 the whole of the circumstances1 past or present1 which are able to influence organism mediately or immediately in any manner whatsoever4 ,the ancestors of an animal1 as well as the sun which warms it1 and the parasites which devour it1 make up a part of this medium4 ,but if it is easy to explain variety by the medium1 it is a difficulty against which the mind struggles4 ,how can we explain ascending and progressive variety8 must we believe in some finality1 an end settled beforehand8 ,we do not think so4 ,finality is a sort of divine prevision1 and the world as regards this hypothesis is still in tutelage2 we would rather believe in a creating intelligence4 ,a simple example will make our meaning understood4 ,in the vegetable world this strikes us forcibly3--the most simply formed plants are precisely those which approach most nearly to animals by reason of their physiological manifestations4#cah ,the plants which they call superior1 by placing them in an organographic point of view1 are in reality inferior1 so that these plants are simple in reference to the dicotyledons which have necessarily succeeded them1 and there has been in reality a retrograde march of life1 instead of the ascending march of the animal kingdom4 ,must we seek for the reason of this difference in the presence of a nervous system8 ,we think so4 ,we then would admit that organism would tend to modify itself by an inconscient act of the will1 analogous to those which rule most physiological actions2 this would be something like the possible increase or growth of the head by reason of the influence of civilisation of which we have before spoken4#cai ,and whilst all the specific varieties would result among plants from the influence of the physical medium1 we must add to the notion of this medium1 as regards animals1 the nervous activity of the ancestors4 ,by the side of this creating influence we must recognise in the medium a parallel destructive influence4 ,now1 we can appreciate this every day4 ,the present tells us about the past2 we cannot doubt but that species formerly disappeared exactly as we see them still disappear under our eyes by the manifestation of some new condition of the medium2 these may be sudden2 volcanic phenomena1 floods1 extreme variations of temperature1 diseases1 famines1 enemies--all these hypotheses are possible1 and all equally reasonable3 the dodo has disappeared some years ago1 having been destroyed by the hand of man2 they say that the apterix will soon disappear in the same way1 devoured by cats4 ,but actions only moderately destructive were doubtless otherwise very important1 and we find here all the phenomena which have been so well described1 and so well explained by ,darwin#cbj under the name of vital competition4 ,by this we see1 even since the most ancient historic periods1 that certain savage animals1 like the lion1#cba crocodile1#cbb and hippopotamus1#cbc retire before mankind2 that the black rat is disappearing in ,europe to give place to the field mouse1 and that a race of savages disappears when their country begins to be inhabited by a more civilised race1 even when the victors in this organic1 as well as political1 struggle1 are not able to reproach themselves with any cruelty4 ,now1 let us apply to man the theory of the origin of species which we wish to be dominant1 for there is no reason to think that man forms any exception to the common rule4 ,before all things1 we must remember that human races cannot lend themselves to any classification in natural series4 ,it is also as impossible for the naturalist to point out a race at the present day from which all the others are derived1 either parallelly or successively1 as for the historian to discover in the past any trace of a homogeneous humanity4 ,if even such an uniformity had ever existed1 how would the remembrance of it have been kept1 for it is evident that this primitive form1 constituting at the beginning all the human genus1 would be the same inferior form1 such as the ,negro or the ,bosjesman1 for instance1 nature rising in general from inferiority to perfection4 ,this was for a long time ,prichard's idea1 and certain monogenists think the same at the present day4 ,this hypothesis1 entering at its basis into the doctrine of evolution1 has nothing in itself which is startling2 we can only say one thing against it1 and that is in its admitting as proved that filiation which would connect one with the other all the groups composing in our times the genus homo4 ,for our part1 we wish simply to extend the same manner of viewing the matter1 to generalise it1 and to place it in relation with this immense unknown which is behind us1 and of which monogenists do not take enough notice4 ,we maintain that there has existed in the night of time a certain species1 less perfect than the most imperfect man1 remounting by a certain number of intermediary species1 of whose nature it is impossible for us at present to form any idea1--to this primordial vertebrate animal which we admit4 ,this species1 a rough outline of what man now is1 gave birth1 after a considerable time1 to many other species1 whose parallel and unequal evolution1 following what we have said concerning animals1 has at the present day as contemporaneous 7but not the last7 illustration1 the different species of men designated by the name of races4 ,so that all humanity would be in relationship1 if the expression be allowed us1 not in the serial sense1 as monogenists take it1 but in the collateral sense1 and at a degree which we cannot determine2 the prognathous races probably less deviated from the former type1 the others more separated from this type1 and more perfect4 ,it may be seen1 and we are bound to make the remark1 that we no more pretend to make man a descendant of the ape1 than a white man a descendant of a ,negro2 but it is not impossible1 in our opinion1 that species of men1 as well as the great apes whose relationship hurts our vanity so much1 may remount infinitely far in the past to an unknown single species1 whose descendants1 submitted to multiplied influences1 might be modified in different ways by reason of these different influences4 ,we admit1 then1 that species is an instant of a constant evolution2 that it does not exist by itself2 and that it is only an appreciation of our senses1 localised by time4 ,in our opinion1 if species is fixed1 it is fixed after the manner of the sun4 ,that is to say1 that we cannot perceive any movement in it beyond the merest trifle4 ,it requires thousands of years to discover either solar displacement or specific alteration4 ,this is what makes the determination of species so difficult2 some of which may be considered as in progress of formation in reference to others4 ,the difficulty is the same with mankind as it is with animals4 ,we would not dare to contradict1 for instance1 the opinions of those who see in the ,hind1 ,german1 and ,celtic population three species in course of formation1 all three being probably derived from a species anterior to that which history endeavours at the present day to name2 that ,aryan race of which such a noble picture is made1 and which we believe to be primitive because it is in the horizon of history1 just as the ancients saw in the ocean the limits of the world4 ,in a short time1 perhaps1 some discovery in a poor ,asiatic field will take away from the ,aryas the characteristic nobility and intelligence which we give to them with so much satisfaction4 ,it belongs to human palontology alone to enlighten us upon the origin of the present human types2 it alone can lead us in a sure path towards the great problem of their origin4 ,but both geology1 and palontology which depends on it1 have the singular destiny of showing at one and the same time both great certainties and insoluble doubts4 ,the stratification of rocks1 for example1 gives us very clearly the notion of the succession of these rocks with regard to one another4 ,but it leaves us in absolute ignorance of all which has passed between the deposit of one stratum and the deposit of that which we meet with above it2 in this unknown time all may take place1 ten series of rocks may have been placed upon it1 and then have been so well mingled together that we cannot discover their individual trace4 ,who will tell us about the continents engulphed by the sea2 has it not already ground up under its waves those memorials of ancient days1 which would be so useful to us as a means of reconstructing the history of man8 ,geology is a gigantic inscription lacerated for ever3 each age will decipher some fragment1 but we shall never be able to read it in its perfect state4 ,besides its great advantages1 palontological inquiry has its great inconveniences4 ,its advantages are the studying of animal forms which are fixed for ever1 and not seeing the field of such studies continually increasing on our view4 ,the limit of its inquiries is the origin of the alluvium2 all the facts which we are thereby called upon to study are within this boundary4 ,palontology alone1 among the sciences of the present day1 knows the extent of its domain4 ,but palontology1 proceeding step by step1 by blows of the pickaxe in an otherwise inaccessible mass1 is composed of two orders of facts1 which must be distinguished one from the other1 resting either on affirmative evidence 7the existence of organic remains in a rock7 or on negative evidence 7the absence of organic remains in a rock74 ,human palontology itself has its own inconveniences4 ,a bone or a skull of a man are things which are well known2 they have not that strange appearance in the eyes of the crowd which makes them take ammonites for petrified serpents1 hamites#cbd for leeches1 radiated animals for stars2 when we dig up some singular bone1 some carapace of a lizard1 a fish1 or of some unknown animal1 we pick it up1 and take great care of it4 ,but if it is a man's head1 it is generally replaced religiously in the earth1 and these remains are for ever lost to the scientific world4 ,there result from all this two sorts of ideas in palontology1 the one positive1 the other negative3 it is true1 however1 that the latter diminish continually the profit we obtain from the former1 and it is important to remember that this negative evidence is the only basis upon which rests the hypothesis that man is so new to our globe as some imagine4 ,every moment we may expect to see the interior of the earth prove the contrary4 ,instead of discoveries following one another1 and being linked together as in other sciences1 forming a whole which hangs together by itself1 palontology goes on from hand to mouth1 as it were1 at the caprice of whatever may happen1 without knowing the wonder which is about to be revealed1 perhaps at a few steps from a path which millions of men have passed by4 ,it is very true that the human bones which have hitherto been found in the ground in caverns seem to proceed from a form but slightly different from our own2 but all this is very recent1 relatively to this considerable time of which we have before spoken4 ,who can say but that we may find very soon a skull which must be classed1 whether one will or not1 between the anthropomorphous apes and man8 tienne ,geoffroy1 led by the logical nature of his ideas1 naturally admitted this intermediary form1 anterior to our own2 but seeing the mammalia of the last geological ages generally larger than those which are contemporary with ourselves1 he concluded besides that our immediate ancestors were giants1 and that we have degenerated1 like the descendants of the bears and hyenas found in caverns4#cbe ,nothing has appeared in order to justify this hypothesis1 and everything seems to show that since that epoch the height of the genus homo has not much altered1 whilst the size of the different genera of ferines1 ruminants1 and pachyderms has positively varied4 ,recapitulation4 ,since we have found that man is comparable in all points to animals1 we ought to seek for him and for them a common origin1 and the difficulty of admitting an initial miracle has led us to the idea of evolution4 ,if in the science of observation it is permitted to refer to general ideas1 assuredly it is so in this case2 philosophy commences where science ends1 and it belongs to it to give us an explanation of the matter2 but we must wait for the future for a true positive solution of the problem1 perhaps from advanced geology1 perhaps from experiments4 ,the genius of man has no bounds1 who can say to what it may reach8 who knows whether1 like a new ,prometheus1#cbf a creator in his turn1 he may not one day breathe life into some new species1 which will suddenly appear from his laboratories8 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,system4 ,all science leads necessarily to a system2 and system signifies here1 not the proceeds of observation or a route followed by analysis or synthesis in order to arrive at the knowledge of the truth4 ,system here means1 a mode of classifying beings or observed facts1 a mode essentially in connection with the science which treats of these beings or of these facts1 and often applicable to itself alone4 ,a perfect system can only be really established posteriori1 after the knowledge has been acquired of all the phenomena which are to be classed4 ,this is absolute4 ,in practice1 a system can only be observed priori1 by reference to a certain number of facts which it is destined afterwards to embrace2 it is only true that the more facts we acquire1 the more chance has a system of being exact1 without our ever having the right of proclaiming it to be absolutely good2 it may be satisfactory1 and remain so for a long time1 but one fine day a new fact may prove it to be false4 8,i am of opinion10 said tienne ,geoffroy1 8that a perfect system cannot exist2 it is a sort of philosopher's stone1 impossible to be discovered40#cbg ,a science being given1 it does not at all follow that there already exists a proper method for classifying in a natural series the phenomena which manifest themselves to us in this branch of human knowledge4 ,if we have not yet succeeded in discovering a true anthropological system1 if ,camper1 ,prichard1 and ,morton have been foiled1 it is because the science of mankind is still too new4 ,even in making an abstract of the difficulties always to be found in determining every animal species1 difficulties which are derived from the way in which we understand its evolution1#cbh must we be astonished that the human race is not yet divided into distinct groups1 when animals1 much more easy to class on account of their lesser degree of intellectual and social activity1 are not yet classed in a satisfactory manner1#cbi when the ,geoffroys1 ,cuvier1 and ,de ,blainville have failed in something or other1 since this question seems still worthy of examination by the greatest minds of ,europe with which the natural sciences are honoured at the present day8 ,the natural history of man is of to-day1 and the difficulties are great1 because by virtue of his intellect man possesses resistance and special affinity4 ,living by nations1 he lives a double life2 his own1 and that of the nation--which is a separate thing--into which a neighbouring race or species can enter wholly1 adopting the same customs1 the same dress1 and the same language4 ,there are difficulties which we meet with in anthropology1 and which we only meet with there4 ,a species has been known to disappear1 for instance1 and has left its name to some group entirely different from it1 for if the ,ethnic name has served at the origin to name the inhabited country1 the geographical name has reacted in its turn1 and has imposed itself on all the people who have successively occupied the same area4 ,other difficulties will arise from regions inhabited by distinct species1 if these limits are not marked by some physical barrier almost impossible to be passed4 ,thus we are far1 even at the present day1 from agreeing about the bases of a good anthropological classification4 ,many methods have been tried1 but none have as yet succeeded4 ,some have adopted geographical division4 ,others1 the colour of the skin4 ,others1 the state of the hair4 ,others 7the most numerous class71 have stopped at the shape of the head4 ,the skull has chiefly exercised the sagacity of anatomists and anthropologists1 and we can say fairly that there is no combination to which it has not been submitted in order to arrive at the distribution of mankind into natural groups4 ,we must remark that all these cranioscopic classifications rest involuntarily upon this datum1 that the different kinds of men are unequally endowed with intellect4 ,starting1 then1 from this principle1 that the volume of the brain is in ratio to intelligence1 or that intellect is in ratio to the volume of the brain1 people tried to find a simple1 rather than an easy1 method of taking account of such an irregular solid3 and ,camper opened the way with his famous angle4 ,this system was soon followed by others who are less celebrated1 having come after him4 ,we may quote1 among others1 the interior angle of ,walther1 described by two lines1 the one going from the occipital protuberance to the crista galli process1 the other from the frontal prominence to the root of the nose4 ,there is also the external angle of ,mulders1 described by the facial line of ,camper1 and another line going from the base of the process to the root of the nose4 ,and1 lastly1 that of ,daubenton1 described by a line going from the inferior margin of the orbit to the posterior region of the occipital orifice1 and by another following the direction of the plane of the same4#ccj ,all these systems are worth as much as ,camper's4 ,all1 including ,camper's1 are false and worthless1 from the mere fact that they pretend to measure a solid by the inclination of two of its boundary-planes one upon the other4 ,after these methods of measurement1 and superior to all of them1 comes the norma verticalis of ,blumenbach2 then the measurements of ,cuvier1 ,owen1 etc4 ,here we gain a step2 we endeavour to measure a solid by its outline1 or by the area of a systematic division or section4 ,already had ,camper1 better gifted than his angle would inform us1 endeavoured to compare the different diameters of the profile of the skull1 as seen in front4#cca ,as to ,cuvier's division1 it is a very happy modification of a former proposed measurement1 the incisive-occipital line of ,doornick4 ,it is obtained by lowering a vertical line to the plane of the external auditory orifice1 and by leading another line from the incisors to the extreme protuberance of the occipital region4 ,the relation of the two determinated divisions in this line by its intersection with the first1 will give the statistics of comparison4#ccb ,progress has been immense1 and yet our systems remain very unsatisfactory2 the skull seems to escape every method of measurement4 ,some time ago a meeting of craniologists took place at ,gottingen1 and yet the learned assembly was obliged to separate without settling anything4#ccc ,it seems that the old saying of ,bernard ,palissy about measuring some peculiar skull1 will remain true in spite of all our efforts3 8,i have never known how to obtain a correct measurement40#ccd ,another method is that of ,morton1 to which he has attached his name by the multiplicity of facts which he has drawn1 from it1 by the justice of the views which he has expressed1 after having used it thousands of times2 we speak of the direct measurement of the interior capacity of the skull4 ,it is for ever to be regretted that ,morton finished his laborious career without having been able to publish the ultimate results of his long researches2 but this method 7which ,m4 ,broca has actively applied71 is1 however1 not quite perfect4 ,if there was merely a difference among the different races in the amount of intellect shown in their works1 this measurement would be sufficient to establish a division2 but there is more than that2 all races have different aptitudes1 and here is to be found the fault of ,morton's system1 which only takes the whole1 which makes no distinction between very different skulls if they have the same volume1 like those of the ,esquimaux1 for instance1 and those of ,americans4 ,the subject of measurement differs1 like intellect1 otherwise than merely in dimension1 and that which craniology wants is the definition of all these special tendencies of the intellect by as many tangible varieties as possible4#cce ,craniology is not anthropology2 it assists it materially1 but the partial results which it obtains have not necessarily the same value in the more general point of view of anthropology4 ,every classification1 based on the form of the skull1 will be necessarily an artificial classification1 because it will only rest upon one sole order of phenomena4 ,besides1 this study presents great difficulties from the individual differences which the various heads show1 in which the qualities belonging to the individual have been so far able to hide the general characters of the race1 that these often remain unrecognisable4 ,divisions have also increased in proportion as craniological collections have come richer in specimens4 ,morton only reckoned eleven human races1 but he believed under the truth4 ,we may very well have a poor idea of the value of this classification by studying the materials which were used by the philosopher of ,philadelphia4 ,besides the ,american race1 ,morton had only a very few skulls at his disposal4 ,the ,philadelphian collection1 which has been much increased since his death1 contained1 only a few years ago1 #ajce skulls1 #ch of them pathological2 there remain therefore but #iig4 ,out of this number the ,american race figures in #ejb1 or more than one-half4 ,there remains1 therefore #die1 #aed of which came from the valley of the ,nile2 so that merely #cej skulls represent the whole of ,europe1 ,asia1 the ,oceanic countries1 and ,africa 7excepting ,egypt74 ,this is not much for the purpose of classing a population likely to be raised to five hundred millions of inhabitants4#ccf ,it remains for us to study and determine the intrinsic value of each of these heads4 ,the authentic production of a skull is not always easy to be established when it comes from the other side of the world1 obtained by travellers who have not made a special study of anthropology2 it is even less so when a skull is dug up in a burial ground1 where there may be a certain promiscuousness very apt to hinder our inquiries4 ,errors of this kind steal into science only too often1 and we have for a long time in particular objected to the name of ,gallic mummy1 which has been given to a body in a collection at ,paris1 the history of which does not at all justify this denomination1 since we simply believe that when it was first dug up it was only referred back to the thirteenth century6#ccg ,craniology was anthropology itself1 whilst this science was being cultivated merely by learned men in their studies4 ,if a skull does not always bear about it the stamp of the race to which it belongs1 we must nevertheless own that it is the best representative of the dead individual4 ,craniology obtains all its weight and powers from the study of ancient races and extinct peoples4 ,there it ought to intervene with an unequalled importance1 for want of better points of reference4 ,by its means anthropology can search in the past1 clearing up those questions which history is incapable of explaining4 ,in this manner ,morton has been able to prove better than by any historical document that ,ancient ,egypt was inhabited by very mixed races1 and composed of the most different elements1 exactly as in our own days4 ,but there remained a problem even more interesting3 that of knowing if the different races who then inhabited the banks of the ,nile were as much divided into various occupations as at the present day3 the ,albanians are all soldiers1 the ,copts all scribes and officials1 the ,fellahs all labourers1 etc4 ,doubtless it would be possible1 if not easy1 to arrive at the solution of this new problem by collecting skulls and mummies with more care than has hitherto been done1 and1 above all1 by assisting the researches of the ,egyptiologists1 who can read upon the coffin that such and such a body is that of a workman1 a priest1 or a king4 ,we may thus be able to ascertain if the kings of such or such a dynasty were black or yellow2 if the dominant population of such or such a nome had the ,coptic1 ,berberine1 or ,fellah type4 ,here we have a large field for study1 which has been almost entirely neglected by the ,american school of anthropology1 precisely because ,morton found himself without information about the production and true age of the immense materials which he had at his disposal4 ,but we must not be forgetful3 the classification of skulls by their shape1 of hairs by their colour1 or skins by their hue1 is not the classification of races of mankind4 ,we only perceive here one order of phenomena4 ,a classification established upon such bases has its point of departure only in the mind of him who conceived it1 and not in the nature of things4 ,we shall only have a natural and rational classification by comparing entire individuals one with the other4#cch ,to this we must come2 we must study at one and the same time the height1 the skin with its dependencies1 and1 above all1 the character of the countenance1 the attitude1 the facies1 and the habitus of different races1 which ,caldwell called 8the variety discoverable in the complexion and feature1 the figure and stature of the human race2#cci0 this something is explained in one word1 which we call type1 about which we are never mistaken1 and which makes us say1 8,this is a man from the south1 that is a man from the north2 this is a ,mongolian1 that an ,indian40#cdj ,by this means alone we can form natural groups2 difficulties will1 doubtless1 be great at the beginning1 but light will come little by little1 and time will teach us surely to distinguish certain distinctive characteristics1 whose expression will be gradually more and more simple4 ,this is a work for the future4 ,anthropology regarding man as a whole1 classifiers ought not to neglect his psychological value4 ,although craniology is only an indirect appreciation of the same1 few had ever thought1 ,linnus excepted1 of using the purely intellectual characteristics of races in order to assist them in classification1 when all at once the ,american school gave an immense importance to these characteristics1 and placed psychological varieties above all the material differences which can be observed in the configuration of the bony case of the skull4 ,the ,american school has gone too far1 for it is tangible forms especially which must furnish specific characteristics in the animal kingdom4 ,however this may be1 we may willingly give a secondary value to the intellectual classification of the human race1 although data are still wanting in order to establish one which can be considered as complete4 ,we will even add that the characteristics of this order are the more authentic and the more precious since they are not the expression of a given moment1 nor that of a certain number of individuals4 ,they belong to a whole race4 ,we must seek for them in the literary remains of a people4 ,these teach us surely1 even after many ages have elapsed1 about the mind1 belief1 and thoughts of their readers4 ,the monuments of plastic art remain1 even if they were a complete contradiction against their time1 their epoch1 the men who ordered them1 and the crowd which now regards without understanding them4#cda ,a book1 on the contrary1 has no success except as it enters into the mind of a people1--except as the ideas which it expresses are those of all the world4 ,each book which is published1 then 7like the ,mosaic books among the ,jews1 the ,korn amongst the ,mussulmen71 is the true expression of the mind of a race at all the periods of its existence1 even were it written in a language which is no longer spoken4 ,the best ,greek and ,roman works1 written for men of the same blood as ourselves1 have remained classical4 ,we must understand them1 even at the present day1 and we do understand them1 because the thoughts which animated their authors are still our own4 ,if1 on the contrary1 we wish to penetrate into any foreign literature1 it becomes a labour and a fatigue1 we only reach it by making an abstraction of our thoughts and our ideas1 by endeavouring to enter entirely1 by a violent effort1 into the life and feelings of another people4 ,languages also have been considered capable of serving as a basis for the classification of the human race4 ,their importance has been largely discussed1 and counts numerous warm partisans4#cdb ,at their head we may perhaps mention ,latham1 who wishes the ancient history of mankind to be studied by languages1#cdc and agreeing in ,prichard's ideas about the production of intermediary hybrid races1 he only sees this method of reading the history of the past1 and he is quite naturally led to language1 which seems to him to offer better conditions of resistance#cdd than physical characteristics4 ,it is true that philology1 applied to anthropological research1 is of immense assistance to it2 it can give us powerful inductions on the history of the past1 and on the origin of the present human species4 ,but even these1 solutions agree very well with the theory of gradual evolution1 and with the corollary of this theory1 namely1 that man has not always possessed the faculty of speech4#cde ,philologists tell us1 for instance1 that two sister tribes may have been able1 at some past time1 to create on each side of a mountain two different idioms1 which may produce in their turn two families of languages absolutely irreducible one from the other4 ,this is what would take place1 according to ,m4 ,renan1 when the sons of the same parents1 separating on the sides of the ,imus1 became the double branch from whence have sprung the ,semites on one side1 and the ,aryas on the other4 ,this would be the explanation of the fact so embarrassing for anthropologists1 that physical characteristics are sensibly identical among the ,semites and ,europeans1 whilst these races are as distinct as possible in the matter of language4 ,now1 we may even go further1 and infer from these facts that the common species from whence the ,semites1 on the one hand1 and the ,aryas1 on the other1 are descended1 did not yet know how to speak4 ,inversely to ,latham1 some anthropologists have given1 in our opinion1 too little importance to language3 we speak especially of ,edwards and ,m4 ,omalius d',halloy4#cdf ,the truth lies1 doubtless1 between these two extremes4 ,it must be acknowledged that language can very often furnish excellent evidence1 but it must not be forgotten that it shows at the same time a more rapid liability to change than moral characteristics and corporal form4 ,niebuhr seems to us to be right when he insists upon the precautions to be taken in order to apply philology in a useful manner to the determination of races1 and he concludes that we must give the greatest attention to physical configuration4#cdg ,this is also the opinion of ,humboldt#cdh and ,m4 ,vivien4#cdi ,a language1 like every custom1 and every act of individual relation1 can transmit itself from one race to another which is very different4 ,the unity of a family of languages is not always sufficient to establish that the people who speak these idioms are of one and the same origin2 we can only conclude from it that they have been in relation one with the other1 and it is even reasonable to admit that this cause has been able to act with a decisive influence at the epoch when man first commenced to lisp4#cej ,these two tribes meeting for the first time1 physically strangers one to the other1 were doubtless able to borrow mutually certain habits1 and to mingle in a decided manner their two manners of explaining their thoughts1 from which has resulted one sole language1 in which we cannot distinguish except by analysis the two different branches which have contributed to its formation4 ,this hypothesis has been even elevated to a general thesis by several philologists1 and ,m4 d',escayrac de ,lauture1 among others1 believes that the centre of ,africa1 that land of the unknown and of mystery1 is reserved to us as a spectacle of this phenomenon4#cea ,without going back to origin1 it is evident that two neighbouring peoples1 in continual relation one with the other1 ought to end by borrowing mutually the forms of language1 letters1 and articulation1 especially when they have neither of them any literature capable of retaining the language within its limits1 and of preserving it from all separation4 ,hence it results that anthropology must take its most precious authorities from the study of languages1 in the language of the islands1 for instance1 and in the idioms spoken at the extremity of the continents3 thus surrounded by the sea1 in relation by its less extent with the others1 these idioms will be preserved even more intact4 ,we shall find here the real expression of the most ancient state of things which we can directly recognise by philology4 ,the click language1 so peculiar to one single race1#ceb exists only in the most southern part of ,africa4 ,they still speak the ancient ,pali#cec in the south of ,asia and at ,ceylon4 ,the most ancient language of ,europe1 so far as we know1 namely the ,celtic1 still remains in ,britanny and in ,wales4 ,from all which has gone before1 we may then conclude that in order to establish a rational classification of human species1 the first characteristics to be considered will be the external aspect1 and perhaps the moral characteristics2 the rest will come in the second rank3 at first1 language1 then deep anatomical varieties which do not strike us at the first glance1 then physiological and pathological varieties1 etc4 ,such is1 we think1 the only certain basis upon which anthropology can rest--the true distinctions between human species4 ,we do not even yet know exactly their number1 and naturalists do not at all agree on this subject2 the work is to be done over again1 by following a new route4 ,without troubling ourselves with enquiring into the whole system of the genus homo1 we must at first examine these well-characterised centres of population which are entirely distinct as regards aspect and physiognomy4 ,we must mark these centres with care1 paying attention to all the physical1 moral1 and philological varieties which we are able to notice4 ,m4 ,flourens has given some excellent principles for the study of animal species2 he wishes simply to apply them to the study of human species2 and from this connection1 which nobody can contradict as a means of investigation1 there arises a farther proof of the rank which we must give to man in the organic series4 8,we must observe the living animal10 said ,m4 ,flourens2 8we must observe him for a long time1 and also both sexes and all ages4 ,we must study his nature1 his instincts1 and his intellect4 ,each of these things has its own characteristic in each animal1 and it is by the whole of these characteristics put together that species is defined40 ,it is impossible to trace in a better manner the anthropologists' task4 ,when we have well studied a homogeneous centre of population under all its aspects1 when we have rendered an account of its physiological1 psychological1 and philological characteristics1 we may stop2 and without prejudging anything concerning the area of this race1 may then pass on to another centre1 which we shall notice in the same way1 without troubling ourselves with intermediary varieties1 which will always be in a greater or lesser number wherever we do not happen to meet with a physical barrier1 like the sea or a chain of mountains1 which may separate the two centres which are to be