,,report ,,on ,,the ,,lands ,,of ,,the ,,arid ,,region ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states1 ,,with ,a ,,more ,,detailed ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,lands ,,of ,,utah4 ,,with ,,maps4 ,,by ,j4 ,w4 ,,powell4 ,,second ,,edition4 ,,washington3 ,,government ,,printing ,,office4 #ahgi4 ,,congress ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states 7#c;,d ,,session71 ,,in ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,representatives1 ,march #c1 #ahgi4 ,the following resolution1 originating in the ,house of ,representatives1 has this day been concurred in by the ,senate3 ,resolved1 by the ,house of ,representatives 7the ,senate concurring71 ,that there be printed five thousand copies of the ,report on the ,lands of the ,arid ,region of the ,united ,states1 by ,j4 ,w4 ,powell2 one thousand for the use of the ,senate1 two thousand for the use of the ,house of ,representatives1 and two thousand for the use of the ,department of the ,interior4 ,attest3 ,,geo4 ,m4 ,,adams1 ,clerk4 ,j4 ,w4 ,,powell',s ,,report ,,on ,,survey ,,of ,,the ,,rocky ,,mountain ,,region4 ,,letter ,,from ,,the ,,secretary ,,of ,,the ,,interior1 ,,transmitting ,report of ,j4 ,w4 ,powell1 geologist in charge of the ,united ,states ,geographical and ,geological ,survey of the ,rocky ,mountain ,region1 upon the lands of the ,arid ,region of the ,united ,states4 ,,april #c1 #ahgh4--,referred to the ,committee on ,appropriations and ordered to be printed4 ,,department ,,of ,,the ,,interior1 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,april #c1 #ahgh4 ,,sir3 ,i have the honor to transmit herewith a report from ,maj4 ,j4 ,w4 ,powell1 geologist in charge of the ,united ,states ,geographical and ,geological ,survey of the ,rocky ,mountain ,region1 upon the lands of the ,arid ,region of the ,united ,states1 setting forth the extent of said region1 and making suggestions as to the conditions under which the lands embraced within its limit may be rendered available for agricultural and grazing purposes4 ,with the report is transmitted a statement of the rainfall of the western portion of the ,united ,states1 with reports upon the subject of irrigation by ,capt4 ,c4 ,e4 ,dutton1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 ,prof4 ,a4 ,h4 ,thompson1 and ,mr4 ,g4 ,k4 ,gilbert4 ,herewith are also transmitted draughts of two bills1 one entitled 8,a bill to authorize the organization of pasturage districts by homestead settlements on the public lands which are of value for pasturage purposes only01 and the other 8,a bill to authorize the organization of irrigation districts by homestead settlements upon the public lands requiring irrigation for agricultural purposes01 intended to carry into effect a new system for the disposal of the public lands of said region1 and to promote the settlement and development of that portion of the country4 ,in view of the importance of rendering the vast extent of country referred to available for agricultural and grazing purposes1 ,i have the honor to commend the views set forth by ,major ,powell and the bills submitted herewith to the consideration of ,congress4 ,very respectfully1 ,c4 ,,schurz1 ,secretary4 ,hon4 ,,samuel ,j4 ,,randall1 ,speaker of the ,house of ,representatives4 ,,department ,,of ,,the ,,interior1 ,,general ,,land ,,office1 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,april #a1 #ahgh4 ,,sir3 ,i have the honor to submit herewith a report from ,maj4 ,j4 ,w4 ,powell1 in charge of the ,geographical and ,geological ,survey of the ,rocky ,mountains1 in regard to the ,arid ,region of the ,united ,states1 and draughts of two bills1 one entitled 8,a bill to authorize the organization of pasturage districts by homestead settlements on the public lands which are of value for pasturage purposes only01 and the other 8,a bill to authorize the organization of irrigation districts by homestead settlements upon the public lands requiring irrigation for agricultural purposes04 ,major ,powell reviews at length the features of1 and furnishes statistics relative to1 the ,arid ,region of the ,united ,states1 which is substantially the territory west of the one hundredth meridian and east of the ,cascade ,range1 and the bills named are intended1 if passed1 to carry into effect the views expressed in his report for the settlement and development of this region4 ,he has1 in the performance of his duties in conducting the geological and geographical survey1 been over much of the country referred to1 and is qualified by observation1 research1 and study to speak of the topography1 characteristics1 and adaptability of the same4 ,i have not been able1 on account of more urgent official duties1 to give ,major ,powell's report and proposed bills the careful investigation necessary1 in view of their great importance1 to enable me to express a decided opinion as to their merits4 ,some change is necessary in the survey and disposal of the lands1 and ,i think his views are entitled to great weight1 and would respectfully recommend that such action be taken as will bring his report and bills before ,congress for consideration by that body4 ,very respectfully1 ,j4 ,a4 ,,williamson1 ,commissioner4 ,hon4 ,c4 ,,schurz1 ,secretary of the ,interior4 ,,department ,,of ,,the ,,interior1 ,u4 ,s4 ,,geographical ,,and ,,geological ,,survey ,,of ,,the ,,rocky ,,mountain ,,region1 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,april #a1 #ahgh4 ,,sir3 ,i have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the lands of the ,arid ,region of the ,united ,states4 ,after setting forth the general facts relating to the conditions under which these lands must be utilized1 ,i have taken the liberty to suggest a system for their disposal which ,i believe would be adapted to the wants of the country4 ,i wish to express my sincere thanks for the assistance you have given me in the collection of many of the facts necessary to the discussion1 and especially for the aid you have rendered in the preparation of the maps4 ,permit me to express the hope that the great interest you take in the public domain will be rewarded by the consciousness that you have assisted many citizens in the establishment of farm homes thereon4 ,i am1 with great respect1 your obedient servant1 ,j4 ,w4 ,,powell1 ,in charge ,u4 ,s4 ,g4 and ,g4 ,survey ,rocky ,mountain ,region4 ,hon4 ,j4 ,a4 ,,williamson1 ,commissioner ,general ,land ,office1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,,preface4 ,it was my intention to write a work on the ,public ,domain4 ,the object of the volume was to give the extent and character of the lands yet belonging to the ,government of the ,united ,states4 ,compared with the whole extent of these lands1 but a very small fraction is immediately available for agriculture2 in general1 they require drainage or irrigation for their redemption4 ,it is true that in the ,southern ,states there are some millions of acres1 chiefly timber lands1 which at no remote time will be occupied for agricultural purposes4 ,westward toward the ,great ,plains1 the lands in what ,i have1 in the body of this volume1 termed the ,humid ,region have passed from the hands of the ,general ,government4 ,to this statement there are some small exceptions here and there--fractional tracts1 which1 for special reasons1 have not been considered desirable by persons in search of lands for purposes of investment or occupation4 ,in the ,sub-humid ,region settlements are rapidly extending westward to the verge of the country where agriculture is possible without irrigation4 ,in the ,humid ,region of the ,columbia the agricultural lands are largely covered by great forests1 and for this reason settlements will progress slowly1 as the lands must be cleared of their timber4 ,the redemption of the ,arid ,region involves engineering problems requiring for their solution the greatest skill4 ,in the present volume only these lands are considered4 ,had ,i been able to execute the original plan to my satisfaction1 ,i should have treated of the coast swamps of the ,south ,atlantic and the ,gulf slopes1 the ,everglade lands of the ,floridian ,peninsula1 the flood plain lands of the great rivers of the south1 which have heretofore been made available only to a limited extent by a system of levees1 and the lake swamp lands found about the headwaters of the ,mississippi and the region of the upper ,great ,lakes4 ,all of these lands require either drainage or protection from overflow1 and the engineering problems involved are of diverse nature4 ,these lands are to be redeemed from excessive humidity1 while the former are to be redeemed from excessive aridity4 ,when the excessively humid lands are redeemed1 their fertility is almost inexhaustible1 and the agricultural capacity of the ,united ,states will eventually be largely increased by the rescue of these lands from their present valueless condition4 ,in like manner1 on the other hand1 the arid lands1 so far as they can be redeemed by irrigation1 will perennially yield bountiful crops1 as the means for their redemption involves their constant fertilization4 ,to a great extent1 the redemption of all these lands will require extensive and comprehensive plans1 for the execution of which aggregated capital or coperative labor will be necessary4 ,here1 individual farmers1 being poor men1 cannot undertake the task4 ,for its accomplishment a wise prevision1 embodied in carefully considered legislation1 is necessary4 ,it was my purpose not only to consider the character of the lands themselves1 but also the engineering problems involved in their redemption1 and further to make suggestions for the legislative action necessary to inaugurate the enterprises by which these lands may eventually be rescued from their present worthless state4 ,when ,i addressed myself to the broader task as indicated above1 ,i found that my facts in relation to some of the classes of lands mentioned1 especially the coast swamps of the ,gulf and some of the flood plain lands of the southern rivers1 were too meager for anything more than general statements4 ,there seemed to be no immediate necessity for the discussion of these subjects2 but to the ,arid ,region of the west thousands of persons are annually repairing1 and the questions relating to the utilization of these lands are of present importance4 ,under these considerations ,i have decided to publish that portion of the volume relating to the arid lands1 and to postpone to some future time that part relating to the excessively humid lands4 ,in the preparation of the contemplated volume ,i desired to give a historical sketch of the legislation relating to swamp lands and executive action thereunder2 another chapter on bounty lands and land grants for agricultural schools1 and still another on land grants in aid of internal improvements--chiefly railroads4 ,the latter chapter has already been prepared by ,mr4 ,willis ,drummond1 jr41 and as the necessary map is ready ,i have concluded to publish it now1 more especially as the granted lands largely lie in the ,arid ,region4 ,mr4 ,drummond's chapter has been carefully prepared and finely written1 and contains much valuable information4 ,to the late ,prof4 ,joseph ,henry1 secretary of the ,smithsonian ,institution1 ,i am greatly indebted for access to the records of the ,institution relating to rainfall4 ,since beginning my explorations and surveys in the far west1 ,i have received the counsel and assistance of the venerable professor on all important matters relating to my investigations2 and whatever of value has been accomplished is due in no small part to his wisdom and advice4 ,i cannot but express profound sorrow at the loss of a counselor so wise1 so patient1 and so courteous4 ,i am also indebted to ,mr4 ,charles ,a4 ,schott1 of the ,united ,states ,coast ,survey1 to whom the discussion of the rain gauge records has been intrusted by the ,smithsonian ,institution1 for furnishing to me the required data in advance of publication by himself4 ,unfortunately1 the chapters written by ,messrs4 ,gilbert1 ,dutton1 ,thompson1 and ,drummond have not been proof-read by themselves1 by reason of their absence during the time when the volume was going through the press2 but this is the less to be regretted from the fact that the whole volume has been proof-read by ,mr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,pilling1 whose critical skill is all that could be desired4 ,j4 ,w4 ,p4 ,,august1 #ahgh4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition ,the first edition of this report having been exhausted in a few months and without satisfying the demand which the importance of the subject created1 a second was ordered by ,congress in ,march1 #ahgi4 ,the authors were thus given an opportunity to revise their text and eliminate a few formal errors which had crept in by reason of their absence while the first edition was passing through the press4 ,the substance of the report is unchanged4 ,j4 ,w4 ,p4 ,,july1 #ahgi4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,physical ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,arid ,,region3 ,page4 ,the ,arid ,region #e ,irrigable lands #f ,advantages of irrigation #aj ,coperative labor or capital necessary for the development of irrigation #aa ,the use of smaller streams sometimes interferes with the use of the larger #ab ,increase of irrigable area by the storage of water #ab ,timber lands #ad ,agricultural and timber industries differentiated #ah ,cultivation of timber #ai ,pasturage lands #ai ,pasturage farms need small tracts of irrigable land #ba ,the farm unit for pasturage lands #ba ,regular division lines for pasturage farms not practicable #bb ,farm residences should be grouped #bb ,pasturage lands cannot be fenced #bc ,recapitulation #bc ,irrigable lands #bc ,timber lands #bc ,pasturage lands #bd ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,land-,,system ,,needed ,,for ,,the ,,arid ,,region3 ,irrigable lands #bg ,timber lands #bg ,pasturage lands #bh ,a bill to authorize the organization of irrigation districts #cj ,a bill to authorize the organization of pasturage districts #cc ,water rights #dj ,the lands should be classified #dc ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,rainfall ,,of ,,the ,,western ,,portion ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states3 ,precipitation of the ,sub-humid ,region #dg ,precipitation of the ,arid ,region #dh ,precipitation of the ,san ,francisco ,region #di ,precipitation of the ,region of the ,lower ,columbia #di ,distribution of rain through the year #ej ,precipitation of ,texas #ej ,precipitation of ,dakota #ea ,seasonal precipitation in the ,region of the ,plains #eb ,seasonal precipitation in the ,san ,francisco ,region #ec ,mean temperature1 by seasons1 for the ,san ,francisco ,region #ed ,seasonal precipitation and temperature on the ,pacific ,coast1 etc4 #ee ,seasonal precipitation in ,arizona and ,new ,mexico #ef ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,water ,,supply4--,,by ,g4 ,k4 ,,gilbert3 ,increase of streams #eg ,rise of ,great ,salt ,lake #eh ,volcanic theory #fg ,climatic theory #fh ,theory of human agencies #ga ,farming without irrigation #gg ,,chapter ,v4 ,,certain ,,important ,,questions ,,relating ,,to ,,irrigable ,,lands3 ,the unit of water used in irrigation #ha ,the quantitative value of water in irrigation #ha ,area of irrigable land sometimes not limited by water supply #he ,method of determining the supply of water #he ,methods of determining the extent of irrigable land unlimited by water supply #hf ,the selection of irrigable lands #hg ,increase in the water supply #hi ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,lands ,,of ,,utah3 ,physical features #ic ,timber #ih ,irrigable and pasturage lands #ajc ,uinta-,white ,basin #ajc ,the ,caon ,lands #aje ,the ,sevier ,lake ,district #ajf ,the ,great ,salt ,lake ,district #ajf ,grasses #ajg ,table of ,irrigable lands in ,utah ,territory #aaa ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,irrigable ,,lands ,,of ,,the ,,salt ,,lake ,,drainage ,,system4--,,by ,g4 ,k4 ,,gilbert3 ,irrigation by the larger streams #aag ,bear ,river drainage basin #aai ,weber ,river drainage basin #aba ,jordan ,river drainage basin #abd ,irrigation by smaller streams #abf ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,irrigable ,,lands ,,of ,,the ,,valley ,,of ,,the ,,sevier ,,river4--,,by ,,capt4 ,c4 ,e4 ,,dutton3 ,altitudes of the ,san ,pete ,valley #acc ,volume of flowing water in ,san ,pete ,valley #adj ,irrigable lands of the ,sevier ,lake ,district #add ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,irrigable ,,lands ,,of ,,that ,,portion ,,of ,,utah ,,drained ,,by ,,the ,,colorado ,,river ,,and ,,its ,,tributaries4--,,by ,,prof4 ,a4 ,h4 ,,thompson3 ,the ,virgin ,river #aeb ,kanab ,creek #aed ,the ,paria ,river #aee ,the ,escalante ,river #aef ,the ,fremont ,river #aeg ,the ,san ,rafael ,river #aeh ,the ,price ,river #aei ,minnie ,maud ,creek #aei ,the ,uinta ,river #afj ,ashley ,fork #afa ,henrys ,fork #afa ,the ,white ,river #afa ,the ,green ,river #afb ,the ,grand ,river #afc ,the ,san ,juan ,river #afc ,other streams #afc ,irrigable lands of the ,colorado drainage #afd ,,chapter ,x4 ,,land ,,grants ,,in ,,aid ,,of ,,internal ,,improvements4--,,by ,,willis ,,drummond1 ,,jr4 #afe ,,report ,,on ,,the ,,lands ,,of ,,the ,,arid ,,region ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,,by ,j4 ,w4 ,,powell4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,physical ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,arid ,,region4 ,the eastern portion of the ,united ,states is supplied with abundant rainfall for agricultural purposes1 receiving the necessary amount from the evaporation of the ,atlantic ,ocean and the ,gulf of ,mexico2 but westward the amount of aqueous precipitation diminishes in a general way until at last a region is reached where the climate is so arid that agriculture is not successful without irrigation4 ,this ,arid ,region begins about midway in the ,great ,plains and extends across the ,rocky ,mountains to the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,but on the northwest coast there is a region of greater precipitation1 embracing western ,washington and ,oregon and the northwest corner of ,california4 ,the winds impinging on this region are freighted with moisture derived from the great ,pacific currents2 and where this water-laden atmosphere strikes the western coast in full force1 the precipitation is excessive1 reaching a maximum north of the ,columbia ,river of #hj inches annually4 ,but the rainfall rapidly decreases from the ,pacific ,ocean eastward to the summit of the ,cascade ,mountains4 ,it will be convenient to designate this humid area as the ,lower ,columbia ,region4 ,rain gauge records have not been made to such an extent as to enable us to define its eastern and southern boundaries1 but as they are chiefly along high mountains1 definite boundary lines are unimportant in the consideration of agricultural resources and the questions relating thereto4 ,in like manner on the east the rain gauge records1 though more full1 do not give all the facts necessary to a thorough discussion of the subject2 yet the records are such as to indicate approximately the boundary between the ,arid ,region1 where irrigation is necessary to agriculture1 and the ,humid ,region1 where the lands receive enough moisture from the clouds for the maturing of crops4 ,experience teaches that it is not wise to depend upon rainfall where the amount is less than #bj inches annually1 if this amount is somewhat evenly distributed throughout the year2 but if the rainfall is unevenly distributed1 so that 8rainy seasons0 are produced1 the question whether agriculture is possible without irrigation depends upon the time of the 8rainy season0 and the amount of its rainfall4 ,any unequal distribution of rain through the year1 though the inequality be so slight as not to produce 8rainy seasons01 affects agriculture either favorably or unfavorably4 ,if the spring and summer precipitation exceeds that of the fall and winter1 a smaller amount of annual rain may be sufficient2 but if the rainfall during the season of growing crops is less than the average of the same length of time during the remainder of the year1 a greater amount of annual precipitation is necessary4 ,in some localities in the western portion of the ,united ,states this unequal distribution of rainfall through the seasons affects agriculture favorably1 and this is true immediately west of the northern portion of the line of #bj inches of rainfall1 which extends along the plains from our northern to our southern boundary4 ,the isohyetal or mean annual rainfall line of #bj inches1 as indicated on the rain chart accompanying this report1 begins on the southern boundary of the ,united ,states1 about #fj miles west of ,brownsville1 on the ,rio ,grande del ,norte1 and intersects the northern boundary about #ej miles east of ,pembina4 ,between these two points the line is very irregular1 but in middle latitudes makes a general curve to the westward4 ,on the southern portion of the line the rainfall is somewhat evenly distributed through the seasons1 but along the northern portion the rainfall of spring and summer is greater than that of fall and winter1 and hence the boundary of what has been called the ,arid ,region runs farther to the west4 ,again1 there is another modifying condition1 namely1 that of temperature4 ,where the temperature is greater1 more rainfall is needed2 where the temperature is less1 agriculture is successful with a smaller amount of precipitation4 ,but geographically this temperature is dependent upon two conditions--altitude and latitude4 ,along the northern portion of the line latitude is an important factor1 and the line of possible agriculture without irrigation is carried still farther westward4 ,this conclusion1 based upon the consideration of rainfall and latitude1 accords with the experience of the farmers of the region1 for it is a well known fact that agriculture without irrigation is successfully carried on in the valley of the ,red ,river of the ,north1 and also in the southeastern portion of ,dakota ,territory4 ,a much more extended series of rain-gauge records than we now have is necessary before this line constituting the eastern boundary of the ,arid ,region can be well defined4 ,it is doubtless more or less meandering in its course throughout its whole extent from south to north1 being affected by local conditions of rainfall1 as well as by the general conditions above mentioned2 but in a general way it may be represented by the one hundredth meridian1 in some places passing to the east1 in others to the west1 but in the main to the east4 ,the limit of successful agriculture without irrigation has been set at #bj inches1 that the extent of the ,arid ,region should by no means be exaggerated2 but at #bj inches agriculture will not be uniformly successful from season to season4 ,many droughts will occur2 many seasons in a long series will be fruitless2 and it may be doubted whether1 on the whole1 agriculture will prove remunerative4 ,on this point it is impossible to speak with certainty4 ,a larger experience than the history of agriculture in the western portion of the ,united ,states affords is necessary to a final determination of the question4 ,in fact1 a broad belt separates the ,arid ,region of the west from the ,humid ,region of the east4 ,extending from the one hundredth meridian eastward to about the isohyetal line of #bh inches1 the district of country thus embraced will be subject more or less to disastrous droughts1 the frequency of which will diminish from west to east4 ,for convenience let this be called the ,sub-humid ,region4 ,its western boundary is the line already defined as running irregularly along the one hundredth meridian4 ,its eastern boundary passes west of the isohyetal line of #bh inches of rainfall in ,minnesota1 running approximately parallel to the western boundary line above described4 ,nearly one-tenth of the whole area of the ,united ,states1 exclusive of ,alaska1 is embraced in this ,sub-humid ,region4 ,in the western portion disastrous droughts will be frequent2 in the eastern portion infrequent4 ,in the western portion agriculturists will early resort to irrigation to secure immunity from such disasters1 and this event will be hastened because irrigation when properly conducted is a perennial source of fertilization1 and is even remunerative for this purpose alone2 and for the same reason the inhabitants of the eastern part will gradually develop irrigating methods4 ,it may be confidently expected that at a time not far distant irrigation will be practiced to a greater or less extent throughout this ,sub-humid ,region4 ,its settlement presents problems differing materially from those pertaining to the region to the westward4 ,irrigation is not immediately necessary1 and hence agriculture does not immediately depend upon capital4 ,the region may be settled and its agricultural capacities more or less developed1 and the question of the construction of irrigating canals may be a matter of time and convenience4 ,for many reasons1 much of the sub-humid belt is attractive to settlers3 it is almost destitute of forests1 and for this reason is more readily subdued1 as the land is ready for the plow4 ,but because of the lack of forests the country is more dependent upon railroads for the transportation of building and fencing materials and for fuel4 ,to a large extent it is a region where timber may be successfully cultivated4 ,as the rainfall is on a general average nearly sufficient for continuous successful agriculture1 the amount of water to be supplied by irrigating canals will be comparatively small1 so that its streams can serve proportionally larger areas than the streams of the ,arid ,region4 ,in its first settlement the people will be favored by having lands easily subdued1 but they will have to contend against a lack of timber4 ,eventually this will be a region of great agricultural wealth1 as in general the soils are good4 ,from our northern to our southern boundary no swamp lands are found1 except to some slight extent in the northeastern portion1 and it has no excessively hilly or mountainous districts4 ,it is a beautiful prairie country throughout1 lacking somewhat in rainfall2 but this want can be easily supplied by utilizing the living streams2 and1 further1 these streams will afford fertilizing materials of great value4 ,the ,humid ,region of the lower ,columbia and the ,sub-humid ,region of the ,great ,plains have been thus briefly indicated in order that the great ,arid ,region1 which is the subject of this paper1 may be more clearly defined4 ,,the ,,arid ,,region4 ,the ,arid ,region is the great ,rocky ,mountain ,region of the ,united ,states1 and it embraces something more than four-tenths of the whole country1 excluding ,alaska4 ,in all this region the mean annual rainfall is insufficient for agriculture1 but in certain seasons some localities1 now here1 now there1 receive more than their average supply4 ,under such conditions crops will mature without irrigation4 ,as such seasons are more or less infrequent even in the more favored localities1 and as the agriculturist cannot determine in advance when such seasons may occur1 the opportunities afforded by excessive rainfall cannot be improved4 ,in central and northern ,california an unequal distribution of rainfall through the seasons affects agricultural interests favorably4 ,a 8rainy season0 is here found1 and the chief precipitation occurs in the months of ,december-,april4 ,the climate1 tempered by mild winds from the broad expanse of ,pacific waters1 is genial1 and certain crops are raised by sowing the seeds immediately before or during the 8rainy season01 and the watering which they receive causes the grains to mature so that fairly remunerative crops are produced4 ,but here again the lands are subject to the droughts of abnormal seasons4 ,as many of these lands can be irrigated1 the farmers of the country are resorting more and more to the streams1 and soon all the living waters of this region will be brought into requisition4 ,in the tables of a subsequent chapter this will be called the ,san ,francisco ,region4 ,again in eastern ,washington and ,oregon1 and perhaps in northern ,idaho1 agriculture is practiced to a limited extent without irrigation4 ,the conditions of climate by which this is rendered possible are not yet fully understood4 ,the precipitation of moisture on the mountains is greater than on the lowlands1 but the hills and mesas adjacent to the great masses of mountains receive a little of the supply condensed by the mountains themselves1 and it will probably be found that limited localities in ,montana1 and even in ,wyoming1 will be favored by this condition to an extent sufficient to warrant agricultural operations independent of irrigation4 ,these lands1 however1 are usually supplied with living streams1 and their irrigation can be readily effected1 and to secure greater certainty and greater yield of crops irrigation will be practiced in such places4 ,,irrigable ,,lands4 ,within the ,arid ,region only a small portion of the country is irrigable4 ,these irrigable tracts are lowlands lying along the streams4 ,on the mountains and high plateaus forests are found at elevations so great that frequent summer frosts forbid the cultivation of the soil4 ,here are the natural timber lands of the ,arid ,region--an upper region set apart by nature for the growth of timber necessary to the mining1 manufacturing1 and agricultural industries of the country4 ,between the low irrigable lands and the elevated forest lands there are valleys1 mesas1 hills1 and mountain slopes bearing grasses of greater or less value for pasturage purposes4 ,then1 in discussing the lands of the ,arid ,region1 three great classes are recognized--the irrigable lands below1 the forest lands above1 and the pasturage lands between4 ,in order to set forth the characteristics of these lands and the conditions under which they can be most profitably utilized1 it is deemed best to discuss first a somewhat limited region in detail as a fair type of the whole4 ,the survey under the direction of the writer has been extended over the greater part of ,utah1 a small part of ,wyoming and ,colorado1 the northern portion of ,arizona1 and a small part of ,nevada1 but it is proposed to take up for this discussion only the area embraced in ,utah ,territory4 ,in ,utah ,territory agriculture is dependent upon irrigation4 ,to this statement there are some small exceptions4 ,in the more elevated regions there are tracts of meadow land from which small crops of hay can be taken3 such lands being at higher altitudes need less moisture1 and at the same time receive a greater amount of rainfall because of the altitude2 but these meadows have been1 often are1 and in future will be1 still more improved by irrigation4 ,again1 on the belt of country lying between ,great ,salt ,lake and the ,wasatch ,mountains the local rainfall is much greater than the general rainfall of the region4 ,the water evaporated from the lake is carried by the westerly winds to the adjacent mountains on the east and again condensed1 and the rainfall thus produced extends somewhat beyond the area occupied by the mountains1 so that the foot hills and contiguous bench lands receive a modicum of this special supply4 ,in some seasons this additional supply is enough to water the lands for remunerative agriculture1 but the crops grown will usually be very small1 and they will be subject to seasons of extreme drought1 when all agriculture will result in failure4 ,most of these lands can be irrigated1 and doubtless will be1 from a consideration of the facts already stated1 namely1 that crops will thereby be greatly increased and immunity from drought secured4 ,perhaps other small tracts1 on account of their subsoils1 can be profitably cultivated in favorable seasons1 but all of these exceptions are small1 and the fact remains that agriculture is there dependent upon irrigation4 ,only a small part of the territory1 however1 can be redeemed1 as high1 rugged mountains and elevated plateaus occupy much of its area1 and these regions are so elevated that summer frosts forbid their occupation by the farmer4 ,thus thermic conditions limit agriculture to the lowlands1 and here another limit is found in the supply of water4 ,some of the large streams run in deep gorges so far below the general surface of the country that they cannot be used2 for example1 the ,colorado ,river runs through the southeastern portion of the ,territory and carries a great volume of water1 but no portion of it can be utilized within the ,territory from the fact that its channel is so much below the adjacent lands4 ,the ,bear ,river1 in the northern part of the ,territory1 runs in a somewhat narrow valley1 so that only a portion of its waters can be utilized4 ,generally the smaller streams can be wholly employed in agriculture1 but the lands which might thus be reclaimed are of greater extent than the amount which the streams can serve2 hence in all such regions the extent of irrigable land is dependent upon the volume of water carried by the streams4 ,in order to determine the amount of irrigable land in ,utah it was necessary to determine the areas to which the larger streams can be taken by proper engineering skill1 and the amount which the smaller streams can serve4 ,in the latter case it was necessary to determine first the amount of land which a given amount or unit of water would supply1 and then the volume of water running in the streams2 the product of these factors giving the extent of the irrigable lands4 ,a continuous flow of one cubic foot of water per second was taken as the unit1 and after careful consideration it was assumed that this unit of water will serve from #hj to #ajj acres of land4 ,usually the computations have been made on the basis of #ajj acres4 ,this unit was determined in the most practical way--from the experience of the farmers of ,utah who have been practicing agriculture for the past thirty years4 ,many of the farmers will not admit that so great a tract can be cultivated by this unit4 ,in the early history of irrigation in this country the lands were oversupplied with water1 but experience has shown that irrigation is most successful when the least amount of water is used necessary to a vigorous growth of the crops2 that is1 a greater yield is obtained by avoiding both scanty and excessive watering2 but the tendency to overwater the lands is corrected only by extended experience4 ,a great many of the waterways are so rudely constructed that much waste ensues4 ,as irrigating methods are improved this wastage will be avoided2 so in assuming that a cubic foot of water will irrigate from #hj to #ajj acres of land it is at the same time assumed that only the necessary amount of water will be used1 and that the waterways will eventually be so constructed that the waste now almost universal will be prevented4 ,in determining the volume of water flowing in the streams great accuracy has not been attained4 ,for this purpose it would be necessary to make continuous daily1 or even hourly1 observations for a series of years on each stream1 but by the methods described in the following chapters it will be seen that a fair approximation to a correct amount has been made4 ,for the degree of accuracy reached much is due to the fact that many of the smaller streams are already used to their fullest capacity1 and thus experience has solved the problem4 ,having determined from the operations of irrigation that one cubic foot per second of water will irrigate from #hj to #ajj acres of land when the greatest economy is used1 and having determined the volume of water or number of cubic feet per second flowing in the several streams of ,utah by the most thorough methods available under the circumstances1 it appears that within the territory1 excluding a small portion in the southeastern corner where the survey has not yet been completed1 the amount of land which it is possible to redeem by this method is about #b1bfb square miles1 or #a1ddg1ibj acres4 ,of course this amount does not lie in a continuous body1 but is scattered in small tracts along the water courses4 ,for the purpose of exhibiting their situations a map of the territory has been prepared1 and will be found accompanying this report1 on which the several tracts of irrigable lands have been colored4 ,a glance at this map will show how they are distributed4 ,excluding that small portion of the territory in the southeast corner not embraced in the map1 ,utah has an area of #hj1jjj square miles1 of which #b1bfb square miles are irrigable4 ,that is1 #b4h per cent4 of the lands under consideration can be cultivated by utilizing all the available streams during the irrigating season4 ,in addition to the streams considered in this statement there are numerous small springs on the mountain sides scattered throughout the territory--springs which do not feed permanent streams2 and if their waters were used for irrigation the extent of irrigable land would be slightly increased2 to what exact amount cannot be stated1 but the difference would be so small as not to materially affect the general statement1 and doubtless these springs can be used in another way and to a better purpose1 as will hereafter appear4 ,this statement of the facts relating to the irrigable lands of ,utah will serve to give a clearer conception of the extent and condition of the irrigable lands throughout the ,arid ,region4 ,such as can be redeemed are scattered along the water courses1 and are in general the lowest lands of the several districts to which they belong4 ,in some of the states and territories the percentage of irrigable land is less than in ,utah1 in others greater1 and it is probable that the percentage in the entire region is somewhat greater than in the territory which we have considered4 ,the ,arid ,region is somewhat more than four-tenths of the total area of the ,united ,states1 and as the agricultural interests of so great an area are dependent upon irrigation it will be interesting to consider certain questions relating to the economy and practicability of distributing the waters over the lands to be redeemed4 ,,advantages ,,of ,,irrigation4 ,there are two considerations that make irrigation attractive to the agriculturist4 ,crops thus cultivated are not subject to the vicissitudes of rainfall2 the farmer fears no droughts2 his labors are seldom interrupted and his crops rarely injured by storms4 ,this immunity from drought and storm renders agricultural operations much more certain than in regions of greater humidity4 ,again1 the water comes down from the mountains and plateaus freighted with fertilizing materials derived from the decaying vegetation and soils of the upper regions1 which are spread by the flowing water over the cultivated lands4 ,it is probable that the benefits derived from this source alone will be full compensation for the cost of the process4 ,hitherto these benefits have not been fully realized1 from the fact that the methods employed have been more or less crude4 ,when the flow of water over the land is too great or too rapid the fertilizing elements borne in the waters are carried past the fields1 and a washing is produced which deprives the lands irrigated of their most valuable elements1 and little streams cut the fields with channels injurious in diverse ways4 ,experience corrects these errors1 and the irrigator soon learns to flood his lands gently1 evenly1 and economically4 ,it may be anticipated that all the lands redeemed by irrigation in the ,arid ,region will be highly cultivated and abundantly productive1 and agriculture will be but slightly subject to the vicissitudes of scant and excessive rainfall4 ,a stranger entering this ,arid ,region is apt to conclude that the soils are sterile1 because of their chemical composition1 but experience demonstrates the fact that all the soils are suitable for agricultural purposes when properly supplied with water4 ,it is true that some of the soils are overcharged with alkaline materials1 but these can in time be 8washed out04 ,altogether the fact suggests that far too much attention has heretofore been paid to the chemical constitution of soils and too little to those physical conditions by which moisture and air are supplied to the roots of the growing plants4 ,,co,,perative ,,labor ,,or ,,capital ,,necessary ,,for ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,irrigation4 ,small streams can be taken out and distributed by individual enterprise1 but coperative labor or aggregated capital must be employed in taking out the larger streams4 ,the diversion of a large stream from its channel into a system of canals demands a large outlay of labor and material4 ,to repay this all the waters so taken out must be used1 and large tracts of land thus become dependent upon a single canal4 ,it is manifest that a farmer depending upon his own labor cannot undertake this task4 ,to a great extent the small streams are already employed1 and but a comparatively small portion of the irrigable lands can be thus redeemed2 hence the chief future development of irrigation must come from the use of the larger streams4 ,usually the confluence of the brooks and creeks which form a large river takes place within the mountain district which furnishes its source before the stream enters the lowlands where the waters are to be used4 ,the volume of water carried by the small streams that reach the lowlands before uniting with the great rivers1 or before they are lost in the sands1 is very small when compared with the volume of the streams which emerge from the mountains as rivers4 ,this fact is important4 ,if the streams could be used along their upper ramifications while the several branches are yet small1 poor men could occupy the lands1 and by their individual enterprise the agriculture of the country would be gradually extended to the limit of the capacity of the region2 but when farming is dependent upon larger streams such men are barred from these enterprises until coperative labor can be organized or capital induced to assist4 ,before many years all the available smaller streams throughout the entire region will be occupied in serving the lands1 and then all future development will depend on the conditions above described4 ,in ,utah ,territory coperative labor1 under ecclesiastical organization1 has been very successful4 ,outside of ,utah there are but few instances where it has been tried2 but at ,greeley1 in the ,state of ,colorado1 this system has been eminently successful4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,smaller ,,streams ,,sometimes ,,interferes ,,with ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,larger4 ,a river emerging from a mountain region and meandering through a valley may receive small tributaries along its valley course4 ,these small streams will usually be taken out first1 and the lands which they will be made to serve will often lie low down in the valley1 because the waters can be more easily controlled here and because the lands are better2 and this will be done without regard to the subsequent use of the larger stream to which the smaller ones are tributary4 ,but when the time comes to take out the larger stream1 it is found that the lands which it can be made to serve lying adjacent on either hand are already in part served by the smaller streams1 and as it will not pay to take out the larger stream without using all of its water1 and as the people who use the smaller streams have already vested rights in these lands1 a practical prohibition is placed upon the use of the larger river4 ,in ,utah1 church authority1 to some extent at least1 adjusts these conflicting interests by causing the smaller streams to be taken out higher up in their course4 ,such adjustment is not so easily attained by the great body of people settling in the ,rocky ,mountain ,region1 and some provision against this difficulty is an immediate necessity4 ,it is a difficulty just appearing1 but in the future it will be one of great magnitude4 ,,increase ,,of ,,irrigable ,,area ,,by ,,the ,,storage ,,of ,,water4 ,within the ,arid ,region great deposits of gold1 silver1 iron1 coal1 and many other minerals are found1 and the rapid development of these mining industries will demand pari passu a rapid development of agriculture4 ,thus all the lands that can be irrigated will be required for agricultural products necessary to supply the local market created by the mines4 ,for this purpose the waters of the non-growing season will be stored1 that they may be used in the growing season4 ,there are two methods of storing the waste waters4 ,reservoirs may be constructed near the sources of the streams and the waters held in the upper valleys1 or the water may be run from the canals into ponds within or adjacent to the district where irrigation is practiced4 ,this latter method will be employed first4 ,it is already employed to some extent where local interests demand and favorable opportunities are afforded4 ,in general1 the opportunities for ponding water in this way are infrequent1 as the depressions where ponds can easily be made are liable to be so low that the waters cannot be taken from them to the adjacent lands1 but occasionally very favorable sites for such ponds may be found4 ,this is especially true near the mountains where alluvial cones have been formed at the debouchure of the streams from the mountain caons4 ,just at the foot of the mountains are many places where ancient glaciation has left the general surface with many depressions favorable to ponding4 ,ponding in the lower region is somewhat wasteful of water1 as the evaporation is greater than above1 and the pond being more or less shallow a greater proportional surface for evaporation is presented4 ,this wastage is apparent when it is remembered that the evaporation in an arid climate may be from #fj to #hj inches annually1 or even greater4 ,much of the waste water comes down in the spring when the streams are high and before the growing crops demand a great supply4 ,when this water is stored the loss by evaporation will be small4 ,the greater storage of water must come from the construction of great reservoirs in the highlands where lateral valleys may be dammed and the main streams conducted into them by canals4 ,on most streams favorable sites for such water works can be found4 ,this subject cannot be discussed at any length in a general way1 from the fact that each stream presents problems peculiar to itself4 ,it cannot be very definitely stated to what extent irrigation can be increased by the storage of water4 ,the rainfall is much greater in the mountain than in the valley districts4 ,much of this precipitation in the mountain districts falls as snow4 ,the great snow banks are the reservoirs which hold the water for the growing seasons4 ,then the streams are at flood tide2 many go dry after the snows have been melted by the midsummer sun2 hence they supply during the irrigating time much more water than during the remainder of the year4 ,during the fall and winter the streams are small2 in late spring and early summer they are very large4 ,a day's flow at flood time is greater than a month's flow at low water time4 ,during the first part of the irrigating season less water is needed1 but during that same time the supply is greatest4 ,the chief increase will come from the storage of this excess of water in the early part of the irrigating season4 ,the amount to be stored will then be great1 and the time of this storage will be so short that it will be but little diminished by evaporation4 ,the waters of the fall and winter are so small in amount that they will not furnish a great supply1 and the time for their storage will be so great that much will be lost by evaporation4 ,the increase by storage will eventually be important1 and it would be wise to anticipate the time when it will be needed by reserving sites for principal reservoirs and larger ponds4 ,,timber ,,lands4 ,throughout the ,arid ,region timber of value is found growing spontaneously on the higher plateaus and mountains4 ,these timber regions are bounded above and below by lines which are very irregular1 due to local conditions4 ,above the upper line no timber grows because of the rigor of the climate1 and below no timber grows because of aridity4 ,both the upper and lower lines descend in passing from south to north2 that is1 the timber districts are found at a lower altitude in the northern portion of the ,arid ,region than in the southern4 ,the forests are chiefly of pine1 spruce1 and fir1 but the pines are of principal value4 ,below these timber regions1 on the lower slopes of mountains1 on the mesas and hills1 low1 scattered forests are often found1 composed mainly of dwarfed pion pines and cedars4 ,these stunted forests have some slight value for fuel1 and even for fencing1 but the forests of principal value are found in the ,timber ,region as above described4 ,primarily the growth of timber depends on climatic conditions--humidity and temperature4 ,where the temperature is higher1 humidity must be greater1 and where the temperature is lower1 humidity may be less4 ,these two conditions restrict the forests to the highlands1 as above stated4 ,of the two factors involved in the growth of timber1 that of the degree of humidity is of the first importance2 the degree of temperature affects the problem comparatively little1 and for most of the purposes of this discussion may be neglected4 ,for convenience1 all these upper regions where conditions of temperature and humidity are favorable to the growth of timber may be called the timber regions4 ,not all these highlands are alike covered with forests4 ,the timber regions are only in part areas of standing timber4 ,this limitation is caused by fire4 ,throughout the timber regions of all the arid land fires annually destroy larger or smaller districts of timber1 now here1 now there1 and this destruction is on a scale so vast that the amount taken from the lands for industrial purposes sinks by comparison into insignificance4 ,the cause of this great destruction is worthy of careful attention4 ,the conditions under which these fires rage are climatic4 ,where the rainfall is great and extreme droughts are infrequent1 forests grow without much interruption from fires2 but between that degree of humidity necessary for their protection1 and that smaller degree necessary to growth1 all lands are swept bare by fire to an extent which steadily increases from the more humid to the more arid districts1 until at last all forests are destroyed1 though the humidity is still sufficient for their growth if immunity from fire were secured4 ,the amount of mean annual rainfall necessary to the growth of forests if protected from fire is probably about the same as the amount necessary for agriculture without irrigation2 at any rate1 it is somewhere from #bj to #bd inches4 ,all timber growth below that amount is of a character so stunted as to be of little value1 and the growth is so slow that1 when once the timber has been taken from the country1 the time necessary for a new forest growth is so great that no practical purpose is subserved4 ,the evidence that the growth of timber1 if protected from fires1 might be extended to the limits here given is abundant4 ,it is a matter of experience that planted forests thus protected will thrive throughout the prairie region and far westward on the ,great ,plains4 ,in the mountain region it may be frequently observed that forest trees grow low down on the mountain slopes and in the higher valleys wherever local circumstances protect them from fires1 as in the case of rocky lands that give insufficient footing to the grass and shrubs in which fires generally spread4 ,these cases must not be confounded with those patches of forest that grow on alluvial cones where rivers leave mountain caons and enter valleys or plains4 ,here the streams1 clogged by the material washed from the adjacent mountains by storms1 are frequently turned from their courses and divided into many channels running near the surface4 ,thus a subterranean watering is effected favorable to the growth of trees1 as their roots penetrate to sufficient depth4 ,usually this watering is too deep for agriculture1 so that forests grow on lands that cannot be cultivated without irrigation4 ,fire is the immediate cause of the lack of timber on the prairies1 the eastern portion of the ,great ,plains1 and on some portions of the highlands of the ,arid ,region2 but fires obtain their destructive force through climatic conditions1 so that directly and remotely climate determines the growth of all forests4 ,within the region where prairies1 groves1 and forests appear1 the local distribution of timber growth is chiefly dependent upon drainage and soil1 a subject which needs not be here discussed4 ,only a small portion of the ,rocky ,mountain ,region is protected by climatic conditions from the invasion of fires1 and a sufficiency of forests for the country depends upon the control which can be obtained over that destructive agent4 ,a glance at the map of ,utah will exhibit the extent and distribution of the forest region throughout that territory1 and also show what portions of it are in fact occupied by standing timber4 ,the area of standing timber1 as exhibited on the map1 is but a part of the ,timber ,region as there shown1 and includes all of the timber1 whether dense or scattered4 ,necessarily the area of standing timber has been generalized4 ,it was not found practicable to indicate the growth of timber in any refined way by grading it1 and by rejecting from the general area the innumerable small open spaces4 ,if the area of standing timber were considered by acres1 and all acres not having timber valuable for milling purposes rejected1 the extent would be reduced at least to one-fourth of that colored4 ,within the territory represented on the map the ,timber ,region has an extent of #ah1ejj square miles2 that is1 #bc per cent4 belongs to the ,timber ,region4 ,the general area of standing timber is about #aj1jjj square miles1 or #ab4e per cent4 of the entire area4 ,the area of milling timber1 determined in the more refined way indicated above1 is about #b1ejj square miles1 or #c per cent4 of the area embraced on the map4 ,in many portions of the ,arid ,region these percentages are much smaller4 ,this is true of southern ,california1 ,nevada1 southern ,arizona1 and ,idaho4 ,in other regions the percentages are larger4 ,utah gives about a fair average4 ,in general it may be stated that the timber regions are fully adequate to the growth of all the forests which the industrial interests of the country will require if they can be protected from desolation by fire4 ,no limitation to the use of the forests need be made4 ,the amount which the citizens of the country will require will bear but a small proportion to the amount which the fires will destroy2 and if the fires are prevented1 the renewal by annual growth will more than replace that taken by man4 ,the protection of the forests of the entire ,arid ,region of the ,united ,states is reduced to one single problem--,can these forests be saved from fire8 ,the writer has witnessed two fires in ,colorado1 each of which destroyed more timber than all that used by the citizens of that ,state from its settlement to the present day2 and at least three in ,utah1 each of which has destroyed more timber than that taken by the people of the territory since its occupation4 ,similar fires have been witnessed by other members of the surveying corps4 ,everywhere throughout the ,rocky ,mountain ,region the explorer away from the beaten paths of civilization meets with great areas of dead forests2 pines with naked arms and charred trunks attesting to the former presence of this great destroyer4 ,the younger forests are everywhere beset with fallen timber1 attesting to the rigor of the flames1 and in seasons of great drought the mountaineer sees the heavens filled with clouds of smoke4 ,in the main these fires are set by ,indians4 ,driven from the lowlands by advancing civilization1 they resort to the higher regions until they are forced back by the deep snows of winter4 ,want1 caused by the restricted area to which they resort for food2 the desire for luxuries to which they were strangers in their primitive condition1 and especially the desire for personal adornment1 together with a supply of more effective instruments for hunting and trapping1 have in late years1 during the rapid settlement of the country since the discovery of gold and the building of railroads1 greatly stimulated the pursuit of animals for their furs--the wealth and currency of the savage4 ,on their hunting excursions they systematically set fire to forests for the purpose of driving the game4 ,this is a fact well known to all mountaineers4 ,only the white hunters of the region properly understand why these fires are set1 it being usually attributed to a wanton desire on the part of the ,indians to destroy that which is of value to the white man4 ,the fires can1 then1 be very greatly curtailed by the removal of the ,indians4 ,these forest regions are made such by inexorable climatic conditions4 ,they are high among the summer frosts4 ,the plateaus are scored by deep caons1 and the mountains are broken with crags and peaks4 ,perhaps at some distant day a hardy people will occupy little glens and mountain valleys1 and wrest from an unwilling soil a scanty subsistence among the rigors of a sub-arctic climate4 ,herdsmen having homes below may in the summer time drive their flocks to the higher lands to crop the scanty herbage4 ,where mines are found mills will be erected and little towns spring