observed4 ,then we shall1 doubtless1 have numberless shades and transitions2 but these are merely the phenomena of hybridity1 entirely secondary1 and which ought not at all to influence our essays on anthropological classification4 ,at a later period1 when we know more1 we shall be able to review all these intermediary varieties1 when we understand their conditions of existence better4 ,in this manner we must take care at the beginning to study certain countries1 places of travel1 and meeting1 to which all the neighbouring races have given some portion of their blood4 ,such are most ,european countries1 and such always was the ,valley of the ,nile and the ,blue ,nile4 ,the streets of ,cairo are not only a picturesque spectacle2 from thence did tienne ,geoffroy borrow his grand views about the position of the genus homo in nature2 the man of science profits here as much in his search after truth as the artist in his search after the beautiful4 ,who can forget1 even if he has only once seen it1 this phantasmagoria of customs and physiognomies which developes itself before our eyes at every moment2 here a gigantic ,circassian1 there a smaller sized ,copt1 with an arched nose2 a ,nubian1 with his 8violet ebony0 colour1 but with a pleasing figure1 nose straight and small1 thin lips1 well arranged teeth2 a ,turk1 with as white and transparent a skin as a man of the north2 a ,negro1 with crisped hair1 flat nose1 prominent cheek-bones1 thick lips1 large and projecting teeth2 a ,fellah1 with olive complexion2 a ,bedouin1 almost as black as a ,nubian1 but tall1 with aquiline nose1 thin lips1 and kingly bearing4 ,we must not seek for a pure population in the streets of ,paris1 ,london1 ,marseilles1 ,trieste1 or ,constantinople3 we only find in these capitals isolated facts1 good specimens1 perhaps1 of different species1 but lost in the multitude of hybrids4 ,we can only study in these places individuals1 not species4 ,in those parts alone which we must make centres of observation1 can we see the same man indefinitely multiplied among really primitive people1 still free from intermixture1 or with the least possible taint of the same4 ,then we must hasten to seize his general characteristics1 and take both his physical and moral portrait4 ,the physical portrait in particular comprises two series of data1 features and colour4 ,as to feature1 photography is an unequalled resource1 but it belongs to anthropological study to settle its application in a clear manner3 we must always choose some individual presenting the usual type of the population in the midst of which he is found1 rather than among the chiefs or nobles of the land4 ,we must select this type in the prime of life1 when the animal conomy has arrived at its perfect development1 and has not yet commenced to decay1 and still shines in all the splendour of its reproductive force2 this would be1 for man1 from twenty-two to twenty-seven years of age4 ,for photographic portraits to be of real utility to anthropologists1 they ought to represent the individual completely full face1 or in profile2 thus only can they be of use in measurements4 ,for it is important not to confound anthropology with ethnology1 as is done every day4 ,they are two things entirely different4 ,dressed-up portraits are the domain of the latter1 the natural history of man demands always absolutely nude representations1 and the best will be those which show us the individual with untouched beard and hair4 ,as to colour1 we must refer as much as possible to oil-painting4 ,in fact1 the colour of the human skin1 as we have formerly said1#ced is1 in reality1 a complex visual impression2 all the coloured rays 7we employ the term here in the conventional sense given to it in physics7 which emanate from the skin1 and which strike the eye of the observer1 are not formed by the same plane surface2 they arise from the more or less profound parts seen by transparency1 through a more or less diaphanous medium1 more or less favourable for the emission of these rays4 ,hence results1 as regards the eye1 a special sensation1 and as regards the mind1 a special notion1 which we explain in the arts by the word transparency or diaphaneity4 ,now1 this kind of sensation will not be reproduced by the artist unless he employs certain processes recalling to the mind those of nature itself4 ,this is not the case with water-colour painting4 ,the colouring matter1 reduced to extremely fine particles1 is applied1 it is true1 in a transparent vehicle--water2 but this1 destined to evaporate almost immediately1 leaves the colour on the surface of the paper1 stretched into an extremely fine layer1 without appreciable thickness4 ,we perceive from this the radical imperfection of water-colour for portraiture1 and the impossibility of rendering by such means1 at least with truth1 the effect of skin colours4 ,oil painting offers far better resources1 and here is the secret of its incomparable superiority4 ,the colouring matter1 diluted by the oil1 remains suspended as before in its transparent medium when the painting is dry2 so that the luminous rays1 in order to arrive at the eye1 start from the surface of the paint as well as from its interior substance4 ,we find exactly the same process in nature2 an impalpable powder1 like the pigmentary granulations1 or the globules of blood in the capillaries of the skin1 is spread over a diaphanous substance4 ,we may now understand the advantage of such a process in anthropological iconography4 ,we must1 indeed1 almost give up all other methods4 ,it is easy to convince oneself of the fact by examining the coloured portraits which illustrate the works of ,prichard1#cee ,nott1 and ,gliddon1#cef who are1 however1 extremely particular about the correctness of the types which they bring before our notice4 ,but all these coloured portraits are unsatisfactory1 and when we see some anthropologist invoke the authority of these bad prints1 we really ask ourselves which we ought most to admire1 either the blind confidence of the savant1 the imprudence of the author1 or the rashness of the artist4 ,fancy1 however1 attacking with such platitudes the portraits of dark-coloured men which the masters of painting have left us1 from ,veronese to ,gricault6 ,they alone have been able1 by their process1 to seize the reality of the complexion and colour of their models4#ceg ,but the surest method of arriving at conclusive evidence in anthropology is necessarily travels4 ,doubtless the study alone of the materials collected from afar is of the greatest possible use4 ,but we repeat concerning the study of mankind what we said about the study of animals2 the anthropologist must leave his library and go into the great continents1 in order to study by means of his own eye-sight4 8,we can only arrive at the distinction of species10 says ,m4 ,flourens1 8by direct and complete personal observation40 ,that it must be complete1 we have endeavoured to show2 but the only condition for its being complete is its being direct4 ,had we even the genius of ,buffon1#ceh we should see but poorly by means of others2 facts reach us distorted and altered1 because they have not always been observed by competent men2 they are not comparable1 resulting as they do from diverse individual impressions4 ,it will be especially necessary to control with care travellers' tales as regards the study of intellectual tendencies1 since they are too often influenced by their own ideas on the subject4 ,let us say this before concluding3 among the priori proofs which polygenists can bring forward on their side1 there is one which is of some importance2 it is this1 that while contrary ideas have been sustained and defended by men who never go beyond their own studies1 the former have been generally brought forward by travellers and sailors1 by those indeed who have been best able to put in practice this direct observation1 which is generally conclusive and decisive4 ,it is these whom we find the most ready to separate mankind into distinct groups1 and to recognise in the inferior species a manifest tendency to approach nearer the nature of the anthropomorphous apes4 ,a valuable source of information1 from which anthropologists must not neglect to borrow1 are the accounts of those who landed for the first time on certain islands and continents4 ,if they have even conceived any erroneous ideas1 it must usually be acknowledged that they are most likely to be able to give us a tolerably faithful portrait of the nations with whom they have met1 even more important in certain points of view than the accounts afterwards given of them1 since at that time these people have not been submitted to the various influences which necessarily result from contact with ,europeans4 ,we can study philology and craniology in the library and in solitude1 assisted by proper documents and sufficient materials1 but not anthropology2 because anthropology is a science still in its cradle1 and observation must have furnished its proper and necessary contingent before we can endeavour to apply any general idea or view4 ,but anthropology ought1 more especially1 to disengage itself from all trammels of former ideas1 as well as from all pretended humanitarian tendencies4 ,it would be nonsense to believe that the advance of the truth will not contribute to social progress4 ,the searcher after it can free himself in all tranquillity of mind from this kind of trouble4 ,haller has said1 in reference to this matter1 8,the cultivation of truth alone is sufficient for the good man40#cei ,that which is true1#cfj cannot be evil1 because it is in the eternal order of nature4 ,thus1 free from fetters1 and obeying pure reason1 resting on all the sciences which can assist it1 anatomy1 physiology1 psychology1 and philology1 the science of mankind will advance1 like every other science1 towards the conquest of that truth which is so much to be desired2 and sooner or later1 by means of archology and palontology1 retracing its steps in the past beyond history itself1 and beyond the remotest geological epochs of which we have any record1 science will eventually discover the grand problem of the origin of mankind1 if the elements themselves are not for ever engulphed in the depths of the ocean4 ,,finis4 ,,index ,,of ,,subjects4 ,aborigines1 #ed ,abou ,simbel1 #ej ,abyssinia1 #eg ,acclimatisation1 #eh1 #hi ,arolites1 #aab ,africa1 ,central1 inhabitants of1 #ad1 #fh ,african equality with ,european1 #h ,age of the world1 #abb ,aldridge1 ,ira1 #fc ,america1 #f1 #fg1 #gd ,anatomy1 human1 #ac ,angles of the skull1 #acg ,anoplotherium1 #db ,anthropological ,societies of ,paris and ,london1 #g ,anthropomorphous apes1 #aa1 #da ,antilles1 #ef ,ants1 #cc ,arabs1 #dg ,aryan family1 #ai1 #aca1 #adc ,asiatic tribes1 #ah ,australia1 #ad1 #fg ,australian aborigines1 #e1 #af1 #ag1 #dd ,babel1 ,tower of1 #e ,bedouin1 #adg ,bees1 #cc ,bigenerate hybrids1 #if ,bimana1 order of1 #ch ,blood1 #ec ,bosjesmans1 #ee1 #gi ,bourbon1 ,isle of1 #hg ,bowed legs1 #dg ,brain1 #ab ,brazil1 #fi ,brute and man1 #ai ,buddha1 #eb1 #fg1 #ga ,caffres1 #fh1 #gi ,cairo1 #adf akhya-,mouni1 #eb ,caledonians1 #ajc ,cartesian theory1 #bf ,caus degenerationis1 #ij ,central ,america1 #ha ,chain of gradation1 #cg ,chinese1 #e1 #ec1 #gh ,circassia1 #adg ,classification1 #fd1 #ace ,climate1 #ib ,clitoris1 #ed ,colour1 #adh ,consanguinity1 #ajg ,consciousness1 #ab ,copts1 #adg ,cordilleras1 #ff ,craniology1 #ach ,crtins1 #ajf ,crocodile1 #abh ,cross-breeding1 #ig ,danelag1 #ajd ,degraded nations1 #ge ,desdemona1 #fc ,development of animals1 #ae ,dhargonis1 #ah ,disease1 #eh ,dog1 #cd ,earth1 motion of1 round the sun1 #f ,egyptians1 #di1 #aci ,england1 #ajc ,esquimaux1 #ae1 #ag1 #ah1 #ec1 #ed1 #fh1 #ge ,eurygnathi1 #de vangile de l',enfance1 #fd ,evolution1 #abb ,family of man1 #db ,fellah1 #adg ,flinder's ,island1 #ig ,flood1 the word1 #abb ,foot1 #di ,forearm in ,negro1 #dh ,france1 ethnology of1 #ajd ,frugivorous man1 #ci ,gallic mummy1 #aci ,god1 belief in1 #ga ,good and evil1 #bc ,goths1 #fb ,gradation1 chain of1 #cg ,grecian1 theories1 #ha ,hair1 colour of1 #ej1 #eb ,half-castes1 #ih ,hamites1 #aca ,harems1 #aja ,height1 differences of1 #dg ,hindoostan1 #dj1 #ade ,hippopotamus1 #abh ,history1 #hj ,homodes1 #ih ,host1 elevation of the1 #ff ,hottentots1 #fh ,human kingdom1 #aj ,humanitarian considerations1 #gc ,hybridity1 #ie ,iconography1 #adh ,ilotes1 #hd ,index1 the congregation of the1 #f ,individual-element1 #abd ,intelligence of man1 #ab ,japanese1 #e ,jesus1 #fd ,jews1 #gj1 #hi ,korn1 #a1 #ada ,labrador1 #aja ,language1 #cj1 #cc1 #adb1 #ade ,leucous1 #ea ,lima1 #aje ,linear series1 #aj ,lions1 #abh ,man and brute1 #ah ,marsh fever1 #ei ,material substance1 #ab ,mathesiological order of science1 #b ,mechanical theory of mind1 #bf ,medival science1 #a ,medium1 action of1 #hb ,melanesians1 #eg ,melanocomous1 #ea ,monkey-countenance1 #ef ,monkey-people1 #ah ,monogenists1 #c1 #hj ,monotheism1 #ff ,moral sense1 #bc ,mosaic statement1 #aad1 #ada ,namaquas1 #fh ,natural selection1 #aai ,negroes1 #e1 #ci1 #dd1 #dh1 #eb1 #ec1 #ed1 #eh1 #ei1 #fj1 #fc1 #fd1 #hf1 #adg ,neo-,platonists1 the1 #b ,new ,guinea1 #dj ,nicaragua1 #ajf ,niger1 #ei ,nile1 #fh ,nile-boats1 #ci ,noah's curse1 #ej ,norma verticalis1 #acf ,normans1 #aja1 #ajb ,nubians1 #ci1 #aja1 #adg ,official science1 #aac ,orang-outang1 #ai1 #bj1 #bb1 #bd1 #da ,orthodox ethnology1 #e ,orthognathi1 #de ,othello1 #fc ,palontology1 #aca ,pali1 #ade ,pandora1 #acc ,pathological varieties1 #dc1 #eh ,pelvis1 form of1 #df ,penis1 #ed ,peruvians1 #ee ,phidias1 #e ,physiological varieties1 #dc ,polygenists1 #c ,praxiteles1 #e ,prepuce1 #ed ,prognathi1 #de ,prometheus1 #acc ,protozoa1 #aaa ,psychology1 comparative1 #bd1 #cf ,races1 #fe ,reason and faith1 #bc 8,records of ,creation10 #cg ,religious dogmas1 #i1 #fe1 #fg1 #he ,reproduction by eggs1 #aaa ,runion1 ,isle of1 #hh ,revealed religion1 #b 0 0 relations with science1 #d ,revolution1 #abb ,riff1 #hi ,rosin-makers of the ,landes1 #ci ,scandinavian antiquities1 #dh ,scriptures1 the ,holy1 #a ,selection1 natural1 #aah ,self-consciousness1 #bh ,semitic race1 #a1 #ec1 #fe1 #ge1 #hi1 #adc ,sidereal kingdom1 #aa ,sierra ,leone1 #da1 #ic ,silurians1 #ajc ,slaves1 #hd ,soudan1 #de1 #fa ,soul in animals1 #be ,south ,africa1 #gh ,spaniards1 #dg ,species1 definition of1 #ajh ,speech1 #cj ,sperma1 #ec ,spontaneous generation1 #aaj1 #abc ,squatting attitude1 #eg ,stags1 #he ,stirrup leather1 #ci ,struggle for existence1 #ajb ,sumatran animal1 #ba ,sunburn1 #ia ,tartars1 #dg1 #ed ,thomas1 ,st41 #fi ,toe1 great1 #ci1 #db ,truth1 the reign of1 #i1 #bc ,tun1 an orang-outang1 #bj ,turk1 #adg ,type1 #ii ,valmki1 poem of1 #dj ,vanikoro1 #di ,variability of species1 #aae ,vera ,cruz1 #fa ,vertebrate kingdom1 #abe ,vital competition1 #abh ,voice in animals1 #cd ,vulcan1 #acc ,wild man of the woods1 #ad ,woolly hair1 #ea ,xanthus1 #ea ,yellow ,fever1 #id ,zambos1 #aje ,zoology1 #fe1 #he1 #aji ,,index ,,of ,,authors4 ,about1 #fc ,agassiz1 #aac ,albin1 #dd ,albinus1 #hf ,apollonius1 #ce ,appleyard1 #gi ,aristotle1 #b1 #bh1 #cg1 #ec ,arnold1 #ei1 #id ,baeck1 #dd ,bancroft1 #fj ,barrire1 #dd ,bartlett1 #ei ,barton1 #id ,bayle1 #d1 #bh ,beavan1 #ei1 #hh ,brard1 #bj1 #de1 #df1 #ej ,bert1 #aa ,bertillon1 #e1 #fh ,bertrand de ,saint-,germain1 #abj ,biot1 #f ,blainville1 #cg1 #ch1 #da1 #aji1 #ace ,blair1 #fj1 #ic ,blake1 ,carter1 #eg1 #fe1 #he1 #aaj ,blumenbach1 #c1 #ij1 #ih ,bonaparte1 #ch1 #db ,bonnet1 #ae1 #cg ,bonpland1 #f ,bont1 #hd ,bory de ,saint-,vincent1 #ag1 #ci1 #ej1 #hh ,bossuet1 #ab ,boudin1 #eh ,bourdet1 #c1 #hh1 #ia1 #ig ,brayley1 #g ,brecher1 #gj ,broca1 #c1 #ce1 #dh1 #aaj1 #acg ,brunet1 #fd ,bryant1 #fj ,brydone1 #abb ,bchner1 #ff ,buffon1 #ba1 #bh1 #ajb1 #aaa1 #aac ,bunsen1 #aa1 #add ,burnouf1 #cj1 #eb ,busk1 #acg ,cabanis1 #ha1 #ajf ,caldwell1 #adj ,cameron1 #ei ,camper1 #df1 #acd1 #acf ,carus1 #ej1 #fc ,charles ,,iv1 #f ,charnock1 #gg ,chave1 #gg1 #adb ,chevreul1 #h1 #bc1 #ce ,chrysostom1 ,saint1 #be ,cohen1 #gf ,collingwood1 #ff1 #ia ,cook1 #ef ,coombes1 #gg ,copernicus1 #f ,corard1 #eg ,courtet de l',isle1 #ad1 #ajj ,crawfurd1 #dj1 #eb ,crocius1 #bf ,crull1 #acf ,cull1 #ajd ,cuvier1 ,frederic1 #be1 #bh1 #ch1 #da1 #db ,cuvier1 ,g41 #ch1 #da1 #db1 #hb1 #hc1 #aji1 #aab ,dally1 #hh ,darwin1 #aaj1 #aae1 #aah1 #abf ,davis1 #ib ,davy1 #dh ,d',eichthal1 #ed1 #fb ,descartes1 #d1 #ab1 #bf ,d',escayrac de ,lauture1 #ge1 #add ,de ,maillet1 #fc ,desmoulins1 #ae ,dickinson1 #id ,dickson1 #id ,didot1 #aaa ,doornick1 #acf ,d',orbigny1 #gd1 #gg ,durer1 #dh ,earl1 #eb ,edwards1 #hi1 #ii1 #ajj1 #adj1 #adc ,ehrenberg1 #ai ,epianus1 #g ,epp1 #ei ,fauche1 #dj ,fe1 #aaj ,fenner1 #fj ,ferguson1 #id ,fleury1 #e ,flourens1 #bj1 #bg1 #bh1 #cj1 #cg1 #dd1 #ih1 #ajg1 #aae1 #adb1 #ade ,galen1 #ac ,galileo1 #c1 #f ,garnot1 #af1 #ajd ,gnbrard1 #ga ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire1 ,barthlemy1 #ga1 #ig ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire1 tienne1 #d1 #ag1 #bj1 #bg1 #ch1 #ci1 #aji1 #aad1 #acb1 #adf ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire1 ,isidore1 #aa1 #ab1 #bj1 #cd1 #ch1 #ci1 #gi1 #ha1 #hc1 #hd1 #hg1 #ie1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aac ,gricault1 #ef ,geulinx1 #bg ,gibson1 #cd ,gliddon1 #fc ,gobineau1 #c1 #fc1 #aje ,godron1 #aaj ,grandsagne1 #dh ,grant1 #bj1 #bd ,gratiolet1 #cj ,gray1 #ff ,grimm1 #cj ,gros1 #bg ,guillain1 #db ,hale1 #af ,haller1 #ef ,hanneman1 #ej ,harris1 #di ,hasskarl1 #ff ,herder1 #cj ,herrera1 #fj ,herschop1 #adi ,heymann1 #ei ,hippocrates1 #ha ,hirsch1 #ei1 #fj1 #ic ,holsteinius1 #bf ,huber1 #cc ,humboldt1 #f1 #ai1 #ee1 #eg1 #ff1 #gg1 #hd1 #add ,hunt1 #fc1 #gg ,hunter1 #ei1 #ij ,huxley1 #ci ,jackson1 #fj ,jacquinot1 #ec1 #ig ,jobin1 #ei ,josephus1 #gj ,joulin1 #df ,jouvencel1 #e ,julius ,csar1 #ajc ,kaempfer1 #e1 #f ,karr1 #g ,king1 #f ,kirchoff1 #aa ,klemnius1 #bg ,kluegel1 #dd ,knox1 #dc1 #ed1 #ha1 #ajj ,lallemand1 #id ,lamarck1 #aab1 #aae ,lartet1 #aba ,latham1 #ff1 #gh1 #aja1 #ajd1 #adb ,laugenhert1 #bg ,lawrence1 #de1 #dh ,le ,cat1 #dd1 #ef ,leibnitz1 #ae1 #cg1 #abj ,leighton1 #fh ,lepsius1 #ej ,lesseps1 #fh ,lesson and ,garnot1 #af1 #bj1 #be ,linnus1 #cg1 #da1 #fd1 #ajb1 #aji ,livingstone1 #fh ,longfellow1 #aea ,maire1 #bf1 #bh ,malte-,brun1 #ei ,martius1 #gd ,maupertuis1 #bj1 #bi1 #cd ,maury1 #bb1 #df1 #di ,mc,cabe1 #ei ,meckel1 #dd ,meigs1 #acg ,mercurius ,trismegistus1 #cf ,michelet1 #abf1 #ada ,mitchell1 #dd1 #hf ,montagne1 #ac ,morel1 #gd1 #gi1 #ha1 #ij1 #ig1 #ajj1 #ajf ,morton1 #gf1 #aaj1 #acd1 #acg1 #ach ,mulders1 #acf ,mller1 #gg ,newton1 #gf ,niebuhr1 #gc1 #hi ,nott1 #ej1 #fj1 #ig1 #aaj ,omalius ,d',halloy1 #adc ,o',rourke1 #ag ,owen1 #bj1 #cf1 #ch1 #db1 #ace ,palissy1 #acg ,pallas1 #dh1 #ed ,pardies1 #cb ,parker1 #ff ,pereira1 #bf ,prier1 #hg1 #ih1 #ajd ,philips1 #ajd ,piddington1 #ag1 #ah ,plato1 #d1 #bb1 #abb ,plutarch1 #aaa ,polybius1 #ha ,porphyrius1 #bf ,pouchet1 #ej1 #abc ,prichard1 #c1 #ea1 #gh1 #ajj1 #abi1 #acd1 #adb ,proudhon1 #e1 #h1 #bd ,prout1 #aad ,pruner-,bey1 #ej1 #ea ,pucheran1 #h ,pyrard1 #da ,pythagoras1 #bf ,quatrefages1 #a1 #d1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #ag1 #bj1 #bc1 #bg ,quekett1 #acg ,quoy and ,gaimard1 #ag1 #di ,rechtenbach1 #be ,remusat1 #fe ,renan1 #cb1 #fd1 #fe1 #gf1 #gh1 #adc ,robertson1 #ce ,robin1 #bj1 #ef1 #hd ,romay1 #id ,ross1 #ag1 #ah1 #ec1 #ed1 #fi1 #ge ,roulin1 #cd ,schlegel1 #gc ,schmidt1 #ff ,schnurrer1 #eh ,schomburgk1 #id ,serres1 #f1 #h1 #ed1 #fb ,servetus1 #a ,shoutten1 #da ,smith1 ,hamilton1 #d1 #ea1 #ec ,smmering1 #dd1 #df1 #ef ,speke1 #fb ,squier1 #aje ,stahl1 #bg ,steinthal1 #ca1 #cb ,strabo1 #ajc ,strope1 #aci ,sumner1 #cg ,tacitus1 #ajc ,thomas1 ,saint1 #fi ,thomson1 #ei ,thurnam1 #ajd ,tidyman1 #ei ,tiedemann1 #dc ,toussenel1 #cc ,townsend1 #ic ,trail1 #ai ,tschudi1 #ei1 #aje ,verneuil1 #hd ,vitruvius1 #ha ,vivien1 #adj1 #add ,voltaire1 #g ,vrolik1 #df ,wagner1 #dd1 #ajf ,waitz1 #i ,warren1 #ig ,weber1 #df ,white1 #df1 #gi1 #hh ,whitebourne1 #fi ,wied1 #hh ,wilkes1 #ag ,wilson1 #dh ,wise1 #ib ,yvan1 #bj1 #hg ,zimpel1 #id ,zobrega1 #fi4 ,,errata4 ,page #abb1 line #aa from bottom1 for 8,atalantis0 read 8,atlantis40 ,transcriber's note3 ,footnote #cab has been corrected4 0 #ace1 bottom line1 for 8,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 #aheg10 read 8,journal of ,linnean ,society1 #aheg40 ,transcriber's note3 ,footnote #cbi has been corrected4 ,t4 ,,richards1 #cg1 ,,great ,,queen ,,street4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,we must here inform the reader1 once for all1 that we shall use1 until we say anything to the contrary1 the word 8race10 to designate the different natural groups of the human genus 7genus ,homo74 ,we intend definitely to prove that these groups constitute veritable species4 ,m4 de ,quatrefages has on this matter reproached us with a confusion1 which is accounted for partly by the incorrectness of his quotation4 ,he makes us say1 8,the plurality of original races1 otherwise the plurality of the species1 of the genus #8man'0 7,unit de l',espce ,humaine1 #ahfa1 p4 #cji74 ,it stands as follows in our own text3 8,the original plurality of races1 otherwise the plurality of the species composing the genus #8man1'0 etc4 ,it is evident that the confusion which is found in these words is entirely voluntary4 #b ,one day1 ,i was talking with one of the principal officers of ,mehemet-,sad1 at ,korosko1 in ,nubia1 about the earthquake which was felt in ,lower ,egypt on the #abth of ,october1 #ahef4 ,he asked me the cause of this phenomenon4 ,i attempted an explanation suited to the understanding of a man who was without the slightest knowledge of this part of scientific information4 ,he replied by telling me the history of the cow who throws the earth from one horn to the other1 saying1 that this was written1 and therefore1 such a belief ought to suffice him4 ,with this opinion may be compared the doctrine of the ,muyscas or ,chibchas of ,new ,granada1 who consider that the earth is supported by ,chibchacum1 their deity1 on pillars of guiacum-wood1 and that earthquakes are produced by his shifting the burden from one shoulder to the other4--,,editor4 #c ,it is only necessary1 in order to be sure of this fact1 to glance over the ,bulletins de la ,socit d',anthropologie1 the creation of which is due above all to the indefatigable zeal of a partisan of the doctrines which we defend--to ,m4 ,p4 ,broca4 #d ,anthropology is not the only branch in modern science which opens new paths to the human mind3 see ,michelet1 ,l',insecte1 p4 #ajf2 see also ,bourdet1 ,trait d'ducation positive1 #ahfc4 #e ,this name has been definitely adopted in ,france in preference to that of 8,unitarians0 7,unitaires71 used by ,m4 de ,gobineau4 #f 8,all monogenists10 we said in the first edition of this book4 ,m4 de ,quatrefages has exclaimed loudly against these words 7,unit de l',espce ,humaine1 #ahfa1 p4 #bii71 and in the same passage has shown himself an open enemy to all mingling of religion in the domain of science4 ,we are too glad of this declaration not to recall it in this place4 ,we should be sorry not to be able always to agree in these pages with the masters of science1--with those1 indeed1 who have been our own4 ,we have been led to touch on several questions already treated of by them1 by following another path1--by looking at facts from another point of view2 therefore1 there are some differences of opinion4 ,our excuse lies in the universal right of free inquiry2 for the rest1 we shall always name the persons with whom we think we do not agree4 8,not to do so10 as ,bayle said1 8is in some measure an excess of ceremony prejudicial to the liberty which we ought to enjoy in the republic of letters2 it is to introduce therein works of supererogation4 ,it should be always allowable to name those whom we disprove2 this is sufficient to prevent a bitter1 injurious1 or dishonest spirit40--,dictionnaire ,philosophique1 art4 ,pereira1 note ,d4 #g 4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire has not1 however1 been able to free himself completely from the unhappy influences which we endeavour to oppose4 ,see ,comptes rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 vol4 iv1 p4 #gh4 #h 8,it is too evident10 says a modern philosopher1 8that in the eyes of science1 which1 reasoning about discoveries1 makes a rule to admit nothing as a theory which cannot be proved by experience1 the agreement of faith with reason is a chimera3 to speak more exactly1 such a problem does not exist4 ,the conditions of science are the observation of facts1--not of facts exceptionally produced1 seen by chance1 noted by privileged witnesses1 and unable to be reproduced at will2 but constant facts1 placed under one's hand for observation1 and always able to be verified4 ,we must consider that religion can in no way submit to such exigencies1 and that the faith which it proclaims must be1 in this light1 radically inconsistent40--,p4 ,j4 ,proudhon1 ,de la ,justice1 vol4 ii1 p4 #cji4 ,see also on this subject1 ,l4 ,fleury1 ,le ,progrs1 #aheh1 ,no4 #d1 p4 #ib4 ,de ,jouvencel1 ,bulletins de la ,socit d',anthropologie1 ,may #b1 #ahfa4 #i ,see ,bertillon1 ,bulletins de la ,socit d',anthropologie1 ,june #ah1 #ahfc4 #aj ,the ,natural ,history of the ,human ,species1 #ahdh1 p4 #dj4 #aa ,kaempfer1 ,histoire ,naturelle1 etc41 du ,japon1 ,lahaye1 #agbi1 vol4 i1 p4 #ge4 #ab ,marcel de ,serres1 ,de l',unit de l',espce ,humaine3 ,bib4 ,univ4 de ,genve1 new series1 vol4 liv1 #ahdd1 p4 #ade4 #ac 8,the doctrine attributed to ,copernicus10 said the declaration made by the ,pope1 and published by the ,holy ,office1 8that the earth moves round the sun1 and that the sun remains motionless in the centre of the world without moving either to the east or to the west1 is contrary to ,holy ,scripture1 and consequently1 can neither be professed nor defended40--,biot1 ,la vrit sur le ,procs de ,galile1 in the ,journal des ,savants1 ,july #aheh1 p4 #dja4 #ad ,essai ,politique sur la ,nouvelle ,espagne1 vol4 ii1 p4 #gi4 #ae ,essai sur les ,murs3 ,introd41 #b4 #af ,there is an idea of adding to the ,linnean ,society a new section of ,anthropology4--,see 8,letter from ,e4 ,w4 ,brayley10 ,medical ,times and ,gazette1 p4 #dia1 ,may #aj1 #ahfb4 #ag ,alphonse ,karr was the first who proposed to substitute the name of 8searcher0 7chercheur7 for that of 8learned man0 7savant74--,nouvelles ,gupes1 ,february #ahei4 #ah ,see1 for example1 ,pucheran1 ,considrations ,anatomiques sur les ,formes de la tte osseuse4--,paris1 #ahda 7,thesis74 #ai ,m4 de ,serres1 in his ,lectures on ,anthropology1 at the ,jardin des ,plantes4 #bj ,p4 ,j4 ,proudhon has said1 in another arrangement of facts depending on social science1 8,revolution is not atheistical2 it does not deny the absolute1 it removes it altogether0 7,de la ,justice1 vol4 ii1 p4 #cja74 ,see1 for fuller development of our ideas on this subject1 the ,progrs of the #bjth of ,may1 #ahei1 article on ,science et ,religion4 #ba ,discours sur le ,mthode4 #bb ,lettres ,m4 ,villemain sur la ,mthode1 ,paris1 #ahef1 p4 #c4 #bc ,see these ideas categorically explained1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bha4 #bd ,m4 de ,quatrefages admits a sidereal kingdom2 and such a thesis seems to us a very difficult one to sustain1 after the experiments of ,bunsen and ,kirchoff on the chemical composition of the stars4 ,m4 de ,quatrefages admits also a human kingdom2 but admitting that animals think1 he makes morality and religion characteristics of this kingdom4 ,unit de l',espce ,humaine1 #ahfa1 p4 #cj4 ,we shall have occasion to revert again to these two points4 ,see ,bert41 ,bulletins de la ,socit d',anthropologie1 ,august #g1 #ahfb4 #be ,see ,is4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 ,histoire ,naturelle ,gnrale des rgnes organiques1 vol4 ii1 p4 #beb4 #bf ,certain essential oils1 like those of coffee1 tea1 or hemp4 #bg ,alcoholic liquors4 #bh ,narcotics4 #bi 8,if ,i am not mistaken10 says ,m4 de ,quatrefages1 8there is in this result1 independently of the scientific consequences which may proceed from it1 a something which responds to our most noble aspirations4 ,man confers upon himself dominion of his own will2 he loves to proclaim himself legitimate sovereign of all things on the surface of this globe2 and1 in fact1 no creature will dare to dispute with him an empire which1 day by day1 extends and increases4 ,well6 is it not satisfactory to behold anthropological characteristics sanction and ennoble this empire by placing by the side of the right1 which springs from intellectual superiority1 the notion of duty1 which arises from morality and religion80 7,unit de l',espce ,humaine1 p4 #cc47 #cj ,courtet de l',isle has already made this remark4 7,tableau ,ethnographique du ,genre ,humain1 #ahdi1 p4 #h47 #ca ,see the ,voyage de l',isabelle2 also ,desmoulins1 ,histoire ,naturelle des ,races ,humaines1 #ahbf1 p4 #bgf4 #cb ,cirripeds1 tortoises1 ornithodelphi1 and generally speaking1 the extreme representatives of the divisions of each natural classification4 #cc ,mmoire sur les ,tasmaniens1 sur les ,alfourous1 et sur les ,australiens1 in the ,annales des ,sciences ,naturelles1 #ahbg1 vol4 x1 p4 #aee4 #cd ,hale1 ,natives of ,australia1 etc4 ,see ,american ,journal of ,science1 second series1 vol4 i1 p4 #cjb1 ,may #ahdf2 extract from the account of ,c4 ,wilkes' ,expedition3 ,narrative of the ,u4 ,s4 ,exploring ,expedition during the years #ahch-ahdb1 vol4 vi1 8,ethnography and ,philology40 #ce ,voyage de l',astrolabe3 ,zoologie1 vol4 i1 p4 #dc4 #cf ,even after the assertions of ,m4 de ,quatrefages in the ,unit des ,races ,humaines1 p4 #afb1 and following1 we have not thought ourselves justified in changing our opinions on the subject of the ,australians1 which have lately been confirmed at the ,anthropological ,society2 a ,mr4 ,o',rourke1 an eyewitness1 having answered ,m4 de ,quatrefages 7,bulletins de la ,socit d',anthropologie1 #ba ,june1 #ahfj74 #cg ,j4 ,ross1 ,narrative of a ,second ,voyage1 etc41 #ahce1 p4 #ddh4 #ch ,j4 ,ross1 ,narrative of a ,second ,voyage1 p4 #dij4 #ci ,see tienne ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 ,comptes ,rendus1 vol4 v1 p4 #db4 ,we should very much like to know at what period our author imagines this to have been the case1 and whether he considers that these apes were the 8men of the day40--,,editor4 #dj 8,memorandum on an ,unknown ,forest ,race10 etc41 ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 #ahee1 vol4 xxiv1 p4 #bjg4 #da ,m4 ,ehrenberg1 speaking one day of the unknown centre of ,africa1 said to us1 8that it might not be impossible to find there men so different from us that we ought to make of them1 willingly or unwillingly1 a special group40 ,i quote these words in no way with the design of presuming that there is such an order of beings2 but in order to show that the father of the naturalists of ,europe1 the friend of ,humboldt1 believes in something else than the unity of the human species1 because he admits that a generic plurality is possible4 #db ,r4 ,owen1 ,on the ,characters of the ,class ,mammalia1 #aheg1 p4 #bj1 note4 ,the illustrious savant has himself treated on this subject1 ex professo1 in the catalogue of the collection in the ,college of ,surgeons4 #dc 8,the orang-outang is capable of a kind of laugh when pleasantly excited10 ,j4 ,grant1 8,account of the ,structure of an ,orang-,outang0 7,edinburgh ,journal of ,science1 vol4 ix1 #ahbh74 #dd ,artificial love itself1 with all the complexity of ideas which it is supposed must thence arise1 is not1 as one may think1 the debauchery of civilisation2 it belongs to animals akin to man as well as to man himself4 ,see ,ch4 ,robin and ,braud1 ,prcis de la ,physiologie de l',homme1 vol4 ii1 p4 #chd4 ,it is the same with impure connection1 or coupling1 radically inexplicable by instinct4 ,see ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 ,histoire ,naturelle ,gnrale des ,rgnes ,organiques1 vol4 iii1 p4 #adb4 #de ,doctor ,yvan commanded the ,archimedes2 he has written an account of his voyage3 ,voyages et ,rcits1 ,brussels1 #ahec1 #b vols4 in #abmo4 #df 8,the ,australians only wear woollen clothing in order to protect the chest2 444 no idea of shame has ever led them to hide the natural parts40 ,lesson et ,garnot1 ,annales des ,sciences ,naturelles1 #ahbg1 vol4 x4 #dg ,the orang observed by ,j4 ,grant also showed these signs of desperation2 8he poured it 7a saucer7 angrily out on the floor1 whined in a peculiar manner1 and threw himself passionately on his back on the ground1 striking his breast and paunch with his palms1 and giving a kind of reiterated croak40--8,account of the ,structure of an ,orang-,outang10 ,edinburgh ,journal of ,science1 vol4 ix1 p4 #aa4 ,the same demonstration of feeling was showed by the orangs in the ,zoological ,gardens1 ,may #ahfd4--;,,editor4 #dh ,tagal1 a chief town of ,java4--,,editor4 #di ,comptes ,rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ehb4 #ej ,essai ,philosophique sur l'me des btes1 #agbh1 p4 #acb4 #ea ,guenon1 the ,simia nasalis of ,buffon4--,,editor4 #eb ,plato1 ,leges1 x1 #a4 ,see ,maury1 ,religions1 vol4 iii1 p4 #d1 note #b4 #ec ,after having said that the idea of good and evil 7moralit7 exists among all men1 ,m4 de ,quatrefages adds1 that 8the notion of the ,divinity and that of another life are also generally diffused0 7,unit de l',espce ,humaine1 p4 #bc74 ,we shall demonstrate further on 7chap4 v7 that this statement is incorrect1 and how fragile the bases are upon which ,m4 de ,quatrefages rests the fundamental characteristics which1 according to him1 distinguish the human kingdom4 #ed ,m4 ,chevreul has already defined the 8,beautiful0 as 8the expression of causes whose influence has most force in moving mankind by appealing to their senses0 7,lettres ,m4 ,villemain sur la ,mthode1 #ahef1 p4 #afi74 #ee 8,truth lies at the bottom of a well10 is an old saying1 but our author does not seem to agree with it4 ,we should be very sorry to think that truth was only to be found in science4 ,this is1 doubtless1 the opinion of a great many learned men at the present day2 but we must candidly own we do not agree with it1 and certainly are not able to endorse ,m4 ,pouchet's sentiment4 ,we have ourselves not arrived at the point1 and in this we are1 doubtless1 old-fashioned1--of referring everything to 8reason10 as opposed to faith4--,,editor4 #ef ,edinburgh ,journal of ,science1 #ahbh1 vol4 ix1 p4 #aj4 #eg ,comptes ,rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 vol4 iii1 p4 #bi4 #eh ,we can compare this passage from the naturalist philosopher with the other quotations we made farther back4 8,females are extremely curious about this spectacle 7the fondness of a 8mother0 monkey for her young one71 and doubtless their attention is caused by discovering therein a true manifestation of the feelings they have themselves experienced as mothers2 they are1 above all things1 astonished to recognise in these ardent attentions the joy and pride of maternity1 of which they believed themselves alone to be susceptible40 74 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 ,cours d',histoire ,naturelle des ,mammifres1 ,paris1 #ahbi1 vol4 i2 ,lesson1 vi1 p4 #af74 #ei ,proudhon has already laid down as a principle the establishment of a psychology among animals 7,de la ,justice1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bgi74 ,frederick ,cuvier has done the same4 #fj ,hom4 iv in ,acta ,apostolorum4 ,see ,rechtenbach1 ,de ,sermone ,brutorum1 ,erfurt1 #agjf1 p4 #a4 #fa ,sometimes this restraint is openly avowed2 and we see ,m4 ,maire1 who is also engaged upon the same questions1 admit that1 without these influences1 he would embrace the same ideas that we are endeavouring to bring forward4 8,let us frankly avow10 he says1 8if we had not continually before our minds the doctrines of a religion which we respect1--if we had not a sincere faith1 this intuitive belief which tells us we must make a mistake1--we should dare to write thus4 ,the more the organisation of the animal is perfected1 the more the spiritual element produced by the action of the various functions is itself perfected4444 ,there would then be only a hierarchical gradation of one and the same principle4 ,the psychical fluid would be always the same in all individuals4 ,the difference in its manifestations would refer to the difference in the organisations which produce them0 7,socit ,havraise d',etudes ,diverses1 p4 #afi1 #ahee-ahef74 #fb ,we cannot exactly see why it must necessarily have been offensive to ,christianity4 ,there is nothing injurious to religion in the theory of intellectual gradation4--,,editor4 #fc ,jam vero nobis ostendendum est eam 7bestia7 habere rationem internam et intus conceptam4 ,videtur sane a nostra differre1 non essentia sed gradu4 ,uti nonnulli existimant ,deorum a nostra discrepare rationem1 non differentia essentiali1 sed quod illorum magis1 nostra minus sit accurata4 ,et quidem quod ad sensum attinet et reliquam1 tum instrumentorum sensus1 tum carnis univers1 conformationem attinet1 eam eodem nobiscum modo se habere in animalibus1 ab omnibus fere conceditur4--,porphyrius1 transl4 by ,holsteinius1 ,de ,abstinenti1 #afee1 p4 #ajh4 ,is not unity of composition here conjectured1 both for the intellect and the body8 #fd ,disquisitio de ,anim ,brutorum1 ,brem1 #afgf4 #fe ,logic ,brutorum1 ,hamburg1 #afig4 ,this little treatise1 in spite of the extreme ideas of its author1 is not the less precious4 ,j4 ,stahl was one of those wells of learning which ,germany has so often produced4 ,there is1 perhaps1 not one passage in the old authors who wrote on this point to which he has not referred in his work4 #ff ,see1 among others1 ,s4 ,gros1 ,de ,anim ,brutorum1 ,wittemberg1 #afhj2 ,klemnius1 ,de ,anim ,brutorum1 ,vittembergi1 #agjd4 #fg ,upon this point1 ,m4 de ,quatrefages agrees with ,m4 ,flourens2 but the distinction which he endeavours to establish1 being based upon morality and religion1 seems to us much more restricted and much less clear4 ,not being able to answer everybody1 we have been obliged to attend merely to the opinions of that partisan of the human kingdom who gives to animals the largest portion of it4 #fh ,proudhon says1 in language which is even more concise and affirmative1 8,in man1 the mind knows itself2 whilst elsewhere it seems to us that it does not do so0 7,systme des ,contradictions conomiques1 vol4 i1 #ahej1 p4 #bj74 #fi ,annales du ,musum d',histoire ,naturelle1 vol4 xvi1 p4 #eh4 #gj ,maire1 ,socit ,havraise d',etudes ,diverses1 #ahee-ahef4 #ga ,unit de l',espce ,humaine1 #ahfa1 p4 #bd4 #gb ,maire1 ,socit ,havraise d',etudes ,diverses1 #ahee-ahef4 ,we can make the same comparison with a passage almost similar from ,maupertuis1 ,essai ,philosophique sur l'me des ,btes1 #agbh1 p4 #acd4 #gc ,essai ,philosophique sur l'me des ,btes1 #agbh1 p4 #ie4 #gd ,see 4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 ,comptes ,rendus des ,sances de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 vol4 iv1 p4 #bfa4 #ge ,see ,flourens1 ,histoire des ,travaux de ,buffon1 #ahdd1 p4 #ace4 ,descartes made use of the absence of speech in animals as a strong argument against them4 #gf ,see ,gratiolet1 ,bulletins de la ,soc4 d',anthropologie de ,paris1 #ah ,april1 #ahfa4 #gg ,see ,j4 ,grimm1 ,de l',origine du ,langage1 transl41 #ahei1 p4 #ec4 #gh ,trait de l',origine du ,langage1 ,engl4 transl41 #ahbg1 p4 #f4 #gi ,de l',origine du ,langage1 transl41 #ahei4 #hj ,de l',origine du ,langage1 #bnd edit41 #aheh4 #ha ,it is by tracing1 according to custom1 effects to their causes1 that the ,buddhist philosophy arrives at the principles of joint responsibility1 which1 according to it1 unites reason to language1 making them mutually flow one from the other4 8,name and form have as a cause1 intellect1 and intellect has for a cause1 name and form40--,see ,burnouf1 ,le ,lotus de la bonne loi1 p4 #eej4 ,mercurius ,trismegistus1 in the ,pimander 7,pimander1 ,de sapienti et potestate ,dei71 says almost the same thing3 8,speech is the sister of intellect2 intellect is the sister of language40 ,see ,rechtenbach1 ,de ,sermone ,brutorum1 #agjf1 p4 #b4 #hb ,see ,de l',origine du ,langage1 transl41 #ahei4 #hc ,de l',origine du ,langage1 #aheh1 p4 #ca4 #hd ,see ,jacob ,grimm1 ,de l',origine du ,langage1 transl41 #ahei1 p4 #bi4 #he ,father ,pardies 7,s4 ,j471 in a work1 otherwise of no great value1 ,discours de la ,connaissance des ,btes1 #afgb1 p4 #ci4 #hf ,recherches sur les murs de fourmis indignes1 ,genve1 #ahaj4 #hg ,we refer our readers for all these questions to the remarkable works of ,m4 ,toussenel4 #hh ,essai ,philosophique sur l'me des ,btes1 #agbh1 p4 #bag4 #hi ,it may be seen1 in analysing these two simple facts1 that they lead us to admit the existence of a notion of duty among animals1 although1 perhaps1 an obscure one3--they know that they ought to act as they are doing from fear of a whipping1 and this is an operation of the mind which no one1 we think1 will deny to be complex in its nature1 and purely intellectual4 #ij ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 ,histoire ,naturelle ,gnrale1 vol4 iii1 #ahfj1 p4 #aad4 ,m4 ,roulin has remarked1 that there is something analogous in this as regards the cat1 which loses1 in the savage state1 those troublesome mewings which we hear so often during the night from the ,european race4--,mmoires du ,musum d',histoire ,naturelle1 vol4 xvii4 #ia ,it is because there is a sort of capability for education in the animal1 and indeed in the whole of his race1 placed under certain circumstances2 it is because1 on the other hand1 we refuse to certain human races the 8initiative in progress10 7see ,broca1 ,bulletins de la ,socit d',anthropologie1 ,may #bd and ,june #ba1 #ahfj71 that we cannot accept the 8class man0 of ,m4 ,chevreul1 preceding the 8class mammalia10 and having1 as a characteristic1 the capability of perfection in the individual1 and in the association of individuals4--,see ,expos d'un moyen de ,dfinir et de ,nommer les ,couleurs1 #ahe4 7,mmoires de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 vol4 xxxiii1 #ahfa47 #ib ,see ,dr4 ,gibson1 ,amer4 ,assoc4 7compare ,ami des ,sciences1 #bi ,august1 #aheh47 #ic ,it would be a curious study1 for instance1 to find out if certain noises1--certain sounds which have no signification to our ears1 do not produce1 among some animals1 clearly determined impressions1 having their first origin in these animals themselves1 or in their mutual relations1 the education we give them going for nothing in this sort of evidence4 #id ,the ,rev4 ,f4 ,w4 ,robertson 7who died some years ago71 states some opinions in his published sermons which show he was almost before his time in his ideas concerning animals4 ,he says1 in comparing them with mankind1 8,there is the same external form1 the same material in the blood-vessels1 in the nerves1 and in the muscular system4 ,nay1 more than that1 our appetites and instincts are alike1 our lower pleasures like their lower pleasures1 our lower pain like their lower pain2 our life is supported by the same means1 and our animal functions are almost indistinguishably the same40 ,sermons1 #crd series1 #aheg 7preached in #ahej71 p4 #di4 8,it is the law of being1 that in proportion as you rise from lower to higher life1 the parts are more distinctly developed1 while yet the unity becomes more entire4 ,you find1 for example1 in the lowest forms of animal life1 one organ performs several functions2 one organ being1 at the same time1 heart1 and brain1 and blood-vessel4 ,but when you come to man1 you find all these various functions existing in different organs1 and every organ more distinctly developed2 and yet the unity of a man is a higher unity than that of a limpet40 7,sermons1 p4 #eg47--;,,editor4 #ie ,a ,treatise on the ,records of the ,creation1 by ,j4 ,bird ,sumner1 ,lord ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 #fth edit41 #hvo1 ,london1 #ahej4 #if ,nullum characterem hactenus eruere potui1 unde homo a simia internoscatur4--,linnus1 ,fauna ,suecica3 prfatio4 #ig ,owen1 ,on the ,characters of the ,class ,mammalia1 p4 #bj1 note 7,journal of ,proceedings of ,linnean ,society1 #aheg47 #ih ,comptes ,rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 vol4 ii1 p4 #eha4 #ii ,see the magnificent work1 ,sketches of ,central ,africa1 and the portrait of the chief1 ,kanma1 in ,barth's ,travels1 vol4 iii4 #ajj ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 ,hist4 ,naturelle ,gnrale1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #bjj-eae4 #aja ,see ,huxley's ,man's ,place in ,nature1 #hvo1 ,london1 #ahfc2 and the article thereon in the ,edinburgh ,review1 ,april1 #ahfc4--;,,editor4 #ajb ,crawfurd1 ,on the ,negro ,race1 etc4 7,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 #aheb1 p4 #hf47 #ajc ,see the translation of this veritable ,iliad1 by ,m4 ,h4 ,fauche4 ,rmyana1 #aheg4 #ajd ,we are told in the ,voyages de ,franois ,pyrard1 vol4 ii1 p4 #cca1 ,paris1 #afae1 8that in the province of ,sierra ,leone there is a species 7of orang-outang7 so strong limbed and so industrious that1 when properly trained and fed1 they work like servants2 that they generally walk on the two hind feet2 that they pound any substances in a mortar2 that they go and bring water from the river in small pitchers1 which they carry1 full1 on their heads4 ,but when they arrive at the door1 if the pitchers are not soon taken off1 they allow them to fall2 and when they perceive the pitchers overturned and broken they weep and lament40 ,in the ,voyages de ,guat4 ,shoutten aux ,indes ,orientales1 we find nearly the same account of the orang3 8they are taken with snares1 taught to walk on their hind feet1 and to use their fore-feet as hands in performing different operations1 as rinsing glasses1 carrying drink round to the company1 turning a spit10 etc4--,,editor4 #aje ,comptes ,rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 vol4 ii4 ,see1 also1 for the separation of the great toe1 the photographs in the ,voyage la ,cte ,orientale d',afrique1 by ,captain ,guillain4 #ajf ,odontography1 ,london1 #ahdj1 p4 #deb4 ,catalogue of the ,hunterian ,collection1 8,osteology10 vol4 ii1 p4 #hjj4 #ajg ,a character which1 as the ,cuviers and ,owen have pointed out1 man shares with the fossil ,anoplotherium and its allies1 from the ,paris gypsum4--,,editor4 #ajh ,tiedemann1 of ,heidelberg1 wrote to ,knox with reference to the nervous system1 that he had great reason to believe that the natives of ,australia differed in this matter from ,europeans in an extraordinary degree4--,knox1 ,the ,races of ,men1 ,london1 #ahej1 p4 #b4 #aji 8,the physical characteristics which distinguish human races1 one from the other1 are1 perhaps1 the one fact in natural history which has always most struck the imagination of mankind4444 ,historians relate1 that when ,columbus first returned1 ,europeans could not take their eyes off the plants and unknown animals which he had brought with him2 and above all1 the ,indians1 so different from all the races of men they had ever seen40--,flourens1 ,considrations sur l'enseignement de l',histoire ,naturelle de l',homme4 7,annales des ,sciences ,naturelles1 vol4 x1 p4 #ceg47 ,this wonder is renewed every day2 and ,i once knew an intelligent negro who had a very unpleasant remembrance of the ,french provinces1 where he had been the object of a very general and indiscreet curiosity4 #aaj ,the works which followed one another on this subject are due to ,reinhold ,wagner 7#afii71 ,b4 ,s4 ,albin 7#agcg71 ,barrire 7#agdb71 ,mitchell 7#agdd71 ,baeck 7#agdh71 ,meckel 7#agec-ageg71 ,le ,cat 7#agef-agfe71 etc4 ,see ,g4 ,pouchet1 ,des ,colorations de l',epiderme1 #dto1 ,paris1 #ahfd4 #aaa ,the analysis of the anatomical differences in the skeleton has been1 perhaps1 best made by ,brard1 in ,france1 and ,lawrence in ,england2 ,i may refer for the details to these two authors4 ,brard1 ,cours de ,physiologie1 #ahdh1 vol4 i2 ,lawrence1 ,lectures on ,comparative ,anatomy1 #ith edition1 #ahdh4 #aab ,is4 ,geoffroy de ,saint-,hilaire1 8,sur la ,classification ,anthropologique10 ,mm4 de la ,socit d',anthropologie1 #ahfa1 vol4 i1 p4 #abe4 #aac ,compare ,joulin1 ,anatomie et ,physiologie compar du bassin des ,mammifres1 #hvo1 ,paris1 #ahfd2 and ,mmoire sur le bassin considr dans les ,races ,humaines1 #hvo1 ,paris1 #ahfd4--;,,editor4 #aad ,the proportion given by ,camper is this3 the great diameter is to the little1 ,in the ,european 33 #da 3 #bg4 ,in the ,negro 33 #ci 3 #bge4 #aae ,account of the ,regular ,gradation of ,man1 #dto1 ,london1 #agii1 p4 #aah4 #aaf ,cours de ,physiologie1 ,paris1 #ahdh1 vol4 i1 p4 #cid4 ,see1 also1 on the same question1 ,a4 ,maury1 in the ,athnum ,franais1 #ahec1 ,no4 #dg4 #aag ,we cannot entirely agree with the author regarding the low stature of the ,spaniards4 ,from our own observation we may unreservedly say that1 at all events1 the inhabitants of the south and south western parts of ,spain are a fine race1 not at all liable to the charge of being different in height from the ,anglo-,saxons4--,,editor4 #aah ,although our author rather despises the idea of the legs being bowed by riding1 it is tolerably well known in this country that too much riding on horseback1 when young1 and especially on large animals1 is very apt to alter the shape of delicate and weakly limbs4--,,editor4 #aai 8,tribus ,mongoles10 translated by ,s4 ,a4 de ,grandsagne1 in the ,mmoires du ,musum1 vol4 xvii4 #abj ,see ,broca1 ,bulletins de la ,socit d',anthropologie1 #crd ,april1 #ahfb4 #aba ,see ,lawrence1 ,lectures on ,comparative ,anatomy1 ,london1 #ahdh1 p4 #daj4 #abb ,davy1 ,an ,account of the ,interior of ,ceylon1 #ahba1 p4 #aji4 #abc ,see ,daniel ,wilson1 in the ,british ,review1 #ahea2 and in ,stephens1 the description of the ,temple of ,uxmal4 #abd ,see ,bulletins de la ,socit de ,gographie1 #dth series1 vol4 x1 p4 #de4 ,it must not be forgotten that these weapons with a small handle may have been used by those valiant heroines1 whose praises have so often been sung in the songs of the north4 #abe ,presented by ,a4 ,c4 ,harris1 ,esq41 #ahdj4 #abf ,compare the memoir of ,professor ,c4 ,g4 ,carus1 ,ueber die ,typisch geurdenen abbildungen menschlichen kopfformen namentlich auf mnzen in verschiedenen zeiten und volkern1 published in the ,novorum ,actorum ,academi ,csare ,leopoldini-,carolin ,germanic natur curiosum for #ahfc1 in which the author gives characteristic examples of the ancient types1 as deduced from the examination of coins1 etc4 ,compare1 also1 ,nott and ,gliddon1 ,types of ,mankind4--,,editor4 #abg ,see especially ,lepsius1 ,denkmaeler von ,egypten und thiopen1 vol4 ii1 pl4 #acc2 vol4 iii1 pl4 #aaf1 #aag1 #aah1 #acf4 #abh ,brard1 ,cours de ,physiologie1 ,paris1 #ahdh1 vol4 i1 p4 #cid4 #abi ,see ,j4 ,h4 ,hanneman1 ,curiosum ,scrutinium ,nigredinus ,posterorum ,cham1 in #dto1 ,kiloni1 #afgg1 #ad4 #acj ,see ,pruner-,bey1 ,bulletins de la ,socit d',anthropologie1 #eth ,march1 #ahfc4 #aca ,see1 upon this point1 ,g4 ,pouchet1 ,des ,colorations de l',epiderme1 #dto1 ,paris1 #ahfd4 #acb ,bory de ,saint-,vincent divided mankind into ,leucotriques and ,ulotriques 7see ,brard1 ,cours de ,physiologie1 #ahdh1 vol4 i1 p4 #cid74 ,prichard refers all these races to the three following types3--#a4 ,melanocomous2 #b4 ,leucous2 #c4 ,xanthous 7see ,english ,cyclopdia1 art4 8,man074 #acc ,tableau ,synoptique des ,races ,humaines 7,mm4 de la ,socit d',anthropologie1 vol4 i1 p4 #adc74 #acd ,see ,pruner-,bey1 ,de la ,chevelure 7,mm4 de la ,soc4 d',anthrop41 vol4 ii1 p4 #a74 #ace ,see ,smith1 ,the ,natural ,history of the ,human ,species1 p4 #ahi4 #acf ,see ,earl1 quoted by ,crawfurd1 ,on the ,negro ,race1 etc4 7,british ,association1 #aheb1 p4 #hf47 #acg ,compare ,burnouf1 ,le ,lotus de la bonne loi1 p4 #efb4 #ach ,compare1 idem1 ibidem1 p4 #efi4 #aci ,narrative of a ,second ,voyage1 etc41 #ahce1 p4 #dbg4 #adj ,the name given to ,persia by its inhabitants4--,,editor4 #ada ,compare ,the ,natural ,history of the ,human ,species4 #adb ,m4 de ,serres1 in his ,lectures on ,anthropology1 at the ,museum of ,natural ,history4 #adc ,ross1 ,narrative of a ,second ,voyage1 etc41 p4 #ddf4 #add ,this fact is related by ,pallas1 ,mmoires du ,musum1 vol4 xvii1 p4 #bch4 ,a ,kalmuc saw a body of men thirty versts off nearly twenty miles ,english1 while the ,russian general could see nothing even with a telescope4 #ade ,it would be interesting to discover if the fact related by ,knox 7,the ,races of ,men1 #ahej1 p4 #bga7 is true2 namely1 that the sharpness of sight1 which the ,bosjesmans possess in a very high degree1 is lost immediately on crossing the breed with the whites4 #adf ,le ,cat1 ,trait des ,sens1 #agdd2 ,haller1 ,elementa ,physiologi1 vol4 v1 p4 #agi2 ,humboldt1 ,relation ,personnelle1 vol4 iii1 p4 #bbi4 #adg ,see ,robin1 ,annales des ,sciences ,naturelles1 #ahde2 ,zoologie1 vol4 iv1 p4 #chj4 #adh ,histoire des ,travaux de ,buffon1 p4 #ib4 #adi 8,face to face with the present position of metaphysical thought in ,england1 that anthropology1 which can find no higher employment for the human mind than the ascertainment of man's relations with the baboons1 will find no place at all4444 ,we have no real fear that the consequences which may result from the practical application of this law 7transmutation7 will be prejudicial to religion1 morality1 or society4444 ,but until the day comes when such a law shall be fully1 entirely1 and satisfactorily established1 we must strenuously protest against the diffusion1 even amongst the #8wider circle of the intelligent public1' of essays1 the object of which is to render #8,man's ,place in ,nature' closer to that of the brute creation40 ,c4 ,carter ,blake1 ,man and ,beast 7,anthropological ,review1 vol4 i1 pp4 #aed1 #afa74--;,,editor4 #aej ,see ,smmering1 #aghe1 p4 #db4 #aea ,sketches of ,central ,africa4 #aeb ,there is a copy of it at the ,british ,museum4 #aec ,we only know of one painting in which ,egyptians themselves are represented in a like position2 it is in