up1 but in general habitations will be remote4 ,the forests will be dense here or scattered there1 as the trees may with ease or difficulty gain a foothold1 but the forest regions will remain such1 to be stripped of timber here and there from time to time to supply the wants of the people who live below2 but once protected from fires1 the forests will increase in extent and value4 ,the first step to be taken for their protection must be by prohibiting the ,indians from resorting thereto for hunting purposes1 and then slowly1 as the lower country is settled1 the grasses and herbage of the highlands1 in which fires generally spread1 will be kept down by summer pasturage1 and the dead and fallen timber will be removed to supply the wants of people below4 ,this protection1 though sure to come at last1 will be tardy1 for it depends upon the gradual settlement of the country2 and this again depends upon the development of the agricultural and mineral resources and the establishment of manufactories1 and to a very important extent on the building of railroads1 for the whole region is so arid that its streams are small1 and so elevated above the level of the sea that its few large streams descend too rapidly for navigation4 ,,agricultural ,,and ,,timber ,,industries ,,differentiated4 ,it is apparent that the irrigable lands are more or less remote from the timber lands2 and as the larger streams are employed for irrigation1 in the future the extended settlements will be still farther away4 ,the pasturage lands that in a general way intervene between the irrigable and timber lands have a scanty supply of dwarfed forests1 as already described1 and the people in occupying these lands will not resort1 to any great extent1 to the mountains for timber2 hence timber and agricultural enterprises will be more or less differentiated2 lumbermen and woodmen will furnish to the people below their supply of building and fencing material and fuel4 ,in some cases it will be practicable for the farmers to own their timber lands1 but in general the timber will be too remote1 and from necessity such a division of labor will ensue4 ,,cultivation ,,of ,,timber4 ,in the irrigable districts much timber will be cultivated along the canals and minor waterways4 ,it is probable that in time a sufficient amount will thus be raised to supply the people of the irrigable districts with fuel wherever such fuel is needed1 but often such a want will not exist1 for in the ,rocky ,mountain ,region there is a great abundance of lignitic coals that may be cheaply mined4 ,all these coals are valuable for domestic purposes1 and many superior grades are found4 ,these coals are not uniformly distributed1 but generally this source of fuel is ample4 ,,pasturage ,,lands4 ,the irrigable lands and timber lands constitute but a small fraction of the ,arid ,region4 ,between the lowlands on the one hand and the highlands on the other is found a great body of valley1 mesa1 hill1 and low mountain lands4 ,to what extent1 and under what conditions can they be utilized8 ,usually they bear a scanty growth of grasses4 ,these grasses are nutritious and valuable both for summer and winter pasturage4 ,their value depends upon peculiar climatic conditions2 the grasses grow to a great extent in scattered bunches1 and mature seeds in larger proportion perhaps than the grasses of the more humid regions4 ,in general the winter aridity is so great that the grasses when touched by the frosts are not washed down by the rains and snows to decay on the moist soil1 but stand firmly on the ground all winter long and 8cure01 forming a quasi uncut hay4 ,thus the grass lands are of value both in summer and winter4 ,in a broad way1 the greater or lesser abundance of the grasses is dependent on latitude and altitude2 the higher the latitude the better are the grasses1 and they improve as the altitude increases4 ,in very low altitudes and latitudes the grasses are so scant as to be of no value2 here the true deserts are found4 ,these conditions obtain in southern ,california1 southern ,nevada1 southern ,arizona1 and southern ,new ,mexico1 where broad reaches of land are naked of vegetation1 but in ascending to the higher lands the grass steadily improves4 ,northward the deserts soon disappear1 and the grass becomes more and more luxuriant to our northern boundary4 ,in addition to the desert lands mentioned1 other large deductions must be made from the area of the pasturage lands4 ,there are many districts in which the 8country rock0 is composed of incoherent sands and clays2 sometimes sediments of ancient ,tertiary lakes2 elsewhere sediments of more ancient ,cretaceous seas4 ,in these districts perennial or intermittent streams have carved deep waterways1 and the steep hills are ever washed naked by fierce but infrequent storms1 as the incoherent rocks are unable to withstand the beating of the rain4 ,these districts are known as the mauvaises terres or bad lands of the ,rocky ,mountain ,region4 ,in other areas the streams have carved labyrinths of deep gorges and the waters flow at great depths below the general surface4 ,the lands between the streams are beset with towering cliffs1 and the landscape is an expanse of naked rock4 ,these are the alcove lands and caon lands of the ,rocky ,mountain ,region4 ,still other districts have been the theater of late volcanic activity1 and broad sheets of naked lava are found2 cinder cones are frequent1 and scoria and ashes are scattered over the land4 ,these are the lava-beds of the ,rocky ,mountain ,region4 ,in yet other districts1 low broken mountains are found with rugged spurs and craggy crests4 ,grasses and chaparral grow among the rocks1 but such mountains are of little value for pasturage purposes4 ,after making all the deductions1 there yet remain vast areas of valuable pasturage land bearing nutritious but scanty grass4 ,the lands along the creeks and rivers have been relegated to that class which has been described as irrigable1 hence the lands under consideration are away from the permanent streams4 ,no rivers sweep over them and no creeks meander among their hills4 ,though living water is not abundant1 the country is partially supplied by scattered springs1 that often feed little brooks whose waters never join the great rivers on their way to the sea1 being able to run but a short distance from their fountains1 when they spread among the sands to be revaporated4 ,these isolated springs and brooks will in many cases furnish the water necessary for the herds that feed on the grasses4 ,when springs are not found wells may be sometimes dug1 and where both springs and wells fail reservoirs may be constructed4 ,wherever grass grows water may be found or saved from the rains in sufficient quantities for all the herds that can live on the pasturage4 ,,pasturage ,,farms ,,need ,,small ,,tracts ,,of ,,irrigable ,,land4 ,the men engaged in stock raising need small areas of irrigable lands for gardens and fields where agricultural products can be raised for their own consumption1 and where a store of grain and hay may be raised for their herds when pressed by the severe storms by which the country is sometimes visited4 ,in many places the lone springs and streams are sufficient for these purposes4 ,another and larger source of water for the fertilization of the gardens and fields of the pasturage farms is found in the smaller branches and upper ramifications of the larger irrigating streams4 ,these brooks can be used to better advantage for the pasturage farms as a supply of water for stock gardens and small fields than for farms where agriculture by irrigation is the only industry4 ,the springs and brooks of the permanent drainage can be employed in making farms attractive and profitable where large herds may be raised in many great districts throughout the ,rocky ,mountain ,region4 ,the conditions under which these pasturage lands can be employed are worthy of consideration4 ,,the ,,farm ,,unit ,,for ,,pasturage ,,lands4 ,the grass is so scanty that the herdsman must have a large area for the support of his stock4 ,in general a quarter section of land alone is of no value to him2 the pasturage it affords is entirely inadequate to the wants of a herd that the poorest man needs for his support4 ,four square miles may be considered as the minimum amount necessary for a pasturage farm1 and a still greater amount is necessary for the larger part of the lands2 that is1 pasturage farms1 to be of any practicable value1 must be of at least #b1efj acres1 and in many districts they must be much larger4#a #a ,for the determination of the proper unit for pasturage farms the writer has conferred with many persons living in the ,rocky ,mountain ,region who have had experience4 ,his own observations have been extensive1 and for many years while conducting surveys and making long journeys through the ,arid ,region this question has been uppermost in his mind4 ,he fears that this estimate will disappoint many of his western friends1 who will think he has placed the minimum too low1 but after making the most thorough examination of the subject possible he believes the amount to be sufficient for the best pasturage lands1 especially such as are adjacent to the minor streams of the general drainage1 and when these have been taken by actual settlers the size of the pasturage farms may be increased as experience proves necessary4 ,,regular ,,division ,,lines ,,for ,,pasturage ,,farms ,,not ,,practicable4 ,many a brook which runs but a short distance will afford sufficient water for a number of pasturage farms2 but if the lands are surveyed in regular tracts as square miles or townships1 all the water sufficient for a number of pasturage farms may fall entirely within one division4 ,if the lands are thus surveyed1 only the divisions having water will be taken1 and the farmer obtaining title to such a division or farm could practically occupy all the country adjacent by owning the water necessary to its use4 ,for this reason divisional surveys should conform to the topography1 and be so made as to give the greatest number of water fronts4 ,for example1 a brook carrying water sufficient for the irrigation of #bjj acres of land might be made to serve for the irrigation of #bj acres to each of ten farms1 and also supply the water for all the stock that could live on ten pasturage farms1 and ten small farmers could have homes4 ,but if the water was owned by one man1 nine would be excluded from its benefits and nine-tenths of the land remain in the hands of the government4 ,,farm ,,residences ,,should ,,be ,,grouped4 ,these lands will maintain but a scanty population4 ,the homes must necessarily be widely scattered from the fact that the farm unit must be large4 ,that the inhabitants of these districts may have the benefits of the local social organizations of civilization--as schools1 churches1 etc41 and the benefits of coperation in the construction of roads1 bridges1 and other local improvements1 it is essential that the residences should be grouped to the greatest possible extent4 ,this may be practically accomplished by making the pasturage farms conform to topographic features in such manner as to give the greatest possible number of water fronts4 ,,pasturage ,,lands ,,cannot ,,be ,,fenced4 ,the great areas over which stock must roam to obtain subsistence usually prevents the practicability of fencing the lands4 ,it will not pay to fence the pasturage fields1 hence in many cases the lands must be occupied by herds roaming in common2 for poor men coperative pasturage is necessary1 or communal regulations for the occupancy of the ground and for the division of the increase of the herds4 ,such communal regulations have already been devised in many parts of the country4 ,,recapitulation4 ,the ,arid ,region of the ,united ,states is more than four-tenths of the area of the entire country excluding ,alaska4 ,in the ,arid ,region there are three classes of lands1 namely1 irrigable lands1 timber lands1 and pasturage lands4 ,,irrigable ,,lands4 ,within the ,arid ,region agriculture is dependent upon irrigation4 ,the amount of irrigable land is but a small percentage of the whole area4 ,the chief development of irrigation depends upon the use of the large streams4 ,for the use of large streams coperative labor or capital is necessary4 ,the small streams should not be made to serve lands so as to interfere with the use of the large streams4 ,sites for reservoirs should be set apart1 in order that no hinderance may be placed upon the increase of irrigation by the storage of water4 ,,timber ,,lands4 ,the timber regions are on the elevated plateaus and mountains4 ,the timber regions constitute from #bj to #be per cent4 of the ,arid ,region4 ,the area of standing timber is much less than the timber region1 as the forests have been partially destroyed by fire4 ,the timber regions cannot be used as farming lands2 they are valuable for forests only4 ,to preserve the forests they must be protected from fire4 ,this will be largely accomplished by removing the ,indians4 ,the amount of timber used for economic purposes will be more than replaced by the natural growth4 ,in general the timber is too far from the agricultural lands to be owned and utilized directly by those who carry on farming by irrigation4 ,a division of labor is necessary1 and special timber industries will be developed1 and hence the timber lands must be controlled by lumbermen and woodmen4 ,,pasturage ,,lands4 ,the grasses of the pasturage lands are scant1 and the lands are of value only in large quantities4 ,the farm unit should not be less than #b1efj acres4 ,pasturage farms need small tracts of irrigable land2 hence the small streams of the general drainage system and the lone springs and streams should be reserved for such pasturage farms4 ,the division of these lands should be controlled by topographic features in such manner as to give the greatest number of water fronts to the pasturage farms4 ,residences of the pasturage farms should be grouped1 in order to secure the benefits of local social organizations1 and coperation in public improvements4 ,the pasturage lands will not usually be fenced1 and hence herds must roam in common4 ,as the pasturage lands should have water fronts and irrigable tracts1 and as the residences should be grouped1 and as the lands cannot be economically fenced and must be kept in common1 local communal regulations or coperation is necessary4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,land ,,system ,,needed ,,for ,,the ,,arid ,,region4 ,the growth and prosperity of the ,arid ,region will depend largely upon a land system which will comply with the requirements of the conditions and facts briefly set forth in the former chapter4 ,any citizen of the ,united ,states may acquire title to public lands by purchase at public sale or by ordinary 8private entry01 and in virtue of premption1 homestead1 timber culture1 and desert land laws4 ,purchase at public sale may be effected when the lands are offered at public auction to the highest bidder1 either pursuant to proclamation by the ,president or public notice given in accordance with instructions from the ,general ,land ,office4 ,if the land is thus offered and purchasers are not found1 they are then subject to 8private entry0 at the rate of #a4be or #b4ej per acre4 ,for a number of years it has not been the practice of the ,government to dispose of the public lands by these methods2 but the public lands of the southern states are now1 or soon will be1 thus offered for sale4 ,any citizen may prempt #afj acres of land1 and by settling thereon1 erecting a dwelling1 and making other improvements1 and by paying #a4be per acre in some districts1 without the boundaries of railroad grants1 and #b4ej within the boundaries of railroad grants in others1 may acquire title thereto4 ,the premption right can be exercised but once4 ,no person can exercise the premption right who is already the owner of #cbj acres of land4 ,any citizen may1 under the homestead privilege1 obtain title to #afj acres of land valued at #a4be per acre1 or #hj acres valued at the rate of #b4ej1 by payment of #e in the first case and #aj in the last1 and by residing on the land for the term of five years and by making certain improvements4 ,the time of residence is shortened for persons who have served in the army or navy of the ,united ,states1 and any such person may homestead #afj acres of land valued at #b4ej per acre4 ,any citizen may take advantage of both the homestead and premption privileges4 ,under the timber culture act1 any citizen who is the head of a family may acquire title to #afj acres of land in the prairie region by cultivating timber thereon in certain specific quantities2 the title can be acquired at the expiration of eight years from the date of entry4 ,any citizen may acquire title to one section of desert land 7irrigable lands as described in this paper7 by the payment at the time of entry of #be cents per acre1 and by redeeming the same by irrigation within a period of three years and by the payment of #a per acre at the expiration of that time1 and a patent will then issue4 ,provision is also made for the disposal of public lands as town sites4 ,from time to time land warrants have been issued by the ,government as bounties to soldiers and sailors1 and for other purposes4 ,these land warrants have found their way into the market1 and the owners thereof are entitled to enter ,government lands in the quantities specified in the warrants4 ,agricultural scrip has been issued for the purpose of establishing and endowing agricultural schools4 ,a part of this scrip has been used by the schools in locating lands for investment4 ,much of the scrip has found its way into the market and is used by private individuals4 ,warrants and scrip can be used when lands have been offered for sale1 and premptors can use them in lieu of money4 ,grants of lands have been made to railroad and other companies1 and as these railroads have been completed in whole or in part1 the companies have obtained titles to the whole or proportional parts of the lands thus granted4 ,where the railroads are unfinished the titles are inchoate to an extent proportional to the incomplete parts4 ,with small exceptions1 the lands of the ,arid ,region have not been offered for sale at auction or by private entry4 ,the methods1 then1 by which the lands under consideration can be obtained from the ,government are by taking advantage of the premption1 homestead1 timber culture1 or desert land privileges4 ,,irrigable ,,lands4 ,by these methods adequate provision is made for actual settlers on all irrigable lands that are dependent on the waters of minor streams2 but these methods are insufficient for the settlement of the irrigable lands that depend on the larger streams1 and also for the pasturage lands and timber lands1 and in this are included nearly all the lands of the ,arid ,region4 ,if the irrigable lands are to be sold1 it should be in quantities to suit purchasers1 and but one condition should be imposed1 namely1 that the lands should be actually irrigated before the title is transferred to the purchaser4 ,this method would provide for the redemption of these lands by irrigation through the employment of capital4 ,if these lands are to be reserved for actual settlers1 in small quantities1 to provide homes for poor men1 on the principle involved in the homestead laws1 a general law should be enacted under which a number of persons would be able to organize and settle on irrigable districts1 and establish their own rules and regulations for the use of the water and subdivision of the lands1 but in obedience to the general provisions of the law4 ,,timber ,,lands4 ,the timber lands cannot be acquired by any of the methods provided in the premption1 homestead1 timber culture1 and desert land laws1 from the fact that they are not agricultural lands4 ,climatic conditions make these methods inoperative4 ,under these laws 8dummy entries0 are sometimes made4 ,a man wishing to obtain the timber from a tract of land will make homestead or premption entries by himself or through his employs without intending to complete the titles1 being able thus to hold these lands for a time sufficient to strip them of their timber4 ,this is thought to be excusable by the people of the country1 as timber is necessary for their industries1 and the timber lands cannot honestly be acquired by those who wish to engage in timber enterprises4 ,provision should be made by which the timber can be purchased by persons or companies desiring to engage in the lumber or wood business1 and in such quantities as may be necessary to encourage the construction of mills1 the erection of flumes1 the making of roads1 and other improvements necessary to the utilization of the timber for the industries of the country4 ,,pasturage ,,lands4 ,if divisional surveys were extended over the pasturage lands1 favorable sites at springs and along small streams would be rapidly taken under the homestead and premption privileges for the nuclei of pasturage farms4 ,unentered lands contiguous to such pasturage farms could be controlled to a greater or less extent by those holding the water1 and in this manner the pasturage of the country would be rendered practicable4 ,but the great body of land would remain in the possession of the ,government2 the farmers owning the favorable spots could not obtain possession of the adjacent lands by homestead or premption methods1 and if such adjacent lands were offered for sale1 they could not afford to pay the ,government price4 ,certain important facts relating to the pasturage farms may be advantageously restated4 ,the farm unit should not be less than #b1efj acres2 the pasturage farms need small bodies of irrigable land2 the division of these lands should be controlled by topographic features to give water fronts2 residences of the pasturage lands should be grouped2 the pasturage farms cannot be fenced--they must be occupied in common4 ,the homestead and premption methods are inadequate to meet these conditions4 ,a general law should be enacted to provide for the organization of pasturage districts1 in which the residents should have the right to make their own regulations for the division of the lands1 the use of the water for irrigation and for watering the stock1 and for the pasturage of the lands in common or in severalty4 ,but each division or pasturage farm of the district should be owned by an individual2 that is1 these lands could be settled and improved by the 8colony0 plan better than by any other4 ,it should not be understood that the colony system applies only to such persons as migrate from the east in a body2 any number of persons already in this region could thus organize4 ,in fact very large bodies of these lands would be taken by people who are already in the country and who have herds with which they roam about seeking water and grass1 and making no permanent residences and no valuable improvements4 ,such a plan would give immediate relief to all these people4 ,this district or colony system is not untried in this country4 ,it is essentially the basis of all the mining district organizations of the west4 ,under it the local rules and regulations for the division of mining lands1 the use of water1 timber1 etc41 are managed better than they could possibly be under specific statutes of the ,united ,states4 ,the association of a number of people prevents single individuals from having undue control of natural privileges1 and secures an equitable division of mineral lands2 and all this is secured in obedience to statutes of the ,united ,states providing general regulations4 ,customs are forming and regulations are being made by common consent among the people in some districts already2 but these provide no means for the acquirement of titles to land1 no incentive is given to the improvement of the country1 and no legal security to pasturage rights4 ,if1 then1 the irrigable lands can be taken in quantities to suit purchasers1 and the colony system provided for poor men who wish to coperate in this industry2 if the timber lands are opened to timber enterprises1 and the pasturage lands offered to settlement under a colony plan like that indicated above1 a land system would be provided for the ,arid ,region adapted to the wants of all persons desiring to become actual settlers therein4 ,thousands of men who now own herds and live a semi-nomadic life2 thousands of persons who now roam from mountain range to mountain range prospecting for gold1 silver1 and other minerals2 thousands of men who repair to that country and return disappointed from the fact that they are practically debarred from the public lands2 and thousands of persons in the eastern states without employment1 or discontented with the rewards of labor1 would speedily find homes in the great ,rocky ,mountain ,region4 ,in making these recommendations1 the wisdom and beneficence of the homestead system have been recognized and the principles involved have been considered paramount4 ,to give more definite form to some of the recommendations for legislation made above1 two bills have been drawn1 one relating to the organization of irrigation districts1 the other to pasturage districts4 ,these bills are presented here4 ,it is not supposed that these forms are the best that could be adopted2 perhaps they could be greatly improved2 but they have been carefully considered1 and it is believed they embody the recommendations made above4 ,a ,,bill to authorize the organization of irrigation districts by homestead settlements upon the public lands requiring irrigation for agricultural purposes4 ,be it enacted by the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives of the ,united ,states of ,america in ,congress assembled1 ,that it shall be lawful for any nine or more persons who may be entitled to acquire a homestead from the public lands1 as provided for in sections twenty-two hundred and eighty-nine to twenty-three hundred and seventeen1 inclusive1 of the ,revised ,statutes of the ,united ,states1 to settle an irrigation district and to acquire titles to irrigable lands under the limitations and conditions hereinafter provided4 ,,sec4 #b4 ,that it shall be lawful for the persons mentioned in section one of this act to organize an irrigation district in accordance with a form and general regulations to be prescribed by the ,commissioner of the ,general ,land ,office1 which shall provide for a recorder2 and said persons may make such by-laws1 not in conflict with said regulations1 as they may deem wise for the use of waters in such district for irrigation or other purposes1 and for the division of the lands into such parcels as they may deem most convenient for irrigating purposes2 but the same must accord with the provisions of this act4 ,,sec4 #c4 ,that all lands in those portions of the ,united ,states where irrigation is necessary to agriculture1 which can be redeemed by irrigation and for which there is accessible water for such purpose1 not otherwise utilized or lawfully claimed1 sufficient for the irrigation of three hundred and twenty acres of land1 shall1 for the purposes set forth in this act1 be classed as irrigable lands4 ,,sec4 #d4 ,that it shall be lawful for the requisite number of persons1 as designated in section one of this act1 to select from the public lands designated as irrigable lands in section three of this act1 for the purpose of settling thereon1 an amount of land not exceeding eighty acres to each person2 but the lands thus selected by the persons desiring to organize an irrigation district shall be in one continuous tract1 and the same shall be subdivided as the regulations and by-laws of the irrigation district shall prescribe3 ,provided1 ,that no one person shall be entitled to more than eighty acres4 ,,sec4 #e4 ,that whenever such irrigation district shall be organized the recorder of such district shall notify the register and receiver of the land district in which such irrigation district is situate1 and also the ,surveyor-,general of the ,united ,states1 that such irrigation district has been organized2 and each member of the organization of said district shall file a declaration with the register and receiver of said land district that he has settled upon a tract of land within such irrigation district1 not exceeding the prescribed amount1 with the intention of residing thereon and obtaining a title thereto under the provisions of this act4 ,,sec4 #f4 ,that if within three years after the organization of the irrigation district the claimants therein1 in their organized capacity1 shall apply for a survey of said district to the ,surveyor-,general of the ,united ,states1 he shall cause a proper survey to be made1 together with a plat of the same2 and on this plat each tract or parcel of land into which the district is divided1 such tract or parcel being the entire claim of one person1 shall be numbered1 and the measure of every angle1 the length of every line in the boundaries thereof1 and the number of acres in each tract or parcel shall be inscribed thereon1 and the name of the district shall appear on the plat in full2 and this plat and the field-notes of such survey shall be submitted to the ,surveyor-,general of the ,united ,states2 and it shall be the duty of that officer to examine the plat and notes therewith and prove the accuracy of the survey in such manner as the ,commissioner of the ,general ,land ,office may prescribe2 and if it shall appear after such examination and proving that correct surveys have been made1 and that the several tracts claimed are within the provisions of this act1 he shall certify the same to the register of the land district1 and shall thereupon furnish to the said register of the land district1 and to the recorder of the irrigation district1 and to the recorder or clerk of the county in which the irrigation district is situate1 and to the ,commissioner of the ,general ,land ,office1 a copy thereof to each1 and the original shall be retained in the office of the ,surveyor-,general of the ,united ,states for preservation4 ,,sec4 #g4 ,that each person applying for the benefits of this act shall1 in addition to compliance therewith1 conform to the methods provided for the acquirement of a homestead in sections twenty-two hundred and eighty-nine to twenty-three hundred and seventeen1 inclusive1 of the ,revised ,statutes of the ,united ,states1 so far as they are applicable and consistent with this act1 and shall also furnish such evidence as the ,commissioner of the ,general ,land ,office may require that such land has actually been redeemed by irrigation1 and may thereupon obtain a patent3 ,provided1 ,that no person shall obtain a patent under this act to any coal lands1 town sites1 or tracts of public lands on which towns may have been built1 or to any mine of gold1 silver1 cinnabar1 copper1 or other mineral for the sale or disposal of which provision has been made by law4 ,,sec4 #h4 ,that the lands patented under the provisions of this act shall be described as irrigation farms1 and designated by the number of the tract or parcel and the name of the irrigation district4 ,,sec4 #i4 ,that the right to the water necessary to the redemption of an irrigation farm shall inhere in the land from the time of the organization of the irrigation district1 and in all subsequent conveyances the right to the water shall pass with the title to the land4 ,but if after the lapse of five years from the date of the organization of the district the owner of any irrigation farm shall have failed to irrigate the whole or any part of the same1 the right to the use of the necessary water to irrigate the unreclaimed lands shall thereupon lapse1 and any subsequent right to water necessary for the cultivation of said unreclaimed land shall be acquired only by priority of utilization4 ,,sec4 #aj4 ,that it shall be lawful for any person entitled to acquire a homestead from the public lands as designated in section one of this act to settle on an irrigation farm contiguous to any irrigation district after such district has been organized by making the notifications and declaration provided for in section five of this act1 and by notifying the recorder of such irrigation district1 and also by complying with the rules and regulations of such district2 and such person may thereupon become a member of the district and entitled to the same privileges as the other members thereof2 and it shall be the duty of the recorder of the irrigation district to notify the register and receiver of the land district1 and also the ,surveyor-,general of the ,united ,states1 that such claim has been made2 and such person may obtain a patent to the same under the conditions and by conforming to the methods prescribed in this act3 ,provided1 ,that the water necessary for the irrigation of such farm can be taken without injury to the rights of any person who shall have entered an irrigation farm in such district3 ,and provided further1 ,that the right to the water necessary to the redemption of such irrigation farm shall inhere in the land from the time when said person becomes a member of said district1 and in all subsequent conveyances the right to the water shall pass with the title to the land2 but if1 after the lapse of five years from the date of said notifications and declaration1 the owner of said irrigation farm shall have failed to irrigate the whole or any part of the same1 the right to the use of the necessary water to irrigate the unreclaimed lands shall thereupon lapse1 and any subsequent right to the water necessary for the cultivation of the said unreclaimed land shall be acquired only by priority of utilization4 ,a ,,bill to authorize the organization of pasturage districts by homestead settlements on the public lands which are of value for pasturage purposes only4 ,be it enacted by the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives of the ,united ,states of ,america in ,congress assembled1 ,that it shall be lawful for any nine or more persons who may be entitled to acquire a homestead from the public lands1 as provided for in section twenty-two hundred and eighty-nine to twenty-three hundred and seventeen1 inclusive1 of the ,revised ,statutes of the ,united ,states1 to settle a pasturage district and to acquire titles to pasturage lands under the limitations and conditions hereinafter provided4 ,,sec4 #b4 ,that it shall be lawful for the persons mentioned in section one of this act to organize a pasturage district in accordance with a form and general regulations to be prescribed by the ,commissioner of the ,general ,land ,office1 which shall provide for a recorder2 and said persons may make such by-laws1 not in conflict with said regulations1 as they may deem wise for the use of waters in such district for irrigation or other purposes1 and for the pasturage of the lands severally or conjointly2 but the same must accord with the provisions of this act4 ,,sec4 #c4 ,that all lands in those portions of the ,united ,states where irrigation is necessary to agriculture shall be1 for the purposes set forth in this act1 classed as pasturage lands1 excepting all tracts of land of not less than three hundred and twenty acres which can be redeemed by irrigation1 and where there is sufficient accessible water for such purpose not otherwise utilized or lawfully claimed1 and all lands bearing timber of commercial value4 ,,sec4 #d4 ,that it shall be lawful for the requisite number of persons1 as designated in section one of this act1 to select from the public lands designated as pasturage lands in section three of this act1 for the purpose of settling thereon1 an amount of land not exceeding two thousand five hundred and sixty acres to each person2 but the lands thus selected by the persons desiring to organize a pasturage district shall be in one continuous tract1 and the same shall be subdivided as the regulations and by-laws of the pasturage district shall prescribe3 ,provided1 ,that no one person shall be entitled to more than two thousand five hundred and sixty acres1 and this may be in one continuous body1 or it may be in two parcels1 one for irrigation1 the other for pasturage purposes2 but the parcel for irrigation shall not exceed twenty acres3 ,and provided further1 ,that no tract or tracts of land selected for any one person shall be entitled to a greater amount of water for irrigating purposes than that sufficient for the reclamation and cultivation of twenty acres of land2 nor shall the tract be selected in such a manner along a stream as to monopolize a greater amount4 ,,sec4 #f4 ,that whenever such pasturage district shall be organized1 the recorder of such district shall notify the register and receiver of the land district in which such pasturage district is situate1 and also the ,surveyor-,general of the ,united ,states1 that such pasturage district has been organized2 and each member of the organization of said district shall file a declaration with the register and receiver of said land district that he has settled upon a tract of land within such pasturage district1 not exceeding the prescribed amount1 with the intention of residing thereon and obtaining a title thereto under the provisions of this act4 ,,sec4 #f4 ,that if within three years after the organization of the pasturage district the claimants therein1 in their organized capacity1 shall apply for a survey of said district to the ,surveyor-,general of the ,united ,states1 he shall cause a proper survey to be made1 together with a plat of the same2 and on this plat each tract or parcel of land into which the district is divided shall be numbered1 and the measure of every angle1 the length of every line in the boundaries thereof1 and the number of acres in each tract or parcel1 shall be inscribed thereon1 and the name of the district shall appear on the plat in full2 and this plat and the field-notes of such survey shall be submitted to the ,surveyor-,general of the ,united ,states2 and it shall be the duty of that officer to examine the plat and notes therewith and prove the accuracy of the survey in such manner as the ,commissioner of the ,general ,land ,office may prescribe2 and if it shall appear after such examination and proving that correct surveys have been made1 and that the several tracts claimed are within the provisions of this act1 he shall certify the same to the register of the land district1 and shall furnish to the said register of the land district1 and to the recorder of the pasturage district1 and to the recorder or clerk of the county in which the pasturage district is situate1 and to the ,commissioner of the ,general ,land ,office1 a copy thereof to each2 and the original shall be retained in the office of the ,surveyor-,general of the ,united ,states for preservation4 ,,sec4 #g4 ,that each person applying for the benefits of this act shall1 in addition to compliance therewith1 conform to the methods provided for the acquirement of a homestead in sections twenty-two hundred and eighty-nine to twenty-three hundred and seventeen1 inclusive1 of the ,revised ,statutes of the ,united ,states1 so far as they are applicable and consistent with this act1 and may thereupon obtain a patent3 ,provided1 ,that no person shall obtain a patent under this act to any coal lands1 town sites1 or tracts of public lands on which towns may have been built1 or to any mine of gold1 silver1 cinnabar1 copper1 or other mineral for the sale or disposal of which provision has been made by law4 ,,sec4 #h4 ,that the lands patented under the provisions of this act shall be described as pasturage farms1 and designated by the number of the tract or parcel and the name of the pasturage district4 ,,sec4 #i4 ,that the right to the water necessary to the redemption of an irrigation tract of a pasturage farm shall inhere in the land from the time of the organization of the pasturage district1 and in all subsequent conveyances the right to the water shall pass with the title to the tract2 but if after a lapse of five years from the date of the organization of the pasturage district the owner of any pasturage farm shall have failed to irrigate the whole or any part of the irrigable tract the right to the use of the necessary water to irrigate the unreclaimed land shall thereupon lapse1 and any subsequent right to water necessary for the cultivation of such unreclaimed land shall be acquired only by priority of utilization4 ,,sec4 #aj4 ,that it shall be lawful for any person entitled to acquire a homestead from the public lands designated in section one of this act to settle on a pasturage farm contiguous to any pasturage district after such district has been organized1 by making the notifications and declaration provided for in section five of this act1 and by notifying the recorder of such pasturage district1 and also by complying with the rules and regulations of such district2 and such person may thereupon become a member of the district and entitled to the same privileges as the other members thereof2 and it shall be the duty of the recorder of the pasturage district to notify the register and receiver of the land district1 and also the ,surveyor-,general of the ,united ,states1 that such claim has been made2 and such person may obtain a patent to the same under the conditions and by conforming to the methods prescribed in this act3 ,provided1 ,that the water necessary for such farm can be taken without injury to the rights of any person who shall have entered a pasturage farm in such district3 ,and provided further1 ,that the right to the water necessary to the redemption of the irrigable tract of such pasturage farm shall inhere in the land from the time when said person becomes a member of said district1 and in all subsequent conveyances the right to the water shall pass with the title to the land2 but if1 after the lapse of five years from the date of such notifications and declaration1 the owner of said irrigable tract shall have failed to irrigate the whole or any part of the same1 the right to the use of the necessary water to irrigate the unreclaimed land shall thereupon lapse1 and any subsequent right to the water necessary to the cultivation of the said unreclaimed land shall be acquired only by priority of utilization4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the provisions in the submitted bills by which the settlers themselves may parcel their lands may need further comment and elucidation4 ,if the whole of the ,arid ,region was yet unsettled1 it might be wise for the ,government to undertake the parceling of the lands and employ skilled engineers to do the work1 whose duties could then be performed in advance of settlement4 ,it is manifest that this work cannot be properly performed under the contract system2 it would be necessary to employ persons of skill and judgment under a salary system4 ,the mining industries which have sprung up in the country since the discovery of gold on the ,pacific coast1 in #ahdi1 have stimulated immigration1 so that settlements are scattered throughout the ,arid ,region2 mining towns have sprung up on the flanks of almost every great range of mountains1 and adjacent valleys have been occupied by persons desiring to engage in agriculture4 ,many of the lands surveyed along the minor streams have been entered1 and the titles to these lands are in the hands of actual settlers4 ,many pasturage farms1 or ranches1 as they are called locally1 have been established throughout the country4 ,these remarks are true of every state and territory in the ,arid ,region4 ,in the main these ranches or pasturage farms are on ,government land1 and the settlers are squatters1 and some are not expecting to make permanent homes4 ,many other persons have engaged in pasturage enterprises without having made fixed residences1 but move about from place to place with their herds4 ,it is now too late for the ,government to parcel the pasturage lands in advance of the wants of settlers in the most available way1 so as to closely group residences and give water privileges to the several farms4 ,many of the settlers are actually on the ground1 and are clamoring for some means by which they can obtain titles to pasturage farms of an extent adequate to their wants1 and the tens of thousands of individual interests would make the problem a difficult one for the officers of the ,government to solve4 ,a system less arbitrary than that of the rectangular surveys now in vogue1 and requiring unbiased judgment1 overlooking the interests of single individuals and considering only the interests of the greatest number1 would meet with local opposition4 ,the surveyors themselves would be placed under many temptations1 and would be accused--sometimes rightfully perhaps1 sometimes unjustly--of favoritism and corruption1 and the service would be subject to the false charges of disappointed men on the one hand1 and to truthful charges against corrupt men on the other4 ,in many ways it would be surrounded with difficulties and fall into disrepute4 ,under these circumstances it is believed that it is best to permit the people to divide their lands for themselves--not in a way by which each man may take what he pleases for himself1 but by providing methods by which these settlers may organize and mutually protect each other from the rapacity of individuals4 ,the lands1 as lands1 are of but slight value1 as they cannot be used for ordinary agricultural purposes1 i4 e41 the cultivation of crops2 but their value consists in the scant grasses which they spontaneously produce1 and these values can be made available only by the use of the waters necessary for the subsistence of stock1 and that necessary for the small amount of irrigable land which should be attached to the several pasturage farms4 ,thus1 practically1 all values inhere in the water1 and an equitable division of the waters can be made only by a wise system of parceling the lands2 and the people in organized bodies can well be trussed with this right1 while individuals could not thus be trusted4 ,these considerations have led to the plan suggested in the bill submitted for the organization of pasturage districts4 ,in like manner1 in the bill designed for the purpose of suggesting a plan for the organization of irrigation districts1 the same principle is involved1 viz1 that of permitting the settlers themselves to subdivide the lands into such tracts as they may desire4 ,the lands along the streams are not valuable for agricultural purposes in continuous bodies or squares1 but only in irrigable tracts governed by the levels of the meandering canals which carry the water for irrigation1 and it would be greatly to the advantage of every such district if the lands could be divided into parcels1 governed solely by the conditions under which the water could be distributed over them2 and such parceling cannot be properly done prior to the occupancy of the lands1 but can only be made pari passu with the adoption of a system of canals2 and the people settling on these lands should be allowed the privilege of dividing the lands into such tracts as may be most available for such purposes1 and they should not be hampered with the present arbitrary system of dividing the lands into rectangular tracts4 ,those who are acquainted with the history of the land system of the eastern states1 and know the difficulty of properly identifying or determining the boundaries of many of the parcels or tracts of land into which the country is divided1 and who appreciate the cumbrous method of describing such lands by metes and bounds in conveyances1 may at first thought object to the plan of parceling lands into irregular tracts4 ,they may fear that if the system of parceling the lands into townships and sections1 and describing the same in conveyances by reference to certain great initial points in the surveys of the lands1 is abandoned1 it will lead to the uncertainties and difficulties that belonged to the old system4 ,but the evils of that system did not belong to the shape into which the lands were divided4 ,the lands were often not definitely and accurately parceled2 actual boundary lines were not fixed on the ground and accurate plats were not made1 and the description of the boundary lines was usually vague and uncertain4 ,it matters not what the shape of tracts or parcels may be2 if these parcels are accurately defined by surveys on the ground and plotted for record1 none of these uncertainties will arise1 and if these tracts or parcels are lettered or numbered on the plats1 they may be very easily described in conveyances without entering into a long and tedious description of metes and bounds4 ,in most of our western towns and cities lots are accurately surveyed and plotted and described by number of lot1 number of block1 etc41 etc41 and such a simple method should be used in conveying the pasturage lands4 ,while the system of parceling and conveying by section1 township1 range1 etc41 was a very great improvement on the system which previously existed1 the much more simple method used in most of our cities and towns would be a still further improvement4 ,the title to no tract of land should be conveyed from the ,government to the individual until the proper survey of the same is made and the plat prepared for record4 ,with this precaution1 which the ,government already invariably takes in disposing of its lands1 no fear of uncertainty of identification need be entertained4 ,,water ,,rights4 ,in each of the suggested bills there is a clause providing that1 with certain restrictions1 the right to the water necessary to irrigate any tract of land shall inhere in the land itself from the date of the organization of the district4 ,the object of this is to give settlers on pasturage or irrigation farms the assurance that their lands shall not be made worthless by taking away the water to other lands by persons settling subsequently in adjacent portions of the country4 ,the men of small means who under the theory of the bill are to receive its benefits will need a few years in which to construct the necessary waterways and bring their lands under cultivation4 ,on the other hand1 they should not be permitted to acquire rights to water without using the same4 ,the construction of the waterways necessary to actual irrigation by the land owners may be considered as a sufficient guarantee that the waters will subsequently be used4 ,the general subject of water rights is one of great importance4 ,in many places in the ,arid ,region irrigation companies are organized who obtain vested rights in the waters they control1 and consequently the rights to such waters do not inhere in any particular tracts of land4 ,when the area to which it is possible to take the water of any given stream is much greater than the stream is competent to serve1 if the land titles and water rights are severed1 the owner of any tract of land is at the mercy of the owner of the water right4 ,in general1 the lands greatly exceed the capacities of the streams4 ,thus the lands have no value without water4 ,if the water rights fall into the hands of irrigating companies and the lands into the hands of individual farmers1 the farmers then will be dependent upon the stock companies1 and eventually the monopoly of water rights will be an intolerable burden to the people4 ,the magnitude of the interests involved must not be overlooked4 ,all the present and future agriculture of more than four-tenths of the area of the ,united ,states is dependent upon irrigation1 and practically all values for agricultural industries inhere1 not in the lands but in the water4 ,monopoly of land need not be feared4 ,the question for legislators to solve is to devise some practical means by which water rights may be distributed among individual farmers and water monopolies prevented4 ,the pioneers in the 8new countries0 in the ,united ,states have invariably been characterized by enterprise and industry and an intense desire for the speedy development of their new homes4 ,these characteristics are no whit less prominent in the ,rocky ,mountain ,region than in the earlier 8new countries02 but they are even more apparent4 ,the hardy pioneers engage in a multiplicity of industrial enterprises surprising to the people of long established habits and institutions4 ,under the impetus of this spirit irrigation companies are organized and capital invested in irrigating canals1 and but little heed is given to philosophic considerations of political economy or to the ultimate condition of affairs in which their present enterprises will result4 ,the pioneer is fully engaged in the present with its hopes of immediate remuneration for labor4 ,the present development of the country fully occupies him4 ,for this reason every effort put forth to increase the area of the agricultural land by irrigation is welcomed4 ,every man who turns his attention to this department of industry is considered a public benefactor4 ,but if in the eagerness for present development a land and water system shall grow up in which the practical control of agriculture shall fall into the hands of water companies1 evils will result therefrom that generations may not be able to correct1 and the very men who are now lauded as benefactors to the country will1 in the ungovernable reaction which is sure to come1 be denounced as oppressors of the people4 ,the right to use water should inhere in the land to be irrigated1 and water rights should go with land titles4 ,those unacquainted with the industrial institutions of the far west1 involving the use of lands and waters1 may without careful thought suppose that the long recognized principles of the common law are sufficient to prevent the severance of land and water rights2 but other practices are obtaining which have1 or eventually will have1 all the force of common law1 because the necessities of the country require the change1 and these practices are obtaining the color of right from state and territorial legislation1 and to some extent by national legislation4 ,in all that country the natural channels of the streams cannot be made to govern water rights without great injury to its agricultural and mining industries4 ,for the great purposes of irrigation and hydraulic mining the water has no value in its natural channel4 ,in general the water cannot be used for irrigation on the lands immediately contiguous to the streams--i4 e41 the flood plains or bottom valleys--for reasons more fully explained in a subsequent chapter4 ,the waters must be taken to a greater or less extent on the bench lands to be used in irrigation4 ,all the waters of all the arid lands will eventually be taken from their natural channels1 and they can be utilized only to the extent to which they are thus removed1 and water rights must of necessity be severed from the natural channels4 ,there is another important factor to be considered4 ,the water when used in irrigation is absorbed by the soil and revaporated to the heavens4 ,it cannot be taken from its natural channel1 used1 and returned4 ,again1 the water cannot in general be properly utilized in irrigation by requiring it to be taken from its natural channel within the limits ordinarily included in a single ownership4 ,in order to conduct the water on the higher bench lands where it is to be used in irrigation1 it is necessary to go up the stream until a level is reached from which the waters will flow to the lands to be redeemed4 ,the exceptions to this are so small that the statement scarcely needs qualification4 ,thus1 to use the water it must be diverted from its natural course often miles or scores of miles from where it is to be used4 ,the ancient principles of common law applying to the use of natural streams1 so wise and equitable in a humid region1 would1 if applied to the ,arid ,region1 practically prohibit the growth of its most important industries4 ,thus it is that a custom is springing up in the ,arid ,region which may or may not have color of authority in statutory or common law2 on this ,i do not wish to express an opinion2 but certain it is that water rights are practically being severed from the natural channels of the streams2 and this must be done4 ,in the change1 it is to be feared that water rights will in many cases be separated from all land rights as the system is now forming4 ,if this fear is not groundless1 to the extent that such a separation is secured1 water will become a property independent of the land1 and this property will be gradually absorbed by a few4 ,monopolies of water will be secured1 and the whole agriculture of the country will be tributary thereto--a condition of affairs which an ,american citizen having in view the interests of the largest number of people cannot contemplate with favor4 ,practically1 in that country the right to water is acquired by priority of utilization1 and this is as it should be from the necessities of the country4 ,but two important qualifications are needed4 ,the user right should attach to the land where used1 not to the individual or company constructing the canals by which it is used4 ,the right to the water should inhere in the land where it is used2 the priority of usage should secure the right4 ,but this needs some slight modification4 ,a farmer settling on a small tract1 to be redeemed by irrigation1 should be given a reasonable length of time in which to secure his water right by utilization1 that he may secure it by his own labor1 either directly by constructing the waterways himself1 or indirectly by coperating with his neighbors in constructing systems of waterways4 ,without this provision there is little inducement for poor men to commence farming operations1 and men of ready capital only will engage in such enterprises4 ,the tentative bills submitted have been drawn on the theory thus briefly enunciated4 ,if there be any doubt of the ultimate legality of the practices of the people