the ,british ,museum1 and is on a tomb4 ,it is a group of persons squatted behind a flock of geese4 ,it is right to remark1 however1 that the artist may have been rather puzzled about its composition1 more complicated than usual1 and that the inartistic profiles of his figures1 which almost cover one another1 greatly diminish the value of the picture with reference to our subject4 #aed ,geographische ,nosologie oder die ,lehre von den ,vernderungen der ,krankheiten in den ,verschiedenen ,gegenden der ,erde1 in ,verbindung mit ,physicher ,gographie und ,naturgeschichte des ,menschen1 #hvo1 ,stuttgart1 #ahac4 #aee ,trait de ,gographie ,mdicale1 #aheg3 ,introduction1 p4 #bi4 #aef 8,the great question of acclimatisation has hitherto been treated lightly enough4 #8,a firm resolution not to be conquered by a malady1' says ,malte-,brun1 #8is1 in the opinion of most doctors1 one of the most efficacious preventives of disease4 ,our body depends on our intelligence4 ,in every climate the nerves1 the muscles1 the blood-vessels1 in relaxing or in stretching1 in dilating or in contracting1 soon take the particular state which suits the degree of heat or cold which is borne by the body4' ,thus1 according to this celebrated geographer1 man has only to exercise his will in order to accommodate his organism to all the difficulties of a new temperature and a new climate40 ,h4 ,j4 ,c4 ,beavan1 ,the ,acclimatisation of ,man 7,social ,science ,review1 ,february #ba1 #ahfc47--;,,editor4 #aeg ,hirsch1 ,handbuch der ,historisch-,geographischen ,pathologie1 #aj4 ,with the author of this immense compilation we refer our readers 7with reference to this relative immunity of ,negroes from marsh-fever7 to the works of ,jobin1 ,tschudi1 ,m',cabe1 ,hunter1 ,arnold1 ,cameron1 ,heymann1 ,epp1 ,bartlett1 ,thomson1 ,tidyman 7,philad4 ,journ4 of ,med4 ,science1 vol4 iii1 ,no4 #f71 etc4 #aeh ,epidemiological ,society1 #crd ,june1 #ahfa2 ,medical ,times and ,gazette1 #bith ,june1 #ahfa1 ,no4 #egd4 #aei 8,in spite of #8previous acclimatisation1' a ,negro regiment was almost entirely destroyed by chest disease at ,gibraltar1 in #ahag1 within the short space of fifteen months40 ,acclimatisation of ,man 7,social ,science ,review1 ,february #ba1 #ahfc74--;,,editor4 #afj 8,si no aconteca ahorcar al ,negro1 nunca mora40 ,compare ,herrera1 ,hist4 ,gener4 de los ,hechos de los ,castellanos1 dec4 #b1 ,book ,,iii1 chap4 xiv4 #afa ,bancroft 7,essay #bgc72 ,blair1 ,some ,account of the last ,yellow ,fever ,epidemic of ,british ,guiana1 ,london1 #ahej2 ,jackson2 ,hirsch1 ,handbuch der ,historisch-,geographischen ,pathologie1 #cf4 #afb 8,it is a well-established fact1 that there is something in the ,negro constitution which affords him protection against the worst effects of yellow fever1 but what it is ,i am unable to say40--,fenner4 ,compare ,hirsch1 ,handbuch1 #cf4 #afc 8,the smallest admixture of ,negro blood1 even though the subject be brought from a more northerly state1 seems to be a potent antidote against the morbid poison40--,nott1 ,southern ,journal of ,medicine1 ,february1 #ahdg4 8,the coloured people resisted the epidemic influence better than the whites2 and1 ,i believe ,i may hazard the observation1 that their degree in resistance was in proportion to the admixture of white blood40--,bryant1 ,american ,journal1 ,april1 #ahef1 p4 #cja4 ,compare ,hirsch1 ,handbuch1 #cf4 #afd ,see ,mmoires de ,mdecine et de ,chirurgie ,militaire1 ,november and ,december #ahfc2 ,socit d',anthropologie1 meeting of #aith ,march1 #ahfd4 #afe ,m4 d',eichthal1 ,lettres sur la ,race noire1 #ahci1 p4 #ae4 #aff 8,the ,arabs say that ,mohammed1 whilst on the road from ,medina to ,mecca1 one day happened to see a widow woman sitting before her house1 and asked how she and her three sons were2 upon which the troubled woman 7for she had concealed one of her sons on seeing ,mohammed's approach1 lest he1 as is customary when there are three males of a family present1 should seize one and make him do porterage71 said1 #8,very well2 but ,i've only two sons6' ,mohammed1 hearing this1 said to the woman1 reprovingly1 #8,woman1 thou liest6 thou hast three sons2 and for trying to conceal this matter from me1 henceforth remember that this is my decree1--that the two boys whom thou hast not concealed shall multiply and prosper1 have fair faces1 become wealthy1 and reign lords over all the earth2 but the progeny of your third son shall1 in consequence of your having concealed him1 produce seedis as black as darkness1 who will be sold in the market like cattle1 and remain in perpetual servitude to the descendants of the other two4'0 ,this is the ,arab theory of the ,negro's origin1 mentioned in ,what led to the ,discovery of the ,source of the ,nile1 by ,j4 ,h4 ,speke1 p4 #cda1 ,london1 #ahfd4--;,,editor4 #afg ,othello1 ,act ,i1 ,scene #c4 ,othello was1 however1 a ,moor1 not a ,negro1 and capable of a far higher delicacy of mental perceptions than the veritable 8unbleached ,african40 ,perhaps one of the most absurd theatrical errors was committed when the part of ,othello was acted by a genuine ,negro1 ,ira ,aldridge4--,,editor4 #afh ,edmond ,about1 ,le ,progrs1 #ahfd1 p4 #ae4 #afi ,these are ,negroes of whom he is speaking4 #agj 8,de l',unit de l',espce ,humaine10 ,biblioth4 ,univ4 de ,genve1 nouv4 ser41 vol4 liv1 p4 #ade1 #ahdd4 #aga ,gliddon1 ,types of ,mankind1 p4 #ei4 ,carus has observed1 that among the remarkable ,negroes mentioned by ,blumenbach1 not one of them was distinguished either in politics1 literature1 or in any high conception of art4 ,compare ,gobineau1 ,de l',ingalit des ,races ,humaines1 vol4 i1 p4 #abb1 #ahec4 #agb ,see ,de ,maillet1 ,telliamed1 #hvo1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ahg1 ,amsterdam1 #agdh4 ,for want of those passages of the ,korn to which he refers1 we give the whole of ,maillet's remark on the subject3--8,mohammed was so struck with the difference between white and black men1 that he did not hesitate to say1 that ,god had made the first with white earth1 and the latter with black4 ,he did not imagine that men so different1 not only in colour but in figure and inclination1 could possibly be of one and the same origin4 ,he observes1 in another place1 that although there have been prophets of all other nations1 there was never one among the blacks2 which shows that they have so little mind1 that the gift of foresight1--the effect of natural wisdom1 which has sometimes been honoured with the name of prophecy1--has never fallen to the lot of any of them40 ,this passage is1 besides1 remarkable2 because this custom of prophecy seems to be a special attribute of the ,semitic race 7compare ,renan1 ,histoire ,gnrale des ,langues ,smitiques1 #hvo1 p4 #h1 ,paris1 #ahee71 and ,mohammed1 in making this distinction1 declared almost a specific characteristic4 ,in the translation of the 8vangile de l',enfance10 by ,g4 ,brunet 7,evangiles ,apocryphes1 #abmo1 ,paris1 #ahdi71 there is this curious document 7,jesus had just changed some children into rams in the sight of some women1 who asked for their pardon71 8,the ,lord ,jesus having answered1 that the children of ,israel were1 among other nations1 like the ,ethiopians2 the women said10 etc4 ,this is merely a proof of the contempt which overwhelmed this unhappy race in the east4 #agc ,on the ,negro's ,place in ,nature 7,dr4 ,hunt1 ,anthropological ,society of ,london1 ,november #ag1 #ahfc74 #agd ,see the table taken from the ,systema ,natur4 ,we know that ,linnus had adopted the geographical classification of human races4 ,homo ,americanus4 ,pertin1 contentus1 liber4 ,regitur consuetudine4 0 ,europus4 ,levis1 argutus1 inventor4 ,regitur ritibus4 0 ,asiaticus4 ,severus1 fastuosus1 avarus1 ,regitur opinionibus4 0 ,afer4 ,vafer1 segnis1 negligens1 ,regitur arbitrio4 #age ,des ,races ,humaines1 in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes4 #agf ,it is1 indeed1 worthy of a place in science1 though not apparently in the sense which is meant by our author4 ,c4 ,carter ,blake says1 and says truly1 8,in zoology1 as in all other methods of human thought1 the sincere searcher after truth will reap some solid benefit for his labours if carried on in a fair and honest spirit4 ,what science reveals to us1--and we know of no source of knowledge whence the revelation of the truth1 as it is manifested in living nature1 can be impugned1--what science teaches us1 a simple-minded student will accept1 that which the unbiassed evidences of his senses and the manifestations of his own consciousness tell him to be true40 7,c4 ,carter ,blake1 ,on the ,doctrine of ,final ,causes1 as illustrated by ,zoology1 ,hastings ,philosophical ,society1 meeting of ,january #ac1 #ahfd47--;,,editor4 #agg 8,the natives of ,australia10 observes ,hasskarl1 8are deficient in the idea of a ,creator or moral ,governor of the world1 and all attempts to instruct them terminate in a sudden break up of the conversation4 ,the ,bechuanas1 one of the most intelligent tribes of the interior of ,south ,africa1 have no idea of a ,supreme ,being2 and there is no word to be found in their language for the conception of a ,creator40 7,force and ,matter1 by ,dr4 ,louis ,bchner1 transl4 and edited by ,j4 ,f4 ,collingwood1 ,f4,r4,s4,l41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,f4,a4,s4,l474--,,editor4 #agh ,i translate in this way the word mythology1 used by ,latham2 it is the real translation4 ,every religion is necessarily based on a fable1 for whoever does not practise it1 8,mutato nomine1 de te fabula narratur40 ,this is an assertion which our author has no right to make1 and which certainly does not redound to his credit4 ,we must earnestly protest against it4 ,a moment's consideration1 however1 will satisfy most men that the translator's license has here been carried to a most unwarrantable extent4--,,editor4 #agi ,the ,reverend ,messrs4 ,schmidt1 ,parker1 etc4 #ahj ,john ,leighton4 #aha ,see ,bertillon1 ,bulletins de la ,socit d',anthropologie1 ,march #ae1 #ahfj4 ,see above1 p4 #ff1 note4--,,editor4 #ahb ,i had this fact from the mouth of ,m4 de ,lesseps1 on his return from a journey to ,khartm4 #ahc ,j4 ,ross1 ,narrative of a ,second ,voyage1 p4 #edh1 #ahce4 #ahd ,emanuel ,zobrega wrote to the ,company from ,brazil1 in #aeeb3--8,the inhabitants acknowledge ,saint ,thomas1 whom they call ,zom 7changing the ,th into ,z1 according to their dialect72 and they have a tradition that he once journeyed through this country40 ,his letter is fully given by ,nieremberg1 ,historia ,natur1 fol41 ,antuerpi1 #afce4 #ahe 8,on the ,intellectual ,character of the ,esquimaux0 7,edinburgh ,new ,philosophical ,journal1 vol4 xxxviii1 p4 #cjf1 ,october #ahdd to ,april #ahde47 #ahf ,l',immortalit de l'me chez les ,juifs1 transl4 by ,i4 ,cohen1 #abmo1 ,paris1 #aheg4 #ahg ,see ,brecher1 ,l',immortalit de l'me chez les ,juifs1 p4 #ha4 #ahh ,josephus1 ,antiquities1 xviii1 ch4 #b1 transl4 by ,d4 ,g4 ,gnbrard1 ,paris1 #afci4 #ahi ,chapter upon the 8,nirvna40 #aij ,barthlemy ,saint-,hilaire1 ,bouddha et sa ,religion1 chapter upon the 8,nirvna10 #ahfb4 #aia ,niebuhr quoted1 in support of this1 the ,nalhkis and the ,guaranis in the ,new ,californian and ,cape ,missions4 ,schlegel 7,essais1 p4 #cda1 ,paris1 #ahda7 declares1 that most savage nations ought always to remain so by the will of nature4 #aib ,see ,comptes rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 meeting of ,july #bj1 #aheg4 #aic 8,i maintain10 says ,courtet de l',isle 7,tableau ,ethnographique du genre humain1 p4 #hi1 #hvo1 ,paris1 #ahdi71 8that human races are unequal in intellectual power1 that they are1 consequently1 not susceptible of the same degree of development1 and that each of them is called upon to fill1 in unequal conditions1 a mission marked out by ,providence40 #aid ,doctor ,martius is a curious example of the extravagances to which monogenist ideas may lead4 ,in order to explain the moral character of the ,americans1 he is obliged to suppose a frightful cataclysm great inundation which happened1 he cannot say when1 and adds1 8,is it the profound terror felt by those unhappy people who escaped from this awful calamity which1 being transmitted without a diminished intensity to following generations1 has troubled their reason1 obscured their intelligence1 and hardened their heart80 ,compare ,morel1 ,trait des ,dgnrescences de l'espce humaine1 #aheg1 and ,discours ,inaugural l',acadmie de ,rouen1 #aheg4 #aie ,d',orbigny saw the ,charruas continue a war against the ,spaniards 7who decimated them7 rather than renounce their much-valued independence4 7,voyage dans l',amrique ,mridionale1 vol4 iv1 ,introduction p4 #d47 ,our author ought not to compare the northern ,americans with the southern aborigines1 giving to both of them1 apparently1 the same characteristics4 ,the northerners are whites1 and 7supposing the ,canadians and the north-western settlers are spoken of7 worthy of his praise4 ,we put the present ,northern ,states on one side altogether1 as the character given by our author cannot possibly apply to them4 ,the ,charruas1 who are mentioned in the above note1 are ,indians1 inhabiting the banks of the ,uruguay in ,south ,america1 and therefore1 whatever may be their courage and love of liberty as aborigines1 they cannot properly be classed with white inhabitants1 who are merely settlers4--,,editor4 #aif ,compare ,d',escayrac de ,lauture1 ,le ,dsert et le ,soudan2 ,mmoire sur le ,soudan1 etc4 ,these people are not so very peculiar in this respect4 ,even in our own land1 there is sometimes a good deal of difficulty in obtaining information about routes2 and agricultural labourers especially are much given to scratching their heads and chewing the cud of meditation1 ending with an indecision quite delightful to the tired traveller4--,,editor4 #aig ,see ,philosophi ,naturalis ,principia ,mathematica1 pp4 #dhb1 #dhc1 #dto1 ,amstelodami1 #agbc4 #aih ,see ,essai ,politique sur le royaume de la ,nouvelle ,espagne1 ,paris1 #ahaa4 #aii ,voyage dans l',amrique ,mridionale4 #bjj ,crania ,americana1 ,introduction4 #bja ,mmoire on the preceding work4 #bjb ,dr4 ,hunt1 however1 does not think that language is such an unfailing test as our author appears to imagine4 ,he considers that language must be utterly discarded as the first principle of anthropological classification1 and gives a far higher value to religion and to art1 considering language merely as the third element4 ,it is possible to change the language of a race2 but apparently impossible to change either their religion or their innate ideas of art4 ,see ,hunt on ,anthropological ,classification 7,brit4 ,assoc41 #ahfc71 ,anthrop4 ,rev41 vol4 i1 p4 #chc4 8,on ethnology1 ,professor ,mller says1 #8,the science of language and the science of ethnology have both suffered most seriously from being mixed up together4 ,the classification of races and languages should be quite independent of each other4 ,races may change their languages2 and history supplies us with several instances where one race adopted the language of another4 ,different languages1 therefore1 may be spoken by one race1 or the same language may be spoken by different races2 so that any attempt at squaring the classification of races and tongues must necessarily fail4'07,on the ,science of ,language1 ,r4 ,s4 ,charnock2 ,anthrop4 ,rev41 vol4 i1 p4 #bjj47--;,,editor4 #bjc ,see ,chave1 ,les ,langues et les ,races1 #ahfb4 #bjd ,histoire des ,langues ,smitiques1 p4 #dfg1 ,paris1 #ahee4 #bje ,see ,prichard1 ,the ,eastern ,origin of the ,celtic ,nations1 edited by ,latham1 #aheg4 #bjf 8,the sound of their voice resembles sighing40 8,their language resembles the clucking of a turkey40 ,compare ,white1 ,account of the regular gradation of ,man1 p4 #fg1 ,london1 #agii4 ,appleyard1 ,the ,kafir ,language1 p4 #c1 #hvo1 ,king ,william's ,town1 #ahej4 ,morel1 ,trait des ,dgnrescences de l'espce humaine1 p4 #db1 ,paris1 #aheg4 8,the ,kafirs have adopted some of the inflexions in use among their neighbours1 but as a simple ornament to their speech1 without attributing any special signification to these #8cluckings4'0--,is4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire 7,correspondence74 #bjg ,compare ,cabanis1 ,rapports du ,physique et du ,moral1 #acth year1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bja3 ,knox1 ,the ,races of ,men1 p4 #hb1 ,london1 #ahej3 ,morel1 ,dgnrescences de l',espce ,humaine1 ,paris1 #aheg4 #bjh ,see ,beddom in ,english ,cyclopdia3 see1 also1 ,vitruvius1 book vi1 ch4 i4 #bji ,rapports du ,physique et du ,moral1 #acth year1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bid4 #baj ,histoire ,naturelle ,gnrale1 vol4 iii1 p4 #cai1 #ahfj4 ,we do not here quote the facts relative to the ,barbary and ,corsican stag 7ibidem1 p4 #djg71 since they rest only on the negative assertion of an old author4 #baa 8,partout de petits changements1 nulle part de grands40 ,hist4 ,naturelle ,gnrale1 vol4 iii1 p4 #chh4 #bab ,recherches sur les ,ossements ,fossiles1 #dto1 vol4 i1 p4 #ei1 #ahca4 #bac ,histoire ,naturelle ,gnrale1 vol4 iii1 p4 #chi4 #bad 8,what would be thought of a breeder who took ,norman colts or ,flemish calves to the high lands of the ,alps and the ,pyrenees1 and then expected to see them reproduce 7their training having been finished7 all the pure characteristics of the original races80--,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 ,histoire ,naturelle ,gnrale1 vol4 iii1 p4 #cjg4 #bae ,see ,verneuil1 ,bulletins de la ,socit d',anthropologie1 ,february #b1 #ahfj4--;,bont1 ibidem1 ,august #f1 #ahfc4 #baf 8,a priest who has drunk wine shall migrate into a moth or a fly1 feeding on ordure4 ,he who steals the gold of a priest1 shall pass a thousand times into the bodies of spiders4 ,if a man shall steal honey1 he shall be born a great stinging gnat2 if oil1 an oil-drinking beetle2 if salt1 a cicada2 if a household utensil1 an ichneumon fly0 7,institutes of ,menu1 #cec74 ,thus1 apparently with regard to comparison1 the ,hind considers insects to be the lowest form of animal life1 into which moral criminals are to pass after death1 according to their doctrine of metempsychosis4--,,editor4 #bag ,why will some scientific men persist in separating1 so strongly1 religion and science1 as if both could not be practised8 ,this is what the 8master of science0 appears to think4 ,each student of science may well apply the following lines3 8,it is your duty to go on steadfastly1 unwaveringly1 ohne ,hast1 ohne ,rast1 conscious that you interpret1 to the best of your finite ability1 your conceptions of the truths of science1 equally conscious that whatever may be the immediate result of your labours1 they must eventually fulfil the aspiration which tends ad majorem ,dei gloriam40--,c4 ,carter ,blake ,on the ,doctrine of ,final ,causes 7,hastings ,philosophical ,society1 meeting of ,january #ac1 #ahfd74--;,,editor4 #bah ,robin1 ,mmoire sur la ,production du ,blastoderme 7,journal de ,physiologie1 p4 #ceh1 #ahfb74 #bai ,it is thus that we do not see realised in man that general law which decrees that animal species are large in proportion to the continent which they inhabit2 the mean size of the mammalia1 in particular1 is regularly proportional to the extent of ,australia1 ,america1 the ancient continent1 and the bottom of the ocean4 #bbj ,compare ,mitchell1 ,an ,essay upon the ,causes of the ,different ,colours1 etc4 7,philosophical ,transactions1 #agde47 #bba 8,sole colorari homines non dubium1 eosque autem ut nigrescant non constat40 ,albinus1 ,de ,sede et ,causa ,coloris thiopum1 p4 #ab4 ,he also says1 still speaking of ,negroes1 that they are coloured1 8quod suum parentes colorem in liberos propagant 4442 thiops fmina si cum mare thiope rem habuerit1 thiopem1 ni quid forte natura ludat1 gignit2 alba si cum albo1 album40--,ibidem1 p4 #aj4 ,it is in some manner the permanence of a declared type4 #bbb ,dissertation ,physique sur les ,diffrences des ,traits du ,visage1 p4 #ag4 #bbc ,see above1 p4 #he4 #bbd ,yvan1 ,de ,france en ,chine1 p4 #age1 ,paris1 #ahec4 8,m4 ,prier has mentioned1 according to ,yvan1 the beauty of the inhabitants of the island of ,runion1 who descend from a few couples only1 and yet have known how to preserve their purity of blood0 7,an ,inquiry into ,consanguineous ,marriages and ,pure ,races1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,dally2 transl4 by ,h4 ,j4 ,c4 ,beavan1 ,anthrop4 ,review1 p4 #ig1 #ahfd74--;,,editor4 #bbe ,white1 ,account of the regular ,gradation of ,man1 p4 #aab4 ,morton1 ,crania ,americana1 ,introduction4 ,prince de ,wied1 ,voyage au ,brsil1 vol4 ii1 p4 #caj4 ,bory de ,st4 ,vincent1 ,essai ,zoologique sur le genre humain1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bj4 #bbf ,desmoulins1 ,histoire ,naturelle des races humaines1 p4 #afb4 ,indigenous ,races of the ,earth1 p4 #ehe4 #bbg ,white1 ,account of the regular ,gradation of ,man1 p4 #ajd4 #bbh ,w4 ,edwards1 ,des ,caractres ,physiologiques des races humaines1 p4 #ad4 ,niebuhr 7transl471 ,lectures on ,ethnography1 vol4 i1 p4 #cgd4 #bbi ,john ,hunter also thought that man was originally black2 he had remarked that domestic animals become white by age4 ,compare ,white1 ,account of the regular ,gradation of ,man1 p4 #ajj4 ,hunter thus confounded men with domestic animals4 ,we have already said what must be thought of this connexion4 #bcj ,compare ,morel1 ,dgnrescence de l'espce humaine1 p4 #e1 ,paris1 #aheg4 #bca ,see above1 p4 #gc4 #bcb ,climateric influences act probably upon wild animals in the same manner2 it must be remarked1 however1 that a captive animal and a man1 taken to another country1 are not exposed in the same degree to the action of the new medium2 conditions are not similarly altered as regards both of them4 ,sometimes the man1 sometimes the animal1 will have most chances of resistance2 the one being always obliged by his master to submit to an intellectual government1 approaching as much as possible his former state2 the other1 abandoned to himself1 and drawn fatally into the new habits which he sees around him4 #bcc ,see1 on this point1 ,boudin1 ,gographie ,mdicale1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ae1 ,paris1 #aheg4 ,annuaire du ,bureau des ,longitudes1 p4 #bcj1 #ahcc4 ,g4 ,pouchet1 ,des ,colorations de l'piderme1 #dto1 ,paris1 #ahfd4 #bcd ,dr4 ,waitz1 in his ,introduction to ,anthropology 7translated and edited by ,j4 ,f4 ,collingwood71 gives an explanation concerning the colouring matter in the ,negro1 which is very curious1 but with which1 however1 he does not agree2 viz41 8that in hot climates the amount of oxygen inspired is insufficient to change the carbon into carbonic acid1 and that the unconsumed carbon is deposited in the pigment-cells of the skin4444 ,it is1 however1 difficult to admit that the browning of the skin in our climate in summer is produced by the same causes as the black colour of the ,negro1 and that it would only require a greater intensity and a longer duration to become so entirely40 ,part4 ,i1 sect4 i1 p4 #ce4--;,,editor4 #bce ,the precociousness of the genital functions is in direct relation with this general fact4 #bcf ,w4 ,edwards1 ,caractres ,physiologiques1 etc41 p4 #ad4 8,the tropics alone produce the combination of infantine grace with the full development of female maturity40 ,smith1 ,natural ,history1 etc41 p4 #aij4 ,see1 also1 ,cabanis1 ,rapports du ,physique et du ,moral1 vol4 ii2 and ,davy1 ,account of ,ceylon4 ,these two authors in particular have quite appreciated these changes4 #bcg ,boudin1 ,gographie ,mdicale1 vol4 ii1 p4 #aej1 #aheg4 #bch ,meeting of ,november #g1 #ahfa4 #bci ,see above1 p4 #ei1 note4--,,editor4 #bdj ,it would appear from the documents collected by ,nott 7,two ,lectures on the ,natural ,history of the ,caucasian and ,negro ,races1 ,mobile1 #ahdd1 compare ,boudin1 ,gogr4 ,md41 vol4 ii1 p4 #add71 that as we advance towards the upper part of the ,northern ,states1 madness becomes very frequent among the ,negroes4 ,it reaches the proportion of one case of insanity among twenty-eight sane persons in ,massachusetts and ,maine4 ,we hesitate in acknowledging climateric influence1 because the number of cases seems to increase relatively to the degree of instruction among the people2 not that madness depends on education1 but because it finds out a great number of cases of which we should otherwise have been ignorant1 as often happens in the east among a less enlightened people4 #bda ,compare ,boudin1 ,bulletins de la ,socit d',anthropologie1 ,august #a1 #ahfa4 #bdb ,compare ,boudin1 ,trait de ,gographie ,mdicale1 #aheg1 ,introduction4 #bdc ,new ,york ,medical ,journal1 p4 #cii1 ,february #ahca 7see ,hirsch1 ,handbuch der ,historisch-geographischen ,pathologie1 #ce1 p4 #a74 #bdd ,some ,account of the ,last ,yellow ,fever ,epidemic of ,british ,guiana1 p4 #ei1 #hvo1 ,london1 #ahej4 #bde ,barton1 ,report of the ,sanitary ,commission of ,new ,orleans for #ahec1 p4 #bdh1 ,new ,orleans1 #ahed 7see ,hirsch1 ,handbuch1 etc41 #ce74 ,he brings forward several pieces of evidence in the same question4 ,they seem to us too decisive1 in a polygenist point of view1 for us not to give the entire list of his quotations3 ,romay1 ,diss4 sobre la ,fiebre ,amarilla1 etc41 ,habana1 #agig3 ,arnold1 ,treatise on the ,bilious ,remittent ,fever1 etc41 p4 #bf1 ,london1 #ahdj3 ,zimpel1 ,jenaische ,annalen fr ,med41 i1 p4 #fh3 ,dickinson1 ,observations on the ,inflammatory ,endemic incident to ,strangers in the ,west ,indies1 etc41 p4 #ac1 ,london1 #ahai3 ,ferguson1 ,notes and ,reflections1 p4 #aej1 ,london1 #ahdf3 ,dickson1 ,philadelphia ,med4 and ,phys4 ,journal1 iii1 p4 #bej3 ,lallemand1 ,das ,gelbfieber1 etc41 p4 #aba4 ,schomburgk1 ,a ,description of ,british ,guiana1 etc41 p4 #bb1 ,london1 #ahdj4--;,,editor4 #bdf ,words borrowed from the definition of species by ,isidore ,geoffroy1 ,histoire ,naturelle ,gnrale1 vol4 ii1 p4 #dcg4 8,the act which appears most natural to living beings who are perfect1 and who are not abortive1 nor produced by spontaneous generation1 is the production of a being like themselves1 the animal producing an animal1 the plant a plant1 so as to participate in the eternal and divine nature as much as they can40--,de l'me1 book ii1 chap4 iv1 #b1 transl4 by ,barthlemy ,saint-,hilaire4 #bdg ,nott and ,gliddon1 ,indigenous ,races of the ,earth1 p4 #ddc4 #bdh ,nott and ,gliddon1 ,types of ,mankind1 p4 #cgc1 #ahed4 #bdi ,see ,boudin1 ,gographie ,mdicale1 ,introduction1 p4 #ci4 #bej ,see ,morel1 ,trait des ,dgnrescences4 #bea ,prier1 ,socit d',anthropologie1 meeting of ,april #ba1 #ahfd4 #beb ,des ,races ,humaines1 #ahde4 #bec ,account of the ,regular ,gradation of ,man1 p4 #adf4 #bed ,compare ,w4 ,edwards1 ,des ,caractres ,physiologiques1 etc41 p4 #bi4 #bee ,individual distinctions can only1 then1 be based on the alterations of type1 in characteristics which are not those of the supposed ideal4 ,it hence results that1 if we have lived with a stranger who has all the characteristics of his race well marked1 we think that we see him while travelling among his fellow countrymen4 #bef 8,it is one of the clearest facts in the animal1 as well as in the vegetable world2 all races generally reproduce and perpetuate themselves without mingling and confounding one with the other40--,prichard1 ,histoire ,naturelle de l',homme1 vol4 i41 p4 #ag4 ,compare ,morel1 ,dgnrescences de l'espce humaine1 p4 #b4 #beg ,third number4 ,most of the articles in this remarkable production are unsigned4 #beh 8,no race will amalgamate with another2 they die out1 or seem slowly to be becoming extinct40 ,compare the ,ethnological ,journal1 p4 #ih4 #bei 8,we arrive at the fundamental conclusion that it is useless for people belonging to varieties of different races1 but neighbours1 to ally themselves together2 part of the new generation will always preserve the primitive type40--,see ,courtet de l',isle1 ,tableau ,ethnographique1 p4 #gg4 #bfj ,latham thinks1 however1 that he has discovered some vestiges of the ,phnician race in ,africa and ,cornwall4 ,compare ,knox1 ,the ,races of ,men1 #ahej4 #bfa ,small columns1 having neither base nor capital4--,,editor4 #bfb ,it is the case with the hippopotamus and the lion4 #bfc ,thus1 at least1 ,buffon translates 8,gothi corpore proceriore1 capillis albidis rectis1 oculorum indibus cinere--crulescentibus40--,linnus1 ,fauna succica1 p4 #a4 #bfd ,by virtue of the law which makes us find a family likeness in an individual after it has been absent1 or rather hidden1 for one or more generations4 #bfe 8,rutil com1 magni artus40--,tacitus1 ,agricola1 ii1 #aa4 #bff 8,colorati vultus et torti plerumque crines40--,idem1 ibidem4 #bfg ,idem1 ibidem4 #bfh ,see ,latham1 ,celtic ,language1 p4 #cga4 ,j4 ,b4 ,davis and ,j4 ,thurnam1 ,crania ,britannica1 p4 #ec4 ,garnet1 in the ,transactions of the ,philological ,society4 ,r4 ,cull and ,latham1 in the ,edinburgh ,new ,physical ,journal1 #ahed4 ,prier1 ,fragments ,ethnologiques1 ,paris1 #aheg4 #bfi ,j4 ,philips1 see ,british ,association1 #ahdi4 #bgj ,the name itself of this district shows1 however1 the habitation of these parts by the ,scandinavians4 #bga ,compare ,w4 ,edwards1 ,des ,caractres ,physiologiques des ,races ,humaines4 ,paris1 #ahbi4 #bgb ,see ,prier1 ,fragments ,ethnologiques1 ,paris1 #aheg4 #bgc ,recherches sur l',ethnologie de la ,france 7,mmoires de la ,socit d',anthropologie1 vol4 i1 p4 #a74 ,see1 also1 the discussion which followed the reading of this paper 7,bulletins de la ,socit d',anthropologie1 meetings of ,july #ba and ,august #d1 #ahei74 #bgd ,we may remark this line is precisely perpendicular to the climateric parallels which divide ,france4 #bge ,the standard in ,france is1 we believe1 five feet4--,,editor4 #bgf ,peru1 #ahdf4 #bgg ,nicaragua3 its ,people1 vol4 ii1 p4 #aec1 ,new ,york1 #aheb4 #bgh ,essai sur l',ingalit des ,races ,humaines1 ,paris1 #aheb4 #bgi ,rapports du ,physique et du ,moral1 vol4 i1 p4 #dhd4 #bhj ,m4 ,morel1 ,trait des ,dgnrescences4 #bha 8,all races of mankind intermix1 they are fertile1 producing cross-breeds1 mulattoes1 mestizoes1 etc41 which again are productive4 ,all human races constitute1 therefore1 on physiological principles1 but one species1 which is here identical with genus humanum40 ,so thinks ,professor ,rudolph ,wagner1 but his arguments are not very satisfactory4 ,he refers varieties of race in a great measure to climatic influence4 ,see ,creation of ,man and ,substance of the ,mind 7,anthrop4 ,rev41 vol4 i1 p4 #bbi74--;,,editor4 #bhb ,compare ,bulletins de la ,socit d',anthropologie1 vol4 iii1 p4 #age4 #bhc ,in applying these principles to family consanguinity1 we may say in a general manner1 that it will be favourable or not to the offspring according to the state of the parents4 ,if the parents are perfectly healthy1 and exempt from all commencing degeneracy1 they can only give birth to children at least as healthy as themselves4 ,if one of the two parents is tainted with a commencement of degeneracy1 the descendant1 in his quality of offspring1 will perhaps bear the trace of this degeneracy1 but sensibly weakened4 ,if the two parents are separately tainted with a different commencement of degeneracy1 one or the other ought to continue it in the child1 only in a lesser degree4 ,but if the same degeneracy has already tainted both the parents1 the offspring will show it in a greater degree1 and will tend towards entire disappearance4 #bhd ,flourens1 ,histoire des ,travaux de ,buffon1 p4 #ahj4 #bhe ,on the ,phenomena of ,hybridity in the ,genus ,homo1 edited by ,c4 ,carter ,blake1 ,f4,g4,s41 ,f4,a4,s4,l4--,,editor4 #bhf ,compare ,g4 ,pouchet1 ,prcis d',histologie ,humaine1 #e4 #bhg 8,ac ,sylla quidem sodalis noster1 fatus nos parva qustione tanquam instrumento ingentem et gravem de origine mundi qustionem subruere40 ,qustionem ,convivalium1 book ii1 quest4 #c2 transl41 edited by ,f4 ,didot1 #ahda4 #bhh ,buffon said that 7,supplments1 vol4 iv1 p4 #cce7 this method of generation is not only the most frequent and the most general1 but the most ancient1 that is1 the first and most universal one4 ,plutarch 7,qust4 ,conviv41 book ii1 quest4 #c2 transl41 edited by ,f4 ,didot1 #ahda7 makes the same remark3 8,proinde probabile est primum ortum ex terra gignentis perfectione ac robore absolutum fuisse1 nihilque indigentem hujusmodi instrumentis1 receptaculis et vasis1 qualia nunc ob imbecillitatem natura parit atque machinatur parientibus40 #bhi ,it must not be forgotten1 that organic substances are supposed to have been found even in the formation of certain arolites4 #bij 4 ,geoffroy1 ,comptes ,rendus des sances de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 vol4 v1 p4 #aic4 #bia ,see ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 ,histoire ,naturelle ,gnrale1 vol4 iii1 p4 #baj4 #bib ,we are almost tempted1 in all kindness1 to refer our author to the following remarks in the ,reliques of ,father ,prout1 p4 #bfd4 8,i have been at some pains to acquire a comprehensive notion of the ,count de ,buffon's system1 and1 aided by an old ,jesuit1 ,i have succeeded in condensing the voluminous dissertation into a few lines1 for the use of those who are dissatisfied with the ,mosaic statement3-- #a4 ,in the beginning was the sun1 from which a splinter was shot off by chance1 and that fragment was our globe4 #b4 ,and the globe had for its nucleus melted glass1 with an envelope of hot water4 #c4 ,and it began to twirl round1 and became somewhat flattened at the poles4 #d4 ,now1 when the water grew cool1 insects began to appear1 and shell-fish4 #e4 ,and from the accumulation of shells1 particularly oysters 7see vol4 i1 p4 #ad1 #dto1 #bnd ed471 the earth was gradually formed1 with ridges of mountains1 on the principle of the ,monte ,testacio at the gate of ,rome4 #f4 ,but the melted glass kept warm for a long time1 and the arctic climate was as hot in those days as the tropics now are1--witness a frozen rhinoceros found in ,siberia40 ,let the leaven work1 although a mere joke to ,m4 ,pouchet's reality4--,,editor4 #bic ,histoire ,naturelle1 vol4 ix1 p4 #abg1 #agfa4 tienne ,geoffroy 7,comptes ,rendus1 vol4 iii1 p4 #bi7 says the same thing 8as regards the actual constitution of the globe2 each race is a species sui generis1--a form or combination of its own in nature40 #bid ,the terms of this definition are almost entirely borrowed from ,isidore ,geoffroy4 ,by ending it with these words1 8in the present order of things10 ,isidore ,geoffroy only defined the existing species1 and took away1 without any reason1 the palontologic species4 #bie ,lamarck1 ,discours de l',an ,,xi1 p4 #de4 #bif ,see ,flourens1 ,examen du livre de ,m4 ,darwin sur l',origine des ,espces1 #ahmo1 ,paris1 #ahfd4 ,we are at least astonished to find the name of the ,geoffroys mentioned but once in such a work 7p4 #de74 ,m4 ,flourens charges ,darwin with only quoting the partisans of his own opinions 7p4 #dj74 #big ,see above1 p4 #hd1 note4--,,editor4 #bih ,sur l',influence du monde ambiant1 #ahca 7,mmoires de l',acadmie des ,sciences71 vol4 xii1 p4 #ha4 #bii ,vol4 ii1 second part1 #ahei4 #cjj ,philosophie ,zoologique1 vol4 i1 p4 #bba4 #cja ,systme des ,connaissances ,positives1 p4 #adc1 #ahbj4 #cjb ,discours de l',an ,,xi1 p4 #de4 ,he says1 also1 in another place 7,philosophie ,zoologique1 vol4 i1 p4 #ff71 8,what we call species1 has only a relative constancy in that state1 and cannot be as ancient as nature itself40 #cjc ,lamarck1 ,organisation des ,corps ,vivants1 p4 #ec4 #cjd ,for nature 8time has no limit1 and consequently has it always at its disposal40 ,lamarck1 ,systme des ,animaux sans ,vertbres1 p4 #ac1 #ahja4 #cje ,darwin ,on the ,origin of ,species1 p4 #eah1 ,london1 #ahfa4 8,i believe that animals have descended from at most only four or five progenitors1 and plants from an equal or less number4 ,analogy would lead me one step farther1 namely1 to the belief that all animals and plants have descended from some one prototype40 #cjf ,compare ,darwin ,on the ,origin of ,species1 p4 #if1 #ahfa4 #cjg ,histoire ,naturelle ,gnrale1 