in the arid country relating to water and land rights1 all such doubts should be speedily quieted through the enactment of appropriate laws by the national legislature4 ,perhaps an amplification by the courts of what has been designated as the natural right to the use of water may be made to cover the practices now obtaining2 but it hardly seems wise to imperil interests so great by intrusting them to the possibility of some future court made law4 ,,the ,,lands ,,should ,,be ,,classified4 ,such a system of disposing of the public lands in the ,arid ,region will necessitate an authoritative classification of the same4 ,the largest amount of land that it is possible to redeem by irrigation1 excepting those tracts watered by lone springs1 brooks1 and the small branches1 should be classed as irrigable lands1 to give the greatest possible development to this industry4 ,the limit of the timber lands should be clearly defined1 to prevent the fraudulent acquirement of these lands as pasturage lands4 ,the irrigable and timber lands are of small extent1 and their boundaries can easily be fixed4 ,all of the lands falling without these boundaries would be relegated to the greater class designated as pasturage lands4 ,it is true that all such lands will not be of value for pasturage purposes1 but in general it would be difficult to draw a line between absolutely desert lands and pasturage lands1 and no practical purposes would be subserved thereby4 ,fix the boundaries of the timber lands that they may be acquired by proper methods2 fix the boundaries of the irrigable lands that they may also be acquired by proper methods1 and then permit the remaining lands to be acquired by settlers as pasturage lands1 to the extent that they may be made available1 and there will be no fear of settlers encroaching on the desert or valueless lands4 ,heretofore we have been considering only three great classes of lands--namely1 irrigable1 timber1 and pasturage lands1 although practically and under the laws there are two other classes of lands to be recognized--namely1 mineral lands1 i4 e41 lands bearing lodes or placers of gold1 silver1 cinnabar1 etc41 and coal lands4 ,under the law these lands are made special4 ,mineral lands are withheld from general sale1 and titles to the mines are acquired by the investment of labor and capital to an amount specified in the law4 ,coal lands are sold for #bj per acre4 ,the mineral lands proper1 though widely scattered1 are of small extent4 ,where the mines are lodes1 the lands lie along the mountains1 and are to a greater or less extent valueless for all other purposes4 ,where the mines are placers1 they may also be agricultural lands1 but their extent is very limited4 ,to withhold these lands from purchase and settlement as irrigable1 timber1 and pasturage lands will in no material way affect the interests of the industries connected with the last mentioned lands4 ,the ,general ,government cannot reasonably engage in the research necessary to determine the mineral lands1 but this is practically done by the miners themselves4 ,thousands of hardy1 skilful men are vigorously engaged in this work1 and as mines are discovered mining districts are organized1 and on the proper representation of these interested parties the mineral lands are withheld from general sale by the ,land ,department4 ,thus1 proper provision is already made for this branch of the work of classification4 ,in many parts of the ,arid ,region there are extensive deposits of coal4 ,these coal fields are inexhaustible by any population which the country can support for any length of time that human prevision can contemplate4 ,to withhold from general settlement the entire area of the workable coal fields would be absurd4 ,only a small fraction will be needed for the next century4 ,only those lands should be classed as coal lands that contain beds of coal easily accessible1 and where there is a possibility of their being used as such within the next generation or two4 ,to designate or set apart these lands will require the highest geological skill2 a thorough geological survey is necessary4 ,in providing for a general classification of the lands of the ,arid ,region1 it will1 then1 be necessary to recognize the following classes1 namely3 mineral lands1 coal lands1 irrigable lands1 timber lands1 and pasturage lands4 ,the mineral lands are practically classified by the miners themselves1 and for this no further legal provision is necessary4 ,the coal lands must be determined by geological survey4 ,the work of determining the areas which should be relegated to the other classes--namely1 irrigable1 timber1 and pasturage lands--will be comparatively inexpensive4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,rainfall ,,of ,,the ,,western ,,portion ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,the ,smithsonian ,institution conducted for a number of years an extensive system of measurements of rainfall in the ,united ,states1 and at the same time diligently collected pluvial records from every possible source4 ,the accumulated data thus collected were placed in the hands of ,mr4 ,charles ,a4 ,schott for reduction and discussion1 and he prepared the 8,smithsonian ,tables of ,precipitation in ,rain and ,snow01 which appeared in #ahfh4 ,since that time much additional material has been acquired by the continuation of the work to the present time1 and also by a great increase in the number of observation stations1 and so valuable is this new material that it has been determined to recompile the tables and issue a second edition4 ,by the time the present report was called for1 the preliminary computations for the tables had developed an important body of facts bearing on the climate of the ,arid ,region1 and through the courtesy of ,prof4 ,joseph ,henry1 ,secretary of the ,smithsonian ,institution1 and of ,mr4 ,schott1 they were placed at my disposal4 ,mr4 ,schott also made such a change in the order of computation as to give precedence to the states and territories which form the subject of this investigation1 and by this timely favor made it possible to base the following discussion on the very latest determinations of rainfall4 ,the results thus made available exhibit the mean precipitation at each station of observation west of the ,mississippi ,river for each month1 for each season1 and for the year4 ,a number of other data are also tabulated1 including the latitude1 longitude1 and altitude of each station1 and the extent of each series of observations in years and months4 ,in selecting material for the present purpose the shorter records were ignored4 ,the variations from year to year are so great that an isolated record of a single year is of no value as an indication of the average rainfall4 ,the mean of two or three years is almost equally liable to mislead1 and only a long series of observations can afford accurate results4 ,in the following tables no stations are included 7with one exception7 which show records of less than five years' extent4 ,table ,i shows the precipitation of the ,sub-humid ,region2 ,table ,,ii1 of the ,arid ,region2 ,table ,,iii1 of the ,san ,francisco ,region2 and ,table ,,iv1 of the ,region of the ,lower ,columbia4 ,the limits of each region have been given in a former chapter1 and need not be repeated4 ,in each table the first column contains the names of the stations of observation2 the second1 their latitudes2 the third1 their longitudes 7west from ,greenwich72 and the fourth1 their altitudes in feet above the level of the sea4 ,the next four columns show for each season of the year the mean observed rainfall in inches1 and their sum appears in the following column as the mean yearly rainfall4 ,in the last column the extent of each series of observations is given in years and months4 ,in ,table ,i the stations are arranged by latitudes1 in ,tables ,,ii1 ,,iii1 and ,,iv1 alphabetically4 ,,table ,i4--,precipitation of ,sub-humid ,region4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,station4 ,latitude4 ,longitude4 ,height4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,feet4 ,pembina1 ,dak #dh #eg #ig #jc #gfh ,fort ,totten1 ,dak #dg #ef #ii #af #a1dhj ,fort ,abercrombie1 ,dak #df #bg #if #ba -- ,fort ,wadsworth1 ,dak #de #dc #ig #aj #a1fej ,omaha ,agency1 ,nebr #db #jg #if #bb -- ,fort ,kearney1 ,nebr #dj #ch #ih #eg #b1cfj ,fort ,riley1 ,kans #ci #jc #if #ce #a1cjj ,fort ,hays1 ,kans #ch #ei #ii #bj #b1ajg ,fort ,larned1 ,kans #ch #aj #ih #eg #a1icb ,fort ,belknap1 ,tex #cc #jh #ih #df #a1fjj ,fort ,griffin1 ,tex #cb #ed #ii #ad -- ,fort ,chadbourne1 ,tex #ca #eh #ajj #ae #b1jbj ,fort ,mc,kavett1 ,tex #cj #dh #ajj #jh #b1jfj ,new ,braunfels1 ,tex #bi #db #ih #ae #gbj ,fort ,clark1 ,tex #bi #ag #ajj #be #a1jjj ,fort ,inge1 ,tex #bi #aj #ii #ej #hde ,fort ,duncan1 ,tex #bh #ci #ajj #cj #a1dfj ,fort ,brown1 ,tex #be #ej #ig #cg #ej ---------------------------------------- ----------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,mean precipitation1 in inches4 ,extent ---------------------------------- of ,station4 ,spring4,summer4,autumn4,winter4 ,year4record4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,y4 ,m4 ,pembina1 ,dak #d4jb #g4bd #b4ga #a4ec #ae4ej #d #h ,fort ,totten1 ,dak #e4ah #g4ag #b4ej #a4ei #af4dd #e #e ,fort ,abercrombie1 ,dak #d4hj #h4fg #c4df #a4he #ah4gh #ac #f ,fort ,wadsworth1 ,dak #g4jj #aj4be #c4ih #b4ib #bd4ae #f #e ,omaha ,agency1 ,nebr #h4ba #h4gj #e4gg #b4ij #be4eh #e #b ,fort ,kearney1 ,nebr #g4ha #aa4ac #d4hc #a4de #be4bb #ad #d ,fort ,riley1 ,kans #e4di #aj4dh #e4ib #b4fc #bd4eb #bj #aj ,fort ,hays1 ,kans #f4ic #f4bc #e4gg #c4gg #bb4gj #f #aa ,fort ,larned1 ,kans #e4ag #i4fc #d4ie #a4fg #ba4db #aj #i ,fort ,belknap1 ,tex #f4da #i4dd #h4cd #c4hf #bh4je #e #aj ,fort ,griffin1 ,tex #d4ie #f4be #f4ad #d4ag #ba4ea #e #c ,fort ,chadbourne1 ,tex #e4gg #f4ec #g4jf #c4eb #bb4hh #h #g ,fort ,mc,kavett1 ,tex #e4ba #f4ga #g4ha #d4bb #bc4ie #i #g ,new ,braunfels1 ,tex #g4fj #f4ij #h4hc #d4be #bg4eh #e #a ,fort ,clark1 ,tex #d4ad #g4eg #f4ee #d4ce #bb4fa #ab #e ,fort ,inge1 ,tex #e4ch #i4fg #f4hh #c4ec #be4df #g #d ,fort ,duncan1 ,tex #c4ef #h4fj #f4ed #b4fc #ba4cc #aa #g ,fort ,brown1 ,tex #c4ah #g4fd #ac4jb #d4jd #bg4hh #ae #j ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,table ,,ii4--,precipitation of the ,arid ,region4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,latitude4 ,longitude4 ,height4 ,station4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,feet4 ,albuquerque1 ,n4 ,mex #ce #jf #ajf #ch #e1jcb ,camp ,bowie1 ,ariz #cb #aj #aji #cj #d1hgb ,camp ,douglas1 ,utah #dj #df #aaa #ej #e1jbd ,camp ,grant1 ,ariz #cb #ed #aaj #dj #d1hcc ,camp ,halleck1 ,nev #dj #di #aae #bj #e1gij ,camp ,harney1 ,oreg #dc #jj #aai #jj -- ,camp ,independence1 ,cal #cf #ej #aah #aa #d1hjj ,camp ,mc,dermitt1 ,nev #da #eh #aag #dj #d1gjj ,camp ,mc,dowell1 ,ariz #cc #df #aaa #cf -- ,camp ,mohave1 ,ariz #ce #jb #aad #cf #fjd ,camp ,verde1 ,ariz #cd #cd #aaa #ed #c1afj ,camp ,warner1 ,oreg #db #bh #aai #db -- ,camp ,whipple1 ,ariz #cd #bg #aab #bj #e1gjj ,cantonment ,burgwin1 ,n4 ,mex #cf #bf #aje #cj #g1ijj ,drum ,barracks1 ,cal #cc #dg #aah #ag #cb ,denver1 ,colo #ci #de #aje #ja #e1bej ,fort ,bayard1 ,n4 ,mex #cb #df #ajh #cj #d1dej ,fort ,benton1 ,mont #dg #ej #aaj #ci #b1gcj ,fort ,bidwell1 ,cal #da #ej #abj #aj #d1fhj ,fort ,bliss 7,el ,paso71 ,tex #ca #dg #ajf #cj #c1hcj ,fort ,bois1 ,idaho #dc #dj #aaf #jj #a1iih ,fort ,bridger1 ,wyo #da #bj #aaj #bc #f1fef ,fort ,buford1 ,dak #dh #ja #ajc #eh #a1ijj ,fort ,colville1 ,wash #dh #db #aah #jb #a1ifc ,fort ,craig1 ,n4 ,mex #cc #ch #ajg #jj #d1fai ,fort ,d4 ,a4 ,russell1 ,wyo #da #ab #ajd #ej -- ,fort ,davis1 ,tex #cj #dj #ajd #jg #d1gjj ,fort ,defiance1 ,ariz #ce #dc #aji #aj #f1ejj ,fort ,fetterman1 ,wyo #db #ej #aje #bi #d1igc ,fort ,fillmore1 ,n4 ,mex #cb #ad #ajf #db #c1icg ,fort ,f4 ,steele1 ,wyo #da #dg #ajf #eg #f1hda ,fort ,garland1 ,colo #cg #be #aje #dj #g1hfd ,fort ,lapwai1 ,idaho #df #ah #aaf #ed #b1jjj ,fort ,laramie1 ,wyo #db #ab #ajd #ca #d1dgb ,fort ,lyon1 ,colo #ch #jh #ajb #je #d1jjj ,fort ,massachusetts1 ,colo #cg #cb #aje #bc #h1cfe ,fort ,mc,pherson1 ,nebr #da #jj #ajj #cj #c1gbf ,fort ,mc,intosh1 ,tex #bg #ce #ii #dh #hjf ,fort ,mc,rae1 ,n4 ,mex #cc #ah #ajg #jc #d1ejj ,fort ,randall1 ,dak #dc #ja #ih #cg #a1bde ,fort ,rice1 ,dak #df #cb #ajj #cc -- ,fort ,sanders1 ,wyo #da #ag #aje #cf #g1afa ,fort ,selden1 ,n4 ,mex #cb #bc #ajf #ee -- ,fort ,shaw1 ,mont #dg #cj #aaa #db #f1jjj ,fort ,stanton1 ,n4 ,mex #cc #bi #aje #ch #e1jjj ,fort ,stevenson1 ,dak #dg #cf #aja #aj -- ,fort ,stockton1 ,tex #cj #bj #ajb #cj #d1iej ,fort ,sully1 ,dak #dd #ej #ajj #ce #a1fgb ,fort ,union1 ,n4 ,mex #ce #ed #ajd #eg #f1fgj ,fort ,walla ,walla1 ,wash #df #jc #aah #bj #hjj ,fort ,wingate1 ,n4 ,mex #ce #bi #ajg #de #f1ihb ,fort ,yuma1 ,cal #cb #dd #aad #cf #bjj ,ringgold ,barracks1 ,tex #bf #bc #ii #jj #eba ,salt ,lake ,city1 ,utah #dj #df #aaa #ed #d1ecd ,san ,diego1 ,cal #cb #db #aag #ad #aej ,santa ,f1 ,n4 ,mex #ce #da #ajf #jb #f1hdf ---------------------------------------- -------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,mean precipitation1 in inches4 ------------------------------ ,spring4 ,summer4 ,extent ,autumn4 of ,station4 ,winter4 record4 ,year4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,y4 ,m4 ,albuquerque1 ,n4 ,mex #j4hc #d4ceb4jd #j4hi #h4aa #ab #b ,camp ,bowie1 ,ariz #a4bi #g4ceb4jc #d4ei #ae4bf #f #h ,camp ,douglas1 ,utah #g4bj #b4ahc4bd #f4bj #ah4hb #aj #c ,camp ,grant1 ,ariz #b4jh #f4bec4bg #c4dh #ae4jh #f #aj ,camp ,halleck1 ,nev #c4ff #a4aib4ca #c4hb #aj4ih #e #h ,camp ,harney1 ,oreg #b4bi #a4jia4ei #c4gi #h4gf #f #j ,camp ,independence1 ,cal #a4ji #j4cej4fb #d4ed #f4fj #h #b ,camp ,mc,dermitt1 ,nev #c4jb #j4gba4ac #c4ff #h4ec #f #d ,camp ,mc,dowell1 ,ariz #a4aa #d4gia4gc #c4hb #aa4de #h #b ,camp ,mohave1 ,ariz #j4ha #a4bgj4ic #a4fd #d4fe #i #a ,camp ,verde1 ,ariz #a4be #d4feb4da #b4ed #aj4he #f #a ,camp ,warner1 ,oreg #d4ca #a4ajb4ec #f4dg #ad4da #e #c ,camp ,whipple1 ,ariz #c4hh #h4jgb4ae #e4ah #ai4bh #g #e ,cantonment ,burgwin1 ,n4 ,mex #a4eg #b4ibb4db #a4gd #h4fe #e #i ,drum ,barracks1 ,cal #b4bf #j4bfj4ce #e4hg #h4gd #e #e ,denver1 ,colo #e4jb #c4fic4af #a4ij #ac4gg #e #a ,fort ,bayard1 ,n4 ,mex #a4ed #g4bbb4bh #c4bh #ad4cb #g #f ,fort ,benton1 ,mont #e4cd #d4dha4fe #a4gi #ac4bf #g #a ,fort ,bidwell1 ,cal #d4ie #a4edc4jcaj4ga #bj4bc #h #c ,fort ,bliss 7,el ,paso71 ,tex #j4dc #c4dic4ch #a4bc #h4ec #ad #c ,fort ,bois1 ,idaho #e4af #a4aeb4ej #f4fg #ae4dh #i #e ,fort ,bridger1 ,wyo #b4ii #b4jea4fh #a4ga #h4dc #ab #aj ,fort ,buford1 ,dak #c4gf #d4jfb4ja #b4ja #aa4hd #g #aj ,fort ,colville1 ,wash #c4fc #c4jdb4ef #d4hc #ad4jf #aa #j ,fort ,craig1 ,n4 ,mex #j4gj #e4hgc4dc #a4jf #aa4jf #ae #i ,fort ,d4 ,a4 ,russell1 ,wyo #d4gf #d4efc4bg #a4ej #ad4ji #e #a ,fort ,davis1 ,tex #a4hd #h4gfd4gb #a4hj #ag4ab #h #aa ,fort ,defiance1 ,ariz #b4jc #e4iac4gb #b4ee #ad4ba #h #e ,fort ,fetterman1 ,wyo #d4dh #d4abb4ii #c4ea #ae4aj #e #g ,fort ,fillmore1 ,n4 ,mex #j4dh #d4afc4jb #j4gf #h4db #h #c ,fort ,f4 ,steele1 ,wyo #d4eg #c4dhc4je #d4bh #ae4ch #e #e ,fort ,garland1 ,colo #c4bh #f4gjb4cg #b4ea #ad4hf #ac #a ,fort ,lapwai1 ,idaho #d4aa #b4dac4ch #d4ii #ad4hi #i #h ,fort ,laramie1 ,wyo #e4ce #d4djb4gc #a4ig #ad4de #ag #h ,fort ,lyon1 ,colo #d4cc #e4ddb4cj #j4di #ab4ef #g #i ,fort ,massachusetts1 ,colo #c4ab #e4eff4bh #b4bg #ag4bc #e #a ,fort ,mc,pherson1 ,nebr #f4ij #g4efc4be #a4be #ah4if #f #i ,fort ,mc,intosh1 ,tex #c4bb #f4efe4ch #b4ce #ag4ea #ad #g ,fort ,mc,rae1 ,n4 ,mex #b4dc #f4aeb4cb #j4fi #aa4ei #e #j ,fort ,randall1 ,dak #d4gb #f4bbc4dj #a4ah #ae4eb #ae #f ,fort ,rice1 ,dak #c4fc #d4hga4ed #a4ce #aa4ci #f #a ,fort ,sanders1 ,wyo #c4ee #d4aeb4cc #a4dc #aa4df #f #aj ,fort ,selden1 ,n4 ,mex #j4eh #d4hca4hf #a4bb #h4di #h #e ,fort ,shaw1 ,mont #b4ah #b4cja4cd #a4ac #f4ie #g #c ,fort ,stanton1 ,n4 ,mex #c4jcaj4fad4hf #b4dd #bj4id #g #i ,fort ,stevenson1 ,dak #c4da #d4igb4ae #a4ca #aa4hd #f #b ,fort ,stockton1 ,tex #a4bd #e4ffc4ca #a4bi #aa4ej #e #h ,fort ,sully1 ,dak #f4eb #g4aha4gj #a4ad #af4ed #g #h ,fort ,union1 ,n4 ,mex #b4abaa4ibc4gi #a4cb #ai4ae #ag #e ,fort ,walla ,walla1 ,wash #d4fi #b4jgd4ih #g4fb #ai4cf #h #h ,fort ,wingate1 ,n4 ,mex #a4if #f4ejc4db #e4dd #ag4cb #i #a ,fort ,yuma1 ,cal #j4bg #a4cja4cf #j4ih #c4ia #af #f ,ringgold ,barracks1 ,tex #c4ga #g4jjf4ca #b4eh #ai4fj #ad #b ,salt ,lake ,city1 ,utah #f4be #f4bhd4ga #g4eg #bd4ha #i #b ,san ,diego1 ,cal #a4hi #j4cfa4hi #e4ag #i4ca #bd #b ,santa ,f1 ,n4 ,mex #b4ag #f4hbc4de #b4dg #ad4ia #ai #aj ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,table ,,iii4--,precipitation of the ,san ,francisco ,region4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,latitude4 ,longitude4 ,height4 ,station4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,feet4 ,alcatraz ,island #cg #di #abb #be -- ,angel ,island #cg #ea #abb #bf #cj ,benicia ,barracks #ch #jc #abb #ji #fd ,fort ,miller #cg #jj #aai #dj #djb ,fort ,point #cg #dh #abb #bi #bg ,monterey #cf #cg #aba #eb #dj ,sacramento #ch #cd #aba #bf #ha ,san ,francisco2 ,presidio #cg #dg #abb #bh #aej ,san ,francisco #cg #dh #abb #be #acj ---------------------------------------- -------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,mean precipitation1 in inches4 ------------------------------ ,spring4 ,summer4 ,extent ,autumn4 of ,station4 ,winter4 record4 ,year4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,y4 ,m4 ,alcatraz ,island #b4ei #j4jaa4heab4jd #af4di #i #e ,angel ,island #c4eb #j4jbb4geab4bi #ah4eh #e #aa ,benicia ,barracks #d4aj #j4acb4bh #h4ci #ad4ij #ah #c ,fort ,miller #g4be #j4jjb4id #h4ha #ai4jj #f #i ,fort ,point #c4ff #j4jcb4bhaa4ci #ag4cf #ad #aa ,monterey #d4dc #j4bfb4bd #h4gh #ae4ga #ab #c ,sacramento #e4ee #j4jib4gfaj4hd #ai4bd #ah #c ,san ,francisco2 ,presidio #d4hj #j4dib4fhab4cb #bj4bi #bj #b ,san ,francisco #e4jc #j4bbc4jeac4ai #ba4di #bd #d ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,table ,,iv4--,precipitation of the ,region of the ,lower ,columbia4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,latitude4 ,longitude4 ,height4 ,station4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,feet4 ,astoria1 ,oreg #df #aa #abc #dh #eb ,cape ,disappointment1 ,wash #df #ag #abd #jc #cj ,fort ,dalles1 ,oreg #de #cc #abj #ej #cej ,camp ,gaston1 ,cal #da #ja #abc #cd -- ,camp ,wright1 ,cal #ci #dh #abc #ag -- ,fort ,crook1 ,cal #da #jg #aba #bi #c1cij ,fort ,hoskins1 ,oreg #de #jf #abc #bf -- ,fort ,humboldt1 ,cal #dj #de #abd #aj #ej ,fort ,jones1 ,cal #da #cf #abb #eb #b1egj ,fort ,steilacoom1 ,wash #dg #aa #abb #cd #cjj ,fort ,stevens1 ,oreg #df #ab #abc #eg -- ,fort ,umpqua1 ,oreg #dc #db #abd #aj #h ,fort ,vancouver1 ,wash #de #dj #abb #cj #ej ,fort ,yamhill1 ,oreg #de #ba #abc #ae -- ,portland1 ,oreg #de #cj #abb #cf #de ,port ,townsend1 ,wash #dh #jg #abb #de #h ,san ,juan ,island1 ,wash #dh #bh #abc #ja #aej ---------------------------------------- -------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,mean precipitation1 in inches4 ------------------------------- ,spring4 ,summer4 ,extent ,autumn4 of ,station4 ,winter4 record4 ,year4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,y4 ,m4 ,astoria1 ,oreg #ah4ij #e4gbah4ai #cd4hj #gg4fa #bb #d ,cape ,disappointment1 ,wash #ad4ig #e4igbj4df #bi4hd #ga4bd #e #i ,fort ,dalles1 ,oreg #c4ia #a4af #e4gh #aa4bg #bb4ab #ab #h ,camp ,gaston1 ,cal #ad4gf #a4ae #i4ib #ca4ef #eg4ci #ab #j ,camp ,wright1 ,cal #h4bf #j4bg #h4ag #bg4bg #dc4ig #i #h ,fort ,crook1 ,cal #f4cg #j4ig #d4ee #aa4bi #bc4ah #i #j ,fort ,hoskins1 ,oreg #ad4fi #b4fead4hh #cd4dh #ff4gj #f #i ,fort ,humboldt1 ,cal #i4cf #j4gc #f4di #ah4gc #ce4ca #aa #b ,fort ,jones1 ,cal #e4bc #j4ia #d4ai #aa4cg #ba4gj #e #j ,fort ,steilacoom1 ,wash #h4ih #b4haaj4ab #ag4ja #ch4ib #ab #i ,fort ,stevens1 ,oreg #ag4fg #g4hhah4ba #cd4ha #gh4eg #f #e ,fort ,umpqua1 ,oreg #af4hc #b4hfae4fd #cb4jh #fg4da #e #aj ,fort ,vancouver1 ,wash #h4gj #c4gh #i4ag #af4gb #ch4cg #af #aa ,fort ,yamhill1 ,oreg #ac4aj #b4ciac4bj #bf4ij #ee4ei #i #c ,portland1 ,oreg #ac4ge #b4ejaa4ca #ai4fd #dg4bj #g #j ,port ,townsend1 ,wash #e4de #d4bb #b4ca #d4jg #af4je #e #f ,san ,juan ,island1 ,wash #e4ja #d4fj #g4hi #aj4hd #bh4cd #i #d -------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,distribution ,,of ,,rain ,,through ,,the ,,year4 ,in a general way the limit of agriculture without irrigation1 or 8dry farming01 is indicated by the curve of #bj inches rainfall1 and where the rainfall is equally distributed through the year this limitation is without exception4 ,but in certain districts the rainfall is concentrated in certain months so as to produce a 8rainy season01 and wherever the temperature of the rainy season is adapted to the raising of crops it is found that 8dry farming0 can be carried on with less than #bj inches of annual rain4 ,there are two such districts upon the borders of the ,arid ,region1 and within its limits there may be a third4 ,first ,district4--,along the eastern border of the ,arid ,region a contrast has been observed between the results obtained at the north and at the south4 ,in ,texas #bj inches of rain are not sufficient for agriculture1 while in ,dakota and ,minnesota a less amount is sufficient4 ,the explanation is clearly developed by a comparison of the tables of rainfall with reference to the distribution of rain in different seasons4 ,,table ,v4--,precipitation of ,texas4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,latitude4 ,longitude4 ,height4 ,station4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,feet4 ,austin #cj #ag #ig #dd #fej ,camp ,verde #cj #jj #ii #aj #a1djj ,fort ,belknap #cc #jh #ih #df #a1fjj ,fort ,bliss 7,el ,paso7 #ca #dg #ajf #cj #c1hcj ,fort ,brown #be #ej #ig #cg #ej ,fort ,chadbourne #ca #eh #ajj #ae #b1jbj ,fort ,clark #bi #ag #ajj #be #a1jjj ,fort ,davis #cj #dj #ajd #jg #d1gjj ,fort ,duncan #bh #ci #ajj #cj #a1dfj ,fort ,griffin #cb #ed #ii #ad -- ,fort ,inge #bi #aj #ii #ej #hde ,fort ,mason #cj #dj #ii #ae #a1bjj ,fort ,mc,intosh #bg #ce #ii #dh #hjf ,fort ,mc,kavett #cj #dh #ajj #jh #b1jfj ,fort ,stockton #cj #bj #ajb #cj #d1iej ,galveston #bi #ah #id #dg #cj ,gilmer 7near7 #cb #dj #id #ei #iej ,new ,braunfels #bi #db #ih #ae #gbj ,ringgold ,barracks #bf #cc #ii #jj #eba ,san ,antonio #bi #be #ih #be #fjj ---------------------------------------- ----------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,mean precipitation1 in inches4 ------------------------------- ,spring4 ,summer4 ,extent ,autumn4 of ,station4 ,winter4 record4 ,year4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,y4 ,m4 ,austin #h4fa #g4idaj4gd #f4bc #cc4eb #ah #h ,camp ,verde #f4aa #i4ha #h4cj #e4je #bi4bg #e #i ,fort ,belknap #f4da #i4dd #h4cd #c4hf #bh4je #e #aj ,fort ,bliss 7,el ,paso7 #j4dc #c4di #c4ch #a4bc #h4ec #ad #c ,fort ,brown #c4ah #g4fdac4jb #d4jd #bg4hh #ae #j ,fort ,chadbourne #e4gg #f4ec #g4jf #c4eb #bb4hh #h #g ,fort ,clark #d4ad #g4eg #f4ee #d4ce #bb4fa #ab #e ,fort ,davis #a4hd #h4gf #d4gb #a4hj #ag4ab #h #aa ,fort ,duncan #c4ef #h4fj #f4ed #b4fc #ba4cc #aa #g ,fort ,griffin #d4ie #f4be #f4ad #d4ag #ba4ea #e #c ,fort ,inge #e4ch #i4fg #f4hh #c4ec #be4df #g #d ,fort ,mason #f4cfaj4dd #h4bb #c4if #bh4ih #e #a ,fort ,mc,intosh #c4bb #f4ef #e4ch #b4ce #ag4ea #ad #g ,fort ,mc,kavett #e4ba #f4ga #g4ha #d4bb #bc4ie #i #g ,fort ,stockton #a4bd #e4ff #c4ca #a4bi #aa4ej #e #h ,galveston #ac4aead4ijaf4hc #ab4ai #eg4jg #f #a ,gilmer 7near7 #ac4cf #i4icaa4gg #aj4ic #de4ii #g #i ,new ,braunfels #g4fj #f4ij #h4hc #d4be #bg4eh #e #a ,ringgold ,barracks #c4ga #g4jj #f4ca #b4eh #ai4fj #ad #b ,san ,antonio #f4gg #h4ia #i4cj #f4cb #ca4cj #aj #b ---------------------------------- ,means #d4fb #f4gh #f4fd #c4fi #ba4gc -- -- -------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,table ,,vi4--,precipitation of ,dakota4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,latitude4 ,longitude4 ,height4 ,station4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,feet4 ,fort ,abercrombie #df #bg #if #ba -- ,fort ,buford #dh #ja #ajc #eh #a1ijj ,fort ,randall #dc #ja #ih #cg #a1bde ,fort ,rice #df #cb #ajj #cc -- ,fort ,stevenson #dg #cf #aja #aj -- ,fort ,sully #dd #ej #ajj #ce #a1fgb ,fort ,totten #dg #ef #ii #af #a1dhj ,fort ,wadsworth #de #dc #ig #aj #a1fej ,pembina #dh #eg #ig #jc #gfh ---------------------------------------- ----------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,mean precipitation1 in inches4 ------------------------------- ,spring4 ,summer4 ,extent ,autumn4 of ,station4 ,winter4 record4 ,year4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,y4 ,m4 ,fort ,abercrombie #d4hj #h4fg #c4df #a4he #ah4gh #ac #f ,fort ,buford #c4gf #d4jf #b4ja #b4ja #aa4hd #g #aj ,fort ,randall #d4gb #f4bb #c4dj #a4ah #ae4eb #ae #f ,fort ,rice #c4fc #d4hg #a4ed #a4ce #aa4ci #f #a ,fort ,stevenson #c4da #d4ig #b4ae #a4ca #aa4hd #f #b ,fort ,sully #f4eb #g4ah #a4gj #a4ad #af4ed #g #h ,fort ,totten #e4ah #g4ag #b4ej #a4ei #af4dd #e #e ,fort ,wadsworth #g4jjaj4be #c4ih #b4ib #bd4ae #f #e ,pembina #d4jb #g4bd #b4ga #a4ec #ae4ej #d #h ---------------------------------- ,means #d4gh #f4gd #b4fa #a4fe #ae4gh -- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,table ,v includes every station in ,texas that has a record of five years or more1 in all twenty stations4 ,if the means of rainfall for the state be compared with the means for single stations1 it will be seen that there is a general correspondence in the ratios pertaining to the different seasons1 so that the former can fairly be considered to represent for the state the distribution through the year4 ,table ,,vi presents the data for ,dakota in the same way1 and the correspondence between the general mean and the station mean is here exceedingly close4 ,at each of the nine stations1 the greatest rainfall is recorded in summer1 the next greatest in spring1 and the least in winter4 ,placing the two series of results in the form of percentages1 they show a decided contrast3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,spring4 ,summer4 ,autumn4 ,winter4 ,year4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,dakota #cj #dc #ag #aj #ajj ,texas #ba #ca #ca #ag #ajj ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,in ,dakota a rainy season is well marked1 and #gc per cent4 of the rain falls in spring and summer1 or at the time when it is most needed by the farmer4 ,in ,texas only #eb per cent4 of the rain falls in the season of agriculture4 ,the availability of rain in the two regions is therefore in the ratio of #gc to #eb1 and for agricultural purposes #bj inches of rainfall in ,texas is equivalent to about #ae inches in ,dakota4 ,for the further exhibition of the subject1 ,table ,,vii has been prepared1 comprising stations in the ,region of the ,plains all the way from our northern to our southern boundary4 ,by way of restricting attention to the practical problem of the limit of 8dry farming01 only those stations are admitted which exhibit a mean annual rainfall of more than #ae and less than #be inches4 ,the order of arrangement is by latitudes1 and in the columns at the right the seasonal rainfalls are expressed in percentages of the yearly4 ,the column at the extreme right gives the sum of the spring and summer quotas1 and is taken to express the availability of the rainfall4 ,,table ,,vii4--,seasonal precipitation in the ,region of the ,plains4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,latitude4 ,mean ,extent yearly ,station4 of rain- ,record4 fall4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,y4 ,m4 ,inches4 ,pembina1 ,dak4 #dh #eg #d #h #ae4ej ,fort ,totten1 ,dak4 #dg #ef #e #e #af4dd ,fort ,abercrombie1 ,dak4 #df #bg #ac #f #ah4gh ,fort ,wadsworth1 ,dak4 #de #dc #f #e #bd4ae ,fort ,sully1 ,dak4 #dd #ej #g #h #af4ed ,sibley1 ,minn4 #dd #cj #g #aa #bd4gd ,fort ,randall1 ,dak4 #dc #ja #ae #f #ae4eb ,fort ,mc,pherson1 ,nebr4 #da #jj #f #i #ah4if ---------------------------------------- -------- ,fort ,riley1 ,kans4 #ci #jc #bj #aj #bd4eb ,fort ,hays1 ,kans4 #ch #ei #f #aa #bb4gj ,fort ,larned1 ,kans4 #ch #aj #aj #i #ba4db ---------------------------------------- -------- ,fort ,griffin1 ,tex4 #cb #ed #e #c #ba4ea ,fort ,chadbourne1 ,tex4 #ca #eh #h #g #bb4hh ,fort ,mc,kavett1 ,tex4 #cj #dh #i #g #bc4ie ,fort ,davis1 ,tex4 #cj #dj #h #aa #ag4ab ,fort ,clark1 ,tex4 #bi #ag #ab #e #bb4fa ,fort ,duncan1 ,tex4 #bh #ci #aa #g #ba4cc ,fort ,mc,intosh1 ,tex4 #bg #ce #ad #g #ag4ea ,ringgold ,barracks1 ,tex4 #bf #bc #ad #b #ai4fj ---------------------------------------- -------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,percentage of annual rainfall4 --------------------------------- ,spring4 ,summer4 ,spring ,station4 ,autumn4 and ,winter4summer4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,pembina1 ,dak4 #bf #dg #ag #aj #gc ,fort ,totten1 ,dak4 #ca #dd #ae #aj #ge ,fort ,abercrombie1 ,dak4 #bf #df #ah #aj #gb ,fort ,wadsworth1 ,dak4 #bi #db #ag #ab #ga ,fort ,sully1 ,dak4 #ci #dd #aj #g #hc ,sibley1 ,minn4 #ba #dj #bi #aj #fa ,fort ,randall1 ,dak4 #cj #dj #bb #h #gj ,fort ,mc,pherson1 ,nebr4 #cf #dj #ag #g #gf ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,fort ,riley1 ,kans4 #bb #dc #bd #aa #fe ,fort ,hays1 ,kans4 #ca #bg #be #ag #eh ,fort ,larned1 ,kans4 #bd #de #bc #h #fi ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,fort ,griffin1 ,tex4 #bc #bi #bi #ai #eb ,fort ,chadbourne1 ,tex4 #be #bi #ca #ae #ed ,fort ,mc,kavett1 ,tex4 #bb #bh #cb #ah #ej ,fort ,davis1 ,tex4 #aa #ea #bh #aj #fb ,fort ,clark1 ,tex4 #ah #cd #bi #ai #eb ,fort ,duncan1 ,tex4 #ag #dj #ca #ab #eg ,fort ,mc,intosh1 ,tex4 #ah #ch #ca #ac #ef ,ringgold ,barracks1 ,tex4 #ai #cf #cb #ac #ee ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,the graduation of the ratios from north to south is apparent to inspection1 but is somewhat irregular4 ,the irregularity1 however1 is not greater than should be anticipated from the shortness of the terms of observation at the several stations1 and it disappears when the stations are combined in natural groups4 ,dividing the whole series into three groups1 as indicated by the cross lines in ,table ,,vii1 and computing weighted means of the seasonal ratios1 we have-- ,,table ,,vii 7a74#b #b ,in computing the several means of ,table ,,vii 7a7 from the seasonal means of ,table ,,vii1 the latter were weighted according to the lengths of the records by which they had been obtained4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,percentage of annual rainfall4 --------------------------------- ,mean ,total ,spring4 ,groups of latitudeyears ,summer4 ,spring stations4 of of ,autumn4 and group4 record4 ,winter4summer4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,eight stations in ,dakota1 ,minnesota1 and ,nebraska #de #bj #fg #bi #dc #ai #i #gb ,three stations in ,kansas #ch #de #ch #bd #da #bd #aa #fe ,eight stations in ,texas #bi #de #he #ai #cf #ca #ad #ee ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,a moment's inspection will show that the middle group is intermediate between the northern and southern in all its characters4 ,the spring quota of rainfall progressively diminishes from north to south1 and so does the summer1 while the fall and winter quotas increase4 ,what is lost in summer is gained in winter1 and thereby the inequality of rainfall from season to season is diminished1 so that a rainy season is not so well defined in ,texas as in ,dakota4 ,what is lost in spring is gained in autumn1 and thereby the place of the rainy season in the year is shifted4 ,in ,dakota the maximum of rain is earlier than in ,texas1 and corresponds more nearly with the maximum of temperature4 ,,table ,,viii4--,seasonal precipitation in the ,san ,francisco ,region4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,percentage of annual rainfall4 --------------------------------- ,extent ,mean ,spring4 ,station4 of annual ,summer4 ,winter record4 rain- ,autumn4 and fall4 ,winter4spring4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,y4 ,m4 ,inches4 ,alcatraz ,island #i #e #af4di #af #j #aa #gc #hi ,angel ,island #e #aa #ah4eh #ai #j #ae #ff #he ,benicia ,barracks #ah #c #ad4ij #bh #a #ae #ef #hd ,fort ,miller #f #i #ai4jj #ch #j #af #df #hd ,fort ,point #ad #aa #ag4cf #ba #j #ac #ff #hg ,monterey #ab #c #ae4ga #bh #b #ad #ef #hd ,sacramento #ah #c #ai4bd #bi #a #ad #ef #he ,san ,francisco2 #bj #b #bj4bi #bd #b #ac #fa #he ,presidio #bj #b #bj4bi #bd #b #ac #fa #he ,san ,francisco #bd #d #ba4di #bd #a #ad #fa #he ---------------------------------------- --- ,weighted means -- -- #be #a #ad #fj #he ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,total extent of record #acj years4 ,mean of yearly rainfalls #ae4ij4 ,second ,district4--,in the ,san ,francisco ,region a rainy season is still more definitely marked1 but occurs at a different time of year4 ,it will be seen by ,tables ,,iii and ,,viii that no rain falls in summer1 while the winter months receive #fj per cent4 of the annual precipitation1 and the spring #be per cent4 ,the general yearly rainfall of the district is only about #af inches1 but by this remarkable concentration a period of five months is made to receive #ac inches4 ,the winter temperature of the district is no less remarkable1 and supplies the remaining condition essential to agriculture4 ,frosts are rare1 and in the valleys all the precipitation has the form of rain4 ,the nine stations which afford the rainfall records given above show a mean spring temperature of #eg 7see ,table ,,ix74 ,thirteen inches of rain coming in a frostless winter and spring have been found sufficient for remunerative agriculture4 ,,table ,,ix4--,mean temperatures1 by seasons1 for the ,san ,francisco ,region4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,extent ,mean temperatures1 in degrees ,fahr4 ,station4 of ---------------------------------------- -- record4 ,spring4 ,summer4 ,autumn4 ,winter4 ,year4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,y4 ,m4 ,alcatraz ,island #h #f #ee #eg #fj #ed #eg ,angel ,island #c #a #eh #fc #fa #eb #eh ,benicia ,barracks #ae #g #eh #fg #fb #di #ei ,fort ,miller #g #f #fd #hf #fg #di #fg ,fort ,point #aj #aa #ee #ei #eh #eb #ef ,monterey #ab #e #ee #fj #eg #ej #ee ,sacramento #ad #j #ei #ga #fb #dh #fj ,san ,francisco2 #ai #j #ed #eg #eg #ej #ee ,presidio #ai #j #ed #eg #eg #ej #ee ,san ,francisco #aa #b #ee #eh #eh #ej #ee ---------------------------------------- ----- ,means -- #eg #fd #fj #ej #eh ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,the same winter maximum of rainfall is characteristic of the whole ,pacific coast4 ,the ,region of the ,lower ,columbia1 with an average rainfall of #df inches1 receives #dg per cent4 of it in winter and #bd per cent4 in spring4 ,southward on the coast1 ,drum ,barracks 7near ,los ,angeles7 and ,san ,diego receive more than half their rain in winter1 but as the whole amount is only #i inches agriculture is not benefited4 ,the eastern bases of the ,sierra ,nevada and ,cascade ,range exhibit the winter maximum of rainfall1 and this feature can be traced eastward in ,idaho and ,nevada1 but in these districts it is accompanied by no amelioration of winter temperature4 7,see ,table ,x47 ,,table ,x4--,seasonal precipitation and temperatures on the ,pacific coast1 etc4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,percentage of ,mean rainfall4 temperature4 ,mean ---------------------------------- annual ,spring4 ,station4 rain- ,summer4 ,spring4 fall4 ,autumn4 ,winter4 ,winter4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,inches4 ,san ,francisco ,region #ae4ij #be #a #ad #fj #eg #ej ,region of ,lower ,columbia #df4de #bd #f #bc #dg #ea #dj ,drum ,barracks1 ,cal #h4gd #bf #c #d #fg #fj #ef ,san ,diego1 ,cal #i4ca #bj #d #bj #ef #fj #ed ,camp ,independence1 ,cal #f4fj #ag #e #i #fi #eg #ci ,fort ,bidwell1 ,cal #bj4bc #bd #h #ae #ec #dh #cb ,camp ,warner1 ,oreg #ad4da #cj #h #ag #de #db #bi ,camp ,harney1 ,oreg #h4gf #bf #ac #ah #dc #dg #bg ,fort ,colville1 ,wash #ad4jf #bf #bb #ah #cd #de #bd ,fort ,walla ,walla1 ,wash #ai4cf #bd #aa #bf #ci #eb #cd ,camp ,mc,dermitt1 ,nev #h4ec #ce #i #ac #dc #df #bi ,camp ,halleck1 ,nev #aj4ih #cc #aa #ba #ce #de #bh ,fort ,lapwai1 ,idaho #ad4hi #bh #af #bc #cc #ec #cc ,fort ,bois1 ,idaho #ae4dh #cc #h #af #dc #eb #cj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,third ,district4--,in ,arizona and ,new ,mexico there is a general maximum of rainfall in summer1 and a restricted maximum in winter4 ,the principal minimum is in spring4 ,in ,table ,,xi the stations are arranged according to longitudes1 a disposition well suited to exhibit their relations4 ,in eastern ,new ,mexico the distribution of rainfall has the same character as in adjacent ,texas1 but with a more decided maximum4 ,half of the total rainfall is in summer and half of the remainder in autumn4 ,westward the maximum diminishes slightly1 but it appears in every station of the two territories4 ,in western ,arizona the winter maximum of the ,pacific coast asserts itself1 and it can be traced eastward as far as ,fort ,wingate1 ,new ,mexico4 ,except at ,camp ,mohave1 on the western border of ,arizona1 it is inferior in amount to the summer maximum4 ,,table ,,xi4--,seasonal precipitation in ,arizona and ,new ,mexico4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,mean ,percentage of annual annual rainfall4 ,station4 ,longi- rain- --------------------------- tude4 fall4 ,spring4 ,autumn4 ,summer4 ,winter4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,inches4 ,western ,texas -- -- #ai #cf #ca #ad ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,fort ,union1 ,n4 ,mex #ajd #eg #ai4ae #aa #fb #bj #g ,cantonment ,burgwin1 ,n4 ,mex #aje #cj #h4fe #ah #cd #bh #bj ,fort ,stanton1 ,n4 ,mex #aje #ch #bj4id #ad #ea #bc #ab ,santa ,f1 ,n4 ,mex #ajf #jb #ad4ia #ad #df #bc #ag ,albuquerque1 ,n4 ,mex #ajf #ch #h4aa #aj #ed #be #aa ,fort ,fillmore1 ,n4 ,mex #ajf #db #h4db #e #ej #cf #i ,fort ,selden1 ,n4 ,mex #ajf #ee #h4di #g #eg #bb #ad ,fort ,craig1 ,n4 ,mex #ajg #jj #aa4jf #f #ec #ca #aj ,fort ,mc,rae1 ,n4 ,mex #ajg #jc #aa4ei #ba #ec #bj #f ,fort ,wingate1 ,n4 ,mex #ajg #de #ag4cb #aa #ch #bj #ca ,fort ,bayard1 ,n4 ,mex #ajh #cj #ad4cb #aa #ej #af #bc ,fort ,defiance1 ,ariz #aji #aj #ad4ba #ad #db #bf #ah ,camp ,bowie1 ,ariz #aji #cj #ae4bf #i #dh #ac #cj ,camp ,grant1 ,ariz #aaj #dj #ae4jh #ad #da #bb #bc ,camp ,mc,dowell1 ,ariz #aaa #cf #aa4de #aj #db #ae #cc ,camp ,verde1 ,ariz #aaa #ed #aj4he #ab #dc #bb #bc ,camp ,whipple1 ,ariz #aab #bj #ai4bh #bj #db #aa #bg ,camp ,mohave1 ,ariz #aad #cf #d4fe #ah #bg #bj #ce ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,san ,francisco ,region -- -- #be #a #ad #fj ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,in all this region the daily range of temperature is great1 and frosts occur so early in autumn that no use can be made of the autumnal rainfall4 ,the yearly precipitation is very small1 and the summer quota rarely exceeds seven or eight inches4 ,nevertheless the ,pueblo ,indians have succeeded1 in a few localities1 and by a unique method1 in raising maize without irrigation4 ,the yield is too meagre to tempt the white man to follow their example1 and for his use the region is agricultural only where it can be watered artificially4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,water ,,supply4 ,,by ,g4 ,k4 ,,gilbert4 ,the following discussion is based upon a special study of the drainage-basin of ,great ,salt ,lake4 ,,increase ,,of ,,streams4 ,the residents of ,utah who practice irrigation have observed that many of the streams have increased in volume since the settlement of the country4 ,of the actuality of this increase there can be no question4 ,a popular impression in regard to the fluctuations of an unmeasured element of climate may be very erroneous1 as1 for example1 the impression that the rainfall of the timbered states has been diminished by the clearing of the land1 but in the case of these streams relative measurements have practically been made4 ,some of them were so fully in use twenty years ago that all of their water was diverted from its channels at the 8critical period01 and yet the dependent fields suffered from drought in the drier years4 ,afterward1 it was found that in all years there was enough water and to spare1 and operations were extended4 ,additional canals were dug and new lands were added to the fields2 and this was repeated from time to time1 until in many places the service of a stream was doubled1 and in a few it was increased tenfold1 or even fiftyfold4 ,it is a matter of great importance to the agricultural interests1 not only of ,utah but of the whole district dependent on irrigation1 that the cause or causes of this change shall be understood4 ,until they are known we cannot tell whether the present gain is an omen of future gain or of future loss1 nor whether the future changes are within or beyond our control4 ,i shall therefore take the liberty to examine somewhat at length the considerations which are supposed by myself or others to bear upon the problem4 ,fortunately we are not compelled to depend on the incidental observations of the farming community for the amount of the increase of the streams1 but merely for the fact of their increase4 ,the amount is recorded in an independent and most thorough manner1 by the accumulation of the water in ,great ,salt ,lake4 ,,rise ,,of ,,great ,,salt ,,lake4 ,a lake with an outlet has its level determined by the height of the outlet4 ,great ,salt ,lake1 having no outlet1 has its level determined by the relation of evaporation to inflow4 ,on one hand the drainage of a great basin pours into it a continuous though variable tribute2 on the other1 there is a continuous absorption of its water by the atmosphere above it4 ,the inflow is greatest in the spring time1 while the snows are melting in the mountains1 and least in the autumn after the melting has ceased1 but before the cooling of the air has greatly checked evaporation on the uplands4 ,the lake evaporation is greatest in summer1 while the air is warm1 and least in winter4 ,through the winter and spring the inflow exceeds the evaporation1 and the lake rises4 ,in the latter part of the summer and in autumn the loss is greater than the gain1 and the lake falls4 ,the maximum occurs in ,june or ,july1 and the minimum probably in ,november4 ,the difference between the two1 or the height of the annual tide1 is about #bj inches4 ,but it rarely happens that the annual evaporation is precisely equal to the annual inflow1 and each year the lake gains or loses an amount which depends upon the climate of the year4 ,if the air which crosses the drainage basin of the lake in any year is unusually moist1 there is a twofold tendency to raise the mean level4 ,on one hand there is a greater precipitation1 whereby the inflow is increased1 and on the other hand there is a less evaporation4 ,so1 too1 if the air is unusually dry1 the inflow is correspondingly small1 the loss by evaporation is correspondingly great1 and the contents of the lake diminish4 ,this annual gain or loss is an expression1 and a very delicate expression1 of the mean annual humidity of a large district of country1 and as such is more trustworthy than any result which might be derived from local observations with psychrometer and rain gauge4 ,a succession of relatively dry years causes a progressive fall of the lake1 and a succession of moist years a progressive rise4 ,as the water falls it retires from its shore1 and the slopes being exceedingly gentle the area of the lake is rapidly contracted4 ,the surface for evaporation diminishes and its ratio to the inflow becomes less4 ,as the water rises the surface of the lake rapidly increases1 and the ratio of evaporation to inflow becomes greater4 ,in this way a limit is set to the oscillation of the lake as dependent on the ordinary fluctuations of climate1 and the cumulation of results is prevented4 ,whenever the variation of the water level from its mean position becomes great1 the resistance to its further advance in that direction becomes proportionally great4 ,for the convenience of a name1 ,i shall speak of this oscillation of the lake as the limited oscillation4 ,it depends on an oscillation of climate which is universally experienced1 but which has not been found to exhibit either periodicity1 or synchrony over large areas1 or other features of regularity4 ,beside the annual tide and the limited oscillation1 the lake has been found to exhibit a third change1 and this third or abnormal change seems to be connected with the increase of the tributary streams4 ,in order to exhibit it1 it will be necessary to discuss somewhat fully the history of the rise and fall of the lake1 and ,i shall take occasion at the same time to call attention to the preparations that have recently been made for future observations4 ,previous to the year #ahge no definite record was made4 ,in #ahgd ,prof4 ,joseph ,henry1 secretary of the ,smithsonian ,institution1 began a correspondence with ,dr4 ,john ,r4 ,park1 of ,salt ,lake ,city1 in regard to the fluctuations and other peculiarities of the lake1 and as a chief result a systematic record was begun4 ,with the coperation of ,mr4 ,j4 ,l4 ,barfoot and other citizens of ,utah1 ,dr4 ,park erected a graduated pillar at ,black ,rock1 a point on the southern shore which was then a popular summer resort4 ,it consisted of a granite block cut in the form of an obelisk and engraved on one side with a scale of feet and inches4 ,it was set in gravel beneath shallow water1 with the zero of its scale near the surface4 ,the water level was read on the pillar by ,mr4 ,john ,t4 ,mitchell at frequent intervals from ,september #ad1 #ahge1 to ,october #i1 #ahgf1 when the locality ceased to be used as a watering place1 and the systematic record was discontinued4 ,two observations were made by the writer in #ahgg1 and it was found in making the second that the shifting gravel of the beach had buried the column so deeply as to conceal half the graduation4 ,dr4 ,park has kindly furnished me a copy of ,mr4 ,mitchell's record4 ,the observer was instructed to choose such times of observation that the influence of wind storms upon the level of the lake would be eliminated1 and the work appears to have been faithfully performed4 ,record of the height of ,great ,salt ,lake above the zero of the granite pillar at ,black ,rock4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,date4 ,reading4 ,wind4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,year4 ,month4 ,day4,feet4,inches4,direction4 ,force4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- #ahge ,september #ad #j #f ,n4 ,gentle4 #bb #j #e ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 #be #j #e ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 ,october #f #j #d ,n4 ,quiet4 #ab #j #d ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 #ah #j #c ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 #bf #j #c ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 ,november #i #j #b ,w4 ,quiet4 #af #j #a ,n4 ,quiet4 #bc #j #d ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 #bi #j #e ,e4 ,quiet4 ,december #g #j #e ,e4 ,quiet4 #ad #j #e ,e4 ,quiet4 #ba #j #f ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 #ahgf ,january #e #j #h ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 #aa #j #h ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 #bi #j #i ,e4 ,quiet4 ,february #a #j #i ,s4 ,e4 ,quiet4 #ae #j #i -- ,calm4 #bb #j #i ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 ,march #ae #j #aa ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 #bb #a #j ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 #bh #a ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 ,april #ag #a #b -- ,calm4 #be #a #c ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 ,may #b #a #d ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 #bb #a #i ,n4 ,quiet4 ,june #b #a #aa ,w4 ,quiet4 #h #b #j -- ,calm4 #ac #b #b ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 #bc #b #d ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 #cj #b #f ,s4 ,quiet4 ,july #ah #b #c ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 #be #b #d ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 ,august #a #b #c ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 #aj #b #b ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 #bb #a #i ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 #bi #a #h ,s4 ,e4 ,strong4 #cj #a #h ,n4 ,quiet4 ,september #ad #a #g -- ,calm4 #ai #a #f ,n4 ,quiet4 #bf #a #f -- ,calm4 ,october #i #a #e ,n4 ,e4 ,quiet4 #ahgg ,july #ab #b #j -- ,calm4 ,october #ai #j #aj -- ,calm4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,comparing the ,october observations for three years1 it appears that the lake rose #ac inches from #ahge to #ahgf1 and fell in the next year #f inches4 ,illustration3 ,,sketch ,,of ,,black ,,rock ,,and ,,vicinity1 ,,utah ,,territory4 ,prepared to show the position of the graduated pillar erected by ,dr4 ,john ,park for observations on the water-level of ,great ,salt ,lake1 and the position of the granite bench-mark4 ,the ,black ,rock pillar has not the permanence that is desirable4 ,although it has thus far been only the more firmly established by the action of the waves1 it is still true that the lake is encroaching on the land in this part of the coast1 and a storm may at any time undermine and overthrow the pillar4 ,to provide for such a contingency it was determined to establish a bench mark out of reach of the waves1 and connect it with the pillar by leveling1 so that if the existing standard should be destroyed its record would still have a definite meaning1 and the relative height of a new standard could be ascertained with precision4 ,in this undertaking ,i was joined by ,mr4 ,jesse ,w4 ,fox1 a gentleman who has long held the office of territorial surveyor of ,utah4 ,a suitable stone was furnished by the ,hon4 ,brigham ,young1 and was carried to ,black ,rock without charge through the courtesy of ,mr4 ,heber ,p4 ,kimball1 superintendent of the ,utah ,western ,railroad4 ,the block is of granite1 and is three feet in length4 ,it was sunk in the earth1 all but a few inches1 on the northern slope of a small limestone knoll just south of the railroad track at ,black ,rock4 ,its top is dressed square1 about #aj #aj inches1 and is marked with a 4 ,it will be convenient to speak of the top of this monument as the ,black ,rock bench4 ,on the #aath of ,july1 #ahgg1 the surface of the lake was #cd4e feet below the bench1 and it then marked #b4j feet on the pillar erected by ,dr4 ,park4 ,the zero of the observation pillar is therefore #cf4e feet below the bench4 ,the accompanying topographic sketch will serve at any time to identify the position of the bench4 ,after consultation with ,dr4 ,park1 ,i concluded that it would be better not to depend on the ,black ,rock station for observations in the future--at least in the immediate future--and other points were discussed4 ,eventually it was determined to establish a new station near ,farmington1 on the eastern shore of the lake4 ,the point selected is in an inlet so sheltered that a heavy swell in the lake will not interfere with accurate observation4 ,at the present stage of water the spot is well adapted to the purpose1 and it can be used with the water #b feet lower or #e feet higher4 ,i was not able to attend personally to the erection of the pillar1 but left the matter in the hands of ,mr4 ,jacob ,miller1 of ,farmington1 who writes me that it was placed in position and the record begun on the #bdth of ,november1 #ahgg4 ,the pillar is of wood1 and is graduated to inches for #i feet of its length4 ,on the day of its establishment the reading of the water surface was #b feet #a inch4 ,on the #bast of ,january1 #ahgh1 the reading was #b feet #a inches4 ,the ,farmington and ,black ,rock pillars are #bc miles apart4 ,the relative height of their zeros will be ascertained as soon as practicable by making coincident readings1 during still weather1 of the water surface at the two stations4 ,it is already known that the ,farmington zero is approximately #af inches lower than the ,black ,rock4 ,a stone 8bench0 or monument for permanent reference has also been placed on rising ground near the observation pillar1 and the two will be connected by spirit level4 ,the ,farmington bench is of gneiss1 and is marked with a in the same manner as the ,black ,rock4 ,the stone was contributed by ,mr4 ,abbott1 of ,farmington1 and was gratuitously shaped and placed by ,mr4 ,miller4 ,mr4 ,miller has also voluntarily assumed charge of the record1 and will make or superintend the observations4 ,it will not be practicable to visit the pillar daily1 nor even at regular intervals1 but it is expected that the record will be as full as the one tabulated above4 ,the following items are to be noted3 #a4 ,time of observation1 including year1 month1 day1 and hour4 #b4 ,reading of water surface in feet and inches4 #c4 ,direction and force of wind4 #d4 ,account of wind for the preceding #bd hours4 #e4 ,name of observer4 ,these observations will not only determine the annual gain or loss of the lake1 but will in a few years give data to construct the curve of the annual tide4 ,the history of past changes not having been the subject of record1 it became necessary to compile it from such collateral data as were attainable4 ,the enquiries inaugurated by ,professor ,henry have been prosecuted1 and have resulted in a tolerably definite determination of the principal changes since #ahdg1 together with the indication of a superior limit to earlier oscillations4 ,ever since the settlement of ,salt ,lake ,city1 in #ahdg1 the islands of the lake have been used as herd grounds4 ,fremont and ,carrington islands have been reached by boat1 and ,antelope and ,stansbury islands partly by boat1 partly by fording1 and partly by land communication4 ,a large share of the navigation has been performed by citizens of ,farmington1 and the shore is in that neighborhood so flat that the changes of water level have necessitated frequent changes of landing place4 ,the pursuits of the boatmen have been so greatly affected that all of the more important fluctuations were impressed upon their memories1 and most of the changes were so associated with features of the topography that some estimate of their quantitative values could be made4 ,the data which became thus available were collated for ,professor ,henry by ,mr4 ,miller1 a gentleman who himself took part in the navigation1 and of whom ,i have already had occasion to speak4 ,his results agree very closely with those derived from an independent investigation of my own1 to which ,i will now proceed4 ,antelope ,island is connected with the delta of the ,jordan ,river by a broad1 flat sand bar that has been usually submerged but occasionally exposed4 ,it slopes very gently toward the island1 and just where it joins it is interrupted by a narrow channel a few inches in depth4 ,for a number of years this bar afforded the means of access to the island1 and many persons traversed it4 ,by combining the evidence of such persons it has been practicable to learn the condition of the ford up to the time of its final abandonment4 ,from #ahdg to #ahej the bar was dry during the low stage of each winter1 and in summer covered by not more than #bj inches of water4 ,then began a rise which continued until #ahee or #ahef4 ,at that time a horseman could with difficulty ford in the winter1 but all communication was by boat in summer4 ,then the water fell for a series of years until in #ahfj and #ahfa the bar was again dry in winter4 ,the spring of #ahfb was marked by an unusual fall of rain and snow1 whereby the streams were greatly flooded and the lake surface was raised several feet4 ,in subsequent years the rise continued1 until in #ahfe the ford became impassable4 ,according to ,mr4 ,miller the present height was attained in about #ahfh1 and there have since occurred only minor fluctuations4 ,for the purpose of connecting the traditional history as derived from the ford with the systematic record that has now been inaugurated1 ,i visited the bar in company with ,mr4 ,miller on the #aith of ,october1 #ahgg1 and made careful soundings4 ,the features of the ford had been minutely described1 and there was no uncertainty as to the identification of the locality4 ,we found #i feet of water on the sand flat1 and #i feet #f inches in the little channel at its edge4 ,the examination was completed at #aa a4 m42 at #e p4 m4 the water stood at #j feet #aj inches on the ,black ,rock pillar2 and on the following day at #h a4 m4 we marked its level at the place where the ,farmington pillar now stands1 our mark being #b feet #b inches above the zero of the pillar4 ,the ,antelope ,island bar thus affords a tolerably complete record from #ahdg to #ahfe1 but fails to give any later details4 ,it happens1 however1 that the hiatus is filled at another locality4 ,stansbury ,island is joined to the mainland by a similar bar1 which was entirely above water at the time of ,captain ,stansbury's survey1 and so continued for many years4 ,in #ahff1 the year following that in which the ,antelope bar became unfordable1 the water for the first time covered the ,stansbury bar1 and its subsequent advance and recession have so affected the pursuits of the citizens of ,grantsville1 who used the island for a winter herd ground1 that it will not be difficult to obtain a full record by compiling their forced observations4 ,since undertaking the inquiry ,i have had no opportunity to visit that town1 but the following facts have been elicited by correspondence4 ,since the first flooding of the bar the depth of water has never been less than #a foot1 and it has never been so great as to prevent fording in winter4 ,but in the summers of #ahgb1 #ahgc1 and #ahgd1 during the flood stage of the annual tide1 there was no access except by boat1 and in those years the lake level attained its greatest height4 ,in the spring of #ahfi the depth was #d feet1 and in the autumn of #ahgg1 #b feet4 ,the last item shows that the ,stansbury bar is #g feet higher than the ,antelope1 and serves to connect the two series of observations4 ,illustration3 ,diagram showing the rise and fall of ,great ,salt ,lake from #ahdg to #ahgg4 ,n4 ,s4 ,level of new storm line4 ,o4 ,s4 ,level of old storm line4 ,s4 ,b4 ,level of ,stansbury ,island bar4 ,a4 ,b4 ,level of ,antelope ,island bar4 ,further inquiries will probably render the record more complete and exact1 but1 as it now stands1 all the general features of the fluctuations are clearly indicated4 ,in the accompanying diagram the horizontal spaces represent years1 and the vertical1 feet4 ,the irregular curve shows the height of the lake in different years4 ,where it is drawn as a full line the data are definite2 the dotted portions are interpolated4 ,upon the same diagram are indicated the levels of two storm lines4 ,the upper is the limit of wave action at the present time1 and is #c feet above the winter stage 7,october1 #ahgg74 ,it is everywhere marked by drift wood1 and in many places by a ridge of sand4 ,above it there is a growth1 on all steep shores1 of sage and other bushes1 but those in immediate proximity are dead1 having evidently been killed by the salt spray4 ,below the line are still standing the stumps of similar bushes1 and the same can be found #b or #c feet below the surface of the water4 ,the lower storm line was observed by ,captain ,stansbury in #ahej1 and has been described to me by a number of citizens of ,utah to whom it was familiar at that time and subsequently4 ,like the line now visible1 it was marked by drift wood1 and a growth of bushes1 including the sage1 extended down to it2 but below it there were seen no stumps4 ,its position is now several feet under water1 and it is probable that the advancing waves destroyed most of its features1 but the vestiges of the bushy growth above it remain4 ,the peculiarities of the two storm lines have an important bearing on the history of the lake4 ,the fact that the belt of land between them supported sage bushes shows that previous to its present submergence the lake had not covered it for many years4 ,lands washed by the brine of the lake become saturated with salt to such extent that even salt-loving plants cannot live upon them1 and it is a familiar fact that the sage 7,artemisia sempervirens7 never grows in ,utah upon soil so saline as to be unfavorable for grain4 ,the rains of many years1 and perhaps even of centuries1 would be needed to cleanse land abandoned by the lake so that it could sustain the salt-hating bushes1 and we cannot avoid the conclusion that the ancient storm line had been for a long period the superior limit of the fluctuations of the lake surface4 ,to avoid misapprehension1 it should be stated that the storm lines have been described as they appear on the eastern shore of ,antelope ,island1 a locality where the slope of the ground amounts to three or four degrees4 ,the circumstances are different at the margin of the mainland1 and especially where the slopes are very gentle4 ,the lake is so shallow that its equilibrium is greatly disturbed by strong winds4 ,its waves are small1 but in storms the water is pushed high up on the land toward which the wind blows1 the extreme effects being produced where the inclination is most gentle4 ,the islands1 however1 are little flooded2 the water does not accumulate against them1 but is driven past2 and the easterly gales that produced the present storm line on the east shore of ,antelope ,island may have driven so much water to the westward as even to have depressed the level in that locality4 ,moreover1 where the land surface is nearly level1 the cleansing by rain of portions once submerged is indefinitely retarded4 ,on all the flatter shores the lake is bordered by tracts too saline for reclamation by the farmer1 and either bare of vegetation or scantily covered by salt-loving shrubs4 ,these tracts are above the modern storm line1 and they acquired their salt during some flood too remote to be considered in this connection4 ,the largest of them is called the ,great ,salt ,lake ,desert1 and has a greater area than the lake itself4 ,thus it appears that in recent times the lake has overstepped a bound to which it had long been subject4 ,previous to the year #ahfe1 and for a period of indefinite duration1 it rose and fell with the limited oscillation and with the annual tide1 but was never carried above a certain limiting line4 ,in that year1 or the one following1 it passed the line1 and it has not yet returned4 ,the annual tide and the limited oscillation are continued as before1 but the lowest stage of the new regime is higher than the highest stage of the old4 ,the mean stage of the new regime is #g or #h feet higher than the mean stage of the old4 ,the mean area of the water surface is a sixth part greater under the new regime than under the old4 ,the last statement is based on the ,united ,states surveys of ,captain ,stansbury and ,mr4 ,king4 ,the former gathered the material for his map in #ahej1 when the water was at its lowest stage1 and the latter in the spring of #ahfi1 when the water was near its highest stage4 ,the one map shows an area of #a1gej and the other of #b1aff square miles4 ,from these ,i estimate the old mean area at #a1hbj miles1 the new at #b1abe miles1 and the increase at #cje miles1 or #ag per cent4 ,illustration3 ,,comparative ,,map ,,of ,,great ,,salt ,,lake1 ,,utah ,,compiled ,,to ,,show ,,its ,,increase ,,of ,,area ,the topography and later shore-line are taken from the ,survey of ,mr4 ,clarence ,king1 ,u4,s4 ,geologist2 the earlier shore-line from the ,survey of ,capt4 ,howard ,stansbury1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,the 8abnormal change0 of the lake may then be described as an infilling or rise of the water whereby its ordinary level has been raised #g or #h feet and its ordinary area has been increased a sixth part2 and this appears to be distinct from the limited oscillation and annual tide1 which may be regarded as comparatively normal4 ,to account for it a number of theories have been proposed1 and three of them seem worthy of consideration4 ,they appeal respectively to volcanic1 climatic1 and human agencies4 ,,volcanic ,,theory4 ,it has been surmised that upheavals of the land1 such as sometimes accompany earthquakes1 might have changed the form of the lake bed and displaced from some region the water that has overflowed others4 ,this hypothesis acquires a certain plausibility from the fact that the series of uplifts and downthrows by which the mountains of the region were formed have been traced down to a very recent date1 but it is negatived by such an array of facts that it cannot be regarded as tenable4 ,in the first place1 the water has risen against all the shores and about every island of which we have account4 ,the farmers of the eastern and southern margins have lost pastures and meadows by submergence4 ,at the north1 ,bear ,river ,bay has advanced several miles upon the land4 ,at the west1 a boat has recently sailed a number of miles across tracts that were traversed by ,captain ,stansbury's land parties4 ,that officer has described and mapped ,strong's ,knob and ,stansbury ,island as peninsulas1 but they have since become islands4 ,antelope ,island is no longer accessible by ford1 and ,egg ,island1 the nesting ground of the gulls and pelicans1 has become a reef4 ,springs that supplied ,captain ,stansbury with fresh water near ,promontory ,point are now submerged and inaccessible2 and other springs have been covered on the shores of ,antelope1 ,stansbury1 and ,fremont islands4 ,in the second place1 the rise of the lake is correlated in time with the increase of the inflowing streams1 which has been everywhere observed by irrigators1 and it is logical to refer the two phenomena to the same cause4 ,and1 finally1 if upheaval could account for the enlargement of the lake1 it would still be inadequate to account for the maintenance of its increased size1 in the face of an evaporation that yearly removes a layer several feet in depth4 ,the same compensatory principle that restricts the 8limited oscillation0 would quickly restore the equilibrium between inflow and evaporation1 in whatever manner it was disturbed4 ,,climatic ,,theory4 ,it is generally supposed that the change is a phenomenon of climate1 and this hypothesis includes harmoniously the increase of streams with the increase of lake surface4 ,by some it is thought that the climate of the district is undergoing1 or has undergone1 a permanent change2 and by others that the series of oscillations about a mean condition which characterizes every climate has in this case developed a moist phase of exceptional degree and duration4 ,the latter view was my own before ,i became aware of the features of the ancient storm line1 but it now appears to me untenable4 ,that a variable surface of evaporation1 which had for a long period recognized a limit to its expansion1 should not merely exceed that limit1 but should maintain an abnormal extent for more than a decade1 is in a high degree improbable4 ,it is far more probable that one of those gradual climatic changes1 of which geology has shown the magnitude and meteorology has illustrated the slowness1 here finds a manifestation4 ,the observed change is apparently abrupt1 and even saltatory2 but of this we cannot be certain1 since it is impossible from a record of only thirty years to eliminate the limited oscillation4 ,it is quite conceivable that were such elimination effected1 the residual change would appear as a continuous and equable increase of the lake4 ,however that may be1 a certain degree of rapidity of change is necessarily involved1 for the climatic change which is able in a decade to augment by a sixth part the mean area of evaporation cannot be of exceeding slowness4 ,if we can ascertain how great a change would be demanded1 it will be well to compare it with such changes as have been observed in other parts of the country1 and see whether its magnitude is such as to interfere with its assumption4 ,the prevailing winds of ,utah are westerly1 and it may be said in a general way that the atmosphere of the drainage basin of ,great ,salt ,lake is part of an air current moving from west to east4 ,the basin having no outlet1 the precipitation of rain and snow within its limits must be counter-balanced by the evaporation4 ,the air current must on the average absorb the same quantity of moisture that it discharges4 ,part of the absorption is from land surfaces and part from water1 the latter being the more rapid4 ,if1 now1 the equilibrium be disturbed by an augmented humidity of the inflowing air1 two results ensue4 ,on the one hand the precipitation is increased1 and on the other1 the absorbent power of the air being less1 the rate of evaporation is diminished4 ,in so dry a climate the precipitation is increased in greater ratio than the humidity1 and the rate of evaporation is diminished in less ratio2 while of the increased precipitation an increased percentage gathers in streams and finds its way to the lake4 ,that reservoir1 having its inflow augmented and its rate of evaporation decreased1 gains in volume and grows in breadth until the evaporation from the added expanse is sufficient to restore the equilibrium4 ,giving attention to the fact that the lake receives a greater percentage of the total downfall than before1 and to the fact that its rate of evaporation is at the same time diminished it is evident that the resultant augmentation of the lake surface is more than proportional to the augmentation of the precipitation4 ,we are therefore warranted in assuming that an increase of humidity sufficient to account for the observed increase of #ag per cent4 in the size of the lake would modify the rainfall by less than #ag per cent4 ,the actual change of rainfall cannot be estimated with any degree of precision1 but from a review of such data as are at my command ,i am led to the opinion that an allowance of #aj per cent4 would be as likely to exceed as to fall short1 while an allowance of #g per cent4 would be at the verge of possibility4 ,the rainfall of some other portions of the continent has been recorded with such a degree of thoroughness and for such a period that a term of comparison is afforded4 ,in his discussion of the precipitation of the ,united ,states1 ,mr4 ,schott has grouped the stations by climatic districts1 and deduced the annual means for the several districts4 ,making use of his table on page #aed 7,smithsonian ,contributions1 ,no4 #bbb71 and restricting my attention to the results derived from five or more stations1 ,i select the following extreme cases of variation between the mean annual rainfalls of consecutive decades4 ,district ,i comprises the sea coast from ,maine to ,virginia1 and the record includes five or more stations from #ahbg to #ahfg4 ,from the decade #ahca-'dj to the decade #ahda-'ej the rainfall increased #f per cent4 ,district ,,ii comprises the state of ,new ,york and adjacent regions1 and includes five or more stations from #ahcj to #ahff4 ,from the decade #ahdg-'ef to the decade #aheg-'ff the rainfall increased #i per cent4 ,district ,,iv comprises the ,ohio ,valley and adjacent regions1 and includes five or more stations from #ahcg to #ahff4 ,from decade #ahda-'ej to decade #ahea-'fj the rainfall diminished #h per cent4 ,the case1 then1 stands that the best comparable districts and epochs exhibit extreme fluctuations from decade to decade of from #f to #i per cent1 while the rise of ,great ,salt ,lake implies a fluctuation of about #aj per cent4 ,but before deciding that the hypothetical fluctuation in ,utah is extraordinary1 consideration should be given to the fact that in the dry climate of that region a given change in humidity will produce a relatively great change in rainfall1 while an identical change of rainfall1 measured in inches1 acquires an exaggerated importance when expressed as the percentage of a small total rainfall4 ,giving due weight to these considerations1 ,i am led to conclude that the assumed increase of rainfall in ,utah is not of incredible magnitude1 and consequently that the hypothesis which ascribes the rise of the lake to a change of climate should be regarded as tenable4 ,it by no means follows that it is proven1 and so long as it depends on an assumption the truth of which is merely possible1 but not established1 it can claim no more than a provisional acceptance4 ,it is proper to add that1 so far as ,i entertain the idea of a change of climate1 ,i do so without referring the change to any local cause4 ,it is frequently asserted that the cultivated lands of ,utah 8draw the rain02 or that the prayers of the religious community inhabiting the territory have brought water to their growing crops2 or that the telegraph wires and iron rails which gird the country have in some way caused electricity to induce precipitation2 but none of these agencies seem to be competent4 ,the weather of the globe is a complex whole1 each part of which reacts on every other1 and each part of which depends on every other4 ,the weather of ,utah is an interdependent part of the whole1 and cannot be referred to its causes until the entire subject is mastered4 ,the simpler and more immediate meteoric reactions have been so far analyzed that their results are daily predicted2 but the remote sources of our daily changes1 as well as the causes of the greater cycles of change1 are still beyond our reach4 ,although withdrawn from the domain of the unknowable1 they remain within that of the unknown4 ,,theory ,,of ,,human ,,agencies4 ,the only remaining theory of value is the one advocated by ,professor ,powell3 that the phenomena are to be ascribed to the modification of the surface of the earth by the agency of man4 ,the rise of the lake and the increase of streams have been observed since the settlement of the country by the white man1 and the sage brush on the old storm line shows that they had not been carried to the same extent at any previous period in the century4 ,they have coincided in time with the extension of the operations of civilization2 and the settlers attach this idea to the facts in detail as well as in general4 ,they have frequently told me that wherever and whenever a settlement was established1 there followed in a few years an increase of the water supply1 and these statements have been supported by such enumerations of details that they seem worthy of consideration4 ,if they are well founded1 the secret of the change will surely be found among the modifications incident to the operations of the settler4 ,similar testimony was gathered by ,prof4 ,cyrus ,thomas in #ahfi in regard to the increase of water supply at the western edge of the plains1 and the following conclusion appears in his report to ,dr4 ,hayden 7page #bcg of the reprint of ,dr4 ,hayden's reports for #ahfg1 #ahfh1 and #ahfi73 ,all this1 it seems to me1 must lead to the conclusion that since the territory ,colorado has begun to be settled1 towns and cities built up1 farms cultivated1 mines opened1 and roads made and travelled1 there has been a gradual increase of moisture4 ,be the cause what it may1 unless it is assumed that there is a cycle of years through which there is an increase1 and that there will be a corresponding decrease1 the fact must be admitted upon this accumulated testimony4 ,i therefore give it as my firm conviction that this increase is of a permanent nature1 and not periodical1 and that it has commenced within eight years past1 and that it is in some way connected with the settlement of the country1 and that as the population increases the moisture will increase4 ,notwithstanding the confidence of ,professor ,thomas's conclusions1 he appears to have reached them by a leap1 for he makes no attempt to analyze the influence of civilized man on nature to which he appeals4 ,before we accept his results1 it will be necessary to inquire in what way the white man has modified the conditions by which the water supply is controlled4 ,to facilitate this inquiry1 an attempt will be made to give a new and more convenient form to our expression of the amount of change for which it is necessary to account in the basin of ,great ,salt ,lake4 ,the inflow of the lake is derived chiefly from three rivers1 and is susceptible of very exact determination4 ,thorough measurement has not yet been made1 but there has been a single determination of each river and minor stream1 and a rough estimate can be based on them4 ,the ,bear and the ,weber were measured in ,october1 #ahgg1 and ,i am led by the analogy of other streams and by the characters of the river channels to judge that the mean volume of the ,bear for the year was twice its volume at the date of measurement1 and that of the ,weber four times4 ,the mean flow of the ,jordan can be estimated with more confidence1 for reasons which will appear in a following chapter4 ,the 8supply from other sources0 mentioned in the table includes all the creeks that flow from the ,wasatch ,mountains1 between ,draper and ,hampden1 together with the ,malade ,river1 ,blue ,creek1 the creeks of ,skull and ,tooele ,valleys1 and the line of springs that encircles the lake4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,measured ,estimated volume in mean volume ,rivers1 etc4 feet per in feet second4 per second4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,bear ,river1 measured ,october #d1 #ahgg1 at ,hampden ,bridge #b1fjj #e1bjj ,weber ,river1 measured ,october #aa1 near ,ogden #ejj #b1jjj ,jordan ,river1 measured ,july #h1 near ,draper #a1bge #a1jjj ,supply from other sources -- #a1hjj --------------------- ,total -- #aj1jjj ,deduct the water used in irrigation -- #fjj --------------------- ,remainder -- #i1djj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,the result expresses the mean inflow to the lake in #ahgg1 and is probably not more than #be per cent4 in error4 ,the total inflow for the year would suffice to cover the lake to a depth of #fj inches4 ,in the same year 7or from ,october1 #ahgf1 to ,october1 #ahgg7 the lake fell #f inches1 showing that the loss by evaporation was by so much greater than the gain by inflow4 ,the total annual evaporation of inflowing water may therefore be placed provisionally at #ff inches4 ,if we add to this the rain and snow which fall on the lake1 we deduce a total annual evaporation of about #hj inches of water2 but for the present purpose it will be more convenient to consider the former figure4 ,the extent of the ,salt ,lake basin is about #bh1ejj square miles4 ,the western portion1 amounting to #ab1ejj miles1 sends no water to the lake1 yielding all its rainfall to evaporation within its own limits4 ,the remaining #af1jjj miles includes both plains and mountains1 and its tribute is unequal4 ,to supply #ff inches annually to the whole area of the lake1 #b1abe miles1 it must yield a sheet of water with an average thickness of #h4hc inches4 ,in former times1 when the lake had an area of only #a1hbj miles1 the yield of the same area was #g4dc inches4 ,the advance from #g4dc to #h4hc1 or the addition of #a inch and #d tenths to the mean outflow of the district1 is the phenomenon to be accounted for4 ,all the water that is precipitated within the district as rain or snow returns eventually to the air1 but different portions are returned in different ways4 ,of the snow1 a portion is melted and a portion is evaporated without melting4 ,of the melted snow and the rain1 a part is absorbed by vegetation and soil1 and is afterward reabsorbed by the air2 another part runs from the surface in rills1 and a third part sinks into the underlying formations and afterward emerges in springs4 ,the streams which arise from springs and rills are again divided4 ,part of the water is evaporated from the surfaces of the streams and of fresh water lakes interrupting their courses4 ,another part enters the adjacent porous soils1 and either meets in them the air by which it is slowly absorbed1 or else so saturates them as to produce marshes from which evaporation progresses rapidly at the surface4 ,the remainder flows to ,great ,salt ,lake1 and is in time evaporated from its surface4 ,the lesser portion of the precipitation enters the lake2 the greater is intercepted on the way and turned back to the air4 ,whatever man has done to clear the way for the flowing water has diminished local evaporation and helped to fill the lake4 ,whatever he has done to increase local evaporation has tended to empty the lake4 ,the white man has modified the conditions of drainage1 first1 by the cultivation of the soil2 second1 by the raising of herds2 and1 third1 by the cutting of trees4 #a4 ,by plowing the earth the farmer has rendered it more porous and absorbent1 so that a smaller percentage of the passing shower runs off4 ,he has destroyed the native vegetation1 and replaced it by another that may or may not increase the local evaporation2 but this is of little moment1 because his operations have been conducted on gentle slopes which in their natural condition contributed very little to the streams4 ,it is of greater import that he has diverted water already accumulated in streams1 and for the purposes of irrigation has spread it broadly upon the land1 whence it is absorbed by the air4 ,in this way he has diminished the inflow of the lake4 ,incidental to the work of irrigation has been what is known as the 8opening out0 of springs4 ,small springs are apt to produce bogs from which much water is evaporated1 and it has been found that by running ditches through them the water can be gathered into streams instead4 ,the streams of water thus rescued from local dissipation are consumed in irrigation during a few months of the year1 but for the remainder go to swell the rivers1 and the general tendency of the work is to increase the inflow of the lake4 ,a similar and probably greater result has been achieved by the cutting of beaver dams4 ,in its natural condition every stream not subject to violent floods was ponded from end to end by the beaver4 ,its water surface was greatly expanded1 and its flood plains were converted into marshes4 ,the irrigator has destroyed the dams and drained the marshes4 ,there are a few localities where drainage has been resorted to for the reclamation of wet hay lands1 and that work has the same influence on the discharge to the lake4 #b4 ,the area affected by grazing is far greater than that affected by farming4 ,cattle1 horses1 and sheep have ranged through all the valleys and upon all the mountains4 ,over large areas they have destroyed the native grasses1 and they have everywhere reduced them4 ,where once the water from rain was entangled in a mesh of vegetation and restrained from gathering into rills1 there is now only an open growth of bushes that offer no obstruction4 ,where once the snows of autumn were spread on a non-conducting mat of hay1 and wasted by evaporation until the sunshine came to melt them1 they now fall upon naked earth and are melted at once by its warmth4 ,the treading of many feet at the boggy springs compacts the spongy mold and renders it impervious4 ,the water is no longer able to percolate1 and runs away in streams4 ,the porous beds of brooklets are in the same way tramped and puddled by the feet of cattle1 and much water that formerly sank by the way is now carried forward4 ,in all these ways the herds tend to increase the inflow of the lake1 and there is perhaps no way in which they have lessened it4 #c4 ,the cutting of trees for lumber and fence material and fuel has further increased the streams4 ,by the removal of foliage1 that share of the rain and snow which was formerly caught by it and thence evaporated1 is now permitted to reach the ground1 and some part of it is contributed to the streams4 ,snow beds that were once shaded are now exposed to the sun1 and their melting is so accelerated that a comparatively small proportion of their contents is wasted by the wind4 ,moreover1 that which is melted is melted more rapidly1 and a larger share of it is formed into rills4 ,on the whole1 it appears that the white man causes a greater percentage of the precipitation in snow to be melted and a less percentage to be evaporated directly4 ,this follows from the destruction of trees and of grass4 ,by reducing the amount of vegetation he gives a freer flow to the water from rain and melting snow and carries a greater percentage of it to streams1 while a smaller percentage reaches the air by evaporation from the soil4 ,by the treading of his cattle he diminishes the leakage of the smaller water channels1 and conserves the streams gathered there4 ,by the same means and by the digging of drains he dries the marshes and thereby enlarges the streams4 ,in all these ways he increases the outflow of the land and the inflow of the lake4 ,he diminishes the inflow in a notable degree only by irrigation4 ,the direct influence of irrigation upon the inflow is susceptible of quantitative statement4 ,four hundred square miles of land in ,utah and ,idaho are fertilized by water that would otherwise flow to the lake1 and they dissipate annually a layer of about #bj inches4 ,to supply these #bj inches the drainage district of #af1jjj miles yields an average layer of #j4e inch1 and this yield is in addition to the #a4d inches required to maintain the increase of lake surface4 ,the total augmentation of the annual water supply is therefore represented by a sheet #a4i inches in depth covering the entire district4 ,the indirect influence of irrigation1 and the influences exerted by the grazier and the woodman1 cannot be estimated from any existing data1 but of their tendencies there can be no question4 ,to some extent they diminish local evaporation1 and induce a larger share of the rainfall to gather in the streams2 and to one who has contrasted the district in question with similar districts in their virgin condition1 there seems no extravagance in ascribing to them the whole of the observed change4 ,in the valley of the ,mississippi and on the ,atlantic coast1 it has been observed that the floods of rivers are higher than formerly1 and that the low stages are lower1 and the change has been ascribed by ,ellet and others to the destruction of the native vegetation4 ,the removal of forests and of prairie grasses is believed to facilitate the rapid discharge from the land of the water from rain and melted snow1 and to diminish the amount stored in the soil to maintain springs4 ,in an arid country like ,utah1 where the thirst of the air is not satisfied by the entire rainfall1 any influence that will increase the rapidity of the discharge must also increase the amount of the discharge4 ,the moisture that lingers on the surface is lost4 ,on the whole1 it may be most wise to hold the question an open one whether the water supply of the lake has been increased by a climatic change or by human agency4 ,so far as we now know1 neither theory is inconsistent with the facts1 and it is possible that the truth includes both4 ,the former appeals to a cause that may perhaps be adequate1 but is not independently known to exist4 ,the latter appeals to causes known to exist but quantitatively undetermined4 ,it is gratifying to turn to the economic bearings of the question1 for the theories best sustained by facts are those most flattering to the agricultural future of the ,arid ,region4 ,if the filling of the streams and the rise of the lake were due to a transient extreme of climate1 that extreme would be followed by a return to a mean condition1 or perhaps by an oscillation in the opposite direction1 and a large share of the fields now productive would be stricken by drought and returned to the desert4 ,if the increase of water supply is due to a progressive change of climate forming part of a long cycle1 it is practically permanent1 and future changes are more likely to be in the same advantageous direction than in the opposite4 ,the lands now reclaimed are assured for years to come1 and there is every encouragement for the work of utilizing the existing streams to the utmost4 ,and finally1 if the increase of water supply is due to the changes wrought by the industries of the white man1 the prospect is even better4 ,not only is every gain of the present assured for the future1 but future gain may be predicted4 ,not alone are the agricultural facilities of this district improving1 but the facilities in the whole ,rocky ,mountain ,region are improving and will improve4 ,not only does the settler incidentally and unconsciously enhance his natural privilege1 but it is possible1 by the aid of a careful study of the subject1 to devise such systematic methods as shall render his work still more effectual4 ,,farming ,,without ,,irrigation4 ,the general rule that agriculture in ,utah is dependent on artificial irrigation finds exception in two ways4 ,first1 there are some localities naturally irrigated2 and1 second1 there is at least one locality of which the local climate permits dry farming4 ,along the low banks of many streams there are fertile strips of land4 ,the soil is in every such case of a porous nature1 and water from the stream percolates laterally and rises to the roots of the plants4 ,nearly all such lands are flooded in spring time1 and they are usually devoted to hay as an exclusive crop2 but some of them are above ordinary floods and are suited for other uses4 ,it rarely happens1 however1 that they are farmed without some irrigation1 for the reason that the use of the convenient water render the harvest more secure and abundant4 ,the same fertility is sometimes induced by subterranean waters which have no connection with surface streams4 ,in such cases there is usually1 and perhaps always1 an impervious subsoil which retains percolating water near the surface4 ,a remarkable instance of this sort is known at the western base of the ,wasatch ,mountains4 ,a strip of land from #bj to #dj rods broad1 and marking the junction of the mountain slope with the plain1 has been found productive from ,hampton's ,bridge to ,brigham ,city1 a distance of #ah miles4 ,in some parts it has been irrigated1 with the result of doubling or trebling the yield1 but where water has not been obtained1 the farmer has nevertheless succeeded in extracting a living4 ,a similar but narrower belt of land lies at the eastern base of the ,promontory range1 and a few others have been found4 ,in each locality the proximity of subterranean water to the surface is shown by the success of shallow wells1 and there is evidently a natural irrigation4 ,there is one region1 however1 where natural irrigation is out of the question1 but where crops have nevertheless been secured4 ,bear ,river 8,city0 was founded by a company of ,danes1 who brought the water of the ,malade ,river to irrigate their fields4 ,after repeated experiment they became satisfied that the water was so brackish as to be injurious instead of beneficial1 and ceased to use it2 and for a number of years they have obtained a meagre subsistence by dry farming4 ,a district lying south of ,ogden and east of ,great ,salt ,lake1 and known as 8the ,sand ,ridge01 has recently been brought in use1 and in #ahgf and #ahgg winter wheat was harvested with a yield variously reported as from #aj to #ae bushels per acre4 ,this success is regarded by some of the older settlers as temporary and delusive1 for it is said to have depended on exceptional spring rains2 but the majority of the community have faith in its permanence1 and the experiment is being pushed in many valleys4 ,in ,bear ,river ,city and on the ,sand ,ridge water is not found by shallow wells1 and the land is naturally dry4 ,in these localities1 and1 so far as ,i am aware1 in all others where dry land has been successfully farmed1 the soil is sandy1 and this appears to be an essential condition4 ,success has moreover been restricted to the line of valleys which lie at the western base of the ,wasatch ,mountains and near ,great ,salt ,lake4 ,this last feature depends1 as ,i conceive1 on a local peculiarity of climate4 ,the general movement of the atmosphere is from west to east1 and the air which crosses the lake is immediately lifted from its level to the crest of the ,wasatch4 ,having acquired from the lake an addition to its quota of moisture1 it has less power of absorption and a greater tendency to precipitation than the atmosphere in general1 and it confers on the eastern shore of the lake a climate of exceptional humidity4 ,the character of this climate is clearly indicated by the assemblage of the observed facts in regard to precipitation4 ,through the kindness of ,prof4 ,joseph ,henry ,i have been permitted to examine the rain records accumulated by the ,smithsonian ,institution1 including not only those which have been embodied in the published 8,tables10 but the more recent data to be included in the forthcoming second edition4 ,the following table shows the mean annual precipitation for all stations in ,utah1 ,nevada1 ,wyoming1 and ,colorado1 which have a record two years or more in extent1 together with certain other facts for comparison4 ,the temperature means are taken from the ,smithsonian ,temperature ,tables and the ,united ,states ,signal ,service ,reports4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,mean ,annual,temperature4,height ,length ,station4 precip------------above ,lati- of ita- ,spr- ,sum- sea4 tude4 record4 tion4 ing4 mer4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,inches4 ,deg4 ,f4 ,feet4 ,yrs4 ,mos4 ,salt ,lake ,city1 ,utah #bd4ha #ej #gd #d1ceddj #df #i #b ,camp ,douglas1 ,utah #ah4hb #di #gc #e1jbddj #df #aj #c ,colorado ,springs1 ,colo #ag4ei #dd #fh #e1igjch #di #c #j ,camp ,winfield ,scott1 ,nev #ag4cc #dg #gd -- #da #cd #b #h ,fort ,massachusetts1 ,colo #ag4bc -- -- #h1cfecg #cb #e #a ,golden ,city1 ,colo #ag4ja -- #gb #e1bdjci #dd #b #c ,fort ,sedgwick1 ,colo #ae4dd #dg #gd #c1fjjdj #eh #b #a ,fort ,fred4 ,steele1 ,wyo #ae4ch #da #ff #f1hdeda #dg #e #e ,fort ,fetterman1 ,wyo #ae4aj #da #fg #e1jabdb #ej #e #g ,fort ,garland1 ,colo #ad4hf #dc #fd #g1hfdcg #be #ac #a ,fort ,laramie1 ,wyo #ad4de #dg #gc #d1dgbdb #ab #ag #h ,fort ,d4 ,a1 ,russell1 ,wyo #ad4ji #cf #fd #f1jjjda #ab #e #a ,denver1 ,colo #ac4gg #df #fi #e1bejci #de #e #a ,harrisburg1 ,utah #ac4gd -- -- #c1bgecg #aj #b #b ,fort ,reynolds1 ,colo #ac4bf #eb #ge #d1cjjch #ab #b #h ,fort ,lyon1 ,colo #ab4ef #ea #gg #d1jjjch #jh #g #i ,fort ,sanders1 ,wyo #aa4df #ch #fb #g1afada #ag #f #aj ,saint ,george1 ,utah #aa4ci -- -- #b1hjjcg #ac #b #aa ,camp ,halleck1 ,nev #aj4ih #de #fh #e1gijdj #di #e #h ,cheyenne1 ,wyo #aj4ad #dj #ff #f1jgeda #jh #c #i ,camp ,mc,dermitt1 ,nev #h4ec #df #gj #d1gjjda #eh #f #d ,fort ,bridger1 ,wyo #h4dc #ci #fc #f1fefda #bj #ab #aj ,fort ,churchill1 ,nev #g4dc #eb #ge #d1bhdci #ag #c #i ,camp ,floyd1 ,utah #g4cc #di #gd #d1hfgdj #af #b #f -------------------------------------- ,means #ac4hj #de #gj #e1cjjdj #je -- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,two of the stations1 ,salt ,lake ,city and ,camp ,douglas1 lie within the zone of climate modified by ,great ,salt ,lake1 and a brief inspection of the table will show how greatly their climate is influenced4 ,as a general rule1 the localities of greatest precipitation in the ,rocky ,mountain ,region have so great altitude that their summer temperature does not permit agriculture1 but ,salt ,lake ,city1 with an altitude #a1jjj feet below the average of the #bd stations1 and a temperature #d above the average1 has a rainfall #aa inches greater than the average2 and ,camp ,douglas1 #c warmer than the average and #bej feet lower1 has a rainfall #e inches greater4 ,if the two stations are compared with those which lie nearest them1 the contrast is still more striking4 ,camp ,halleck1 #acj miles west of the lake1 and #fjj feet higher than ,camp ,douglas1 has a rainfall of #aa inches only4 ,fort ,bridger1 #ij miles east of the lake and #a1fjj feet higher than ,camp ,douglas1 has a rainfall of #h inches4 ,camp ,floyd1 #cj miles south of the lake and sheltered from its influence by mountains1 receives only #g inches4 ,but ,salt ,lake ,city and ,camp ,douglas1 lying between the lake and the ,wasatch ,range1 record respectively #bd4h and #ah4h inches4 ,in fine1 it appears that the climate of the eastern shore of ,great ,salt ,lake is decidedly exceptional and approximates in humidity to that of ,central ,kansas4 ,the fact that it admits of dry farming gives no warrant for the belief that large areas in the ,arid ,region can be cultivated without irrigation1 but serves rather to confirm the conclusion that the limit to remunerative dry farming is practically drawn by the isohyetal line of #bb inches4 ,even in this most favored district the yield is so small that it can be doubled by irrigation1 and eventually water ditches will be carried to nearly all the land that has yet been plowed4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,certain ,,important ,,questions ,,relating ,,to ,,irrigable ,,lands4 ,,the ,,unit ,,of ,,water ,,used ,,in ,,irrigation4 ,the unit of water employed in mining as well as manufacturing enterprises in the west is usually the inch1 meaning thereby the amount of water which will flow through an orifice one inch square4 ,but in practice this quantity is very indefinite1 due to the 8head0 or amount of pressure from above4 ,in some districts this latter is taken at six inches4 ,another source of uncertainty exists in the fact that increase in the size of the orifice and increase in the amount of flow do not progress in the same ratio4 ,an orifice of one square inch will not admit of a discharge one-tenth as great as an orifice of ten square inches4 ,an inch of water1 therefore1 is variable with the size of the stream as well as with the head or pressure4 ,for these reasons it seemed better to take a more definite quantity of water1 and for this purpose the second-foot has been adopted4 ,by its use the volume of a stream will be given by stating the number of cubic feet which the stream will deliver per second4 ,,the ,,quantitative ,,value ,,of ,,water ,,in ,,irrigation4 ,in general1 throughout the ,arid ,region the extent of the irrigable land is limited by the water supply2 the arable lands are much greater than the irrigable4 ,hence it becomes necessary1 in determining the amount of irrigable lands with reasonably approximate accuracy1 to determine the value of water in irrigation2 that is1 the amount of land which a given amount of water will serve4 ,all questions of concrete or applied science are more or less complex by reason of the multifarious conditions found in nature1 and this is eminently true of the problem we are now to solve1 namely1 how much water must an acre of land receive by irrigation to render agriculture thereon most successful2 or1 how much land will a given amount of water adequately supply4 ,this will be affected by the following general conditions1 namely1 the amount of water that will be furnished by rainfall1 for if there is rainfall in the season of growing crops1 irrigation is necessary only to supply the deficiency2 second1 the character of the soil and subsoil4 ,if the conditions of soil are unfavorable1 the water supply may be speedily evaporated on the one hand1 or quickly lost by subterranean drainage on the other2 but if there be a soil permitting the proper permeation of water downward and upward1 and an impervious subsoil1 the amount furnished by artificial irrigation will be held in such a manner as to serve the soil bearing crops to the greatest extent2 and1 lastly1 there is a great difference in the amount of water needed for different crops1 some requiring less1 others more4 ,under these heads come the general complicating conditions4 ,in the mountainous country the areal distribution of rainfall is preminently variable1 as the currents of air which carry the water are deflected in various ways by diverse topographic inequalities4 ,the rainfall is also exceedingly irregular1 varying from year to year1 and again from season to season4 ,but in all these varying conditions of time and space there is one fact which must control our conclusions in considering most of the lands of the ,arid ,region1 namely3 any district of country which we may be studying is liable for many seasons in a long series to be without rainfall1 when the whole supply must be received from irrigation4 ,safety in agricultural operations will be secured by neglecting the rainfall and considering only the supply of water to be furnished by artificial methods2 the less favorable seasons must be considered2 in the more favorable there will be a surplus4 ,in general1 this statement applies throughout the ,arid ,region1 but there are some limited localities where a small amount of rainfall in the season of growing crops seems to be constant from year to year4 ,in such districts irrigation will only be used to supply deficiencies4 ,the complicating conditions arising from soil and subsoil are many4 ,experience has already shown that there are occasional conditions of soil and subsoil so favorable that the water may be supplied before the growing season1 and the subsoil will hold it for weeks1 or even months1 and gradually yield the moisture to the overlying soil by slow upward percolation or capillary attraction during the season when growing crops require its fertilizing effect4 ,when such conditions of soil and subsoil obtain1 the construction of reservoirs is unnecessary1 and the whole annual supply of the streams may be utilized4 ,on the other hand1 there are extremely pervious soils underlaid by sands and gravels1 which speedily carry away the water by a natural under drainage4 ,here a maximum supply by irrigation is necessary1 as the soils must be kept moist by frequent flowing4 ,under such conditions the amount of water to be supplied is many fold greater than under the conditions previously mentioned1 and between these extremes almost infinite variety prevails4 ,practical agriculture by irrigation has also demonstrated the fact that the wants of different crops are exceedingly variable1 some requiring many fold the amount of others4 ,this is due in part to the length of time necessary to the maturing of the crops1 in part to the amount of constant moisture necessary to their successful growth4 ,but by excluding the variability due to rainfall1 and considering only that due to differences of soils and crops1 and by taking advantage of a wide experience1 a general average may be obtained of sufficient accuracy for the purposes here in view4 ,in examining the literature of this subject it was found that the experience in other countries could not be used as a guide in considering our problems4 ,in general1 irrigation in ,europe and ,asia is practiced only to supply deficiencies1 and the crops there raised are only in part the same as with us1 and the variation on account of the crops is very great4 ,certain statements of ,marsh in his 8,man and ,nature0 have been copied into the journals and reports published in the ,united ,states1 and made to do duty on many occasions2 but these statements are rather misleading1 as the experience of farmers in the ,arid ,region has abundantly demonstrated4 ,the writers who have used them have in general overestimated the quantitative value of water in irrigation4 ,the facts in ,italy1 in ,spain1 in ,grenada1 and ,india are valuable severally for discussion in the countries named1 but must be used in a discussion of the arid lands of the ,united ,states with much care4 ,it seemed better1 under these circumstances1 to determine the quantitative value of water in irrigation in ,utah from the experience of the farmers of ,utah4 ,irrigation has there been practiced for about thirty years1 and gradually during that time the area of land thus redeemed has been increased1 until at present about #cbe1jjj acres of land are under cultivation4 ,a great variety of crops have been cultivated--corn1 wheat1 oats1 rye1 garden vegetables1 orchard trees1 fruits1 vines1 etc41 etc42 and even the fig tree and sugar cane are there raised4 ,during the past six or seven years ,i have from time to time1 as occasion was afforded1 directed my attention to this problem1 but being exceedingly complex1 a very wide range of facts must be considered in order to obtain a reasonably approximate average4 ,during the past year the task of more thoroughly investigating this subject was delegated to ,mr4 ,gilbert4 ,the results of his studies appear in a foregoing chapter1 written by him2 but it may be stated here that he has reached the conclusion that a continuous flow of one cubic foot of water per second1 i4 e41 a second-foot of water1 will1 in most of the lands of ,utah1 serve about #ajj acres for the general average of crops cultivated in that country2 but to secure that amount of service from the water very careful and economic methods of irrigation must be practiced4 ,at present1 there are few instances where such economic methods are used4 ,in general1 there is a great wastage1 due to badly constructed canals1 from which the water either percolates away or breaks away from time to time2 due1 also1 to too rapid flow1 and also to an excessive use of the water1 as there is a tendency among the farmers to irrigate too frequently and too copiously1 errors corrected only by long experience4 ,the studies of ,mr4 ,gilbert1 under the circumstances1 were quite thorough1 and his conclusions accord with my own1 derived from a more desultory but longer study of the subject4 ,,area ,,of ,,irrigable ,,land ,,sometimes ,,not ,,limited ,,by ,,water ,,supply4 ,while1 as a general fact1 the area of arable land is greater than the area of irrigable land1 by reason of the insufficient supply of water1 yet in considering limited tracts it may often be found that the supply of water is so great that only a part of it can be used thereon4 ,in such cases the area of irrigable land is limited by the extent to which the water can be used by proper engineering skill4 ,this is true in considering some portions of ,utah1 where the waters of the ,green and ,colorado cannot all be used within that territory4 ,eventually these surplus waters will be used in southern ,california4 ,,method ,,of ,,determining ,,the ,,supply ,,of ,,water4 ,to determine the amount of irrigable land in ,utah1 it was necessary to consider the supply2 that is1 to determine the amount of water flowing in the several streams4 ,again1 this quantity is variable in each stream from season to season and from year to year4 ,the irrigable season is but a small portion of the year4 ,to utilize the entire annual discharge of the water1 it would be necessary to hold the surplus flowing in the non-growing season in reservoirs1 and even by this method the whole amount could not be utilized1 as a great quantity would be lost by evaporation4 ,as the utilization of the water by reservoirs will be to a great extent postponed for many years1 the question of immediate practical importance is resolved into a consideration of the amount of water that the streams will afford during the irrigating season4 ,but in the earlier part of the season the flow in most of the streams in this western region is great1 and it steadily diminishes to the end of the summer4 ,earlier in the season there is more water1 while for the average of crops the greater amount is needed later4 ,the practical capacity of a stream will then be determined by its flow at the time when that is least in comparison with the demands of the growing crops4 ,this will be called the critical period1 and the volume of water of the critical period will determine the capacity of the stream4 ,the critical period will vary in different parts of the region from the latter part of ,june until the first part of ,august4 ,for the purposes of this discussion it was only necessary to determine the flow of the water during the critical period4 ,this has been done by very simple methods4 ,usually in each case a section of the stream has been selected having the least possible variation of outline and flow4 ,a cross-section of the stream has been measured1 and the velocity of flow determined4 ,with these factors the capacity of the streams has been obtained4 ,in some cases single measurements have been made2 in others several at different seasons1 rarely in different years4 ,the determination of the available volume of the several streams by such methods is necessarily uncertain1 especially from the fact that it has not always been possible to gauge the streams exactly at the critical period2 and1 again1 the flow in one season may differ materially from that in another4 ,but as the capacity of a stream should never be rated by its volume in seasons of abundant flow1 we have endeavored as far as possible to determine the capacity of the streams in low water years4 ,altogether the amount of water in the several streams has been determined crudely1 and at best the data given must be considered tolerable approximations4 ,in considering the several streams experience may hereafter discover many errors1 but as the number of determinations is great1 the average may be considered good4 ,,methods ,,of ,,determining ,,the ,,extent ,,of ,,irrigable ,,land ,,unlimited ,,by ,,water ,,supply4 ,in the few cases where the water supply is more than sufficient to serve the arable lands1 the character of the problem is entirely changed1 and it becomes necessary then to determine the area to which the waters can be carried4 ,these problems are hypsometric2 relative altitudes are the governing conditions4 ,the hypsometric methods were barometric and angular2 that is1 from the barometric stations vertical angles were taken and recorded to all the principal points in the topography of the country2 mercurial and aneroid barometers were used1 chiefly the former2 the latter to a limited extent1 for subsidiary work4 ,angular measurements were made with gradientors to a slight extent1 but chiefly with the orograph1 an instrument by which a great multiplicity of angles are observed and recorded by mechanical methods4 ,this instrument was devised by ,professor ,thompson for the use of the survey1 and has been fully described in the reports on the geographical operations4 ,to run hypsometric lines with spirit levels would have involved a great amount of labor and been exceedingly expensive1 and such a method was entirely impracticable with the means at command1 but the methods used give fairly approximate results1 and perhaps all that is necessary for the purposes to be subserved4 ,,the ,,selection ,,of ,,irrigable ,,lands4 ,from the fact that the area of arable lands greatly exceeds the irrigable1 or the amount which the waters of the streams will serve1 a wide choice in the selection of the latter is permitted4 ,the considerations affecting the choice are diverse1 but fall readily into two classes1 viz3 physical conditions and artificial conditions4 ,the mountains and high plateaus are the great aqueous condensers2 the mountains and high plateaus are also the reservoirs that hold the water fed to the streams in the irrigating season1 for the fountains from which the rivers flow are the snow fields of the highlands4 ,after the streams leave the highlands they steadily diminish in volume1 the loss being due in part to direct evaporation1 and in part to percolation in the sands from which the waters are eventually evaporated4 ,in like manner irrigating canals starting near the mountains and running far out into the valleys and plains rapidly diminish in the volume of flowing water4 ,looking to the conservation of water1 it is best to select lands as high along the streams as possible4 ,but this consideration is directly opposed by considerations relating to temperature2 the higher the land the colder the climate4 ,where the great majority of streams have their sources1 agriculture is impossible on account of prevailing summer frosts2 the lower the altitude the more genial the temperature2 the lower the land the greater the variety of crops which can be cultivated2 and to the extent that the variety of crops is multiplied the irrigating season is lengthened1 until the maximum is reached in low altitudes and low latitudes where two crops can be raised annually on the same land4 ,in the selection of lands1 as governed by these conditions1 the higher lands will be avoided on the one hand because of the rigor of the climate2 if these conditions alone governed1 no settlement should be made in ,utah above #f1ejj feet above the level of the sea1 and in general still lower lands should be used2 on the other hand the irrigable lands should not be selected at such a distance from the source of the stream as to be the occasion of a great loss of water by direct and indirect evaporation4 ,for general climatic reasons1 the lands should be selected as low as possible2 for economy of water as high as possible2 and these conditions in the main will cause the selections to be made along the middle courses of the streams4 ,but this general rule will be modified by minor physical conditions relating to soil and slope--soils that will best conserve the water will be selected1 and land with the gentlest slopes will be taken4 ,in general1 the descent of the streams in the arid land is very great2 for this reason the flood plains are small1 that is1 the extent of the lands adjacent to the streams which are subject to overflow at high water is limited4 ,in general1 these flood-plain lands should not be chosen for irrigation1 from the fact that the irrigating canals are liable to be destroyed during flood seasons4 ,where the plan of irrigation includes the storage of the water of the non-growing season1 by which all the waters of the year are held under control1 the flood-plain lands can be used to advantage1 from the fact that they lie in such a way as to be easily irrigated and their soils possess elements and conditions of great fertility4 ,other locally controlling conditions are found in selecting the most advantageous sites for the necessary water works4 ,these are the chief physical factors which enter into the problem1 and in general it will be solved by considering these factors only2 but occasionally artificial conditions will control4 ,the mining industries of the ,arid ,region are proportionately greater than in the more humid country4 ,where valuable mines are discovered towns spring up in their immediate vicinity1 and they must be served with water for domestic purposes and for garden culture4 ,when possible1 agriculture will be practiced in the immediate vicinity for the purpose of taking advantage of the local market4 ,in like manner towns spring up along the railroads1 and agriculture will be carried on in their vicinity4 ,for this and like reasons the streams of the ,arid ,region will often be used on lands where they cannot be made the most available under physical conditions1 and yet under such circumstances artificial conditions must prevail4 ,in the indication of specific areas as irrigable on the accompanying map of ,utah1 it must be considered that the selections made are but tentative2 the areas chosen are supposed to be1 under all the circumstances1 the most available2 but each community will settle this problem for itself1 and the circumstances which will control any particular selection cannot be foretold4 ,it is believed that the selections made will be advantageous to the settler1 by giving him the opinions of men who have made the subject a study1 and will save many mistakes4 ,the history of this subject in ,utah is very instructive4 ,the greater number of people in the territory who engage in agriculture are organized into ecclesiastical bodies1 trying the experiment of communal institutions4 ,in this way the communal towns are mobile4 ,this mobility is increased by the fact that the towns are usually laid out on ,government lands1 and for a long time titles to the land in severalty are not obtained by the