vol4 ii1 p4 #dba1 #ahei4 #cjh 8,the observation of species in a state of nature1 by revealing to us a multitude of modifications more or less important1 cannot show us any serious deviation from the types formed or preserved by the influence of the existing state of things40 ,isidore ,geoffroy1 ,vie d'tienne ,geoffroy1 p4 #cdi4 #cji ,see ,leibnitz1 ,protoge1 transl4 by ,bertrand de ,saint-,germain1 ,introduction1 p4 #fa4 #caj ,comptes rendus des sances de l',acadmie1 ,february #bb1 #aheh4 #caa ,we shall be thanked for publishing here the following extract from a letter addressed to us by ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 the #crd of ,june1 #ahfj1 and which relates to all these questions4 8,i said1 two or three years ago1 as ,i have learnt from ,m4 ,lartet 7who remembered the expression which ,i had myself forgotten71 that the present movement of science tends to substitute in geology the idea of the evolution of the globe for that of revolutions4 ,m4 ,lartet has taken up this view1 and adheres to it4 ,it is of great importance to me1 as regards my works on species1 in which we must in this case substitute the notion of evolution for that of revolution2 revolutions are here pretended creations1 abruptly successive4 ,it is time to have done with these views1 which1 instead of taking creation as having been once concluded1 make at every instant the ,deus ex machin intervene40 #cab 8,in the neighbourhood of ,mount tna1 or on the sides of that extensive mountain1 there are beds of lava covered over with a considerable thickness of earth2 and at least another1 again1 which though known from ancient monuments and historical records to have issued from the volcano at least two thousand years ago1 is still almost entirely destitute of soil and vegetation2 in one place a pit has been cut through seven different strata of lava2 and these have been found separated from each other by almost as many thick beds of rich earth4 ,now1 from the fact that a stratum of lava1 two thousand years old1 is yet scantily covered with earth1 it has been inferred by the ingenious ,canon ,recupero1 who has laboured thirty years on the natural history of ,mount tna1 that the lowest of these strata which have been found divided by so many beds of earth1 must have been emitted from the volcanic crater at least fourteen thousand years ago1 and consequently1 that the age of the earth1 whatever it may exceed this term of years1 cannot possibly be less40--,brydone's ,tour through ,sicily and ,malta 7#aggj74 ,plato1 in his ,critias1 mentions the island ,atlantis as having been buried in the ocean nine thousand years before his own time4 ,in the ,universal ,history1 vol4 i1 7preface17 we are told that the astronomical records of the ancient ,chaldeans carry back the origin of society to the remote period of four hundred and seventy-three thousand years4 ,among comparatively well-known authorities1 there is a good deal of difference in the time of the supposed formation of the world4 ,the ,hebrew bible makes the creation #c1idd years before the ,christian era4 ,the ,samaritan bible1 #d1cje years2 the ,septuagint1 #e1bgj years2 ,usher1 #d1jjd years2 ,josephus1 #d1feh years2 ,m4 ,pezron1 #e1hgb years4 ,in all these differences1 however1 there is nothing so striking as in the theories we mention above1 of ,recupero1 the ,chaldeans1 etc4--,,editor4 #cac ,our author is quite right4 ,science does teach us what to think of divine power in its outward manifestations4 ,the more we understand nature1 the more ready will earnest-minded men be to praise and give glory to the ,god who made it1 who created man and beast with such marvellous and exquisite regularity1 and who continues to govern the world and all that is upon it4 ,perhaps ,m4 ,pouchet thinks he himself could have made a better one4 ,it is a pity that a clever mind is so warped by that science which ought to make him more satisfied than ever that ,god is the creator of the world2 and that spontaneous generation1 and the never-clearly explained origin of the first matter1 about which even ,m4 ,pouchet cannot tell us1 with all his scepticism1 ought to go to pave the 8pathway of good intentions40--,,editor4 #cad ,why not8--,,editor4 #cae ,some may be astonished at our applying the word kingdom to the vertebrata4 ,we do so because1 in truth1 the distance which separates them from other animals seems to us almost as great1 and even more decided1 than that which separates the invertebrata from plants4 #caf ,the diagram which ,darwin has placed in his book ,on the ,origin of ,species1 is only a fraction and piece of detail of the general figure which we are endeavouring to place before the mind of the reader4 #cag ,l',insecte1 p4 #abh1 #aheh4 #cah ,predominance of the immediate azotic principles1 respiration comparable to that of animals1 voluntary movements1 indivisibility of organism1 etc4 #cai ,see above1 pp4 #df1 #dg4--;,,editor4 #cbj ,see ,on the ,origin of ,species1 chap4 iii4 #cba ,lions hindered the army of ,xerxes in ,macedonia4 ,they abounded in the province of ,africa in the time of the ,roman ,emperors4 ,at the present time1 however1 ,grard was obliged to watch for three hundred nights in order to kill only thirty or forty4 #cbb ,the crocodile1 which used to swarm on the ,delta1 is now only found in ,upper ,egypt4 #cbc ,the hippopotamus1 since the ,roman occupation1 has successively retired from the mouth of the ,nile to the fourth cataract4 ,some years ago1 there existed one1 and one only1 at the ,island of ,argo1 on this side of ,new ,dongolah4 ,some hunters killed it1 and since then1 they have only been found at the ,berber level4 #cbd ,hamites1 a genus of extinct ,cephalopods1 found in the greensand formation in ,england4--,,editor4 #cbe ,comptes ,rendus1 vol4 iv1 p4 #eh4 ,perhaps the only logical deduction which we can really draw from the greater size of these animals1 is the greater extent of the continents which they inhabited4 ,the belief in the gigantic dimensions of the fossil fauna and flora1 is also a remains of the marvels which the first inquirers into science involuntarily reported4 ,in examining matters nearer and more impartially1 we see that certain zoological groups have been1 in fact1 formerly represented by larger species than at the present day2 but until we arrive at some new discovery1 we have the right to think that the other groups of animals1 on the contrary1 have a class of larger representatives than in former times2 like the quadrumana1 the cetacea1 insects1 cephalopods1 acephalous mollusks1 etc4 ,but this pretended decay is especially false as regards plants2 if we find in the ground some large ferns1 or enormous grasses1 we must subtract a good deal from those so-called antediluvian forests1 which many have not hesitated to bring forward in support of their ideas4 ,all the fossil plants that we know are1 without exception1 extremely wretched in comparison with the gigantic conifers and dicotyledons in the forests of the old and new world4 #cbf ,if this new handiwork of man1 so charmingly arranged by our author1 is not more successful than ,pandora1 as made by ,vulcan1 we fear the world will not gain much by it4 ,in the olden times1 the man who propounded such curious ideas would probably have had a punishment awarded him1 something similar to that suffered by ,prometheus4 ,does ,m4 ,pouchet1 in quoting this personage1 entirely forget the rest of the tale1 and the consequences of his rashness8 ,we are really sorry1 however1 to see science perverted to a pet idea1 if we may use the expression1 and twisted by means of 8bad anatomy and worse theology10 as a friend of ours calls it1 for the sake of proving facts quite impossible to be solved4 ,m4 ,pouchet gives us1 in spontaneous generation1 a first germ with which to start a primordial anatomical element1 as he calls it4 ,he starts with this1 and argues--in what manner we leave it to our readers to determine--that1 from this germ there have1 in time1 sprung all the animals on the surface of the globe4 ,but he does not tell us how this first germ itself arose4 ,that is put entirely on one side1 and taken for granted4 ,we cannot take it for granted however2 and until we have it satisfactorily proved that he is right in any part of his idea1 we shall go on thinking and believing as we have done before4--,,editor4 #cbg ,see ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 ,vie d',e4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 p4 #bhg4 #cbh ,see above1 chap4 viii4 #cbi ,compare ,owen1 ,on the ,characters1 ,principles of ,division1 and ,primary ,groups of the ,class ,mammalia 7,journal of ,linnean ,society1 #aheg47 #ccj ,see1 for the explanation and discussion of these different systems1 ,crull1 ,dissertatio de ,cranio1 #ahaj4 #cca ,compare ,crull1 ,dissertatio de ,cranio1 p4 #bh1 #ahaj4 #ccb ,compare ,crull1 ,dissertatio de ,cranio1 p4 #eb4 #ccc ,busk and ,quekett 7,medical ,times and ,gazette74 #ccd ,one always endeavours to find some former indication or presentiment1 although even confused and full of obscurity1 beyond the origin of positive science2 it is curious to find in the works of the potter physician a sort of germ which1 when developed1 may have given birth to cranioscopy1--a sort of foresight of the importance which the measurement of the skull would one day acquire4 ,it is in the ,recepte ,vritable3 one of two speakers relates a dream in which he saw the different instruments used in geometry dispute about precedence3 he answers them1 that man is above them all2 they exclaim1 that man cannot even use one of them in order to measure any part of his body4 ,we think it best to give the original here4--,,editor4 8,quoy voyant1 il me print envie de mesurer la teste d'un homme1 pour scauoir directement ses mesures1 et me sembla que la sauterelle1 la reigle1 et le compas me seroient fort propres pour ceste affaire1 mais quoy qu'il en soit1 ie n'y sceu iamais trouver une mesure asseure40 ,bernard ,palissy1 uvres1 p4 #ic1 #abmo1 ,paris1 #ahdd4 ,blumenbach says somewhere1 8,the habit and constant use of my collection of skulls makes me understand every day the impossibility of subjecting a variety of skulls to the rule of any possible angle1 the head being susceptible of so many forms1 and the parts which compose it being of so many different proportions and directions40 ,see ,morel1 ,trait des ,dgnrescences dans l'espce humaine1 p4 #fh4 ,m4 ,aitken ,meigs1 at the present day1 shows no less than twenty-nine different measurements of the skull which must be obtained if we wish to have anything like a satisfactory idea of the same4 #cce ,see above1 chap4 iv4 #ccf ,see ,indigenous ,races of the ,earth1 p4 #cbj4 #ccg ,see ,strope1 ,description d'une ,momie trs-ancienne 7,recueil ,priod4 d',observ4 de ,mdecine1 vol4 iv1 p4 #bij1 ,jan4 #agef74 ,one may see in reading the account of a very able and judicious narrator how much ancient scientific observations alter with the times1 when no care is taken to refer to the original sources4 #cch ,see ,vivien1 in the ,mmoires de la ,socit ,ethnologique1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ei4 #cci ,portfolio1 ,philadelphia1 #ahad4 #cdj ,w4 ,edwards1 ,des ,caractres ,physiologiques des races humaines1 p4 #de1 has especially noticed the great importance of external characteristics2 he has only done wrong in excluding the hair1 and attending solely to the form of the skull1 which never concerns us when we endeavour to picture or recall to our mind the features of a man4 #cda ,see ,michelet1 with regard to the paintings in the ,sixtine ,chapel1 ,histoire de ,france1 ,renaissance4 #cdb 8,philology is at once the most elevated and the most positive branch of the natural history of the human race40 ,chave1 ,mose et les ,langues 7,la ,revue74 ,m4 ,flourens seems to give philological a superior rank to physical characteristics4 ,see above1 p4 #gg1 note4--,,editor4 #cdc ,he believes that by their means we can go back to the most distant geological periods4 ,see ,apophthegms 7,edinburgh ,new ,philosophical ,journ41 vol4 li47 #cdd ,latham thus explains it3 8,this is because whilst ,a and ,b1 in the way of stock-blood or pedigree1 will give ,c a true tertium quid1 or a near approach to it1 and ,a and ,b1 in the way of language1 will only give themselves1 i4 e41 they will give no true tertium quid1 nor any very close approach to it40 ,celtic ,nations1 p4 #cc4 ,we have endeavoured to prove that this true tertium quid--this real mean term1 is never produced as far as species4 #cde 8,either language must have been originally revealed from heaven1 or it must be the fruits of human industry4 ,the greater part of ,jews and ,christians1 and even some of the wisest ,pagans1 have embraced the former opinion1 which seems to be supported by the authority of ,moses1 who represents the ,supreme ,being as teaching our first parents the names of animals4 ,the latter opinion is held by ,diodorus ,siculus1 ,lucretius1 ,horace1 and many other ,greek and ,roman writers1 who consider language as one of the arts invented by man4 ,the first men1 say they1 lived for some time in woods and caves1 after the manner of beasts1 uttering only confused and indistinct noises1 till1 associating for mutual assistance1 they came by degrees to use articulate sounds mutually agreed upon1 for the arbitrary signs or marks of those ideas in the mind of the speaker which he wanted to communicate to the hearer4 ,this opinion sprung from the atomic cosmogony which was framed by ,mochus1 the ,phnician1 and afterwards improved by ,democritus and ,epicurus2 and though it is part of a system in which the first men are represented as having grown out of the earth1 like trees and other vegetables1 it has been adopted by several modern writers of high rank in the republic of letters1 and is certainly in itself worthy of examination40--,encyclop4 ,brit41 vol4 ix1 p4 #ecj1 #agig4--;,,editor4 #cdf ,i do not here mention the opinions of the ,swede 7see ,latham1 ,celtic ,nations1 p4 #b71 who thinks that important changes can be introduced into a language by certain customs of a people1 who change1 for instance1 the lips for the nostrils1 and thus substitute nasal for labial consonants4 ,these facts are1 perhaps1 true in the detail1 but they ought not to have much importance1 as they do not alter the specific and personal character of the language1 which is far from consisting in the relative number of one or two kinds of letters4 #cdg ,bunsen 7,eng4 transl471 ,niebuhr's ,life and ,letters1 vol4 i1 p4 #ci4 #cdh 8,languages10 he says1 8give but feeble probabilities in ,anthropology40 ,voyage aux regions ,equinoxiales du ,nouveau ,continent1 vol4 iii1 p4 #ceb4 #cdi ,see1 in the ,mmoires de la ,socit ,ethnologique 7,july #ahdc71 a letter in which ,m4 ,vivien denies a first rank to language as a distinctive characteristic1 and gives it to physical type4 #cej ,see above1 p4 #cb4 #cea 8,i am led to believe that familiar languages 7if this philological barbarism is permitted me7 do not resemble one another because they come from the same parent1 but because they have been brought up together2 ,africa especially seems to me to furnish a proof of it1 for we must study the history of families of languages1 especially in the place where they began to be formed1 and ,i believe that language was formed in ,africa4 ,my hypothesis is not applicable to all cases1 but to several2 thus1 the ,french1 ,italian1 ,spanish1 etc41 come from the ,latin1 and were born at its death2 but many other languages appear to me to take their features one from the other by simple frequentation1 by the natives being often in company together1 and1 as time goes on1 these mutual loans make two or several languages1 like the branches of the same tree1 only1 in my idea1 the tree does not exist40--,correspondence1 #aheg4 #ceb ,see above1 p4 #gh4 #cec ,pali1 the ordinary language of daily life in ,hindoostan at the time when ,sanscrit was used in elevated literature alone4--,,editor4 #ced ,des ,colorations de l'piderme1 #dto1 ,paris1 #ahfd4 #cee ,see ,the ,natural ,history of ,man1 #ahdd4 #cef ,see ,ethnographic ,tableau 7,indigenous ,races of the ,earth1 ,london1 #aheg74 #ceg ,we may quote1 as types of genus1 two paintings1 incomparable in an anthropological point of view1 ,portrait d'un ,ngre2 ,portrait d'un ,oriental1 by ,herschop 7,berlin ,museum1 ,nos4 #hbe and #hbg74 #ceh ,m4 ,flourens1 in saying that ,buffon collected the accounts of different travellers in order to write his ,histoire des ,races1 adds1 8,whatever they have only seen with the eyes of their body1 he sees with the eyes of his mind1 and by that means alone he sees better than they can2 each of them has seen merely some scattered characteristics1--,buffon sees everything2 he links together whatever they may have separated1 and separates whatever they have confounded40--,histoire des ,ides de ,buffon1 p4 #afg4 #cei 8,boni viri nullam oportet esse causam prter veritatem40 #cfj ,yes1 but the difficulty is to determine if it is true4 ,we cannot receive anything as true merely because a savant says it is so4 ,we must go on enquiring in a proper spirit2 but we must not put inquiry after truth in the same category with scepticism1--8that cheerlessness of soul to which certainty respecting anything and everything here on earth seems unattainable40 ,this is the age for seeking after truth2 but in how many different ways do men endeavour to attain to it6 ,we must search the past carefully in all its scientific and natural facts1 and as ,longfellow beautifully says1-- 8,nor deem the irrevocable past1 ,as wholly wasted1 wholly vain1 ,if1 rising on its wrecks1 at last ,to something nobler we attain40 ,this is the true aim of all inquiry4--,,editor4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected4 ,variations in hyphenation and accents have been standardised but all other spelling and punctuation remains unchanged4 ,italics are represented thus italic4 ,the 8,errata0 have been corrected in line4