people4 ,it has been the custom of the church to send a number of people1 organized as a community1 to a town site on some stream to be used in the cultivation of the lands1 and rarely has the first selection made been final4 ,luxuriant vegetation has often tempted the settlers to select lands at too great an altitude1 and many towns have been moved down stream4 ,sometimes selections have been made too far away from the sources of the streams1 and to increase the supply of water1 towns have been moved up stream4 ,sometimes lands of too great slope have been chosen1 and here the waters have rapidly cut deep channels and destroyed the fields4 ,sometimes alkaline lands are selected and abandoned1 and sometimes excessively sandy lands have caused a change to be made2 but the question of the best sites for the construction of works for controlling and distributing the water has usually determined the selection of lands within restricted limits4 ,to a very slight extent indeed have artificial conditions controlled in ,utah2 the several problems have generally been solved by the consideration of physical facts4 ,,increase ,,in ,,the ,,water ,,supply4 ,irrigation has been practiced in different portions of the ,arid ,region for the last twenty-five or thirty years1 and the area cultivated by this means has been steadily increasing during that time4 ,in ,california and ,new ,mexico irrigation has been practiced to a limited extent for a much longer time at the several ,catholic missions under the old ,spanish regime4 ,in the history of the settlement of the several districts an important fact has been uniformly observed--in the first years of settlement the streams have steadily increased in volume4 ,this fact has been observed alike in ,california1 ,utah1 ,colorado1 and wherever irrigation has been practiced4 ,as the chief development of this industry has been within the last fifteen years1 it has been a fact especially observed during that time4 ,an increase in the water supply1 so universal of late years1 has led to many conjectures and hypotheses as to its origin4 ,it has generally been supposed to result from increased rainfall1 and this increased rainfall now from this1 now from that1 condition of affairs4 ,many have attributed the change to the laying of railroad tracks and construction of telegraph lines2 others to the cultivation of the soil1 and not a few to the interposition of ,divine ,providence in behalf of the ,latter ,day ,saints4 ,if each physical cause was indeed a vera causa1 their inability to produce the results is quite manifest4 ,a single railroad line has been built across the ,arid ,region from east to west1 and a short north and south line has been constructed in ,colorado1 another in ,utah1 and several in ,california4 ,but an exceedingly small portion of the country where increase of water supply has been noticed has been reached by the railroads1 and but a small fraction of one per cent4 of the lands of the ,arid ,region have been redeemed by irrigation4 ,this fully demonstrates their inadequacy4 ,in what manner rainfall could be affected through the cultivation of the land1 building of railroads1 telegraph lines1 etc41 has not been shown4 ,of course such hypotheses obtain credence because of a lack of information relating to the laws which govern aqueous precipitation4 ,the motions of the earth on its axis and about the sun2 the unequal heating of the atmosphere1 which decreases steadily from equator to poles2 the great ocean currents and air currents2 the distribution of land and water over the earth2 the mountain systems--these are all grand conditions affecting the distribution of rainfall4 ,many minor conditions also prevail in topographic reliefs1 and surfaces favorable to the absorption or reflection of the sun's heat1 etc41 etc41 affecting in a slight degree the general results4 ,but the operations of man on the surface of the earth are so trivial that the conditions which they produce are of minute effect1 and in presence of the grand effects of nature escape discernment4 ,thus the alleged causes for the increase of rainfall fail4 ,the rain gauge records of the country have been made but for a brief period1 and the stations have been widely scattered1 so that no very definite conclusions can be drawn from them1 but so far as they are of value they fail to show any increase4 ,but if it be true that increase of the water supply is due to increase in precipitation1 as many have supposed1 the fact is not cheering to the agriculturist of the ,arid ,region4 ,the permanent changes of nature are secular2 any great sudden change is ephemeral1 and usually such changes go in cycles1 and the opposite or compensating conditions may reasonably be anticipated4 ,for the reasons so briefly stated1 the question of the origin and permanence of the increase of the water supply is one of prime importance to the people of the country4 ,if it is due to a temporary increase of rainfall1 or any briefly cyclic cause1 we shall have to expect a speedy return to extreme aridity1 in which case a large portion of the agricultural industries of the country now growing up would be destroyed4 ,the increase is abundantly proved2 it is a matter of universal experience4 ,the observations of the writer thereon have been widely extended4 ,having examined as far as possible all the facts seeming to bear on the subject1 the theory of the increase of rainfall was rejected1 and another explanation more flattering to the future of agriculture accepted4 ,the amount of water flowing in the streams is but a very small part of that which falls from the heavens4 ,the greater part of the rainfall evaporates from the surfaces which immediately receive it4 ,the exceedingly dry atmosphere quickly reabsorbs the moisture occasionally thrown down by a conjunction of favoring conditions4 ,any changes in the surfaces which receive the precipitation favorable to the rapid gathering of the rain into rills and brooks and creeks1 while taking to the streams but a small amount of that precipitated1 will greatly increase the volume of the streams themselves1 because the water in the streams bears so small a proportion to the amount discharged from the clouds4 ,the artificial changes wrought by man on the surface of the earth appear to be adequate to the production of the observed effects4 ,the destruction of forests1 which has been immense in this country for the past fifteen years2 the cropping of the grasses1 and the treading of the soil by cattle2 the destruction of the beaver dams1 causing a drainage of the ponds2 the clearing of drift wood from stream channels2 the draining of upland meadows1 and many other slight modifications1 all conspire to increase the accumulation of water in the streams1 and all this is added to the supply of water to be used in irrigation4 ,students of geology and physical geography have long been aware of these facts4 ,it is well known that1 under the modifying influences of man1 the streams of any region redeemed from the wilderness are changed in many important characteristics4 ,in flood times their volumes are excessively increased and their powers of destruction multiplied4 ,in seasons of drought1 some streams that were perennial before man modified the surface of the country become entirely dry2 the smaller navigable streams have their periods of navigation shortened1 and the great rivers run so low at times that navigation becomes more and more difficult during dry seasons2 in multiplied ways these effects are demonstrated4 ,while in the main the artificial changes wrought by man on the surface are productive of bad results in humid regions1 the changes are chiefly advantageous to man in arid regions where agriculture is dependent upon irrigation1 for here the result is to increase the supply of water4 ,mr4 ,gilbert1 while engaged during the past season in studying the lands of ,utah1 paid especial attention to this subject1 and in his chapter has more thoroughly discussed the diverse special methods by which increase in the flow of the streams is caused by the changes wrought by man upon the surface of the earth4 ,his statement of facts is clear1 and his conclusions are deemed valid4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,lands ,,of ,,utah ,,physical ,,features4 ,a zone of mountains and high plateaus extends from the northern nearly to the southern boundary of ,utah ,territory4 ,the ,wasatch ,mountains constitute the northern portion of this zone1 the ,high ,plateaus the southern4 ,this central zone has a general altitude above the sea of from nine to eleven thousand feet4 ,many peaks are higher1 a few reaching an altitude of about twelve thousand feet4 ,on the other hand many caons and valleys have been excavated by the running waters far below the general level thus indicated4 ,the ,uinta ,mountains stretch eastward from the midst of the ,wasatch4 ,this region is a lofty table land carrying many elevated peaks whose summits are from twelve to nearly fourteen thousand feet above the level of the sea4 ,this is the highest portion of ,utah1 and among its peaks are the culminating points4 ,south from the ,uinta ,region1 and from the southern extremity of the ,wasatch ,mountains1 another elevated district extends east-southeast beyond the borders of ,utah4 ,this table land is cut in twain by two great gorges of the ,green ,river--the ,caon of ,desolation and ,gray ,caon4 ,the eastern portion is called ,east ,tavaputs ,plateau1 the western ,west ,tavaputs ,plateau4 ,between the ,uinta ,mountains and the ,tavaputs table land is the ,uinta-,white ,basin1 a low synclinal valley1 drained by the ,uinta and its ramifications on the west1 and the lower portion of the ,white ,river on the east4 ,the district of country lying south of the ,tavaputs table land1 and east and south of the ,high ,plateaus1 is traversed by many deep caons4 ,this is the ,caon ,land of ,utah4 ,in its midst the ,green and ,grand unite to form the ,colorado4 ,the ,price and ,san ,rafael are tributary to the ,green4 ,the ,fremont1 ,escalante1 ,paria1 ,kanab1 and ,virgin are directly tributary to the ,colorado from the north and west4 ,from the east the ,san ,juan flows to the ,colorado1 but its drainage area is not included in our present discussion4 ,west of the lofty zone lie low1 arid valleys1 interrupted by short and abrupt ranges of mountains whose naked cliffs and desolate peaks overlook the still more desolate valleys4 ,these short longitudinal ranges are but a part of the ,basin ,ranges1 a mountain system extending through ,nevada and northward into ,idaho and ,oregon4 ,that portion of the ,basin ,range ,system which lies in ,utah1 and which we now have under consideration1 is naturally divided into two parts1 the northern embracing the drainage area of ,great ,salt ,lake1 the southern embracing the drainage area of ,sevier ,lake1 giving the ,great ,salt ,lake ,district and the ,sevier ,lake ,district4 ,to recapitulate1 the grand districts into which ,utah is naturally divided are as follows3 ,the ,wasatch ,mountains and the ,high ,plateaus1 constituting the lofty zone above mentioned2 the ,uinta ,mountains1 the ,tavaputs table lands1 the ,uinta-,white ,basin1 the ,caon ,lands1 the ,sevier ,lake ,basin1 and the ,great ,salt ,lake ,basin1 the two latter being fragments of the great ,basin ,range ,province4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the eastern portion of the ,territory of ,utah is drained by the ,colorado ,river by the aid of a number of important tributaries4 ,the western portion is drained by streams that1 heading in the mountains and high plateaus of the central portion1 find their way by many meanderings into the salt lakes and desert sands to the westward4 ,considered with reference to its drainage1 ,utah may thus be divided into two parts--the ,colorado drainage area and the ,desert drainage area2 the former is about two-fifths1 the latter three-fifths of the area of the territory4 ,all of the ,wasatch ,mountains lie west of the drainage crest2 a part of the ,high ,plateaus are drained to the ,colorado1 a part to the deserts4 ,this great water divide1 commencing north of the ,pine ,valley ,mountains in the southwest corner of the territory1 runs north of the ,colob ,plateau and enters the district of the ,high ,plateaus4 ,it first runs eastward along the crest or brink of the ,pink ,cliffs that bound the ,markagunt and ,pauns-a-gunt ,plateaus1 and then north and east in many meandering ways1 now throwing a plateau into the western drainage1 and now another into the eastern1 until it reaches the western extremity of the ,tavaputs table lands4 ,thence it runs around the western end of the ,uinta ,valley1 throwing the ,tavaputs table lands1 the ,uinta ,valley1 and ,uinta ,mountains into the ,colorado drainage1 and the ,wasatch ,mountains into the ,desert drainage4 ,these two regions are highly differentiated in orographic structure and other geological characteristics4 ,the sedimentary formations of the eastern region are in large part of ,cenozoic and ,mesozoic age1 though ,paleozoic rocks appear in some localities4 ,the ,cenozoic and ,mesozoic formations are largely composed of incoherent sands and shales with intercalated beds of indurated sandstone and limestone4 ,the great geological displacements are chiefly by faults and monoclinal flexures1 by which the whole country has been broken up into many broad blocks1 so that the strata are horizontal or but slightly inclined1 except along the zones of displacement by which the several blocks are bounded4 ,here the strata1 when not faulted1 are abruptly flexed1 and the rocks dip at high angles4 ,the ,uinta ,mountains are storm carved from an immense uplifted block4 ,the mountains of the ,caon ,lands are isolated and volcanic4 ,in the ,high ,plateaus sedimentary beds are covered by vast sheets of lava4 ,the sedimentary beds exposed in the mountains of the ,desert region are of ,paleozoic age1 and many crystalline schists appear1 while the sedimentary beds exposed in the valleys are ,post-,tertiary4 ,the crystalline schists and ancient sedimentaries of the mountains are often extensive masses of extravasated rocks4 ,the prevailing type of orographic structure is that of monoclinal ridges of displacement4 ,blocks of strata have been turned up so as to incline at various angles1 and from their upturned edges the mountains have been carved4 ,but these monoclinal ridges are much complicated by mountain masses having an eruptive origin4 ,in the eastern districts the materials denuded from the mountains and plateaus have been carried to the sea1 but in the western districts the materials carried from the mountains are deposited in the adjacent valleys1 so that while the mountains are composed of rocks of great age1 the rocks of the valleys are of recent origin4 ,in that geological era known as the ,glacial epoch the waters of a great lake spread over these valleys1 and the mountains stood as islands in the midst of a fresh-water sea4 ,for the history of this lake we are indebted to the researches of ,mr4 ,gilbert4 ,it had its outlet to the north by way of the ,shoshoni ,river and the ,columbia to the ,north ,pacific4 ,these later beds of the valleys are in part the sediments of ,lake ,bonneville1 the great lake above mentioned1 and in part they are subarial gravels and sands4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,wasatch system of mountains is composed of abrupt ranges crowned with sharp peaks4 ,the several minor ranges and groups of peaks into which it is broken are separated only in part by structural differences1 since ridges with homogeneous structure are severed by transverse valleys4 ,the drainage of the whole area occupied by the ,wasatch ,mountains is westward to the ,great ,salt ,lake4 ,the streams that head in the western end of the ,uinta ,mountains and ,west ,tavaputs ,plateau cut through the ,wasatch ,mountains4 ,great ,salt ,lake and its upper tributary1 ,utah ,lake1 exist by virtue of the presence of the ,wasatch ,mountains1 for the mountains wring from the clouds the waters with which the lakes are supplied4 ,walled by high ridges and peaks1 many elevated valleys are found4 ,in the midsummer months these valleys are favored with a pleasant1 invigorating climate4 ,occasionally showers of rain fall4 ,vegetation is vigorous4 ,the distant mountain slopes bear forests of spruce1 pine1 and fir2 the broken foot hills are often covered by low1 ragged pion pines and cedars2 and the flood plains of the streams are natural meadows4 ,about the springs and streamlets groves of aspen stand1 and the streams are bordered with willows1 box elders1 and cottonwoods4 ,now and then a midsummer storm comes1 bringing hail1 and even snow4 ,when the short summer ends1 the aspen and box elder foliage turns to gold flecked with scarlet2 the willows to crimson and russet2 the meadows are quickly sered1 and soon the autumn verdure presents only the somber tints of the evergreens2 early snows fall1 and the whole land is soon covered with a white mantle1 except that here and there bleak hills and rugged peaks are swept bare by the winds4 ,the brief1 beautiful summer is followed by a long1 dreary winter1 and during this winter of snowfall are accumulated the waters that are to be used in fertilizing the valleys away below in the border region between the mountains and the desert basins4 ,from the ,wasatch on the north to the ,colob on the south are elevated tables1 in general bounded by bold1 precipitous escarpments4 ,the lands above are highly and sharply differentiated from the lands below in climate1 vegetation1 soil1 and other physical characters4 ,these high plateaus are covered with sheets and beds of lava1 and over the lava sheets are scattered many volcanic cinder cones4 ,the higher plateaus bear heavy forests of evergreens1 and scattered through the forests are many little valleys or meadow glades4 ,the gnarled1 somber forests are often beset with fallen timber and a vigorous second growth1 forming together a dead and living tangle difficult to penetrate4 ,but often the forest aisles are open from glade to glade1 or from border cliff to border cliff4 ,in the midst of the glades are many beautiful lakelets1 and from the cliffs that bound the plateaus on every hand the waters break out in innumerable springs4 ,here1 also1 a brief summer is followed by a long winter1 and through its dreary days the snow is gathered which fills the lakelets above and feeds the springs along the bordering cliffs4 ,the springs of the cliffs are the fountains of the rivers that are to fertilize the valleys lying to the east1 south1 and west4 ,the ,uinta ,mountains constitute an east and west range4 ,from a single great uplift1 nearly #bjj miles long and from #dj to #ej miles wide1 valleys and caons have been carved by rains and rivers1 and table lands and peaks have been left embossed on the surface4 ,along its middle belt from east to west the peaks are scattered in great confusion1 but in general the highest peaks are near the center of the range4 ,the general elevation descends abruptly both on the north and south margins of the uplift1 and at the crest of each abrupt descent there are many limestone ridges and crags4 ,between these ridges and crags that stand along the bordering crests1 and the peaks that stand along the meandering watershed1 there are broad tables1 some times covered with forests1 sometimes only with grass4 ,this is a third region of short summers and long winters1 where the waters are collected to fertilize the valleys to the north and south4 ,away to the southward are the twin plateaus1 ,east and ,west ,tavaputs1 severed by the ,green ,river4 ,these plateaus culminate at the ,brown ,cliffs1 where bold escarpments are presented southward4 ,outlying the ,brown ,cliffs are the ,book ,cliffs4 ,these1 also1 are escarpments of naked rock1 with many salient and rentrant angles and outlying buttes4 ,the beds of which they are composed are shales and sandstones of many shades of blue1 gray1 and buff4 ,in the distance1 and softly blended by atmospheric haze1 the towering walls have an azure hue4 ,everywhere they are elaborately water carved1 and the bold battlements above are buttressed with sculptured hills4 ,in #ahfi1 when the writer first saw this great escarpment1 he gave it the name of the ,azure ,cliffs1 but an earlier traveler1 passing by another route across the country1 had seen them in the distance1 and1 seizing another characteristic feature1 had called them the ,book ,mountains4 ,gunnison saw1 however1 not a range of mountains1 but the escarped edge of a plateau1 and this escarpment we now call the ,book ,cliffs4 ,from the ,brown ,cliffs northward these plateaus dip gently north to the ,uinta-,white ,basin4 ,from the very crest of the ,brown ,cliffs the drainage is northward4 ,this is a fourth region of short summers and long winters1 where the moisture is collected to fertilize adjacent lands2 but the altitude is not great enough nor the area large enough to accumulate a large supply of water1 and the amount furnished by the ,tavaputs ,plateaus is comparatively small4 ,such are the lofty regions of ,utah that furnish water to irrigate the lowlands4 ,,timber4 ,in these elevated districts is found all the timber of commercial value4 ,this is well shown on the map4 ,the map also exhibits the fact that many portions of the elevated districts are devoid of timber1 it having been destroyed by fire1 as explained in a former chapter4 ,doubtless1 if fires could be prevented1 the treeless areas would in due time be again covered with forests1 but in such a climate forest growth is slow4 ,at present1 the treeless areas will afford valuable summer pasturage for cattle1 and doubtless such pasturage would be advantageous to the growth of new forests1 by keeping down the grasses in which in part the fires spread4 ,it has already been shown that1 to a great extent1 the fires which destroy the forests are set by ,indians while on their hunting excursions4 ,the removal of the ,indians from the country will further protect the forests4 ,eventually1 the better class of timber lands will fall into the hands of individual owners1 who will be interested in protecting their property from devastation by this fierce element4 ,by all of these means the standing timber will be preserved for economic uses2 but it will be a long time before complete immunity from fires will be secured4 ,the demand for lumber will never be very great4 ,a variety of causes conspire to this end4 ,the adjacent country will sustain but a small agricultural population1 because the irrigable lands are of limited extent4 ,the people of the lowlands will eventually supply themselves with fuel by cultivating timber along the water courses and by using the coal so abundant in some portions of ,utah4 ,the lumber will never be carried to a foreign market because of the expense of transportation3 first1 it will be expensive to get it down from the highlands to the lowlands1 and1 second1 there are no navigable streams by which lumber may be cheaply transported from the country4 ,in general1 the lumber is of inferior quality1 and cannot successfully compete for a permanent place in the markets of the world4 ,but there will be a demand for lumber for building and fencing purposes in the valleys1 and for mining purposes in the mountains4 ,if the timber region can be protected from fire1 the supply of timber will equal the demand4 ,from the brief description given above1 it will be seen that the timber region will never support agriculture4 ,much of it is mountainous and inhospitable1 and the climate is cold4 ,the timber region is ever to be such2 mining industries will slightly encroach on it on the one hand1 and pasturage industries on the other1 but lumbermen will control the country4 ,the forests of these upper regions are monotonous1 as the variety of tree life is very small4 ,all of the timber trees proper are coniferous1 and belong to the pine1 fir1 and juniper families4 ,the pine of chief value is ,pinus ponderosa1 locally distinguished as the 8,long leaved pine02 the wood is very heavy and coarse grained1 but is suitable for the ruder building and mining purposes4 ,it is usually found on the slopes between eight and nine thousand feet above the level of the sea4 ,it attains a large size1 and is a stately tree1 contrasting grandly with the darker and smaller firs that usually keep it company4 ,pinus aristata is of no commercial value1 as it is much branched and spreading with limbs near the base2 it grows on the crags at an altitude of from nine to eleven thousand feet4 ,pinus flexilis grows at the same altitude as the last mentioned1 and often shows a similar habit of growth4 ,on the southern plateaus it is less branched and has a tolerably straight trunk1 but it is too small and scarce to be important as timber4 ,it is highly resinous1 and is called 8,pitch pine40 ,pinus monticola1 or ,sugar pine1 is found on the southern plateaus1 but is not abundant1 and rarely attains milling size4 ,pinus edulis is the well known 8,pion pine04 ,it covers the foot hills and less elevated slopes adjacent to the river valleys4 ,the tree is low1 diffusely branched and scrubby1 and is of no use for lumber2 but the wood is well supplied with resin and makes an excellent fuel1 for which purpose it is extensively used in consequence of its accessibility4 ,there are three valuable species of ,abies1 namely3 ,a4 ,douglasii1 ,a4 concolor1 and ,a4 ,engelmanni4 ,abies ,douglasii1 or ,douglas' spruce1 bears some resemblance to the eastern spruce1 ,a4 ,canadensis1 but it is a finer tree1 and the wood is much superior4 ,though rather light1 it is tough and exceedingly durable4 ,the heart wood is red1 from which circumstance lumbermen distinguish it as the 8,red pine04 ,in building it is used for all the heavier parts1 as frames1 joists1 rafters1 etc41 and it makes excellent flooring4 ,its value is still further enhanced from the fact that it occupies a belt of from seven to nine thousand feet altitude1 and thus is easily obtained4 ,it may readily be distinguished by its cones1 the bracts of which are trifurcate1 sharp1 pointed1 and conspicuously exserted1 and they are unlike those of any other species4 ,abies concolor1 known in ,utah as the 8,black balsam01 grows at about the same altitude as the last mentioned species1 and though rather cross-grained makes good lumber1 being quite durable and strong4 ,from its silvery foliage1 the leaves being glaucous on both sides1 this tree is known to tourists as the 8,white silver fir04 ,lumbermen sometimes call it the 8,black gum01 the wood being very dark colored4 ,abies ,engelmanni1 or ,engelmann's spruce1 occupies the highest elevations1 and constitutes the only timber above #aa1jjj feet in altitude4 ,above #aa1ejj feet it is reduced to a dwarf4 ,on the terraces of the high plateaus1 at about #aj1jjj feet altitude1 it appears to flourish best1 and here it becomes a large1 beautiful tree4 ,the leaves are needle shaped1 and thus differ from both the preceding species4 ,the trunks are straight and free from limbs or knots1 making fine saw logs4 ,the wood is white and soft1 but fine grained and durable1 and being easily worked is held in high esteem for all the lighter uses1 such as sash1 doors1 etc4 ,its place in the lumber industries of ,utah is about the same as that of the 8,white pine0 7,pinus ,strobus7 in the east4 ,lumbermen usually call it 8,white pine04 ,because of the altitude of its habitat it is difficult to obtain1 yet it is systematically sought1 and large amounts are yearly manufactured into lumber2 it also makes good shingles4 ,abies ,menziesii1 or ,menzies's spruce1 usually called 8,spruce0 by lumbermen of the country1 is botanically very similar to the species last described1 but the cones are larger and the leaves sharper pointed4 ,it bears a large quantity of cones1 which are generally aggregated near the top1 obscuring the foliage1 and giving the trees a peculiar tawny appearance4 ,the wood is light1 white1 and fine grained1 and would rival that of the last named species but for the fact that the trunk has a number of slight curves1 so that it is impossible to obtain good saw logs of sufficient length from it4 ,its habitat is along the caons from seven to nine thousand feet altitude1 and seems to end about where ,a4 ,engelmanni begins4 ,it is1 however1 a smaller tree1 and less abundant4 ,abies subalpina is of little value as a timber tree2 the wood is soft and spongy1 from which circumstance it is locally known as 8,pumpkin pine01 but the more appropriate name of 8,white balsam0 is also applied to distinguish it from ,a4 concolor1 which is called 8,black balsam04 ,this species grows high up on the mountains and plateaus1 generally from nine to eleven thousand feet4 ,it is very tall1 often attaining a height of #hj or #ij feet4 ,its trunk is straight and limbless for a great distance4 ,this species has been but little known to botanists heretofore1 from the fact that it has been confounded with ,a4 grandis1 but ,mr4 ,engelmann decides1 from specimens collected by ,mr4 ,l4 ,f4 ,ward1 that it must be considered as a new species4 ,abies amabilis and ,abies grandis1 spruces resembling the 8,white balsam0 in their general appearance1 occur in the ,wasatch ,mountains1 but are not abundant4 ,juniperus ,californicus1 var4 ,utahensis1 or ,white cedar1 is very abundant over the foot hills and lower mountain slopes1 and1 like the pion pine1 is much used for fire wood4 ,it has also the characteristic durability of the junipers1 and makes excellent fence posts4 ,it grows low1 is diffusely branched1 and is valueless for milling purposes4 ,juniperus ,virginiana1 or ,red cedar1 is also found in this region4 ,its habitat is near the streams and at moderate altitudes4 ,it is said to lack the durable qualities for which it is noted at the east1 and which seem to be transferred to the other species4 ,populus angustifolia1 or ,cottonwood1 is the chief representative of the poplar family in this region4 ,the people of the country distinguish two varieties or species1 the ,black cottonwood and ,yellow cottonwood4 ,the former is said to be useless for lumber1 while the latter has some slight value4 ,it forms no part of the forest proper1 but fringes the lower reaches of the streams1 rarely occurring higher in altitude than #f1jjj feet4 ,its rapid growth and its proximity to the irrigable lands make it valuable for fuel1 although it is not of superior quality4 ,populus monilifera1 the ,cottonwood of the ,mississippi ,valley1 grows with the above in the southern part of the ,territory1 and has about the same value4 ,populus tremuloides1 or ,aspen1 is found about the moist places on the mountain sides1 and often borders the glades of the plateaus4 ,the long poles which it furnishes are sometimes used for fencing purposes2 it makes a fair fuel2 the quantity found is small4 ,acer grandidentata1 a species of ,maple1 abounds at the north as a bush1 and rare individuals attain the rank of small trees4 ,its wood is highly prized for the repair of machinery1 but is too scarce to be of great service4 ,negundo aceroides1 or ,box elder1 is found along the water courses in many places4 ,sometimes along the larger streams it attains a height of #be or #cj feet4 ,it makes a good fuel1 but is found in such small quantities as to be scarcely worthy of mention4 ,quercus undulata1 or ,white oak1 is very abundant as a bush1 and sometimes attains a diameter of six or eight inches4 ,it is too rare as a tree to deserve more than mere mention4 ,betula occidentalis1 a species of ,birch1 grows about the upland springs and creeks4 ,its habit is bushlike1 but it often has a height of #bj feet1 and it makes a tolerable fuel4 ,the ,hackberry 7,celtis occidentalis7 and two species of ,ash 7,fraxinus coriacea and ,f4 anomala7 grow as small trees1 but are exceedingly rare4 ,the above is a nearly complete list of the forest trees of ,utah4 ,the number of species is very small2 aridity on the one hand1 and cold on the other1 successfully repel the deciduous trees4 ,the oak1 hickory1 ash1 etc41 necessary to such a variety of industries1 especially the manufacture of agricultural machinery1 must all be imported from more humid regions4 ,the coniferous trees1 growing high among the rocks of the upper regions and beaten by the cold storms of a long winter1 are ragged and gnarled1 and the lumber they afford is not of the finest quality2 and the finishing lumber for architectural purposes and furniture must also be imported from more humid regions4 ,,irrigable ,,and ,,pasture ,,lands4 ,,uinta-,,white ,,basin4 ,the ,uinta-,white ,valley is a deep basin inclosed by the ,uinta ,mountains on the north and the ,tavaputs highlands on the south4 ,eastward the basin extends beyond the limits of ,utah2 westward the ,uinta ,mountains and ,west ,tavaputs ,plateau nearly inclose the head of the ,uinta ,valley1 but the space between is filled with a section of the ,wasatch ,mountains4 ,from the north1 west1 and south the ,uinta ,valley inclines gently toward the ,duchesne ,river4 ,many streams come down from the north and from the south4 ,in the midst of the valley there are some small stretches of bad lands4 ,along the lower part of the ,uinta and the ,duchesne1 and the lower courses of nearly all the minor streams1 large tracts of arable land are found1 and from these good selections can be made1 sufficient to occupy in their service all the water of the ,uinta and its numerous branches4 ,the agricultural portion of the valley is sufficiently low to have a genial climate1 and all the crops of the northern ,states can be cultivated successfully4 ,stretching back on every hand from the irrigable districts1 the little hills1 valleys1 and slopes are covered with grasses1 which are found more and more luxuriant in ascending the plateaus and mountains1 until the peaks are reached1 and these are naked4 ,on the north of the ,uinta1 and still west of the ,green1 the basin is drained by some small streams1 the chief of which is ,ashley ,fork4 ,except near the lower course of ,ashley ,fork1 this section of country is exceedingly broken2 the bad lands and hogbacks are severed by deep1 precipitous caons4 ,from the east the ,white ,river enters the ,green4 ,some miles up the ,white1 a caon is reached1 and the country on either hand1 stretching back for a long distance1 is composed of rugged barren lands4 ,but between the highlands and the ,green1 selections of good land can be made1 and the waters of the ,white can be used to serve them4 ,from the ,white1 south to the ,east ,tavaputs ,plateau1 the grass lands steadily increase in value to the summit of the ,brown ,cliffs4 ,many good springs are found in this region1 and eventually this will be a favorite district for pasturage farms4 ,fine pasturage farms may be made on the southern slope of the ,yampa ,plateau1 with summer pasturage above and winter pasturage below4 ,altogether1 the ,uinta-,white ,basin is one of the favored districts of the west1 with great numbers of cool springs issuing from the mountains and hills2 many beautiful streams of clear1 cold water2 a large amount of arable land from which irrigable tracts may be selected2 an abundance of fuel in the pion pines and cedars of the foot hills2 and building timber farther back on the mountains and plateaus4 ,the whole amount of irrigable land is estimated at #bhj1cbj acres4 ,,the ,,ca,,on ,,lands4 ,south of the ,tavaputs highlands1 and east and south of the ,high ,plateaus1 the ,caon ,lands of ,utah are found4 ,the lower course of the ,grand1 the lower course of the ,green1 and a large section of the ,colorado cuts through them1 and the streams that head in the ,high ,plateaus run across them4 ,all the rivers1 all the creeks1 all the brooks1 run in deep gorges--narrow1 winding caons1 with their floors far below the general surface of the country4 ,many long lines of cliffs are found separating higher from lower districts4 ,the hills are bad lands and alcove lands4 ,the ,sierra la ,sal and ,henry ,mountains are great masses of lava1 wrapped in sedimentary beds1 which are cut with many dikes4 ,south of the ,high ,plateaus great numbers of cinder cones are found4 ,on the ,grand ,river there are some patches of land which can be served by the waters of that river4 ,on the ,green1 in what is known as ,gunnison ,valley1 patches of good land can be selected and redeemed by the waters of that river4 ,castle ,valley is abruptly walled on the west1 north1 and northeast by towering cliffs4 ,east of its southern portion a region of towers1 buttes1 crags1 and rocklands is found1 known as the ,san ,rafael ,swell4 ,in this valley there is a large amount of good land1 and the numerous streams which run across it can all be used in irrigation4 ,farther south1 on the ,fremont1 ,escalante1 and ,paria1 some small tracts of irrigable land are found1 and on the ,kanab and ,virgin there are limited areas which can be used for agricultural purposes4 ,but all that portion of the caon country south of ,castle ,valley and westward to the ,beaver ,dam ,mountains is exceedingly desolate2 naked rocks are found1 refusing footing even to dwarfed cedars and pion pines2 the springs are infrequent and yield no bountiful supply of water2 its patches of grass land are widely scattered1 and it has but little value for agricultural purposes4 ,a broad belt of coal land extends along the base of the cliffs from the ,tavaputs ,plateau on the northeast to the ,colob ,plateau on the southwest4 ,at the foot of the cliffs which separate the lowlands from the highlands1 many pasturage farms may be made2 the grass of the lowlands can be used in the winter1 and that of the highlands in summer1 and everywhere good springs of water may be found4 ,the extent of the irrigable lands in this district is estimated at #bac1ddj acres4 ,,the ,,sevier ,,lake ,,district4 ,this district embraces all the country drained by the waters which flow into the ,sevier ,lake1 and the areas drained by many small streams which are quickly lost in the desert4 ,the greater part of the irrigable land lies in the long1 narrow valleys walled by the plateaus1 especially along the ,sevier1 ,otter ,creek1 and the ,san ,pete4 ,the arable lands greatly exceed the irrigable1 and good selections may be made4 ,most of the irrigable lands are already occupied by farmers1 and the waters are used in their service4 ,in the valleys among the high plateaus1 and along their western border1 the grasses are good1 and many pasturage farms may be selected1 and the springs and little streams that come from the plateau cliffs will afford an abundant supply of water4 ,the summits of the plateaus will afford an abundant summer pasturage4 ,westward among the ,basin ,ranges feeble and infrequent springs are found2 there is little timber of value1 but the lower mountains and foot hills have cedars and pion pines that would be valuable for fuel if nearer to habitations4 ,the cedar and pion hills bear scant grasses4 ,the valleys are sometimes covered with sage1 sometimes with grease wood1 sometimes quite naked4 ,the amount of irrigable land in this district is estimated at #aja1gjj acres4 ,,the ,,great ,,salt ,,lake ,,district4 ,this district has already become famous in the history of western agriculture1 for here the ,latter ,day ,saints first made 8a home in the valleys among the mountains04 ,the rivers and creeks bring the waters down from the ,wasatch ,mountains on the east4 ,the high valleys among the mountains have to some extent been cultivated1 and will hereafter be used more than at present for meadow purposes4 ,in general the people have selected their lands low down1 in order to obtain a more genial climate4 ,yet the irrigable lands are not very far from the mountains1 as a glance at the map will reveal4 ,utah ,lake constitutes a fine natural reservoir and discharges its waters into ,salt ,lake by the ,jordan1 and from its channel the waters may be conducted over a large area of country4 ,the waters of the ,weber and ,bear ,rivers1 now flowing idly into the lake1 will soon be spread over extensive valleys1 and the area of agricultural lands be greatly increased4 ,westward the influence of the mountains in the precipitation of moisture is soon lost1 and beyond the lake an irreclaimable desert is found4 ,near to the mountains the grass lands are fair but they have been overpastured and greatly injured4 ,out among the ,basin ,ranges little grass land of value is found4 ,the amount of irrigable land in this district is estimated at #hcg1ffj acres4 ,the lofty zone of mountains and table lands with arms stretching eastward1 with its culminating points among summer frosts and winter storms1 is the central region about which the human interests of the country gather4 ,the timber1 the water1 the agricultural lands1 the pasturage lands1 to a large extent the coal and iron mines1 and to some extent the silver mines1 are all found in these higher regions or clinging closely to them4 ,,grasses4 ,while the forests present but a few species of trees1 the pasturage lands present a great variety of grasses4 ,between fifty and sixty species have been collected by parties connected with the survey under the direction of the writer1 and these are distributed among twenty-six or twenty-seven genera4 ,most of them belong to the mountains or highlands1 and are rich and sweet4 ,nearly all of them are bunch grasses4 ,the spaces by which the bunches are separated are bare or occupied with weeds and shrubs4 ,this is often the case on the mountains and high plateaus4 ,a continuous turf is never seen4 ,where a sward is seen in moist places1 about springs and in glades1 the verdure consists in chief part of other plants1 sedges and reeds4 ,of the bunch grasses the ,poas are by far the most abundant4 ,of this genus nine species were obtained1 but this gives an inadequate idea of the variety4 ,of one species alone ,dr4 ,vasey has enumerated nine varieties1 and advances the opinion that several will be eventually considered as species4 ,they are found at all altitudes1 mostly on the slopes4 ,perhaps the most important single species in that region is the ,bouteloua oligostachya1 the so called 8,circle grass04 ,it has a peculiar habit of forming partial or complete circles on the ground1 with areas of bare ground in the center4 ,these turfy rings are comparatively narrow1 often not more than three or four inches in width1 while the circles are from two to four feet in diameter4 ,the form is not always circular1 but often assumes irregular shapes4 ,the grass is sweet and nutritious1 but its chief value consists in its power to resist inclement seasons1 as it cures standing1 like the 8,buffalo grass0 of the ,great ,plains4 ,another very valuable grass is the ,eriocoma cuspidata1 which is known by the name of 8,sand grass04 ,it grows at much lower altitudes1 and is properly a valley grass4 ,it has a solitary1 scattering habit1 or at least the bunches are small and turfless4 ,horses and cattle select it with care from among other species1 and it seems especially nutritious4 ,it has a large black grain1 which is often collected by the ,indians for food4 ,a remarkable lowland grass is the ,vilfa 7,sporobolis airoides74 ,it has something of the appearance of 8,hair grass01 with a widely spreading purple panicle and large perennial roots4 ,the old culms persist at the base1 and with the new ones form thick and almost woody tufts4 ,these tufts are scattered about in the strongly alkaline soils of the river bottoms1 and are extensively pastured by large herds of cattle4 ,a marked characteristic of this grass1 common1 however1 to several others1 is its power to take up saline matter1 which gives to the whole plant a salty taste4 ,the effect of this upon the stock feeding upon it is doubtful1 judging from the conflicting reports of the inhabitants2 but it seems that when cattle are first pastured upon it they are injured by the excess of salt1 but that after a time they cease to be injured by it4 ,all of the so called 8,salt grasses0 are cropped to a greater or less extent by stock4 ,the chief grasses of the elevated timber tracts belong to the genus ,bromus4 ,when young they are good1 but they become stale and valueless with age4 ,the only grass that can compare with those of the eastern meadows1 and which forms a continuous sod and covers the ground with a uniform growth1 is a variety of ,aira cspitosa1 a red topped grass1 which was found surrounding the small lakes of the mountains and plateaus1 at elevations of #aa1jjj feet and over4 ,this is an exceedingly beautiful grass as it waves in the gentle breezes that fan the lakelets of the upper regions4 ,phragmites communis1 the so called 8,cane01 is common in the glades and sloughs2 and1 though large and rather dry1 it furnishes the only verdure obtainable for months in severe seasons4 ,much of the hay and pasturage of the country1 which is there called grass1 consists of plants of different families4 ,notable among these are several species of ,carex 7sedges71 particularly ,carex ,jamesii1 which springs up wherever artificial meadows are made by the system of flooding commonly practiced4 ,the plants have large1 strong1 subterranean root-stocks1 forming a tangled mass which1 when once established1 cannot easily be eradicated4 ,the leaves are broad and grasslike1 and1 though coarse and comparatively insipid1 form a good sward which can be mowed--a rare condition in that country2 and hence such meadows are highly prized4 ,juncus ,balticus1 var4 montanus1 which has a blue color1 terete culms1 and tough fiber1 and which the settlers call 8,wire grass01 is very abundant4 ,it is cut for hay1 and is said to serve a good purpose as such4 ,there are some shrubs that furnish excellent browsing1 among which1 perhaps1 the grease wood takes the first rank4 ,the sage brush1 ,artemisia1 on the contrary1 is seldom resorted to4 ,there is one shrub to which great virtues are ascribed which may be mentioned in this connection4 ,this is the ,cercocarpus parvifolius1 which occupies the mountain sides for a wide zone of altitude4 ,the foliage1 though not strictly evergreen1 remains most of the winter1 and is said to afford the only food for horses and cattle that can be obtained during some seasons of deep snows4 ,this shrub is a congener of the well known mountain mahogany1 ,c4 ledifolius1 which grows at higher altitudes1 and has truly evergreen foliage4 ,the small perennial plant ,eurotia lanata1 or 8,white sage01 found growing in the valleys and plains1 is held in high esteem as winter food for stock4 ,the growth of grass1 even on the plateaus1 is often scant2 on the foot hills it becomes less1 and farther away from the highlands it still diminishes in quantity until absolute deserts are found4 ,most of the grasses seem to protect themselves from the great aridity by growing in bunches4 ,they appear to produce proportionately a greater amount of seeds than the grasses of the ,humid ,region1 and their nutritive qualities1 especially in winter1 seems to be due thereto4 ,in general1 the grasses seem to have large1 strong stems1 and are not so easily broken down as those of the ,humid ,region1 and the rains and snows by which they would be so broken down are infrequent4 ,again1 for these reasons1 the grasses1 standing long after they are cut by frosts1 cure themselves1 forming thereby a winter pasturage4 ,the irrigable lands of ,utah will be discussed more thoroughly and in detail in subsequent chapters by ,mr4 ,g4 ,k4 ,gilbert1 who has made the ,great ,salt ,lake ,district his study2 by ,capt4 ,c4 ,e4 ,dutton1 who has prepared the chapter on the irrigable lands of the ,sevier ,lake ,drainage1 and by ,prof4 ,a4 ,h4 ,thompson1 who has written the chapter on the irrigable lands of the ,colorado ,drainage4 ,the following is a table of the irrigable lands1 arranged by districts1 as discussed in the present chapter4 ,the table is compiled from those presented in subsequent chapters4 ,table of irrigable lands in ,utah ,territory4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,cultivated in #ahgg4 ------------- ,square ,square miles4 ,acres4miles4 ,acres4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,salt ,lake drainage system4 ,base of ,uinta ,mountains #b4e #a1fjj #a4f #a1jbd ,yellow ,creek and ,duck ,creek #b4j #a1bhj -- -- ,randolph ,valley and ,saleratus ,creek #fi4j #dd1afj #i4f #f1cdd ,shores of ,bear ,lake #i4j #e1gfj #e4j #c1bjj ,cache ,valley #bej4jafj1jjj #ej4j #cb1jjj ,bear ,river ,delta1 ,malade ,valley1 and ,connor's ,spring ,valley #bah4jaci1ebj #bb4j #ad1jhj ,box ,elder ,valley 7,mantua7 #a4e #ifj #a4a #gjd ,weber ,valley from ,peoa to ,hennefer1 inclusive #i4j #e1gfj #h4e #e1ddj ,parley's ,park #c4b #b1jdh #c4b #b1jdh ,uptown #b4j #a1bhj 4#e #cbj ,echo ,creek #j4i #egf 4#c #aib ,croydon #j4e #cbj 4#d #bef ,round ,valley #j4e #cbj 4#e #cbj ,morgan ,valley #f4i #d1daf #f4j #c1hdj ,ogden ,valley #h4j #e1abj #d4a #b1fbd ,weber ,delta ,plain #bai4jadj1afj #ia4j #eh1bdj ,kamas ,prairie #ac4j #h1cbj #d4g #c1jjc ,hailstone ,ranche and vicinity #b4j #a1bhj #b4j #a1bhj ,provo ,valley #af4j #aj1bdj #f4j #c1hdj ,waldsburg #b4j #a1bhj #b4j #a1bhj ,utah ,valley #aij4jaba1fjj #ei4j #cg1gfj ,salt ,creek #af4j #aj1bdj #ad4j #h1ifj ,salt ,lake ,valley 7including ,bountiful and ,centerville7 #aib4jabb1hhj #hi4h #eg1dab ,tooele ,valley #de4j #bh1hjj #e4d #c1def ,cedar ,fort #a4e #a1jjj #a4b #hjj ,fairfield #a4e #ijj #a4b #hjj ,vernon ,creek #b4j #a1bjj #a4e #ijj ,saint ,johns #a4a #gjj #a4a #gjj ,east ,caon ,creek 7,rush ,valley7 #a4e #ijj 4#h #ejj ,stockton 4#c #ejj 4#c #bjj ,skull ,valley #d4j #b1ejj #a4f #a1jjj ,government ,creek 4#e #cjj 4#e #cjj ,willow ,spring1 ,t4 #aj ,s41 ,r4 #ag ,w 4#d #bej 4#d #bej ,redding ,spring 4#a #ej -- #bj ,dodoquibe ,spring 4#a #ej -- -- ,deep ,creek1 ,t4 #i ,s41 ,r4 #ai ,w #a4f #a1jjj 4#h #ejj ,pilot ,peak 4#c #bjj -- -- ,grouse ,valley #b4d #a1ejj 4#h #ejj ,owl ,spring 4#a #aj -- -- ,rosebud ,creek 4#f #djj 4#b #aej ,muddy ,creek1 ,t4 #aj ,n41 ,r4 #ae ,w 4#e #cjj 4#e #cjj ,park ,valley #c4e #b1cjj #a4a #gjj ,widow ,spring 4#a #bj -- -- ,indian ,creek1 ,t4 #ac ,n41 ,r4 #ab ,w 4#b #ajj -- -- ,east base ,clear ,creek ,mountains 4#b #aej -- #e ,cazure ,creek 4#c #bjj -- -- ,clear ,creek1 ,t4 #ae ,n41 ,r4 #ab ,w 4#c #bjj 4#a #hj ,junction ,creek 4#g #ejj -- -- ,goose ,creek 4#c #bjj -- -- ,pilot ,spring 4#a #ae -- -- ,deseret ,creek 7or ,deep ,creek7 #d4e #c1jjj 4#e #cjj ,crystal ,springs1 ,t4 #ad ,n41 ,r4 #g ,w 4#b #ajj 4#a #fj ,antelope ,springs1 ,t4 #i ,n41 ,r4 #f ,w 4#a #cj -- #cj ,hanzel ,spring 4#a #ae -- #ae ,promontory1 east base 4#i #fjj 4#e #cjj ,blue ,creek #b4c #a1ejj -- -- ,brackish ,springs1 near ,blue ,creek #a4e #a1jjj 4#c #bjj ,antelope ,island 4#a #ej -- -- ,the valley of the ,sevier ,river4 ,san ,pete ,valley #ca4b #bj1jjj #ag4j #aj1hhj ,gunnison #f4b #d1jjj #dd4d #b1hjj ,sevier ,valley1 above ,gunnison #ed4g #ce1jjj #af4e #aj1ejj ,circle ,valley #f4c #d1jjj #a4a #gej ,panguitch and above #aj4i #g1jjj #b4h #a1hjj ,irrigable lands of the desert drainage of southwestern ,utah4 ,cherry ,creek 4#b #ajj -- -- ,judd ,creek 4#b #ajj -- -- ,levan #c4a #b1jjj -- -- ,scipio #b4f #a1gjj -- -- ,holden #a4f #a1jjj -- -- ,filmore and ,oak ,creek #e4e #c1ejj -- -- ,meadow ,creek #a4i #a1bjj -- -- ,kanosh #c4a #b1jjj -- -- ,beaver ,creek and tributaries #ba4i #ad1jjj -- -- ,paragoonah #a4f #a1jjj -- -- ,parowan #a4f #a1jjj -- -- ,summit 4#f #djj -- -- ,cedar ,city1 ,iron ,city1 ,fort ,hamilton #c4f #b1cjj -- -- ,mountain ,meadows 4#c #bjj -- -- ,pinto 4#c #bjj -- -- ,hebron #a4f #a1jjj -- -- ,irrigable lands of the ,colorado drainage4 ,virgin ,river #cj #ai1bjj #aa4j #g1jdj ,kanab ,creek #b4e #a1fjj #a4a #gjj ,paria ,river #f #c1hdj -- -- ,escalante ,river #f #c1hdj -- -- ,fremont ,river #ch #bd1cbj -- -- ,san ,rafael ,river #age #aab1jjj -- -- ,price ,river #aa #g1jdj -- -- ,minnie ,maud ,creek #c #a1ibj -- -- ,uinta ,river #bhe #ahb1djj 4#e #cjj ,ashley ,fork #be #af1jjj 4#a #ej ,henrys ,fork #aj #f1djj -- -- ,white ,river #ge #dh1jjj -- -- ,green ,river ,browns ,park #aj #f1djj -- -- ,below ,split ,mountain ,caon #ej #cb1jjj -- -- ,gunnison ,valley #be #af1jjj -- -- ,grand ,river #dj #be1fjj -- -- -------------------------- ,total #b1bfb4d #a1ddg1ibj -- -- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,irrigable ,,lands ,,of ,,the ,,salt ,,lake ,,drainage ,,system4 ,,by ,g4 ,k4 ,,gilbert4 ,the field of my work in #ahgg included so large a portion of the drainage basin of ,great ,salt ,lake and so little else that it has proved most convenient to report on all of that basin1 or rather on that part of it which lies within the ,territory of ,utah4 ,in so doing1 ,i have depended1 for nearly all the lands draining to ,utah ,lake1 upon the data gathered by ,mr4 ,renshawe1 of this survey1 in connection with his topographic work4 ,the remainder of the district1 with very slight exception1 ,i have myself visited4 ,the officials and citizens of the ,territory have all freely contributed such information as ,i have sought1 and have aided me in many ways2 but ,i have been especially indebted to ,mr4 ,martineau and ,mr4 ,barton1 the surveyors of ,cache and ,davis ,counties2 to ,mr4 ,fox1 the territorial surveyor2 and to the ,hon4 ,a4 ,p4 ,rockwood1 the statistician of the ,deseret ,agricultural ,society4 ,mr4 ,rockwood prepared a statistical report on the ,territory in #ahge1 which has been of great service to me1 and he has kindly placed at my disposal the manuscript details of his work as well as the published summary4 ,,method ,,and ,,scope ,,of ,,investigation4 ,where agriculture is dependent upon irrigation1 the extent of land that can be put to agricultural use is determined by the relation of the quantity of available water to the quantity of available land4 ,there is a certain amount of water needed by a unit of land1 and wherever the land susceptible of cultivation requires more water than is obtainable1 only a portion of the land can be utilized4 ,but there is also a limit to the amount of water that can be profitably employed on a unit of land1 and where the supply of water is in excess of the quantity required by such lands as are properly disposed to receive and use it1 only a portion of the water can be utilized4 ,in order to ascertain1 therefore1 the extent of agricultural land in a given district1 it is necessary to make a measurement of land1 or a measurement of water1 or perhaps both1 and it is necessary to know the amount of water demanded by a unit area of the land under consideration4 ,the proper quota of water for irrigation depends on climate and soil and subsoil1 as well as on the nature of the crop1 and varies indefinitely under diverse conditions4 ,as a rule1 the best soils require least water2 those which demand most are light sands on one hand and adhesive clays on the other4 ,where the subsoil is open and dry1 more water is needed than where it is moist or impervious4 ,wherever there is an impervious substratum1 the subsoil accumulates moisture and the demand for water diminishes from year to year4 ,these and other considerations so complicate the subject that it is difficult to generalize1 and ,i have found it more practicable to use in my investigations certain limiting quantities than to attempt in every case a diagnosis of the local conditions4 ,by comparing the volumes of certain streams in ,utah1 that are now used in irrigation to their full capacity1 with the quantities of land that they serve1 ,i have found that one hundred acres of dry bench land 7i4 e41 land with a deep1 dry1 open subsoil7 will not yield a full crop of grain with less than one cubic foot of water per second1 and this under the most favorable climate of the ,territory4 ,where the climate is drier1 a greater quantity is required4 ,where there is a moist subsoil1 a less may suffice4 ,in the drier districts1 where the streams are small1 they are usually employed upon the dry benches1 because these are most convenient to their sources2 and it is very rarely the case that their utility is increased by the presence of a moist subsoil4 ,but it is also in the drier districts that the extent of agricultural land is ascertained by the measurement of streams2 and hence there is little danger of error if we use in all cases the criterion that applies to dry bench land4 ,in the discussion of the lands of northern ,utah1 ,i have therefore assigned to each cubic foot per second of perennial flow the reclamation of one hundred acres of land1 with the belief that the consequent estimates would never underrate1 though they might sometimes exaggerate1 the agricultural resources of the districts examined4 ,in the measurement of streams the following method was employed3 ,a place was sought where the channel was straight for a distance equal to several times the width of the stream1 and where for some distance there was little change in the dimensions of the cross section4 ,measurement was then made of the width 7in feet71 of the mean depth 7in feet71 and of the maximum surface current 7in feet per second74 ,the mean current was assumed to be four-fifths of the maximum current2 and four-fifths of the product of the three measured elements was taken to give the flow in cubic feet per second4 ,this method of measurement is confessedly crude1 and is liable to considerable error1 but with the time at my disposal no better was practicable1 and its shortcomings are less to be regretted on account of the variability of the streams themselves4 ,all of the streams of ,utah that flow from mountain slopes are subject to great fluctuations4 ,they derive a large share of their water from the melting of snow1 and not only does the melting vary as to its rapidity and season1 but the quantity of snow to be melted varies greatly from year to year4 ,a single measurement standing alone is quite inadequate to determine the capacity of a stream for irrigation1 and as it was rarely practicable to visit a stream more than once1 an endeavor was made to supplement the single determination by collating the judgments of residents as to the relative flow of the several creeks and rivers at other seasons and in other years4 ,in districts where the water is nearly all used and its division and distribution are supervised by 8watermasters01 those functionaries are able to afford information of a tolerably definite character1 but in other districts it was necessary to make great allowance for errors of judgment4 ,certainly1 that element of my estimates which is based on inquiries cannot claim so small a probability of error as the element based on measurements4 ,streams that are formed in high mountains reach their highest stage in ,june1 and their lowest in ,september or ,october4 ,streams from low mountains attain their maxima in ,april or ,may1 and reach their low stages by ,august or ,september4 ,in the low valleys the irrigation of wheat and other small grains begins about the first of ,june1 and continues until the latter part of ,july4 ,the irrigation of corn and potatoes begins in the early part of ,july1 and continues until the middle of ,august4 ,in the middle of ,july all of the land calls for water1 and if the supply is sufficient at that time1 it is sure to meet all demands at other times4 ,it will be convenient to call that time the critical season4 ,in the higher agricultural valleys corn and potatoes are not grown1 but the irrigation of small grains and hay is carried on from the middle of ,june to the middle or latter part of ,august4 ,through all this time the volume of the streams is diminishing1 and if they fail at all it is at the end of the season4 ,the critical season for the higher valleys is about the middle of ,august4 ,in order to estimate properly the agricultural capability of a stream1 it is necessary to ascertain its volume at its critical season4 ,in the investigations of the past summer1 this was accomplished by direct measurement in but a limited district4 ,for the remainder of my field of operations ,i was compelled to depend on the estimates of others as to the relation between the volumes of streams at the time of measurement and at the critical season4 ,as will appear in the sequel1 the uncertainty attaching to these determinations of volumes affects the grand total in but small degree4 ,the utility of the large streams is not limited by their volumes so much as by the available land suitable for overflow1 a quantity susceptible of more accurate determination1 and the extent of land irrigable by the large streams is many times greater than that irrigable by the small4 ,no streams are used throughout the year1 and few can be fully utilized during the spring flood4 ,wherever it is practicable to store up the surplus water until the time of need1 the irrigable area is correspondingly increased4 ,enough has been accomplished in a few localities to demonstrate the feasibility of reclaiming thousands of acres by the aid of reservoirs1 and eventually this will be done2 but except in a small way it is not a work of the immediate future4 ,for many years to come capital will find greater remuneration in taking possession of the large rivers4 ,in estimating the agricultural resources1 it was1 of course1 necessary to take account of all future increase1 and wherever storage by reservoirs seemed practicable a rough estimate was made of the extent of land that could be thus reclaimed4 ,there are a few restricted areas in ,utah that yield remunerative crops to the farmer without the artificial application of water4 ,their productiveness is doubled or trebled by the use of water1 and so far as they are susceptible of irrigation they need not be distinguished from the irrigable lands4 ,when the greater rivers shall have been diverted to the work of irrigation1 nearly all such areas will be supplied with water1 but a few will not4 ,the endeavor has been to include the latter as well as the former in the estimate of the agricultural land4 ,the term 8agricultural land0 is construed to include that which is used or may be used for the production of hay as well as that cultivated by the plow4 ,most irrigable lands may be utilized in either way1 but there are some tracts which1 on account of the severity of the climate or the impurity of the water1 are adapted to the growth of grass only4 ,i have sought in the foregoing remarks to set forth as briefly as possible the methods and scope of my investigations1 and to indicate the degree of accuracy to be anticipated in the resulting estimates4 ,to these estimates we will now proceed4 ,,irrigation ,,by ,,the ,,large ,,streams4 ,three rivers enter ,great ,salt ,lake--the ,bear1 the ,weber1 and the ,jordan1 and upon their water will ultimately depend the major part of the agriculture of ,utah4 ,by a curious coincidence1 the principal heads of the three rivers lie close together in the western end of the ,uinta range of mountains4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,bear ,river runs northward at first1 and a little beyond the foot of the mountains enters the ,territory of ,wyoming4 ,swerving to the left1 it passes again into ,utah1 and swerving again to the right returns to ,wyoming4 ,from ,wyoming it runs northward into ,idaho1 and after making a great detour to the north returns on a more westerly line to ,utah4 ,it renters in ,cache ,valley1 and passes thence by a short caon to its delta plain on the northwestern border of ,great ,salt ,lake4 ,its principal tributaries are received in ,idaho and in ,cache ,valley4 ,bordering upon the upper reaches of the river1 there is little land available for cultivation1 and the climate forbids any crop but hay4 ,i am informed that the meadow land there somewhat exceeds two square miles in area4 ,where the river next enters ,utah it runs for #cj miles through an open valley1 the valley that contains the towns of ,woodruff and ,randolph4 ,at the head it passes through a short defile1 and can readily be thrown into two canals at such a level as to command the greater part of the valley1 bringing about #ij square miles of land 8under ditch04 ,for the irrigation of this amount the river is sufficient1 but if the necessary water were thus appropriated1 too little would remain for the use of the lands which border the contiguous portions of the river in ,wyoming4 ,these have equal claim to the use of the river1 and a proper distribution of the water would assign it to the reclamation of the best selection of land in the two ,territories4 ,i estimate that such an adjustment would permit the ,utah valley to irrigate #de square miles with the water of the river4 ,the minor streams of the valley will serve1 in addition1 #bd square miles4 ,the climate is unfavorable to grain and the chief crop must be of hay4 ,where the river next enters ,utah it has acquired so great a volume that it is impracticable to make use of its entire amount4 ,the portion of ,cache ,valley which lies in ,utah can nearly all be irrigated4 ,what is on the left bank of ,bear ,river can be served by ,logan ,river and other tributaries without calling on the main stream4 ,the right bank will have to be served in connection with an adjacent tract in ,idaho1 and by a canal lying entirely in that ,territory4 ,the expense will be great1 but not greater than the benefit will warrant4 ,i estimate that the ,utah division of ,cache ,valley will ultimately contain #bej square miles of irrigated land4 ,the climate admits of the growth of wheat1 oats1 and corn1 and such fruits as the apple1 pear1 and the apricot4 ,in leaving ,cache ,valley the river tumbles through a short1 narrow caon1 and then enters the plain that borders the lake4 ,the limestone walls of the caon offer a secure foundation for the head works to a system of canals to supply the plain4 ,here1 again1 a large outlay is necessary1 but the benefits will be more than commensurate4 ,not only will the entire alluvial plain of the ,bear be served1 but the valley of the ,malade1 as far as ,oregon ,springs1 and the valley which extends from ,little ,mountain to ,connor's ,spring4 ,after deducting from these areas the land along the margin of the lake that is too saline to afford hope of reclamation1 there remains a tract of #bad square miles4 ,one-tenth of this is now in use1 being in part watered by ,box ,elder ,creek and other small creeks1 and in part cultivated without irrigation4 ,in the following table are summed the agricultural resources of that portion of the ,bear ,river drainage basin which lies in ,utah3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,square miles-- ,tracts4 ------------------------- ,cultivated ,cultivable4 in #ahgg4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,base of ,uinta ,mountains #a4f #b4e ,yellow ,creek and ,duck ,creek #j4j #b4j ,randolph ,valley and ,saleratus ,creek #i4f #fi4j ,shores of ,bear ,lake #e4j #i4j ,cache ,valley #ej4j #bej4j ,delta ,plain1 ,malade ,valley1 and ,connor's ,spring ,valley #bb4j #bah4j ,box ,elder ,valley 7,mantua7 #a4a #a4e ------------------------- ,total #hi4c #eeb4j ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,the entire area of the ,bear ,river ,district is about #c1fbj square miles1 #b per cent4 being now under cultivation1 and over #ae per cent4 susceptible of cultivation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,weber ,river runs with a general northwesterly course from the ,uinta ,mountains to ,great ,salt ,lake1 entering the latter at the middle of its eastern shore4 ,the ,ogden is its only important tributary4 ,at the foot of the mountains it enters ,kamas ,prairie1 in which it can be made to irrigate a few square miles4 ,thence to ,hennefer1 a distance of #cj miles1 it is continuously bordered by a strip of farming land about one-third of a mile broad4 ,then it passes a series of three close caons--in the intervals of which are ,round ,valley1 with a few acres of land1 and ,morgan ,valley1 with #g square miles--and emerges upon its delta plain4 ,within this plain are no less than #bai square miles of farming land1 of which about two-fifths are now in use4 ,a part is unwatered1 a part is watered by the ,ogden ,river and by a number of creeks1 and the remainder is watered by the ,weber4 ,to serve the higher portions of the plain a great outlay would be required1 and ,i am of opinion that the highest levels cannot profitably be supplied4 ,still1 a great extension of the irrigated area is inevitable1 and ,i anticipate that when the water of the ,weber has been carried as far as is economically practicable1 not more than #ae miles of the plain will remain unsupplied4 ,deducting this amount1 as well as the area served by the minor streams and springs of the plain1 there remain #ahe square miles dependent on the ,weber and ,ogden ,rivers4 ,the ,ogden ,river has also to water #h square miles in its upper course1 and the ,weber #cd1 making a total of #bbg square miles dependent on the two streams4 ,whether they are competent to serve so great an area may well be questioned4 ,on the #hth of ,october ,i found in the ,ogden ,river1 at the mouth of its caon1 a flow of #aae feet per second1 and three days later the ,weber showed #chf feet4 ,there was almost no irrigation in progress at that time1 and the total of #eja feet included practically all the water of the streams4 ,to irrigate #bbg square miles1 the rivers need to furnish at the critical season 7in this case about the #ajth of ,july7 #a1dej feet1 or nearly three times their ,october volume4 ,of the ratio between their ,july and ,october volumes ,i have no direct means of judging1 and the problem is too nice a one to be trusted to the estimates of residents unaided by measurements2 but indirectly a partial judgment may be reached by comparing the rivers with certain tributaries of the ,jordan which were twice observed4 ,city ,creek was measured on the #eth of ,july1 and again on #ast of ,september1 and ,emigration and ,parley creeks were measured ,july #eth1 and again ,september #crd4 ,these streams rise in mountains that are about as high as those which furnish the ,weber and its branches1 and their conditions are generally parallel4 ,their measured volumes were as follows3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,i4--,july volume1 in feet per second4 ------------------------- ,,ii4--,september volume1 ,streams4 in feet per second4 -------------------- ,,iii4--,ratio of ,i to ,,ii4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,city ,creek #aai #cb #c4g ,emigration ,creek #bd #h #c4j ,parley's ,creek #gb #bi #b4e ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,the comparison is not decisive1 but it seems to show that the problem demands for its solution a careful examination at the 8critical season40 ,if the ,ogden and ,weber had been measured in ,september1 as were the other streams1 their volumes would probably have been found less than in ,october2 and this consideration appears to throw the balance of evidence against the competence of the rivers to water the contiguous lands4 ,but if their incompetence shall be proved1 it does not follow that the lands must go dry4 ,the ,bear at the north and the ,jordan at the south have each a great volume of surplus water1 and either supply can be led without serious engineering difficulty to the lower levels of the delta of the ,weber4 ,in the following table are summed the agricultural resources of the ,weber drainage basin3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,square miles-- ,tracts4 ------------------------- ,cultivated ,cultivable4 in #ahgg4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,kamas ,prairie 7northern edge7 4#g #c4j ,peoa to ,hennefer1 inclusive #h4e #i4j ,parley's ,park #c4b #c4b ,uptown 4#e #b4j ,echo ,creek 4#c 4#i ,croydon 4#d 4#e ,round ,valley 4#e 4#e ,morgan ,valley #f4j #f4i ,ogden ,valley #d4a #h4j ,delta ,plain #ia4j #bai4j ------------------------- ,total #aae4b #bec4j ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,the estimate of #bai miles of cultivable land on the ,delta ,plain includes #ae miles that will probably never be irrigated1 but may nevertheless be farmed4 ,the total area of the ,weber basin 7including the whole plain from ,bonneville to ,centerville1 and excluding the main body of ,kamas ,prairie7 is #b1dej square miles2 #d per cent4 of the area is now under cultivation1 and #aj per cent4 is susceptible of cultivation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,jordan ,river is the outlet of ,utah ,lake1 and runs northward1 entering ,great ,salt ,lake at its southeastern angle4 ,on the right it receives a number of large tributaries from the ,wasatch ,range4 ,the largest tributary of ,utah ,lake is the ,provo ,river1 which rises in the ,uinta ,mountains close to the heads of the ,weber and ,bear4 ,from the mouth of its mountain caon the ,provo enters ,kamas ,prairie1 and it hugs the south margin of the plain just as the ,weber hugs the north margin1 passing out by a narrow defile at the southwest corner4 ,at one time in the history of the prairie the ,provo flowed northward through it and joined itself to the ,weber4 ,the surface of the prairie was then lower than now1 and the sand and gravel which the river brought from the mountains accumulated upon it4 ,eventually the ,provo built its alluvium so high that its water found a new passage over the wall of the valley4 ,the new channel1 affording a more rapid descent than the old1 quickened the current through the valley1 and caused it to reverse its action and begin the excavation of the material it had deposited4 ,so long as the river built up its bed1 its channel was inconstant1 shifting from place to place over the whole plain2 but so soon as it began to cut away the bed1 its position became fixed and the plain was abandoned4 ,the river now flows in a narrow valley of its own making1 #aej feet below the surface of the plain4 ,as a result of this mode of origin1 ,kamas ,prairie slopes uniformly from the ,provo to the ,weber1 and it would be an immense undertaking to irrigate it with the water of the ,weber4 ,but the ,provo ,river can be returned to its ancient duty with comparative ease4 ,a few miles of canal will suffice to carry its water to the upper edge of the plain1 and thence it can be led to every part4 ,already a small canal has been constructed and its enlargement may convert the whole prairie into a meadow4 ,thus the prairie1 although part of the drainage basin of the ,weber1 belongs to the irrigation district of the ,provo4 ,the ,provo next follows a narrow rock bound valley for #g miles1 being skirted by bottom lands that admit of some farming4 ,it then enters ,provo ,valley1 an opening about as large as the last1 and favored by a warm climate that permits the growth of breadstuffs4 ,thence to ,utah ,valley it follows a deep1 close caon4 ,the volume of the ,provo is sufficient to water about #ajj square miles4 ,if it be permitted to serve #bh miles in ,kamas ,prairie and #dj miles in ,provo ,valley and its adjuncts1 there will remain for ,utah ,valley the quota for #cb miles4 ,the minor streams of the valley1 ,american ,fork1 ,spanish ,fork1 ,hobble ,creek1 ,payson ,creek1 etc41 will irrigate #abj miles1 making a total of #aeb square miles supplied with water4 ,the total land of the valley which might be irrigated if the water were sufficient amounts to no less than #bbe miles4 ,thus it appears that if all available lands on the upper ,provo are reclaimed1 one-third of ,utah ,valley must go unwatered1 while if none of them are irrigated1 nearly the whole of the valley will be supplied4 ,a middle course would appear most wise1 and will undoubtedly be followed4 ,a gradual extension of the canals1 as the demands and means of the communities dictate and permit1 will bring lands successively into use in the order of their value and convenience1 and when the limit is reached and title has been acquired to all the water1 the most available lands in each of the three valleys traversed by the ,provo will have been reclaimed4 ,the residents of ,kamas ,prairie will probably have increased their meadows so as to furnish winter hay for herds sufficient to stock the summer pastures of the vicinity2 ,provo ,valley1 having a less favorable climate than ,utah ,valley1 will have irrigated only its choicest soils2 and the major part of the river will belong to ,utah ,valley4 ,the apportionment may be roughly estimated as--,kamas ,prairie1 #aj miles2 ,provo ,valley and ,waldsburg1 #bj miles1 and ,utah ,valley1 #gj miles4 ,below ,utah ,lake there is little inequality of volume dependent on season4 ,the lake is a natural reservoir #abg square miles in extent1 and so far equalizes the outflow through the ,jordan that the volume of that stream is less affected by the mean level of the lake than by the influence of northerly and southerly winds4 ,with suitable head works its volume can be completely controlled1 and1 if desirable1 the entire discharge of the lake can be concentrated in the season of irrigation4 ,the highest stage of the lake is in ,july1 and the lowest in ,march or ,april2 and the natural volume of its outlet has of course a corresponding change4 ,in ,july ,i found that volume to be #a1bge feet per second1 and ,i am informed by residents that the stream carried more than one-half as much water in its low stage2 #a1jjj feet is perhaps not far from the mean volume4 ,when all possible use is made of ,provo ,river and other tributaries the annual inflow of the lake will be diminished by about one-eighth1 and the outflow by a greater fraction1 which we will assume to be one-quarter4 7,this postulates that the evaporation is at the rate of #ij inches per year for the whole lake surface47 ,the remaining perennial outflow of #gej feet per second1 if concentrated into four months1 would irrigate for that period #cej square miles4 ,it will be practicable to include under canals from the ,jordan only about #afj square miles of farming land1 and ,i think it safe to assume that the supply of water will be greatly in excess of the demand4 ,at the present time the ,jordan is little used1 the chief irrigation of ,salt ,lake ,valley being performed by the large creeks that flow from the mountains at the east4 ,it will not be long1 however1 before large canals are constructed to carry the ,jordan water to all parts of the valley that lie below the level of ,utah ,lake4 ,they will include #abj square miles of farming land4 ,the mountain streams1 being no longer needed in the lower parts of the valley1 will be carried to higher land and made to serve the benches at the base of the mountains4 ,by these means the total agricultural area of the valley will be increased to #aib square miles4 ,eventually1 the western canal will be carried about the north end of the ,oquirrh range and made to irrigate the northern third of ,tooele ,valley4 ,it will pass above the farming lands of ,e4 ,t4 ,city and ,grantsville1 and enable the streams which irrigate the latter town to be used upon the higher slopes4 ,the service of the ,jordan will amount to no less than #dj miles and the agricultural area of the valley will be increased to about #de square miles4 ,including ,tooele ,valley and ,kamas ,prairie with the drainage basin of the ,jordan1 its agricultural resources sum up as follows3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,square miles-- ,tracts4 ------------------------- ,cultivated ,cultivable4 in #ahgg4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,kamas ,prairie #d4j #aj4j ,hailstone ,ranche and vicinity #b4j #b4j ,provo ,valley #f4j #af4j ,waldsburg #b4j #b4j ,utah ,valley #ei4j #aij4j ,goshen ,mona ,salt ,creek #ad4j #af4j ,nephi ,salt ,lake ,valley 7including ,bountiful and ,centerville7 #hi4h #aib4j ,tooele ,valley #e4d #de4j ------------------------- ,total #ahb4b #dgc4j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,the drainage district has an area of #d1jaj miles2 #d per cent4 are cultivated1 and #aa per cent4 may be cultivated4 ,it will be observed that in these estimates the available water above ,utah ,lake is regarded as insufficient for the available land1 while below the lake there is a superabundance of water1 and yet the lower stream is only a continuation of the upper streams4 ,the difference arises from the function of the lake as a reservoir4 ,below the reservoir the whole of the annual supply can be controlled1 but above it ,i have assumed that irrigation will merely make use for the irrigating season of the quantity which flows at the critical period4 ,if artificial reservoirs can be constructed so as to store water for use in ,utah ,valley1 a greater area can be cultivated4 ,with adequate storage facilities the streams tributary to the lake can irrigate in ,kamas ,prairie #bh miles2 in ,provo ,valley and vicinity #dj miles2 in ,thistle ,valley #f miles2 on ,salt ,creek #af miles1 and in ,utah ,valley #bbe miles1 making a total of #cae miles2 and there will still escape to the ,jordan enough water to serve all the land assigned to that stream4 ,if such storage is practicable1 the estimate tabulated above should show #eeb instead of #dgc miles of cultivable land4 ,the region most likely to afford storage facilities lies in the mountains where the waters rise4 ,i did not visit it1 and until it has been examined ,i shall not venture to increase the estimate4 ,the following table gives a summary for the ,great ,salt ,lake river system3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,areas1 in square miles4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,districts4 ,whole ,under ,to be ,total district4 cultivation reclaimed in cultivable4 in #ahgg4 the future4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,bear ,river #c1fbj #hi4c #dfb4g #eeb4j ,weber ,river #b1dej #aae4b #acg4h #bec4j ,jordan ,river #d1jaj #aib4b #bhj4h #dgc4j ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,total #aj1jhj #cif4g #hha4c #a1bgh4j ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,ratios #a1jjj 4#jci 4#jhh 4#abg ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,this region includes an eighth part of the land area of the ,territory1 and more than one-half the agricultural land4 ,it is the richest section of ,utah4 ,nearly one-third of its available land is already in use4 ,the cost of the canals by which its cultivated lands have been furnished with water has been about #b1jjj1jjj4 ,to complete its system of irrigation will probably cost #e1jjj1jjj more4 ,,irrigation ,,by ,,small ,,streams4 ,through the remainder of the drainage basin of ,great ,salt ,lake there are no large bodies of farming land4 ,at wide intervals are small tracts1 dependent on springs and small creeks1 and the available land is in nearly every case greatly in excess of the available water4 ,a few exceptional spots are cultivated without irrigation1 but so far as they have been discovered they are so situated as to be moistened from beneath4 ,no crops have been raised on dry bench lands4 ,the principal facts are gathered in the following table3 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,no4 of distinct tracts4 ----------------------- ,acres in cultivation in #ahgg4 ----------------- ,localities4 ,acres cultivable4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,cedar ,fort #a #hjj #a1jjj ,fairfield #a #hjj #ijj ,vernon ,creek #a #ijj #a1bjj ,saint ,johns #a #gjj #gjj ,east ,caon ,creek1 ,rush ,valley #a #ejj #ijj ,stockton #a #bjj #ejj ,skull ,valley #aaa1jjj #b1ejj ,government ,creek #a #cjj #cjj ,willow ,spring1 township #a #bej #bej #aj south1 range #ag west ,redding ,spring #a #bj #ej ,dodoquibe ,spring #a -- #ej ,deep ,creek1 township #a #ejj #a1jjj #i south1 range #ai west #a #ejj #a1jjj ,pilot ,peak #a -- #bjj ,grouse ,valley #f #ejj #a1ejj ,owl ,spring #a -- #aj ,rosebud ,creek #a #aej #djj ,muddy ,creek1 township #a #cjj #cjj #aj north1 range #ae west #a #cjj #cjj ,park ,valley #f #gjj #b1cjj ,widow ,spring #a -- #bj ,indian ,creek1 township #a -- #ajj #ac north1 range #ab west #a -- #ajj ,east base ,clear ,creek ,mountains #f #e #aej ,cazure ,creek #a -- #bjj ,clear ,creek1 township #ae #a #hj #bjj #ae north1 range #ab west #a #hj #bjj ,junction ,creek #a -- #ejj ,goose ,creek #b -- #bjj ,pilot ,spring #a -- #ae ,deseret ,creek 7or ,deep ,creek7 #a #cjj #c1jjj ,crystal ,springs1 township #a #fj #ajj #ad north1 range #g west #a #fj #ajj ,antelope ,spring1 township #a #cj #cj #i north1 range #f west #a #cj #cj ,hanzel ,spring #a #ae #ae ,promontory1 east base #a #cjj #fjj ,blue ,creek #a -- #a1ejj ,brackish ,springs near ,blue ,creek #a #bjj #a1jjj ,antelope ,island #a -- #ej -------------------------- ,total #fjh1faj #ba1gdj -------------------------- ,total in square miles -- #ac4e #cc4i ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,localities4 ,cultivable acres not included in existing surveys4 ------------------------ ,remarks4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,cedar ,fort -- ,with aid of reservoirs4 ,fairfield -- ,vernon ,creek -- ,with aid of reservoirs4 ,saint ,johns -- ,east ,caon ,creek1 ,rush ,valley -- ,stockton -- ,skull ,valley 787,with aid of reservoirs2 visited in part only4 ,government ,creek -- ,not visited4 ,willow ,spring1 township -- ,do4 #aj south1 range #ag west ,redding ,spring -- ,dodoquibe ,spring -- ,not visited4 ,deep ,creek1 township -- ,with aid of reservoirs4 #i south1 range #ai west -- ,pilot ,peak #bjj,not visited4 ,grouse ,valley -- ,with aid of reservoirs4 ,owl ,spring #aj ,rosebud ,creek -- ,with aid of reservoirs4 ,muddy ,creek1 township #cjj #aj north1 range #ae west #cjj ,park ,valley -- ,with aid of reservoirs4 ,widow ,spring #bj,not visited4 ,indian ,creek1 township #ajj,with aid of reservoirs4 #ac north1 range #ab west ,east base ,clear ,creek ,mountains #ajj ,do4 ,cazure ,creek #bjj,not visited4 ,clear ,creek1 township #bjj #ae north1 range #ab west ,junction ,creek #ejj,not visited4 ,goose ,creek #bjj ,do4 ,pilot ,spring -- ,deseret ,creek 7or ,deep ,creek7 -- ,with aid of reservoirs4 ,crystal ,springs1 township #ajj ,do4 #ad north1 range #g west ,antelope ,spring1 township #cj,not visited4 #i north1 range #f west #cj,not visited4 ,hanzel ,spring #ae ,promontory1 east base #fjj,the greater part is not irrigated4 ,blue ,creek -- ,brackish ,springs near ,blue ,creek -- ,antelope ,island #ej,not visited4 ----- ,total #a1fbe ----- ,total in square miles #b4e ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,nineteen tracts have not yet been surveyed by the land office4 ,the total area of the district is #ac1cgj square miles1 of which one-tenth of one per cent4 is cultivated1 and one-fourth of one per cent4 may be cultivated4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the contrast between the districts east and west of ,great ,salt ,lake illustrates the combination of physical conditions essential to agriculture in our arid territories4 ,an atmosphere endowed with but a small share of moisture precipitates freely only when it is reduced to a low temperature4 ,agriculture is dependent on the precipitation of moisture1 but cannot endure the associated cold climate4 ,it can flourish only where mountain masses turn over the aqueous product of their cold climates to low valleys endowed with genial climates4 ,the ,wasatch and ,uinta crests stand from #f1jjj to #i1jjj feet higher than the valleys bordering ,great ,salt ,lake4 ,their climate has a temperature from #bj to #cj lower4 ,the snows that accumulate upon them in winter are not melted by the first warmth of spring1 but yield slowly to the advancing sun1 and all through the season of growing crops feed the streams that water the valleys4 ,the ,bear1 the ,weber1 and the ,jordan carry the moisture of the mountains to the warmth of the valleys1 and fertility is the result4 ,to the north and west of the lake there are many mountains1 but they are too low and small to store up snow banks until the time of need4 ,their streams are spent before the summer comes2 and only a few springs are perennial4 ,the result is a general desert1 dotted by a few oases4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,irrigable ,,lands ,,of ,,the ,,valley ,,of ,,the ,,sevier ,,river4 ,,by ,,captain ,c4 ,e4 ,,dutton4 ,as an agricultural region1 the valley of the ,sevier ,river and of its tributaries is one of the most important in ,utah4 ,the amount of arable land which may be reached by the waters of the stream is very much larger than the stream can water advantageously1 and the time is probably not far distant when all the water that can be obtained will be utilized in producing cereals1 and there is probably no other region in ,utah where the various problems relating to the most economic use of water will be solved so speedily4 ,it is1 therefore1 a region of unusual interest1 regarded in the light of the new industrial problems which the irrigation of these western lands is now bringing forward4 ,fortunately1 there is a smaller prospect of difficulty and obstruction in the settlement of the legal controversies which must inevitably arise elsewhere out of disputes about water rights than will be encountered in other regions1 for the ,mormon ,church is an institution which quietly1 yet resistlessly1 assumes the power to settle such disputes1 and the ,mormon people in these outlying settlements yield to its assumptions an unhesitating obedience4 ,whatever the church deems best for the general welfare of its dependencies it dictates1 and what it dictates is invariably done with promptitude1 and none have yet been found to resist4 ,this communal arrangement has been attended with great success so far as the development of the water resources are concerned1 and the system of management has ordinarily been so conducted that the general welfare has been immensely benefited2 and if individuals have suffered1 it has not been made manifest by any apparent symptoms of general discontent or of individual resistance4 ,the system is by no means perfect as yet1 but its imperfections may be found in details which produce no present serious inconvenience1 and they will no doubt be remedied as rapidly as they attain the magnitude of great evils4 ,the ,sevier ,river has its course along the southeastern border of the ,great ,basin of the west1 and its upper streams head in the lofty divide which separates the drainage system of the ,colorado ,river on the south and east from the drainage system of the ,great ,basin on the north and west4 ,the general course of the upper portion of the stream is from south to north1 though its tributaries flow in many directions4 ,the lower portion of the stream1 within #fj miles of its end1 suddenly breaks through one of the ,basin ,ranges on the west--the ,pavant--and then turns southwestward and empties into ,sevier ,lake1 one of the salinas of the ,great ,basin4 ,the main valley of the ,sevier ,river has a ,n4 ,s4 trend1 and begins on the divide referred to1 about #bgj miles almost due south of ,great ,salt ,lake1 and continues northward a distance of about #agj miles4 ,there are three principal forks of this stream4 ,the lowest fork is at ,gunnison1 #adj miles south of ,salt ,lake ,city1 and called the ,san ,pete1 which waters a fine valley about #de miles in length1 and which is at present the most important agricultural district in ,utah4 ,about #hj miles farther up the stream1 at ,circle ,valley1 the river divides into two very nearly equal branches2 one coming from the south1 the other breaking through a great plateau on the east4 ,these are called1 respectively1 the ,south and ,east ,fork of the ,sevier4 ,the ,south ,fork has its principal fountains far up on the surface of a great plateau--the ,panguitch ,plateau--whose broad expanse it drains by three considerable streams1 which finally unite in the valley at the foot of its eastern slope4 ,the ,east ,fork of the ,sevier receives the waters of a beautiful valley lying to the eastward of and parallel to the main valley of the ,sevier1 and separated from it by a lofty plateau #ij miles in length from north to south1 and from #aj to #bj miles in breadth1 called the ,sevier ,plateau4 ,through this great barrier the stream has cut a wide gorge #d1jjj feet in depth and #aj miles long1 called ,east ,fork ,caon1 and right at its lower end it joins the ,south ,fork of the ,sevier4 ,the physical geography of the region drained by the waters of the river is highly interesting1 and has an important relation to the subject4 ,the area in question consists of a series of tabular blocks1 of vast proportions1 cut out of the general platform of the country by great faults1 and lifted above it from #b1jjj to nearly #f1jjj feet1 so that the absolute altitudes 7above sea level7 of the tables range from #i1jjj to #aa1ejj feet4 ,where the valleys are lowest the tables are highest1 and vice versa4 ,the valleys or lowlands stand from #e1jjj to #g1ejj feet above the sea4 ,the plateaus have areas ranging from #djj to #a1hjj square miles1 and collectively with the included lowlands within the drainage system of the ,sevier have an area of about #e1djj square miles4 ,the tables front the valleys with barriers which are more continuous and which more closely resemble long lines of cliffs than the mountain chains and sierras of other portions of the ,rocky ,mountain ,region1 and there are stretches of unbroken walls1 crowned with vast precipices1 #aj1 #bj1 and even #dj miles in length1 which look down from snowy altitudes upon the broad and almost torrid expanses below4 ,if the palisades of the ,hudson had ten times their present altitude and five or six times their present length1 and if they had been battered1 notched1 and crumbled by an unequal erosion1 they would offer much the same appearance as that presented by the wall of the ,sevier ,plateau which fronts the main valley of the ,sevier4 ,if they were from six to eight times multiplied1 and extended from ,hoboken to ,west ,point1 and were similarly shattered1 they would present the appearance of the eastern wall of ,grass ,valley4 ,if they were eight to ten times multiplied1 and imagined to extend around three-fourths of the periphery of an area #dj miles by #bj1 and but little damaged by erosion1 they would represent the solemn battlements of the ,aquarius ,plateau4 ,these great plateaus are masses of volcanic rock overlying sedimentaries1 the latter so deeply buried that they are seldom seen even in the deepest chasms1 while superposed floods of volcanic outflows are shown in sections1 reaching sometimes a thickness of #e1jjj feet4 ,the dark colors of these rocks give a somber aspect to the scenery1 and the gloomy fronts of the towering precipices are rendered peculiarly grand and imposing4 ,the prevailing winds of this region are from the west1 northwest1 and southwest1 and are a portion of the more general movement of the atmospheric ocean which moves bodily from the ,pacific to the heart of the continent4 ,in crossing the ,sierra ,nevada a large portion of its moisture is wrung from the air1 which blows hot and arid across the ,great ,basin4 ,notwithstanding the aridity of the basin area1 the air gains about as much moisture as it loses in crossing it1 until it strikes the great barriers on the east side of the basin--the ,wasatch and the chain of high plateaus which are mapped as its southerly continuation4 ,here the winds are projected by the bold fronts several thousands of feet upward4 ,the consequent cooling and rarefaction condense from them an amount of moisture which1 relatively to that arid country1 may be called large1 though far less than that of more favored regions4 ,in the valleys the rainfall is exceedingly small2 almost the whole of the precipitation is in the high altitudes4 ,it is no uncommon thing to see the heavy masses of the cumulus clouds enveloping the summits of all the plateaus while the valleys lie under a sky but little obscured4 ,the plateaus1 then1 are the reservoirs where the waters accumulate1 and from which they descend in many rivulets and rills1 while around their bases are copious springs fed by the waters which fall above4 ,the rainfall in the valleys is very small1 as compared with that upon the plateaus1 and it is also highly variable4 ,no record has been kept of the precipitation within the drainage system of the ,sevier1 and the nearest point where such a record has been kept is at ,fort ,cameron1 near ,beaver1 at the western base of the ,tushar ,mountains4 ,these observations cover but a brief period1 and no doubt represent a much larger precipitation than that which occurs in the valleys and plains generally1 because the situation of the point of observation is just at the base of the loftiest range in southern ,utah1 where the air currents from the west first strike it4 ,moreover1 these observations are not yet published1 and are not at present available4 ,in the narrow valleys between closely approximated and lofty mountain walls1 like the valley of the ,sevier at ,marysvale1 the rainfall is greater than where the valley is wider1 with lower walls1 as at ,panguitch1 ,richfield1 and ,gunnison4 ,an estimate of the amount would be very hazardous2 but1 judging from what is known of similar localities1 the amount in the wider valleys may be as low as #g or #h inches1 or as high as #aj or #aa4 ,in the narrower and deeper valleys it may be between #aj and #ab inches4 ,upon the plateaus it may be as large as #cj to #ce inches4 ,the principal fall is in the winter and spring months1 from the middle of ,november to the first of ,june2 and in this period at least seven-eighths of the precipitation must be accomplished in the valleys and three-fourths upon the plateaus4 ,there is1 however1 a large amount of variation in the distribution of the monthly falls from year to year4 ,no two consecutive years correspond in this respect4 ,in #ahgf a heavy storm1 with great rainfall and snow1 occurred in the month of ,october1 but in #ahge and #ahgg no such storm occurred4 ,in #ahge many drenching showers occurred in the months of ,july and ,august1 but none occurred at the same months of #ahgg4 ,in general1 however1 no summer rainfall has ever been known of such extent as to dispense with the necessity of irrigation1 or even to materially reduce the necessary amount4 ,great variability in the distribution of the fall over different months of the year is one of the characteristics of the climate4 ,but whatever the distribution1 it is never such as to affect this one conspicuous feature--that the season in which crops must have their chief growth and reach their maturity is the dry season4 ,connected with the irrigation of the ,sevier ,valley is a limiting condition1 which rarely has to be considered in connection with the lands watered by the ,bear and ,weber ,rivers1 and which does not enter at all into the lands lying about ,great ,salt ,lake4 ,it is the dependence of climate upon altitude4 ,there are lands along the upper portions of the forks of the ,sevier which can be irrigated easily enough1 but which are not cultivable for grain on account of the shortness of the summer and of the danger of frosts during the growth and ripening of the grain4 ,this in turn is directly connected with the altitude4 ,at the point where the ,sevier leaves its main valley and enters the ,pavant range1 its altitude is #e1jej feet above sea-level4 ,at ,gunnison it is #e1aej feet4 ,the altitudes of the ,san ,pete ,valley are approximately as follows3 ,feet4 ,manti #e1cej ,ephraim #e1dej ,moroni #e1ejj ,springtown #e1eej ,mount ,pleasant #e1fjj ,fairview #e1gbe ,fountain ,green #e1fej ,beginning at ,gunnison and ascending the ,sevier along its main course1 the altitudes are as follows3 ,feet4 ,gunnison #e1ajj ,salina #e1age ,richfield #e1cjj ,monroe #e1cej ,joseph ,city #e1cge ,marysvale #e1fjj ,circle ,valley #f1jjj ,taking the ,east ,fork in ,grass ,valley3 ,feet4 ,head of ,east ,fork ,caon #f1cjj ,cousharem #f1gjj ,daniels' ,ranch #g1jjj ,taking the ,south ,fork3 ,feet4 ,head of ,panguitch ,caon #f1bej ,panguitch #f1djj ,hillsdale #f1eej ,junction of ,mammoth ,creek #f1ijj ,in the ,san ,pete ,valley1 which has been cultivated as far up as ,mount ,pleasant for twenty years1 ,i cannot learn that any crop has ever been injured by frosts1 and we may therefore conclude that this valley is safe from such an attack1 unless a most abnormal one4 ,the same may be said of the main ,sevier ,valley from ,joseph ,city downward4 ,from ,joseph ,city to ,circle ,valley there is a relatively small proportion of irrigable land1 but such as there is may1 ,i think1 be regarded as safe from frost4 ,circle ,valley1 where the two forks unite1 has been cultivated for cereals for four years1 and has not yet suffered from frost1 and it is fair to assume that such a calamity will be very infrequent there1 though it may not be possible to say there is no danger4 ,in ,panguitch ,valley1 a severe frost in ,august1 #ahgd1 inflicted great injury upon the crops1 and only a small quantity of very inferior grain was harvested4 ,but in #ahge1 #ahgf1 and #ahgg1 excellent crops were secured4 ,above ,panguitch the amount of arable land is not great1 and the danger to crops is increased4 ,in ,grass ,valley there is a magnificent expanse of fertile arable land1 but there can be no question that a large portion of it is so liable to killing frosts in ,august1 or even in ,july1 that the cereals cannot flourish there4 ,the lower portion of the valley1 near the head of ,east ,fork ,caon1 is more hopeful1 and it is probable that a large majority of crops planted there will mature1 though occasional damage may be reasonably looked for4 ,the general result may be summarized as follows3 ,below #f1jjj feet crops may be considered as safe from serious damage by frosts4 ,from #f1jjj to #g1jjj feet crops are liable to damage in a degree proportional to the excess of altitude above #f1jjj feet4 ,above #g1jjj feet the danger is probably such as to render agriculture of little value to those who may pursue it4 ,the climate has shown in past times a longer period of variation than the annual one4 ,panguitch was settled once in #ahfj1 but was abandoned on account of the destruction of crops by the frosts4 ,the settlement was renewed in #ahfg1 and again abandoned1 in consequence of the attacks of ,indians4 ,it was settled a third time in #ahgj1 and1 though crops have occasionally been injured1 the agriculture has on the whole proved remunerative4 ,let us now look at the irrigable lands of the ,sevier and its tributaries4 ,above the town of ,panguitch1 on the ,south ,fork1 there is a considerable area of arable land1 which could be easily reached by canals from the main stream and below #g1jjj feet altitude1 but for want of a detailed survey it is impossible to do more than guess at the area4 ,i think1 however1 that #h1jjj acres would be the maximum limit4 ,this portion of the valley is liable to killing frosts1 though during the last three years it has not suffered from this cause4 ,in the long run1 ,i believe agriculture will not prove remunerative here4 ,from ,panguitch northward to the head of the ,panguitch ,caon1 a distance of #ah miles1 is a broad valley1 averaging #e miles in width1 a very large portion of which is irrigable1 provided the water supply is adequate4 ,at least #bd1jjj acres may be cultivated without resort to anything more than the usual methods of distributing the water2 but not the whole of this area is fertile4 ,the greater part of the area of ,panguitch ,valley is composed of alluvial slopes1 or1 as they have been termed by geologists1 alluvial cones4 ,although these surface features are presented in a somewhat more typical and striking manner in ,grass ,valley1 yet they are well enough exhibited here2 and as they have an important relation to the subject1 ,i will briefly discuss them4 ,in a mountainous country like this1 where the melting of the snows in spring or heavy rainfalls at other seasons create sudden and great torrents1 large quantities of detritus are carried down from the mountains into the valleys4 ,these mountain streams1 which in summer1 autumn1 and early winter are ordinarily either very small or wholly dried up1 may upon certain occasions become devastating floods4 ,the bottoms of the ravines are steep water courses1 down which the angry torrents rush with a power which is seldom comprehended by those who dwell in less rugged regions4 ,huge boulders weighing several tons1 great trees1 with smaller dbris of rocks1 gravel1 sand1 and clay1 are swept along with resistless force1 until the decreasing slope diminishes the energy sufficiently to permit the greater boulders to come to rest1 while the smaller ones are still swept onward4 ,the decrease of slope is continuous1 so that smaller and smaller fragments reach a stable position1 and only cobblestones1 gravel1 or sand reach the junctions of the streams with the main rivers4 ,around the openings of the greater gorges and ravines the deposits of coarser detritus build up in the lapse of time the alluvial cones4 ,as it accumulates1 each torrent builds up its bed and constantly changes the position of its channel1 and with the mouth of the ravine for a center it sweeps around from right to left and left to right like a radius1 adding continually1 year after year1 to the accumulations of detritus4 ,thus a portion of a flat cone is formed1 having its apex at the mouth of the ravine4 ,at the foot of mountain ranges these alluvial cones are formed at the mouth of every ravine1 and are sometimes so near together that they intersect each other1 or become confluent4 ,they are composed of rudely stratified materials1 ranging in size or grain from fine silt and sand to rounded stones of several hundredweight1 and occasionally a block of a ton or more may be seen near the apex of the cone4 ,in regions where the rocks are soft and readily disintegrated the stones are more worn1 less in number1 and smaller in size1 and this is the case generally with unaltered sedimentary rocks4 ,but in valleys running among volcanic ranges1 the much greater hardness and durability of the materials preserve them from disintegration1 and the stones are more numerous1 larger1 and less worn by attrition1 composing indeed a very large proportion of the bulk of the alluvial cones4 ,a large portion of the valley of the ,sevier lies in the midst of a volcanic region1 and its sides are everywhere flanked with these alluvial cones1 which are very stony and gravelly4 ,the lower portion of the ,sevier is in a country made of sedimentary beds1 and though the alluvial cones are equally common1 they consist of finer material1 and are less burdened with stones4 ,the ,panguitch ,valley is between volcanic plateaus1 and most of its area consists of alluvial cone land1 which is no doubt fertile wherever the stones and rubble are not sufficient to prevent plowing and planting1 but this difficulty must render it at least very undesirable4 ,there is1 however1 a large area of land of another description in ,panguitch ,valley1 composed of the finest silt brought down by the gentler current of the river itself1 and deposited within its own basin4 ,this is good bottom land1 and the amount of it ,i estimate at not less than #g1jjj acres4 ,it has already been remarked that ,panguitch ,valley stands at an altitude above #f1jjj feet1 and is not free from danger of summer frosts4 ,these have been known to destroy or seriously injure the grain1 though in a majority of years crops will no doubt be safely harvested4 ,whether the danger is such as to make agriculture unremunerative in the long run experience can alone demonstrate4 ,following the ,south ,fork of the ,sevier downward through the ,panguitch caons1 the next important agricultural area is ,circle ,valley4 ,this is a broad1 nearly circular area1 situated in the midst of scenery of the most magnificent description4 ,upon the east and west sides rise those gigantic cliffs which are the peculiar feature of the scenery of this elevated region1 looking down upon the valley below from altitudes of #d1jjj to #e1jjj feet4 ,this valley also has upon its sides long sloping areas of stony alluvial cones1 full of blocks of trachyte and basalt washed down from the cliffs above4 ,it has also a large area of arable land4 ,there is in addition1 a certain area of sandy land of an inferior degree of excellence4 ,the area of best bottom land will probably reach as high as #f1jjj acres4 ,in this area there is probably very little danger from early frosts1 as the #f1jjj feet contour passes through the middle of the valley1 and1 as already stated1 the areas which lie within this limit are reasonably safe from this occurrence4 ,at the north end of ,circle ,valley we find the junction of the two main forks of the ,sevier ,river4 ,from the junction the main stream runs northward for nearly #bj miles1 and throughout this entire stretch there is but little arable land4 ,upon both sides of the river there are long alluvial slopes1 made up of stony materials and coarse gravels1 through which a plow could scarcely be driven4 ,a portion of the way the river runs between rocks and low cliffs and in abrupt caons1 cutting through old trachyte and basaltic outflows4 ,reaching ,marysvale1 we find a sufficient area for three or four good sized farms1 consisting of bottom land of the finest quality1 which can be watered either from the ,sevier ,river itself or from two considerable affluents which come roaring down out of the ,beaver ,mountains4 ,north of ,marysvale is a barrier thrown across the valley1 consisting of rugged hills of rhyolitic rocks1 through which the river has cut a deep caon2 but agriculture in any portion of this barrier is out of the question4 ,the river emerges from it at the head of what may be called its main or lower valley1 near the ,mormon settlement called ,joseph ,city4 ,from this point northward we find what must undoubtedly become the great agricultural area of southern ,utah4 ,it is a magnificent valley1 nowhere less than #e miles in width1 and at least #fj miles in length1 with abrupt mountain walls on either side1 and almost the whole of its soil consisting of alluvial cones1 and susceptible of a high degree of cultivation4 ,the limit of the amount of land in this valley which can be irrigated is measured by the quantity of water which can be found to turn upon it4 ,the western side of the valley is flanked by abrupt walls of sedimentary rocks4 ,as ,i have before stated1 the alluvial cones which find their origin in the degradation of these sedimentary walls are invariably composed of finer materials than those which come from the breaking up of volcanic rocks4 ,the soil1 therefore1 is much more readily plowed and planted than the corresponding cones farther up the river4 ,the surface of these cones1 moreover1 is coated with a thick layer of fine loam1 and it is not until penetrated to a considerable depth that we come upon a coarser material4 ,this portion of the valley of the ,sevier has been under cultivation for more than eight years4 ,the art of irrigation has also reached a certain stage of advancement1 at which it can be studied with some interest4 ,a canal of sufficient magnitude to carry the entire body of the water of the ,sevier during the dry season has been run for a distance of #h miles1 and is used for irrigating the large grain fields which lie around ,richfield2 and1 as irrigation is now conducted1 the entire flow of the stream is turned through this canal after having been employed for irrigating the various fields1 which extend for the distance of nearly #g miles4 ,the total amount of irrigable land which may be found between ,joseph ,city on the south and the point where the ,sevier leaves its proper valley1 #fe miles to the northward1 cannot be much less than #ij1jjj acres4 ,the limit of irrigation throughout this entire valley is the limit of the water supply4 ,there is one other valley to which we must advert1 namely1 the valley of the ,san ,pete4 ,this is fully equal in fertility and in the convenience of every element connected with irrigation to the best part of the main valley of the ,sevier4 ,the ,san ,pete is a stream of considerable magnitude1 and experience has shown that it is probably capable1 under a more improved system of irrigation than that now in use1 of watering the greater portion of its valley4 ,the cultivable acreage of the ,san ,pete ,valley is about #ee1jjj acres1 provided the whole could be watered4 ,the quantity of water carried by the ,sevier will now be considered4 ,this1 of course1 is highly variable from month to month4 ,the time for measurement1 if the true irrigating capacity of the stream is to be considered1 should be that time at which the ratio of water in the stream to the amount required is smallest4 ,at different stages of growth of the crops the amount of water required differs considerably4 ,the largest amount is needed about the time the seeds of the grain begin to fill out4 ,ordinarily this is in the latter part of ,july and early in ,august throughout the lower and most extensive portion of the valley1 and a week later in the upper portions4 ,at this season the water is not at its minimum4 ,there is a gradual diminution of the flow during ,july1 but the great shrinkage of the stream occurs during the middle of ,august1 just after1 or sometimes even during1 those irrigations in which the greatest amount is required4 ,the critical period of the crops occurs1 therefore1 just before1 and sometimes dangerously near1 the period of rapid decline in the water supply4 ,it will therefore be evident that it is not a very easy matter to determine the exact stage of water which can serve as a criterion of the irrigating capacity4 ,my own measurements1 however1 were hardly a matter of choice1 but were made at the most advantageous period which could be selected without interfering with the primary objects of the expedition4 ,the ,sevier was measured at the junction of the two main forks1 at the north end of ,circle ,valley1 on the #fth and #gth of ,july4 ,the method adopted was first to find a section of the water at a given point by soundings and by actual measurement of the width of the water surfaces1 and measuring the surface velocity by means of floats4 ,the most probable mean result of several measurements was found to be #daj cubic feet per second for the ,east ,fork1 and #dej feet per second for the ,south ,fork1 or a total of #hfj feet4 ,while this measurement was made the ,south ,fork was being drawn upon above for the watering of about #a1ajj acres near ,panguitch1 #ce miles farther up the stream1 and also for watering about #fjj acres in ,circle ,valley1 about #c to #d miles above4 ,the amount of water used in ,circle ,valley was probably greater than that at ,panguitch1 since the method employed was much more wasteful1 and no provision made for returning the tail water to the stream4 ,on the other hand1 a large proportion of the tail water from both places finds its way back to the channel in spite of waste1 but how much it is impossible to conjecture4 ,i think1 however1 that #ge cubic feet per second would cover the loss from these sources4 ,below the point of measurement the ,sevier receives the following affluents3 ,at ,van ,buren's ranch is a cluster of very large springs1 furnishing about #ee cubic feet per second4 ,between ,van ,buren's and ,marysvale are three streams1 yielding together about #cj feet1 and ,bullion ,creek at ,marysvale carries about #dj feet4 ,there is still another affluent at ,marysvale with about #cj feet4 ,finally1 ,clear ,creek1 north of ,marysvale ,caon1 gives about #de feet1 making the total contributions between the junction of the forks and ,joseph ,city about #bjj feet4 ,at ,monroe a stream issues from the ,sevier table1 and is used for the irrigation of the field cultivated by that settlement4 ,its flow is estimated at #dj feet in the middle of ,july4 ,at ,richfield1 on the other side of the valley1 is a stream coming from the ,pavant1 with a flow of about #bj feet1 and at ,glencove a stream of #be feet4 ,at ,salina is a large tributary issuing from a great caon through the north end of the ,sevier ,plateau1 and its measurement indicated a flow of #afe feet4 ,the total between ,monroe and ,salina1 inclusive1 would thus reach #bej feet1 to which might be added some smaller tributaries1 not specifically mentioned1 amounting perhaps to #aj feet1 giving a total of #bfj feet4 ,adding this to the tributaries between the upper forks and ,joseph ,city1 and to the main river itself1 we have1 as the total above ,gunnison1 #a1cbj feet4 ,this estimate being for the early part of ,july1 and obviously largely in excess of the amount which is available at the critical period1 in the last week of that month and the first week in ,august1 what allowance should be made for the diminution of supply during the month of ,july it is difficult to determine4 ,the smaller tributaries1 as a rule1 shrink much more than the larger4 ,those which enter the stream lower down decline more during ,july than those which join it farther up4 ,taken altogether1 ,i am satisfied that it would be unsafe to estimate the irrigating capacity in the first week of ,august at more than #fj per cent4 of that found in the first week of ,july1 and ,i regard #ej per cent4 as a much more probable estimate4 ,for want of a better one1 ,i adopt it1 and this gives the estimated irrigating capacity of the ,sevier and its tributaries above the junction of the ,san ,pete at #ffj cubic feet per second during the critical period4 ,the water supply in the ,san ,pete ,valley was measured by ,mr4 ,renshawe during the latter part of ,july1 and found by him to be as follows3 ,volume of flowing water1 in cubic feet per second1 of streams in ,san ,pete ,valley4 ,feet4 ,pleasant ,creek #bh ,ephraim ,creek #bh ,manti ,creek #bh ,springtown ,creek #ad ,fairview ,creek #aj ,wales ,creek #f ,fountain ,green #aj ,moroni #aj ,creek between ,ephraim and ,manti #e ,creek between ,manti and ,gunnison #e ,creek above ,fairview #b ,twelve-mile ,creek #bh ,san ,pete at ,gunnison #fj ------- ,total #bcd ,this estimate is also liable to reduction1 being undoubtedly a little in excess of the amount available at the critical period4 ,this reduction may be as great as #ae per cent41 which would leave very closely #bjj cubic feet as the water supply of the ,san ,pete ,valley1 which1 added to the total of the ,sevier above ,gunnison1 gives for the whole drainage system of the ,sevier ,river a water supply of #hfj feet per second at the time when the greatest amount is required4 ,the next factor to be inquired into is the amount of land which a cubic foot per second of water can irrigate4 ,this is1 of course1 highly variable1 depending upon the nature of the soil1 and the economy with which the water is applied1 and the frequency of the irrigations4 ,new lands freshly broken require much more water than the older ones which have been planted and watered for several years2 and in fact the quantity diminishes with each season for a long term of years4 ,in the ,san ,pete ,valley1 which has been longest cultivated1 the decrease in the amount of water applied to the oldest lands has not yet ceased1 though some fields have been cultivated with regularity since #aheg4 ,the fresh soils are highly porous and absorptive1 requiring a large quantity of water for their irrigation1 and not retaining this moisture well under the great evaporative power of a dry and hot atmosphere4 ,with successive irrigations1 the pores of the soil are gradually closed and the earth is slowly compacted by the infiltration of impalpable silt brought by the irrigating waters4 ,it absorbs water much more slowly1 and retains it a much longer time4 ,there is1 however1 a check to this increased irrigating power1 arising from a wasteful mode of agriculture4 ,it has not been the practice to employ fertilizers1 nor any other conservative means of keeping up the fertility of the soil1 and the yield of the crops growing smaller1 the old lands are frequently abandoned1 and fresh adjoining lands are broken1 planted1 and watered4 ,it has been the practice to cut the straw1 which is never returned as mulch2 and1 as there is but little rotation in crops1 the result can be easily comprehended4 ,so long as new land costs nothing but the labor to clear of the ,artemisia or sage brush1 there is always the tendency to invade it as rapidly as the old lands show signs of fatigue4 ,thus the waters are constantly irrigating every year a large proportion of new land1 and the consumption of water is correspondingly great4 ,a serious loss of water and fertility is produced by any method of irrigation which employs more water than is just sufficient to saturate the soil4 ,whatever water runs off from a field carries with it great quantities of mud and fine silt1 together with the most precious elements of fertility4 ,these elements are the soluble alkaline salts and organic manner which are readily taken up by the water1 and once removed are not speedily restored4 ,a field which is so irrigated that a large surplus of water is continually running from the tail ditches during the flow will rapidly deteriorate in fertility4 ,but a field which receives water which is allowed to stand until it has soaked into the earth1 without any surplus passing into the tail ditches1 will increase in fertility4 ,these irrigating waters bring with them a sufficiency of plant food to compensate1 and more too1 for the drain upon the soil caused by the harvest2 but they will carry off more than they bring if they are permitted to run over the field and escape from it1 instead of being caught and held until they are absorbed4 ,it is not always practicable to attain this exact distribution of water1 and many cases occur where great expense and labor might be required to arrange the ditches and fields in this manner4 ,ordinarily1 it is cheaper to throw away old land and take up new than to improve the system of irrigation1 and there are many fields in the valley of the ,sevier which have been abandoned because the fertility of the soil has been washed out by a reckless method of irrigation4 ,connected with this is another source of waste1 arising from very unequal requirements of contiguous areas1 in consequence of which many lands1 especially old ones1 are liable to be excessively watered4 ,when a community farms a large number of small fields1 using water from the same canals1 it is usually impossible so to regulate the distribution of the privilege that each field will receive the exact amount it needs4 ,some fields can remain unwatered much longer than others1 and the tendency always is to get as much water as possible--each farmer fearing a deficiency of water and wasting its surplus4 ,experience on the part of the watermasters and a more and more settled habit in the lands themselves gradually diminish this source of loss and create economy4 ,far better results1 therefore1 may ordinarily be anticipated in old lands than in new4 ,better results1 also1 are found where circumstances render difficult or impracticable the abandonment of old fields for new1 and this is ordinarily in those portions where the water is nearly or quite sufficient for all the irrigable land1 and where all the irrigable land is taken up4 ,recurring1 then1 to the inquiry as to the amount of land which a cubic foot per second of running water will irrigate1 this area is in many of the new lands as low as #dj acres1 and it seldom exceeds #hj acres with the old lands4 ,probably there are very few regions in the world where the demand of the soil for water is so great as here where the supply is so small4 ,in ,california a cubic foot of water is said to be capable of irrigating more than a hundred acres1 in ,india #bjj1 and in ,spain and ,italy a much larger area4 ,the reason is obvious4 ,it is the direct consequence of the extreme aridity of the climate of ,utah4 ,the irrigating capacity of the unit of water is even less in the southern counties of ,utah than in those around ,great ,salt ,lake4 ,mr4 ,gilbert's estimate of #ajj acres for this last locality being accepted as the best that can be hoped for1 it will not be rating the factor too low to say that #hj acres is the best that can be hoped for in the valley of the ,sevier4 ,the present factor will not1 ,i am convinced1 have a higher average value than #ej acres4 ,the total acreage1 therefore1 which can be irrigated in the drainage system of the ,sevier by the present system of watering and of agriculture may be estimated at about #dc1jjj acres1 and the greatest improvements and economies in the system of farming and watering cannot1 with the present water supply1 be expected to raise the irrigable area above #gj1jjj acres4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,square miles,acres cultivated ,districts4 cultivated during during #ahgg4 #ahgg4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,san ,pete ,valley #ag #aa1jjj ,gunnison #d4d #b1hjj ,sevier ,valley above ,gunnison #af4e #aj1ejj ,circle ,valley #a4b #gej ,panguitch and above #b4h #a1hjj ---------------------------- ,total #da4i #bf1hej ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,square miles of,acres irrigable ,districts4 irrigable land4 land4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,san ,pete ,valley #ca4b #bj1jjj ,gunnison #f4b #d1jjj ,sevier ,valley above ,gunnison #ed4g #ce1jjj ,circle ,valley #f4c #d1jjj ,panguitch and above #aa #g1jjj ------------------------------ ,total #aji4d #gj1jjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,nevertheless1 ,i am persuaded that it will be practicable to extend the possibility of irrigation by an increase of water supply to a degree sufficient to irrigate every acre of the main valley of the ,sevier which can be reached by canals1 and which is also fit for cultivation4 ,it is by the method of artificial reservoirs4 ,there is probably no region in the world more admirably suited to the easy1 cheap1 and efficient application of this method than this very region drained by the ,sevier ,river4 ,the sources of this river are found at high altitudes1 but these high places are not mountains in the ordinary sense1 but great plateaus with broad summits4 ,these table tops have vast numbers of large basins broad enough for great ponds1 which are now drained by narrow gorges cut through volcanic sheets and leading down to lower levels4 ,these gorges are in most cases narrow caons1 which1 being once barred across1 will dam the waters above them4 ,i could not select a better example than the following3 ,about #ae miles southwest of the town of ,panguitch is a broad basin1 the central part of which is occupied by a shallow lake1 about #a miles long and nearly a mile wide1 called ,panguitch ,lake4 ,its altitude is about #h1bjj feet4 ,it is completely surrounded with barriers1 nowhere less than #ajj feet in height1 and finds its drainage through a narrow cleft on the northeast side4 ,it receives the influx of two fine streams1 which in ,may and ,june must carry heavy floods of water from the lofty rim and broad watershed of the ,panguitch ,plateau lying to the westward4 ,even in ,august their united flow must reach #ej feet per second4 ,by throwing a dam #cj feet high and #ej or #fj feet long across the outlet between its walls of solid trachyte1 a lake would be formed with an area of #f or #g square miles4 ,there are many such basins upon the ,panguitch ,plateau1 and it would be a low estimate to say that it would be possible1 at comparatively small expense1 to create #cj or #dj square miles of lake surface1 with an average depth of #bj feet1 upon that plateau alone4 ,the precipitation upon its surface would be more than sufficient to fill these lakes every year4 ,a dam across the upper part of ,east ,fork ,caon would create a lake behind it which might have an area of #ab to #ae square miles4 ,numerous reservoirs could be created at small expense in ,grass ,valley1 upon the ,fish ,lake ,plateau1 and upon the ,sevier ,plateau1 and in those valleys which are drained by ,salina ,creek and its tributaries4 ,the ,sevier ,river itself can be cheaply dammed at several gorges and made to overflow swampy flats above--notably at the head of ,marysvale ,caon1 and again just north of ,van ,buren's ranch4 ,other things equal1 it would be better1 as well as cheaper1 to build dams at higher levels1 since the evaporation is much less there than in the valleys1 and the natural facilities for creating lakes are also greater4 ,in this way1 ,i believe it to be practicable to reserve a store of water sufficient to irrigate every acre of ground in the ,sevier ,valley1 which is by the nature of its soil and its situation suitable for irrigation4 ,it may be noted1 too1 that the 8tank system0 thus suggested would not interfere with or take the place of the present system1 but would be supplementary to it4 ,the streams would in ,june and early ,july run through the lakes and over the dams1 yielding about as much water as they now yield in those months1 and the reservoirs would not have to be drawn upon before the middle of ,july4 ,a very interesting subject connected with the peculiar conditions of agriculture in the west is the origin and distribution of alkaline salts in the soil4 ,in moist regions such occurrences are rare4 ,they are peculiar to arid regions1 and1 in truth1 very few arid regions fail to exhibit them4 ,the cause in a general way is well known4 ,the small amount of rain which falls during the wet season penetrates deeply into the earth1 where it gradually takes up such soluble salts as it encounters there4 ,during the dry season which follows1 there is always going on an evaporation from the surface1 however dry it may appear to the senses4 ,it is a mistake to suppose that because the saline soil is as dry as ashes no evaporation is in progress4 ,in many cases this may be true2 but often in the most arid regions there are many localities where the water collects far below the immediate surface4 ,by capillary action1 this water always tends to diffuse itself throughout the loose materials which make up the overlying soils4 ,as fast as it is evaporated at the surface1 more water from below rises by capillary action to take its place4 ,when the air is exceedingly dry1 as it invariably is in summer throughout the whole ,rocky ,mountain ,region at moderate altitudes1 the evaporative power becomes so great and extends to such a depth below the immediate surface1 that we are unable to recognize the slightest traces of moisture indicating that evaporation is going on4 ,the water which may have accumulated beneath has gradually risen by percolation through the interstices of the unconsolidated materials of the soil1 bringing with it whatever soluble salts it may have taken into solution during its sojourn beneath the surface4 ,these soluble salts are left at the surface by the final evaporation of the water1 and1 as the process is continuous until the reservoir beneath is exhausted1 the salts accumulate4 ,contrast this now with the action going on in a moist country4 ,here the copious waters wash the soils as rapidly as the salts come up from below1 and carry them in solution into the drainage channels4 ,during the greater part of the year the movement of the waters is partly from the surface downward into the subterranean water courses1 from which they emerge in springs2 partly by surface drainages into rills1 and thence into living streams4 ,by both movements1 any tendency to accumulate soluble salts at the surface during the relatively brief periods of dryness is prevented4 ,in a dry country the periods of dryness are very much longer1 and the rainfall is seldom sufficient to wash the accumulated salts from the soil4 ,there is1 however1 usually a limit to this accumulation1 since at long intervals rains occur sufficient to remove a large portion of the salts4 ,the difference between a dry and wet country in this respect is therefore one of degree rather than of kind4 ,in a dry country the periods of accumulation of salts at the surface are long and continuous1 while the washings of the soil are rare and imperfect4 ,in a wet country the periods of accumulation are short and rare1 while the washings are frequent1 copious1 and thorough4 ,the saline materials vary widely in character and constitution4 ,they are1 however1 chiefly salts of soda1 lime1 potash1 and magnesia4 ,sometimes they exist in the condition of chlorides1 sometimes of carbonates1 and sometimes of sulphates4 ,the reactions from which they are derived are many1 and it will be proper here to give only a few illustrations4 ,a portion of the salts of magnesia and soda are derived from the decomposition1 by atmospheric influences1 of volcanic1 granitic1 and other crystalline rocks4 ,where these materials exist in the form of felspar1 hornblende1 and pyroxene1 the great decomposing agent is water charged with the carbonic acid of the atmosphere1 by the action of which soda1 magnesia1 and lime are1 with inconceivable slowness1 dissolved out of the constituents of these rocks4 ,there is no stream1 however pure it may apparently be1 which does not carry more or less of chlorides and carbonates in solution4 ,the sulphates are derived mainly from subterranean sources4 ,in the ,rocky ,mountain ,region1 one of the most common forms of sulphate is found very abundantly in the rocks of the ,carboniferous1 ,triassic1 ,cretaceous1 and ,tertiary ,ages1 in the forms of gypsum and selenite1 which are sulphates of lime4 ,whenever waters containing carbonate of soda are filtered through strata containing these sulphates1 a double decomposition takes place1 by which carbonate of lime and sulphate of soda are formed4 ,the carbonate of lime is very slightly soluble in water1 while the sulphate of soda is highly so1 and it is well known that waters emanating from the sedimentary rocks just spoken of are very frequently highly charged with it4 ,such1 doubtless1 is the origin of this mineral in the so called alkaline waters of the west1 and of all the soluble minerals which pass under the name of alkali it is one of the most common4 ,carbonate of soda is also abundant in the soils4 ,it is frequently found in the summer time1 coating the surface of bottom lands which earlier in the season have been submerged by the augmented streams4 ,common salt 7chloride of sodium7 is even more abundant than the sulphate4 ,it is well known1 however1 that many of the sedimentary rocks1 particularly those of the ,triassic and ,jurassic ,age1 contain an abundance of it1 and there are many localities in the west where a very fair article of common salt is obtained by the lixiviation of the detritus of the red ,triassic rocks4 ,incrustations of these soluble saline materials occur most abundantly in the vicinity of the rivers and in the bottom lands4 ,this may at first seem somewhat strange1 but it is susceptible of a ready explanation4 ,in order that these salts may accumulate at the surface1 there must be going on continually a slow transmission of moisture from under ground upward1 and since a continuous supply of water is more frequently found in the bottom lands than elsewhere1 it follows that the conditions of these accumulations are here more frequently fulfilled4 ,they may1 however1 and do occur at localities which probably contain subterranean reservoirs of water1 which are annually filled during the wet season4 ,sometimes these salts are so abundant that the land requires a thorough washing before it is fit for agriculture1 and the ,mormons have on several occasions1 when founding settlements1 been obliged to allow the waters from their ditches to leach the land for many months1 and in one or two cases for two1 and even three1 years1 before a good crop could be raised4 ,there is no difficulty1 however1 in removing any quantity of these readily soluble salts from the soil1 provided this leaching process be continued long enough2 and it is usually found that lands which were originally highly akaline become1 when reclaimed from their alkalinity1 among the most fertile4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there yet remains for mention a number of small areas served by some minor streams in southwestern ,utah4 ,these little creeks head in the mountains1 but are soon lost in the deserts of that arid and torrid region1 none of their waters finding their way to the ocean4 ,the greater number of them belong to the drainage basin of ,sevier ,lake4 ,in each case the water supply is small1 and inadequate to supply the available land4 ,in nearly every case the competence of the supply has been determined in the most practical way--by the operations of settlers2 but some allowance has been made for an increase of the irrigable land by the more economic use of the water4 ,this can be accomplished by the construction of better waterways1 and by more carefully flowing the water over the lands4 ,the following table exhibits the extent of these areas3 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,square ,districts4 miles4 ,acres4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,cherry ,creek 4#b #ajj ,judd ,creek 4#b #ajj ,levan #c4a #b1jjj ,scipio #b4f #a1gjj ,holden #a4f #a1jjj ,fillmore and ,oak ,creek #e4e #c1ejj ,meadow ,creek #a4i #a1bjj ,kanosh #c4a #b1jjj ,beaver ,creek and tributaries #ba4i #ad1jjj ,paragoonah #a4e #a1jjj ,parowan #a4e #a1jjj ,summit 4#f #djj ,cedar ,city1 ,iron ,city1 and ,fort ,hamilton #c4f #b1cjj ,mountain ,meadows 4#c #bjj ,pinto 4#c #bjj ,hebron #a4f #a1jjj --------------- ,total #di4e #ca1gjj ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,irrigable ,,lands ,,of ,,that ,,portion ,,of ,,utah ,,drained ,,by ,,the ,,colorado ,,river ,,and ,,its ,,tributaries4 ,,by ,a4 ,h4 ,,thompson4 ,that portion of ,utah drained by the ,colorado ,river and its tributaries belongs to a great basin limited on the north by the ,uinta ,mountains and on the west by the high plateaus that separate the drainage of the ,colorado from that of the salt lakes of the interior1 and extending beyond the limits of the ,territory on the east and south4 ,the floor of this basin is extremely rough1 being broken by isolated groups of rugged mountains1 by plateaus encircled with cliffs of almost vertical rock1 by mesas and amphitheaters1 and huge monumental and castellated buttes4 ,everywhere the surface is cut and carved with a network of caons1 hundreds and often thousands of feet in depth4 ,the main channel through which its drainage passes to the sea is the ,colorado1 and its proper upper continuation1 the ,green ,river4 ,the principal tributaries to these streams from the east are the ,white1 the ,grand1 and the ,san ,juan ,rivers--all rising in the high mountains east of the ,territory and flowing in a general westerly course--the ,white entering the ,green ,river1 the ,grand uniting with the ,green to form the ,colorado1 and the ,san ,juan entering the latter about #abe miles below the junction of the ,grand and the ,green4 ,the ,virgin1 the ,kanab1 the ,paria1 the ,escalante1 the ,fremont1 the ,san ,rafael1 the ,price1 the ,minnie ,maud1 the ,uinta1 and ,ashley ,fork are the principal tributaries from the west4 ,this portion of ,utah is but sparsely settled by white people1 the only permanent locations being in the southwestern part1 and in the ,uinta ,valley at the north4 ,information concerning its agricultural resources is limited1 being confined1 except in relation to the localities before mentioned1 to data collected by the geographical and geological parties of this survey4 ,many of the streams have been visited but a single time1 and different streams at widely different dates1 during a field season4 ,often the exigencies of the survey prevented as close an examination into the flow of water1 and the location and character of the soil of the arable tracts1 as was desirable2 yet1 on the whole1 it is thought that the data collected can be relied upon as a very close approximation4 ,the climate of the basin is one of extreme aridity4 ,the prevailing wind is westerly4 ,the high plateaus and mountains forming the western rim of the basin force these winds up to an altitude above the sea of over #aj1jjj feet1 and thus act as great condensers to deprive them of their moisture4 ,flowing down from the higher lands into the warmer regions below1 their capacity for absorption is increased1 and during the greater portion of the year the winds abstract from rather than add to the humidity of the lower altitudes4 ,but little is known concerning the actual amount of precipitation of moisture within the basin4 ,below an altitude of #g1jjj feet it is very small1 probably not over an average of #e inches yearly4 ,at higher altitudes it is much greater1 probably reaching #bd inches1 but this is mostly during the winter months and in the form of snow4 ,the elevation of the region under consideration is from #b1ejj feet to #aa1ejj feet above the sea1 thus giving great range in temperature4 ,in the valleys of the extreme southwestern portion an almost subtropical warmth is experienced1 and the different valleys containing arable lands we pass from these by insensible gradations to those where frosts occur during every month in the year4 ,generally1 the limit of successful cultivation of the soil is below #g1jjj feet4 ,in this portion of ,utah irrigation is essential to agriculture4 ,if all the single acres it is possible to cultivate without artificial irrigation were aggregated1 ,i do not believe the sum would reach one-fourth of one square mile1 and every foot of this meager amount is irrigated naturally4 ,springs are of infrequent occurrence4 ,the great source of the water supply is the streams fed by the rains and snows of the high table lands and mountains4 ,all these streams have a rapid fall in their upper courses1 and are here often of considerable size2 but upon reaching the lower and more level country their waters are rapidly absorbed by the porous soil and evaporated by the higher temperature4 ,so great is the loss from these causes that some streams fail to reach the main drainage channel during the warmer months1 and all are greatly shrunken in volume4 ,all the arable lands--or lands where altitude1 slope of surface1 and quality of soil permit successful cultivation1 if a supply of water can be obtained1 and from which lands to irrigate1 or irrigable lands1 may be selected--are in the valleys adjacent to the streams4 ,usually this area in many valleys is in excess of that which the water in the streams can irrigate1 and choice in the location of lands to cultivate is often practicable4 ,in this report ,i have considered irrigable lands to be such only as possess all the necessary qualifications of altitude1 slope of surface1 and fertility of soil1 and have1 in addition1 an available supply of one cubic foot of water per second for each hundred acres4 ,the great dissimilarity between the valleys makes it desirable to consider the drainage basin of each separately1 in respect to arable lands1 irrigable lands1 volume of water1 and practicability of increasing this supply during the irrigating season4 ,,the ,,virgin ,,river4 ,this stream is in the extreme southwest corner of the area under consideration4 ,its branches rise in the ,colob ,plateau1 at altitudes varying from #h1jjj to #aj1jjj feet above the sea4 ,it flows in a southwesterly course1 and joins the ,colorado beyond the boundaries of ,utah4 ,the smaller creeks draining the eastern portion of the plateau unite1 after descending to an altitude of #e1ejj feet above the sea1 and form what is called the ,pa-ru-nu-weap ,fork of the ,virgin4 ,at and below the junction of these creeks1 the caon valley in which they flow widens into what is known as ,long ,valley4 ,there a considerable area of available land is found4 ,the soil is excellent1 and wherever cultivated yields abundant crops4 ,below ,long ,valley the stream enters ,pa-ru-nu-weap ,caon1 and is simply a series of cascades for #ae miles1 descending in this distance from #e1jjj to #c1ejj feet above the sea level4 ,emerging1 it enters the valley of the ,virgin4 ,this valley is #dd miles in length4 ,its upper portion is only an enlargement of the caon1 in which small areas of available land are found4 ,its lower portion is a broader valley1 much broken by low1 basalt covered mesas1 and sharp ridges of tilted sedimentary rocks4 ,in the upper portion of the valley the river receives several accessions1 the principal ones being ,little ,zion1 ,north ,fork1 ,la ,verkin1 and ,ash ,creeks4 ,with the exception of the ,ash1 but very little cultivable land is found along these creeks4 ,midway in the valley two streams enter1 coming from the ,pine ,valley ,mountains and having small areas of irrigable land along their courses1 and near the foot the ,santa ,clara ,river adds its water4 ,the united streams leave the valley by a deep caon cut through the ,beaver ,dam ,mountains4 ,the valley of the ,virgin has a lower altitude than any other portion of ,utah1 and a warmer climate4 ,the soil of the arable lands is usually good1 and wherever it is possible to irrigate produces abundant crops4 ,some little difficulty is occasionally experienced in the first years of cultivation from an excess of alkaline constituents in the soil1 but plentiful applications of water soon remove this difficulty1 and these lands often become the most productive4 ,no reliable data concerning the amount of arable land in the drainage basin1 or the volume of water carried by the ,virgin ,river and its tributaries1 have been collected4 ,from the best information attainable1 the amount of land actually irrigated in #ahge1 is placed at eleven square miles4 ,this conclusion is based in the main upon returns made in #ahge to the ,deseret ,agricultural and ,manufacturing ,society1 the amount under cultivation in ,long ,valley having been ascertained by ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,renshawe1 of this survey4 ,to irrigate this1 all the water in most of the tributary streams is used1 but a large surplus remains in the main river4 ,the amount of arable land is far in excess of the water supply1 but some considerable expense for dams and canals would be necessary to utilize the whole amount4 ,it is probable that a portion of the ,virgin ,river can be used to advantage below the ,beaver ,dam ,mountains in ,nevada1 and that a sufficient amount to irrigate #be square miles can be used to good advantage in ,utah4 ,the time when the volume of available water furnished by any stream bears the least ratio to the demands of the growing crops is the most critical period in the cultivation of the soil where artificial irrigation is a necessity4 ,this time1 depending as it does upon the crops cultivated1 the character of the soil1 and the source of the water supply1 whether from springs or from melting snows1 differs in different localities4 ,in the valley of the ,virgin it occurs in ,june4 ,at this time the river1 though not at flood height1 which occurs in ,april1 carries a large volume of water1 and1 by reason of the source of this supply being in the rapidly melting snows of the ,colob ,plateau1 is decreasing but slowly1 and thus the amount available at this critical period bears a greater ratio to the flood of the stream than is usual in ,utah4 ,but little information has been obtained concerning the amount of water necessary to irrigate an acre4 ,it is thought1 however1 to be much greater than in any other portion of ,utah4 ,,kanab ,,creek4 ,kanab ,creek rises in springs bursting from underneath the cliffs forming the southern boundary of the ,pauns-a-gunt ,plateau1 and flows southward until it joins the ,colorado ,river in ,arizona4 ,small areas of arable land are found along its course after it has descended to an altitude of #g1ejj feet1 and thence until it passes beyond the boundaries of ,utah4 ,the largest area in one body is in ,kanab ,valley1 at the foot of the ,vermilion ,cliffs4 ,it is greatly in excess of the water supply1 is at an altitude of about #e1jjj feet1 has a fertile soil1 and requires but comparatively a small amount of irrigation4 ,the amount actually under cultivation in #ahgg is placed by the best information attainable at #gjj acres4 ,the critical period in the cultivation of this area occurs in ,june4 ,at that time the stream is falling rapidly1 and crops have sometimes been seriously damaged4 ,estimates of the volume of water in the stream1 made at different seasons and in different years1 give #ae cubic feet per second as the flow in ,june4 ,some desultory attempts have been made to increase the supply by ponding1 the caon through the ,vermilion ,cliffs above the arable lands affording many opportunities4 ,when this improvement is made on some well considered and well executed plan1 and the waterways flumed through some bad sandy ground that now absorbs much water1 the amount available at the critical period can be at least doubled4 ,some years ago a settlement was established at the foot of the ,pink ,cliffs1 on the headwaters of the ,kanab1 but the town site was eventually abandoned because of the deep snows of winter and the frosts of summer4 ,,the ,,paria ,,river4 ,the ,paria ,river rises under the eastern escarpment of the ,pauns-a-gunt ,plateau1 at about the same altitude as ,kanab ,creek1 and flows in a southwesterly course for #ajj miles1 joining the ,colorado in ,arizona4 ,through the greater part of its course the river flows in a deep caon1 but near its head1 and at an altitude of #f1jjj feet1 the caon expands into a valley4 ,lower in its course1 and at an altitude of #d1ejj feet1 the caon again widens into a smaller valley4 ,these are the only areas of arable lands within its drainage basin in ,utah4 ,the larger contains #ae and the smaller #aj square miles4 ,in ,august1 #ahgd1 this stream flowed #cj cubic feet per second in the upper valley4 ,the flow in the lower would be one-third greater4 ,high water occurs in ,april or early in ,may4 ,at this time the volume is three times greater than in ,august4 ,settlements have been made in both valleys1 and quite a large area is under cultivation4 ,the soil is excellent4 ,the critical period in irrigation is the latter part of ,june or early in ,july4 ,at this time the stream probably carries #dj feet per second4 ,the land in the lower valley is much subject to flooding from heavy showers that1 falling on the table lands and mesas in the upper portion of the drainage basin1 pour a torrent often beyond the capacity of the channel to convey through the lower valley4 ,so great was the damage done by these floods in sweeping away dams1 breaking through ditches1 and inundating the growing crops at the site first selected for settlement1 that it was abandoned after three years' occupation1 and other parts1 where these sudden rushes could be controlled1 selected4 ,considerable difficulty has been experienced in the lower valley from the vast amount of argillaceous sediment deposited on it4 ,so great during the floods is this deposit from the water used in irrigation that the ground becomes completely coated with an impervious layer1 and growing crops1 especially of small grains1 suffer from the inability of the soil to absorb the water conducted on it4 ,the irrigating capacity of this stream during the critical period could be greatly increased by the construction of reservoirs in which to store the great surplus of water that flows earlier in the season4 ,the caons above the valleys offer very favorable opportunities for building the necessary dams and embankments4 ,,the ,,escalante ,,river4 ,this stream enters the ,colorado next north of the ,paria4 ,it rises under the wall forming the eastern face of the ,aquarius ,plateau2 flows first northeast1 then east1 and finally southeast1 before reaching the ,colorado4 ,its length is #ij miles1 the lower three-fourths being in a narrow caon having vertical walls ranging from #ijj to #a1bjj feet in height4 ,through this gorge the river sweeps1 sometimes filling the whole space from wall to wall2 sometimes winding from side to side in a flood plain of sand1 and always shifting its bed more or less with every freshet4 ,not an acre of accessible arable land is known in the whole length of the caon1 and its depth precludes the possibility of using the waters of the river on the lands above4 ,near the head of the southern branch of the ,escalante1 in what is known as ,potato ,valley1 and at an elevation of about #e1jjj feet1 is an area of about #f square miles of available land4 ,the flow of water in this branch was #ij cubic feet per second in ,july1 #ahge4 ,a portion of this area is now under cultivation1 and is said to produce good crops4 ,a portion of the east flank of the ,aquarius ,plateau is drained by a number of creeks that join the ,escalante in the deep gorge below ,potato ,valley2 but they all enter close caons1 in which no areas of arable land are known at an altitude low enough for successful cultivation4 ,part of the waters of these creeks might be used to irrigate grass lands at an altitude of about #h1jjj feet2 but the conditions of pasturage are such in this region that the amount practically available is small4 ,,the ,,fremont ,,river4 ,the largest branch of this stream rises in the ,un-ca-pa-ga ,mountains1 and after flowing in an easterly direction for #abe miles enters the ,colorado about #dj miles below the junction of the ,grand and ,green4 ,it is joined by one considerable tributary1 ,curtis ,creek1 from the north1 and another smaller1 ,tantalus ,creek1 from the south4 ,the lower half of its course is through two deep caons1 separated by an intervening valley called ,graves ,valley1 in which is an area of #aj square miles of arable land1 with an altitude of #d1ejj feet above sea level4 ,on the upper waters of the main river1 in what is known as ,rabbit ,valley1 and at an altitude of nearly #g1jjj feet1 are #be square miles of arable land of good quality4 ,this area1 from its altitude1 should be subject to late and early frosts1 but the warm sandy soil and southeastern slope of the whole valley will probably prevent much damage from this cause4 ,the valley is now used as a herd ground for cattle belonging to the settlements in ,sevier ,valley1 and the few experiments made by the herdsmen in cultivating the soil also indicate that the danger to be apprehended is slight4 ,the volume of water flowing through ,rabbit ,valley in ,july1 #ahge1 was #age cubic feet per second4 ,tantalus ,creek drains the northern portion of the eastern slope of the ,aquarius ,plateau4 ,it enters a close caon at #h1jjj feet altitude1 and continues in caons until it has passed through ,water ,pocket ,fold4 ,it then flows along a desolate valley at the foot of the fold until it joins the ,fremont ,river4 ,during the warmer months the water in this creek is usually absorbed and evaporated before reaching its mouth4 ,in the valley at the foot of ,water ,pocket ,fold are about #aj square miles of arable land2 but the almost inaccessible situation of the valley and the desolation and ruggedness of the surrounding country may present insurmountable obstacles to its settlement4 ,curtis ,creek1 the northern tributary of ,fremont ,river1 is formed by the union of several smaller streams that rise in the ,wasatch ,plateau4 ,debouching from the plateau1 these branches flow across what is known as ,castle ,valley1 and here1 at an altitude of #f1jjj feet1 are #be square miles of good arable land4 ,they were measured in ,september1 #ahgf1 and gave an aggregated flow of #dg cubic feet per second4 ,as they derive a greater part of their waters from the melting snows on the plateau1 double this amount1 or #id cubic feet1 would not be an overestimate of the volume during the irrigating season4 ,after the union of these branches1 the united stream flows in a deep caon until near its junction with the ,fremont ,river in ,graves ,valley4 ,both ,curtis ,creek and the ,fremont receive some accessions to their volume from springs in the caons through which they flow above this valley4 ,if all the water in their upper courses should be used to irrigate lands in ,castle and ,rabbit ,valleys1 a sufficient amount would be returned to their channels by percolation to irrigate1 with the addition of the accessions in the caons1 all the arable land in ,graves ,valley4 ,,the ,,san ,,rafael ,,river4 ,this stream flows in an easterly course1 and enters the ,green #cb miles above the junction of that stream with the ,grand4 ,it has three principal branches--,ferron1 ,cottonwood1 and ,huntington ,creeks--all rising in the ,wasatch ,plateau at an altitude of about #aj1jjj feet4 ,these streams have a rapid fall in their upper courses1 and leave the plateau through almost impassable caons cut in its eastern wall overlooking ,castle ,valley4 ,they flow across that at intervals of a few miles apart1 and1 then uniting1 cut a deep1 narrow caon through the ,san ,rafael ,swell4 ,emerging from the swell1 the river flows across a low1 broken country until its junction with the ,green4 ,the largest body of arable land within the drainage basin of the ,san ,rafael is in ,castle ,valley1 a long1 narrow depression lying between the eastern escarpment of the ,wasatch ,plateau and the ,san ,rafael ,swell4 ,it is nearly #fj miles in length from north to south1 and has an average elevation of #f1jjj feet above the sea4 ,its southern end1 as has been before mentioned1 is drained by the tributaries of ,curtis ,creek1 the central portion by the three streams forming the ,san ,rafael1 and the northern by ,price ,river4 ,no permanent settlements have been made in the valley1 but it is much used as a winter herding ground for stock owned by the settlers in other portions of ,utah4 ,lying near the branches of the ,san ,rafael that cross it1 and in such position that the water can be easily conducted over it1 are #bjj square miles of arable land1 generally of good quality4 ,east of the ,san ,rafael ,swell1 and lying on both sides of the river1 at an altitude of #d1jjj feet1 are #bj square miles of arable land1 which could be easily irrigated4 ,the river was carefully measured in ,july1 #ahgf1 and the volume of flow found to be #a1fgf cubic feet per second4 ,the three branches in ,castle ,valley were also measured1 with results closely approximating the measurement of the united streams4 ,these measurements were made at high water1 though not when the streams were at their flood4 ,as most of this volume is derived from the melting snow1 which rarely disappears from the high plateau before the middle of ,july1 the flow would be maintained with considerable steadiness during a large part of what would be the critical period in the irrigation of this valley4 ,after the middle of ,july the decrease would be very rapid until ,september1 and the lowest stage of water reached about the first of ,october1 when the river would not flow probably more than #djj cubic feet4 ,,the ,,price ,,river4 ,this river rises in the angle formed by the intersection of the ,wasatch and ,western ,tavaputs ,plateaus1 receiving tributaries from both these table lands1 and has a general easterly course for #ajj miles4 ,it crosses the northern end of ,castle ,valley1 and then flows through a broken country near the foot of the escarpment called the ,book ,cliffs1 forming the southern boundary of the ,tavaputs ,plateau1 till within #bj miles of the ,green ,river1 when it cuts through this escarpment into the plateau and joins the ,green a few miles above the foot of ,gray ,caon4 ,the arable lands along its course are mostly found in ,castle ,valley1 where there are at least #ej square miles--a quantity considerably in excess of the irrigating capacity of the stream4 ,the volume of water was measured in ,july1 #ahgg1 a few miles below where it debouches into ,castle ,valley1 and found to be #ahi cubic feet per second4 ,it must suffer great loss from absorption1 as the volume when leaving the cliffs is much greater1 and the aggregated flow of the branches on the plateaus is at least twice as great4 ,,minnie ,,maud ,,creek4 ,this stream rises in the broken country1 where the ,western ,tavaputs and ,wasatch ,plateaus break into the ,uinta ,mountains4 ,it has a general easterly course1 and joins the ,green midway in the ,caon of ,desolation4 ,for the greater part of its course it flows in a caon that widens enough occasionally to give a small area of arable land4 ,one such area1 containing #f square miles1 occurs at an altitude of #e1ejj feet4 ,here the volume of water was measured in ,july1 #ahgg1 and found to be #af cubic feet per second4 ,,the ,,uinta ,,river4 ,this is the largest tributary emptying into the main drainage channel from the west4 ,it rises in the ,uinta ,mountains1 and has a southerly course for #fe miles4 ,the ,duchesne ,river1 its western branch1 rises in the same mountains1 and the two streams unite only a few miles before the ,uinta joins the ,green4 ,the drainage basin of the ,uinta has an area of #a1cjj square miles1 lying between the altitudes of #d1ejj and #g1jjj feet above the sea4 ,it has1 generally speaking1 a regular slope from the foot of the ,uinta ,mountains to the mouth of the streams1 or in a direction toward the southeast4 ,the surface of the basin is greatly diversified1 consisting of broad reaches of bottom lands along the rivers2 elevated1 level1 or gently sloping benches1 sometimes partially arable1 but oftener gravelly barrens2 broken1 rock-faced terraces2 and low cliffs and ridges4 ,it is difficult to estimate the amount of arable land4 ,all the bottom lands are such1 and can be easily irrigated4 ,the streams have a rapid fall1 but flow near the surface1 and no deep caons are found anywhere in the basin4 ,this renders it possible to conduct the water over considerable areas of bench land1 and wherever the soil of these is sufficiently fertile1 selections of good farming land can be made4 ,above the limit in altitude for successful cultivation1 large tracts of meadow lands can be irrigated4 ,those best acquainted with the extent of these classes of land place the arable1 including irrigable natural meadow lands1 at #dj per cent4 of the whole basin4 ,this would give an area of #ebj square miles1 and ,i do not think it is an overestimate4 ,the volume of water flowing in the ,duchesne ,river above its junction with ,lake ,fork was measured in ,august1 #ahgg1 and found to be #a1jaa cubic feet per second4 ,the ,uinta was measured above its junction with the ,duchesne in ,october1 #ahgg1 and then flowed #bad cubic feet per second4 ,these streams all rise in high mountains1 from whose summits the snow is never completely melted4 ,the line of highest water is usually in ,june1 but the flow is well sustained through ,july4 ,after that the volume rapidly decreases1 and lowest water occurs in ,october4 ,the critical period in the irrigation of this basin would occur in ,august4 ,i think it may safely be assumed that the measurements of the ,duchesne and the ,uinta represent the flow at the critical period1 but that ,lake ,fork should be doubled4 ,this would give #a1hbe cubic feet per second1 or enough to irrigate1 at the assumed standard1 #bhe square miles1 or #bb per cent4 of the whole area of the basin1 and indicates the ,uinta drainage as one of the best1 if not the best1 agricultural valley in ,utah4 ,,ashley ,,fork4 ,this stream is the most northern tributary of the ,green ,river south of the ,uinta ,mountains4 ,it rises in that range1 but at a lower altitude than the branches of the ,uinta1 and has a southeasterly course #dh miles in length4 ,on its lower course1 at an altitude of #e1ejj feet1 are #ge square miles of arable land of excellent quality1 a few acres of which are now cultivated4 ,there is sufficient water in the stream during the critical season to irrigate #be square miles4 ,,henrys ,,fork4 ,but a small portion of the valley of ,henrys ,fork lies within the ,territory of ,utah1 but this portion includes its best lands4 ,a beautiful natural meadow is here found1 affording a large quantity of hay to the ranchmen of that country4 ,the altitude is great1 the valley being #f1jjj feet above the level of the sea1 and hence liable to late and early frosts4 ,about #aj square miles can be redeemed by irrigation4 ,the volume of the stream is sufficient to irrigate a much larger tract1 but a part is needed for other lands which lie farther up the river1 within the ,territory of ,wyoming4 ,,the ,,white ,,river4 ,the ,white ,river enters the ,green from the east1 about two miles below the mouth of the ,uinta4 ,this stream rises in ,colorado1 and has only a small portion of its course in ,utah1 but lying within the boundaries of the ,territory are #ge square miles of arable land which may be irrigated with its water4 ,the river was measured in ,october1 #ahgg1 near its mouth1 and flowed #gcd cubic feet per second4 ,high water usually occurs in ,june1 and the critical period in the irrigation of the land is probably in ,august1 when the stream should flow at least double the volume of ,october1 or1 #a1dfh cubic feet per second4 ,this would be greatly in excess of the amount needed to irrigate the available land in ,utah1 and1 from the best information attainable1 it seems doubtful if it could be used higher up on the course of the stream4 ,,the ,,green ,,river4 ,brown's ,park4--,brown's ,park is a valley through which the ,green ,river meanders4 ,three or four small streams head in the mountains to the north and a like number in the mountains to the south and find their way into the river in the midst of the park4 ,but a small portion of the park lies within ,utah and the small streams will be used for irrigation in the portion which falls in ,colorado4 ,the flood plain lands of the ,green are extensive1 and here many natural meadow lands are found1 interspersed with fine groves of cottonwood4 ,some of the bench lands are well adapted to irrigation1 but a portion of them and the foot hills back of them are naked1 valueless bad-lands4 ,when the general industries of the country shall warrant the great expenditure necessary1 the ,green will be taken out to irrigate the bench lands on either side4 ,about #aj square miles of these bench lands will fall within ,utah4 ,below ,split ,mountain ,caon4--,lying along the ,green1 and between the foot of ,split ,mountain ,caon and the mouth of the ,uinta1 are #ej square miles of arable land4 ,some portions of this may be subject to inundations at times of extraordinary floods1 but the greater part is above high water mark4 ,green ,river here carries sufficient water to irrigate many times this amount of land1 and while the cost for the construction of suitable dams and canals would be greater than on smaller streams1 neither this nor the engineering skill required would be beyond the resources of any ordinary settlement4 ,gunnison ,valley4--,in ,gunnison ,valley1 below the foot of ,gray ,caon1 are #be square miles of arable land4 ,the cost of constructing the necessary irrigation works at this point would be greater than above the mouth of the ,uinta1 but still not beyond the ability of a colony4 ,green ,river flowed in ,gunnison ,valley in ,september1 #ahgg1 #d1djj cubic feet of water per second1 enough to irrigate at the standard adopted #hfj square miles4 ,there seems to be no arable land to which it is possible to take this great surplus1 and probably for many years to come it will be suffered to flow 8unvexed to the sea04 ,the area colored on the map is much greater than above indicated4 ,the selections of irrigable lands will be made on either side of the river1 in patches1 within the colored district4 ,,the ,,grand ,,river4 ,the ,grand ,river has but a small amount of arable land along its course in ,utah1 and flows for most of the distance in a close caon4 ,the volume of the stream1 about #dj miles above its junction with the ,green1 was measured in ,september1 #ahgg1 and found to be #d1hfj feet per second4 ,it is probable that selections can be made to the extent of #dj square miles from the areas colored on the map4 ,,the ,,san ,,juan ,,river4 ,but little is known concerning the arable lands or volume of water in the valley of the ,san ,juan4 ,it flows for the most of its course through ,utah in a caon1 and all the arable land is thought to be so much subject to overflow that cultivation is impracticable4 ,,other ,,streams4 ,a few smaller streams are also tributary to the ,colorado and ,green within the ,territory of ,utah1 but they mostly flow in deep caons1 are often dry in some portion of their course during every year1 have at best only a few acres of arable land anywhere along their courses1 and have been omitted in this report4 ,the following table gives a summary of the facts relating to the flow of the several streams and the amount of arable and irrigable lands in the districts described above3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,estimated volume of ,square ,acres of flow during miles of irrigable ,name of stream4 irrigating irrigable land4 season4 7,feet land4 per second47 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,virgin ,river -- #cj #ai1bjj ,kanab ,creek #ae #b #a1fjj ,paria ,river #dj #f #c1hdj ,escalante ,river -- #f #c1hdj ,fremont ,river #bfi #ch #bd1cbj ,san ,rafael ,river #a1aah #age #aab1jjj ,price ,river #ahi #aa #g1jdj ,minnie ,maud ,creek #af #c #a1ibj ,uinta ,river #a1hbe #bhe #ahb1djj ,ashley ,fork -- #be #af1jjj ,henrys ,fork -- #aj #f1djj ,white ,river #a1dfh #ge #dh1jjj ,green ,river ,browns ,park -- #aj #f1djj ,below ,split ,mountain ,caon #d1djj #ej #cb1jjj ,gunnison ,valley -- #be #af1jjj ,grand ,river #d1hfj #dj #be1fjj ------------------------------- ,total -- #gia #ejf1efj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,chapter ,x4 ,,land ,,grants ,,in ,,aid ,,of ,,internal ,,improvements4 ,,by ,,willis ,,drummond1 ,,jr4 ,the land grant system in favor of internal improvements has become a well settled policy of this ,government1 and has attained not only a social but a political importance4 ,like other ,american institutions its growth has been rapid1 and donations of that character now cover millions of acres of the public domain4 ,of grants for railroads1 wagon roads1 and canals alone1 however1 will this chapter treat1 and no reference other than necessary to a proper examination of the question will be made to concessions whose terms place the lands under specific disposal by the ,states1 such as those for the establishment of schools1 reclamation of swamp lands1 etc4 ,the majority of grants1 therefore1 coming within our notice will be those in aid of railroads1 though many have been made in favor of wagon roads and canals4 ,the latter have1 however1 almost become things of the past1 and are rapidly being superseded by the railway4 ,more than one canal has given way to the more popular and general means of transportation1 and it is safe to say that no further donations for canal purposes will be made1 unless the circumstances should be such as to absolutely demand that means of conveyance4 ,at any rate1 they will not be made for purposes of general improvement4 ,the object of this chapter is to point out the origin1 growth1 character1 and extent of these concessions4 ,it is therefore necessary to inquire into the early donations for various purposes4 ,the first act making a donation in favor of internal improvements was approved on the #cjth of ,april1 #ahjb1 and was entitled 8,an act to enable the people of the eastern division of the territory northwest of the river ,ohio to form a constitution and ,state government1 and for the admission of such ,state into the ,union on an equal footing with the original ,states1 and for other purposes40 ,by the third proviso to the seventh section of that statute1 8one-twentieth part of the net proceeds of the lands lying within the said ,state sold by ,congress1 from and after the thirtieth day of ,june next1 after deducting all expenses incident to the same01 was granted and given to the said ,state 7,ohio71 and was to be applied to the laying out and making of public roads leading to the ,ohio ,river1 to the said ,state1 and through the same1 from the navigable waters emptying into the ,atlantic4 ,such roads were to be laid out under the authority of ,congress1 with the consent of the several ,states through which they passed4 ,by an act approved ,march #c1 #ahjc1 the ,secretary of the ,treasury was directed to pay1 to such persons as the legislature of the ,state of ,ohio should designate1 #c per cent4 of the net proceeds1 as above1 which sums were to be applied to laying out1 opening1 and making roads within said ,state4 ,these acts1 ,i believe1 are the first two touching public improvements through congressional aid4 ,of course there had previously been many donations of land in favor of various persons1 but they were for services rendered the ,government1 or special premption privileges4 ,legislation similar to the acts above referred to1 was enacted until the year #ahbd1 varying only in the extent of the proceeds granted4 ,by an act approved ,may #bf1 #ahbd1 the ,state of ,indiana was authorized to open and build a canal1 and the right of way with #ij feet of land on each side thereof1 was granted1 subject to use and occupancy for the purposes specified4 ,nothing1 however1 was done under that act by the ,state2 and on the #b;d of ,march1 #ahbg1 it was superseded by an act of greater extent4 ,on that day two acts were passed giving to ,indiana and ,illinois1 respectively1 certain lands in aid of the construction of canals1 the first to connect the navigation of the ,wabash ,river with the waters of ,lake ,erie1 and the second to connect the waters of the ,illinois ,river with those of ,lake ,michigan4 ,a quantity of land1 equal to one-half of five sections in width on each side of said canals1 was granted1 reserving to the ,united ,states each alternate section4 ,the canals were to remain public highways for the use of the ,government1 free from toll or other charge whatever2 were to be commenced in five years1 and completed in twenty years1 or the ,states were bound to pay to the ,united ,states 8the amount of any lands previously sold01 and the titles of the purchasers under the ,states were to be valid4 ,as soon as the lines of the canals were fixed and the selections of land were made1 the ,states had power to sell1 and give fee simple title to the whole or any part of the lands4 ,these may1 properly1 be considered the initiatory concessions of lands in favor of internal improvements4 ,as stated1 a grant for right of way had been made1 but that right was solely one of use and occupancy4 ,in this case the right of the ,states to sell became absolute upon the selection of the lands4 ,to be sure1 they were liable to repay the ,government the price received by the sale of any of the lands1 but the titles of their purchasers were to be in 8fee02 and by such right of disposal they were enabled to realize at once on their grant1 and thereby secure a speedier construction of the canals4 ,on the same day 7,march #b7 there was also granted to ,indiana a certain strip of land formerly held by the ,pottawatamie ,indians1 or the proceeds from the sale thereof1 to be applied in building a road from ,lake ,michigan1 via ,indianapolis1 to some convenient point on the ,ohio ,river4 ,on the next day 7,march #c7 an act was approved granting to ,ohio one-half of two sections along the entire line of a road to be constructed from ,sandusky to ,columbus4 ,by an act approved ,may #bc1 #ahbh1 a grant of #djj1jjj acres of 8the relinquished lands0 in certain counties in ,alabama was made in aid of the improvement of the ,tennessee and other rivers in that ,state2 and in case that amount of 8said relinquished lands0 could not be found unappropriated1 the necessary quantity could be selected from another section of the ,state4 ,provision was made for the sale of the lands1 at the minimum price1 but in case said lands or the proceeds thereof were applied to any purposes other than that for which they were granted1 the grant was to become null and void4 ,in this grant we find the first provisions for indemnity if the grant was not full by reason of prior sales or disposals by the ,government4 ,there1 if the lands were not to be found 8in place01 selections 8in lieu0 could be made from another county4 ,grants like the one just referred to were made from time to time1 differing but little in their character and extent4 ,by an act approved ,march #b1 #ahcc1 the ,state of ,illinois was authorized to apply the lands granted by the act of ,march #b1 #ahbg1 for canal purposes1 to the construction of a railroad instead2 and the same restrictive impositions were continued4 ,this is the first act looking to the construction of a railroad through the assistance of land donations4 ,the railroad system was then but in its infancy1 and the few miles built had been constructed by private means4 ,it is proper to add1 however1 that the ,state did not avail itself of the privilege granted1 for it subsequently built a canal4 ,an act approved ,march #c1 #ahce1 granted1 for the purpose of aiding in the construction of a railroad by a corporation organized in ,florida1 the right of way through the public lands over which it might pass1 thirty feet of land on each side of its line1 and the right to take and use the timber for 8one hundred yards0 on each side for the construction and repair of said road2 it was also granted 8ten acres of land at the junction of the ,st4 ,mark's and ,waculla ,rivers01 the point where said road terminated4 ,this was the first right of way grant in favor of railroads1 the previous grant having been for a canal4 ,following this came an act approved ,july #b1 #ahcf1 granting the right of way 8through such portion of the public lands as remain unsold01 not to exceed #hj feet in width1 to the ,new ,orleans and ,nashville ,railroad ,company4 ,the first section of that statute required that a description of the route and surveys should be filed in the ,general ,land ,office within sixty days after the survey4 ,the second section granted for depots1 watering-places1 and workshops1 essential to the convenient use of the road1 certain plats of land1 not exceeding five acres in any one spot1 nor nearer than fifteen miles to each other4 ,the third section gave the company the right to take from the public lands earth1 stone1 or timber necessary for the construction of the road2 and provided that unless the work was commenced within two years after the approval of the act1 and completed within eight years thereafter1 the grant should 8cease and determine04 ,it provided1 moreover1 that if the road should be abandoned or discontinued1 even after its completion1 the grant was to 8cease and determine04 ,so far as can be learned1 this road was never completed4 ,it is inserted so fully for the purpose of showing the gradual growth of the system4 ,next to this came a grant to the ,east ,florida and other railroads1 similar in general terms to those previously referred to4 ,it required1 however1 the companies to file1 with the ,commissioner of the ,general ,land ,office1 maps showing the location of their roads4 ,this was to be done within six months after such locations4 ,i am unable to find that any of those roads were ever constructed4 ,certainly1 no evidence thereof was ever furnished the ,general ,land ,office4 ,a grant similar to the one to the ,new ,orleans and ,nashville company was made by act of ,march #c1 #ahcg1 to the ,atchafalaya ,railroad and ,banking ,company in ,louisiana4 ,many grants of like character and extent were made from time to time1 as also donations in favor of various other internal improvements4 ,the greatest of these latter1 however1 were the grants in aid of improving the navigation of the ,des ,moines ,river in ,iowa1 and the ,fox and ,wisconsin ,rivers in ,wisconsin1 which were approved ,august #h1 #ahdf4 ,the first of these made a grant to the then ,territory of ,iowa1 for the purpose of improving 8the navigation of the ,des ,moines ,river from its mouth to the ,raccoon ,fork 7so called71 in said ,territory01 of 8one equal moiety1 in alternate sections1 of the public lands 7remaining unsold1 and not otherwise disposed of1 encumbered1 or appropriated71 in a strip five miles in width on each side of said river1 to be selected within said ,territory by an agent or agents to be appointed by the governor thereof1 subject to the approval of the ,secretary of the ,treasury of the ,united ,states04 ,the second section provided that 8the lands hereby granted shall not be conveyed or disposed of by said ,territory1 nor by any ,state to be formed out of the same1 except as said improvements shall progress2 that is1 the said ,territory or ,state may sell so much of said lands as shall produce the sum of thirty thousand dollars1 and then the sales shall cease until the governor of said ,territory or ,state shall certify the fact to the ,president of the ,united ,states that one-half of said sum has been expended upon said improvement1 when the said ,territory or ,state may sell and convey a quantity of the residue of said lands sufficient to replace the amount expended1 and thus the sales shall progress as the proceeds thereof shall be expended1 and the fact of such expenditure shall be certified as aforesaid40 ,section #c declared that the river should forever remain a public highway for the use of the ,government1 free from toll or other charge whatever2 and provided that the ,territory or ,state should not dispose of the lands at a price less than the minimum price of public lands4 ,the grant to ,wisconsin for the improvement of the ,fox and ,wisconsin ,rivers1 though approved the same day1 was somewhat different from the ,des ,moines grant4 ,it provided that 8there be1 and hereby is1 granted to the ,state of ,wisconsin01 upon the admission of ,wisconsin as a ,state 7which1 by the way1 had been provided for by an act approved two days before71 8for the purpose of improving the navigation of the ,fox and ,wisconsin ,rivers in the ,territory of ,wisconsin1 and of constructing the canal to unite the said rivers1 at or near the portage1 a quantity of land1 equal to one-half of three sections in width on each side of said ,fox ,river1 and the lakes through which it passes from its mouth to the point where the portage canal shall enter the same1 and on each side of said canal from one stream to the other1 reserving the alternate sections to the ,united ,states1 to be selected under the direction of the governor of said ,state1 and such selection to be approved by the ,president of the ,united ,states04 ,the rivers1 when improved1 were to remain forever public highways for the use of the ,government1 free from toll2 and the sections reserved to the ,united ,states were not to be sold for less than #b4ej per acre4 ,by the second section1 the legislature of the ,state was to accept the grant and fix the price at which the lands were to be sold 7at not less than #a4be per acre71 and adopt such kind and plan of improvement as was for the best interests of the ,state4 ,the provisions for the sale of the lands were the same as in the ,iowa grant1 except that the sum to be realized by such sales was fixed at #bj1jjj4 ,section #c required the work to be commenced within three years after the admission of the ,state1 and to be completed within twenty years1 or the ,united ,states was to be entitled to receive the amount for which any of the lands may have been sold2 the titles in the purchasers from the ,state were1 however1 to be valid4 ,the language employed in this statute was more definite than that used in the ,des ,moines grant1 and in it is to be found the first provisions respecting the increase in price of the reserved sections4 ,probably no grant of this character has received such widespread notoriety as the one for the improvement of the ,des ,moines ,river4 ,it is owing1 no doubt1 in a great degree to the numerous conflicting decisions by the ,executive ,departments touching the extent of the grant4 ,the ,hon4 ,r4 ,j4 ,walker1 ,secretary of the ,treasury 7under whose supervision the ,land ,office then came71 decided on the #b;d of ,march1 #ahdi1 that the grant extended above the tributary of the ,des ,moines ,river commonly known as the ,raccoon ,fork4 ,the ,land ,office soon thereafter passed from the jurisdiction of the ,treasury ,department1 and was placed as one of the bureaus of the ,home or ,interior ,department4 ,the ,secretary of this lately established branch of the ,government 7,hon4 ,thomas ,ewing7 decided on the #fth of ,april1 #ahej1 that the grant did not extend above the ,raccoon ,fork4 ,from that decision the ,state of ,iowa appealed to the ,president1 who laid the matter before the ,attorney-,general4 ,that officer 7,hon4 ,reverdy ,johnson71 on ,july #ai1 #ahej1 expressed an opinion confirmatory of the decision of ,secretary ,walker4 ,the ,secretary of the ,interior1 however1 being determined in his views1 did not adopt the opinion of the ,attorney-,general1 and the ,commissioner of the ,general ,land ,office wrote1 under date of #bfth ,september1 #ahej1 to the ,president1 reviewing and objecting to the opinion of ,mr4 ,johnson4 ,the ,president1 having been again applied to by the ,state of ,iowa to determine the matter1 referred the whole question to the ,attorney-,general 7then ,hon4 ,j4 ,j4 ,crittenden74 ,that officer1 without delivering an opinion on the merits of the case1 expressed the belief that the ,president ought not to interfere1 but should leave such questions to the proper officers4 ,the then ,secretary of the ,interior 7,hon4 ,a4 ,h4 ,h4 ,stuart7 thereupon decided that the grant did not extend above the fork1 but subsequently decided to approve the selections for lands above the fork4 ,attorney-,general ,cushing1 on the #bith of ,may1 #ahef1 expressed the belief that on the merits of the case the grant was limited to the ,raccoon ,fork1 but as ,secretary ,stuart had approved selections above that point1 such practical enforcement of the grant had better be continued4 ,the view of ,mr4 ,cushing was subsequently maintained by the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states in ,railroad ,company vs4 ,litchfield4 7#bc ,howard1 page #ff74 ,by the act of ,congress approved ,july #ab1 #ahfb1 the grant was extended to the northern boundary of the ,state1 so as to include the alternate odd numbered sections lying within five miles of said river1 upon the following conditions3 ,the lands were to be held and applied in accordance with the provisions of the original grant1 except that the consent of ,congress was given to the application of 8a portion thereof0 to aid in the construction of the ,keokuk1 ,fort ,des ,moines and ,minnesota ,railroad1 in accordance with the provisions of an act of the general assembly of the ,state approved ,march #bb1 #aheh4 ,it is well to state that the work of improving the river was abandoned1 and the railroad was constructed instead4 ,without examining the numerous right of way and other lesser grants1 ,i desire to direct attention to what is generally considered the first railroad grant4 ,reference is made to the donation by the act of ,september #bj1 #ahej4 ,by that statute a grant was made to the ,state of ,illinois of 8every alternate section of land designated by even numbers1 for six sections in width on each side of0 the road and branches therein provided for4 ,the road to be built was from the southern terminus of the ,illinois and ,michigan ,canal to a point at or near the junction of the ,ohio and ,mississippi ,rivers1 with a branch of the same to ,chicago1 and another via the town of ,galena1 in ,illinois1 to the town of ,dubuque1 in ,iowa4 ,the second section provided that should it appear that the ,united ,states had1 when the lines of said road and branches were definitely fixed1 sold any part of any section thereby granted1 or that the right of premption had attached to the same1 it should be lawful for any agent or agents 7to be appointed by the governor of the ,state7 to select so much land as would be equal to the tracts lost within the granted limits4 ,this 8indemnity0 was to be selected within fifteen miles of the road and branches4 ,the third section provided that the sections and parts of sections which by the operation of the grant remained to the ,united ,states within six miles on each side of said road and branches1 should not be sold for less than the double minimum price when sold4 ,section #d provided for the disposal of the lands1 and declared that the road should remain a public highway for the use of the ,government free from toll or other charge4 ,the fifth section declared within what period the roads should be completed1 and provided that in the event of a failure on the part of the ,state to comply with the conditions of the grant1 it was 8bound to pay to the ,united ,states the amount which may be received upon the sale of any part of said lands by said ,state04 ,the title of the purchasers was to be valid1 but the tracts not sold were to revert and revest in the ,united ,states4 ,section #f said that the mails were to be transported at all times at such price as ,congress might direct4 ,by the seventh section the grant was extended1 on the same terms and conditions1 to the ,states of ,alabama and ,mississippi1 for the purpose of aiding in the construction of a road from ,mobile to connect with the first above named road4 ,while this was not the first concession of lands in favor of railroads1 it may properly be considered the initiatory measure of the present system4 ,it granted specific sections instead of one-half of a certain number of sections2 provided in positive terms for 8indemnity0 for lands lost to the grant2 designated the manner in which the lands should be disposed of2 increased the price of the reserved sections within the 8granted0 limits2 provided for reversion in case of default1 and virtually established a form of grant which was differed from but little in succeeding donations4 ,it was the first railroad grant that became effective1 for of all previous ones none appear to have been developed4 ,the roads are now known as the ,illinois ,central and branches1 and the ,mobile and ,ohio4 ,for the following two years no grants of importance were made1 until by an act approved ,june #aj1 #aheb1 a donation was made to the ,state of ,missouri for the construction of certain roads therein1 now known as the ,hannibal and ,saint ,joseph1 and the ,missouri ,pacific1 ,southwest ,branch4 ,this grant was similar in character and extent to that to ,illinois1 save two sections--one providing for the disposal of the lands1 and the other directing the ,secretary of the ,interior to offer at public sale1 from time to time1 at the increased price1 the 8reserved0 or ,government sections4 ,the section respecting the disposal of the lands is as follows3 8,that the lands hereby granted to said ,state shall be disposed of by said ,state in manner following1 that is to say3 that a quantity of land1 not exceeding one hundred and twenty sections on each road1 and included within a continuous length of twenty miles of said road1 may be sold2 and when the governor of said ,state shall certify to the ,secretary of the ,interior that said twenty miles of road is completed1 then another like quantity of land1 hereby granted1 may be sold2 and so from time to time until said road is completed2 and if said road be not completed within ten years1 no further sales shall be made1 and the lands unsold shall revert to the ,united ,states40 ,with the exceptions stated1 and the omission of the clause requiring the ,state to reimburse the ,government for lands sold1 the grants are identical4 ,that act was followed by an act approved ,february #i1 #ahec1 making1 under like conditions and impositions1 a similar grant to ,arkansas1 in aid of certain roads in that ,state4 ,in this1 however1 the clause or section directing the ,secretary to 8offer0 the lands was omitted4 ,for the next three years ,congress seems to have been quite as liberal in donations for other purposes1 but no grants were made in aid of railroads1 unless note be made of a grant to ,minnesota by act of ,june #bi1 #ahed1 which was repealed in ,august following4 ,by that act there was granted to the ,territory of ,minnesota1 for the purpose of aiding in the construction of a railroad from the southern line of said ,territory1 via ,saint ,paul1 to the eastern line of the ,territory in the direction of ,lake ,superior1 8every alternate section of land designated by odd numbers for six sections in width on each side of said road within said ,territory02 but in case it should appear that the ,united ,states had1 when the line of the road was definitely fixed1 sold any section or any part thereof granted1 or that the right of premption had attached to the same1 then it should be lawful for any agent or agents to be appointed by the governor of said ,territory1 subject to the approval of the ,secretary of the ,interior1 to select lands from alternate sections within fifteen miles of the road to make up the deficiency4 ,the lands granted were to be applied to the construction of the road only4 ,section #b increased the price of the 8reserved0 tracts4 ,section #c provided that the lands should be disposed of by the legislature for the purposes aforesaid and were not to inure to the benefit of any company then constituted or organized4 ,the road was to remain a highway1 as in previous grants2 and the lands could not be sold until they had first been 8offered0 at the increased price4 ,by section #d no title was to vest in said ,territory or patent issue for any part of the lands until a continuous length of twenty miles of said road had been completed2 and when the ,secretary of the ,interior was satisfied that any twenty continuous miles of said road had been completed1 then patent was to issue for a quantity not exceeding one hundred and twenty sections of land2 and so on from time to time until the road was completed4 ,if the road was not completed within ten years no further sales could be made1 and the lands remaining unsold were to revert4 ,by an act approved ,august #d1 #ahed1 the act of ,june #bi1 #ahed1 was repealed2 and although four grants have been declared forfeited1 for failure of the grantees to perform the required conditions1 this is the only one which ,congress has in terms repealed4 ,it is to be regretted that subsequent legislation was not as devoid of ambiguity4 ,had it been1 much embarrassment might have been saved the ,government4 ,i refer particularly to that clause or section respecting the vesting of title and the manner in which the ,state was to acquire rights under the grant4 ,by the terms thereof no patents were to issue except as the work of building the road progressed4 ,by the omission of such language from the grants subsequently made from time to time to as late as #ahfb1 the ,department of the ,interior believed that the duty of 8disposal0 was properly in the ,states charged with executing the trusts2 and in all the earlier grants1 immediately upon the location of the roads and determination of the limits of the grants1 certified1 in whole1 the lands to which the companies would ultimately have been entitled had the roads been completed as required4 ,at that time there was but little doubt that all of the roads would be rapidly constructed2 but the civil conflict very naturally put a stop to such extended improvements1 and to-day about twenty railroads remain uncompleted1 and the lands certified to the ,states for their use and benefit exceed by #a1jeh1bie4hf acres the lands actually earned by the portions of the several roads constructed4 ,out of the act of ,june #bi1 #ahed1 and the repealing statute a very interesting question arose1 which received1 ultimately1 the consideration of the ,supreme ,court4 ,a suit was brought in trespass by ,edmund ,rice against the ,minnesota and ,northwestern ,railroad ,company1 for cutting timber on a tract of land in ,minnesota4 ,the company1 in its defense1 set up title under the granting act aforesaid2 to which plaintiff replied1 reciting the repealing statute4 ,on demurrer by the company1 the question as to whether an interest had vested under said grant was thus fairly presented to the ,supreme ,court4 ,that body decided1 after elaborate review of the whole case1 that the act of ,august #d was 8a valid law01 and that no interest1 beneficiary or otherwise1 had vested under the said grant4 ,in #ahef1 at different times1 various grants were made to the ,states of ,iowa1 ,florida1 ,alabama1 ,louisiana1 ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1 and ,mississippi1 and on the #c;d of ,march1 #aheg1 to ,minnesota4 ,an examination of these grants--say the one to ,iowa1 it being first of the series--shows that1 with the exception of the fact that the sections granted were designated by odd instead of even numbers1 they were similar to the ,missouri grant of #aheb4 ,the change there inaugurated was owing to the fact that certain even sections in each township had been previously given to the several ,states for school purposes1 and in a grant embracing a large territory the difference to the railroad grants caused thereby would be considerable4 ,from #aheg until #ahfb ,congress seems to have been otherwise engaged1 for ,i am unable to find that any acts were passed during that period touching railroad grants4 ,by an act approved ,july #a1 #ahfb1 a new departure was taken4 ,certain persons were created into a body corporate under the title and name of the 8,union ,pacific ,railroad ,company04 ,the object thereof was the construction and maintenance of a railroad and telegraph line from the ,missouri ,river to the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,they were granted the right of way through the public lands to the extent of two hundred feet in width on each side of the line of road1 together with the necessary grounds for stations1 buildings1 workshops1 etc4 ,they were also granted in aid of the construction of the road 8every alternate section of public land01 designated by odd numbers1 to the amount of five alternate sections per mile1 on each side of the road2 and all lands which had been disposed of or reserved1 and mineral lands1 were excepted4 ,sections #e and #aa of the act related to the issuance of bonds by the ,united ,states4 ,section #g required the company to file a map of its general route1 and directed the ,secretary of the ,interior to thereupon withdraw the lands within fifteen miles of such line4 ,various other roads were provided for upon the same conditions1 now known as the ,central ,pacific1 ,central ,branch of the ,union ,pacific1 ,kansas ,pacific1 and ,sioux ,city and ,pacific4 ,as it is not the purpose of this inquiry to look into any provisions except such as relate to land donations1 ,i will not pursue the sections respecting the issuance of bonds1 payment of interest1 etc4 ,but1 before proceeding further1 it is proper to notice the changes inaugurated by that act4 ,in the first place1 the grant was to a corporation direct1 and not to a ,state in trust for one4 ,second4 ,it was not confined to any particular ,state or section1 but was transcontinental in character1 extending in this case more than half across our country4 ,third4 ,it was a grant ten miles in width on each side1 instead of six1 as in previous grants1 and no provision was made for indemnity4 ,fourth4 ,it provided for the filing by the company of a map of its general or designated route 7before definite location of its line72 and upon the filing thereof the lands became legislatively reserved or withdrawn4 ,by an act approved ,july #b1 #ahfd1 this act was amended in several particulars1 and instead of 8five0 sections 8ten0 were granted1 thereby increasing the limits from ten to twenty miles on each side of the roads4 ,the term 8mineral land0 was construed not to include 8coal and iron land04 ,by section #ai of this latter act a grant was made to the ,burlington and ,missouri ,river ,railroad ,company1 for the construction of a road from the ,missouri ,river to some point not farther west than the one hundredth meridian of west longitude to connect with the ,union ,pacific road1 of ten alternate sections per mile on each side of its line of road4 ,it has been decided that this company was not confined to any limit1 but could go far enough to secure the quantity granted1 and it is the only railroad whose grant is not confined to lateral limits4 ,by a proviso to the twentieth section1 however1 the company received no bonds4 ,the rapidity with which the ,union ,pacific road was constructed was surprising1 and the whole progress of the work displayed a spirit of energy seldom seen in an undertaking of that character4 ,the most positive achievements1 however1 were those of the ,central ,pacific ,company4 ,the construction of that road over the ,sierras is considered by professional authorities as one of the greatest results of engineering4 ,it crossed the maximum summit1 of #g1jdb feet above the sea1 within one hundred miles of the ,pacific tide waters1 requiring a distribution of ascent really scientific to render it practicable1 and1 by using a minimum radius of #egc feet1 secured1 comparatively speaking1 a direct alignment4 ,the two roads were completed and a junction effected ,may #aj1 #ahfi1 and the initial transcontinental line was thereby finished4 ,by an act approved ,march #c1 #ahfc1 there was a grant made to the ,state of ,kansas to aid in constructing certain railroads therein1 now known as the ,atchison1 ,topeka and ,santa ,f2 ,leavenworth1 ,lawrence and ,galveston1 and ,missouri1 ,kansas and ,texas4 ,it was of every alternate section of land designated by odd numbers for ten sections in width on each side of said roads4 ,indemnity was provided in ten additional miles and1 except as to extent1 it was not unlike the ,iowa grant4 ,on the #eth of ,may1 #ahfd1 similar grants were made to the ,states of ,minnesota and ,wisconsin1 and on the #abth of ,may to the ,state of ,iowa4 ,various other grants followed of like character1 differing only in few respects1 to ,arkansas1 ,alabama1 ,missouri1 ,iowa1 ,michigan1 ,minnesota1 and ,kansas2 as also grants for wagon roads4 ,the latter were similar in terms to the railroad grants1 save that three sections on either side of the roads were given instead of six or ten4 ,the ,northern ,pacific was created ,july #a1 #ahfd1 and was very much like the ,union ,pacific grant1 except in extent1 being double the quantity through the ,territories1 with provision for 8indemnity04 ,the ,atlantic and ,pacific and ,southern ,pacific grants were made by act of ,july #bg1 #ahff2 the ,denver ,pacific by act of ,march #c1 #ahfi2 the ,southern ,pacific 7branch line7 and ,texas and ,pacific by act of ,march #c1 #ahga4 ,many of the grants made in early years were enlarged1 and the time for their completion extended2 but thus far only four grants have been declared forfeited4 ,at present1 however1 about twenty grants have 8lapsed0 by reason of non-compliance with the terms of the granting acts1 requiring completion within prescribed periods1 and recommendations have been made urging proper legislation4 ,neither time nor space permit an extended examination of every grant1 but sufficient has been considered to point out the origin and growth of the system4 ,we have seen that the first donation was one-twentieth part of certain proceeds derived from the sale of lands2 then ninety feet of land1 followed soon by one-half of five sections per mile on each side2 then by six sections2 then by ten1 and finally by twenty sections per mile on each side of the road4 ,if the lands granted1 or in other words embraced within the limits of the grants1 could be found available1 the companies1 not including those for canals or wagon roads1 would receive1 provided each built its road and complied with the laws1 more than two hundred and fifteen million acres4 ,that quantity if embraced in one compact body1 would form an area of more than three hundred and thirty-five thousand square miles1 or a tract of land more than seven times as large as the ,state of ,pennsylvania1 and only about six thousand miles less than the area of the thirteen original ,states4 ,but1 in fact1 the grants will not realize near that quantity1 and the estimate1 as made by the ,land ,department1 is only about one hundred and eighty-seven million acres4 ,by the aid of those grants1 however1 about fifteen thousand miles of road have been constructed4 ,those roads have been the means of developing vast fields of magnificent territory1 and securing to the people many lesser lines built by private capital4 ,the various grants have been the subject of much explanatory1 amendatory1 and confirmatory legislation1 and have also received numerous interpretations by the different courts4 ,of the latter1 ,i deem it proper to refer only to the more important rulings of the ,supreme ,court which bear upon the fundamental principles underlying the whole system4 ,in nearly all grants1 except the ,pacific1 provision has been made for indemnity in case it appeared1 when the lines of the roads had been definitely fixed1 that the ,united ,states had sold1 disposed of1 or reserved any of the sections or parts of sections contained within the grants4 ,the theory has heretofore existed that 8indemnity0 was allowed for all tracts which might not be found subject to the operation of the grant2 and selections have been permitted in lieu of such disposed of or reserved tracts4 ,a recent decision1 however1 casts some doubt upon the correctness of this theory4 ,the question came up in a case from ,kansas1 under the act of ,march #c1 #ahfc1 and the court declared3 8,we have before said that the grant itself was in prsenti1 and covered all the odd sections which should appear1 on the location of the road1 to have been within the grant when it was made4 ,the right to them did not1 however1 depend on such location1 but attached at once on the making of the grant4 ,it is true they could not be identified until the line of the road was marked out on the ground1 but as soon as this was done it was easy to find them4 ,if the company did not obtain all of them within the original limit1 by reason of the power of sale or reservation retained by the ,united ,states1 it was to be compensated by an equal amount of substituted lands4 ,the latter could not1 on any contingency1 be selected within that limit4 99 99 99 ,it would be strange1 indeed1 if the indemnity clause had been intended to perform the office of making a new grant within the ten mile limit1 or enlarging the one already made4 ,instead of this1 the words employed show clearly that its only purpose is to give sections beyond that limit for those lost within it by the action of the government between the date of the grant and the location of the road4 ,this construction gives effect to the whole statute1 and makes each part consistent with the other40 ,if it be thought1 however1 that such was not the intention of the legislators who framed the statutes1 consolation can be found in the construction given to the clause inserted in every grant1 substantially as follows3 8,and the said road shall remain a public highway for the use of the ,government1 free from toll or other charge upon the transportation of troops or other property of the ,united ,states40 ,it is declared by the ,supreme ,court that the purpose of that clause was to allow the ,government the right to place its locomotive engines and cars upon the railroad tracks1 and to use such tracks as a public highway4 ,the court say3 8,we are of opinion that the reservation in question secures to the ,government only a free use of the railroads concerned2 and that it does not entitle the ,government to have troops or property transported by the companies over their respective roads free of charge for transporting the same40 ,the section providing for the disposal of the lands1 recited in full in the ,missouri grant of #aheb1 has been construed as vesting in the ,state the right to sell one hundred and twenty sections of land1 contained within a continuous length of twenty miles at any place along the grant1 even though the road contemplated was never built2 and the title acquired by purchase from the ,state is valid4 ,and the clause with which the section referred to ends1 to the effect that if the road be not completed within a certain time the lands shall revert to the ,united ,states1 has been declared inoperative without further action by the ,government1 either legislative or judicial1 looking to an enforcement of the reserved right4 ,fears have been awakened as to the power to ultimately control these corporations1 on account of the enormous extent to which they have expanded2 but1 as has been said by an able writer1 8this evil1 however1 if it be such1 will probably work its own cure40 ,be that as it may1 their influences have been felt by all1 and their benefits have extended to the remotest sections of our country4 ,they have proved a bond between the eastern and western ,states--anxiously sought for by ,washington when the lateral limits of the ,united ,states were less than half what they are at this time4 ,they have united the ,pacific with the ,atlantic1 and the ,rocky ,mountains of the west with the ,alleghanies of the east4 ,they have dispelled all ideas looking to the removal of the seat of ,government1 for they have put in direct communication the people of ,oregon with the people of ,maine4 ,from ocean to ocean requires but days1 where only a few years ago it required weeks4 ,in the past1 long lines of moving wagons groaned beneath their loads of adventurous families1 who at night1 within the corral1 seated themselves around the blazing camp fire1 fearful of the dangers to which they were exposed4 ,but the present has forgotten them4 ,in their stead the ponderous wheels of frequent trains1 moving with a speed surpassing that of the deer1 traversing the valley and mountain1 carry forward their loads of living freight2 and1 in place of dangerous encampments1 provide means of sleep and refreshment1 and afford the comforts of luxurious homes4 ,the railway has brought to our doors the harvest of our fields2 handed to our mints the vast resources of our mines1 and opened to us direct communication with the older worlds4 ,its arms have extended into a hundred vales and over a hundred mountains1 grasping in their embrace manifold evidences of civilization and prosperity4 ,,index4 ,page4 ,abbott1 ,mr41 #fb ,abies amabilis1 #ajb ,canadensis1 #ajj concolor1 #aja ,douglasii1 #ajj ,engelmanni1 #aja grandis1 #ajb ,menziesii1 #aja subalpina1 #aja ,acer grandidentata1 #ajc ,agricultural and timber industries differentiated1 #ah resources of the ,bear ,river drainage basin1 #aai ,jordan ,river drainage basin1 #abd ,weber ,river drainage basin1 #aba ,agriculture1 ,amount of precipitation necessary for1 #b1 #c ,influence of temperature upon1 #b in the ,arid ,region dependent upon irrigation1 #dj in ,utah dependent upon irrigation1 #f exceptions thereto1 #f limited by several conditions1 #g ,utilization of the small streams in1 #g without irrigation1 #c1 #f1 #ej ,aira cspitosa1 #aji ,alabama1 ,land-grants to1 #agi ,alkaline salts1 #ade ,amount of land a unit of water will supply1 #g ,antelope ,island1 #fc1 #fd bar1 #fc1 #fg ,areal distribution of rainfall1 #hb ,area of irrigable land sometimes not limited by water supply1 #he ,areas of standing timber1 #ae to which larger streams can be taken1 #g which smaller streams can serve1 #g ,arid ,region1 ,boundaries of the1 #a1 #c ,extent of the1 #e ,increase in water supply in the1 #hi1 #ia ,land system needed for the1 #be ,mining industries of the1 #hh ,physical characteristics of the1 #a ,precipitation of the1 #dh ,rainfall of the1 #e ,arizona and ,new ,mexico1 ,seasonal precipitation in1 #ef ,arkansas1 ,land grants to1 #agd1 #agi ,artemisia1 #aaj ,ashley ,fork1 ,irrigable lands of1 #afa ,atchison1 ,topeka and ,santa ,f ,railroad ,company1 ,land grants to the1 #agh ,atlantic and ,pacific ,railroad ,company1 ,land grants to the1 #agi ,atlantic coast1 ,flow of the rivers of the1 #gf ,rainfall on the1 #fi ,barfoot1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,l41 #ei ,barton1 ,mr41 #aac ,basin1 ,colorado4 7,see ,colorado ,basin47 ,great ,salt ,lake4 7,see ,great ,salt ,lake ,district47 ,range ,system1 #id ,sevier ,lake4 7,see ,sevier ,lake ,district47 ,uinta-,white4 7,see ,uinta-,white ,basin47 ,bear ,river1 #aag ,city1 #gh drainage basin1 ,agricultural resources of the1 #aai ,area of the1 #aai ,mean flow of the1 #gb ,beaver dams1 ,effect of cutting1 #gd ,betula occidentalis1 #ajc ,bill to authorize the organization of irrigation districts1 #cj pasturage districts1 #cc ,black ,rock bench1 #fa pillar1 #ei1 #fj ,bonneville ,lake1 #if ,book ,cliffs1 ,orographic structure of the1 #ih ,bouteloua oligostachya1 #ajh ,bromus1 #aji ,brown ,cliffs1 #ih ,brown's ,park1 ,irrigable lands of1 #afb ,burlington and ,missouri ,railroad ,company1 ,land grants to the1 #agh ,canals1 ,land grants in aid of1 #aff ,caon ,lands1 ,amount of irrigable land in the1 #ajf ,coal lands of the1 #ajf ,description of the1 #aje of ,utah1 #id ,carex ,jamesii1 #aji ,carrington ,island1 #fb ,castle ,valley1 #aje ,central ,pacific ,railroad ,company1 ,land grants to the1 #agg ,cercocarpus parvifolius1 #aaj ,celtis occidentalis1 #ajc ,circle ,valley1 ,amount of irrigable land in the1 #acg ,climate of the ,colorado ,basin1 #aea ,coal lands1 #de ,disposal of the1 #dd of the ,caon ,lands1 #ajf of the ,rocky ,mountain ,region1 #ai ,colony system1 #bh ,colorado ,basin1 ,climate of the1 #aea ,elevation of the1 #aea ,irrigable lands of the1 #aej ,mean annual precipitation in the1 #gi ,orographic structure of the1 #ie ,source of the water supply of the1 #aeb ,table of irrigable lands of the1 #afd drainage area1 #id ,river1 ,principal tributaries of the1 in ,utah1 #aej ,conditions affecting the distribution of rainfall1 #ij ,coperative labor necessary to the development of irrigation1 #aa ,critical period1 #he1 #ach1 #aed season1 #aaf ,dakota1 ,precipitation of1 #ea ,denver ,pacific ,railroad ,company1 ,land grants to the1 #agi ,desert drainage area1 #id ,orographic structure of the1 #ie ,des ,moines ,river1 ,land grant in aid of the improvement of the1 #aga ,distribution of rain throughout the year1 #ej ,district1 ,great ,salt ,lake4 7,see ,great ,salt ,lake ,district47 ,sevier ,lake4 7,see ,sevier ,lake ,district47 ,division lines of pasturage farms1 #bb1 #bh1 #cg of land by settlers1 #ch ,drainage area1 ,colorado1 #id ,desert1 #id ,modification of the conditions of1 #gc of the ,tavaputs ,plateau1 #if ,uinta ,mountains1 #if ,wasatch ,mountains1 #if ,utah1 #id ,drummond1 ,willis1 jr41 on land grants in aid of internal improvements1 #afd ,dry farming1 #ej1 #gh ,duchesne ,river1 ,volume of flow of the1 #afj ,dutton1 ,capt4 ,c4 ,e41 cited1 #aaj on the irrigable land of the ,sevier ,basin1 #abh ,east ,florida ,railroad ,company1 ,land grant to the1 #afi ,egg ,island1 #fg ,engelmann1 ,mr41 #ajb ,erocoma cuspidata1 #ajh ,escalante ,river1 ,irrigable lands of the1 #aef ,volume of flow of the1 #aef ,eurotia lanata1 #aaj ,evaporation by spreading of water1 #gd ,farmington pillar1 #fa ,farming without irrigation1 #gg ,farm residences1 ,grouping of1 #bb unit for pasturage lands1 #ba1 #bh ,fencing of pasturage lands1 #bc ,fires in the timber region1 #ae1 #ii ,cause of1 #ag1 #ii ,protection from1 #ah1 #ii ,flood-plain lands1 #hh ,forests1 ,amount of rainfall necessary to the growth of1 #ae ,fox1 ,mr4 ,jesse ,w41 #fa1 #aac ,fraxinus anomala1 #ajc coriacea1 #ajc ,fremont ,island1 #fb1 #fg ,river1 ,irrigable lands of the1 #aeg ,tributaries of the1 #aeg ,volume of flow of the1 #aeg1 #aeh ,gilbert1 ,g4 ,k41 cited1 #hd1 #aaj on irrigable land of the ,salt ,lake drainage system1 #aac on water supply1 #eg ,government right to use of subsidized railroads1 #aha ,grand ,river1 ,irrigable lands of the1 #afc ,volume of flow of the1 #afc ,grasses of the pasturage lands1 #ai ,utah1 #ajg ,great ,salt ,lake1 ,accumulation of the water in1 #eh ,area of1 #ff1 #gc ,basin 7,see ,great ,salt ,lake ,district7 ,causes of abnormal change of1 #fg ,desert1 #ff ,diagram showing rise and fall of1 #fd ,district1 #id ,amount of irrigable land in the1 #ajg ,change in the climate of the1 #fh1 #gj ,description of the1 #ajg ,irrigable lands of the1 #aac ,fluctuations in the rainfall of the1 #gj ,irrigation by large streams in the1 #aag small streams in the1 #abf ,evaporation of the water of1 #eh1 #gb ,history of the past changes of1 #fb ,increase and decrease of the size of1 #eh ,islands of1 #fb ,limited oscillation of1 #ei ,limit of wave action of1 #fe ,record of height of1 #fj ,rise and fall of1 #ei ,storm lines of1 #fe ,streams flowing into1 #gb ,green ,river1 ,irrigable lands of the1 #afb ,volume of flow of the1 #afb ,gunnison1 ,captain1 #ih ,valley1 #aje ,irrigable lands of the1 #afc ,hayden1 ,dr4 ,f4 ,v41 #ga ,henry ,mountains1 #aje ,prof4 ,joseph1 #df1 #ei1 #fb1 #gi ,henrys ,fork1 ,irrigable lands of1 #afa ,illinois1 ,land grants to1 #afh1 #agb ,increase in water supply in the ,arid ,region1 #eg1 #hi1 #ia of rainfall1 #fi1 #ia ,indiana1 ,land grants to1 #aff1 #afg ,internal improvements1 ,land grants in aid of1 #afe ,iowa1 ,land grants to1 #afi1 #agi ,irrigable and pasturage lands of ,utah1 #ajd areas1 ,increase of1 by storage of water1 #ab1 #ac land1 ,area of1 sometimes not limited by water supply1 #he1 #hf ,extent of1 increased by the use of springs1 #i in ,utah1 ,amount of1 #i lands1 #bc ,amount of water required for1 #hd ,disposal of1 #bg highly productive1 #aj ,important questions relating to1 #ha ,increase in the extent of the1 #eg in ,utah ,territory1 ,table of1 #aaa of ,southwestern ,utah1 #adh of the ,colorado ,basin1 #aej ,table of1 #afd ,great ,salt ,lake ,district1 #aac ,sevier ,lake ,district1 #acd valley of the ,sevier ,river1 #abh ,irrigable lands of the1 ,virgin ,river1 #aec of ,utah1 ,distribution of the1 #i ,selection of1 #hg ,situation of the1 #f ,irrigating canals1 ,cost of1 #abe methods1 ,improvement in1 #h season1 #he ,irrigation1 ,advantages of1 #aj ,amount of water needed for1 #aad used in1 #ada companies1 #dj ,coperative labor necessary to the development of1 #aa ,direct influence of1 upon the inflow of ,great ,salt ,lake1 #ge ,indirect influence of1 upon the inflow of ,great ,salt ,lake1 #gf of pasturage farms1 #ba ,quantitative value of water used in1 #ha ,unit of water used in1 #ha ,isohyetal line of twenty inches1 #b ,jordan ,river1 #aba drainage basin1 ,agricultural resources of the1 #abd ,area of the1 #abe ,mean flow of the1 #gb ,juncus ,balticus1 #aji ,juniperus ,californicus1 #ajc ,virginiana1 #ajc ,kanab ,creek1 ,irrigable lands of1 #aed ,ponding of1 #aed ,kansas1 ,land grants to1 #agh1 #agi ,pacific ,railroad ,company1 ,land grants to the1 #agg ,kimball1 ,mr4 ,heber ,p41 #fa ,king1 ,mr4 ,clarence1 #ff ,lake ,bonneville1 #if ,utah1 ,function of1 as a reservoir1 #abc ,land grants in aid of internal improvements1 #afe ,lands1 ,classification of1 #dc ,irrigable4 7,see ,irrigable ,lands47 of ,utah1 #ic and ,idaho fertilized by water1 #ge ,physical features of the1 #ic ,pasturage4 7,see ,pasturage ,lands47 ,land system needed for the ,arid ,region1 #be ,leavenworth1 ,lawrence and ,galveston ,railroad ,company1 ,land grants to the1 #agh ,lower ,columbia ,region1 #a ,precipitation of the1 #di ,marshes1 ,drainage of1 #gd ,evaporation from1 #gd ,martineau1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,h41 #aac ,mean temperature by seasons for the ,san ,francisco ,region1 #ed ,method of determining the supply of water1 #he1 #hf ,michigan1 ,land grants to1 #agi ,miller1 ,mr4 ,jacob1 #fa1 #fb ,mineral lands1 #dd ,disposal of1 #dd not suited to agriculture1 #dd ,minnie ,maud ,creek1 ,irrigable lands of1 #afj ,volume of flow of1 #afj ,minnesota and ,northwestern ,railroad ,company1 #agf ,land grants to the1 #agd1 #agi ,mississippi ,valley1 ,flow of the rivers of the1 #gf ,missouri1 ,kansas and ,texas ,railroad ,company1 ,land grants to the1 #agh ,land grants to1 #agi ,mitchell1 ,mr4 ,john ,t41 #ei ,monopoly of pasturage farms1 #bb ,mountains1 ,henry1 #aje ,uinta4 7,see ,uinta ,mountains47 ,wasatch4 7,see ,wasatch ,mountains47 ,negundo aceroides1 #ajc ,nevada1 ,mean annual precipitation in1 #gi ,new ,mexico and ,arizona1 ,seasonal precipitation in1 #ef ,new ,orleans and ,nashville ,railroad ,company1 ,land grants to the1 #afh ,new ,york1 ,rainfall of the ,state of1 #gj ,ogden ,river1 ,measured volume of the1 #abj ,ohio1 ,land grants to1 #aff1 #afg ,ohio ,valley1 ,rainfall of the1 #gj ,orographic structure of the ,book ,cliffs1 #ih ,colorado drainage area1 #ie ,desert drainage area1 #ie ,uinta ,mountains1 #ig ,wasatch ,mountains1 #if ,pacific coast1 ,seasonal precipitation and temperature of the1 #ee ,panguitch ,valley1 ,amount of irrigable land in1 #acf ,paria ,river1 ,irrigable lands of the1 #aee ,volume of flow of the1 #aee ,park1 ,dr4 ,john ,r41 #ei ,pasturage farms1 ,division lines of1 #bb1 #bh1 #cg ,irrigation of1 #ba need small tracts of irrigable land1 #ba1 #bh lands1 #ai1 #bd1 #ajd ,pasturage lands1 ,boundaries of1 #ai ,disposal of1 #bh ,extent of1 #ai ,farm unit for1 #ba1 #bh ,fencing of1 #bc ,grasses of the1 #ai ,monopoly of the1 #bb partially supplied by scattered springs1 #ba ,situation of the1 #f ,phragmites communis1 #aji ,pinus aristata1 #ajj edulis1 #ajj flexilis1 #ajj monticola1 #ajj ponderosa1 #ajj ,pioneers1 ,enterprise and industries of1 #da ,plateaus1 ,the ,high1 #id ,plateau1 ,tavaputs1 #ic ,yampa1 #aje ,poas1 #ajh ,ponding1 #ab1 #ac ,ponds1 ,evaporation of the water of1 #gc ,populus angustifolia1 #ajb monilifera1 #ajb tremuloides1 #ajb ,precipitation in the ,region of the ,plains1 #eb ,mean annual1 in ,colorado1 #gi ,nevada1 #gi ,utah1 #gi ,wyoming1 #gi north of the ,columbia ,river1 #a of ,dakota1 #ea ,texas1 #ej the ,arid ,region1 #dh ,region of the ,lower ,columbia1 #di ,san ,francisco ,region1 #di ,sub-humid ,region1 #dg ,precipitation1 ,seasonal1 of the ,pacific ,coast1 #ee ,price ,river1 ,irrigable lands of the1 #aei ,volume of flow of the1 #aei ,provo ,river1 #aba ,public lands1 ,how to acquire title to1 #be ,quercus undulata1 #ajc ,railroads1 ,land grants in aid of1 #afe1 #afh1 #agb ,rainfall1 ,areal distribution of1 #hb ,conditions affecting the distribution of1 #ij ,rainfall1 ,distribution of1 throughout the year1 #ej ,increase of1 #ia of the ,arid ,region1 #e1 #dh belt between ,great ,salt ,lake and ,wasatch ,mountains1 #f1 #gi ,sub-humid ,region1 #d1 #dg of the western portion of the ,united ,states1 #df ,rain gauge records1 #a1 #c1 #ia1 #aca ,deficiency of1 #a 8,rainy seasons01 #be1 #ej ,ranges1 ,basin1 #id ,records1 ,rain gauge1 #a1 #c1 #ia1 #aca ,region of the ,lower ,columbia4 7,see ,lower ,columbia ,region47 of the ,plains1 ,seasonal precipitation in the1 #eb ,san ,francisco4 7,see ,san ,francisco ,region47 ,sub-humid4 7,see ,sub-humid ,region47 ,renshawe1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,h41 #aac1 #aec ,reservoirs1 #ab1 #ac1 #he1 #add ,river1 ,bear4 7,see ,bear ,river47 ,colorado4 7,see ,colorado ,river47 ,duchesne4 7,see ,duchesne ,river47 ,escalante4 7,see ,escalante ,river47 ,fremont4 7,see ,fremont ,river47 ,grand4 7,see ,grand ,river47 ,green4 7,see ,green ,river47 ,gunnison4 7,see ,gunnison ,river47 ,jordan4 7,see ,jordan ,river47 ,ogden4 7,see ,ogden ,river47 ,paria4 7,see ,paria ,river47 ,price4 7,see ,price ,river47 ,provo4 7,see ,provo ,river47 ,san ,rafael4 7,see ,san ,rafael ,river47 ,sevier4 7,see ,sevier ,river47 ,uinta4 7,see ,uinta ,river47 ,virgin4 7,see ,virgin ,river47 ,weber4 7,see ,weber ,river47 ,white4 7,see ,white ,river47 ,rivers1 ,land grants in aid of improvement of1 #afi ,rockwood1 ,hon4 ,a4 ,p41 #aac ,san ,francisco ,region1 ,mean temperature1 by seasons1 of the1 #ed ,precipitation of the1 #di ,rainy season of the1 #ed ,seasonal precipitation in the1 #ec ,san ,pete ,valley1 ,amount of irrigable land in the1 #ach ,flow of the streams of the1 #ach ,san ,rafael ,river1 ,irrigable lands of the1 #aeh1 #aei ,tributaries of the1 #aeh ,san ,rafael ,river1 ,volume of flow of the1 #aei ,schott1 ,mr4 ,charles ,a41 #df1 #fi ,seasonal precipitation and temperatures on the ,pacific coast1 #ee in ,arizona and ,new ,mexico1 #ef ,seasonal precipitation in the ,region of the ,plains1 #eb ,san ,francisco ,region1 #ec ,selection of irrigable lands1 #hg ,sevier ,lake ,basin1 #id ,district1 #id ,altitudes in the1 #acc ,amount of irrigable land in the1 #ajf1 #adc ,climate of the1 #aca ,description of the1 #ajf ,irrigable lands of the1 #acd ,physical characteristics of the1 #acj ,rainfall of the1 #aca ,rain gauge records of the1 #aca ,river1 ,course of the1 #abi ,volume of flow of the1 #aci1 #adj ,irrigable lands of the valley of the1 #abh ,valley of the1 #abi ,sierra ,la ,sal1 #aje ,sioux ,city and ,pacific ,railroad ,company1 ,land grants to the1 #agg ,smithsonian ,tables of ,precipitation1 #df1 #fi ,soil and subsoil1 ,complicating conditions of1 #hc ,conditions of1 #hb ,soils1 #ade ,southern ,pacific ,railroad ,company1 ,land grants to the1 #agi ,springs1 ,opening out of1 #gd ,use of1 in irrigation1 #i ,stansbury1 ,captain ,howard1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff ,island1 #fg bar1 #fd1 #fg ,streams1 ,descent of1 #hh flowing into ,great ,salt ,lake1 #gb ,flow of1 at different periods1 #ac ,increase in the volume of1 #eg ,measurement of1 #hf1 #aae of ,san ,pete ,valley1 ,volume of flow of the1 #adj of ,utah1 ,fluctuations of the1 #aae ,practical capacity of1 #he small1 ,employment of1 in irrigation1 #g1 #aa1 #ab ,strong's ,knob1 #fg ,sub-humid ,region1 ,boundaries of the1 #c destitute of forests1 #d ,mean precipitation of the1 #dg ,rainfall of the1 #d ,supply of water1 ,method of determining the1 #he1 #hf ,table ,i4 ,precipitation of the ,sub-humid ,region1 #dg ,,ii4 ,arid ,region1 #dh ,,iii4 ,san ,francisco ,region1 #di ,,iv4 ,region of the ,lower ,columbia1 #di ,v4 ,texas1 #ej ,,vi4 ,dakota1 #ea ,,vii4 ,season of precipitation in the ,region of the ,plains1 #eb ,,viii4 ,san ,francisco ,region1 #ec ,,ix4 ,mean temperature1 by seasons1 for the ,san ,francisco ,region1 #ed ,x4 ,seasonable precipitation and temperatures on the ,pacific coast1 #ee ,,xi4 in ,arizona and ,new ,mexico1 #ef of irrigable lands in ,utah1 #aaa of southwestern ,utah1 #adi of the ,colorado ,basin1 #afd ,sevier ,lake ,district1 #add of mean annual precipitation in ,colorado1 #gi ,nevada1 #gi ,utah1 #gi ,wyoming1 #gi ,tavaputs ,plateau1 #ic ,drainage of the1 #if ,temperature dependent upon altitude and latitude1 #b ,temperatures1 ,seasonal1 on the ,pacific ,coast1 #ee ,texas and ,pacific ,railroad ,company1 ,land grants to the1 #agi ,precipitation of1 #ej ,the ,high ,plateaus1 #id ,thomas1 ,prof4 ,cyrus1 #ga ,thompson1 ,prof4 ,a4 ,h41 cited1 #hf1 #aaj on the irrigable land of the ,colorado ,basin1 #aej ,timber1 #ih ,areas of standing1 #ae1 #ag ,cultivation of1 #ai ,destruction of1 by fire1 #ae growth dependent upon climatic conditions1 #ad lands1 #ad1 #bc ,boundaries of the1 #ad ,disposal of the1 #bg ,situation of the1 #f1 #ad regions1 #ae ,extent of the1 #af ,fires in the1 #ae1 #ag1 #ah1 #ii ,titles to public lands1 #be ,uinta ,mountains1 #ic ,drainage of the1 #if ,orographic structure of the1 #ig ,uinta ,river1 ,irrigable lands of the1 #afj ,tributaries of the1 #afj ,volume of flow of the1 #afj1 #afa ,white ,basin1 #ic ,amount of irrigable lands in the1 #aje ,description of the1 #ajd ,physical features of the1 #afj ,union ,pacific ,railroad ,company1 ,land grants to the1 #agg ,unit of water supply1 #h1 #hd1 #aae1 #ada ,method of determining the1 #h used in irrigation1 #ha ,utah1 ,amount of cultivated land in1 #hd ,church government in1 #hi1 #abh ,drainage of1 #id ,forest trees of1 #ajj ,grasses of1 #ajg ,irrigable and pasturage lands of1 #ajd ,lake1 #abc ,lands of1 #ic ,mean annual precipitation in1 #gi ,pasturage lands of1 #ajd ,prevailing winds of1 #fh ,table of irrigable lands in1 #aaa ,timber of1 #ih ,variety of crops cultivated in1 #hd ,watershed of1 #id ,valley1 ,castle1 #aje ,circle1 ,amount of irrigable land in the1 #acg ,gunnison1 #aje ,irrigable lands of the1 #afb of the ,mississippi1 #gf ,sevier ,river1 ,amount of irrigable land in the1 #add ,panguitch1 ,amount of irrigable land in the1 #acf ,san ,pete1 ,amount of irrigable land in the1 #ach ,flow of the streams of the1 #adj ,vasey1 ,dr4 ,george1 #ajh ,vilfa 7,sporobolis7 airoides1 #ajh ,virgin ,river1 ,irrigable lands of the1 #aec ,volume of water flowing in the streams1 ,determination of1 #h ,wagon roads1 ,land grants in aid of1 #aff ,ward1 ,mr4 ,l4 ,f41 #ajc ,wasatch ,mountains1 #ic1 #id ,drainage of the1 #if ,orographic structure of the1 #if ,wastage of water1 #hd ,water1 ,evaporation of1 #ac ,irrigating capacity of1 #h1 #hd1 #aae1 #ada ,loss of1 by evaporation1 #hg ,method of determining the supply of1 #he1 #aae1 #aci storing1 #ab rights1 #dj should inhere in the lands to be irrigated1 #dj1 #da supply1 #eg affected by the cutting of timber1 #ge farming1 #gc grazing1 #gd ,economic bearings of the1 #gf ,increase in the1 #eg1 #hi1 #ia ,storage of1 #aaf1 #abe1 #add used in irrigation1 ,quantitative value of1 #ha ,unit of1 #ha ,wastage of1 #hd1 #adb ways rudely constructed1 #h ,weber ,river1 #aai drainage basin1 ,agricultural resources of the1 #aba ,area of the1 #aba ,mean flow of the1 #gb ,white ,river1 ,irrigable lands of the1 #afb ,volume of flow of the1 #afb ,winds of ,utah1 #fh ,wisconsin1 ,land grants to1 #afi1 #agi ,wyoming1 ,mean annual precipitation in1 #gi ,yampa ,plateau1 #aje ,young1 ,hon4 ,brigham1 #aje ,illustration3 ,,department ,,of ,,the ,,interior ,u4 ,s4 ,,geographical ,,and ,,geological ,,survey ,,of ,,the ,,rocky ,,mountain ,,region1 ,j4 ,w4 ,,powell ,,in ,,charge4 ,,map ,,of ,,utah ,,territory ,,representing ,,the ,,extent ,,of ,,the ,,irrigable1 ,,timber ,,and ,,pasture ,,lands4 ,,compiled ,,and ,,drawn ,,by ,,charles ,,mahon1 ,j4 ,h4 ,,renshawe1 ,w4 ,h4 ,,graves ,,and ,h4 ,,lindenkohl ,,for ,,the ,,commissioner ,,of ,,public ,,lands #ahgh4 ,miles ,note ,this map has been constructed from atlas sheets of the ,u4 ,s4 ,geographical and ,geological ,survey of the ,rocky ,mountain ,region with additional material taken from the maps of the ,u4 ,s4 ,geographical ,explorations and ,surveys west of the #ajj ,meridian1 ,lieut4 ,geo4 ,m4 ,wheeler1 ,corps of ,engineers1 in charge1 the ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,exploration of the #dj ,parallel1 ,clarence ,king1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geologist in charge1 and the ,u4 ,s4 ,geological and ,geographical ,survey of the ,territories1 ,f4 ,v4 ,hayden1 in charge ,,explanation ,irrigable ,lands ,standing ,timber ,area destitute of ,timber on account of ,fires ,rail ,roads ,wagon ,roads ,trails ,telegraph ,lines ,county ,seats in ,capital ,letters4 ,illustration3 ,,department ,,of ,,the ,,interior ,u4,s4 ,,geographical ,,and ,,geological ,,survey ,,of ,,the ,,rocky ,,mountain ,,region ,j4 ,w4 ,,powell1 ,,in ,,charge4 ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,exhibiting ,,the ,,grants ,,of ,,lands ,,made ,,by ,,the ,,general ,,government ,,to ,,aid ,,in ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,,railroads ,,and ,,wagon ,,roads4 #ahgh ,for explanation see chapter on 8,land ,grants in aid of ,international ,improvements0 ,the base chart was engraved for the ,statistical ,atlas of the ,united ,states4 ,julius ,bien4 ,lithographer ,transcriber's ,notes ,errors in punctuation have been fixed4 ,page #ce3 8the ,commisioner0 changed to 8the ,commissioner0 ,page #eb3 8not greater han should0 changed to 8not greater than should0 ,page #eg3 8very erroneneous0 changed to 8very erroneous0 ,page #fe3 8needed to clense land0 changed to 8needed to cleanse land0 ,page #fh3 8whatever manner in was disturbed0 changed to 8whatever manner it was disturbed0 ,page #ajh3 8strongly akaline soils0 changed to 8strongly alkaline soils0 ,page #afb3 8in the moutains0 changed to 8in the mountains0 ,page #agb3 8of a 8a portion00 changed to 8of 8a portion00